Quality Education (Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals) 3319958690, 9783319958699

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Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals Series Editor: Walter Leal Filho

Walter Leal Filho · Anabela Marisa Azul Luciana Brandli · Pinar Gökçin Özuyar Tony Wall  Editors

Quality Education

Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals Series Editor Walter Leal Filho

The problems related to the process of industrialization such as biodiversity depletion, climate change, and a worsening of health and living conditions, especially but not only in developing countries, intensify. Therefore, there is also an increasing need to search for integrated solutions to make development more sustainable. The current model of economic growth used by many countries is heavily based on the exploitation of natural resources, which is not viable. Evidence shows that a more careful, that is, a more sustainable, approach to the use of our limited resources is needed. The United Nations has acknowledged the problem, and among other measures, it produced a set of documents at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2012. In 2015, the UN General Assembly approved the “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” On January 1, 2016, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the Agenda officially came into force. These goals cover the three dimensions of sustainable development: economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection. There are to date no comprehensive publications addressing the SDGs in an integrated way. Therefore, the Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals is being published. It encompasses 17 volumes, each devoted to one of the 17 SDGs. More information about this series at https://www.springer.com/series/15893

Walter Leal Filho • Anabela Marisa Azul Luciana Brandli • Pinar Gökçin Özuyar Tony Wall Editors

Quality Education With 76 Figures and 45 Tables

Editors Walter Leal Filho European School of Sustainability Science and Research Hamburg University of Applied Sciences Hamburg, Germany Luciana Brandli Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Passo Fundo University Passo Fundo, Brazil

Anabela Marisa Azul Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology Institute for Interdisciplinary Research University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal Pinar Gökçin Özuyar Istinye University Istanbul, Turkey

Tony Wall University of Chester Chester, UK

ISSN 2523-7403 ISSN 2523-7411 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-319-95869-9 ISBN 978-3-319-95870-5 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-319-95871-2 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Series Preface

The United Nations General Assembly agreed and approved in September 2015 the document “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, which contains a set of measures aiming to balance economic progress and protection of the environment, while at the same time remain aware of the need to address the many disparities still seen between industrialised and developing countries. The Agenda document consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These Goals build on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals, while including new areas such as climate change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace, and justice, among other priorities. The goals are interconnected – often the key to success on one will involve tackling issues more commonly associated with another. The 17 SDGs are: SDG 1, placing an emphasis on ending all forms of extreme poverty. SDG 2, which aims to end hunger and achieve food security with improved nutrition SDG 3, focusing on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all SDG 4, touches on one of the most important areas, namely inclusive and quality education SDG 5, focusing on gender equality SDG 6, which emphasises the need for clean water and sanitation SDG 7, advocates the need for affordable and clean energy SDG 8, sustaining inclusive and sustainable economic growth with productive and decent working conditions for all SDG 9, which intends to foster industry, innovation, and infrastructure SDG 10, being about reducing inequalities among countries SDG 11, an attempt to ensure that human settlements and cities are inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable SDG 12, with a focus on sustainable consumption and production patterns SDG 13, with an emphasisis on the need for climate action SDG 14, raises the need to preserve life below water, especially rivers and oceans SDG 15, draws attention about the need for a greater care about life on land SDG 16, which advocates peace, justice, and strong institutions

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Series Preface

SDG 17, a cross-SDGs effort to foster the partnership for the goals and their delivery The SDGs and their specific objectives are very complex. The mandate of the Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals is, therefore, to clarify and explain a wide range of terms associated with each SDG. It does so by gathering and presenting inputs provided by experts from across all areas of knowledge and from round the world, who explain each term and their implications, drawing also from the latest literature. With 17 volumes and involving in excess of 1,500 authors and contributors, the Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals is the largest editorial project on sustainable development ever undertaken. We hope that this publication will be helpful in fostering a broader understanding of the SDGs, and that this process may inspire and support a wide range of initiatives aimed at their implementation, thus realising the “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. Hamburg University of Applied Sciences Germany

Walter Leal Filho

Volume Preface

The UN states that despite the considerable progress on education access and participation over the past years, around 262 million children and youth aged 6–17 are still out of school, and more than half of children and adolescents are not meeting minimum proficiency standards, especially in reading and mathematics. Rapid technological changes present opportunities and challenges, but the learning environment, the capacities of teachers, and the quality of education have not fully kept pace. Refocused efforts are therefore needed, so as to improve learning outcomes for the full life cycle, especially for women, girls, and marginalized people in vulnerable settings, helping to address inequalities and helping to reduce poverty. Progress in fostering quality education is characterized by many challenges, especially in developing countries due to high levels of poverty, the existence of armed conflicts, and other emergencies. In Western Asia and North Africa, for instance, ongoing armed conflicts, extreme events, and poor governance have resulted in an increase in the proportion of children out of school. This is a worrying trend. Quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities can lead to improvements in socioeconomic conditions and quality of life. If duly implemented, they may help to reduce the current and future economic and social burdens posed by lack of education and help to reduce poverty. As the UN argues, achieving inclusive and quality education for all reaffirms the belief that education is one of the most powerful and proven vehicles for sustainable development. SDG4 intends to ensure that all girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by 2030. It also aims to provide equal access to affordable vocational training and to eliminate gender and wealth disparities with the aim of achieving universal access to a quality higher education. Therefore, it is important that due emphasis is given to inclusive and equitable quality education. The SDGs as a whole and SDG4 in particular provide a new opportunity and offer a new impulse to bring quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities more centrally to the international debate. Consistent with this aim, this volume of the Encyclopedia of the UNSDGs focuses on quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities. The many contributions provided by the authors shed light into the many variables, which are part of the global discourse on quality education and

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Volume Preface

the role of lifelong learning, and clarify many terms and concepts associated with it. With this volume, we hope to be fostering the capacity to work towards more quality education and the further promotion of lifelong learning opportunities, in both rich and in developing countries as well as on small island developing states, with due considerations to women, young people, and marginalized population groups. We also hope that the contributions in this volume will provide a timely support towards the implementation of SDG4 and will support the global efforts towards fostering quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities. February 2020

Walter Leal Filho Anabela Marisa Azul Luciana Brandli Pinar Gökçin Özuyar Tony Wall

List of Topics

Section Editor: Johannes Luetz Campus Greening at an Educational Institution Contemporary Trends in Education Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices Future Trends in Education Graduate Attributes in Australian Higher Education: Implications of an Economic Rationalist Approach Informal Workplace Learning Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals Numeracy and the Education Value Chain Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development Section Editor: Umesh Chandra Pandey Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals Challenges of Equity and Discrimination in the Education of Gifted Children Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability Early Childhood Education for Sustainability Ecological Thinking in Education Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals Schooling for Working Children Social Inclusion and Equal Access to High-Quality, Inclusive Education Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education Tertiary Education Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting Section Editor: Petra Molthan-Hill Challenges to Achieve Quality Education for All in the 2030 Agenda, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and Learning Theories Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind” Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals Principles of Responsible Management Education Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education ix

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Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges Section Editor: Valeria Ruiz Vargas Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint Distance Learning: A Viable Option Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas Open Educational Resources (Including MOOCs) Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education: Internalization of Values of Sustainability Quality Education: Entrepreneurship School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal Systemic Thinking Technology-Enhanced Learning Section Editor: Olivia Freeman Applied Education for Sustainable Development: A Case Study with Plastic Resource Education Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace

List of Topics

Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being Public Expenditure on Education Self-Assessment for Students Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs Section Editor: Rudi Pretorius Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal Education for Community Cohesion Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ICT Skills for Sustainable Development Goal 4 Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts Scope of Education for Sustainable Development Secondary Education for Sustainable Development Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals Section Editor: Ng Theam Foo Awareness in Educational Ethics Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

List of Topics

Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 Quality Control in Higher Education Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities

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Section Editor: Pinar Gökçin Özuyar Free Education: Origins, Achievements, and Current Situation

About the Editors

Walter Leal Filho (B.Sc., Ph.D., D.Sc., D.Phil., D.L., D.Litt., D.Ed.) is Professor and Director of the European School of Sustainability Science and Research, whose Headquarters are at the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences in Germany. He also holds the Chair of Environment and Technology at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. He is founding editor of the International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education and heads the Inter-University Sustainable Development Research Programme (IUSDRP), the world’s largest network of universities engaged on sustainable development research. He is also Editor-in-Chief of the World Sustainable Development series with Springer. Prof. Walter Leal serves on the editorial board of various journals. He has in excess of 400 publications to his credit, among which are groundbreaking books such as Universities as Living Labs for Sustainable Development: Supporting the Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals, Social Responsibility and Sustainability, and Handbook of Sustainability Science and Research. He has nearly 30 years of field experience in project management and has a particular interest in the connections between sustainability, climate change adaptation, and human behavior.

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About the Editors

Anabela Marisa Azul is a Researcher at the Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC) and Institute for Interdisciplinary Research of the University of Coimbra (III-UC, Portugal). She graduated in Biology at the UC, where she completed her Ph.D. degree in Biology, specialization in Ecology, with a collaboration of Ludwig-MaximiliansUniversität München (LMU, München, Germany). She became an Associate Researchers (Ciência 2009) at the Centre for Functional Ecology (CFEUC), where she remained until 2014. Here, she developed a holistic approach for advancing translational research that combined the sustainable development with innovation in food production and public scientific awareness (from early childhood). She currently is interested in functional attributes of fungi in the domain of metabolism, aging, and disease and approaches for knowledge coproduction in metabolism and sustainability research. She has coauthored over 40 scientific publications and book chapters, four books for children, two comics, and an animation. Luciana Brandli Ph.D., is an Associate Professor at the University of Passo Fundo, Brazil, working in the Ph.D. Program in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Her current research interests include sustainability in higher education and green campus, management of urban infrastructure and sustainable cities, and the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development. She supervises a number of master’s and doctoral students on engineering, environment, and sustainability issues and has in excess of 300 publications, including books, book chapters, and papers in refereed journals. Pinar Gökçin Özuyar is a member of Faculty of Economics, Administrative and Social Sciences at Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey. She received her B.S. degree in Environmental Engineering from Istanbul Technical University in 1992 and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Bogazici University Institute of Environmental Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey. Her Ph.D. thesis was based on the “Thermodynamic Analysis of Treatment Plants for Producing Energy from Solid Waste,” which she conducted in Germany with a joint scholarship

About the Editors

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from Forschungszentrum Jülich and TUBITAK (Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey). Defining herself as a pracademic, she has more than 25 years of experience not only in academia but also in private sector working on environment and sector-specific activities in Turkey and Dubai (UAE). She has extensive expertise specifically in environmental auditing according to World Bank standards, which is required for international financing especially during company M&As and greenfield projects. Working over the years in projects involving different stakeholder groups with different priorities, she has the proven capacity for establishing a dialogue between such stakeholder groups. Although coming from a technical background, her academic work focuses on involving sustainable development into the strategies of corporations including higher academic institutions. Currently, she teaches and leads funded research on sustainability/sustainable development especially focusing on industrial ecology and regional development.

Tony Wall is Founder and Head of the International Centre for Thriving, a global-scale collaboration between business, arts, health, and education to deliver sustainable transformation for the common good. He is passionate about thriving and has published 200+ works, including articles in quartile 1 journals such as The International Journal of Human Resource Management and Vocations and Learning, as well as global policy reports for the European Mentoring & Coaching Council in Brussels. Overall, his leadership and international impact in these areas have attracted numerous accolades including the prestigious Advance-HE National Teaching Fellowship and three Santander International Research Excellence Awards.

About the Section Editors

Olivia A. M. Freeman Society of Cognitive Engineers Journal of Advanced Cognitive Engineers Melbourne, FL, USA

Johannes M. Luetz CHC Higher Education Brisbane/Carindale Queensland, Australia University of New South Wales (UNSW) Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Petra Molthan-Hill Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, UK

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About the Section Editors

Theam Foo Ng Centre for Global Sustainability Studies Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang, Malaysia

Umesh Chandra Pandey Indira Gandhi National Open University Regional Centre Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

Rudi Pretorius University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa

Valeria Ruiz Vargas Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester, UK

About the Section Editors

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Pinar Gökçin Özuyar Istinye University Istanbul, Turkey

Contributors

Syamsul Rizal Abd Shukor School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia Zubkov Sergey Alexandrovich Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Vladimir State University, Vladimir, Russia A. Assis School of Education, Department of Policies, Administration, and Educational Systems, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil South Minas School of Law (FDSM), Democracy and Constitutionalism Area, Law School, Pouso Alegre, Brazil Meryl Batchelder Department of Science, Corbridge Middle School, Corbridge, Northumberland, UK Alex Baumber Faculty of Transdisciplinary Innovation, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Levon Ellen Blue Indigenous Research and Engagement Unit, Chancellery, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Kelvin Grove, QLD, Australia Luis Alberto Camargo Organización para la Educación y Protección Ambiental (OpEPA), Bogotá, Colombia Siok-Yee Chan School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Siok Sin Chan Sekolah Rendah Jenis Kebangsaan (Cina), SRJK (C), Bandar Springhill, Lukut, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia Chiam Chooi Chea Cluster of Business and Management, Open University Malaysia, Bandar Baru Bangi, Malaysia Jer-Ming Chen Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), Singapore, Singapore Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Asian Music Technology Ltd., Singapore, Singapore xxi

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Cheuk-Fai Chow Department of Science and Environmental Studies and Centre for Education in Environmental Sustainability (CEES), The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong Eleonora Concina Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology (FISPPA), University of Padova, Padova, Italy Harold John D. Culala Institute of Education, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines Tony Dalton School of Global, Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Noel P. De Guzman Department of Economics, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, Philippines John Angelo V. De Leon Institute of Education, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines Golda A. Edwin Association for Promoting Sustainability in Campuses and Communities (APSCC), Puducherry, India Pablo A. Egana del Sol Asia School of Business and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Amy Emanuel Christian Heritage College (Higher Education), Brisbane, Australia Gunay Faradova Paris, France Juana Figueroa Vélez Colegio Gimnasio Femenino, Bogotá, Colombia Daniel Fischer Faculty of Sustainability, Working Group Sustainable Consumption and Sustainability Communication, Institute for Environmental and Sustainability Communication, Leuphana University of Lueneburg, Lueneburg, Germany School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Clifford F. Fowler School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia Pascal Frank Faculty of Sustainability, Working Group Sustainable Consumption and Sustainability Communication, Institute for Environmental and Sustainability Communication, Leuphana University of Lueneburg, Lueneburg, Germany Olivia A. M. Freeman Journal of Applied Cognitive Engineering, Society of Cognitive Engineers, Melbourne, FL, USA Luciano Gallón Grupo de Investigación en Gestión de la Tecnología y la Innovación (GTI.UPB), Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellín, Colombia Maria Garcia Alvarez Windesheim Honours College, Windesheim University of Applied Sciences, Zwolle, The Netherlands

Contributors

Contributors

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Suresh Garg Usha Martin University, Ranchi, India Natalie Gelche University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Munirah Ghazali School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia RCE Penang@USM, Minden, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Arda Güçler Department of International Relations, Özyeğin University, İstanbul, Turkey David Haley Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China Peni Hausia Havea Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Glenda Hepplewhite Alphacrucis College, Sydney, NSW, Australia Sam Hey CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia Yao Zhang Hill University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, USA Usha Iyer-Raniga RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia One Planet Network Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme, UN Environment, Paris, France Mohamed Jabbie Balance of Payment Analysis and External Relations Section, Research Department, Bank of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone Liz Jackson The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Joshua J. Jodoin Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan Nerise Johnson International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK Corina Joseph Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia Anumala Kalyani Siva Sivani Institute of Management, Secunderabad, India Joseph Karuzis Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan Madhulika Kaushik Usha Martin University, Ranchi, India Michael M. Kretzer School of Languages and Literatures (African Language Studies Section), Rhodes University, Grahamstown/Makhanda, South Africa Chhabi Kumar Department of Sociology and Social Work, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India Steve Lambert University of Chester, Chester, UK

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Richard Leo Millis Institute and School of Education and Business, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane, Australia Jie Li Capital University of Economics and Business, Beijing, China Kian Heng Liew Institute for Engineering Leadership, NUS, Singapore, Singapore Cong Lin Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China Omar S. López Department of Organization, Workforce, and Leadership Studies (OWLS), Texas State University, San Marcos/Round Rock, TX, USA Johannes M. Luetz School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Australia Walid Lutfy London School of Economics, London, UK Rajesh. M Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) Regional Centre, Vatakara, India Tomé A. Mapotse Department of Science and Technology Education, School of Teacher Education, College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa Rebecca Margus School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia Stephen Martin Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of West of England, Bristol, UK Josefina Martinez-Ponce Dentistry Service, Ministry of Health, Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico Langton Mburayi International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK Michael McAllum Centre for the Future Academy, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Sustainability Resource Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Buderim, QLD, Australia Graciela Metternicht School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia Shariq Mohammmed Department of Accounting and Finance, Dhofar University, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman Manoranjan Mohanty Development Studies, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Masrina Mohd Nadzir School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia

Contributors

Contributors

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Alejandro Molina-Garcia Medical School, Vasco de Quiroga University, Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico Petra Molthan-Hill Nottingham Business School/NTU Green Academy, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK Renzo Mori Junior Design and Social Context College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Sikhulile Bonginkosi Msezane College of Education, Department of ABET and Youth Development, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa Craig B. Murison Christian Heritage College, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Nandhivarman Muthu Green Campus Initiatives, Waste Management Rules and Green Protocol Compliance, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India Wendy Nelson School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/ Carindale, QLD, Australia Yulia Nesterova The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Theam Foo Ng Centre for Global Sustainability Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia Ijaz Rasool Noorka College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan Vanessa Odell NTU Green Academy, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK Hulya Oztel Faculty of Business and Management, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK Sharni Page-Cameron The Psychodrama Institute of Melbourne, Cobaw, Australia Hema Pant Regional Services Division, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India Jamie Parr Australian Catholic University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Yuriy Petrushenko Department of International Economic Relations, Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine Shiralee Poed Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia Robyn Press School of Education, Christian Heritage College, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Brooke Prickett School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia Anita Priyadarshini Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India

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Alicia Prowse University Teaching Academy, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK S. K. Pulist Student Evaluation Division, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India Frido Reinstorf Department Water, Environment, Civil Engineering and Safety, University of Applied Sciences Magdeburg-Stendal, Magdeburg, Germany Eduardo Rico Ardila Colegio Gimnasio Femenino, Bogotá, Colombia Carlos Rafael Rodríguez-Solera Instituto de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo de la Educación (INIDE). Universidad Iberoamericana, Mexico City, Mexico Belinda J. Rudinger College of Professional Education, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI, USA Elizabeth A. C. Rushton Faculty of Social Science and Public Policy, School of Education, Communication and Society, King’s College London, London, UK María Dolores Sánchez Galera Public Law Department and “Pascual Madoz” Institute of Land, Urbanism and Environment, Carlos III University, Madrid, Getafe, Spain Michael Saffa On-Site Supervision Section, Other Financial Institutions Supervision Department (OFISD), Bank of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone Roshima Said Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Kedah, Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia Lee Wai Weng Sandra Holland Dental Clinic, Singapore, Singapore Muhammad Sarwar Department of Education, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan Hassan Sattar Silver Oaks Schools & College, Silver Oaks International Education Services-UAE, Rawalpindi, Pakistan Petra Schneider Department Water, Environment, Civil Engineering and Safety, University of Applied Sciences Magdeburg-Stendal, Magdeburg, Germany Emilia de la Sienra The Transdisciplinary Collective, Sydney, Australia Environmental Education and Training, Mexico City, Mexico Jane Spiteri The University of Malta, Msida, Malta Stephen Sterling Centre for Sustainable Futures/PedRIO, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK Tiania Stevens Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Contributors

Contributors

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Kamani Sylva Department of Engineering Management, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Sadaf Taimur Graduate Program in Sustainability Science – Global Leadership Initiative, Department of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa Jeannie Trudel Christian Heritage College, Carindale, QLD, Australia Ruchi Tyagi School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India Néstor Valero-Silva Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK Raúl F. Vázquez Z Dirección de Investigación (DIUC), University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador Daniele Vieira Department of Business Administration, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Recife, Brazil Suresh Vishwakarma Chartered Engineers Pacific LN, Vancouver, BC, Canada Anna Vorontsova Department of International Economic Relations, Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine Tony Wall International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK Christine Wamsler Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies (LUCSUS), Lund, Sweden Amber D. Webb Department of International Education Policy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Satine Winter College of Arts, Society and Education, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Mt Gravatt, Brisbane, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia Siu-Kit Yeung School of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

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Aboriginal

Adult Education

▶ Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Access on the Same Basis ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals Gunay Faradova Paris, France

Active Education ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

Synonyms Continuing education; Lifelong education; Lifelong learning (LLL); Second chance education

Adaptation and Mitigation Approaches to Built Environment Education

Definitions

▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

Additional Needs ▶ Special Education: Exceptionality

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Disability

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According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), adult education is an education targeting mainly adult individuals (a person who already reached the age, when he/she is responsible for their actions) who aim to enhance their technical and/or professional qualifications, develop their skills and competencies, and enrich their knowledge. It can have several objectives (UIS 2011):

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

• Completing a formal education • Acquiring skills and competencies in a completely new area • Refreshing their knowledge in a particular field of their specialization

Introduction Adult education plays a key role in sustainable development and promotes economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development and creates favorable conditions for empowering global active citizens. It plays a significant role in economic growth and in social and personal development. Its main social benefits are improved civic participation and social cohesion, whereas its personal benefits include improved health and well-being, greater self-confidence, and better employment opportunities. Adults are in charge of the destiny of any nation, as they are those who are already engaged in development process, and they are perceived as asserts and capital for productive efforts. Adults are direct procurers and consumers of economic growth and its benefits. Hence, it is important to promote education programme directed to developing literate, informed, skilled, and healthy adults with relevant skills, knowledge, motivation, and commitments (Festus and Adekola 2015). Despite these advantages, there are insufficient participation rates in adult education. It is more concentrated among certain groups: young people, more educated people, and employees of large enterprises. Moreover, significant inequalities in participation persist in adult education. People with tertiary education have five or even ten times higher participation rates than those with lower education or skills. Older people tend to participate less than younger ones (OECD 2005). The lower participation of disadvantaged and marginalized groups is, mainly, due to: • • • •

Lack of motivation Financial constraints Lack of time Lack of education programme adapted to their needs

• Lack of information and awareness about existing learning opportunities Studies led by the OECD in 2005 show that equitable distribution of skills has a positive impact on overall economic performance, especially long term. Thus, upgrading skills of disadvantaged groups through promoting second chance education programme, endorsed with relevant investments, gives them a chance to either improve their low levels of education or even completely change their career path. These programme cover a wide range of learning opportunities from basic literacy to technical and vocational education and training (ibid.). Adult education had an essential role to play in facing the environmental predicament. Adults are perceived as the main change agents to respond to the environmental degradation worldwide. The different philosophical traditions of environmental adult education offer various approaches to adult learning. For example, in the liberal environmental adult education, experts with knowledge about nature and ecosystems teach adults about the ways of protecting the environment. Humanistic environmental adult education acknowledges the wisdom of nature and mainly focuses on learning through experiences of a metaphysical nature fostering individual self-awareness and growth. Radical environmental adult education interlinks environment, society economics, politics, and culture and offers participatory learning process, including critical thinking and communityoriented learning. An emphasis on environmental adult education could contribute to the sustainable development and its ways of implementation. However, many efforts are provided to developing sustainability and environmental education, aimed at children, omitting the fact that adults represent a key player in moving toward global sustainability and can have an immediate impact on environmental actions (Griswold 2016).

Historical Highlights The development of the term “adult education” can be classified in three periods (Martinez

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

de Morentin de Goni 2006). The first period between 1946 and 1958 focused on the reconstruction of the educational structures affected by World War II to establish complete educational programme, favoring free and obligatory education. The second period was between 1960 and 1976. In 1960, the concept of lifelong education emerged, leading to a more explicit discourse on adult education. In this period, education was associated as lifelong education. Lifelong education is defined as formal and informal learning opportunities throughout people’s lives to foster the continuous development and improvement of knowledge and skills, required for employment and personal development. Thus, lifelong education is the foundation of the complete education process by becoming its undivided component. Adult education and lifelong education are united under one single umbrella, affirming that all education processes must be carried out within the context of lifelong education or adult education. The third period was framed by the adoption of the 1976 Recommendation on the Development of Adult Education. Later in 1983, the concept of adult education continued to permeate in all areas of education and to evolve within the framework of lifelong education, while lifelong education expanded its scope to “lifelong education for all.” Eventually, lifelong education for all would be officially adopted and ratified during the World Conference on Education for All in Thailand. Although the terms “adult education,” “lifelong education,” and “lifelong learning” are often used interchangeably, their meanings slightly differ and thus can have policy implications. “Lifelong education” emphasizes a strong need for providing learning opportunities to adults regardless of their age, race, class, gender, and socioeconomic status. However, the “lifelong education” term was replaced by “lifelong learning” in the 1990s, which has a boarder significance on placing responsibility on an individual to learn, and not on a state or an employing entity to provide learning opportunities (Regmi 2015).

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Adult Education within SDG4 Architecture Education “is the golden thread that runs through the implementation of all 17 SDGs, including overcoming poverty, ending hunger, and improving health and well-being outcomes for all” (United Nations’ General Assembly 2017). In Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development, “education” is not only restricted to SDG4, but it is explicitly highlighted in SDG3 on Health and Well-Being, SDG8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG13 on Climate Change Mitigation (UNESCO 2016b). SDG4 has surpassed MDG2 with comprehensive and ambitious targets, expanding the scale and scope of education, which necessitates more funding and resources for its implementation. Comparing MDG2 and SDG4, the main differences can be categorized as concerning either scope level, geographical coverage, or policy focus. Global education goals Scope

MDG2 Primary education

Geographical coverage

Low-income and conflictaffected countries

Policy focus

Access to and completion of primary secondary education

SDG4 Basic and postbasic education and training Lifelong perspective Universal agenda for all countries regardless of income level and development status Access to quality basic education for all, including equitable access to post-basic education and training, as well as relevance of learning for both work and global citizenship

Source: UNESCO (2016b)

Obtaining a quality education is an essential part of achieving sustainable development. In

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comparison to previous years, significant progress has been made in increasing access to education at all levels, as well as increasing enrolment rates in schools, especially for girls. Even though basic literacy skills have improved, more effort is needed to achieve universal education goals. The implementation of SDG4 means “translating” and “integrating” SDG4 goal and its targets into the national and local context by “aligning” and “adapting” education sector policies and plans with SDG4. SDG4 has a sector-wide scope and broader vision, including a LLL perspective; hence, it cannot be implemented separately but should represent an integral part of national education sector development efforts (UNESCO 2016b). Its targets 4.3, 4.4, and 4.6 explicitly highlight the importance of adult education, as well as functional literacy and numeracy skills, including skills for work among adults. In this context, education as a human right goes beyond more than schooling and children. Education and learning for adults have the same level of importance. Moreover, skills and competencies for work and life have to be continuously updated, and this, respectively, highlights the importance of adult education within LLL, as a prerequisite for the SDGs implementation (Hinzen and Schmitt 2016). These deliberations were emphasized in the outcome document of the Mid-Term Review of the Sixth International Conference on Adult Education held in the Republic of Korea and gathering the representatives of governments, international agencies, universities, and civil society organizations (CSOs) to take stock of the progress made in this field since 2009. The document highlights a strong desire of the adoptees to promote adult education as means of addressing global education challenges and to enhance the efforts of its awareness raising among all relevant stakeholders. They also affirm that adult education had “a structural, enabling, and pivotal role” in achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in particular, SDG4 (Milana et al. 2017). However, this Mid-Term Review emphasizes that adult education is not sufficiently articulated in the Education 2030 agenda and suffers from a

number of challenges, such as underfunding (most countries spend less than 1% of their education budget to support adult education), lack of adequate adult education policies and legislation, and the absence of basic coordination mechanisms at the national level (Milana et al. 2017). It is a well-known fact that the ongoing rapid and vast changes worldwide cannot wait for younger generation to mature to take necessary environmental actions, and in these circumstances, adults are expected to change in order to support and advance the credibility of the environmental education of children. There is an urgent need to foster a mass transformation in the field of adult education to accomplish this challenging mission, as adult education is one of key elements in achieving global sustainability (Griswold 2016).

Global Trends of Adult Literacy The importance of adult education can be substantiated in the flowing figures. In 2016, 750 million adults, two-thirds of whom were women, lacked basic writing and reading skills. 102 million of the illiterate population were aged between 15 and 24. The global literacy rate was 86% in contrast to youth literacy that constituted 91%. UIS estimates that the adult and youth literacy rates increased only by 4% each at the global level between 2000 and 2015 during the implementation of the Education for All movement (UIS 2017; Table 1).

Adult Education Supporting Sustainable Societies Adult education is an integral part of LLL, which is embedded in the Education 2030 Framework for Action (FFA). The FFA calls for “lifelong learning opportunities for all, in all settings and at all levels of education.” It also commits “to ensuring that all youth and adults, especially girls and women, achieve relevant and recognized functional literacy and numeracy proficiency levels and acquire life skills, and that they are provided with adult learning, education and

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

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Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals, Table 1 Global literacy rates and illiterate population by age groups in 2016 Adults (aged 15 years Indicator and older) Global literacy rate (%) Both sexes 86 Men 90 Women 83 Gender parity 0.92 index Global illiterate population (millions) Both sexes 750 Men 277 Women 473 Share of 63 women (%)

Youth (aged 15–24 years) 91 93 90 0.96

102 44 58 57

Population (aged 25–64 years) 86 90 82 0.92

507 186 321 63

Elderly (aged 65 years and older) 78 83 73 0.87

141 47 94 67

Source: UIS (2017)

training opportunities.” The FFA highlights the importance of LLL as the main landmark of SDG4-Education 2030 in order to ensure that adults develop their skills and competencies throughout their lives to live and work in a secured and sustainable environment. LLL is a process that takes place everywhere starting from home, work, and school and going beyond these boundaries. Moreover, the development of literacy and numeracy should be aligned with human development and linked to its everyday activities, thus changing the attitudes of people toward literacy and numeracy and creating literate societies (Hanemann 2016). With evolving sustainable societies, both terms literacy and numeracy evolve as well. The simple definition of literacy states the ability to read and write, whereas numeracy skills to use numbers in all aspects of life. However, by unpacking both definitions to adapt to changing perspectives and new trends, literacy refers to the competencies to put knowledge and skills into action when dealing with printed or digital texts, while numeracy the ability to reason numbers and other mathematical concepts and apply them in solving a variety of problems (ibid.). The development of both concepts is aligned to the evolvement of LLL perspectives that are not limited to the ability to read, write, and count but goes beyond the standard definitions. Here comes the shift from basic

literacy and numeracy to the ability to digest and analyze a more complex range of information and use it in their own benefits. Furthermore, literacy and numeracy equip people to increase their incomes, overcome poverty, and improve their livelihoods, thus contributing to SDG1 on No Poverty. Literate adults mean literate parents, which contributes to a sustainable society perspective from a different angle. Education enables parents to improve their children’s health and nutrition, thus contributing to SDG2 on Zero Hunger and SDG3 on Good Health and WellBeing. Educated parents are more likely to ensure their children’s access to quality education, a fact that supports SDG4 on Quality Education as well. Higher levels of education, especially for women, make their voices heard everywhere and in every aspect of the life, hence contributing to SDG5 on Gender Equality. According to the estimations of the Global Partnership for Education, one additional school year can increase the earnings of a woman by up to 20% (SDG8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth). Families with a higher education level are more prone to sustainable environmental development, sustainable production, and consumption. They show more greater concern about the environmental well-being and bring up their children in this spirit, hence contributing directly or indirectly to several SDGs at the same time: SDG6 on Clean Water and

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Sanitation, SDG7 on Affordable and Clean Energy, SDG12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, SDG14 on Life Below Water, and SDG15 on Life on Land. Educated citizens are more likely to recognize and adopt new technologies and practices that contribute to the prosperity of their communities. As a result, they are more prone to support projects and solutions linked to sustainable cities and communities (SDG11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities). Moreover, literate and educated adults contribute to promoting human rights, tolerance, and peace, including conflict prevention. This is aligned with the objectives of SDG16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions (ibid.). Therefore, the achievement of SDGs highly depends on human beings themselves and the degree to which they can use their potential. Their full participation in political, economic, social, and environmental developments and their ability to shape those developments depend on their desires and abilities to constantly learn independently and think critically, creatively, and innovatively.

International and Supranational Actors Supporting Adult Education Since 1920, adult education has been establishing its own place in the dialogue of the international community. As early as 1990, the international community committed to meet the basic education needs of all children and youth, alongside adults by 2000. At the World Education Forum in 2000, this commitment was officially renewed. From this perspective, several international organizations focus on the development of adult education and provide support to policy-makers and decision takers. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) with the institutes under its auspices provides support and policy recommendations with a special focus on adult and lifelong education. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) is mandated to promote LLL with a special focus on adult learning, continuing education, and literacy. Through a holistic inter-sectoral and cross-sectoral approach

to lifelong learning, UIL supports research, capacity building, networking, as well as publications on LLL and adult education (UIL 2019). UIL’s programme areas include: • Adult learning and education • Lifelong policies and strategies • Literacy and basic skills Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) seeks to contribute to LLL through its adult learning thematic review. The main objective is to understand adults’ access and participation in education and learning to enhance policies and strategies to increase their motivation. It also aims to analyze learning opportunities for low-skilled adults and improve their outcomes (OECD 2005). European Commission (EC) has a separate policy on adult education, recognizing adult learning as a key component of LLL. The Renewed European Agenda for Adult Learning (2011) defines European vision on developing adult learning in the region by 2020. Its priority areas include governance, supply and take-up, flexibility and access, and quality. A special Working Group on Adult Learning was established to produce policy guidance, based on best practices and lessons learnt in the region. Furthermore, the Electronic Platform on Adult Learning in Europe serves as a multilingual online space to promote adult education. Participation in LLL for adults is one of the important benchmarks of the education sector in the region (EU policy in the field of adult learning). International Council for Adult Education (ICAE) is a global network, mandated to promote youth and adult learning and education in the world. Established in 1973, ICAE has seven regional bodies in Africa, the Arab States, Asia, Latin America, Caribbean, Europe, and North America, representing more than 800 regional and national NGOs. Its activities cover the following areas: • • • •

Advocacy and policy Capacity building for LLL Inclusive education Integral approach to youth and adult education

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

International Framework of Adult Literacy and Education CONFINTEA (Conférence Internationale sur l’Education des adultes) is a series of international conferences on adult education that serves as a platform for international dialogue in the field of adult learning and education (ALE). It is a recurrent event, producing outcome documents and monitoring the progress made toward the improvement of ALE. The first CONFINTEA took place in 1949 in Denmark. The main theme of the discussions was the objective of adult education, which is to satisfy the needs and aspirations of adults in their diversity. The most recent CONFINTEA VI was held in 2017 in the Republic of Korea, and its MidTerm Review aimed to take stock of progress made and to share best practices and lessons learnt since 2009. Its point of departure was the Belém Framework of Action (BFA), recognizing ALE as an important component of the right to education, including the right to literacy as its inherent part. The BFA was adopted by the

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 1 Timeline from CONFINTEAVI to CONFINTEAVII. (Source: International

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international community to provide guidance in “harnessing the power and potential of adult learning and education for viable future for all” in Brazil (Belém). It provides guidance on how to develop and improve adult education and adult literacy within a LLL perspective (CONFINTEA VI 2009). Furthermore, the Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE) is published every few years by UIL as a proper follow-up of CONFINTEA. GRALE is a series of reports to monitor progress on ALE, identify latest trends, and explore possible solutions to challenges in this field. Since 2009, three editions have been published. The latest GRALE 3 was released in 2016, right after the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by the global leaders. Its main objective is to identify the benefits of ALE in such key areas as health, employment, and social, civil, and community life. GRALE 3 demonstrates how ALE can support the 2030 Agenda and how ALE can potentially respond to global challenges and needs (UIL 2016; Fig. 1).

Conferences on Adult Education (CONFINTEA): http://uil. unesco.org/adult-education/confintea)

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Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education (RALE) was adopted in 1976 at CONFINTEA and later revised and updated in 2015 to adapt its initial version to the needs and requirements of today’s challenges, to reflect global trends, and to align it with the SDG4 and Education 2030 Agenda. RALE is a comprehensive and guiding tool for decision and policy-makers, researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders in the field of adult education and learning (UNESCO 2016a). RALE recalls the principles put forward by Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948); Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979); Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989); and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006). The recommendation defines the scope, objectives, and areas of action of ALE. ALE involves activities and processes of acquiring, developing, improving, as well as exchanging and adapting adult skills and capabilities. According to RALE, “adult” denotes all those who engage in ALE,

taking into account shifting boundaries of youth and adulthood in various cultures. The recommendation highlights that ALE represents “a major building block of a learning society” and fosters a LLL culture. To improve the structure of ALE, RALE suggests the following areas of actions: • • • • • • •

Policy Governance Financing Participation Inclusion Equity Quality

Regional Trends of Adult Education (Fig. 2) The regions with the largest illiterate population and the lowest literacy rate are Southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Almost one-half of the global illiterate people (about 50%) were concentrated in the Southern Asia region in 2016. Moreover, some 27% of all illiterate adults live in subSaharan Africa, 10% in Eastern and SouthEastern Asia, 9% in Northern Africa and in

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 2 Adult literacy by country 2016. (Source: UIS 2017)

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

Western Africa, and about 14% in Latin America and the Caribbean. Adult literacy rates are below 50% in the following countries: Afghanistan, Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Iraq, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and South Sudan (UIS 2017). Less than 2% of the global illiterate population live in the remaining regions of the world. However, adult literacy rates are almost 100% in most countries in Central Asia (heritage left from the Soviet times, when the education was strict and compulsory, and each and every citizen was obliged to have basic literacy skills. The same system and requirements continue to persist in the modern society of former Soviet countries, including the region of Central Asia), Europe, Northern America, and Eastern and Southeastern Asia. Africa Region Africa has a long tradition of practicing LLL by preparing participants through education and apprenticeships. The government plays an important role in defining policies and principles to further develop LLL practices. In the context of defining ALE, there are countries that use a broad definition, such as Benin, Cabo Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Mauritius, Namibia, and Tanzania. The broader definition includes an emphasis on literacy and nonformal basic education for adults. Other countries like Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, and Uganda adopt a more restricted definition, focusing on literacy. Moreover, Eastern African countries recently committed to include adult literacy in the new regional roadmap, aimed at achieving SDGs. Thus, literacy, adult basic education, and skills are top ALE priorities for this region. The region’s commitment to LLL is expressed in the Nairobi Declaration and Call for Action on Education: Bridging continental and global education frameworks for the Africa We Want (Kenya 2018). This Call for Action reflects Africa’s global commitments to SDG4 within the global Agenda 2030, as well as to the Continental Education Strategy for Africa 2016–2025. LLL is embedded

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in both agendas. As a result, countries in the region try to align their programme and policies to the global commitments of the region. For example, Chad has developed various action plans and programme, supporting LLL from various angles: National Action on the Education of Adults in Literacy, Non-Formal Education Programme, National Literacy Programme, and 10-Year Plan for the Development of Education and Literacy 2017–2026 (Aitchison 2017). According to the study conducted by the Ministerial Committee in South Africa in 2006, about 9.6 million adults or some 24% of the total population over the age of 15 were illiterate; some 4.7 million of them could not even read or write. Facing the persistent adult illiteracy and its negative consequences on social development, the South African government decided to develop the literacy programme Kha Ri Gude (KGALP), targeting adults with little or no formal education, alongside vulnerable and marginalized social groups such as women, young people, and people living with disabilities. In 2009 out of 620,000 enrolled learners, about 80% were women, 8% had disabilities, and 25% were youth. The programme helped about one million learners acquire basic literacy skills, enabled illiterate youth and adults to become more independent, fostered poverty alleviation by creating extra employment opportunities, empowered people with disabilities, contributed to community cohesion and peaceful coexistence, as well as promoted mother tongue adult literacy (UIL 2017). The civil society is also involved in ALE policies in the region. Pan African Association for Literacy and Adult Education (PAALAE) is a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that promotes ALE in all its forms and dimensions, responding to the needs and requirements of social development in Africa. Arab States The terms “literary” and “adult education” are used interchangeably in the Arab States. The majority of the Arab States are adopting definitions of adult education, focusing primarily on literacy and basic skills since their main concern is illiteracy. However, the number of illiterate

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adults only slightly decreased from 51.77 million in 2012 to 51.43 million in 2015 (Nassar 2017). Nevertheless, the scope and content of ALE vary from country to country. For example, Morocco and Oman use a narrow scope of ALE limited to adult literacy, whereas Algeria, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and UAE adopted a broader concept, seeing it as an opportunity of the young generation to continue their education in the formal and nonformal context (ibid.). Adult education is one of the main priorities of the region. This was explicitly stated in the outcome document of the Third Arab Regional Meeting on Education 2030: Aligning Curriculum, Teachers and Learning Assessment to Reach SDG4 Targets in Arab Countries. The national education systems in the region are struggling to deliver the outcomes expected for the economic and social development. Adults face challenges in terms of learning, employment, and social cohesion. Thus, the document accentuates the importance of networking among already existing networks to support adult education and LLL in achieving SDG4. In order to achieve SDG4, the countries of the region use various strategies and implement different programme. For example, Bahrain has set up the National Authority for Qualifications and Quality Assurance of Education and Training, responsible for formulating quality standards for curricula, teaching methods, and assessment (UIL 2017). The association Ibn AL Baytar is one of those associations that set up cooperatives in the Argan sector in Morocco. The association is actively engaged in including literacy trainings as part of their programme. This has already benefited some 3000 women in the Argan trade, as most of the participants were the women who had never acquired literacy skills. One of such programme was a literacy programme designed to address literacy skills in Amazigh, a Berber languagespoken by the women participating in it. The programme was implemented in five regions of the country and benefited more than 480 rural women (ibid.). NGOs and CSOs are major actors in supporting the development of ALE. In addition, the Arab States have become more diversified in

engaging professional groups. Compromising of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, the Arab Network for Literacy and Adult Education, established in 1999, plays an intermediary role in linking governments and civil societies at national and regional levels to support work in this field (Nassar 2017). Asia Pacific Region ALE policies in this region are diverse, depending on the national aspect of each country. Adult education programme are an integral part of the education system in almost all countries in the region, and almost all countries have an official policy on ALE as part of their overall education policy (Govinda 2017). The main emphasis of ALE policies across the region is reducing adult illiteracy, which can be found even in the educationally advanced countries. The other important component is the emphasis on linking ALE to employment and entrepreneurship (ibid.). The regional recommendations of the fourth Asia-Pacific Meeting on Education (Thailand 2018) are specifically focused on actions to be taken on SDG4 target 4.4. Moreover, looking ahead, the recommendations suggest building new learning pathways for adolescents and youth for LLL while revising national policies and programme to ensure a holistic education environment that encompasses all levels of education, including adult education, as well as to ensure that no one is left behind from availing to the diverse learning opportunities. The countries of the region are preoccupied with the idea of supporting and enhancing LLL. Thus, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Nepal have aligned their literacy and nonformal education (NFE) policies with the poverty alleviation strategies. Lao PDR, Pakistan, and Papua New Guinea have developed policies for promoting literacy and NFE programme and linking them to various development and social issues (Govinda 2017). The Republic of Korea uses stakeholder participation in policy-making for ALE. The government had approved the Lifelong Education Law, and under these terms, it established a number of

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

consultative bodies, responsible for implementing national policies for lifelong education. These bodies include the Lifelong Education Promotion Committee (central government level), the Municipal-Provincial Lifelong Education Committee (provincial/municipal level), and the Local Lifelong education Promotion Committee (district/ community level). The central government elaborates the main policy framework in LLL, while the local departments carry out the detailed policy tasks developed by the central government in accordance with local needs. The various opinions and ideas from each level of the government and external experts converge through conferences and indepth debates with policy advisory committees in elaborating national lifelong education policy plans. Hence, they ensure a transparent and inclusive policy-making process for ALE (ibid.). The region is known for the active involvement of the civil society in the field of ALE. For example, Asia South Pacific Association for Basic and Adult Education (ASPBAE) is a network of approximately 200 entities involved in formal and nonformal education. Its core mission is to strengthen an Asia Pacific network and advocacy to enhance the contribution of ALE in promoting equitable and sustainable human development, as well as to offer a pan-Asian platform for capacity building and best practices sharing. Latin America and the Caribbean Region The challenges facing the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region are to advance from initial literacy to higher levels of learning, establish coherent lifelong systems, and respond to the learning needs of young people and adults. According to GRALE 3, 98% of young people in the region were either in schools or in possession of basic levels of education, which was higher comparing to the other regions of the world. However, 9% of the LAC population has no literacy skills. Moreover, the lack of reading and writing skills significantly affects the rural population, people with disabilities, indigenous populations, and women. This situation is directly linked to the social context of each country, reflecting the complex relationship between the

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education and social aspects of the region (Advocacy Group on Education Policy of the Council of Popular Education of LAC 2017). The Cochabamba Agreement: Regional solidarity to reach SDG4-E2030 in Latin America and the Caribbean adopted at the second Regional Ministerial Meeting held in the Plurinational State of Bolivia in 2018 highlights the importance of the elaboration of regional actions and recommendations to support national implementation of SDG4 with the focus on the regional priorities: quality education, equity and inclusion, teachers and education workers, and LLL. However, the diverse socioeconomic, ethnic, and cultural contexts of the region pose a range of obstacles to the implementation of youth and adult learning and education in the framework of LLL. The countries of the region choose various strategies to domesticate SDG4 in their multicultural context. In the case of Paraguay, which recognizes Guarani and Spanish as official languages, the government has developed the Paraguay Reads and Writes programme, promoting a strategy of comprehensive and bilingual intercultural literacy with a special focus on respect for the cultural identity of participants (UIL 2017). Another example comes from Ecuador. The country suffers from a high illiteracy rate alongside extreme poverty, lack of rural schools, insufficient teachers, as well as high dropout rates. In this regard, since 2011 the Ministry of Education implemented the Basic Education for Young People and Adults Programme to contribute to Ecuador’s obligation to provide quality education to all of its citizens, regardless of their ethnic and cultural background. Its main objective is to reach marginalized groups, affected by inequality, exclusion, and discrimination. In 2013, 324,894 people completed the programme at the national level, out of which 229,740 were women, with 137,096 coming from rural and indigenous areas of the country (ibid.). The civil society is actively involved in the provision of ALE. For example, the Latin America Adult Education Council (CEAAL – Consejo de Educacion de Adultos de Americano Latino) is an association of civil organizations in the LAC region, working with young people and adults in

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formal and informal settings. CEAAL is engaged in the popular (referring to low, middle and working classes) education movement, struggling for political and social transformation. North America and Europe The ALE context in Europe and North America is very diverse and known for its decentralized policies and programme. ALE is a vital component of European Union (EU) LLL policy and is considered an essential prerequisite to promote competitiveness, employability, social inclusion, and active citizenship, including personal development. The European Commission (EC) is committed to enhancing ALE in the region, thus responding to increasing demand from the region. Two fundamental frameworks shape the European Union policy in this direction: Europe 2020: A Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth and the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training. Within these two frameworks, the EC is working with 36 countries to promote the European Agenda for Adult Learning, with the main objective to increase participation in adult learning of all kinds, such as formal, nonformal, and informal learning. However, in Europe, ALE policies vary from country to country, and ALE is not clearly regulated at the policy level. The European policy-makers are confronted by the fragmentation of this sector, which is reflected in uneven participation rates (Kozyra et al. 2017). Canada does not have an integrated education system at the national level; thus each province has its own autonomy to make decisions regarding ALE development and strategies. In the United States, education is a local responsibility funded by complex formulas, combining local, state, and federal aid. Moreover, there is no mandate for adult education, which receives little funding (ibid.). North American Alliance for Popular and Adult Education (NAAPE) and European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA) represent active CSOs involved in ALE in North America and Europe, respectively. NAAPE seeks to unite North American adult and popular education networks, whereas EAEA aims to

connect European organizations involved in ALE activities. Their core mission is to promote ALE and to improve access to formal and nonformal education for all.

Andragogy: Teaching Adults Andragogy is defined as the methods and practices used to teach adult learners. The word is derived from Greek meaning “leading a man,” whereas “pedagogy” means “leading a child.” According to Malcolm Shepherd Knowles, andragogy is the art and science of adult learning. The term can refer to any form of adult learning. In his book The Modern Practice of Adult Education, this American educator highlights the difference between student and adult learning mindsets by the fact that students need structure, whereas adults require an individual learning approach. The main approach for adult learning should be based not only on simple presentation of information and teaching but to help and guide adults in the learning process by involving them in planning and evaluation (Florea 2014). Malcolm Knowles also developed five characteristics of andragogy that differ it from pedagogy (Knowles 1980). Assumption Motivation to learn

Definition Adults need to know why they should learn

Selfconcept

Adults need to take responsibility for learning process

Experience

Adults need to bring experience to learning process

Explanation Adults are ready to spend time and energy into education if they are clearly aware about its future benefits Adults are in charge of their lives and feel responsible for their decisions, as well as for those linked to education. Thus, they need to be treated as being capable of taking responsibility Experience is one of the main components of adult’s self-identity. They are interested in adding their own (continued)

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals Assumption

Definition

Readiness to learn

Adults feel ready to learn when the need arises

Orientation to learn

Adults are task-oriented

Explanation experience to education, thus enriching the learning process with new ideas and skills When adults decide to start or continue education, they commit themselves to learning and choose an education they need to follow. Adults’ desire and readiness to learn coincide with the transition processes in their lives or socioeconomic development of their environment. Possible examples are career planning, acquiring new competences or skills, improving job performance, migrating to another country, etc. Education for students is subject-oriented, whereas adult education is taskoriented. This education is focused on problem-solving

Source: Knowles 1980 and Murphy 2012

It should be highlighted that adult learning consists of formal, nonformal, and informal learning. This learning can be motivated by the following reasons (EU policy in the field of adult learning): • • • • • •

Acquiring basic skills Obtaining new skills and/or qualifications Reskilling for employment Supporting personal growth Supporting professional growth Or even for pleasure

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known as digitalization and globalization have greatly affected economies, societies, and their development, making the world more interconnected than ever before. On one hand, these new technologies promise to support economic growth and sustainable development; on the other hand, they hold a risk of growing inequality within and between countries, provoked by digital gap and unemployment. In this context, both formal and nonformal education systems are essential to provide with skills, responding to the demands on new economies and labor markets. Moreover, major digital transformation such as artificial intelligence (AI) shapes the demand on skills and skills development. AI is perceived as intelligence demonstrated by computer systems in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings. AI affects all industries, including education. Its impact on the education sector is reflected as follows (Woolf et al. 2013). • Largely using instructional software adapted to individual needs • Providing access to digital materials • Supporting decentralized learning tools • Engaging learners in a more meaningful way The application of AI to education seeks to develop adaptive learning environments. The adaptive learning environment is a set of teaching and learning approaches and principles to the capabilities and requirements of each individual learner. The purpose of the usage of AI in education is to establish an adaptive tutor method based on the following three models (Luckin et al. 2016):

Adapting to the New World of Artificial Intelligence

• Learner model – taking into account knowledge of an individual learner • Pedagogy model – taking into account knowledge of teaching • Domain model – taking into account the subject being learned and the relationships between parts of this subject matter (Fig. 3)

Emerging technologies have widely affected people around the world and significantly influenced SDGs and their achievement. Two processes

The interaction of the abovementioned models assists in selecting the most appropriate content and method to be delivered to an individual

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Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 3 Application of artificial intelligence to education: three model-based adaptive tutor. (Source: Luckin et al. 2016)

learner. During the delivery process, continuous analysis of the learner’s interaction (such as answers, past achievements) is ongoing to provide feedback, hints, and guidance if needed and help progress through the whole learning process (ibid.). Moreover, AI in education also takes into account social, emotional, and meta-cognitive (which has two main components: being aware of thinking and being able to control to regulate it) aspects of learning. Thus, it accommodates a large

range of elements that affect the learning process. Obviously affecting the whole education sector, AI impacts adult education as well. AI strives to meet the needs of all learners, regardless of their age (ibid.). Although literacy has been the main concern of the global Agenda over the past few decades, 750 million adults still lack basic reading and writing skills, meaning that they struggle in performing simple everyday tasks. AI can help overcome these challenges facing adults in the education

Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

sector. AI can close learning gaps by adapting to adult needs and personalizing already existing programme and tutorials. This helps support adult learners in becoming effective and selfregulated lifelong learners and creating flexible learning environments by allowing learners to choose a time and a place for their learning. The application of AI to education will also increase demand for continuing education, as it will require retraining a large number of the current workforce. Moreover, the digital transformation accentuates the need to acquire new digital skills for work as well as for life that go hand in hand with strong literacy and numeracy skills, including “soft skills” (creativity, critical and innovative thinking, and problem-solving).

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well as conflict prevention, thus contributing to sustainable development (EAEA 2018). Nowadays, within the implementation of the global Agenda, the international community is very preoccupied in supporting and developing ALE. ALE is embedded in SDG4 on Education, specifically in its targets 4.3, 4.4, and 4.6. Moreover, adult education contributes directly and indirectly to almost all 17 goals of the Agenda 2030, as it is perceived as one of the powerful tools to eradicate illiteracy. The SDGs tackle a large number of global challenges, and adult education supports their implementation by gaining a better understanding of these issues and by transferring the skills and competencies needed to take immediate action and find solutions. Hence, adult education is a tool and method of achieving SDGs as well as a goal in itself (ibid.).

Conclusion Adult education has a long history; it has gone through a revolutionary development since its first emergence. The global trends of ALE keep on changing which significantly affect its regional perspectives. Thus, each region worldwide has its own strategy and approach in implementing ALE, compatible with regional requirements and needs. International framework of ALE is reflected through CONFINTEA, GRALE, Recommendation on ALE, and international and supranational actors use them to coordinate and regulate the global development of ALE. Furthermore, adult education contributes both to the individual development and to the collective development of societies, and it plays an important role in social inclusion, active citizenship, and personal well-being. Adult education is aimed at providing knowledge, skills, and competencies that can be used for both professional and private advancement. It also promotes so-called life skills – transversal skills, such as social, communication, analytical, and cognitive skills that are essential for enhancing employment prospects in the labor market and engaging in democratic processes. Therefore, LLL is a key component in achieving social change, reducing poverty and inter alia, and fostering peace, reconciliation, as

Cross-References ▶ Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development ▶ Distance Learning: A Viable Option ▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development ▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices ▶ Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

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Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace ▶ Numeracy and the Education Value Chain ▶ Open Educational Resources (Including MOOCs) ▶ Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education ▶ Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs ▶ Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices ▶ Technical Education ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

References Advocacy Group on Education Policy of the Council of Popular Education of Latin America and the Caribbean (2017) CONFINTEA VI mid-term review 2017. The status of adult learning and education in Latin America and the Caribbean. Regional report. UNESCO UIL, Hamburg Aitchison J (2017) CONFINTEA VI Mid-term Review 2017. The status of adult learning and education in sub-Saharan Africa. Regional Report. UNESCO UIL, Hamburg CONFINTEA VI (2009) Belém framework for action. Harnessing the power and potential of adult learning and education for viable future. UNESCO UIL, Bélem European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA) (2018) Adult education and sustainability. Brussels: European Commission. Education and training. Supporting education and training in Europe and beyond. EU policy in the field of adult learning. http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/adult-learning_en Accessed 20 July 2018 Festus MO, Adekola OM (2015) Adult education for meaningful socio-economic development in Nigeria. J Soc Sci Stud 2(2):199–213 Florea R. (2014) Teaching methods in adult education. An appraisal of the effectiveness of methods used in training future teachers. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences, Bucharest Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 142(2014):352–358, CIEA

Govinda R (2017) CONFINTEA VI. Mid-term Review 2017. The status of adult learning and education in Asia and the Pacific. Regional Report. UNESCO UIL, Hamburg Griswold W (2016) Sustainability adult education: learning to re-create the world. Institute of Education Sciences, Albuquerque Hanemann U (2016) Lifelong literacy as a prerequisite for and the key to achieving the sustainable development goals. Agenda 2030 – education and lifelong learning in the sustainable development goals. International perspectives in adult education – IPE 75. VHS DVV International, Bonn Hinzen H, Schmitt S (2016) Advancing EFA and MDGs to goal 4 in the sustainable development goals: will there be wider benefits for adult education and learning in sustainable development? Agenda 2030 – education and lifelong learning in the sustainable development goals. International perspectives in adult education – IPE 75. VHS DVV International, Bonn International Conferences on Adult Education (CONFINTEA). http://uil.unesco.org/adult-education/ confintea. Accessed 15 May 2018 Knowles, M. S. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge Kozyra A, Motschilnig R, Ebner G (2017) CONFINTEA VI. Mid-term Review 2017. The status of adult learning and education in Europe and North America. Regional Report. UNESCO UIL, Hamburg Luckin R, Holmes W, Griffiths M, Forcier LB (2016) Intelligence unleashed. An argument for AI in education. Wayne Holmes University College London Knowledge Lab and Pearson, London Martinez de Morentin de Goni J.I. (2006). What is adult education?: UNESCO Answers. Florida, FL.: San Sebastian UNESCO Center Milana M, Holford J, Hodge S, Waller R, Webb S (2017) Adult education and learning: endorsing its contribution to the 2030 Agenda, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 36(6):625–628, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02601370.2017.1405869 Murphy D (2012) Principles of adult learning and instructional systems design. National Highway Institute, Arlington Nassar S (2017) CONFINTEAVI. Mid-term Review 2017. The status of adult learning and education in the Arab States. Regional Report. UNESCO UIL, Hamburg Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2005) Promoting adult learning. OECD, Paris Regmi KD (2015) Adult education and sustainable development. Annual conference of the Canadian Association for the Study of adult education. University of Montreal, Quebec Renewed European Agenda for Adult Learning (2011) Council Resolution on a renewed European agenda for adult learning, 2011/C 372/01. https://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A320 11G1220%2801%29

Applied Education for Sustainable Development UNESCO (2016a) Recommendation on adult learning and education 2015. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2016b) Unpacking sustainable development goal 4 education 2030 guide. Revised in 2017. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) (2016) Third global report on adult learning and education. The impact of adult learning and education on health and Well-being; employment and the labour market; and social, civic and community life. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL), Hamburg UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) (2017) L’alphabétisation en contexte multilingue et multiculturel. Bonnes pratiques de l’apprentissage et l’éducation des adultes, Hamburg UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (2019) http://uil. unesco.org/ UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) 2011. Source Definition of ‘Adult Education’, ISCED, 2011 http://uis. unesco.org/en/glossary-term/adult-education UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) (2017) Literacy rates continue to rise from one generation to the next (2017). Fact sheet no. 45. FS/2017/LIT/45. UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), Montreal United Nations’ General Assembly (2017) Statement by Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly at the opening of the SDG high-level event on education. New York, 28 June Woolf BP, Lane HC, Chaudhri VK, Kolodner JL (2013) AI grand challenges for education. Special issue on intelligent learning technologies. AI Magazine, Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence, Palo Alto

Applied Education for Sustainable Development: A Case Study with Plastic Resource Education Siu-Kit Yeung1 and Cheuk-Fai Chow2 1 School of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand 2 Department of Science and Environmental Studies and Centre for Education in Environmental Sustainability (CEES), The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong

Definition Applied education emphasizes the importance of learning by engaging in direct application of

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skills, theories, and models. The knowledge and skills are acquired in hands-on and/or real-world context. Applied education is often solution-oriented; through problem-based projects, independent or directed research, and internship, students can apply their learning to actual situations for problem-solving. Many applied learning activities occur outside of traditional classrooms, but some can be performed in-classroom.

Introduction In this entry, a brief history of the concept “applied education” is firstly introduced, followed by its significances in the context of education for sustainable development (ESD). Different from many other subjects that focus solely on cognitive learning outcomes, it is generally accepted that ESD emphasizes on the development of both cognitive and affective attributes. With this unique nature of ESD, pedagogies that fit the concept of applied education are of vital importance in order to achieve the key competences or capabilities proposed by the ESD researchers. An overview of the three usual applied pedagogies is introduced. Moreover, a holistic model specifically for applied education for sustainable development (AESD) is depicted and illustrated by a case study: plastic management educational program in Hong Kong. In particular, one of the AESD pedagogies, simulation games, is explained in detailed for its uniqueness and effectiveness when compared to others.

Education and Applied Education The society evolves with time and so does language. The assumption and meaning of “education” have changed from time to time. In the ages of hunter-gatherer, “education” had in itself incorporated the concept of “applied.” For instance, people trained hunters by actual pursuit of animals in the wild, instead of attending a hunting class in campsites. Practical skills were the key learning outcomes at the time. On the contrary, with the rapid accumulation and highly specialization of

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Applied Education for Sustainable Development

knowledge in the contemporary ages, “education” focuses more on the theoretical abstraction of knowledge. Some even asserted that education beyond 8th grade was not applicable and useful to the real lives of vast majority of people (Murrin 2016). People question if students are spending too much time learning irrelevant knowledge when they should learn more applicable information for their future lives. In fact, this is not a question asked in the twenty-first century. As early as the nineteenth century, English philosopher Herbert Spencer has already raised questions about what and how to teach (1890, p. 44): The vital knowledge – that by which we have grown as a nation to what we are, and which now underlies our whole existence, is a knowledge that has got itself taught in nooks and corners; while the ordained agencies for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead formulas.

These kinds of debates have directly and indirectly facilitated the branching of “applied psychology” from basic psychology (Hoffman and Deffenbacher 1992) and “applied science” from pure science. Different from their “basic” counterparts, the “applied” subjects focus on the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve real-world results. In other words, the former seeks knowledge for the sake of knowledge and experimentation, whereas the latter emphasizes the practical purpose and usage. The debates between the importance of the basic and applied subjects still carry on nowadays, but it is beyond the scope of this entry. Yet, the particular significances of applied education, particularly for sustainable development (SD), are highlighted and discussed.

Background of the Applied Education for Sustainable Development Multidisciplinary Nature of ESD Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a complex and multidisciplinary field of inquiry, drawing on concepts and terms from different disciplines and languages. The archetypal

definition of SD, defined in the Brundtland Report, highlighted the importance of meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987). Emphasizing the intergenerational equity, this future-focused definition outlines a broad directive, leaving much scope for debate, such as who can and how to quantify the “needs” of the present and future generations and predict future “ability” in the context of the current exponential advancement in technologies. The above inquiries illustrate a usual criticism of SD, that it is a contested concept, with different people possess their own unique understandings (Giddings et al. 2002). The diverse understandings of SD can be exemplified by the official Agenda 21 documents produced by different countries and in the annual reports of multinational corporations (Jucker 2002). Buchs and Blanchard (2011) further suggested that understandings of SD vary for “eco-centrists” (economically centered), “anthropo-centrists” (socially centered), and “bio-centrists” (environmentally centered) and can be distorted to fit their own “centric spheres” (see Fig. 1). Hence, the “needs” and “ability” in the SD definition can be perceived in reference to the three ideological bases as on a continuum, leading to numerous possible interpretations (Buchs and Blanchard 2011; Fien and Tilbury 2002). This could result in conflicting results when different stakeholders apply SD concepts in their desirable ways. With the attendant challenges in defining SD, ESD has lacked a consistent theoretical and practical framework determining what to include in curricula (Buchs and Blanchard 2011; Sterling 2010). For example, the United Nations Decade for ESD included a wide range of topics in relation to established action themes: “rural development, health care, community involvement, HIV/ AIDS, the environment, and wider ethical/legal issues such as human values and human rights” (UNESCO 2006, p. 5). Conceptualizing such a broadly defined SD concept into instructive content has proven challenging and resulted in disagreements that are yet to be addressed (Kopnina and Meijers 2014).

Applied Education for Sustainable Development

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Applied Education for Sustainable Development: A Case Study with Plastic Resource Education, Fig. 1 Distorted model of sustainable development

Competence-Based ESD How best to put the overly broad or, from another perspective, ill-defined SD concept into pedagogical practice has long been recognized as problematic. As stated by E. F. Schumacher in 1997 (p. 208): The volume of education has increased and continues to increase, yet so do pollution, exhaustion of resources, and the dangers of ecological catastrophe. If still more education is to save us, it would have to be education of a different kind: an education that takes us into the depth of things.

This quotation highlights the substantial challenges facing ESD when compared to other educational fields. In addition to the focus on acquiring cognitive knowledge, functional, ethical, and personal dimensions that link complex knowledge, skills, and attitudes are stressed in competence-based ESD (Lozano et al. 2017). In the last decade, a growing body of literature has been published discussing the definition and use of competences for SD. Wiek et al. (2011) identified five sustainability key competencies, namely, systems thinking, anticipatory thinking, normative thinking, strategic thinking, and interpersonal competencies. The sixth competency, integrated problem-solving competency, was recently included to be the “meta-competence” of integrating the five key competencies for

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solving sustainability problems (Wiek et al. 2016). Rieckmann (2012) proposed a more comprehensive set with 12 major competences: (i) systemic thinking and handling of complexity, (ii) anticipatory thinking, (iii) critical thinking, (iv) acting fairly and ecologically, (v) cooperation in groups, (vi) participation, (vii) empathy and change of perspective, (viii) interdisciplinary work, (ix) communication and use of media, (x) planning and realizing innovative projects, (xii) evaluation, and (xii) ambiguity and frustration tolerance. By analyzing and synthesizing the international ESD literature, a recent work from Lozano et al. (2017) also suggested 12 competencies, namely, (i) systems thinking; (ii) interdisciplinary work; (iii) anticipatory thinking; (iv) justice, responsibility, and ethics; (v) critical thinking and analysis; (vi) interpersonal relations and collaboration; (vii) empathy and change of perspective; (viii) communication and use of media; (ix) strategic action; (x) personal involvement; (xi) assessment and evaluation; and (xii) tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. With the list of the competences for ESD, the importance of applied education this field is demonstrated. Some of the competences (such as participation, planning and realizing projects, and personal involvement) are directly linked to apply learning processes, whereas many of the competences (such

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as responsibility, interpersonal relations and collaboration, empathy, and change of perspective and the “meta-competence”) can also be developed with the application of learning methods. Pedagogical Approaches for ESD To achieve high-quality and competence-based ESD, the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2004–2014 suggests a multi-method approach (UNESCO 2006). It highlights the need of alternative and studentactivating methods for teaching and learning so as to motivate students to participate actively, think critically, and plan holistically for solutions that contribute to sustainable development (Yeung et al. 2017). For this, researchers have been evaluating the effectiveness of different pedagogical approaches for the competence-based ESD. Cotton and Winter (2010) suggest a series of teaching and learning approaches for ESD: (i) role-plays and simulations and group discussions, (ii) stimulus activities (using videos, photos, poems, or newspaper for reflection and discussion), (iii) debates and critical incidents (using critical events as background and asking student what they would/could/should do), (iv) case studies and reflexive accounts, (v) personal development planning, (vi) critical reading and writing, (viii) problem-based learning, (viii) fieldwork, (ix) modelling good practice, (x) future visioning, (xi) worldview and value research, and (xii) action research. Lozano et al. (2017) select 12 broadly used pedagogical approaches from the well-cited references in ESD literature, including (i) case studies, (ii) interdisciplinary team teaching, (iii) lecturing, (iv) mind and concept maps, (v) project- or problem-based learning, (vi) community service learning, (vii) jigsaw/interlinked teams, (viii) participatory action research, (ix) eco-justice and community, (x) place-based environmental education, (xi) supply chain/life cycle analysis, and (xii) traditional ecological knowledge. Lambrechts et al. (2013) summarize the ESD pedagogical approaches into three categories, namely: – Interactive and participative methods: the Socratic method, group discussion, role-play,

Applied Education for Sustainable Development

group or personal diaries, brainstorming, and peer assessment – Research methods: bibliographic research, problem analysis, value clarification, case studies, and concept mapping – Action-oriented methods: learning through internships, solving real community problems, and outdoor education A common misunderstanding is that some people consider the action-oriented methods as equivalent of the applied education methods. Yet, there are in fact subtle different between the two concepts. The emphasis on the practical purpose and usage in the “applied education” may not always be achieved in all action-oriented methods. Moreover, the “applied learning” elements can be included in other two categories of pedagogical approaches, which will be exemplified in the case study of this entry.

Applied Education for Sustainable Development Criteria for Competent AESD In order to achieve the mentioned competencies, the conventional one-way and segmented mode of teaching (such as direct lecturing) is not necessarily desirable. A competent AESD is expected to contain the following four key features: 1. Multidisciplinary perspective in real-world context To realize the extensive and complicated SD concept into teaching, the contextualization of instructional content and pedagogy is vital (Kopnina and Meijers 2014; Tilbury 2007; Zint et al. 2011). The spirit of contextualization is illustrated by the Agenda 21 motto “think globally, act locally.” A clearly defined real-world context can serve as common ground, facilitating in-depth and meaningful discussions among learners. The president of the US Partnership for Education for Sustainable Development put forward the ideal situation for ESD in which the applied education plays a key role (Rowe 2007, p. 324):

Applied Education for Sustainable Development Imagine what might happen if students were regularly assigned actual sustainability problems that were brought to higher education by cities, businesses, non-profit organizations, and other institutions. If classroom exercises produced workable contributions to solutions, students would understand they can have a positive impact on the world through their academic learning.

To ensure this, the scope of a class should no longer be directed toward a mono-disciplinary topic of concern (e.g., concentrating on scientific facts or theories) but toward one that portrays real-world issues with multidisciplinary perspectives (considering socioeconomic, environmental, and even cultural factors). Discussions of real-world “wicked” problems from various perspectives are more likely to foster an indepth understanding and provide possible solutions that correspond to complex sustainability concepts. 2. Participatory learning environment Pedagogies that provides participatory learning environment benefit ESD (Huckle 2009; Kopnina and Meijers 2014). As mentioned, SD is an evolving concept, which can be comprehended differently by people from different eras and places with diverse backgrounds and ideologies. Hence, teaching and learning in ESD should also be an explorative process, rendered deeply engaging by a participatory approach (Sterling 2010). This means that learning tasks in desirable pedagogies should encourage active learning, critical evaluation, and personalized decision-making (Gottlieb et al. 2013; Ryan and Deci 2000; Stern et al. 2014). By engaging in discussions, learners can develop and consolidate their own perceptions about SD (Amador et al. 2015; UNESCO 2009). This fits the social constructivist notion, which emphasizes how knowledge is constructed via social interaction rather than simply being taught (Leemkuil et al. 2003). Learners should learn how to make sensible decisions through their reflective processes, instead of to remember model answers. 3. Facilitating higher-order cognitive and affective outcomes

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Competent AESD should also facilitate learners acquiring knowledge as well as affect (including value and attitude) to prepare them to act sustainably (Masudul and Korvin 2001; UNESCO 2006). Cognitive learning is undoubtedly essential in every field, whereas affective learning is not. Yet, affective development has been seen as a critical element in ESD, and it is widely accepted by academics and various multinational summits (Buissink-Smith et al. 2011; Leal Filho et al. 2015; Shephard 2008; Shephard et al. 2015; Sipos et al. 2008). Some even argued that desirable ESD programs should equip learners to make ethical decisions toward sustainability (Biedenweg et al. 2013; Schrier 2015). These support the claim that desirable AESD should facilitate higher-order learning outcomes in the taxonomies of both cognitive and affective domains. In fact, with well-planned design, the two taxonomies can intersect at certain stages (Shephard 2015). More specifically, learners in AESD classes should not be capable of remembering or understanding content only but also have the skills to infer a rationale or “hidden agenda” about an incident (“analyzing” stage in cognitive taxonomy). This process can simultaneously help students develop and reflect upon their value system (“valuing” stage in affective taxonomy). This echoes the notion put forward under the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957): when people encounter new knowledge that contradicts their existing beliefs, a psychological “dissonance” will occur that needs to be restored by adjusting or rationalizing their current beliefs. This suggests how affective outcomes can be jointly achieved with cognitive learning. 4. Empowering actions The goal of AESD is to tackle sustainability challenges and empower learners to take actions on personal and societal levels (Sterling 2010; UNESCO 2009). The ability to act implies that learners can diagnose issues, decide solutions, track progress, and evaluate outcomes that inform future actions (Jensen 2002). These can further be explained with the five-process framework of project management skills (Kerzner 2017, pp. 2–3):

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2. Project planning

3. Project execution

4. Project monitoring and control

5. Project closure

Applied Education for Sustainable Development Selection of the best project given resource limits Recognizing the benefits of the project Preparation of the documents to sanction the project Assigning of the project manager Definition of the work requirements Definition of the quality and quantity of work Definition of the resources needed Scheduling the activities Evaluation of the various risks Negotiating for the project team members Directing and managing the work Working with the team members to help them improve Tracking progress Comparing actual outcome to predicted outcome Analyzing variances and impacts Making adjustments Verifying that all of the work has been accomplished Contractual closure of the contract Financial closure of the charge numbers Administrative closure of the paperwork

Connecting the cognitive and affective learning outcomes previously discussed, developing behaviors and skills for taking concrete actions toward sustainability is the essence of the “applied learning” aspect highlighted in AESD. Examples of Competent AESD Over the last decade, many higher education institutes worldwide have initiated AESD activities. Some initiatives aim to connect the classrooms with the real world and train students to solve sustainability problems, including the Transdisciplinary Case Studies for Sustainable Development at European universities (Scholz et al. 2006; Stauffacher et al. 2006), the Sustainability Learning Classroom Model initiated across four academic institutions in Canada (Holden et al.

2008), and the Plastic Waste Recycling Ambassadors Program in Hong Kong (Cheung et al. 2018a; Yeung et al. 2017). These programs successfully engaged students, teachers, and community stakeholders in large-scale projects addressing real-world sustainability issues. Generally, these kinds of AESD programs or teaching approaches can broadly be divided into three groups: (1) project-based learning, (2) service learning, and (3) internship (Brundiers et al. 2010; Rowe 2007). 1. Project-based learning Project-based learning emphasizes the value of working on real-world complex problems for students to develop knowledge, skills, and competences (Wiek et al. 2014). Designed and facilitated by school teachers, students usually work in selfdirected and collaborative groups (can be crossinstitutions and even cross-countries) to address practical sustainability problems through inquiry. It can be in a form of capstone project, as well as a form of problem- and solution-oriented sustainability research led by faculty members of university. Whenever necessary, project-based learning can also engage various stakeholders, such as green groups, social enterprises, and other related sectors in the community. The key is that students need to think beyond the classroom to understand how these problems matter to people in the actual scenarios, analyze the underlying causes, and propose possible interventions or solutions to the problems (Calder and Clugston 2005). 2. Service learning Service learning refers to the learning activities that are intentionally designed and integrated to serve the community (Lozano et al. 2017). There can be different level of engagement in service learning, from single-time participation for typical volunteer work to prolonged commitment in complex community services. In addition to the trainings on real-world problem-solving and communication skills, servicing experience can transform students’ worldviews toward sustainability (Sipos et al. 2008). Adopting the experiential

Applied Education for Sustainable Development

Theory-based

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Practice-driven

Transacademic

•Bring the world in

•Visiting the world

•Engaging with the world

•Pedagogies: •Project-based learning •Simulation

•Pedagogies: •Field trip •Service Learning

•Pedagogies: •Internship •Capstone projects

Junior level

Intermediate level

Advanced level

Applied Education for Sustainable Development: A Case Study with Plastic Resource Education, Fig. 2 Model of a holistic AESD. (Reference from Brundiers et al. 2010)

learning principles, service learning contributes to improvements in students’ responses to uncertainties, facilitates reflexive thinking on their own learning, and enhances the awareness of multidimensionality in considering sustainability problems that usually involves environmental, social, and economic aspects. 3. Internship Unlike the two previous learning approaches that are designed by school teachers, internship experience mainly relies on the external supervision provided by the workplace. It is a working and learning experience different from the school programs. Students can closely observe how experienced industry practitioners manage their projects and become part of the team to provide solutions to real-world issues. This is particularly beneficial to the development of AESD among students. Yet, communication between teachers and the external parties is necessary, particularly on the learning goals and expectations for the students. Both formative and summative feedback should be timely and provided throughout the internship to optimize the learning process (Hattie and Timperley 2007). Model of a Holistic AESD The three groups of AESD programs are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they can be

specifically arranged in sequences to yield the best learning outcomes of AESD. Brundiers and her colleagues (2010) have introduced the functional and progressive model for building sustainability competence through applied learning concepts adopted by the School of Sustainability at Arizona State University. The progression lasts for the entire undergraduate studies, with an increasing level of interaction. While students become more competent, the role of instructors in designing and facilitating real-world learning in the classroom decreases, whereas the level of interaction between students and community project partners increases. Hence, students can gradually explore different forms of learning, from science-oriented to practice-oriented, and then achieving trans-academic (i.e., applying what they have learned to help deal with real-world issues) (Brundiers et al. 2010). Taking their model as the reference, Fig. 2 shows a holistic model of AESD that combines the concepts and pedagogies discussed and reviewed in the previous sections. The concept of progressive learning is still the key for the holistic AESD model, indicating that AESD is not a stand-alone initiative which branches out from the typical ESD. Instead, the applied learning concept in AESD aims to draw the connection between the theoretical knowledge and the real-world sustainability issues. To further illustrate the holistic AESD concept and its pedagogical realization, a case study of a

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sustainability education program in Hong Kong is introduced in the following section.

Case Study for AESD To address the municipal solid waste issue in Hong Kong (especially for the plastic waste), the Center for Education in Environmental Sustainability (CEES) at the Education University of Hong Kong (EdUHK) has introduced a large-scale educational program called “I Act, U Act” for promoting sustainable plastic waste management since 2014. As the university which focuses on training the preservice teachers in Hong Kong, the program is designed in the train-the-trainer (TTT) approach. In other words, the student teachers who join the program do possess not only the knowledge and skills for plastic recycling but also the instructional tools to educate other people to achieve the goals. Moreover, the program creates a series of applied learning opportunities, from project-based training by simulation game to service learning in the university campus, and internship in primary schools, demonstrating the progressive model for the holistic AESD. The program-related findings and the positive learning outcomes are published in various manuscripts (Cheung et al. 2018b; Chow et al. 2016; Yeung et al. 2017). Overview of the “I Act, U Act” Program Plastic waste has a particularly low recycling rate in Hong Kong. The recyclers do not intend to recycle the plastic waste with poor conditions (e. g., contaminated by unclean plastics, mixture of different types of plastics, and bulky in nature which increase the transportation cost) (Yeung et al. 2017). To deal with this real-world issue, CEES proposes a “plastic recycling 4 steps” (cleaning, sorting, compressing, and classifying) and designs a new plastic recycling bin (8-bin) that contains eight compartments to store the plastic waste by type (Chow et al. 2016). This 8-bin aims to help students in campus to classify plastic waste into the corresponding types such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-density and low-density polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE), and so on.

Applied Education for Sustainable Development

Students were recruited to join the program and promote the sustainable way to recycle plastic waste (i.e., practicing the recycling 4 steps). In phase I, students had to attend 18-h training workshops (in terms of project-based learning by simulation game and field trips). Upon completion of the training, they were allocated to different roles for the phase II service learning projects, either being the “green ambassadors” in the university campus or being the “student teachers” in primary schools to promote the use of the newly introduced “8 bins.” In phase III, students were sent according to their preferences to various internship positions to apply their learning in different settings. Reflective reports from students and supervisions by the faculty members were needed to ensure the quality of learning and provide adequate feedback. Table 1 summarizes the learning activities as well as the objectives of the entire AESD program. Simulation Game as an Effective AESD Pedagogy In addition to the holistic AESD structure of the plastic recycling program, the emerging potential of adopting simulation games (SG) as an effective AESD pedagogy is highlighted in the following. Simulations are methods to represent certain real-world processes through the abstraction and conceptualization of complex real-world systems (Dorn 1989; Garris et al. 2002). The system of simulations consists of the set of real-life process models (simulator) and the series of decisions made/actions taken by participants (operation) (Crookall et al. 1987). With the referent in the real world, simulations are educational by nature. With specific educational objectives and game elements, SG provides an artificial but reality-resembling environment for participants to experience the concerned system through dynamic and sequential decision-making processes (Klabbers 2009; Kriz 2003). Hence, it is one of the applied learning pedagogies and a practical tool for AESD. The face-to-face simulation game “Plastic City” (the City hereafter) is specially developed for the plastic waste management program (Yeung et al. 2017). It was designed to let

Applied Education for Sustainable Development

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Applied Education for Sustainable Development: A Case Study with Plastic Resource Education, Table 1 Summary of the “I Act, U Act” program in EdUHK Phase Preparation

Phase I – Project-based learning

AESD activities Real-world problem identifications Providing possible solutions: “plastic recycling 4 steps” and preparation of “8 bins” Liaison with different stakeholders (primary schools, recyclers, government, nongovernment organizations, donors, suppliers, etc.) (Chow et al. 2016) Face-to-face simulation game “Plastic City” (Yeung et al. 2017)

Coastal waste cleaning and analysis Site visit: plastic recycling facility

Phase II – Service learning

Phase III – Internship

Organizing summer school/after-class activities for primary school pupils on plastic management (Cheung et al. 2018b) Promoting the use of 8 bins at campus and residential halls Initiating regular coastal cleaning activities for their university counterparts (Cheung et al. 2018a) Student helpers in CEES, EdUHK

Intern teachers at primary/secondary schools (Cheung et al. 2018b)

Internship in local green groups

students experience the source of plastic waste (i. e., human consumption) and the difficulties in which the society could respond to the problem. As argued, the essence of educational simulation games is their ability to allow learners to experience the simulations of real situations. For this reason, the City is designed to imitate situations in Hong Kong, and learners are required to role-

Learning objectives N.A.

To learn the principles and current situation regarding plastic waste management in Hong Kong To understand the application of the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) concept in society and associated economic, social, and environmental consequences To reflect and develop worldviews toward SD and recycling attitude To understand and practice plastic recycling 4 steps To experience the impact of coastal waste on the ecosystem To experience the duties and working environment of a front line plastic waste recycler To apply the knowledge and skills their learned and design interesting curriculum and teaching materials for primary school pupils To apply the knowledge and skills their learned and design interesting activities and attractive promotions for university students and staff To participate in the research process To collect, monitor, and analyze the data from the 8 bins at the university and primary schools To enrich the related teaching materials with the knowledge learned in the program To adopt the activity-based teaching for other subjects To share the experience with other colleagues and initiate new programs

play as citizens living in the simulated City. This facilitates the immersion in the SG, as the City does not require learners to drastically shift their own identities and take on their SG roles. Their values and decisions made in the City would therefore imitate their real-world practices, and simultaneously, participants can relate their experiences in the City to their real lives,

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Applied Education for Sustainable Development

Applied Education for Sustainable Development: A Case Study with Plastic Resource Education, Fig. 3 Conceptual overview of the “Plastic City” design

facilitating a more realistic and meaningful reflection process in debriefing session. This exemplifies how real-world learning can be achieved through simulations and/or SG. The concept overview for the City is depicted in Fig. 3 which highlights the key interrelationships of individuals’ lifestyles and the corresponding social, economic, and environmental perspectives and their implications in the progressive timeframe. To ensure clear and in-depth focus of the theme (i.e., plastic waste management), only relevant interactions are highlighted in the model of the City. For example, the majority of the goods made available in the City comprise of plastic (such as bottle water and nylon clothes), and the school examinations assess learners’ knowledge about plastic waste management (such as “plastic recycling 4 steps”). With the introduction of the game element “prestige level” (which reflects the social status), participants of the City presume that attaining higher “prestige level” would be their task to win the game. To achieve this, participants have to attain a high level of academic

qualifications, get a well-paid job, and be able to afford luxury products. This design mimics the mainstream definition of what constitutes a “successful life” in many highly materialistic and capitalized cities like Hong Kong. Such socioeconomic practices inevitably lead to environmental problems that can be summarized into two categories: overexploitation of resources and pollution. Through public discussions and voting, various waste treatment and management strategies are considered by citizens from different perspectives (including technological, cultural, political, and financial), to mitigate forthcoming ecological disaster. Participants could also experience the “not in my backyard” thinking when they must vote for the proposal for waste disposal facilities. These experiences would be shared and reflected in the debriefing session of the SG. Many participants mentioned that they were so surprised by their “unsustainable behaviors in the SG,” which served as a good reminder for themselves in the real life. Such kind of the “authentic emotion” experienced in the “virtual world” may not be

Applied Education for Sustainable Development

easily facilitated by other pedagogies, making SG a unique approach for AESD. Significant improvements on knowledge, attitude, and intended behaviors of sustainable waste management were observed in both quantitative and qualitative results (Yeung et al. 2017). In addition, SGs simulate not only the state of the system at a specific time but, more importantly, the progressive development of that system over time. For example, every 25 min in real time could represent 5 years in the City. Therefore, participants can experience the consequences of their actions in a short period of time, although years would be required to observe them in reality. Such “time ellipsis” feature of SG can assist participants to understand complex concepts through experiencing associated consequences (Lu et al. 2014). In sum, SG can provide learners with a unique perspective on SD concept in the real-world context, which may not be readily achieved using other applied education pedagogies.

Conclusions The concept of applied education has a key role to play in ESD, especially in the context of the devastating environmental situations like climate change and marine plastic waste. Students with AESD competencies are urgently in need to practically contribute to the sustainable development goals of the societies. While some of the AESD pedagogies are widely adopted worldwide, a holistic design of the AESD learning experience is recommended to maximize the desirable learning outcomes. In particular, simulation games have a great potential to complement the other usual applied learning approaches, by providing unique perspectives and experience for learners to reflect their impacts on the sustainability of the society.

Cross-References ▶ Project Management

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28 Gottlieb D, Vigoda-Gadot E, Haim A (2013) Encouraging ecological behaviors among students by using the ecological footprint as an educational tool: a quasi-experimental design in a public high school in the city of Haifa. Environ Educ Res 19(6):844–863 Hattie J, Timperley H (2007) The power of feedback. Rev Educ Res 77(1):81–112 Hoffman RR, Deffenbacher KA (1992) A brief history of applied cognitive. Appl Cogn Psychol 6(1):1–48 Holden M, Elverum D, Nesbit S, Robinson J, Yen D, Moore J (2008) Learning teaching in the sustainability classroom. Ecol Econ 64(3):521–533 Huckle J (2009) Consulting the UK ESD community on an ESD indicator to recommend to government: an insight into the micro-politics of ESD. Environ Educ Res 15 (1):1–15 Jensen BB (2002) Knowledge, action and pro-environmental behaviour. Environ Educ Res 8(3):325–334 Jucker R (2002) “Sustainability? Never heard of it!” Some basics we shouldn’t ignore when engaging in education for sustainability. Int J Sustain High Educ 3(1):8–18 Kerzner H (2017) Project management – a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling, 12th edn. Wiley, Hoboken Klabbers JHG (2009) The magic circle : principles of gaming & simulation. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam. 3rd and rev. edn Kopnina H, Meijers F (2014) Education for sustainable development (ESD). Int J Sustain High Educ 15 (2):188–207 Kriz WC (2003) Creating effective learning environments and learning organizations through gaming simulation design. Simul Gaming 34(4):495–511 Lambrechts W, Mulà I, Ceulemans K, Molderez I, Gaeremynck V (2013) The integration of competences for sustainable development in higher education: an analysis of bachelor programs in management. J Clean Prod 48:65–73 Leal Filho W, Manolas E, Pace P (2015) The future we want: key issues on sustainable development in higher education after Rio and the UN decade of education for sustainable development. Int J Sustain High Educ 16 (1):112–129 Leemkuil H, de Jong T, de Hoog R, Christoph N (2003) KM QUEST: a collaborative internet-based simulation game. Simul Gaming 34(1):89–111 Lozano R, Merrill MY, Sammalisto K, Ceulemans K, Lozano FJ (2017) Connecting competences and pedagogical approaches for sustainable development in higher education: a literature review and framework proposal. Sustainability 9(10):1889–1904 Lu J, Hallinger P, Showanasai P (2014) Simulation-based learning in management education. J Manage Dev 33 (3):218–244 Masudul AC, Korvin G (2001) Sustainability in knowledge-centered socio-scientific systems null. Int J Sustain High Educ 2(3):257–266 Murrin B (2016) The applied education concept. [on-line]. Retrieved from: http://www.appliededucationfounda

Applied Education for Sustainable Development tion.org/images/essays/The%20Applied%20Education %20Concept.pdf. Accessed 28 Oct 2018 Rieckmann M (2012) Future-oriented higher education: which key competencies should be fostered through university teaching and learning? Futures 44:127–135 Rowe D (2007) Sustainability. Education for a sustainable future. Science 317(5836):323 Ryan RM, Deci EL (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am Psychol 55(1):68–78 Scholz RW, Lang DJ, Wiek A, Walter AI, Stauffacher M (2006) Transdisciplinary case studies as a means of sustainability learning. Int J Sustain High Educ 7(3): 226–251 Schrier K (2015) Ethical thinking and sustainability in roleplay participants: a preliminary study. Simul Gaming 46(6):673–696 Schumacher EF (1997) This I believe: and other essays. Green Books, Devon Shephard K (2008) Higher education for sustainability: seeking affective learning outcomes. Int J Sustain High Educ 9(1):87–98 Shephard K (2015) Higher education for sustainable development. Palgrave Pivot, Basingstoke Shephard K, Harraway J, Jowett T, Lovelock B, Skeaff S, Slooten L, Strack M, Furnari M (2015) Longitudinal analysis of the environmental attitudes of university students. Environ Educ Res 21(6):805–820 Sipos Y, Battisti B, Grimm K (2008) Achieving transformative sustainability learning: engaging head, hands and heart. Int J Sustain High Educ 9(1):68–86 Spencer H (1890) Education: intellectual, moral and physical. Williams and Norgate, London Stauffacher M, Walter AI, Lang DJ, Wiek A, Scholz RW (2006) Learning to research environmental problems from a functional socio-cultural constructivism perspective. Int J Sustain High Educ 7(3):252–275 Sterling S (2010) Learning for resilience, or the resilient learner? Towards a necessary reconciliation in a paradigm of sustainable education. Environ Educ Res 16 (5):511–528 Stern MJ, Powell RB, Hill D (2014) Environmental education program evaluation in the new millennium: what do we measure and what have we learned? Environ Educ Res 20(5):581–611 Tilbury D (2007) Monitoring and evaluation during the UN decade of education for sustainable development. J Educ Sustain Dev 1(2):239–254 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2006) Framework for the UNDESD International Framework Scheme. [online]. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0014/001486/148650E.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2009) Learning for a sustainable world: review of contexts and structures for education for sustainable development. [on-line]. Retrieved from http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/up/

Awareness in Educational Ethics DESD_key_findings_and_way_forward_23March09. pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018 Wiek A, Withycombe L, Redman C (2011) Key competencies in sustainability: a reference framework for academic program development. Sustain Sci 6(2):203–218 Wiek A, Xiong A, Brundiers K, van DL (2014) Integrating problem- and project-based learning into sustainability programs – a case study on the school of sustainability at Arizona State University. Int J Sustain High Educ 15 (4):431–449 Wiek A, Bernstein MJ, Foley RW, Cohen M, Forrest N, Kuzdas C (2016) Operationalising competencies in higher education for sustainable development. In: Barth M, Michelsen G, Thomas I, Rieckmann M (eds) Routledge handbook of higher education for sustainable development. Routledge, London, pp 241–260 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our common future. Oxford University Press, New York Yeung SK, So WW, Cheng NI, Cheung TY, Chow CF (2017) Comparing pedagogies for plastic waste management at university level. Int J Sustain High Educ 18 (7):1039–1059 Zint MT, Dowd PF, Covitt BA (2011) Enhancing environmental Educators’ evaluation competencies: insights from an examination of the effectiveness of the “my environmental education evaluation resource assistant” (MEERA) website. Environ Educ Res 17(4):471–497

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Attitudes ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Audit ▶ Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms

Augmented and Virtual Reality Delete: Personalized Instruction ▶ Future Trends in Education

Awareness in Educational Ethics Appraisal ▶ Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms

Artificial and Intelligent Agents ▶ Future Trends in Education

Assessment

Joshua J. Jodoin Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

Synonyms Education for Sustainability (EFS); Education for Sustainable Development (ESD); Environmental Education (EE); Moral development, Sustainability ethics; Sustainable Development (SD); Values education

▶ Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

Definitions

Assessment Practices in Education ▶ Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing

Awareness in educational ethics forms the basic value system that drives the education of future citizenry around the world. Educating people can be understood as an inherent ethical enterprise and is informed by assumptions and values, both

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implicit and explicit, about how educational practices should and are carried out. In its narrowest sense, educational ethics can be seen taking place in the classroom or educational institutes; however, in its broadest sense, educational ethics covers knowledge, capacities, attitudes, and understandings about learning, and education can be formal, informal, and nonformal in nature. This ethic is advanced considering current political, economic, and environmental challenges and is expressed through conceptual frameworks like Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), which promote educational values, attitudes, and behaviors in order to find solutions to these challenges. Examples of these ESD values are the respect for the dignity and human rights of all people around the world, a commitment to social and economic justice for all people, and the protection and restoration of the earth’s ecosystems as a commitment to intergenerational responsibility.

Introduction In this entry, the awareness in educational ethics is discussed by looking first at the traditional roots of educational ethics in terms of moral development and the role of educators and the educational system. The entry will then discuss the emergence of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) as a response to current global challenges and explore this idea through three broad dimensions within the literature: satisfying human needs, ensuring social justice, and respecting environmental limits. There is an increasing awareness by educationalists to better understand the underlying values and ethics that are expressed throughout learning systems and how these underlying values and ethics are expressed within the systems and institutions responsible for educating individuals within societies. This is further complicated by the tendency of societies to respond to large problems by looking to educational systems as either the root of these problems or a way to help solve them. Historically, educational systems were thought of as ways to impart knowledge and understandings about the world, which have evolved into discipline-specific areas of study that

Awareness in Educational Ethics

have become standard in educational systems around the world such as mathematics, social studies, and history. However, as education systems respond to current social, economic, and environmental challenges, these systems have expanded to include a wider breadth of objectives that encompass ambitions like active citizenship, social cohesion, responsibility to nature, and personal fulfillment. These new ambitions influence the moral development of future citizens and are often grounded in ethical conceptions about how society sees itself and what it wants for its future. Furthermore, these ambitions have added tremendously to the quality of educational systems around the world but are rife with controversy and disagreement about how to impart these values within the confines of current educational infrastructures. This is further complicated by the urgency of current global challenges like climate change and democratic disempowerment as highlighted in the research literature. Early work in educational ethics is heavily influenced from how moral development was understood in educational systems in the twentieth century and how it was informed by the literature of moral character development and moral development.

Moral Development in Western Education in the Twentieth Century The current paradigm of educational ethics emerged in the early twentieth century over a reimagining of how moral development of individuals should occur and the role that society and religion should play in this endeavor. One of the most influential thinkers of this paradigm was the American John Dewey (October 20, 1859–June 1, 1952), an educational reformist, philosopher, and psychologist. He explored in detail what it means to educate an individual from a philosophical and democratic purview that pushed against the idea that knowledge was simply imparted on the individual. Dewey envisioned an educational system that was not just meant to give knowledge but to offer a way for individuals to attain their full potential and then use those skills to benefit others in society. His vision was espoused in several

Awareness in Educational Ethics

books during his lifetime such as Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (Dewey 1916) and Experience and Education (Dewey 1938). Aside from Dewey’s challenge to how education was perceived, Hartshorn and May, a pair of Yale psychologists, conducted a landmark survey on moral education looking at the relationship between formal character and good conduct in children (Hartshorn and May 1928). Their study showed traditional approaches to moral education, and character formation at the time could not be consistently applied to all situations and environments. This result further challenged traditional views of moral development in the educational system and was used often in the literature as a direct challenge to traditional moral character education based on non-secular views of the world. Challenges to how moral development was approached within the educational paradigm continued throughout the mid-twentieth century as religions role in educational systems in the western world became diminished and replaced with more holistic approaches. By the 1960s and 1970s, moral development in western educational models was based on more secular views of moral development rather than on moral development characterized by religious texts and character development. According to Lickona (1992) an era of “personalism” became the norm. “Personalism” came to embody the idea that the self and the inner life should be celebrated and more value was placed on responsibility, commitment, and expressing one’s self. During this time, there was a “values clarification,” which was signaled by a reframing of values taught in the educational system in the United States that offered teachers an approachable way to insert value systems into curriculum in a non-moralizing way and required no further training (Lickona 1992, pp. 10–12). Although “values clarification” was readily adopted into educational curriculum, there were several criticisms of a values system that “represents an indefensible moral point of view” (Lockwood 1975, p. 46). Lockwood (1975) was critical of the idea that ethics education was being presented in a way where all values are equally valid and that

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teachers were not empowered to offer their own points of view or moral guidance. Lockwood (1978) went on to study moral development curricula and highlight the importance of using moral dilemmas as a tool to further moral development in individuals by using reasoned positions. To this day, the moral development of individuals within educational systems is debated within the literature, and the role of educational systems has expanded greatly to include more learners in many more stages of their lives. This expansion includes not just the role of imparting knowledge but to also build value systems, educate future citizenry, and provide students with the tools to overcome local and global economic, social, and environmental challenges (Haydon 2006; Campbell 2003; Goree et al. 2007; Pring 2001; Staratt 2004; Tawil 2013). Due to the expanding nature of education systems and the influence of local and global challenges, modern education systems have been challenged to adopt the sustainability agenda and the ethical implications that come with this expanding vision in education. The sustainability agenda, as referred to in this entry, can be understood as the emerging discipline and evolving ideas, values, and norms surrounding the concept of Sustainable Development (SD).

Emergence of Sustainable Development and Its Implications on Educational Ethics Brundtland Report (1987) In 1983, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) began to build consensus for countries to work on the issues of a deteriorating human environment and natural resources and decided to establish the Brundtland Commission. In October 1987, the Brundtland Commission released a report entitled Our Common Future or what is better known as the “Brundtland Report” (WCED 1987). The report was tasked with creating “a global agenda for change” and framed the report as a call to action around four main ideas (ibid., pp. ix):

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1. To propose long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000 and beyond 2. To recommend ways concern for the environment may be translated into greater cooperation among developing countries and between countries at different stages of economical and social development and lead to the achievement of common and mutually supportive objectives that take account of the interrelationships between people, resources, environment, and development 3. To consider ways and means by which the international community can deal more effectively with environment concerns 4. To help define shared perceptions of long-term environmental issues and the appropriate efforts needed to deal successfully with the problems of protecting and enhancing the environment, a long-term agenda for action during the coming decades and aspirational goals for the world community This report importantly outlined the longstanding definition of sustainable development as the “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987, p. 43). The ethical implications of such a definition are very important as it outlines the conception of “needs” as it relates to the world’s poor and the “idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs” (ibid.). In addition, education plays a central, although non-specific, role in the report and is used as one of the many tools for accomplishing the ambitious agenda for change. Moreover, broad value-laden educational concepts are found in the report with implications to educational ethics. However, as much of the literature points out (Langhelle 1999; Adams 1990; Kirkby et al. 1995), the broad interpretations of Our Common Future, the undefined role education plays in the agenda, and the lack of clear guidelines to accomplish the ambitions laid out in the report left many struggling to understand

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the practicality and implications of such a report (Blewitt and Cullingford 2004). Rio Summit and Agenda 21 (1992) In 1992, the Rio summit, or Earth Summit, took place in Rio de Janeiro and produced Agenda 21 (United Nations 1992). Agenda 21 outlined an action plan that researchers and policymakers could use to further the sustainability agenda put forth by the Brundtland Report. Specifically, Agenda 21 dedicated a whole chapter to “Promoting Education, Public Awareness, and Training,” which outlined a basis for reorienting education towards sustainable development: Education, including formal education, public awareness and training should be recognized as a process by which human beings and societies can reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of the people to address environment and development issues. While basic education provides the underpinning for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. Both formal and non-formal education are indispensable to changing people’s attitudes so that they have the capacity to assess and address their sustainable development concerns. It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. To be effective, environment and development education should deal with the dynamics of both the physical/biological and socio-economic environment and human (which may include spiritual) development, should be integrated in all disciplines, and should employ formal and non-formal methods and effective means of communication. (1992, Chapter 36.3)

Agenda 21 recognized the importance of education as it pertains to almost all other areas of the document and grounded the ideas within values, attitudes, and behavior change that would later become inextricably linked to the concepts of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), Environmental Education (EE), and Education for Sustainability (EFS). Although there are varying viewpoints on how these concepts are understood (Hesselink et al. 2000), Agenda 21 set the stage for education’s key role in accomplishing the sustainable development agenda. In addition,

Awareness in Educational Ethics

new ethical philosophical principles emerged from Agenda 21 that placed humans at the center of concern for sustainable development where human beings are “entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature” (Palmer 2004, pp. 236–237). This new emerging ethic sets the stage for the Earth Charter Commission and the Thessaloniki Declaration in 1997 that pushed this idea of humans and their development as the central means to accomplishing the sustainable development agenda. Earth Charter Commission and the Thessaloniki Declaration (1997) Using the Brundtland Report and Agenda 21 as a platform to further the sustainability agenda, 1997 marked the emergence of two more important educational events: the independent Earth Charter Commission and the Thessaloniki Declaration. As Nikolopoulou et al. notes (2010, pp. xi–xv), the universality of the language in these documents sets them apart from what happened before in the development of a sustainability ethic. “Education for Sustainable Development could be addressed through economics, politics, and culture, despite epistemological and ideological differences” (ibid., pp. xiii). Furthermore, these documents focused on ways that not just the rich nations of the world could come together but also the disenfranchised and the poor. The Earth Charter is “an ethical framework The Earth Charter is an ethical framework for building a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the 21st century” and is the accumulation of “a decade-long, worldwide, cross-cultural, dialogue on common goals and shared values” (Earth Charter Commission 2000). Furthermore, the charter offers a strong, inclusive set of values that calls to action all people on earth in the preamble: We stand at a critical moment in Earth’s history, a time when humanity must choose its future. As the world becomes increasingly interdependent and fragile, the future at once holds great peril and great promise. To move forward we must recognize that in the midst of a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms we are one human family and one Earth community with a common destiny. We

33 must join together to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace. Towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of Earth, declare our responsibility to one another, to the greater community of life, and to future generations. (Earth Charter Commission 2000, preamble)

The charter sets out an ethical framework that contains 16 principles organized into 4 broad categories: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Respect and care for community life Ecological integrity Social and economic justice Non-violence and peace

In terms of what is outlined for education specifically, principal 14 under category 4 (nonviolence and peace) focuses on a universal call to educationalists and educational institutions around the world. Significantly, both formal and nonformal educational practices are outlined, and a multidisciplinary approach is emphasized: 14. Integrate into formal education and lifelong learning the knowledge, values, and skills needed for a sustainable way of life. (a) Provide all, especially children and youth, with educational opportunities that empower them to contribute actively to sustainable development. (b) Promote the contribution of the arts and humanities as well as the sciences in sustainability education. (c) Enhance the role of the mass media in raising awareness of ecological and social challenges. (d) Recognize the importance of moral and spiritual education for sustainable living. The Thessaloniki Declaration was presented at the “International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability,” which was organized by the Greek government and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1997. Unlike the Earth Charter

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that was a broad call to action, the Thessaloniki Declaration focused more on educations role in moving the sustainability agenda further. As Nikolopoulou et al. asserts (2010, p. xii), one of the goals of the declaration was to try and unite contesting discourses between Environmental Education (EE) and “sustainable development” as defined by the Brundtland Report in 1987. One success from the Thessaloniki Declaration and the Earth Charter was to help redefine the sustainability agenda for educationalists in a way that embraced the tenets of Environmental Education, moral education, and sustainable development by outlining the concept of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) despite epistemological and ideological differences (Nikolopoulou et al. 2010, pp. xiii). How to define and implement Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), which attempts to engage the values, ethics, norms, and understandings of many different discourses within education, continues to be a challenge to the sustainability agenda. Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2015) The United Nations (UN) established the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) from 2005 to 2014 to further the sustainability agenda and popularize the term. The DESD puts forward the following vision for ESD in education in its framework for a DESD International Implementation Scheme (IIS): The Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) is a far-reaching and complex undertaking. Its conceptual basis, socio-economic implications, and environmental and cultural connections make it an enterprise, which potentially touches on every aspect of life. The overall goal of the DESD is to integrate the values inherent in sustainable development into all aspects of learning to encourage changes in behavior that allow for a more sustainable and just society for all. The basic vision of the DESD is a world where everyone can benefit from education and learn the values, behaviour and lifestyles required for a sustainable future and for positive societal transformation. This translates into five objectives, to:

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1. Give an enhanced profile to the central role of education and learning in the common pursuit of sustainable development; 2. Facilitate links and networking, exchange and interaction among stakeholders in ESD; 3. Provide a space and opportunity for refining and promoting the vision of, and transition to sustainable development – through all forms of learning and public awareness; 4. Foster increased quality of teaching and learning in education for sustainable development; 5. Develop strategies at every level to strengthen capacity in ESD. (UNESCO 2005, p. 5) The challenges of implementing this vision are evident at the start of the DESD with the publication of the “Education for Sustainable Development Toolkit” (McKeown 2002) and an entire chapter dedicated to the “Challenges and Barriers to ESD.” Furthermore, a huge body of recent publications following the DESD has further emphasized the challenges and approaches to implementing ESD in education (Jones et al. 2010; Johnston 2013; Minster et al. 2013; Rich and Wadhwa 2013). In terms of ethical considerations, most researchers agree that there is urgency to the implementation of ESD in formal, informal, and nonformal education as few researchers and educationalists dispute the need as outlined below: There can be few more pressing and critical goals for the future of humankind than to ensure steady improvement in the quality of life for this and future generations in a way that respects our common heritage – the planet on which we live. As people we seek positive change for ourselves, our children and grandchildren; we must do it in ways that respect the right of all to do so. To do this we must learn constantly – about ourselves, our potential, our limitations, our relationships, our society, our environment, our world. (UNESCO 2005, p. 8)

There is wide agreement in why we need action but what kind of action, and the way we implement it has been a source of consternation and procrastination for many. As Cook et al. (2010) note in their conclusion, ESD is not just a value system that exists in our educational practice within the confines of schools but is a larger concept that understands schools as places that

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“entertain and explore the more radical values of self-reliance, economic localization, environmental activism, ‘doing less and being more’, frugality, and communalism, as well as the vast range of methods for finding personal fulfillment and happiness within as much as, or more than, from the external world” (2010, pp. 324–325). Clearly, the concept of ESD, and the values inherent in the concept, not only has wide-reaching implications for education but is also rooted in an ethic to create a more equitable, fair, and inclusive world. UN Sustainable Development Summit (2015): Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) On September 25, 2015, the United Nations (UN) released the “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” which is a plan to action revolving around people (satisfying human needs), the planet (respecting environmental limits), prosperity (ensuring social justice), peace (peaceful, just, and inclusive societies), and partnership (mobilize the resources to accomplish this new agenda). As part of this new Agenda, the UN released 17 goals and 169 targets, known as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which outline the scale and ambition of this new universal agenda (United Nations 2015b, pp. 1–2). The agenda, as outlined by the UN resolution preamble, outlines in value-laden terms the need for a new plan to action and the importance of implementing the SDGs: This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in larger freedom. We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development. All countries and all stakeholders, acting in collaborative partnership, will implement this plan. We are resolved to free the human race from the tyranny of poverty and want and to heal and secure our planet. We are determined to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path. As we embark on this collective journey, we pledge that no one will be left behind. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets which we are announcing today demonstrate the scale and ambition of this new universal Agenda. They seek to build on the Millennium

35 Development Goals and complete what they did not achieve. They seek to realize the human rights of all and to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. They are integrated and indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development: the economic, social and environmental. The Goals and targets will stimulate action over the next 15 years in areas of critical importance for humanity and the planet. (United Nations 2015b, pp. 1–2)

Although education remains an essential part in most of the 17 goals, it is featured under SDG 4, “quality education,” which states that this goal specifically addresses the need to “ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning” (United Nations 2015b). The very goal is riddled with value-laden language, which is the culmination of the sustainability agenda to this point. Words such as “inclusive,” “equitable,” “quality,” and “lifelong” demonstrate the movement of education taking place solely in the classroom into the larger society and globalizing world as well as including all people, especially those without ready access to education and those that are poor. The targets of SDG 4 aim to ensure education for all and promote many of the innovations to solve some of the wider issues in the sustainability agenda: 4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes 4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education 4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university 4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship 4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations 4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy 4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable

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Awareness in Educational Ethics development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development 4.A Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, nonviolent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all 4.B By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries 4.C By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing states. (United Nations 2015b, p. 17)

UNESCO also released a publication entitled “Rethinking Education: Towards a Global Common Good?”, which supported the SDGs, reaffirmed a humanistic approach to education and development, and outlined the ethical considerations of this approach explicitly (UNESCO 2015). In the final chapter of the publication, UNESCO outlines the challenges faced by educational institutions, such as privatization, and reaffirms an educational ethic that values education as an intrinsic good for society: Given the central concern for sustainable development in an increasingly interdependent world, education and knowledge should thus be considered global common goods. This means that the creation of knowledge, its control, acquisition, validation, and use, are common to all people as a collective social endeavour. The governance of education can no longer be separated from the governance of knowledge. (UNESCO 2015, pp. 80)

The collective social endeavor highlighted in the UNESCO publication furthers the educational ethic that emphasizes the need to reframe education as not only a means to solve world challenges but to also reposition education as something that communities, societies, and world citizenry participate in for the betterment of everyone. The

next sections will break down the educational ethic found in the literature as it pertains to three of the central aims of Education for Sustainable Development and essential to the SDGs: satisfying human needs, ensuring social justice, and respecting environmental limits. These three central aims will be discussed separately but are ultimately interwoven and interdependent.

Satisfying Human Needs as an Educational Ethic In the United Nations resolution entitled “Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” prosperity is recognized in the preamble as a way to ensure that “all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that economic, social, and technological progress occurs in harmony with nature” (2015, p. 3). In the most general sense, educational attainment and the production of economic activity as a result of this education are fundamental to the current global order and are a major part of the sustainability agenda. Technological Progress and Resource Distribution The statement about prosperity implies that technological progress is an important part of ensuring this ethic that people should “enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives.” Although this idea appears to be logical in nature, many researchers have found this idea of sustainable development flawed as “it mixes together the technical characteristics of a particular development path with a moral injunction to pursue it” (Beckerman 1994, p. 193). In other words, the pursuit of sustainable development in terms of prosperity is written as a moral imperative, but a clear means to accomplish this level of prosperity is not outlined and is often in conflict with the realities of the world. This can also be understood from the perspective of educational ethics as technological progress implies a level of educational accomplishment from research, development, and technological breakthrough. These technological breakthroughs are a fundamental tenet to realize the goals of the

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sustainability agenda but are constrained based on national, regional, and global levels as well as the access to resources and the distribution of costs and benefits. Any ethical framework that pursues prosperity for all human beings on a global scale needs to contend with realties that are not always easy to overcome due to changes in access to resources and the distribution of costs and benefits. As Langhelle (1999, p. 139) notes, “changes in access to resources and in the distribution of costs and benefits form an integral part of the process of determining the level of physical sustainability.” Hence, the success of any ethical framework, whether that be the Our Common Future or the Sustainable Development Goals, is, ultimately, determined by the realities of economic, social, and environmental constraints. This is apparent in educational systems where developed and developing countries’ educational systems have access to very different sets of resources, and the costs associated with formal, informal, and nonformal education can differ dramatically. Therefore, any framework that understands prosperity for all human beings must contend with this inequality as a major challenge and a further call to action. Economics in the Modern Classroom In terms of what this looks like in the higher education classroom, Plumridge (2010) contends that modern economics is taught through the use of several common concepts such as the use of resources, meeting needs, and the allocation of resources, externalities, and cost-benefit analysis (CBA). Although these concepts are important as the building blocks of an economics education, the sustainability and ecological dimensions to economics are a “somewhat younger branch of the discipline” and “Neoclassical theory, the basis of much environmental economics, is challenged or given little attention” (ibid., p. 286). Therefore, economics as a discipline contains the concepts inherent in the sustainability agenda, but the relevance of these concepts and the push to embed environmental economics in modern educational institutions and economic thinking is a major challenge (Common and Stagl 2005).

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Overall, economic values, such as prosperity, are a major element of the sustainability agenda, but how these values are interpreted and integrated into educational systems remains a daunting, however, stimulating task considering ethical frameworks like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Ensuring Social Justice as an Educational Ethic In the United Nations resolution entitled “Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” people are recognized in the preamble as a determination to “end poverty and hunger, in all their forms and dimensions, and to ensure that all human beings can fulfil their potential in dignity and equality and in a healthy environment” (2015, p. 3). This statement is value laden and has many implications for modern education. The concept of ensuring that all human beings fulfil their potential implies that educational access must be universal in nature and that all people should have access to quality educational opportunities in order to fulfil this potential. Educational Access One of the largest issues for human beings around the world in attaining their potential is a lack of access to education. According to the World’s Women Report 2015 (United Nations 2015a), for instance, approximately 781 million adults over the age of 15 are estimated to be illiterate, and over two thirds of these adults were women from developing countries (ibid., p. 79). Efforts to improve access to schooling, especially for women, are a major part of the Millennium Development Goals (United Nations 2015a), and, according to World’s Women Report: Education is indispensable for closing the gap between women and men in respect to social and economic opportunities and is a key to empowering women and allowing them to become agents of change in economic, social and political spheres. It also improves women’s chances of leading a healthy life and passing on the benefits to future generations. (ibid., p. 59)

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Clearly, educational access and its benefits to communities in a local and global sense are important to not only fulfil human potential but to also empower people, especially women, in their pursuit of quality education. In order to meet this challenge, the sustainability agenda sets out to accomplish these objectives by laying out a call to action; however, there are many societal, economic, and environmental barriers to attain these objectives. Educational Quality and Equity Another major challenge for the sustainability agenda is the call for an increase in the quality of education as well as a more equitable access to education, especially for the poor and marginalized in societies around the world. According to the OECD (2018, p. 13), “equity in education means that schools and education systems provide equal learning opportunities to all students.” Furthermore, students who come from households with less wealth translates into many disadvantages such as fewer educational resources and less access to early educational opportunities, and many disadvantaged students end up attending disadvantaged schools regardless of the ability of the student (ibid., pp. 13–15). The sustainability agenda seeks to overcome these immense challenges and improve the inequality found in educational systems around the room, especially for the poor.

Respecting Environmental Limits as an Educational Ethic In the United Nations resolution entitled “Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” planet is recognized in the preamble as a determination to “protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of present and future generations” (2015, p. 3). Although the link to planet does not intuitively associate with education, it is fundamental.

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Education, in its broadest sense, cannot happen without access to resources supplied by our planet, such as paper for our textbooks, and people cannot be educated effectively in unhealthy or degraded environments, such as environments high in air pollution. A healthy planet is a fundamental tenet to effective education. Planetary Boundaries According to Rockström et al. (2009), humanity has certain boundaries, or safe operating spaces, that it must live within; otherwise humanity faces grave consequences and risks. The paper offers a planetary boundaries framework, which outlines nine planetary boundaries, which humanity must stay within or otherwise face serious ecological, social, and economic consequences: climate change, ocean acidification, stratospheric ozone depletion, interference with the global phosphorus and nitrogen cycles, rate of biodiversity loss, global freshwater use, land system change, aerosol loading, and chemical pollution. In their conclusion, the authors offer a nod to scientific enquiry as a necessary means to stay within the planetary boundaries framework and urge governments and educational institutes to meet this challenge: The approach (planetary boundaries framework) rests on three branches of scientific enquiry. The first addresses the scale of human action in relation to the capacity of Earth to sustain it. This is a significant feature of the ecological economics research agenda, drawing on knowledge of the essential role of the life-support properties of the environment for human wellbeing and the biophysical constraints for the growth of the economy. The second is the work on understanding essential Earth processes including human actions, brought together in the fields of global change research and sustainability science. The third field of enquiry is research into resilience and its links to complex dynamics and self-regulation of living systems, emphasizing thresholds and shifts between states. (Rockström et al. 2009, pp. 474–475)

Clearly, Rockström et al. see a clear role for educational institutions and disciplines to play a role in not only limiting humanity to the planetary boundaries outlined in their paper but to also finding solutions through interdisciplinary

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research, innovation, and enquiry. Linnerud et al. (2018) are also concerned with the uncertainty of crossing the planetary boundaries and see a call to action for those in environmental science, social science, and economics: Obviously, our decisions of what to maintain and at what level are made under conditions of uncertainty, and failure to make the right decisions can entail irreversible consequences for the biosphere. We need to combine environmental science and social science to make the right decisions. The standards we set for maintenance will reflect to what extent we assume that different forms of natural capital are substitutable for each other. (Linnerud et al. 2018, pp. 84–85)

In other words, there is a moral imperative to keep within the planetary boundaries framework; otherwise this could lead to dire consequences. Furthermore, how we keep within the planetary boundaries framework is reliant on making the right decisions. Although there is much debate about what the right decisions entail, the scientific community agrees that these decisions are urgent and need to be carefully researched, and these decisions will need interdisciplinary and inclusive cooperation between educational disciplines.

Conclusion An awareness of educational ethics, especially as it pertains to current global challenges like global warming, is necessary in order to find fair, equitable, and inclusive solutions to these challenges. Education remains at the center of many current ethical frameworks and approaches to sustainability, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and understanding how educational values translate into real-world solutions will continue to necessitate transformational approaches in the social, economic, and environmental domains. Although many challenges remain for the sustainability agenda, a continued awareness, development, and understanding of educational ethics and its implications on the real world are necessary to fulfil the ambitions of Sustainable Development (SD) and the sustainability agenda.

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Cross-References ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

References Adams WM (1990) Green development: environment and sustainability in the third world. Routledge, London Beckerman W (1994) ‘Sustainable development’: is it a useful concept? Environ Values 3(3):191–209 Blewitt J, Cullingford C (eds) (2004) The sustainability curriculum: the challenge for higher education. Taylor & Francis, New York Campbell E (2003) The ethical teacher. Open University Press, Philadelphia Common M, Stagl S (2005) Ecological economics: an introduction. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Cook R, Cutting R, Summers D (2010) If sustainability needs new values, whose values? Initial teacher training and the transition to sustainability. In: Sustainability education: perspectives and practice across higher education. Earthscan, London, pp 313–327 Dewey J (1916) Democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of education. The MacMillan Company, New York Dewey J (1938) Experience and education. Kappa Delta Pi, New York Earth Charter Commission (2000) Earth Charter Initiative. Retrieved December 2018, from The Earth Charter: http://earthcharter.org/discover/the-earth-charter/ Goree K, Pyle M, Baker E, Hopkins J (eds) (2007) Education ethics applied. Pearson Education, Boston Hartshorn H, May M (1928) Studies in the nature of character: vol 1. Studies in deceit. Macmillan, New York Haydon G (2006) Education, philosophy, and the ethical environment. Routledge, New York Hesselink F, Van Kempen P, Wals A (2000) ESDebate: international debate on education for sustainable development. IUCN, Gland Johnston LF (ed) (2013) Higher education and the challenge of sustainability: cases, challenges and opportunities from across the curriculum. Routledge, New York Jones P, Selby D, Sterling S (2010) Sustainability education: perspectives and practice across higher education. Earthscan, London Kirkby J, O’Keefe P, Timberlake L (eds) (1995) The Earthscan reader in sustainable development. Earthscan, London Langhelle O (1999) Sustainable development: exploring the ethics of our Common future. Int Polit Sci Rev 20(2):129–149

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40 Lickona T (1992) Educating for character: how our schools can teach respect and responsibility. Bantam, New York Linnerud K, Banister D, Schwanitz JV, Holden E, Wierling A (eds) (2018) The imperatives of sustainable development: needs, justice, limits. Routledge, New York Lockwood AL (1975) A critical view of values clarification. Teach Coll Rec 77(1):35–50 Lockwood AL (1978) The effects of values clarification and moral development curricula on school-age subjects: a critical review of recent research. Rev Educ Res 48(3):325–364 McKeown R (2002) esdtoolkit. Retrieved 2 Feb 2016, from Education for Sustainable Development: http://www.esdtoolkit.org Minster M, Brackin PD, DeVasher R, Hayes EZ, House R, Taylor C (2013) Sustainability and professional identity in engineering education. In: Johnston LF (ed) Higher education for sustainability: cases, challenges, and opportunities from across the curriculum. Routledge, New York/London Nikolopoulou A, Abraham T, Mirbagheri F (eds) (2010) Education for sustainable development: challenges, strategies, and practices in a globalizing world. Sage, New Delhi OECD (2018) Equity in education: breaking down barriers to social mobility. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved January 2019, from https://doi.org/10.1787/ 9789264073234-en Palmer C (2004) Sustainability and philosophy. In: Blewitt J, Cullingford C (eds) The sustainability curriculum: the challenge for higher education. Taylor & Francis, New York, pp 232–244 Plumridge A (2010) Costing the earth: the economics of sustainability in the curriculum. In: Jones P, Selby D, Sterling S (eds) Sustainability education: perspectives and practice across higher education. Earthscan, London, pp 273–293 Pring R (2001) Education as a moral practice. J Moral Educ 30(2):101–112 Rich C, Wadhwa S (2013) Strategies for transforming healthcare curricula: a call for collaboration between academia and practitioners. In: Johnston LF (ed) Higher education for sustainability: cases, challenges,

Awareness in Educational Ethics and opportunities from across the curriculum. Routledge, New York/London Rockström J, Steffen W, Noone K, Persson Å, Chapin FS III, Lambin EF, Lenton TM, Scheffer M, Folke C, Schellnhuber HJ, Nykvist B, de Wit CA, Hughes T, van der Leeuw S, Rodhe H, Sörlin S, Snyder PK, Costanza R, Svedin U, Falkenmark M, Karlberg L, Corell RW, Fabry VJ, Hansen J, Walker B, Liverman D, Richardson K, Crutzen P, Foley JA (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461(24):472–475 Staratt R (2004) Ethical leadership. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco Tawil S (2013) Education for ‘global citizenship’: a framework for discussion. In: UNESCO Education Research and Foresight, ERF working papers series, no 7 UNESCO (2005) United Nations decade of education for sustainable development (January 2005–January 2015): DESD International Implementation Scheme (IIS). Retrieved December 2018, from DESD implementation scheme: https://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/undesd/implementation-scheme.pdf UNESCO (2015) UNESDOC: UNESCO digital library. Retrieved November 2018, from Rethinking education: towards a global common good? https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232555 United Nations (1992) Agenda 21: united nations conference on environment & development. Retrieved December 2018, from Agenda 21: https://sustainablede velopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf United Nations (2015a) The World’s women: trends and statistics. United Nations Publications, New York United Nations (2015b) Sustainable development goals: quality Education (SDG 4). Retrieved December 2018, from quality education: why it matters: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-conte nt/uploads/2018/09/Goal-4.pdf United Nations (UN) (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. Retrieved December 2018, from Resolution adopted by the General Assembly (A/RES/70/1): https://undocs.org/A/RES/70/1 World Commission on Environmetnal Development (WCED) (1987) Our Common Future. Oxford Univeristy Press, Oxford

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Basic Education

Being Cultured

▶ Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

Blockchain Behavior Change ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience

▶ Future Trends in Education

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Campus Greening at an Educational Institution Nandhivarman Muthu1 and Golda A. Edwin2 1 Green Campus Initiatives, Waste Management Rules and Green Protocol Compliance, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India 2 Association for Promoting Sustainability in Campuses and Communities (APSCC), Puducherry, India

Definitions There has been no standard definition for the term green campus. Among the several ones reviewed on green campus, the following definitions stand out. • A green campus is a place where environmentally responsible practice and education go hand in hand and where environmentally responsible tenets are borne out by example (NEIWPCC 2019). • A “green campus” is a higher education community with optimum land use, environmental planning, and resource management, i.e., improving energy efficiency, conserving resources, enhancing environmental quality including habitat preservation, healthy living environment, use of renewable energy and management of wastes, water recycling, etc. (MNRE 2019).

• Green campus is a higher education community that is improving energy efficiency, conserving resources, and enhancing environmental quality by educating for sustainability and creating healthy living and learning environments (The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) 2009). • Green campus institution is a laboratory of selfscrutiny, experimentation, and application. At its best, it is a model environmental community where operational functions, business practices, academic programs, and people are interlinked, providing educational and practical value to the institution, the region, and the world (New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission (NEIWPCC) 2019). • Green campus is one with a campus community that acts upon its local and global responsibilities to protect and enhance the health and well-being of humans and ecosystems. It actively engages the knowledge of the university community to address the ecological, social, and economic challenges that we face now and in the future (Cole and Wright 2005). • A green campus is one that integrates environmental knowledge into all relevant disciplines; improves environmental studies course offerings; provides opportunities for students to study campus and local environmental problems; conducts environmental audits of its practices; institutes environmentally responsible purchasing policies; reduces campus waste;

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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maximizes energy efficiency; makes environmental sustainability a top priority in land-use, transportation, and building planning; establishes a student environmental center; and supports students who seek environmentally responsible careers (El-Mogazi 2005). Green campus is a holistic aim to make environmental awareness and action an intrinsic part of the life and ethos of educational facilities. This should include the students, academic staff, non-teaching staff, as well as media, local business, contractors, and visitors. Green campus endeavors to extend learning beyond the classroom/lecture theatre to develop responsible attitudes and commitment, both at home and in the wider community (AnTaisce 2013) Green campus is a concept which stands for the efforts to establish environmentally sustainable practices in educational institutions the world over. Its goal is to diminish the impact of ecological footprints by implementing the principles of sustainability at every level of institutional functioning (http://www.smkb.ac.il). Green campus takes different aspects of sustainability and puts them into practice throughout campus life through residential programs, grounds keeping and landscaping, procurement, academics, food and dining programs, student programs and involvement, and building construction and maintenance (http://eportal. cityu.edu.hk). The green campus must achieve energy efficiency, conserving resources and enhancing environmental quality by educating for sustainability and creating healthy living and learning environments (Mahayudin et al. 2015). Green campus initiative delivers a sustainable package to the Campus Environment by the campus community to protect and enhance the health and wellbeing humans and ecosystems (APSCC 2013). Green campus initiative is a program that plans, formulates, designs, and implements a package of sustainable solutions by the campus community to reduce the environmental impact, enhance the campus sustainability, and to

protect the health and well-being of the surrounding community and ecosystem (Nandhivarman 2017). From all the above-mentioned definitions, it was clear that there is a common thread that runs through all of them which includes, forming student-driven initiatives to reduce waste and improve the operational efficiency in the campus functioning with respect to energy, water, waste, etc.

Introduction Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The SDG has 17 ambitious goals, each highlighting specific scopes. These 17 Goals build on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals while including new areas such as climate change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace, and justice, among other priorities. The goals are interconnected – often the key to success will involve tackling issues more commonly associated with another (http://www.undp. org). Various Governments around the world had committed themselves to the full implementation of the SDG and had taken measures to achieve the relevant Goal in their development plans and schemes. The SDGs are set to follow the MDGs in their effort to continue improving the livelihoods of our world’s most disadvantaged peoples, with the major focus, that the next generation of students can be properly prepared to implement the proposed SDGs (Student Organization 2015; www. engin.umich.edu). This article discusses the relationship between campus and SDGs and how an ordinary campus can transform itself into a model Green/Sustainable Campus. Of late, several Universities and other PostSecondary Institutions (PSI) have begun the debate about the concept of sustainability and the ways in which to integrate it into their university policy, organization, and activities (Van Weenen 2000; Sharp 2002; Lozano 2014;

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Nandhivarman 2017). Owens and HalfacreHitchcock (2006) emphasized that universities may be seen as “microcosms” of society, and therefore their experiences may inform efforts for change at the societal level. Furthermore, with access to the most up-to-date knowledge, universities possess a natural responsibility to lead the communities and policymakers toward more environmentally sustainable policies and practices (Riccaboni and Trovarelli 2015). In this context, campus sustainability efforts are defined broadly to include changes in campus operations including facilities, financial, administrative planning, policies, academic curricula, and research that facilitate positive environmental changes (Nandhivarman 2017). According to the Brundtland Report (1987), Sustainable Development (SD) is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. There can be no sustainable world where universities promote unsustainability (M’Gonigle and Starke 2006) and no institutions in modern society are better situated and more obliged to facilitate the transition to a sustainable future than colleges and universities (Orr 2002). The environmental pollution and degradation caused by universities in the form of energy and material consumption via activities and operations in teaching and research, provision of support services, and in residential areas could be considerably reduced by an effective choice of organizational and technical measures (Alshuwaikhat and Abubakar 2008). Universities and other PSI have to invent and develop sustainable system innovation: brilliant minds, national/international networks with governments, companies and other scientists, sufficient space, and access to equipment and future generations to make campus/city sustainability happen. More recently, there is an increase in the number of Universities and other Post-Secondary Institutions incorporating the principles of sustainable development into their curriculum and way of life to transform their campus into what they call as a green campus (Sharp 2002; Simpson 1996), which is also referred to as Sustainable or Smart or green

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campus by some sustainability workers (Wang 2014; Zou et al. 2015; Nandhivarman 2017). The campuses respond to these issues in several ways, from research to outreach and raising awareness. The focus of the green campus initiatives (GCI) has been to form an action plan to reduce the campuses water footprint, energy footprint, ecological footprint, and environmental impact by primarily improving operational efficiency and resource recycling. According to Nandhivarman et al. 2015, the drive to attain the green campus status is to serve as a model for global environmental sustainability where all the processes and operational functions of the campus are closely knit, providing educational and practical value to the institution and the surrounding environment. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a professional and systematic approach to institutionalizing the sustainability principles as well as to reduce the consumption of resources and negative impacts of the various campus operations. Unfortunately, this approach is generally lacking in most of the Universities/PSIs/Schools, especially in the developing world and hence achieving sustainability is not reported to be easy. Several workers have suggested that “university/PSIs should and can act as a change agent for sustainability” (Shriberg 2002; Wals and Corcoran 2012; Nandhivarman 2017). Students have been found to be formidable ambassadors for furthering sustainability both on- and off-campus through experiential learning (Wall et al. 2017).

How SDGs Are Relevant to Green Campus? It becomes more evident that the development of multiple green campuses will have a significant impact on the achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. For instance, Goal 4 highlights the importance of Quality Education, which is different from regular knowledgebased education. It is defined as “good quality education is one that provides all learners with capabilities they require to become economically

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productive, develop sustainable livelihoods, contribute to peaceful and democratic societies, and enhance individual well-being” (Sreedevi 2017). This definition clearly highlights the integration of various Goals. Whereas Goal 5 indicates “gender equality” that could be achieved only through quality education. Amartya Sen maintains that “if we continue to leave vast sections of the people of the world outside the orbit of education, we make the world not only less just, but also less secure.” To Sen, Education’s gender aspect is the direct link between analphabetism and women’s safety. Not being able to read or write is a major obstacle for needy women, since this may lead to their inability to exercise even the relatively limited rights that they may have legally. Equity is the strongest framework principle of a rights-based agenda after 2015 and emphasizes the need to remedy historical and structural inequalities to ensure access to quality education at all levels. Even the survival disadvantage of females relative to males in many developing countries seems to be falling significantly and may even be eliminated, with the advancement in empowering females, for whom literacy is a fundamental component (Azza 2013). When it comes to normal function, Goal 12 in particular commits to ensuring “sustainable consumption and production patterns” and is structured over specific targets, namely, the use of natural resources, chemical waste, fossil fuels, and the integration of sustainable practices into the production and consumption cycles – all of which directly apply to the operations of education institutions. The efficient management of the natural resources (flora, fauna, water, and air), and the way we dispose of toxic waste and pollutants are important targets to achieve this goal at the campus level. Simultaneously encouraging suppliers to recycle their products is equally important, as is supporting developing countries to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption by 2030. With respect to the environmental dimension, Goal 6 directly relates to water pollution (clean water and sanitation), i.e., the generation of grey and black water, the release of hazardous chemicals and materials. Hence, the adoption of strategies to minimize the abstraction rate and water-use efficiency

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followed by the sustainable treatment of wastewater is necessitated. While indirectly, Goal 14 addresses the issue of marine pollution through pesticides, fertilizers, micro/nanofibers, and plastics that are carried into the oceans either through river systems, monsoon runoff, or dumping. Since every campus is bestowed with rich flora and diversity of landscape, the transfer of pollutants through water either directly or indirectly severely degrades soil quality, calling for an immediate restoration. Goal 15 stresses to conserve and restore the use of terrestrial ecosystems, fostering “life on land,” for which soil is a vital source of life. When the resources (nutrient and energy) are recovered sustainably through “integrated resource recovery approach,” thereby producing organic foods (vegetables, fruits, and herbs) and renewable energy (biogas, Jatropha), respectively, the Goals such as “eradicating poverty” (Goal 1), “zero hunger” (Goal 2), and “good health; well-being” (Goal 3), and affordable and clean energy (Goal 7) would be addressed. Apart from this, all the abovementioned goals complement Goal 11 on “Sustainable Cities and Communities” and Goal 13 that stresses to “take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.” Technological progress is of significance to both economic and environmental challenges. Promoting sustainable industries, and investing in scientific research and innovation, are all important ways to facilitate sustainable development as indicated in Goal 9. More importantly, improving the working conditions of “community workers” is also an important starting point for the achievement of Goal 8, for it indicates “decent work for all.” Encouraging entrepreneurship among students, researchers, and other stakeholders for job creation are key in achieving this. Such kind of approaches may also empower the bottom percentile of income earners thereby complementing Goal 10 (reduced inequalities). Precisely, the world today is more interconnected than ever before. Hence partnerships for the goals (Goal 17) would be instrumental for green campus. In short, the SDGs are directly and indirectly linked to the green campus and they promote sustained economic growth, higher

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levels of productivity, and technological innovation. Hence, the abovementioned highlights when implemented properly would favor/develop a “peace, justice and strong institutions” fostering Goal 16.

Focus Areas for Campus Greening According to Nandhivarman (2017), An Integrated Cyclical Systems Model (ICSM) for campus greening is evolved to address the challenges of climate change and sustainable development, fostering SDGs, notifications and International Declaration by finding the problem, understanding and clarifying the intentions, and determine a viable solution. Basically, the model is designed to safeguard existing natural cycles and systems, with a mitigatory effect on climate change. It is broadly classified under four themes with its relevance to SDGs, namely: 1. Sustainable Management of Water Resources (SDGs – 6 and 14) 2. Sustainable Food Production (SDGs – 1; 2; 3 and 15) 3. Energy Management (SDGs – 7; 8 and 9) 4. Sustainable Operations, Communication & Outreach (SDGs – 4; 5; 10; 11; 12; 13; 16 and 17) The following table highlights the key focus areas that campus needs to adopt in order to address the SDG’s and transform into a model green campus through ICSM (Table 1). Figure 1 depicts the Integrated Cyclical Systems Model (Nandhivarman 2017), where every component is closely interconnected and at the same time can function independently. Each one of them has a site-specific methodology, integrated with another component for value creation (Beltramello et al. 2013), especially “green” business models (Wells and Seitz 2005) by closing the loop (Boons and Lüdeke-Freund 2013) for campus sustainability. Moreover, it also fosters the Notifications, Rules, and Acts.

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Proposed Policy Recommendations for Campus Sustainability Prior to SDGs, there are 11 of the most widely accepted “Sustainable Development Initiatives” in higher education, which relate to the university system, namely: the Tbilisi Declaration (1977), the Talloires Declaration (1990), the Halifax Declaration (1991), the Swansea Declaration (1993), the Kyoto Declaration (1993), the Copernicus Charter (1994), the Declaration of Thessaloniki (1997), the Lüneburg Declaration (2001), the Global Higher Education for Sustainability Partnership (GHESP) (2002), the Graz Declaration (2005), and the Turin Declaration (2009). They are all summarized and their relevance for Education Sustainable Development is discussed by Lozano et al. (2013). Among these, the Talloires Declaration (1990) received special attention. This is the first official statement made by university presidents, chancellors, and rectors of a commitment for a ten-point action plan to incorporate sustainability and environmental literacy in teaching, research, operations, assessment, reporting, and outreach at colleges and universities (www. ulsf.org). The following policy recommendations are proposed to transform a campus to green campus by integrating Talloires Declarations ten point action plan and SDG, through an existing or future Office of Campus Sustainability and Climate Change (OCS&CC).

Case Studies Case 1 (Brisbane, Australia) This case study discusses community gardening in the context of integrating social responsibility, integrating diverse campus community, and sustainability in a higher education institution in Brisbane, Australia (Luetz and Beaumont 2019). Community gardening has been the subject of growing interest among academia. According to the University of California (UoC 2018), “a community garden is any piece of land gardened by a group of people, utilizing either individual or shared plots on private or public land. The land may produce fruit, vegetables, and/or

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Campus Greening at an Educational Institution

Campus Greening at an Educational Institution, Table 1 Key components for campus greening. (Adopted and modified from Nandhivarman (2017))

Sl. No I. II. III.

IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX.

X. XI. XII.

Components identified for the ICSM Water resource management e.g. groundwater, rainwater, wastewater Soil-based water conservation e.g. integrated xeriscape, hügelkultur, green wall, etc. Water-based water conservation e.g. integrated aquaponics, hydroponics, aquaculture, etc. Composting, vermi-composting, bio-pesticide and biofertilizer Food and food services

Energy production e.g. Anaerobic bio-digester, solar campus, bio fuel etc. Energy conservation e.g. Green building, green purchasing, etc Sustainable transportation e.g. Biodiesel for vehicles, solar-powered vehicles, etc. Community outreach and Curriculum Disaster and risk – preparedness and management

ornamentals. Community gardens may be found in neighborhoods, schools, connected to institutions such as hospitals, and on residential housing grounds.” The benefits of community gardening are broad and diverse that includes self-sufficiency (Candlin 2011), health-related benefits (Zick et al. 2013), and environmental resilience (Okvat and Zautra 2011) among others. The authors conclude that while there is considerable potential for the benefits of community gardening in the areas of sustainability and community building, tertiary settings are problematic

Sustainable Management of Water Resources (SDGs – 6 & 14)

Sustainable Food Production (SDGs – 1; 2; 3 & 15)

Climate-resilient organic farming

Office of Sustainability

Themes

Energy Management & Sustainable Operations (SDGs – 7; 8 & 9)

C A M P U S G O V E R N A N C E

Communication & Outreach (SDGs – 4; 5; 10; 11; 12; 13; 16 & 17)

at many levels. The campus community learned a key lesson that “timing” the projects within the realm of the academic calendar is very crucial for the success of the project in the realization that seizing opportunities (and successfully implementing novel projects) hinges on “timing.” Moreover, the success of such projects relies on several factors such as gathering inputs from alternative leaders, strong inter-departmental collaborations, and by building momentum by involving a diverse stakeholder both internal and external members (Luetz and Beaumont 2019).

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GOVERNANCE Communication and Outreach

C Curriculum, Outreach, extramural activities

Sustainable Food Production

Disaster and risk management Water Resource Management

Ecosystems Security

Human Resource

Structural Food and food services

Economy Political

Soil based water conservation

Symbolic Society

Composting, vermicomposting

Water based water conservation

Environment

Energy production

Energy conservation

Sustainable Management of Water Resources

Climate Resilient Organic Farming

Office of Sustainability

Sustainable transportat ion

Energy Management & Sustainable operations

GOVERNANCE Campus Greening at an Educational Institution, Fig. 1 Twelve Integrated components of green campus Initiative ensuring environmental protection and conservation

while fostering SDGs and Notified Rules. (Adopted and modified from Nandhivarman (2017))

Case 2 (Puducherry, India) An enormous amount of organic food waste produced in academic campuses is unused and disposed of in landfills, despite the tremendous potential to transform waste on campus into a lucrative and sustainable undertaking. Jawahar Navodhaya Vidhyalaya (JNV), Pondicherry, India’s vision of green campus initiative is to turn itself into a self-sufficient campus model. In order to promote this initiative, a system of

developed, self-sufficient strategies was envisaged not only to support the campus requirements but also to decrease costs and create a revenue through integrated sustainable initiatives. The project was carried out through a collaborative attempt between researchers at Pondicherry University, India, and The Association for Promoting Sustainability in Campuses and Communities (APSCC), based on the strategic green action plan for campus sustainability that includes social

Goal 8, 17

3. Educate for environmentally responsible citizenship 4. Foster environmental literacy for all

5. Practice institutional ecology

Goal 4, 12

2. Create an institutional culture of sustainability

Goal 6,7,12, 13,14, 15

Goal 9, 11

SDG All goals

Talloires Declaration ten point action plan 1. Increase awareness on sustainable development

Policy recommendations Be responsible for setting targets, formulating policies, getting funds and coordination among the stakeholders Promote environment education, awareness and training Waste recycling ethic should be motivated Collaborate with student’s welfare to facilitate student orientation programs, an environmental awareness program, and other sustainability campaigns within the campus Sustainability vision and mission statements highlighting the fundamental principles and objectives governing the sustainable use of resources should be framed Evolve the campus sustainability policy and amend periodically to mitigate the challenges with wider stakeholder consultation and discussion Function in a democratic way without any discrimination of position, caste, community, hierarchy, gender, etc. Consider both the existing and forthcoming international policies/laws/conventions/agreements Facilitate the stakeholder involvement for formulating policies and procedures for sustainable development governing various schools, departments, programs, projects, and any other activities of the campus Prepare a handbook emphasizing on the “Respect for the Environment, “Respect for Campus Property,” “‘Respect for the Neighbors Property,” and “‘General Rules and Regulations” that are designed to protect public health, safety, and welfare Act as a standing committee not only for the campus but serve as a model for the other institutions, who are efficient and exhibit highly responsible and committed behavior, “not in papers but in reality” Provide seed money grant for green projects that promote economic/environmental/social sustainability, and positively impact and enhance the student/staff experience at the university, for instance, green buildings, energy efficiency, retrofits, reduce the amount of waste generated and material resources used on campus, composting, organic horticulture, green labs, green IT, green purchase, soil/water/biodiversity conservation, sustainable behaviors, and integrate sustainability into teaching, research, and services Identify and seek funds Adopt a formal policy of using 100% post-consumer recycled paper for all official work, publications, and posters Conduct water-related impact assessment periodically (monsoon, pre and post monsoons) Conduct energy audit twice annually Environment impact assessment (EIA) in line with the EIA notification Promote biodiversity conservation and habitat restoration Enter the university’s vacant lands into a database of the GIS to monitor and encourage organic garden, sustainable agriculture, horticulture, and integrated xeriscape by utilizing the reclaimed greywater and harvested rainwater, thereby facilitating groundwater recharge, protection, and conservation Procure locally grown organic foods (seasonal) The groceries and other ingredients needed for the campus food and food services should have minimum footprints Educate the foodservice sector to reduce the generation of waste through proper meal planning Should construct and/retrofit a model dormitory/hostel/faculty guest house that is state-of-the-art in energy/ environmental technology to serve as a learning center for students, faculty and staff Provide hygienic drinking water in all buildings maximizing the quality of the drinking water and to minimize/eliminate the consumption of bottled water

Campus Greening at an Educational Institution, Table 2 Policy Recommendations based on Talloires Declarations to establish a green campus

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Goal 8, 9, 10, 11

Goal 4, 16

7. Collaborate for interdisciplinary approaches

8. Enhance capacity of primary and secondary schools 9. Broaden service and outreach nationally and internationally 10. Maintain the movement Goal 16, 17

Goal 13

Goal 4, 5, 16, 17

6. Involve all stakeholders

Prior to making financial commitments/investments, the OCS&CC should consider short-term as well as long-term environmental impacts that inherently threaten or cause serious harm to the underground water resources and campus biodiversity In accordance with national policy on safety, health and environment at workplace, the OCS&CC should develop appropriate regulations, standards, policies, codes of practices and manuals on environmental and occupational health and safety in all the activities consistent with international standards and implementation by the stakeholders in true spirit, by ensuring stakeholders awareness and accessibility to all of them In tune with the “Sanitation safety planning manual – WHO (2016),” the Health and Safety Officer, under the guidance of OCS&CC, should develop policies and procedures to minimize and eliminate the direct and indirect environmental/ public health issues. The OCS&CC should constantly increase the efforts to emphasize the waste reduction strategy by establishing a formal procedure for recycling, composting and community education E-waste, plastic waste, construction and demolition waste, bio-medical waste, hazardous and other related waste management policies should be adopted “to sustainably manage and dispose of the waste(s) appropriately” Bicycling, carpooling and use of public transportation should be encouraged to enhance the campus air quality, reduce GHG emission and also increase the individual’s health The quality of campus life needs to be enhanced, under the supervision of the OCS&CC, taking full responsibility for monitoring the waste (liquid, solid, hazardous and e-waste) generated from residence quarters, student’s hostels, food and food services, cultural/convention center, the department labs, civil construction sites, administration, etc. and should be characterized, quantified, and properly disposed as per the notifications Constantly increase awareness and educate the public on the water conservation strategy by establishing a formal procedure for metering, rationed distribution, recycling, and reusing through reclamation in accordance with, “National Water Policy and ACTs, published by the Ministry of Water Resources” The sustainability mission statement should facilitate the stakeholder involvement for formulating policies and procedures for sustainable development governing various schools, departments, programs, projects, and other activities of the campus Constantly increase awareness and educate the public on the conservation strategy by establishing a formal procedure Take responsibility to promote environment education, awareness and training Implement minor projects fostering “lab to land concept of environment education” Seek funds from various sources – national and international through a dedicated website that will connect sustainability projects on the campus to potential donors/alumni, paving the way for green improvements to university facilities Consider both the existing and forthcoming international policies/laws/conventions/agreements for making progress in the campus sustainability Also be responsible for setting targets, formulating policies, getting funds, and facilitating coordination among the campus stakeholders Responsibility promote environment education, awareness, and training Conduct periodically water, energy, and environment Recognize the efforts by providing honors and awards Serve as a model for the other institutions in the region/state/country and keep moving

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equity, environmental management, and financial prosperity. This action research program started with conducting a comprehensive waste audit, strict observer visits, constructing prototypes to try out multiple alternative solutions, hoping to arrive at an optimal solution by comparing distinct experimental models, filed works, research, and creative thoughts. The program’s objective is to promote the experience and learning of students along with regular studies and plan to reduce nonrenewable energy consumption by producing biogas from organic waste produced within the campus. To address this, an integrated framework was evolved to recover energy in the form of methane through a biodigester, to recover nutrient through proper utilization of spent slurry and carbon sequestration through organic farming mitigating climate change. The authors conclude that by adopting a 7 m3 anaerobic digester, enough biogas is generated to substitute roughly 6.2 LPG cylinders/month with a potential 10.34% decrease in petroleum gas. This project not only promotes organic waste management but also environmental education and outreach and contributes significantly to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (Nandhivarman et al. 2015). Other Examples from Around the World In the USA, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) have practiced campus sustainability to improve environmental management and foster social change on campuses and beyond. The authors (WashingtonOttombre et al. 2018) conclude that there are three distinct and overlapping epochs of campus sustainability: greening the campus (1970s–1990s), the growth of campus sustainability (1990s–2010s), and transforming HEIs to implement sustainability on campus and beyond (since the 2010s). A case study in Brazil emphasized the importance of international conferences on sustainable development, with high interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary stakeholders, as higher education institutions’ strategies to promote various issues of sustainability, through sharing knowledge, experiences, projects, initiatives, and methods (Berchin et al. 2018). A study from Germany highlights how ErnstMoritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald is on its way

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towards a “carbon-neutral university” (Udas et al. 2018). The program fosters a localized institutional framework on sustainability to bring out changes to the daily operations, implement interdisciplinary research, incorporate sustainability into teaching, and outreach programs. This strategy helped the University to reduce its carbon footprint from 8,985 to 4,167 tCO2e year 1, in addition, to further offset through enhanced carbon sequestration on the university-owned forests (Udas et al. 2018). A study on Portuguese-speaking countries with a population of close to 250 million and occupy an area of about 10.7 million square kilometers across four continents with rich biodiversity conclude with strategies to reduce the gap between university and society and the politicalemancipatory perspective as a pedagogical basis to support sustainability education in colleges and universities (Bizerril et al. 2018).

Conclusion Some researchers criticized that the small sustainability projects will lack a systemic focus (Shriberg 2002; Thompson and Green 2005; Henson et al. 2007), but others such as Clugston (2000), and Wilkie et al. (2015) pointed out that, “the small projects have validity and in most cases they help focus and act based on feedback”. In many instances, these small projects are the only ones that prove to be manageable for University/ IHEs/schools and may demonstrate that change toward sustainability is possible. Moreover, small projects also resulted in improvements in sustainability and many times in cost savings. Many scholars also believe that deep cultural changes are a key component in moving toward campus sustainability” (Shriberg 2002). Finlay (2010) suggests that “the Universities/ IHEs are beginning to recognize their own ecological footprint resulting from campus production and consumption practices,” while Wright (2002) and ULSF suggests implementing institutional ecology principles and practices to conserve resources, recycle, reduce waste will improve environmentally sound operations. Several Universities/IHEs have enforced operational

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procedures such as carbon dioxide reduction practices, emission control devices, sustainable building construction, and local food purchasing to meet sustainability targets and goals (Velazquez et al. 2006; Finlay 2010). Velazquez et al. (2006) and Finlay (2010) indicated that “progress can be slow and painful due to intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Therefore, leadership by a charismatic, visionary change maker is the key and defining element to facilitate sustainability when supported with appropriate policy and adequate resources (financial and human), with power or direct access to power and to move the organization towards long-term sustainable transitions (Shriberg 2002; Ziegler et al. 2014). Such a leader should be truly transformational in that he/she must establish, communicate, and dramatize an inspiring vision of something to be sought even if it is unattainable in the short term. As highlighted by the sustainability workers Cole and Wright (2005), El-Mogazi (2005), An Taisce (2013), Nandhivarman et al. (2015), Mahayudin et al. (2015), Jain et al. (2013), MNRE (2019), NEIWPCC (2019), USGBC (2009), APSCC (2013), and Nandhivarman (2017), the green campus initiative is nothing but “conserving/protecting natural resources, environment, energy, economy and social sustainability based on education for sustainable development and through awareness, motivation and action research on the ground through experiential learning.”

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54 recovering strategy from food wastes at Jawahar Navodaya Vidhyalaya (JNV) fostering campus sustainability. In: Leal Filho W, Muthu N, Edwin G, Sima M (eds) Implementing campus greening initiatives: approaches, methods and perspectives 2015. Springer International Publishing, Cham. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-319-11961-8_1 NEIWPCC (2019) Greening the campus: where practice and education go hand in hand. Retrieved from http://www. neiwpcc.org/neiwpcc_docs/greenbk.pdf. Accessed 10 Aug 2019 Okvat HA, Zautra AJ (2011) Community gardening: a parsimonious path to individual, community, and environmental resilience. Am J Commun Psychol 47 (3–4):374–387 Orr DW (2002) Four challenges of sustainability. Conserv Biol 16(6):1457–1460 Owens KA, Halfacre-Hitchcock A (2006) As green as we think? The case of the College of Charleston green building initiative. Int J Sustain High Educ 7(2):114–128 Riccaboni A, Trovarelli F (2015) Transition towards sustainable development: the role of universities. In: Integrative approaches to sustainable development at university level. Springer, Cham, pp 293–305 Sharp L (2002) Green campuses: the road from little victories to systemic transformation. Int J Sustain High Educ 3(2):128–145. https://doi.org/10.1108/1467637 0210422357 Shriberg M (2002) Sustainability in U.S. higher education: organizational factors influencing campus environmental performance and leadership. Doctoral dissertation, The University of Michigan. Retrieved Dec 1, 2013 from http://sitemaker.umich.edu/snre-student-mshriber/ files/shriberg.pdf Simpson W (1996) Environmental stewardship and the green campus. Facilities Manager, January: 39–45 Sreedevi RP (2017) Improving quality education and rankings in women’s technical institutions using peer weight through DEA approach. Int J Stat Syst 1 (12):139–143. Research India Publications Student organization, from millennium development goals to sustainable development achievements. 6 Feb 2015 Thompson R, Green W (2005) When sustainability is not a priority: an analysis of trends and strategies. Int J Sustain High Educ 6:7–17 Udas E, Wölk M, Wilmking M (2018) The “carbon-neutral university”–a study from Germany. Int J Sustain High Educ 19(1):130–145 University of California (UoC) (2018) Community gardens: what is a community garden? Online resource. Author. http://ucanr.edu/sites/MarinMG/Great_Gardening_Infor mation/Marin_Community_Gardens. Accessed 10 Aug 2019 USGBC (2009). Retrieved from https://www.usgbc.org/ drupal/legacy/usgbc/docs/Archive/General/Docs6919. html. Accessed 10 Aug 2019 Velazquez L, Munguia N, Platt A, Taddei J (2006) Sustainable university: what can be the matter? https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.12.008. Published by Elsevier Ltd

Campus Greening at an Educational Institution Wall T, Hindley A, Hunt T, Peach J, Preston M, Hartley C, Fairbank A (2017) Work-based learning as a catalyst for sustainability: a review and prospects. High Educ Skills Work-Based Learn 7(2):211–224 Wals AE, Corcoran PB (eds) (2012) Learning for sustainability in times of accelerating change. Wageningen Academic, Wageningen Wang H-I (2014) Constructing the Green campus within the internet of things architecture. Int J Distrib Sens Netw 2014:804627, 8 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/ 804627. Research Article. Department of Information Management, Overseas Chinese University, Taichung 407, Taiwan. Received 2 Oct 2013; Revised 24 Jan 2014; Accepted 27 Jan 2014; Published 5 Mar 2014 Washington-Ottombre C, Washington GL, Newman J (2018) Campus sustainability in the US: environmental management and social change since 1970. J Clean Prod 196:564–575 Wells P, Seitz M (2005) Business models and closed-loop supply chains: a typology. Supply Chain Manag Int J 10(4):249–251 Wilkie A, Graunke R, Cornejo C (2015) Food waste auditing at three Florida schools. Sustainability 7 (2):1370–1387 Wright TS (2002) Definitions and frameworks for environmental sustainability in higher education. Higher education policy, 15(2), 105–120. www.engin.umich.edu/college/about/cal/events/2015/febru ary/from-millennium-development-goals-to-sustainabledevelopment-achievements Zick CD, Smith KR, Kowalski-Jones L, Uno C, Merrill BJ (2013) Harvesting more than vegetables: the potential weight control benefits of community gardening. Am J Public Health 103(6):1110–1115 Ziegler R, Schulz S, Richter L, Schreck M (2014) Following Gandhi: social entrepreneurship as a non-violent way of communicating sustainability challenges. Sustainability 6(2):1018–1036 Zou Y, Zhao W, Mason R, Li M (2015) Comparing sustainable universities between the United States and China: cases of Indiana University and Tsinghua University. Sustainability 7(9):11799–11817 Cole L. Wright T (2005) Assessing sustainability on canadian university campuses: the development of a campus sustainability assessment framework. In Leal Filho, W. (Ed.). Handbook of Sustainability Research, pp 705–725 Hans van Weenen, Towards a vision of a sustainable university. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education 1(1):20–34 Jain S, Aggarwal P, Sharma N, Sharma, P. (2013) Fostering sustainability through education, research and practice: a case study of TERI University. Journal of cleaner production, 61, 20–24 MNRE (2019) Green campus definition. Retrieved from https://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/advertisement/ Adv-Green-Campus.pdf. Accessed 10 Aug 2019 APSCC (2013) Green campus definition. Retrieved from http://www.apsccindia.org/2013/02/03/scc2013/. Accessed 10 Aug 2019

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint Alex Baumber1, Johannes M. Luetz2,3 and Graciela Metternicht4 1 Faculty of Transdisciplinary Innovation, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2 School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia 3 School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Australia 4 School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Definition Carbon neutral education may be defined as: • The provision of education services in a manner that results in no net increase of greenhouse gas concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere • Education of an organization or an individual around how they can ensure that their activities result in no net increase of greenhouse gas concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere This entry deals with both of these dimensions of the term carbon neutral education.

Introduction This entry explores the topic of carbon neutral education (CNE) within the broader framework of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4: Quality Education (UN 2019). More specifically, Target 7 envisages progress as follows: 4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence,

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global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.

Situated within this context, CNE may comprise the following two foci. First, education providers are progressively adopting low-carbon practices and aiming to become “carbon neutral” institutions. Second, education providers are adopting appropriate curricula and pedagogical approaches to educate students about carbon neutrality through formal, informal, and non-formal learning and teaching programs, including higher degree research (HDR). While educational institutions are increasing recognizing their potential to combine these two dimensions and making carbon neutrality an explicit goal, these efforts can be challenging due to institutional inertia and complexity, especially within the higher education sector (Udas et al. 2017). This entry will explore both aspects and offer practical examples from diverse case studies. In terms of content arrangement, this entry is divided into four sections. Section “Carbon Neutrality” begins by explaining the principles of carbon neutrality (section “Principles, Methodologies, and Best Practice”) before moving on to the various emissions sources that make up the “carbon footprint” of education services (section “Setting Boundaries”). This process of carbon footprint analysis usually starts with direct emissions and then progresses to the various indirect emissions that can arise from education services, with emissions classified according to the following three “scopes”: Scope 1 emissions (direct use of fossil fuels for heating, transport, etc.); Scope 2 emissions (indirect emissions related to electricity generation); and Scope 3 emissions (indirect emissions such as those related to student and staff transport, materials used in construction or consumables used in education, water use, waste sent to landfill, etc.). Section “Emissions Reductions and Offsets” explores how education providers can assess, reduce, and offset their emissions toward the goal of carbon neutrality, before section “Striving to Achieve a Carbon Neutral Higher Education: Australian Stories” provides a case study of the Australian university sector. Section “Beyond Carbon Footprint: The Broader Role of Education in Achieving Carbon

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Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint, Fig. 1 The process of carbon neutrality. (Source: Commonwealth of

Australia (2017) reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license: https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/)

Neutrality” considers the curricular function of education for carbon neutrality, namely, the roles that educational institutions can play through educating students and other stakeholders about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (section “‘Carbon Brainprint’: Enabling Learning Around Carbon Neutral Practices”). This role in enabling learning and research into the impacts of climate change and the technologies and practices to mitigate it has been referred to as the “carbon brainprint” of educational institutions. Expanding the scope further, section “Expanding the Scope Further: Carbon Neutrality and the Global Divestment Movement” highlights divestment from the fossil fuel industry as an emerging area in which universities and other educational institutions can play a community leadership role in achieving carbon neutrality. A short concluding synthesis of the main points in the context of the UN Sustainable Development Goals is provided in section “Concluding Remarks.”

causes no greenhouse gas emissions whatsoever, but rather than any emissions remaining after attempts have been made to reduce them are offset by commensurate removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere (Fig. 1). The education sector has a dual role to play around carbon neutrality by (1) ensuring that educational institutions are carbon neutral and (2) by educating students, industry, government, and community stakeholders on how to achieve carbon neutrality in their own spheres of influence. Ensuring carbon neutrality requires a methodology for measuring the greenhouse gas emissions associated with particular activities, commonly referred to as carbon accounting or the calculation of a “carbon footprint.” Carbon accounting and reporting involves the following five principles (WBCSD & WRI 2015):

Carbon Neutrality Principles, Methodologies, and Best Practice The term “carbon neutral” implies that a given activity has no net impact on the overall concentration of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is not a requirement that the activity

• Relevance: The greenhouse gas inventory of an organization should include all relevant greenhouse gas emissions that can be attributed to that organization. • Completeness: All greenhouse gas emissions sources and activities within the defined boundary of an organization or product should be accounted for and reported on, with any exclusions justified and disclosed. • Consistency: Methodologies should be applied consistently to allow for meaningful

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

comparisons of greenhouse gas emissions over time. • Transparency: The credibility of greenhouse gas information should be able to be audited, and all relevant assumptions and data sources should be disclosed. • Accuracy: Quantification of greenhouse gas emissions should be unbiased and uncertainties reduced as far as practicable. Carbon accounting and reporting is related to the broader concept of life cycle assessment (LCA), which is “a systematic evaluation of environmental impacts arising from the provision of a product or service” (Horne et al. 2009, p. 2). The principles and framework for LCA best practice are described in ISO 14040 (International Organization for Standardization 2006) which divides LCA into the four phases shown in Fig. 2: (1) goal and scope definition, (2) inventory analysis, (3) impact assessment, and (4) interpretation. The phases are not strictly sequential, as earlier stages may need to be revisited as results emerge (e.g., the interpretation phase may identify a significant source of emissions that has been left out of the original scope). The first phase of a LCA, goal and scope definition, involves articulating why it is being undertaken, what units will be used to weigh up the key impacts of concern, and how far the boundaries of

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint, Fig. 2 Phases of life cycle assessment

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the LCA will extend. Where achieving carbon neutrality is the goal, the unit of impact is usually expressed as grams, kilograms, or tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e) that is emitted either directly by the activity or indirectly as a result of it. This may require conversion of other GHGs such as methane into CO2-e based on their global warming potential (GWP). The inventory analysis phase of LCA involves mapping out all the inputs and outputs that occur within the boundary that has been set. The impact assessment phase involves converting these various inputs and outputs into carbon dioxide equivalents in order to determine the relative impact of each life cycle stage on the overall emissions profile of the biofuel. Lastly, the interpretation phase involves a strategic assessment of the LCA results, which, if carbon neutrality is a goal, should involve consideration of opportunities to avoid, reduce, and offset emissions. Aside from ISO 14040 covering LCA principles and the related ISO 14044 covering LCA guidelines, there are a range of other standards that specifically cover the assessment of greenhouse gas emissions. Most notably, ISO standard 14065 specifies principles and requirements that should be taken into account when validating or verifying greenhouse gas emissions (International Organization for Standardization 2013) and is supported by a number of other ISO standards covering verification of GHG assertions (ISO 14064), competence

Stage 1 : Goal and scope definition

Stage 2: Inventory analysis

Stage 3: Impact assessment

Stage 4: Interpretation

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Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

requirements for GHG assessment teams (ISO 14066), and carbon footprint requirements for products (ISO 14067). The Greenhouse Gas Protocol, jointly published by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development and World Resources Institute, also provides guidance on best practice accounting and reporting for greenhouse gas emissions associated with specific organizations, goods, or services (WBCSD & WRI 2015). Setting Boundaries Setting boundaries for carbon footprint assessment can be contentious, as it is not always clear which activities are directly connected to the organization being assessed and indirect emissions can be difficult to fully account for. For example, an educational institution may have multiple campuses and sub-entities, as well as being linked to a wide variety of associated activities, including student and staff travel, offsite disposal of waste, and investments in a range of non-educational activities (e.g., pension funds). When setting organizational and operational boundaries for carbon footprint assessment, a balance may need to be struck between the principles of completeness and relevance. Where an organization does not have full ownership or control over an entity that it part-owns, the Greenhouse Gas Protocol (WBCSD & WRI 2015) allows them to choose either a financial control approach, whereby they only include entities that they have financial control over within their organizational boundary, or an equity approach, whereby they include a portion of the part-owned entity’s emissions within their organization’s carbon footprint based on their level of equity in the entity (e.g., 5%, 30%, 70%). This is of particular significance to universities with large endowment funds that may own small proportions of many different entities through such funds (see section “Expanding the Scope Further: Carbon Neutrality and the Global Divestment Movement” on divestment). Aside from issues of ownership and control, carbon accounting needs to consider how direct the link is between an organization’s activities and the emissions that may result. As such, emissions sources are typically divided into three “scopes”

that define both direct (Scope 1) and indirect (Scope 2 and 3) emissions. Figure 3 shows some common sources of emissions from universities and schools, divided by the activities they relate to and whether they fall under Scope 1, 2, or 3. Scope 1 emissions are emitted at an organization’s premises or by activities directly carried out by an organization. This may include emissions from the on-site combustion of natural gas or other fuels, emissions from on-site chemical processes such as waste processing, emissions from the organization’s vehicle fleet, and fugitive emissions such as methane or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) leakages from gas pipes or refrigeration units. Scope 2 emissions are a special category of indirect emissions that result from an organization’s use of electricity, such as the emissions from burning coal to generate electricity at a power plant that is purchased by a school through a transmission and distribution network. Although these emissions are considered indirect, the nature of electricity supply systems allows the resulting emissions to be clearly attributed to the organization consuming the electricity. Scope 3 emissions are indirect emissions that result from activities carried out by an organization but can be more difficult to attribute to the organization due to higher uncertainty, a lack of control by the organization, and the role of other organizations in producing the emissions. Education-sector examples include methane emitted from waste after it is sent to landfill, emissions from the production of foodstuffs served at a cafeteria, and emissions from staff and students transporting themselves to and from educational facilities. The degree to which different emissions sources are included in an organization’s carbon footprint depends on the purpose of the accounting exercise. Under the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, the inclusion of Scope 1 and 2 emissions is strongly encouraged, while Scope 3 emissions are described as “optional” (WBCSD & WRI 2015). However, national or subnational agencies may specify stricter standards, as may certification bodies in cases where the purpose of carbon accounting is to be certified as “carbon neutral.” For example,

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Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint, Fig. 3 Common sources and scope of emissions related to a university

Australia’s National Carbon Offset Standard is published by the Australian Government and is used to award its Carbon Neutral Certification Trade Mark (Commonwealth of Australia 2017). It sets higher benchmarks for organizations than the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, requiring: • The inclusion of all Scope 1 and 2 emissions • The inclusion of certain Scope 3 emissions (related to fuel use, waste, business travel and accommodation, base building services, office paper and water use) • A relevance test to be undertaken for certain other Scope 3 emissions (staff commuting, food and catering, postage and freight, stationery, office printing, cleaning services, IT and telecommunication services), which considers their size relative to the organization’s overall footprint, the views of key stakeholders, and whether such activities have been recently outsourced • A materiality test to be undertaken to ensure that all emission sources that represent more

than 1% of an organization’s overall footprint are included Emissions Reductions and Offsets Carbon footprint analysis can help educational and other organizations to identify opportunities to reduce emissions through energy-efficiency measures, replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy, improved waste management, alternative procurement arrangements, or dispensing with high-emissions practices altogether. Comparing different components of their footprint (e.g., electricity use, heating, transport, waste) allows organizations to identify which actions are likely to have the biggest impact on emissions, while complementary financial analysis may help to identify the most cost-effective actions or “winwin” opportunities which reduce both emissions and operational costs (e.g., installing energyefficient lighting). The choice of learning mode can also play a role, with the rise of distance-based learning offering a means of reducing the Scope 3 transport-related emissions that are a major

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Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

contributor to the carbon footprint of educational institutions (Swithenby et al. 2015). While direct measures related to energy efficiency, replacement of fossil fuels, and alternative waste management may be able to reduce emissions within an educational institution, achieving full carbon neutrality is likely to require some offsetting of remaining emissions that are unable to be reduced further. Carbon offsets can compensate for an organization’s ongoing emissions by directly removing GHGs from the atmosphere (e.g., biosequestration from tree planting) or by preventing emissions that would otherwise have occurred in the absence of the offsetting arrangement (e.g., paying for another organization to switch over to renewable energy or adopt energy-efficiency measures). The focus of this entry is on “voluntary” offsets, whereby educational institutions purchase offsets to meet voluntary goals around carbon neutrality. In contrast, “compliance” offsets relate to obligations that countries have signed up to under international agreements (e.g., the 2016 Paris Agreement) or obligations that have been imposed on organizations by their governments (e.g., under carbon cap-and-trade schemes or carbon taxes), whereby offsets may be purchased to avoid having to purchase emissions permits or pay penalties. Some technologies and approaches to carbon offsetting can be controversial (Lovell and Liverman 2010), with concerns raised around issues such as permanence for biosequestration (i.e., how certain is it that a tree planting will not subsequently be cleared?), additionality for renewable energy projects (i.e., could the switch to renewable energy have happened anyway without the offset payment?), and baselines (i.e., what level of emissions can be assumed to have occurred under a business-as-usual scenario). These concerns highlight the need for credible schemes to certify offset credits. At the global level, a leading example of such a scheme is the United Nations Climate Neutral Now program, which enables organizations to purchase Certified Emission Reduction units (CERs) created in accordance with the rules of the The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which operates under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Schemes can also operate at

the national level, such as Australia’s National Carbon Offset Standard. Striving to Achieve a Carbon Neutral Higher Education: Australian Stories The Australian education sector is managing its greenhouse gas emissions to position itself for growth and competitiveness in a lower-emissions future. Australian education exports are worth $28 billion a year (AFR 2017), and 37 Australian universities are included among the world’s best in the 2018 edition of the QS World University Rankings. The higher education sector has been proactively working to advance carbon neutrality in its institutions, in many instances as part of their strategic plans. Some universities have attained carbon neutral certifications awarded by the Australian Government against the National Carbon Offset Standard (Department of Environment and Energy 2017), while others are working toward carbon neutrality through strategic, participatory planning of commitments and targets and action plans. The following paragraphs provide three case studies that demonstrate the diversity of approaches and contexts within the Australian university sector. Charles Sturt University (CSU) was certified as the first Carbon Neutral University in Australia in July 2016 (CSU 2019). Major contributors to reducing its carbon footprint related to electricity, gas, construction activities, livestock, travel, and waste. Offset projects have also played a significant role in achieving carbon neutrality, including around indigenous fire management in northern Australia, forest protection in Indonesia, and renewable energy in India. Offset projects have been selected to improve both social and environmental outcomes and to combine local and global scale impact. Co-benefits being delivered through local-based projects include restoration of habitats for native fauna, new employment opportunities for regional Australians, and diversification of income streams for Australian farmers. The benefits of being carbon neutral are also economic, with CSU reporting savings close to $500,000 per annum because of the energy efficiency and alternative energy generation projects implemented (Department of Environment and Energy 2017).

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Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint, Fig. 4 Actions undertaken to achieve carbon neutrality by UNSW Sydney

University of New South Wales (UNSW Sydney) recently launched its environmental Sustainability Plan 2019–2021 with a focus on low carbon and the use of clean energy in the university’s operations (UNSW Sydney 2019). The plan establishes clear commitments and targets and identifies priority actions to achieve net zero carbon buildings by 2030 and a total (Scope 1,2,3) carbon reduction target in line with the Science-Based Targets (Paris-aligned) between 2025 and 2050. Ongoing initiatives tackling Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions (Fig. 4) will be expanded to achieve the targets. Noteworthy

is that Scope 3 emissions represent roughly two-thirds of the University’s footprint. In implementing the strategy, the University plans to invest $13 million in energy efficiency and solar projects to facilitate transition to renewable energy and reduce net greenhouse gas emissions, which in tandem will improve preparedness for climate risks. Christian Heritage College (CHC) (http://www. chc.edu.au) is a private higher education provider (HEP) in Carindale in the outskirts of Brisbane, Australia’s third-largest city. In 2018 CHC implemented a solar system partnership with a nationally

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Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint, Fig. 5 (a & b): Recent large-scale installations of solar panels at CHC

operating solar system wholesaler. An assessment of the CHC campus scoped out electrical usage and cost reduction possibilities, installation options available on existing buildings, and location of panels due to the sun’s azimuth and any limiting factors of nearby trees as well as cost-benefit impacts upon linkage into the electrical board. This assessment led to a power purchase agreement (PPA), which stipulated that no upfront installation costs were to be incurred by CHC and that cost savings were to be shared at an agreed rate by

CHC & BSG as assessed by benchmarking historical usage levels, thus making it a positive commercial cost saving from the first year. The solar system was installed in February 2018 (Fig. 5a, b) and generates 126,805kWh a year, which represents a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 103,980 kg CO2/year (Scope 2 emissions). These projected figures are based on Clean Energy Council Database (CEC 2017, p. 4), National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting (Measurement) Determination 2008 (NGERA 2016, p. 340), and other data on

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

file with authors. This represents a 40% reduction on previous emissions. In addition to the solar system installation itself, there have been unexpected synergistic benefits. The high visibility of the solar panels has given latent support to other institutional sustainability engagements, including a campus community garden, which received a tacit boost by the institution’s push toward carbon neutrality (Luetz and Beaumont 2019). In summary, the privateprivate partnership resulted in 100 kW of solar power capacity being added and delineates a replicable example of innovative industry practice with wide mainstreaming potential for schools and other HEPs. Finally, the prominence of the panels in the context of a small private HEP has raised awareness of the institution’s social and environmental responsibility among students and faculty, thus also promoting some early efforts in areas where the campus does not yet operate, such as composting food waste and recycling water and other common products.

Beyond Carbon Footprint: The Broader Role of Education in Achieving Carbon Neutrality The previous section highlighted how educational institutions can achieve carbon neutrality in their own operations through emissions reductions and offsetting. However, the education sector also has a fundamental role to play in ensuring that learners at such institutions acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including an understanding of how carbon neutrality can be adopted by a diverse range of organizations and individuals. In addition, as major employers and focal points of knowledge and innovation hubs, educational institutions can play an important community leadership role by setting examples and norms. “Carbon Brainprint”: Enabling Learning Around Carbon Neutral Practices Educational institutions have an important role to play in educating environmental auditors, engineers, community organizers, corporate leaders, policy-

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makers, and the general public about actions that can be taken to mitigate climate change. Analysis of education around environment and sustainability in the higher education sector has shown a shift globally over the past decade, away from a dominant focus on environmental protection in curriculum development and toward a more diverse approach that incorporates climate change, corporate social responsibility, energy, resources, culture, and ethics (Wu and Shen 2016). The educational role of universities, schools, and other educational institutions is not usually factored into standardized life cycle assessments and carbon accounting processes. For example, a university cannot generate offsets from the widespread adoption of a new solar panel developed by one of its engineering graduates or energyefficiency measures championed by one of its business graduates. However, it is this role of educational institutions in facilitating the learning of knowledge and skills that potentially offers the greatest potential for achieving carbon neutrality on a national or global basis. This concept has been described as the “carbon brainprint” of universities and other educational institutions (Chatterton et al. 2015). UNSW Sydney, introduced as an example in section “Striving to Achieve a Carbon Neutral Higher Education: Australian Stories,” demonstrates the links between carbon brainprint and conventional carbon footprint assessment. Section “Striving to Achieve a Carbon Neutral Higher Education: Australian Stories” was focused on activities that are typically incorporated into the carbon footprint of organizations, such as emissions from energy use and waste, and offsets that have been directly paid for by the university. However, aside from its actions in this area, UNSW Sydney is also a recognized world leader in research related to climate change and renewable energy, for example, through its solar photovoltaics research program that has set various records for solar cell efficiency (Yan et al. 2018). It offers a range of formal programs providing education toward carbon neutrality, including coursework across Arts, Sciences, Law, Medicine, Engineering, and the Built Environment, and master’s and PhD programs in Sustainable Built Environment, Environmental Management, and

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Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint

Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint, Table 1 Educational, operational, and whole-of-university initiatives relating to carbon neutrality at the University of Edinburgh Educational initiatives The ESSA project: The “European Students Sustainability Auditing” project (3-year Erasmus+ project to learn about social responsibility and sustainability in European universities) Sustainability and social responsibility online course for all undergraduates Climate change scholarships Living lab projects, such as the “Building Futures” projects for MSc Advanced Sustainable Design students Architecture: teaching students how to make concrete more sustainable

Operational initiatives Switch energy saving campaign (aimed at staff) Voluntary staff energy coordinators The Sustainable Campus Fund: funding carbon-saving projects proposed by staff Sustainability Awards: offers staff and students an opportunity to make a difference and contribute toward the University becoming more socially responsible and sustainable Warp It: an online portal for staff to reuse items internally Promoting sustainable travel, including business travel PC reuse initiative – promoting the circular economy by reusing pcs internally and externally

Environmental Policy. Specific subjects offering skills in carbon neutrality include Reporting for Climate Change and Sustainability, Managing Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings, and Sustainable Energy for Developing Countries. To ensure integration across these diverse activities, UNSW Sydney has established an Environmental Sustainability Reference Group to guide the development of the strategy that will include commitments and targets across ten key themes: research and advocacy, learning and teaching, emissions and energy, buildings and campus, water, waste and recycling, travel and transport, goods and services, awareness and engagement, and investment. The University of Edinburgh provides another example of how educational, operational, and whole-of-university initiatives can be integrated to help society move toward carbon neutrality on multiple fronts (Table 1). These measures are closely integrated, with, for example, a whole-ofuniversity Department for Social Responsibility & Sustainability that links to a new online course for students and a series of incentives aimed at changing staff behavior. This close integration between learning and teaching, research, and operations is a key asset that universities possess in leading the shift toward a carbon neutral future.

Whole-of-institution Climate strategy: commitment to become carbon neutral by 2040 Established a Department for Social Responsibility & Sustainability (remit includes finding new ways to reduce carbon) Responsible investment: the University has committed to avoid investments in fossil fuels Low carbon and renewable energy generation

Expanding the Scope Further: Carbon Neutrality and the Global Divestment Movement Aside from operational emissions and their role in facilitating learning, educational institutions can also exert influences over the adoption of carbon neutral practice through their ownership of stocks and bonds. Universities are uniquely placed to exert this influence due to a combination of the large endowment funds possessed by some institutions and their status as knowledge creators and leaders in innovation. However, such investments are typically left out of carbon footprint analyses due to the universities involved not holding a controlling interest (as per the financial control approach to boundary-setting outlined in section “Setting Boundaries”). In response to increasing concerns about these issues, a global “divestment” movement has emerged to push for greater recognition of this important component within the portfolio of available strategies pursued by global universities seeking to become fully “carbon neutral” (Arabella 2018; Stephens 2018; Stephens et al. 2018). Expressed in simple language, “[d]ivestment is simply the opposite of an investment – it means getting rid of stocks, bonds, or investment funds that are unethical or morally ambiguous” (Hart et al. 2018, p. 5). Stephens (2018) argues that

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increasing recognition of universities as “citizens” and “change agents” is a key reason for the growing popularity of divestment in educational settings. Given that universities are perceived by the public to “educate and train the future leaders” also implies that on the basis of ethical citizenry, they cannot concurrently be “complicit in putting that future at risk by partnering and investing in coal, oil and gas companies” (Hart et al. 2018, p. 6). The basics of university divestment have been outlined by Hart et al. (2018) as follows: Most universities have a set of funds called an endowment. This is [. . .] where most bequests and donations likely end up. They invest this endowment in a range of different [companies] to make a profit. Often the profit from investing goes towards paying for scholarships [. . .] Therefore, divestment effectively means that universities freeze any new investments in fossil fuels immediately and divest from any direct investments they have in fossil fuel companies, and then within five years remove themselves from any commingled funds that still include fossil fuel companies. (pp. 9–11)

On this basis, universities all around the world are increasingly divesting. According to Arabella (2018), the United Kingdom has emerged as the leader among university divestments, with 12 new commitments in 2018 and 68 in total. US universities are currently under-represented in the movement compared to their global influence, with 89% of educational institutions that have pledged to divest since 2016 being outside the United States (Arabella 2018). However, the divestment movement has strong support among university and college staff in the United States and Canada, with over 4550 having signed letters endorsing fossil fuel divestment (Stephens et al. 2018). In the Australian context, major publicly funded universities have also made a range of divestment commitments (Hart et al. 2018), with La Trobe recognized as Australia’s first university to commit to completely divesting from fossil fuels (Slezak 2016), accompanied by varying commitments from Queensland University of Technology (Robertson 2016), Monash University (Green Left 2016), Australian National University (ANU 2016), the University of Sydney (Mortimer 2017), the University of Melbourne (UMel 2017), and Swinburne University of Technology (SUT 2015).

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A tally of divestment commitments prepared by global campaign group Fossil Free indicates that as of August 2019, global divestment commitments total $9.94 trillion, of which 15% is linked to educational institutions (Fossil Free 2019). Arabella (2018) notes the rapid growth in this aspect of carbon neutral education, with commitments to divest estimated to have grown by 11,900% between 2014 and 2018.

Concluding Remarks The education sector globally is increasingly recognizing its responsibility to contribute to the mitigation of climate change through the adoption of carbon neutral goals and actions. Furthermore, it is uniquely placed to bridge the gap between direct action and the dissemination of knowledge and skills that have the potential to lead to further action across multiple other sectors. It is important the education sector adopts a broader view, extending beyond emissions that are typically taken into account in life cycle assessment and carbon footprint analysis, to explicitly consider the “carbon brainprint” of universities, schools, and other educational institutions, as well as the influence these are able to exert through financial investments and community leadership. As such, an integrative approach is essential in achieving the vision of carbon neutral education that is increasingly finding its way into the strategic vision of leading academic institutions, and to reach the targets set under the SDGs. Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the following individuals for their constructive comments, input, and support: Kirsty Andersen, Richard Holmes, Adele Turnbull, Jordan Geizer, Jackson Turner, Sion Pickering, and William Syddall.

References AFR (2017) Education exports are worth $28 billion a year, nearly 20pc more than we thought, Australian Financial Review. https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/manage ment/education-exports-are-worth-28-billion-a-yearnearly-20pc-more-than-we-thought-20171005-gyvc8v. Accessed 16 Aug 2019

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Arabella (2018) The global fossil fuel divestment and clean energy investment movement. 2018 report. Author. https://www.arabellaadvisors.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2018/09/Global-Divestment-Report-2018.pdf. Accessed 2 Oct 2018 Australian National University (ANU) (2016) Update on ANU socially responsible investment policy. https:// cecs.anu.edu.au/news/update-anu-socially-responsibleinvestment-policy. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 CEC – Clean Energy Council (2017) Guide to installing solar PV for business and industry. https://www. solaraccreditation.com.au/dam/cec-solar-accreditationshared/guides/guide-to-installing-solar-pv-for-businessand-industry-october-2017.pdf. Accessed 12 Oct 2018 Chatterton J, Parsons D, Nicholls J, Longhurst P, Bernon M, Palmer A et al (2015) Carbon brainprint – an estimate of the intellectual contribution of research institutions to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Process Safety Environ Protect: Trans Inst Chem Eng B 96:74–81 Commonwealth of Australia (2017) National carbon offset standard for organisations. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra CSU (2019) CSU = Carbon Neutral, Charles Sturt University. https://www.csu.edu.au/csugreen/about-us/ carbon-neutral-university. Accessed 16 Aug 2019 Department of Environment and Energy (2017) Carbon neutral stories. Charles Sturt University case study. Author. http://www.environment.gov.au/climate-change/govern ment/carbon-neutral. Accessed 11 Oct 2018 Fossil Free (2019) 1000+ divestment commitments. https:// gofossilfree.org/divestment/commitments/. Accessed 16 Aug 2019 Green Left (2016, Apr 8) Monash University to divest from coal. Melbourne 1090. https://www.greenleft.org.au/ content/Monash-University-divest-coal. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 Hart G, Louey P, Fairall A, Turner J (2018) Divest your uni from coal, oil and gas and build a clean, safe and fair future for everyone: a starters guide. https://docs.google. com/document/d/1269Ob8OUEeBsv8g_yL3ixJ4GYFC soWatJnLXvg8NgI4/edit#heading=h.w6mym7xsxins. Accessed 26 Sept 2018 Horne R, Grant T, Verghese K (2009) Life cycle assessment: principles, practice and prospects. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood International Organization for Standardization (2006) Environmental management – life cycle assessment: principles and framework, ISO 14040:2006. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva International Organization for Standardization (2013) Greenhouse gases – requirements for greenhouse gas validation and verification bodies for use in accreditation or other forms of recognition, ISO 14065:2013. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva Lovell H, Liverman D (2010) Understanding carbon offset technologies. New Polit Econ 15:255–273 Luetz JM, Beaumont S (2019) Community gardening: integrating social responsibility and sustainability in a higher

education setting – a case study from Australia. In: Leal Filho W (ed) Social responsibility and sustainability – how businesses and organizations can operate in a sustainable and socially responsible way, World sustainability series. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-03562-4_26 Mortimer D (2017) Investment policy 2017, University of Sydney. http://sydney.edu.au/policies/showdoc.aspx? recnum=PDOC2012/258&RendNum=0. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 NGERA – National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007 (2016) National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting (Measurement) Determination 2008. Compilation 8. Amendments up to 1 July 2016 Robertson J (2016, Sep 5) Queensland University of Technology to dump fossil fuel investments. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/sep/05/ queensland-university-of-technology-to-dump-fossilfuel-investments. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 Slezak M (2016, May 25) La Trobe becomes Australia’s first university to commit to fossil-fuel divestment. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ 2016/may/25/la-trobe-becomes-australias-first-univer sity-to-commit-to-fossil-fuel-divestment. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 Stephens JC (2018, Sep 7) Fossil fuel divestment debates on campus spotlight the societal role of colleges and universities. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/ fossil-fuel-divestment-debates-on-campus-spotlight-thesocietal-role-of-colleges-and-universities-102689. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 Stephens JC, Frumhoff PC, Yona L (2018) The role of college and university faculty in the fossil fuel divestment movement. Elem Sci Anth 6(1):41. https://doi.org/ 10.1525/elementa.297 Swinburne University of Technology (SUT) (2015) Responsible investment charter. Approved by Council 1 Dec 15. Author. http://www.swinburne.edu.au/media/swinburnee duau/about-swinburne/docs/pdfs/Swinburne-UniversityResponsible-Investment-Charter.pdf. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 Swithenby E, Lane A, Caird S, Roy R, Potter S (2015) Design of higher education teaching models and carbon impacts. Int J Sustain High Educ 16:96–111 Udas E, Wölk M, Wilmking M (2017) The “carbon-neutral university” – a study from Germany. Int J Sustain High Educ 19:130–145 UMel (2017) Sustainability plan 2017–2020, University of Melbourne. https://s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws. com/hdp.au.prod.app.um-ourcampus.files/2914/8480/ 0942/UoM_Sustainability_Plan_2017-2020_40pp.pdf. Accessed 27 Sept 2018 UN (2019) Sustainable development goals: 4 quality education. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ education/. Accessed 16 Aug 2019 UNSW Sydney (2019) Environmental sustainability plan 2019–21, UNSW Sydney, 23p WBCSD & WRI (2015) The greenhouse gas protocol: a corporate accounting and reporting standard. World

Challenges of Equity and Discrimination in the Education of Gifted Children Business Council for Sustainable Development and World Resources Institute, Geneva Wu Y-CJ, Shen J-P (2016) Higher education for sustainable development: a systematic review. Int J Sustain High Educ 17:633–651 Yan C, Huang J, Sun K, Johnston S, Zhang Y, Sun H, Pu A. . ., Hao X (2018) Cu2ZnSnS4 solar cells with over 10% power conversion efficiency enabled by heterojunction heat treatment. Nat Energy 3:764–772

Career and Technical Education ▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

Challenges of Equity and Discrimination in the Education of Gifted Children Jamie Parr1 and Tiania Stevens2 1 Australian Catholic University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2 Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Definition Gifted children grow to adulthood nested within an immensely complex arrangement of influences. Whether a gifted child is helped or hindered in the development of his or her capabilities is affected by factors including the socioeconomic status of parents, the quality of educators, religious and cultural attitudes, and government policy. Globally, the sustainable provision of quality education for gifted children is not uniform, with some countries and regions at significant risk of failing to achieve targets set by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Introduction For societies in which egalitarian principles are prized, the phenomenon of gifted children poses a

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number of questions. It is in the interests of all that gifted children grow into adults capable of making extraordinary positive contributions to society (Simonton 2009). Education policies must provide some of the conditions in which such excellence can manifest itself. However, gifted education programs are in tension with efforts to ensure equity of access to educational services and opportunities. While equity in this sense is essential to the fourth Sustainable Development Goal, the effective and sustainable education of gifted children arguably requires a variant form of equity, namely, a curriculum that is appropriately differentiated to meet the needs of individual gifted students. “The core principle of gifted education is individualization and differentiation” (Mönks and Katzko 2005, 194). This tension creates a fraught relationship between excellence and equity at the heart of education provision (Dai 2013). The way in which a balance is struck between these competing demands has serious implications for the long-term development of global society. This entry provides an overview of the issue of gifted children in the context of the 2030 Agenda. First, an account is given of the evolution of the concept of giftedness, highlighting its strong determination by culture. Second, challenges directly affecting the sustainable development of gifted education are explored, including discriminatory practices which adversely affect particular groups and the lack of trained teachers to act as exemplars and guides. Finally, an overview of contemporary gifted education provision by global region reveals the scale of the challenge facing those working to realize the fourth Sustainable Development Goal.

Conceptions of Giftedness The global nature of the 2030 Agenda requires an awareness of and practical sensitivity to the multiple perspectives on giftedness extant across the world. Just as curricula must be appropriately differentiated to account for gifted students, conceptions of giftedness must be constructed with reference to the communities to which they apply.

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Not to do so is to risk overlooking gifted children through the use of an unsuitable model of giftedness (Cushner et al. 2015). Conceptions of giftedness always exist within a cultural context, “patterns of expectations, behavior, values, and meanings shared by members of a community” (Freeman 2009a, 228), and cannot properly be understood without it (Ngara and Porath 2004). The shaping effect of culture extends beyond conceptions of giftedness to include the tools used to identify and measure the gifted, and the government policies developed to support them. For all countries, a sophisticated awareness of the differences between Western and non-Western conceptions of giftedness is vital for the design, implementation, and maintenance of successful gifted education programs (Eriksson 2006; Horowitz 2009; Phillipson and McCann 2007). The contemporary study of giftedness is strongly Western in character, being rooted in European investigations into the nature of intelligence, particularly those of Binet and Simon in the 1890s (Davis et al. 2011). Many notable figures in the development of the discipline were American researchers, such as Terman, Hollingworth, and Jenkins, and more recent scholars such as Renzulli (Robinson and Clinkenbeard 2008). The Western model of giftedness has had an impact on educators and policymakers across the world. The essential difference between Western and non-Western conceptions of giftedness is usually taken to be the “individualistic” focus of the West, which generally holds giftedness to arise from innate (often genetic) advantages. To be considered gifted therefore depends on scoring above a high cutoff point on a graded scale. On this model, only a minority are considered gifted (Freeman 2009b). Broadly speaking and in contrast, “Eastern” conceptions of giftedness are understood to take an opposing view, “being geared to individual effort toward a potentially high standard for the mass of children” (Freeman 2009b, 399). Elsewhere, in the African context, a frequent point of reference to explain non-Western conceptions of giftedness is the principle of ubuntu, “an African value system that privileges an I/we relationship in contrast to the Western concept of the I/you

individualistic perspective” (Chilisa 2013). In general, an awareness of the variant, culturally determined conceptions of giftedness extant around the world, as well as the multicultural environment within which increasing numbers of children now learn (Eriksson 2006), is essential to the successful development of genuinely nurturing educational programs. However, simplistic divisions on this topic between East/West and Western/non-Western should be avoided. Chan (2018) observes that in recent decades many East and Southeast Asian countries have adopted Western conceptions of giftedness. Further, referring to the view of non-Western societies as more community-focused in contrast to the individualistic West, Sutherland et al. (2017) point out that “to generalize certain ethnic groups as more societyfocused may again represent an essentialization of culture” (54). The effect of such essentialization would be to distort the very cultural context within which educators intend to develop successful, equitable programs of gifted education. No universal definition of giftedness exists (Callahan 2009). While IQ scores (central for early figures such as Terman) remain an important part of the determination and conceptualization of giftedness, much research now pursues developmental interpretations, which “deemphasize the notion that giftedness is innate, permanent, and mysterious”, avoiding the practice whereby “one individual is labeled permanently gifted; another, without any label, is assumed permanently not gifted” (Horowitz 2009, 9). This shift away from a conception of giftedness as strongly determined by hereditary factors is of great significance for the 2030 Agenda, as it highlights the formative role played by myriad social and cultural factors in the growth of a gifted child into an exceptional adult. Many of these factors, such as poverty and the quality of educators, are open to remedial action by governments.

Challenges Whether gifted children ultimately realize their potential depends to a great extent on their environment. For many children, however, their

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environment contains multiple obstacles to the development of their talents. The following points provide an overview of some of the main challenges. Balancing Equity and Excellence While gifted education programs nurture excellence, they are “often drastically unequal when it comes to the racial, ethnic, and economic representation among participating students” (Peters and Engerrand 2016, 164). This situation is complex. Overlooking students eligible for gifted education programs is unfair and produces and perpetuates inequities. However, many groups underrepresented in such programs also score lower on standardized tests of academic achievement and ability (Peters and Engerrand 2016). Various explanations for this phenomenon have been pursued; the theory that appeals to “systematic inequality of educational opportunity” (Peters and Engerrand 2016, 161) is a widely studied contemporary explanation that aligns with the challenges faced by gifted children reviewed in this section. However, caution is advised if gifted education programs are adjusted as a response to the problem of underrepresentation. The topic of tracking explored by Dai (2013) is a case in point. Tracking is often known outside the United States as “streaming,” i.e., grouping students by measured ability. In the United States in the 1990s, several schools pursued an egalitarian policy of “detracking” their student groups. “Detracking is based on the belief that all students can learn and excel if given appropriate opportunity and scaffolding; therefore, elimination of the tracking system serves to equalize the opportunity to learn and thus makes education more equitable” (Dai 2013, 96). However, detracking may also result in an overall reduction of focus on the needs of individual gifted students, potentially damaging their education. On such an approach, if gifted education programs are retained, they are opened to all who wish to participate in them. This move brings its own risks. Dai gives an anecdotal example: “[A]n International Baccalaureate program in a high school tried to relax its selection standards by allowing all of those willing to enter the

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program. However, the administrators recently found that quality control is a serious problem and are now trying to reinstate some of its admission standards. Selectivity is reinstated to ensure rigor. Without some degree of selectivity, excellence may suffer in the name of pursuing equity” (97). However laudable the intention, detracking students, abolishing selection processes, or implementing other related changes, without also having in place appropriate measures to meet the needs of the most able students, will likely “shortchange their education and jeopardize excellence in the name of equity” (98). The underrepresentation of particular groups across the world makes the demand for equity just and urgent. However, the assessment of adjustments to gifted education provision in the United States may be cautiously generalized: “Any proactive effort toward greater equity in gifted education programs will involve some sacrifice. Because of the level of economic and educational inequality that exists in the United States, it seems likely that no gifted education program can have perfect equity or even greater equity without sacrificing some of the focus on excellence” (Peters and Engerrand 2016, 168). Poverty The effect of poverty on human growth is intergenerational and difficult to counter; its effect on the development of gifted children is particularly damaging. “There is a long, sordid history,” write Davis et al. (2011), “of the relationship between economic poverty and educational poverty” (325). Further, the underrepresentation in gifted education programs of culturally different and minority children may in part be attributed to the effects of poverty, as such groups are more likely to be impoverished. The absence of these children from gifted education programs (together with underrepresented females and the gifted disabled) constitutes a major loss to global society. Poverty may alter the character of families to the detriment of all members. “[T]he families and peers of minority and economically disadvantaged children . . . often do not reinforce the development of their intellectual or creative talents.”

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(ibid., 324). The consequences of failing children, gifted or not, are stark: “Research suggests that most aspects of children’s physical, cognitive, and affective health and development are affected by poverty, primarily due to the effects of deleterious environments, lack of access to quality education and other human services, and lack of resources” (Plucker and Peters 2018, 58). While a significant portion of research has focused on the status of minority groups in the United States, the problem of cultural dominance and minority exclusion is iterated in contexts across the globe. In the United States, “minorities are present in disproportionate numbers in special education and underrepresented in gifted education” (Eriksson 2006, 2). An acknowledged aspect of this problem are the assessment tools and procedures used to identify gifted children, which often are “normed on groups that do not include children from diverse cultural backgrounds” (Pierson 2014, 102). Yet while educators and psychologists may be sensitive to this issue, there remains the subjection of such children to the effects of wider cultural and socioeconomic forces. “[T]he sources of disparities in academic achievement affecting racial and ethnic minority groups include low socioeconomic status; a high percentage of parents with little or poor quality formal education; racial and ethnic prejudice and discrimination; cultural attributes of the home, community, and school; and the quality, amount, and uses of school-related resources” (Gordon and Bridglall 2005, 125). It must also be noted that even when gifted children in poverty have been identified, assisting them is often a significant challenge. Accelerated learning programs may be beyond the financial reach of high poverty schools, many students may be unable to attend such programs outside their neighborhood if transportation is required, and Internet-delivered programs may also be impracticable for students lacking the technology to access them (Plucker and Peters 2018, 61). Regardless, improving the representation of minority high-ability students in gifted education programs requires attending to these pernicious conditions. The Meyerhoff Scholars Program at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County,

which works at “bridging curriculum and teaching, social science, and cognitive science to more effectively apply this knowledge to the problems of nurturing talent in underrepresented students” (Gordon and Bridglall 2005, 141), is an example of such work. Family Parents have immense influence over their children’s self-perception and self-realization. “Parental opinions matter greatly to male and female adolescents, and the messages sent by subtle and not-so-subtle verbal and nonverbal interactions may encourage or discourage gifted young people throughout their lives” (Reis and Hébert 2008, 282). It is of particular importance to cultivate a robust self-esteem in the gifted child, not least due to the acute degree of emotional awareness often possessed by such children. Low self-esteem is often experienced by gifted children who feel unable to meet the expectations of parents and teachers (Davis et al. 2011). The attitudes of parents of gifted children who value neither schooling nor teachers are very problematic, as poor relations between teachers and parents are an important factor in underachievement of gifted students (Rimm 2009). Parents who disagree between themselves over their approach to the gifted child may also undermine the child’s motivation for consistent effort (Rea 2009). However, even when positively engaged in their gifted offspring’s education, parents’ employment status may be a significant factor in their child’s development. Peters and Engerrand (2016) note that children of professional parents “were exposed to about three times as many words in the home as were children of parents who were on welfare. By age three these differences in word exposure resulted in a cumulative vocabulary for the low-income children that was less than half the size of those from high income families” (161). This gap extended into at least the third grade. Parents able to spend more on their children thereby bought for them an advantage over their less-affluent peers. According to one study, “parents in the lowest two income deciles spent $750 and $900 (respectively) on their children in

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2006–2007 compared to $3,701 and $6,573 spent by the highest two deciles. A greater level of spending by the higher income groups provided increased access to high-quality child care and education . . . Thus, before children even enter school, massive differences in [opportunities to learn] already exist” (ibid.). The issue of female underachievement in gifted education programs is a complex issue. Often the conditions in which female children grow to adulthood serve to limit them in comparison with their male counterparts, and often these conditions are the consequence of the religious perspective of a culture. “[I]nterpretations of holy writings often determine what children may and may not learn”, writes Freeman (2009b), a fact which holds not only for “the daughters of the Taliban” but also “in many other regions, such as Pakistan. . . The concept of giftedness in such societies is more likely to be one that is morally and socially approved than any quality based on personal achievement” (398). Female underachievement has also been recognized in cultures markedly different from these examples, such as the United States. “[A]s of 2006, 32% of women, compared with 25% of men, in the 25–29-year-old age range held bachelor’s degrees . . . Nevertheless, these higher graduation rates and even better grades don’t result in equitable career and life successes” (Davis et al. 2011, 357). This phenomenon arises from a range of factors. For example: “Some research indicates that gifted girls believe it is a social disadvantage to be smart . . . Fearing their peers’ disapproval, bright young women may deliberately understate their abilities in order to avoid being seen as physically unattractive or lacking in social competence” (Reis and Hébert 2008, 279). Family attitudes also play an important role: “Parents may also send negative messages about how girls should act, how polite they should be, how they should dress, and how often they should speak out and in what situations” (ibid.). Each gifted female must be supported to translate her giftedness into achievement in the world. Speaking of her gifted female research participants, Reis (2005) states that each woman “developed over time a belief in herself and a desire to

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translate her potential into work that made a difference in the world or was a creative contribution in life. . . . Each [woman] wanted to contribute in some way, and believed that she had no choice in her actions, explaining that work was essential to her well-being and that ‘Something inside of me had to come out.’ In other words, they actively constructed their giftedness.” (227). The global success of the fourth Sustainable Development Goal requires that significant progress be made worldwide in challenging and altering cultural attitudes toward the talents and education of women and girls. All gifted children, male and female, must be enabled to “construct their giftedness” as concrete achievements. It seems unlikely that this task will be completed fully by the year 2030. Educators The challenges and complex needs of gifted children require that their teachers possess a broad range of competencies. Effective teachers of the gifted will be aware of the challenges faced by such students, which include both academic issues, such as intellectual frustration, and personal problems, such as feelings of isolation from peers: “Gifted students need specialized teachers to help them better understand their abilities, to deal with personal and social challenges, and to set appropriate goals” (Stronge 2018, 40). The frequent underachievement of gifted children is a tragic irony that points to multiple failures of identification and support. It is here that the complex range of influences affecting the development of gifted children is particularly clear. Gifted students are vulnerable to poor mental health to a significant extent. “As a general rule, the greater the gift, the greater is the counseling need” (Davis et al. 2011, 446). Some gifted children may hide their talents to fit in; others may, through boredom, develop poor study habits, refuse authority, and struggle with depression (447). Such children are highly complex persons for whom the company of adults, or older children, may be preferable to that of children their own age (451). Often, their precocious emotional depth leads to profound experiences of alienation (459). Gifted children may conflict with parents,

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siblings and peers, as well as teachers (Raut and Lim 2009, 75–76); some may underachieve to the point of leaving education completely: “[O]ne estimate is that between 18% and 25% of all dropouts are gifted” (Davis et al. 2011). Oftentimes, belligerence or apathy in a child is a sign of crisis and profound need. So far as practicable, appropriate mental health support must be provided by the school environment, ideally in tandem with efforts of parents and counselors, if such children are to avoid unduly suffering from the negative consequences of the very gifts which make them exceptional. Teachers should be trained in gifted education, “both to provide teachers with foundational skills and understandings and to dispel commonly held myths about gifted students” (Stronge 2018, 40.). Focusing on the importance of cultivating motivation, Rea (2009) outlines the role of teachers in maintaining their gifted pupils’ self-confidence, both in their ability to achieve particular goals and their “subjective reasons and benefits for choosing and continuing to achieve” (593). Gifted students who do not receive such nuanced support from their teachers are more likely to underachieve (Rimm 2009; Reis and Hébert 2008). In like manner, educators must also ensure the equitable representation of disabled children in gifted education programs. Pierson (2014) lists these “twice exceptional” persons (exceptional both for their gifts and their special needs) as one of the three groups of persons frequently under-identified for gifted programs (the other groups being females and children from minorities) (102–103). Twice exceptional students may have their special educational needs met but their giftedness overlooked, rendering their talents invisible to the education system (Montgomery 2006, 217–220). Reiterating the need to interpret accurately classroom behavior, the failure to identify twice exceptional students may occur “because social, emotional and behavioral problems become the focus, or because using persistence and compensatory strategies [such students] hide their difficulties” (218). It may also occur due to the use of too narrow a range of assessment attributes, meaning some children are tested only on attributes in which they

struggle, masking the child’s giftedness by an overfocus on their deficits (218). However, “[i]t is only in cultures that have a long history of concern for the gifted that the idea that disability and impairment can disguise and block exceptional talents is becoming active” (Freeman 2009a, 229). Those portions of the world in which “giftedness” and “disability” continue to be considered as mutually exclusive categories pose a significant challenge to the development of a fully inclusive and effective model of gifted education.

Overview by Region As the following overview shows, the global provision of quality education for gifted students is uneven, with some regions at high risk of falling significantly short of the requirements of the 2030 Agenda. Africa Maree’s (2018) assessment is blunt: “The future of gifted education in Africa looks bleak” (139). European historical influence has left deep scars on sub-Saharan Africa, a region where the question of the relationship between excellence and equity is posed in a particularly sharp form. Almost universally, countries are struggling to establish a basic level of education provision. The difficulties are vast in meeting even this initial challenge. In 2009, adult literacy rates were below 40% in many countries; in 2000 only “58% of children in sub-Saharan Africa were enrolled in primary school” (Maree and Westhuizen 2009, 1411). With justice, the continent’s focus has been on the UNESCO Education for All movement. The consequence of this focus for gifted education, however, has been negative, a situation compounded by the general view of gifted education as a divisive “colonial” concept (138; Maree and Westhuizen 2009). Such attitudes are changing, but slowly. “Only in the more Westernized cities would one find what is called ‘the new middle class’ of Black Africans who aspire to be like Americans or Europeans” (Wallace 2009, 34).

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“Despite the advances that have taken place in the national curricula of many African countries, gifted students in Africa seem to be no better off today than almost two decades ago” (Maree 2018, 132). Further, “[n]o African country has a national plan for gifted students or makes special provision for gifted students in classrooms” (136). Today, the continent has the African Gifted Foundation (AGF) and the African Federation for the Gifted and Talented (AFGT). However, “there is little evidence to suggest that either the AGF’s or the AFGT’s aims are being realized, or that these institutions are playing a meaningful role in the quest for the recognition, development, and support of gifted students in Africa” (132). South Africa fails to train its teachers to deal with gifted students (138), and its government failed to make mention of gifted students in its 2001 Education White Paper (137). Concerns have been raised about the absence of gifted education in Kenya, and in Nigeria the 1986 government blueprint for such education has resulted in nothing of substance (137). Gifted children in much of Africa are being either ignored or underserved by “large classes and high learner-to-teacher ratios, inadequate teacher training, minimal parental involvement, inadequate provision of teaching and learning resources, and a general lack of a teaching and learning culture” (Maree 2018, 138). Middle East Among Middle Eastern countries, Israel has the longest-established provision of gifted education, with all Arab countries beginning their provision around the year 2000 (David 2018, 113). Arab gifted education provision and research are strongly influenced by Western conceptions (Subhi-Yamin 2009, 1469). Given its recent start, and with some exceptions (Syria; the Palestinian Authority), significant advances in gifted education have been made by a number of Middle Eastern countries. For example, the United Arab Emirates has developed an impressive level of gifted education provision, driven by sustained investment in all aspects of education, including teacher training (David 2018, 120–122). Jordan’s Jubilee School is also noteworthy in this regard (David 2018, 119).

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Further examples reveal a more mixed picture. Despite a good general standard of education and having made “the largest advancement in gifted education in the Middle East in the last decade” (David 2018, 119), as of 2015 Lebanon had provisions for identifying and developing gifted students established in only 1% of its schools (120). Gifted education in Israel is marred by “considerable gaps,” including “a lack of professionalism, failure to meet its goals, and no studies showing that the 42-year investment in gifted education has resulted in any achievements” (118). In Saudi Arabia, the Ministry of Education “provides acceleration, grouping, and enrichment” for selected students (122), with gifted education programs in place for both genders (although a wide range of opportunities for females are a recent innovation) (123). However, despite significant investment, gifted education in Saudi Arabia has been criticized. Areas of concern requiring remedial attention are held to be “(a) the nature of the Saudi educational system, (b) the structure of curricula, and (c) the lack of appropriate teachers” (ibid., citing Alamer 2014). In Egypt, class density, centralized education, and rigid curricula are significant barriers to identifying and developing gifted students (Mohamed 2006, 297). Finally, gifted education in Oman is in its infancy, but attitudes are positive. The country has the potential to play a significant role in gifted education in the region (David 2018, 124). Indian Subcontinent A major challenge facing the Indian subcontinent is the problem of equity, i.e., “providing equal educational opportunities for all children” (Chan 2018, 78). India, for example, is “overwhelmed with the equity issue in allocating resources because of the large economic discrepancy among classes and ethnic groups” (ibid.). While gifted education in India does exist, it does so at a low level and in isolated locations, such as Jnana Probhodhini in Pune and Delhi University (Sandhu 2018, 227). Aside from these exceptions, gifted children are and have long been neglected in India, the “socioeconomic environment” of which “is debilitating for the majority of gifted children who make do within the mediocre school system, which is largely ill-equipped to

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recognize these children, let alone nurture exceptional potential” (Sandhu 2018, 238). Aside from these vast social, cultural, and infrastructure problems, the current state of gifted education in both India and surrounding nations is also ascribed in part to “deep-rooted public sentiments against elitism, including gifted education,” attitudes stemming from “fear of a return to the unequal educational opportunities during historical feudal times and even periods of colonization” (Chan 2018, 78). Much work remains to ensure gifted children in the Indian subcontinent do not continue to be neglected. Nepal is still focused on the essential tasks of developing healthcare and fighting poverty. Significant progress has been made in education, but its provision remains rudimentary in very many areas. “The net enrollment ratio . . . in primary education increased from 81 percent in 2000 to 96.6 percent in 2015 and the survival rate in primary education increased from 63 percent in 2000 to 89.4 percent in 2015” (Government of Nepal 2017, 3). A similar level of development is seen in Bangladesh, as of 2012, at which point the literacy rate was 28.5% for girls, 50.4% for boys, and 35.3% for adults (Government of Bangladesh 2012, 30). Such progress is encouraging, but these countries are far from developing gifted education programs to rival those of more affluent nations. East and Southeast Asia For those countries with sufficient educational infrastructure to receive it, the influence of Western conceptions of giftedness predominates across much of East and Southeast Asia, tempered and adapted by local cultural perspectives. Demonstrating the danger of simplistic distinctions between “Eastern” and “Western” conceptions of giftedness, Neihart and See (2009) point out that “until quite recently, equity was largely a concern of Western countries. Streaming has been the norm in much of Asia for generations” (58). A sharp divide exists between developed and developing Asian nations. Gifted education provision is impossible for countries still struggling to establish basic education infrastructure

(Neihart and See 2009, 58). “[C]ountries such as Vietnam, Cambodia, and Myanmar did not get out of wars immediately after the Second World War. That region continues to lag in educational development due to destruction from decades of war and to many unresolved political and social factors” (ibid.). Developed Asian countries have taken varied positions on how to balance excellence and equity. Generally speaking, Mainland China, Singapore, Korea, and Taiwan tend to prioritize excellence, while Japan and Hong Kong traditionally favor a more equitable approach; however, while Japan eschews gifted education in name, an established practice of “individualized” education fulfills the same basic function (Chan 2009, 1002–1003). Significant advances in gifted education have been made in Mainland China, including research into the neuropsychology of such children (Phillipson et al. 2009, 1429–30). However, China requires development of “a sound theoretical basis for giftedness research” (1430), alongside an increase in funding for both giftedness research and giftedness education (1430). In Taiwan, although the number of gifted children in suitable programs is increasing, “gifted students being served with special education are still under-represented. In addition, only 519 (13%) of Taiwan’s 3,989 schools formally provide programs to place gifted students” (1434). The growing diversity of the student body in Hong Kong is driving a “need to develop gifted programs that are based on indigenous conceptions of giftedness,” not simply adaptations of Western models (1443; Neihart and See 2009, 58). Traditionally, the Asian conception of giftedness has been narrow, though this appears to be changing. “Although a broadened notion of giftedness has been well received in Asia, the provision of gifted education programs is still invariably focused on a small set of domain-specific giftedness such as mathematics, science, and technology” (Chan 2018, 82). The hope is that the recent trend toward a broadening of this focus will continue.

Challenges of Equity and Discrimination in the Education of Gifted Children

South America The state of gifted education in South America is mixed, with many points of concern (Gallagher 2009). Avoiding support for the gifted (who are frequently “misconceived as a privileged elite”), past educational policies have tended to focus on disabled students, albeit with the damaging belief that disabled students cannot also be gifted (513). While recent years have seen awareness of the importance of gifted education grow across the continent, with multiple countries (e.g., Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela) developing legislation for gifted education provision, “little has occurred in practice, largely because of lack of funding” (ibid.). The principal obstacles faced by gifted education in the region include “misconceptions, lack of teacher preparation, insufficient investment into education, scarcity of services provided to gifted students, and values and beliefs that impede minority groups to realize their talents” (Alencar et al. 2009, 1492). It is evident not only that much academic research must be done to establish a clearer view of the contemporary situation in this region but also much practical work to advance sustainable programs of gifted education. Alencar et al. (2009) reported a lack of published research on gifted education in Argentina (1493). Also in 2009, while Chile’s PENTAUC program was considered the “most important initiative on gifted education in Chile, and possibly in the other Spanish-language countries of South America” (1493), other countries were not at the same stage of development. In Colombia at that time, “no effective mechanisms of systematic training for teachers” of gifted children existed, and “only a small number of public schools” had adequate measures in place (1495). Ecuador’s provision was reported to be only “preliminary” (1495). The recent study of Brazil by Alencar et al. (2018) provides further illustration, revealing a country still struggling to establish widespread gifted education provision, several decades after Law 5692 (1971), which contained explicit measures for its development (434). While progress

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has undoubtedly been made, predominant in Brazil is “a lack of knowledge and lack of organizational, institutional and pedagogical mechanisms for a more effective service for the gifted” (442). Europe, North America, and Others In Europe, the Western conception of giftedness is not universal. For example, the “Eastern-style approach to education . . . works well in the highly developed egalitarian countries of Scandinavia, notably Finland” (Tourón and Freeman 2018, 57). In these countries, in-school and out-ofschool enrichment programs are preferred (67), although evidence exists that Sweden and Denmark are developing more individualized service provision (57). In Germany, provision of individualized education is enshrined in law, and in addition to classes in mainstream schools, nationwide approximately 30 schools provide specialist gifted education (58). The United Kingdom operates a selective private school system, which educates 7% of the country’s children but supplies a disproportionately high number of its top achievers. A long-standing apparatus is in place to monitor standards in the state-maintained system (ibid.). As of 2003, Spanish law mandates provision for gifted and talented children (ibid.). Principal challenges facing the continent generally include funding uncertainties, short-term policies due to changes in governments, and the translation of policy into action in the classroom (67). Gifted education provision in the United States is varied, the issue purportedly a bellwether for macrocultural trends. “Federal attention to gifted education can be viewed as a pendulum which swings from interest to disinterest depending on the degree to which the nation feels vulnerable[.]” (Stephens 2008, 388). A lack of federal legal protection means gifted children “are not afforded the same safeguards as those children protected under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004” (387). The full effect of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) 2001 currently is unknown, but NCLB demonstrates the challenge of balancing equity and excellence. Given its requirement to ensure every child

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performs according to his or her grade, “many experts in the field of gifted education feel that NCLB gives schools every incentive to continue to ignore the needs of gifted students” (392), focusing instead on bringing all children up to a basic level of competence, at the expense of pushing the highly gifted to actualize their talents. The National Association for Gifted Children “State of the States” report (2015) reveals the patchwork nature of US gifted education. For example, funding is uneven, with some state education agencies providing no funding at all (7). States may determine their own definition of giftedness, which lends flexibility but brings inconsistency and omission, with few state definitions including specific populations, such as culturally and ethnically diverse, or low socioeconomic status students (13). The practice of identifying gifted students, where it exists at all, is also inconsistent (14). In Canada, gifted education is administered by individual provinces and territories, with no nationwide framework in place, although the Council of Ministers of Education Canada facilitates dialogue between provinces and territories. The provision of gifted education is generally well advanced. “Gifted education in Canada is evolving in response to research-driven findings in order to meet the needs of exceptional learners.” (Foster et al. 2009, 114). However, challenges remain. “Very few students of Aboriginal ancestry are included in programs for gifted learners, and there is still much to learn about the conceptions of giftedness held among the individual cultural groups in Canada” (115). Gifted education in Australia and New Zealand is generally well established (LeaWood 2009). In both countries the field has expanded at the state and national levels (Kronborg 2018, 93). Despite an “egalitarian mantra” in both countries, a significant portion of successful gifted education “takes place in selective environments, especially at the secondary level” (94). In Australia, “states and territories promote a whole-school approach to gifted education in which schools and teachers are encouraged to provide a challenging and

enriched differentiated curriculum” (79). Though traditionally wary of practices such as acceleration, attitudes in Australia are changing (ibid.).

Conclusion While some countries have established impressive gifted education programs, in many parts of the world, gifted children are being ignored or underserved. Several countries have not yet developed a sufficiently functional education infrastructure that would allow for the development of gifted education. Where such infrastructure does exist, however, in many cases inadequate conditions for the identification and development of gifted children are compounded by a complex variety of discriminatory, exclusionist, or inhibitory practices. In sum, urgent, sustained, multi-agency action is required if the present situation is not to undermine the realization of the fourth Sustainable Development Goal.

Cross-References ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

References Alamer SM (2014) Challenges facing gifted students in Saudi Arabia. Res Humanit Soc Sci 24(4):107–113 Alencar EMLS, Fleith DS, Arancibia V (2009) Gifted education and research on giftedness in South America. In: Shavinina LV (ed) International handbook on giftedness. Part One. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1491–1506 Alencar EMLS, Fleith DS, Carneiro LB (2018) Gifted education in Brazil: historical background, current practices and research trends. In: Wallace B, Sisk DA, Senior J (eds) The SAGE handbook of gifted and talented education. SAGE, London, pp 432–445 Callahan CM (2009) Giftedness, definition. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 387–390 Chan DW (2009) China, gifted education. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 135–136

Challenges of Equity and Discrimination in the Education of Gifted Children Chan DW (2018) Gifted education in Asia. In: Pfeiffer SI, Shaunessy-Dedrick E, Foley-Nicpon M (eds) APA handbook of giftedness and talent. APA handbooks in psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 71–84 Chilisa B (2013) Indigenous African-centered ethics: contesting and complementing dominant models. In: Mertens DM, Ginsberg PE (eds) The handbook of social research ethics. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 407–425 Cushner KH, McClelland A, Safford P (2015) Human diversity in education: an intercultural approach, 8th edn. McGraw-Hill Education, New York Dai DY (2013) Excellence at the cost of social justice? Negotiating and balancing priorities in gifted education. Roeper Rev 35(2):93–101 David H (2018) Gifted education in the Middle East. In: Pfeiffer SI, Shaunessy-Dedrick E, Foley-Nicpon M (eds) APA handbook of giftedness and talent. APA handbooks in psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 113–129 Davis GA, Rimm SB, Siegle D (2011) Education of the gifted and talented, 6th edn. Pearson, Upper Saddle River Eriksson G (2006) Introduction: applying multicultural and global education principles to the education of diverse gifted and talented children. In: Wallace B, Eriksson G (eds) Diversity in gifted education: international perspectives on global issues. Routledge, New York, pp 1–8 Foster JF, Porath M, Smyth E (2009) Canada, gifted education. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 113–116 Freeman J (2009a) Cultural conceptions of giftedness. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 228–229 Freeman J (2009b) Global issues. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 398–400 Gallagher RM (2009) Latin America/South America, gifted education. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 513–520 Gordon EW, Bridglall BL (2005) Nurturing talent in gifted students of color. In: Sternberg RJ, Davidson JE (eds) Conceptions of giftedness, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 120–146 Government of Bangladesh (2012) Rio + 20: national report on sustainable development. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Dhaka. Retrieved from: https://sustainablede velopment.un.org/vnrs/?fbclid=IwAR31cAmEu_SMLYqvSWl8r7JnxnS5t9ZBCOej8zZ4fQe32C0VkVVcp-gpoo Government of Nepal (2017) National review of sustainable development goals. National Planning Commission, Singhdurbar. Retrieved from: https://sustainablede velopment.un.org/vnrs/?fbclid=IwAR31cAmEu_SMLYqvSWl8r7JnxnS5t9ZBCOej8zZ4fQe32C0VkVVcp -gpoo Horowitz FD (2009) Introduction: a developmental understanding of giftedness and talent. In: Horowitz

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FD, Subotnik RF, Matthews DJ (eds) The development of giftedness and talent across the life span. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 3–19 Kronborg L (2018) Gifted education in Australia and New Zealand. In: Pfeiffer SI, Shaunessy-Dedrick E, Foley-Nicpon M (eds) APA handbook of giftedness and talent. APA handbooks in psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 85–96 Lea-Wood SS (2009) Australia, gifted education. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 79–80 Maree JG (2018) Gifted education in Africa. In: Pfeiffer SI, Shaunessy-Dedrick E, Foley-Nicpon M (eds) APA handbook of giftedness and talent. APA handbooks in psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 131–142 Maree JG, Westhuizen CN (2009) Giftedness and diversity: research and education in Africa. In: Shavinina LV (ed) International handbook on giftedness. Part One. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1409–1425 Mohamed AHH (2006) Egypt: the challenges of gifted and talented education in the Arab Republic of Egypt. In: Wallace B, Eriksson G (eds) Diversity in gifted education: international perspectives on global issues. Routledge, New York, pp 296–298 Mönks FJ, Katzko MW (2005) Giftedness and gifted education. In: Sternberg RJ, Davidson JE (eds) Conceptions of giftedness, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 187–200 Montgomery D (2006) Double exceptionality: gifted children with special educational needs in ordinary schools. In: Wallace B, Eriksson G (eds) Diversity in gifted education: international perspectives on global issues. Routledge, New York, pp 216–225 National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), The Council of State Directors of Programs for the Gifted (CSDPG) (2015) 2014–2015 state of the states in gifted education. Policy and practice data. Summary. November 2015. National Association for Gifted Children, Washington, DC Neihart M, See TL (2009) Asia, gifted education. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 54–59 Ngara C, Porath M (2004) Shona culture of Zimbabwe’s views of giftedness. High Abil Stud 15(2):189–209 Peters SJ, Engerrand KG (2016) Equity and excellence: proactive efforts in the identification of underrepresented students for gifted and talented services. Gifted Child Quarterly 60(3):159–171 Phillipson SN, McCann M (eds) (2007) Conceptions of giftedness: sociocultural perspectives. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, Mahwah Phillipson SN, Shi J, Zhang G, Tsai D-M, Quek CG, Matsumura N, Cho S (2009) Recent developments in gifted education in East Asia. In: Shavinina LV (ed) International handbook on giftedness. Part one. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1427–1461

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78 Pierson MR (2014) Gifted education in the United States: perspectives of gender equity. J Gender Power 1(1): 99–110 Plucker JA, Peters SJ (2018) Closing poverty-based excellence gaps: conceptual, measurement, and educational issues. Gift Child Q 62(1):56–67 Raut P, Lim KK (2009) Attitudes toward gifted. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 75–77 Rea D (2009) Motivating gifted students. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 592–594 Reis SM (2005) Feminist perspectives on talent development. In: Sternberg RJ, Davidson JE (eds) Conceptions of giftedness, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 217–245 Reis SM, Hébert TP (2008) Gender and giftedness. In: Pfeiffer SI (ed) Handbook of giftedness in children. Springer, Boston, pp 271–291 Rimm S (2009) Underachievement. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 911–914 Robinson A, Clinkenbeard PR (2008) History of giftedness: perspectives from the past presage modern scholarship. In: Pfeiffer SI (ed) Handbook of giftedness in children. Springer, Boston, pp 13–31 Sandhu IK (2018) Unlocking giftedness: an introduction to giftedness for teachers in India. In: Kapur V, Ghose S (eds) Dynamic learning spaces in education. Springer Nature, Singapore, pp 227–245 Simonton DK (2009) Gifts, talents, and their societal repercussions. In: Shavinina LV (ed) International handbook on giftedness. Part One. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 905–912 Stephens KR (2008) Applicable federal and state policy, law, and legal considerations in gifted education. In: Pfeiffer SI (ed) Handbook of giftedness in children. Springer, Boston, pp 387–408 Stronge JH (2018) Qualities of effective teachers, 3rd edn. ASCD, Alexandria Subhi-Yamin T (2009) Gifted education in the Arabian gulf and the middle eastern regions: history, current practices, new directions, and future trends. In: Shavinina LV (ed) International handbook on giftedness. Part One. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1463–1490 Sutherland M, Smith TA, Tungaraza F, Stack N (2017) Navigating the shifting terrain between policy and practice for gifted learners in Tanzania. In: Sumida M, Taber KS (eds) Policy and practice in science education for the gifted: approaches from diverse national contexts. Routledge, Abingdon/New York, pp 48–63 Tourón J, Freeman J (2018) Gifted education in Europe: implications for policymakers and educators. In: Pfeiffer SI, Shaunessy-Dedrick E, Foley-Nicpon M (eds) APA handbook of giftedness and talent. APA handbooks in psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 55–70 Wallace B (2009) Africa, gifted education. In: Kerr B (ed) Encyclopedia of giftedness, creativity, and talent. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, pp 34–35

Challenges to Achieve Quality Education for All in the 2030 Agenda, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and Learning Theories Alejandro Molina-Garcia1 and Josefina Martinez-Ponce2 1 Medical School, Vasco de Quiroga University, Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico 2 Dentistry Service, Ministry of Health, Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico

Definition Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an existing and widely deployed technology that can be mobilized to increase the pace and scale of transformation. The central role of ICT is delivering innovative, integrated, cross-sectoral sustainable development outcomes. The key accelerator technology that can move off the business-as-usual (BAU) path is information and communication technology (ICT)—notably mobile broadband—which has demonstrated the fastest, most global technology uptake in human history. In the future, rapid innovation around the Internet of Things, advanced robotics, artificial intelligence, and large data promise further substantial gains across the entire global economy (Broadband Commission 2014). To illustrate the potential of ICT to drive and accelerate progress on the sustainable development goals (SDGs) beyond business-as-usual (BAU), broadband is a key enabling infrastructure for all aspects of the economy in four key SDG focus areas: health, education, financial services, and energy and climate change. ICT offers potential for widespread, accelerated uptake by reducing the unit costs of service delivery; expanding the range of services that can be offered; economizing on scarce resources (ICT can be used to upskill local workers, who can be trained online rather than having to send a trainer to a physical location); and accelerating institutional learning through online communities (The Earth Institute Columbia University and Ericsson 2017).

Challenges to Achieve Quality Education for All in the 2030 Agenda

Introduction Embarking on the path of sustainable development will require a profound transformation in thinking, actions, and solutions. To create a more sustainable world and to engage with sustainability-related issues as described in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), individuals must become sustainability change-makers (United Nations 2015). These individuals require the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that empower them to contribute to sustainable development. Education, therefore, is crucial for the achievement of sustainable development. However, not all types of education support sustainable development. Education that promotes economic growth alone may well also lead to an increase in unsustainable consumption patterns. The now well-established approach of education for sustainable development (ESD) empowers learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations. ESD aims at developing competencies that empower individuals to reflect on their own actions, taking into account their current and future social, cultural, economic, and environmental impacts, from both a local and a global perspective. Individuals should also be empowered to act in complex situations in a sustainable manner, which may require them to strike out in new directions, and to participate in sociopolitical processes, moving their societies toward sustainable development. ESD is understood as an integral part of quality education, inherent in the concept of lifelong learning. All educational institutions—from preschool to tertiary education and in formal and informal education—can and should consider it their responsibility to be intensively concerned with matters of sustainable development and to foster the development of sustainability competencies. ESD provides an education that matters and is truly relevant to every learner in the light of today’s challenges. ESD is holistic and transformational education that addresses learning content and outcomes, pedagogy, and the learning environment. Thus, ESD not only integrates content such as climate change, poverty, and

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sustainable consumption into the curriculum, it also creates interactive, learner-centered teaching and learning settings. What ESD requires is a shift from teaching to learning. ESD asks for an action-oriented, transformative pedagogy that supports self-directed learning, participation and collaboration, problem orientation, inter- and transdisciplinary learning, and the linking of formal and informal learning. Only such pedagogical approaches make possible the development of the key competencies needed for promoting sustainable development. International recognition of ESD as a key enabler for sustainable development has been growing steadily. ESD was acknowledged as such at the three seminal global sustainable development summits: the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), also in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ESD is recognized in other key global agreements, such as the Paris Agreement (article 12). The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014) (DESD) aimed at integrating the principles and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning. It also aimed to encourage changes in knowledge, values, and attitudes with the vision of enabling a more sustainable and just society for all. The Global Action Program (GAP) on ESD, which was endorsed by the UNESCO 37th General Conference (November 2013), acknowledged by UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/69/211 and launched on 12 November 2014 at the UNESCO World Conference on ESD in AichiNagoya, Japan, strives to scale up ESD, building on the DESD. ESD is explicitly recognized in the SDGs as part of Target 4.7 of the SDG 4 on education, together with Global Citizenship Education (GCED), which UNESCO promotes as a complementary approach. At the same time, it is important to emphasize the crucial importance of ESD for all the other 16 SDGs (United Nations 2017). With its overall aim to develop cross-cutting sustainability competencies in learners, ESD is an essential contribution to all efforts to achieve the

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SDGs, enabling individuals to contribute to sustainable development by promoting societal, economic, and political change as well as by transforming their own behavior. ESD can produce specific cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral learning outcomes that enable individuals to handle the particular challenges of each SDG, thus facilitating its achievement. In short, ESD enables all individuals to not only to understand what the SDGs are but to contribute to achieving the SDGs by equipping them with the knowledge and competencies they need. Also, thus they can engage as informed citizens in bringing about the necessary transformation with ICT spreading in the middle and least developing countries (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 2015). To achieve quality education in the four SDGs, it will be necessary to update on information and communication technologies (ICTs); the models for learning–teaching processes theories; the learning main components focused on innovating education systems and the challenges to engagement with this SDG; and, finally, some conclusions in this relationship between ICT, SDG 4, and learning theories.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Models for Learning–Teaching Processes Theories in Primary Schools UNESCO established, concerning education, Sustainable Development Goal 4, Quality Education (SDG 4), so that world citizens can use technology to increase access, improve quality, and gather data to ensure that every child is getting the education they need and deserve. The need is to understand the development of ICTs for education policies and the connection of these policies with their overall rights to education. What is education as a human right? It might seem obvious to make this statement, but unfortunately, it is still not perceived by citizens overall that education is a journey. Countries and people who understand that education is a favor that their governments or that politicians offer to them realize that it is not a favor at all, but a right.

It is shown in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 26, which was later regulated by the International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, article 13, and after those two ground-breaking declarations and pacts, almost all other conventions on human rights that were approved by the member states of the United Nations later on included education as a key component. To mention only two: the Convention of the Rights of the Child, stating education is everywhere, and the Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities, again, education is everywhere. A first important point is that education is a human right. Understanding that will have strong consequences in how education policies are built. A key element here is empowering citizens of all ages to lead sustainable development, consolidate democracies, and protect and promote human rights. Education as a human right is an enabler of the entire 2030 Agenda. To obtain that level, citizens not only will be beneficiaries of this agenda; they will build alliances in accomplishing the agenda. What is different in understanding education as a human right? To go beyond access: of course, access is important in every level, as primary, secondary, tertiary, vocational, and lifelong learning. There is a need to really talk about inclusion, about equality, about quality of education, and then different tools such as ICTs would be crucial to get to that point, to reach those targets, to reach those overall objectives. How to achieve the 2030 Agenda? There is a path dependence to this: there is a precedent in the international community to build the key elements. In 1990, UNESCO convened their member states and they approved the Jomtein Declaration, which was an initial step to state and implement education as a human right. A few years later, UNESCO commissioned a very important report with a very interesting name, “Learning: the Treasure Within.” Education is a treasure. When that is embedded in policies, Jacques Delors underlined key elements: four pillars. What is education? Pillar one: it is learning to know; pillar two: it is learning to do; pillar three: it is learning to live all together, learning to live with others; and the fourth pillar is learning to be. Again, this seems simple, but it is not, because this is not an instrumental view of

Challenges to Achieve Quality Education for All in the 2030 Agenda

education. It is not education for mathematics, or education for learning languages, or education for science; nor is it education for having better human beings. It is education for human rights, and this is a completely different perspective. The Millennium Development Goals were still very much concentrated in a very important key issue, but a limited one. Access to primary education was goal number 2 of the Millennium Development Agenda. Here, when member states started discussing this new agenda, the 2030 Agenda, it was realized that it was needed to go much further than access. Looking at the SDG 4, the seven targets and the three implementing targets as well, this realization was connected with a broader view that started and was discussed in the World Education Forum in India and South Korea at the beginning of 2015. The later Incheon Declaration is very bold: it tackles all those different angles of understanding education as a human right, as a different policy, and there is even a framework for action. A few weeks later, in Qingdao in China, member states decided on key elements that were pointed out in the SDG 4, but there is a need to go further with the tools. In Qingdao, they said technologies are important here, but not technologies only as a pedagogical element. They talked about access, they talked about openness, and they talked about governance. This summarized idea is their understanding of education not as a commodity, not as a private service: it is education as a public good. This understanding is ground breaking. But how to measure that? What is the indicator for understanding education in the public good? How can citizens of a particular country say whether the country understands education as a public good? One good indicator is the budget. If governments are serious about education, they need to fund education. Now, what is the connection of ICTs with this overall objective, this sustainable development goal 4? ICTs in general, see with different perspective toward the 2030 agenda. Technologies can be, if implemented correctly, a wonderful tool to enable and foster development. However, technology also can be a problem, also can be an obstacle, also can be a risk if it is not handled correctly.

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To discuss education and technology with this perspective, the first step is to understand that technology is embedded in the history of education from the very beginning, when our ancestors were painting caves and friends, many years ago: they had an education purpose to share knowledge, to leave the knowledge they were learning to their children and future generations. Later on, when the Sumerians were using tablets, called tablets, by the way, a thousand years ago to define their initial writing, they were also using technology for education, a different kind of technology. If you look from that point 4000 years ago to the present day, different technologies have helped to foster education and it is very important to understand that these did not start yesterday. Of course, a new kind of revolution was initiated in the past 30 years and it will keep increasing. To discussion the impact of artificial intelligence and large data and algorithms and education, but with this historical perspective, is very important. Moreover, in the past 30 years, ICT for education policies has been concentrated in three basic elements: infrastructure, teacher capacity, and digital content. Thinking in ICT for education is in a much broader and complex ecosystem. The real issue is not technology: the real issues are people. Every single human being is a stakeholder who can make decisions toward a particular policy—decision makers, policymakers, teachers, students, parents, international organizations—and the real question is whether how the technology is dispensed really necessary for this? However, is it what education offers to children, to youth, and to adults important? A clear answer to that question is that technology will not make the difference. The real element here is that technology is important. ICTs can really be a very important tool so long as the type of education is necessary to offer to everyone. Information and communication technologies are crucial for education, Goal 4.0. Because education is a powerful catalyst for achieving other SDGs, ICTs and education can help all types of learners by breaking down some of the economic, geographic, gender, and accessibility barriers that they encounter. Through the use of mobile devices

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that allow students to access learning assets anytime, anywhere, technology is opening up a whole new world of learning to many around the world. In the same way, ICT can help teachers to do everything from literacy and numerical training to interactive tutoring. The policy issues addressed by the new Agenda require the use of new data sources for measuring the SDGs. The integration of data and information sources, which will in turn require new approaches to data validation and quality assurance, makes a great difference in this area. In this sense, ICTs and the data revolution have an important role in measuring progress toward achieving the SDGs. The Agenda set 17 goals, 169 targets, and 232 indicators to monitor and measure progress in implementing these goals. Thus, each goal has a set of universally applicable targets while the indicators reveal quantitative or qualitative data. How the evolution of ICT for education policies can show us the way forward is based in best past experiences. ICT should reshape current policies to achieve better education for all. We summarize some of the lessons of these past 30 years of ICT for education policies. Although there are more, we summarize here ten lessons that should really be kept in mind. First: infrastructure is important, but it is and should be more than distributing devices. When talking about the infrastructures in ICT for education, it is about local challenges. Okay, you distribute the devices, but do you have electrical power and Internet connectivity in the schools where you are sending the computers, the tablets? Do you have the possibility of later replacing equipment that goes wrong or needs upgrading, etc.? A strategy for infrastructure really should be a broader one and should be much more than distributing computers, tablets, and other devices to the children. Second lesson: training teachers is key, but “how” this must be in the center of the agenda is another important element. Teachers must be trained, but the “how” is the big question in why it is important. Most ICT for education policies on this planet thinks that offering a 40-h training for the teachers and then forgetting it is enough, and it is not enough because this technology is changing

every day. How to develop a strategy for initial training of teachers? even the pre-service children’s teachers, those who are still in education schools, those are still in the faculties of education in different modules, in tertiary education all over the planet, and then all the millions of teachers who are already working in our different schools, either the primary, secondary, or tertiary, or vocational schools. It is a pre-service training, an ongoing training, and it is much more than the beginning of giving ICT for education policies. A key element here is that it should to involve the teachers in building the strategies for their own capacity building. As the third element, digital content is of utmost importance, but it needs to go beyond the idea that developing a pedagogical content to teach biology, a new virus in three dimensions, is enough. Here it is about creativity, diversity, multilingualism. All those elements must be tackled when it is producing digital content for an ICT for education policy. Fourth element: not even the most sophisticated technology in the universe will save a failed education policy. Again, back to the beginning. ICT for education is one tree in this huge forest of education policies, and there is a need to understand the connection, to understand the roots and the relationships in this ecosystem. Doing that, understanding the forest of education, then this tree, this particular tree of ICT for education, will make a lot of difference. Fifth lesson: building together is the key, to involve children, teenagers, youth, adults, every citizen. Digital citizenship is a daily life story. Everyone is dealing with ICT in every second of our lives. There is always something to say. There are some ideas on how this can improve the educational experience, and therefore, we will be building that together. Sixth lesson: a new role for educators. This is quite important. Getting back to training teachers, but not only teachers, everyone who wears an education hat at some point. It is no longer about transmitting information: it is about curating it. It is about facilitating the process of knowledge, sharing of knowledge, production of knowledge creation, translation of the knowledge, and this is

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crucial. Those curators should have the skills of enhancing the opportunities ICTs offer every day, but also they should be able to help each student to mitigate the risks. This new role is important. Seventh element: to teach the code, to teach this new language with an ethical perspective in the hotspot. Sometimes ministers of education need to teach the code. They need to include coding, algorithms in the heart of education. There is no necessity that every child be a programmer. “Tell them, look, teach Spanish and there is no expectancy that every teacher to be Gabriel Garcia Marquez.” Here, the problem is the coding, is a language that everyone, regardless if citizens are going to be programmers in the future, needs to understand, to understand this new language as everyone understands English, Chinese, Russian, Portuguese, whatever our modern language is. Eighth lesson: empowering everyone via media and information literacy perspective is crucial. People need to understand what is behind the scenes. They need to understand how the Internet works. They need to understand the risks, they need to understand how a search machine works, and how understanding that can improve experiences as in searching for knowledge in a way that is safer, that avoids misinformation, that avoids the disinformation. Ninth lesson: good governance. ICTs for education can also be an important e-government tool for authorities concerned with the improvement of education policies. How can those tools help us to have more efficient, more accountable educational policies? How they can help to improve monitoring and evaluation within the education sector is relevant here. Tenth lesson: transparency of using education or resources, all of this can improve with the use of ICTs. The issue here is not about the tool; the issue here is not about the device. The issue here is about education. What education is necessary for children, for senior adults, and for vulnerable populations? If is not possible to answer that question, the ICT for education policies will not make the difference. Keeping those ten lessons in mind, we can build a good roadmap to discuss what can be the new technologies. The point is not to invest a lot

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because new gadgets, technologies, and platforms appear every day. The message here is that if you have a good roadmap, if you had a good compass, regardless of the new technology that is appearing tomorrow, and that can be more or less more effective for education, you can make an informed decision as a policy maker, as a decision maker in the area of education, in the new things such as the Internet of Things and artificial intelligence, in addition to the large data. Some key elements to acknowledge. First, many things are largely unknown yet. There is much to be discussed in those areas, more than that seen previously. Here are discussed new ground-breaking technologies and their impacts on earlier education. We are learning with our successful stories, but also with our mistakes with similar elements in the past. Local context matters greatly: one size does not fit all in this context. Smart cities is our overarching concept where education is so important, but it is different to be a smart city in the Amazon region, in Europe, in the US, in Asia, wherever you are. This discussion is more comprehensive locally. You need to see the historical backgrounds of your city, of your community, of your country. So all of those different things, artificial intelligence, big data, Internet of Things, virtual reality, for which purpose is necessary, must relate to the local experience. For which education it is necessary that risks, opportunities, and ethical elements are considered. Then, you can have other startup developments such as edutainment, gamification, and the homoludicus; this is very important for education. Nevertheless, not only now—it was always important—this idea of playing is in the very heart of most of the interesting educational pedagogical tools and you cannot avoid this. There are wonderful examples worldwide. In cities in South Africa, and in many parts of the world, ‘Sesame Street’ is used for early childhood education. It is quite well documented that if you have not a strategy that can work, in this image you can see the impact of when you have a good edutainment strategy in early childhood education. Again, the real difference here was not the technology. Technology entertainment was important,

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but because they have a strategy before that, a strategy to empower zero to six children. As this is so hugely relevant for the next several years, to have that key message again, technology will not make the difference. So just to mention, organizations such as UNESCO have several tools that can help you, whether policy maker, decision maker, NGO leader, or education leader, with this; there is something called the internet of the universality indicators, a median information literacy curriculum, an ICT competence framework for teachers, toolkits, policy papers, and technical assistance (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 2017). Humans have learned a lot in the past 4000 years trying to develop strategies to better educating human beings in this plane, learned with our success stories, but also with our mistakes. Therefore, the first lesson is not to reinvent the wheel. Although ICT is in many cases a new tree in the forest, the ecosystem must improve based on experience. Learning and ICTs are included in the entire educational system. Another important element: it is crucial to understand that the topic is about ICT for education, but also education for ICTs. It is fundamental to foster opportunities offered by this Brave New World and to mitigate the risks also offered by the same world. Finally, no one can be left behind. Everyone should be included in those strategies, and ICTs can help greatly with that (National Council for Science and the Environment 2017). None of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals or SDGs (the internationally agreed framework for tackling poverty, inequality, disease, and climate change) can be achieved without the contribution of education through teaching, research, and community engagement (University World News 2019). There is no precise model in learning–teaching processes for primary school or basic education. Most of the learning paradigms or concepts are used less or more, mixed inclusively in basic education. A hypertextual concept map of established learning theories designed by Richard Millwood shows 13 scientific disciplines and concepts with 30 learning theorists and 31 learning paradigms or “world views.” This is not an exhaustive review

around the world, but is necessarily a reduction of a complete picture of learning theories (Holistic Approach to Technology Enhanced Learning 2019). To apply teaching–learning strategies in primary school, it is necessary to know the advances in neurosciences (sense perception) and their effects on cognition and learning, attention, memory, emotions and feelings, motivation and behavior, reasoning, awareness, metacognition, and the development of executive functions. Laura Frade mentions that competent performance depends on the development and maturation of the cerebral cortex (structure, functioning, and connections), thus achieving quality in cognition. This maturation occurs at approximately 9 years in girls, and at 11 years in boys, as well as the cognitive development of reasoning and affective executive functions. Neurobiology has allowed us to understand how early experiences affect brain development (Frade 2014). The foundations of a successful society begin in childhood. With a good start in the early ages of childhood, the foundations are created to achieve good academic results, economic productivity, responsible citizens, long lives, strong communities, and the ability to parent the following generations (Black et al. 2016). Learning theory has been a contested scientific field for most of its history, with conflicting contributions from many scientific disciplines, practices, and policy positions. With the continuing and disruptive influence of technology on information, knowledge, and practice in all sectors of society, it is no wonder that innovators, drawn to the interactive potential that computers bring to learning, are challenged by the theoretical basis for their innovations. Formal education is also a high stakes, culturally and institutionally conservative activity that serves more than one societal purpose, including learner development and fulfillment; childcare; preparation for citizenship, parenthood, and retirement; preparation for work; and selection for jobs. Even in the higher, informal, and professional sectors of education, complexity of education is matched by complexity of learning outcomes, which may include skills development; knowledge

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acquisition; improvement in strategic, analytical, and creative capacities; attainment of competence; and establishment of attitudes and values. Each of these societal purposes and these learning outcomes demands different approaches and understanding for the theorist and may develop at varying rates or be found to be diverse in relationship to context, location, and culture (Holistic Approach to Technology Enhanced Learning 2019). ESD is about empowering and motivating learners to become active sustainability citizens who are capable of critical thinking and able to participate in shaping a sustainable future. Pedagogical approaches that are adequate to this aim are learner centered, action oriented, and transformative. The pedagogical approaches represent the general character or guiding principles of designing learning processes in ESD; specific methods in line with these principles facilitate the learning process. In ESD, methods that foster competencies through active learning are favored. These participatory teaching and learning methods empower learners to take action for sustainable development. When teaching and learning methods are chosen for a specific setting, they have to match the needs of the learner group (e.g., based on age, prior knowledge, interests, abilities); the context in which the learning takes place (e.g., space in the curriculum, pedagogical climate, cultural traditions); and the resources and support available (e.g., teacher competencies, teaching materials, technology, money). The UNESCO recommends action-oriented learning. Learners engage in action and reflect on their experiences in terms of the intended learning process and personal development. The experience might come from a project (in-service learning), an internship, the facilitation of a workshop, the implementation of a campaign, etc. (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 2017). Action learning refers to Kolb’s theory of the experiential learning cycle with the following stages: (1) having a concrete experience, (2) observing and reflecting, (3) forming abstract concepts for generalization, and (4) applying them in new situations (Kolb 1984a). Action learning increases

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knowledge acquisition, competency development, and values clarification by linking abstract concepts to personal experience and the learner’s life. The role of the educator is to create a learning environment that prompts learners’ experiences and reflexive thought processes. Recently, in the High Level Political Forum from UN SDGs, where the Quality Education SDG was discussed, learning is a United Nations initiative that aims to bring relevant and curated learning solutions on sustainable development topics to individuals and organizations. Through the collaborative efforts of the United Nations, multilateral organizations, and sustainable development partners from universities, civil society, academia, and the private sector, the UN SDG “Learn” provides a unique gateway that empowers individuals and organizations through an informed decision when selecting among a wealth of SDGrelated learning products and services that are currently available (United Nations 2019). In key SDG interventions by transformations, education builds human capital, which in turn promotes economic growth, the elimination of extreme poverty, decent work, and overcoming gender and other inequalities. This transformation comprises three sets of interventions to promote education and gender equality and to lower inequalities. First, countries need to expand and transform education systems. Early childhood development boosts the cognitive and emotional development of children with persistent effects into adulthood, but has been underinvested in many countries, including highincome economies. Universal quality primary and secondary school education is the backbone of education systems. It requires enhanced teacher training, curriculum development, and continuous evaluation of learning outcomes, as offered by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Program for International Student Assessment. Vocational training, school-to-work programs, and higher education are underdeveloped in most countries, despite the fact that they improve the school-to-work transition, increase lifetime earnings, and reduce inequalities. Together, these interventions build human capital, which directly

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targets SDGs 4 (education), 5 (gender equality), and 10 (reduced inequalities) (Sachs et al. 2019).

Learning Main Components, Innovating Education Systems, and the Challenges to Achieve the SDG 4 The UN SDG 4 states that ‘learn’ consists of three main components: the Platform, The Partnership, and The Program. The Platform: The web-based Platform is a gateway that matches learners’ needs with learning solutions offered by UN SDG: Learn Partner organizations targeting diverse audiences from government officials, UN staff, private sector executives and employees, parliamentarians, NGO workers, young people, journalists, and citizens at large. The Platform enables a smart navigation through the growing wealth of various learning solutions including courses, tutorials, podcasts, analytical and other tools, and the expertise on topics related to SDG achievement. The Partnership: The Partnership ensures that the Platform becomes a key resource and the main gateway for SDG learning. Learning is powered by a community of practitioners that bring together the main providers of learning solutions on the SDGs from the UN, academia and universities, and the private sector. The Partners network engages in regular exchange on learning methodologies, tools, curricula, and courses relevant for SDG learning. The Program: The Program features and offer joint learning initiatives that will be co-designed as part of the UN SDG: Learn Partnership to ensure integrated learning support to countries. UN SDG: Learn is ultimately about allowing the UN family to work in collaboration with key partners and reach out to millions of people whose professional and personal learning choices will make a difference to achieve the SDGs (United Nations 2019). Education empowers people to develop knowledge and skills that nurture new ideas and technologies. Education therefore is a catalyst for broader change and is critically important for driving progress toward sustainable development. Education must benefit from technological innovation to

develop resources that improve its effectiveness and efficiency. Access to new technologies can and should provide the education sector with the means to innovate education systems and expand the access to better quality education for all. What matters even more is how innovative technology is used in the classroom by teachers to facilitate and encourage student learning beyond simple knowledge acquisition, and to nurture a culture that values learning. Integrated technological solutions that can substantially contribute to the achievement of the SDGs exist today. Policy action is however urgently needed to bring these solutions to the market and deploy them at scale (The Global Sustainable Technology & Innovation Conference 2019). Main Messages: Schooling is not the same as learning. Schooling without learning is not just a wasted opportunity but also a great injustice. There is nothing inevitable about low levels of learning in low- and middle-income countries. The Three Dimensions of the Learning Crisis: The first dimension of the crisis is the poor learning outcomes themselves. The second dimension of the learning crisis is its immediate causes: Children arrive unprepared to learn. Teachers often lack the skills or motivation to teach effectively. Inputs often fail to reach classrooms or to affect learning. Poor management and governance often undermine schooling quality. The third dimension of the crisis is its deeper systemic causes. The three policy actions to address the crisis: assess learning, to make it a serious goal. Act on evidence, to make schools work for learners. Align actors, to make the system work for learning (The World Bank 2018).

Conclusions Integrated technological solutions address multiple sustainable development challenges across disciplines and sectors and cover aspects of health, housing, food, water, education, energy, and climate at the same time. These solutions also take the environmental, social, and economic dimensions into account. The United Nations reports that, despite considerable progress in education access and

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participation during past years, more than 50% of children and adolescents are not meeting minimum proficiency standards in reading and mathematics. Access to new technologies should provide the education sector with the means to innovate education systems and expand the access to better quality education for all. What matters even more is how innovative technology is used in the classroom by teachers to facilitate and encourage student learning beyond simple knowledge acquisition and to nurture a culture that values learning. ESD can contribute to achieving the SDGs by, first, developing cross-cutting sustainability competencies that are needed to handle many different sustainability challenges and to relate the different SDGs to each other. Second, ESD can equip learners with the specific cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral learning outcomes that enable them to handle the particular challenges of each SDG. To make it possible for everyone around the world to take action in favor of the SDGs, all educational institutions must consider it their responsibility to approach sustainable development issues intensively, to foster the development of sustainability competencies, and to develop the specific learning outcomes related to all SDGs. Therefore, it is vital not only to include SDGrelated contents in the curricula but also to use action-oriented transformative pedagogy. Education officials, policy makers, educators, curriculum developers, and others are called upon to rethink education to contribute to the achievement of the SDGs within their timeframe, between now and 2030. This document provides an orientation to the sustainability competencies and specific cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral learning outcomes that are relevant to this goal, and it outlines what is needed to implement learning for the SDGs through ESD. ICT per se does not lead to better learning outcomes. It has been noticed that the more ICT is used without appropriate pedagogical methods, the more it leads to superficial learning. ICTs are tools that have the potential to empower teachers to teach differently and to develop innovative pedagogies. Teachers have an important role; consequently, empowering them to use ICT both in classroom settings and

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in professional development is key to implementing pedagogical innovations. This consequence justifies the emphasis on teacher training in ICT and certification of teachers in ICT competency because these training and certification programs are important in enhancing the quality of education (UNESCO 2006). In terms of transforming teaching and learning, ICT has the potential to (i) connect teachers; (ii) connect learners; (iii) reschedule learning (people decide what and when to learn); and (iv) widen the pedagogical repertoires by expanding access to content and supporting collaboration for knowledge creation with learners as active participants. ICT can amplify innovative teaching practices, for example, hands-on pedagogies in game development and experiential learning. ICT-enabled interdisciplinary and new pedagogical approaches, development of emotional skills, innovations such as bring your own device (BYOD), gaming-based learning, bringing open problems to the classroom (science curiosities), and inquiry-based learning present new styles of learning and help learners to stay more engaged and achieve better results (for example, in science and math). It has been noticed that children use more and more ICT outside the classroom rather than inside; strategies are therefore needed to capture their attention in school and help them use ICT more for learning rather than for entertainment. ICT is also transforming education delivery modes. The creation of cyber learning spaces provides an important interface between teachers and students, contributing to co-construction and sharing of quality teaching and learning resources, and ultimately to a thorough overhaul of teaching methods. Innovations inspired by practitioners or entrepreneurs can have a positive impact on education delivery, but the impact of ICT on educational delivery remains suboptimal as the result of premature policies and implementation strategies as well as the poor pedagogical and instructional design of some online courses. ICT is not only transforming the way students learn, but also what they should learn. Skills demands are changing constantly. The current digital revolution will generate new tasks and jobs that demand new skills.

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Applying the ICT of the twenty-first century to a twentieth-century education system does not yield good results, so teachers need to be aware of the potential of ICT to develop twenty-first century skills. Success is not only what people know but also what people can do with what they know. Lifelong skill development leads to continuous success and self-empowerment. There should be a shift in the learning paradigm, with the lifelong learning pathway starting in schools and extending throughout one’s life, backed by investment in building continuous learning opportunities. In terms of supportive strategies, access, quality, and equality must be intermeshed. The digital divide remains a challenge, with students living in underserved communities being excluded from quality education. Students’ access to ICT and to relevant digital skills is important. Learners who perform better academically tend to develop strategies to use ICT more effectively. Teachers need to be active agents, not just in terms of implementing innovations but also in designing them. Mainstreaming innovation is a matter for all schools, not just a few. Although pedagogical innovation has taken place sporadically, mainstreaming innovative pedagogies in the classroom and beyond is not yet a reality. Multi-stakeholder partnerships are needed if countries are to achieve large-scale, sustained transformation of teaching and learning with ICT to reach and accomplish SDG 4.

▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices ▶ History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor ▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework ▶ ICT Skills for Sustainable Development Goal 4 ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education ▶ Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research ▶ Open Educational Resources (including MOOCs) ▶ Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being ▶ Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 ▶ Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education: Internalization of Values of Sustainability ▶ Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education ▶ Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

Cross-References ▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics ▶ Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development ▶ Distance Learning: A Viable Option ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts

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Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability Kolb D (1984a) Modelo de David Kolb, aprendizaje basado en experiencias. Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey. http://www.cca.org.mx/pro fesores/cursos/cep21/modulo_2/modelo_kolb.htm. Accessed 3 Sep 2018 Kolb DA (1984b) Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall, Englewood-Cliffs National Council for Science and the Environment (2017) The science, business and education of sustainable infrastructure. https://www.dropbox.com/s/ 4sc0zhx08hslx95/The%20Science%20Business%20and %20Education%20of%20Sustainable%20Infrastructure %20final.pdf?dl=0. Accessed 26 Aug 2019 Sachs JD, Schmidt-Traub G, Mazzucato M et al (2019) Six transformations to achieve the sustainable development goals. Nat Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-0190352-9. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-0190352-9.epdf?author_access_token=PYxHIfTzicPDZ1f 8Mpi4ddRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0OUvCcY5pZ8AaT x0MkoopkKOS7OzdwrSBL-nqy90SNoGgHmldD2otp knRagcTqK2IJMLpfAw86QRMHl3QEjytXGWz5FGo tx9W9u1jWK0QbJVw%3D%3D. Accessed 27 Aug 2019 The Earth Institute Columbia University and Ericsson (2017) ICT & SDGs final report: how information and communications technology can accelerate action on the sustainable development goals. For more updates on the work, follow @earthinstitute on Twitter; and, www.ericsson.com. Follow Ericsson on Twitter: @Ericsson. www.itu.int The Global Sustainable Technology & Innovation Conference (2019) Education: appropriate and lifelong education for all. https://2019.gstic.org/challenges/ education. Accessed 26 Aug 2019 The World Bank (2018) Learning to realize education’s promise. http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wd r2018?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&u tm_campaign=sd_knowledge_highlights_21_february _2018&utm_term=2018-02-21. Accessed 26 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2006) Media education: a kit for teachers, students, parents and professionals. http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0014/001492/149278e.pdf. Accessed 17 Sep 2019 United Nations (2015) About the Sustainable Development Goals. http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/susta inable-development-goals. Accessed 26 Aug 2019 United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017. https://undocs.org/A/RES/ 71/313. Accessed 26 Aug 2019 United Nations (2019) SDG learners today, SDG leaders tomorrow. https://www.unsdglearn.org/. Accessed 27 Aug 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2015) Global citizenship education: topics and learning objectives. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0023/002329/232993e.pdf. Accessed 26 Aug 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2017) Education for Sustainable

89 Development Goals: learning objectives. http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0025/002524/252423s. pdf. Accessed 26 Aug 2019 University World News (2019) SDGs not attainable without contribution of higher education. https://www. universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=201907191 35507840. Accessed 22 Aug 2019

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Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability Maria Garcia Alvarez Windesheim Honours College, Windesheim University of Applied Sciences, Zwolle, The Netherlands

Definitions By ‘character qualities’ we understand as set of competences that overarch knowledge and traditional skills by being relevant to a wide range of work settings and facilitating adaptation and flexibility in collaboration work around complex issues. From that perspective, the term character qualities embeds aptitudes, attitudes, behaviors, mindsets, personality, and values (e.g., Tubbs and Schulz 2006; Harden et al. 1999).

Background The complexity and the urgency of the Sustainable Development Goals, understood as wicked problems (Oostra 2017, p.8), requires from education to move beyond foundational literacies and traditional set of skills. While twenty-firstcentury skills frameworks also include sets of meta-competences (Delamare Le Deist and Winterton 2005, p.30) as the ability to understand and deal with complex environments, there is still a gap in how educational institutions incorporate them in the curricula or create environments where these qualities can flourish. This entry discusses how the set of meta-competences called character qualities in some of the

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twenty-first-century skills frameworks should be considered as fundamental elements in Education for Sustainability and, therefore, could help in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and a sustainable society. The world is more complex than ever, and for the first time humanity has a deadline to save not only the planet but also the existence of the human race. Environmental issues are not a recent problem of this century. The rapid industrialization of the western world during the past century created a high dependence on fossil fuels to feed the needs of consumerism. Therefore, environmental problems and all its interrelated ramifications and complications are not a recent discussion. At the end of the decade of the 1980s in the past century, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development called for measures to guide the transition toward sustainable development. This call originated the idea of the Earth Charter, which consolidated in 1992 at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit. The Earth Charter final text was approved in 2000 at the UNESCO headquarters in Paris and later that year officially presented in the Netherlands. In the preamble of the document, the urgency of the moment is already mentioned: ¨ We stand at a critical moment in Earth’s history, a time when humanity must choose its future. As the world becomes increasingly interdependent and fragile, the future at once holds great peril and great promise. To move forward we must recognize that in the midst of a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms we are one human family and one Earth community with a common destiny. We must join together to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace. Towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of Earth, declare our responsibility to one another, to the greater community of life, and to future generations.¨ (Earth Charter 2000) This critical moment in Earth’s history is also described as a VUCA world (Bennet and Lemoine 2014). VUCA is a term developed by the US army after the cold war to define a more volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous environment. This

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term is used today to also describe business and sociopolitical complexity around wicked problems, a term first used by Rittel and Weber back in the 1970s (Rittel and Webber 1973). These types of problems, as opposed to more “tame” problems, are not just complicated and difficult to solve, but they are also unpredictable and unstructured. Wicked problems have multiple, overlapping, and interconnected layers of stakeholder’s involvement; they have a social, political, and cultural transcendence; and they are relentless (Weber and Khademian 2008). Back in the 1970s, Rittel and Webber proposed five main characteristics for wicked problems: – Continually developing and mutating (no stable problem statement). – Full of ambiguities, contradictions, and circular causality. – Strongly stakeholder-oriented, interdisciplinary approach. – Associated with strong political, moral, and professional issues. – Reactive: the problem complex fights back. In this new century, scholars have introduced the term “super wicked” (Lazarus 2008; Levin et al. 2012; Metze and Turnhout 2014) to refer to a new class of wicked problems that deal with global environmental issues such as climate change and social global complex problems such as poverty and inequalities. These new “super wicked problems” contain extra levels of complexity next to the five characteristics mentioned by Rittel and Weber (1973): – Time is running out to find a solution. – Those who caused the problem also need to be involved in providing the solution. – The central authority needed to address them is weak or nonexistent. – An irrational discounting occurs that pushes responses into the future (Levin et al. 2012). In the context of increasing complexity in the world, back in 1974, the UNESCO Recommendation Concerning Education for International Understanding, Cooperation and Peace and

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Education clearly recommended educational institutions and governments to take whatever legislative measures or other steps that provide institutional and pedagogical support for educating for sustainability: education for human rights, peace and non-violence, cultural diversity, human survival and well-being, and caring for our planet (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2016). All these concepts have a direct link with indicator 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Goal 4: Quality of Education.

The Twenty-First-Century Skills for Twenty-First-Century Challenges: Character Qualities as Key Factor in Education for Sustainability In the decade of the 1990s in the past century, western societies transited from the industrialization age toward the digital age, through the impact of the exponential growth of technology and digital base transfer of information. The impact of globalization moved educators, business leaders, and governments to work together identifying the set of skills and abilities that would be needed to form the young generation in this new digital era. As result, different frameworks and sets of twenty-first-century skills have been implemented in educational curricula around the world (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2016). Although these frameworks included for the first time, next to traditional foundational knowledge skills, soft skills or interpersonal skills, the problem was and remains the lack of coherence between them not only regarding terminology but mostly lack of measurement tools or methodology for its operationalization inside the curricula. This is explained by the fact that the twenty-first-century skills frameworks were developed to meet the needs of the demands of the labor markets and its different industrial sectors, but not to meet the demands of a sustainable world, as UNESCO recommended back in the 1970s. Therefore, each framework understands that when dealing with complexity, some skills may be more important than others (Dede 2009; Silva 2008; Voogt and Roblin 2012). Most of them have in common the identification of three main sets of skills (Fig. 1):

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– Foundational literacies (linked to expertise and academically constructed knowledge). What we know – Skills related to communication and creativity (referring to the capacity of apply the knowledge). How we use what we know – Character qualities, interpersonal and soft skills linked to the behavior and how to understand the environment around and how to interact with others. How we make sense of what we know and the world around us The character qualities set are also referred to as meta-competences, in the sense that they overarch knowledge and traditional skills by being relevant to a wide range of work settings and by facilitating adaptation and flexibility in collaboration work around complex issues (e.g., Tubbs and Schulz 2006; Harden et al. 1999). The twenty-first-century skills frameworks brought more attention to these abilities and meta-competences in relation to the traditional focus of the academic world in knowledge-based foundational literacies. In this new century, students are increasingly required to work in teams to solve complex projects and questions (Feltovich et al. 1996; Gibb 2002; Sears and Reagin 2013; Brandler and Roman 2015). Students are now required to learn outside the classrooms and in collaboration with others, creating meaningful value for them and for the society. Their capacity to adapt to a changing environment may not be new but is more relevant than ever. However, at the beginning of the new century, in a society where complexity was increasing, educational institutions still focused in traditional teaching of foundational literacies and skills linked to content and knowledge (Dede 2009). The students of the 21st century not only need to skillfully use their knowledge, but they also need to understand the complexity of the environment around them. The business world also was demanding from education to work with the future professionals in the acquisition and development of soft skills. Companies increasingly rated their employees’ interpersonal skills as more important than their analytical abilities (Klaus 2010). In addition,

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Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability

Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability, Fig. 1 CCR model based on different twenty-firstcentury skills framework comparison (CCR 2015)

Knowledge “What we know and understand” Interdisciplinarity Traditional (i.e., Mathematics) Modern (i.e., Entrepreneurship) Themes (i.e., Global Literacy)

21st Century Learner

Skills “How we use what we know”

Character “How we behave and engage in the world” Mindfulness Curiosity Courage Resillence Ethics Leadership

Creativity Critical Thinking Communication Collaboration

Meta-Learning “How we reflect and adapt” Metacognition Growth Mindset

some surveys among companies during the first decade of the new century revealed that 75% of long-term success in work situations may depend on people skills, while only 25% in knowledge and technical skills (Klaus 2010). This implied that these meta-competences might require more emphasis in the university curricula (Klaus 2010; Robles 2012).

Character Qualities to Understand the Complexity Around Us and Develop Universal Responsibility In 2015, the World Economic Forum carried out an extensive report titled “New Vision on Education” (WEF 2015) observing little consistency in the definition and measurement of at least 16 of the skills defined in the twenty-first-century skills framework. The report included educational institutions in more than 100 different countries, and

© Center for Curriculum Redesign

the gap signaled that a lot of students around the world were not having the access to the skills that were needed for this new century. The gap was especially big for those called character qualities (meta-competences). This report defines character qualities as follows (Fig. 2): Character qualities describe how students approach their changing environment. Amid rapidly changing markets, character qualities such as persistence and adaptability ensure greater resilience and success in the face of obstacles. Curiosity and initiative serve as starting points for discovering new concepts and ideas. Leadership and social and cultural awareness involve constructive interactions with others in socially, ethically and culturally appropriate ways. (WEF 2015: pag.3)

The report highlights the lack of consistency among all the different frameworks of the twentyfirst-century skills and especially for the set of competences described as character qualities.

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Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability, Fig. 2 WEF twenty-first-century skills framework, 2015

They demand from educational institutions more attention to this and more research for the development of clear indicators that can help the operationalization of these qualities and on how to develop effective ways to train them and measure them. The report describes the character qualities as follows: Curiosity: The ability and desire to ask questions and to demonstrate open-mindedness and inquisitiveness Initiative: The ability and desire to proactively undertake a new task or goal Persistence/grit: Ability to sustain interest and effort and to persevere to accomplish a task or goal Adaptability: Ability to change plans, methods, opinions, or goals in light of new information Leadership: Ability to effectively direct, guide, and inspire others to accomplish a common goal

Social and cultural awareness: Ability to interact with other people in a socially, culturally, and ethically appropriate way The most extensive work done until now to describe and define character qualities is the framework of the Centre for Curriculum Redesign (CCR 2015). After several years of research and comparison of more than 32 different twenty-firstcentury skills frameworks, CCR understands character qualities as different from skills since the latter ones are the ability to effectively use what one knows while the former ones refer to how we behave and engage in the world (Trilling and Fadel 2009). Character qualities are understood as set of competences that refer to how we behave and engage with complex environments. From that perspective the term character qualities embeds aptitudes, attitudes, behaviors, mindsets, personality, and values. The character qualities framework from the CCR is similar to the one

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Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability

Character Qualities in Educating for Sustainability, Fig. 3 CCR 2015

described by the report of the World Economic Forum and incorporates the most recent education philosophy of thought leaders such as Howard Gardner (2009), Robert Sternberg (2003), and Edgar Morin (1999). The CCR, leaded by Charles Fadel, claims in their foundational paper that since the XIX century, “curricula worldwide have often been tweaked, of course, sometimes to a large extent, but have never been deeply redesigned for all the dimensions of an education: Knowledge, Skills, Character, and Meta-Learning” (CCR 2015). They suggest the need to focus in character qualities and the integration of these competences in the existing curricula. The CCR identifies the following as character qualities:

• Resilience • Ethics • Leadership They even go further in describing associated concepts next to each of the qualities and then how to teach them and how to assess them. This initiative addresses the gap pointed out by the WEF report of 2015 (Fig. 3). The framework is also relevant because, as the one from the WEF, it explicitly links these qualities with complexity, by defining character qualities as the competences that help students approach changing and complex environments.

Demands from the Work Field • Mindfulness • Curiosity • Courage

The work field is also claiming education to focus on training young professionals in dealing with

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complex and changing environment through the development of those qualities. The Business and Industry Advisory Committee to the OECD Survey (BIAC 2015), carried out among leaders of international leading companies, reveals that employers are increasingly recognizing the importance of character qualities for the workplace. In the BIAC survey (2015) specifically focused in finding how the industry thinks about the impact of character qualities in the workplace, 80% of the surveyed companies considered character qualities not only to be necessary today but that they would become a more and more important issue for their organizations in the future. They recommended educational systems to pay more attention to character qualities for the workplace (BIAC 2015). The report from McKinsey on What the Future of Work Will Mean for Jobs, Skills and Wages (November 2017) also highlights that workers of the future will have to spend more time on the activities that machines and AI are less capable, and therefore the more social and emotional skills, as well as most advance cognitive capabilities, such as logical reasoning and creativity, will be the ones required from humans (McKinsey Global Institute 2017). The recommendations from the work field are mostly relevant to indicator 4.4 of SDG 4 Quality of Education, which measures and recalls methodology that allows educational institutions to prepare students in digital literacies and other competences that meet the demands of the industry (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2016). While education traditionally mostly focused on competences in the area of logical problem solving, an important question from the work field is whether these competences are sufficient to navigate in this environment full of complexity. For wicked problem theories, this traditional approach won’t be enough. Recent developments in neuropsychology and neurobiology have also brought to educational professionals more insight in how we learn and how we make sense of the world around us. Dutch professor and neuropsychologist Margriet Sitskoorn (2011) claims in her book “Het maakbare brein” that the structures of the industrialization and digitalization time, where the

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consequent process of accessing the labor market was by learning a set of skills related to a profession and gaining a diploma that qualifies us for that job, are over. She defends that the complexity of a VUCA world requires that we train our brains with sets of meta-competences that are essential to survive and keep ourselves healthy in an era full of complexity (Sitskoorn 2011). These metacompetences are not new, yet they are becoming more relevant than ever before (Camille 2012). If these meta-competences seemed to be fundamental for the complexity of today, some futurists and technologist predict that in a nearby future the impact of robotics and new forms of intelligence will force collaboration between humans and robotics, making these meta-competences even more relevant. This will lead the transition towards what they call the Imagination Age. This term was first used by Charlie Magee back in the decade of the 1990s of the past century and more recently picked up by philosophers and artists working with technology. This is the case of Rita J. King from the Science House in New York, who defends the need to prepare our society to thrive in this Imagination Age, as a fundamental step towards the final destination: the Intelligence Age (King 2007). King discusses that educational institutions are still anchored in the established systems of the Industrialization Age with fixed structures of classrooms, alphabetical distribution of students, traditional forms of examination, etc. In an interview given to Drew Hansen for Forbes magazine (2012), Rita J. King talks about the qualities and skills that we will need to thrive in the Imagination Age: – Balance between individual and the group for meaningful collaboration – Problem solvers and critical thinkers – Risk taking – Curiosity – Discipline – Resilience – Capability to adapt and reinvent yourself – Capacity to improvise – Capacity to connect to other cultures – Future vision: thinking ahead – Independent learners

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There is a clear link between these skills and the ones described in some of the twenty-first-century skills frameworks previously discussed in this entry. Some educational systems are incorporating wicked problems and Sustainable Development Goals as frameworks to work with students and prepare them for the complexity ahead them. The problem is they still do using the traditional educational approach and structures of curricula organization. Character qualities are competences that could play a fundamental role in changing worldviews and help students to make sense of the world around us by developing a global consciousness and ecological universal responsibility. That is the key of Education for Sustainable Development. They described global values that could be developed by using those frameworks if incorporated correctly into the curricula. For a lot of educational institutions, the problem remains in the operationalization and assessment of meta-competences. Curricula struggle to incorporate sets of skills that cannot be measured by traditional forms of assessment as foundational literacies do (Ananiadou and Claro 2009). This worry is also acknowledged by the Sustainable Development Goal 4: Quality of Education (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2016, p.58). The question is if character and values can be trained or measured. Neuroplasticity suggests that brains can be trained and transformed and the meta-competences described in this entry have more to do with the way we learn and make sense of the world around us. Character qualities play a fundamental role in processes of collaboration and dialogue (including multistakeholder and intercultural dialogue), and this is one of the key processes for education for sustainable development.

Character Qualities as Cross-Cultural and Global Framework to Contribute to SDG 4 Indicators and SDGs in General The Sustainable Development Goals is a global initiative to clearly map the complex problems of today and highlight the urgency to solve them.

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The 17 goals are the result of the 2030 agenda signed by the resolution 70/1 of the United Nations General Assembly. The report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change from United Nation on Global Warming of 1.5 gives us a deadline of 12 years maximum (IPCC 2018). Clearly, time is running out, and the Sustainable Development Goals are per definition wicked problems. Therefore solutions will be difficult to find. Meeting these goals will demand not only extraordinary transitions in different areas of our society but will also demand new emerging technologies and new skills and educational approaches. There is no transition without transformation. In this context, education plays a fundamental role in transforming young generations towards a global consciousness of responsibility. SDG4 refers specifically to education, but education is relevant to all goals. Progress in education is linked to the achievement of sustainable livehoods, greater environmental awareness, and increase of equality and social participation (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2016). Educational institutions around the world need to adjust their curricula to meet the needs of this high complex time and work with set of skills that can help young generation to develop a global consciousness of ecological responsibility. In the past, the slower pace of transformation at societal, economical, and technological level allowed the rigidity of academic institutions to keep up with the demand of the labor market. However, the exponential growth of technology today and the higher interconnectedness and interdependence brought by globalization have made it difficult for educational models to adjust and deal with the speed of change (Niewiadomski and Anderson 2017). The complexity and interconnectedness of all the problems can be seen in the description and indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals. Poverty cannot be ended without addressing inequalities; sustainable cities cannot be a reality without developing sustainable forms of infrastructures and strong organizations defending peace and justice.

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SDG number 4 refers to the need for a qualityoriented education and recognizes the key role that education can play in this complex environment of our societies today. More specific, indicator 4.7 refers to global citizen development and touches concepts such as education for human rights, peace and non-violence, human survival and well-being, and caring for our planet (education for sustainability). Although some of the indicators of SDG4 do have some global measurements, the UNESCO stresses the challenges in measurement for some of the indicators relating to competences that promote the development of global citizenship, empathy, tolerance, and sustainability. It recommends countries to work together to find common frameworks that apply to all (cross-cultural validity) (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2016, p.58). In this sense, the character qualities frameworks described before could be an interesting point of departure. The report Laying the Foundation to Measure Sustainable Development Goal 4 recognizes that “measuring learning and skills is complex” (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2016, 57). Next to this, education is struggling to keep up with the speed of change of society in general and the demands of the professional world, highly impacted by exponential growth of technology. Political constraints have as well an impact in how different countries develop different policies regarding educational goals and indicators. SDG 4 goal is to ensure inclusive and quality of education and to promote lifelong learning (UN, SDG 4). Education is seen as the tool to develop this new sustainable development global consciousness and consequently help reduce poverty and inequalities and empower humanity to live a more healthy and sustainable life. As liberation theologist Leonardo Boff explains, education has always been the open door to society and has had the responsibility to guide young generations in their learning processes by teaching them how to know, how to think, and now, even further, how to be (Boff 2017). Next to this, he defends the responsibility of educational institutions to teach the young generations on sustainability values and caring for each other and the planet. Most of

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educational institutions are teaching about sustainability but lack the tools and holistic approach to teach for sustainability, as the educational initiatives of the Earth Charter advice. While teaching about is subject centred, teaching for implies holistic approaches throughout the curriculum that leads to a sustainable vision and understanding of the world. The last only requires the integration in the existing curricula of some subjects approaching sustainable issues (environmental economics, human rights, ecological principles). The first, teaching for sustainability, demands from education the profound integration of metacompetences and values throughout the whole curriculum and in all the subjects (related or not to sustainability) in order to transform the mindset of younger generations. Meeting the 2030 agenda means a profound integration of sustainable development values, running through all the departments and infrastructure of the educational institutions and providing environments where the students can develop character qualities and a new global consciousness of responsibility toward the planet. Transformational learning is not about the assimilation of foundational literacies and its application but about how we make sense of the world around us. New theories of change such as Theory U (Scharmer 2006) invite educational institutions to close the big divides of the society of today with not only our heart but also our will.

Education for Sustainable Development as a Common Framework to Achieve SDG 4.7 In 2014, during the UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development, held in Japan, the two biggest reports on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) were presented and discussed. The first report was published back in 2009 under the title Review of the Contexts and Structures for ESD, focused mostly on the context and the structures needed in order to work with ESD. The final report, published in 2012, Shaping the Education of Tomorrow, was

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highlighting for the first time that we need to go beyond knowledge and foundational literacies about a topic and focus not only on what we learn but also on how we learn. The report suggested taking into consideration new pedagogical theories such as Liberational Pedagogy, Relational Learning, Living and Learning Pedagogy, Partnership Education, and Experiential Learning, among others. All these theories have in common that they give a key role in learning competences that allow people to make sense of the world around them, and this happens not only by learning knowledge and how to apply it but also making sense of the implications for them, the society, and their environment (UNESCO 2012). UNESCO defined Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) as the education that allows every human being to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values necessary to shape a sustainable future. UNESCO aimed to transform society by changing the worldviews and global values and behaviors with educational systems that include in their curricula not only foundational literacies related to acquisition of knowledge regarding climate change, risk reduction, biodiversity, or poverty. The UNESCO Chair contributes this way in the implementation of UNESCO Resolution Reference 32C/17, which, “recognizing the Earth Charter as an important ethical framework for sustainable development,” affirms member states’ intention to “utilize the Earth Charter as an educational instrument” (UNESCO Chair). The Earth Charter is therefore an important document that educational institutions need to look at when looking for the context to develop character qualities. In collaboration with UNESCO, they have done research through the years in how to implement transformative learning models that can lead humanity in the transition from an anthropocentrism era to an anthropo-harmonism time (Hathaway 2015). Humans need to understand that we are part of a bigger system, and while humans cannot survive bacteria, bacteria can survive humans. Scholars from the Earth Charter defend the need to reconnect with nature. Environmental education is key for ESD. They understand,

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in the line of Bookcliin (1993), that we cannot solve environmental and ecological problems without addressing and solving social and economic problems as well. This points to the complexity and interrelations that we can see in the Sustainable Development Goals today. This transformation in our worldviews and the way humans understand their role in the planet is essential in the transition toward peace, equality, end of poverty, conservation, and restoration of the environment and all the other Sustainable Development Goals. Educating on values is not linked to religion, but to the universal responsibility and commitment to the planet as members of a greater community. In this sense, students should be provided with more validation not only based on how they perform regarding knowledge of foundational literacies but also based on who they are (Trzesnieuwski et al. 2003; Blascovich and Tomaka 1991). Because who they are will define how they will behave as humans and as part of the society and in closed relation with the environment. ESD will not only transform education, it will help educational institutions to regain their role as the door to a sustainable society. This will require transformation of educational settings and professionals, as it will require participatory teaching, experiential and action learning, and new methods that not only motivate students but also empower them to develop a set of skills that allows them to make sense of the complexity around them. The Council of the European Union stated: “ESD is essential for the achievement of a sustainable society and is therefore desirable at all levels of formal education and training, as well as in non-formal and informal learning” (CEU 2010).

Conclusions When astronauts come back to Earth after a mission in space, some of them have reported a change of behavior and values, a profound change in their worldviews. This is called the overview effect. The Apollo 8 astronauts expressed it the best: “We came all this way to explore the Moon,

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and the most important thing is that we discovered the Earth.” The Greek philosophers believe that character can be shaped by the collaboration with others and the community, and our character will define the way we understand the world around us. Modern social neurobiology helps us understand the development of our brain on its biological form but inside a social context and concludes that humans are tribal, social animals, with a need to belong and a sense of caretaking and altruism for their communities. A recent report published in Current Anthropology in 2019, and carried out by Oxford scholars Curry, Mullins, and Whitehouse, concludes after quantitative research in more than 60 different cultures around the world that there are 7 common rules to humans: helping the family, commitment to the group, reciprocating, being brave, respecting the rules of the community, dividing resources fairly, and respecting others (Curry et al. 2019). In nature, collaboration is more frequent than competition; this is one of the ecological principles. Humans need to reconnect with their own nature and with the environment. Society can no longer mimic the values of the financial markets instead of the ones of nature. This may have been the mistake of our society. While educational institutions were mostly focusing in foundational literacies and skills associated with professions to feed the labor market, character qualities related to curiosity, leadership, ethics, and social awareness were exposed to the values of consumerism and financial market-ruled societies, where competition became more common than collaboration. In that sense, political, economical, and societal structures have as well an impact in how these meta-competences develop. For Aristotle and Plato, character building required harmony between cognitive and affective dimensions. When these are in balance, individuals can develop a sense of self-esteem, and for this support of the community around them is necessary. Educational institutions cannot continue merely providing students with skills that will allow them to meet the professional demands of the job market, they also have a responsibility to educate students to

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contribute to the sustainability of the planet. The bigger responsibility is to prepare the society of the future, to form new generations that understand sustainability not as a trend but as the only way to be and coexist in this planet. It seems that healing the future may take more than knowledge, it takes character as well.

References Ananiadou K, Claro M (2009) 21st century skills and competences for new millennium learners in OECD countries. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 41, OECD Publishing. http://doi.org/10.1787/218525261154 Bennett N, Lemoine GJ (2014) What a difference a word makes: understanding threats to performance in a VUCA world. Bus Horiz 57(3):311–317 BIAC (2015) Character qualities for the workplace: BIAC survey, Paris Blascovich J, Tomaka J (1991) Measures of self-esteem. Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes 1:115–160 Boff L (2017) Earth Charter educational material. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= BFk9WaagtPY Bookcliin M (1993) The social ecology of Brandler S, Roman CP (2015) Group work: skills and strategies for effective interventions. Routledge, London Camille A (2012) Teaching adolescents to become leaders: the role of noncognitive factors in shaping school performance. A Critical Literature Review Consortium of Chicago School Research CCR (2014) Redesigning the curriculum for the 21st century. Foundational White Paper. Center for Curriculum Redesign. Boston, Massachusetts. http://www. curiculumredesign.org CCR (2015) Character Education for the 21st Century. Center for Curriculum Redesign. Boston, Massachusetts. http://www.curriculumredesign.org CEU (Council of the European Union) (2010) Council conclusions on education for sustainable development 3046th Education, Youth, Culture and Sport Council meeting Brussels, 18 and 19 November 2010 Curry O, Mullins D, Whitehouse H (2019) Is it good to cooperate? Testing the theory of morality-as-cooperation in 60 societies. Curr Anthropol 60(1):47–69.. Retrieved from. https://doi.org/10.1086/701478 Dede C (2009) Immersive interfaces for engagement and learning. Science 323(5910):66–69 Delamare De Leist F, Winterton J (2005) Hum Resour Dev Int 8(1):27–46. March 2. Retrieved from https://pdfs. semanticscholar.org/4935/1fda77b8c3ac6e376b3ea9299f 926628a4d9.pdf

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100 Earth Charter (2000) Text on the Earth Charter.. Retrieved from http://earthcharter.org/discover/the-earth-charter/ Feltovich PI, Coulson RL, Peltovich J (1996) Complexity, individuality and in groups CSCL theory and practice of an emerging paradigm, 25 Gardner H (2009) The five minds for the future: Cultivating and integrating new ways of thinking to empower the education enterprise. The School Administrator Magazine 16–20 Gibb A (2002) Creating conductive environments for learning and entrepreneurship. Living with, dealing with, creating and enjoying uncertainty and complexity. Ind High Educ 16:135–147 Harden JR, Crosby MH, Davis M, Friedman RM (1999) AMEE guide no. 14: outcome-based education: part 5from competency to meta-competency: a model for the specification of learning outcomes. Med Teach 21 (6):546–552 Hathaway M (2015) The practical wisdom of permaculture: an anthropoharmonic phronesis for moving toward an ecological epoch. Environ Ethics 37:445–463 IPCC (2018) Special report global warming of 1.5 C. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ King RJ (2007) The emergence of a new global culture in the imagination age. Published in British Council Essays. http://archive.is/20120722122948/ https://m.scirp.org/ papers/www.britishcouncil.org/tn2020-research-findingsauthors-king.htm Klaus P (2010) Communication breakdown. Calif Job J 28:1–9 Lazarus RJ (2008) Super wicked problems and climate change: restraining the present to liberate the future. Cornell L Rev 94:1153 Levin K, Cashore B, Bernstein S, Auld G (2012) Overcoming the tragedy of super wicked problems: constraining our future selves to ameliorate global climate change. Policy Sci 45(2):123–152 MCKinsey Global Institute (2017) Special report on future of organizations and work: what the future of work will mean for jobs, skills and wages. Retrieved from https:// www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/future-of-organiza tions-and-work/what-the-future-of-work-will-mean-forjobs-skills-and-wages Metze T, Turnhout E (2014) Politiek, participatie en experts in de besluitvorming over super wicked problems. Bestuurskunde 23(2):1–48 Morin E (1999) Organization and complexity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 879(1):115–121 Niewiadomski R, Anderson D (2017) The Rise of Artificial Intelligence: Its Impact on Labor Market and Beyond. In Strategic Imperatives and Core Competencies in the Era of Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (pp. 29–49). IGI Oostra S (2017) Master’s thesis in international relations, Department of Political Science, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands. Retrieved from https://pdfs. semanticscholar.org/0a4f/2032d7cad9fe41510e836c8 09e77b02e2fe5.pdf Rittel HW, Webber MM (1973) 2.3 planning problems are wicked. Polity 4:155–169

Civic Education Robles M (2012) Executive perceptions of the top 10 soft skills needed in Today’s workplace. Bus Commun Q 75 (4):453–465. Sage Scharmer C. Otto (2006) Theory U: Learning from the Future as it Emerges, Fieldnotes: An online Newsletter of the Sahmbhala Institute for Authentic Leadership Sears DA, Reagin JM (2013) Individual versus collaborative problem solving: divergent outcomes depending on task complexity. Instr Sci 41(6):1153–1172 Silva P (2008) Another look at creativity and intelligence: exploring higher-order models and probable confounds. Personal Individ Differ 44:1012–1021 Silva E (2009) Measuring skills for 21st-century learning. The Phi Delta Kappan 90(9):630–634 Sitskoorn M (2011) Het Maakbare Brein. Prometheus Sternberg RJ (2003) Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. Cambridge University Press Trilling B, Fadel C (2009) 21st Century Skills. Wiley — http://www.21stcenturyskillsbook.com Trzesniewski KH, Donnellan MB, Robins RW (2003) Stability of self-esteem across the life span. Journal of personality and social psychology 84(1):205 Tubbs SL, Schulz E (2006) Exploring a taxonomy of global leadership competencies and meta-competencies. J Am Acad Bus 8(2):29–34 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2016) Laying the foundation to measure sustainable development goal 4. Canada. Retrieved from http://www.ungei.org/uissdg4-digest-2016.PDF Voogt J, Roblin NP (2012) A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: implications for national curriculum policies. J Curric Stud 44(3):299–321 Weber EP, Khademian AM (2008) Wicked problems, knowledge challenges, and collaborative capacity builders in network settings. Public administration review 68(2):334–349 World Economic Forum (2015) New vision for education report: unlocking the potential of technology, Geneva. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEFUSA_NewVision forEducation_Report2015.pdf

Civic Education ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

Classroom ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

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Climate Change Education

Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to ▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Achieve the Sustainable Developing Countries: Case Study from Indone- Development Goal sia ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

Cocurricular ▶ Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts

Cognitive Ability ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency

Collective Values and Behaviors ▶ Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives

Community Education ▶ Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

Community Learning ▶ Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

Corina Joseph1 and Roshima Said2 1 Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia 2 Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Kedah, Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia

Synonyms Community-based learning; Community education; Community learning

Definitions The fourth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 4) aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. The objectives of this global goal need to be shared for all people so that future generations would still enjoy comfortable living by 2030 and beyond. Thus, sustainable living needs more participation from people globally. This can be achieved via implementation of activities related to community education or community-based education (CBE). According to Villani and Atkins (2000), CBE is centered on the student’s capability to recognize and support the needs of the community. The community-based concept provides values which give students freedom to express themselves about, develop and solve the inherent problems or concerns faced by communities. According to Bean (2011), CBE is a “win-win” program as it provides both the training institution and the service site with additional resources. In CBE, service is typically provided to the community by students who are placed in service-learning sites. Additionally, communitybased learning (CBL) is a teaching strategy that links academic theory and real-world practice.

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Benefits of CBE CBE helps students’ academic learning and civic development while concurrently addressing realworld problems and giving attention to community needs and interests. It is characterized by its emphasis on exchange and collaboration with the community. CBE contributes significantly toward the development of adult learners. Neville et al. (2014) investigated the social value of CBE for adults in Limerick City. This research demonstrated that the participants experienced significant improvements in numerous facets of their lives, and they argued that it is vital to recognize the multiple and interconnected social impacts that CBE offers to its participants, as well as to the community in which the service is provided. This research also suggested that CBE has a significant impact on the progression of adult learners in the city. According to Baatjes (2008), the prime purpose of CBE can be regarded as education within and for communities. CBE emphasizes education that develops out of people’s experiences and the social interests that are generated within communities. It has a different focus from mainstream education, both in its curriculum and methods. CBE is about encouraging and engaging people throughout life in learning that is based on what they are interested in and what is important to them. Thus, education is developed that is relevant to the participating learners and is responsive to community priorities, identified with and by the people rather than for them. The motivation and purpose for learning by participants will change over time, but the education is rooted in communities and will allow genuinely alternative and democratic agendas to emerge at local level. It has been recommended that communitybased educational programs (CBEPs) act as a successful strategy for cultivating students’ results, family involvement, and community and social interrelations. Research has shown that not all CBEPs create the same results. An analysis of the social impact of CBEPs enables the public to identify the programs that achieve better social results and provide evidence of the

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extent to which these results contribute to improving the citizens’ lives (Flecha 2017).

The Principles of CBE CBE refers to programs to stimulate learning and social development work in communities via formal and informal methods or strategies, which relates to community-based learning (CBL). When referring to CBL, a teaching and learning approach is implied that integrates meaningful community engagement with instruction and reflection to improve the learning experience, with a greater emphasis on mutual learning and reflection. Decker and Associates (1992) indicated that CBL is based on the following principles: 1. Self-determination Local people are in the best position to identify community needs and wants. Parents, as the children’s first and most important teachers, have both a right and a responsibility to be involved in their children’s education. 2. Self-help People are best served when their capacity to help themselves is encouraged and enhanced. When people assume ever-increasing responsibility for their own well-being, they acquire independence rather than dependence. 3. Leadership development The identification, development, and use of the leadership capacities of local citizens are prerequisites for ongoing self-help and community improvement efforts. 4. Localization Services, programs, events, and other community involvement opportunities that are brought closest to where people live have the greatest potential for a high level of public participation.

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Whenever possible, these activities should be decentralized to locations of easy public access. 5. Integrated delivery of services Organizations and agencies that operate for the public good can use their limited resources, meet their own goals, and better serve the public by establishing close working relationships with other organizations and agencies with related purposes. 6. Maximum use of resources The physical, financial, and human resources of every community should be interconnected and used to their fullest if the diverse needs and interests of the community are to be met. 7. Inclusiveness The segregation or isolation of people by age, income, sex, race, ethnicity, religion, or other factors inhibits the full development of the community. Community programs, activities, and services should involve the broadest possible cross section of the community residents. 8. Responsiveness Public institutions have a responsibility to develop programs and services that respond to the continually changing needs and interests of their constituents. 9. Lifelong learning Learning begins at birth and continues until death. Formal and informal learning opportunities should be available to residents of all ages in a wide variety of community settings.

Experiences and Ways of CBE Implementation In addition to the promotion of lifelong learning, SDG 4 gives attention to access to education,

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equity and inclusion, and quality of learning outcomes, ranging from early childhood education to tertiary education. In CBE, programs and activities include dialogue between communities and participants. Generally, CBE programs aim to improve the capability of people from different group of ages by way of their actions, toward improving their quality of life. CBE activities have been implemented in several ways using different learning approaches all over the world to achieve SDG 4. Collaboration Between NGOs and World Organizations One way to implement CBE activities is by having collaboration between nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and world organizations. There is no perfect system in existence to co-create a better world for all. Nonetheless, the implementation of the SDGs is a possible way to obtain general agreement among individuals or groups of people how to go about it. Three NGO’s have been selected to illustrate this type of collaboration and will be briefly discussed in this section. NGO A is an example of ground level action collaboration, community by community, and bioregion by bioregion. This international NGO is based in the United Kingdom and prepares students of diverse ages and cultural backgrounds with knowledge and skills to contribute to a thriving society. It has been working closely with the UN in delivering participatory communityfocused education and training for sustainability. In 2005, a curriculum was introduced in partnership with UNESCO, dedicated specifically to the “United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development” and grew to the level of involving 14,000 learners from 104 countries by 2017. The syllabus covers several subjects designed to foster an inclusive sustainable community. The collaboration between this NGO and partners in other countries, for example, India and Bangladesh, continued in recent years in the form of project-based learning initiatives. CBE activities include teaching agriculture and aquaculture skills to communities to improve food sovereignty and food safety, in addition to supporting community resilience and improving

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social unity. Another program, started in 2018, covers 10 months and utilizes a blended learning approach requiring students to co-create improved versions of sustainability projects in their respective communities. An additional distinct activity containing more than 200 questions structured according to the four dimensions of the whole systems approach of this NGO to sustainability (social, ecological, economic, and worldview). Generally, the project aims to support communities in using the SDGs to create a more sustainable future. Local communities and indigenous peoples are the world’s first ecologists. Their traditional knowledge was handed over through generations to preserve the environment. They appreciate and engage with nature as their lives are inseparable from elements of nature, such as rivers, oceans, plants, and animals. Another example of a contribution by an NGO toward CBE is provided by NGO B (based in Malaysia), which has been set up on 13 January 1972 and is a nationwide conservation organization linked to the WWF global network. The Community Engagement and Education (CEE) Program of this Malaysian NGO emphasizes working closely with rural and native communities and plays a vital role in protecting and preserving the environment. CEE activities are incorporated into conservation projects at several sites in Malaysia. Activities include training and capacity building, supporting sustainable livelihoods, conducting outreach and awareness campaigns, patrolling and monitoring, empowerment through community platforms and organizations, and planning and decision-making. CEE approaches are conducted according to the provisions of rural communities and native peoples, included in globally recognized instruments as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the ILO Convention 169 (Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries) (WWF-Malaysia n.d.). Another example of a collaboration between NGO and a world organization is provided by NGO C on the implementation of a community education project, which is aligned to SDG 4. This

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project is chosen as an example because (1) it utilizes the community engagement approach to strengthen the community school concept; (2) it aims to enhance children’s participation through school councils; (3) it has locally driven infrastructure projects through networking, lobbying, advocacy, and social accountability; (4) it aims to enhance the capacity of volunteer teachers through training, coaching, and linkage with teacher’s group meetings at district level; and (5) it works toward greater inclusion of community schools in the Ministry of Education at the district level. This project was financed by the European Union and conducted in some districts in Zambia (January 2013–June 2016). The project involved community schools, comprising orphans and vulnerable groups. The 30 community schools that participated were community initiated, owned, managed, and largely community resourced and designed to improve the access and quality of education, which is aligned to SDG 4. Apart from conducting training, participants were given exposure on how to sustain themselves so that they could support the needy upon project completion. The final evaluation and monitoring activity included data collected from the various parties involved (‘Red een Kind’/Help a Child, n.d). Collaboration Between Large Companies and Stakeholders In order to be legitimate in meeting societal expectations, many large companies are committed to implementing corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities, which include education, sponsorship, environmental protection, and others. The examples provided in this section are illustrative of the type of CBE activities implemented by many large companies and which are essential to achieve SDG 4. The first example is one of the largest electronic companies in the world that is actively implementing CBE activities. In order to encourage employees and their families to actively engage in environmental activities at home and in their local communities, programs have been introduced in which business organizations design and carry out environmental activities for

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their employees as well as for local communities. In these campaigns, it has been emphasized that only truly green-minded employees can manufacture truly green products. Another example of a large corporation that is actively implementing CBE activities in developing countries is an oil and gas company, based in Malaysia. To this end the company’s NGO has been formed. The mission of this NGO is to contribute to the well-being of society through activities designed to include sustainable impact and inclusiveness among participants, especially in areas which are currently underserved. In terms of education, it is implementing programs related to counselling, sponsorship, motivational camps, and English classes as well as focused programs to spur the love for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. In terms of community well-being and development, the programs implemented are oriented toward improving the quality of life for more Malaysians and supporting their economic progress. In relation to the environment, this corporation has allocated a substantial amount of budget on the restoration of the lands, the seas, and the coasts. At the same time, the investment has also been prioritized on the sustainable use of natural resources and the conservation of the natural environment (Yayasan PETRONAS 2019). A large global fast food company is also committed to the implementation of CBE. Due to its important role in serving communities, this company proclaims that it is continuously striving for meaningful societal impacts through its strong team. This team has established shared value relationships with several community-based organizations. One way to engage with communities is via training and education. The team has created an education portfolio to boost awareness of the importance of feel-good moments for customers and to develop meaningful relationships among staff, which is required to achieve business growth (McDonalds 2017–2019). Research The academic discourse associated with research engagement by university academic staff can

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directly and indirectly promote CBE through a variety of activities. Research provides opportunities for community empowerment and selfdetermination. Researchers can conduct and facilitate action research activities by fulfilling community needs aligned with sustainability education. This is carried out through collaboration between community project officers and communities from diverse cultural and language backgrounds. Community-based participatory research (CBPR) is an approach that includes, for example, community members, organizational representatives, and researchers in all aspects of the research process. In integrating the knowledge with outcomes from CBE, the members equally share expertise, decision-making, and ownership. It has become quite common for universities to actively promote academic community engagement. An example is one of the universities based in the United States, where a fundamental aspect of the engagement between students, faculty, and staff with communities is associated with community outreach and partnerships. As cited by O’Connor et al. (2011, p.108), this university offers three approaches to undergraduate research through service learning, i.e., problem-based service learning, community-based research, and participatory action research. In problem-based service learning, a group of students serves as consultants and works with the community to address specific issues. In the community-based research (CBR) approach, several techniques of generating knowledge and disseminating information are emphasized. The knowledge produced has to contribute toward the betterment of the community. Participatory action research means comprehending and changing the issues faced in a social system. In this learning approach, a win-win situation is experienced by both the students and the communities involved. The community must be able to identify the issue arising and work together with the students for practical solutions. The students are facilitated by supervisors (lecturers) who provide guidance on data collection, interpretation of the data, and analysis of the results. Participatory action

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research is conducted in many academic disciplines to provide communities with analytical, technical, and background knowledge to assist them with problem-solving. Apart from benefits to the community and faculty staff, these approaches are designed to bring benefits to students as well. These include enhancing skills in research, increasing knowledge in the area of specialization, improving knowledge and skills for active citizenship, and increasing opportunities for collaborative work with faculty and community partners. To ensure the proper implementation of CBE activities and in line with SDG 4, the inclusion of six action principles toward a shared vision of ESD is vital, which is elaborated on later in this entry.

Challenges in CBE Implementation Since the scope toward achieving SDG 4 is wide and involves different levels of education, there are definite challenges faced by parties involved in CBE implementation. These include different problem faced by different groups in communities, reluctance of SDG actors to participate, diversity in culture, funding constraints, institutional factors, and instructional barriers concerning teaching and learning. Firstly, there is the problem of low school enrolments encountered by indigenous communities in certain countries. This can affect the level of inclusion, with associated negative effects on achieving SDG 4. For example, the difficulty in reaching out to people situated in several isolated parts of Malaysia, i.e., Sarawak and Sabah, that are nearer to Indonesia. Based on the 2015 annual report of the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025, primary school and upper secondary school enrolment stood at 98% and 85%, respectively. For lower-income families, the high dropout rate of students relate to the fact that they need to find jobs to support their families. As for the enrolment rate of upper secondary schools’ enrolment, parents prefer to send their children to international schools or even to other countries after they completed the lower secondary school phase (Rajaendram 2016).

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Secondly, many on-the-ground actors are still uncertain how to be actively involved in the SDG agenda. The engagement with “Agenda 2030” is currently not aggressive enough to catalyze the amount of change urgently needed to evade the consequences of a series of converging predicaments, for example,rapid climate change, biodiversity loss, and economic volatility. This certainly affects the progress in implementing SDG 4 (Wahl n.d). Thirdly, there is a cultural and linguistic diversity among people participating in CBE in different countries around the world. An example of a country which is experiencing this problem is Australia. Across Australia, cultural concerns are incorporated in the action plan and implementation of community environmental education programs. This is because immigrants have little awareness of the environmental concerns of the Australian government. As a result, there is still limited engagement by non-English-speaking learners despite the training of bilingual educators provided by the Australian government to facilitate the CBE program. As a result, the objectives in relation to full engagement, comprehensive ownership of the learning process, and participation in decision-making cannot be achieved (Tilbury and Wortman 2008). Fourthly, there is a general lack of funding for CBE programs, also through university financing for CBE programs. This indicates that local resources are required to support CBE programs. Hence, the dilemma for local policy decision is to decide on the continuation and funding of CBE programs. This situation leads to misconceptions by the public of higher education as being egoistic and ignorant of societal needs. In addition, local resources are rather devoted to other local issues than to serve educational objectives. This certainly impedes the achievement of SDG 4 (Chalker-Scott and Tinnemore 2009). Fifthly, there are special challenges experienced by specific groups in communities in certain countries, for example, children with disabilities. SDG 4 requires inclusiveness, i.e., all groups of people need to be given equal opportunity to participate. An example of a country which

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faces problem in providing special learning needs to children with disabilities is Nicaragua. Pförtner (2014) stated that regular schools in Nicaragua did not fully assist special learning needs. Problems include packed classrooms, over-worked and under-paid teachers, varied interests among students, stiff competition, lack of flexibility, and poor accessibility. Consequently, more children with disabilities dropped out from schools. Special schools are usually only available in cities. This has resulted in two options for disabled children, i.e., send all these children to the same school or exclude children with disabilities from education (Pförtner 2014). Sixthly, there is problem associated with conducting community-based participatory research (CBPR) among university researchers. Ahmed et al. (2004) stated that despite the increase of interest in CBPR at universities, only a few scholars have formal training in CBPR methodology. Other institutional barriers in conducting CBPR are (1) objectification in research; (2) lack of respect for community knowledge; (3) limited understanding of the CBPR concept and the perception that it lacks rigor; (5) few CBPR researchers/role models/mentors and only on committees; and (6) few grants/rewards/incentives for faculty. In addition, Kwan and Walsh (2018) highlighted several ethical issues when dealing with CBPR methodology. Certainly, these barriers impede the attainment of SDG 4 to ensure quality education for communities. Seventhly, there is problem related to teaching community-based related (CBR) courses. As cited by Stocking and Cutforth (2006), challenges faced by instructors teaching CBR courses are (1) finding a disciplinary connection, (2) building CBR into the curriculum, (3) ensuring student readiness for the complex set of tasks involved in CBR, and (4) structuring the CBR experience. As for the first challenge, the interdisciplinary nature of CBR courses presents a different type of challenge for instructors and students. For example, teachers need to deal with CBR students that are not undertaking a major in education but from diverse disciplines and only have little knowledge in research. As for the second challenge, instructors face the

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challenge of “fitting” CBR into a curricular model due to little flexibility in the structure and timing of the course, often resulting in clashes between schedules of instructors and students. The third challenge, ensuring student readiness, relates to the extent to which students are familiar with and sensitive to communities, understand the principles of CBR, and possess relevant research skills and essential knowledge. The fourth challenge, structuring the CBR experience, involves scheduling and time constraints, managing the class projects, troubleshooting, and evaluating students (Stocking and Cutforth 2006).

Successes in CBE Implementation Despite several challenges faced in CBE program implementation, there are also success stories that have been documented all over the world. The outcomes range from the publication of books, improved awareness, as well as the formation of alliances involving multiple stakeholders which focus on early childhood education. This marks the progress toward achieving SDG 4 through CBE, which is illustrated with two examples: a literacy project in Malaysia and a project to engage with disabled children in Nicaragua. In ensuring the sustainable living of the local people, indigenous language is essential to share knowledge and wisdom, especially with the widely use of Malay and English in the modern education system in Malaysia. Realizing the importance of the language issue, the Moyog Family Literacy Project was launched to revitalize the culture of the Kadazandusun people, i.e., the largest indigenous group in Sabah, Malaysia. The outcome of this project is the publication of 11 picture books written by participants. The picture books have become important learning materials for local people. The books helped the people to regain indigenous knowledge and beliefs about the natural environment and sustainable consumption of resources. The books were distributed at local libraries and community learning centers in Kadazandusun, which is widely used

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for environmental conservation activities, including workshops, pre-service teacher training, and community educator training courses (Noguchi et al. 2015). In Nicaragua, despite of problem dealing with the disabled children, a CBE program has successfully helped 561 children with disabilities to gain access to the regular education system in 2012, which is in line with SDG 4. This required full cooperation from families, the community, and all relevant institutions with the CBE program. The additional support, such as allowing helpers to accompany the students to school, benefited the teachers and other students as well. As a result, an alliance of the stakeholders for early childhood education has emerged involving the Ministries of Education as well as Health and Social Needs and parent organizations. The alliance focused on early intervention, i.e., from birth to the age of 6 years. This is because early childhood education is important for the inclusion of children with disabilities into mainstream schools and also for their involvement in social life. After 5 years of work, the CBE strategy in Juigalpa, Nicaragua, proved to be a success to increase access of disabled children to mainstream education (Pförtner 2014).

Six Action Principles Toward a Vision of Education for Sustainable Development for CBE Despite the fact that it is important to highlight the common link between CBE practice and public policy at both local and national levels, it is even more crucial to recognize that both should be directed by a shared vision of ESD. CBE programs organized by community learning centers (CLCs) following the action principles described below are responsive to local needs and local contexts. UNESCO (2017) has outlined six action principles toward a shared vision of education for sustainable development (ESD). These six action principles do not occur in an isolated way but are equally supporting

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each other and are most effective when practiced in an integrated manner. (1) Responding: CBE providers are regarded as the frontline in responding to transpiring issues faced by local communities. ESD has a superior position to comprehend the complicated and interrelated type of reasons and consequences of such issues, along with several possible responses. Responsive education tends to create association between and is wellsupported by available problem-solving tools. (2) Engaging: In identifying complex and longterm solutions, engagement with stakeholders from diverse backgrounds is essential in CBE and community-based ESD. Formal, non-formal, and informal education require a close working relationship with different groups of people within and outside the community, including marginalized or minority groups. In contributing toward providing solutions, insights from diverse cohorts, segments, and values are essential. To share the vision of CBE and ESD, educational activities and a proper learning space need to be provided by community learning centers. (3) Enabling: The holistic and partnership-based approach of both CBE and ESD requires a constant effort to facilitate capacity building between local communities and institutions. The ongoing fundamental issues being addressed are on basic literacy alongside contemporary skills and knowledge, such as the use of technology. The focus, however, will continue to be the capability of individuals and institutions to create knowledge and promote continuous learning for a sustainable future. (4) Embedding: It is essential to incorporate the ESD approach within all aspects of education (including CBE) and work. The organizations implementing ESD are the frontlines that introduce a new way of thinking, learning, and working together. The element of togetherness is important in order to attain the vision of an equitable and sustainable future.

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(5) Sustaining: Both CBE and ESD implies longterm business. Therefore, the sustainability of the project, institutions, and the hosting community is crucial. Thus, strong tangible and intangible resources together with spiritual elements are relevant in ensuring the longterm survival of both CBE and ESD. (6) Transforming: To ensure success in both CBE and ESD implementation, it is imperative to ensure transformation not only in the people’s way of life but also in their learning processes. This includes a change in the social, economic, political, and cultural systems that contribute to a sustainable future. To continuously promote teaching and learning, the use of innovative technologies is important to facilitate transformation.

The Way Forward Effective collaboration between the public and private sectors and civil society on the local, regional, and global scales need to be implemented to achieve SDG 4. Processes need to be created to encourage engagement with communities throughout the world. Local people must be ready to take up responsibility for implementing the SDGs in their respective communities and regions to undertake the courageous mission set by Agenda 2030. CBE is therefore a key factor in determining the success of sustainable community development programs. There are several ways to improve CBE, including the following: 1. Collaboration between large companies and institutions of higher learning, in terms of career development, as part of the informal education system. This can be undertaken by providing green jobs, service-learning opportunities, internships, and other opportunities for real-world experiences. 2. Successful community icons could be invited to universities to share expertise in classroom settings and provide workshops on real-world skills.

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3. Professionals should be encouraged to move the frontiers of CBE practice to greater heights in order to achieve SDG 4. 4. Capacity building in CBE practice should be increased to encourage more active participation of the local community and community learning providers in community development. 5. At the local level, local authorities could provide financial assistance with the implementation of CBE projects in local communities. 6. At the local level, adult basic literacy programs could be integrated into CBE projects by local communities to reduce illiteracy, especially among people in rural areas in developing countries, for example, Malaysia, India, South Africa, Argentina, etc. 7. Governments should undertake to combine the benefits acquired from CBE programs by providing additional budgetary allocations and establishing partnerships with NGOs to ensure sustainability and reduce the level of poverty. 8. Skills acquisition and training should be extended in the scope of CBE programs to equip the community to work toward the establishment of small-scale industries. 9. As many CBE programs are delivered in English, these programs have mainly been restricted to sharing of information as part of raising awareness. Consequently, only a few participants who are well versed in English can participate in the learning process, as well as in the decision-making process. In addition, other factors, such as differences in culture and teaching style, also influence the teaching and learning process. Therefore, it is the responsibility of community-based learning providers to assign or locate teachers that can master multiple languages to minimize the barriers in language and culture, especially in rural areas. 10. Researchers and scholars all over the world can develop and upload teaching materials or sustainability frameworks via the worldwide web to guide community educators who are

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striving to engage people in sustainability issues. Case studies and web-based examples on successful learning-based strategies and community engagement processes could be used to enhance sustainability frameworks. 11. CBE is an important initiative to achieve SDG 4 and to ensure full participation by local communities in the planning and management of sustainable development and the promotion of sustainable lifestyles. The relevance of community-based non-formal education and informal learning for children, young people, and adults, especially those not in education or from marginalized or disadvantaged parts of society, must be recognized and fostered in every country of the world if SDG 4 is to be met.

Conclusion CBE programs can prepare individuals with skills ranging beyond formal classroom instructional outcomes, enlightening individuals, and providing mutual capability to participate in activities steering toward achieving SDG 4. It takes a collaborative effort and contributions from all stakeholders, i.e., government, community, and academia, to refocus community education mindsets and practices in order to move toward a more sustainable future. Undeniably, the challenges in implementing CBE to achieve SDG 4 are great. However, today’s global challenges and the passionate responses to them underscore both the vital and incredible possibility for success. Inclusive education needs preparation, resources, and support from the community. Other requisites to create an environment of diversity and inclusiveness include peers, neighborhood schools, accessibility (with community resources), and teacher training (Pförtner 2014). Community involvement in education, predominantly in a self-governing system, is very important for economic growth. Community programs together with governmental attention and duty toward education are imperative to realizing SDG 4.

Community-Based Education

Cross-References ▶ Education for Community Cohesion ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education ▶ Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

References Ahmed SM, Beck B, Maurana CA, Newton G (2004) Overcoming barriers to effective community-based participatory research in US medical schools. Educ Health 17(2):141–151 Baatjes IG (2008) Adult basic education training. In: Kraak A, Press K (eds) Human resources development review. Education, employment and skills in South Africa. HSRC Press, Cape Town, pp 206–227 Bean CY (2011) Community-based dental education at the Ohio State University: the OHIO project. J Dent Educ 75(10 suppl):S25–S35 Chalker-Scott L, Tinnemore R (2009) Is community-based sustainability education sustainable? A general overview of organizational sustainability in outreach education. J Clean Prod 17:1132–1137 Decker LE and Associates (1992) Community education: building learning communities. National Community Education Association. Alexandria. VA. 3rd edition. ERIC ED316661 Flecha R (2017) Social impact of community-based educational programs in Europe. In: Oxford research encyclopedia of education. Oxford University Press, USA Kwan C, Walsh CA (2018) Ethical issues in conducting community-based participatory research: a narrative review of the literature. Qual Rep 23(2):369–386 McDonalds (2017–2019) Global diversity, inclusion & community engagement. Retrieved from: https://corpo rate.mcdonalds.com/corpmcd/about-us/diversity-and-in clusion.html Neville P, O’Dwyer M, Power MJ (2014) The social value of community-based adult education in Limerick City. Adult Learn Ir J Adult Commun Educ:42–56 Noguchi F, Guevara JR, Yorozu R (2015) Communities in action: lifelong learning for sustainable development. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, Hamburg. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0023/002341/234185e.pdf O’Connor MK, Lynch K, Owen D (2011) Student-community engagement and the development of graduate attributes. Educ Train 53(2):100–115

Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian Pförtner K (2014) Community-based inclusive education: best practices from Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. Disabil CBR Incl Dev 25(1):72–82 Rajaendram R (2016) Better learning outcomes for all. Retrieved from: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/edu cation/2016/08/28/better-learning-outcomes-for-all/ #evoiKbZm7A1YqGXa.99 Red een Kind/Help A Child (n.d.) Community education: the ENGINE for sustainable development. Retrieved from: https://helpachild.org/about-help-a-child/news/ track-records/community-education-the-engine-forsustainable-development-2 Stocking VB, Cutforth N (2006) Managing the challenges of teaching community-based research courses: insights from two instructors. Mich J Commun Serv Learn:56–65 Tilbury D, Wortman D (2008) How is community education contributing to sustainability in practice? Appl Environ Educ Commun 7(3):83–93 UNESCO (2017) 8UIL Policy Brief 8 Community-based learning for sustainable development. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/0024 75/247569E.pdf Villani CJ, Atkins D (2000) Community-based education. Sch Community J 10(1):39–44 Wahl DC (n.d.) Making the sustainable development goals work for local communities everywhere. Retrieved from: https://medium.com/@designforsustainability/ making-the-sustainable-development-goals-work-forlocal-communities-everywhere-3f00bd5db31 WWF-Malaysia (n.d.) Community engagement and education. Retrieved from: http://www.wwf.org.my/ about_wwf/what_we_do/education_for_sustainable_ development__esd_/community_engagement_and_ education/ Yayasan PETRONAS (2019). Retrieved from: https:// www.yayasanpetronas.com.my/

Community-Based Learning

Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian Siok-Yee Chan1, Theam Foo Ng2 and Siok Sin Chan3 1 School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia 2 Centre for Global Sustainability Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia 3 Sekolah Rendah Jenis Kebangsaan (Cina), SRJK (C), Bandar Springhill, Lukut, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia

Definitions Blendspace

Computer classe

Digital Natives

eLearning

▶ Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

FC

Competence ▶ Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

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A social platform that allows the creation of digital content for sharing such as interactive lessons, project, presentation, quizzes, and discussion. A class that was formed to teach the student digital skills. This includes the use of Microsoft Office software. “A person born or brought up during the age of digital technology and so familiar with computers and the internet from an early age” adopted from Oxford English Dictionary. According to Oxford English Dictionary, eLearning has been defined as a system of learning which uses electronic media, typically over the Internet. This includes the use of Internet of things, gadget, mobile, and computer for teaching and learning purposes. Flipped classroom. A teaching method in which students first learn about a new subject at home, usually online video or pre-class materials, and then

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HOTS Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah (KBSR)

Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR)

Man-made disaster

Mentimeter and Kahoot

Natural disaster Policy

SDG 4

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have collaborative and discussion on it in physical class – adopted from Chan et al. (2018a). Higher-order thinking skills. KBSR was introduced in 1983. It is a school curriculum that adopted a double-pronged approach to satisfy the educational requirements of the Malaysian school-going child: one is to raise the literacy level of pupils and the other is to develop cognitive and thinking skills. It was a school curriculum that introduced in 2011. It aims to restructure and improve the current curriculum to ensure students have the relevant knowledge, skills, and values to face the challenges of the twenty-first century. Uncontrolled problem or consequences of an action by human beings. Human behavior is the key for the change in the environment. Both Mentimeter and Kahoot are apps that focus on online collaboration for the educator sector allowing students or respondents to answer question at real-time setting. The main purpose of these apps is to increase engagement in teaching and learning. https://www. mentimeter.com Disaster that is out of human control that causes great damage. “A course or principle of action adopted or proposed by an organization or individual” Oxford English Dictionary. SDG 4 is Sustainable Development Goal number 4. The philosophy behind this goal

Sustainable Development Goal

Workbook

is obtaining a quality education which is the foundation to improving people’s lives and sustainable development. According to the United Nations official website, the Sustainable Development Goals are the blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future of all. There are a total of 17 goals set to address the global challenges. According to Oxford English Dictionary, workbook is a student’s book containing instruction and exercises relating to a particular subject. The introduction of workbook is to replace the use of loose-leaf and hand-copying activities.

Introduction Quality of education is an important agenda under the development program of the United Nations. It has been placed as the main emphasis of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4) (United Nation Foundation 2015). SDG 4 aims at achieving global education with equality for all. However, there are inevitable extraordinary events that may potentially compromise the accessibility and quality of education (United Nation Foundation 2015; Sustainable Development Goal 2019). These include natural disasters, unforeseen consequences of policy implementation, and manmade effect. Natural Disaster and Education One of the most devastating natural disasters that affect Malaysian education is flood during the monsoon season due to high levels of rainfall. According to a UNICEF report, flood in Malaysia threatens children’s well-being. One of the major floods occurred in Malaysia was reported in December 2014 (Fig. 1). It has been described as the worst flood of Malaysia. It hit Malaysia in the northern and eastern region of peninsular Malaysia. Education was affected ranging from primary

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Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian, Fig. 1 Houses and plantations submerged in floodwaters in Pengkalan Chepa, near Kota Baru, Kelantan, on December 28, 2014 (Azlee 2015)

up to tertiary institutions. During the monsoon season, schools were converted into flood relief centers. All the schooling of the academic year was delayed (Azlee 2015). In Terengganu, 22 out of 501 primary and secondary schools delayed commencing their new session (Bernama 2017). A similar event happened early of this year, January 2018. A total of 2834 students from 21 schools in Malaysia were unable to attend school sessions, due to the worsening flood situation in Pahang, Terengganu, Kelantan, and Johor (Azizi 2018). In Kelantan, floods forced 16 primary schools with 2,915 pupils to be closed on the first day of school. In Johor, 40 pupils could not start their new school term due to the big wave phenomenon. The plight of flood-prone schools in Sarawak has also been given attention by a politician to adjust to a new landscape (Boon 2018). According to Iya (2014), this published report revealed that floods can be human controlled. It stated that most Malaysians believe that the cause of flooding was due to improper drainage systems.

Following the negative impacts of the disaster, several measures have been taken such as research funding, disaster management, and flood prediction, among others Man-Made Factor and Education Quality of education could be affected not only by the abovementioned natural disasters but also by unforeseen consequences of man-made issues. Education policy is one such case of manmade issues. Policies are implemented over a long period of time, and they become rooted in the education system. Quality of education has been compromised due to subtle or implicit problems that did not get much attention or visibility. These problems were first experienced exclusively at the bottom level among the students. In the subsequent sections, compromised education is elaborated in the context of man-made involvement by taking Malaysia as an example. Malaysia is a multicultural country. Pupils who have been raised in a diverse cultural background

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are brought together in primary or secondary schools. Adaptation among the students in the school is a challenge. On top of the cultural diversity adaptation, students are expected to perform. It is because there is a general belief that academically good students will break the vicious cycle of poverty in a family. Echoing the challenges, there are a few man-made factors that intensely affect the education system in Malaysia associated with the rapid or superfluous adoption of information technology today: firstly, workbook reduction that aims to shift the education paradigm from teacher-centered learning to student-centered learning; secondly, to prepare students for the digital world, paid computer classes were introduced; and, thirdly, the urge of technology integration in teaching and learning or also known as eLearning. Workbook Reduction

The Malaysian education system has experienced some changes over the past few years due to the introduction of student-centered learning and inculcation of higher-order thinking skill (HOTS) (Malaymail 2016). In that context, the conventional syllabus, i.e., Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah (KBSR), has been replaced with Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) (Kamarudin et al. 2016). With the KSSR syllabus, students are expected to be trained on higher-order thinking skill such as analysis, problem-solving, as well as creativity. As far as the initial good intention of the change is concerned, the implementation in the democratic and conservative decision-making structure of the schools has always been somewhat difficult. This negative impact takes its form in the guise of compromising education among the pupils. In early of 2017, there was a circular about workbook reduction released by previous Ministry of Education to urge the schools not to burden pupils with additional workbooks (Fong 2017). The circular stipulated that teachers should not use workbooks during classes (Fong 2017; Hui 2016). The intention was cited as to reduce school bag weight burden and promoting KSSR syllabus. This circular has shocked the local teachers.

A preliminary study carried out by a primary school teacher and a group of education researchers has pointed out that the implementation of this policy needs immediate revision (Chan and Chan 2018). The study involved 125 respondents from teachers in the public primary schools of Malaysia. According to the analyzed result, circa 82% of the educators revealed that the policy needs to be revised. Only 16% of the respondents agreed to the workbook reduction policy, and 2% remain neutral. The former Deputy Education Minister has stated the concern of heavy school bags as the intention behind the policy. However, based on the survey, only 25.6% of teachers agreed that workbook reduction could reduce the weight of the schoolbag, 54.4% opposed the idea, and 20% remain neutral. In addition, only 23.2% of the respondents agree that this policy is in line with the KSSR on HOTS to prepare the pupils for twenty-first-century skills. There is no significant correlation between the perception of teachers of the use of workbook that may reduce creativity and the implementation of this rule in the school. Further scrutinizing the reasons behind their perceptions, it is interesting to find out that the majority (53.6%, n = 125) of the respondents thought that workbook reduction will impact negatively to the learning process of the pupils. This was significantly linked to their beliefs in the statement of “practice makes perfect” (r = 0.621, p < 0.001, Pearson Correlation). Besides, this statement has also shown significant correlation to the level of their understanding on KSSR syllabus involving HOTs (r = 0.287, p < 0.001, Pearson Correlation). This signifies that teachers know the importance and essence of higher-thinking order and at the same time think that it is important to practice (Fig. 2). This result contrasts with the policy makers who view that the use of workbook can compromise HOTs. Responses received from the teachers revealed that the majority of school’s management (87.2%) were trying to find alternatives when they were instructed to reduce the usage of workbooks. It was appalling that students were further burdened with extra activities in class such as hand

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Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian, Fig. 2 The proportion of responses toward the statement “practice makes perfect”(Chan and Chan 2018)

copying of questions or using loose papers for subject practices. This was reported to involve 82.4% of the respondents (Fig. 3). The respondents suggested the possible reasons for the ineffectiveness of this policy include parent pressure, exam-oriented culture, inadequate understanding of the intention behind workbook reduction, and KSSR syllabus. Regression analysis onto these factors revealed that the culture of exam-oriented, ignorance of the KSSR syllabus, and objective of workbook reduction are the main reasons (p < 0.01) for the outcome of the ineffectiveness of workbook reduction in the school setting (Table 1). However, it is worth mentioning that teachers in the primary school are supportive and optimistic for the possible change or improvement of this policy. With that, 30.5% of the teachers suggest the strategies for improvement. Summary of the suggestions includes providing innovative teaching materials, setting up the classroom environment that can promote creativity, restoring learning essence, encouraging reading, reducing administrative work among the teachers, simplifying current curriculum, as well as revising the content of student’s practical home work. The top management of school must fully understand the purpose of KSSR and encourage teachers to diversify and try new teaching methods and give them recognition. The next step is to provide teachers with platforms and opportunities to communicate their opinions regarding the current policy.

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Paid Computer Classes to Prepare Student in Information, Communication, and Technology

In this information age, students are expected to have functional, academic, critical, as well as technological skills (Abdel Karim and Shukur 2016). Technology integration has been introduced in the primary school setting to expose the pupils to digital world at an early age. Therefore, ICT (Information, Communication, and Technology) subjects have been included as one of the main elements in the latest Malaysian Education Blueprint (2013–2025) (Ghavifekr and Sani 2015). In the official syllabus, 60 minutes cumulative exposure per week in mastering the digital skill was planned for pupils in the public primary school. In a country like Malaysia, when the accessibility of education is competitive, some parents obsessively hope to see excellent academic result in their kids, viewing that it is the determining factor of the success/happiness in one’s life. The situation is worsened when the kid comes from a poor family background. The kid will be their hopes for economic status improvement of the family. The parents may pressurize their kids, and this leads to the demand of mastering digital skills more than what has been planned in the education syllabus. This may make no sense to the students themselves. Aiming at the weaknesses of the parents, irresponsible persons took advantage of their vulnerability by introducing compulsory computer classes among the pupils after school. This has been initiated among the

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Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian, Fig. 3 Examples of the hand copying activities and used of loose-paper among the students that leads to the increase of exercise books usage

Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian, Table 1 Factors affecting the implementation of workbook reduction among teacher in the public primary schools (Chan and Chan 2018) Factor To create key performance index (KPI) To cater for examination To obey the top management Pressure from parent Ignorant about KSSR Ignorant about objective of implementation

Coefficient, B 0.172 0.547 0.401 0.059 0.701 0.915

p < 0.01 is considered statistically significant

Sig 0.542 0.042 0.184 0.844 0.048 0.048

Chinese vernacular primary schools in Malaysia by the parent-teacher association (PTA). In the structure of these computer classes, instructors were hired from the computer company who were generally O-level graduates (Chung 2018). Each primary student was asked to pay for the extra computer classes, certification, and computer learning modules from the company. Parents complained that the computer classes took up too much of the students’ time. It was reported that school principals have personally engaged the parent-teacher association – which holds the deciding power – to sign an agreement with the computer companies. Only

Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian

in recent years, with the spirit of new Malaysia, the culprit of this compromising education was revealed as an issue of personal benefit and greed. The amount of corruption among the principles of Chinese schools was estimated to be 100 million per year, if all the Chinese schools were involved (Malaysiakini 2006). Soon after the change of Education Minister in the country, Dr. Maszlee Malik has ordered Chinese vernacular schools to stop conducting computer classes during school hours. United Chinese School Committees’ Association of Malaysia (UCSCAM) said that student should not be forced to pay for classes that are not included in the national syllabus (Mohsen 2018). This is an example of corruption in the country leading to a compromised education. It jeopardizes student learning over personal interest. The Implementation of eLearning Superfluously

The advances in information technology (IT) and Internet of things (IoT) have ushered in a new paradigm for knowledge delivery modules especially in tertiary institutions. According to Belanger and Jordan (2000), there are three stages of technology integration in educational organizations. The first stage involves instructional technology insertion in the traditional classroom such as the use of Moodle for content dissemination, announcement, activities, and assignments. It further evolves into the second phase which is termed as partial conversion where certain courses are delivered online. The third evolution phase is the complete/total conversion which involves online classes or distance learning technologies. Based on the suggested stages, Malaysia remains in the state of partial conversion. In this stage, the exposure to the pioneer group of students is crucial in determining the subsequent student’s acceptance (Chan et al. 2018a). In an attempt to take advantage, positively, of these realities, local universities have been actively incorporating the idea of eLearning in their educational systems (Waleed Mugahed Alrahmi et al. 2015). This was evident by massive

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training of trainer courses, eLearning workshop, and Moodle platform of eLearning such as Open edX and OpenLearning. Many papers have cited the advantages and positive feedback of eLearning in teaching and learning. According to published literature, online learning enables the students to attempt the learning activities at their own pace and time. This can reduce anxiety or fear among the students in making mistakes in front of the teacher or classmates (Zamari et al. 2012). Videos, animations and songs, and digital content in the virtual space make the activities more interesting as compared to activities available in a textbook or workbook (Baragash and AlSamarraie 2018; Hamid et al. 2015; Kabilan et al. 2010; Thowfeek and Jaafar 2012; Zainuddin et al. 2012; Zamari et al. 2012). A study performed locally in Malaysia has unraveled the other side of the story (Chan et al. 2018a). In that study, the respondents were pharmacy students in a public university. The respondents declared their experiences with flipped classroom and eLearning through live videos. The results were surprising because more than 60% (Fig. 4) of the students expressed dissatisfaction due to the academic burden of that particular course that used eLearning approach. Despite the deep availability of technology to the digital native (respondents), it is unusual that students would turn away from eLearning pedagogies. In that study, several factors have been identified. These include cultural learning factors, perception of effectiveness, and unprepared instructors, among others. The reluctances as previously mentioned among the pharmacy students were not tied to the conservative culture of Malaysian or unwillingness to change. The finding is in line to a local Malaysian study who has pointed that learning styles have no influence on the perception of students toward online learning (Mansor and Ismail 2012). Further investigating the result published by Chan and coworker in 2018, the inherent reluctances among the students were found to be “time constraints.” It has been highly cited as the main complaint (Table 2). In another study, the same group of researchers realized the

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118 Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian, Fig. 4 The frequency of preference and recommendation of students in the use of flipped classroom as eLearning pedagogy (Chan et al. 2018)

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Preference

Not

84

Yes

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Recommendation

0%

problems of academic credit hours as another main culprit of ineffectiveness in learning (Chan et al. 2018a). This has led to negative impressions of eLearning among the students. The students tend to see eLearning as a “burden” instead of assistance. When eLearning is seen as burden, the learner is the slave to it. This has deviated from the initial intention of eLearning that should augment human learning but not enslave them. This is another example of man-made disaster that has compromised the quality of education. The improper planning of the eLearning content may lead to academic burden which creates inherent reluctances among the students who perceive that the eLearning pedagogies are not effective. Peer pressure on the view of eLearning effectiveness may influence the openness of the students toward learning changes. This could happen when the experiences were shared from seniors to their juniors who are expected soon to be exposed to the new pedagogies. In this regard, effectiveness of the implementation was the key to the subsequent change into the final state of technology integration in teaching and learning. A customized flip classroom has been initiated which tries to fix the problems of learning in a local context. Studies were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the modified framework of flipped classroom suited to the total student learning time. A pre-recorded learning material with narration, voice, and subtitles was prepared. Collaborative activities were performed using Mentimeter and Kahoot. The customized flipped classroom (FC) model has promoted active learning, increased teaching and learning participation,

20%

40%

90

60%

80%

100%

Compromised Education: Seeing Through the Lens of Malaysian, Table 2 Degree of acceptability using the flipped classroom in pharmacy education among students (Chan et al. 2018a) Cause of non-preference Local culture Ineffective Time constraint Low quality of the instructor Total

Not prefer n = 156 (60.90%) 12 (7.69) 27 (17.31) 72 (46.15) 45 (28.85) 156 (100)

improved academic performance, enabled continuous education/sustainable resources (Youtube or Blendspace), instilled positive impression of FC, and eventually proved the effectiveness of the customized FC (Chan et al. 2018a). The customized FC has extended student’s preferences to embrace eLearning as part of teaching and learning pedagogies. In another research, the effectiveness and the efficiency of interactivity in online learning has shown to positively impact learning satisfaction. The result shows that the effectiveness is more toward satisfaction than efficiency. It means the effectiveness of interactivity can give satisfaction to students who use online learning (Baharin et al. 2015). These findings suggest that the local community is definitely on the move from the traditional information seeking behavior and educational system of the classroom to the newly emerging eLearning systems in the country. Lesson Learned

As stated by Salmon (2005), eLearning is in its extraordinary position due to the unexpected

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changes into different pedagogies following its initial introduction as a tool. The adoption of a suitable eLearning model can trigger high levels of eLearning performance in modern digital societies (Salmon 2005; Xanthidis et al. 2016). Lessons learnt from abovementioned issues and studies have shown that the implementation of eLearning pedagogies superfluously without understanding true essence of learning could potentially compromise the quality of the education. While eLearning was advancing in some other region (Xanthidis et al. 2016), it is ashamed to say that the same methods could not be used successfully due to improper manmade factor in the planning. There has been a large group of people who are against adaptation of eLearning as well as technology integration in teaching and learning. In the virtual world, surfing activities can go wild and out of control if it was used inappropriately. Here comes the role of educator that serves as a “tour guide” in the virtual world to avoid losing the learner. The high reluctances in eLearning adaptation could actually jeopardize the chances of the digital users in advancing themselves in the virtual world. If the students were closed in a “cage” from the virtual world, they might be ignorant about the proper usage of technology in learning. It is worth mentioning that the guiding process should indeed start early in primary school. In an analogy, exploring the virtual world is like exposing the kids to the physical real life. Before they get lost, educator shall play a role in guiding them. That will definitely augment the learning process when the students have the “card” of freedom from their parents at a later age. A study has shown that children who are exposed to gadgets at an early age tend to be less creative and slower in picking up learning. Subtle influences from the gadget are no different to a child who is addicted to comics or even novels. The key lies in the fact of “unguided” tour in the material that they are exposed to (Belanger and Jordan 2000). Therefore, technology integration in schools should be carefully, delicately and properly introduced.

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In the information overload era, knowledge is easily accessible at the fingertip. However, reliability of the shared knowledge is doubtful. This has been expressed in focus group students on the use of eLearning pedagogies where the students were expected to self-regulate learning in advance. Low self-esteem and uncertainty among the students occur when it comes to the choice of web-based information. In this aspect, teachers/lecturers must be more selective in giving advice on beneficial and functional web-based learning materials. This is to motivate, create interest, and encourage maximum participation of the students.

Summary Compromised or interrupted education can happen from unexpected natural disasters. More measures should be adopted to cope with these natural disasters. At the same time, man-made policies are equally deserving of attention for change. Policy maker should be alert and sensitive to the current situation. It is pertinent to understand whether the compromised education noticed is a consequence of non-holistic policies that have been practicing till this very day or a cause that lead to subsequent policy. Studies need to be carried out to realize the root cause of the compromised education seen before any policy decision could be made. This should be published alongside with the policy made to convince the people in a democratic country like Malaysia. With the advanced pedagogies, student-centered learning, higher-thinking order, and adaptation of eLearning should ideally motivate and empower the teacher and learners in pursuing and disseminating knowledge. In essence, competencies such as critical thinking, problemsolving skills, foreseeing future scenarios, and decision-making skills are highly needed in the graduates who are also the country’s future leaders. Through this lens, changes and adaptation are needed in the way of education practiced today. Critical investigation and constructive intervention are urgently needed to tackle the currently compromised quality of education at

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the bottom level among the students who are shy to be visible and heard.

References Abdel Karim N, Shukur Z (2016) Proposed features of an online examination interface design and its optimal values. Comput Hum Behav 64:414–422. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.013 Al-rahmi WM, Othman MS, Yusuf LM (2015) The Effectiveness of using e-learning in Malaysian higher education: a case study Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Mediterr J Soc Sci 6(52):625–637 Azizi NA (02 January 2018) Twenty one schools closed nationwide due to floods, New Strait Times Azlee A (05 January 2015) Worst floods in Kelantan, confirms NSC, malaymail Baharin AT, Lateh H, Nawawi H m, Nathan SS (2015) Evaluation of Satisfaction Using Online Learning with Interactivity. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 171:905–911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.201 5.01.208 Baragash RS, Al-Samarraie H (2018) Blended learning: investigating the influence of engagement in multiple learning delivery modes on students’ performance. Telematics Inform. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.201 8.07.010 Belanger F, Jordan DH (2000) Evaluation and implementation of distance learning: technologies, tools and techniques. IGI Global Bernama (01 January 2017) School session affected in three flood-afflicted states, Malay Mail Boon P (25 June 2018) Plight of flood-prone schools brought to Education Ministry. Borneo Post Online Chan S-Y, Chan S-S (10–12 July 2018) Workbook reduction policy as a solution for “heavy bag phenomenon” in primary school? Paper presented at the international conference on the future of education Penang Malaysia Chan S-Y, Lam YK, Ng TF (2018a) Student’s perception on initial experience of flipped classroom in pharmacy education: are we ready? Innov Educ Teach Int:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2018.1541189 Chan S-Y, Lam YK, Ng TF, Chan S-S (2018b) Emerging flipped classroom as teaching pedagogy: unravel the truth in Malaysia. Universiti Sains Malaysia Chan S-Y, Nadzri M, Ng YC (12&13 September 2018c) A customized flipped classroom with the perfect match of the use of “mentimeter” as collaborative activity. Paper presented at the International university carnival on elearning, International Islamic University Malaysia Chung C (26 Apr 2018) Comprehensive review planned for Chinese school computer classes, Star Online Fong LF (14 Oct 2017) School heads to follow order on workbooks, The Star Online Ghavifekr S, Sani IM (2015) Effectiveness of ICT integration in Malaysian schools: a quantitative analysis. Int Res J Q Educ 2(8):1–12

Hamid S, Waycott J, Kurnia S, Chang S (2015) Understanding students’ perceptions of the benefits of online social networking use for teaching and learning. Internet High Educ 26:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. iheduc.2015.02.004 Hui BY (29 July 2016) Chong: too many workbooks, The Star Online Iya SGD (2014) FLOODS IN MALAYSIA historical reviews, causes, effects and mitigations approach. Int J Interdiscip Res Innov 2(4):59–65 Kabilan MK, Ahmad N, Abidin MJZ (2010) Facebook: an online environment for learning of English in institutions of higher education? Internet High Educ 13(4):179–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.201 0.07.003 Kamarudin MY, Yusoff NMRN, Yamat@Ahmad H, Ghani KA (2016) Inculcation of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Arabic Language Teaching at Malaysian Primary Schools. Creat Educ:307–314. https://doi.org/ 10.4236/ce.2016.72030 Malaymail (31 December 2016) New KSSM, KSSR curriculum to be implemented in 2017, says education minister, Malaymail Malaysiakini (01 March 2006) 华小校长问题 “于”不再 敏感, Malaysiakini Mansor MSA, Ismail A (2012) Learning styles and perception of engineering students towards online learning. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 69:669–674. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.459 Mohsen AS (11 June 2018) Chinese schools told to cease illegal computer, tuition classes, The Sun Daily Salmon G (2005) Flying not flapping: a strategic framework for e-learning and pedagogical innovation in higher education institutions. ALT-J 13(3):201–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687760500376439 Sustainable Development Goals. https://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/. Visited 19th May 2019 Thowfeek MH, Jaafar A (2012) Instructors’ view about implementation of e-learning system: an analysis based on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 65:961–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.201 2.11.227 United Nation Foundation (2015) Sustainable development goal. 14 Spetember 2018 Xanthidis D, Alali AS, Koutzampasopoulou O (2016) Online socializing: how does it affect the information seeking behavior and the educational preferences in Saudi Arabia? Comput Hum Behav 60:425–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.062 Zainuddin A, Kamaluddin N, Hassan Z f (2012) Exploring malay student’s commitment in online learning – a case of business management students. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 67:81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.1 1.309 Zamari ZM, Adnan AHM, Idris SL, Yusof J (2012) Students’ perception of using online language learning materials. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 67:611–620. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.367

Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development María Dolores Sánchez Galera Public Law Department and “Pascual Madoz” Institute of Land, Urbanism and Environment, Carlos III University, Madrid, Getafe, Spain

Synonyms Compulsory instruction; Education for all; Mandatory education; Public education; Right to education; Schooling

Definition Compulsory education refers to a legally required period of education for all people. It means that compulsory education is necessarily a legal imposition normally governed by national law defining the exact period that free and mandatory education should last. So, it could also be defined as the number of years that a child is expected to attend school, or more generally to receive instruction in anyway. The Duration of such period differs from country to country depending on their history, political will, social needs, and resources.

Introduction The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has defined compulsory education as follows: “Number of years of age span during which children are legally obliged to attend school” (Compulsory education, http://uis.unesco.org). In fact, one of the earliest types of education law-making was compulsory schooling legislation. Still, today compulsory education does not have the same social implications as in the past. When approaching the concept today we need to explore its intrinsic relevance, and then, after we can

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consider the implications of being globally a governmental imposition (international, national, regional, local). In fact, education today has many objections; it has been argued that compulsory education has served for many years the industrialized world and the current production system. It has been argued that we need big educational changes under the sustainability paradigm and the Anthropocene in order to build awareness of global citizenship and understanding of the ecological crisis of our time. Today over 170 countries use legal means to protect children’s right to access compulsory schooling for a minimum period (Law 2007). Compulsory education and Compulsory schooling are often used interchangeably in social science literature. The period of mandatory education is regulated by the law and usually determined by the student’s age. In general, fulltime compulsory education is provided in formal institutional schools. However, in most countries under certain conditions, compulsory education can be provided at home, or under parental or guardianship supervision. In any case, this is one basic entitlement of today’s constitutional provisions concerning the right to education. See, for instance, Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act No. 108 of 1996, s.29 (1)(a). South Africa’s constitutional protections of the right to basic education have long been used as a progressive model for other constitutions. It involves the duty imposed upon parents or guardians by law to see that their children receive instruction, as well as the prerogative of every child (person) to be educated. Accordingly, compulsory education and consequently compulsory schooling has proved repeatedly to be key device for the development and transmission of a sense of nationhood (Lowe 1999). Not by chance, the legal mandate of establishing compulsory education, despite of its international acceptance, is bounded to the national legal sphere. And it is the central government that establishes the National Curriculum. The “National Curriculum” sets out the content matter which must be taught in the different subjects in local authority–maintained schools.

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The relevance of compulsory education is recognized on a worldwide basis and today every developed country of the world has compulsory education laws irrespective of their philosophical and political differences (Nawaz and Tanveer 1975). Compulsory education at global level, as we understand it today, is embedded as a universal principle by article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) containing the “universal” principles directly related to education: (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed towards the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

All international agreements concerning education adopted since the Universal Declaration owe part of their content to this article. Two different International Covenants followed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights following the prevailing view by which two separate treaties or covenants were needed after the Universal Declaration. The International Covenant on Civil and Political rights (1966), that could, in principle, be secured immediately; and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966). The agreements concerning Education at international level fall under two different categories: those that deal with education along with several other fields that broadly correspond to the International agreements adopted under the auspices of the United Nations (UN), and those that are confined to Education adopted under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Education was included among economic, social, and cultural rights following the rationale that such rights could be achieved only progressively,

according to each state’s available resources. Under these premises, it has been enshrined the legal basis for compulsory education in many different constitutional texts worldwide. Other important declarations adopted by the UN containing provisions that are relevant, and have played a significant role for universalizing and enlarging free-access within the context of compulsory education, are the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959); the Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960); the Declaration on the Promotion among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding between Peoples (1965); the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (1967); the Declaration on Social Progress and Development (1969); The Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons (1971); the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons (1975); the Convention on Vocational and Technical Education (1989); the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (1992); The Declaration and Program of Action on a Culture of Peace (1999); and the Millennium Declaration (2000). The commitments that States and governments make in adopting standard-setting instruments need to be considered in the light of the legal and moral force of declarations in modern international law (Singh 2005). The right to education as reaffirmed at the World Education Forum (WEF) that was launched as a guardianship of the “right to education,” carries an obligation for Governments to ensure that basic education is made accessible to all. It is further endorsed by the High Level Group on Education for All (EFA). The EFA movement is a global commitment to provide quality basic education for all children, youth, and adults. At the World Education Forum (Dakar 2000), 164 governments pledged to achieve EFA and identified six goals to be met by 2015. Governments, development agencies, civil society, and the private sector are working together to reach the EFA goals. UNESCO coordinates these partners, in cooperation with the four other conveners of the Dakar Forum (UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF, and the World Bank).

Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

UNESCO remains the leading agency and focuses its activities on five key areas: policy dialogue, monitoring, advocacy, mobilization of funding, and capacity development. In the pursuit of EFA goals as a priority, the governments’ responsibility for providing basic education for all is underlined in the Joint Statement of 26th April 2002 on the occasion of the second Dakar anniversary of the world Education Forum: Governments have the responsibility of providing basic education for all as synonym of free compulsory education. Still, according to the UN records more than 80 million children in the world do not have access to education. “Large groups of children are forced into child labor and 127 million young people are illiterate and their life expectations will be halved. These children have no chance in our 21st century knowledge society” (Cfr. World Education Forum). On the spirit of contrasting the lack of access to compulsory education by a large group of children, emphasis on the need to provide access to a full course of primary education for all children has been added in different occasions: In 2000 the UN set the so-called Millennium Goals setting high standards on educational access in deprived areas of the world to be resolved by 2015. The Millennium goals have been followed by 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) from the period 2015 to 2030. The so-called 2030 Agenda has devoted Goal number 4 to Education, it aims at “ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.” The new Agenda founded on the principle of the Right to Education goes beyond past attempts to ensure access to basic (compulsory) education, as set out in the “Education for All” goals and the education-related Millennium Goal number 2. SDG 4 has 10 different targets encompassing many different aspects of education. There are seven targets which are expected outcomes (4.1. Universal primary and secondary education; 4.2. Early Childhood development and universal pre-primary education; 4.3. Equal access to technical/vocation and higher education; 4.4. Relevant skills for decent work; 4.5. Gender equality and inclusion; 4.6. Universal youth literacy) and three targets (4.a Effective learning

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environments; 4.b. Scholarships, 4.c. Teachers and Educators) which are means of achieving these targets. This is an example of today’s main concerns regarding educational needs worldwide. The democratic and human rights protection oriented pattern of our society does not question the necessity of the provisions for compulsory education laws, but it opens up a discussion about the requirement of diversity of alternatives for each individual in an advanced educational structure. So, the topic of compulsory education has recently come alive as a subject of social science discussion and even constitutional and economic thought to shed light on the necessity of improving the quality of compulsory education, even if this trends stands at stark contrast with the principle of education as a common good (UNESCO 2015). Nevertheless, some of the most relevant discussions concerning compulsory education in advanced industrialized societies are not new (Nawaz and Tanveer 1975). We can find early works questioning the quality and the necessity of compulsory education on the basis of new alternatives and society needs, as early as in the 1960s in the UK and the USA (Jernegan 1918). Such discussions “[r]ange from support for legal backing of compulsory education to concerns of freedom that prompts a permissive attitude toward and individual’s decision to go to school or otherwise. There is also a middle ground approach in which decrease in the number of years of compulsory school attendance is seen as an alternative. Other alternatives have pointed toward ‘functional literacy’ rather than formal schooling (. . ..)” (Nawaz and Tanveer 1975, p. 278). Such proposal suggests that those other alternatives pointed toward “functional literacy” rather than formal schooling “contract” on the acquisition of basic learning skills such as a reading, writing, arithmetic, and others. They focus on adult education considering that the drive and motivation for education is more real at a more mature level than it is at the lower age levels. New conceptual and philosophical approaches are prone to suggest different solutions on the understanding of providing an alternative to compulsory education (Papastephanou 2014). Such

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alternative solutions try to put into practice new pedagogical, philosophical, and evolutionary views of children’s educational needs to provide the right basis for personal development at its fullest capacity in a particular context (Menon 2014; Jain 2010). Other views are more focused on the idea that current state education resembles our failing economic system of unsustainable growth and for that reason we need a change for a socio-ecological transformation (Capra and Mattei 2015). The common ground of the different approaches is that advocates and critics of compulsory schooling agree on one thing: compulsory schooling stands in need of justification and they obviously disagree about the possibility of providing one (Schinkel 2014).The best known critiques of compulsory education are brought by radical opposing views suggesting a “deschooling society” (Illich 1975; Goodman 1972), or other types of pedagogies not back up by compulsory schooling (Freire 1970). There have been other solutions that tend to mirror the current understanding of the biosphere functioning like an indivisible organism. The issue of an alternative education system and alternative curricula content is particularly relevant today in order to “cobble together a sustainable global society in time to avert potentially catastrophic climate change” (Rifkin 2010). Such trends correspond to the most recent development of alternative society welfare measuring tools. The introduction of the “Human Development Index” combines multiple stats to provide a full picture of human development. Its inputs are income (namely GNI per capita), duration of education, and life expectancy. It was created in 1990 with the goal of shifting the focus towards human well-being rather than popular income-centric measures like GDP per capita. Education and the fulfilling of the educational needs are some of the most important indicators.

Legal and Historical Remarks Anything endorsed by the word compulsory is meant to be enforced by law in today’s society. Thus, as it has been affirmed elsewhere “the ideal

of universal education is a composite of two conjoined imperatives: a right of access to education via government provision and also compulsory education secured by police power” (Blacker 2014). This double nature distinguishes “education for all” from other basic civil rights, such as speech, religion, and even political participation, where there is rarely any officially coercive element regarding the exercise of the right in question (Blacker 2014). The importance given to the legal element is crucial. Countries like China, after the economic reform in the late 1970s, began to reinstate its legal system and emphasize the instrumental use of law as a means for reform and of regaining control over various sectors, including the educational system (Law 1999; Wang 2000). So, any system of compulsory education, to be effective, must be based on general mandatory laws passed by the central governing body of the state, with adequate provisions for their enforcement. It is implied in the law that such machinery exists and will be used for enforcement. Nevertheless, it is only in comparatively recent times that Governments all over the world have passed laws embodying the principle of compulsory education underlying the notion that is the duty and the responsibility of the states to compel all children to acquire a minimum of education and make it available and free to all children at public expense. The main target of modern laws related to educational needs was to develop “instructed” population to meet the demands of an era of emerging rights and freedoms specific to nations emerging after World War II. Early developments of compulsory education were shaped by different needs. Rothbard (1979) makes an extraordinary attempt to synthetize the history of compulsory education starting by Athens and Sparta. Considering that Sparta is an ancient model for modern totalitarianism, Rothbard points that the State was organized as one vast military camp, and the children were seized by the State and educated in barracks to the ideal of State obedience. So, on his opinion “Sparta realized the full logical conclusion of the compulsory system; absolute State control over the ‘whole child’; uniformity and

Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

education in passive obedience to State orders. The most important consequence of this system was that it provided the ideal for Plato, who made this educational system the basis of his ideal State, as set forth in the Republic and the Laws. Plato’s ‘Utopia’ was the first model for later despotisms—compulsory education and obedience were stressed (. . .)” (Rothbard 1979, p. 19). In the Middle ages, some of the earliest compulsory education occurred in historic Judea, with rabbinical scholars encouraging parents to provide their children with basic, though informal education; whereas in the early sixteenth century, there was no state education system and most education activities were conducted in monasteries, cloisters,and other religious institutions run by the Roman Catholic Church. The first modern movement for compulsory state education stemmed directly from the Reformation. A prime force was Martin Luther. As a result of Luther’s urgings, the German state of Gotha founded the first modern public schools in 1524, and Thurungia followed in 1527. Luther himself founded the Saxony School Plan (Rothbard 1979, p. 20). Prussia, known as one of the most notoriously despotic State in Europe, was the first to have a national system of compulsory education, inspired by Luther’s thoughts (Rothbard 1979, p. 24). The story of compulsory education in the other countries of Europe is quite similar, with the added element of compulsory languages in most of them. The Austro-Hungarian Empire strove for a uniform, centralized absolute monarchy, imposing the German language. Therefore, one remarkable note of the historical evolution of compulsory education in Europe regards the fact that the system of compulsory state education has been used as a yardstick for the imposition of certain languages and to destroy and to destroy the languages of various national and linguistic groups within their borders. This was a particular problem in central and eastern Europe (see further Rothbard 1979, p. 28). In the United States, the Massachusetts act of June 14, 1642, was the first general educational act (Ternegan 1918, p. 735). The

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educational legislation of the North American colonies shows evidence of two main ends, education and compulsory schools. Thus, the first general educational act sought minimum of education for all children, to be given by parent, masters, or someone employed by them for this purpose. These original forms of noninstitutionalized schooling are the precedents of the current and controversial homeschooling. The American Supreme Court did uphold parental choice to “homeschool” in two cases in the 1920s. In a case called Pierce v. Society of Sisters in 1925, it struck down an Oregon law that mandated public school attendance. In another case called Meyer v. Nebraska in 1923, it overturned a state law banning the teaching of foreign languages to children. Nowadays compulsory education is still full of controversy due to the different political and social problems associated with the lack of resources devoted to education and the lack of innovation in public education. This necessarily links to the idea that quality education is not necessarily provided by compulsory schooling years and increasingly families are looking for alternative resources (i.e., homeschool, parental schooling, associations, cooperatives, and other private alternatives). This matter has also been argued in the past. In the 1940s, the English writer and critic Herbert Read quote could serve the purpose of emphasizing today’s need to recognize the diversity of man by objecting to a compulsory “national system of education” that kills the gist of the essential and unique nature of every person: Mankind is naturally differentiated into many types, and to press all these types into the same mold must inevitably lead to distortions and repressions. Schools should be of many kinds, following different methods and catering for different dispositions. It might be argued that even a totalitarian state must recognize this principle but the truth is that differentiation is an organic process, the spontaneous and roving associations of individuals for particular purposes. To divide and segregate is not the same as to join and aggregate. It is just the opposite process. The whole structure of education as the natural process we have envisaged, falls to pieces if we attempt to make that structure . . . artificial. (Read 1944)

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Unfortunately, compulsory education in its twentieth century “universal education” form of expansive inclusivity and government provision is still the carrion of the capitalist and industrialized world model that offers poor solutions to the big challenges of the Anthropocene.

Concluding Remarks and Perplexities Is a system of “compulsory education” still valid to face the challenges of the ongoing millennia, our current biosphere crisis, and the climate change challenges altogether? If present trends on system transformation (Göpel 2016) continue, there is a chance that could be eliminated as a valid system. But, “[t]his elimination may not occur in name or regarding its physical infrastructure. Rather, the elimination of compulsory education will consist in large part of the alteration of what ‘compulsory education’ had previously meant, at least as a component of a larger ideal, namely, an equipping of all citizens with productive capacities and, hence, a social place” (Blacker 2014). We could further suggest that in order to face the current challenges under the premises of sustainability, we need global awareness of the needed dialogue between cultures that has never been resolved by our national mandatory educational systems. Ancient sustainable societies may harbor knowledge which is vital for the survival of all of us in the coming millennia but we are killing ancient cultural traditions devoted to land and natural resources by imposing westernized compulsory educational systems that stole children and people for their original lands making them believe on a “promise (nonexistent) land.” This unsustainable way of managing our educational system by tailor-made legislation might not be the only problem. It is important to understand that any answer to the question on the (still) valid adequacy of compulsory education must be concrete and contextual; it should not be answered in the abstract. In the case of the Gypsies, for example, there is evidence from a number of countries that compulsory schooling has been

counterproductive from both a social and an educational point of view (Liégeois 1988). In such cases, it should not be enforced as a matter of principle. But of course, as Bauman openly acknowledges, we must imagine the consequences of our current political wills and whims. As he accurately puts it: “It takes just a few minutes and a couple of signatures to destroy what took thousands of brains and twice as many hands and lots of years to build” (Bauman 2012).

Cross-References ▶ Quality Education

References Bauman Z (2012) On education. Polity, Cambridge, UK/ Malden, p 143 Blacker D (2014) Compulsory education cycles down. In: Papastephanou M (ed) Philosophical perspectives on compulsory education. Springer, Dordrecht Capra F, Mattei U (2015) The ecology of law. BerrettKoehler. Oackland (CA), USA Freire P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum, New York Goodman P (1972) Compulsory miseducation. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth Göpel M (2016) The great mindshift. How a new economic paradigm and sustainability transformations go hand in hand. Springer, Switzerland Illich I (1975) Deschooling society. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth Jain M (2010) in Black C., Schooling the World: The White Man’s last Burden Dcoumentary Film. People Films, available at www.schoolingtheworld.org Jernegan MW (1918) Compulsory education in the American colonies: I. New England. School Rev 26 (10):731–749 Law W-W (1999) New rules of the game in education in the People’s Republic of China: education laws, and regulations (guest editor’s introduction). Chin Educ Soc 32(3):3–8 Law W-W (2007) Legislation and educational change: the struggle for social justice and quality in China’s compulsory schooling. Educ Law 19(3/4):177–199 Liégeois JP (1988) School provisions for ethnic minorities: the gypsy paradigm. University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, pp 89–90 Lowe R (1999) Education and national identity. Hist Educ 28(3):231–233

Contemporary Trends in Education Menon A (2014) A new school of thought. An interview to Manish Jain. Published by https://www.thehindu.com/ features/metroplus/a-new-school-of-thought/article553 8472.ece Nawaz M, Tanveer SA (1975) Compulsory education: national and international perspective. Educ Leadersh 32(4):278 Papastephanou M (ed) (2014) Philosophical perspectives on compulsory education. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht Read H (1944) The education of free men. Freedom Press, London, pp 27–28 Rifkin J (2010) Empathic education: the transformation of learning in an interconnected world. The Chronicle of Higher Education, Commentary, May 30, 2010. Accessible at www.chronicle.com Rothbard M (1979) Education: free and compulsory. Available and accessible at https://mises.org/library/educa tion-free-and-compulsory-1 Schinkel A (2014) On the justification of compulsory schooling. In: Papastephanou M (ed) Philosophical perspectives on compulsory education. Springer, Dordrecht Singh K (2005) The Right to Education: International Legal Obligations. Int J Educ Law Policy 1:103 Ternegan M (1918) Compulsory education in the American colonies: I. New England. School Rev 26 (10):731–749. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1078340 UNESCO (2015) Rethinking Education. Towards a Global Common Good? Wang ZM (2000) The developing rule of law in China. Harv Asia Q 4:1 World Education Forum (Dakar, 2000). It was launched the Education for All Movement.

Compulsory Instruction ▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

Computer Based Learning ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

Computer Skills and Competence ▶ ICT Skills for Sustainable Development Goal 4

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Contemporary Trends in Education Manoranjan Mohanty Development Studies, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji

Synonyms Knowledge; Learning

Definition Education means the empowerment of individuals through the provision of learning and lifetime learning experience. It is the process of facilitating learning or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values gained from anywhere and anytime. Formal education refers to education provided through the schools and similar established institutions for education and training; it generally conforms to a prescribed curriculum leading to some form of certification (Inter-Agency Commission 1990). There have been massive transformations in contemporary education due to rapid technological changes, showing distinct contemporary trends in education including teaching and learning methods, modes, approaches, and content.

Introduction In this entry, the contemporary trends in education are discussed critically. All sectors of education, formal, non-formal, and informal; all levels, kindergarten, primary, secondary, and tertiary; and all types, general, vocational, and special, are undergoing massive revolutionary changes. Education – the empowerment of individuals through the provision of learning – is a human right and a social responsibility (UNESCO 1990). The students need to succeed in college and the workplace and to contribute to their communities as informed and skill-based citizens in a rapidly changing world. According to Zhao (2012), educating creative, entrepreneurial

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students should be the focus of education with what he calls world-class learners. He says, there needs to be a paradigm shift in education that builds on students’ strengths and gives them opportunities where their talents flourish. Education is central to improving quality of life. Education raises the economic status of families; and it improves life conditions, thereby promoting chances for economic and social wellbeing. Effective education is a unique means to promote participation of all individuals in their local communities and in the global society. The Paris Message issued by the Global High-Level Policy Forum noted that “the global education community has a new point of departure to respond to the scale and urgency of demand for accessible, affordable and quality higher education” (ICDE 2016, para 4). Affordability and accessibility to quality education and their sustainability are the critical concerns. Education for Sustainable Development and sustainable development for quality education are vital. Sustainable Development Goal 4 focuses on the theme “Quality Education” under the heading “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO 2015). Quality education is however a challenge for sustainable educational development. In the last few decades, there have been massive changes in contemporary education, teaching and learning methods, modes, approaches, contents, evaluations and assessment methods, and educational technologies that have given the students choices to learn at their own pace, space, and time (European Commission 2014; Higher Education Academy 2017; Sota 2017). Global changes especially the information and communication technological revolution has brought in rapid changes in educational technology as well as learning and teaching methods, processes, policies, procedures, and practices. There have been revolutionary changes in education sector today, and it is likely to change unprecedentedly in the future (European Commission 2014; UNESCO 2015). In terms of content arrangement, the main text is organized into six sections. The section

Contemporary Trends in Education

“Introduction” provides an introduction to education and its contemporary trends. Section “Approaches to Education and Learning and Teaching” focuses on approaches to education and learning and teaching. Section “Factors for Changing Trends in Education and Learning and Teaching” deals with some factors for changing trends in education and teaching and learning. Section “Contemporary Trends in Education and Learning and Teaching” discusses the contemporary trends in education and learning and teaching that include technologically enhanced learning and learning styles. The Section “Education and Sustainable Development” focuses on education and sustainable development, and the Section “Conclusions” is the conclusion.

Approaches to Education and Learning and Teaching Lifelong Learning The fundamental emphasis has shifted from education to learning. The approach has been shifted toward a lifelong learning (Preston 1999; Field 2006; Aspin 2007). Another change relates to the importance of adult learning, which not only relates to the long period of learning in one’s lifetime but also connected to key responses to the needs for new knowledge and skills that are necessary throughout life and because of which one should continue learning throughout one’s life (Field 2006). Distance and Flexible Learning Distance education continued as an education system in which teaching and learning actions have been performed via communication technologies and mailing services by the teachers and the students that are in different environment (Tavukcu et al. 2011). Distance education is defined as “a teaching method provided through varied environment and teaching units that interaction and communication between the planners and practitioners of educational activities and students have been specifically prepared in conditions that traditional teaching and learning methods limit the application of classroom

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activities.” (cited in Tavukcu et al. (2011). Distance education or learning is a part of flexible and open learning. According to Al-Arimi (2014), it is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy/ andragogy, technology, and instructional system design that are effectively incorporated in delivering education to student, and student may communicate asynchronously and synchronously. The concept of interaction in distance education is important. Moore (1989) identified three types of possible interaction, i.e., learner-content, learnerinstructor, and learner-learner. Flexible learning includes distance learning as well as open learning. The Higher Education Academy (2017) states that flexible learning is about empowering students by offering them choices in how, what, when, and where they learn, i.e., the pace, place, and mode of delivery. It says flexible learning requires a balance of power between institutions and students and seeks to find ways in which choice can be provided that is economically viable and appropriately manageable for institutions and students alike. Many universities have adopted flexible learning practices. Deakin University (2009), for example, introduced flexible learning as a multilayered and multifaceted approach. It stated that, in its broadest sense, flexible learning “is a continuum of approaches in terms of time, place, pace, content and mode of learning applied in varying degrees. It further stated that its overarching purpose is to increase opportunities and options available to learners and give them greater control over their learning through a variety of learning modes and interactions. It is not an alternative form of education but an overarching driving force that provides learners greater choice.” Pedagogical philosophy behind flexible learning is that “it is more learner-centered, encouraging greater independence and autonomy on the part of the learner” (Deakin University 2009). Flexible learning is a state of being in which learning and teaching is increasingly freed from the limitations of the time, place, and pace of study. Flexibility in learning and teaching is a value principle. Flexible learning offers students the choices, convenience, and a personal approach to learning. Diversity and equality in education are critical concerns in

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flexible learning. Collis and Moonen (2001) in their work on Flexible Learning in a Digital World discussed about changes in learning, teaching, the support and enterprise of education, and the role of technology in those changes. They consider these changes in an integrated way using flexible learning as the integrating concept. The flexible learning and teaching activities include (a) online and e-learning, (b) blended learning, (c) distributed, and (d) disaggregated learning. Open Educational Resources (OER) The goals of open and flexible approaches to teaching and learning are to provide access to educational opportunities to students which means being able to offer equitable access to learning opportunities to a student with very wide-ranging skill set and infrastructure and resources for formal education. Open Educational Resources (OER) provide greater opportunities to students to have more access to educational materials and learn at their own pace, space, and time. OER is growing rapidly (D’Antoni 2008; Geith and Vignare 2008; Mossley 2013). In 2002, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation found that Open Educational Resources (OER) are “highquality teaching, learning, and research materials that are free for people everywhere to use and repurpose.” The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation (2015, p. 2) defined OER as, “teaching, learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual property license that permits their free use and re-purposing by others.” OER include full courses, course materials, modules, textbooks, streaming videos, tests, software, and any other tools, materials, or techniques used to support access to knowledge. UNESCO (2017) stated that Open Educational Resources (OER) are “any type of educational materials that are in the public domain or introduced with an open license. . .The nature of these open materials means that anyone can legally and freely copy, use, adapt and re-share them...OERs range from textbooks to curricula, syllabi, lecture notes, assignments, tests, projects, audio, video and animation” (para 1).

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Student-Centered Approaches to Learning There has been a paradigm shift in teacher-centered learning toward student-centered learning process. The four tenets of student-centered approaches to learning that can lead to deeper learning are seen as personalized learning (customized), student-owned learning (student voice, student agency), competency-based learning (proficiency-based or mastery-based), and anytime, anywhere learning (blended, project- and inquiry-based) (NMEF 2013). According to the proponents, these tenets should be applied not just at the individual learner level but throughout a multilayered education landscape that involves classrooms and other learning environments supported by educational systems and policies directed at achieving the deeper learning outcomes (NMEF 2013). According to Beus (2017), there has been an increased focus on studentcentered learning through personalization, microlearning, virtual reality, and high-velocity learning that will help to improve student retention and ultimately result in more capable graduates who have experienced in problem-solving.

Factors for Changing Trends in Education and Learning and Teaching It is a rapidly changing world. Globalization and globalizing processes are bringing technological revolutions. The information and communications technology (ICT) revolution has tremendous impact on education (OECD 2016). The computer and education technological changes have brought in educational innovations, bringing new trends in learning and teaching and education sector as a whole (Martin et al. 2011; Groff 2013), for example, App Innovation and Gamification. Meeting the learning needs of all has become a greater need than ever before, not only because of rapid technological changes but also because of the increased global interdependency of nations in their cultural and economic activities (InterAgency Commission 1990; Halls 1990). Today, it is more a knowledge economy and society. The economy and labor market have been demanding work-ready labor force. The students

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need to develop vital networks and relationships to enable progression, gain industry and employability skills and competencies, and engage in meaningful and deeper learning activities with specific outputs. The contemporary trends in lifelong learning are seen as an artifact of the market (Preston 1999). The education system needs to prepare skillful workforce with both soft skills (e.g., personality-oriented and interpersonal skills) and hard skills (e.g., ability of software use).

Contemporary Trends in Education and Learning and Teaching Education has become more web-based as Draves and Coates (2005) said in their work, Nine Shift: Work, Life, and Education in the 21st Century. According to Draves and Coates (2005) the term “nine shift” is used to describe the great changes that are taking place in our lives. They said “what we are experiencing in how we use our time and how we experience life derives from the phenomenon that nine hours in our day will be spent entirely differently in 2020 than they were spent in 2000” (p. 2). They further said, “what we know, and what many other technology and economic experts have widely documented, is that the Internet, and the World Wide Web in particular, is a profound new technology that has already fundamentally affected our economy. . . We know that we are moving from an industrial economy to an information economy” (p. 5). There has been transformation from the Industrial Age to the Internet Age as seen in Peter F. Drucker’s concept of “knowledge worker” (cited in Draves and Coates 2005, p. 4). Peter F. Drucker notes that “Both in its speed and its impact, the Information Revolution uncannily resembles its two predecessors within the past 200 years, the First Industrial Revolution of the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and the Second Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth century” (ibid. p. 4). Drucker further notes, “The Next Society will be a knowledge society. Knowledge will be its key resource, and knowledge workers will be the dominant group in its work force” (p. 4), and he

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concludes, all these suggest that “the greatest changes are almost certainly still ahead of us” (cited in Draves and Coates 2005, p. 4). Today, the education processes and trends are more market- and technology-driven and will remain so in the future. The global trend is toward a problemsolving-based pedagogy. The learning is to be deeper and student-driven, and that can enable students for development of a broad range of skills and competencies in addition to the acquisition of academic knowledge. Education is increasingly becoming international (Knight 2006). The notion of global citizenship has emerged due to expansion of both global education and the globalization of education. Over the years, education sector has witnessed the growth of private provision in education especially in higher education (Gupta et al. 2008). Good examples are the role being played by organizations such as the Apollo Group, Pearson, and Microsoft in establishing campuses. The competency-based learning approaches and online learning are blended more now than ever before and is creating an evolutionary approach to education. Today, students are seen as critical consumers and content creator. In the last few decades, the questioning of traditional teaching and learning methods and instructional systems and the search for more effective alternatives have gained momentum especially in higher education (Goldschmid 1976; Fry et al. 2009; Altbach et al. 2011). According to Goldschmid (1976), some of the contemporary trends in education are marked by (a) facilitation of student learning with an emphasis on individualizing instructions and increased use of multimedia systems and (b) new system of higher education such as the Open University or the university without walls, designed to offer radical alternatives to new as well as traditional types of students. Educational Technology Changes and Trends in Learning and Teaching There has been a rapid race between education and technology. Education is increasingly becoming high tech. Modern technology in education has initiated custom teaching and learning methodologies and experiences in educational

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infrastructure (elearning industry 2018). There is a positive effect of educational technology on learning, but the effect varies considerably (Mihalca and Miclea 2007). Educational technology research has also moved through several stages focusing at the beginning on the content to be learned, then on the format of instructional messages, and, finally, on the interaction between computers and students (ibid.). There has been a clear shift from the design of instruction to the design of learning environments and a shift from content-focused to learner-focused instruction (ibid.). With the advent of new technologies, innovative methods of data are continually being developed, which offer new options for ongoing formative, culminating summative, and alternative assessments (Freiberger 2017). More than any other technology, cloud computing is providing a new way for high-tech education (elearning industry 2018). Cloud-based education apps have made ease storing learning data. The volume of education information and data has emerged learning analytics that can boost learner engagement in education more than anything else (elearning industry 2018). Some of the contemporary trends in technological changes and their implications to learning and teaching include: 1. App Innovation and Gamification: There has been explosion in education-related apps (Freiberger 2017). MIT App Inventor, for example, enables students to create their own apps in the comfort of their classrooms (ibid.). At the same time, education-related games that enhance skills in English language arts and other subjects have gained popularity such as Mathalicious and Get the Math, which provide practical, true-to-life experiences (ibid.). 2. Digital Literacy: An increasing number of teachers using technology in the classroom and students are engaged with content via digital literacy, and, in many instances, there has been adoption of formal digital literacy curriculum and digital literacy plans (Freiberger 2017). There is a plethora of resources available about understanding

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digital literacy including YouTube videos, teacher’s guides, and lesson plans (ibid.). 3. Self-Directed Learning: The learning process is self-directed today. In addition, there have been an increase in self-directed professional development for educators (Sexana 2012; Freiberger 2017). These include interactive online webinars or videos and other content that may be streamed through web browsers (Freiberger 2017). 4. Collaborative Learning: New applications are making it easier for teachers to be both innovative and interactive. Interactive whiteboards and new applications create quizzes and activities for more collaborative learning in education. Kahoot, for example, is a new application at no cost for educators to download and install and conceive of fun quizzes and learning activities to enhance student engagement (Freiberger 2017). “Educreations Interactive Whiteboard” is another way for both educators and students alike to assess, jointly present, or partake in interactive activities (ibid.). 5. Personalized Learning: One of the contemporary trends in education is a shift toward personalized learning (Riddell 2017). The personalized learning approaches have increased significantly due to rapid advances in technology platforms and digital content (Pane et al. 2015). According to Pane et al. (2015), although there is not yet one shared definition of personalized learning, leading practitioners in the field generally look at (i) systems and approaches that accelerate and deepen student learning by tailoring instruction to each student’s individual needs, skills, and interests; (ii) a variety of rich learning experiences that collectively prepare students for success in the college and career of their choice; and (iii) teachers’ integral role in student learning that include designing and managing the learning environment, leading instruction, and providing students with expert guidance and support to help them take increasing ownership of their learning. Personalized learning emphasizes more student-centered and active learning. Debbie

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Morrison suggests that “personalized learning is, and will continue to be, learner-driven where learners control their learning and become not just consumers of content but active creators of content, building knowledge through collaboration and connectivity via smartphone apps” (Beus 2017, para 4). There has been a range of benefits from a shift toward personalized learning that include better student engagement, behavior, and academic performance (ibid.). Personalized learning has become one of the most talked-about strategies in education sector today especially in the schools. Public and private schools are “experimenting with new approaches to personalized learning and figuring out how best to tailor instruction to the needs and desires of individual students” (Mathewson 2017). Technology has made personalized learning more approachable and more challenging, forcing schools to draw a clear line about where to separate good pedagogy from tools that facilitate it (ibid.). 6. Microlearning: Microlearning is closely related to personalized learning. Microlearning was defined by Karl M. Kapp, as “the concept of delivering content to learners in small, specific bursts over time or just when needed” (Beus 2017, para 7). This learning trend breaks content into small chunks of accessible information that enable students to progress at their own pace and convenience. 7. High-Velocity Learning: The term highvelocity learning, as created by Steven J. Spear, means to speed up the process of imparting information by learning through discovery and problem-solving (Beus 2017, para 13). Jon Marcus explains, it is also a form of learning that is faster, more effective, and long-lasting than hours-long monologs in crowded lecture halls or classrooms (ibid.). 8. Expeditionary Learning: Expeditionary learning brings the learning out into the world expediting the need to learn more than what’s confined inside the classroom but even more so using the world to learn

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(Teachthought 2015). Students feel engaged in learning while achieving goals when exposed to learning outside. They are exemplified by project-based learning expeditions, where students engage in interdisciplinary, in-depth study of compelling topics, in groups and in their community. 9. Project and inquiry-based learning: There has been an emerging trend in project- or problem- and inquiry-based learning that include internships and job shadows, design thinking, and digital and physical game-based learning. This is a form of active learning that starts by posing questions, problems, or scenarios (Freiberger 2017). 10. Entrepreneurship Education: Entrepreneurship education has expanded rapidly in two decades or so which has resulted in a proliferation of offerings in universities (Kuratko 2005; Morris 2014). This has resulted in a growing trend in vocational education. Trends Toward Technologically Enhanced Learning With the rise of online education due to technological revolution and the Internet, the notion of “education in a borderless world” has gained prominence. Technologically enhanced learning has gained momentum. Some of technologically enhanced learning include: (a) Massive Open Online Course (MOOC): Consistent with the growth of private provision in education, there was emergence of what is now known as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), a model for delivering learning content online to any person who wants to take a course, with no limit on attendance. MOOCs are now popular trend in the online learning landscape that has its roots in the Open Educational Resources (OER) and distance learning technologies (Dabbagh et al. 2016). The term MOOC was coined in 2008 by Dave Cormier to describe the connectivism and connective knowledge (ibid.). MOOCs are delivered online and the courses are free or “open.” MOOCs provides flexibility of access to course materials from anywhere at any

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time. Different types of MOOCs exist that reflect varying learning theories and pedagogical principles (cited in Dabbagh et al. 2016). They all provide universally accessible and affordable quality education to thousands of learners who otherwise would not have access to it (ibid.). MOOCs are seen as forcing rapidly evolving technology-enabled evolution in higher education (University of Queensland n. d.). Free education has materialized in the form of Massive Open Online Course as a direct result of students wanting to learn but not having the resources to do so. This is a new expression of lifelong learning. Online, open, and flexible education systems thus provide capacity for higher education, supported by a range of non-formal learning activities such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). (b) m-Learning or Mobile Learning: Mobile technology opens the door for a new kind of learning (Martin and Ertzberger 2013; Teachthought 2015; Dabbagh et al. 2016). Mobile learning is growing faster, globally. As mobile devices become more ubiquitous, mobile learning for students support anywhere, anytime access to learning opportunities and open multiple pathways to learning. The instructional design of mobile learning requires that learning become more modular and contextual to provide flexibility and clear outcomes (Martin and Ertzberger 2013). Mobile app development for education is providing a new way for need-based learning. (c) E- Learning: E-learning is emerging as a new tool due to advancement in technology (Rosenberg 2001; Reuters 2017). E-learning is the employment of technology to aid and enhance learning. The term “e-learning” has been in existence since 1999. The term such as “online learning” and “virtual learning” emerged later. With the introduction of the computer and Internet in the late twentieth century, e-learning tools and delivery methods expanded rapidly. E-learning is the use of computer and internet technologies whenever and wherever students need education. Elearning is, therefore, suited to distance and flexible learning, but it can also be used in

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conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term blended learning is commonly used. Some of the trends in e-learning include (i) a contextualized learning, digital learning design addresses the needs of learner; (ii) use of video; (iii) microlearning; (iv) social e-learning, (v) m-learning; and (vi) content curation-user-focused e-learning content, including blogs, forum threads, guides, and videos. (d) Cloud Computing: The software applications and advent of tools such as Google provides for educators more choices and make learning process easier. The cloud computing is rapidly changing the field and models for deploying and leveraging technology in academic institutions. (e) Virtual Learning: With technological changes, the concept of “classroom” has been shifting toward “virtual learning spaces.” There is more emphasis on community outreach, blended learning, and mobile learning that is enhanced with more interactions in online discussion forums and interactive multimedia experiences in the virtual learning spaces (Keppell et al. 2012). Changing Trends in Learning Styles There has been changing trends in students’ learning styles. Skonard (2015) noted that “gone are the days when students have to rely only on text-based – or even video-based – tutorials.” While those are still effective, new types of learning styles have emerged, offering online learners more interactive experiences like writing code directly in the browser or completing online challenges as part of the learning process (Skonard 2015). Flipped Classroom: The learning style has been changing toward flipped classroom (Teachthought 2015; Acedo 2018). According to Acedo (2018), as technology has increasingly grown and infiltrated classrooms, a new learning model has emerged that moves away from a teacher-centered space into a more collaborative, student-centered learning environment, by way of a flipped classroom. A flipped class is a form of blended learning where students watch video lectures outside of class to learn content online and

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then do their homework in class with the guidance of teachers in person. The main goal of a flipped classroom is to enhance student learning and achievement by reversing the traditional model of a classroom, focusing class time on student understanding rather than on lecture (Acedo 2018). This approach helps to engage students outside of the classroom as well as in the classroom. Essentially, the homework that is typically done at home is done in the classroom, while the lectures that are usually done in the classroom are viewed at home (ibid.). Acedo (2018) noted that flipped classroom allows class time be used to master skills through collaborative projects and discussions. This encourages students to learn concepts from each other with the guidance of their teachers. Flipped classroom can be more effective hands-on approach to improving student achievement, involving them in their own education (ibid.). According to Acedo (2018), there are some potential advantages to flipped classroom style of learning: (a) Students to have increased input and control over their own learning. (b) It promotes student-centered learning and collaboration. (c) Lessons and content are more accessible. (d) Give parents access to their children’s video lectures. (e) It is more efficient. However, Acedo (2018) noted there are many demerits to this model of learning: (i) It can create or exacerbate a digital divide. (ii) It relies on preparation and trust. (iii) It increases time spent on in front of computer – instead of people and places. Trends in Special Education Educational opportunities for students with disabilities have in many countries altered dramatically since the introduction of the normalization principle in the early 1970s; the initiation of the first World Conference on “Education for All” in Jomtein in 1990 (UNESCO 1990); the development of the influential Salamanca Statement in

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1994 (UNESCO 1994); and the opening of the World Education Forum at Dakar in April 2000 (UNESCO 2000; Forlin and Ming-Gon 2008). Emergence of new technologies has led to a lifelong learning process that can enhance inclusive education. Future Trends The field of digital literacy will continue to grow in importance in the coming years as new approaches to learning via new technologies are emerged (Freiberger 2017; OECD 2016). Collaborative learning is expected to grow exponentially in the coming years as well. The concept of anywhere, anytime learning will gain increased focus in the future. Design, creativity, entrepreneurship, performance, and innovation combine to foster some of the most student-centered educational environments in the future. Virtual reality is gaining momentum but has vast potential to provide students with active learning activities (Keppell et al. 2012). The possibilities for expanding the student’s learning environment through this medium are infinite, and virtual reality will become a more dominant trend in the future. Micro-credentialing, digital badging, and Open Educational Resources (OER) will take a future center stage where there will be more participatory learning opportunities available for teachers as well as learners (University of Queensland n.d.; Mossley 2013). With increasing pace of educational technology and volume of education information and learning data, the learning analytics will grow, and it will not only make learning and teaching decision-making easier but will also boost the learner engagement in quality education.

Education and Sustainable Development Education is an essential tool for achieving sustainability. We live in rapidly changing world where knowledge and innovation are the major drivers of development (UNESCO 2014). Good quality of education and learning are becoming important determinant of well-being of individuals and the progress of countries (ibid.). Education for

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Sustainable Development and sustainable development for quality education are vital. An important distinction is the difference between education about sustainable development and education for sustainable development (Esdtoolkit n.d.). The former refers to an awareness lesson or theoretical discussion, while the latter is the use of education as a tool to achieve sustainability. It calls for giving people knowledge and skills for lifelong learning and find new solutions to their environmental, economic, and social problems. There have been great social, cultural, and economic impacts on worldwide learning, including lifelong learning (Field 2006). Creation of a knowledge society and an economy is prerequisite for sustainability. Promoting quality lifelong learning, “Opportunities for All,” is needed in all settings and at all levels of education. Open and Distance Learning (ODL) is playing a vital role in lifelong learning process. The provision of flexible learning pathways, as well as the recognition, validation, and accreditation of the knowledge, skills, and competencies acquired through non-formal and informal education, is important. Many sustainability scholars contend that realizing the innovation, creativity, imagination, and success of new approaches for solving problems requires new paradigms in education (Dale and Newman 2005; Miller et al. 2011; Brundiers and Wiek 2011; OECD 2016). Dale and Newman (2005) speak of the need for sustainable development education that emphasizes problem-based interdisciplinary learning. Miller et al. (2011, p. 178) viewed that “building sustainability knowledge requires a fundamentally different approach to the ways academic institutions organize research and education and relate to society.” Brundiers and Wiek (2011) propose sustainability research education that provides problem- and solution-oriented educational opportunities for students to work on real-world sustainability problems with entities outside of academic institutions.

Conclusions With technological revolution and rapid global changes, the contemporary education has been witnessing a massive shift in emphasis, content,

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methods, and pace of teaching and learning. The information and communications technology (ICT) revolution has set in motion on deeper learning processes. There has been a clear paradigm shift from teacher-centered toward studentcentered learning processes. With the rise of Open, Flexible, and Online education, the notion of “education in a borderless world” has gained prominence. The contemporary trends in education attempt to better prepare the students to have lifelong learning in order to succeed in a world that is continuously evolving. There remains, however, a need to capitalize on the contemporary educational trends to help build capacity in education, improve access to and quality of education, and achieve sustainable educational development goals and the goal of Education for All.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

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137 Reuters (2017) Global E-learning market 2017 to boom $275.10 billion value by 2022 at a CAGR of 7.5% – Orbis Research. Available at: https://www.reuters. com/brandfeatures/venture-capital/article?id=11353. Accessed on 16 October 2018 Riddell R (2017) Personalized learning: what educators need to know. Available at: https://www.educationdi ve.com/news/personalized-learning-what-educators-ne ed-to-know/435762/. Accessed on 20 May 2018 Rosenberg MJ (2001) E-learning: strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age. McGraw Hill, New York Sexana V (ed) (2012) Contemporary trends in education: a handbook for educators. Pearson, Delhi Skonard A (2015) 5 top trends in technology 2015. Available at: https://www.inc.com/aaron-skonnard/5-toptrends-in-education-technology-2015.html. Accessed on 20 June 2018 Sota MS (2017) Variation in time, place and space: blended learning and flipped classrooms. Centre on Innovations in Learning, Temple University, Philadelphia Tavukcu T, Arap I, Ozcan D (2011) General overview on distance education concept. Proc Soc Behav Sci 15:3999–4004 Teachthought (2015) Modern trends in education: 50 different approaches to learning. Available at: https://ww w.teachthought.com/pedagogy/modern-trends-educati on-50-different-approaches-learning/. Accessed on 15 May 2018 UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (1994) The Salamanca statement and framework for action: on special needs education. In: World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality, 7–10 June, Salamanca UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (1990) Meeting basic learning needs: a vision for the 1990s, World Conference on Education for All, 5–9 March 1990, Jomtien, Thailand UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2000) The Dakar framework for action: education for all: meeting our collective commitments. World Education Forum, 26–28 April 2000, Dakar, Senegal UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2014) UNESCO education strategy 2014–2021. UNESCO, France UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2015) Education 2030: Incheon declaration and framework for action: for the implementation of sustainable development goal 4- towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all, 19–22 May. UNESCO, Incheon UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2017) What are open educational resources (OERs)? Available at: http://www.unesco. org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-to -knowledge/open-educational-resources/what-are-ope n-educational-resources-oers/. Accessed on 27June 2018

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138 University of Queensland (n.d.) Future trends in teaching and learning in higher education. Institute for Teaching and Learning Innovation. Available at: https://itali.uq. edu.au/filething/get/3419/Final_Future_trends_in_teac hing_and_learning_in_higher_e. Accessed on 24 June 2018 William and Flora Hewlett Foundation (2015) Open educational resources. Available at: https://hewlett.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/11/Open_Educational_Resource s_December_2015.pdf. Accessed on 26 June 2018 Zhao Y (2012) World class learners: educating creative and entrepreneurial students. Corwin, Kansas

Continuing Education ▶ Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Conversational Education ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

Cooperative Learning ▶ Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas

Corporate Culture ▶ Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives

Cosmopolitan Law ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

Continuing Education

Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship Arda Güçler Department of International Relations, Özyeğin University, İstanbul, Turkey

Synonyms Being cultured; Cosmopolitan law; Foreignness; Global citizenship; Global justice; Globalism; Planetary thinking; Sophistication; Universalism; Worldliness

Definition Cosmopolitanism assumes that all human beings, regardless of their ethnic, sexual, racial, and other specific affiliations, belong to a single community of humanity. The roots of this thought can be traced back to Diogenes in ancient Greece who proclaimed himself as kosmopolitês (citizen of the world) (Horstmann 1976). The cosmopolitan thought was further developed by the Stoics such as Seneca who famously differentiated the local world that we live in by birth from the other “truly great and truly common” (Nussbaum 1997: 30) world that is shared by all humans. Cosmopolitan thought has close ties to civic humanism and the Enlightenment as it organizes the world around rules and laws that can be applied to all human beings regardless of their attachment to specific traditions, familial ties, national borders, and personal concerns. This is what differentiates cosmopolitanism from internationalism, which also transcends the national borders, but still abides by the norm of national sovereignty. A truly globalist approach such as cosmopolitanism questions the very authority of sovereignty and is interested in uniting individuals around the world without relying on the mediation of nation states. This is the core difference between cosmopolitan law and international law, which will be fleshed out in more detail later.

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While cosmopolitanism has this common core, it is also open to different interpretations. Some scholars place more emphasis on moral and normative questions without much emphasis on the institutional and procedural questions (O’Neill 2000; Nussbaum 2006; Freeman 1999). Others are more interested in establishing global organizations and institutions (Held 1995; Bohman 2004; Brennan 2001). Other scholars choose to focus on the cultural aspect of cosmopolitanism (Igarashi and Saito 2014). Similarly, there is an ongoing debate about the specific function of cosmopolitanism. Should its priority be the duty to fulfill the negative function of avoiding parochialism, or does it have the more positive function of constructing a common global community? There is also the tension between realism and idealism. Is cosmopolitanism a natural process that we observe in history alongside with other phenomena such as globalization, or is it a product of an active construction that people need to fight hard for to achieve? Besides these internal questions, cosmopolitanism also deals with some outside criticisms (Özkırımlı 2005: 144–149). For example, it is criticized for being self-contradictory because even though it espouses universalism, it can be quite elitist in practice. This is the case because being a cosmopolitan person requires high levels of wealth and mobility that is not available to most of the world population. There is also the issue of excessive idealism. Cosmopolitanism might have the best intentions, but its feasibility and applicability is a different matter because progress towards this ideal can take a long time to materialize. Even worse, its momentum can become reversed in the face of isolationist policies, which are becoming more imminent in today’s global environment. There is, in other words, nothing natural or automatic about cosmopolitanism’s dissemination and progression. Also, the prospect of a world government is not without its own set of menacing potentials such as the unprecedented power of a global army and the problem of accountability in the case of such a centralized representative structure. It is for these reasons that cosmopolitanism remains a topic that attracts acclaim and contestation at the same time.

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Culture or Moral Code? On the one hand, being cosmopolitan implies being a worldly person who travels around the world and exposes oneself to different cultures and places. The relationship between such exposure and morality remains indeterminate because the emphasis here is on being able to perceive the world from multiple perspectives through experience. This is what is otherwise known as the cultural interpretations of cosmopolitanism. It is not hard to detect a paradox at the heart of this interpretation. On the one hand, the cosmopolitan thought is intended to be very inclusive since it encompasses the entire humanity. On the other hand, the requirements for acquiring such cultural sophistication presuppose the possession of certain luxuries and resources in life that can only be acquired by a very small segment of the world population. As Jongyoung Kim puts it, “cosmopolitan attitude and lifestyle” can be understood “as exclusive resources that designate one’s class and status” (Kim 2011: 113). Even though it claims to bring people together and create a shared global sense of belonging, cosmopolitanism ends up affirming social hierarchies and keeps pulling the members of the global community apart. A good example here would be the concept of expatriate. What defines an expatriate is the ability to choose a place to settle in the world and reside there to be able to experience that culture and expand one’s horizon. This is the reason why it is not used interchangeably with being an immigrant because the latter does not have the luxury to leave the host country in a whimsical manner. Being an expatriate is also different from being a tourist because the former is committed to spend a considerably long time in the country and learn about the intricacies of that culture that she interacts with. Such exposure allows the expatriate to become transformed along the way, which means that when she returns back home, she does not return as the same person. Such willingness to become immersed in a foreign culture, however, does not change the fact that being an expatriate is inevitably linked with some form of an elitist position.

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The second type of cosmopolitanism is the moral position. This type of cosmopolitanism brackets cultural differences and focuses on the universal questions such as global justice and equality (Jones 1999: 15–17). Christine Sypnowich labels this as the difference between “cultural wordliness and moral worldliness, the former interested in the distinctive contributions of different cultures, the latter interested in moral duties to persons irrespective of cultures” (Sypnowich 2005: 56). From the perspective of morality, the cultural component appears not only as irrelevant but also as a potential impediment against the moral duties due to its preoccupation with differences over the universal questions. Morality tries to eliminate inequality and achieve true universality, whereas cultural worldliness risks perpetuating inequality and encourages elitism. But these two cannot be fully disassociated. Cosmopolitan ideals tend to be quite abstract, and for that reason, their communication with the rest of the world needs the help of those people who can understand the needs and desires of local communities. The cultural sophistication works as a necessary conduit for the dissemination of the cosmopolitan values and their internalization by the local communities. Immanuel Kant is the best representative of the moral interpretation of cosmopolitanism (Schlereth 1977; Kleingeld 2012). For Kant, all humans belong to a single community by the fact that they have the rational capacity to think in universal terms and operate as self-legislating beings regardless of their contingent circumstances. He resists the tendency to understand cosmopolitanism in utilitarian terms (Kant 1970) because utilitarianism can declare cosmopolitanism as redundant if the costs exceed the benefits. Kant’s defense of cosmopolitanism is unconditional in the sense that it does not need any reason other than moral law and its universality. This is a groundbreaking insight because it is an invitation for people to connect with each other globally without the mediation of any other actor such as the states or any form of cost/benefit analysis. This endows people with two core capabilities. First, people become the sole point of reference in legislating a global law, which transfers the domestic

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right to self-legislate to the global realm. Second, it paves the way for a new type of law (i.e., cosmopolitan law) that can hold the more conventional types of law (i.e., domestic and international) in check.

Cosmopolitanism and Its Core Moral Principles A moral rendition of cosmopolitanism stands on certain principles. David Held produces eight core principles that make up cosmopolitanism: (1) equal worth and dignity, (2) active agency, (3) personal responsibility and accountability, (4) consent, (5) collective decision-making about public matters through voting procedures, (6) inclusiveness, (7) avoidance of serious harm, and (8) sustainability (2005: 12). The principle of equal worth testifies to the moral necessity to treat each human as worthy of equal respect and recognition. It is possible to read such universalism as the complete dismissal of the legitimacy of cultural differences among different communities. But this is not a very accurate reading because a universal principle like this does not dismiss such differences. It rather recognizes such differences and exposes them to a test of universality, which means that it treats “individual human beings, not states or other particular forms of human association” as “the ultimate units of moral concern” (2005: 12). This position is also known as moral egalitarianism. The second principle (i.e., agency) underlines the self-determining nature of each human being. Human beings cannot be a by-product of already determined destinies or trajectories in life. This is an outcome of the Enlightenment thought and civic humanism, which emancipated the political authority from the domination of all authorities that stood above people and their reason. The principle of self-determination can manifest itself in many different contexts and can take on a variety of forms. For example, it can be done in the name of demanding freedom from the mandate of a religious or traditional authority. Just think of a person’s demand for her freedom to exit her cultural community without any fear

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of persecution or harm. It can also become manifested as a struggle against a more secular ideology and its power over one’s options in life. This was the case with orthodox Marxism and its teleological nature, which designed a certain destiny for the entire humanity and labelled all other voices that contested this vision as false consciousness. It can also be detected in certain reactionary circles, which reduce women to the confines of the private sphere (i.e., the household) and bar women from becoming a part of the public sphere. A cosmopolitan perspective challenges these barriers against the freedom to determine one’s own destiny. The remaining principles can be treated as the logical derivations of these two. Accountability and consent pertain to the practical aspect of equality and freedom. Accountability is key to ensure that anyone who acts on behalf of the people feels the obligation to remain responsive to those that they stand for. There is a key difference between acting in the interests of someone and acting in the name of someone because the latter assumes that the represented granted some form of authority to the representative for her actions. In the global arena, such authorization is not always possible, which means that many people represent the interests of other people without necessarily being elected by them. Whether elected or not, representatives are morally bound to account for their actions because their words and actions have an impact on those people that they act for. Ideally, consent should be the basis for all representative actions. However, such consensual representative mechanisms will take some time to accomplish, and for the time being, it might be more realistic to hold the representatives accountable even in the absence of such a consent by the represented. Collective decision-making and inclusiveness are again the keys to being a global citizen because the universal character of cosmopolitanism requires the active engagement of the people. However, it is also true that certain people and their ideologies might be incompatible with cosmopolitanism. This is an interesting question to bear in mind as it points to an inextricable relationship between inclusion and exclusion. Put

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differently, inclusion cannot be disassociated from exclusion because the terms of inclusion decide who should be left out or excluded. How can cosmopolitanism deal with this fact? Would this damage its claim to universality? Would such justification damage its aspiration for universalism? These are all interesting questions which do not have easy answers. The need to address the needs of others, regardless of their nationality, speaks to the principle of social justice and its global desirability. This will soon be discussed in more detail. Finally, sustainability points to the urgency to become more aware of the scarcity of the world’s resources. The principle of sustainability urges people to act not only in the name of the current common world but also for the well-being of the future generations to come. Its universalism encompasses the people to come. It is a common knowledge that most efforts for collective goods are entangled with the problem of collective action, which invites free riders who rip the benefits without contributing anything. This is already a big challenge for acting in the name of current generations and their interests. When the future generations are added to the equation, the problem becomes snowballed as it turns out to be much harder to motivate people in the name of a population that is nonexistent. Despite its challenging character, sustainability should still be deemed as an essential component of cosmopolitan thought because the unborn is a part of human community as a potentiality.

The Cultural Aspect of Cosmopolitanism As mentioned before, cosmopolitanism cannot be understood solely from a moral angle because it also has a cultural component. Some scholars read this aspect of cosmopolitanism quite affirmatively as they equate it with an openness to new cultures and worldviews (Beck 2006; Delanty 2012). Someone who has taken the time to travel the world, expose herself to different cultures, and form an understanding of their traditions can become a vehicle for a much more integrated and rich global community. They also point to

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the fact that the possibility of living such a cosmopolitan life has increased quite substantially as the world witnessed the emergence of new technologies such as high-speed communication devices and cheaper traveling options that allowed smoother and faster exchanges of ideas, goods, and services (Igarashi and Saito 2014). Someone who is more cultured about the globe becomes a different person not only in the sense of acquiring more information about the world but in the more ontological or existential sense of becoming a new person. The range of the studies on the cultural component of cosmopolitanism is quite wide. For example, the cultural element can be observed in the context of consumer choices as people’s preferences and tastes transform over time through their exposure to other cultures. Cannon and Yaprak (2012) demonstrate this in the patterns of consumption as they define cosmopolitan consumption as “a journey rather than a destination” where there is “a growing understanding, acceptance, and appreciation of the world as it is” (Cannon and Yaprak 2012: 13). This cultural aspect of cosmopolitanism is also applied to more specific tastes such as art where scholars show how “musicians have often learned the art, acquired status, and reached audiences through displacements and dislocations that take them beyond national boundaries” (Collins and Gooley 2017: 139). The examples can be multiplied here. The cultural range of cosmopolitanism is pretty much boundless since it can be applied to any area where national boundaries and belongings prove to be inadequate. Other scholars, however, have developed a more critical stance on cultural cosmopolitanism because it is associated only with a small segment of the global population. The luxury to travel around the world and spare the time to learn about them is usually restricted to “the elites of the society – businessmen, professionals, academics, etc.” who “have the educational background, the social, cultural, and economic capital” (Erkmen 2015: 26–27). Craig Calhoun (2008), for example, criticized the tendency to place a strong emphasis on the subjective conditions of cosmopolitan attitude towards life such as the

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willingness to learn about others and the desire to expand one’s horizon. Such individualist framework, he contends, is deceptive because it diverts the attention away from the material and cultural conditions of life that define people’s life possibilities. It is only by directing our attention back to these specific conditions that we can understand who can afford to live such a life and who will be denied access to it (Calhoun 2008). Don Weenink (2007) goes as far as framing cultural cosmopolitanism as a way of sustaining global hierarchies through the use of culture as a mode of power. Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital places a central role in these interpretations (Prieur and Savage 2013). This line of research shows that while “cosmopolitanism as an individual attribute, generally defined as an orientation of opening towards foreign others and cultures. . . while in theory available to anyone, tends to be exclusive, mostly associated with upper classes, requiring sufficient amount of economic and social resources to develop” (Erkmen 2018: 416). The tension between these two different ways of approaching cultural cosmopolitanism is hard to reconcile because they approach the matter from two diametrically opposing angles. The former position operates under the assumption that the barriers to entry will be removed in the long run and therefore the cosmopolitan attitude should be not identified with an elitist position. The Internet is a very frequently used example here. As the access to this technology is becoming much easier and the barriers to entry are diminishing in a very rapid pace, a hierarchical reading, the argument goes, would misunderstand this general momentum that affects all members of the global community. Those who approach the matter from a more critical angle, on the other hand, take social hierarchies much more seriously and do not want to treat such differences as negligible. Technical advances are necessary, but they are not sufficient to overcome social hierarchies because an increased egalitarianism hinges on the enactment of socially minded policies that specifically target these issues head on. Technology will not lead to an automatic removal of these barriers. The truth probably lies somewhere in-between these two opposing positions.

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Thick or Thin Cosmopolitanism What should be the relationship between cosmopolitanism and specific affiliations such as family, nation, religion, or kinship? Cosmopolitanism is hesitant to show too much tolerance towards such specific affiliations because this is a slippery slope that can easily end up in moral relativism. Yet cosmopolitanism also needs to form some sort of affirmative relationship with people’s specific sensitivities towards their own local affiliations (Scheffler 1999; Caney 2001). This is what is otherwise known as the distinction between strong (or thick) and weak (or thin) cosmopolitanism (Miller 1998: 166–167). At the very extreme, thick cosmopolitanism tries to establish a world government that can operate independent of all local affiliations (Cloots 1980). The normative credibility of such a vision has been questioned because such universal institutionalization would produce issues of accountability and participation due to its sheer size. Political philosophers who have followed the footsteps of Immanuel Kant advocate instead the enactment of global democratic participation without necessarily turning this ideal into a world government. This position is known as “republican cosmopolitanism” (Bohman 2001). In the absence of a world government, however, it is not clear what kind of enforcement power such decisions would have. Even though the current international order is defined as an anarchic realm in the sense that there is no central authority such as a world government, intergovernmental institutions such as the United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), and World Health Organization (WHO) do have considerable enforcement powers. WTO, for example, has its own dispute settlement processes. When a WTO member does not fulfill its obligations towards other member states, this intergovernmental organization can take several legal countermeasures such as imposing sanctions. These actions are backed by the terms of international law and its established precedents. Cosmopolitanism is not institutionalized as such. However, it does have its own legal and institutional framework that was first introduced by Kant. Cosmopolitan law, which is different

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from both international and constitutional laws, has the unique ability to relate individuals directly to the global world without the mediation of the state apparatus (Kleingeld 1998). Constitutional law is the backbone of liberal democracies, but its reach is limited because its jurisdiction encompasses the domestic matters. International law, on the other hand, does transcend national jurisdiction. Yet it mainly addresses the relationship among nations instead of the relationship among individuals. Both laws, therefore, fall short of fulfilling the function of cosmopolitan law, which defends the rights and freedoms of individuals at the global level without the mediation of the state structure. While the moral viability of this new type of law is widely acknowledged, the practicality of such a law is a different matter. For instance, it is not clear why the nation states would have the incentive to establish such a law since it undermines both their own domestic jurisdiction and their authoritative place within the international order. Also, how would people participate in these global decisions? Would their voice be mediated by representation? If this is the case, would this count as authentic participation? Besides these theoretical discussions, there is also the question about the specific institutional form of such a global order. Federalism is one of those options. Even though a federal body would have a limited coercive power in comparison to a world government, this would still mean a big transformation in international relations because it would require the nation states to transfer a significant portion of their power to such federation. The other and less ambitious option would be to strengthen the already existing international institutions and render them much more effective in dealing with global issues such as environmental issues and war-related crimes. But would such a framework be truly cosmopolitan, or would it be compromising too much in the name of being effective and realistic?

Cosmopolitanism and Justice It is appropriate to start discussing the topic of justice in cosmopolitanism by focusing on the

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John Rawls’s work. On the one hand, Rawls is one of the best representatives of the Kantian tradition and its universalism. On the other hand, he is an internationalist in the sense that he takes states and the principle of self-determination rather than individuals as his main point of reference (Kuper 2000). His work, therefore, can be treated as a litmus test for the compatibility between cosmopolitanism and internationalism. Cosmopolitanism does not always welcome the international norm of self-determination because not all nation states are willing to welcome the principles that are associated with cosmopolitanism. Rawls’s internationalism is accordingly criticized for showing too much tolerance towards the nonliberal societies and for hurting the Kantian commitment to the cosmopolitan principles listed earlier. Besides this problem, Rawls is also criticized for misunderstanding the inevitably interlinked nature of the global world where autonomy and self-determination can no longer be the operating norms (Tan 2004). Global economic inequality and the need for redistributive justice have been key areas to visit in demonstrating the shortcomings of an internationalist approach (Pogge 1989). For example, the main element that international law looks for in determining the legitimacy of a nation is selfdetermination and being recognized by other nation states. Even if such self-determination is earned through colonialism and military intervention, these questions remain beyond the scope of its concern as long as it receives recognition. Legalism trumps justice here. At the economic front, the principle of self-determination also remains quite problematic. For instance, corrupt governments can invite exploitative global companies to extract natural resources at the expense of the interests of their own people. Since these leaders have the sole say on their own domestic affairs, such corruption would miss the radar of international justice. In short, once national sovereignty is accepted as the main principle, cosmopolitan justice becomes compromised significantly because there is nothing to hold the national governments accountable for not acting in the interests of their own people and the global

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community. This is the reason why those who followed Kant’s legacy have been adamant to accept cosmopolitan law as a normative force that can hold international justice in check when needed. Determining an appropriate framework for cosmopolitan justice is also a challenging task. Should cosmopolitan justice be primarily geared towards poverty, or should its scope be more general? Is it realistic to have such a comprehensive framework, or should feasibility have more priority? Should the policy-makers strive for “sufficiency” and “a decent life” (Brock 2013: 693) instead of aspiring for full equality? Those who push for a more institutionalized form of cosmopolitanism will be inclined to aspire for more radical measures such as strong egalitarianism. Those who are more willing to adapt to the current conditions of the international order will choose a more realistic route and make the allocation of sufficient needs their priority (Blake 2002). The truth is that even the attainment of such sufficiency remains a highly ambitious vision today because the powerful states and the special interest groups do not have the economic and political incentives to support such efforts. It is also important to keep in mind that there is a difference between occasional charity and sustainable development. Charity tends to be discontinuous and arbitrary. Sustainable development, in contrast, requires a carefully crafted and well-managed process that understands the needs of the beneficiaries and tries to achieve long-term goals towards that purpose. Its longterm objective should be to make the beneficiaries autonomous enough to generate their own funding and workforce so that they would no longer rely on the agency of outsider actors. Going back to the core principles of cosmopolitanism, such egalitarianism constitutes the very fabric of this thought because sustainable development resists dependency wholeheartedly. This might sound too idealistic. However, given that most of the core international institutions are less than 100 years old, the line between idealism and realism can be quite thin in the eyes of historical progression.

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The Challenge of Patriotic Bias It is not hard to see why cosmopolitanism and patriotism can be incompatible (Nussbaum 1996) since they have different commitments towards the universal vision. But some scholars do search for some compatibility here. Anthony Appiah, for example, coined the term “cosmopolitan patriot” (Appiah 1996: 22) to refer to the type of person who feels attached to his homeland but can also relate to other cultures and people. Similarly, David Miller detects an interlinking relationship between cosmopolitanism and patriotism. He engages with this question in the context of tax-supported aid towards low-income countries. For example, if a taxpayer in a developed country is observing the existence of overt economic inequalities within his own country, on what grounds should this person feel the moral obligation to prioritize the needs of foreigners over the members of his own community? Miller calls this the “patriotic bias” (Miller 2005: 127) which renders people more responsive to the needs of those people that they know. In other words, it is a testimony to the fact that people’s level of concern for each other is correlated by their levels of familiarity with each other. This can be accurate descriptively, but, normatively speaking, why is this bias justifiable? This is the question that interests Miller. It is important to note that Miller’s normative defense of this bias is different from an efficiencybased argument (Goodin 1988). The efficiency argument justifies the need to help one’s compatriots in the name of ensuring effective provision of services and goods because someone from that community would have a familiarity with the needs and circumstances of the people being helped. Miller is not satisfied with this explanation because the dire reality of steep inequality among nations can easily counter such a pragmatic argument for efficiency. Even if the provision of goods to the developing world might be conducted in a relatively inefficient manner, the relative benefits of such aid can be quite high in the most impoverished parts of the world, which would justify the cosmopolitan responsibility to

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prioritize the needs of those people over one’s compatriots. Miller, therefore, is not happy with the efficiency-based justification and searches for a more formal justification where he can sustain a universalist position while also proving the moral permissibility of patriotic bias. Miller’s argument is the following one. Just because a person feels less concern for the people that she is not familiar with, it does not mean that she has less respect for them: “I certainly regard the life of the girl who lives across the street as no less valuable than the life of my own daughter. But I am not equally concerned for her” (Miller 2005: 131). The civic cost of not helping her own members of the community would be so severe that she could justify the choice of opting out of the option to help others. The selective concern for one’s own political community does not compromise universal respect for humanity. This abstract argument can be applied to tax-financed foreign aid where it becomes morally permissible to prioritize the needs of one’s own compatriots at the (partial) expense of the similarly disadvantaged foreigners. The patriotic bias is based on “a mutual respect and trust and a special commitment to provide adequate incentives for compatriots to conform to the shared institutions” (Miller 2005: 128). By developing this civic argument, Miller walks the tight rope of defending cosmopolitanism while also acknowledging the justifiability of differences in the concern for one’s own compatriots. David Held pursues a similar argument as he tries to ease the tension between thick and thin cosmopolitanism by advocating a “‘layered’ cosmopolitan perspective” that respects the “irreducible plurality of forms of life” (2005: 18) including national commitments and obligations. Held argues that the specific meaning of these universal codes cannot be determined in advance. Otherwise, cosmopolitanism works as an abstract idea that remains alien to the vernacular of each specific community and their specific ethical architecture. However, different from Miller, Held concludes that whenever there is an irresolvable conflict between the core cosmopolitanism values and the ethical norms of a specific community, the former should trump the latter.

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Conclusion Many of the challenges that the global community faces today (e.g., health epidemics, climate change, migrations patterns, and trade disputes) cannot be resolved with conventional tools that are provided by domestic and international law. What is needed is a cosmopolitan perspective, which addresses the needs and interests of individuals at the global level. This is a perspective that is quite new, and its application will take time, which means that people all over the globe will need to be educated about its relevance and importance (Nussbaum 2010). Most importantly, such education will require the acknowledgment of the power asymmetries among different global economic actors and the inevitably interlinked nature of humanity. This is directly tied to the question of how cosmopolitanism will be implemented in policy. In this concluding section, it might be a good idea to touch upon some of these policy options. After all, to become truly effective in global politics, cosmopolitanism needs to be constantly evoked in the public imaginary and practiced by the people. Otherwise, it would remain an abstract doctrine without much relevance. In a political environment where discourses of isolationism and nationalism becoming more and more prevalent, global events such as the World Cup would be an appropriate vehicle to communicate cosmopolitan messages to the global public. This is also true for other international events such as the meetings at the United Nations General Assembly and world summits. Acceptance of vulnerable populations such as refugees is another key cosmopolitan area that can demonstrate the importance of feeling as a respected member of the global community. The right to seek asylum is already placed into the legal framework of the international law. However, the willingness to practice this legal right is another matter. Such willingness is nicely exemplified by the Colombian government’s recent policy to accept more than one million Venezuelan citizens through its border. Finally, another area of implementation can be through global health. New

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initiatives such as the Health Impact Fund, which tries to incentivize drug companies to do more research on the neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) and receive compensation based on the impact of their drugs, should be supported by everyone around the world (Hassoun 2014). It is true that the duty to provide funding for such efforts mostly falls on the shoulders of the more advanced economies. But the low- and middle-income countries also have the duty to publicize such initiatives and provide some financial and moral support for them. These are some of the policy suggestions that can be mentioned here to give the reader an idea about how to implement cosmopolitanism in practice. Finally, cosmopolitanism will need to address its critiques more effectively. It will need to explain why its universalism is not a mere disguise to impose certain standards on the less privileged cultures and communities (Tamir 1993); what kind of incentives it will propose for the international institutions to join the cosmopolitan project; why it is not too abstract for the people to comprehend (Barber 1996); and how it can be disassociated from the problem of elitism (Robbins 1998). Despite these issues, cosmopolitanism has started to prove its practical value and generate its own precedents. The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a very good example here since this institution works in accordance with the principles of cosmopolitan law. It is true that these examples are rare and their enforcement capacity remains considerably weak, but their very presence is a testimony that the cosmopolitan vision is very much alive and relevant.

Cross-References ▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

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References Appiah A (1996) Cosmopolitan patriots. In: Nussbaum M, Cohen J (eds) For love of country: debating the limits of patriotism. Beacon Press, Boston, pp 21–29 Barber B (1996) Constitutional faith. In: Nussbaum M, Cohen J (eds) For love of country: debating the limits of patriotism. Beacon Press, Boston, pp 30–37 Beck U (2006) The cosmopolitan vision. Polity Press, Cambridge, UK Blake M (2002) Distributive justice, state coercion, and autonomy. Philos Public Aff 30:257–296 Bohman J (2001) Cosmopolitan republicanism. Monist 84:3–22 Bohman J (2004) Democracy across borders: from dêmos to dêmoi. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA Brennan T (2001) Cosmopolitanism and internationalism. New Left Rev 7:75–84 Brock G (2013) Contemporary cosmopolitanism: some current issues. Philos Compass 8(8):689–698 Calhoun C (2008) Cosmopolitanism in the modern imaginary. Doedalus 137:105–114 Caney S (2001) International distributive justice. Polit Stud 49:974–997 Cannon HM, Yaprak A (2012) Cosmopolitanism as a journey: the construct and dynamics of change. In: Price M (ed) Consumer cosmopolitanism in the age of globalization. Business Expert Press, NY, pp 3–28 Cloots A (1980) Oeuvres. Kraus Reprint, München Collins S, Gooley D (2017) Music and the new cosmopolitanism: problems and possibilities. Music Q 2(1):139–165 Delanty G (2012) Routledge handbook of cosmopolitanism studies. Routledge, New York Erkmen D (2015) Houses on wheels: national attachment, belonging, and cosmopolitanism in narratives of transnational professionals. Stud Ethn Natl 15(1):26–47 Erkmen D (2018) Stepping into the global: Turkish professionals, employment in transnational corporations, and aspiration to transformational forms of cultural capital. Curr Sociol 66(3):412–430 Freeman M (1999) The right to national selfdetermination: ethical problems and practical solutions. In: Clarke DM, Jones C (eds) The rights of nations: nations and nationalism in a changing world. Cork University Press, Cork, pp 45–64 Goodin R (1988) What is so special about our fellow countrymen? Ethics 98:663–687 Hassoun N (2014) Globalization, global justice, and global health impact. Public Aff Q 28(3):231–258 Held D (1995) Democracy and the global order: from the modern state to cosmopolitan governance. Stanford University Press, Stanford Held D (2005) Principles of cosmopolitan order. In: Brock G, Brighouse H (eds) The political philosophy of cosmopolitanism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 10–27 Horstmann A (1976) Kosmopolit, kosmopolitismus. In: Ritter J, Gründer K (eds) Historisches Worterbuch der Philosphie. Schwabe, Basel, pp 1156–1168

147 Igarashi H, Saito H (2014) Cosmopolitanism as cultural capital: exploring the intersection of globalization, education and stratification. Cult Sociol 8(3):222–239 Jones C (1999) Global justice. Oxford University Press, Oxford Kant I (1970) Kant’s political writings. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Kim J (2011) Aspiration for global cultural capital in the stratified realm of global higher education: why do Korean students go to US graduate schools? Br J Sociol Educ 30(1):109–126 Kleingeld P (1998) Kant’s cosmopolitan law: world citizenship for a global order. Kantian Rev 2:72–90 Kleingeld P (2012) Kant and cosmopolitanism: the philosophical ideal of world citizenship. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Kuper A (2000) Rawlsian global justice: beyond the law of peoples to a cosmopolitan law of persons. Political Theory 28:640–674 Miller D (1998) The limits of cosmopolitan justice. In: Mapel D, Nardin T (eds) International society: diverse ethical perspectives. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 164–181 Miller D (2005) Cosmopolitan respect and patriotic concern. In: Brock G, Brighouse H (eds) The political philosophy of cosmopolitanism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 55–74 Nussbaum MC (1996) Patriotism and cosmopolitanism. In: Nussbaum M, Cohen J (eds) For love of country: debating the limits of patriotism. Beacon Press, Boston, pp 2–17 Nussbaum MC (1997) Kant and cosmopolitanism. In: Bohman J, Lutz-Bachmann M (eds) Perpetual peace: essays on Kant’s cosmopolitan ideal. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 25–58 Nussbaum MC (2006) Frontiers of justice: disability, nationality, species membership. Belknap Press, Cambridge Nussbaum MC (2010) Not for profit: why democracy needs the humanities. Princeton University Press, New Jersey O’Neill O (2000) Bounds of justice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Özkırımlı C (2005) Contemporary debates on nationalism: a critical engagement. Palgrave Macmillan, New York/ Oxford Pogge T (1989) Realizing rawls. Cornell University Press, Ithaca Prieur A, Savage M (2013) Emerging forms of cultural capital. Eur Soc 15(2):246–267 Robbins B (1998) Comparative cosmopolitanisms. In: Cheah P, Robbins B (eds) Cosmopolitics: thinking and feeling beyond the nation. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp 246–264 Scheffler S (1999) Conceptions of cosmopolitanism. Utilitas 11:255–276 Schlereth TJ (1977) The cosmopolitan ideal in enlightenment thought: its form and function in the ideas of Franklin, Hume, and Voltaire, 1694–1790. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame

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148 Sypnowich C (2005) Cosmopolitans, cosmopolitanism and human flourishing. In: Brock G, Brighouse H (eds) The political philosophy of cosmopolitanism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 55–74 Tamir Y (1993) Liberal nationalism. Princeton University Press, Princeton Tan K (2004) Justice without Borders: cosmopolitanism, nationalism, and patriotism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Weenink D (2007) Cosmopolitan and established resources of power in the education arena. International Sociology 22(4):492–516

Critical Learning ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

Critical Thinking

Critical Learning

Cultural Competence and Cultural Diversity ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Cultural Liberty ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Cultural Literacy ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework

Cultural Pluralism Cross-cultural Communication ▶ Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities

▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Curiosity Culpability ▶ Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms

▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency

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Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

Synonyms

Education in its entirety is all about transformation. However, such transformation should serve as a springboard for personal growth and development, innovation, and capacity to influence positive and lasting changes in society. Therefore, it should be fine-tuned in a way that inculcate competencies that have transmuting properties, in transcending the normal way of thinking, or doing business. On this note, transformational competencies can be defined as inclusive development and nurturing of skills, capabilities, or capacities that promote innovation, creativity, and entrepreneurship for sustainable growth and development.

Life-changing skills; Transformative capabilities; Transmuting capacities

Introduction

Michael Saffa1 and Mohamed Jabbie2 1 On-Site Supervision Section, Other Financial Institutions Supervision Department (OFISD), Bank of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone 2 Balance of Payment Analysis and External Relations Section, Research Department, Bank of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone

Definition According to the Upside-Down Organization (UDO) (n.d.), “transformational education is the development of an intentional, aligned and integrated culture that radiate the beliefs, values and life skills children and youths require to be successful.” It is believed that education of such nature has a philosophical bearing to the concept, because it promotes a thinking approach for adults that leads to successful outcomes for children and youths. Moreover, it provides leaders with a blueprint for recognizing, building, and upholding a transformational culture (UDO n.d.).

Education is the foundation on which sustainable growth and development can be achieved. Developed countries attribute their developmental achievements to robust human capital development in pertinent areas. Because of their considerable investment in transforming education, these economies are leading the world in terms of technological innovation, entrepreneurship, and, ultimately, economic development. Although developing countries have also come to the realization that education is essential for growth and development and are thus attaching premium to strengthening their educational systems, with a view to building a human capital base capable of leading their developmental endeavors. However,

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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there is still a considerable degree of lag relative to their developed counterparts, a phenomenon that can be partly attributed to the significant degree of skills deficit, especially in skills that are lifechanging, transformative, or transmuting. This has rendered their labor markets weak and incapable of providing the requisite skills people need in championing their personal growth and development. Most often, foreign experts are outsourced to undertake certain highly technical projects. Education in most developing countries is astronomically low, and this is a deterrent to sustained livelihoods, personal growth, wellbeing, and contribution to economic growth and development. For example, Sierra Leone, a classic underdeveloped nation, is ranked amongst the least educated countries in the world, currently 151st in terms of literacy rate, of which 58.7% are males and 37.7% are females (CIA World Factbook). The country’s educational structure in recent time is suboptimal, lacking all the nitty-gritty required for a standard educational system, capable of grooming students that will lead the country’s growth and developmental endeavors. This development can be ascribed to several factors, for example, the lack of adequate budgetary allocations, poor monitoring, and supervision in schools and universities, lack of education-enhancing materials, lack of innovative solutions, archaic curriculums, and a host of others. Such factors have rendered students and job seekers less competitive, both locally and globally, with serious implications impinging on their level of confidence, livelihoods, and personal growth and the country as a whole. SDG 4 of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasizes the need to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, without prejudice to gender. “Obtaining quality education is the foundation to creating sustainable development. In addition to improving quality of life, access to inclusive education can help equip nationals with the tools required to develop innovative solutions to the world’s greatest problems” (UN SDGs, n.d.). In order to develop such innovative solutions, there is need to intensify efforts and focus on brewing or grooming capabilities that are transformative in nature.

The lack of a comprehensive transformative education curriculum in developing countries is one shortcoming that impedes growth and development. Consequently, they should embark on an educational reformation project in order to develop transformational competencies, with special focus on innovation and technology that will translate into inclusive growth and sustainable development.

Skills Deficit: A Bane to Economic Development It is evident that the gap in skills is one significant factor that has stalled the development as well as stirred the imbalance between developing and developed countries. Going through formal education and attaining positive transformation are different. Although the level of literacy in developing countries is still very low, but even with the few that are educated, there is a considerable degree of gap in their level of skillfulness, which then makes it impossible for them to lead a holistic transformation in all sectors. This relates to the fact that education in most developing countries is less concentrated in areas that are life-changing, impactful, and incubational. For instance, in Sierra Leone, there is a significant number of youths with immense potential that are opting for courses, such as a bachelor’s degree in adult education and library studies, that lack requisite skills employers require. As a result, they find it very difficult to obtain jobs on graduation, and in extreme cases, some never obtain jobs. This aligns to the assertion by DEG and BCG (2016) that because of the skills gaps in developing countries, students graduating from college or university are not guaranteed employment, as they often lack the requisite skills that employers need. This is an indication that the global landscape is becoming a competitive and technological platform, driven by competence, skillfulness, innovation, and entrepreneurship, and as a result, governments, organizations, and firms alike seek employees with the requisite skills and expertise to facilitate the achievement of their objectives. Therefore, in order to have a buoyant labor market, it is imperative that job seekers equip themselves with

Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

a blend of a broad spectrum of hard (such as accounting, economics, engineering, etc.) and soft (such as being creativity, a good communicator, visual thinker, and innovative) skills (DEG and BCG 2016). The need to acquire both hard and soft skills is buoyed by the fact that employers seek individuals that are flexible, spontaneous, and technical enough to contribute in achieving their objectives. It is troubling to know that in spite of the evidence of high unemployment in developing countries, employers, especially in the private sector, find it very difficult to find suitably qualified individuals to fill vacant positions. As predicted by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG), the mismatch between the demand and supply of qualified individuals can last for decades (DEG and BCG 2016). Firms complain that finding workers with the skills they require and not the number of applicants is the main problem they face (World Bank, 2015). The World Bank (2015) indicated that this fact is related to both more-skilled and less-skilled jobs, but more prevalent for white collar jobs, where they deduced that in Ukraine and Armenia about 60% and 90% of firms consider the deficit in skills as the major impediment for hiring workers. The skills gap as defined by DEG & BCG (2016) is the disparity between skills needed for a job and those possessed by job seekers. They believe that this phenomenon serves as a significant deterrent to development from three different angles: (1) for the individual, skills gap limit employability and deprive an individual of the opportunity to improve his or her living conditions, (2) at the company level, skills gaps limit productivity, which can lead to higher costs and lower quality, and impede growth prospect for businesses, and (3) at the country level, skills gap limit a nation’s competitiveness and also reduces economic and social development potential. It is suffice to say that because of the inherent weaknesses in the educational system of most developing countries, the gap in skills relative to their counterpart in the developed economies has rendered them less competitive, while their human resource capacity remained weak. For example, Sub-Saharan Africa, a region with the

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youngest population in the world, has a growing working-age population that embodies a significant prospect for poverty reduction, narrowing of the inequality gap as well as promoting an upturn in collective prosperity (World Bank 2017). However, as reported by the World Bank (2017: 43), “the region’s workforce is the least skilled in the world, thereby constraining economic prospects. Despite economic growth, declining poverty and investments in skills-building, a high proportion of students in many of the Sub-Saharan Africa economies are not acquiring the foundational skills needed to thrive and prosper in an increasingly competitive global economy. Thus, building requisite skills—cognitive, socio-emotional, and technical—of today’s workers and those of future generations will be vital for realizing the development potential of the region”. This scenario, albeit deep rooted in Africa, is akin to many developing and emerging countries, where, due to the inadequacy of the educational system, people do not acquire the right skills that will propel their career development as well as spur national development (DEG and BCG 2016). As noted by Jabbie et al. (forthcoming), the quality and type of education attained by youths in developing countries in this contemporary time is a serious hindrance that demotivates employers to pursue a recruitment drive. This is also supported by the notion that putting square pegs in round holes will lead to poor output and thus, result in undesirable outcomes (Jabbie et al. forthcoming). Moreover, skills gaps is also very prevalent among women and people with disability, a fact driven by the utter prejudice and marginalization levied on them (Jabbie et al. forthcoming). As a result, they form the bulk of people that are on the margin of transformational competencies, needed to stir their personal growth and development, which will ultimately translate into national development. Because of this, they are mostly excluded from mainstream employment (Jabbie et al. forthcoming). The achievement of SDG 4, with the focus on inclusive and equitable quality education as the gear for inclusive, sustained and sustainable growth and development, implies building a human capital free of prejudice to gender or disability, backed by the right blend of competencies

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that would elevate developing countries from their current impoverished conditions, through a holistic transformation. In essence, there is need to promote skills development in artificial intelligence, machine learning, value addition, financial programming, etc. These are considered lifechanging or transformative in enabling developing countries make optimal use of their comparative advantage, backed by the abundance of natural wealth. This will not only reduce the current high level skills gaps but also foster the attainment of SDG 4 in ensuring inclusive and equitable lifelong education is promoted for all; without prejudice to gender, such approach will create the platform for achieving other related SDGs, on the backdrop that education is the fulcrum that spins the wheel of the economy on a sustained pathway of growth and development. “The challenge of skills development in SubSaharan Africa historically share many similarities with other regions of the world. The region needs to invest appropriately in the skills of today’s children to reap the demographic dividend. Meanwhile, the region must invest in skills appropriate to capacitate youths and adults, in a bid to spurring economic growth and economic transformation from agrarian to industrial and service-based economies. To achieve these challenges, countries in the region will need to overcome significant institutional weakness in the skills-building system” (World Bank 2017: 45). On this note, it is imperative that in order to create an environment that engenders transformational competencies, governments particularly in developing countries, firms, organizations, and individuals alike should design strategies and reshape their mindsets in a way that promote the development of skills that can transform the economies, with special focus on industrial development and services.

Engendering Transformational Competencies for Holistic Transformation Over the years, problems facing developing countries have ranged along the line of poor leadership,

corruption, poor educational systems, poor infrastructure, and poverty and, while unemployment seem to overwhelm governments, policy experts and donor partners, with no meaningful gains being made to change the narrative and transform lives of its populace. This is exacerbated by the fact that people living in such countries also lack the needed transformative skills that can facilitate a holistic transformation. It can be argued that for sustainable development to be actualize, all fabrics of the society need to work concertedly, which entirely depend on the mindset of people. Transforming the way people think and do things depends on how enlightened and aware they are to embrace change, and work towards changing the negative narrative, which has been a defining parameter of the complacent attitude people in developing countries have inherited and seem also to be impacting on the attitude of the present generation. This implies that trends such as poor leadership, poverty, corruption, unemployment, poor infrastructure, and poor education have to be reversed through holistic transformation of all sectors in an economy. This can only be achieved by attaching premium to developing and nurturing transformative skills, which requires that governments in developing countries prioritize education through various methodologies, including learning by doing. In essence, for these economies to move at the pace of global development, while having lost out on the industrial revolution, human capital development should be pinpointed as a vital ingredient that provide the incentive to catch up, while leveraging on the current technological revolution that changes the narrative in every sector, for example, agriculture, manufacturing, and services. The Need to Fast-Track Over the years, developing countries have been struggling to determine the right growth path to accelerate and transform their economies. Various economic models have been used to explain the pattern of growth undertaken by developed countries, which can be emulated by developing countries in the quest to achieving sustained economic growth and development.

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In the late 1960s, most Asian countries were on the same level of developmental pathway as most SSA economies, characterized by poverty, high unemployment rate, and subsistence method of farming. It is believed that most of these Asian countries dubbed the “Asian Tigers,” are epitomized by rapid and sustained growth and development, which was achieved on the backdrop of building a resilient and competent human capital base that spearhead the process of holistic transformation in all sectors of their economies. This brought about technological change, increase in productivity, better job creation which result in rising income and poverty reduction over time; this catapulted them from the status of being developing nations to developed economies. Developing countries like Sierra Leone have lagged behind in terms of growth and development, which therefore makes it compelling to fast track efforts in catching up with the likes of the Asian Tigers, with the required springboard being the brewing of competencies to drive the remodeling. Holistic transformation is the structural change and processes that economies can undergo over time to spur growth and development through the engine of education, with emphasis on developing transformative competencies. Given the rapid pace of development and advancement in technology around the world, developing countries should create the enabling environment to support structural transformation in all sectors of their economies. Human capital development is vital in the process of catching-up if these economies are to benefit from trade and investment with the drive to promote capital accumulation and growth process. Lucas (1998) in his article, “On the mechanics of economic development,” proposed three accumulation models: a model of physical capital accumulation and technological change; a model of human capital accumulation through schooling and a model emphasizing the scope for specializing human capital accumulation through learning and doing. The key to unlocking the economic prowess of developing countries lies in their ability to harness their human capital. Education and skills development is a vital tool in taking advantage of the resource endowment of most developing

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nations and catching up with bigger economies, while driving their development narrative to a knowledge-based system. As emphasized by Stiglitz (1999), knowledge is a public good and there are policy implications for the provision, transfer and dissemination of such good. The process of taking the giant jump is one that commence with a step forward in the right direction of enhancing the human capital of the nation; this is considered the most important singular public good that governments in developing nations should prioritize. In prioritizing education, governments in all developing nations should champion the process of promoting inclusive education, where women, the disabled, and as well as youths are availed equal opportunities to quality education. The process of learning through schooling, which include vocational skills training and learning by doing through transfer of knowledge are vital cogs for developing transformational competencies. This has the potential of leading to the creation of emerging businesses (Small and Medium Enterprises), jobs, financial freedom, poverty reduction, and its overall impact on national development. Educational Transformation In order to fill the skills gaps and ensure all the sectors of the economy are performing, educational transformation is vital. Transformational competence can only be achieved through investing in courses that emancipate the minds and intelligent quotient (IQ) of people to become independent thinkers – a necessary ingredient to interlace with the global tide. The problems we face cannot be solved by the same level of thinking that created them, rather, we need to develop new approaches and novel ideas on how we do things in order to bridge the gaps in our society and thus spur growth and development. Developing new approaches and ideas to attain transformational competence involve restructuring the educational system, development of new curriculum in areas relating to emerging and existing dynamic issues, and the provision of educationenhancing materials among others. Hence, human capital alone can contribute immensely towards promoting growth through enhancing

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the competence of the labor force. Ilhan Ozturk (2001) noted that education, skills, and the acquisition of knowledge have become crucial determinants of a person’s productive capacity and as well as national productivity. He furthered that the primary determinant of a country’s standard of living is how well it succeed in developing and utilizing the skills and knowledge, thereby furthering the well-being and education standard of majority of its population. Investment in education should be inclusive, with the priority of catering for women and girls, as well as people with disabilities, normally the marginalized groups in society – people with disabilities lack the requisite skills and are mostly unemployed. Educating women and girls is probably the single most effective investment developing countries can harness, which have immense positive benefits to the health and well-being of a family, particularly when it comes to meeting costs of child care responsibility and their educational attainment (Ilhan Ozturk 2001). Closing the knowledge gap is crucial to all developing countries and requires immense investment both in primary, secondary, tertiary, and vocational education in order to build the skills-set of it populace and ultimately, enhancing the efficiency of the labor force. Access to arable land is not sufficient if majority of farmers are uneducated and continue to utilize subsistence methods of farming. Likewise, having a youthful population is insufficient if majority of the youths are unskilled and cannot create or participate in meaningful jobs that can impact on growth. Therefore, it is noteworthy to consider that having resource endowments without the requisite human capacity to optimize their use limit the gains to be made from those resources. Skills development that involve empowering farmers on new means of farming technology (e.g., planting and harvesting), and teaching youths practical skills like tailoring, carpentry, mercenary, electricals, electronics, and other relevant skills that can be useful in manufacturing industries, can equip youths to become self-reliant and independent. Proponents of the “new growth theories” emphasized the significance of education, learning, and Research and Development (R&D) that

leads to technical progress (Growth). Lucas (1998) argued that the higher the education of the work force, the higher the overall productivity of capital because those that are educated are more likely to innovate, thus impacting positively on the productive capacity of everyone. This is an evidence that education can generate positive externalities. It is important that developing countries create the enabling environment to engender and transform the educational sector by educating citizens to become numerate and engage in problem solving skills capable of transforming the overall productive capacity of the entire labor force. The gains from investing in education cannot be understated given that the returns from such investment create positive externalities to all sectors of the economy, thereby propelling rapid change in the economic landscape. As noted by Ilhan Ozturk (2001), educational provisions within any given country represent one of the main determinant of the composition and growth of that country’s output and exports – this constitute an important ingredient in a system’s capacity to adequately utilize foreign technology. It is a truism that education creates a positive externality that impact on all facets of the economy, which in this era, differentiates developing economies countries with that of their developed economies counterpart. Transformational Competencies for Transformational Policies Developing countries are characterized by the incidence of poverty and inequality, which have worsened over the years as corruption deepened due to poor accountability practices and policy actions that do not benefit the poor. In order to alleviate poverty and enhance growth, developing countries need to promote inclusive growth and pro-poor policies that will impact on everyone, especially the poor, who are in the majority. Growth is inclusive when it is labor-inclusive and absorbing, accompanied by policies and programs that mitigate inequalities and facilitate income and employment generation for all, without bias to women and other traditionally excluded groups (ADB 1999). Most developing countries fail to institute policies that directly

Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

benefit the poor who are mostly illiterate, characterized by means of subsistence farming, and lack access to healthcare and finance. Government policies should focus on empowering the poor through education, healthcare, access to rural finance, agricultural value addition, promotion of small and medium enterprises, and providing a good landscape that enhances regional trade and export. “Attacking Poverty: Opportunity, Empowerment, and Security,” a strategy proposed to attack poverty is based on three key principles: (i) promoting opportunity by stimulating economic growth, making markets work better for poor people and building up their assets; (ii) facilitating empowerment by making state and social institutions more responsive to their needs; and (iii) enhancing security by reducing vulnerability and the risks of events such as wars, disease, economic crises, and natural disasters (World Development Report – WDR 2000/2001). In achieving these principles, governments in developing countries should prioritize investment in human capital, which can be complemented by creating the enabling environment that promotes private sector and entrepreneurship. This is considered a key driver in promoting opportunities for the poor and stimulating economic growth. Therefore, there is the overriding need to promote the development of competencies that are transformative, given that policies can only work when the enforcers are equipped with adequate knowledge to make the most optimal decisions that will translate into a holistic benefit for all. Policy making is an art that requires solid blend of specific skills, which if ignored can lead to undesirable outcomes, a situation akin to most developing countries. Most often, because of the lack of competent policy makers and enforcers, policies do not bring about the desired impact for which they were formulated. Developing Transformational Competencies – Possible Actions and Benefits On policy actions, the World Bank education sector strategy (WB 1999) suggested an educational policy framework based on three pillars: (i) access (ready to learn, access to provision, and supportive learning environment); (ii) quality (e.g.,

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relevant curriculum, motivated staff, teaching, and learning process); and (iii) delivery (good governance, adequate resources, and sound evaluation). A sound educational policy should not exclude the poor and government budgetary allocation should highlight government’s intention in providing education for all. Also, given that majority of the poor are involved in subsistence agriculture, policy makers should devise policies that empower people with the requisite skills in transforming the agricultural sector, which is the mainstay of developing economies. Most developing countries, especially in SSA have both an absolute and comparative advantage in agriculture. Therefore, it is imperative to develop skills that streamline the sector in a way that increase the gains from it exponentially. Policies geared towards agricultural value addition, and learning by doing in promoting knowledge transfer between developed countries should be encouraged; such policies can also be a means to fostering the capacity of input-output technology across the value chain system, with the potential of creating new job opportunities and deepening scope for economic development. A transformed agricultural sector will promote trade and enhance the export receipt of developing countries, thereby reducing poverty. Empirical evidence shows that high productivity growth rates were achieved in countries that were able to shift production from traditional to modern activities, in particular to tradable and industrial products, and to develop relatively complex export goods (Hausmann et al. 2011; Hwang and Rodrik 2007; Rodrik 2003). Shifting production from traditional to modern means of technology implies that the manufacturing sector over time will become a leading sector in the process of productive transformation, thereby providing opportunities for knowledge spillover and economies of scale. As developing countries build competences in manufacturing, they can produce most of the goods that could have been imported, especially basic consumer products, with accrued benefits to the balance of trade account and sustained economic development. Trade, either in the form of exports or imports, represents growth enhancing interactions

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(specialization, exchange of ideas through exports or acquiring foreign technology through quality imports) among countries acting as channel for knowledge dissemination. In this regard, more open economies will have the potential of perking higher growth rate (Apergis et al. 2007). As developing countries build competitive edge in the global economy, it is important for them to participate in regional trade – this comes with the advantage of expanding their markets, while also and fostering regional solutions to cross border challenges and also building competencies in individual economies. Higher-level rewards from regional integration can only be achieved through investment in human resources that prepare citizens to develop critical mindsets in solving problems that confront them. Moreover, given the rapid global technological expansion, it is very important that artificial intelligence and machine learning are factored as the means in leading the way for twenty-first century development in developing economies around the world. Therefore, developing countries should embrace potential opportunities by investing and building capacities in new technologies, aimed at spurring growth and development. More specifically, there is a need to develop competencies in cyber security, financial technologies, and block chain technology among others, with the focus of promoting equitable and quality education for all. Complementing Transformational Competencies Governments alone cannot provide the required employment for its labor force. It is not good also if government is meant to provide all the jobs for the populace as that will put more pressure on government budget, given the natural occurrence of scarce resource. In that regard, governments should count on the private sector to create jobs and help them achieve employment targets. Investing in transformational competencies will provide private sector employers with people that have the skills they demand, that will translate into organizational and personal growth, as well as national development priority. This will have a pass-through effect to improving livelihoods, reducing poverty, improving unemployment, and

curtailing inequality. Unemployment is a major concern in developing countries, especially among the youths, which makes up majority of the labor force. It is therefore important that governments in developing countries adopt policies and practices that promote growth of private sector investments and entrepreneurship so that gains from those sectors will serve as a stimulus to sustained economic growth. Developing countries should create the enabling environment for Small and Medium Enterprises, to access easy means of finances, while at the same time, encouraging entrepreneurship with the right level of stimulus to support private investment. Diversification of sectoral activities should be set as an objective for growth in the economy, with the scope of enhancing new opportunities for job creation. Entrepreneurship encourages diversification, with the scope of adapting foreign technologies as a means of supporting local market lead-growth. Schumpeter (1911) argued that a society’s “entrepreneurial spirit” and “pioneer” entrepreneurship are the central drivers of the process of “creative destruction,” productive transformation, and growth. He furthered that entrepreneurship is created by the institutional structure of society. Societies with a high level of entrepreneurial spirits are considered necessary as part of institutional development that reward entrepreneurial activities. An example of such institution in the development of entrepreneurship is the financial system (e.g., commercial banks and capital market to access pool of funds). Developing countries should institute sound financial policies and regulate their financial system with sound principles in order to create vibrant financial institutions that support the growth of new businesses. Private investment and entrepreneurship provide solutions where governments fail to function, and complement a government in the provision of public goods through Public Private Partnership (PPP), which could prove to be a vital policy action if authorities are to build the needed competencies in all sectors of the economy. Highpotential entrepreneurs also experiment with new products in local markets. They offer fresh ideas and exchange information with other local

Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

producers, potentially increasing competitiveness by shifting resources to higher-productive activities. However, to achieve this solution, providers should help diversity the economies of Africa and transform the sectors by leveraging the improvement in technology and provision of enhanced social welfare services. Governments in developing countries should target educational initiatives that impact on the lives of all its citizens to create jobs, provide innovation to production processes, and efficiency in service delivery aimed at shaping prospects for future generations.

Conclusion The importance of education for inclusive, sustained, and sustainable growth and development cannot be overemphasized. It does not only lead to an improvement in livelihoods, but also builds a resilient and competent human capital, without which no country can ever be developed. Developed countries embraced it as a norm, and the impact is seen in all works of life. Developing countries have lagged in that regard, but there is considerable potential to tap into and spark a holistic change. The dynamics in developing countries is far from normal, as there are inherent weaknesses in their educational systems that are impeding the sector’s contribution to nation building. The expertise to generate optimal benefits from development projects is lacking, which happens to seriously hurt developing economies, as evident in the high levels of poverty, inequality, and unemployment. SDG 4 was developed with the vision that by 2030, developing countries will be on the same pathway with their developed counterparts, by using equitable and quality education for all as the impetus. However, for developing countries to be at par with their developed counterparts, they should intensify effort to provide an environment that cultivates transformational competencies in various aspects, since the type and quality of education matters a lot for development. Disclaimer Views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and do not reflect any of the named institutions for which they are associated.

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References African Development Bank (ADB) (1999) Fighting poverty in Asia and the Pacific: the poverty reduction strategy. Asian Development Bank, Manila Apergis N, Filippidis I, Economidou C (2007) Financial deepening and economic growth linkages: a panel data analysis. Weltwirtsch Arch 143:179–198 Deutsche Investitions-und Entwicklungsgsellschaft (DEG) and The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) (2016) Bridging the skills gaps in developing countries: a practical guide for private sector companies. For the Association of European Development Finance Institutions (EDFI) within the Let’s Work Partnership. https:// www.deginvest.de/DEG-Documents-in-English/AboutDEG/What-is-our-impact/Bridging-Skills-Gaps_DEG_ 2016.pdf Hausmann R, Hidalgo CA, Bustos S, Coscia M, Chung S, Jimenez J (2011) The atlas of economic complexity: Mapping paths to prosperity. Harvard University, Center for International Development, Harvard Kennedy School, and Macro Connections, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA Hwang J, Rodrik D (2007) What you export matters. J Econ Growth 12(1):1–25 Ilhan O (2001) The role of education in economic development: a theoretical perspective; Online at https:// mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9023/ MPRA Paper No. 9023. J Rural Develop Admin, Winter 2001, 33(1): 39–47 Jabbie M, Barrie A, Tamuke E (forthcoming) Inclusive employment: a global concern. In: Filho WL (eds) Decent work and economic growth (SDG8): Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Lucas R (1998) On the mechanics of economic development. J Monet Econ Rodrik D (2003) Economic development as self-discovery. J Dev Econ 72(2):603–633 Schumpeter JA (1911) The theory of economic development: an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick Stiglitz JE (1999) Knowledge as a global public good. In: Kaul I, Grunberg I, Stern MA (eds) Global public goods: international cooperation in the 21st century. Oxford University Press, New York The Upside-Down Organisation (n.d.) Transforming education. http://www.upsidedownorganization.org/aboutus/transformation-education UN Sustainable Development Goals (n.d.). https://www. un.org/sustainabledevelopment/education/ World Bank Group (1999) Education sector strategy. The World Bank Group, Washington, DC World Bank Group (2015) Skills gaps and the path to successful skills development. Emerging findings from skills measurement surveys in Armenia, Georgia, FYR Macedonia, and Ukraine Social Protection and Labor Global Practice (GSPDR). Europe and Central Asia Region

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World Bank Group (2017) Africa’s pulse – an analysis of issues shaping Africa’s economic future. Office of the Chief Economist for the African Region, Washington, DC World Development Report (WDR) (2001) Attacking poverty. The World Bank Group, Washington, DC

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education Johannes M. Luetz School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Australia

Development ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Synonyms Disaster education; Disaster risk reduction (DRR); Preparedness; Resilience; School safety

Dialogue ▶ Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities

Definition

▶ Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education

This entry investigates the role of disaster-resistant schools for the promotion of disaster-resilient education and disaster-prepared students. According to Mutch (2014), “[t]here is very little in the disaster literature about the part schools have played or could play in a co-ordinated way in wider disaster preparedness, response and recovery” (p. 19). The literature suggests that greater efforts are needed to mainstream safe school construction practices and retrofit hazard-unresistant schools to render them more earthquake resistant (OECD 2004; INEE 2008; Luetz 2008). “What is needed is a firm dual commitment on the part of duty bearers to construct disaster resistant schools and mainstream disaster risk education into school curricula” (Luetz 2008, p. 84; cf. Luetz and Sultana 2019). This entry introduces conceptual and statistical perspectives on disasters and explores opportunities for disasterresilient education, including limitations and case studies. If Sustainable Development Goal 4 (“Quality Education”) is to be attained, it must be reached in safe schools (Moriarty 2018).

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

Introduction: Disasters, Conceptualizations, Debates, and Statistics

▶ Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education

Defining what precisely constitutes a “disaster” is not as straightforward as might first be imagined.

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Disaster Education

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Academics have debated both conceptual and definitional approaches, and it is not clear that the simple question “What is a disaster?” can be definitively and conclusively answered (Quarantelli 1999, 2005; Perry 2007). Even so, agreeing on a definitive “disaster” definition can have important implications. “From a public administration and legal point of view, a distinction between disaster and emergency may make the difference in eligibility for outside assistance, and formal declarations of disaster by government authorities may have implications for some kinds of insurance” (Wisner et al. 2012a, p. 30). Given the specific focus of this entry, a comprehensive philosophical discussion of competing disaster conceptualizations is both out of question and out of scope. Even so, three exemplary disaster definitions will be briefly introduced next. This is deemed helpful for a better understanding of the issues raised in this treatise and holds implications for how to proactively prepare for disasters before they occur (see Box 1: Disaster Preparedness). First, according to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies: A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human, material, and economic or environmental losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources. Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins. (IFRC 2019)

Second, Wisner et al. (2012a) simply define a “disaster” as: a situation involving a natural hazard which has consequences in terms of damage, livelihoods/economic disruption and/or casualties that are too great for the affected area and people to deal with properly on their own. (p. 30)

Third, the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) defines a disaster as: a situation or event which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request to a national or international level for external assistance; an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering. For a disaster to be entered into the [Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) (https://www.emdat.be/)], at least one of the following criteria must be fulfilled: 10 or

159 more people reported killed; 100 or more people reported affected; declaration of a state of emergency; call for international assistance. (Below et al. 2009, p. 16)

Box 1 Disaster Preparedness

“The word ‘disaster’ is derived from the Greek pejorative prefix ‘dis-’ (bad) and ‘aster’ (star). According to the Oxford Dictionary, the word’s root in astrology literally denotes an ‘ill-starred’ event. (McKean 2005, p. 481) For many centuries people believed that a catastrophic event resulted under a ‘bad star’ – a dis-aster. But while natural disasters have occurred throughout history, today we know that they occur not as a result of a bad alignment of the stars, but when hazards and vulnerabilities combine. Recent decades have seen a steep increase in natural disasters across the world. While these events are largely unavoidable – and are projected to increase as a result of climate change – their impacts can be lessened through disaster ‘preparedness.’ Incidentally, the verb ‘prepare’ is derived from the Latin ‘prae’ (before) and ‘parãre’ (make ready). According to Chambers Dictionary of Etymology (2004), to ‘prepare’ literally means to ‘make ready beforehand.’ The world needs to prepare for disasters before they occur, reducing risk, raising resilience and promoting preparedness. The future of our planet lies not in the stars. The future of our planet lies in our hands” (Luetz 2008, p. 1; emphasis original).

Adopting the definition used by CRED to feed its database with global disaster data makes it possible to analyze, track, and compare the evolution of disaster incidences over time. The data show that, over recent decades, the number of natural disasters has steadily risen, both globally (Fig. 1) and regionally, where Asia emerges as the hardest-hit region in the world (Fig. 2) in terms of the number of people both killed and affected by natural disasters (Luetz 2008, pp. 38–39).

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Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education, Fig. 1 Natural disasters trend, World (1975–2006). (Quoted with permission (Luetz 2008, p. 38). Disaster data queried from EM-DAT database)

As shown, one of the benefits of agreeing on a definitive definition of what precisely constitutes a “disaster” is that clear definitional delineation opens up avenues for quantitative data analyses. Notwithstanding these manifest data analytical benefits, there are well-known gaps and limits to the usefulness of currently available disaster data. In its World Disaster Report 2018, the IFRC elaborates several reasons why individuals and/or countries may fall through disaster “conceptualization cracks,” which may arise from a range of factors, including: crises that fall outside of definitions, parameters and indicators; people who miss being included in indicators either through lack of data or methodological cut-off points – for example, the classification of environmentally vulnerable countries . . . narrowly excludes countries such as the Philippines . . . or [people] are not investigated due to mistaken assumptions, for instance very poor people in middle-income countries. (p. 191)

There are also limitations in respect of comparative analyses between databases, as discussed by Below et al. (2009) who present a brief overview of prominent global disaster databases: EM-DAT (CRED) (https://www.emdat.be/database), NatCatSERVICE (Munich RE) (https://natcatservice.

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education, Fig. 2 Natural disasters trend, Asia (1975–2006). (Quoted with permission (Luetz 2008, p. 38). Disaster data queried from EM-DAT database)

munichre.com/), Sigma (Swiss RE) (http://www. sigma-explorer.com/), GLIDE (ADRC) (http://gli denumber.net/glide/public/search/search.jsp), and DesInventar (La Red) (https://online.desinventar. org/). Taking into account that each of these databases has its own specificity, one of the conclusions was that a disaster event may be classified as a different type of disaster by different databases. This occurs particularly for associated disasters or secondary disasters. For example, a flood which was a consequence of a wind storm may be recorded as one or the other; or a flood recorded as such in one database could be recorded as a cyclone in another. (Below et al. 2009, p. 2)

Furthermore, the use of different terminologies, typologies, and/or taxonomies by different databases obscures a common perspective and makes comparative analyses difficult: “a winter storm could be registered as cold/frost; or similarly a heat wave as drought . . . perfectly credible sources will also differ as to whether an event was a landslide, a mudslide, a flood, or whether they occurred simultaneously or sequentially” (Below et al. 2009, p. 2). Hence the perceived need for a common typology of disasters has been recurrently highlighted in the literature as a well-

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known challenge and lingering aspiration (e.g., Quarantelli 2005, pp. 253–263, Tatebe and Mutch 2015). For the reasons mentioned above, there have been concerted efforts over recent years to work toward international standardization, both in the use of common terminology and in the allocation of universal ID numbers that unambiguously identify disaster events (e.g., Below et al. 2009). According to Guha-Sapir et al. (2012): the development of guidelines and tools for the creation of national and sub-national disaster databases for the compilation of reliable, standardized, interoperable disaster occurrence and impact data should be prioritized for more effective disaster risk reduction. (p. 2)

Notwithstanding the potential benefits of speaking the “same language” about disasters, promoting effective disaster risk reduction is also made difficult by challenges of operationalization, politicization, equity, access, visibility, inclusivity, and financial feasibility. More specifically, the IFRC (2018) posits that there are: five fatal flaws that are allowing so many people to fall through the cracks: too many affected people are (1) out of sight, (2) out of reach, (3) left out of the loop, or find themselves in crises that are (4) out of money, or deemed to be (5) out of scope because they are suffering in ways that are not seen as the responsibility of the humanitarian sector. (IFRC 2018, p. 9; emphasis original)

As laid out above, there are cogent challenges inherent in philosophical, conceptual, political, or operational grappling with the question of what precisely constitutes a “disaster” and relatedly what might constitute an appropriate disaster response or anticipatory posture of preparedness (Quarantelli 2005; Luetz 2008). In brief, disaster definitions are important, because they highlight different underlying disaster causes, different disaster remedies, and different constituencies as being in need of relief and recovery (Quarantelli 2005; Wisner et al. 2012b). For instance, Dove and Khan (1995) have empirically applied two very different social “constructions” of disaster to a devastating cyclone that caused more than 100,000 casualties in Bangladesh in 1991. According to one view, the windstorm was an

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inevitable disaster of natural origin (“natural disaster”), and according to the competing view, it was an avoidable disaster of man-made origin (“social or political disaster”) (pp. 445, 468). It follows that competing constructions of disaster will occasion different responses in respect of disaster recovery and support different calls in respect of disaster risk reduction or preparedness (Hewitt 1995). Irrespective of which conceptual disaster construct is embraced, Dove and Khan (1995) posit that “[t]he factor chiefly responsible for transforming natural disasters into sociopolitical disasters is occupation of hazardous areas” (p. 445). For this reason, the concept of “vulnerability” is well-noted in the literature as an important determining factor constituting disaster risk. Importantly, “vulnerability” cannot be comprehended in isolation, for it is intricately intertwined with social, cultural, religious, economic, and developmental factors (Luetz and Nunn 2020), among others: “Poor communities are regularly forced to live in the most inhospitable and marginalised locations which are frequently in areas most vulnerable to natural disasters” (Luetz 2008, p. 6). Hence the oft-cited formal definition of disaster risk as a function of hazards and vulnerability (Box 2) fails to fully reflect the bedeviling multiplicity and diversity of social issues underlying this so-called vulnerability (e.g., education, equity, gender, status, (dis)ability, sexual orientation, etc., to cite only a few) (cf. Luetz and Sultana 2019).

Box 2 Disaster Risk

Disaster Risk (DR) = Hazards (H)  Vulnerability (V) (Wisner et al. 2012a, p. 24)

Wisner et al. (2012a) have cautioned that this formula is rightly to be understood rather as a “mnemonic device, not necessarily a mathematical equation” (p. 24) and have proposed a more comprehensive formulaic definition that illustrates how disaster risk may be mitigated through building capacity (Box 3).

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Box 3 Reducing Disaster Risk Through Capacity Building

Disaster Risk (DR) = Hazards [Vulnerability (V)/Capacity (C) – Mitigation (M)]. (Wisner et al. 2012a, p. 24; cf. Wisner et al. 2004)

In light of quantitative data (Figs. 1 and 2) and the growing body of literature on disasters available today, there seems to be a clear sense that global disasters (and the number of people affected by them worldwide) are both significant and increasing (Luetz 2008, Schneider 2012). A snapshot from 2015 shows: Between 1994 and 2013, EM-DAT recorded 6,873 natural disasters worldwide, which claimed 1.35 million lives or almost 68,000 lives on average each year. In addition, 218 million people were affected by natural disasters on average per annum during this 20-year period. (CRED 2015, p. 7)

The progressive increase in disasters over time has been attributed to growing populations (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 2013); growing population densities (and vulnerabilities) in overcrowding megacities, including in slums (Luetz 2018); growing media reporting made possible by burgeoning smartphone saturation, including in countries of the developing world (CRED 2015, p. 13); and growing social inequalities (Luetz and Walid 2019), among other contributing factors such as climate change (Luetz 2019a, b). [Some academics have questioned whether disasters “have actually increased or simply our perception of them” (Quarantelli 2005, p. 262; cf. Douglas and Wildavsky 1982, Douglas 1992)]. In synthesis, answering the simple question “what is a disaster?” remains fraught with complications. Issues raised are reminiscent of conceptual problems encountered in other developmental fields of study that are similarly bedeviled by social constructivist definitional states of affairs (Hewitt 1995; Luetz and Nunn 2020), for example, the question “what is poverty?” (Luetz et al. 2019) or “what is recovery?” (Wisner et al. 2012a). [Constructivist conceptualizations that involve interdisciplinarity are even

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more vexing (Chen and Luetz 2020), as exemplified by qualitative (Luetz and Merson 2019) and quantitative (Luetz 2019a) discourses on the emergent phenomenon of “climate migration” (Luetz 2017, 2019b).] In respect of the question “what is poverty?”, Luetz et al. (2019, pp. 117–121) have summarized the four most prominent approaches to defining “poverty” as “(1) Income/Consumption; (2) Capability Approach; (3) Social Exclusion; and (4) Participatory Assessment” (p. 117). Depending on which these four definitional approaches is elected has important consequent implications: “how poverty is defined is extremely important as different definitions of poverty imply use of different criteria for measurement, potentially the identification of different individuals and groups as poor, and the use of different policy solutions for poverty reduction” (Stewart et al. 2007, p. 1). Correspondingly, different disaster definitions produce a similarly differential picture (Quarantelli 2005). Incidentally, it has been asked whether “the true ‘disaster’ might be the failure to avoid suffering or to help when suffering occurs” (Wisner et al. 2012a, p. 30), which highlights conditions of protracted poverty as the “disaster” behind many “disasters” (Luetz 2007). In respect of the question “what is recovery?”, Wisner et al. (2012a) have cautioned that the term “recovery” is even more obscure and problematic to define than the word “disaster”: The term ‘recovery’ is cloudier for other reasons. First, references to restoration of normality or normality may be of little use if ‘normal’ was the situation of vulnerability for some of the population now affected. Returning them to the pre-disaster status quo will almost assure that they will be affected again by another disaster in the future. (p. 31)

In summary, definitions impinge on humanitarian engagement and the question “who does the defining?” can be revealing of underlying ideological agendas and/or normative-institutional mandates (cf. Luetz and Havea 2018, Luetz 2019b). To conclude, the question “what is a disaster?” has “important implications for theory, study, and practice . . . The answer to what seems a

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simple question is both very complex and controversial” (Quarantelli 2005, p. i). Although inquiry into “what is a disaster?” is an important undertaking (albeit it does not have an easy or conclusive answer), the question “what to do about them?” is of greater practical consequence to the global resilience agenda. This will be explored next.

Disaster-Resistant Schools and DisasterResilient Education Having considered both qualitative and quantitative aspects of disasters, this section will now explore the impacts of disasters on education. This discussion also includes the concept of disaster preparedness, disaster-resilient education, the retrofitting of existing school buildings to make them more disaster resistant, and several case studies. The desire to make education safe is inspired by the quasi-universal human belief that education holds a very high value for human betterment. According to the intergovernmental Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD 2004), “[t]he education of children is essential to maintaining free societies, the social and economic progress of nations, and the welfare of individuals and their families. As a result, most nations make education compulsory” (p. 230). The resolute human commitment to make education free and compulsory for all is enshrined in key global development frameworks. For example, it was prominently reflected in Goal 2 (“Achieve universal primary education”) in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/), which covered the years 2000–2015 (Luetz 2007, pp. 21–25). More recently, it was reiterated and recast as Goal 4 (“Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”) in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4), which now cover the operative time horizon 2015–2030. The SDGs represent a robust framework for human development, comprising 17 universal

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goals agreed and ratified by 193 countries as part of Resolution 70/1 for the year 2030. With this level of global support, it can be safely synthesized that the international community is fiercely committed to the cause of education (UNESCO 2011; UNESCO and UNICEF 2009, 2012), recognizing that “[e] ducation and skills are essential for realizing individual potential, enhancing national economic growth and social development, and fostering global citizenship” (ICFGEO n.d., p. 29). In short, education is “[t]he best investment the world can make” (ICFGEO n.d., p. 2; cf. Luetz 2007, pp. 33–36). According to the United Nations (2019), the SDGs may be appropriately synthesized as “the blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face” (para 1). Given this level of ubiquitous multinational support for the cause of universal education, it seems surprising that so many schools worldwide apparently fail to withstand the power of moderate-intensity earthquakes (INEE 2008). This point is emphatically underscored in the literature: Few individuals will contest the importance of protecting society’s most valuable and vulnerable members, children; and few will contest the importance of providing compulsory education for all children. Even fewer people will argue with the fact that earthquakes kill people and damage property. But these three essential principles are not valid in modern society. In many earthquakeprone countries, a surprisingly high number of school buildings are not constructed to withstand even moderate-sized earthquakes. The fundamental question that we must ask ourselves is “Why is it so simple to acknowledge the importance of the education and safety of our children, yet so difficult to ensure them? (OECD 2004, p. 20)

According to the Inter-agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE 2008), “875 million of the world’s school-age children are in countries with high levels of seismic risk, hundreds of millions face regular flood threats, and fire is the most frequent of all hazards . . . Many students drop out never to return” (p. 2; emphasis added). The following statistics reveal the crushing impact disasters can have on the education of school children: Some 500 schools were destroyed and more than 2,000 damaged by Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh

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164 (2007); some 10,000 school buildings were destroyed by a severe earthquake in Pakistan, killing 17,000 students and seriously injuring or disabling 50,000 (2005); more than 850 schools were destroyed and over 2,100 damaged by the Asian Tsunami, leaving 150,000 children without schools (2004); more than 1,200 school buildings were lost to floods in Bangladesh, 24,200 were damaged (2004); severe floods affected more than 500,000 students in 1,000 schools in Cambodia (2000) . . . More recently, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), highlighted that more than 4,000 schools were destroyed or damaged by Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar, affecting a staggering 1.1 million children [in] 2008. (cited in Luetz 2008, p. 82; data attributed to INEE 2008, pp. 4–5; UNICEF 2008)

These figures, which denote but the tip of a huge iceberg of human bereavement, represent an unacceptable loss of life and opportunity. Furthermore, “a state requirement for compulsory education, while allowing the continued use of seismically unsafe buildings, is an inconsistent and unjustifiable practice” (OECD 2004, p. 230). According to the UN’s International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), “several hundred million children across the developed and developing world attend schools in buildings that are unable to withstand the forces of nature” (UN-ISDR 2007, p. 3). If the fourth Sustainable Development Goal (“Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”) is to be reached, it must be reached in safe schools! (Moriarty 2018) This requires a more robust commitment to more robust construction practice and remains a critical priority: schools built world-wide routinely collapse in earthquakes due to avoidable errors in design and construction, causing predictable, unacceptable and tragic loss of life. In the last few decades alone, thousands of school children have died because existing knowledge was not applied to make their schools safe from earthquakes. It is only by chance that there has not been much greater loss of life since many earthquakes have occurred outside of school hours. Unless action is taken immediately to address this problem, much greater loss of life of school children and teachers will occur. Currently available technology can resolve this problem at reasonable cost and in a reasonable time frame. (OECD 2004, p. 230)

Schools need to set the highest standard for both disaster risk reduction and disaster risk

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education. It is unacceptable that any students anywhere should live in constant fear of being trapped in the rubble of collapsed school buildings. In a handwritten letter published by the OECD, Asian student Sony entreats duty bearers to ensure disaster-resistant school buildings and to safeguard disaster risk education: I think that it is our right to know about earthquakes. This is because when earthquake comes, everybody including our parent, teachers will try to save their own lives. At that time they may not take care of us. So, we ourselves need to know what to do during earthquakes. Also, it is our right to have a safe school. We don’t build our school building ourselves. But if it is very weak then earthquake will destroy it and kill us. Why should we children die from weakness which other create? That is not because of our fault. It is their fault who build houses. So we request all our parents, teachers to build safe school buildings for us. (Sony, student from Nepal; cited in OECD 2004, p. 20)

Given the above context and statistics, it is heartening to see efforts progressively underway globally to reinforce school buildings. For example, in Turkey, Yazgan and Oyguç (2014) have proposed “a new post-earthquake safety assessment method . . . [which] is expected to be a useful supporting tool for . . . post-earthquake decisionmaking . . . critical decisions, such as continued use, strengthening or decommissioning school buildings can be handled in a rational and consistent way” (p. 37). In New Zealand, “[f]ollowing the 1991 Building Act . . . strategies were implemented to ensure compliance of all school buildings constructed from 1976 onwards with the new seismic standards. Between 1998 and 2001, a structural survey of 2,361 public schools was commissioned by the Ministry of Education, and a significant investment programme was initiated to meet the recommendations of the report” (Mitchell 2004, p. 120). These and other similar initiatives mentioned in the literature about seismic evaluation and the rehabilitation potential of existing school structures give rise to hope (Fardis and Ilki 2014), as does the substantial quantity of research studies into early warning for geological disasters (Wenzel and Zschau 2014). The case study (Box 4) highlights both the great need for hazard-resilient construction practices and the importance of retrofitting hazard-unresistant

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school structures to render them more earthquake resistant. Box 4 China Case Study: A School Retrofitting Success Story

The Sichuan Earthquake that struck China on 12 May 2008, destroying more than 7000 schools and killing 17,000 school children in collapsed schools, serves to illustrate the importance of implementing hazard-resistant construction works in seismically vulnerable environments (Wong 2008; Ferruci 2010). “The toll is a stark reminder that school buildings are a matter of life and death. The enormous loss of life in collapsed schools could have been significantly reduced by observing simple construction principles or retrofitting existing structures to be earthquake resistant” (Luetz 2008, p. 81). Even so, there is a success story told about Sangzao Middle School in Sichuan Province “where all 2,323 students survived the earthquake” (Ferruci 2010, p. 3). The good fortune of this school and its children has been credited overwhelmingly to the School Principal Ye Zhiping, better known by locals as “Angel Ye.” “Nervous about the shoddiness of the main school building, Mr. Ye scraped together $58,000 to renovate it in the 1990s. He had workers widen concrete pillars and insert iron rods into them. He demanded stronger balcony railings. He demolished a bathroom whose pipes had been weakened by water” (Wong 2008, para 7). “These structural reinforcement measures, coupled with re-current evacuation drills, explain why the Sangzao school remained standing while unreinforced schools collapsed” (Ferruci 2010, p. 3) In the final analysis, Sangzao Middle School “probably withstood the 8.0-magnitude earthquake because [Principal Ye Zhiping] pushed the county government to upgrade it. Just 20 miles north, the collapse of Beichuan Middle School buried 1,000 students and teachers” (Wong 2008, para 8).

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The case study highlights both the critical role of following hazard-resilient construction principles and the opportunities available to education stakeholders to retrofit hazard-unresistant school structures to make them more earthquake resistant. Despite these hopeful initiatives, it would be premature to conclude this section without drawing attention to the widely documented problem of assigning school buildings multipurpose or dual-function roles. “In the aftermath of many disasters nearby schools are often ‘taken over’ and ‘converted’ (if buildings remain intact). Governments need to calculate carefully the total ‘cost’ of assigning schools secondary or multipurpose roles” (Luetz 2008, p. 84). This practice incurs a high opportunity cost, which is routinely observed in disaster-prone countries, including in Bangladesh: “During and in the wake of natural disasters schools are often closed for a long time because of their dual use function as cyclone shelters. This situation can see children regularly and lengthily displaced from their classrooms (Figs. 3 and 4)” (Luetz and Sultana 2019, p. 637). During fieldwork conducted in Bangladesh by this researcher, interview participants variously affirmed that: “[d]uring the rainy season people. . . move to the shelter house, . . . it’s a school shelter, people stay there before, during and after the cyclone” [Q18]. One humanitarian expert interviewee said: “Cyclone seasons are October to November and March to May. People take shelter in cyclone shelters, but there aren’t enough, so people also take shelter in schools.” [Q7] (Luetz 2018, p. 91)

According to Save the Children Sri Lanka, converting school buildings into reception camps or welfare centers for displaced people denies children their right to an uninterrupted education: “Schools used as temporary shelters deprive thousands of children of their place to study” (Luetz 2008, p. 84; attributed to SCF 2006). Taken together, recurrent disruptions to education, sustained over time, will cumulatively curtail levels of education overall. A study conducted in Cambodia by the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC 2008) found that 60% of schools located in disaster-prone areas face complete closure “for up to 2.5 months [due to flooding] but

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Disaster-Resistant Schools for DisasterResilient Education, Fig. 3 Primary school used as cyclone shelter, Shahbazpur Village, Char Kukri Mukri Union, Char Fesson Upazila, Bhola District, Bangladesh

Disaster-Resistant Schools for DisasterResilient Education, Fig. 4 Primary school used as cyclone shelter, Mathurapur Village, Munshiganj Union, Shyamnagar Upazila, Satkhira District, Bangladesh. (Photos: Sultana)

only 10% have an alternative location for school arranged . . . resulting in high absenteeism rates especially among poor students” (INEE 2008, p. 15; attributed to ADPC 2008). The case study (Box 5) exemplifies the disruption to the education of children in the wake of many disasters caused by the repurposing of school buildings by disaster management officials.

Box 5 Philippines Case Study: A High School Becomes an Evacuation Center

In 2006, “245 children and teachers were killed” (Tuladhar et al. 2014, p. 191) when their primary school was buried by a (continued)

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Box 5 (continued)

Box 5 (continued)

gigantic landslide (INEE 2008, p. 4). “Over 1,000 people were buried alive under a mountain of rubble when tons of mud and debris came crashing down on the village of Guinsaugon/St. Bernard, Leyte, Philippines. Heavy rains for days and an earthquake unleashed a deadly avalanche which buried an entire village beneath it on February 17, 2006” (Luetz 2007, p. 207). While the primary school was buried, the secondary school was subsequently converted into an evacuation center for the survivors. [Human interest story (Box 5) reproduced with permission from the publisher from Luetz 2007 (pp. 95–98)] (Figs. 5 and 6). [February 17, 10 am.] M. was in school and her 16-year-old brother J. was working in the coconut farm on the hill. “Suddenly, everyone was running,” said M. “I too ran with them, not knowing why I was running until I heard from others about the landslide. My brother actually saw a whole chunk of mountain just collapse and bury our village and house within minutes.” – “I was too shocked,” said J. “I ran towards town and found my sister and told her what I had seen. Everything happened too fast! We were not sure how to react. We shouted! We ran! We cried! We tried to go near the site to find our parents, our siblings, our house. . . not knowing whether they were alive or not. Many people were already there, but no one dared to step into the disaster area, fearing that another chunk of mountain might come crashing down. Immediately the government and other non-governmental organizations stepped in and put us in St. Bernard’s Cristo Rey Regional High School, one of several schools which have since been shut down and are being used as an evacuation center for the survivors. We were assigned to room 4. There are 46 people living in this room, 12 families in all. It took us one day before the truth sank in. We cried nonstop. [In

tears:] It was only when we started sharing with our counselor in the evacuation center that we began to accept the truth.” [At the time of the interview, the school accommodated over 600 individuals – about 280 families – who lived crammed together in 17 classrooms, each measuring around 7 x 6 meters in size, as told to author in 2006.] (Fig. 6)

The case study (Box 5) illustrates the habitual humanitarian practice of repurposing school buildings in the wake of many disasters to serve important secondary functions. It is easy to infer (albeit hard to quantify) the enormous opportunity cost incurred by disaster-disrupted education. This practice of temporarily halting education and converting schools into reception camps for survivors or storage facilities for relief supplies is especially problematic given that education during and following emergency situations “has a crucial preventive and rehabilitative part to play in fulfilling the needs and rights of children” (Machel 1996, p. 84). According to research cited by Cologon and Hayden (2017, p. 348), “[a]ccess to education postemergency may enable children to move beyond focusing only on what is happening around them to help re-establish routines and overcome feelings of distress” (cf. Morris et al. 2007; Szente 2016). In short, there are important restorative, recuperative, or even therapeutic reasons why safe schools need to ensure continuous education, a sense of normalcy, and stable routines in disaster-affected contexts. Additionally, there are important pedagogical reasons for mainstreaming appropriate curricula to teach children age-appropriate disaster preparedness and response skills (UNESCO and UNICEF 2009, 2012): When you have only a few minutes, it is important to know the actions you must take to reduce your risk, such as running to higher ground to avoid flood water. Many children have learnt to live with natural hazards . . . Everybody should have this basic knowledge . . . We need to work together to reduce the impact of natural hazards on children . . . If we

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Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education, Fig. 5 Army personnel guide a World Vision reconnaissance team through the disaster zone in

Guinsaugon, St. Bernard, Philippines (27 Feb 2006). (Photo taken by Author in 2006)

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education, Fig. 6 Following the 2006 Leyte Landslide, Cristo Rey Regional High School was converted into an evacuation center for survivors, eventually

accommodating more than 600 people, who temporarily lived together in crowded conditions in classrooms. (Photo taken by Author in 2006)

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education educate our children, there is hope that we can build a culture of prevention for future generations. (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNISDR] 2005, para. 7, 9)

Leveraging the education of children for the purposes of heightening disaster readiness and risk reduction is increasingly recognized by development stakeholders as an important element of fostering disaster-resilient communities (Mitchell et al. 2008; Ronan et al. 2008; Luetz and Sultana 2019). For instance, the World Conference on Disaster Reduction Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015 postulated: “Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels” (Priority 3; UNESCO and UNICEF 2009, p. 4) (https://www. unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa). According to Cologon and Hayden (2017), “[c]hildren who have participated in emergency education have been shown to understand and respond effectively to risks in their environment and to have more confidence to advocate for the elimination of possible risks within their community” (p. 349; attributed to Mitchell et al. 2008). Importantly, Cologon and Hayden (2017) synthesize that “[e]ducating children about emergencies may also benefit their parents or caregivers, since children may be able to provide assistance and strategies in emergencies” (p. 349; cf. Mitchell et al. 2008; Ronan et al. 2008). This positive effect was powerfully demonstrated in 2004 moments before the devastating Boxing Day Tsunami waves reached the shores of beaches in Phuket, Thailand. As reflected in the case study (Box 6), the acuity of a disaster-aware primary school girl has been internationally credited with preventing the death of dozens of tourists.

Box 6 Thailand Case Study: Life-Saving Disaster Knowledge

At the tender age of 10, British schoolgirl Tilly Smith can say in her résumé what few people can claim even in the autumn of their lives – that she is credited with saving nearly 100 tourists at Mai Khao Beach

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Box 6 (continued)

(Thailand) by raising the alarm minutes before the deadly tsunami waves crashed into their hotel. On 26 December 2004, while on the beach in Phuket with her parents, Tilly sensed something was wrong. As the sea receded and had “froth on it like you get on the top of a beer” [Owen 2005, para. 2], Tilly immediately recognized the telltale signs of an impending tsunami and pleaded with her parents to flee from the beach. Remembering the words of her geography teacher, Andrew Kearney, who showed the class a video of a tsunami in Hawaii, Tilly quickly connected the dots: “I was hysterical. I was screaming, I didn’t want to leave my mom [. . .] I said, ‘Seriously, there is definitely going to be a tsunami’” [British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) 2005, para. 13–15]. Tilly’s adamant warnings alerted her parents, who warned others, including the hotel staff. The beach was evacuated before the tsunami reached shore and was one of the few beaches on Phuket with no reported casualties. Tilly’s mother Penny (43) says she is proud of her daughter’s quick thinking, as she herself did not recognize the danger signs: “She was screaming at us to get off the beach [. . .] I didn’t know what a tsunami was, but seeing my daughter so frightened made me think something serious must be going on” [Owen 2005, para. 4, 6]. Tilly received numerous awards and was given the honor of closing the First Anniversary Tsunami Commemorations in Khao Lak, Thailand, on 26 December with a poem before thousands of spectators. Former US President Bill Clinton observed: “Tilly’s story tells us about the importance of teaching young people about natural hazards. All children should be taught disaster reduction so they know what to do when natural hazards strike. Tilly’s story is a simple reminder that education can make a difference (continued)

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Box 6 (continued)

between life and death” (UNISDR 2005, para. 3; cited in Luetz and Sultana 2019, pp. 619–620; cf. Luetz 2008, p. 80; Fradin and Fradin 2008, p. 9).

In direct contrast, the Hollywood disaster drama The Impossible, directed by Bayona (2012) and starring Naomi Watts and Ewan McGregor, portrays the fate of tourists caught un-prepared at a non-evacuated Phuket beach resort hotel. While at Mai Khao Beach “no lives were lost . . . tsunami waves drowned 8,000 other people along Thailand’s coast” (Fradin and Fradin 2008, p. 9). The case study (Box 6) forcibly backs the argument of Mitchell et al. (2008) as cited by Cologon and Hayden (2017) that “we should view children not only as recipients of emergency information but also as sources of this information” (p. 349). This point is similarly highlighted in disaster risk reduction research conducted among school students in Nepal: “disaster education should not only be confined within the school students, but it must also be promoted to families and communities, which is very essential to elaborate knowledge of DRR and to contribute to a disaster safe society in the country” (Tuladhar et al. 2014, p. 190). This holds special importance in developing country contexts where many children are deprived of their education due to exorbitant livelihood pressures (Luetz 2018; Luetz and Sultana 2019). Notwithstanding, it is heartening to see initiatives where school children have been actively involved in the design of age-appropriate disaster resilience literature (Indigenous Literacy Foundation (ILF) 2011). This is in addition to illustrated publications on child-focused disaster types (Fradin and Fradin 2008), survival skills (Brook 2014), or disaster preparedness (Kostigen 2014). According to Luetz (2008), integrating disaster risk reduction learning outcomes into school curricula can be an engaging and pedagogically creative process: An important part of teaching children the basics of disaster preparedness is to make it serious fun! Arts and crafts, essay competitions, story telling

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education sessions, quizzes, drawing contests, poetry compositions and public recitals, poster designs, evacuation exercises, disaster drills, exhibitions, fairs, road shows, awareness weeks, fire fighting drills and extinguishing exercises, first aid simulations, road safety walks, group games, disaster libraries, movie screenings, hazard mapping exercises, singing contests, skits, role plays, stage performances, swimming lessons, dances, and earthquake simulations in quivering contraptions (i.e., shaking car), etc. are only some of many teaching activities that can be ‘seriously good fun.’ Designating prizes or inviting parents, special guests of honour, fire fighters, police officers or local politicians to officiate at award ceremonies or preside as juries can create media interest and far-reaching ripple effects. (p. 87)

In addition to the obvious and manifold benefits of creatively mainstreaming disaster education into school curricula, duty bearers may also leverage findings from psychology and neuroscience research to enduringly influence and change human behavior to become more disaster safe and invulnerable (Luetz et al. 2020). In summary, it is encouraging to see that the concept of preparedness is already making inroads in children’s literature on disasters. In his illustrated children’s book Extreme Weather: Surviving Tornadoes, Sandstorms, Hailstorms, Blizzards, Hurricanes, and More!, Kostigen (2014) concludes his tome with the following emphatic concluding remark: “If there is one thing that you should remember from this book, it is to prepare . . . Taking action at school and in your community are also good ways to get others involved, or to teach them to be more aware” (p. 109).

Concluding Synthesis: Challenges, Opportunities, and Perspectives This entry explored the role of disaster-resistant schools for the promotion of disaster-resilient education and disaster-prepared students. According to Mutch (2014), “[t]here is very little in the disaster literature about the part schools have played or could play in a co-ordinated way in wider disaster preparedness, response and recovery” (p. 19). The literature suggests that greater efforts are needed to mainstream safe school construction practices and retrofit hazard-unresistant schools to render them more

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earthquake resistant (OECD 2004; INEE 2008; Luetz 2008). As this entry has shown, “[c]utting construction corners and risking disasterdestroyed schools is a surefire recipe for stunted economic growth and human development reversals. What is needed is a firm dual commitment on the part of duty bearers to construct disaster resistant schools and mainstream disaster risk education into school curricula. [Otherwise] natural disasters can transmute into macroeconomic disasters” (Luetz 2008, p. 84). If Sustainable Development Goal 4 (“Quality Education”) is to be attained, it must be reached in safe schools! (Moriarty 2018) In the words of Rosenthal (2005), disasters transpire in “the world of ‘un-ness’ ” (p. 148) because their consequences are un- equivocally un-favorable: Disasters are unmanaged phenomena. They are the unexpected, the unprecedented. They derive from natural processes or events that are highly uncertain. Unawareness and unreadiness are said to typify the condition of their human victims. Even the common use of the word [disaster] “event” can reinforce the idea of a discrete unit in time and space. In the official-sounding euphemism for disasters in North America, they are ‘unscheduled events.’ (Hewitt 1983, p. 10)

It can therefore be concluded that propagating disaster-resilient education in disaster-resistant schools effectively redresses “un-ness”, “unawareness” and “un-readiness” through a precautionary posture of “pre pared-ness.”

Cross-References ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research Acknowledgments Grateful acknowledgment for essential support is made to the University of New South Wales (UNSW), the development organization World Vision International (WVI), and the World Vision Singapore support office.

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Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education Luetz JM (2017) Climate change and migration in the Maldives: some lessons for policy makers. In: Leal Filho W (ed) Climate change adaptation in Pacific countries. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 35–69. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50094-2_3 Luetz JM (2018) Climate change and migration in Bangladesh: empirically derived lessons and opportunities for policy makers and practitioners. In: Leal Filho W, Nalau J (eds) Limits to climate change adaptation. Climate change management. Springer, Cham, pp 59–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64599-5_5 Luetz JM (2019a) Climate refugees: why measuring the immeasurable makes sense beyond measure. In: Leal Filho W, Marisa Azul A, Brandli L, Gökcin Özuyar P, Wall T (eds) Climate action. Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Earth and environmental science. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 1–14. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71063-1_81-1 Luetz JM (2019b) Over-researching migration ‘hotspots’? Ethical issues from the Carteret Islands. Forced Migr Rev 61:20–22. The Ethics Issue (June 2019), Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford. https://www. fmreview.org/ethics/luetz Luetz JM, Havea PH (2018) “We’re not refugees, we’ll stay here until we die!” – climate change adaptation and migration experiences gathered from the Tulun and Nissan Atolls of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea. In: Leal Filho W (ed) Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies for coastal communities. Springer, Cham, pp 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31970703-7_1 Luetz JM, Merson J (2019) Climate change and human migration as adaptation: conceptual and practical challenges and opportunities. In: Filho WL, Azul AM, Brandli L, Özuyar PG, Wall T (eds) Climate action. Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Climate action, Earth and environmental science, vol SDG 3. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 1–13. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71063-1_46-1 Luetz JM, Nunn PD (2020) Climate Change Adaptation in the Pacific Islands: A Review of Faith-Engaged Approaches and Opportunities, In Leal Filho W. (Eds.) Climate Change Adaptation in the Pacific, Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature Luetz JM, Sultana N (2019) Disaster risk reduction begins at school: research in Bangladesh highlights education as a key success factor for building disaster ready and resilient communities – a manifesto for mainstreaming disaster risk education. In: Leal Filho W, Lackner B, McGhie H (eds) Addressing the challenges in communicating climate change across various audiences. Climate change management. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 617–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-982946_37 Luetz JM, Walid M (2019) Social responsibility versus sustainable development in United Nations policy documents: a meta-analytical review of key terms in human development reports. In: Leal Filho W (ed)

Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education Social responsibility and sustainability – how businesses and organizations can operate in a sustainable and socially responsible way. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 301–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03003562-4_16 Luetz JM, Bergsma C, Hills K (2019) The poor just might be the educators we need for global sustainability – a manifesto for consulting the Unconsulted. In: Leal Filho W, Consorte McCrea A (eds) Sustainability and the humanities. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 115–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95336-6_7 Luetz JM, Margus P, Prickett B (2020) Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience, In Leal Filho W; Marisa Azul A; Brandli L; Gökcin Özuyar P; Wall T (Eds.) Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, pp. 1–15, Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5_12-1 Machel G (1996) Promotion and protection of the rights of children: Impact of armed conflict on children, United Nations doc A/51/30626, August 1996. https://www. un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/51/306. Accessed 22 Sep 2019 McKean E (ed) (2005) The new Oxford American dictionary, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, NewYork Mitchell B (2004) Making schools safe: the New Zealand experience, ministry of education, New Zealand. In OECD keeping schools safe in earthquakes. OECD, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/978926401 6705-en Mitchell T, Haynes K, Hall N, Choong W, Oven K (2008) The roles of children and youth in communicating disaster risk. Children, Youth and Environments, 18(1), pp. 254–279. https://doi.org/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.18.1. 0254 Moriarty K (2018) Safe schools: the hidden crisis – a framework for action to deliver safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments. Report prepared by Theirworld, https://s3.amazonaws.com/ theirworld-site-resources/Reports/Theirworld-ReportSafe-Schools-December-2018.pdf. Accessed 7 Sept 2019 Morris J, Van Ommeren M, Belfer M, Saxena S, Saraceno B (2007) Children and the sphere standard on mental and social aspects of health. Disasters 31(1): 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2007. 00341.x Mutch C (2014) The role of schools in disaster preparedness, response and recovery: what can we learn from the literature? Pastoral Care Educ 32(1):5–22. https:// doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2014.880123 Organisation For Economic Co-Operation Development (OECD) (2004) Keeping schools Safe in earthquakes. OECD, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264016 705-en Owen J (2005) Tsunami family saved by schoolgirl’s geography lesson. National Geographic News. https://ceas.

173 uchicago.edu/sites/ceas.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/sti 2013_arehart_nationalgeographic_tillysmith_tsunami .pdf. Accessed 3 Sep 2019 Perry RW (2007) What is a disaster? In: Handbook of disaster research. Handbooks of sociology and social research. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-0-387-32353-4_1 Quarantelli EL (1999) What is a disaster: perspectives on the question. Disaster Prev Manag Int J 8(5):370–452. https://doi.org/10.1108/dpm.1999.8.5.370.3 Quarantelli EL (2005) What is a disaster? A dozen perspectives on the question, 1st edn. Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203984833 Ronan KR, Crellin K, Johnston DM, Finnis K, Paton D, Becker J (2008) Promoting Child and Family Resilience to Disasters: Effects, Interventions, and Prevention Effectiveness. Children Youth and Environments 18(1):332–353. https://doi.org/10.7721/chilyoutenvi. 18.1.0332 Rosenthal U (2005) Future disasters, future definitions (pp. 147–160). In Quarantelli EL (Eds) What is a disaster? A dozen perspectives on the question, 1st edn. Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203 984833 Save the Children’s Fund – SCF (2006) Towards our own safety. Save the Children Sri Lanka. Video-CD Schneider B (2012) Extreme weather: a guide to surviving flash floods, tornadoes, hurricanes, heat waves, snowstorms, tsunamis, and other natural disasters. Palgrave Macmillan, New York Stewart F, Saith R, Harris-White B (2007) Defining poverty in the developing world. Palgrave Macmillan, London Szente J (2016) Assisting children caught in disasters: resources and suggestions for practitioners. Early Childhood Educ J 44(3):201–207. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10643-015-0709-2 Tatebe J, Mutch C (2015) Perspectives on education, children and young people in disaster risk reduction. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 14:108–114. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2015.06.011 Tuladhar G, Yatabe R, Dahal RK, Bhandary NP (2014) Knowledge of disaster risk reduction among school students in Nepal. Geomat Nat Haz Risk 5 (3):190–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2013 .809556 UN – United Nations (2019) About the sustainable development goals. https://www.un.org/sustainablede velopment/sustainable-development-goals/. Accessed 17 June 2019 UNICEF – UN Children’s Fund (2008) UNICEF to focus on damaged schools in unreached areas of Myanmar, ReliefWeb, 28 May. https://reliefweb.int/report/myan mar/unicef-focus-damaged-schools-unreached-areasmyanmar. Accessed 17 Sep 2019 UN-ISDR (2007) 2006–2007 world disaster reduction campaign: disaster risk reduction begins at school. UNESCO. http://www.unisdr.org/eng/public_aware/

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174 world_camp/2006-2007/pdf/WDRC-2006-2007-Engli sh-fullversion.pdf. Accessed 17 Sept 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2011) Education counts: towards the millennium development goals. Education for all (EFA) global monitoring report (GMR). Paris. http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001902/190214e.pdf. Accessed 22 Sept 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2009) Towards a learning culture of safety and resilience: technical guidance for integrating disaster risk reduction in the school curriculum, PILOT VERSION. Geneva, Switzerland http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0021/002194/219412e.pdf. Accessed 22 Sept 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2012) Disaster risk reduction in school curricula: case studies from thirty countries. United Nations Children Fund, Geneva. http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0021/002170/217036e.pdf. Accessed 13 Jan 2018 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) (2005) British schoolgirl hero meets President Clinton: “all children should know what a tsunami is. . . and how to react,” says Tilly Smith. Resource document. Author. https://www.unisdr.org/archive/ 5635. Accessed 3 Sept 2019 Wenzel F, Zschau J (eds) (2014) Early warning for geological disasters: scientific methods and current practice. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-64212233-0 Wisner B, Gaillard JC, Kelman I (2012a) Framing disaster from: the Routledge handbook of hazards and disaster risk reduction Routledge. Chapter 3. https://www. routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/97802038442 36.ch3. Accessed 21 Nov 2019 Wisner B, Gaillard JC, Kelman I (2012b) The Routledge handbook of hazards and disaster risk reduction, 1st edn. Routledge, New York Wong E (2008) How angel of sichuan saved school in quake. The New York Times, 16 June 2008. http://www.nytimes. com/2008/06/16/world/asia/16quake.html. Accessed 19 Sept 2019 Yazgan U, Oyguç RA (2014) Post-earthquake risk-based decision making methodology for Turkish school buildings. In: Ilki A, Fardis M (eds) Seismic evaluation and rehabilitation of structures. Geotechnical, geological and earthquake engineering, vol 26. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00458-7_3

Disciplinarity ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

Disciplinarity

Distance Learning: A Viable Option Amy Emanuel1 and Natalie Gelche2 1 Christian Heritage College (Higher Education), Brisbane, Australia 2 University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

Distance learning – Can distance learning be inclusive, equitable, of high quality and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all? How can Australia and other developed countries contribute to achieving this goal?

Definitions Distance learning or distance education is taken to mean that the student and teacher are in different locations for all or most of the learning and teaching that takes place. Electronic learning (e-learning) means utilizing technology as part of the learning process, but it does not always mean by distance. Inclusive education – All individuals are equal as human beings and, by virtue of the inherent dignity of each person, are entitled to education without discrimination of any kind. ICT – Information and communication technology EFA – Education for all DE – Distance education

Introduction The inalienable right of education was formally recognized in 1948 in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations (UN) 2018a). It has been reaffirmed many times over. Organizations worldwide, including the United Nations (UN), UNESCO, and UNICEF, have affirmed this right, not only to access but to quality and inclusive education (UN 2018a; UNESCO 2017; UNICEF 2007). The UN refers to education at

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primary, secondary, and/or higher education levels (UN 2018a). A quick review of the importance of education points to the impact it has in every area of a person’s life (UNESCO 2008). The knowledge and skills that education affords promote employability, productivity, health, and well-being and ensure that communities and nations thrive. “The importance of basic schooling cannot be exaggerated. Primary education levels have a measurable impact on all other social, political, economic and cultural conditions in a country” (UNESCO cited in QUARTZ Media 2016 para. 6). With the recognition of the importance of education, the UN has set an ambitious goal of ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education for all by 2030 (UN 2018a). This goal is important, and there are many things that can contribute to its success. Distance learning is a vital mechanism toward ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education for all. This entry gives insight into distance learning, its origins, and how it emerged into its present state. It explores challenges, quality, and equity issues in distance learning and illustrates how lifelong learning can be achieved. In particular this entry will focus on how distance learning can contribute to the goals set by the UN and will answer the following questions: Can distance learning be inclusive, equitable, of high quality and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all? How can Australia and other developed countries contribute to achieving this goal?

Globalization Globalization arguably came into dominance in the late 1990s as part of the information and communications technology (ICT) revolution (Steger 2017). Preceded by a social change, globalization essentially meant a redefining of conventional nationality, creating global connections for people, businesses, and industries. Globalization has had a major impact on, among other things, the field of education. In Australia, its impact on education has been far reaching. The current estimated export value of education is worth $28 billion a year, making it Australia’s third largest export (Dodd 2017).

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Access and quality of education have improved as a result of globalization, but further work is needed. Uneducated children dominate the need for further change, together with equal access for girls and a large push to address illiteracy in adults (Compassion 2018). Globalization has indeed created awareness of educational needs in poorer countries and of the inequalities that exist. The UN mandates, World Vision advertising, UNESCO’s Global Education Monitoring Report, and others, are examples that promote both the right and importance of education (UN 2018; UNESCO 2016; World Vision 2015). However, the promotion of this necessity is not enough. It is insufficient to simply raise awareness; actions are vital. The UN mandate, that demands this right for all by 2030, is an exciting and optimistic prospect for humanity. However, without clear strategies and plans, it will take much longer. It is estimated that universal access to education will be available between 2080 and 2100 – a claim published in an article titled: The world’s poor will get universal access to basic education 100 years after the rich (UNESCO cited in QUARTZ Media 2016). This article is not only a sad reminder of the inequality that exists in our world but a challenge to embrace change, leverage capabilities, and prioritize the importance of education to meet the earlier goal of 2030 set by the UN. Globalization has helped bring nations, cultures, and economies together for mutual benefit, softening borders, and making it possible to share/leverage resources such as education. Given the expansiveness of this goal, all viable, available, and practicable resources will need to be utilized. Distance learning is a tool that has been impacted by globalization and used throughout the world (Sethy 2008). This education mainstay, with its flexible nature, long history, and known successes, is one such tool that can assist with meeting education needs.

Distance Learning Distance learning (or distance education) emerged in the early 1800s and was known as correspondence study (Willems 2013; Tracey and Richey

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2005). The early iterations of distance learning made use of printed course materials delivered by mail with some interchange with students over the telephone (Katz 2002). This describes the traditional correspondence course approach that goes back to the nineteenth century. Katz (2002) referred to this as “first-generation” distance learning. His “second generation” takes the same course material but delivers it with more modern technology, using audio recordings and radio or television broadcasts (Katz 2002). The “third generation” involves interaction between student and instructor by using interactive video, e-mail, and World Wide Web technologies (Katz 2002). Historically face-to-face education was, for the most part, available to wealthy males. “Correspondence study was designed to provide educational opportunities for those who were not among the elite...” (Gunawardena and McIsaac 2004 cited in Willems 2013). In response to the 2016 UN educational goal (SDG4) (UN 2018), it is an opportune time to explore and re-embrace distance learning as a tool for making education more available. This vital commodity provides those who are unable to attend traditional institutions for whatever reason (necessity, distance, health, or ability), learning opportunities for both formal and nonformal education. Distance education programs have been used for primary, secondary, and university level study (UNESCO 2017). There are some key distinctives of this teaching and delivery method to consider. Distance learning or distance education is taken to mean that the student and teacher are in different locations for all or most of the learning and teaching that takes place (Willems 2013). Since the 1800s where correspondence courses were offered by mail, distance learning has evolved and now often embraces modern electronic technology, such as computers, as a way of delivery. This method of distance learning, taking into consideration available technologies, is often called electronic learning. Electronic learning (e-learning) means utilizing technology as part of the learning process. However, e-learning does not always equate to distance learning. The terms distance learning and e-learning are used almost inexplicably

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interchangeably. What must be recognized is that given the current technological age of today, a majority of distance learning is delivered through the use of technology, and the more traditional paper-based delivery methods are less and less utilized (Sener 2015).

Distance Learning Distinctives and Appropriate Pedagogies Distance learning is student centered and cost effective. It is not bound by time or geography; it offers flexibility, is self-directed, or is “student controlled.” Distance learning courses should provide students with access to resources and material (authentic texts and tasks, rating high) (UNESCO 2002). These resources may include visual and/or audio aids. Current approaches to distance learning teaching value customized and differentiated instruction, but communication remains the highest consideration (UNESCO 2002; Markova et al. 2016). There are some challenges to distance learning that require attention, but it is firstly important to consider current distance learning pedagogical approaches. Approaches to learning and teaching pedagogies have evolved over the years. From a teacher centric approach, the newer models of teaching and learning focus on the student (Bellefeuille et al. 2005). This developing practice means that the teacher’s role is moving away from being the knowledgeable authority, to one where they rather facilitate or “guide” the learning that takes place (Bellefeuille et al. 2005) building relationships to ensure that their students develop autonomy without feeling isolated in this environment. This approach draws from constructivist theories of education. Constructivist approaches demand that students take more responsibility for the learning that takes place. Study often becomes self-directed while promoting the application of problem-based learning strategies to real and relatable problems (Dabbagh and Dass 2013). Finally, constructivist approaches utilize prior knowledge, promoting a communicative and collaborative environment (Yew and Goh 2016). The Education Research and Foresight Working

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papers (Scott 2015) impresses upon readers these twenty-first-century learning approaches as appropriate pedagogies. Providing learners the opportunity for participation, communication, and collaboration, as well as building relationships, is essential (Scott 2015). Though the nature of distance learning has previously meant little to no in-person contact, this is not the case anymore. Technology assists to provide opportunities for both teacher-to-student and student-to-student interactions. Distance learning can facilitate learning without borders and offer opportunities for lifelong learning beyond formal education. Teachers are called to provide personalized or customized learning, access to project- and problem-based learning, and opportunities for creativity and innovation incorporating relevant real-world learning activities into the learning (Scott 2015; West 2012). These are qualities of good courses regardless of how they are delivered, and it is essential that learning, not the delivery media, venue, or other tool, should always be the driver. Current distance learning courses are working to embrace these factors as best practice should thus provide quality courses.

Challenges in Distance Learning Distance learning is not without its challenges. On a broader level, fluctuating quality of distance learning programs, rapid advancement and availability of technology, and teaching strategies and style are commonly noted challenges (Markova et al. 2016). Teachers need to understand that their role must change. A lack of support and resources is a primary challenge recorded by students (Markova et al. 2016). Without support, distance learning can be very isolating, which may reduce learning effectiveness and satisfaction (Croft et al. 2015). Learning in an actual classroom presents many opportunities for interaction, campus atmosphere and activities, and a range of facilities and support structures (including libraries). Distance learning can limit students to the supplied learning and study materials with minimal face-to-face instructor time. Without regular support or

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contact, students can be less motivated to complete work; however, even with regular contact, procrastination can still be an issue. Higher student dropout rates and late completion of programs are also commonly known issues. Despite the challenges, distance learning programs are growing, and numbers are increasing (Stoter et al. 2014). Many of these challenges are significantly lessened through e-learning. Electronic distance learning provides students, teachers, and support staff with the ability to communicate regularly. Technology can also facilitate both student-toteacher interactions and student-to-student interactions through chat, email forums, and/or online virtual classes all of which are important for collaboration, communication, and building relationships, which are key pedagogies (Scott 2015). Electronic libraries are also readily available. Atmosphere and opportunities for activity can also be created as part of the course design. Design and delivery of distance courses still varies greatly (Markova et al. 2016). While technology has facilitated growth in quality and improvements in pedagogy, particularly in developed nations, it is important to note infrastructure and resources to support these technological developments are essential. If distance learning is paper-based, intentional thought must be given to address these issues. Computer, mobile technologies, and Internet access can address many of the noted challenges. However, all distance learning courses regardless of the delivery mode must be well designed and consider appropriate pedagogies and teaching practices.

The Impact of Technology Distance education, however it is delivered, can provide access to quality education (Arbaugh 2000; Beare 1989; Wilson and Weiser 2001 cited in Lemak et al. 2005; Markova et al. 2016). However, distance education through technology has a range of other benefits for developing countries. It can assist with social and economic development, providing the ability to conduct electronic

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commerce, generating income and capital (Miah and Omar 2012). It can improve quality of life, communication, and knowledge. It also provides learning opportunities for those with access beyond standard education (Miah and Omar 2012). These benefits are important, but raising income and capital allows a “nation to better the general good of its citizens, including updating hospital equipment and enabling other resources such as running water and electricity” (Miah and Omar 2012): Two cautions are, however, necessary. First, the more sophisticated and the more interactive the technology, the higher the unit cost is likely to be. Second, the greatest educational problems are often in the most remote areas where electricity supplies may be irregular or non-existent, telephones scarce and lines difficult to maintain. In such areas, the servicing of electronic equipment tends to be difficult, costly and slow. Sensible choices between technologies need to reflect both geography and economics. (Creed and Perraton 2001 page 12)

Technology provides access to education, and it can also assist with progress. Regardless of the inclusion of technology in a distance learning program, provision of inclusive and equitable quality education must be the focus. In wealthier countries, developing and delivering distance education programs using technology have become paramount particularly in higher education institutions. However, where technology is not available, a rededication to traditional distance learning deliveries could be further embraced. Whatever the delivery method, distance learning is a viable and clear solution to address the current UN goals.

Distance Learning: The Global Context The demographic of distance learners varies from country to country and changes over time. In developed countries such as the United States and Australia, the original distance learner was most likely a working adult who was looking at gaining additional skills or changing professions. This would be quite a different profile from a distance learner in a remote African village where the distance learner may be a preteen

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child in a low socioeconomic group. The gender, age, previous experience, and learning styles of the distance learner are expansive (Stoter et al. 2014). Distance education looks different across the world, particularly between developed and developing countries (ICDE 2018a). UNESCO produced a report in 2002 which identified regional trends in distance learning in countries from Africa, the Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America, and the Caribbean and North America. It illustrated the history and strides each region made in distance learning (UNESCO 2002). Given the vast technological advancements since 2002, this report is outdated, and there appears to be no other global comparison studies of this magnitude found through the research in the development of this submission. The International Council for Open and Distance Education that has a consultative partnership with UNESCO is an organization that aims to “enable change to technology enhanced quality education across the globe” (ICDE 2018b). They have created the Global Online Higher Education Report (GlobalOHER) initiative to gather data about distance education on a global scale. This report and other initiatives like these will help identify trends to inform this important area.

Quality in Distance Learning Quality education is a right for every child enabling them to fulfill their potential, realize opportunities for employment, and develop life skills. Quality in distance learning depends on the definition one applies and how one chooses to measure it. Ultimately institutions will have their own definitions and frameworks in place and will measure these using different methods. Measurement will depend on such things as whether they are public or private institutions, whether they require accreditation and participate in benchmarking, and whether these grant access to national financial support. It is also important to note that the definition of quality is largely dependent on research in the

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topic. Traditionalist academics, who value faceto-face teaching, may view distance learning as poor quality. While others may be more accepting of this method and see this evolution as an opportunity for the practice of teaching. “Research over many decades has shown that the outcomes for those studying at a distance do not differ from those in a classroom...In fact, there has been such consistency of finding in this regard that the phrase ‘no significant difference’ has become the expected hypothesis in making comparisons” (Ebersole 2012). While opinions are varied, it is important to note that individual beliefs and experiences influence research in this topic. A study conducted by the International Council for Open and Distance Education analyzed more than 40 “quality models” from all regions of the world that had different “culture, languages and maturity of developing quality” (Ossiannilsson et al. 2015). The study reviewed and identified the following characteristics: multifaceted, dynamic, mainstreamed, representative, and multifunctional as needing “to be addressed for quality assurance and quality enhancement” (Ossiannilsson et al. 2015 p.10). These characteristics were further explained as follows: there had to be a variety of measures for quality; it had to be flexible in nature to facilitate such things as rapidly emerging technological developments; it must include quality tools that work at both high and local levels of educational institutions; it should consider the demands of all stakeholders; and there must be a system that nurtures quality within the institution, ongoingly and from the outside perspective (Ossiannilsson et al. 2015). Quality in DL is important for many reasons. The rapid growth in this industry has meant that existing quality standards may not capture development in such things as quality assurance, professional development and organizational support, and curriculum design and educational technology and the risks and implications they could bring. Lack of resources and a lack of understanding of the implications of compromised quality are major threats to the scalability and sustainability of distance learning (Ossiannilsson et al. 2015). Other challenges

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include setting agreeable global standards that take all stakeholder interests into account, efficient monitoring of those standards, the lack of quality standard frameworks at the micro level which directly pertains to the quality of individual practice, and the added complexities that cross-cultural and technological advancements bring.

Equity in Distance Learning Equity is a social justice principle. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (VDPA) (1993) states that equity is a purpose of human rights education. Social justice principles such as equity are embedded in the institutional and organizational underpinnings of society, such as public education, to ensure its citizens have equal access and opportunities, particularly for marginalized and disadvantaged groups. The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) states that equity in education has several dimensions, fairness, and inclusion “...fairness, ...means making sure that personal and social circumstances – for example gender, socio-economic status or ethnic origin – should not be an obstacle to achieving educational potential. The second is inclusion, in other words ensuring a basic minimum standard of education for all...” (OECD 2008). A key step in overcoming educational inequity is to acknowledge its existence. Initiatives such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) that conduct an international test for 15-year-olds in participating OECD countries aim to evaluate education systems on a global scale. PISA recently published findings demonstrating that inequality still very much exists (PISA 2018). Equity impacts all areas of distance education including research and development, educational technology, and curriculum design (Willems 2013). The flexible nature of this education has the potential to not understand or cater to the vast amount of cultures the education reaches; it can spread foreign, most likely Western ideologies, and make learners feel disconnected and misplaced. Other issues include the access to

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technology and the technology itself bringing limitations to the teacher and their ability to apply effective pedagogy (Tait and O’Rourke 2014). Inequities in distance learning can damage economic growth and can hinder the development of children, causing a great impact on society in general. There is no foreseeing what kind of impact a person could have achieved, had they had access to a decent education. In today’s global economy, distance education has become an opportunity for business and profit, and this opens the door for potential exploitation and new inequities. Ironically, the very same resource that has helped accessibility of education has also created new inequities (Tait and O’Rourke 2014). Therefore, there is a need for careful observation and processes to monitor potential emerging distance learning equity issues, particularly since underprivileged and/or disadvantaged groups can change over time. Distance education arguably exists to increase the accessibility of education; however, given it has been in existence from as early as the 1800s and there have been many developments, inequality will remain a fundamental concern.

Promoting Lifelong Learning Through Distance Education The inclusion of “lifelong learning” in the UN goal, noted above, has seeped into language and culture. It can be defined as “lifespan learning” not limited to adults that can connect the “learning throughout one’s whole life. . .” (Stoter et al. 2014 p.425). Lifelong learning provides opportunities for the learner to better their life and circumstances through continual professional and personal development. There is a growing awareness of its importance, evidenced by the creation of the UNESCO Institute of Lifelong Learning in 2006 which holds a global mandate for lifelong learning as the guiding paradigm for twenty-firstcentury education (UNESCO 2018). Distance learning creates opportunities to support this goal as the teacher and learner are not bound by geography. The lifelong learner is different to the traditional learner. The lifelong learner learns

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independently and is motivated, curious, and creative, all key skills that can be learnt and developed through distance education. The self-directed and autonomous nature of distance learning encourages lifelong learning (ZawackiRichter and Anderson 2014). However, without opportunity for learning, this can be difficult. Educational institutions must increase their understanding of the distance learner to respond to meet the needs of the diverse student body that this mode of study has introduced (Schneller and Holmberg 2014). Flexible learning opportunities such as those through distance learning are key to lifelong learning.

Example Projects Open and distance education is becoming an increasingly significant and sustainable choice for developing countries. It holds the promise of increasing accessibility to education and training and is generally the best use of limited resources. Many countries, NGOs, and larger organizations including universities have recognized this. The E-9 and PLuS Alliance are two examples that will be briefly reviewed. E-9 Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, and Pakistan make up nine of the world’s most populated countries. “They represent more than 60 per cent of the world’s population, over two-thirds of the world’s illiterate adults and over half of the world’s out-ofschool children” (UNESCO 2017 para.1). Their education systems thus face challenges. In 1993, these countries came together and formed the E-9 Initiative (E stands for education). This initiative is a forum for these countries to discuss their experiences in education, exchange best practices, and monitor development of educational goals (UNESCO 2017). Over the years since 1993, the E-9 has reaffirmed their commitment to education and the need to address its known issues. They have emphasized domestic financing as a key to success but have also recognized that developing

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partnerships with each other and more developed countries to direct aid toward education is vital. Distance education and technology were recognized at the outset of the development of the E-9 as a having a key role in fulfilling the mandate of “Education for all” (EFA) (Creed and Perraton 2001). The E-9 first recognized the need to “expand primary and junior secondary education together with providing more and better qualified teachers” (Creed and Perraton 2001). In working toward EFA, the E-9 has used distance education in four key areas. First, distance education has been used to offer an alternative to formal primary education or to support primary schools, though, to a lesser degree (Creed and Perraton 2001). Second, some countries have successfully over the long-term used distance education for early secondary schooling. Third, a variety of programs by government and by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been developed to meet the needs of out-of-school adults. These are noted to be smaller than school programs and less reported. Fourth, teacher supply is critical to all levels of education. Distance education has been widely applied to the education of teachers, both to meet an emergency teacher shortage and to upgrade the qualifications of existing teaching staff (Creed and Perraton 2001). There were some interesting findings in the 2001 E-9 report. It indicates that there has been little to no reporting in the use of distance education for nonformal education (Creed and Perraton 2001). It also suggested that expanding nonformal education especially in relation to health is vital. While low-tech broadcasting strategies are the most used, newer technologies are emerging and being adopted (Creed and Perraton 2001). Another finding was that there is a need to map various uses of distance education to develop well-established guidelines for planners (Creed and Perraton 2001). The comprehensive report detailing distance education programs in the nine countries provided a look at distance learning projects that were being undertaken at the time, achievements, challenges, and future plans. While the E-9 initiative still exists, there does not appear to be an updated edition of the same publication detailing distance

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education. The key findings noted above are common themes in literature on the topic; however, the E-9 given their ongoing commitment toward education for all should have experienced changes in the four areas noted above. An updated report would be a valuable resource not only for their own planning but for other countries working toward the same goal. The time is right for countries, not just E-9 countries, to review achievements, understand current challenges, and set strategic plans that will be a part of a concerted effort to meet the 2030 goal of education for all. PLuS Alliance An example of the impact of leading educational institutions embedding initiatives led by the UN Sustainable Development Goal 4: Quality Education could be demonstrated via the PLuS (Phoenix-London-Sydney) Alliance which is a partnership between Arizona State University, King’s College London, and UNSW Sydney. All these institutions are reputable high-ranking universities within their respective countries and the world. This partnership has the objective of finding “research-led solutions to global challenges while expanding access to world-class learning” (UNSW 2018). It aims to do this via the establishment of two important networks: the Global Learning Network and the Global Knowledge Network. These initiatives recognize the importance that both research and learning have on creating sustainable goals and leverage the knowledge infrastructure from the multidisciplinary international collaboration. The partnership works under various principles, but the one of most significance to distance learning is “to cooperatively advance technology-driven, online and hybrid teaching and learning worldwide, as well as achieve an agreed-upon common standard of quality in technology-enhanced education” (PLuS Alliance 2018). In 2016, 11 joint projects emerged that address significant issues related to global health, social justice, sustainability, and technology and innovation. In an effort “to meet the global demand for higher education around the world,” this partnership has launched the Online Course Exchange,

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which is an initiative “to make international study more affordable and accessible through innovative digital teaching platforms” (PLuS Alliance 2018). This gives students from these institutions the opportunity to access high-quality education from across the world, the ability to learn with international classmates in an online setting, and opportunity to experience different cultures, teaching methodologies, and national realities (PLuS Alliance 2018). While this project does not reach out to less developed countries – the interconnectivity between these institution’s students is vital. Giving students the opportunity to learn in a global setting is invaluable. The knowledge sharing across cultures and contexts allows institutions to better equip their students to co-create new knowledge to solve the complex problems of today and the future. The distance learning projects outlined above are quite different in nature; however, both share the goal of promoting education for all, and both are trying to achieve this via partnerships. The E-9 partnership is important due to the size of the population that its initiatives impact. Small strides in these regions will make a significant impact to the world. The PLuS Alliance is smaller in scale but demonstrates how established institutions can collaborate through initiatives that involve distance learning and can, via research initiatives, work to shift policy and solve complex problems (PLuS Alliance 2018).

Conclusion Education is one of the greatest needs of our global society. The UN mandate that calls nations, organizations, and individuals to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030 is a necessary and formidable goal that must be worked toward. Awareness of the need for education is not enough; it is essential to utilize tools and put programs in place that can assist. Distance education, through traditional paper-based methods or delivered electronically through technology, is a viable option to assist with meeting this goal. It has been shown to be successful over

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the long term and has evolved to embrace current teaching pedagogies providing the ability to contribute to meeting the educational needs of nations. Equity, quality, and inclusiveness required of the UN mandate are not easy and require careful consideration. However, from the literature, distance education works, bearing in mind the noted challenges and appropriate pedagogies it can provide inclusive, equitable, and high-quality learning while promoting lifelong learning opportunities.

Cross-References ▶ Adult Education ▶ Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Lifelong Learning ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

References Arbaugh J (2000) Virtual classroom versus physical classroom: An exploratory study of class discussions patterns and student learning in an asynchronous inter-net based MBA course. JMan Ed 24:231–233 Beare PL (1989) Virtual classroom characteristics and student satisfaction with inter-net based MBA courses. JMan Ed 24:32–54 Bellefeuille G et al (2005) From pedagogy to technology in social work education: a constructivist approach to instructional design in an online, competency-based child welfare practice course. Child and Youth Care Forum 34(5):371–389. Kluwer Academic PublishersHuman Sciences Press Compassion International (2018) Education facts. https:// www.compassion.com/poverty/education.htm. Accessed 14 July 2018 Creed C, Perraton H (2001) Distance education in the E-9 countries. Available via UNESCO http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0012/001231/123157E.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2018 Croft N et al (2015) Overcoming isolation in distance learning: building a learning community through space and time. JEd Built Environ 5(1):27–64. https:// doi.org/10.11120/jebe.2010.05010027

Distance Learning: A Viable Option Dabbagh N, Dass S (2013) Case problems for problembased pedagogical approaches: A comparative analysis Comp & Ed 64:161–174 Dodd T (2017) Education exports are worth $28 billion a year, nearly 20pc more than we thought. https://www.afr. com/leadership/education-exports-are-worth-28-billiona-year-nearly-20pc-more-than-we-thought-20171005gyvc8v. Accessed 14 July 2018 Ebersole J (2012) The myths of online learning. https:// www.forbes.com/sites/johnebersole/2012/08/24/themyths-of-online-learning/#4bdc6d101df8 Accessed 14 July 2018 Gunawardena CN, McIsaac MS (2004) Distance education. http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/file.php/118/Week10/Guna wardena-McIsaac-distance-ed.pdf. Accessed 5 June 2019 ICDE (2018a) The global online higher education report (GlobalOHER) https://www.icde.org/monitoringthe-uptake-of-online-open-and-flexible-higher-educa tion. Accessed 14 July 2018 ICDE (2018b) Strategic plan 2017–2020. https://www. icde.org/strategic-plan-2017-2020. Accessed 14 July 2018 Katz YJ (2002) Attitudes affecting college students’ preferences for distance learning. JCom Ass Learn 18:2–9. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f85b/fa75c0f5da07d6a9 60bfa100a2c2259e21ee.pdf. Accessed 17 July 2018 Lemak DJ et al (2005) Technology, transactional distance, and instructor effectiveness: an empirical investigation. Aca Mgnt Learn Ed 4(2):150–159 Markova T, Glazkova I, Zaborova E (2016) Quality issues of online distance learning. Procedia – Soc & Beh Sc 23 7:685–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2017.02.043 Miah M, Omar A (2012) Technology advancement in developing countries during digital age. IJSAIT 1(1):30–38 Ossiannilsson E et al (2015) Quality models in online and open education around the globe: state of the art and recommendations. International Council for Open and Distance Education. Available via https://www.icde. org/assets/WHAT_WE_DO/icdequalitymodels22.pdf. Accessed 14 July 2018 OEDC 2008 Ten Steps to Equity in Education (2008) Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). https://www.oecd.org/education/school/ 39989494.pdf. Accessed 14 July 2018 PISA (2018) Compare your country. http://www. compareyourcountry.org/pisa/). Accessed 14 July 2018 PLuS Alliance (2018) PLuS alliance about. https://www. plusalliance.org/about. Accessed 14 July 2018 QUARTZ Media (2016) The world’s poor will get universal access to basic education 100 years after the rich. https:// qz.com/774750/unesco-says-universal-education-willreach-poor-countries-more-than-100-years-after-therich-have-it/. Accessed 14 July 2018 Schneller C, Holmberg C (2014) Distance education in European higher education – the offer. Impact of Distance Education on Adult Learning (IDEAL). https:// www.studyportals.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/

183 IDEAL_Distance-Education-in-European-Higher-Edu cation_The-Offer.pdf. Accessed 14 July 2018 Scott CL (2015) Education research and foresight working papers. The futures of learning 3: what kind of pedagogies for the 21st century? http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0024/002431/243126e.pdf. Accessed 14 July 2018 Sener (2015) Updated e-learning definitions. https:// onlinelearningconsortium.org/updated-e-learningdefinitions-2/. Accessed 15 July 2018 Sethy SS (2008) Distance education in the age of globalisation: an overwhelming desire towards blended learning. TOJDE 9(3):29–44 Steger MB (2017) Globalisation: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK Stoter et al (2014) From the backdoor to mainstream: the characteristics of lifelong learners. In: ZawackiRitcher O, Anderson T (eds) Online distance: education. Towards a research agenda. AU Press, Edmonton, pp 421–459 Tait A, O’Rourke J (2014) Internationalisation and concepts of social justice: what is to be done? In: ZawackiRitcher O, Anderson T (eds) Online distance: education. Towards a research agenda. AU PRess, Edmonton, pp 39–75 The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (VDPA) (1993) Adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna on 25 June 1993. https://www.ohchr. org/en/professionalinterest/pages/vienna.aspx. Accessed 14 July 2018 Tracey MW, Richey RC (2005) The evolution of distance education. Dist Learn, 2(6):17 UNESCO (2002) Open and distance learning: trends, policy and strategy considerations. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001284/128463e.pdf UNESCO (2008) The contribution of early childhood education to a sustainable society. http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0015/001593/159355e.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2018 UNESCO (2016) Global education monitoring report. http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002457/245752e.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2018 UNESCO (2017) Education: E-9 initiative. http://www. unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-theinternational-agenda/education-for-all/coordinationmechanisms/e-9-initiative/. Accessed 14 July 2018 UNESCO (2018) About the institute. UNESCO Institute for lifelong learning http://uil.unesco.org/unescoinstitute. Accessed 16 July 2018 UNICEF (2007) A human rights-based approach to education for all. https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/ A_Human_Rights_Based_Approach_to_Education_ for_All.pdf Accessed 14 July 2018 United Nations (2018a) Universal declaration of human rights. http://www.un.org/en/universal-declarationhuman-rights/. Accessed 14 July 2018 United Nations (2018b) Sustainable development goal 4. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4. Accessed 14 July 2018

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184 UNSW (2018) PLuS Alliance. https://www.unsw.edu.au/ about-us/business-research-partners/plus-alliance. Accessed 14 July 2018 West D (2012) Digital schools: how technology can transform education. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC Willems J (2013) Equity in distance education. Global challenges and perspectives in blended and distance learning. IGI Publishing, ProQuest Ebook Central, Hershey, PA, USA Wilson RL, Weiser M (2001) Adoption of asynchronous learning tools by traditional full-time students: A pilot study. Info Tec & Man 2(4):363–375 World Vision (2015) Education. https://www.worldvision. com.au/donate/help-children/education. Accessed 15 July 2018 Yew EHJ, Goh K (2016) An overview of its process and impact on learning. Health Prof Ed 2(2):75–79 Zawacki-Richter O, Anderson T (eds) (2014) Introduction: Research areas in online distance education. In: Online distance: education. Towards a research agenda. AU Press, Edmonton, pp 1–35

Diverse Learning

Diverse Learning ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

Diversity ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

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Early Childhood Education for Sustainability Jane Spiteri The University of Malta, Msida, Malta

Definitions The United Nations (UN) defines a child as any person under age 18 (UN 1989; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] 2017). Early childhood care and education (ECCE) denotes the education of children from birth till 8 years of age (UNESCO 2017), which could be the starting point for the development of a sustainable society, particularly by embedding early childhood education for sustainability (ECEfS) in early years curricula (Davis 2010; Elliott 2019; UNESCO 2014). ECEfS is transformative, empowering, and participative education around sustainability issues, topics, and experiences via the creation of, and support of, learning communities in ECCE (Davis 2010).

Introduction While a child is considered to be any person under the age of 18 (UN 1989; UNESCO 2017), early childhood is the period between birth and 8 years of age (UNESCO 2017), unless otherwise stated by national laws. Early childhood is a sensitive

period for brain development. Scientific research indicates that “Stimulating early experiences lay the foundation for later learning” and these are “essential (though not sufficient) for the development of optimised brain architecture. Stated simply, stimulating early experiences must be followed by more sophisticated and diverse experiences later in life” (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2007, p. 4). Indeed, this period is characterized by the greatest and most significant time of human development and is regarded as the foundation on which the rest of life is built (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] 2018; Schleicher 2019). These formative years in a person’s life build the foundations for the child’s social, emotional, and cognitive development (Pilcher and Fox 2017). Furthermore, values, attitudes, behaviors, and skills acquired in early childhood may have a lasting impact in later life (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University 2010; Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga 2008; UNESCO 2014; OECD 2018; Schleicher 2019). The early years are also most sensitive to the influences of the external environment (Bronfenbrenner and Morris 2006). Newborns have the ability to learn quickly from the world around them, before and after birth. Essentially, early childhood experiences are shaped by the interaction between the child and significant others in a context. These interactions, also known as biological embedding, influence not

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only the child’s brain and biological development but also the child’s development over the course of a lifetime (Hertzman 2000). Therefore, the early learning experiences children share with others in their context impact their future development: physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially. As social actors, children engage in bidirectional influences with their environment, where children are shaped by their environment but they also play a role in shaping it (Bronfenbrenner and Morris 2006). Consequently, an investment in the early years will benefit society while ensuring children’s future success.

Early Childhood Education Education is a fundamental human right and is important for child development (UNESCO 2010). For the past three decades, the United Nations Convention for the Rights of the Child [UNCRC] (UN 1989) has become the most ratified human rights treaty worldwide and has afforded children protection to be able to grow, develop, learn, and flourish with dignity, making the first few years of a person’s life the most important and sensitive period for learning and development (OECD 2018; Schleicher 2019). Indeed, Article 28 of the UNCRC (UN 1989) gives children the right to an education, while Article 29 (UN 1989) points out that education should aim at developing the children’s respect for the natural environment. However, early childhood has been excluded from the original UNCRC document until 2005, when it was remedied to include early childhood together with a set of recommendations found in General comment No. 7 (2005): Implementing child rights in early childhood (UN 2006). This document has brought a shift in policies in early childhood worldwide, as it acknowledges and values young children’s universal rights (Woodhead 2006) and gives young children the right to have their views valued in accordance to their age and maturity. However, this “universal perception of childhood” adopted by UNCRC has been criticized for taking a “distinctively Western

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liberal and individualistic discourse” of childhood (Woodhead 2006, p. 25). Despite its criticism, the UNCRC has brought about new ways of conceptualizing and acknowledging children’s competence. Specifically, ECCE is the education of young children that occurs between birth and 8 years of age (UNESCO 2017). The term “early childhood education” is related to terms such as “early childhood care,” “early childhood development,” and “early childhood care and education,” which are often used interchangeably. Over time, ECCE has been shaped by global economic demands and has subjected children to the power of global economic situations (Dahlberg et al. 2007). The OECD had a remarkable influence on promoting ECCE as an area of education with potentially high returns of investments for society (OECD 2018; Schleicher 2019). Recently, the European Commission’s Report (European Commission Directorate-General for Education and Culture [EURYDICE] 2019) acknowledged ECCE as providing the foundations for lifelong learning and development. Indeed, investing in good quality ECCE programs and services can benefit children and societies in multiple ways (Davis 2010; Pramling Samuelsson 2011; OECD 2017, 2018; Schleicher 2019), including advancing well-being, learning, and development, and support young children in developing positive attributes through experiences that recognize their strengths and diversity from an early age. Furthermore, ECCE can enhance a child’s capacity to participate effectively in a community, a workplace, and society (The Sustainable Development Solution Network [SDSN] 2014). Despite the increasing benefits of the early years, children living in developing and developed countries experience ECCE differently (UNESCO 2008). The cultural and economic values within which children are raised determine the kind of ECCE, or lack of, they experience (UNESCO 2008). There is a gap between investment in ECCE in higher-income countries and that in lower- and middle-income countries. Oftentimes, the most disadvantaged children are the least likely to receive ECCE, with children in conflict-affected countries being the most

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negatively impacted, resulting in decreased opportunities for early development, adversely affecting their development later in life. For example, in low-income countries, only one out of five children is enrolled in ECCE, and only one out of two is enrolled worldwide (Devercelli and Saaverda 2019). Furthermore, while the developing world is concerned with children’s survival and development, the developed world is more concerned with the quality of ECCE in the service of sustainability (UNESCO 2008). Therefore, while education starting in the early years is believed to have an important role to play in contributing toward a sustainable future (UNESCO 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017), one cannot discount the influence of context and culture upon child development.

Early Childhood Education and Sustainability Global environmental issues have been the subject of much research and international debates over the years, which has resulted in increasing recognition of the importance of safeguarding the environment by the public. The current state of the environment calls for urgent action, particularly for the benefit of young children who will inherit the environmental, economic, and social problem of previous and current generations. Should these practices persist, children and life systems on the planet will suffer the most because they will experience the impacts and consequences for longer. Therefore, young children need to be equipped with skills to face these challenges in the future, and by working alongside adults, they create improvements wherever possible. Education is believed to contribute significantly to sustainability because it has the potential to offer immediate economic, social, and environmental benefits (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development [UNCED] 1992; UNESCO 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017). “Sustainability” and “sustainable development” are contested and complex terms, which are often used interchangeably, and are difficult to understand and

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define (Elliott 2019). As indicated in sustainable development goal (SDG) 4 (Quality Education for All) (4.7) in Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UNESCO 2015), education for sustainable development (ESD) has been recognized as an integral element of quality education. Indeed, the 2030 agenda (UNESCO 2015, 2017) draws attention to the importance of new ways of thinking and doing, thus emphasizing the need for reflexivity which is reinforced by an uncertain future (Jickling and Sterling 2017), which young children will inherit. In 2005, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) held a regional ESD strategy and recognized ESD as a lifelong process that begins in the early years (UNECE 2005). In early childhood studies, there is a natural synthesis between education and the natural environment. Historically and philosophically, learning in ECCE has been associated with nature-based learning. Since Froebel’s notion of kindergarten (i.e., children’s garden), ECCE in the Western world has focused on learning in nature (Duhn 2012). Indeed, this concept provided fertile ground for the ECCE as the starting point for ESD because: There is growing recognition among policy-makers that the earliest stage of learning (ECCE) is the foundation of sustainable development. There is also an increased understanding among education experts of the capacity of young children to respond to environmental/sustainability issues and to be agents of change within their families and communities. (UNESCO 2014, p. 30)

Yet, ESD has been implemented in ECCE through a developmentalist approach (Edwards and Cutter-Mackenzie 2011), resulting in ESD in ECCE focusing largely on “green” issues or nature education (Elliott and Davis 2009). An example of this is when nature is used as a resource or a space, where natural items are collected for children to observe, discuss, touch, and learn about. While it is recognized that such experiences have learning significance, they simply are not enough to teach children about the broader sustainability issues that must be addressed.

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Despite the significance of early childhood for ESD (Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga 2008; UNESCO 2008, 2010, 2014), ECCE has been “slow to respond to environmental and sustainability concerns” (Davis 2010, p. 26) initially. However, in recent years there has been an international movement in ECCE which has slowly shifted its focus from environmental and nature education toward ESD for young children. This shift has given rise to a new and emerging field of education known as ECEfS (Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga 2008).

The History of Early Childhood Education for Sustainability The Early 1990s ECEfS initiated in the early 1990s, when a group of early childhood educators and academics from the USA and Australia recognized the link between, and importance of, ECCE and environmental issues (Davis and Elliott 2014). At the time, there were growing environmental concerns, which led to the emergence of what was then known as “early childhood environmental education” (ECEE) (Davis and Elliott 2014, p. 3). Indeed, the ECEE practitioner networks, mainly in Australia, “laid the foundations for what has become the field of ECEfS” (Davis and Elliott 2014, p. 3). During this period there were also shifts in early childhood paradigms, with the introduction of the UNCRC (UN 1989) and the new sociology of childhood (NSC). The Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014) and the Gothenburg Recommendations on Education for Sustainable Development The Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) (2005–2014) was aimed at challenging humans to adopt new behaviors and practices that will sustain life (human and nonhuman) on Earth and to: integrate the principles, values, and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning. This educational effort will encourage changes in behaviour that will create

Early Childhood Education for Sustainability a more sustainable future in terms of environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations. (UNESCO n.d., para. 1)

Initially, the DESD did not include early childhood as a significant part of resulting government policies related to ESD. In 2007, The Role of Early Childhood Education for a Sustainable Society workshop, jointly organized by Gothenburg and Chalmers Universities in Sweden and the City of Gothenburg, brought together ECCE experts from 16 countries. This was the first international UNESCO meeting which specifically focused on ECEfS and resulted in the first ever ESD international report, which focused on ECEfS, and led to the publication of The Contribution of Early Childhood Education to a Sustainable Society (Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga 2008). This publication documented the responses of 16 countries related to the “intersection of early childhood education and education for sustainability” (Davis and Elliott 2014, p. 4); however, most of the papers were “aspirational rather than based on local research or practice in education for sustainability” (Davis and Elliott 2014, p. 4). In 2008, a second workshop led to the publication of The Gothenburg Recommendations on Education for Sustainable Development (UNESCO 2008), whose recommendations were fully adopted by UNESCO in 2009. Together, these two documents have provided impetus for ECEfS initiatives in many countries (UNESCO 2014). The Gothenburg Recommendations on Education for Sustainable Development is an important document because it is the first international ESD document which includes ECCE (Davis 2010). Containing specific recommendations for the integration of ESD in ECCE (UNESCO 2008, pp. 25–32), it lists ECCE as “the starting point of lifelong learning within education for sustainability” (UNESCO 2008, p. 26). Suggesting that the early years are “the starting point” (UNESCO 2008, p. 26) for lifelong learning in ESD is problematic, due to the use of the article “the.” The use of the article “the” implies that learning about sustainability only happens in ECCE, whereas various educational

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theories indicate that children construct their knowledge of issues in different contexts, over time. Therefore, this document discounts the importance of different contexts that might be vital for children’s learning about sustainability issues at different stages in their lives. Furthermore, there is a lot of potential for teaching and learning in ECCE, but curricula are designed by authorities, meaning that governments might choose not to include environmental issues in the early years’ curriculum or include some while leaving out others. Within The Gothenburg Recommendations on Education for Sustainable Development (UNESCO 2008, p. 17), Recommendation 6 points to the value of ESD in the curriculum and notes how “ESD should be embedded in curricula, steering documents and learning materials and this includes curriculum review and development of new curricula.” It also highlights the need to embed ESD into all levels of the curriculum to develop approaches to learning through “collaborations with formal and non-formal educational services and systems, including higher education and curriculum developers” (UNESCO 2008, p. 30). These recommendations were accepted by UNESCO in 2009. A similar need for new approaches and new resources was echoed in the Global Monitoring Report (UNESCO 2016a). The Gothenburg Recommendations on Education for Sustainable Development document also recognizes that there are children in different countries who do not have access to ECCE in their area and recommends access to ECCE service as one of its priority areas. In 2007, the UNESCO also established a Chair in Early Childhood Education and Sustainable Development at Gothenburg University to illuminate the value of ESD in ECCE (Siraj-Blatchford and Pramling Samuelsson 2015). The Gothenburg recommendations also suggest the need for greater research mentoring and capacity building within ESD. In 2010, UNESCO organized the first ever World Conference on Early Childhood Care and Education (WCECCE), which raised awareness of ECCE as a human right and as important for child development, and highlighted the global status, challenges, and experiences of expanding

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quality ECCE. The conference ended with the adoption of the Moscow Framework for Action and Cooperation: Harnessing the Wealth of Nations (UNESCO 2010), a framework which recommends that “education for sustainable development [should be included] as a central part of quality ECCE” (UNESCO 2010, p. 4). In the same year, the World Organization for Early Childhood Education (OMEP) organized the OMEP World Congress 2010, called Children – Citizens in a Challenged World (OMEP 2010), in Sweden, which was followed by the publication of the OMEP document Education for Sustainable Development in the Early Years (SirajBlatchford et al. 2010). This document highlights the links between ECCE and sustainability and marks the first time that ECEfS was promoted as a key theme at an international conference (Davis and Elliott 2014). At the OMEP World Assembly Cornerstone of high-quality early childhood services in 2013 (OMEP 2013), held in China, sustainability was profiled as a means of achieving high-quality early childhood services, thus highlighting ESD as a signifier for “quality” ECCE toward the end of the DESD. In 2014, SDSN thematic group 4 on Early Childhood Development, Education, and Transition to Work published a statement, Young Children as a Basis for Sustainable Development, which states that “Children are a common basis for all dimensions of sustainable development” (SDSN 2014, p. 1) and they have a right to live in a sustainable world. This document recognizes the early years as a critical stage for human development, in terms of both neuroscientific and economic evidence. For this reason, SDSN (2014) argues in favor of teaching children about sustainability in the early years and emphasizes the need for multiple generations to work together for social development toward the achievement of sustainability. Different generations working collaboratively in society are a fruitful way of achieving sustainability. Overall, the DESD increased the recognition of the fundamental role of ECCE for ESD (Elliott 2019). Yet, research shows that many ECCE educators are unaware of the DESD (Elliott and Davis

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2018). The final report summarizing the achievements of the DESD (UNESCO 2014) states: Young children are both current and future citizens with already existing capabilities to shape sustainable societies. Investments to build their awareness, values, knowledge and capacity for sustainable development will serve to set the world on more sustainable pathways now and into the future. (p. 78)

The Sustainable Development Goals In 2015, the UNESCO 70th General Assembly adopted a new global agenda, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, a framework which unites global development and environmental goals (UNESCO 2015). The internationally ratified guiding document for ESD is the UN Sustainable Development Goals (UNESCO 2017), which includes 17 SDGs across a broad range of areas and the associated 169 targets which should be reached by 2030. Together these goals and targets reflect the complexities of sustainability and its multiple dimensions (UNESCO 2015, 2017). Overall, these goals and targets have been criticized for being overwhelmingly, challenging and nonlegally binding (Easterly 2015). Of interest to ECEfS is SDG 4, which tackles quality education for all and talks about the goals and targets for education to be reached by 2030 (UNESCO 2015). Yet, a closer look at Target 4.1, which posits five descriptors, including free, equitable, quality, relevant, and effective with corresponding global indicators, indicates that education has been reduced to the achievement of a minimum proficiency level in reading and mathematics. Similarly, Target 4.2 recommends that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education. While the benefits of the inclusion of ECCE in this document cannot be discounted, discourse around young children’s readiness for school remains problematic because it does not take into account the different contexts and cultures of children which might impact their readiness for school. As indicated in the Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action (UNESCO

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2016b), 11 global indicator were proposed to mentor SDG4. Specifically, global indicator 4.2.1 recommends a successful outcome as the “proportion of children under 5 years of age who are developmentally on track in health, learning and psychosocial well-being” and global indicator 4.2.2 points out to the “participation rate in organised learning (one year before the official primary entry age)” (UNESCO 2016b, p. 72). While these two global indicators point to the importance of inclusive, equitable and quality ECCE for children's long-term development and well-being, they shift away from learning needs as indicated in a World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien (UNESCO 1990), and simply focus on accessing, participating, or completing education (King 2017). Recently, the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), which was established in 2013 by the UN General Assembly (UNGA) as the main forum for the UN’s issues related to sustainability and as an outcome of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio +20) in 2012 (Sharma et al. 2019), reviewed the progress of the SGDs. After 4 years from the implementation of the SDGs, the first in-depth review of progress toward SDG 4 took place at the opening of the 2019 HLPF session in July. During the session it was noted that the implementation of the SDGs needs more commitment and more action for a timely delivery. Indeed, proposed improvement in SDG 4 focused on low reading and mathematics proficiency rates among school children, inclusion, global citizenship, and sustainability (Sharma et al. 2019). The implementation of SDG 4 has been heavily criticized due to its many obstacles which could undermine its successful implementation, mostly because governments worldwide are not taking the necessary steps to implement the SDG 4 goals, while some have implemented policies that actually undermine these goals (Edwards 2019). Furthermore, in this review, ESD, ECCE, and ECEfS have all been marginalized and were not given the appropriate attention. The marginalization of these fields could hinder the implementation of ECEfS in mainstream curricula and consequently defer the achievement of a sustainable future.

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Characteristics of Early Childhood Education for Sustainability Education in, About, and for the Environment Perhaps a useful structure for the characteristics of ECEfS is provided by Davis (2010, pp. 30–31). This structure is similar to education in, about, and for the environment in other education sectors but has been applied to ECEfS practices and includes: • Education in the environment – The natural environment is used as a medium for learning, and priority is given to outdoor settings and learning resources. This kind of education seeks to provide young children with experiences in the natural environment, for example, gardening, exploration of the outdoors, and playing with mud, water, sand, and other natural elements. • Education about the environment – Emphasis is on learning how natural systems function to help children understand and appreciate the natural world and the interconnection between humanity and nature. This kind of education provides scientific knowledge, for example, learning about water conservation, composting, and wormeries. • Education for the environment – Emphasis is on the sociopolitical aspect of sustainability and is concerned with creating social change. It includes critical examination of existing practices, such as the use of water and generation of waste from lunch boxes, followed by collective problem-solving and taking action to introduce resources and strategies to create change. Usually education in and about the environment are easily incorporated in ECCE. However, this type of education is not enough to create the foundations for sustainable living as it fails to address the human-environment interactions which are the root cause of global sustainability issues. Rather, ECEfS must cater for education for the environment to create social change (Davis 2010). An eco-centric orientation could help bridge the notional divide between human and

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nonhuman living creatures and encourage children to feel part of nature, thus creating an interconnectedness with nature, which leads to change for sustainability. Indeed, previous research with young children demonstrates that connectedness to nature is more influential in driving sustainable behavior than environmental knowledge (Otto and Pensini 2017). ECEfS acknowledges that early learning is important for shaping children’s environmental attitudes, knowledge, and behavior (Davis 2010; Elliott 2019), resulting in a marker for quality in ECCE (Siraj-Blatchford 2009). With is focus on education for the environment, ECEfS is transformative, empowering, and participative education around issues and experiences of sustainability in ECCE contexts (Davis 2010, 2015). Essentially, ECEfS is about transformative change in children’s thinking (requiring critical thinking and critical reflection) and new ways of being and acting to regenerate the Earth (Elliott 2019). ECEfS invites children and adults alike to engage with real-world issues which require critical thinking and investigations into themes related to sustainability, including democracy, peace, equality, and human rights (UNESCO 2010; Elliott 2019). In so doing, ECEfS supports young children in developing higher-order thinking, problem-solving, and resilience. Children as Change Agents Children as agents of change for sustainability is a hallmark of ECEfS (Davis and Elliott 2014; Elliott 2019). Yet, the role of ECEfS is not to eliminate play and learning experiences, which are characteristic of ECCE, with those exclusively focused on sustainability issues, but rather use these characteristics as the building blocks to teach children about sustainability issues (Davis 2010). ECEfS is not about overburdening young children with environmental issues beyond their control either (Elliott 2019), and it does not mean that children are responsible for solving the environmental problems created by current and previous generations. Rather young children need the tools and skills to be able to think critically and grasp concepts such as “what is sustainable” and “what is unsustainable.”

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In fact, play-based and intentional teaching events can support acquisition of content knowledge associated with sustainability (Edwards and Cutter-Mackenzie 2011), particularly since the prominent themes in ECEfS literature are the value of outdoor nature play and play-based pedagogy for sustainability, which also contribute to the acquisition of social understanding and nature awareness by children from an early age (UNESCO 2014). ECEfS pedagogies are designed to help children develop values and participate in democratic decision-making skills and collaborative action-oriented learning in order to: • Build upon the everyday experience of children • Provide curriculum integration and creativity • Support intergenerational problem-solving and solution-seeking • Promote intercultural understanding and recognition of interdependency • Involve the wider community • Support active citizenship in the early years • Aid in the creation of lifelong cultures of sustainability (UNESCO 2014, p. 75) In the context of ECEfS, reflective discussions are useful when they lead to advocacy and action for change by educators, children, families, and communities. Most importantly, ECEfS needs to support the development of early learning communities to foster cultures of sustainability by transforming curricula and school systems so they are aligned with ESD (Davis 2010; Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga 2010). Cultures of sustainability should initiate within ECCE context and are not imposed or externally mandated, to enable participants to build or transform thinking, practices, and relationships around sustainability (Davis 2010). While many educators engage in the tangible aspects of ECEfS, such as establishing compost bins, recycling, and growing produce, there are deeper layers of meanings of sustainability about thinking and being that can be further explored with young children through everyday pedagogical practices in ECCE. Children and educators can engage in critical eco-pedagogies, which are

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pedagogies informed by an ethical stance about the relationships between humans and all living species that share the Earth; a recognition of how human behavior is harming the Earth; and adoption of an eco-centric rather than an anthropocentric worldview (Elliott 2019). Even though change can be difficult, ECCE educators need to understand why change is urgently needed and how they can advocate and act for a sustainable future for everyone.

Research in Early Childhood Education for Sustainability The relevance of sustainability to ECCE and the need to engage young children with sustainability early in life has been documented by many (Davis 2009; Davis and Elliott 2014; Elliott 2019; Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga 2008; Spiteri 2016, 2018). In the past, EE research involving children was dominated by a developmental perspective and tended to promote children as objects of research, rather than valued contributors to the research process (Cutter-Mackenzie 2009; Barratt Hacking et al. 2013). Recently, there has been a change of approach in EE research, and in ECEfS in particular, toward conducting research with and by children, therefore positioning children as interpreters of their own lives and experiences, rather than as informants of research (Barratt Hacking et al. 2013). Nowadays, research with very young children tends to favor child-centered and creative research methods that help elicit young children’s views of the world. In 2009, Davis (2009) noticed a paucity in ECEfS published research, following a review of journal articles published in internationally prominent peer-reviewed journals in ECCE and ESD. She found research describing young children in the environment (playing in nature) and about the environment (acquisition of knowledge about the environment) but a dearth of research around children acting for the environment (taking active role in favor of the environment and acting as agents of change for the environment). Few years later, Somerville and Williams (2015) noted a doubling

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of published ECEfS research since Davis’ (2009) review. A decade and a half later, Davis and Elliott (2014) published the first compilation of ECEfS research. These publications have brought about a rethink of theories related to ECEfS and its pedagogy, with ideas around lifelong learning and transformation toward sustainability. While these publications indicate that in recent years research in ECEfS is well on the rise, the field of ECEfS has not caught up with other sectors of education. Reasons for this late uptake include barriers such as failure to recognize that early childhood has a significant role to play in ESD (Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga 2008); the fact that ECEfS is fragmented within and between countries due to the variations in availability, accessibility, and quality of programs (UNESCO 2014); lack of an agreed-upon approach/framework for ESD, making sustainability not well understood by the early childhood sector (Davis 2009); lack of capacity to incorporate ESD into teaching and caregiving activities in the early years by educators and primary caregivers (UNESCO 2014; Elliott 2019); ECEfS which has been the province of advocates and educators who see its relevance (Davis and Elliott 2014); and lack of published research in the ECEfS field (Davis 2009, 2010). Research by Elliott and Davis (2009) and Duhn (2012) also shows that the risk avoidance and developmental practices in ECCE have led to resistance from teachers when it comes to addressing potentially challenging, complex topics, such as climate change and environmental sustainability. Moreover, the developmentalist perspective in ECCE failed to recognize that young children are capable of taking action for the environment if they are given the opportunities to do so (United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF] 2013). At times teachers find concepts of sustainability hard to understand, making it even more challenging to include such concepts in their pedagogy (Elliott 2019). The number of studies related to social and economic dimensions of sustainability is still scant (Spiteri 2016, 2018). All three dimensions of sustainability (environmental, social, and economic) are needed to be treated as an integral part; otherwise, any sustainability-related practices

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and policies are likely to fail (Siraj-Blatchford et al. 2010; Spiteri 2016, 2018). Therefore, it is recommended that research into the value of the social and economic dimension of sustainability for making change is undertaken in ECCE to improve and inform the field of ECEfS.

Conclusion The introduction of ECEfS in early education contexts benefits young children and the community at large and could possibly help combat the sustainability crisis. Global raising awareness of the importance of ECEfS is a way of encouraging educators and policy-makers to embed ECEfS in mainstream curricula. This may result in an increase in sustainability practices; however, it may not be enough to create a change in thinking toward a culture of ESD in ECCE. Therefore, there is a need for researchers, educators, and policy-makers with a passion and belief in sustainability to facilitate a change in thinking about ECEfS and its pedagogy that transforms the dominant culture in education to embrace the values of ESD in the early years. This might be a lengthy process which calls for everyone involved in the education of young children to engage in dialogue, share their visions and ideas, and possibly create professional development courses for new and experienced teachers to be able to integrate ECEfS in their everyday classroom practice.

References Barratt Hacking E, Cutter-Mackenzie A, Barratt R (2013) Children as active researchers. The potential of environmental education research involving children. In: Stevenson RB, Brody M, Dillon J, Wals AEJ (eds) International handbook of research on environmental education. Routledge, New York, pp 438–458 Bronfenbrenner U, Morris PA (2006) The bioecological model of human development. In: Lerner RM, Damon W (eds) Handbook of child psychology. Theoretical models of human development, 6th edn. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 793–828 Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2010) The foundations of lifelong health are built in early childhood. http://www.developingchild.harvard. edu. Accessed 1 Aug 2019

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Early Childhood Education for Sustainability eurydice/content/key-data-early-childhood-education-andcare-europe-%E2%80%93-2019-edition_en. Accessed 2 Aug 2019 Hertzman C (2000) The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Ann N Y Acad Sci 896:85–95 Jickling B, Sterling S (2017) Post sustainability and environmental education: remarking education for the future. Palgrave Macmillan, London King K (2017) Lost in translation? The challenge of translating the global educational goal and targets into global indicators. Compare 47(6):801–817 National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2007) The timing and quality of early experiences combine to shape brain architecture. Working paper #5. Harvard University. http://developingchild. harvard.edu/resources/reports_and_working_papers/ working_papers/wp5/. Accessed 1 Aug 2019 OECD (2017) Starting Strong 2017: key OECD indicators on early childhood education and care. Starting Strong, OECD Publishing, Paris OECD (2018) Engaging young children: lessons from research about quality in early childhood education and care. Starting Strong, OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264085145-en. Accessed 15 Aug 2019 OMEP (2010) Children – citizens in a challenged world. http://www.327matters.org/Sustainability/Docs/OMEP broENG.pdf. Accessed 21 Aug 2019 OMEP (2013) Annual report 2013. OMEP, Hong Kong. www.worldomep.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Ann ual-Report-2013-EN-Sept-revised.pdf. Accessed 1 Aug 2019 Otto S, Pensini P (2017) Nature-based environmental education of children: environmental knowledge and connectedness to nature, together, are related to ecological behaviour. Glob Environ Chang 47:88–94 Pilcher S, Fox S (2017) State of early learning in Australia 2017. ACT, Canberra. https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloud front.net/everyonebenefits/pages/73/attachments/orig inal/1504689599/ELEB-Report-web.pdf?1504689599. Accessed 18 Aug 2019 Pramling Samuelsson I (2011) Why we should begin early with ESD: the role of early childhood education. Int J Early Childhood 43(2):103–118. Published online. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13158-0110034-x#page-1. Accessed 3 Aug 2019 Pramling Samuelsson I, Kaga Y (2008) The contribution of early childhood education to a sustainable society. UNESCO, Paris, pp 73–80 Pramling Samuelsson I, Kaga Y (2010) Early childhood education to transform cultures for sustainability. In: Starke L, Mastny L (eds) 2010 State of the world. Transforming cultures. From consumerism to sustainability. A Worldwatch Institute report on progress toward a sustainable society. pp 57–61. http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/wpcontent/uploads/2009/11/SOW2010-PreviewVersion.pdf. Accessed 12 Aug 2019

Early Childhood Education for Sustainability Schleicher A (2019) Helping our youngest to learn and grow: policies for early learning. International Summit on the Teaching Profession. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264313873-en. Accessed 10 Aug 2019 SDSN (2014) Young children as the basis for sustainable development. Issue brief, 18 February 2014, prepared by the Thematic Group on Early Childhood Development, Education, and Transition to Work. http://unsdsn.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/ ECD-Brief1.pdf. Accessed 1 Aug 2019 Sharma A, Bhandary RR, Lebada A, Nyigi DW (2019) Summary of the 2019 meeting of the high-level political forum on sustainable development: 9–19 July 2019. Earth Negotiations Bulletin: A Reporting Service for Environmental Development Negotiations 33(5): 1–21. http://enb.iisd.org/download/pdf/enb3355e.pdf. Accessed 24 Aug 2019 Siraj-Blatchford J (2009) Editorial: education for sustainable development in early childhood. Int J Early Childhood 41(2):9–22 Siraj-Blatchford J, Pramling Samuelsson I (2015) Education for sustainable development in early childhood care and education: a UNESCO background paper. Research. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3197.2564. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283152509_ Education_for_Sustainable_Development_in_Early_ Childhood_Care_and_Education_A_UNESCO_Back ground_Paper. Accessed 5 Aug 2019 Siraj-Blatchford J, Smith K, Pramling Samuelsson I (2010) Education for sustainable development in the early years. Organisation Mondiale Pour l’Education Prescolaire (OMEP), Göteborg Somerville M, Williams C (2015) Sustainability education in early childhood: an updated review of research in the field. Contemp Issues Early Child 16(2):102–117 Spiteri J (2016) Young children’s perceptions of environmental sustainability: a Maltese perspective. Unpublished PhD thesis, The University of Edinburgh Spiteri J (2018) Why we should start early with ESD for lifelong learning. In: Leal Filho W, Mifsud M, Pace P (eds) Handbook of lifelong learning for sustainable development. World sustainability series. Springer, Cham, 109–128 UN (1989) Convention on the rights of the child. Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989 entry into force 2 September 1990, in accordance with article 49. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva. http://www.ohchr.org/en/pro fessionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx. Accessed 8 Aug 2019 UN (2006) Convention on the rights of the child. General comment No. 7 (2005). Implementing child rights in early childhood. Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1). http://www2.ohchr.org/english/ bodies/crc/docs/AdvanceVersions/GeneralComment7 Rev1.pdf. Accessed 4 Aug 2019 UNCED (1992) Earth Summit. Agenda 21. The Rio Declaration on environment and development. United

195 Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), promoting education and public awareness and training, 3–14 June, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. http:// www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/index.shtml. Accessed 7 Aug 2019 UNECE (2005) UNECE strategy for education for sustainable development, adopted at the high-level meeting. High-level meeting of Environment and Education Ministries (Vilnius, 17–18 March 2005) (Agenda items 5 and 6). United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva UNESCO (1990) World declaration on education for all and framework for action to meet basic learning needs. Thailand: Jomtien. Paris: UNESCO UNESCO (2008) The Gothenburg recommendations on education for sustainable development. Adopted November 12, 2008. University of Gothenburg, Sweden. http://www.wwf.se/source.php/1234157/Goteb orgsrekommendationerna.pdf. Accessed 1 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2010) World conference on early childhood care and education (ECCE): building the wealth of nations. Moscow framework for action and cooperation: harnessing the wealth of nations, 27–29 September 2010. The Russian Federation, Moscow. http://www.unesco.de/fileadmin/medien/Bilder/Bildung/ WCECCE_MoscowPlanOfAction.pdf. Accessed 16 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2013) Education for sustainable development (ESD): a sound investment to accelerate African development. https://en.unesco.org/events/educationsustainable-development-esd-sound-investment-accele rate-african-development. Accessed 16 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2014) Shaping the future we want. UN decade for education for sustainable development (2005–2014). Final report. UNESCO, Paris. http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002301/230171e.pdf. Accessed 9 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://sustaina bledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld. Accessed 16 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2016a) Education for people and planet: creating sustainable futures for all. http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0024/002457/245752.pdf. Accessed 17 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2016b) Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000245656. Accessed 19 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2017) Early childhood care and education. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. http://en.unesco.org/themes/early-child hood-care-and-education. Accessed 16 Aug 2019 UNESCO (n.d.) Education: mission. http://www.unesco. org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-internationalagenda/education-for-sustainable-development/mission/. Accessed 6 Aug 2019

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Ecological Thinking in Education Joseph Karuzis Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

Definitions Ecological thinking and education can be defined as two interconnected and essential components required for the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals. Ecological thinking may be categorically defined as a way of thinking about nature and ecological systems that serves as a foundation for the responsible safekeeping of natural resources that is based on ethical and environmental first principles such as moderation, conservation and protection, sustainability, and resilience, and this way of thinking possesses priority in terms of value, signification, and consequence over certain economic policies and practices that pursue contrary objectives.

Introduction Ecological thinking and ecological awareness are ways of thinking and being that are part of a set of fundamental characteristics that in a way define what it means to be human. Amongst other things, humans are moral, ethical, ontological, scientific, ecological, and mathematical beings. Ecological thinking is a part of our nature and is itself a way of being, and it reveals itself through collective and individual beings that present natural ways of living and solutions to the dilemmas that arise

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during a confrontation between civilization and nature. This type of thinking, however, has been suppressed and forgotten about because of the demands of industrialization. Industrialization changes people’s lives and it changes people’s ways of thinking. It may be said that sustainable development arose in antiquity in various successful cultures and civilizations due to necessity and because of a close connection to nature which in turn created the conditions for the emergence of ecological thinking. The education and instruction of sustainable practices and development helped to secure a civilization’s long-term success in the ancient world by preserving practices which functioned as sets of defenses against random catastrophic natural events and general dangers such as food stockpile depletion and water scarcity. One central part of ecological thinking is the realization and awareness that the care and protection of the environment are crucial for survival. Ecological thinking and sustainable development coexist as potential analogues in their most fundamental manifestations. That is, they are part and parcel of each other and are each found within each other. And they are both related to a type of survival that is successful because of a cognizance of an inner moral responsibility and sets of actions that seek a type of living and prosperity that is free from anything that pollutes, destroys the natural environment, exploits any living creature, or in general contributes to environmental disorder and imbalance. Most of the inhabitants of industrialized nations in various ways reap the benefits provided by the extraction of fossil fuels and the wealth it creates. Yet these inhabitants are also victims of industrialization, for it is extremely difficult to escape from the pollution and the lifechanging consequences that result from being a willing or even a non-willing participant in industrialization. The transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau, writing from his cabin in the woods next to Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts, was acutely aware of the human cost that industrialization demands from its participants: The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. What is called resignation is confirmed desperation. From the desperate city you go into the desperate

Ecological Thinking in Education country, and have to console yourself with the bravery of minks and muskrats. A stereotyped but unconscious despair is concealed even under what are called the games and amusements of mankind. There is no play in them, for this comes after work. But it is a characteristic of wisdom not to do desperate things. (Thoreau, Walden, p. 6) (Thoreau 1997)

Desperation in some ways is the result of living a life that is out of balance, without meaning, and without bliss. Unfortunately, desperation is still even now a state of being for many of Earth’s inhabitants, due to unfortunate circumstances including the drudgery and stress and constant exhaustion that is part of industrial society and beyond all that the constant pressure to be an active consumer of goods. Compulsive shopping fails to accomplish any real virtuous goals, wastes precious resources including time, and is a symptom of modernity. Thoreau moved to woods to seek out a life that existed on the bare necessities required for survival. His experiment in simple living lasted 2 years, 2 months, and 2 days from July 1845 until September 1847. The reasoning that initiated this search, and this action, is delineated when Thoreau states the following. “Most of the luxuries, and many of the so called comforts of life, are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.” (Thoreau, Walden, p. 12) (Thoreau 1997). Perhaps modernity’s best chance to reduce desperation lies in reducing or eliminating the extraneous and the superfluous, the unnecessary, and the decadent. And this reduction or elimination must be initiated at the source of the energy that renders industrial practices possible. Oil is the current fuel that powers industrialization, yet by becoming environmentally aware through ecological thinking and sustainable practices that retool the energy infrastructure, all of the Earth’s inhabitants could live in a world that is powered by renewable energy. This renewable energy foundation will allow humanity to realize a better and more peaceful world, a world without pollution in all of its forms that creates prosperity and health through a kinder, greener capitalism that is resilient to climatic fluctuations. Therefore, it is necessary that Earth’s inhabitants initiate investigations into ecological thinking, because by doing so humanity as

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a whole will come to attain an awareness of the flaws of capitalism and industrialization and a correction of those mistakes will finally commence.

The Foundations of Quality Education Ecological thinking and sustainable practices are essential aspects of partaking in ways of living that are good and ethical, and the fourth SDG, Quality Education, holds a central role in the realization and commencement of these fundamental activities of human life. A quality education is a universal human right, and this claim has been explicitly stated in several international documents and conventions, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Non-signatory UN member states of those documents and conventions hold that continuing noncommittal status due to some perceived potential conflict that may exist between its economic interests and/or cultural and political orientations. The international attainment of a quality education for the primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of schooling is a complex and difficult objective, yet it is possible, and it is a challenge that is worthy of pursuit. The redirection of military expenditures and accountability protocols that eliminate wasteful government and corporate and individual spending are just two examples which could provide sufficient funding for the implementation of the fourth SDG on a universal level. School campuses must be safe, clean places that are free from pollution and unsafe and toxic building materials, and these campuses must be built sustainably and resilient to climate change, global warming, and natural disasters. Campuses must reflect a community’s dedication to a quality education and ecological thinking by embracing renewable energy and by replacing on-campus parking lots with organic gardens and trees and greenery that are planted as parts of disaster resilience landscaping projects. A green campus is a specially designated area that promotes ecological thinking through the peace and quiet and cleanliness of such a campus, and it provides healthy and

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organic food for its students, faculty, and staff. The fourth SDG, Quality Education, is attained partially by eco-engineered infrastructure projects that create safe learning environments built on structurally solid foundations, foundations of the physical nature such as the concrete of the buildings themselves, and it is attained also by the construction of foundations of the mental and organizational nature that create pedagogical frameworks which in turn result in superior curricula. Such outstanding curricula are implemented by instructors and educators that are not only specialists in their respective fields yet are also exceptionally moral beings and committed to initiating and fostering ecological thinking within their academic communities. In the quest for the perfect school, i.e., a fully funded educational institution that embraces sustainability and an all-encompassing robust curriculum, the results from investigations which search for the best activities and curricula that exist around the world could serve as foundations for a universal implementation of those pedagogical frameworks that are fine-tuned to local cultures, geography, and regional environmental conditions. In order to attain the fourth SDG, then, it is necessary to determine the best conditions that are conducive to learning and the best curricula which will assist in producing educated, moral citizens that partake in ecological thinking. Perhaps the best place to initiate an investigation into the foundations of a quality education is within the extant works of Plato, especially in his dialogues the Republic, the Meno, and the Laws. For Plato a quality education is concerned with the achievement of justice, both individual and social justice, which is attained when people develop and demonstrate their capabilities to the highest extent. Justice, for Plato, then in this sense, is excellence or virtue. A society that fosters equality of opportunity through quality education is a society that functions harmoniously and peacefully. In the Laws, Plato raises the proposition that the instruction of virtue is the foundation of a good education: Now I mean by education that training which is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in children;—when pleasure, and friendship, and

Ecological Thinking in Education pain, and hatred, are rightly implanted in souls not yet capable of understanding the nature of them, and who find them, after they have attained reason, to be in harmony with her. This harmony of the soul, taken as a whole, is virtue; but the particular training in respect of pleasure and pain, which leads you always to hate what you ought to hate, and love what you ought to love from the beginning of life to the end, may be separated off; and, in my view, will be rightly called education. (Plato, Laws, p. 653) (Jowett 1937)

A proper education, then, according to Plato, is an education that includes the instruction of virtue. Perhaps this is one of the missing keys of modern higher education, which emphasizes skills that eventually lead to careers in which ecological thinking is nonexistent. In the Meno, the idea that virtue is knowledge and that such knowledge is teachable is proposed: Socrates: But if the good are not by nature good, are they made good by instruction? Meno: There appears to be no other alternative, Socrates. On the supposition that virtue is knowledge, there can be no doubt that virtue is taught. Socrates: Yes, indeed; but what if the supposition is erroneous? Meno: I certainly thought just now that we were right. Socrates: Yes, Meno; but a principle which has any soundness should stand firm not only just now, but always. (Plato, Meno, p. 89) (Jowett 1937)

Knowledge is acquired through a quality education and is put into practice in a just society by individuals partaking in their highest abilities. It is then the responsibility of a just society to offer equal opportunities for a quality education for all of its citizens, because such opportunities assist individuals in realizing what types of activities that they are best suited for that can contribute to the harmony of that society or state. Education for Plato is the attempt to foster virtue or excellence within students and citizens. This is because “justice is the excellence of the soul, and injustice the defect of the soul” (Plato, Republic, p. 353) (Jowett 1937). Furthermore, those that are just will live well and the unjust live poorly. “And he who lives well is blessed and happy, and he who lives ill the reverse of happy? Certainly. Then the just is happy, and the unjust miserable? So be it” (Plato, Republic, p. 354) (Jowett 1937). Skills and knowledge, then, are developed through a quality

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education, and excellence of the soul and justice flourish. Without the fourth SDG, Quality Education, the elements of a corrupt and unjust society emerge and linger, and such elements act as evidence against the unfit, unqualified, and unjust leaders that support policies and programs that are harmful to citizens and the environment. A quality education is found within a society that provides equal opportunities for education for everyone without prejudice concerning income, ethnic background, or any special individual circumstances. Robust curricula must contain the best fields of study, and determining such fields of study requires an investigation that delineates the most proper subjects for successfully living in a technological and industrial society and in addition to that the subjects deemed most proper to study as revealed throughout history. The study of history reveals clues concerning past instantiations of reactions to realizations of what is true and what is good. In Europe during late antiquity and the Middle Ages, the proper foundational subjects of study were comprised within the study of the liberal arts and in particular the seven liberal arts. The foundation of the liberal arts is called the trivium, which is Latin and means the place where three roads meet. The trivium is comprised of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Once these subjects are mastered, students are prepared to study the quadrivium, which is also Latin and means the four ways. The four subjects of the quadrivium are arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. These seven subjects are considered to be the basis of a classical education, usually within classical antiquity and medieval universities in Europe. Philosophers and thinkers of late antiquity such as Martianus Capella first delineated the inherent signification of these core subjects. These seven subjects develop reasoning and critical thinking skills and are preliminary to the study of philosophy, and these essential parts of robust curricula are as necessary in this postmodern world as they were throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages. In addition to the trivium and quadrivium, however, our postmodern and technological world and the increasing complexity that humanity constantly confronts necessitates the

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study of practical subjects which foster ecological thinking in concordance with the diverse specializations that exist within academia and economic societies. Therefore, the seven liberal arts should be considered as a part of the foundation of the fourth SDG, for these subjects develop deep thinking and knowledge in the most general sense. This type of knowledge will contribute to an understanding of the world in general, including an understanding of the environment and ecosystems and the negative by-products that result from industrial and capitalist practices. Higher education promotes specialization within a particular field, and if ecological thinking is part of an individual’s consciousness, then any specialized pursuit will be a pursuit of that which is good, and true, and beneficial to the state and the Earth as a whole. Perhaps one of the most profane symptoms of our postmodern world is ecological destruction, and this profanation exists because of immoral corporations and governments that sanction such destruction for the sake of profit and these organizations are too narrowly focused on goals that benefit only the few, but whose negative by-products, i.e., pollution, harm and destroy all forms of life. The offenders are greedy with their profits, yet they freely share and spread their pollutants. And therefore it also must be stated in the most general way possible that nature itself is intrinsically valuable and that there should exist strict environmental protection and conservation laws and policies because of this fact. Philosopher Sahotra Sarkar states that there are certain types of arguments that support and analyze the components of nature’s intrinsic value as it relates to humanity as a whole and that one of these arguments is called holistic rationalism. Sarkar discusses holistic rationalism in the following passage: Many environmentalists, particularly in the United States, have been strongly influenced by Aldo Leopold’s land ethic (Leopold 1969). ‘A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.’ Thus it is no longer ethically acceptable merely to consider individual organisms; rather, in a more holistic vein, it is ethically required that we consider the entire biotic community. (Sarkar, Environmental Philosophy, From Theory to Practice, p. 47) (Sarkar 2012)

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A successful implementation of the fourth SDG will assist in remedying and modifying the thinking and actions which persist as the sources of ecological destruction. The development of ecological thinking requires an education with a foundation in the liberal arts, in particular philosophy, and in addition students must be offered chances to study subjects that are also relevant and practical and lead to careers that are worthy of pursuit. Some of these subjects are computer programming and medicine and law, all engineering especially eco-engineering, and all of the sciences, economics, anthropology, languages, and any other subjects that lead to qualitative, positive contributions to society. Knowledge, combined with a study of philosophy and ethics, and a general understanding of the nature of life, may lead to the development of wisdom, and this in turn will assist in determining proper actions in any situation. Ecological thinking, then, is perhaps a sign of wisdom, for it is a type of general thinking that places the environment above profit, conservation and protection over destruction, justice over injustice, and the sacred over the profane.

of technology, German philosopher Martin Heidegger posited the idea of Enframing, or Gestell, that which underlies technology. Enframing is a type of ordering of entities found in nature, carried out by modern technology. Heidegger claims that all people born in the modern world are part of this Enframing, and this essence of technology is a way of living for modern humans:

Investigations into Ecological Thinking

The various elements of nature are captured and stored for later use by machine technology. These actions, initiated by humans and assisted by machines, reveal certain truths concerning the elements that are gathered for standing-reserve. Minerals, metals, and other elements possess economic value because of their ability to contribute to the production of artifacts through industrialization. Nature has become ordered and investigated in accordance to its utility as expressed through industrialization. This setting upon of nature also shapes modern humanity’s conception of nature and lies in contrast to what we call ecological thinking. This is the danger that Heidegger refers to in the following passage:

One pathway toward ecological thinking is to partake in a series of analyses of contemporary humanity’s connection and disconnection to nature and within these analyses attempt to discern how technology and economic systems confront and control the natural world that is presented to us. Because of technology and the demands of the economic realities and responsibilities that burden most people, there is a clear separation that lies between daily lived experience and nature, and this separation can be resolved by reconnecting with the world outside, the world beyond the concrete and the power lines, beyond the machines. The modern world uses technology in order to stockpile resources that are processed by machines, and this standing-reserve or stockpiling reveals a certain truth concerning entities in nature while at the same time concealing deeper truths. In his search for the essence

In contrast, a tract of land is challenged into the putting out of coal and ore. The earth now reveals itself as a coal mining district, the soil as a mineral deposit. The field that the peasant formerly cultivated and set in order [bestellte] appears differently than it did when to set in order still meant to take care of and to maintain. The work of the peasant does not challenge the soil of the field. In the sowing of the grain it places the seed in the keeping of the forces of growth and watches over its increase. But meanwhile even the cultivation of the field has come under the grip of another kind of setting-inorder, which sets upon [stellt] nature. It sets upon it in the sense of challenging it. Agriculture is now the mechanized food industry. Air is now set upon to yield nitrogen, the earth to yield ore, ore to yield uranium, for example; uranium is set upon to yield atomic energy, which can be released either for destruction or for peaceful use. (Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology, pp. 14–15) (Heidegger 1977)

The essence of technology lies in Enframing. Its holding sway belongs within destining. Since destining at any given time starts man on a way of revealing, man, thus under way, is continually approaching the brink of the possibility of pursuing and pushing forward nothing but what is revealed in ordering, and of deriving all his standards on this

Ecological Thinking in Education basis. Through this the other possibility is blocked, that man might be admitted more and sooner and ever more primally to the essence of that which is unconcealed and to its unconcealment, in order that he might experience as his essence his needed belonging to revealing. Placed between these possibilities, man is endangered from out of destining. The destining of revealing is as such, in every one of its modes, and therefore necessarily, danger. (Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology, p. 26) (Heidegger 1977)

The danger of Enframing, then, according to Heidegger, lies in the ordering of entities and elements found in nature that are gathered for future use as standing-reserve. This ordering simultaneously reveals and conceals truths about nature: Above all, Enframing conceals that revealing which, in the sense of poiesis, lets what presences come forth into appearance. As compared with that other revealing, the setting-upon that challenges forth thrusts man into a relation to that which is, that is at once antithetical and rigorously ordered. Where Enframing holds sway, regulating and securing of the standing-reserve mark all revealing. They no longer even let their own fundamental characteristic appear, namely, this revealing as such. Thus the challenging Enframing not only conceals a former way of revealing, bringing-forth, but it conceals revealing itself and with it That wherein unconcealment, i.e., truth, comes to pass. (Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology, p. 27) (Heidegger 1977)

If the essence of technology is Enframing, and this essence conceals certain truths about elements and entities found in nature and truths about nature itself, humanity’s ability to partake in ecological thinking seems to be sort of a remote or a distant prospect. Furthermore, how can humans be both technological and ecological? This is one of the many aporias, or puzzles, that must be solved in order to create more perfect societies and more perfect systems. There must exist ways of living that facilitate ecological thinking and sustainable development while at the same time are part of an advanced, technological world that accepts the truths of the sciences. Ecological thinking is not scientific thinking, yet they are not opposed to each other. Ecological thinking considers the environment and nature as they are presented in the world and attempts to connect the human experience with the natural environment

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and discover ways of sustainable living that are free from the negative by-products of industrialization. If humanity can create actions and activities that foster ecological thinking, then it is possible for humans to become ecological beings. Ecological thinking is initiated by stepping away from the constant lights and sounds of any modern city and stepping into quiet, clean, natural surroundings such as the woods or a mountain path. The Czech philosopher Erazim Kohák moved into the woods in New Hampshire, USA, in order to pursue an experiment in living with nature. Through solitude and the bracketing of technology and artifacts, Kohák succeeded in attaining ecological thinking by realizing amongst many other things that there is a unity that exists throughout all of nature. Bracketing, or the phenomenological reduction, is a term within Edmund Husserl’s philosophy of phenomenology, in which scientific and preconceived judgements concerning the natural world are suspended: Darkness, too, can penetrate the soul, fusing the trees, the rocks, and the wandering human in a unity. In the forest it is seldom completely dark. Even on the starlit nights of the new moon there is light between the trees. As your eyes grow accustomed to it, the shapes of the trees and the rocks emerge out of what at first seemed undifferentiated darkness. You learn to see not straight ahead but circumspectly, out of the corner of your eye. It is there that the things obscured in thematic focus appear to you. The world of the starlit forest is soft and receptive. Its shapes blend, welcoming the wanderer who treads softly, who does not insist on being the center and the focus of the night. Then the forest enfolds you in a profound peace and there is the same feeling, the sense of the unity and fullness of life. It is not the experience of the darkened forest, the boulders, the path, or the solitary walker. All that has receded and a different reality has moved into its place, that of the fullness of Being. In such moments you sense it is always there just beneath the surface of the insistent individuality of subjects and objects, ready to rise up when their clamor subsides. You must not insist, you must not impose yourself upon it. But if you are willing to listen, it is there, the fullness and the unity of life, the presence of Being—and it is one and good. (Kohák, The Embers and The Stars, pp. 60–61) (Kohák 1984)

By dwelling in a cabin with a wood-burning stove in the woods of a quiet town in New

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Hampshire, Erazim Kohák actively engaged in a philosophical experiment that changed his way of living in order to acquire ecological thinking. Kohák embraced the silence and solitude that nature provides and purposely distanced himself from the roar of the city. This quiet and this solitude, combined with a bracketing of artifacts, assisted him in being able to conduct, as evidenced by the title of his book, “a philosophical inquiry into the moral sense of nature.” Kohák created specific conditions that would allow for the modern, consumerist, artificial, and technological conceptualization of the world to be pushed aside and replaced with a type of authentic philosophical and ecological thinking that was receptive to the possession of an understanding of temporality that is grasped only by being closely connected to nature. It is the type of thinking that we see in the works of the great poet Robert Frost. In a collection of poems entitled New Hampshire, Frost writes the following (Frost 1995):

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening Whose woods these are I think I know. His house is in the village though; He will not see me stopping here To watch his woods fill up with snow. My little horse must think it queer To stop without a farmhouse near Between the woods and frozen lake The darkest evening of the year. He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound’s the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.

The mental, and physical, and spiritual benefits that Thoreau, Kohák, and Frost acquired from the peace, quiet, and solitude of the New England

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woods cultivated poetic and philosophical states of being that made possible instantiations of ecological thinking. In Frost’s poem a certain sense of quiet peace arises in the cold darkness. Nature shows its beauty in the frigid darkness, a beauty that beckons Frost to momentarily pause his journey through the woods so that he could fully reflect upon the winter landscape. This type of reflection can be difficult and challenging to partake in for the inhabitants of the bright bustling cities of the modern world. The endless demands and distractions of the modern world create barriers that separate human experience from the natural world. One of these barriers is the currently accepted business practice of attempting to reject nature’s great gift, night, by keeping shops open 24 h a day. As diurnal creatures, humans are by nature supposed to sleep at night, and those who choose to stay awake all night for whatever reasons are engaged in a resistance against nature, a resistance against our biological clock and good sleep. Convenience is not a virtue. Yet modernity demands convenience in however so many ways technology and human services can provide it, regardless of the environmental and human costs. If the inhabitants of the world’s great cities wish to partake in ecological thinking and become ecological beings, then a great retooling that is based on ecological principles and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals is required, and such a retooling will transform urban areas into green, quiet, peaceful communities where families and all people are able to safely dwell with a close connection to nature. Rail transit and roads and all electrical wires and cables should be built underground where possible and large portions of cities should be closed to vehicle traffic completely. In consideration of Heidegger’s investigations into the essence of technology, it may seem paradoxical that in fact artifacts and technology will continue to be embraced and will greatly assist in this sustainable development retooling. This is another aporia that presents itself in an investigation into ecological thinking. Removing fossil fuels and pollution from the equation resolves any paradox or moral ambiguity regarding the use of technology as a way toward sustainable communities. As humans

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become smarter, and machines become more precise and smarter, technology will develop that will basically eliminate the need for the use of fossil fuels. This does not resolve the issues Heidegger raised concerning Enframing as the essence of technology, yet it is an ethically appropriate action to take and a good first step toward perfection. Solar-powered homes in cities and in rural areas will create decentralized power stations that are potential sources of income if the extra energy is sold back to the grid. Political leaders and active citizens, if they wish to truly promote sustainable development and a green economy, must partake in philosophical, ecological, and anthropological investigations in order to determine and publicly state the reasoning and ecological thinking that operates as a theoretical foundation for any infrastructure projects. A city that reaps the benefits of a prosperity that is powered by the emissions of fossil fuels is not a green city, even if it is surrounded by mountains. The realities of climate change, global warming, and pollution in all of its forms are in a way operating as catalysts in making ecological thinking and sustainable development current instantiations of human morality and the need to resist disorder. Solar-powered, green campuses that prohibit combustion engines will become sanctuaries for humanity and for nature. These types of environments will assist in creating human mental states and ways of living so closely connected to nature that the inhabitants will possess a type of mental clarity, precision, and insight that is comparable to the states of awareness such as those shown here and possessed by Emily Dickinson, the great poet from Massachusetts (Dickenson 1960): Had I not seen the sun I could have borne the shade; But light a newer wilderness My wilderness has made.

Conclusion Ecological thinking currently lies in opposition to the standard of practices within the capitalist movement of globalization. Overconsumption

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and waste must be eliminated, and humanity must formulate a fundamentally better way of living that is not powered by fossil fuels. This new, ecological way of living that is realized through sustainable development will be quieter, cleaner, safer, decentralized, and free from the industrial practices that create disorder. Green communities especially schools and university campuses should promote the cultivation of organic farms and gardens in all suitable spaces. These spaces will be protected legally and by a morality that is grounded in an awareness of the sanctity of the natural world and all of its creatures. Industrial farming must become organic, and it must embrace ethical principles if it wishes to be a part of this New Green Order, and so therefore it too must promote activities that are conducive to ecological thinking and that which is sustainable. States and industries have a moral obligation to transform our energy systems, and indeed we are starting to see evidence of this moral obligation in the sustainable development retooling projects occurring all over the world. Technology is one of the many aspects of human knowledge that is required for a reasoned, actionable response to climate change and global warming. Sustainable development’s strengths rest upon its interdisciplinary nature. Successful sustainable development requires all the sciences, including the social sciences; mathematics; all engineering, especially architecture and electrical engineering; all humanities; and human sciences, including philosophy and ethics and especially archaeology and anthropology. Investigations in archaeology and anthropology are uncovering forgotten ways of successful living in past cultures and civilizations. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) is one especially interesting field of study within anthropology because it is responsible for uncovering hidden past sustainable practices. These hidden practices reveal instantiations of resiliency and pre-industrial sustainable ways of living. Agricultural studies of past successful cultures and civilizations are providing insights into which are the best pathways to take in order to achieve a carbon-free economy. Studies of the ways of living among the First Nations People and the Native Americans of

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North America reveal ancient knowledge such as survival techniques and daily living practices that are closely connected to nature, are sustainable, and are relevant to and useful to modernity’s inhabitants. The success of humanity’s future lies in its ability to uncover what is good and what has been forgotten and to dismantle and disavow that which is most offensive, most exploitative, and most damaging. Capitalist states and countries that create a shared prosperity through renewable energy and sustainable development have the potential to be truly good because of the absence of any moral dilemmas related to the environment. A community that greatly reduces its waste is a truly good community because of its commitment to the resistance of disorder. A clean, quiet, green city or state that is ordered according to shared ecological principles grows economically in a capitalism that is greener and kinder, for it is a city or state that is shaped by an international awareness of the sanctity of nature and an ethics that flourishes with locally powered and sustainable communities. The inhabitants of such states and communities are healthy and content because all of their basic needs are met, and they are residing within nature, without pollution, and with “the starry skies above and the moral law within” (Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason) (Kant 2002). Ecological thinking lies on the side of the good, the moral, and the righteous. To be ecological means to be in balance with nature, and such a balance does not include the engineered extraction of fossil fuels from below the surface of Earth. Ecological thinking, when realized through the fourth SDG, Quality Education, and practical activities that are a part of sustainable development, such as green energy infrastructure projects, in a way acts as a series of corrections to the obvious flaws found within current economic systems, especially capitalism, which embraces profit from pollution and places the chosen individual over the group or the community or nature as a whole. A shift toward ecological thinking combined with sustainable development attained by the global implementation of the fourth SDG will assist in creating a green economy transformation that is necessary if humanity is truly concerned about both the

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short- and long-term consequences of global warming and climate change. Throughout the past three centuries capitalism, industrialization, globalization, and communism have revealed to the world the destructive consequences that occur when states, corporations, and individuals embrace such flawed economic and social systems. Industrial practices that source energy from fossil fuels operate as catalysts for disorder. Ecological thinking combined with sustainable development practices that are initiated within a quality education is one pathway toward the dissolution of human-generated disorder and the creation and cultivation of order. Mistakes in human thinking and mistakes in human decisions created global warming, and modernity with all of its accomplishments has yet to create truly sustainable states. Humanity must unite in order to correct these mistakes, and this renewed unity is interdisciplinary and ethical and strives for that which is perfect. This is perhaps humanity’s final chance to extract and eliminate the mistakes that are embedded within our economic and social systems. It is time to become engaged in activities and become inhabitants of environments that foster ecological thinking and sustainable development. There is no room for any more mistakes.

References Dickinson E (1960) The Laurel poetry series. Dell Publishing, New York Frost R (1995) Collected poems, prose & plays. The Library of America, New York Heidegger M (1977) The question concerning technology and other essays. Harper & Row Publishers, New York Jowett B (1937) The dialogues of Plato. Random House, New York Kant I (2002) The critique of practical reason. Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis Kohák E (1984) The embers and the stars. A philosophical inquiry into the moral sense of nature. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago Leopold A (1969) A sand county almanac. Oxford University Press, New York Liddell HG, Scott R (1968) A Greek-English lexicon, 9th edn, with a supplement. Oxford University Press, Oxford Sarkar S (2012) Environmental philosophy. From theory to practice. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, Chichester Thoreau HD (1997) Walden. Beacon Press, Boston

Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia Usha Iyer-Raniga1,2 and Tony Dalton3 1 RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia 2 One Planet Network Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme, UN Environment, Paris, France 3 School of Global, Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Synonyms Adaptation and mitigation approaches to built environment education; Climate change education; Integrating sustainability knowledge in built environment education; Learning about sustainability; Learning for sustainability

Definition A systematic change is needed in built environment education to respond to current challenges for low-carbon futures. The impact of sustainability, climate change, resilience, adaptation, mitigation, resource efficiency, and all such interrelated factors in the built environment calls for a renewed focus on the body of knowledge that has to date focused only on traditional approaches to built environment planning, design, and operation. Graduates of built environment programs need to be able to take proactive action to achieve low-carbon futures.

Introduction This entry considers the challenge for higher education institutions that educate built environment professional stemming from high rates of urbanization and accompanying growth in greenhouse gas emissions. This is a particular challenge for countries in the developing world experiencing

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sustained growth in the proportion of their populations living in urban areas which are forecast to continue growing. The built environment in these growing urban areas is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions through the energy used in building materials manufacture and building construction and operations. These emissions are growing significantly as urban populations grow and as household incomes rise and support increased consumption in higher-quality energy intensive built environments. This global trend presents a significant challenge for higher education institutions (HEIs) that educate students who become built environment professionals such as architects, engineers, project managers, valuers, quantity surveyors, and planners who design, commission, procure, and regulate buildings of all types. Currently there are limited opportunities for built environment professionals in training to acquire the knowledge and skills they need to contribute in their future workplaces where they will contribute to designing, commissioning, procuring, and regulating the built environment. This lacuna becomes even more problematic when it is acknowledged that the higher education systems of these countries are also growing rapidly and built environment programs feature in this growth. This entry examines the challenge facing HEIs that educate built environment professionals in rapidly urbanizing countries to produce graduates who are more capable of producing environmentally sustainable and related contemporary issues such as climate change, resilience, and adaptation in the built environment. It does this by presenting a case study analysis of architectural education in Indonesia in the three sections. The first sets out the nature of the challenge facing the Indonesian higher education system that stems from rapid urbanization. There is a need for a more skilled built environment workforce with the capacity to respond to new regulatory requirements requiring greater energy and water efficiency in buildings and building waste reduction. It is a growing system under pressure. The second presents an account of architecture education that supplies the profession with graduates that become eligible for registration as professional architects. The

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significant in the growth of greenhouse gas emissions. Two factors underlie this growth. First, urbanization is an energy-intensive process connected to energy supply and use; industries, in cities and outside of cities, supplying materials for use in cities; transport infrastructure provision and transportation itself; construction and operation of residential and commercial buildings; and solid waste and wastewater disposal. UN-HABITAT (2011, p. 52) estimates that cities “probably emit between 30 and 40 per cent of all anthropogenic GHG emissions” while also noting other considerably higher estimates. In Indonesia this energy-intensive urbanization is evident in the sustained growth of electrical energy supplied to the residential, industrial, and commercial sectors. Overall the country’s electrification rate has increased from 66% in 2009 to 88.3% in 2015, and the objective is to reach 97.4% by 2019 (Burnard et al. 2016, p. 13). Second, electricity generation in Indonesia relies heavily on fossil fuels. In 2015, fossil fuels dominated the generation mix, accounting for 89.6% of total generation, with coal generating

third section presents an account of a workshop conducted in Indonesia with academic and industry participants, where participants considered how to systematically integrate environmentally sustainable development thinking into built environment higher and professional education. The fourth section presents the discussions using India as an example of showcasing the impact of such education, followed by conclusions in the last section.

Urbanization in Indonesia Indonesia is located within the Asia-Pacific rapidly urbanizing region where the speed and scope of urbanization in Asia and the Pacific is unprecedented (ESCAP and UN-HABITAT 2015). As Fig. 1 shows the proportion of the population living in urban areas in Indonesia in the six decades since 1950 has increased from 12% to 50% and in the next four decades is projected to increase to 71%. This urbanization means that buildings are becoming more

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Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

56.1%, gas 24.9%, and oil 8.6% (ibid., p. 13). Moreover, expansion of electrical energy is planned to rely on additional coal-fired power stations where economies of scale in coal mining are supported by exports of thermal coal to other countries in the region experiencing similar rates of urbanization (ibid., p. 26). Further, as urban populations grow and household incomes rise and support increased consumption in higherquality built environments, the intensity of energy use is growing. Per capita energy consumption in Indonesia is projected to double by 2025 (IEA 2015, p. 35). The energy intensity of cities and greenhouse gas emissions growth can be moderated by changing the way cities are designed, built, retrofitted, and maintained. However, this requires the longterm development of two institutional capacities: regulation of urban development resulting in structures with reduced levels of embodied energy and requiring less energy for their operation. The regulation of urban development aims to guide the design, location, and procurement of buildings in cities. Traditional objectives of regulation have been fire prevention and safety, health, user access, urban design, and city functioning. Recently, governments have added sustainability objectives aimed at reducing building waste and increasing building envelope thermal performance and efficiencies in operating water and energy use. In developed countries, there has been progress in implementing these regulations for new buildings (IEA and UNDP 2013, p. 39). Now the big challenge in developed countries is regulating the upgrading of existing buildings. The EU is the most advanced jurisdiction where member states are required to regulate for the systematic upgrading of the existing building stock (European Union 2012) and considering circular economies so that virgin materials and fossil fuel energy are not being used to build, operate, and maintain buildings. The situation in developing countries is different where building codes based on sustainability principles is recent (Nathan Associates Inc. 2013). Also, these countries are challenged in the implementation of these codes by weaknesses in governance, technical, and institutional capacities

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compared to developed countries (IEA and UNDP 2013, p. 39). These countries are faced with implementing built environment regulations and sanctions and more generally building support for new regulatory systems. Liu et al. (2010, p. xxi) in the report Mainstreaming Building Energy Efficiency Codes sums up the problem: “Many developing countries began to introduce BEECs [building energy efficiency codes] in the 1990s. With a few exceptions, the enforcement practices are still lacking, hindered by major institutional and economic barriers and limited by underdeveloped technical capacity.” This is the context within which the International Finance Corporation, a World Bank agency, is supporting the development of regulatory systems in developing countries (IFC 2012, 2016). In Indonesia, a new commitment to regulation became evident in the 2002 Law on Buildings, Law No 28, requiring built environment regulation to support the “utilization, safety, balanced, and harmonious principles with their environment” (The House of Representatives of the Republic of Indonesia 2002). Subsequently, the Indonesian government extended its commitment through the Ministry of Environment Regulation No.8 of 2010, On Criteria and Certification of Environmentally Friendly Building Certification. In Jakarta, regulation 38/2012 on green building complemented this Indonesian government regulation by requiring developers to consider energy conservation codes covering the building envelope, air conditioning, lighting, and auditing. At a national level, the Ministry of Public Works has led built environment regulation through the development of the National Guidelines on Green Buildings which sets targets for local government authorities responsible for the seven largest cities (IPEEC 2015). The development of sustainability-based building codes in Indonesia and the Asia-Pacific more broadly is establishing a demand for a built environment professional workforce with different skills. Effective regulatory change requires professionals to learn more about energy flows in the built environment and how their day-today professional practices can support greater energy efficiency.

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An important starting point is HEI built environment professional programs where students are taught an approved curriculum typically developed by academics drawn from the professions. Across HEI institutions there is evidence of some “bottom-up” initiatives providing built environment students with opportunities to learn about climate change, mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, and adapting cities to the effects of climate change. However, there is no overarching requirement in any of the Asia-Pacific countries that HEI built environment professional programs make the impacts of climate change and energy and water efficiency central to curriculum design.

Architecture Education in Indonesia Indonesia has developed a capacity for a highvolume production of professional architects associated with its rapid rate of urbanization. This is indicated by three contemporary features of this profession. First, there are 96 programs of architecture in HEIs that are members, the national association of departments and programs of architecture in Indonesian universities and institutes of technology (Abadi 2017). Second, 16 of these universities have established a master’s program, and 6 universities have a doctoral program. Third, in 2016 there were approximately 15,000 registered architects in Indonesia. Approximately half of the members were located in Jakarta in 2014, reflecting the dominance of this city in Indonesian urbanization. Underpinning this growth, there has been considerable institutional development similar to developed countries, what Larson (2012) refers to as the “visible characteristics of the professional phenomenon.” The HEI programs of architecture are supported by APTARI (Asosiasi Pendidikan Tinggi Arsitektur Indonesia) with a membership of 96, aiming to improve architectural education through membership collaboration and participation in broader debates about national development. Professional architects are members of and are represented by the Indonesian Institute of Architects (IAI). The IAI is authorized by the Indonesian Construction

Services Development Board (CSDB) which is responsible for national construction industry R&D, workforce education and training, dispute resolution, and workforce registration. Within this framework the IAI issues professional certificates for architects at senior professional, intermediate professional, junior professional, and novice professional (Wirahadikusumah and Pribadi 2011). There are also moves to establish new independent and self-financed accreditation boards aimed at enhancing credibility and recognition of education programs. These boards are known as Lembaga Akreditasi Mandiri (LAM, Independent Accreditation Agencies) and specialize in specific disciplines or professions. A LAM was established in the health sector in 2014 and others are planned (Niedermeier and Pohlenz 2016, p. 26). Within this emerging framework, the IAI have been leading a review process expected to result in the establishment of an architecture LAM. A focus has been to specify competencies for architecture and recommend a review and accreditation system for architecture programs. Most importantly, the consultation documents this proposed institutional development indicate that sustainability will be a focus within the new accreditation arrangements (AIA 2015a, b). This is the context for examining undergraduate sustainability education in the architecture program Department of Architecture and Planning at the University of Gadjah Mada (UGM) in Yogyakarta. UGM began a program of architectural education in the early 1960s as a specialization within engineering education. UGM, acknowledged as one of the elite Indonesian universities, also provides a master’s program and a doctoral program. The motto of the Department of Architecture and Planning at UGM is “better space, better living,” and the vision is to produce graduates able to thrive and become professional architects, be creative and responsive to the environment and be competitive at an international level (Department of Architecture and Planning 2015). The undergraduate program is a 4-year program that closely follows the competencies set by the UIA – Union of International Architects and APTARI. Also, the engineering origins of

Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

the program remain evident. The Department of Architecture and Planning remains in the Faculty of Engineering, and the name of the architecture degree is Sarjana Teknik (Bachelor of Engineering). The program is framed within an explicit set of Expected Learning Outcomes (ELOs). There are five headline ELOs: Design Abilities, Architecture-Related Issues, Building Technologies, Supporting Skills, and Ethics and Professionalism. These headline ELOs are further defined through 16 Main Competencies, 22 Specialized Competencies, and 13 Unique Competencies (Department of Architecture and Planning 2015). There are four common features across the 4 years of the architecture program in UGM. First, students in each of the eight semesters complete an Architecture Design Studio which provides them with an opportunity to integrate the knowledge they gain from other courses into their design learning. Second, students complete eight electives which they undertake from their fourth semester through to their seventh semester. Third, the main method of learning throughout the program is project-based learning. Fourth, students are required to learn about environmentally sustainable development (ESD) specified in a set of competencies. ESD features in 6 of the 22 Specialized Competencies but is not included in the Main Competencies or Unique Competencies. This means that focus of architectural graduates is on the technical competencies of being an architect rather than ESD knowledge embedded as part and parcel of this competency. In the specialized competencies, students understand the social context of the built environment such as access and equity (KP 7); knowledge of the natural systems and built environment, conservation and waste management, and energy management (KP 8-10); history and practice of landscape architecture and relationships with urban design, regional, and national planning and resource use (KP 11); and awareness of the management of natural systems at the risk of natural disasters (KP 12). Based on the above information and analyzing the architecture program at UGM, the following observations can be made about the way ESD competencies are included:

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• Six ESD competencies are included in the list of 22 Specialized Competencies. There are no ESD type competencies included in the 16 Generic Competencies nor in the 13 Unique Competencies. This indicates that ESD learning is understood to relate to particular courses and not to the program as a whole. ESD learning is not systematically imbricated into the program. • In the core courses, a total of 12 of the 32 core courses, or 24% of core courses, are linked to one or more ESD Specialized Competencies. • Only two of the seven design studios, which carry six credit points and form the core of the whole program, are linked to ESD Specialized Competencies. In these courses students integrate knowledge from other specialist courses into their design work. ESD learning has not been made central to design learning in the program. • Students who choose to extend their ESD knowledge beyond core courses can do this through electives. Seventeen out of 56, or 30%, of elective courses have a clear ESD focus. They are two credit point courses and include courses such as Tropical Building Design, Planning, and Design for Urban Thermal Comfort and Sustainable Habitat Engineering. Students are required to complete six electives. In sum, students undertaking the UGM undergraduate architecture program are introduced to ESD concepts. However, ESD has not been embedded in all the design studios that are central to each year of the program. Opportunities for ESD learning are largely through the specialist core courses and the electives program. However, as reports from the IPCC (2018) continue to show, now is the time for action in improving our capacities in how we continue to engage with the built environment. It requires both, academia and industry, to work together to support better outcomes and effect changes in the built environment. A case study espousing this in the Indonesian context is presented in the next section.

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Workshop Case Study: City Building, Industry, and Academia This section presents an account of a workshop conducted in Indonesia where participants considered how to more systematically integrate environmentally sustainable development thinking into built environment higher education professional education in Indonesia. The workshop was set up as a collaborative forum involving various stakeholders together. An underlying aim in bringing industry, academia, professional associations, and key government agencies to the workshop were to seek collective agreement and commitment to support objectives for low-carbon growth in the country. In doing so, there was an expectation that pledges made would also support university faculty to have access to professional development opportunities that will provide them with the knowledge and skills to develop new curricula that is in keeping with changes in industry and government, and teach the new curricula effectively to students. The workshop brought 40 participants from Indonesian government agencies with built environment planning, legislation and regulation, environmental issues, and education responsibilities. It also brought professional and industry associations to discuss issues and challenges with each other. Academics from the architecture and engineering departments from Indonesian universities were also represented in the workshop. In addition, ProSPER.Net (http://prospe rnet.ias.unu.edu/about-prosper-net-page) member universities undertaking an understanding of built environment disciplines in their own countries were also present. Finally, international agencies supporting the movement in green buildings such as the International Finance Corporation also attended the workshop. The workshop was specifically intended to challenge the participants from different perspectives to collaborate and work together to support low-carbon futures. The participants were divided into groups with a facilitator who was previously briefed on his/her role. The groups were convened to ensure there were varying perspectives, and the groups considered three main issues:

• Built environment professional education stakeholders, opportunities, and constraints • Possible actions in built environment professional education • Prioritizing possibilities for action that could maintain support for developing a collaborative program of change To set the tone of the workshop, relevant presentations on the higher education context in the ASEAN region of which Indonesia is a part were presented, followed by issues and challenges of the built environment profession and professional education in the Asia-Pacific region with a specific focus on Indonesia and the architecture profession. The presentations focused on the changing nature of the architecture profession to keep up with changes in regulation and expectations of the profession itself. These were complemented by curriculum governance in HEIs, and how sustainability has been dealt with using examples, as discussed in the previous section. The themes that emerged through the 1-day workshop were aligned with the expectations that the workshop was built upon. Government, particularly the relevant departments of housing, environment, and education supported a tripartite approach of bringing universities, industry, and government to support the education of built environment professionals, particularly architecture in HEIs. They endorsed curriculum supporting graduate attributes of knowledge for sustainability and climate change so that graduates are better able to deal with attendant challenges in the workforce. For instance, uses of local materials are supportive of low embodied energy, supporting local skills and retaining cultural and traditional knowledge, but they may not be appropriate to greater stresses caused as a result of hotter or wetter days due to climate change, thus unsupportive of resilient approaches. Thus the curricula need to consider sustainability, climate change, mitigation, adaptation, and resilience underpinnings. Industry agreed to work closely with the HEIs and support the emerging young professionals of the future. Industry support in the form of case studies and real-world context ensures that the

Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

curriculum is able to link theory with practice. Such examples of practical industry knowledge acknowledge the importance of theoretical principles supported by practical studies to better equip both teachers and graduates to understand application of knowledge. For instance, green rating tools support design, construction, and operation of buildings and communities throughout their life cycles. Capacity building, knowledge platforms, and better alignment of government and industry with academia in curricular development were the three main priorities identified through the workshop.

Discussion This entry has considered the challenges for HEIs that educate built environment professionals stemming from high rates of urbanization and accompanying growth in greenhouse gas emissions. It is not possible for city building to continue at its current pace without untold damage to the environment, and the current harmful impacts need to be arrested. On the one hand is the need to address increased consumption and production activities resulting from increased urbanization, and on the other is an urgent need to curb emissions arising as a result of rapid city building activity. These are not aligned in the face of pressures to reduce our temperature increases to 1.5-deg centigrade under the Paris Agreement or to respond to the Sustainable Development Goals. The platform underpinning Indonesia’s educational system is not very different from other countries in the region, for instance, India, the most populous democracy in the region. India’s education system in architecture has largely been developed following the legacy of its colonial underpinnings. It follows that Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and other countries colonized in the past by the British would show a similar trend with their built environment disciplines. It can generally be observed that at the undergraduate levels, most countries focus on the technical competencies (as is also the case in Indonesia as already shown) of their graduates due to expectations of the industry and meeting accreditation

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requirements. However, it is equally important that built environment graduates have ESD or sustainability understanding as part of their graduate attributes when they enter the workforce. Most architecture programs offer sustainability as specialist knowledge in the form of postgraduate learning opportunities. Implications in the Indian Context Examining this further in the Indian context, it is noteworthy that the Council of Architecture in India prescribes the minimum standards required for entry into architecture programs and the minimum standards for architectural education. There are currently 558 institutions in India awarding undergraduate degrees in architecture with each program being 5 years in duration to award the Bachelor of Architecture, B.Arch degree (Council of Architecture 2019a). The Council stipulates the educational curriculum requirements for the degree over four main areas. These are professional core, building science and applied engineering, elective courses and professional ability enhancement courses with some mandatory, and others not (Council of Architecture 2019b). Very similar to the Indonesian example presented, professional courses form the bulk of the weighting for the program comprising 45% and building science and applied engineering being 20%. Elective courses are 15% with professional elective courses 10% and open electives 5%. Professional ability and enhancement courses form 20%, with the professional ability enhancement compulsory courses 15% and skill enhancement courses 5%. Building science courses include climatology, environmental science for architecture, and environmental lab. It is only in the elective courses again that vernacular architecture, disaster mitigation and management, green buildings and rating systems, sustainable cities and communities, and appropriate building technologies appear. Since the electives are up to the universities to determine what exactly is offered, this varies from program to program. The professional ability enhancement mandatory courses deal with the professional practice of being an architect and do not include sustainability underpinnings. An example of how this is

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applied in one of the top ranking HEIs in India is now presented. For instance, IIT Roorkee was awarded as the first-ranked school of architecture in India in 2018 (India Today 2019). Courses offered in the 5-year B.Arch program include architectural design, computer applications, structural design, building material construction and specification, building technology, building economics and construction management, architectural styles, intelligent building techniques, surveying and photogrammetric mapping, housing, town planning and urban design, and art and architectural graphics. Intelligent building systems deal with building sciencerelated issues, rather than sustainability, and this includes the study of climatology, human comfort, solar, wind, precipitation, daylight and natural light, acoustics, fire protection, and security systems (IIT Roorkee 2019). The electives are where potentially some impact on sustainability knowledge may be made. The offerings here include earthquake engineering, total quality management, seismic architecture, industrial sociology, economics, intellectual property rights, renewable energy, and other. Here again, the one most remotely connected to sustainability is renewable energy. It is in the Masters’ program again, where potential impact of sustainability knowledge may be made. The curriculum involves climatic factors for designing buildings, low-energy materials, lowcarbon construction techniques, global climatic factors, thermal comfort, and use of shading. Educational changes in developing countries in architecture are critical for the following reasons. First, not many architectural graduates come back to undertake postgraduate education as many graduates enter the workforce. The number of persons undertaking Masters’ programs are quite low and doctorate programs, even lower. This is largely due to the number of students that institutions enroll partly due to the nature of the studiobased learning and one-one time required for staff-student ratio but also because most graduates undertaking the degree are keen to practice architecture. Since a large number of students practice architecture, it is even more essential that their knowledge include sustainability underpinnings when they enter the workforce.

Second, while Masters’ programs in architecture are available in Indonesia and India, doctoral programs are not commonly offered by HEIs. Again, due to the nature of the profession, doctoral programs may be design based (or practice based) and not many programs follow a traditional Doctor of Philosophy approach. Due to the dearth of staff with doctoral degrees, supervisory capacity is inhibited in institutions which does not support building capacities at the doctoral level. Third, while curricular changes are desirable, it is not easy to make curricular changes without having staff with the requisite knowledge for teaching. Therefore, capacities of teaching staff also need to be increased, and in the developed countries, a minimum requirement for teaching in academia is a doctorate degree. Professional development for the built environment industry is usually provided through continuing education programs usually implemented by peak industry bodies (usually the green building councils or the institutes of architecture). Fourth, even if staff were able to teach, making curricular changes particularly for ESD to become core to the architecture programs needs institutional changes where the HEIs are prepared to commit to ESD as a graduate attribute. It requires accreditation programs to also recognize the value of ESD as an intrinsic underpinning for architecture graduates and puts pressure back on universities to ensure that these attributes are imparted to graduates. The workshop held in Indonesia demonstrated that a collaborative arrangement for academia and industry will support ESD outcomes in practice. If academia is reticent to change, industry may put pressure on the accreditation bodies to reconsider the key attributes of architectural graduates to include ESD or sustainability learning as an important outcome. As governments are required to report on their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC 2015), an opportune time is presented now for governments also to put pressure on industry to support skill development in these “new” areas. Thus, bringing all stakeholders together may be instrumental in commencing a multipronged approach to eventually meet the Sustainable Development Goals.

Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

Conclusion Using the example of architecture, this entry has shown that while environmentally responsible knowledge does have a place in the architecture curriculum, it is not core knowledge. The Indonesian example showed that while students are exposed to ESD concepts, the knowledge underpinning ESD is not core knowledge and therefore, not translated into a graduate attribute. While electives are developed supportive of acquiring ESD knowledge, only a percentage of graduates interested in learning about sustainability issues during their learning in HEIs will have this knowhow when they enter the workforce. A similar trend was also observed in India and points to an urgent need to overhaul the educational curricula. It also begs the question that while traditional ESD is an important component of sustainability underpinnings, there are other considerations such as climate change science, resilience, and adaptation that are now considered to be “new” sustainability knowledge that need to be incorporated as part of what was once, traditional knowledge. The urgency in making the required changes are needed to work around an increasingly warming planet, increase in the number of natural disasters, and increased uncertainties of weather events that directly impact the built environment. The workshop undertaken in Indonesia consisting of industry, government, and academia deliberated how best to set up institutional engagement for sustainability in higher education for the architecture profession. Such forms of collaborative forms of engagement with key diverse but related stakeholders show commitment to sustainability and climate change thinking and practice in built environment higher educational programs embodying the principles of SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals in practice. Providing forums for engagement, such as the workshop described by bringing key stakeholders, industry, government, and academia in developing countries, demonstrates an appetite for building bridges. A collaborative platform for curricular engagement can support government in dealing with international pressures such as the Paris Agreement calling for reductions in emissions

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while providing industry with professionals capable of dealing with current and future challenges. HEIs need to rise to this challenge. Built environment graduates need to have the skills and ability to work in a world of rapid and at times, paradoxical changes in finding design and construction solutions. It is critical that curricular changes are made at the undergraduate level moving away from the specialist knowledge at postgraduate levels. The nature of the profession requires built environment graduates to embrace this new knowledge as an essential and intrinsic graduate attribute, alongside technical competence. HEIs need to acknowledge structural changes within their own institutions to support a move in this direction urgently.

References Abadi AA (2017) Invitation letter of June 17th to heads of architecture study programs for the 2017 Conference of the National Association of Indonesian Architecture Programs (APTARI) 10-11th July in Bandung, Indonesia AIA (2015a) Draft guidelines for higher education curriculum development architecture. Indonesian Institute of Architects, Jakarta AIA (2015b) Revitalisation program of science, preparation of education, curriculum achievements and learning outcomes for the education of professional architects. Indonesian Institute of Architects, Jakarta Burnard K, Hsieh S, Razali N, Baruya P, Hung N, Phuc N (2016) Reducing emissions from fossil-fired generation Indonesia, Malaysia and Viet Nam. International Energy Agency, Paris Council of Architecture (2019a) Architectural education. Available from: https://www.coa.gov.in/index1.php?& lang=1&level=0&linkid=7&lid=11. Accessed 7 Aug 2019 Council of Architecture (2019b) Minimum standards of architectural education regulations, 2017. Available from: https://www.coa.gov.in/showfile.php?lang=1&level=1& sublinkid=507&lid=417. Accessed 7 Aug 2019 Department of Architecture and Planning (2015) Academic handbook, 2015/2016, Department of Architecture and Planning, Faculty of Engineering. Yogyakarta: University of Gadjah Mada ESCAP, UN-HABITAT (2015) The state of Asian and Pacific cities 2015: urban transformations shifting from quantity to quality. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) and The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) European Union (2012) Directive 2102/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012

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on energy efficiency. Official Journal of the European Union, L 315, vol 55. Brusells IEA (2015) Indonesia 2015. OECD and International Energy Agency, Paris IEA, UNDP (2013) Modernising building energy codes. International Energy Agency and United Nations Development Program, Paris IFC (2012) Policy on environmental and social sustainability. International Finance Corporation, World Bank Group, Washington, DC IFC (2016) EDGE: excellence in design for greater efficiencies. International Finance Corporation, Washington, USA IIT Roorkee (2019) 2016–2017 Department profile architecture and planning, IIT Roorkee. https://www.iitr.ac.in/ departments/AR/uploads/File/pdf/DepartmentofArchite cturePlanningProfile.pdf. Accessed 7 Aug 2019 India Today (2019) India’s best colleges 2018. Available from: https://www.indiatoday.in/bestcolleges/2018/ranks/ www.iitr.ac.in/departments/AR/pages/People+Faculty+utt amfap.html. Accessed 7 Aug 2019 IPCC (2018) Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5 C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [MassonDelmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 32 IPEEC (2015) Indonesia: building code implementation – country summary. International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation, Paris Larson SM (2012) The rise of professionalism: monopolies of competence and sheltered markets. Transaction Publisher, New Brunswick Liu F, Myer A, Hogan J (2010) Mainstreaming building energy efficiency codes in developing countries: global experiences and lessons from early adapters. The World Bank, Washington, DC Nathan Associates Inc (2013) APEC building codes, regulations, and standards minimum, mandatory, and green. Singapore, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Niedermeier F, Pohlenz P (2016) State of play and development needs: higher education quality assurance in the ASEAN region. DAAD, Jakarta The House of Representatives of The Republic of Indonesia (2002) Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 28 of 2002 Concerning Buildings. President Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta UNFCCC, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2015) Adoption of the Paris Agreement. In: FCCC/CP/2015/L.9, GE.15-21930(E) 1521930, edited by UNFCCC. UNFCCC, Paris. Accessed 31 Mar 2019, from: https://unfccc.int/ resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09.pdf

UN-HABITAT (2011) Cities and climate change: global report on human settlements. Earthscan, London Wirahadikusumah RD, Pribadi KS (2011) Licensing construction workforce: Indonesia’s effort on improving the quality of national construction industry. Eng Constr Archit Manag 18:431–443

Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices Yulia Nesterova and Liz Jackson The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Synonyms Aboriginal; First Nations; Native

Definition Indigenous people’s education includes education provided to indigenous people in the mainstream system or special institutions established by the state or private donors and foundations, including those set up by indigenous people themselves. Although differences in approaches, policies, and outcomes can be observed across contexts, indigenous formal education generally started as a deliberate destruction of indigenous cultures, languages, and traditional sociopolitical and economic structures and gradually shifted to linguistic and cultural revitalization and empowerment.

Indigenous People and Education Introduction Assimilation and oppression through education were inseparable parts of the colonization of indigenous people by outside groups with more military power. Education resulted in the diminishing of indigenous cultures and structures and disempowerment of indigenous people. These processes have left indigenous communities across the world economically weak, with

Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

traditional structures largely destroyed, and knowledge and value systems, languages, and identities significantly eroded. In the past few decades, the transnational indigenous movement has struggled for recognition of indigenous people’s rights and reclamation of public institutions, spaces, and discourses, to reverse the trend from destruction toward sustainable development. Education has been viewed as a primary arena to effect such change. This entry discusses the development of indigenous education. It begins by providing a historical background of the colonial and assimilationist legacy of indigenous people in education. It then gives an overview of contemporary indigenous education frameworks from the perspectives of international actors and indigenous groups themselves. Indigenous People The concept of indigenous people refers to groups that have specific rights due to: • Their historical ties to a particular ancestral territory that they are often prevented from controlling • Their cultural, linguistic, and ethnic/racial difference from numerically and politically dominant groups in their home countries • Their history of colonization and subjugation by those groups that resulted in multiple forms of vulnerability and marginalization They are called First Nations, Inuit, and Métis in Canada; Māori in New Zealand; Native Americans in the USA; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander in Australia; and yuan-chu minzu (“the people who lived here first”) in Taiwan, among other names in their respective languages. Internationally, they are referred to as indigenous, aboriginal, or tribal people. Indigenous people comprise approximately 370 million people living across 90 countries and are protected by international legislation, including the International Labour Organization Convention 169 and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, as well as national legislation developed when they are officially recognized within countries.

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Historical Background Prior to colonization, indigenous groups facilitated place-based learning spaces to educate their children (Cadzow 2007). Education served to transmit knowledge and value systems, language, histories, medicine, religious traditions, responsibilities, and vocational skills such as hunting, fishing, and farming, to ensure continuation and survival. Such education included techniques from family and group socialization, participation in cultural and spiritual rituals, skill development, and oral teachings, observations, and demonstrations, carried out by adult community members such as elders, grandparents, and parents (Mccue 2011; Walker 2016). Colonial groups viewed original inhabitants of the territories they occupied and settled as savage, inferior, and uncivilized (Juneau 2001; Teng 2004), as an “impediment to progress” (Reyhner 2006). In their racial and cultural hierarchy, they placed indigenous people at the bottom, while indigenous practices, including social organization, knowledge, and traditional spaces, were considered barbaric and hence of no value. In particular, indigenous education was deemed primitive and in need of substitution by what was considered “civilized” colonial education. Such education, in the form of formal schooling, intended to “correct” indigenous people’s “deficient” behaviors, morality, ethics, and conceptions of the world. In many cases, it was overtly expressed that education should destroy an indigenous group (UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues 2008). Formal education started with segregated day and residential Christian mission schools that aimed to forcefully convert indigenous people from “barbarism to civilization” (Walker 2016, p. 20), to get a “white man’s chance in life” (Juneau 2001, p. 21). On the positive side, missionaries helped indigenous people, whose interaction was oral, to develop writing in respective languages. With the aim of teaching indigenous people to read the Bible, developing writing systems also protected indigenous languages and knowledge systems for generations to come. Beyond that, they provided lessons and practices intended to teach indigenous children to unlearn knowledge and skills of indigenous communities.

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Mission schools began to operate in indigenous communities in the early seventeenth century in the USA and Quebec and in the early nineteenth century in New Zealand and British Canada. The Jesuits in Quebec brought education into indigenous villages to include as many students as possible. The curriculum was religiouscentric and delivered in indigenous languages (White and Peters 2009). In the British colonies in Canada, missionaries controlled schools first with religious teachings, later switching to manual labor (White and Peters 2009). Initially indigenous people did not object to their children acquiring western skills and knowledge, as they were promised access to material wealth and survival in new colonial economies (Mccue 2011). This desire soon disappeared, however, as they were not allowed to change the religious-centric curriculum to focus on local knowledge (Walker 2016). In colonial Taiwan, since the Dutch invasion in 1624, missionaries established schools in indigenous communities, and later mainland Chinese settlers introduced Confucianism-based schooling. Indigenous education shifted to gradual and passive assimilation with the arrival of the Japanese, who in 1931 claimed their goal as “to honor” indigenous people “with imperialization [Japanization]” (Ƭta Masahiro, as cited in Morris 2007, p. 15). To isolate indigenous children from the “negative” influence of their communities, and to prepare indigenous elite, assimilation into the western culture was sped up through boarding/ residential schools. The earliest residential schools appeared in 1620 in French Quebec. The Récollets missionaries intended to prepare a Christianized and French-speaking indigenous elite by taking boys to study in France or in locally established seminaries. However, parents were reluctant to let their sons leave the communities (White and Peters 2009). Jesuits changed their strategy. Instead of religious teachings, schools became more practical, preparing indigenous youth to become farmers. Children in residential schools often ran away, however, due to the French educational focus on strict discipline, competitiveness, and examinations – methods that were and are largely different to those of

traditional indigenous education (White and Peters 2009). By the end of the seventeenth century, Quebec abandoned the practice of residential schools for indigenous children. However, British Canadian and US residential schools were used to “reclaim” and assimilate indigenous children for decades to come. In the USA, from the late 1800s to mid1890s, attendance of residential schools was compulsory, and children aged 5–18 were forcefully removed from their communities. In British Canada, a study was conducted on residential schools for Native Americans with a recommendation to follow the model. In 1894, such schools became compulsory for indigenous children in British Canada. Apart from being insufficient for equipping indigenous students with skills to compete with nonindigenous people, residential schools alienated them from their communities and worsened their health and well-being (Reyhner 2006; White and Peters 2009). In 1910, the policy of integration into the white world was changed to segregation, and indigenous education was moved to reserves, with an even more simplified curriculum and only basic supplies and facilities. It was not until 1946 that Canada’s Indian Act was revised to abandon residential schooling. Yet some residential schools remained in operation until 1969. In New Zealand, the Education Ordinance Act of 1847 and the Native Schools Act of 1858 set English as the language of instruction and designed curriculum that focused exclusively on instilling European ideas and concepts while preparing Māori youth to become an underclass of manual laborers. The Native Schools Act of 1867 brought schools to Māori communities as part of establishing a general system of primary education but did not change the general idea of assimilationist education. In Australia, missionaries prepared indigenous children to become laborers and servants and instructed in basic literacy, agriculture, craft, and the Bible (Cadzow 2007). Unlike in other countries, in Australia they used teaching methods favored by indigenous communities, including oral and visual approaches, while some indigenous children were relocated to a mixed school

Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

in Sydney in 1852 to facilitate assimilation (Brook and Kohen 1991). The practice ended after it was seen to be futile to change indigenous people, and all funds were redirected to educate nonindigenous children until 1866, when public schools were established for indigenous populations (Cadzow 2007). Provisions of free, compulsory, and secular education started in 1880, although in reality access was not equal and many students still were educated in segregated residential or on-reserve schools. Curriculum of these schools explicitly stated that indigenous people were not capable of intellectually intensive work and had to be geared toward manual professions (Duncan 1997). Experiments with mixed schools continued to fail, as nonindigenous parents boycotted such schools. In residential and day schools, education was basic and focused on indoctrination and suppression of “indigenousness.” Academic standards were low. Teachers usually did not have certifications or understanding of indigenous students’ needs, while school leadership often consisted of clergymen. Buildings and equipment were poor, and students were used as free labor for maintaining schools. For residential schools, students were taken from their homes despite objections from parents and in some cases never saw their families again (Cadzow 2007). Indigenous girls were removed from homes to be trained as domestic servants, to work for free for nonindigenous families – a practice that meant to ensure the end of reproduction and cultural transmission among indigenous people (Goodall 1995). Indigenous children and youth were forced to change their hair and clothes to European styles, placed in unsanitary conditions, and exposed to sexual, physical, and emotional abuse in some cases (Cadzow 2007; Graham and Van Zyl-Chavarro 2016; Mccue 2011; White and Peters 2009). Once indigenous people started migrating to urban areas for work, more indigenous children started attending urban schools, where assimilation increased. They were expected to abandon their cultures, identities, and languages. Teachers in these schools expected indigenous male students to become manual laborer and females

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domestic servants, and they did not steer them toward academic subjects. As a result, few indigenous young people continued to high school and tertiary education and stayed for generations in low-paid jobs. Apart from keeping indigenous people in a cycle of poverty and low socioeconomic status, such schooling affected their selfrespect, dignity, and identity. In all such settings, corporal punishment was used to force indigenous people to stop speaking their languages, and students were indoctrinated to feel ashamed of their “inferior” and “immoral” cultures (Mccue 2011; Walker 2016; White and Peters 2009). Portrayal of indigenous people in stereotypical and denigrating ways in school materials, films, laws, and public documents led not only to further decline in their emotional, cultural, and physical well-being but to widespread stereotypes and biases among nonindigenous populations (Graham and Van Zyl-Chavarro 2016). These stereotypes and inaccurate representations are still promoted in media, schools, and public places (Reclaiming Native Truth 2018). From Residential to Public Schools With increased attention to human rights and racism during and after World War I and World War II, and with decolonization across Africa and Asia, attention was drawn to the struggles of indigenous groups. In Australia, the Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association formed in 1925 to fight against removal of indigenous children from families and for civil rights (Attwood and Markus 1999). Yet for years to come, no substantial changes took place, with complaints about hostility and racism, abuse of children, forceful removal from families, and lack of resources and adequate education. In the 1950s segregation of schools ended, indigenous teachers received training, and the Tranby College for indigenous lifelong learning was established on the principles of communal ownership and shared working and learning. Other subsequent changes included the establishment of the Aboriginal Education Consultative Committee (1963), the establishment of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (1965), and provision of scholarships and funded places at universities (1960s). In 1972

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public schools were prohibited from refusing entry to indigenous students. The 1980s brought a more comprehensive approach to indigenous education with the National Aboriginal Education Committee Policy and the National Aboriginal and TSI Education Policy. The former emphasized building education on indigenous cultural heritage and promoting cross-cultural understanding and indigenous control of education, while the latter worked toward equity in indigenous education. In New Zealand the 1960 Hunn Report on Māori Affairs identified gaps in life expectancy, access to education, and employment opportunities between indigenous and nonindigenous people (Hunn 1961). As a response, Māori teachers collaborated to make schools responsive to the indigenous culture (Walker 2016). At the 1984 Māori Educational Development Conference, however, it was determined that reforming “a morally flawed” system was “a waste of energy,” and instead Māori should establish an alternative system (Walker 2016, p. 34). In Canada, the 1967 Indian Residential Schools and Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada advocated for closure of residential schools. However, as control over education shifted from missionaries to the federal government, it was expected that in more adequately equipped government schools, indigenous children would assimilate (Mccue 2011). The 1972 Indian Control of Indian Education prepared by the First Nations insisted on indigenous control over indigenous education, becoming national policy. The document identified the need to train indigenous teachers, develop relevant curriculum and resources, and use indigenous languages in schools. Nonetheless, they received little control over education in most cases. The 1988 Tradition and Education: Towards a Vision of the Future was another step toward reclaiming control, referencing the right to self-government, including education. Despite a number of agreements with the government that followed, control over schooling was still constrained until 2006 (White and Peters 2009). The 2017 Anishinabek Nation Education Agreement Act gives indigenous people the right to create a separate education system.

The US 1969 Indian Education: A National Tragedy, A National Challenge report documented the failures of indigenous education and proposed that indigenous communities take over indigenous education. The provisions were operationalized through the 1972 Indian Education Act to provide financial assistance to such initiatives, the 1975 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act to hand over control, and the 1990 Native American Languages Act to provide special status to indigenous languages and cultures. Despite these changes, the Indian Nations at Risk Task Force (1991) determined that many students were still educated in institutions that had unfriendly and racist climates, Eurocentric curriculum, and low teacher expectations and as a result failed to promote academic, social, and cultural development among indigenous youth, contributing to high dropout rates. A successful side of the policies was the establishment of indigenous community colleges and, with time, teacher education with a unique curriculum aiming to preserve indigenous knowledge (Reyhner 2006). Rights-Based Approaches to Indigenous Education Historical policies of assimilationism through residential and public schools have left a legacy of firmly entrenched barriers to indigenous people’s access to education that responds to their needs and supports their academic and personal success. The harms they have left are intergenerational, as children who went through such education suffered alienation from their communities, values, languages, and cultures and were unable to become active participants in community life (Graham and Van Zyl-Chavarro 2016). These policies and practices also undermined indigenous communities, cultural connections and references, and family and community relationships (Cadzow 2007), thus eroding indigenous people’s confidence, self-esteem, and self-respect (Nesterova 2019). As a result, indigenous students have significantly lower academic achievement and find it hard to transition to and finish secondary school (Aud et al. 2011; Ministry of Education New Zealand (MOE NZ) 2008; Waitangi Tribunal

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1999). Their achievement gap with nonindigenous peers is widening (White and Beavon 2009). Moreover, suicide rates among indigenous young people in state schools are high (Government of Canada 2006). Against this backdrop, international and national legislation has been developed to strategically deal with underachievement of indigenous students. Internationally, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) of 2007 and the ILO Convention No. 169 of 1989 are key documents. The latter requires that nation-states reorient indigenous education in their societies. Through a rights-based approach, they place the focus on redressing past and ongoing injustices in education and shaping indigenous education toward sustainable development and culturally relevant progress. These international mechanisms emphasize the importance of education of indigenous people along with rights to selfdetermination (see especially Article 14 of UNDRIP). By the rights ensured by the UN and ILO, indigenous people shall freely pursue their social, cultural, and economic development and maintain their distinct institutions, including those that would educate their children and transmit their cultures. UNDRIP recommends significant changes in the way “global issues, such as development, decentralization and multicultural democracy” are approached and managed by nationstates, so that they “adopt participatory approaches to Indigenous issues, which will require effective consultations and the building of partnerships with Indigenous peoples” (United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues 2008). The educational rights that indigenous groups possess as promulgated in UNDRIP and ILO 169 are presented in Table 1. States have duties in terms of indigenous education. First, they have to provide indigenous people with education based on their cultures while also confronting bias and prejudice among the dominant group and within mainstream institutions. Inaccurate, stereotypical, and prejudicial information about indigenous people should be eliminated from public documents and materials in schools. Second, the state should create a space supported by legislation and policies for

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Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices, Table 1 Rights to education enjoyed by indigenous peoples Criteria Establishment and control of own educational systems, institutions, and facilities Education in own languages Culturally and contextspecific teaching and learning Accurate representation of cultures, peoples, histories, value systems, and knowledge in educational and public materials Combating prejudice and discriminations toward indigenous peoples held by the dominant group(s) Cooperation between indigenous peoples and national societies, consultation of indigenous groups, and training of indigenous peoples on their rights and duties Free and equal access to mainstream educational institutions and preparation to function fully in the mainstream society (including through language)

UNDRIP Art. 14, cl. 1

ILO169 Art. 27, cl. 2 Art. 27, cl. 3

Art. 14, cl. 1 Art. 14, cl. 1

Art. 28, cl. 1 Art. 28, cl. 3 Art. 27, cl. 1

Art. 15, cl. 1

Art. 27, cl. 1

Art. 15, cl. 2

Art. 31

Art. 15, cl. 2

Art. 30, cl. 1 Art. 30, cl. 2

Art. 14, cl. 2

Art. 26 Art. 28, cl. 2 Art. 29

indigenous people to develop and implement their own educational initiatives, systems, and/or institutions consistent with their cultural, linguistic, and collective needs. These instruments and the rights outlined in them pose challenges to nation-states with indigenous populations. They aim to enforce on states the duty to move from a colonial legacy of assimilation to recognize indigenous people’s rights to develop according to their traditions, cultures, and needs. Finally, they ensure that actions by states in the provision of

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indigenous education are respectful and designed and implemented with participation of indigenous communities. However, as policies seemingly change to include a strong indigenous rights-based language and discourse, “the more they revert to be much the same” (White and Peters 2009). In Canada, in 2016 First Nations students received 30% less funding than nonindigenous students (Porter 2016). In the USA, although Native American schools became controlled by indigenous groups, government regulations still make Native programs and rules secondary (Reyhner 2006). Of concern is the cultural tradition or mind-set of people in charge of education, from ministries to school-based educators, who do not understand indigenous needs and are unwilling or unable to implement needed changes (MOE NZ 2008). Failure to understand may lead to the mistaken assumption that their existing education policies, curricula, and pedagogies are effective and appropriate (Mccue 2011). Overwhelmingly, a discourse of cultural deficit (oriented around what indigenous students apparently lack) has been used to approach indigenous education and deal with “problematic” indigenous identities (Nesterova 2019, in press). The approach identifies indigenous cultural difference as the key aspect of academic failure (Lee and Chen 2014). Such deficit thinking leads to teachers and school administrators blaming indigenous students and families for academic failure, disregarding the flaws of the system. One example of this is identification of indigenous students as “learning disabled,” after assessing them against monocultural conceptions of “intelligence” and other related concepts valued in mainstream schools (Reyhner 2006). Yet indigenous students who attend schools that reflect indigenous cultural references, languages, and values have higher achievement and retention (Indian Nations at Risk Task Force 1991; Mccue 2011; Wang and Harkness 2007). Nevertheless, positive changes are taking place in some contexts. To mend the relationships between indigenous people and settlers, committees for reconciliation and transitional justice have formed. In Australia in 1991, the Federal Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established to

recognize education as a tool to promote reconciliation. Other countries followed, with Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Taiwan’s Historical Justice and Transitional Justice Commission formed in 2008 and 2016, respectively. Overall, indigenous people are increasingly more involved in drafting, planning, and implementing educational programs and practices that respond to their needs. In Australia, the National Inquiry into Racist Violence Report in 1991 recommended training teachers in anti-racist and cross-cultural approaches. In 2003–2004 Australia conducted an extensive revision of indigenous education. Since then, programs have been developed for indigenous literacy and numeracy, indigenous language revitalization, and culturally sensitive education for teachers. In Taiwan, the Indigenous Education Act in 1998 aimed to revive indigenous languages, history, and cultures within mainstream education, support indigenous communities in establishing their own educational institutions, and develop programs to eradicate prejudice and bias against indigenous people. In Canada, since 2006 First Nations can make their own education laws to regulate certification, curriculum, and other educational aspects. Educational Values of Indigenous People A chief goal of indigenous education is to develop multilingualism in indigenous children, with an emphasis on indigenous language (Benham and Cooper 2000; Fenelon and LeBeau 2006; Suina 2000). Here, language does not mean only verbal and written means of communication but also images and other visual forms of representation from indigenous traditions (Risku and Harding 2013; Morcom 2017). Language is crucial to the survival and development of individual (Kipp 2000) and group identities (Silva 2000). It transmits culture, thus giving speakers “physical, spiritual, and emotional sustenance” (Silva 2000, p. 73). And it links people to its past, with meanings that help define its present (Benham and Cooper 2000; Silva 2000). Learning in indigenous languages ultimately leads to greater academic success: substantially increased attendance and graduation and better outcomes for self-esteem

Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

and cultural pride (Fenelon and LeBeau 2006; Morcom 2017). Many indigenous parents feel that the public value of indigenous languages is insignificant in comparison with dominant languages, however (Risku and Harding 2013). Many people under 50 years old have no or limited native language skills, and a low percent of youth have interest in mastering these languages (Pawan 2009). However, if schools start using, promoting, and appreciating indigenous languages, indigenous children will build a positive concept of themselves and feel proud in their identity and heritage, which will help build their self-esteem and improve academic achievement (May and Aikman 2003; Morcom 2017). Kipp (2000) argues that at an early age, indigenous children should be given special incentives and training to develop language skills. To ensure sufficient and sustained development for learning of indigenous languages, indigenous children should learn in immersion schools where there is no presence of the language of the dominant group (Kipp 2000). Learning materials for indigenous students should also be published in their languages (Breidlid 2013). Additionally, such attempts should be complemented with community and family involvement in language rejuvenation activities in and outside of schools (May and Aikman 2003; Villebrun 2006). A primary value of indigenous culture and knowledge that should be transmitted is understanding the world as “complex, inter-connected in non-linear relationships (heterarchic), dynamic, unknowable (indeterminate), changing/moving in several simultaneous cycles (mutual causality) growing as a whole (morphogenesis) and consisting of many perspectives” (Fenelon and LeBeau 2006, p. 35). This is supported by such values as cooperation and interdependence (Suina 2000), equal importance of all living and nonliving entities (Johnson 2000), self-sufficiency and sustainability of communities, and understanding the spiritual as part of the material (Armstrong 2000). Spirituality here embodies the physical, the emotional, and the mental. Spirituality can be expressed through cultural acts such as dances and songs performed during ceremonies,

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rituals, and festivals. Such practices connect “the self, the family, the community, and the land” (Armstrong 2000, p. 41). Indigenous people develop themselves as meditative and tranquil listeners of the environment around them (Gollnick 2000) and build relationships with their environment by connecting spiritually to the land through ceremonies and rituals (Armstrong 2000). Such an approach can help indigenous youth learn to honor themselves (Gollnick 2000). Culturally relevant education should also reflect the history of indigenous peoples, although it often reflects uncomfortable aspects for the dominant group (Champagne 2006; Fenelon and LeBeau 2006). At the same time, indigenous knowledge systems can offer a unique view on political, economic, ecological, and social development, to add value to indigenous people’s claims to rights in national and international arenas. In addition to contributing an alternative knowledge base, reclaiming knowledge can be a way of re-establishing indigenous identities and agency, to fight oppression and marginalization (Breidlid 2013) and re-establish links with ancestors and indigenous heritage (Benham and Cooper 2000). This process of revitalization of “cultural, spiritual and intellectual heritage” (Harvey 2009, p. 62) can help indigenous people develop “a sense of power and hope” (ver Beek 2000, p. 32), as they are regaining the right to influence what is done with their knowledge (Agrawal 2002; Langdon 2009). A theme that runs through all diverse indigenous systems is that indigenous knowledge is place-specific and can only be protected if “it remains contextually embedded and land-based” (Muehlebach 2001, p. 434). The land is not some insignificant entity in this approach but is the teacher and the classroom, and, as such, it should be maintained to ensure spiritual, physical, emotional, and personal health (Villebrun 2006). Since their exposure to the world stage, indigenous groups have been trying to articulate what is wrong with the world and what alternatives can be offered. What they see as wrong is that the relationships between humans and nature “are marked by exploitation, oppression, and

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short-sightedness” (Muehlebach 2001, p. 417), which has led to unprecedented environmental degradation (Harvey 2009). The key concept associated with indigenous populations is environmental sustainability that arises from closeness to and harmony with nature and understanding the ecological limitations of the Earth. Indigenous peoples are believed to have a moral perspective on Earth that prescribes them to act nondestructively toward everything that inhabits it (Harvey 2009; Muehlebach 2001). This perspective provides a critique of the hegemonic discourse of “green development” (Breidlid 2013, p. 7) and the idea of universal knowledge (Langdon 2009). It is especially relevant now, when the dominant epistemology of technological innovation often fails to resolve environmental crises (Breidlid 2013). The moral imperative of indigenous peoples is opposed to the ideology of aggressive domination of people over nature and other human beings, which has led to the current unsustainable condition (Breidlid 2013; Pattberg 2007). Indigenous knowledge is built on the ideal of harmonious relationships with others, on understanding that the Earth has its limits, and on a history of adaptive practices, which can help overcome contemporary environmental crises (Harvey 2009). Thus, a global indigenous eco-political framework looks at territory as culture, interconnection, belonging, morality, mythology, sacredness, and lived experiences. This eco-political “place-making” framework rejects the notion that humans are not part of nature and suggests that human beings are subjects that build a certain kind of relationship with a meaningful entity: nature (Muehlebach 2001). Territory is not a biological entity but a social one that forms the basis of cultural survival (Parajuli 1996). Displacement from land leads to ecological destruction of territories and the loss of indigenous cultures and knowledge systems that can only be transmitted through the land and surroundings (Muehlebach 2001). In addition, indigenous knowledges share a common understanding of transgenerational links between people (Benham and Cooper 2000; Muehlebach 2001). Interconnection

through time from the past to the future is preserved and developed by living close to sacred lands where ancestors are buried and transmitting the knowledge passed by them to the next generation. This is advocacy for the rights of future generations, a concept also found in international discourse and framed as sustainable development (Muehlebach 2001). Another aspect of indigenous knowledge is related to health. Indigenous peoples do not see health as separate from social, political, environmental, and economic matters. For them, health is a “delicate balance of one’s physical, cultural, ecological, emotional and spiritual well-being” (Muehlebach 2001, p. 430). When this balance is shattered as during colonization, social suffering occurs (Kleinman 1995), and the whole community suffers. When a community suffers from ill health, the environment gets destroyed (Villebrun 2006). These particulars of indigenous knowledge and sustainable living showcase that indigenous people should not be mere recipients of dominant knowledge but should be treated as valuable experts and stakeholders who can provide significant resources to understand and learn about all aspects of sustainable development (Luetz et al. 2019). While much can be learned from indigenous communities and their knowledge, it must also be noted that there is no clear line between indigenous and nonindigenous knowledges (Agrawal 1995). Additionally, although holistic and sustainable, such knowledge cannot solve all the contemporary issues in the world (Clarke 1994). Furthermore, indigenous knowledges should be approached with respect and transparency by those who want to learn, as there is a danger of appropriation of these systems (Langdon 2009). Although collaboration between groups is vital, indigenous people should be the owners of their knowledge systems (Langdon 2009). Those who seek collaboration, therefore, should be cautious of how they enter dialogue and see such knowledge (Harvey 2009). As McGregor (2004) notes, attempts to reconcile Western and indigenous systems can further colonize indigenous knowledge, as these two systems are different. Indigenous knowledge is a holistic worldview, and a way of life that need to be lived and experienced, not

Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

scientific data to be reduced and catalogued (McGregor 2004). Finally, such knowledge systems should not be viewed as monolithic (Breidlid 2013) but as dynamic and responsive, as they have also adopted ideas across cultures and contexts (Benham and Cooper 2000; Langdon 2009). Educational Practices for Indigenous People Localization of education is one proposition for exemplary education for indigenous communities (Kipp 2000; Tomlins-Jahnke 2008). This means that the geographical location of the school should be in the community it serves and that knowledge, teaching, and materials should be based on local wisdom (Nesterova and Jackson 2018). Indigenous people believe they are connected to the land they come from, and this connection shapes their historical experiences, culture, and values, as well as how a group behaves, operates, and makes decisions (Armstrong 2000; Fenelon and LeBeau 2006). Geographical localization would also allow for two important values of indigenous education to be fulfilled (Nesterova and Jackson 2018): indigenous elders could be in the classroom to pass down their wisdom, while learning could happen in the community, outdoor and indoor, for exploration and connection with the physical environment. Localization can also respond to desires and expectations of many indigenous youth who are reluctant to leave their families and communities for schools in other areas and would rather stay in the areas of their ancestors. Localization can also be reflected in teacher training, school leadership, curriculum, textbooks, and instruction. These aspects need to be culturally appropriate, emphasize multigenerational involvement of parents and elders and their knowledge, and focus on the environment around students, their experiences, and their communities’ beliefs, values, and cultural and linguistic richness (Nesterova and Jackson 2018). Knowledge- and meaning-production in the classroom should be interwoven with the physical environment. In this way, indigenous students can internalize values of their communities, acquire skills, manage relations with family members, maintain good health, master their

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language, and learn to communicate effectively with outside communities. School subjects should promote self-determination, cultural self-esteem, and legitimacy of indigenous groups and their knowledge (Benham and Cooper 2000). The study of indigenous history, language, culture, art, philosophy, and legal and policy issues can transmit indigenous heritage that builds confidence in and understanding of local realities (Champagne 2006; Fenelon and LeBeau 2006). Decisions on all such components of education should be influenced at the local level by families and communities and developed with the help of indigenous and nonindigenous educational experts. This holistic approach can be achieved by centering the child as the basis of the educational model (Benham and Cooper 2000). It should be further based on the balance of emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual levels of understanding. Education should start with the emotional dimension, self-esteem. Self-esteem has been affected by negative and stereotypical representations of indigenous cultures, lack of appreciation of indigenous languages, and disregard for indigenous worldviews. Feeling selfaffirmed, validated, and included, as well as feeling “the right to be” and the “right to be alive” (Armstrong 2000, p. 38, emphasis in original) will help indigenous children feel good and do well in their studies (Suina 2000). In addition, education should aim to link the intellectual, the physical, and the spiritual. The mind should intersect both indigenous and nonindigenous – modern – “ways of seeing and doing” (Benham and Cooper 2000, p. 16). The intellectual views of indigenous communities should also be expressed and represented to reinforce indigenous cultures and help indigenous children contribute to their community (Champagne 2006). This is to be developed together with the physical element, as people cannot progress intellectually if they do not feel well (Armstrong 2000; Benham and Cooper 2000). Other requirements that need to be fulfilled are using indigenous traditional teaching practices and evaluation processes that are not judgmental (Suina 2000), inclusion of family and community into learning and teaching (Armstrong 2000), and eradicating competitiveness (Kipp 2000).

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For meaningful and effective learning, indigenous children should be educated by indigenous teachers in culturally responsive schools run by indigenous administrators (Fenelon and LeBeau 2006). It is also important to prepare teachers who represent the dominant group in society to be able to understand indigenous philosophies and values and incorporate them into teaching of indigenous and nonindigenous students (Benham and Cooper 2000). Fenelon and LeBeau (2006) suggest incorporation of five characteristics to help teachers prepare a just environment for indigenous children that does not exclude or marginalize. First, teachers are aware of and acknowledge the cultural heritage of all groups represented in the classroom as worthy and understand how their legacies shape students’ approaches and attitudes to learning. Second, teachers build links between school experiences and home environments to make learning focus on students’ social-cultural realities. Third, teachers should be educated in using strategies and approaches that help students with different styles of learning. Fourth, teachers expose indigenous and nonindigenous students to various cultures, languages, and knowledges and teach them to appreciate and praise their culture and those of others. Lastly, teachers of different subjects collaborate with each other to include multicultural resources, materials, and information in academic and nonacademic activities in schools. Benham and Cooper (2000, p. 19) add to the list that teachers and school administrators should “become proactive community leaders” to reconnect schools with communities and make knowledge and information in schools relevant and meaningful. Indigenous education thus should be based on cooperation between families, communities, and educational bodies. Such an environment ought to build relationships and initiate a critical educational process for teachers, students, and families as a contextualized and localized experience. Community should be “at the centre of educational policymaking,” as Johnson points out (2000, p. 129). In addition, indigenous students should also be included in decisionmaking processes and work for their community through experiential education (Johnson 2000;

Armstrong 2000). Historically, indigenous people have had no control over education policies, curriculum, and strategies for their children. Thus, the power to make decisions over what is taught and how, and who is responsible for teaching and creating materials, should be shifted to indigenous communities (Fenelon and LeBeau 2006; May and Aikman 2003; Villebrun 2006). Families and communities can help build and sustain a powerful foundation for education of indigenous children and share knowledge of indigenous epistemologies and pedagogies with nonindigenous policy-makers, curriculum developers, and teachers (Benham and Cooper 2000). For this arrangement to thrive, indigenous families and communities need to be healthy in all respects (Armstrong 2000). Taking into consideration how fragmented many indigenous communities are, the role to assist in helping to empower indigenous parents and communities can be attributed to educational institutions that should fully and truly include them (Benham and Cooper 2000; Suina 2000; Villebrun 2006). Schools and families can learn to communicate on an equal and enriching basis and respectfully make decisions together (Fenelon and LeBeau 2006). Various actors, epistemologies, and pedagogies should be involved to help indigenous groups develop education that contributes to their sustainable future. In all cases, collaboration should be built on such principles as commitment to difference, reciprocity, beneficence, and respect (Piquemal 2006). Indigenous people around the world often have similar experiences as do people of settler societies and go through a similar set of processes to reclaim education spaces for their children. To help each other in their struggles, it is essential to develop and share best practices that help improve academic achievements, reduce dropout rates, and remove barriers to success for all (Benham and Cooper 2000; Suina 2000). Such a model should be interdisciplinary and intercultural and include indigenous elders and community members and diverse nonindigenous people and agencies that can support efforts to develop and improve indigenous education (Benham and Cooper 2000).

Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

Conclusion Prior to colonialism, indigenous education was locally and informally provided to prepare children and youth to live sustainably with the environment and other people. As indigenous people started being incorporated into colonial states that surrounded them, their education was dealt with by day and residential schools run by missionaries. Gradually, control was taken over by governments that introduced different forms of education, from segregation of indigenous students to mixed schools. The philosophy of all such schools clashed with the ways indigenous people historically used to learn: instead of emphasis on collective efforts, cooperation, and close relationships with nature and the world, children had to acquire a different set of information and values that were less relevant and meaningful in their lives. Nowadays, indigenous people are taking control over the direction of their education in mainstream schools and in separate indigenous education programs. The new forms and content of education is (intended) to be developed according to indigenous knowledge and value systems, languages, and general needs.

Cross-References ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research ▶ Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities

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research, education and capacity building. In: Langdon J (ed) Indigenous knowledges, development and education. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, pp 57–71 Hunn JK (1961) Report on Department of Māori Affairs: with statistical supplement, 24 August 1960. Government Printer, Wellington Indian Nations at Risk Task Force (1991) Indian nations at risk: an educational strategy for action. U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC Johnson P (2000) Envisioning a community-centered education: “we do not own our children, we must honor them in all ways.”. In: MKP B, Cooper JE (eds) Indigenous educational models for contemporary practice: in our mother’s voice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, pp 127–133 Juneau S (2001) Indian education for all: a history and foundation of American Indian education policy. Montana Office of Public Instruction Kipp D (2000) A commitment to language-based education: “among the gifts we can give our children is our cultural traditions.”. In: MKP B, Cooper JE (eds) Indigenous educational models for contemporary practice: in our mother’s voice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, pp 61–69 Kleinman A (1995) Writing at the margin: discourse between anthropology and medicine. University of California Press, Berkeley Langdon J (2009) Indigenous knowledges, development and education: an introduction. In: Langdon J (ed) Indigenous knowledges, development and education. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, pp 1–13 Lee L, Chen P (2014) Empowering indigenous youth: perspectives from a national service learning program in Taiwan. Int Indig Policy J 5(3). https://doi.org/10. 18584/iipj.2014.5.3.4 Luetz JM, Bergsma C, Hills K (2019) The poor just might be the educators we need for global sustainability – a manifesto for consulting the unconsulted. In: Filho LW, McCrea CA (eds) Sustainability and the humanities. Springer, Cham, pp 115–140 May S, Aikman S (2003) Indigenous education: addressing current issues and developments. Comp Educ 39(2): 139–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050060302549 Mccue HA (2011) Education of Indigenous peoples in Canada. The Canadian Encyclopedia (updated by Filice, M. in 2018). https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/arti cle/aboriginal-people-education. Accessed 27 Oct 2018 McGregor D (2004) Coming full circle: indigenous knowledge, environment, and our future. Am Indian Q 28(3/4):385–410 Ministry of Education, New Zealand (2008) Key evidence and how we must use it to improve the system performance for Māori. Wellington Morcom LA (2017) Self-esteem and cultural identity in aboriginal language immersion kindergarteners. J Lang Identity Educ 16:365. https://doi.org/10.1080/153484 58.2017.1366271 Morris A (2007) KanƬ baseball and ‘triethnic’ identity in 1930s Taiwan. Paper presented at the Conference of the

Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California Berkeley Muehlebach A (2001) “Making place” at the United Nations: indigenous cultural politics at the U.N. working group on indigenous populations. Cult Anthropol 16(3):415–448 Nesterova Y (2019) Teaching indigenous children in Taiwan: tensions, complexities, and opportunities. Global Studies of Childhood 9(2):156–166. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/2043619846349 Nesterova Y, Jackson L (2018) Understanding the “local” in indigenous Taiwan. Int Educ J Comp Perspect 17(3): 55–66 Parajuli P (1996) Ecological ethnicity in the making: developmentalist hegemonies and emergent identities in India. Identities 3(1–2):14–59. https://doi.org/10. 1080/1070289X.1996.9962551 Pattberg P (2007) Conquest, domination and control: Europe’s mastery of nature in historic perspective. J Polit Ecol 14:1–9 Pawan C (2009) Indigenous Language Revitalization in Early Childhood Education in Taiwan. Paper presented at the Arizona State University in Temple Piquemal N (2006) Hear the silenced voices and make that relationship: issues of relational ethics in aboriginal contexts. In: Abu-Saad I, Champagne D (eds) Indigenous education and empowerment: international perspectives. AltaMira Press, Lanham, pp 113–125 Porter J (2016) First Nations students get 30 per cent less funding than other children, economist says. CBC Radio-Canada. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thund er-bay/first-nations-education-funding-gap-1.3487822. Accessed 29 Oct 2018 Reclaiming Native Truth (2018) Research findings: compilation of all research. First Nations Development Institute and Echo Hawk Consulting, Longmont Reyhner J (2006) American Indian/Alaska Native education: an overview. American Indian Education. http:// jan.ucc.nau.edu/jar/AIE/Ind_Ed.html. Accessed 1 Nov 2018 Risku M, Harding L (2013) Education for tomorrow: a biocentric, student-focused model for reconstructing education. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam Silva K (2000) Revitalizing culture and language: “returning to the ‘Āina (land)”. In: MKP B, Cooper JE (eds) Indigenous educational models for contemporary practice: in our mother’s voice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Jersey, pp 71–80 Suina S (2000) Linking Native people around the spirituality of all life: “the gifts of our grandmothers and grandfathers”. In: MKP B, Cooper JE (eds) Indigenous educational models for contemporary practice: in our mother’s voice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, pp 93–100 Teng EJ (2004) Taiwan’s imagined geography: Chinese colonial travel writing and pictures, 1683–1895. Harvard University Asia Center, Cambridge/London Tomlins-Jahnke H (2008) The place of cultural standards in indigenous education. MAI Review 1(1):1–11

Education for Community Cohesion Tribunal W (1999) The Wānanga capital establishment report. GP Publications, Wellington U.N. Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (2008) Forms of education of Indigenous children as crimes against humanity, 31, U.N. Doc. E/C.19/2008/7 11 Ver Beek K (2000) Spirituality: a development taboo. Dev Pract 10(1):31–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/096145200 52484 Villebrun N (2006) Athabaskan education: the case of Denendeh past, present, and future. In: Abu-Saad I, Champagne D (eds) Indigenous education and empowerment: international perspectives. AltaMira Press, Lanham, pp 13–20 Walker R (2016) Reclaiming Māori education. In: Hutchings J, Lee-Morgan J (eds) Decolonisation in Aotearoa: education, research and practice. NZCER Press, Wellington, pp 19–38 Wang H, Harkness C (2007) Senior secondary students’ achievement at Maori-medium schools 2004–2006 fact sheet. Ministry of Education, Wellington White JP, Beavon D (2009) Aboriginal education: current crisis, future alternatives. Aboriginal Policy Research Consortium International (APRCi Paper 24). http://ir. lib.uwo.ca/aprci/24. Accessed 2 Nov 2018 White JP, Peters J (2009) A short history of Aboriginal education in Canada. Aboriginal Policy Research Consortium International (APRCi Paper 23). http://ir.lib. uwo.ca/aprci/23. Accessed 2 Nov 2018

Education ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Education and Child Labor ▶ Schooling for Working Children

Education for All ▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

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Education for Community Cohesion Juana Figueroa Vélez and Eduardo Rico Ardila Colegio Gimnasio Femenino, Bogotá, Colombia

Definition Education for community cohesion is the process of enabling every human being to acquire and develop the competencies needed to be part of a community that works as a harmonic and functional system capable of achieving the SDGs. Individuals in cohesive communities have resilient social relations, a positive emotional connectedness, shared values, a common vision, and a sense of belonging enriched by cultural, religious, social, political, economic, and biological diversity. Related Concepts – Social integration: Despite the use of the term cohesion interchangeably with integration, they refer to different subjects. While integration refers to the conditions required to make cohesion possible, cohesion is the social consequence of integration. – Social cohesion: Social cohesion is widely used in the European community although its ideals and practices vary between states; three main approaches can be identified (Green et al. 2009). The first is based on the belief that solidarity must be followed by a common identity, culture, and civic virtues. The second focuses on values such as equality, fairness, collectivism, and solidarity and in the development of social movements. The third emphasizes values of freedom, rights, and responsibilities and focuses on limiting individualism and competition (Green et al. 2009). Social cohesion and community cohesion have in common certain characteristics. First, they can be intended as processes required to live together in harmony (Jenson 1998). Second, they both value diversity and difference for the development of relationships between

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diverse groups (Hulse and Stone 2007). Nonetheless, social cohesion refers exclusively to human beings, and community cohesion involves living populations including other than humans. Additionally, while social cohesion emphasizes economic processes, community cohesion underlines cultural processes (Holden 2013). – Community resilience: Community resilience refers to the abilities of a group of people to prepare for, withstand, and recover from adversity. The term emphasizes how community members behave after hazards and disasters, in ways that demonstrate altruism, innovation, and strength. The term is considered an acquired capacity to reduce potential harm through interventions before, during, and after an event (Bean 2014). Community cohesion is a condition that contributes to community resilience, but there are other conditions needed, for example, strong and sustainable public health care and emergency response systems (Bean 2014). – Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism refers to the challenges associated to cultural and religious diversity; its proponents reject the ideal of the “melting point” where people from minority groups can maintain their collective identities and practices without being overshadowed by dominant groups (Malpas and Davidson 2009). Multiculturalism is a phenomenon that can be seen as an obstacle or opportunity for community cohesion. An obstacle, when the diversity it encompasses accentuate conflicts and jeopardizes harmonic social interactions. An opportunity, when diversity is valued and cultural identity is valued in order to reunite for a social common good. – Global citizenship education (GCED): It refers to UNESCO’s response to human right violations, inequality, and poverty that threaten peace and sustainability in the increasingly interconnected world (UNESCO 2018a). Education for community cohesion is necessary to achieve the goals of GCED, because it prepares humans with the skills, attitudes, and values that will enable them to act locally toward a global common good.

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– Key competencies for community cohesion: It is the interplay of cognitive and non-cognitive components acquired through education processes that bear a wide focus, pooling different competency classes (e.g., domain-specific competencies), and point out the most relevant competency fields (Barth et al. 2007). These competencies have a common point; they enable individuals to participate in an active, reflective, and cooperative way to foster sustainable development (Haan 2006). These also enable students to recognize they are part of a society with shared values and to act in coherence with a common vision and sense of belonging enriched by diversity (LGA et al. 2002).

Introduction Origins of the Concept of Community Cohesion The idea of educating for community cohesion arises from the understanding of the need of a synchrony between education and the set of goals established by the United Nations in the 2000 Assembly Forum (UNESCO 2000) even though at the time the concept community cohesion did not exist. The Millennium Goals, which later became the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), exposed the need for a global call for action that would promote prosperity while protecting the planet and ensuring the well-being of every human in the world (United Nations 2015). From this process, education is changing and can be adapted to provide the tools necessary to develop and achieve the SDG (UNESCO 2005–2014). In this context, education appears as a required process to form individuals that, within different communities, can act to consolidate communities that work as a harmonic and functional system capable of achieving the SDGs. In terms of the concept of community cohesion, we can trace back the origin of the term to the UK. The term community cohesion was first introduced and coined by the Cantle and Denham reports (Cantle 2001; Denham 2001). The reports analyzed racial-driven disturbances and riots in

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ethnically diverse towns (i.e., Bradford, Burnley, and Oldham), identifying the key driver for this as lack of community cohesion (Cantle 2005). As part of the follow-up plan to address this issue, the UK government created the Community Cohesion Review Team (CCRT), which objective was to “identify good practice, key policy issues and new innovative thinking in the field of community cohesion” (Cantle 2005). The elements presented by the report exposed a profound separation and segregation in the society from the towns visited. This communities displayed a lack of contact and interaction among the various cultures which they comprised (Cantle 2005), and that could be linked to numerous changing elements from modern societies such as language, faith and beliefs, education, leisure, employment, housing, lifestyle, and social structure (Cantle 2005). Each of these elements had different values and characteristics not shared by all communities which conflicted among the different populations. Among the different subcommunities within each town, the various elements comprising their identity and their functionality were clearly different (Cantle 2005). These differences triggered changes in the mechanisms and types of interactions which were pointed as the drivers responsible for the disturbances that had taken place (Wetherell 2007). Since then, much of the UK policies were oriented toward developing and reinforcing the idea of community cohesion among the people, developing a new framework that rethought the elements of multiculturalism, in an attempt to highlight the most important elements of multicultural communities (Wetherell 2007; Thomas 2011). From this moment on, the discussion regarding community cohesion as a central element for public policies comprises two perspectives. The first embraces people that see community cohesion as a diminishment in maintaining a strong and functional ethnic diversity in countries (Thomas 2011). The second encompasses people that see the possibility of developing tools and mechanisms that allow ethnically diverse communities to work as a one, without stepping back in their own social background and dynamics (Thomas 2011). To educate for community cohesion, different strategies can be adopted: firstly, institutional

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strategies that involve architecture design and school programs and policies and, secondly, pedagogic approaches that enhance the development of key competencies like systems thinking, cosmopolitan perception, transcultural understanding, and cooperation, among others. Drivers for Community Cohesion The need of education for community cohesion arises from several drivers that cause social conflict and therefore interfere with human’s ability to act as a functional unit able to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. These drivers are interconnected, and their interaction can accentuate their effect on community cohesion. The way drivers are approached determines whether they have a positive effect facilitating community cohesion or a negative effect while increasing the difficulty to achieve it (Pinilla, personal communication, April 4, 2018). The approach to the drivers that results in the lack of community cohesion is associated to historical and/or cultural processes that might be also related to our biological and ethological characteristics as a species. The lack of community cohesion is often attributed to diversity, while other factors and complex interactions might be contributing (Engel et al. 2013), for example, income inequalities, climate change, social networks, and technology, among others. Recent ongoing changes of contemporary society evidence the need to understand change. Later marriage, higher rates of divorce, new family structures, and demographic changes become relevant when the debate focuses on the interactions and relationships within society (Davies et al. 2012). – Identity diversity: identity refers to how a person defines themselves in relation to others. Diversity of identities is often seen as the problem in terms of communities working as a functional system (Pareckh 2007). Identities are determined by several factors including culture, religion, ethnicity, and race which are often highlighted as the main reasons of social tensions that jeopardize community cohesion. Community cohesion does not aim to deny ethnic, religious, and social identities toward

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the imposition of a nonnegotiable common identity (Thomas 2011). Instead, it seeks to accept and work to augment distinct communities with common experiences and identities through a negotiated process (Thomas 2011). Education for community cohesion needs to enhance social dynamics that avoid identity free zones while promoting people to identify with superordinate identities (e.g., the community in general, the nation). Avoiding identity free zones ensures that the mechanisms to create a sense of belonging are not suppressed. It is crucial to foster new senses of identity, reinforcing identity factors associated with positive community relations (Wetherell 2007). – Ideology diversity: it is intended at the individual level, as a set of intellectual beliefs of thinking that are determined by the beliefs of the society at large (Kim 2007). Ideology diversity can often be seen as a justification of social conflict, because it highlights the absence of a natural and legitimate hierarchy of ideologies encouraging people to pursue and impose their own ideology over the others. Studies evidenced that although “white” communities valued ideology diversity, they maintained a lack of support for policies aiming to bring ideology diversity to fruition (Merow et al. 2013; Smith and Mayorga-Gallo 2017). – Income inequalities: several studies evidence that income inequalities rather than ethnicity or diversity impede community cohesion (Becares et al. 2011; Letki 2008). Sometimes it is challenging to identify the main reasons for the lack of community cohesion because often economically deprived areas overlap with ethnic minorities. Income inequalities negatively influence social interactions necessary for accomplishing community cohesion by affecting levels of trust and civic engagement and increasing crime and violence. The latter phenomenon influences psychosocial processes that have an effect on social interactions, cultural norms, values, and behavior, undermining community cohesion (Constantin 2014).

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– Social networks and technology: when human relationships rely exclusively on online interactions, the emotional benefits of face-toface interaction are missed, thereby affecting negatively social capital (Antoci et al. 2014). Krau et al. (1998) concluded that the increased use of the Internet is related to a diminishment in family interactions, a reduced social circle, and a rise in loneliness and depression. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that when the use of the Internet became more related to being connected to social networking sites, it entailed the engagement in social activities. In fact, the most recent studies (2007–2011) established that online networks supported the development of existing ties (Antoci et al. 2014). The biggest problem arises when ties are not present. In this scenario, social networks can intensify existing conflicts, for example, when social media is used to discuss topics that can cause controversy, such as political ideology, cultural beliefs, and religion. Conflicts arising from interactions in online networks are associated to the fact that virtual participation vanishes the individual responsibility toward the community, and it does not compromise the individual with its virtual statements. Social networks facilitate communication but not encounters, and this can compromise empathic and honest social interactions (Pinilla, personal communication, April 4, 2018). – Climate change: the prospect of humaninduced climate change encourages drastic scenarios in terms of the many potential consequences for the physical environment which ultimately can lead to a large number of possible paths to conflict (Nordås and Gleditsch 2007). Climate change negative scenarios highlight the need for community resilience and cohesion, because they evidence the lack of cohesion between communities worldwide. It evidences the difficulty of human communities to act as one and mitigate the negative effects of climate change. Fast-occurring and changing processes that affect humanity’s environment test the structure and strength of the community to withstand external factors

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(community resilience). Desynchronized environmental policies regarding climate change evidence the lack of community cohesion from a global perspective (Giddens 2010). Climate change, differently from other drivers, affects humanity as a species. Theoretical Framework During the last recent years, measuring and monitoring the social integration within countries and among countries has increased significantly (Dewan 2009). This is a result for the increasing need to understand the behavior of societies. Community cohesion is a fundamental aspect of societies by which is possible to understand and predict its behavior. Setting the theoretical framework to understand community cohesion is fundamental since it allows the comparison with other proposed definitions of community cohesion (Dragolov et al. 2016). Thinking in community cohesion terms requires a framework for human-based communities that prevents possible misconception of the term and, more urgently, more efficient, synchronized, and stronger mechanisms among the educational community into achieving community cohesion. In light of this, the main aspects compose the framework to educate for community cohesion: the individual, interaction relationship, and community. These aspects provide a theoretical framework that is inclusive with previous definitions of social and community cohesion. – Individual: education for community cohesion requires to define and understand the idea of the individual as a unit within a system, a unit with specific characteristics that determine its role and position within the environment. There are different perspectives that question whether education should develop the idea of individual or focus on the idea of collectivism (Bertram 2012; Darwish and Huber 2003; Federico 2006; Triandis 2002). The problem with the discussion concerning which approach to adopt in a pedagogic process (i.e., regarding the concept of individual) is that it arises from the misconception of the individual as separated from other hierarchy

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levels (e.g., society, community). This approach places the concept of individual in a time-dependent perspective. Education for community cohesion is a process where the individual is able to recognize itself from the others and is capable of identifying their strengths and weaknesses. Furthermore, it enables to understand that these characteristics are determined by a specific set of cultural aspects that are susceptible to change through time. This conception is instrumental, when educating for community cohesion, since it allows the individual to recognize that individuality is not a static condition. Potentially, different individuals, at some point, might share ideas, values, and qualities that they did not share before. Individuality comprises the understanding that each person, because of its cultural, political, and ideological background (Darwish and Huber 2003; Kim 2007), behaves as a specific and unique component within a community. Individuals potentially have the ability to change and become part of another community. This perspective does not mean that because of the changing nature of individuals, there are not stable and homogenous communities. In the contrary, it tends to generate a consciousness of the diversity of homogeneous communities worldwide. – Interaction-Relationship: every natural or social system has its own set of specific rules that govern the interactions within the system. Unlike most natural systems, identifying, naming, and generalizing the rules of a social system are more difficult due to the complexity of social interactions that go beyond the species survival. With this in mind, it is necessary to recognize and identify the levels of organization of the relations among humans, which allow the multicultural nature of society. Different levels of organization in social processes comprise interactions and relationships. The former are behaviors between two or more individuals within a community (Hinde 1976), and the latter are the series of interactions between two individuals through time (Hinde 1976). Educating for community cohesion requires to identify and analyze the

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relationships that are perpetuated through time and that contribute or not to community cohesion. Within this framework, it is possible to enhance the development of key competencies that strengthen specific positive relationships regardless of each community characteristics. – Community: identifying what encompasses a community and therefore the system from which an individual is part off provides the most general framework to work on education for community cohesion. In this sense, more than the limits and boundaries of a specific community, the aim while educating for community cohesion has to be in terms of the “when” of a specific community. This means that the characterization of communities is not constant and it is dependent on specific factors, which change through time. Based on this characterization of community, it is possible to recognize different obstacles affecting each community and, therefore, how the individual can act and behave. Obstacles can be identified at the local level and at the global level. Understanding communities at a global level implies acknowledging that humans as species can be conceived as a unit of a bigger community which includes other species. Considering the species as a unit and its changing condition through time evidences that interactions and relations between species are also dynamic. Additionally, acknowledging species as units of a system allows to recognize the interdependence between humans and other components of the community. This later provides the scenario for humanity to think and develop the necessary tools for human’s sustainability. Many approaches have been used to account for the sustainable development such as the Human Development Index (HDI), the Human Poverty Index (HPI), the Gender-Related Development Index (GDI), and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) (Dewan 2009). All of these indexes show the increasing need to quantify the rate at which humans are [1] developing. The problem rests, when it is evident that none of them considers humanity as part of a bigger community. This limitation can be

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overthrown by thinking of a community as a diverse and time-changing frame capable of including different species.

Educational Strategies for Community Cohesion Institutional Strategies to Educate for Community Cohesion: Educational institutions, especially schools, have a valuable potential to contribute toward education for community cohesion: firstly, consider the design and architecture of the educational settings; secondly, take into account the diversification of uses of the school as a site to strengthen community engagement; and, thirdly, implement programs or policies to reinforce and improve social interactions in the local context. – Educational institutions and classrooms architecture: the place and time where learning processes take place have an enormous influence in the ability to overcome educational challenges to achieve community cohesion. For example, the design of schools could consider the need to educate for community cohesion. The traditional spatial conception of schools that consist of endless corridors and four-wall classrooms must evolve in order to promote the interaction of the school community with their local context (people and environment) and to facilitate cross-classroom collaboration (Jarraud 2010). School design must consider the inclusion of learning spaces that promote the interaction between different members of the learning community (e.g., learner-learner and learner-teacher) (Rudd et al. 2006). Additionally, diversity of learning spaces enable the acquisition of different sort of knowledge and skills (Rudd et al. 2006). – Educational institutions as resources to educate for community cohesion: educational institutions, particularly schools, have a crucial role to help people to learn about difference. However, schools can be segregated as well. Many young people never experience cultural

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or social difference at their school and emerge into a multicultural world without the cultural skills to break down barriers between communities (Cantle 2017). Communities are also segregated, because usually their spatial distribution within urban and rural settings is correlated with socioeconomic characteristics. An approach to support community cohesion in this case is school linking (Cantle 2017). In this approach, partner schools are comprised of children from different backgrounds that would otherwise have no chance of meeting each other (Cantle 2017). Additionally, schools can become a resource and a site within the neighborhood for community engagement. For example, schools can be used as the space to implement educational programs aiming at reinforcing the link between families, the school, and the community (Engel et al. 2013). – Educational institutions, programs, and policies: educational initiatives to promote community cohesion vary depending on the scale at which they operate. Holden (2013) distinguishes between macrolevel strategies and microlevel strategies. The first refers to educational institutions operating in an inclusive and cohesive manner, recognizing the importance of cohesion and integrating to the curriculum issues such as equality, diversity, and integration. The second includes strategies to promote cross-cultural mixing by recruiting students and staff from different backgrounds and by having teachers able to teach about the importance of integration and social unity. Other initiatives identified by Holden (2013) include the design and implementation of school twinning projects, cultural awareness events, and citizenship education and vocational programs. In countries facing profound income inequalities, initiatives such as school networks aiming to involve students in the conservation of urban ecosystems have a valuable potential to promote collaborative work between public and private schools helping to address the current gap between social classes (Red de colegios Cerros de Bogotá 2016).

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Educational orientations to educate for community cohesion: there are different pedagogical approaches that facilitate education for community cohesion. Despite their specificity, they all enhance the development of key skills, values, and attitudes to strengthen community cohesion. Additionally, they all promote the students exposure to live settings and their understanding of being part of complex systems which components are interdependent. – Ecojustice education: it is based on the recognition that being a human means to be part of a vast and complex system of life and that human beings depend on the education about different interrelated elements: first, to learn how to protect the systems of life (Martusewics and Edmunson 2005) to avoid drastic scenarios (e.g., climate change) that unstabilize communities; second, to learn the identification and analysis of domination patterns that unjustly catalogue certain groups of humans and/or the natural world as inferior and though promote social conflict; third, to encourage students to identify the causes and remediate the effects of social and ecological violence in their local contexts; and, finally, the acknowledgment of the interdependence of the interactions between humans and abiotic factors or with other species, which rely in the intergenerational practices and relationships among different cultures (Bowers 1997, 2001). – Place-based education: it focuses on the interactions of natural and human communities by involving students and people from the community in projects in the local environment. By getting students involved in their own communities and solving real problems, learning becomes relevant (Martusewics et al. 2015). This approach reconnects education with the well-being of the community and facilitates the development of skills and dispositions that children and youth need to regenerate and sustain communities (Gruenewald and Smith 2008). By involving students in real-life situations, place-based education emphasizes the importance of social participation. Actually Holden (2013: 251) evidences its importance:

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“social participation as a vehicle for the acquisition of knowledge and skills, the most relevant of which is situational learning – a model that extols the value of student participation in live settings.” – Education for sustainable development: it seeks to empower people to change the way they think and act based on sustainable development. It promotes students’ development of skills, values, and attitudes needed to become responsible actors who resolve challenges, respect cultural diversity, and contribute to create a more sustainable world (UNESCO 2018b). Competencies needed to achieve sustainability are those that lead to more sustainable lifestyles (Varga et al. 2007), and this refers to human interactions with natural resource and its actions to guarantee their and others’ well-being. The spontaneous individuals’ motivations and skills to seek other humans or species’ well-being necessarily contribute both to community cohesion and to sustainable development. For this reason, many key competencies in ESD have also a crucial role in education for community cohesion. – Holistic education: it emerges from the need to overcome educational focus on developing students’ physical, behavioral, and intellectual capacities for economic and material benefits. It seeks to surpass this need by emphasizing the need of enhancing students’ social, emotional, psychological, moral, creative, aesthetic, and spiritual natures and capacities (Darken 2009). By valuing the emotional, social, and spiritual nature of students, holistic education seeks the development of the full potential of each individual by honoring their unique talents and capacities (Darken 2009). Holistic perspective focuses on the potential of the individual within overlapping contexts of family, community, society, humanity, and the natural world (Miller 1991). This approach can contribute in education for community cohesion, because firstly it values the individuals’ identities considering all the human dimensions without trying to homogenize students based on a determined desired human “model.” In this

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sense, it avoids human conflict arising from the difficulty to accept and comprehend humans’ differences and diversity. Secondly, it promotes the development of humans’ dimensions such as the social, emotional, and spiritual which are crucial for the development of values that contribute to community cohesion (e.g., empathy, solidarity, and compassion, among others). Education for community cohesion must consider that individuals’ motivations to have harmonic interactions with other members of the community vary depending on the sociocultural local context. In some contexts, the motivation is mainly driven by values such as empathy and compassion, while in other circumstances as regards the understanding that we are all part of the same system and what affects the other will necessarily have a consequence on me. The consideration of key competencies, values, and attitudes for community cohesion can guarantee that regardless the specific characteristics of the local contexts, there is a common framework shared by educators to achieve the harmonic and dynamic functioning of communities. Some key competencies associated to education for sustainable development have also the potential to strengthen community cohesion. In fact, as mentioned before community cohesion and sustainable development are intimately related. Acquiring competencies is a more complex process than learning. The later process refers to acquiring knowledge, while competence acquisition involves cognitive and non-cognitive elements that go beyond knowledge acquisition (Weinert 2001). This implies, firstly, the development of higher stages of consciousness regarding the individual and the community that evidences increased cognitive complexity and, secondly, the acquisition of non-cognitive components that involve learning of values and its interiorization. This last process implies that the learners must be able to recognize their values system and understand its adequacy to reality (Barth et al. 2007). In the context of education for community cohesion, the acquisition of non-cognitive components and the interiorization of values have an enormous

Education for Community Cohesion

importance. They have a strong influence in the individual’s ability to change societal living and to act fostering community cohesion. Finally, competence acquisition implies the student awareness of its existence and agency (Pinilla, personal communication, April 4, 2018). Some key competencies associated to education for community cohesion are as follows: – Systems thinking: refers to the ability to understand the way living systems and human societies function (Kunsch et al. 2007). It enables to analyze complex systems across different domains (i.e., society, environment, economy) and across different spatial and temporal scales (Wiek et al. 2011). Once the individuals are aware of the complex interdependence of the components of living and social systems that compose communities, they are aware of the relevance of acting to reinforce community cohesion. Systems thinking might also contribute to understand the legitimacy and relevance of difference to achieve the common well-being. – Cosmopolitan perception, transcultural understanding, and cooperation: refers to the capacity to expand the perception of the context, inviting to transcend the horizons of individual’s perceptions and judgments while striving for a global view. Cosmopolitan perception, transcultural understanding, and cooperation imply the development of the curiosity and interest regarding other regions of the world and the desire to learn from them (Haan 2006). This competency enhances the individuals’ capacity to recognize identity diversity and to value it. It enables to understand that despite cultural, ideological, or biological differences, we all share the same need and motivation to live as a harmonic and functional unit. – Capacity for empathy, compassion, and solidarity: refers to the ability to engage in situations that call for justice and require competence in transcultural communication, cooperation, as well as empathy. This competency enables individuals to act and communicate with a spirit of global solidarity. It

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encourages to work together, to find solutions to shared problems, and to find ways to achieve more justice (Haan 2006). Situations that evidence unbalance such as injustice, privileged and disadvantaged, and poor and rich trigger social conflicts that jeopardize community cohesion. The acquisition of capacity for empathy, compassion, and solidarity can counteract the action of “social difference” as a driver accentuating the lack of community cohesion. – Distanced reflection on individual and cultural models: refers to individual’s ability to recognize and critically analyze their own interests and desires, and to understand these is culturally determined. This competence determines the individual ability to take a position in the debate about global justice while approaching cultural models in a detached and objective manner. Distanced reflection on individual and cultural models enables individuals to recognize its cultural identity, recognize and reflect other cultural models, and to have the critical thinking skills to act seeking for global justice, for which community cohesion is required (Haan 2006). – Leadership: this competency implies the need to overcome the misconception that leaders are individuals provided with unique capacities. Leaders should not be conceived as individuals that must be followed by others because they have extraordinary skills that people usually do not have. In the context of education, every individual is a potential leader, and educational institutions must be able to transcend the individualistic conception of leadership to a shift into a communitarian approach. This will enable individuals to recognize themselves in a positive way among others and to understand that leaders develop among other potential leaders (Silva, personal communication, March 5, 2018). To enable all the students to develop leadership competencies, educators could: • Be able to be life accompanying for the students, not only of their cognitive processes (Silva, personal communication, March 5, 2018).

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• Be able to provide safe spaces that promote the participation of all the students not only the students with better academic performance (Silva, personal communication, March 5, 2018). • Be able to expose students to solidary reparation situations, not individualistic. • Be able to provide high control and support and guarantee the balance between the two (Silva, personal communication, March 5, 2018). • Be able to enhance the acquisition of values such as empathy and compassion (Silva, personal communication, March 5, 2018). • Be able to promote the development of cooperation skills (Silva, personal communication, March 5, 2018).

References Antoci A, Sabatini F, Sodini M (2014) Bowling alone but tweeting together: the evolution of human interaction in the social networking era. Qual Quant 48: 1911–1927 Barth M, Godemann J, Rieckmann M, Stoltenberg U (2007) Developing key competencies for sustainable development in higher education. Int J Sustain High Educ 8(4):416–430. https://doi.org/10.1108/146 76370710823582 Bean H (2014) Community resilience. In: Thompson TL (ed) Encyclopedia of health communication. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/10.4135/97814833 46427.n90. Accessed 9 Mar 2018 Becares L, Stafford M, Laurence J, Nazaroo J (2011) Composition, concentration and deprivation exploring their association with social cohesion among different ethnic groups in the UK. Urban Stud 48:2771–2787 Bertram CS (2012) Individualism in education reform. Master’s Theses and Doctoral Dissertations, 430. http://com mons.emich.edu/theses/430. Accessed 8 Apr 2018 Bowers CA (1997) The culture of denial: why the environmental movement needs a strategy for reforming universities and public schools. State University of New York Press, Albany Bowers CA (2001) Educating for eco-justice and community. University of Georgia Press, Athens Cantle T (2001) Community cohesion: a report of the Independent Review Team, Home Office, Building a safe, just and tolerant society. http://tedcantle.co.uk/pdf/ communitycohesion%20cantlereport.pdf. Accessed 9 Mar 2018 Cantle T (2005) Community cohesion: a new framework for race relations. Palgrave Macmillan, Chippenham

Education for Community Cohesion Cantle T (2017) In a world of hate, fear and ‘alternative facts’, education really does matter. http://tedcantle.co. uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/113-Cantle-2017-In-a -world-of-hate-education-really-does-matter-Open-De mocracy.pdf. Accessed 9 Mar 2018 Constantin I (2014) The effects of income inequality. Leadership between power temptation and efficiency 20:92–102 Darken RH (2009) Holistic education. In: Provenzo Jr EF, Provenzo AB (eds) Encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations of education. https://doi.org/ 10.4135/9781412963992.n195 Accessed 11 Apr 2018 Darwish AFE, Huber GL (2003) Individualism vs collectivism in different cultures: a cross-cultural study. Intercult Educ 14(1):47–56 Davies I, Sundaram V, Hampden-Thompson G et al (2012) Creating citizenship communities. JSSE 11:107–118. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137368867 de Haan G (2006) The BLK ‘21’ programme in Germany: a ‘Gestaltungskompetenz’ – based model for education for sustainable development. Environ Educ Res 12(1):19–32 Denham J (2001) Building cohesive communities: a report of the ministerial group on public order and community cohesion. Home Office, London. Building a safe, just and tolerant society. http://www.tedcantle.co.uk/publica tions/005%20Building%20Cohesive%20Communities% 20%28The%20Denham%20Report%29%202001.pdf. Accessed 3 Apr 2018 Dewan H (2009) Re-defining sustainable human development to integrate sustainability and human development goals. Int J Environ Cult Econ Soc Sustain 5:147–162 Dragolov G, Ignácz ZS, Lorenz J, et al (2016) Social cohesion in the western world. What holds societies together: insights from the social cohesion radar Engel LC, Kington A, Mleczko A (2013) The influence of education on community cohesion: adaptation of policy to practice. J Educ Res 106(5):408–418 Federico CM (2006) Race, education, and individualism revisited. J Polit 68(3):600–610 Giddens A (2010) The politics of climate change. Sociol Rev 58:156–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X. 2009.01896.x Green A, Janmaat JG, Han C (2009) Regimes of social cohesion. Centre for Learning and Life Chances in Knowledge Economies and Societies, London. https:// dera.ioe.ac.uk/10486/1/Z.-Regimes-of-Social-Cohesion. pdf. Accessed 10 Mar 2018 Gruenewald D, Smith G (2008) Place-based education in the global age: local diversity. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Taylor & Francis Group, New York Hinde RA (1976) Interactions, relationships and social structure. Man 11(1):1 Holden A (2013) Community cohesion in post-16 education: principles and practice. Educ Res 55(3):249–262 Hulse K, Stone W (2007) Social cohesion, social capital and social exclusion. Policy Stud 28(2):109–128

Education for Sustainability (EFS) Jarraud F (2010) Une salle de classe doit-elle avoir quatre murs? http://www.cafepedagogique.net/lexpresso/Pages/ 2010/12/1512_Fielding.aspx. Accessed 11 Apr 2018 Jenson J (1998) Mapping social cohesion: the state of Canadian research. Renouf Publishing, Ottawa Kim YY (2007) Ideology, identity, and intercultural communication: an analysis of differing academic conceptions of cultural identity. J Intercult Commun Res 36(3):237–253 Krau R, Patterson M, Lundmark V, Kiesler S, Mukopadhyay T, Scherlis W (1998) Internet paradox. A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? Am Psychol 53(9):1017–1031 Kunsch PL, Theys M, Brans JP (2007) The importance of systems thinking in ethical and sustainable decisionmaking. Central European Journal of Operations Research 15(3):253–269 Letki N (2008) Does diversity Erode social cohesion? Social capital and race in British neighbourhoods. Polit Stud 56(1):99–126 Local Government Association (LGA) (2002) Guidance on community cohesion. LGA Publications, London. http://www.tedcantle.co.uk/publications/006. Accessed 14 Apr 2018 Malpas J, Davidson D (2009) Multiculturalism. In: Zalta EN (ed) The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, Winter 2012 edn. https://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/fall2015/entries/davidson/. Accessed 15 Apr 2018 Martusewics RA, Edmunson J (2005) Social foundations as pedagogies of responsibility and eco-ethical commitment. In: Butin DW (ed) Teaching social foundations of education: contexts, theories, and issues. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 71–92 Martusewics RA, Edmunson J, Lupinacci J (eds) (2015) EcoJustice education towards diverse, democratic, and sustainable communities. Routledge, New York, p 15 Merow C, Smith MJ, J a S (2013) A practical guide to MaxEnt for modeling species’ distributions: what it does, and why inputs and settings matter. Ecography (Cop) 36:1058–1069. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.16000587.2013.07872.x Miller R (1991) New directions in education. Selections from holistic education review. Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press Nordås R, Gleditsch NP (2007) Climate change and conflict. Polit Geogr 26:627–638. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.polgeo.2007.06.003 Pareckh B (2007) Reasoned identities: the distance between meaning and understanding. In: Wetherell M, Lafleche M, Berkeley R (eds) Identity, ethnic diversity and community cohesion. Sage Publications, Los Angeles/London/New Dehli, pp 130–136 Pinilla J (2018). Personal interview in person Red de colegios Cerros de Bogotá (2016) Bogotá. http://www.redcerros.org. Accessed 25 July 2016 Rudd T, Gifford C, Morrison J, Facer K (2006) What if. . . Re-imagining learning spaces. Futurelab 1–60

237 Silva E (2018). Personal interview in person Smith CW, Mayorga-Gallo S (2017) The new principlepolicy gap: how diversity ideology subverts diversity initiatives. Sociol Perspect 60:889–911. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0731121417719693 Thomas P (2011) Community cohesion in practice. In: Thomas P (ed) Youth, multiculturalism and community cohesion. Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, pp 92–116 Triandis HC (2002) Individualism – collectivism and personality. J Pers 69(6):907–924 UNESCO (2000) United Nations: the millennium development goals. http://www.un.org/en/mdg/sum mit2010/pdf/List%20of%20MDGs%20English.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar 2018 UNESCO. (2005–2014) United Nations decade of education for sustainable development (2004–2015): international implementation scheme, 2006. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2018a) Global citizenship education. https://en. unesco.org/themes/gced. Accessed 1 May 2018 UNESCO (2018b) Education for sustainable development. https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-de velopment. Accessed 3 Mar 2018 United Nations (2015) United Nations: the sustainable development goals. http://www.undp.org/content/dam /undp/library/corporate/brochure/SDGs_Booklet_Web _En.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar 2018 Varga A, Kószó MF, Mayer M, Sleurs W (2007) Developing teacher competences for education for sustainable development through reflection: the environment and school initiatives approach. J Educ Teach 33:241–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607470701259564 Weinert F (2001) Concept of competence: a conceptual clarification. In: Rychen D, Salganik L (eds) Defining and selecting key competencies. Hogrefe and Huber, Seattle, pp 45–66 Wetherell M (2007) Community cohesion and identity dynamics: dilemmas and challenges. In: Wetherell M, Laflèche M, Berkeley R (eds) Identity, ethnic diversity and community cohesion. Sage, Los Angeles, pp 1–15 Wiek A, Withycombe L, Redman CL (2011) Key competencies in sustainability: a reference framework for academic program development. Sustain Sci 6:203–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-0110132-6

Education for Sustainability (EFS) ▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

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Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education ▶ Principles of Responsible Management Education ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) ▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics

Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency

Education for Sustainable Development

generations, while respecting cultural diversity.” In simple words, we can also define “ESD” as education to achieve sustainable development. Critical thinking is the individual’s ability to apply higher-order, rational thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, problem recognition and problem-solving, inference, and evaluation. In this age of information technology, the amount of information available is massive. This kind of information explosion will continue in the future, and, in this situation, children need to weed through the information and not just receive it passively. Hence, critical thinking is important to form appropriate judgments and decisions. Critical thinking is one of the key competencies in “ESD” (“ESD” is also identified as a measure of quality in education), and mainstreaming “ESD” can promote critical thinking among the next generations.

Introduction Sadaf Taimur1,2 and Hassan Sattar3 1 Graduate Program in Sustainability Science – Global Leadership Initiative, Department of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan 2 University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa 3 Silver Oaks Schools & College, Silver Oaks International Education Services-UAE, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Synonyms Cognitive ability; Curiosity; Education to achieve sustainable development; Inquisitiveness; Sustainability education

In this entry, the concept of critical thinking, as a key competency in “ESD,” has been discussed. The entry is divided in three sections. In the first part, research literature defining critical thinking, introducing learning domains, explaining critical thinking disposition, and establishing critical thinking as a competence has been evidenced. In the second part, context of UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) has been provided in order to link it to the positioning of Education for Sustainable Development within the SDG framework with critical thinking identified as one of the core key competencies in education for sustainable development. In the final section, mainstreaming education for sustainable development as a solution has been discussed alongside the way forward recommendations on policy, efficient interventions, and pedagogies.

Definitions Education for sustainable development (referred to as “ESD” hereafter) is education that “empowers learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability and a just society, for present and future

Critical Thinking In the current digital age of fast-paced information transmission via technology, critical thinking is a vital skill for future success. The essential need for

Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency

nurturing critical thinking is an area of consensus among the key stakeholders – academia, policy makers, and business leaders. Partnership for 21st century skills (a USA-based organization) has developed a P21 Framework for 21st Century Learning with input from educators, education experts, and business leaders. The framework defines and illustrates the skills, knowledge, expertise, and support systems that students need to succeed in work, life, and citizenship (P21 2009). Within this framework, critical thinking is listed as one of the key skills to foster innovation. What is critical thinking? Critical thinking, as a focus area in academic literature, commenced from mid-late twentieth century. We find multiple and overlapping definitions of critical thinking in literature. The formal definition of critical thinking characterizes critical thinking as an intentional application of higher-order, rational, thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, problem recognition and problem-solving, inference, and evaluation (Angelo 1995). Scriven and Paul (1996) defined critical thinking as an intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. The simplest definition, however, is given by Beyer (1995), i.e., critical thinking means making reasoned judgments.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains and Critical Thinking In 1956, Dr. Benjamin Bloom proposed the “Bloom’s Taxonomy” in order to promote higher forms of thinking, such as analyzing and evaluating (concepts, procedures, processes, and principles), in education, as compared to just remembering facts. Bloom (1956) identified three domains of educational learning, i.e., (i) cognitive (mental skills), (ii) affective (growth and feelings or emotional areas), and (iii) psychomotor (manual or physical skills). The cognitive domain emphasizes intellectual outcomes. Bloom (1956) divided the cognitive

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domain further into six categories – starting from the simplest to the complex: 1. Knowledge (recalling) 2. Comprehension (the ability to prove understanding through explanation or rephrasing) 3. Application (application of information) 4. Analysis (division of information into smaller parts to achieve a clear understanding) 5. Synthesis (designing a plan or set of operations and combining parts to form a whole) 6. Evaluation (making judgments and forming opinions) Among these six categories, the last three (i.e., analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) are the outcomes which are linked to critical thinking (Styron 2014). Hence, for individuals to think critically, they should be able to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information. These cognitive skills are employed to form judgment.

Critical Thinking Disposition Research suggests that application of the use of critical thinking, while solving problems, is not a natural (or common) occurrence. In order to think critically, there must be some self-awareness and other characteristics present to enable a person to explain analysis and interpretation and to evaluate any judgments made. These characteristics create disposition to think critically. Many researchers believe that, in order to think critically, the disposition to think critically should also be nurtured (Bailin et al. 1999; Daly 2001; Facione et al. 1994). Facione et al. (1995) proposed that a person who thinks critically uses seven dispositions to form or make judgments. For example, if an individual is not open-minded, he/she might not be able to tolerate views opposing his/her ideas or opinions and, hence, will not be able to consider broad options before forming an opinion or judgment. The seven dispositions are: 1. Truth-seeking: the desire for the best knowledge in any situation, even if such knowledge fails to support or undermines one’s

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2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

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preconceptions, beliefs, or self-interests; the intellectual integrity to follow reasons and evidence wherever they lead Open-mindedness: tolerance of divergent views, self-monitoring for possible bias Analyticity: demanding the application of reason and evidence to resolve problems. Being alert to problematic situations and inclined to anticipate consequences Systematicity: valuing organization, focus and diligence, and persistence in approaching problems of all levels of complexity Self-confidence: trusting of one’s own reasoning skills and seeing oneself as a good thinker Inquisitiveness: curious and eager to acquire knowledge and learn explanations even when the applications of the knowledge are not immediately apparent Maturity of judgment: prudence in making, suspending, or revising judgment; an awareness that multiple solutions can be acceptable; an appreciation of the need to reach closure in certain circumstances even in the absence of complete knowledge

Individuals may possess knowledge to think critically about an issue, but if these dispositional affects or attitudes do not work, individuals may fail to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information to think critically (Walker 2003).

Critical Thinking as a Competency According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (2002), competency includes a combination of knowledge, skills, and behavior that are practiced for selfimprovement. Salleh (2012) defined competency as a set of skills, knowledge, and behavior which characterize better performance. Rychen and Salganik (2001) proposed that competency not only is about knowledge and skills but also involves the ability to fulfill complex demands by preparing psychosocial resources such as skills and attitudes in specific context. With this backdrop, critical thinking can be defined as a competency. To think critically,

individuals need (a) knowledge to think critically (Walker 2003), (b) specific cognitive skills (ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information) (Bloom 1956), and (c) specific attitudes/ dispositions (truth-seeking, open-mindedness, analyticity, systematicity, self-confidence, inquisitiveness, and maturity of judgment) (Facione et al. 1995). These three aspects are combined to solve some tasks/assignments which require critical thinking (as a competency). Figure 1, adapted from UNIDO (2002), illustrates critical thinking competency model that is based on three aspects.

Education for Sustainable Development Leading to Sustainable Development Sustainability challenges, including climate change, loss of biodiversity, poverty, epidemics, and violent conflicts, manifest at a certain location, yet the underlying causes are linked to other nations, locations, and even the global society. Hence, options for mitigation, adaptation, and solution to these interconnected challenges require collaborated and coordinated efforts (Van der Leeuw et al. 2012). These interconnected environmental, social, economic, and political challenges call for education to enable the young generation to act and engage responsibly and innovatively with this world – “ESD” that “empowers learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability and a just society, for present and future generations, while respecting cultural diversity” (UNESCO 2014). On 25 September 2015, the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN Resolution 2015). At the core of the 2030 Agenda are 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The universal, transformational, and inclusive SDGs describe major development challenges for humanity. The aim of these goals is to secure a sustainable, peaceful, prosperous, and equitable life on earth for everyone now and in the future (UNESCO 2017). In this (ambitious) agenda, SDG-4, Target 4.7 is an acknowledgment of the critical importance of education for sustainable development, global

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Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency, Fig. 1 Main aspects of critical thinking competency. (Adapted from UNIDO 2002)

citizenship education, and other transformational education movements for a sustainable and peaceful future for all. Target 4.7 states: “by 2030 ensure all learners acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including among others through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and nonviolence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development” (UN Resolution 2015). Meaningful progress on the path of sustainable development will require a thoughtful transformation of how we think and act. In order to understand sustainability challenges, and to engage with sustainability issues, individuals must become sustainability change-makers. For becoming change-makers, they require the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that empower them to contribute to sustainable development (UNESCO 2017). Education, therefore, is crucial for the achievement of sustainable development. However, all forms of education do not support sustainable development. Education which promotes economic growth only can lead to unsustainable consumption patterns.

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2017), “ESD” is defined as education that empowers learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society – for present and future generations. The aim of education for sustainable development is to enable individuals to reflect on their own actions, taking into account their current and future social, cultural, economic, and environmental impacts, from a local and a global perspective. Gough and Scott (2003) frame sustainability and learning as complex, uncertain, risky, and necessary, suggesting that “ESD” should also empower individuals to act in a sustainable manner in complex situations. This may require thinking creatively and innovating, participating in sociopolitical processes, and leading their societies (spheres of influence) toward sustainable development. In summary, “ESD” enables individuals to contribute to achieving sustainable development goals by equipping them with the knowledge and competencies they need to understand the sustainability issues and bring about the necessary transformations as informed citizens.

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Critical Thinking as a Key Competency in Education for Sustainable Development With the pace technology is progressing today, and with its intended as well as derivative consequences locally and globally, societies may encounter new kind of challenges. These challenges include uncertainty and complexity, more individualization and social diversity, environmental degradation, enhanced vulnerability to natural and technological hazards, and expanding economic and cultural uniformity. Dealing with these situations requires creative and selforganized actions. People must be aware of the complexity of the world they live in, and (recognize that) they need to collaborate, speak up, and act for positive change (UNESCO 2015). These people are titled as “sustainability citizens” (Wals 2015; Wals and Lenglet 2016). There is general agreement that sustainability citizens need to have certain key competencies that allow them to engage constructively and responsibly with today’s world (UNESCO 2017). Key competencies represent cross-cutting competencies that are necessary, for all learners, of all ages – worldwide (developed at different age-appropriate levels). Key competencies can be understood as transversal, multifunctional, and context-independent. They do not replace specific competencies necessary for successful action in certain situations and contexts but encompass these and are more broadly focused (Rychen 2003). There is a consensus in defining key competencies to successfully design academic programs (Baartman et al. 2007) as competenceoriented education focused on output – the output approach asks what problem-solving strategies, concepts, and abilities pupils should have (De Haan 2010). “ESD” aims to develop competencies which can enable learners to participate in the sociopolitical processes and move their society toward sustainable development (De Haan 2006; Hopkins and McKeown 2002). Within the sustainability programs, key competencies are important because developing students to be leaders, problem-solvers, and change agents of the future needs a particular set of “knowledge and skills” (Willard et al.

2010). Hence, key competencies are referred to as an amalgamation of skills, knowledge, and attitudes which leads to task performance and problem-solving with respect to real-world sustainability challenges and prospects (Barth et al. 2007; Wiek et al. 2011). UNESCO (2017) identified that eight key competencies are generally seen as crucial to advance sustainable development. These key competencies must be seen as output of “ESD.” These competencies are adapted from de Haan (2010), Rieckmann (2012), and Wiek et al. (2011) and are as follows: 1. Systems thinking competency The ability to recognize and understand connections and analyze complex systems across scales and domains 2. Anticipatory competency The ability to understand and evaluate multiple futures – possible, probable, and desirable, to create one’s own visions for the future, to apply the precautionary principle, to assess the consequences of actions, and to deal with risks and changes 3. Normative competency The ability to understand and reflect on the norms and values that underlie one’s actions and identify, map, collate, and negotiate sustainability concepts, values, goals, targets, and principles 4. Strategic competency The ability to collectively develop and implement innovative actions that further sustainability at the local level and further afield 5. Collaboration competency The ability to learn from others; to understand and respect the needs, perspectives, and actions of others (empathy); to understand, relate to, and be sensitive to others (empathic leadership); to deal with conflicts in a group; and to facilitate collaborative and participatory problem-solving 6. Critical thinking competency The ability to question norms, practices, and opinions; to reflect on one’s own values, perceptions, and actions; and to take a position in the sustainability discourse

Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency, Table 1 Key competencies in “ESD” divided into three domains Cognitive domain Key Systems competency thinking Anticipatory Normative Critical thinking

Socioemotional Behavioral domain domain Collaboration Strategic

Selfawareness

Integrated problemsolving

7. Self-awareness competency The ability to reflect on one’s own role in the local community and (global) society, to continually evaluate and further motivate one’s actions, and to deal with one’s feelings and desires 8. Integrated problem-solving competency The overarching ability to apply different problem-solving frameworks to complex sustainability problems and develop viable, inclusive, and equitable solution options that promote sustainable development, integrating the abovementioned competences Table 1 divides the abovementioned competencies into three domains, i.e., (a) cognitive domain (knowledge and thinking abilities), (b) socio-emotional domain (social abilities), and (c) behavioral domain (action competencies). Arranging these key competencies, in the framework of three domains (see Fig. 2), it is conclusively clear that for “ESD” to be effective, key competencies in cognitive domain have to develop first, followed by the competencies in socio-emotional and behavioral domain. Key competencies, in cognitive domain (systems thinking, anticipatory, normative, and critical thinking), provide foundation for competencies in socioemotional (collaboration and self-awareness) and behavioral domain (strategic and problem-solving) to develop. Knowledge and thinking competencies are vital to provide appropriate disposition to develop socio-emotional competencies. Without cognitive competencies, it is impossible to develop socio-emotional or behavioral competencies. To

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develop behavioral competencies, so that individuals can behave or to be sustainability citizens, it is important for individuals to have a certain amount of knowledge, abilities to think (cognitive competencies), and awareness about themselves and others around them (socio-emotional competencies). Action needs foundation, and that foundation is provided by knowledge, thinking abilities, and social abilities. Based on this framework, cognitive competencies can also be regarded as core key competencies in “ESD.” Critical thinking, one of the key competencies in “ESD,” falls under the cognitive domain. Conversely, developing critical thinking, as a competency, is a critical prerequisite for building sustainability citizens. It is vital to “mainstream” ESD in order to develop critical thinking and other key competencies (that will now be necessary) to survive and thrive in an uncertain and technology-driven future. Way Forward to Mainstream Education for Sustainable Development in the Context of Nurturing Critical Thinking The importance of building critical thinking competency among individuals and this being a key competence within “ESD” is well established in the literature. “Mainstreaming education for sustainable development” is seen as one of the core strategies to (a) impart critical thinking competency among the future generation and (b) help in achieving SDG-4, Target 4.7. As a way forward, the following points can be considered to promote critical thinking, via “ESD,” as a vital component of education and learning. Policy

Policy is a key ingredient in mainstreaming “ESD” in formal, informal, and non-formal education settings. There is a need for relevant and coherent policies to facilitate educational reforms. The ministry of education (or equivalent national regulatory body) in every country, across the globe, bears the responsibility of ensuring that the respective education system is prepared and responsive to existing and emerging sustainability challenges. This includes, among others, integrating education for sustainable development into

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Education for Sustainable Development Key competencies: System Thinking Anticipatory Normative Critical Thinking Key competencies: Collaboration Self-awareness

ESD

Key competencies: Strategic Integrated Problem Solving

Cognitive Domain Socio-emotional Domain Behavioral Domain

Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency, Fig. 2 Key competencies in education for sustainable development arranged in a three-domain framework

curricula and national educational quality standards and developing framework to establish standards for learning outcomes. Reorientation of educational policies toward sustainable development is underway. For example, Kenya adopted the education for sustainable development strategy in 2008. This strategy acknowledges that in order to have quality education, leading toward development, it is important to nurture productive and socially responsible individuals. This ESD strategy was aimed at promoting teaching and learning that inculcates appropriate values, behavior, and lifestyles for good governance and sustainability among other focuses. The Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development also formulated the “ESD” policy framework in 2012. The aim of this policy framework is to support sustainable development through transformative curriculum support

materials. “ESD” has also been entrenched in the National Education Sector Program to be implemented over 5 years (2013–2018) and is captured in Vision 2030, Kenya’s road map to the realization of sustainable development, showing the importance of alignment with national sustainable development objectives (UNESCO 2014). In another example, Costa Rica has been one of the acknowledged leaders in efforts to promote “ESD” in the form of environmental learning, and national policy includes a threefold national development strategy which simultaneously promotes education, conservation, and ecotourism (Blum 2008). Costa Rica has been applauded for its attention to educational initiatives to promote sustainability attitude and behavior. National policies keep making reference to how these efforts are contributing to wider international agendas. This makes sure that

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international agendas are converged to the national context for effective implementation. The national state school curriculum, for instance, requires environmental learning as part of both primary and secondary education, while staterun national conservation areas provide informal learning opportunities for both domestic and international visitors. Designing this kind of integrated and cross-sectoral policy has been successful because of the support from national and international NGOs and private sector. Leaders from all of these sectors commonly express a commitment to a national development strategy which simultaneously encourages conservation, ecotourism, and education. Hence, collaboration and consultation played its role. For initiating change, it is crucial for education ministries to design relevant and coherent policies in consultation and collaboration with private sector, local communities, academics, and civil society. “ESD” has to be “integrated into sub-national, national, sub-regional, regional and international policy frameworks, plans, strategies, programs and processes related to education and to sustainable development” (UNESCO 2014). When it comes to policy, there is no “one-size-fits-all” approach. Every region/country has its own political and sociocultural realities. Also, social, environmental, and ecological challenges may vary from region to region. With this background, contextual grounding of “ESD” and locally and nationally relevant interpretations of “ESD” are required. This will help in achieving broad international agendas to mainstream and implement “ESD.” By enabling learners to live and act in an uncertain world, “ESD” enhances the quality of education or quality of teaching and learning (Laurie et al. 2016). Education policy has to view “ESD” as an important contributor to educational quality. Efficient Interventions

Laurie et al. (2016) identified the need to integrate “ESD” across all subjects in order to provide professional development to the teachers and ensure “ESD” policy implementation. Within formal education, “ESD” should be

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included in early childhood care and education, primary and secondary education, technical and vocational education and training (TVET), and higher education. For example, “Finland is reforming the national core curricula for preschool and basic education to support and promote sustainable development and well-being following the value basis of education, where the necessity of a sustainable way of living and eco-social understanding is emphasized. The aim is to support all students in developing the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that promote their ability to understand the importance of a sustainable future” (UNESCO 2014). Subject content, textbooks, and curriculum have always been at the heart of formal education system, and their design impacts teachers’ education, pedagogies, and classroom practices. In some countries, where the modern education system was developed under colonialism, textbooks – more than the syllabus or curriculum – dictate what teachers teach. Even in our increasingly digital era, school textbooks remain “the most visible part of the curriculum,” and they are often seen as “authoritative sources for the transfer of knowledge and social values” (Georgescu et al. 2007). However, in some other countries, curriculum and syllabus dictate what teachers teach in the classes. Keeping in mind all these cases, “ESD” needs to be inculcated in what teachers teach in the class and the pedagogies they implement. To achieve this, “ESD” should be embedded in all subjects instead of being introduced as a separate subject. Given the number of instructional hours to teach all the subjects and, in some cases, their mandatory examinable status, embedding “ESD” into core subjects will be a more effective and efficient way to nurture key sustainability competencies and achieve SDG Target 4.7 (UNESCO 2017). UNESCO (2004) has identified two key dimensions of educational quality: (1) the promotion of learners’ cognitive development and (2) the cultivation of the skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes necessary for responsible, active, and productive citizenship. Embedding “ESD,” therefore,

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contributes directly to the long-established quality agenda of education, as well as the integrated and transformative agenda for sustainable development. While structure is required for the curriculum to maintain the standards, at the same time, flexibility in curriculum policy and design is also required in order to allow primary and secondary schools to develop projects and content which are locally relevant. This will also nurture innovation and creativity. Teachers hold the key to change in schools. This has been recognized by international agencies such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) who have identified the professional development of teachers in education for sustainable development (ESD) as “the priority of priorities” (UNESCO-UNEP 1990). Integrating “ESD” component in teachers’ education is important, but the content of the teacher education programs must be developed with the participation of key stakeholders including students, teachers, NGOs, and “ESD” experts. As there are still many teachers who have not learned about “ESD” in their previous or preservice training, “ESD” as a component should be inculcated in the in-service training. On the one hand, it opens up opportunities for developing the necessary knowledge and competencies to participate in the process of sustainable development. On the other, this professional development is a prerequisite for reorienting educational processes and educational institutions. Ferreira et al. (2007) conducted a study that sought to identify and appraise the models underpinning a range of initial teacher education initiatives in “ESD” developed in Australia. The study recommended that a hybrid of the “action research” and “whole-of-system” models should be adopted, in future efforts, to mainstream “ESD” in initial teacher education. The concept of these two models is as follows: (a) Action research model: initiatives based on the action research model aim to build capacity in educators so that they see themselves as competent developers and deliverers of

curriculum and policy. While action research is commonly seen as a research method, it can also be used as a process of professional development. (b) Whole-of-system model: The whole-ofsystem model includes working at the interface of every contextual layer of initial teacher education from students and practicum school principals and teachers to program directors and external agencies, so that the organizational culture and processes of each can be influenced. While such a broad approach is difficult to coordinate, the initiatives using this model demonstrated the greatest degree of long-term and system-wide change. This is a top-down and bottom-up, multifaceted system change approach. Ferreira et al. (2007) proposed to combine best practices from the abovementioned models and named the hybrid of these two models as “Sustainability Mainstreaming” model. This model incorporates a multilateral approach to engaging stakeholders to ensure whole-ofsystem support. This, in combination with an action research method, offers a powerful means for developing a practitioner’s sense of autonomy, ownership, and ability to bring about change within one’s own context or settings. This approach can allow stakeholders to determine what is needed (based on the context) – it can be new curriculum, new policies, or a reform in the delivery of initial teacher education – and what would work best within their particular contexts. Pedagogies

As “ESD” is about developing active sustainability citizens, it shall motivate and empower learners to think critically and participate in shaping the future of this world. In this context, it is important to use appropriate pedagogies in the classrooms. UNESCO (2017) proposed three pedagogical approaches deemed adequate to achieve this aim: (a) Learner-centered approaches – require learners to reflect on their own knowledge

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and learning processes in order to manage and monitor them. Educators should stimulate and support those reflections. In a learner-centered approach, educators act as facilitators of learning processes (Barth 2014). (b) Action-oriented approaches – require learners to engage in actions and reflect on their experiences. Action learning is aligned to Kolb’s experiential learning theory which has the following stages: (1) having a concrete experience, (2) observing and reflecting, (3) forming abstract concepts for generalization, and (4) applying them in new situations (Kolb 2014). Action learning links abstract concepts to personal experiences and hence increases knowledge acquisition, competency development, and values clarification. (c) Transformative approaches – aim at empowering learners to question and change the ways in which they see and think about the world in order to deepen their understanding of it (Slavich and Zimbardo 2012). The educator, being a facilitator, challenges the learners to alter their world views.

Conclusion With the technology-driven winds of change blowing at the speed of knots, critical thinking is one of the essential skills for future success and survival. There is a consensus among academics, practitioners, and policy makers that nurturing critical thinking competence is vital for the future generation(s). Critical thinking is also an established key competency in education for sustainable development. Mainstreaming education for sustainable development can contribute to improving the quality of education by imparting key competencies (including critical thinking). Education officials, policy makers, academics, educators, curriculum developers, and other key stakeholders are called upon to rethink education in the light of mainstreaming education for sustainable development in order to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development goals and facilitate a thriving future. This dual-purpose learning can be

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promoted with the help of policies, educational institution design, curriculum, textbooks, teachers’ training, and the right pedagogical approaches. All of these measures can be guided by the key competencies in education for sustainable development in order to make sure that right competencies are being nurtured.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

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Facione NC, Facione PA, Sanchez CA (1994) Critical thinking disposition as a measure of competent clinical judgment: the development of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory. J Nurs Educ 33(8):345–350 Facione PA, Sanchez CA, Facione NC, Gainen J (1995) The disposition toward critical thinking. J Gen Educ 44:1–25 Ferreira JA, Ryan L, Tilbury D (2007) Mainstreaming education for sustainable development in initial teacher education in Australia: a review of existing professional development models. J Educ Teach 33(2): 225–239 Georgescu D, Bernard J, Unesco (2007) Thinking and building peace through innovative textbook design: report of the inter-regional experts’ meeting on developing guidelines for promoting peace and intercultural understanding through curricula, textbooks and learning materials; Paris, 14–15 June 2007. UNESCO, Education Sector. Paris, France: UNESCO Gough S, Scott W (2003) Sustainable development and learning: framing the issues. Routledge, London Hopkins C, McKeown R (2002) Education for sustainable development: an international perspective. In: Education and sustainability: responding to the global challenge. p 13. http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/ P21_Framework_Definitions.pdf. Accessed 27 June 2018 Kolb DA (2014) Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey, USA: FT Press Laurie R, Nonoyama-Tarumi Y, Mckeown R, Hopkins C (2016) Contributions of education for sustainable development (ESD) to quality education: a synthesis of research. J Educ Sustain Dev 10(2):226–242 Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) P21 framework definitions. Available at: http://static.battelleforkids. org/documents/p21/P21_Framework_DefinitionsBFK. pdf Resolution A (2015) RES/70/1. Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. Seventieth United Nations General Assembly, New York, p 25. Available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ post2015/transformingourworld Rieckmann M (2012) Future-oriented higher education: which key competencies should be fostered through university teaching and learning? Futures 44(2):127–135 Rychen DS (2003) Key competencies: meeting important challenges in life. In: Key competencies for a successful life and a well-functioning society. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers. pp 63–107 Rychen DSE, Salganik LHE (2001) Defining and selecting key competencies. Hogrefe & Huber Publishers, Ashland Salleh KM (2012) Human Resource Development practitioners’ perspectives on competencies: an application of American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) Workplace Learning and Performance (WLP)

competency model in Malaysia. Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University Scriven M, Paul R (1996) Defining critical thinking: a draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking. [On-line] Slavich GM, Zimbardo PG (2012) Transformational teaching: theoretical underpinnings, basic principles, and core methods. Educ Psychol Rev 24(4):569–608 Styron RA Jr (2014) Critical thinking and collaboration; a strategy to enhance student learning. J Syst 12(7): 25–30 UNESCO (2004) Education for all global monitoring report 2005. Education for all: the quality imperative. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, Paris. Available at: http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0013/001373/137333e.pdf UNESCO (2014) UNESCO roadmap for implementing the global action programme on education for sustainable development. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, Paris. http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0023/002305/230514e.pdf UNESCO (2015) Rethinking education. Towards a global common good? United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002325/23 2555e.pdf UNESCO (2017) Education for sustainable development goals: learning objectives. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002474/24 7444e.pdf UNESCO-UNEP (1990) Environmentally educated teachers the priority of priorities? Connect 15(1):1–3 UNIDO (2002) UNIDO competencies, part 1: strengthening organizational core values and managerial capabilities. United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Vienna Van der Leeuw S, Wiek A, Harlow J, Buizer J (2012) How much time do we have? Urgency and rhetoric in sustainability science. Sustain Sci 7(1):115–120 Walker SE (2003) Active learning strategies to promote critical thinking. J Athl Train 38(3):263 Wals AEJ (2015) Beyond unreasonable doubt. Education and learning for socio-ecological sustainability in the Anthropocene. Wageningen University, Wageningen Wals AE, Lenglet F (2016) Sustainability citizens: collaborative and disruptive social learning. In: Sustainability citizenship in cities. London, UK: Routledge, pp 72–86 Wiek A, Withycombe L, Redman CL (2011) Key competencies in sustainability: a reference framework for academic program development. Sustain Sci 6(2):203–218 Willard M, Wiedmeyer C, Warren Flint R, Weedon JS, Woodward R, Feldman I, Edwards M (2010) The sustainability professional: 2010 competency survey report. Environ Qual Manag 20(1):49–83

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Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts Elizabeth A. C. Rushton1 and Meryl Batchelder2 1 Faculty of Social Science and Public Policy, School of Education, Communication and Society, King’s College London, London, UK 2 Department of Science, Corbridge Middle School, Corbridge, Northumberland, UK

Synonyms Cocurricular; learning.

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learning;

the needs of the planet and people unbalanced, toward those models which support a prosperous and peaceful world for all (Wals 2009), while accepting that the meanings of this definition is open to debate. The focus of this entry is to consider the role of extra-curricular/non-curricular settings as a context for ESD. At the outset the usage and meanings of the terms are briefly explored, which include the terms informal and nonformal learning. The challenges and opportunities provided by extra-curricular/non-curricular activities in a range of settings are discussed before some examples of these types of ESD are outlined. The entry concludes by suggesting possible future directions.

Nonformal

Extra-Curricular/Non-curricular Education: Understanding the Terms Definition Extra-curricular and non-curricular education in Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is distinct from formal curricular learning through the content delivered (which is outside of or beyond the formal curriculum and the context or place of learning). Although much extracurricular and non-curricular learning frequently takes place on school sites and can be a part of the extended school day, it is often learning that incorporates practical activities, student choice, and interdisciplinarity that is not linked to assessment.

Introduction Over the last 40 years, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has grown out of Environmental Education (EE) and Development Education (ED) in a complex and complicated evolution (Hart and Nolan 1999; Marcinkowski 2009; Kopnina 2012; Stevenson 2013) that is beyond the scope of this entry. To avoid ambiguity, ESD is used in this entry to mean learning that promotes “sustainable development” and that “sustainable development” represents a desire to move away from existing models of development which leave

Extra-curricular activities are separate from structured and assessment-focused education (Garrecht et al. 2018) and are commonly voluntary, un-assessed, and supplementary educational opportunities which are often located within the school environment but outside the regular school timetable (Mahoney and Cairns 1997). A key difference between extra-curricular and noncurricular activities is that although both are optional, extra-curricular activities are commonly linked to school curriculum, whereas the latter are not (Mahoney and Cairns 1997). Garrecht et al. (2018) use the term extended education which encompasses both extra-curricular and noncurricular activities as they define extended education as educationally structured, studentcentered learning processes that are not part of the regular curriculum. Over the last two decades, learning has commonly been defined in three broad categories, formal, nonformal, and informal (Eshach 2007). Formal learning is frequently school-based, structured, compulsory, assessed, teacher-led, and sequential (Eshach 2007). Nonformal and informal learning are both voluntary, non-sequential, and un-assessed; however, like formal learning, nonformal is structured and teacher-guided or teacher-led, whereas informal

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learning is spontaneous, learner-led, unstructured, and based everywhere (Eshach 2007). There is variability in the positioning of ESD within school curricula. High school (11–18 years) ESD, and environmental education more broadly, is frequently situated as part of science education (Glackin et al. 2018; Glackin and King 2018; Sætre 2016). The division of learning into formal, nonformal, and informal has become a familiar part of science education, and over the last two decades, what constitutes education and learning in science has expanded to include informal science learning (ISL) experiences that occur in contexts such as science centers, museums, aquaria, zoos, and botanic gardens (Bray et al. 2011; Falk et al. 2012). Understandings of the development of what constitutes science education is useful when considering the different spaces of learning in ESD, as these spaces of ISL have been shown to both extended and complement schoolbased science learning (Reiss et al. 2016; Russell et al. 2013). ISL takes place in a diverse range of experiences and activities that are outside of “formal” science lessons, and previous research has identified three distinct elements within this larger group: “everyday” science engagement (e.g., watching television/accessing Internet content), “informal” science activities (e.g., visiting a science center or aquarium), and school-led science enrichment (e.g., science club, school trip) (Falk et al. 2012; Russell et al. 2013; DeWitt and Archer 2017). This understanding of the relationships between formal, informal, and nonformal science education is helpful when considering the structures and boundaries between ESD in curricular, extra-curricular, and non-curricular settings. As with science, ESD is a complex field of learning, where greater development of knowledge and attitudes can take place in extra-curricular/noncurricular settings (Ha-Brookshire and Norum 2011; Lipscombe et al. 2008; Winter and Cotton 2012). ESD extra-curricular and non-curricular activities are found across all educational phases including primary (4–10 years) (Mannion 2005, 2019), high school (11–18 years) (Emery et al. 2017; Levine Rose and Calabrese Barton 2012; Siegel 2006), and further and higher education

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(>16 years) (Lipscombe et al. 2008; Rowe 2007; Cotton and Winter 2010). Although the settings and age range differ, the following discussion explores the common opportunities and challenges of extra- and non-curricular activities in ESD and includes ways to implement ESD through extra- and non-curricular education.

Opportunities Research has demonstrated the positive effect of extra-curricular and non-curricular activities on students’ knowledge and attitudes regarding sustainability and sustainable development (Ha-Brookshire and Norum 2011; Lipscombe et al. 2008; Winter and Cotton 2012). Three key opportunities that these contexts bring to ESD include (1) enhancing the position of ESD; (2) providing ESD that is framed by relevant, interdisciplinary learning which includes student decisionmaking; and (3) promoting citizenship. Enhancing the Position of ESD Five years on from UNESCO’s Global Action Programme, with detailed guidance on the implementation of ESD (UNESCO 2014), the position of ESD in school or higher education curricular continues to be variable across different countries (Glackin and Dillon 2018). Drawing on the examples of the English and Scottish school curricula, Glackin and Dillon (2018) highlight how geographically close nations can have such differing approaches to ESD. Approaches range from integrating ESD across the whole curriculum in Scotland (Education Scotland 2019) to ESD being absent from the Teacher Standards (Department for Education 2011) and significantly marginalized in the National Curriculum in England (Glackin and Dillon 2018). Even when sustainability and sustainable development are central concepts in school curriculum (e.g., Norway) and in teachers’ professional standards (e.g., Scotland), this does not always translate into ESD education that is implemented in school curricula (Sætre 2016). The intangibility of the end goal of effective ESD and the contested nature of what is “effective” provides a challenging context in

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which to devise and implement educational policy (Stevenson 2013; McKenzie et al. 2015). Conversely, the absence of these concepts in curricula and professional development frameworks does not always equate with a lack of student understanding of sustainability (Walshe 2013). Rowe (2007) suggest that extra-curricular and non-curricular ESD is effective because these activities overcome structured boundaries found in formal educational settings, including disciplinary and age boundaries. McKeown and Hopkins (2016) also recognize the challenges of ESD in formal education, where the focus of schooling is too narrow to encompass the interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary nature of sustainability and sustainable development in contrast to the flexible and adaptive context of extra-curricular and non-curricular activities. Time, staffing, and accountability pressures in schools are recognized as limiting factors for the position of ESD in formal education (Deuchar 2007; Pittman et al. 2004; Sleeter and Flores Carmona 2017). Others have questioned whether formal education is capable of incorporating the radical social change required by sustainable development (Sterling 1996). Some of these challenges could be addressed through implementing ESD as part of extra-curricular and non-curricular education. However, it should be noted that much of the activities held outside of school hours are often located in school sites and coordinated by school staff and so are subject to the same staffing and time pressures. Informal education in locations beyond school (e.g., outdoor learning, museums, science centers, zoos) may be better positioned to provide additional ESD opportunities but have their own associated challenges and pressures. In post-school education, ESD has been subject to much critique (Lipscombe et al. 2008), with challenges including lack of commitment and resources and the fragmentation of knowledge of sustainable development between disciplinary boundaries, that leads to understandings of sustainable development that are ill-defined and poorly understood (Lipscombe et al. 2008). Lipscombe et al. (2008) highlights how extra-curricular and non-curricular activities provide opportunities for change in the provision of ESD in higher education including providing a disciplinary bridge,

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developing links across communities, and allowing creativity in teaching and learning. Relevant, Interdisciplinary Learning which Includes Student Decision-Making The importance of ESD that is personally relevant to students has been highlighted in research for over 20 years (Fettis and Ramsden 1995; Martin and Chen 2016; Glackin and Dillon 2018). Extracurricular and non-curricular education provides a space for young people to explore ESD in a way that is locally relevant and using language and contexts that are meaningful to them and their communities, unconstrained by curricula foci, time pressures, and external accountability measures (Sterling 1996; Deuchar 2007). Sustainable development draws on the four core areas of cultural, economic, environmental, and social sustainability (Giddings et al. 2002; Hawkes 2001; LealFilho 2000) and requires interdisciplinary frameworks and approaches that enable students to critically question and identify solutions (Wals 2011). UNESCO (2006) blended this need for a holistic and interdisciplinary approach, where ESD is embedded across whole curricula rather than separated into individual subject areas, with a participatory approach that included decision-making (Glackin and Dillon 2018). Student decisionmaking is an important feature of ESD in formal and extra-curricular and non-curricular education in two distinct ways: firstly, opportunities for students to make decisions about the way that they learn (UNESCO 2006) and secondly, the process of selecting a preferred course of action from a wider selection, in reference to identified criteria. Garrecht et al. (2018) suggest that decision-making is a core competence to enable students to understand sustainable development issues and argue that extra-curricular and non-curricular activities provide the interdisciplinary, participatory, and relevant contexts required for this understanding of effective ESD (Cincera and Kovacikova 2014; Mannion 2005). Some of the key components of this approach, including relevance (Sadler et al. 2007), critical thinking (Wals 2011), and decisionmaking (NFER 2006), have also been recognized as central features of developing young people’s citizenship. However, many have challenged this

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transmissive approach to ESD, arguing for learning that recognizes the influence of prevailing political discourses if it is to genuinely move into ESD that is radical and transformative (Huckle and Wals 2015; Summers and Cutting 2016). Promoting Citizenship Extra-curricular and non-curricular education has been recognized by teachers as an important way to develop student citizenship (NFER 2006) and create contexts where young people can act as “critical-democratic citizens” (Veugelers 2007, p. 107). Dobson (2007) suggests that environmental citizenship is having a commitment to the common good with a balance of an individual’s public and private rights and responsibilities that are intergenerational and international. Another term used in this context over the last 40 years is “global citizenship” which, as with “environmental citizenship,” recognizes that citizenship is a concept that transcends national boundaries and considers the ways in which cultures and communities are similar, different, and related to one’s own (Robbins et al. 2003). Dobson (2007) suggests that general topics included in the formal citizenship curriculum could be taught through the case of environmental citizenship and “made real” through involvement in extra-curricular accredited award schemes so that they develop both the knowledge of citizenship and the skills of “enquiry, co-operation and communication” (p. 285). Feldman and Matjasko (2005) highlight how extra-curricular activities in general provide spaces for young people to develop, explore, and express their identity and generate social capital. When these activities take place within the framework of ESD, they provide both the context and the content to develop global and/or environmental citizenship.

Challenges in Extra- and Non-curricular Contexts Critics have questioned whether education should and can advance sustainable development (Jickling and Wals 2008; Kopnina 2012). Although this complex debate is beyond the scope of this discussion, here will address three

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other challenges associated with implementing ESD outside of the formal curriculum. Three specific problems that are considered here include the capacity of extra-curricular and non-curricular contexts to support the complex, interdisciplinary learning necessary in ESD, issues of the perceived value of ESD in comparison to other curricular subjects, and the resource implications that extracurricular and non-curricular opportunities have. UNESCO (2006) suggests that ESD should aim to be interdisciplinary and holistic and develop students’ critical thinking and problem-solving. As has been long recognized, extra-curricular and non-curricular spaces have many affordances for holistic ESD, rooted in relevant, local examples (Fettis and Ramsden 1995). However, sustainability and sustainable development themselves are complex concepts whose definitions and parameters are variable and, for some, contradictory to their purported aims (McKenzie et al. 2015). For some, the very term sustainability is so hard to distil it is impossible to teach, while for others the contested nature of the term enables teachers and students to debate its meaning in a way that brings relevance and includes student voice (Glackin and Dillon 2018). Unpicking complex and sometimes paradoxical concepts can be challenging in extracurricular and non-curricular settings, where learners are likely to have a greater range of knowledge and understanding and it may be difficult for young people to engage in key ideas associated with ESD without prior learning of foundational terminology and concepts. Compounding the problems associated with fragmented learning sequences are added complexities caused by ESD being largely positioned outside of the curriculum and, often, delivered by external providers or partners. Certainly, the range of external partners and providers that can contribute to extra-curricular and non-curricular ESD can allow young people to engage with a variety of highly skilled stakeholders at a local, national, and global scale. In some contexts, external contributions are a central feature of stated ESD policies (Olsson et al. 2016). However, the positioning of ESD as beyond the core curriculum, delivered by outside agencies, can reduce its perceived value and importance, thus limiting its

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allocated time and financial resources in comparison with “core” curricular subjects (Glackin et al. 2018; Ramjan 2018). As shown in Table 1, there are a range of extra-curricular and non-curricular opportunities to incorporate ESD into the learning of a young person. There is also substantial variability in the financial, time, and staffing resources needed, as well as parental and community support. In many contexts, extra-curricular and noncurricular activities in schools are staffed by unpaid volunteers and funded through donations and charitable grants. Applications for funding are time-consuming and rely on teachers having an awareness of the different schemes and developing the skills necessary to be successfully awarded a grant. Without funding either through grants or school provision, there will be inequity in access to these opportunities that rely on parental contributions. Beyond the operational costs of these activities (transport, materials, equipment), there is also a need to invest in the training and development of staff who facilitate and lead these activities in order for them to provide effective ESD.

Examples of ESD Extra-Curricular and Non-curricular Activities It is not possible to provide a detailed inventory of extra-curricular and non-curricular activities or detail specific initiatives in ESD. However, Table 1 provides an overview of the different ways in which ESD can be incorporated as part of extracurricular and non-curricular activities, with a focus on those which are frequently held on school sites or as part of a school’s extended provision but are beyond the formal curricular. This focus has been chosen to reflect the important role that schools and teachers have in facilitating these opportunities for ESD. The resources required (e.g., financial, time, training) for each activity are outlined.

Future Directions One way to support the delivery of extracurricular and non-curricular ESD in challenging contexts can be through citizen science projects.

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Over the past two decades, there has been a rapid expansion of citizen science projects – projects that involve members of the public in research science in informal contexts, including extracurricular and non-curricular activities (Curtis 2015; Gura 2013). With this expansion, the range of approaches taken when involving the public in science research activities has also increased (Bonney et al. 2009; Wiggins and Crowston 2011). This growth has led to classifications or typologies of citizen science projects (Bonney et al. 2009; Bonney et al. 2016; Cooper et al. 2007; Wiggins and Crowston 2011; Wilderman 2007). The most frequent approach to grouping citizen science projects is focused on the varying levels of participation that members of the public have in directing or leading the scientific process, and this has created the three categories: contributory projects, collaborative projects, and co-created projects (Bonney et al. 2009). Bonney et al. (2016) developed a further classification of citizen science projects, identifying four categories that are defined by the types of activities participants are engaged in, including data collection, data processing, and curriculumbased and community science. Bonney et al. (2016) suggest that scientific outcomes for citizen science projects are well documented for data collection and data processing projects and that there is growing evidence that citizen science projects develop both scientific knowledge and public understanding of scientific research. Ballard et al. (2017, p. 65) suggest that environmental science agency (ESA) is a combination of an: . . .understanding of environmental science and inquiry practices. . .[and]. . .youths’ identification with those practices and their belief that the ecosystem is something on which they act.

Ballard et al. (2017, p. 65) suggest that citizen science projects can “foster youth participation in current conservation actions and build their capacity for future conservation actions.” These projects have affordances for effective ESD, and Calabrese Barton (2012) highlights the need to recognize the concept of place as a crucial component of a citizen science program. Calabrese Barton (2012) asks whether “citizen science” should be reframed as “citizens’ science,” placing

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Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular Table 1 Examples of ESD extra-curricular and non-curricular activities Type of activity Short talk, e.g., school assembly

EC/NC EC, NC

Visitor session

EC, NC

Fundraising events

NC

Environmental club

NC, EC

STEM/STEAM club

EC, NC

Environmental committee

NC

Day trip

EC

Day field trip or site visit

EC

or

Description One-off teacher or visitor-led session on any ESD topic for whole (school) community which raises awareness and furthers understanding A visitor to a school/community group from industry, academia, or third sector works with young people as part of a one-off session during the (extended) school day, exploring an ESD topic that does not have to be linked to the formal curriculum. Provides young people with the opportunity to interact with ESD from a context that is beyond the formal curriculum and learn more about the skills and experience of people working in this area while furthering their knowledge of ESD Young people choose to raise funds for a charity linked to a sustainability issue, e.g., solar panels to reduce energy consumption. Provides a context for student voice and leadership and developing citizenship Young people work on projects linked to improving their local environment, e.g., upcycling or gardening in school grounds/local community. Normally occurs weekly and after the school day/during school lunchtime and involves an adult. Provides a context for student voice and leadership and developing citizenship. Promotes physical and mental Wellbeing Young people work on projects linked to ESD, usually through weekly sessions held in school during lunchtime/at the end of the school day, involving an adult. Could include a framework/ resources from an external body, including competitions. Provides opportunities for student work to be recognized within and beyond their communities Young people work together to highlight the environmental opportunities and challenges in their context and work with adults (parents, teachers, local community leaders) to inform and develop proenvironmental strategies and policies, e.g., increase recycling, improve biodiversity in school grounds, and reduce meat consumption. Provides a context for student voice and leadership and developing citizenship Visits to informal learning spaces (e.g., museums, science centers, zoos, botanic gardens, farms, art galleries) provide opportunities for learning in relevant and interdisciplinary ways, supported by staff from the appropriate education department A visit to the local stream, river, pond, or forest can be used to extend pupil’s understanding on the natural world. Visits to industry, waste management plants, or sewage works enable them to appreciate how industry tries to reduce energy consumption and limit environmental impacts

Non-curricular

Contexts,

Resources required Speaker knowledge, skills, and time Speaker knowledge, skills, and time

Time – Young people and teacher Community support

Time – Young people and teacher/staff member Funding for resources related to activity, e.g., gardening tools/seeds/plants Parental support

Time – Young people and teacher/staff member Funding for resources related to activity Parental support

Time – Young people and staff Community support

Staff time – Visit logistics and content Travel costs School leadership support Staff time – Visit logistics and content Travel costs School leadership support

(continued)

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Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts, Table 1 (continued) Type of activity Teacher online course

EC/NC EC

Teacher-led research project

EC, NC

Description Online courses can help to ensure teachers have the depth of understanding required to teach ESD and engage and prepare pupils for the future. Courses can develop networks which share (informally) support, guidance, and resources Young people are guided by teachers in a research project where they learn research and technical skills (e.g., laboratory, microscope) to answer a research question in the context of ESD that they can shape. Teachers provide networks and links to universityand industry-based researchers and support students to share their research with the wider community

Student-led research project

EC, NC

Young people chose a research topic linked to ESD and are supported by their teacher to develop their own research questions and connect with existing research and researchers so that their work makes a genuine contribution to knowledge. Young people share their findings with their local communities and the wider academic community

Residential trips

EC, NC

Changes to school/local community policy

EC, NC

Residential trips (usually 2–14 days) provide the opportunity for immersive, transformative experiences for young people that frequently include an “outdoors” element which enables young people to connect with the natural environment or visit to a research facility which can inspire future scientists Policy changes could be developed from other activities, e.g., environmental committee, and research projects and could have a focus on energy (e.g., switch off policies), transport (e.g., walking school bus, idle-free zones to support air pollution reduction), and consumption (e.g., procurement policies for schools, recycling, growing fruit and vegetables)

importance on science expertise that is linked to societal change and located in a specific community (p. 3). This emphasis on place is especially pertinent to citizen science projects that seek to engage young people with environmental issues such as climate change and loss of biodiversity. Calabrese Barton (2012) has challenged the capacity of schools to provide contexts for citizen science programs that bring about social change. Nevertheless, future approaches to extracurricular and non-curricular ESD would benefit from synergies with citizen science projects with focus on sustainability and environmental issues.

Resources required Teacher time Course costs School leadership support

Teacher time, knowledge, and skills Time – Young people Funding for resources linked to research Community support School leadership support Researcher time, knowledge, and skills Time – Teacher and young people Funding for resources linked to research Community support School leadership support Researcher time, knowledge, and skills Time – Teacher and young people Funding for trips Parental support School leadership support Teacher time, knowledge, and skills Time – Young people Community support School leadership support

Conclusion Extra-curricular and non-curricular activities provide both opportunities and challenges. The key opportunities include enhancing the position of ESD in learning of young people, where sustainability and sustainable development have a varying position in education, both in theoretical frameworks and in educational practice. Extracurricular and non-curricular settings can provide ESD that is relevant and interdisciplinary and includes student decision-making. This setting can also promote student citizenship.

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Challenges to this approach to ESD include the perceived relative value of learning that occurs beyond the formal curricula and whether this is the appropriate setting to best understand complex interdisciplinary concepts that form part of the core knowledge of effective ESD. Suggestions of a range of activities are given that highlight the variation in resourcing in terms of teacher and student time and financial investment. Future directions include incorporating citizen science programs with an environmental and/ecological focus to provide a useful framework for teaching and learning that could suit a variety of extra-curricular and non-curricular settings.

References Ballard HL, Dixon CG, Harris EM (2017) Youth-focused citizen science: examining the role of environmental science learning and agency for conservation. Biol Conserv 208:65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon. 2016.05.024 Bonney R, Cooper CB, Dickinson J, Kelling S, Phillips T, Rosenberg KV, Shirk J (2009) Citizen science: a developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. Bioscience 59(11):977–984. https://doi. org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.11.9 Bonney R, Phillips TB, Ballard HL, Enck JW (2016) Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science? Public Underst Sci 25(1):2–16. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1075547016656191 Bray B, France B, Gilbert JK (2011) Identifying the essential elements of effective science communication: what do the experts say? Int J Sci Educ Part B 2(1):23–41 Calabrese Barton AM (2012) Citizen (s’) science. A response to “the future of citizen science”. Democr Educ 20(2):1–4. Retrieved from https://democracyed ucationjournal.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https: //scholar.google.co.uk/&httpsredir=1&article=1044 &context=home Cincera J, Kovacikova S (2014) Being an EcoTeam member: movers and fighters. Appl Environ Educ Commun 13(4):227–233 Cooper C, Dickinson J, Phillips T, Bonney R (2007) Citizen science as a tool for conservation in residential ecosystems. Ecol Soc 12(2). https://doi.org/10.5751/ es-02197-120211 Cotton D, Winter J (2010) It’s not just bits of paper and light bulbs’: a review of sustainability pedagogies and their potential for use in higher education. In: S. Sterling (ed) Sustainability education. Perspectives and practice across higher education. (pp. 54–69). London: Routledge

Education for Sustainable Development Curtis V (2015) Motivation to participate in an online citizen science game: a study of Foldit. Sci Commun 37(6):723–746. https://doi.org/10.1177/107554701560 9322 Deuchar R (2007) Citizenship, enterprise and learning: harmonising competing educational agendas. Stoke on Trent, Trentham DeWitt J, Archer L (2017) Participation in informal science learning experiences: the rich get richer? Int J Sci Educ Part B 7(4):356–373 DfE (Department for Education) (2011) Teachers’ standards guidance for school leaders, school staff and governing bodies (DFE-00066-2011). Department for Education, London. https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/teachers-standards. Accessed 28 May 2019 Dobson A (2007) Environmental citizenship: towards sustainable development. Sustain Dev 15:276–285 Education Scotland (2019) Home page, https://education. gov.scot/. Accessed 28 May 2019 Emery K, Harlow D, Whitmer A, Gaines S (2017) Compelling evidence: an influence on middle school students’ accounts that may impact decision-making about socioscientific issues. Environ Educ Res 23(8): 1115–1129 Eshach H (2007) Bridging in-school and out-of-school learning: formal, non-formal, and informal education. J Sci Educ Technol 16(2):171–190 Falk J, Osbourne J, Dierking L, Dawson E, Wenger M, Wong B (2012) Analyzing the UK science education community: the contribution of informal providers. Wellcome Trust, London Feldman AF, Matjasko JL (2005) The role of school-based extracurricular activities in adolescent development: a comprehensive review and future directions. Rev Educ Res 75(2):159–210 Fettis GC, Ramsden MJ (1995) Sustainability – what is it and how should it be taught? In: ENTRÉE ‘95 proceedings, pp 81–90 Garrecht C, Bruckermann T, Harms U (2018) Students’ decision-making in education for sustainability-related extracurricular activities – a systematic review of empirical studies. Sustainability 10(11):3876 Giddings B, Hopwood B, O’Brien G (2002) Environment, economy and society: fitting them together into sustainable development. Sustain Dev 10:187–196 Glackin M, Dillon J (2018) Environment, sustainable development and education. In: Maguire M, Gibbons S, Glackin M, Pepper D, Skilling K (eds) Becoming a teacher. Issues in secondary education, 5th edn. Open University Press, pp 328–344 Glackin M, King H (2018) Understanding environmental education in secondary school in England: report 1: perspectives from policy. King’s College London Glackin M, King H, Cook R, Greer K (2018) Understanding environmental education in secondary school in England: report 2: the practitioners’ perspective. King’s College London

Education for Sustainable Development Gura T (2013) Citizen science: amateur experts. Nature 496(7444):259–261. https://doi.org/10.1038/nj7444259a Ha-Brookshire J, Norum P (2011) Cotton and sustainability: impacting student learning through sustainable cotton summit. Int J Sustain High Educ 12(4):369–380 Hart P, Nolan K (1999) A critical analysis of research in environmental education. Stud Sci Educ 34:1–69 Hawkes J (2001) The forth pillar of sustainability: culture’s essential role in public planning. Common Ground Publishing, Melbourne Huckle J, Wals AE (2015) The UN decade of education for sustainable development: business as usual in the end. Environ Educ Res 21(3):491–505 Jickling B, Wals AEJ (2008) Globalization and environmental education: looking beyond sustainable development. J Curric Stud 40(1):1–21 Kopnina H (2012) Education for sustainable development (ESD): the turn away from ‘environment’ in environmental education? Environ Educ Res 18(5):699–717 Leal-Filho W (2000) Dealing with misconceptions on the concept of sustainability. Int J Sustain High Educ 1:9–19 Levine Rose S, Calabrese Barton A (2012) Should great lakes city build a new power plant? How youth navigate socio-scientific issues. J Res Sci Teach 49(5):541–567 Lipscombe BP, Burek CV, Potter JA, Ribchester C, Degg MR (2008) An overview of extra-curricular education for sustainable development (ESD) interventions in UK universities. Int J Sustain High Educ 9(3):222–234 Mahoney JL, Cairns RB (1997) Do extracurricular activities protect against early school dropout? Dev Psychol 33(2):241–253 Mannion G (2005) Borderland voices and practices: the ambiguity of children’s participation in school grounds greening. Can J Environ Educ 10(1):241–255 Mannion G (2019) Re-assembling environmental and sustainability education: orientations from new materialism. Environ Educ Res:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13504622.2018.1536926 Marcinkowski TJ (2009) Contemporary challenges and opportunities in environmental education: where are we headed and what deserves our attention? J Environ Educ 41(1):34–54 Martin AR, Chen JC (2016) Barriers to sustainability in mature-age adult learners: working toward identity change. Environ Educ Res 22(6):849–867 McKenzie M, Bieler A, McNeil R (2015) Education policy mobility: reimagining sustainability in neoliberal times. Environ Educ Res 21(3):319–337 McKeown R, Hopkins C (2016) Moving beyond EE and ESD disciplinary debate in formal education. J Educ Sustain Dev 1:17–26 National Foundation for Educational Research (2006) Active citizenship and young people: opportunities, experiences and challenges in and beyond school: research report No 732. Available online:

257 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502417.pdf. Accessed 24 Apr 2019 Olsson D, Gericke N, Chang Rundgren SN (2016) The effect of implementation of education for sustainable development in Swedish compulsory schools – assessing pupils’ sustainability consciousness. Environ Educ Res 22(2):176–202 Pittman KJ, Irby M, Yohalem N, Wilson-Ahlstrom A (2004) Blurring the lines for learning: the role of out-of-school programs as complements to formal learning. New Dir Youth Dev 2004(101):19–41 Ramjan C (2018) Did you understand the question? An analysis of Scottish secondary school pupils’ comprehension of a Sustainable Development survey. Unpublished MSc thesis, University of Stirling, Stirling Reiss MJ, Billingsley B, Evans EM, Kissel RA, Lawrence M, Mujtaba T, . . .Veall D (2016) The contribution of natural history museums to science education. UCL Institute of Education, London Robbins M, Francis LJ, Elliott E (2003) Attitudes toward education for global citizenship among trainee teachers. Res Educ 69(1):93–98 Rowe D (2007) Education for a sustainable future. Science 317(5836):323–324 Russell JL, Knutson K, Crowley K (2013) Informal learning organizations as part of an educational ecology: lessons from collaboration across the formal-informal divide. J Educ Chang 14(3):259–281 Sadler TD, Barab SA, Scott B (2007) What do students gain by engaging in socioscientific inquiry? Res Sci Educ 37(4):371–391 Sætre PJ (2016) Education for sustainable development in Norwegian geography curricula. Nordidactica J Humanit Soc Sci Educ 1:63–78 Siegel MA (2006) High school students’ decision making about sustainability. Environ Educ Res 23:115–1129 Sleeter CE, Flores Carmona J (2017) Un-standarizing curriculum: multicultural teaching in the standards-based classroom, 2nd edn. Teachers College Press, New York Sterling S (1996) Education in change. In: Huckle J, Sterling S (eds) Education for sustainability. Earthscan, London, pp 18–39 Stevenson R (2013) Researching tensions and pretensions in environmental/sustainability education policies: form critical to civically engaged policy scholarship. In: Stevenson RB, Brody M, Dillon J, Wals AEJ (eds) International handbook on research in environmental education. Routledge, New York, pp 147–155 Summers D, Cutting R (2016) Education for sustainable development in further education. London: Palgrave Macmillan UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (2006) Education for sustainable development. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000152453. Accessed 31 May 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2014) UNESCO roadmap for implementing the global action programme on

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Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues Pablo A. Egana del Sol Asia School of Business and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Synonyms Civic education; Climate change education; Education; Education for Sustainability (EfS); Environmental education; Human rights education; Learning; Public awareness; Sustainability education (SE); Training

Definition Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is a form of education that emphasizes the development of skills and habits necessary for individuals, and thus their communities, to live in a way that contributes to a world that is “sustainable” – i.e., one that fulfils their own current needs without inhibiting the ability of future generations to do the same. Designed to be a component of a community’s broader Sustainable Development Agenda, ESD’s impact goes beyond training and short-term skills development. In this way, it can be conceived of as a comprehensive and transformative educational process in which participatory learning and creative, critical, and systemic thinking are strengthened by creating the links between individuals and community that allow them to live in harmony socially, economically, culturally, and environmentally. As a comprehensive model, ESD incorporates a number of related subject areas within its educational mandate. These include climate change, disaster risk reduction, biodiversity, social inequality, poverty reduction, and sustainable consumption. ESD seeks to unify the goals of these diverse issues by creating a more sustainable standard of living. Given its wide-reaching goal of setting a new standard for behaviors and lifestyles, ESD should not be confined to the classroom. The “curriculum” inherent in this model thus can and should be effectuated through a number of outlets to which individuals have access on a daily basis. Broadly, these outlets fall into the categories of formal, informal, and nonformal sources of education (UNESCO 2006). Each of these is defined further below: • Formal education, as its name suggests, is that which is learned in schools through a defined curriculum designed to achieve certain pedagogical goals. This education is thus usually found in public and private schools at the K-6, high school, and postsecondary levels. In addition to “standard” educational curricula, researchers and policymakers have pointed to the role of technical and vocational education

Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

and training (TVET) in disseminating ESD. Essentially, since TVET prepares people for work in a range of sectors (e.g., construction, waste management, etc.) that consume enormous amounts of energy and raw materials, educating these individuals with regard to more sustainable practices presents an opportunity for substantial marginal improvement in resource outcomes. • Informal education is that which one might learn without recourse to a structured curriculum in an academic setting but which will nonetheless allow them to develop skills and broaden their knowledge base with respect to ESD. Outlets of informal education include publications in journals, newspapers, and magazines, as well as documentaries and specials available on television and the Internet, among others. • Nonformal education is education that exists outside of the formal educational system and is usually flexible and learner-centric. Further, nonformal education tends to be defined by its “participatory approach” (Hamadache 1991), which implies a “semiformal” contexts, such as when NGOs provide courses or opportunities for experiential learning to the broader public. Other examples include nature centers, nongovernmental organizations, public health educators, and agricultural extension agents.

Introduction With a world population of seven billion people and increasingly limited natural resources, the imperative of living sustainably so as to ensure the prosperity of future generations has become increasingly salient. It is for this reason that the central aim of ESD is to encourage young people to become responsible citizens of the future. This notion was the crux of Chapter 36 of Agenda 21, published by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. This document outlined the need to educate the world’s citizens so that broader sustainability goals would be met by the actions of an embracing general public and stated the following goals for the program: “By 2030,

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ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development” (UNCED 1992). To date, there is little empirical evidence as to the efficacy of ESD within the context of the broader mandate of sustainable development or to particular UN sustainability goals, such as “quality of education.” This stems from the fact that current discussions involving ESD tend to focus on defining the concept theoretically, with minimal exploration of how these notions might apply in practice. To guide development of more practical efforts, however, UNESCO (2006) has posited that curricula should be developed across three dimensions: the economic, the environmental, and the social. More specifically, “learning themes” within each of these dimensions are detailed in the table below: Economic Consumerism and ethical trade CSR

Rural and urban development Combatting poverty

Environmental Biological diversity Ecological principles, ecosystems Natural resources management Climate change

Understanding costs and supply chains Living standards

Disaster prevention

Valuing sustainable livelihoods

Waste

Energy

Social Peace and human security Conflict resolution Citizenship, democracy, governance Participatory decisionmaking Gender equality

Cultural diversity Intercultural understanding

Source: UNESCO (2006); Tilbury and Mulà (2009)

Notable examples of how these reforms might be operationalized emerge from curriculum plans and current policy mandates in which the following areas of emphasis emerge:

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Education as a Minimum Condition – As a baseline, ESD presupposes a greater level of both access and quality of education globally. In this regard, ESD may be seen as an agent of broader development goals (e.g., UN Sustainable Development Goal [SDG] no.4), recognizing the role of education in standards of living and bringing about measures to increase opportunities to those who lack them. “Quality” as a measure has been poorly defined among academics and scholars (Barrett et al. 2006; Kumar 2010; Nikel and Lowe 2010; Tikly and Barrett 2013; UNESCO 2004) but generally entails not only “vertical” metrics, in terms of the general comprehensiveness of curriculum and qualifications of teachers, but also “horizontal” ones, such as measuring quality in terms of how a curriculum or education system meets the demands of and is suitable to the unique needs of a given community (Laurie et al. 2016). Thus, and above all else, ESD aims to bring nuanced, uniquely tailored education to societies around the world so that communities may enjoy higher levels of capability (Sen 2013) and thus higher qualities of life. Non-cognitive and Socio-emotional Skills – Given that ESD purports to create responsible global citizens whose actions further a broader mandate of sustainable development, numerous researchers have argued the need to move beyond a purely academic mandate to include the development of socio-emotional skills. To this end, scholars have conducted a broad survey of studies to determine which discrete socio-emotional skills might best accord with sustainable behavior (Burger 1985; Kirsch 1985; Maes 1995). The results of these studies have been mixed, but the literature recognizes three prominent traits. These are locus of control, generalized social responsibility, and egoism vs. altruism. Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals perceive the outcomes of their lives to be products of their own agency, as opposed to being the result of randomness, chance, or the actions of others (Rotter 1966). In general, individuals demonstrating a greater propensity to view the world through the lens of an internal locus of control tend to be more incline to exhibit sustainable behavioral decisions. These

individuals will tend to see a stronger connection between their actions and the impacts they would like to see in the world and would thus be more willing to spend time and energy recycling, voting at the municipal level, etc. ESD curricula could thus enforce this cognitive disposition from a young age by cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), language reinforcing its behavior, and the like. Generalized social responsibility (GSR) refers to the extent to which individuals see themselves as inherently bound to a broader communal context; with regard to ESD, GSR serves to explain the incentive for individuals to engage in sustainable behavior, especially when they may not directly see the impact of this behavior (or reap the accompanying rewards) for some time. It is thus generally accepted that individuals espousing higher levels of GSR are more prone to act sustainably and that ESD curricula would benefit from a socializing of the importance of acting for the benefit of one’s community (Bayertz 1995; Kals and Maes 2002) Egoism vs. altruism in one’s disposition is theorized to supplement GSR in explaining why individuals might make short-term, salient sacrifices for long-term, nebulous gains (Kals and Maes 2002). In this construct, altruistic individuals are those who are most prone to act in accordance with a sense of “rightness” or “morality”; individuals scoring highly on scales to measure egoism, by contrast, tend to take actions that fulfill their most immediate personal interests (Kals et al. 1999). Inculcating within students an understanding of actions that are right for their own sake, or because they spread good will and positively impact others, would thus be a boon for ESD curricula. Physical and Biological Health – In the context of ESD, this refers to providing knowledge of physical health and well-being. ESD holds as a tenant that communities and individuals will need to understand the “link between themselves and their environments” before they are able to fully embrace the notion of, and develop strategies for, living sustainably (Balzaretti-Hyem 2002). This notion serves as the foundation on which individuals will build healthy perceptions and practices,

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which include choosing and preserving safe and healthy places to live, the importance of healthcare for themselves and others, and the relationship between their environment and their physical health. This element of ESD has a “magnifying effect” when considered within the broader goal of sustainability: as individuals become more aware of the link between themselves and their environments, as well as the importance and inequality of healthcare in communities, two key areas of impact will emerge. First, and at the individual level, citizens will “. . .understand and make decisions in relation to personal and professional responses for sustainability and. . .[their] consumption” (Tilbury 2011, p. 31). This will lead to consumption and everyday decisions that consider not only the long-term viability of the environment but also those which are beneficial to one’s health and those of others in their community. Second, and at the level of policy by way of civic engagement, individuals within communities will have the education necessary to weigh in on public discourse and effectively and responsibly influence policy. This would arise from the coupling of a more acute sense of the value in environmental issues such as hygiene, health, and clean water and the ability to both “communicate...these issues” and “participate in activities [that improve them]” (UNESCO 2017, p. 26). Socioeconomic Outcomes – As an ideological outcropping of the “quality education” mandate, ESD’s priorities include improved socioeconomic outcomes for global citizens. The drivers of these improvements are twofold and include (1) human capability, which involves liberating people to achieve more by providing them with a wider array of more valuable skills (Sen 2013), and (2) a greater sense of social awareness, with a particular emphasis on inequalities that may exist between different nations and groups, as well as how to address them (UNESCO 2017). With regard to human capability, ESD offers an analgesic by way of emphasizing a collection of fundamental skills that have been increasingly in demand by the global economy. These include futures thinking, creative and critical thinking, participatory learning, partnership formation,

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and systemic thinking (UNESCO 2004, 2009). By emphasizing these and other skills associated with more fulfilling, remunerative positions, individuals will develop a greater level of individual human capital and thus higher qualities of life (Becker 1975). The table below explores each of these areas in detail. Futures thinking

Critical and creative thinking

Participation and participatory learning

Futures thinking is an educational concept that relates to one’s ability to envision alternative realities and counterfactuals. This involves asking questions such as “what is the best outcome?” and “how could this be done differently?” In the context of ESD, futures thinking enables people to think about desired futures, how they may contribute to achieving them, and thus take responsibility for their actions Critical and creative thinking (CCT) has been a popular emphasis in the educational literature recently and involves encouraging individuals to ask questions, challenge existing ideas, and develop deductive arguments and analyses. CCT is invaluable to the execution of ESD in that it prepares individuals to ask meaningful questions about inequality (which may be a status quo), alternate ways to meet resource needs, and contribute more broadly to discussions about enacting meaningful change Participation and participatory learning (PPL) fosters a sense of working with and engaging others, understanding opposing viewpoints, and feeling and extending ownership of initiatives, both in one’s self and others. Valued as a skill in high-wage professions, PPL serves to strengthen policies of sustainable development by encouraging people to form coalitions, join broader conversations, and empathize with the opposing views of others (continued)

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Systemic thinking

Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues Partnerships form the basis of system-building and integration among groups of people for the purpose of meaningful change. ESD emphasizes partnershipbuilding in education both for these first-order effects of initiating progress and also for second-order effects of empathy that they naturally engender, especially when cross-cultural partnerships are formed Systemic thinking has become an integral component of ESD. Given that the world is a complex one full of choices that are rife with trade-offs, an approach to solving problems that emphasizes how existing elements within a system effect each other is imperative to understanding “optimal” choices

Source: UNESCO (2006); Tilbury and Mulà (2009)

Turning to social awareness, ESD embraces a number of socio-emotional tenets that encourage planning for both the future and the well-being of their fellow men. Tactical goals within these broader visions include the ability to “develop visions and plans for their own economic life based on their capabilities and contexts” (UNESCO 2017, p. 30) and the ability to question socioeconomic differences as well as gender disparities (UNESCO 2017, p. 26). The interaction between these two visions for ESD contributes to an environment in which individuals both create more meaningful, sustainable lives for themselves and their families while also being better-equipped to participate in broader discussions with regard to the nebulous nature of sustainability more broadly. This will ideally proliferate through subsequent generations as individuals pass these “best practices” on to their children, reinforcing the definition of sustainability as “the ability to maximize returns to the present generation without sacrificing the opportunities of those yet to come.” Environmental Education – Though ESD broadens more traditional notions of

environmental education (EE) to include socioeconomic and sociopolitical issues, it does not eschew an environmental mandate (UNESCO 2006). In fact, a number of researchers have argued that the groundwork for ESD was laid by the very success of EE: given the resonance of this paradigm, educators have sought a similar, more inclusive paradigm in which they could approach sociopolitical issues; this eventually led to ESD (Ferreira 2009). Thus, ESD continues to embrace “the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his culture, and his biophysical surroundings” (Palmer 1998, p. 5). The curriculum thus aims to inculcate practices for living within the means of the environment, minimizing pollution and waste, appreciating sustainable energy consumption practices, and understanding the impact of human behavior on larger issues such as climate change. This component of ESD is critical for two main reasons. First, the notion of environmental education and preservation has set a “precedent” for the impact of education and civic engagement on policy decisions. Following years of investment in EE, through both formal and nonformal means, consumers have lobbied both first-order effects, such as a demanding cleaner energy and practices such as recycling, and second- and higher-order effects, such as demanding stewardship on the part of companies throughout their supply chains. Lipton tea, for example, has responded to consumers and turned its supply chain into a competitive weapon to attract active, environmentally conscious consumers (Lonescu-Somers and Seifert 2014). This has given credibility to the possibility of large-scale change following shifts in mindset, a typology in which ESD counts itself. Second, ESD embraces as a core tenet the notion of living sustainably within the confines of the earth’s resources. It thus stands to reason that creating an awareness of what these resources are, how our activities impinge upon existing stocks of resources (such as the waning of the Amazon rain forest or natural reserves of oil), and what alternate practices might serve as viable means to slaking our human needs would be a

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viable first step in ensuring compliance with political efforts to spur greater sustainability. Humanistic Outcomes – Sustainable development depends not only on an awareness of technological and ecological advancements but also on “rediscovery of our ways of being with the earth that nourish us physically, spiritually, and mentally” (Cock 2002, p. 178). This awareness takes many forms but includes both the notion that humans occupy a space within a much broader ecological system and that a key component of sustainable living within the human race includes spiritual fulfillment and psychosocial well-being. With regard to the former, ESD offers a solution by way of a curriculum that emphasizes a “psychology of sustainable development” (Cock 2002), i.e., an approach to conceiving of the world not in purely anthropomorphic terms but one in which humans are interconnected with and dependent upon nonhuman species. By emphasizing not only the link between humans and the planet but also our dependence on each other, ESD aims to remedy the disconnection from nature that has become endemic to our postindustrial world. In terms of understanding how to best live among the human race, ESD emphasizes “philosophical and ethical conceptions of life, quality, well-being, and happiness” (UNESCO 2017). In drawing attention to these humanistic outcomes, ESD aims to advance a sustainable mindset in three ways: cognitively, by emphasizing an understanding of the sociopolitical dimensions of health and well-being, their causes and preventative measures, and the role of mental health in one’s quality of life; socio-emotionally, in terms of being able to empathize and communicate with those suffering from poor health, make informed and optimal decisions regarding their own health and well-being, and develop a personal commitment to their own health and wellbeing as well as that of their families and communities; and, behaviorally, by way of incorporating health and wellness into their daily routines, perceiving when others need help and then to provide it or seek it out and to engage in broader debates such as demanding or supporting policies that lead to higher levels of health and well-being in their

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communities. Through these modifications, ESD aims to instill in people the behaviors necessary to care for themselves and others while also seeing the broader perspective of the human race in a larger ecological framework. Appreciation for the Human Life Cycle – The quality of human life is driven not only by decisions that are made now by an existing population but is also impacted by decisions that have been made in previous generations, which in fact limit and define the choices we have available to us today (Sachs 2015). This axiom permeates all facets of human life, with even the health of parents impacting the biological outcomes and capabilities of their children. Thus, ESD advocates a curriculum approach that considers humans at every phase of their existence. This includes early childhood investments in health education and well-being; youth training in the form of both cognitive and non-cognitive skills, creativity, and resilience; and adult education along socio-emotional axes such as resilience, emotional regulation, and collaborative decision-making. Undergirding each of these notions is the fundamental thread of appreciation for lifelong learning and an emphasis on both critical thinking skills and the ability to search for and filter through information in a world in which data is increasingly abundant (UNESCO 2017). This notion of human capability is predicated on the idea that humans will be free if they have the capacity (in the form of skills, rights, knowledge, etc.) to fulfill the ends that meet their needs (Sen 2013). By emphasizing the need to prioritize and critically evaluate information from a very early age through the lens of sustainability, communities build capabilities that outlive their members: infrastructure, policies, and geopolitical arrangements that emphasize preservation of resources and the quality of human life will be available from one generation to the next. In this way, communities build “stocks” of capability that contribute to the overall capacity of their members to meet their needs (Repennig and Sterman 2002); these “stocks” will ideally accumulate over time, leading to rising standards of living and consciousness among people.

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Strategies As we have seen, “quality” education is predicated on being able to meet the unique needs of a given community. ESD is no exception to this logic, and it is thus vital that its implementation has the full support of a community’s political leadership in order to be effective. This nuance goes beyond the unique needs of a labor market or student body, however, and includes higher-order relationships, such as the coordination of ministries and allocation of funding, as well. In fact, political leadership will need to assume responsibility for at least five key roles throughout the implementation of ESD. These are ensuring that the needs of the local context are appropriately incorporated within the local ESD effort, coordinating ministerial bodies within the local polity to ensure access to adequate resources and representation, setting uniform goals for measuring the outcomes of ESD so there is no ambiguity as to its efficacy, setting a standard of “learning content” within the ESD curriculum and ensuring that the ESD curriculum is made to be part of the “core” curriculum more generally, and ensuring that learning environments are conducive to ESD objectives. With regard to aligning the implementation of ESD to the distinct needs of a local context, little analysis is required to ascertain that “North” countries, such as the United States, will have very different development needs than “South” countries, such as Uganda. These needs should first be addressed within the broader development mandate of a given community and serve as a general framework upon which ESD might rest. The educational component of ESD will then serve as an instrument through which individuals themselves will begin to live in accordance with the needs of the community. A clear example of this comes from Kenya’s 2008 implementation of ESD. Recognizing that the country had a need for “. . .productive and socially responsible individuals” (UNESCO 2017, p. 53) and that administration had partially defined “productive” and “socially responsible” in a way that included environmental stewardship and socioeconomic awareness, policymakers ensconced the country’s ESD

development within both the Ministry of Curriculum Development and the National Education Program. Further, the final draft of this plan is included within Kenya’s “Vision 2030” plan, which is the country’s roadmap for sustainable and economic development over the coming decades. Though the needs of a local community must be defined and targeted with any policy for sustainable development, resourcing and accountability for their execution is crucial to ensure that they translate from presentations to people’s actions. This requires that relevant administrative bodies are coordinated and held accountable for the development and implementation of an ESD framework while also creating networks of organizations in which to test initial learning and measurement. In Mauritius, for example, the country’s “Maurice 1le Durable” policy was introduced in 2008 to enhance its sustainable development efforts. After assessing the development needs within their borders and determining which of these educations might serve as a viable instrument, the program was assigned by a number of formal and nonformal institutions and organizations. These organizations include the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Human Resources Development. Not only has this coordination resulted in Mauritius becoming a UNESCO ESD pilot country (UNESCO 2017), but it has also resulted in the country’s adoption of a more holistic view of education resulting from these bodies working in concert. The final stage of development of an ESD model involves determining how it will be evaluated. Given the role of the initiative within a larger sustainability framework and its status as a crossadministration project, understanding the success of the program and its need for resources is so that it may be adjusted as necessary and not become the subject of political infighting. It is important to note the role that top government officials have in standardizing these metrics: again, given that many administrative bodies will be responsible for the success of an ESD model, it is vital that central government officials understand their role as “arbiter” in determining which metrics are for

Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

ESD would be most aligned with the community’s broader sustainability mandate and assessing whether or not these metrics are being met. Turning to Manitoba’s central government as a case study, officials emphasized ESD as a priority action item and have set specific outcomes and learning objectives for all students K-12. These objectives span subject-specific objectives in all standard areas of sciences and humanities (science, social studies, etc.) and also include those associated with sustainability practices and principles in particular. Once a sound framework for ESD has been laid, implementation requires a reweaving of the weft and woof of a country’s traditional, core curriculum. Put differently, ESD cannot simply become and adjectival or ancillary component of education: this would undermine efforts to ensure that ESD was a mandatory component of a curriculum designed to change lifestyles and behaviors. A true integration of ESD among “core” subjects involves both its emphasis as a required course and/or system of learning and appropriate training of teachers and school administrators to ensure that the material is taught with the same expertise as other, traditional courses. Referencing Manitoba once again, central officials invested heavily in building the capacity of educators and school administrators to ensure that they had the knowledge and skill set necessary to translate the material in an effective way, translate its fundamental principles to everyday life, prioritize and develop programs and partnerships that further the program’s mandate, and make any other necessary adjustments to the schools’ infrastructure and policies to ensure that these programs could be supported (UNESCO 2014). In the Manitoba case study, we saw an example of “ensuring learning environments are conducive to ESD”: the ministry had invested in both staff and infrastructure that would accommodate ESD as a curriculum. This is a necessary step for most implementations of ESD, as its components tend to require a more “hands-on” or “participatory” learning style to ensure their efficacy. Thus, learning environments which were conceived to facilitate a purely didactic learning environment will need to be reconstructed, and re-equipped with

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faculty, to ensure that students are able to engage with the material at hand. This includes both physical modifications and online or virtual components so that students may access key modules and material from their homes. Formal Education vs. Lifelong Learning ESD’s central mandate of creating responsible, global citizens is predicated on the ability to cultivate communities who embrace and practice lifelong learning: given that a majority of the benefits associated with ESD, including awareness of inequality and the health needs of others and the ability to engage in public discourse (see “Introduction”), are the result of greater faculties of critical reasoning and inquiry, policymakers and proponents of ESD will need to understand how to advocate for curiosity and openness. Indeed, researchers have argued that a majority of the education that ESD engenders will take place outside of the classroom (Stiglitz and Greenwald 2014). With this in mind, (Stiglitz and Greenwald 2014) advocates for the creation of a “learning society,” in which people should motivated to learn for the sake of it, be able to analyze and ingest information they unearth, and espouse mindsets conducive to learning and seeking new perspectives. This becomes all the more critical as societies become increasingly interconnected and technology allows access to a broader array of information than ever before. In order for these efforts to be successful, policymakers will need to critically examine their statements through the lens of learning. This includes asking questions such as: “How does this initiative affect capabilities for learning? Might this cause any impediments to learning? Are the mindsets of my constituents amenable to learning without direction?” Critical questions such as these, being posed by top-level administrators, will ensure that policies are enacted which adequately offer incentives to learning (in both the technical and critical sense) while also facilitating and catalyzing learning. Encouraging these incentives in a sustained fashion will ensure that skill sets and mindsets evolve to keep pace with innovation and subsequent shifts in labor market needs: now that data is readily available, and as

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previously stated, there has been a marked shift in the needs of employers from data savvy “experts” to those who can critically evaluate, filter, and respond large bodies of information very quickly. Skills and Personality Traits As previously mentioned (see “Introduction”), locus of control, generalized social responsibility, and egoism vs. altruism are non-cognitive or socio-emotional traits, which correspond with greater levels of sustainable behavior. While it is possible to incorporate an appreciation for these traits into a didactic curriculum, such efforts risk approaching indoctrination; a more effective means of reinforcing these traits in individuals might be to approach them from a behavioral perspective. Put differently, the way that children are approach, reprimanded, and encouraged serves a potential way to instill these values within students. An interesting analog to these efforts can be seen with regard to a recent shift in education from an emphasis on “talent” to one of “hard work.” This latter ethos, often referred to as a “growth mindset” (Dweck 2009), was conceived as a way to inspire children to work through adversity while simultaneously instilling in them an appreciation for learning and labor. In order to operationalize this notion, teachers in many districts have been instructed to commend the “efforts” of students with phrases such as “I see that you’ve really been working hard at x; I just want to let you know that it shows. . . good job!” while avoiding phrases such as “You’re so smart!” or “Wow, you’re really good at x!”, which tend to reinforce a teleological and defeatist mentality. In a similar way, instructors implementing ESD curricula could intervene, during both academic and leisure activities, to emphasize the importance of the socio-behavioral dimensions of ESD. Critical and Creative Thinking The role of critical thinking as an aspect of ESD is central as an outcome that it serves as a transferrable skill that improves the capacity of our education systems to prepare people to pursue sustainable development (UNESCO 2014). In other words, critical thinking is vital in that it

serves as a foundational skill through which society will develop the aptitude to envision and conceive of conflicting perspectives, question the status quo, and develop compelling arguments for addressing the most complex problems facing humanity. Additionally, investments in critical thinking have proven to be low-cost, high-impact initiatives. A basic and historically proven way of bolstering curricula with features of critical thinking would be teaching through the method of “Socratic dialogues.” In this model of engagement, very popular in Western universities, teachers challenge students to ask questions and theorize responses before they are presented with solutions or material. Students thus become more adept at a synthesizing ideas and concepts to arrive at the most logical solution. Additionally pedagogic enhancements could be manifold, but would resemble each other in the way they alter the structure or mode of delivery of a curriculum, not necessarily its content. These methods could be implemented in formal, informal, and nonformal settings and would be easily tailored to the age and capability of the students at hand. Creativity in thinking enhances traditionally conceived models of critical thinking by incorporating another dynamic skill that will help students to generate increasingly more and more effective solutions to complex problems. Though an increasing number of studies have sought to understand the best conceptualizations of creativity and how its impact should be measured, however, results have still been contentious (March 1991; Shalley et al. 2004; Winner et al. 2014; Yar Hamidi et al. 2008). Despite this ambiguity, however, an emerging body of research suggests that certain adjustments to curricula, such as through after-school programs, are effective in increasing both the willingness and creativity of students to think creatively. For example, a study conducted by Egaña del Sol (2016) applies novel methods of measurement involving EEGs and psychometric tests to demonstrate that students who participated in after-school, art-based programs show statistically significant increases in a number of standard measures of creativity, as studied by the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking. By incorporating these

Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

findings into standard learning methods, such as by interspersing standard, didactic methods of teaching with “creative” activities, teachers will help to cultivate creative thinking among their students. Emotions As with other non-cognitive skills, the roles of socio-emotional dimensions of human development have been equivocally studied and have reached little consensus about their role in developing sustainable behaviors. Though the exact nature of these skills and their role in promulgating sustainability remain unclear, however, emotional resilience and socio-emotional skills are increasingly being recognized for their role in labor market outcomes and general well-being. These skills include the ability to understand and regulate one’s own emotions, being able to work easily with others, and understanding empathy. While these traits tend to be associated generally with well-adjusted and productive adults, they also don’t tend to be emphasized in an educational setting, creating skills gaps. Not including embedding these traits into standard curricula is increasingly seeming to be misguided, however, as a number of research have demonstrated the link between emotions/emotional regulation and cognitive outcomes. In particular, Antonio Damasio argues that human beings are primarily social and emotional, publishing a number of studies illustrating that learning, attention, memory, decision-making, and social functioning are “profoundly impacted by the processes of emotion” (Immordino-Yang and Damasio 2007, p. 1). These works develop the notion of these socio-emotional forces as an “emotional rudder” that guides cognitive activity and decision-making power in humans, thus positing that emotions should not be entirely removed from the classroom (Immordino-Yang and Damasio 2007, Damasio 1994). Thus, emotional skills should play a role in the classroom because of their explicit tie to cognitive, academic material, in addition to their role in preparing students for professional endeavors. It is these very notions have led researchers to develop and advocate for the development of traits such as “grit”

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(Duckworth et al. 2007) in modern educational settings. While certain “general” emotional outcomes such as emotional regulation and “grit” do correlate with higher levels of sustainable behavior, ESD also offers an opportunity to develop a new institutional paradigm in which values and behaviors specific to the outcomes of sustainable development may be fostered. As a particularly salient example, Kals and Maes (2002) provide evidence that students should be taught to appreciate the role of nature in their lives. This includes feeling “safe” in nature, feeling a sense of “oneness” within nature, and feeling a sense of “love” for nature; by engendering these emotional perspective, students begin to understand their “role” within their ecosystem and develop a sense of autopoiesis (Maturana and Varela 1991) or a nuanced conscience of how their behaviors will impact nonhuman entities around them and why this is important. These dimensions of education should not be construed as entirely cognitive, as their optimal execution will be feasible when they are coupled with “moral and emotional” triggers and beliefs (Kals et al. 1999). Thus, additions to curricula such as field trips in which a philosophical understanding of nature and the role of humans within it or an interpretation of historical accounts of natural destruction that emphasizes the losses suffered in certain events could be appended to existing curricula to ensure that students develop along this more visceral dimension of learning. In addition to the role of emotional traits in the classroom, schools might also consider the role of their environment on the learning outcomes of children. In particular, the presence of factors such as bullying and inter-student conflict contributes to a stressful atmosphere in which students might not be able to appreciate the socio-emotional components of their curricula. Recent evidence has shown a viable solution to these and other phenomena in schools by way of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), art-based interventions, mindfulness training, and other activities to tackle these issues (Dinarte and Egana del Sol 2018; Heller et al. 2017; Blattman et al. 2017; Egana del Sol 2016; Wall 2005). In general, a

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student population that has more and better opportunities to work collaboratively with others while productively developing a sense of their own identity is argued to be more apt to digest many of the “humanistic” (e.g., tolerance and appreciation for difference) dimensions of sustainable behavior; additionally, it is argued that reduced levels of stress and conflict in schools will render students more apt to learn in general. Societal and Political Dimensions As previously stated (see “Introduction”), a key role of ESD in promulgating sustainable development goals is the development of an engaged citizenry that has the tools necessary to participate in public discourse and debate. In order to achieve this aim, at least two requirements must be met. First, a number of key skills relating to sustainable living, of both technical and lifestyle in nature, must be identified and instilled across all tranches of the population. This will ensure that people in the aggregate are able to act in accordance with the sustainable development mandate before them. Second, citizens must understand the importance of their voice in public debates and must therefore understand how to influence them and identify issues of consequence in the world. Skills development takes many forms but may include many examples already mentioned. These include life skills such as tolerance, creative and critical thinking, and a refined sense of empathy, which would allow individuals to develop a more holistic moral and cognitive framework that aligns with sustainable behavior through which to screen their actions and decisions. In addition, skills should include “mandate-specific” skills that allow them to live and work in more sustainable ways. For example, workers may be trained in “green” techniques that allow them to work more sustainably in their current roles or become familiar with the skills required to work in “green” industries. A notable example of this again comes from Unilever as a case study (Lonescu-Somers and Seifert 2014), in which farmers across the multinational conglomerate’s supply chain are trained in farming techniques that minimize their impact on the environment. In this instance, farmers are even incentivized to employ these

methods, receiving financial rewards for compliance and suffering penalties and/or exclusion from production for non-compliance. The value of a more skilled citizenry is driven not only by the capabilities of people (Sen 2013) but also by their willingness to engage. In response, ESD carries as its mandate to give students not only the tools to implement change but also the awareness to identify areas in which efforts should be driven. ESD curricula should thus involve a higher level of debate, questioning, and “Socratic” techniques (see “Critical and Creative Thinking”) and also emphasize the role of leadership within the classroom. For example, a greater emphasis on incentivizing youth to question their instructors and classmates, in the form of class participation and public speaking, as well as greater freedom in choosing topics for projects, will give students a greater sense of agency. This sense of agency should be coupled with discussions rooted in sensitivity to cultural differences, inequality, and other humanitarian concerns so that students learn to become more proactive contributors to creating a more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure, and sustainable world.

Key Issues Despite the noted and manifold benefits of investments in ESD, many developed nations have been slow to embrace the paradigm as a standard for their educational mandates. While scholars and policymakers have offered numerous reasons for this, a few key roadblocks to implementation have arisen constantly in discussions concerning the future of ESD. These include political challenges associated with implementation, a poorly refined definition of what ESD should entail, a general lack of empirical evidence as to the efficacy of ESD, ineffectual instances of ESD, and unrealistic expectations of what it should achieve. Political challenges associated with ESD are numerous and tend to be associated with issues of coordination and the assurance of quality. These issues stem from the idea of a nation as “a multitiered entity of actors” governed by unique “constellations of actions and norms” (Bormann and

Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

Nikel 2017) within which numerous existing norms need to be navigated carefully so that a broad mandate such as ESD can be implemented. It is often the case that implementations of ESD “break down” amid this complexity and thus fall to be realized. By contrast, Germany was able to effectively navigate these issues by conducting extensive diligence about the needs of its many constituencies and implementing a program that was not overly influenced by an international mandate, but was rather tailored to life within its borders. In addition, German officials created various incentives for various groups to contribute to shaping its ESD agenda, such by crowdsourcing ideas and providing rewards for innovative contributions, which further accelerated both the development and implementation of ESD across the country (Bormann and Nikel 2017). Political discussions about ESD tend to be further stymied because the very notion of what ESD might entail in practice has remained poorly defined; until recently, most research with regard to ESD has focused on its development in theory, with few examples of how it might be manifest in practice. This ambiguity results in discussions about ESD being laborious and contentious, easily prone to turf wars and various agendas while also requiring a great deal of conceptualization “whole cloth” due to the relative paucity of best practices for it. In order to address this issue, researchers and political agencies should come together to assess where and how ESD has been effective to generate case studies, best practices, and recommendations to inform the actions of decision-makers. This should also ensure that ESD moves forward as a more prominent priority in development agendas. Perhaps one of the most pernicious side effects of this ambiguous conceptualization of ESD, however, is that it has been accompanied by relatively sparse empirical data as to the efficacy of ESD within various contexts. Without such data, it can often be difficult for policymakers to understand the effectiveness of ESD initiatives and how such improvements might compare with competing demands on a community’s resources. Metrics such as general student achievement, measures of socio-emotional traits such as grit and creativity,

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and other empirical benchmarks for ESD should be implemented so that its efficacy can be measured across contexts. Policymakers should also take care to ensure that these metrics do not borrow overmuch from the “best practices” of other communities and/or nations, but that they are also heavily informed by the needs of their citizens. In this way, ESD will gradually become more of a “known entity” with regard to the efficacy of its current state; administrators will also be more apt to understand how and if their community’s ESD mandate should be modified post-implementation to ensure maximum impact as defined by their broader sustainability mandate. This emphasis in constructing an ESD curriculum that accords with the unique needs of a nation is worth underscoring: since approaching ESD is already a difficult task, given its relative ambiguity and lack of empirical backing, negative case studies demonstrating the failure of ESD can be detrimental to its consideration. This becomes particularly damaging when these case studies are the results of “false negatives” stemming from administrators’ failure to contextualize mandates for the needs of their unique settings. Administrators from Japan have fallen prey to this temptation, with the result being a sub-optimal evaluation of ESD within the country. The country’s implementation of ESD has been described as “simply pouring old wine into new bottles” (Nagata 2017): essentially, a poorly defined and imbalanced framework of ESD borrowed from the global community led to administrators preferring the most clearly defined components of it, which tended to center around environmental education. This then led to an implementation of ESD that increasingly approached a pre-existing, “standard” curriculum of environmental education that did not drive Japan’s broader development goals. As such, the program was deemed to be “underperforming” and is currently under review and will likely be reconstructed in coming years. Finally, understanding exactly what to expect from ESD in any given setting is crucial for administrators to form the necessary perspective plans and evaluation criteria necessary to ensure its success. In general, in addition to resisting the

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urge to adopt existing conceptualizations of ESD in their entirety, ESD should not be conceived of as a monolithic educational panacea. Rather, ESD should be understood as a collection of guiding principles that will slowly transform the way in which communities allocate value and thus conduct their lives. With this in mind, curricula should be conceived of as fluid, and administrators should understand that ESD programs will need to constantly adapt to the needs of their communities. Rigorous and regular evaluations of these curricula should thus become the norm, and administrators should not be overly wary of straying from an initial implementation in favor of one that will better meet the needs of their constituencies.

Future Directions Currently, education tends to occupy an isolate role in many societies: students abdicate their domestic lives for a few hours a day in order to develop their academic acumen. Education for Sustainable Development offers us a unique opportunity to rethink this educational paradigm, however, by leveraging the classroom as a platform with which to prepare students for the myriad demands of life in the postindustrial workforce. This becomes all the more compelling, as many routine tasks, both cognitive and physical, are increasingly being fulfilled by machines and artificial intelligence, in the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution – or Industry 4.0. Even highly complex or ambiguous tasks, such as low-level legal work or tax filing, are being imbued with technological assistance in the form of machine learning and artificial intelligence. Thus, a change in the educational ethos will be necessary to ensure that future generations of students will have the opportunity to participate in ways that are both fulfilling and optimize their input of human labor. Current literature on ESD highlights the role of changing mindsets as a low-cost, high-impact area worth targeting during a shift in an institutional paradigm. As previously mentioned (see “Critical and Creative Thinking”), curricula could be

amended to include a heavier emphasis on questioning, debate, and reflection so that students will be more willing and/or capable to engage with nebulous issues as they encounter them outside of the classroom. Further research that establishes causal links between these shifting mindsets and general outcomes among people would serve to further the “case” for ESD while also generating a more specific direction in which the notion should be developed. Outside of student development proper, technology offers promising opportunities for enhancing educational quality and access in general and the mandate of ESD in particular. As indicated throughout this article, ESD’s mandate bears with it many notions of experiential or projectbased learning to ensure that its key messages are instilled in the daily lives of students. This, along with the various curricular additions (such as “green” education, environmental knowledge, etc.), may lead to a higher level of resource intensivity on the part of teachers. In fact, 61% of teachers surveyed by the Economist Intelligence Unit (2018) believe this to be the case, with technological solutions such as interactive games, personalized learning, and at-home supplements to class activities lessening their burden in delivering existing (and future) curricula. The most popular solutions include programs that assess and personalize a student’s learning objects, those that monitor student outcomes on in-home assignments, and the use of technology to ensure in-class engagement (EIU 2018). Though numerous avenues and solutions for ESD may be explored, a key “crosscutting” theme among most conceivable initiatives is the need for further clarity on both the definition and measure of impact for ESD: given that much evidence supporting the case for ESD is anecdotal (UNESCO 2012, p. 5), there is ample room for implementations of ESD around the world to be studied. Without such empirical clarification, it is likely that ESD will be stymied as an initiative. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Andrew Foley for invaluable research assistantship and acknowledge the support provided by the Centre for Social Conflict and Cohesion Studies (CONICYT/FONDAP/15130009) of Chile

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272 Shalley CE, Zhou J, Oldham GR (2004) The effects of personal and contextual characteristics on creativity: where should we go from here? J Manag 30(6):933–958 Stiglitz JE, Greenwald BC (2014) Creating a learning society: a new approach to growth, development, and social progress. Columbia University Press, New York Tikly L, Barrett AM (2013) Education quality and social justice in the global south: challenges for policy, practice and research. Routledge, New York Tilbury D, Mulà I (2009) Review of education for sustainable development policies from a cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue: gaps and opportunities for future action. UNESCO: Paris Tilbury D (2011) Education for sustainable development an expert review of processes and learning. DESD monitoring and evaluation. UNESCO, Paris, pp 1–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0814062600001683 UNCED (1992) United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED): Agenda 21 – program of action for sustainable development: Rio declaration on environment and development, United Nation conference on environment and development, Juneç 1992, Rio de Janeiro. United Nations. Downloaded from http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/ RIO_E.PDF UNESCO (2004) The quality imperative: education for all global monitoring report 2005. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2006) Education for sustainable development toolkit. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2012) ESD sourcebook, learning and training tools, no. 4. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2014) Shaping the future we want. UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014). Final report. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/ 002301/230171e.pdf. Accessed 14 June 2016 UNESCO and UNFCCC (2016) Action for climate empowerment: guidelines for accelerating solutions through education, training and public (PDF). pp 16–17, 20 UNESCO (2017) Education for sustainable development goals.Learning objectives.UNESCO. Downloaded from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf000024 7444 Wall RB (2005) Tai chi and mindfulness-based stress reduction in a Boston public middle school. J Pediatr Health Care 19(4):230–237 Winner E, Goldstein T, Vincent-Lancrin, S (2014). Art for art’s sake? overview. OECD Centre for EducationalResearch and Innovations Yar Hamidi D, Wennberg K, Berglund H (2008) Creativity in entrepreneurship education. J Small Bus Enterp Dev 15(2):304–320

Education in Crisis ▶ Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

Education in Crisis

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind” Amber D. Webb Department of International Education Policy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Synonyms Education in crisis; Education in humanitarian settings; Emergency education

Definition “Education in emergencies” is a growing field of research and practice that uniquely intersects the topics of education, development, and humanitarian aid. Typically, the term refers to both formal and nonformal education for children impacted by armed conflict, natural disasters, or other acute crises. This type of education is most frequently supported by international agencies, in support of local governments, when fragility overcomes a state’s capacity to provide basic services due to the sudden onset of crisis. The aims of the field are broad and not without contestation but primarily focus on ensuring continuity of education throughout varying stages of crisis and displacement. The roots of “education in emergencies” are found in both humanitarian response and global development efforts, placing it at the nexus of the humanitarian-development continuum.

Education in Emergencies: Supporting the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind” In this entry, the field of education in emergencies (EiE) is introduced as a critical area of development if progress is to be made toward achieving the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Addressing how education is conveyed during periods of crisis, be it war, civil strife,

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

health epidemics, or environmental emergencies, is particularly important for achieving SDG 4 for equitable and inclusive education and lifelong learning. More broadly, EiE’s focus on refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs), or other children in fragile environments embodies Agenda 2030’s ethos of “leave no one behind” and promotes the pledge of all 193 UN member states to “endeavor to reach the furthest behind first” (United Nations 2015, p. 3). According to guidance from UNDP (2018), shocks and fragility are one of five primary factors inhibiting progress toward the SDGs. With regard to SDG 4, crises have proven a major barrier to education. The sudden onset of crisis may cause severe disruptions to schooling, buildings can be damaged in armed conflicts or environmental calamities, and children may be forced to flee with families from unsafe communities. To illuminate this issue, the Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA) estimates that from 2013 to 2017, more than 1500 schools and universities in Yemen were damaged or destroyed by airstrikes and fighting, and schools in Syria experienced at least 650 incidents of attacks on education or military use of schools (GCPEA 2018). Conflicts and natural disasters may also compound fragility by exacerbating the effects of poverty, as was the case in South Sudan where over 2.2 million children remained out of school as of 2017 and in some parts of the country over 75% of primary-aged girls continued to be absent from education (UNESCO 2018). Around the world, shocks and fragility are diminishing educational gains and driving the rate of out-ofschool children exceptionally high compared to pre-crisis conditions. Without inclusion of this vast population, goals aimed at universal access to quality education cannot be met. To display the magnitude of the challenge, reaching SDG 4 means access to quality education must be made available for nearly 75 million children residing in countries facing war, violence, and significant political instability (Nicolai et al. 2016). This number increases as natural disasters amass additional displacements. Children living in crisis environments account for a disproportionate amount of those who remain out

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Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”, Table 1 Percentage of out-of-school children and young people globally and in countries affected by crisis

Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary

Global average (%) 8.9 15.9

Average of emergency countries (%) 20.0 29.3

36.3

43.8

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Source: UNICEF (2018)

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”, Table 2 Number of out-of-school children (OOSC) in the world and in countries affected by crisis

Preprimary (1 year before primary only) Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Total

Estimated no. of OOSC in emergency countries (in millions) 15.3

Total no. of OOSC in the world (in millions) 39.7

Estimated share of OOSC in emergency countries (%) 39

32.9 23.7

63.3 61.1

52 39

32.3

138.5

23

104.2

302.7

34

Source: UNICEF (2018)

of school globally. For instance, conflict-affected countries host just 20% of the world’s eligible primary-school-age children but account for 50% of out-of-school children at the primary level worldwide (UNESCO 2015b). Schooling for this vulnerable population should remain a central priority of SDG 4 if the UN’s ethos of “leave no one behind” is truly to be achieved (Tables 1 and 2). Beyond inhibiting progress, crises may also reverse gains already made toward global goals like Education for All (EFA), the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the SDGs. The deterioration of stable communities into fragile contexts may lead to an absence of education

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systems entirely but also weakened state-sponsored services or co-opted education by military or armed groups. Although it should be recognized that stable state-sponsored systems of education also have potential for negative social impact via the acceptance and conveying of harmful norms and ideas, education provided in regions of conflict and fragility is particularly vulnerable to abuse, manipulation, and the infusion of ideas destructive to peaceful societies. In such cases, education may be deliberately used to foster violence or inequitable social norms – schooling that takes place amidst conflict can convey oppressive ideologies that fuel tensions for years to come. Disproportionate access to education with regard to gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status may also become pervasive without proper equity controls. The decay of state-sponsored education systems due to conflict and disaster poses not only an obstacle to progress but an avenue for regression and further instability. Consequently, robust and dedicated attention for education in emergencies must be instrumental to the strategy of SDG 4 and other global educational goals. This is recognized in the Education 2030 Framework for Action (2015), which states “It is, therefore, critical to develop education systems that are more resilient and responsive in the face of conflict, social unrest, and natural hazards – and to ensure that education is maintained during emergency, conflict and postconflict situations” (p. 27). Translating this knowledge into practice is a core challenge to the current educational development agenda and one that will require significant investments to facilitate the aims of SDG 4. The establishment of Agenda 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals has brought new attention to the topic of providing education during periods of crisis. Education in emergencies has the potential to advance real progress toward our global goals via its inclusive mandate and the long-term effects on development that education typically provides. This entry is intended to convey a foundation to understand the field, which includes its history, ideological tensions, characteristics, and principles and, moreover, its link to

the new development discourse of Agenda 2030. The aim is to add to the dialogue on global education by presenting an overview of a field necessary for ensuring that equity and inclusion are at the core of our development priorities.

Conceptualizing the Field of EiE A Brief History The term “education in emergencies” is relatively new in the lexicon of international development and education. Both operationally and in terms of research and evidence, the field is young, gaining the most notable global attention in the last decade (Nicolai and Hine 2015). The following offers a brief overview of EiE’s development, primarily examining its roots in the 1990s, establishment of international frameworks/networks of cooperation, and the more recent impact of the Arab Spring and subsequent refugee crisis. For some, it could be argued that the origins of education in emergencies go as far back as the establishment of UNHCR and UNWRA in the mid-twentieth century. However, armed conflicts throughout the 1990s, from the Balkans to East Africa, truly began to display the impact of crises on education (Kagawa 2005). As the world transitioned from a bipolar to multipolar world in the post-Cold War era, the 1990s saw several conflicts with ethnic dimensions, which led to the suffering and displacement of millions of children whose lives were severely disrupted and education abruptly terminated (Crisp et al. 2001). At the time, the concept of “education as a humanitarian response” gained uptake in the international community (Retamal and AedoRichmond 1998). Education was recognized for its capacity to provide lifesaving care to crisisaffected children. It was cited as the “fourth pillar,” or a “central pillar,” of humanitarian response, alongside the pillars of nourishment, shelter, and health services (Machel 2001, p. 2; Norwegian Refugee Council et al. 1999, p. 26; Midttun 2000, pp. 3–4). The decade of the 1990s saw the emergence of a field dedicated to prioritizing education during periods of crisis. During that time, EiE successfully shifted from fringe to

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

mainstream educational discourse although core principles and definitions of the field were still garnering consensus. By the turn of the millennium, education in emergencies began to find firmer ground in the global development agenda with increased international commitments and cooperation. Following the Education for All (EFA) conference in Dakar, Senegal, education ministers from around the world pledged to “meet the needs of education systems affected by conflict, natural calamities, and instability” (World Education Forum 2000, p. 9). The resulting Dakar Framework for Action (2000) highlighted the deprivation of educational opportunity due to emergency situations as a major barrier to achieving EFA goals (Kagawa 2005). In a follow-up consultation to Dakar, the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) was conceived with governance by UNHCR, UNICEF, UNESCO, the World Bank, and other leading NGOs. The momentum from the 1990s to the early 2000s produced concrete efforts to bring agreement on concepts and principles of EiE while expanding its reach in global educational discourse and programming. Over the next two decades, the field would develop a growing body of research and practice, receiving heightened attention following uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that generated mass displacements and a global refugee crisis. Since 2011, the Arab Spring has driven countries, particularly Syria, into widespread violence and unrest. As of 2015, more than 12 million Syrians remained displaced with half estimated to be children under the age of 18 (UNHCR 2017). The daunting numbers from Syria are reflective of global statistics, where over 68 million people are considered forcibly displaced, with children under 18 representing 52% of the population (UNHCR 2017). The Syrian crisis has put unprecedented numbers of children in peril and left many without access to educational services, among other basic needs. In 2015, as a partial response to the Syrian crisis, the Oslo Summit on Education for Development opened a dialogue on mobilizing governments, nongovernmental organizations,

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the private sector, civil society, and academia to establish support for education in emergencies. In the Chair’s Declaration, it was noted that “the number of children and youth out of school due to conflicts, disasters, displacements and epidemics is increasing at a chilling speed” (Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2015, p. 1). The declaration put forth an imperative that to meet our global education goals, we must work to close the financing gap between available domestic resources and the total funding needed, at a cost of 39 billion US dollars annually. Just months after the Oslo Summit, the UN convened the Sustainable Development Summit affirming global commitments to education. Among the targets of SDG 4, EiE links directly to Target 5 to eliminate disparities in education and ensure equal access for vulnerable children and Indicator 4.5.1 to analyze parity in conflictaffected contexts. In 2016, a global fund to support education in emergencies was launched at the World Humanitarian Summit, in an effort to eliminate educational funding gaps during humanitarian crises. In the last two decades, the field of EiE has become common discourse in educational development, garnering increased attention and support since 2015. It has been considered essential for meeting our global goals, from Education for All to the SDGs. Yet, understandings of the field and common frameworks of action have been fluid and at times contentious. The following elaborates on tensions in the field, with insights given on core characteristics and principles, examples of shifts from policy to practice, with concluding commentary on what EiE means for achieving sustainable development. Troubling Definitions of “Education in Emergencies” The question of what constitutes “education in emergencies” has consistently been troubled within international discourse on education, development, and crisis response. Tensions and critiques on how to conceptualize the field have emerged as disparate research on education in conflict zones, areas impacted by natural disasters, or other fragile contexts have coalesced into a

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unified field. The nuances of these various crisis environments add significant complexity to defining EiE, beginning with the inquiry, what constitutes an “emergency?” According to Kagawa (2005), scholars have envisaged education in emergencies to encompass a wide array of contexts. Kagawa provides a robust description of emergencies by consolidating the works of prominent scholars in the field. Referencing Obura (2003) it is stated that “emergencies” are generally considered in two broad categories: “natural disasters” (hurricanes, floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.) and “human-made disasters” (war, genocide, violent extremism). Pigozzi (1999) and Williams (2006) add that persistent poverty, large populations of street children, and health epidemics such as HIV/AIDS create situations of chronic emergencies or “silent emergencies.” In these contexts, the source of an emergency is often the collapse of financial or government systems pivotal for the welfare of society. The combination of multiple crises creates what Nicolai (2003) terms a “complex emergency.” The impact of such compounded crises cannot be neglected. “Based on emergency education projects around the world undertaken by Save the Children, Nicolai (2003) states that the majority of the countries in which emergency education takes place are at risk from both conflict and natural disaster” (Kagawa 2005, p. 492). What constitutes an emergency runs the gamut of natural disasters to violence, warfare, and unmet human needs. Chand et al. (2003) cast a wider net stating that an emergency is any “disaster situation or event, which ‘overwhelms local capacity’ and leads to a request for external assistance” (p. 224). Defining the term has its challenges, particularly because in practice it is often difficult to distinguish between different types of crises (i.e., complex emergencies). Generally, it can be assumed the field of education in emergencies applies to communities that have experienced unexpected, severe, and rapid onset of an array of different crises. To further complicate our understanding of emergencies is the stage in which a crisis has progressed. This is often pivotal in defining

appropriate interventions and seeking various financing modalities. For instance, a conflict may endure ongoing violence, a regime change, and a phase of reconstruction and rehabilitation or result in becoming a failed state. In the instance that a community regains a sense of stability and enters into a phase of rebuilding, it could be argued that emergency education no longer applies. However, the Education for All Dakar Framework for Action (2000) emphasizes the need to support populations still severely affected by conflict, disaster, and instability. Referring to the work of Sinclair, it is stated: “According to this view, educational initiatives during the post-conflict reconstruction are also understood as part of emergency education” (Kagawa 2005, p. 494). This perspective elicits a provocative question in the field of EiE, when does crisis response give way to reconstruction/development, and what does this mean for education? For decades, humanitarian aid and international development programming have operated in separate spheres. The former concerns itself with providing lifesaving aid, while the latter arguably does the same, but with an aim at longterm social stability and prosperity. For countries that have experienced acute crises within historical contexts of economic and political fragility, humanitarian and development spheres may operate in the same space and time, but with limited strategy for an integrated response and transition from short- to long-term assistance. To counter this issue, an acknowledgement has grown that relief and development are not discrete processes, but rather development is the fundamental process that includes long periods of crisis and recovery (Talbot 2013). This idea links to a concept known as the humanitarian-development continuum. Uniquely, education has the potential to dually meet the vital needs of crisis-affected children while also laying the groundwork for future social stability. Children may receive nutritional benefits and psychosocial care in the early stages of a crisis response, while themes of community reconciliation or human capital may drive EiE strategies in later stages. The recognition of education as a key opportunity for transition in the humanitariandevelopment continuum therefore adds to the

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Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”, Table 3 Definitions of EiE Institutional INEE (2010)

Save the Children (Alkhaldi Bashir 2018, p. 6) UNHCR (Crisp et al. 2001, p. 4)

Global Education Cluster (2010, p. 290) Scholarly Sinclair (2001, p. 4)

Kirk (2006, p. 1)

Chand et al. (2003, p. 224)

Nicolai and Triplehorn (2003, pp. 2–3)

Definitions Quality learning opportunities for all ages in situations of crisis, including early childhood development and primary, secondary, nonformal, technical, vocational, higher, and adult education. Education in emergencies provides physical, psychosocial, and cognitive protection that can sustain and save lives [The] provision of uninterrupted, high-quality learning opportunities for children affected by humanitarian crises. It is about making sure children can learn regardless of who they are, where they live, or what is happening around them The term “emergency education” is used at inter-agency level to refer to education in situations where children lack access to their national education systems, due to man-made crises or natural disasters The provision of quality education opportunities that meet the physical, protection, psychosocial, developmental, and cognitive needs of children affected by emergencies, which can be both life sustaining and lifesaving Definitions The term “education in emergencies” increasingly serves as shorthand for schooling and other organized studies, together with “normalizing” structured activities, arranged for and with children, young people, and adults whose lives have been disrupted by conflict and major natural disasters Education in emergencies refers to a broad range of educational activities – formal and nonformal – which are lifesaving and life-sustaining and, therefore, critical for children, youth, and their families in times of crisis. Crisis situations include natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and floods, as well as man-made conflicts Emergency education is concerned with education during and after complex humanitarian emergencies (for instance, long-term displacement of refugees), rapid educational responses during crises (which is the traditional understanding of the term “emergency”), and postcrisis educational reconstruction. Common to the three types of educational action is the context: emergency education deals with situations in which conflicts or disasters have “destabilised, disorganised or destroyed” the education system Emergency education programs take place “in situations where children lack access to their national and community education systems due to occurrence of complex emergencies or natural disasters.” They are situations, which overwhelm “the capacity of a society to cope by using its resources alone”

value of education in emergencies. Understanding education as a conduit of this transformation means looking beyond the ameliorative effects of re-establishing senses of normalcy and care to viewing education provided during periods of crisis as also transformative, giving rise to future stability and reduced vulnerabilities. Increasingly, literature has linked emergency education as vital to reconstruction and development programs (Pigozzi 1999; Chand et al. 2003; Buchert 2013). Conceptualizing the field of education in emergencies has historically been complicated by several factors, including understanding what events constitute an emergency, at what stage is an emergency resolved, and what are the priorities and aims of education given the multiple variants of

the previous factors. Yet, overtime consensus has developed on core principles and defining features of the field, situating EiE as a credible sub-topic in broader international education discourse. To gain a sense of definitional nuance, a variety of institutional and scholarly definitions of EiE are provided (Table 3).

Responses and Interventions Organizing Frameworks The range of initiatives within education in emergencies is wide. Responses and activities are highly dependent on a country’s circumstances, resulting in significant variability. Nonetheless,

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over time scholars and practitioners have developed core concepts for consideration when implementing programs in emergency contexts. These concepts offer key policy planning guidance and methods for EiE interventions. In the early 2000s, organizing frameworks were largely absent for education in emergencies. At the time, foundational questions on the timing, funding, and delivery were still being deliberated. As EiE became more firmly established, with consensus on these questions, ideas on how to organize the work began to emerge. Initially, via the commentary of practitioner-scholars, the early architecture of the field was established, ultimately resulting in commonly accepted frameworks and ideas that form the foundation of many contemporary EiE interventions. In the years just after the pivotal INEE was established, Chand et al. (2003) point out early ruminations and frameworks that began to organize EiE programs. The first, designed by Arnhold et al. (1998), presents “six dimensions of educational reconstruction.” These dimensions were established after extensive review of publications by agencies involved in educational reconstruction and include physical, ideological, psychological, curricular, human resource development, and population and demographics. These dimensions display education’s role beyond crisis response to that of long-term development programming and recovery. It represents a focus on both child and society. Moving to a more policy-centered approach, Chand et al. (2003) cite Sinclair (2001) who offers a set of indicators or standards to assess education during a crisis, including access, resources, activities/curriculum, and coordination and capacity building. These dimensions may require comprehensive support that includes human capital development, resource mobilization, content expertise, and an inter-agency/intersectoral response. An examination of all of these factors during an emergency is essential to the development and implementation of effective educational strategies. Much of the commentary discussed here by scholars such as Sinclair (2001), Sinclair and UNESCO (2002), Arnhold et al. (1998), and

Chand et al. (2003), but additionally Davies (2003), Crisp et al. (2001), and more, contributed to the INEE’s widely promoted and normative framework, the Minimum Standards for Education in Emergencies, completed in 2004 with a follow-up in 2010. This work has been adopted by several UN agencies, NGOs, government institutions, and other organizations as critical guidance for program development. The Standards are designed for use in emergency preparedness, response, and recovery and in humanitarian advocacy. They are applicable in a wide range of situations, including natural disasters and armed conflicts. The standards give guidance on how to prepare for and respond to acute emergencies in ways that reduce risk, improve future preparedness and lay a foundation for quality education. They provide flexibility in responding to needs at the most important level – the community – while providing a harmonized framework to coordinate the educational activities of national governments, other authorities, funding agencies, and national and international agencies. (www.ineesite. org, 2019)

Through the work of the INEE and commentary of early scholars, the field of EiE has been enriched, offering practitioners comprehensive and contextually relevant methods for response. Both scholars and institutions have helped shape the parameters of the field, offering insightful strategies and organizing principles. Such principles have established much-needed continuity of concepts and methods in the field of EiE. Increasingly, these works are at the foundation of educational programs worldwide. The Global Education Cluster, chaired by UNICEF and Save the Children, has facilitated the production of INEE Minimum Standard guides for humanitarian contexts across an array of geographical areas. As of 2018, 11 countries (Afghanistan, Somalia, Vietnam, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Ethiopia, Lebanon, Bangladesh, Jordan, Democratic Republic of Congo) have defined the Minimum Standards for Education in ways that are relevant to local contexts (Iraq Minimum Standards for Education in Emergencies 2018). These standards were developed in partnership with Ministries of Education, NGOs, academics, and a variety of local stakeholders to guide responses to education redevelopment in

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”, Fig. 1 The INEE Minimum Standards for Education in Emergencies: The Minimum Standards are organized into five categories, each with several specific standards. The outer ring represents the foundational principles, applicable across all domains (Kirk and Cassity 2007)

each country. The standards are routinely circulated to members of national education clusters as guide posts for program planning and implementation. Aside from being a guidebook for NGOs and government ministries, the Minimum Standards for Education in Emergencies are also used to inform top-level institutional frameworks. The Minimum Standards are designed to convey universal principles that can be used across EiE contexts but additionally serve as a foundation for further frames of action. One example is UNESCO’s Strategic Framework for Education in Emergencies 2018–2021. It reflects four strategic goals of access to quality education, empowering learners with values, knowledge, and skills for work, improving learning outcomes, and building educational resilience (UNESCO 2017). These goals embody many of the principles of the Minimum Standards, touching on issues of access, teaching and learning, and policy and coordination. The foundational work of the INEE continues to evolve and morph into new frames of action that address the arduous challenge of educating children in crisis (Fig. 1).

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Policy to Practice In the last two decades, numerous programs have emerged out of considerations of organizing principles such as the contributions of INEE (2010), Sinclair (2001), and Arnhold et al. (1998). Translating of such frameworks to practice has resulted in several common features in EiE response. Some of the most prevalent include Conflict-Sensitive Education (CSE), ChildFriendly Spaces (CFSs), resilience/disaster risk reduction programs, and a focus on human capital development via Accelerated Education. Due to EiE’s roots in humanitarian aid, “do no harm” principles are often the starting point when implementing activities. Since Mary B. Anderson first coined the phrase for purposes of humanitarian guidance in the 1990s, it has grown to have universal acceptance in the aid community, generally ensuring the integrity and non-politicized nature of humanitarian work. The field of EiE largely embraces these principles through the widespread promotion of “Conflict-Sensitive Education” (CSE). According to the INEE: Conflict sensitive education (CSE) means “understanding the context in which the education policy/ programme takes place, analyzing the two-way interaction between the context and the education policy/programme, and acting to minimize negative impacts and maximise positive impacts of education policies and programming on conflict, within an organization’s given priorities.” (Adapted from Conflict Sensitivity Consortium) (www.ineesite. org, 2019)

Part of what CSE aims to address is the dialectical relationship between education and conflict. Given the ideological power of education, features of schooling such as access, content, and instruction may be manipulated by governing agencies to convey discrimination, stereotypes, or other fuel for social tensions. CSE is intended to be a first-phase response in developing educational programming in the aftermath of conflict. It is meant to ensure local hostilities are not exacerbated through offering unfair access or promoting abuse of marginalized groups through textbooks or teaching. In the same vein as the humanitarian principles, CSE seeks to offer educational services without deepening the crisis it is intended to address.

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Other key activities in the early stages of EiE often focus on children’s psychosocial care and development. The psychological damage resulting from conflict can be severe and debilitating. Following Graça Machel’s landmark report, “The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children” (1996), international agencies began to take up the task of addressing the detrimental effects of war on children. In particular, it was recognized that schooling offers children not only a sense of normalcy after undergoing trauma and displacement but also a place for healing and care. Acknowledging that many children may not be prepared to reenter formal education soon after a crisis, numerous humanitarian responses now include “Child-Friendly Spaces” (CFSs), where children can access psychological support through structured play and activities. CFSs may also assist children with the transition from informal to formal education as they begin to once again prepare for their futures. The purpose of a Child-Friendly Space is to “provide children with a protected environment in which they can participate in organized activities to play, socialize, learn, and express themselves as they rebuild their lives” (Save the Children 2008, p. 2). The expansion of CFSs has largely been an outcome of the INEE’s Minimum Standards, which is emphasized in “Domain Two: Access and Learning Environment,” that “Schools, temporary learning spaces, and Child Friendly Spaces are close to the populations they serve” (INEE 2010, p. 61) and assist in the psychosocial well-being of children. Lastly, EiE programming can assist children in gaining the skills and knowledge they need to move forward. Whereas CSE and CFSs generally address the immediate needs of children and societies, the following represents EiE interventions aimed at addressing the future. Presently, this is often accomplished through two common features of EiE interventions, which includes disaster risk reduction (DRR)/resilience programming and what is known as “Accelerated Education.” Once children rejoin formal educational activities, they will often learn concepts of resilience and disaster risk reduction (DRR). These types of programs provide schools and children the skills to endure if future crises arise. According to

guidance by the Global Education Cluster (2012), “When actions to reduce risk are taken before a disaster strikes, the extent of the loss and damages is diminished and the resumption of education is swift. Disaster risk reduction is significant for education response in emergencies” (p. 1). The INEE Minimum Standards further this idea by promoting families and communities to proactively address protection concerns for children through organized efforts across local stakeholders. As a result, programs aimed at strengthening school resilience or the ability to anticipate and minimize disasters are common. At the learner level, this may mean assisting children in gaining skills to react/adapt to an emergency or withstand shocks. At the school level, this may mean fortifying walls and adding security measures. DRR can be characterized as a “systematic approach to incorporating the analysis of disaster risks and disaster risk reduction measures in education sector development planning” (Global Education Cluster 2012, p. 2). Beyond crisis response preparation, programs to ensure children succeed in formal education as well as have access to future educational opportunities are a pillar of EiE strategies. EiE programs typically work to align curriculum with either home or host country standards so that students may stay on track to graduate and advance to tertiary education, technical apprenticeships, or job opportunities. Ensuring children gain the credentials they need to move forward is one of the greatest challenges of the field. The INEE states, “With each missed school year, there is greater risk that they will be unable to return to formal education. . . Responding to the needs of these learners has increasingly led governments and agencies to provide more flexible forms of education such as accelerated education” (INEE 2019b). An accelerated education program (AEP) is a flexible age-appropriate program that promotes access to education in an accelerated time-frame for disadvantaged groups, over-age out-of- school children and youth who missed out or had their education interrupted due to poverty, marginalisation, conflict and crisis. The goal of AEP is to provide learners with equivalent certified competencies for basic education and learning approaches that match their level of cognitive maturity. (www.ineesite.org, 2019)

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

The range of responses in EiE vary widely according to context. However, common organizing frameworks assist in guiding the educational work occurring in crisis environments so that children may have access to quality services despite their circumstances. The programming conceived by policy frameworks continues to grow and be replicated in environments when applicable.

Conclusion EiE and Sustainable Development In the lead up to the post-2015 agenda, much discussion arose on what was left out of previous educational goals such as the MDGs or EFA. Both sets of global commitments had shortcomings that the SDGs had potential to remedy. Talbot (2013) noted, “The education component of a future postMDG global development agenda needs to be comprehensively worded, allowing for the inclusion of all population groups, all situations and all sub-sectors of education systems” (p. 3). Nicolai et al. (2016) stated, “Following the failure to reach the Millennium Development Goals and Education for All goals on education, the world must do better in the SDG era. There is a new window of opportunity” (p. 11). In a sense, the SDGs have the opportunity to get right what its predecessors missed. In 2015, it was envisaged (and eventually conceived) the new agenda could promote greater inclusion of marginalized and vulnerable populations, expand priorities beyond primary education, and link the previously disparate MDGs and EFA goals. Among the critiques of earlier educational agendas was the lack of attention provided to crisis-affected contexts. EFA noted the value of EiE following Dakar, but the more general MDGs left out a focus entirely. However, with the establishment of Agenda 2030, EiE was not only referenced in the targets of SDG 4, but an emphasis on vulnerable populations, including those in crisis situations, set the tone for the entirely of the development agenda. As such, when asking what does EiE mean for achieving sustainable development and, more concretely, the SDGs, the answer

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is twofold: (1) EiE’s direct contribution to SDG 4 and (2) EiE’s more ancillary support of all SDGs through its potential to transform communities and pave paths for peace, stability, and growth, particularly in the world’s most fragile regions. Regarding EiE’s potential contribution to SDG 4, gains made during the MDGs were significant but left much to be accomplished. Since 2000, an estimated 34 million more children attended school as a result of progress over the last decade and a half (UNESCO 2015a; Nicolai et al. 2016). Yet, a vast number of children caught up in crisis were left behind, denied their right to education, and left unprepared to contribute to economic growth and social stability. According to the Global Education Monitoring Report, although school enrollment statistics worldwide have largely improved over the last two decades, the proportion of out-of-school children in conflictaffected countries has actually grown since 2000 (UNESCO 2015a). Global averages on educational progress are potentially misleading when data is not disaggregated by populations, particularly in regard to crisis-affected children. Nicolai et al. (2016) claim refugees are five times less likely to attend school than other children, with only half of refugees enrolled in primary school and less than a quarter enrolled in secondary. Equally distressing is the disproportionate progress of marginalized groups such as girls, who are 2.5 times more likely to be out of school than boys in countries affected by conflict (Nicolai et al. 2016). These averages fail to be represented in aggregated data on global progress, which often trend positive. Moreover, conflicts are exceedingly protracted, keeping generations of children out of school for the entirety of the educational cycle. Conflicts in Somalia produced Dadaab camp in neighboring Kenya over 25 years ago, one of the largest refugee settlements today. In addition, hundreds of thousands of Syrians have remained in camps since the conflict began there more than 7 years ago. To meet global educational goals, the situation of crisis-affected children must be considered. These children are some of the farthest behind, least likely to succeed, and most likely to live in unstable communities for years to come.

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EiE is a critical field for addressing this vast population of children. The value of this work was noted at the expiration of the MDGs and adoption of the SDGs. Several sections of the 2015 Framework for Action addressed this point with statements such as “Countries must, therefore, institute measures to develop inclusive, responsive and resilient education systems to meet the needs of children, youth and adults in crisis contexts, including internally displaced persons and refugees” (UNESCO 2015c, p. 27). In addition, the Framework noted, “Urgent efforts should be made to significantly increase support for education in humanitarian responses and protracted crises according to the needs and to ensure a rapid response to conflict and crisis situations” (p. 69). EiE’s contribution to achieving SDG 4 is essential and made clear in international frameworks of cooperation. Targets and indicators simply cannot be reached without inclusion of provisions for education in emergencies. Beyond EiE’s direct link to achieving SDG 4 is its potential to serve as an enabler of other SDGs. In communities impacted by conflict, education has the potential to transform oppressive ideas and move societies to greater degrees of fairness and equality. When communities have firm foundations of human rights, social inclusion, and social justice, economic growth and attention to environmental sustainability can proliferate. Utilizing education as a means for transformation has long been a part of development agendas. In emergency contexts, it was noted by Pigozzi in the 1990s that crisis may be an opportunity for a full reset – in fact it may be easier to introduce change into education systems as a result of an emergency rather than in peaceful, orderly times (Talbot 2013). Emergencies can provide opportunity for rapid change with regard to curriculum reforms, ensuring equitable access, etc. However, although education has immense potential to serve the public good, the assumption of its inherent positive effects is both dubious and dangerous. It must be noted that education in many instances is a seed of conflict, and as such, linkages between education and conflict must be critically examined. In 2000, Bush and Saltarelli published their critical work, The Two Faces of

Education in Ethnic Conflict: Towards a Peacebuilding Education for Children, which displayed that education has a significant impact in initiating, maintaining, and exacerbating conflict. They challenged the prevailing assumption that education was inevitably a force for good. In their publication for UNICEF, they displayed how education systems can be manipulated to “drive a wedge” between people rather than draw them together (p. vi). Issues of access, content, and teaching can easily convey discriminatory or oppressive ideas. As a consequence of Bush and Saltarelli’s publication, attention began to shift from a concern with violent conflict solely as an obstacle to educational access to awareness of the “more subtle, complex, and often disturbing linkages between education and conflict” (Tawil and Harley 2004, p. 3). Beyond Bush and Saltarelli’s work, Talbot (2013) notes an increasing worry that education may be drawn into and viewed as a tool of wider counter-terrorism and counterinsurgency geopolitical strategies of rich nations. He states, “the process runs the risk of associating efforts of governments, the UN and NGOs to provide education in emergencies with particular political and security agendas” (p. 8). Such perception may lead to attacks on education and violence toward students. The ideological power of education means it holds a unique position, having the ability to transform communities for good or bad. Although the “dual faces” of education are a strong concern, the potential for education to mitigate harm, heal societies, and “build back better,” a common ethos in humanitarian aid, is still highly valued. Providers of education in emergencies often work to ensure all children have equal rights and access to education. Furthermore, curriculum can be carefully crafted with stakeholders from multiple agencies and communities to establish knowledge based on inclusive practices and promotion of reconciliation among populations. Although the fruits of these educational labors are only seen in the long term, establishing such ideologies and standards of fairness is key to our global development efforts and a focus of EiE programming.

Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

The field of education in emergencies continues to be recognized as critical for reaching global educational goals. The scale of out-of-school children in crisis contexts is tremendous, and inattention to their needs will only result in cycles of conflict, underdevelopment, and poverty. It has also been recognized that education has immense potential to transform communities. When harnessed appropriately, this can lead to peace, prosperity, and progress on all fronts. As such, it is vital that research and practice in EiE continue to inform the global educational development agenda. Endeavoring to reach the furthest behind first, including the multitudes of crisis-affected children, will pave the way for achieving our global goals and ensuring the rights of all children.

Cross-References ▶ Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education ▶ Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

References Alkhaldi Bashir A (2018) Improving learning environments together in emergencies (ILET) package. Save the Children Norway, Oslo Arnhold N, Bekker J, Kersh N, Mcleish EA, Phillips D (1998) Education for reconstruction: the regeneration of educational capacity following national upheaval. Symposium Books Ltd., Oxford Buchert L (2013) Introduction – understanding education, fragility and conflict. Prospects 43(1):5–15 Bush KD, Saltarelli D (2000) The two faces of education in ethnic conflict: towards a peacebuilding education for children. UNICEF, United Nations Children’s Fund, Innocenti Research Centre, Florence Chand VS, Joshi S, Dabhi R (2003) “Emergency education”: the missing dimension in education policy. Educ Res Policy Prac 2(3):223–235 Crisp J, Talbot C, Cipollone DB (2001) Learning for a future: refugee education in developing countries. United Nations Publications, Geneva Davies L (2003) Education and conflict: complexity and chaos. Routledge, London Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (2018) Education under attack. Retrieved from http://www.

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protectingeducation.org/sites/default/files/documents/ eua_2018_full.pdf Global Education Cluster (2010) Education cluster coordinator handbook. Global Education Cluster, Geneva Global Education Cluster (2012) Disaster risk reduction in education in emergencies. Global Education Cluster, Geneva INEE (2010) The minimum standards for education in emergencies. INEE, New York INEE (2019a) Conflict sensitive education. Retrieved from https://www.ineesite.org/en/conflict-sensitive-education INEE (2019b) INEE toolkit: accelerated education program. Retrieved from https://toolkit.ineesite.org/termbank/en/terms/accelerated_education_program Iraq Minimum Standards for Education in Emergencies (2018). Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/ iraq/iraq-minimum-standards-education-emergenciesenarku Kagawa F (2005) Emergency education: a critical review of the field. Comp Educ 41(4):487–503 Kirk J (2006) Education in emergencies: the gender implications. Advocacy brief. UNESCO, Bangkok Kirk J, Cassity E (2007) Minimum standards for quality education for refugee youth. Youth Stud Aust 26(1):50 Machel G (1996) Impact of armed conflict on children. UN General Assembly, New York, p 19 Machel G (2001) The impact of war on children: a review of progress since the 1996 United Nations report on the impact of armed conflict on children. United Nations Children’s Fund, New York Midttun E (2000) Clarification regarding components and aspects of core activities in various phases of emergency. Norwegian Refugee Council, Oslo Nicolai S (2003) Education in emergency tool kit. Save the Children UK, London Nicolai S, Hine S (2015) Investment for education in emergencies. Overseas Development Institute, London Nicolai S, Triplehorn C (2003) The role of education in protecting children in conflict. Network Paper: Humanitarian Practice Network (HPN) 42:1–36 Nicolai S et al (2016) Education cannot wait: proposing a fund for education in emergencies. Overseas Development Institute, London Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2015) Chair statement – the Oslo declaration. Retrieved from https:// www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/departementene/ud/ dokumenter/oslo-summit-on-education-for-development %2D%2Dchairs-statement.pdf Norwegian Refugee Council, Redd Barna, UNHCR (1999) Protection of children and adolescents in complex emergencies: conference report. Norwegian Refugee Council, Oslo Obura A (2003) Never again, educational reconstruction in Rwanda. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris Pigozzi M (1999) Education in emergencies and for reconstruction: a developmental approach. UNICEF, New York

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284 Retamal G, Aedo-Richmond R (1998) Education as a humanitarian response. Continuum International Publishing Group, New York Save the Children (2008) Child friendly spaces in emergencies: a handbook for Save the Children staff. Retrieved from https://www.savethechildren.org/con tent/dam/global/reports/education-and-child-protection/ cfs-handbook-08.pdf Sinclair M (2001) Education in emergencies. In: Learning for a future: refugee education in developing countries. pp. 1–84. Retrieved from https://www.unhcr.org/ 4a1d5ba36.pdf Sinclair M, UNESCO (2002) Planning education in and after emergencies. UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris Talbot C (2013) Education in conflict emergencies in light of the post-2015 MDGs and EFA agendas. NORRAG, Geneva Tawil S, Harley A (2004) Education and identity-based conflict: assessing curriculum policy for social and civic reconstruction. In: Education, conflict and social cohesion. p. 9. International Bureau of EducationUNESCO, Geneva UNDP (2018) What does it mean to leave no one behind? A UNDP discussion paper and framework for implementation. Retrieved from http://www. undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/povertyreduction/what-does-it-mean-to-leave-no-one-behind. html UNESCO (2015a) Education for all 2000–2015: achievements and challenges. EFA global monitoring report 2015. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2015b) Fixing the broken promises of education for all. UIS, Montreal. Retrieved from http:// allinschool.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/OOSCEXECUTIVE-Summary-report-EN.pdf UNESCO (2015c) Education 2030: framework for action. Retrieved from http://s3.amazonaws.com/inee-assets/ resources/education-2030-incheon-framework-for-actionimplementation-of-sdg4-2016-en_2.pdf UNESCO (2017) Strategic framework on education in emergencies in the Arab region 2018–2021. UNESCO, Beirut UNESCO (2018) Global initiative on out of school children, South Sudan country study. UNESCO, Paris UNHCR (2017) Global trends, forced displacement in 2017. UNHCR, Geneva UNICEF (2018) A future stolen: young and out of school. Retrieved from https://data.unicef.org/resources/a-futurestolen/ United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations, New York Williams P (2006) Achieving education for all: good practice in crisis and post-conflict reconstruction. Commonwealth Secretariat, London World Education Forum (2000) The Dakar framework for action: education for all, meeting our collective commitments. UNESCO, Paris

Education in Humanitarian Settings

Education in Humanitarian Settings ▶ Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

Education to Achieve Sustainable Development ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education

Educational Access ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

Educational Development ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

Educational Engineering ▶ Future Trends in Education

Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing Eleonora Concina Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology (FISPPA), University of Padova, Padova, Italy

Synonyms Assessment practices in education

Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing

Definitions The assessment of educational outcomes is a multidimensional process which aims to monitor, analyze, and evaluate learners’ performances as a result of their involvement in educational experiences. It is one of the core concepts of the teaching-learning process, and it has a great impact on all the educational paths. Educational assessment has several aims, related both to the promotion of the full development of the individual and of the evaluation and improvement of instructional practices and pedagogical approaches. It applies many strategies that allow to collect data and gather information, in order to express a judgment that could be representative of the educational outcomes and the teaching-learning process that has took place. Assessment strategies may be applied by external evaluators (e.g., teachers, educators, and administrators) in terms of testing and grading; also the learners themselves can take part in assessing their learning outcomes, with self- and peer assessment practices. In this perspective, assessment of educational outcomes can enhance a more active role of students in the educational process, improving their abilities and sustaining their motivation toward learning.

Educational Outcomes Assessment/Validity Testing Introduction Education has a core role in the promotion of positive attitudes and engagement toward sustainable development. The Agenda 2030 (UN 2016), which sets the main goals that United Nations aims to achieve in the next 15 years, highlights the need to promote equal opportunities to access quality education all around the world (Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, p. 14). Through education, people can develop their potentialities and start reflecting critically on the main issues that characterize modern societies. All these aspects are essential for promoting the development of responsible and aware citizens, who can work for creating a more sustainable

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and fair future for all. The impact of education on the improvement of a sustainable future had been officially remarked for the first time in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992) and reported in its official document, the Agenda 21 (UN 1992). Since then, more attention has been paid to the enhancement and promotion of educational opportunities, giving particular consideration to developing countries. The fulfillment of the Goal 4 of Agenda 2030 implies the need to structure and create accessible educational experiences, which can support and enhance pupils’ learning processes and motivation. In this perspective, particular attention should be dedicated to students that come from minorities and children and young people who have special educational needs (due, e.g., to cognitive or sensorial disabilities or to cultural or social disadvantages). These groups have been often disregarded in the traditional approaches adopted by educational systems, which seem more focused on reaching national or international standards instead of encouraging and supporting students in their learning experiences, respecting their individual needs and characteristics. For this reason, to improve fairness in education means also to sustain students’ motivation toward school and academic achievement, offering hints and suggestions to empower their learning skills and metacognitive competence. The assessment of educational outcomes may contribute to the achievement of these objectives. Assessment is one of the core phases of the learning process, and it has many different functions, at both individual (improving students’ work in the classroom) and institutional level (offering indications for taking decisions about the educational systems and practices). Assessment practices that are focused on the process as well as on the product of learning, that respect individual differences between students, and that can be used not only for grading or responding to national standards may enhance teachers’ and educators’ efforts in motivating and empowering all their students (Black and Wiliam 2012). Sustainable assessment is not only focused on evaluating the current achievement of learning objectives (in a

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school or academic context), but it also aims to help students become autonomous learners in a lifelong learning perspective (Boud and Soler 2016). For these reasons, assessment practices should help learners to develop reflective and self-evaluating skills for their future life. To better understand the role of assessment in supporting the full development of individual, it is necessary to make some specific distinctions about the terms that are currently used in the theoretical discussion about educational assessment and evaluation. Assessment activity in all school levels and higher education institutions may respond to several different requirements and functions (Taras 2009), e.g., to assign grades, to monitor teachers’ work, to improve school standards, and, not least, to help students recognize their strong and critical points in learning. In general, two main purposes of educational assessment have been recognize, the summative and the formative ones (Harlen 2012). The formative goal of assessment is a core aspect in the promotion of the pedagogical approach of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), which aims to help students become active and responsible citizens of a democratic society (Sterling 2001).

in educational contexts, collecting data, and making judgments about them (James 2010). The assessment activity characterizes all the stages of the educational process: an assessment activity may be performed before the educational experience started (pre-assessment) for examining the preliminary level of competence of students, while a final assessment can outline the outcomes of the teaching-learning process. Educational assessment has a close relationship with instructional practices and with the curriculum proposed in the class (James 2010); for these reasons, effective assessment practices should be considered situated, depending on the main features of a specific educational context. Educational assessment pursues several goals that can be focused both on an individual dimension (the student and the teacher) and on a more general perspective (institutional practices). Among them, three main aims can be recognized (Newton 2007):

Assessment, Testing, and Evaluation: Definitions and Aims While considering the assessment of educational outcomes, it is important to distinguish between assessment, testing, and evaluation. These terms are often used as synonyms, but each of them refers to a specific concept, characterized by particular features, functions, and goals. Assessment is a process that aims to collect data for producing a judgment about a specific event or object. It has several different functions, which influence the choice of applying specific assessment methods, standard criteria, and indicators (Taras 2009). In the educational perspective, assessment is an essential phase of the learning process: its main aim is to monitor and evaluate the individual activity of learners and the outcomes they reach as a result of their engagement in learning tasks (Black and Wiliam 2012). Assessment can be defined as a set of processes focused on examining performances

1. The need to make judgments about the teaching-learning process, the pedagogical approaches, and the instructional practices adopted. 2. The need to take decisions that can affect the individual dimension (e.g., decisions about the academic career of a student) but also the general and institutional sphere. This aim is strictly related to the first one, since the action of taking decisions should be based on preliminary judgments. 3. The need to have an impact on students, teachers, and institutions, enhancing educational experiences and creating fair opportunities. Another objective of assessment, which has a preeminent role in school activity, is represented by grading (Newton 2007), namely, assigning grades which can quantify students’ learning outcomes. However, it has to be reminded that assessment practices are not limited to grades, but they should offer a multidimensional overview of the learning outcomes, integrating quantitative and qualitative information about their value.

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Testing is another term that often appears in the educational debate. It indicates one of the strategies used in educational assessment (James 2010), and it implies the application of test (often standardized) for collecting quantitative data about students’ learning outcomes (Orfield and Wald 2000). Testing represents only a subdimension of assessment, since it mainly focuses on the product of the teaching-learning activity, not considering the pedagogical and psychological process that has led to these results. The use of test for assessing learning outcomes is characterized by structured instruments (that can be standardized or specifically created for a particular school, class, or educational context), a quantitative result (a grade or mark), and particular conditions in which they are administered (limited time for students to take it, particular environmental conditions, etc.) for assuring an objective collection of data. Currently, the administration of test is still considered one of the preferred assessment strategies: it is easy to be applied, not requiring a particular effort, and it has the credit to offer a complete and immediate judgment that reflects students’ performance. However, there are particular risks in misusing tests for school and academic assessment (Orfield and Wald 2000): not only they may contribute to reduce pupils’ motivation toward learning, but also they may support discrimination of students that present special educational needs (cognitive and sensorial disabilities; cultural, social, or linguistic disadvantages; and other psychological deficits). This can be avoided integrating testing practices with other assessment strategies, such as selfassessment and peer assessment practices, that can offer a more exhaustive representation of students’ and teachers’ educational work (Webber and Scott 2015). If assessment can be defined as the process which gathers information and collects data about learning outcomes, evaluation refers to the following step. In the evaluation phase, judgments are made according to the data collected in the assessment activity (Dunn and Mulvenon 2009). In general, evaluation is the action of assigning a specific judgment of value to a performance, a process, a project, or a general program (Davidson

2005). Evaluation processes can be applied in a wide range of fields, from the educational to the economical ones. To evaluate means to attribute value and meaning to a specific subject (Scriven 2007), considering several aspects related to costs, aims, and needs (Scriven 1981). In the educational perspective, different dimensions of evaluation are included: evaluating the performance of students but also evaluating teaching methods and instructional practices and national curricula. Assessment, testing, and evaluation are different concepts, characterized by multiple relationships between them. Assessment is a process which adopted several strategies for gathering information about specific events; in the field of education, it includes all the practices that can offer a report of students’ learning process, such as testing, grading, self-assessment, and peer assessment. All the data that emerged from the assessment activity can be used for educational evaluation, namely, for attributing a specific value to the educational process that has took place in the classroom and to its outcomes. From these perspectives, it becomes essential to understand how assessment may contribute to the improvement of equal educational opportunities. Formative and Summative Assessment for Promoting Quality and Fairness in Education For assuring a high-quality educational experience to all the learners, educational assessment should serve two main purposes that are summarized in the concepts of summative and formative assessment. The distinction between formative and summative evaluation has been introduced for the first time by Scriven (1967). Scriven (1981) distinguished between internal evaluative processes, conducted during the implementation of a program or the development of a product with the aim to define indications for improving them (formative evaluation), and processes that are required from external sources and applied after the event or while the product is finished (summative evaluation). Both of them have to consider the outcomes and the process that has led to them.

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The main goal of summative assessment is to give a precise account of the learning process that has been developed in class during the educational activity (Harlen 2012). Summative assessment is generally used to verify if students are ready to access the next step of their educational activity (Dixson and Warrell 2016). Considering this specific purpose, tests and exams can be very useful, since they can offer a quantifiable report of learning outcomes. The summative function of assessment is relevant not only for students but also for educational institutions, which can access a wide range of data for making evaluation judgments. Formative assessment has a key role in sustaining the enhancement of teaching methods and pedagogical approaches. The aim of formative assessment is twofold (Dunn and Mulvenon 2009): on personal level, it allows to support and help students in becoming effective and autonomous learners, while, on a general level, it has a relevant impact on instructional practices. The formative function of assessment is focused on offering students specific indication for improving their learning activity (Black and Wiliam 1998): it combines an informative aim with the more practical need of making improvement in the educational processes, within a learner-centered pedagogical approach. When the assessment practices are used for pursuing formative goals, they should result in feedbacks for both students and teachers (Harlen 2012). Formative assessment is needed for monitoring the teaching-learning process, offering indications about how to enhance it. With formative assessment, students can recognize their difficulties (Dixson and Warrell 2016), reflecting upon them in order to find possible solutions to their learning issues, in collaboration with the teacher. Feedbacks can become the basis for structuring changes, revisions, and improvements of the educational activity in classroom, of pedagogical practices, and of institutional objectives. To impact the educational process and its outcomes, formative assessment starts from judgments about them for developing constructive feedbacks. These feedbacks should help teachers and students identify strong and critical point of

the educational process they have experienced. Boud and Molloy (2013) advocated for a reconstruction of the concept of feedback in higher education. Feedback should become the result of a cooperation between learners and teachers (and not only an unidirectional teachers’ action); it should be made accessible and understandable for other educational actors beyond the teacher; it should be structured as a planned sequence of practices and strategies. In addition, it should include a social dimension, promoting strategies based on peer assessment. According to Newton (2007) two kinds of judgments are taken into account in the formative function of assessment activity. The first is represented by summative judgments that are mainly oriented to take decisions; the second includes descriptive judgments, mainly focused on the analysis and understanding of specific situations. They both are crucial for supporting formative goals of assessment. This conceptualization has the credit to integrate the summative and the formative functions of the assessment of educational outcomes (Taras 2009), which have been often viewed as contrasting function of assessment practices within the class. The summative purpose should be integrated in a wider perspective which can finally lead to formative goals (Webber and Scott 2015). The general model that emerged in the analysis of the literature on the theme of educational assessment is summarized in Fig. 1. Assessment has two main functions (James 2010; Black and Wiliam 2012), which can be fulfilled using different assessment techniques (testing, selfassessment, peer assessment). The information collected during assessment can be used in the evaluation phase (Davidson 2005; Scriven 2007; Dunn and Mulvenon 2009), which can be focused more specifically on the students’ learning process or, in a wider perspective, on teaching practices and curricula features. The result of this process can be identified in the definition of a constructive feedback (Newton 2007; Boud and Molloy 2013), which, at the same time, can give a precise account of current level reached and specific hints for improving the educational process.

Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing, Fig. 1 Summary of the main theoretical contributions about the topic of educational assessment

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ASSESSMENT (James 2010; Black and Wiliam 2012)

on functi ative summ formativ e functio n

Testing Self-assessment Peer-assessment Students’ learning process

EVALUATION

of

(Davidson 2005; Scriven 2007; Dunn and Mulvenon 2009)

Teaching practices Curricula Constructive

FEEDBACK (Newton 2007; Boud and Molloy 2013)

Collaborative Accessible

The Role of Students in Formative Assessment: Self-Assessment and Peer Assessment Another relevant aim of formative assessment is to engage more actively pupils in the process of evaluation of their educational experience, motivating them toward learning. This is particularly relevant for assuring equal successful opportunities for all: if students are motivated in putting an effort in their learning activity, the risk of dropout and failure may be reduced. The application of assessment strategies is highly affected by learners’ motivation, learning approach, and attitudes toward educational experiences (Black and Wiliam 1998; Gibels and Dochy 2007). To have a positive impact on the learning process and outcomes, formative feedbacks need to be supported by students’ motivation toward learning and selfefficacy. If learners are not interested in using the judgments they received as results of the application of assessment practices, the formative purpose cannot be accomplished. If pupils have to take a relevant role in the learning process, as well as in assessment, their preferences and needs should be taken into account while planning assessment methods. The way in which students consider the learning process and their beliefs about learning and teaching, their aims, and outcomes may have an impact on the preferences they show about assessment methods (Gibels and Dochy 2007). Formative assessment may affect students’ orientation

toward learning, promoting an approach mainly oriented to a deep understanding of the learning material. To enhance the active role of learners, some specific formative strategies for assessment can be proposed: self-assessment and peer assessment. These strategies have the credit to involve students in the assessment process, making them responsible of the enhancement of their educational experience. Self-assessment and peer assessment are two different strategies, but they influence each other in a circular formative process (Liu and Carless 2006): feedbacks from the peers about the individual performance may help the learners themselves to understand what are the quality standards that their educational context requires them. In addition, reflecting upon the performance of others helps the individual in analyzing more in depth own learning process, recognizing positive aspects and critical points. Self-assessment and peer assessment are two different assessment strategies, but they share some common features (Liu and Carless 2006), mainly focused on the need to learn to reflect autonomously and to assume a more active role in individual learning processes. Self-assessment is characterized by two main phases (McMillan and Hearn 2008): the evaluation of own personal performance and, after that, the definition of the possible improvements that can be made to the learning activity. This assessment method may be performed to analyze the individual performance

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with reference either to indicators that have been defined autonomously (Sterling 2001) or to standard criteria externally settled (Andrade and Vatcheva 2009). Criteria-referenced self-assessment (Andrade and Vatcheva 2009) is an assessment strategy that allows to examine personal performance and learning outcomes considering external standards. In comparing individual achievements with external criteria, learners may understand how to improve their educational performance and become more aware of the meanings and values of their teachers’ feedbacks. However, it is important that the external standards should respect learners’ individual characteristics and respond to personal needs, beliefs, and objectives. This implies to pay particular attention to students’ educational needs, sociocultural backgrounds, and access to educational opportunities. Students may evaluate their performance not only comparing it with standard criteria but also examining how much the current outcomes are far from their personal performance objectives (McMillan and Hearn 2008). In this perspective, self-assessment can be considered a component of self-regulation (Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick 2006): being able to evaluate and, if needed, revising own personal actions and plans in the learning activity are skills typical of autonomous, metacognitive, and motivated learners. Self-assessment also includes self-monitoring activity, which can help students in flexibly revising the learning process while in progress. Self-assessment can have several benefits on students (McMillan and Hearn 2008), enhancing their learning process, improving their achievement motivation, and promoting an orientation toward mastery in learning. There can be recognized some competences that are needed to effectively assess own educational performance; they should be developed with the help of the teachers and educators, who can guide and sustain students in the gradual process of becoming autonomous and self-regulated learners (Andrade and Vatcheva 2009). To engage effectively in selfassessment practices, pupils have to develop strategical and metacognitive skills: these are necessary for understanding standard criteria, applying them on their own performance, defining personal

learning goals, and producing formative feedbacks that can be representative of their educational experience. The self-dimension of assessment can integrate in a formative feedback the grades, marks, and comments received from external actors in the evaluation process. Peer assessment is a cooperative process in which learners have to assign a grade and produce a feedback about the educational performance of their mates (Liu and Carless 2006). Peer assessment strategies can be applied in all the academic discipline and can be encouraged by teachers since early stages of school instruction (Falchikov and Goldfinch 2000). This strategy supports cooperation and discussion of ideas and beliefs between learners: its social dimension represents the ideal educational context for fostering the development of social skills and sustaining interpersonal interactions. The application in classroom activity of peer assessment strategies leads to the definition of peer feedback (Liu and Carless 2006). This term indicates a cognitive and social process focused on communication between students, with the aim to discuss both evaluation criteria and individual performances and outcomes: it has a formative purpose and represents the extended evaluation of others performance. Although peer assessment presents many benefits for students, currently there are many difficulties in effectively applying it in all school and academic levels. Students have to evaluate their peers’ learning outcomes in an objective way, referring to previously stated standard criteria (van Zundert et al. 2010): this cannot always be an easy task, and it requires specific competences for being accomplished. Reliability and fairness of the judgments are often advocated as major risks of proposing peer assessment tasks (Liu and Carless 2006); other issues are related to the fact that peer assessment practices are time demanding and require a great effort by teachers to be integrated in classroom activity. To overcome difficulties related to the objectivity and quality of peer assessment, students should acquire specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes that can enhance effective assessment practices (van Zundert et al. 2010). In addition, positive attitudes toward peer assessment should be

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fostered by teacher during educational activity, in order to assure effective and formative experiences and limit students’ negative feelings associated with fear of social judgment and lack of self-esteem. In general, self-assessment and peer assessment practices have many positive effects on students’ learning process. Their most relevant benefit is to engage actively learner in the assessing phase of the educational experience. For all these reasons, these strategies should be integrated in the assessment process of each educational path, gradually sustaining learners in becoming independent and reflective while evaluating their actions and thoughts.

activity is not anymore to transmit knowledge and competence to pupils but to start and support a process of transformation of the way in which people think and act. In this perspective, education should help students preparing for becoming active and responsible citizens of the world, able to think critically and act for a more fair society (Taylor 2008). For becoming autonomous thinkers and actors, it is necessary that educational experiences enhance a gradual acquisition of self-regulated skills since early childhood; here, all the phases of the teaching-learning process, including assessment, should engage students in a more active role and responsible attitude toward learning. In a formative perspective, feedbacks have a transformative impact on learners, since they do not only offer information about performance but also affect students’ beliefs, self-efficacy, and motivation toward learning (Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick 2006). Formative assessment strategies, such as self- and peer assessment, can encourage the autonomous action of learner in the assessment process but also in the educational experience (Dunn and Mulvenon 2009). Selfassessment, peer assessment, and interim assessment strategies are all focused on sustaining the gradual development of autonomy and self-regulated skills. While assessing educational outcomes, teachers may share constructive feedbacks with their students, guiding their educational experience and facilitating the achievement of self-regulated abilities (Black and Wiliam 1998). The guiding function of formative feedbacks may be very useful mainly in the first levels of school instructions. At the same time, it is necessary to sustain and encourage the development of autonomy and strategical skills for learning. Formative feedbacks can effectively support the development of self-regulation in learning if they are characterized by some specific features (Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick 2006): they should be informative, explaining what can be considered positive educational outcomes; they should support dialogue between teachers and students; they should enhance students’ motivation; they can be used for revising individual performance in order to reach personal and institutional educational outcomes; they should help students in defining

Educational Assessment in Education for Sustainable Development The new educational goals that have been stated for pursuing a more sustainable future require a revision of the traditional approaches in educational assessment. To promote the development of skills and knowledge that are needed for creating a more democratic society, it is not sufficient to limit the evaluation of learning processes to grades and marks (Webber and Scott 2015). To adopt only summative strategies does not help students become autonomous, not only in their learning activity but also in critical thinking activity, problem-solving, and taking decisions (Sterling 2001, 2010). Effective assessment practices, which can support the formative purpose, may ensure the achievement of these objectives: they can offer indications for creating and developing democratic educational opportunities and sustain teachers’ and educators’ efforts in motivating and empowering students. The formative purpose of assessment is one of the core concepts of Education for Sustainable Development. This pedagogical approach aims to encourage pupils to become autonomous and self-regulated learners, in order to develop assertiveness, awareness, and sense of responsibility for becoming active citizens in the future sustainable society (UNESCO 2012). The ESD is based on an innovative pedagogical approach, the Transformative Learning Theory (Mezirow 1996, 2003): for it, the aim of the educational

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(or revising) personal objectives related to their educational experience. With this idea, assessment practices within the class should be based on both self- and hetero-evaluation (Sterling 2001): integrating these strategies, students can become able to examine their learning process and outcomes, with the support of the teacher.

In addition, students may benefit from activities which encourage them to reflect upon their educational experience and learning process (McMillan and Hearn 2008): this will help them to understand the main features of educational assessment, making them able to integrate feedbacks and judgments in the development of their learning skills. Assessment activity with formative purposes can be integrated in everyday classroom routine (Black and Wiliam 2012), such as discussing with all the students about their performance, accompanying grades with more extended comments, encouraging strategies of self- and peer assessment, and reflecting and discussing upon the results of evaluation tests.

Sustainable Assessment: Educational Implications Assessment practices may have a great impact on the promotion of equity and democracy in education. As discussed, the formative function of assessment can help teachers and students to construct a significant educational path, which can enhance students’ development of transferable skills and competence. Currently, formative assessment is not fully implemented in educational institutions: summative strategies are preferred, since they meet more efficiently requirements for national and international standards (Tierney 2006). To adopt a new perspective of assessment in education implies to involve all the participants that act in the educational context for reframing meanings and aims of the assessment activity (Tierney 2006). To promote students’ motivation and engagement in school activities, assessment practices should respect some aspects (Orfield and Wald 2000): • Assessment methods and strategies applied in class should be negotiated by all the actors of the teaching-learning process (students and teachers). • Assessment strategies should be used as an integrate in classroom activity, in order to respond to different learning styles and educational needs. • Assessment strategies should be focused on the topics, themes, and subject that have been actually presented and discussed during lessons. • Assessment should respond to formative needs, helping teachers and administrators to make feedbacks that can be used both by students (for improving their learning abilities) and by institutions (for enhancing institutional practices).

Conclusions In order to promote equity and quality in education, as advocated by UN in Goal 4, a renovated perspective is needed in several dimensions of the learning process. This includes also to adopt a new approach in the evaluation of educational outcomes, which should enhance the formative function of the assessment practices. In addition to its summative purpose, assessment should also aim to promote the full development of the individual (Boud and Soler 2016): feedbacks can be used for helping learners reflecting upon their educational experiences, developing skills for acting as responsible citizen in a perspective of sustainable development. Assessment practices should be applied for gathering information for the present and the future of students, in terms of the achievement reached in the educational process and of the possible improvement that can be made by the collaborative action of teachers and students. In general, in educational assessment a multidimensional approach should be adopted and different strategies planned, for supporting the development of students’ complex abilities and the enhancement of their cognitive skills (Webber and Scott 2015). In this perspective, assessment should include both self-evaluating practices and feedbacks from external sources (teachers and educators). In addition,

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hetero-assessment practices should integrate both quantitative and qualitative assessment strategies (Sterling 2001), for giving students the most possible exhaustive feedback about their educational experience and performance.

James M (2010) Educational assessment: overview. In: Peterson P, Baker E, McGaw B (eds) International encyclopedia of education, vol 3, 3rd edn. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 161–171 Liu MF, Carless D (2006) Peer feedback: the learning element of peer assessment. Teach High Educ 11(3): 279–290 McMillan JH, Hearn J (2008) Student self-assessment: the key to stronger student motivation and higher achievement. Educ Horiz 87(1):40–49 Mezirow J (1996) Contemporary paradigm of learning. Adult Educ Q 46(3):158–173 Mezirow J (2003) Transformative learning as a discourse. J Transform Educ 1(1):58–63 Newton PE (2007) Clarifying the purposes of educational assessment. Assess Educ 14(2):149–170 Nicol DJ, Macfarlane-Dick D (2006) Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Stud High Educ 31(2):199–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070600 572090 Orfield G, Wald J (2000) Testing, testing. The Nation, June 5, issue 2000:38–40 Scriven M (1967) The methodology of evaluation. In: Tyler R, Gagne R, Scriven M (eds) Perspectives on curriculum evaluation. AERA monograph series – curriculum Evaluation. Rand McNally, Chicago Scriven M (1981) Evaluation thesaurus, 3rd edn. Edgepress Inverness, Reyes Scriven M (2007) The logic of evaluation. In: Hansen HV et al (eds) Dissensus and the search for common ground, CD-ROM. OSSA, Windsor, pp 1–16 Sterling S (2001) Sustainable education. Re-visioning learning and change. Green Books, Cambridge Sterling S (2010) Learning for resilience or the resilient learner? Towards a necessary reconciliation in a paradigm of sustainable education. Environ Educ Res 16 (5–6):511–528 Taras M (2009) Summative assessment: the missing link for formative assessment. J Furth High Educ 33(1): 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098770802638671 Taylor E (2008) Transformative learning theory. New Dir Adult Contin Educ 2008(119):5–15 Tierney RD (2006) Changing practices: influences on classroom assessment. Assess Educ 13(3):239–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/09695940601035387 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO (2012) Education for sustainable development sourcebook. Learning & Training tools N 4. UNESCO, Paris. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0021/002163/216383e.pdf. Accessed 4 Jan 2019 United Nations, UN (1992) Agenda 21. Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, June 3–14. https://sustainable development.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf. Accessed 4 Jan 2019 United Nations, UN (2016) Transforming our world. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1.

Cross-References ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Lifelong Learning

References Andrade H, Vatcheva A (2009) Promoting learning and achievement through self-assessment. Theory Pract 48(1):12–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/004058408 02577544 Black P, Wiliam D (1998) Assessment and classroom learning. Assess Educ 5(1):7–74. https://doi.org/10.10 80/0969595980050102 Black P, Wiliam D (2012) Assessment for learning in the classroom. In: Gardner J (ed) Assessment and learning, 2nd edn. Sage, London, pp 11–32 Boud D, Molloy E (2013) Rethinking models of feedback for learning: the challenge of design. Assess Eval High Educ 38(6):698–712. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260293 8.2012.691462 Boud D, Soler R (2016) Sustainable assessment revisited. Assess Eval High Educ 41(3):400–413. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02602938.2015.1018133 Davidson EJ (2005) What is evaluation? In: Davidson EJ (ed) Evaluation methodology basics. The nuts and bolts of sound evaluation. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 1–12 Dixson DD, Warrell FC (2016) Formative and summative assessment in the classroom. Theory Pract 55(2): 153–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2016.1148989 Dunn KE, Mulvenon SV (2009) A critical review of research on formative assessment: the limited scientific evidence of the impact of formative assessment in education. Pract Assess Res Eval 14(7):1–10. https://pareonline.net/pdf/v14n7.pdf. Accessed 4 Jan 2019 Falchikov N, Goldfinch J (2000) Student peer-assessment in higher education: a meta-analysis comparing peer and teacher marks. Rev Educ Res 70(3):287–322. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543070003287 Gibels D, Dochy F (2007) Students’ assessment preferences and approaches to learning: can formative assessment make a difference? Educ Stud 32(4):399–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690600850354 Harlen W (2012) On the relationships between assessment for formative and summative purposes. In: Gardner J (ed) Assessment and learning, 2nd edn. Sage, London, pp 87–102

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United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/ population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcom pact/A_RES_70_1_E.pdf. Accessed 4 Jan 2019 van Zundert M, Sluijsmans D, van Meeriëboe J (2010) Effective peer assessment processes: research findings and future directions. Learn Instr 20:270–279. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.08.004 Webber CF, Scott S (2015) Students assessment in a civil society. In: Scott S, Scott DE, Webber CF (eds) Assessment in education: implications for leadership. Springer, Berlin, pp 3–26

Resources

▶ Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future

Emergency Education ▶ Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind”

Educational Resources ▶ Open Educational MOOCs)

Embedded

(Including

Engagement ▶ Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

Educational Technology ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

Environmental Education

E-learning

▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

eLearning Resources Environmental Education (EE) ▶ Open Educational MOOCs)

Resources

(Including

Elementary Education

▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics

ePortfolios

▶ Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

▶ Future Trends in Education

Elite

Equality of Opportunity

▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development

Equitable ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

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knowledge, skills, attitudes and values effectively into action when dealing with (handwritten, printed or digital) text in the context of ever-changing demands.” (UIL 2017, p. 2).

Introduction

Equitable Outcomes ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

Equitable Provisions ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

Ethnocentrism ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development Anita Priyadarshini Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India

Definition “Literacy usually refers to a set of skills and practices comprising reading, writing and using numbers as mediated by written materials. However, literacy has evolved into a multidimensional and complex concept. . . . Literacy is best understood as a competency: the (cap) ability of putting

The understanding of literacy has become more dynamic over the years. While literacy was once defined as the “ability to read and write” or knowledge of the “3Rs,” there is now a much broader understanding of literacy. This section provides an overview of the evolving definitions of literacy as well as its understanding in the international context. It also discusses the significance of literacy in the age of lifelong learning and its relevance for sustainable development. Literacy and Its Evolving Understanding The relevance of the written word has existed since the ancient and classical world. The ancient Sumerians used the cuneiform system of writing, while the ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphs. In India, the classical Sanskrit literature and Tamil Sangam literature comprises literary works of high quality. Besides literature, literacy was also used for efficient record keeping and governance. There is sufficient evidence to show that those who were well versed in the written word constituted the “learned class.” According to Harris (1991), in the ancient world of the Greeks and Romans, the literate minority was able to use their literacy to assert themselves politically, and knowledge of the written word became an instrument of power. The development of the school system and the setting up of universities as centers of learning is evidence of the recognition of the importance of literacy for the development of humankind. In modern times, the meaning of literacy has become more complex. According to the second Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE), “While the concept of literacy has evolved over time, no global consensus on the definition has emerged” (UIL 2013, p. 20). The history of literacy shows that in the period after Second World War, the acquisition of literacy began to be given a lot of importance, and the

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need to “eradicate” illiteracy was set as the goal by many nations. During this period, national movements for independence being carried out in different parts of the world also became movements for literacy, education, social upliftment, and economic development. Mahatma Gandhi, father of the Indian nation, conceptualized the idea of “Nai Talim” (new education) during the freedom movement against colonial rule (Yousif 2003). In 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in which education was identified as a human right. Article 26(1) states, “Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.” UNESCO, in 1958, defined a literate person as one, “who can, with understanding, both read and write a short simple statement on his or her everyday life” (UNESCO 2005, p. 153). Subsequently, there was a move to link literacy to economic growth of nations. The World Congress of Ministers of Education on the Eradication of Illiteracy held during the Tehran Conference in 1965 recognized illiteracy as a “world problem” and recommended that there was a need to integrate literacy with economic development. Both schooling for children and adult literacy were seen as essential components for development. The idea of functional literacy was taken up as a priority for development of nations. In the 1970s, the world saw the rise of movements against the established school system. Educational theorist Everett Reimer wrote about “alternatives in school education” (Reimer 1971), and Ivan Illich called for “deschooling” (Illich 1971). One of the most influential philosophers of this time was Paulo Freire who viewed education as a tool for bringing about social change and liberation. Freire’s theory of “conscientization” called for developing a critical awareness of one’s social reality through reflection and action. Freire asked people to rise against the “culture of silence.” Freire’s philosophy that “reading the world precedes reading the word” influenced

literacy movements throughout the developing world (Freire and Macedo 1987). In 1975, the Persepolis Declaration adopted by the International Literacy Meeting expanded the understanding of literacy from being more than just learning the skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic and linked it to the liberation of human beings (UNESCO 2017). Yet another move forward was the definition adopted by UNESCO General Conference in 1978 that said that a person who was functionally literate was one “who could engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his or her group and community and also for enabling him or her to continue to use reading, writing, and calculation for his or her own and the community’s development” (UNESCO 2005). In the Toronto Seminar on Literacy in Industrialized Countries (1987), there was a recognition of the growing importance of technology. The achievement of literacy now became more about increased levels of knowledge, skills, and understanding (Yousif 2003). The World Conference on Education for All held at Jomtien called for meeting basic learning needs. It recognized literacy as a skill and called for an “expanded vision” of basic education (UNESCO 1990). In 1997, the Hamburg Declaration at the CONFINTEA V linked literacy to lifelong learning (UNESCO 1997). These developments also marked the growth of mass movements for the acquisition of literacy among adults in India, Bangladesh, the Philippines, and other countries of Southeast Asia. The literacy movement in India led to significant spinoffs in the form of movements for women’s empowerment, movements against social evils such as child marriage, deprivation of girls and movements for self-help groups, economic stabilization, and good health, among others. The turn of the century saw the adoption of the Dakar Framework for Action (2000), in which six Dakar goals were formulated. Goal 4 aimed at achieving a 50% improvement in the level of adult literacy, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults by 2015 (UNESCO 2000). Among the Millennium Development Goals formulated in

Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development

2000, Goal 2 focused on achieving universal primary education, while Goal 3 focused on promoting gender equality (UN 2015). In order to give further impetus to literacy and strengthen the role played by literacy in the development of humankind, the United Nations declared 2003–2012 as the United Nations Literacy Decade. At this stage, the understanding of literacy was further expanded to include a plural and social dimension. Literacy and creation of literacy environments of the twenty-first century were seen as the foundation for achievement of “the goals of eradicating poverty, reducing child mortality, reducing population growth, achieving gender equality, and ensuring sustainable development and peace and democracy” (UN 2002). The linking of literacy to development meant that all countries of the world aimed at achieving a certain threshold level of literacy. In 2006, an important step in this direction was launch of the Literacy Initiative for Empowerment (LIFE). This programme was aimed at supporting 35 countries having low literacy in achieving a 50% improvement in their adult literacy rate by 2015. This framework involved not just national governments but multiple agencies such as civil societies, corporate sector, and NGOs. The focus of this country-led, country-specific strategic LIFE framework was on policy, advocacy, partnership, capacity building, and innovations (UNESCO 2006). In the UNESCO Global Monitoring Report (GMR) 2006, literacy was seen as a means for the achievement of human development goals and thus was identified as a learning tool, a learning process, and a learning outcome. The GMR delineated the understanding of literacy into four broad areas which are as follows: (i) literacy as an autonomous set of skills; (ii) literacy as applied, practiced, and situated; (iii) literacy as a learning process; and (iv) literacy as text (UNESCO 2005, p. 148). The UNESCO Belem Framework for Action (2009) defined literacy as a part of Adult Learning and Education (ALE) in the overall framework of lifelong learning. As per the major components of Belem Framework, ALE included all formal, nonformal, and informal or incidental learning that

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takes place in an individual’s life. This framework stated “Literacy is an indispensable foundation that enables young people and adults to engage in learning opportunities at all stages of the learning continuum... literacy is not an end by itself but only a continuum in the different stages of lifelong learning by an individual” (UIL 2010, p. 6). It is also significant that the right to literacy was seen as an inherent part of the right to education that is a prerequisite for the development of personal, social, economic, and political empowerment. Literacy was seen as a means for building people’s capabilities so that they able to deal with their daily life as well as live in the society. The Belem Framework gave a new dimension to literacy by placing it in the perceptive of lifelong and life-wide learning. It also spoke of literacy not as a standalone activity but as a step in “cradle to grave” lifelong learning that opens learning opportunities and allows a person to move up in the learning continuum. Most importantly, literacy was reinforced as a tool for empowerment for all marginalized groups. The Recommendations for Adult Learning and Education (RALE) prepared in 2015 reiterated the emphasis upon literacy in a lifelong learning framework along with the recognition of the importance of technology in daily life. It was felt that the participation of an individual in the community, workplace, and society would be enhanced by his/her relevant learning and proficiency levels. Therefore, literacy was seen as “the ability to read and write, to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials, as well as the ability to solve problems in an increasingly technological and information rich environment. Literacy is an essential means of building people’s knowledge, skills and competencies to cope with the evolving challenges and complexities of life, culture, economy and society” (UNESCO 2016, p. 7). Another significant landmark in the relationship between literacy and development was the adoption of “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” during the 70th session of the United Nations General Assembly in 2016. A total of 17 Sustainable

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Development Goals (SGDs) were set out to be achieved by 2030 (WEF 2016). The basis for achieving the SDGs is education and learning. The vision of literacy seen through the lens of lifelong learning was reinforced by the UIL policy brief 7 which stated that “literacy can no longer be treated as a stand-alone set of skills developed and ‘completed’ within a short timeframe. It should be rather be seen as one component of a complex set of core competencies which require sustained learning and updating on a continuous basis” (UIL 2017, p. 2). Literacy Practice: Different Perspectives The debate upon the literacy has evolved based upon different perspectives put forth by scholars and practitioners. The importance of the sociocultural perspective in literacy has been emphasized by scholars of New Literacy Studies, who state that reading and writing can only be understood in the contexts of social, cultural, political, economic, and historical practices to which they are integral, of which they are a part (Gee 2008; Knobel and Lankshear 2007). Yet another perspective that has impacted the understanding of literacy is the ethnographical approach. According to Street (1995), reading and writing are embedded in social contexts, and Literacy as a Social Practice (LSP) addresses issues of literacy learning in different contexts, be it communities or workplace. Street (2016) argues that using the ethnographic perspective would enable a better understanding of literacy in specific local contexts. This perspective of literacy emphasizes that there cannot be a uniform approach in literacy learning (Street 2016). Practitioners and policymakers have to incorporate this understanding in their planning and implementation models for literacy. The understanding of literacy has been influenced by the arguments of the New London Group (NLG), a group of researchers from different countries who came together at Hampshire, New London, to discuss the “the current social context of learning and the consequences of social changes for the content and the form of literacy pedagogy” (The New London Group 1996, p. 63). This group felt that the understanding of literacy

had to be more than “mere literacy” based upon a form of language and must be seen through a pedagogy of multiliteracies. The powerful social and cultural contexts of different communities along with growth of technology meant that there could not be one set of standards or skills for literacy learning. The NLG discussions focused on “increasing multiplicity and integration of significant modes of meaning-making where the textual is also related to the visual, the audio, the spatial, the behavioral and so on.” The group used the term “multiliteracies” to focus on “the reality of increasing local diversity and global connectedness” (ibid., p. 64). In doing so, they recognized the role of cultural and linguistic diversity and new communications media in the understanding of literacy. Another perspective is put forth by Rogers, who while introducing the Commonwealth of Learning Literacy project (COLLIT) raised the concern about the appearance of “a fault line” in adult literacy in developing societies. He identified this fault line as between those “who see adult literacy in terms of adult schooling set within the educational sector. . . and those who see adult literacy as rooted firmly in social and economic development” (Rogers 2004, p. xiii). It is these views that impact the nature of programmes that are being offered as well as the location of control of programmes. This thinking has implications for international policy for developmental programmes. The need for multiple skills as a part of literacy has also been emphasized by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), which refers to literacy skills for twenty-first-century individuals. There is a great deal of content available in different forms and mediums through the Internet and other technologies. However, understanding is not merely a matter of reading and writing but of decoding it based upon the reader’s own experience, context, and perspective. It is acknowledged that the literate environments have changed due to technology and therefore a literate person needs to possess many literacies (NCTE 2013). Many literacy scholars adopt a rights-based approach to literacy learning. Moretti (2012) views literacy as a right and a tool which

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contributes to the psychological development of a human being and therefore literacy skills are necessary for a person to be able to function and live in society and in the market. Dighe and Reddi (2006, p. 50) emphasize that “education is a fundamental and non-negotiable right for women” and that the path for women’s empowerment is through literacy. The relationship between literacy and the development has resulted in the focus being back on lifelong learning. According to Hanemann (2015), “lifelong literacy” has to be seen within a larger lifelong learning perspective, and this would include three dimensions; “literacy as a lifelong learning process, literacy as a lifewide process, and literacy as part of a set of holistic, sector-wide and cross-sectoral reforms towards lifelong learning systems.” There is also another aspect where the term “literacy” is used in the context of other areas such as computer literacy, environmental literacy, legal literacy, financial literacy, and video literacy. Here the focus moves from the basic literacy skills to acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competence in a particular area such as knowing how to use equipment such as a computer or having knowledge of law and financial matters.

Literacy, Development, and Sustainable Development Goals There is evidence to show that literacy has a positive impact upon social and economic life of individuals and is an essential component for the development of a community and nation. Illiteracy and innumeracy are identified as big obstacles in the participation of people in the development process, while it is recognized that education enables people to exercise their freedom. The Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning, which was adopted at CONFINTEA V in 1997, states that “adult education is both a consequence of active citizenship and a condition for full participation in society” (UNESCO 1997). In his seminal work, Development as Freedom, Amartya Sen (2004) identified literacy and numeracy as

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factors that contributed to the participation of people in the process of economic expansion. Sen referred to not being able to read or write or count or communicate as “a tremendous deprivation.” The experiences of literacy learning show that literacy has been a game changer for improving the lives of people. As per the third Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE), many countries reported increasing evidence that ALE has a positive impact on health and wellbeing, employment and the labor market, and social, civic, and community life. It was further reported that literacy programmes help to develop democratic values, peaceful coexistence, and community solidarity. It is also seen that ALE has a strong impact on active citizenship, political voice, social cohesion, diversity, and tolerance and therefore benefits social and community life (UIL 2016). The 17 Sustainable Development Goals set by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development are seen as the means for ending poverty and deprivation by adopting strategies that will accelerate growth while protecting the planet and its resources. The SDG Target 4.6 aims at ensuring that “all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy” (WEF 2016). The 17 SDGs are interrelated as the implementation of each goal has an impact upon the other(s). The global agenda is to ensure that every nation works towards the achievement of these goals in a time-bound manner. Literacy, adult learning, and education lie at the core of all the Sustainable Development Goals. Literacy and Women The impact of literacy movements across countries has been most visible upon women. Evaluation studies show that women constitute the majority group in literacy programmes of developing countries. The initial focus of literacy programmes was on teaching women to read and write, but the growing momentum of literacy learning ensured that these programmes took on a larger role and were transformed into movements for social and economic change. In India, literacy centers became the focal point for women

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to share their lives and to stand with each other against a common adversary. The study by Dighe (1995) demonstrates how the literacy movement spearheaded the anti-arrack (a local liquor) movement in Nellore district of India and was responsible for forcing the district administration to close the liquor shops, despite the pressure from a strong liquor lobby. In other parts of the world too, women have been actively engaged in literacy with studies from Bangladesh and Nepal showing that literacy has led to more women becoming engaged in economic activities. The inclusion of skills in the literacy curriculum has had a positive impact with women becoming entrepreneurs and starting their own small businesses. Literacy and Health The close relationship between literacy and good health has also been studied. Sen (2004) observed that women’s literacy and employment levels are the best predictors of both child survival and fertility rate reduction. There are a number of studies that show that female literacy has a positive impact upon infant mortality and improvement in literacy status of women results in a downward trend in infant mortality rate (Shetty and Shetty 2014). Dewalt (2004) after a detailed literature review of literacy and health outcomes came to the conclusion that low literacy was associated with several adverse health outcomes. Literacy and ICTs Another area that has been extensively researched has been the relationship between literacy and ICTs. It is accepted that the rapid advances in technology have changed the way in which people think and work. The growth of the knowledge society has meant that new skills have to be acquired and used in daily life and in the workplace. Scholars have written extensively about the implications of the “digital divide” which can create a gap between those who have access and those who do not have access to technology. They have also raised concerns regarding language learning and language used by the Internet. Literacy programmes in different parts of the world are conducted in the mother tongue with

language proficiency being gained in the mother tongue. However, it is seen that some languages are more dominant than others on the Internet. Although this situation is fast changing, the issue of accessibility of ICTs for users of all languages remains a concern. The growth of technology has had an impact upon those who are already marginalized. In the case of women, it has meant that women have to learn beyond the traditional skills of reading, writing, and numeracy and acquire new skills that would help them “to use new technologies effectively and productively for their own empowerment” (Dighe and Reddi 2006, p. 48). Wagner and Kozma (2005, p. 93) identified challenges that affect literacy and ICTs and made suggestions for investment in order to overcome them. These included allocating resources for adult education and literacy as is done for formal schooling; ensuring that the ratio for funding between schooling and literacy and lifelong learning was narrowed; support by governments for infrastructure and access to technology; setting up of community technology centers; professional development for teachers and others with learning about computers/technology operations and integration of ICTs into the curriculum, development, and aggregation of useful content for improving lives and addressing local needs related to health, nutrition, and family planning; and continuing education, employment, and agricultural production, among others. Literacy and Economic Empowerment One of the important spinoffs of the literacy programmes has been the economic empowerment of women. Studies across many developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America have shown that women found a platform to come together through literacy centers leading to the beginning of collaborative economic activities. Robinson-Pant (2014, p. 15) gives examples of different programmes that link literacy and women’s empowerment. According to her, “In terms of learning and teaching approaches, whilst most programmes take a ‘literacy first’ approach (literacy programmes followed by skills training), some programmes offer support for literacy

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embedded in income-generating or livelihood activities.” In either case, the beneficiaries are women. There are many stories of incomegenerating programmes that have been successful due to the efforts of country literacy missions, NGOs, local community, and industry. According to Priyadarshini (2002, p. 15), the experiences from India show that the linking of literacy programmes to vocational education greatly helped as, “earning money brings with it a certain sense of achievement. Contributing economically to the household is an accomplishment which increases one’s self confidence.” The formation of self-help groups (SHGs) led women to engage in microcredit schemes and learn the dynamics of saving, loans, credit, interest, and other financial dealings. This new knowledge of financial literacy helped women to pose a new challenge to the traditional gender division of labor and create new role models which is seen as a major step in women’s empowerment. According to Shah (1999), the emphasis during the total literacy and continuing education programme in India was on social change and developmental literacy. Literacy and Equivalency Programmes for Lifelong Learning Literacy programmes have created both aspirations for continuing education as well as a need for validation of literacy learning through established agencies/authorities. In most developing countries, literacy programmes may lead to alternate schooling, vocational education, or adult education. In order to fulfill the need for consolidating literacy learning, many countries run postliteracy and equivalency programmes as a part of their continuing education schemes. According to Priyadarshini (2017, p. 294), the success of the literacy programme in India led to the conceptualization of the Open Basic Education (OBE) programme through the open schooling system in 1994. The OBE programme aims at designing a suitable learning continuum for neo-literates that would enable them to fulfill their educational aspirations for acquiring a secondary level qualification through open schooling. The programme has three levels, A, B, and C which are equivalent to Grades III, V, and VIII of formal schooling.

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Equivalency programmes exist in many developing countries of the world. Thailand’s equivalency programme learners are certified at three education levels: primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary. In Indonesia, the equivalency programme at the school level consists of the Packet A, B, and C levels. In the Philippines, the equivalency programme is meant for those who cannot go to formal school or have dropped out of school. Myanmar and Lao PDR too have designed the equivalency programmes for nonformal education for the out-of-school population. The flexible open and distance learning system is also well established in the Indian subcontinent both at school and higher education levels and is able to provide extensive opportunities for lifelong learning to all sections of society. The Literate Brazil (Brasil Alfabetizado) and The Making School (Fazendo Escola) programmes are examples of the effort to reduce low levels of literacy and bring young persons into schooling (Henriques and Ireland 2007). Such programmes reflect that literacy is seen not as an end in itself but as a link to continuing education either through schooling or adult education programmes.

Literacy and Its Measurement One of the most complex issues is the measurement of literacy. Different countries have adopted different methodology for measuring literacy based upon the accepted definition of literacy in their context. Even within agencies, there are different definitions used by government agencies and NGOs. The measurement criteria of literacy for varying age groups, i.e., children and adults, is different. There is a distinction in the measurement of literacy and functional literacy. There are issues related to measurement of literacy in the official language or in the mother tongue as sometimes a person who is fluent in the mother tongue may not have the required competence of the official language of the country. There is also a debate about when a person can be called “literate” such as when he/she is able to read simple sentences or when they can read a newspaper or when they have completed a certain grade of schooling.

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Measuring Literacy Through PISA The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in member and non-member states for 15year old students. The aim of this assessment is to evaluate literacy in three competence areas, namely, reading, mathematics, and science. The definition of reading literacy, mathematical literacy, and scientific literacy has been evolving since the first PISA survey which was conducted in 2000 (OECD 2018). According to the PISA 2000, reading literacy was defined as the ability to understand, use, and reflect on written texts in order to achieve one’s goals, to develop one’s knowledge and potential, and to participate effectively in society. Mathematical literacy was defined as the capacity to identify, understand, and engage in mathematics and to make well-founded judgments about the role that mathematics plays in an individual’s current and future private life, occupational life, social life with peers and relatives, and life as a constructive, concerned, and reflective citizen. Scientific literacy was defined as the capacity to use scientific knowledge, to identify questions, and to draw evidence-based conclusions in order to understand and help make decisions about the natural world and the changes made to it through human activity (OECD 2002). The PISA 2015 made some modifications and added engagement in reading as part of reading literacy: Reading literacy is understanding, using, reflecting on, and engaging with written texts, in order to achieve one’s goals, to develop one’s knowledge and potential, and to participate in society. The PISA 2018 document recognizes the importance of technology in addition to understanding, interpreting, and reflecting upon single text. There is a shift from the print to digital texts with importance of cognitive processes and task management across multiple texts being recognized. As a part of the effort to contribute to the Sustainable Development Goal 4, the PISA for Development initiative was launched in 2013 to help low- and middle-income countries to strengthen their education programmes (OECD 2018).

Measuring Adult Competencies Through PIAAC Another major initiative for measurement of literacy is the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). This survey is conducted by OECD to “assist governments in assessing, monitoring and analyzing the level and distribution of skills among their adult populations as well as the extent of skills use in different contexts.” The PIAAC assesses the proficiency of adults from age 16 onwards in literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving in technologyrich environments. These skills are referred to as “key information-processing competencies” that are relevant to adults in many social contexts and work situations and necessary for fully integrating and participating in the labor market, education and training, and social and civic life (OECD 2016). According to OECD, “Literacy is defined as the ability to understand, evaluate, use and engage with written texts to participate in society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential. Numeracy is defined as the ability to access, use, interpret and communicate mathematical information and ideas in order to engage in and manage the mathematical demands of a range of situations in adult life. Problem solving in technology-rich environments is defined as the ability to use digital technology, communication tools and networks to acquire and evaluate information, communicate with others and perform practical tasks” (OECD 2016).

The Path Forward: Towards a Literate World Overcoming Non-literacy and Low Literacy and Reducing the Gender Gap Literacy is still a major impediment for development. As per the third GRALE (2016, p. 6), “there are around 758 million adults, of whom 115 million are aged between 15 and 24, who still cannot read or write a simple sentence.” As countries strive to achieve literacy, there are serious issues related to low rates of participation. Although many countries have shown improvements in

Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development

participation, yet the participation rate still needs to be increased. It is also a concern that data on participation remains inadequate. The data revealed that “62% of countries provided showed no estimates on participation among minority ethnic, religious or linguistic groups. 56% did not report on migrants and refugees, while 46% did not report on adults with disabilities” (UIL 2016, p. 10). Another challenge is the gender gap in the literacy rates between males and females, with males being more literate than females in most parts of the world. There are many studies that show that women lag behind men in many countries especially in Asia and Africa. As per the third GRALE, “the majority of those excluded from school are girls, with 9.7% of the world’s girls out of school, compared to 8.3% of boys. The data shows that majority (63%) of adults with low literacy skills are women” (UIL 2016, p. 6). Studies from Africa on unequal access and unequal participation from countries of Africa show that female illiteracy rates were high compared to males and even among women it was seen that females living in urban areas and some core areas tend to be better off than those living in rural areas and peripheral regions areas (Shabaya and Kondu-Agyemang 2004). Reasons for nonparticipation have been recorded as entrenched attitudes, while major causes for attrition in functional literacy programmes have been high family responsibility, lack of certainty about career goals, and poor quality of interaction between participants and teachers. Tackling Regional Disparities in Literacy There are variations in rates of participation on a gender-wise and region-wise basis. Rates of participation vary not just between countries but also within a country. It is seen that different regions of the countries record different rates, with some regions being highly literate and others having very low participation. The literacy rates for India show that while the state of Kerala recorded an overall literacy rate of 93.91%, the literacy rate for Bihar was 63.82% (Census of India 2011). According to the results of the German LEO (Level One Study), it was found that aound 14% of the German working-age population could be

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classified as functionally illiterate (Grotluschen and Riekmann 2011). Thus raising the issue that defining ‘functional literacy’ and tackling low functional literacy is not just a problem of developing countries but also a matter of concern for developed nations. Literacy, Poverty, and Sustainable Development The close relationship between sociocultural issues and literacy has been well established. Illiteracy is a major factor that causes deprivation and leads to exclusion and further marginalization of certain groups from society. There is a need to plan and design programmes that are equitious and inclusive. There are many studies that show the positive role and impact of literacy upon women’s empowerment. The linkages of literacy to skill development will lead to better economic growth. According to UNESCO Global Monitoring Report (2006), literacy is both a right in itself and an instrument for achieving other rights. Therefore planning, designing, and implementation of adult education, including literacy programmes, are of vital importance for the better social and economic life of citizens as well as for sustainable development (UNESCO 2005). Literacy as Lifelong Learning The Belem Framework states that literacy has to be seen not as an end but as a learning continuum for lifelong learning. Opportunities for equivalency programmes at all levels that cater to adult literates, out-of-school children, and marginalized groups need to be implemented so that learning can be lifelong and life wide. The designing of country-specific national qualifications frameworks that allow lateral and vertical movement across different educational systems would be able to address issues of recognition, validation, and accreditation (RVA) for educational, vocational (skill), technical, and professional programmes, including recognition of prior learning, and thus support in maintaining quality of education. This movement across formal, nonformal, and informal would create avenues for lifelong learning.

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Literacy and Technology The significance of technology and its embedding into daily life has changed the understanding of literacy. The need of the present time is that literacy learning must demonstrate technology use and the abilities necessary to problem-solve, collaborate, and present information through multimedia (Pilgrim and Martinez 2013). The presence of technology in all domains has meant that curricula and teaching learning of literacy have to be in sync with the rapid advances in technology. Planners and practitioners of literacy have to therefore consistently review literacy curricula and ensure that those who are declared “literate” are able to negotiate the world of technology and are not left behind. Adequate Funding for Adult Literacy It is an accepted fact that the literacy learning is a requirement for both children and adults. It is seen that successive commitments have been made by nations for ensuring that all children in the 6–14 age group go to school and have opportunities for formal schooling within a specific timeline (Jometien 1990; Dakar Framework for Action 2000; MGDs 2000). In most countries, a large share of funds is allocated by governments for primary schooling. However, in comparison, it is seen that adult learning programmes face a resource crunch with the same urgency and importance not being given to adult literacy programmes. Due to this disproportionate allocation of funds, ALE programmes are adversely affected in many countries. Scholars have pointed out that adult literacy is an important contributor in enhancing the enrolment of children in schools. “Family literacy” and “inter-generational literacy” play a role in building a literate environment in families and in the larger community. Hence there is a lot more that needs to be done for ensuring that adequate funding is made available by governments for adult learning and education. Challenge of Monitoring and Evaluation One of the biggest challenges for literacy is that there are numerous methods by which literacy data is being collected across countries. There is no single uniform information system by which

data can be collected. Different countries define literacy in different ways due to which data collections and their results are also different. There is a need for a uniform well-designed data collection and monitoring and evaluation system so that uniform literacy figures across countries are available.

Sustainability of Literacy Programmes The importance of literacy programmes needs to be recognized by governments demonstrating strong political will to undertake long-term planning supported with adequate funding to implement programmes. Such commitment would ensure that literacy does not remain a onetime activity but marks the beginning of a continuum for lifelong learning. There is therefore a need for well-designed structures for literacy programmes that have permanency and promote lifelong learning. Literacy remains at the core of the Sustainable Development Goals and is embedded across the agenda of all the SDGs. This close relationship between literacy and development, which when implemented through the lifelong learning framework, would help in “transforming our world.”

Cross-References ▶ Adult Education ▶ Community Education ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education ▶ Lifelong Learning ▶ Numeracy and the Education Value Chain

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Exceptionality

Exclusive ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

Experiential Education ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

Expertise Exceptionality ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality

▶ Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

Explicit Learning Exclusion ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

▶ Informal Workplace Learning

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Financial Capabilities ▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

Financial Education

motivated to critically reflect on what influences their financial decision-making before applying their financial skills and capabilities to the financial dilemmas they face. Financial literacy education is about the teaching of personal financial skills and capabilities with the direct intention of increasing an individual’s financial literacy through the acquisition of skills and capabilities.

▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

Introduction

Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices Levon Ellen Blue Indigenous Research and Engagement Unit, Chancellery, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Kelvin Grove, QLD, Australia

Synonyms Financial capabilities; Financial education; Rationale; Site specific; Socially just

Definitions A financially literate individual has the capacity to acquire financial skills and capabilities and is

Improving financial literacy is a global concern. Many countries have established initiatives and strategies to help citizens acquire the financial skills and capabilities that are deemed necessary to ensure effective management of personal finances over a lifetime (OECD 2012, 2013). However, most definitions of financial literacy imply that once financial skills and knowledge are acquired, an individual will be motivated to make effective financial decisions that lead to financial well-being, but such alignment does not follow as a matter of course because it does not consider the life experiences of marginalized and vulnerable populations. For example, Indigenous people were displaced and dispossessed from their lands during colonization, and this dispossession continues to have an impact on the economic participation of many Indigenous people who are living on low incomes and/or in poverty. Distinguished Professor Moreton-Robinson (2015) argues that “Indigenous people have

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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never been recognized as property-owning subjects in our own right as Indigenous peoples, and this continues in current law and policy” (p. 94). Owning property and passing property ownership on through inheritance is how intergenerational wealth is maintained and preserved with “deeper wealth divisions in the longer term between those who own houses and those who do not” (Munro 1988, p. 435). The United Nations report that there are 370 million Indigenous people worldwide (5% of the total population) and that Indigenous people represent 15% of the world’s poor and one-third of the world’s extremely poor (United Nations n.d.). Although this chapter only focuses on developed countries, Indigenous people in developed countries continue to lag behind on almost all indicators of well-being including life expectancy, health, educational outcomes, and employment (United Nations n.d.). In this chapter the trend to educate some of the most vulnerable individuals in society with generic financial literacy education is examined. Generic and/or one-size-fits-all financial literacy education targeted at individuals living on low incomes developed by financial institutions (or organizations funded by these institutions) is commonplace in training offered and targeted at the adult population. This chapter is guided by answering the research question how might financial literacy education practices be more reasonable, just, and sustainable? The aim of this chapter is to articulate how financial literacy education practices can be conceived as a more meaningful process so as to be rationale and reasonable, productive and sustainable, and just and inclusive.

Financially Educating Adults Financial literacy education is often targeted at the adult population in the form of financial literacy seminars about managing personal finances. Despite the best intentions of educators, when training vulnerable individuals, there is a risk that the training may mislead participants into thinking that financial problems can be “fixed”

once personal financial skills such as developing a budget are acquired (Pinto 2009; Willis 2008). Financial tools and skills do help to provide financial awareness; however, they may do very little to change behavior (Lyons et al. 2006). Basic personal finance skills are also unlikely to ameliorate difficult financial circumstances, especially when the individual is on a low income and struggling to afford the necessities of life (Blue 2016; Haiven 2017). It may be misguided to target individuals living on low incomes with broad financial literacy education strategies and government policies that assume that financial skills are lacking, instead of trying to fix the systemic structural barriers that continue to stand in the way of full economic participation. Haiven (2017) states that individualistic conceptualizations of financial literacy include how “financial power resonates with and in many ways perpetuates and refurbishes longexisting systems and structures of power organized around race, class, gender, sexuality, citizenship status, colonialism, imperialism and environmental destruction” (p. 361). Unmasking of the social structures that reinforce inequities may expose the practices of architectures that enable and constrain financial practice of Indigenous people. When life stories of dispossession and loss of land are told, educators may begin to be aware “that debt and financialisation are not merely the results of the actions or choices of individuals but the product of structural and systemic forces” (Haiven 2017, p. 361). Haiven (2017) explains financialization as “(a) profound expansion of the magnitude of wealth and economic power wielded by the so-called FIRE (finance, insurance, and real estate) sector; (b) the way this wealth and power influences and reshapes the operations, logics, motivations, cultures, and processes of firms, social and public institutions, and diverse individuals well beyond the confines of that sector; and (c) the broader economic, political, social, and cultural transformations these portend” (p. 350). A move toward reasonable, just, and sustainable financial literacy education practices includes understanding the structural barriers that many Indigenous people living in developed countries continue to face.

Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

An understanding of the structural barriers individuals face may result in educators beginning to enact praxis.

Structural Barriers The structural barriers many Indigenous people face include lack of access to basic literacy and numeracy, remoteness, lack of access to financial services, and lack of access to capital (Collins 2011; Urbis Keys Young 2006). Indigenous populations in both Australia and Canada have lower overall educational achievement levels (Bradley et al. 2008; Collins 2011). Canadians are often at or near the top of the Human Development Index rating; however, in 1998 when Canada was ranked first, Aboriginal people were viewed separately, and “off-reserve natives” would have ranked 34th (ahead of Trinidad and Tobago) and “on-reserve natives” 63rd (between the United Arab Emirates and Brazil) (Anderssen 1988). This alarming example portrays the extreme hardships and inequities Indigenous people continue to face. Remoteness, the second structural challenge, has to do with the location of some Indigenous communities. Lack of year-round road access and/ or ferry access is often a challenge for Indigenous people living in remote and/or rural locations (Collins 2011). Limited access to goods and services also has an impact on the people living in these communities, which ties in with the third structural challenge, a lack of access to financial services. In Canada, a “sense of the scale of underbanking among Aboriginal people can be had by looking at the geographic distribution of the Aboriginal population and the availability of bank branches in Aboriginal communities” (Collins 2011, p. 22), and the same may be said for Australia. Although some strong relationships between regional bank managers and incomerich Aboriginal communities are forming (Collins 2011), many communities are a long way from achieving such relationships. As a result, a high number of unbanked individuals are relying on fringe financial institutions for their financial services (Bowles et al. 2011).

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Another structural barrier is access to loan capital. Collins (2011) reports: “for years, commercial banks refused to consider loans to Aboriginal people, businesses, and communities unless government guarantees were supplied” (p. 23). Although this has begun to change, there are still low levels of access to capital. Reasons for this include difficulty in building equity through home ownership for on-reserve individuals, as occurs in Canada where the Indian Act administers the land, and home ownership regimes and high levels of Indigenous people living in public housing (Collins 2011; Urbis Keys Young 2006). For generations and even today, Indigenous people continue to have their full fiduciary rights withheld (Haiven 2017) which means they have not had the same access to financial investments and opportunities that non-Indigenous people and settlers have had to establish themselves (Pasternak 2015; Vowel 2016). It is an understatement to say that this lack of access and opportunities to participate in the consumer-driven economy has not had an impact of financial well-being facing many Indigenous people. It is alarming to learn that when Indigenous people do engage with financial institutions (i.e., banks) they are overly trusting (Gerrans et al. 2009). In Australia at the time of writing, a Royal Commission into the financial service sector in Australia is taking place where it has been revealed that vulnerable consumers are at increased risk of scams and purchasing financial products that benefit the seller instead of the policy holder (e.g., funeral insurance that costs more than it provides to the policy holder).

Financial Literacy Education, Economic Education, and Numeracy Globally, governments, policy makers, and researchers continue to focus on increasing the financial literacy levels of individuals, from primary school age to adulthood (OECD 2013; Australian Securities and Investments Commission 2011). Since 2012 the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) has been assessing 15-year-olds’ “. . . capacity to apply their financial knowledge and skills to real-life situations

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involving financial issues and decisions” (OECD 2015, p. 3). The importance of “. . . having a solid foundation in mathematics and reading is critical for navigating the financial environment” (OECD 2015, p. 3); thus, increasing numeracy is an aim of financial literacy education. Poor numeracy skills have been found to affect how individuals participate socially, their self-esteem, their health, and their ability to successfully transition from school to work (Bynner and Parsons 2006; Council of Australian Governments 2008). Financial literacy is connected to numeracy in the Australian Curriculum and is taught in mathematics, humanities, and social sciences (Australian Curriculum 2017). Acquiring mathematics knowledge through financial literacy curriculum aims to improve numeracy skills. Geiger et al. (2015) define numeracy as having “the capacity to make effective use of mathematics in contexts related to personal life, the workplace, and in exercising civil responsibilities” (p. 611). Financial literacy education has a numeracy and literacy component. Grohmann et al. (2015) found that high school courses in economics were shown only to influence numeracy, but did not increase financial literacy. The abovementioned authors did find that family background, financial socialization by parents, education quality, and financial socialization through money and work all influence an individual’s financial literacy. In mathematics education, D’Ambrosio (2007) advocates for ethnomathematics “. . . to build a civilization that rejects inequity, arrogance, and bigotry, education must give special attention to the redemption of peoples that have been, for a long time, subordinated and must give priority to the empowerment of the excluded sectors of societies” (p. 29). Furthermore, D’Ambrosio (2007) highlights that ethnomathematics pays particular attention to respect, solidarity, and cooperation with all citizens. With regard to financial literacy, Lucey et al. (2015) advocate for a critically compassionate approach to financial literacy education where the life stories of others are listened to and understood. Both D’Ambrosio (2007) and Lucey et al. (2015) bring our attention to the social inequities that continue to perpetuate

disadvantage and reinforce the exclusion of nondominate members of society. Jablonka and Gellert (2012) remind us that critical mathematics literacy is: . . . an umbrella term that includes conceptions that aim at identifying and analysing critical features of social realities and at contributing to the development of social justice. One strategy of pursuing these goals is sensitising students to social problems and helping them to articulate their interests as citizens. These social problems include the particular hidden injustice students face because of their race, social class, cultural origin etc. (p. 299)

Conversations about social problems and hidden injustices people face may be an essential element to acquiring criticality in financial literacy education in order to move to reasonable, just, and sustainable education practices.

Challenging the Notion of What It Means to Be Financially Literate Financial literacy has been defined as having two dimensions: the knowledge and application dimension (Huston 2010), which has recently been expanded by Blue (2016) to include a third dimension – the critical dimension. The critical dimension of financial literacy allows for consideration of other influences that affect financial decision-making. Geiger et al. (2015) argue that “. . . a critical orientation to the application of mathematics in the real world” (p. 613) is embedded in the numeracy model developed by Goos et al. (2011). The numeracy model includes four dimensions: context, mathematical knowledge, tools, and dispositions. The context dimension is about using mathematics in the real world (Steen 2001). Mathematical knowledge is about capacity and being able to perform higher thinking and problem-solving that may include calculating reasonable estimations (Zevenbergen 2004). Geiger et al. (2015) explain that utilizing the right tools to help make sense of real-world issues and to reason and to act (the tools dimension) includes both digital and non-digital tools. The authors describe the disposition dimension by stating that “a numerate person must possess a disposition that motivates the use of mathematics, when

Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

appropriate, to solve problems in the real world” (p. 613). The way motivation is described in the abovementioned numeracy definition – that is, as an act to choose to use mathematics to solve problems – may have real potential for changing how motivation is used and understood in a financial literacy context (Steen 2001). Financial literacy has been defined as “knowledge and understanding of financial concepts, and the skills, motivation and confidence to apply such knowledge and understanding in order to make effective decisions across a range of financial contexts, to improve financial well-being of individuals and society, and to enable participation in economic life” (OECD 2012, pp. 12–13). Taking issue with how motivation is used in this definition of financial literacy, an argument is now developed for motivation to be included in a definition of financial literacy similar to how motivation is used in the numeracy definition. By doing so, motivation in the financial literacy definition would include the motivation to use mathematics to solve financial dilemmas rather than about just choosing to make effective financial decisions because not everyone participates in the consumer economy on an equal playing field. The pedagogical focus of financial literacy education then becomes more about being able to equip students with the financial skills and capabilities to perform appropriate and efficient mathematical calculations when faced with everyday financial decisions. This is what Sawatzki (2013, p. 557) refers to as the ability to problem-solve your way through real-life “financial dilemmas.” Financial literacy is about an individual’s capacity to acquire financial skills and capabilities, being motivated to critically reflect on what influences financial decision-making and the application of financial skills and capabilities to financial dilemmas. Financial literacy education is about the teaching of personal financial skills and capabilities with the direct intention of increasing an individual’s financial literacy through the acquisition of these skills and capabilities (Blue et al. 2014). These definitions of financial literacy and financial literacy education consider the life stories of individuals and are not concerned with individual wealth accumulation practices but

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rather financial practices that expose the social structures that reinforce wealth inequities. Financial literacy therefore includes having compassion for others (Lucey et al. 2015) and understanding how financial practice is enabled and constrained by practice architectures (cultural-discursive, material-economic, and social-political arrangements) involved in financial decision-making. Such an understanding of financial practice requires an individual to question the simplicity of conventional approaches to financial literacy that assume financial skills and capabilites are lacking and that once acquired an improvement in financial well-being will occur. Issues also emerge about evaluating the effectiveness of a financial literacy program when the very notion of what it means to be financially literate is contested. Haiven (2017) argues that financial illiteracy is a social epidemic that both entails a lack of access to financial information and encompasses “illiteracy towards the infrastructures of racism, colonialization, and other modalities of oppression and exploitation that financialisation both depends on and reinforces” (p. 361). Viewing financial illiteracy from Haiven’s (2017) perspective shifts the focus off individuals and onto the social structures that props up financialization. Therefore, moving toward a more reasonable, just, and sustainable approach to financial literacy education requires accepting that financial illiteracy also encompasses inequities in social structures, not just a lack of financial skills and capabilities.

Enacting Praxis Grootenboer (2013) argues for the importance of having skillful and knowledgeable educators and that good “teaching is more than knowledge and technique – it is a form of praxis” (p. 1). Praxis is a concept that has its roots in Aristotelian philosophy and refers fundamentally to morally informed action (Grootenboer 2013; Grootenboer and Edwards-Groves 2014; Kemmis 2008; Kemmis et al. 2014a). Consistent with analyses by D’Ambrosio (2007) and Lucey et al. (2015), praxis is an important element in financial literacy

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education and is required to prevent the inequalities and marginalization that may occur when vulnerable individuals who may be financially educated are unable to act on the financial knowledge they receive. In financial literacy, education practices require a shift from the one-size-fits-all and/or “fly in/fly out” models if the needs of the participants are to be understood, especially since these generic financial literacy workshops tend to be based on White middle-class values and assumptions without consideration of the learning needs of the participants. The relevance of the content taught and the impact of the training on the participants require more consideration by educators enacting praxis. Moreover, financial literacy education is not the solution to poverty as “poverty is . . . an issue of low wages (Ivanova and Klein 2014, p. 2), long working hours and lack of access to social goods” (Raffo 2011). Enacting praxis by a financial literacy educator may begin by acknowledging the practice architectures that enable and constrain an individual’s ability to participate in the economy.

Moving Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Financial Literacy Education Practices Kemmis and Grootenboer (2008) state that practices are composed of sayings, doings, and relatings that occur in particular sites amid particular arrangements in three kinds of intersubjective spaces: • Semantic space (through shared language in which meanings are shared and mutual understanding is possible) • Physical space-time (through shared locations in space and time in which interactions in shared activities and work are possible) • Social space (in which shared encounters affording different kinds of relationships are possible) (Grootenboer and Edwards-Groves 2013) In these spaces, people encounter one another (and things) through interaction and

interrelationships (Kemmis et al. 2014a) in practices that are held in place or that hang together (Schatzki 2002) amid arrangements of three kinds – the practice architectures: • Cultural-discursive arrangements found in a site (e.g., the technical language of finance that has particular meanings attributed to it in financial literacy education situations) • Material-economic arrangements found in a site (e.g., how the resources are arranged in a community so that particular activities can occur) • Social-political arrangements found in a site (e.g., how individuals relate to financial institutions or to one another) In this way, practices constitute, and are constituted by, the particular language used, the particular activities that occur, and the particular relationships that form in the connections and interactions between the people and the objects in the site. These form the practice architectures of a practice – the characteristic arrangements that exist in a site (Kemmis and Grootenboer 2008). Moreover, Kemmis et al. (2014b) outline what good critical participatory action research practices involve. Although this chapter does not specifically discuss critical participatory action research, the understanding of practice and the practice architectures that enable and constrain financial literacy education are important to comprehend. The authors state that regarding sayings and cultural-discursive arrangements, it is important to ask whether the sayings and arrangements are “rationale and reasonable.” This question ensures that individuals’ ideas are “comprehensible, coherent, accurate, sincerely stated (not deceptive), and morally right and appropriate” (Kemmis et al. 2014b, p. 82). Regarding the doings and the material-economic arrangements, it is also important to ask whether the actions and arrangements are “productive and sustainable.” This question is tied to ensuring that outcomes are benefitting the people concerned without causing harm and without wasting valuable resources. Determining whether the relatings and social-political arrangements are “just

Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

and inclusive” is about ensuring that power relationships are managed to ensure oppression is not occurring and that solidarity is being fostered. What is required to move away from the current understanding of the concept of financial literacy being about transmitting knowledge to an understanding that encourages motivating individuals to seek financial information and engage with it is critical (Sawatzki and Zmood 2018). Moving toward reasonable, just, and sustainable financial literacy education practices may require a shift from a curriculum steeped in White middleclass values that have the potential to marginalize already vulnerable individuals (Blue and Pinto 2017) and an acknowledgment that although education may shape values, only a reasonable income can influence an individual’s ability to save (Anderson and Nevitte 2006).

Implications for Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Financial Literacy Education Practices More socially just ways of teaching financial literacy will involve determining whether the sayings and cultural-discursive arrangements are “rationale and reasonable.” Concepts of financial literacy that align with the acquisition of financial skills and knowledge to achieve financial well-being fail the “rationale and reasonable” test because financial well-being is only achieved by a small group of individuals and learning about finances does not equate to acquiring money. Whether financial literacy education practices are productive and sustainable requires that participants benefit from the teachings without causing harm (e.g., blaming oneself for their financial circumstances) and are able to operate in sustainable ways, such as with resources developed in a specific site, for and with individuals from that site. Just and inclusive financial literacy education practices will ensure that good financial outcomes are achieved not only by White middle-class participants but also those from disadvantaged backgrounds. Thus, compassionate approaches to education (see Lucey

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et al. 2015) are advocated to move toward more reasonable, just, and sustainable financial literacy education practices where educators enact praxis. Generic and conventional approaches to financial literacy education seem particularly problematic in sites of poverty and disadvantage, particularly where it is not easy to change your circumstances (e.g., take on a higher-paying job). Importantly, recognizing that financial literacy education is not the solution to poverty informs the practice of financial literacy education by shifting the focus of curriculum to achievable aims and outcomes. Understanding what financial literacy education can and cannot achieve is the moral and ethical aspect of teaching and learning financial literacy education. Indeed, enacting praxis in financial literacy education acknowledges the structural and systemic inequities that are present in society and having conversations about social problems and hidden injustices, accepting that conventional definitions of financial literacy are lacking and that financial literacy education needs to be developed with community rather than for community. Financial literacy education that is reasonable, just, and sustainable involves acknowledging the structural and systemic inequities that exist in society. It also involves understanding who benefits from a capitalist economic system and who suffers, that is, that some individuals will obtain great wealth and others will face poverty – such a system guarantees these two extremes (Arthur 2012). Thus, exposing the financial realities – particularly those, for example, that Indigenous people face when seeking equity from their homes on the reservation – begins to unmask the different playing field and the financial struggles that many Indigenous people continue to face. The importance of site-based education (Kemmis et al. 2014a) with participants is viewed as a more sustainable approach rather than the current fly-in and fly-out model. Many researchers have also argued that there is no “one-size-fits-all” approach to education, and each site has specific circumstances and conditions (Kemmis et al. 2014a). Therefore, the move to more sustainable financial literacy

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education practices involves responding to the specific demands of the site – what Kemmis et al. (2014a) refer to as “site-based education development”. This is “when educators think together about how best to do this, in a particular school, for particular students and a particular community, they are engaging in site based education development” (p. 212). This is an important aspect to emphasize, particularly because the generalized “best practice” notions of financial literacy education have been ineffective and even damaging in the past. One way forward for financial literacy education for adults begins by understanding the nature of the site and their needs. This type of familiarity with the site and needs of the individuals is not something that can be gained with a one-size-fitsall approach as used in current externally designed generic approaches. Realizing the harsh realities that many Indigenous people continue to face, such as lower life expectancies, means that a focus on saving for retirement, when many family members do not live long enough to reach retirement, seems pointless. The cycle of lower education levels for children often results in lower salaries when they reach adulthood and start their own families. With limited opportunities for employment for some individuals, including Indigenous people living in remote communities where a high reliance on social assistance may be experienced, the difficulties in changing their financial circumstances without leaving their community must be understood. Therefore, going forward, the need to enact praxis in financial literacy education may require aligning financial content based on the participants’ needs and the financial dilemmas they are facing. The importance of using mathematical knowledge to assist with computing financial outcomes to the financial dilemmas individuals are facing may also be a useful aspect of tailored financial literacy education. Enacting praxis in financial literacy education must acknowledge the social and structural inequities that exist in society or praxis will not be enacted. Failing to enact praxis means that financial literacy education will continue to be of little relevance to those who need it most.

References Anderson CL, Nevitte N (2006) Teach your children well: values of thift and savings. J Econ Psychol 27:247–261 Anderssen E (1988) Canada’s squalid secret: life on native reserves. The Globe and Mail, October 12 Arthur C (2012) Financial literacy education for citizens: what kind of responsibility, equality and engagement? Citizenship Soc Econ Educ 11(3): 163–176 Australian Curriculum (2017) Mathematics curriculum: money and financial mathematics. Available at http:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/mathematics/curricu lum/f-10?layout=1#level9 Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) (2011) National financial literacy strategy. Report 229. Australian Securities and Investments Commission, Sydney Blue LE (2016) Exploring the financial literacy education practices in a Canadian Aboriginal community: a case study. PhD dissertation, Griffith University Blue LE, Pinto LE (2017) Other ways of being: challenging dominant financial literacy discourses in Aboriginal context. Aust Educ Res 44(1):55–70. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s13384-017-0226-y Blue LE, Grootenboer PJ, Brimble MA (2014) Financial literacy education curriculum: missing the mark or making the grade. Int J Econ Educ 16:51–62. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.iree.2014.07.005 Bowles P, Ajit D, Dempsey K et al (2011) Urban Aboriginal use of fringe financial institutions: survey evidence from Prince George, British Columbia. J Socio-Econ 40(6):895 Bradley D, Noonan P, Nugent H et al (2008) Review of Australian Higher Education final report. Available at https://www.mq.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/13 5310/bradley_review_of_australian_higher_education. pdf Bynner J, Parsons S (2006) New light on literacy and numeracy. National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy, London Collins D (2011) Aboriginal financial literacy in Canada. Issues and direction. Research paper prepared for the Taskforce on Financial Literacy, February 9 Council of Australian Governments (2008) National numeracy review report. Available at http://www.coag. gov.au/sites/default/files/national_numeracy_review.pdf. Accessed 13 January 2014 D’Ambrosio U (2007) Peace, social justice and ethnomathematics. In: Sriraman B (ed) with MorenoArmella L, Mukhopadhyay S, Steinthrsdóttir OB (associate eds) The Montana mathematics enthusiast, international perspectives on social justice in mathematics education. Monograph 1, pp 25–34. https://www. researchgate.net/profile/Bharath_Sriraman/publication/ 239810004_Social_JuStice_and_MatheMaticS_educa tion/links/59ca71600f7e9bbfdc36a625/Social-JuSticeand-MatheMaticS-education.pdf#page=33

Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices Geiger V, Forgasz H, Goos M (2015) A critical orientation to numeracy across the curriculum. ZDM 47:611–624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-014-0648-1 Gerrans P, Clark-Murphy M, Truscott K (2009) Financial literacy and superannuation awareness of indigenous Australians: pilot study results. Aust J Soc Issues 44 (4):417–439 Goos M, Dole S, Geiger V (2011) Improving numeracy education in rural schools: a professional development approach. Math Educ Res J 23(2):129–148 Grohmann A, Kouwenberg R, Menkhoff L (2015) Childhood roots of financial literacy. J Econ Psychol 51:114–133 Grootenboer P (2013) Praxis and mathematics education. Pedagog Cult Soc 21(2):321–342 Grootenboer P, Edwards-Groves C (2013) Mathematics education as a practice: a theoretical position. Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia Grootenboer P, Edwards-Groves C (2014) Mathematics teaching as praxis. In: Anderson J, Cavanagh M, Prescott A (eds) Curriculum in focus: research guided practice. Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia. MERGA, Sydney, pp 271–278 Haiven M (2017) The uses of financial literacy. Financialization, the racial imagination, and the unpayable debts of settler colonialism. Cult Polit 13(3):348–369 Huston SJ (2010) Measuring financial literacy. J Consum Aff 44(2):296–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.17456606.2010.01170.x Ivanova I, Klein S (2014) Working for a living wage. Retrie ved from https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/de fault/files/uploads/publications/BC%20Office/2014/04/ CCPA-BC_Living_Wage_update_2014_revMay16.pdf Jablonka E, Gellert U (2012) Potentials, pitfalls, and discriminations. In: Skovsmose O, Greer B (eds) Opening the cage. Critique and politics of mathematics education. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, pp 287–307. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-808-7_15 Kemmis S (2008) Praxis and practice architectures in mathematics education. In: Goos M, Brown R, Makar K (eds) Navigating currents and charting directions. Proceedings of the 31st annual conference of the mathematics education research Group of Australasia. MERGA, Brisbane, pp 17–28 Kemmis S, Grootenboer P (2008) Situating praxis in practice: practice architectures and the cultural, social and material conditions for practice. Sense Publishers, Amsterdam Kemmis S, Wilkinson J, Edwards-Groves C et al (2014a) Changing practices, changing education. Springer, Singapore Kemmis S, McTaggart R, Nixon R (2014b) The action research planner. Doing critical participatory action research. Springer, Singapore Lucey TA, Agnello MF, Laney JD (2015) A critically compassionate approach to financial literacy. Sense Publishing, Amsterdam Lyons AC, Chang Y, Scherpf EM (2006) Translating financial education into behavior change for low-income populations. J Financ Couns Plan 17(2):27

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Moreton-Robinson A (2015) The white possessive. In: Property, power and indigenous sovereignty. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press Munro M (1988) Housing wealth and inheritance. J Soc Policy 17(4):417–436 Organisation for Economic and Cooperative Development (OECD) (2012) PISA 2012 finanical literacy assessment framework. OECD Publishing, Paris Organisation for Economic and Cooperative Development (OECD) (2013) Financial literacy framework in PISA 2012 assessment and analytical framework: mathematics, reading, science, problem solving and financial literacy. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/ 10.1787/9789264190511-7-en Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2015) PISA 2015 results (volume IV): students’ financial literacy. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264270282-en Pasternak S (2015) How capitalism will save colonialism: the privatization of reserve lands in Canada. Antipode 47(1):179–196 Pinto LE (2009) Is financial literacy education the solution to credit crises? Our schools. Our Selves 18(4):123–133 Raffo C (2011) Barker’s ecology of disadvantage and educational equity: issues of redistribution and recognition. J Educ Adm Hist 43(4):325–343 Sawatzki C (2013) Connecting social and mathematical thinking: the use of “real life” contexts. In: Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Brisbane, vol 1. MERGA, Sydney, pp 557–564 Sawatzki C, Zmood S (2018) The case for teaching and learning about taxation and superannuation at school. A research review for the Australian Tax Office. Available via Australian Tax Office. https://www.ato.gov.au/ uploadedFiles/Content/CR/downloads/university_can berra_research_review_final_report_23072018.pdf Schatzki TR (2002) The site of the social: a philosophical exploration of the constitution of social life and change. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park Steen LA (2001) Mathematics and numeracy: Two literacies, one language. The mathematics educator, 6(1), 10–16 United Nations (n.d.) Economic and social development. Available at https://www.un.org/development/desa/indi genouspeoples/mandated-areas1/economic-and-socialdevelopment.html Urbis Keys Young (2006) Final report: confidential for National Indigenous Money Management Agenda (NIMMA) Indigenous Banking Reference Group. Prepared for Reconciliation Australia Vowel C (2016) Indigenous writes: a guide to first nations, Metis and Inuit issues in Canada. Portage and Main, Winnipeg Willis LE (2008) Against financial-literacy education. Iowa Law Rev 94(1):197–285 Zevenbergen R (2004) Technologizing numeracy: intergenerational differences in working mathematically in new times. Educ Stud Math 56(1):97–117

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First Nations

Fourth Generation University

First Nations ▶ Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

Foreignness ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

Foundation ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future Hulya Oztel Faculty of Business and Management, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK

Synonyms Embedded; Modern; New; Sustainable

Definition A Fourth Generation University co-creates its socioeconomic environment with core stakeholders to promote sustainable growth. Its aims and objectives stretch beyond disciplinary education, research, or economic impact. They are negotiated and legitimized within its stakeholder system to secure public value for a sustainable future.

Introduction The concept of Fourth Generation University is rooted in the idea that tertiary education underwent three transformative revolutions since universities were first established in Bologna and Paris in the twelfth century. The first revolution was triggered as the mission of universities broadened from teaching to include the production of research in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century generating what is known as the Humboldtian model of education – The Second Generation University. The second revolution occurred as universities’ mission was once more broadened to encapsulate economic development in the late twentieth century leading to the emergence of the Third Generation University – more commonly called the entrepreneurial university. The Fourth Generation University emerges in response to the environmental tensions that are the hallmark of our current era. In this entry, a chronological perspective has been relied upon and models have been contrasted for analytical purposes. It is important to note that, as in the case of a family, multiple generations of university co-exist at any point in time in any sociocultural context. Such diversity is critical. This entry highlights historical drivers and pressures that impacted higher education, leading to this series of transformations. The shifts in conceptions of economic growth as well as higher education missions that are attendant to these changes shape to a large how universities evolved. A Chronological Insight into University Evolution The literature is rich in taxonomies. Historical perspectives have been used in the past to characterize Humboltian, Cambridge, Napoleinic, Land Grant models of higher education, for example (Sam and van der Sijde 2014; Slaughter and Rhoades 2004; Wissema 2009). In some cases, geography is the variable used to distinguish between American, West European, Latin American, and East Asian/ Confucian models (Marginson 2011; Zha 2011). Often historical, sociocultural dimensions are integrated with

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other conceptual variables (such as independence from the state, level of interaction with industry) to map a tertiary education landscape that is rich in diversity (Etzkowitz 2003). In other cases, distinctions are made based on institutions, central missions, selectivity, or standing – as in the use of labels such as ivory tower university, elite university, traditional university, etc. The extensive literature in this area, the divergence in models and taxonomies, indicates that tertiary education is context specific. It is rooted in cultural and historical developments that may have been shared and reinterpreted over time and across the globe but that remain intrinsically context dependent (Välimaa and Nokkala 2014). Fourth Generation Universities therefore have variable geometry. Although we can seek to outline some of the characteristics that are associated with Fourth Generation Universities, it would be counterproductive to propose a singular model that should be emulated. The intractability of social problems (for example, climate change, sustainable development, democratization of higher education and social mobility) that universities now face is such that institutional diversity is a welcome necessity. The fundamental issue is therefore not to ask what does an ideal type Fourth Generation University look like, but more the point: Given the diversity of tertiary educational models and systems worldwide, how can Fourth Generation Universities co-create their immediate socioeconomic environment for growth in a sustainable future? The Fourth Generation University captures the idea that, firstly its mission combines research, teaching, and secondly it is an actor in the process of sustainable development co-creation, with stakeholders located within and outside its institutional boundaries. Because the Fourth Generation University is geographically embedded, the ways it will balance and deliver on its missions will vary.

First Generation University First Generation Universities refer to the types of educational establishments that emerged in the

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late twelfth century and grew to prominence all the way through the eighteenth century Renaissance and into early nineteenth century. First Generation Universities were establishments that revolved around professors whose function was to educate men in the fields of theology, law, medicine, and arts and prepare them to serve in clergy or emerging professions of state administrations and medicine. During the Middle Ages in Europe, knowledge was the preserve of the church. Latin was the lingua franca – necessary for the study of the Bible. Monasteries were originally the locus of learning. However, in the course of the thirteenth century, the growing need for expert knowledge, combined with monasteries’ withdrawal from worldly affairs, led to the establishment of cathedral schools and later the first universities in Europe. The University of Bologna was established by Papal Charter in 1158 and is considered the oldest university. The University of Paris was established in 1200 and Oxford followed suit. They evolved out of schools that were well established before they became corporate entities – with rectors, chancellors, and governing bodies. By 1300, Europe counted 20 universities (Rabbinge and Slingerland 2009; Wissema 2009). Tensions Impacting First Generation Universities First Generation Universities created several challenges to the social and administrative spheres that surrounded them and were impacted by scientific developments. The political tensions that arose from the growth of universities as regional rulers understood the importance of controlling knowledge when engaging in state building were very powerful. Although early universities evolved from established schools, this changed as it became a requirement to have a state or papal charter to be called a “university.” As regional rulers sought to exert control over their territory, they increasingly tied universities to regional and national structures and redefined their role as one of service to the state. These tensions meant that by the late

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sixteenth century, universities lost in autonomy and operated as national institutions (Riddle 1993). Theological evolution throughout the sixteenth century and the emphasis in the seventeenth century on exact observation of nature with scientists like Bacon, Boyle, and Newton (laying the foundations for the development of the scientific method of inquiry) challenged the role of the Church in education. New and specialist educational establishments were set up to teach emerging fields of science that underpinned technological advancement. Faced with this competition, established universities started to evolve too (Wissema 2009). Developments in Sciences combined with political evolutions had a transformative impact and led to the emergence of the Second Generation University.

Second Generation University It can be argued that the Second Generation University was born out of the political process underpinning the emergence of nation-states in Europe between 1500 and 1800s. But rapid progress in Sciences, the emergence of the era of Enlightenment were also key influences on the rise of a new paradigm for education, often called Humboldtian after Wilhelm von Humboldt, a diplomat and philosopher, who founded the University of Berlin in 1810 (Scott 2006). The Second Generation University is one where the emphasis on teaching remains but the underpinning mission changes fundamentally from transmitting knowledge per-se to transmitting methodologies for knowledge discovery. In essence, the Second Generation University is born out of scientific and technological evolution and is characterized by a fascination with research. Key features of the Second Generation University include teaching in vernacular languages, closer ties with the state, their emphasis on research and discovery of secular scientific and technological knowledge, increased levels of specialization and their organizations in faculties (Riddle 1993; Wissema 2009).

Tensions Impacting Second Generation Universities The Second Generation University model has been very successful throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century, but it too had to adapt in the face of external pressures and developments. One of the most significant sources of pressure for change came from the democratization of education post-World War II. This led to dramatic increases in student populations in Europe and the USA, putting pressure on state funding and progressively leading to the marketization of higher education, proliferation of supply, and increased competition (Wissema 2009). While teaching and research missions remained key to their operations, Second Generation Universities found themselves in a globalizing world, where sources of economic value were shifting and where their interaction with industry became a development imperative, as well as a necessary source of funding for ever more costly research endeavors (ibid.). To survive, adaptation was necessary.

Third Generation University Third Generation Universities, often associated with the more commonly used label “Entrepreneurial University,” have been the source of a significant body of research since the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century. A Third Generation University is a university that has internalized an entrepreneurial paradigm. This implies that traditional missions of teaching and research are expanded to include economic development. This also involves transformations in operations, audience, collaborators, and overall standing in societal development. An Entrepreneurial Paradigm for Economic Growth The entrepreneurial society refers to places where knowledge-based entrepreneurship has emerged as a driving force for economic growth, employment creation, and competitiveness in global markets. This contrasts with preceding periods where engines of growth were seen as large

Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future

conglomerates (post-war era) then globalization (late twentieth century). After the Second World War, and in the USA, businesses that supported the war effort reconverted their activities to serve civilian needs or continued to serve the defense industry. They grew to sizes never seen before and were able to reap the benefits of economies of scales as they leveraged capital (financial and physical), now the most significant factor of production. During the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, the liberalization of international trade, combined with the economic emergence of nations until then seen as part of the periphery (for example, emerging markets of South East Asia dubbed the Asian Tigers), and significant gains in transport and telecommunications technology, have had the synergistic effect of fuelling globalization (Gibb 2002). Transnational corporations could now locate value creating activities where factors of production were most attractive (Scholte 2005). This led to delocalization of manufacturing facilities (physical capital) to low-cost labor locations. During the same period, the comparative advantage of high-cost economies shifted to tacit, difficult to transfer and high value knowledge-based value creation. This was hailed as the emergence of the knowledge economy (Audretsch 2009). Knowledge was now seen as the factor of production that would yield the most economic returns. However, it became clear, in Europe, for example, that investments in human capital, research and development, patents, and more broadly creativity did not necessarily create the multiplier economic effect anticipated (ibid.). By contrast, the US economic revival of late 1990s (Gordon 2002; Stiroh 2002), and specifically its strong correlation with high-technology entrepreneurship, led to a renewed perspective on growth, one that associates knowledge intensity with enterprise (Bresnahan et al. 2001). In turn, the interest in this new entrepreneurial paradigm that centered so heavily on knowledgebased innovation brought to the foreground the significance of tertiary education as a spearhead of knowledge production, application, and dissemination (Bennis and O’Toole 2005; Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff 2000; Sam and van der Sijde 2014).

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Third Generation University Missions The primary objective of knowledge-based economic development is to bolster the innovative capability of regions. This becomes central to the operation of the entrepreneurial university now ideally placed to, firstly, supply human capital capable of responding to changing market demands and, secondly, facilitate knowledgebased business creation (Etzkowitz and Klofsten 2005). The latter is achieved through knowledge and entrepreneurial capital creation and transfer (Guerrero et al. 2015). A Third Generation University experiences an extension in it missions, with the addition of economic development to its central missions of teaching and research, but it also undergoes a redefinition of its original two missions. While subject-specific teaching remains essential in disciplinary education, teaching as a mission is reviewed in two fundamental ways. First, entrepreneurship education becomes a significant element within the curriculum, and second, innovative forms of teaching (that is entrepreneurship in teaching practice) are actively pursued to enhance learners exposure to the world of business with the intent of increasing graduates levels of employability and entrepreneurial capability (Miller et al. 2014; Rae 2007). Research also remains a fundamental element of the mission, but again, it undergoes a refocus, with increased prominence for knowledge application and commercialization (Markman et al. 2005). Fundamental research remains central to disciplinary advancement in this context and its serendipitous contribution to societal advancement remains clearly valued (Szelényi and Bresonis 2014). However, knowledge transfer and application are actively promoted through spillover mechanisms (including incubators, science parks, intellectual capital protection, licensing, knowledge transfer fora, etc.) (Salter and Martin 2001; Schartinger et al. 2002). Finally, the third mission of economic development sees the entrepreneurial university actively engaging in heterogeneous and fluid networks with public and private sector actors. These partnerships, which can be analyzed using the triple-helix framework (i.e., interactions between

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university-government-business), have been shown to be a fundamental underpinning of most high-technology regions (Etzkowitz and Klofsten 2005; Feldman and Florida 1994; Schulte 2004). Third Generation Universities, through their resources (human and physical), demonstrably enhance regional innovative capacity (Guerrero et al. 2015). They contribute knowledge (such as technological expertise), know-how (through their researchers, students, and entrepreneurial academics), leadership (through their economic development focused missions), and boundaryspanning structures (e.g., networks and partnerships that mediate interactions) (Bresnahan et al. 2001; Markman et al. 2005; Schartinger et al. 2002; Siegel et al. 2004). Finally, they act as innovation policy implementation vehicles for national and supranational governance systems (European Commission 2016; Wong et al. 2007; Xiwei and Xiangdong 2007). Concentration and geographic proximity of specialized resources create synergistic effects that reinforce a region’s capacity to innovate. This is achieved through economies of scale (in knowledge production), cross-fertilization of ideas (through crossdisciplinary interactions), and face-to-face interactions (that facilitate technology transfer) (Feldman and Florida 1994). In short, geographic proximity reduces the cost of knowledge production and the risks associated with its exploitation. For this reason, an entrepreneurial university’s geographical scope for the greatest developmental impact is the locality within which it is embedded. Tensions Impacting Third Generation Universities Driven by an entrepreneurial paradigm, Third Generation Universities witness internal and external transformations impacting their operation and reach. New tensions arise as productivity and engagement with external stakeholders become new modi operandi. Also, the notion that economic growth is a strategic educational goal is itself challenged as issues around marketization and education as a public good are contrasted. The internal transformation is generally twofold. First, it involves the introduction of procedures (quality and efficiency control mechanisms) that

align with a managerialist mind-set (Broucker et al. 2018; Filippakou and Tapper 2010). Universities are measured and measure their outcomes in productivity and quality terms as they compete in a globally competitive higher education landscape for students (and fee-based revenue) and for research funding (governmental, supranational, and commercial revenue). Institutions adopt professional and permanent management roles, when, previously, they may have relied on the rotation of professorial faculty for leadership. The adoption and implementation of managerial practices developed and implemented in the private sector generate tensions and resistance as they fundamentally remodel the profession and academic identities (Archer 2008; Chandler et al. 2002) and move away from a culture of intellectual enquiry and debate to one of institutional performance (Deem and Brehony 2005; Olssen and Peters 2005). Second, universities reorient their curricular programs to serve the needs of the knowledge economy and align with the entrepreneurial paradigm. This creates tensions as the focus on targets can lead to grade inflation; side lining of learner interests and outcomes; a re-centering of curricula on professional (market relevant) qualifications; and contract education (as opposed to disinterested, and critical scholarship) (Broucker et al. 2018; Bunce et al. 2017; Leung and Waters 2013; Slaughter and Rhoades 2004). Attendant to the above, the increased cost of education means that learners and parents alike look for market returns for their investment in education. This creates a shift in the way students are perceived in universities: no longer as learners but as customers. That too creates tensions in higher education delivery as the need to foster attainment levels while sustaining high quality learning can clash with the pressure to “satisfy the needs of customers” (Bunce et al. 2017). Although the internal transformation described above is significant, its impact on academic freedom is dwarfed by the consequences that pertain to serving the needs of industry. The progressive transfer of power from professorial faculty to managers within higher education has triggered an internal cultural transition that is compounded externally by the increased prominence of the

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private sector as decision maker in research funding and orientation (Deem and Brehony 2005; Slaughter and Rhoades 2004). This has the effect of narrowing and directing knowledge production aims towards commercial application to the detriment of public good ambitions and serendipitous societal impact. The resulting capitalist learning regime and entrepreneurial funding system restrict academic freedom and more significantly have the potential of alienating public support for higher education (Slaughter and Rhoades 2004). This is increasingly evident as the triple helix of university, industry, and government is strained by societal movements and pressure from the student body that challenge its collective inertia and the relevance of its actions in relation to societal concerns. The student body has demonstrated its ability to constitute itself as a stakeholder group exerting pressure on universities for them to enact policies that align with their value system (specifically policies that address climate change concerns) (Grady-Benson and Sarathy 2016; Healy and Debski 2017). Such mobilization is part of broader social movements, where NGOs, public intellectuals construct disruptive discourses that challenge established norms (Jamison 2010; Nisbet 2014). In this context, Third Generation Universities are challenged to nurture divergent and disruptive view-points. Their boundary spanning is also questioned as the need to supersede established industry-university-government connections becomes clear in the face of complex social problems such as sustainability (LotzSisitka et al. 2015). Indeed, these pressures push towards greater academic freedom – not less. They also call for the integration of social movements in the negotiation and enactment of climate-related policy and action through boundary spanning and collaborative endeavors that require broader and more inclusive partnerships.

Sustainability and the Fourth Generation University The concept of Fourth Generation University is barely emerging in the academic literature. In

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order to comprehend the consequences of external pressures experienced by Third Generation Universities, this entry will explore the relationship between tertiary education and the sustainability agenda. It reviews how this impacts university missions and aims to outline the contours of Fourth Generation Universities. A Circular Economy Paradigm for Sustainable Economic Growth As in any emerging field of research, where there is a plethora of definitions, perspectives on the concept of circular economy abound (Kirchherr et al. 2017). For the purpose of this entry, the most prominent lines of convergence are used in order to characterize the circular economy as a system that is environmentally and economically regenerative (Ghisellini et al. 2016; Lieder and Rashid 2016). The concept, that is rooted in environmental economics, has become a prominent area of inquiry and debate because of the increasingly widespread recognition that planet Earth cannot sustain current modes of production and consumption, given population growth, resource depletion, and environmental impact trends (Geissdoerfer et al. 2017; UN Environment 2019a, b). Instead of the traditionally linear economic growth models, the circular economy promotes a closed-loop productive system, where resource-use efficiency and waste management are promoted through actions and processes that center on reduction, reuse, recycling of waste but also better product designs, reduced consumption, and sustainable materials management (Ghisellini et al. 2016; UN Environment 2019a). Essentially, the circular economy, as a concept underpinning the sustainable development debate, is a disruptive view of economic growth that developed as a response to the urgent need to situate human development within the ecological limits of the planet. In that respect, the circular economy, contrasts with business-as-usual operation and linear economic models, that assume a constant and abundant supply of raw materials combined with an unlimited capacity to dispose of waste in the natural environment. Consequently, the need to integrate within human thinking and action, resource scarcity,

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environmental impact, and economic benefit is an idea that is gaining traction. It is accompanied by the call for a shift from waste management towards resource value management discourses (Lieder and Rashid 2016). This requires the involvement of a diverse range of societal stakeholders and a combination of bottom-up and topdown approaches to achieve the transformational change called for by the United Nations. Within this new paradigm for growth, universities are seen as central stakeholders capable of underpinning societal transformation. Their standing allows them to prepare leaders of the future, generate knowledge that underpins sustainable economic growth and sustainability industries, transform themselves into sustainable organizations, and most significantly embed sustainability as a value in regional governance systems (Sedlacek 2013). As such, they can be key instruments of societal thought leadership and transformation. Fourth Generation Universities’ Mission: Back to Public Value? The Third Generation University’s preoccupation with knowledge transfer designed to foster regional innovation and economic growth has become cause for concern because of its narrow focus and its lack of attention to urgent contemporary societal concerns (Broucker et al. 2018). As a consequence, scholars from a range of fields are calling for a revisit of the notion of public value and use this as a road map to enable the next transition in higher education. These trends are set within a broader policy context where “Education for Sustainable Development” (ESD) is seen as one of the central elements that will enable the global community to deliver Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 (Didham 2018; UNESCO 2015). Global policy instruments that center on the role of education (including tertiary education) first included the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) – from 2005 to 2014. This was followed by the Global Action Programme (GAP) which aims to scale up DESD and deliver to the 2030 horizon (UNESCO 2015). Reflecting these policies and associated

societal concerns, we are currently witnessing growth in research and evidence published that center on universities’ engagement with the sustainability agenda. The notion that universities contribute to public good is not new; however, with reforms throughout the twentieth century, the meaning associated with it (for example, in relation to equality of access) has narrowed and shifted as a result of marketization to the point where the moral norm that higher education is a public good is lost in parts of the world (Broucker et al. 2018; Slaughter and Rhoades 2004). Notwithstanding, as the limitations of managerialism (with the ascent of New Public Management – NPM) in public services and higher education are outlined, the idea that public value could become a guiding principle in these spheres is gaining traction (Broucker et al. 2018; Zgaga 2009). Public value is a concept that is rooted in public policy debates, where NPM (and associated marketization trends) replaced traditional public management in public services as well as in higher education in large parts of the world (Stoker 2006). Public value is now presented as the possible alternative to NPM. Uncomfortable though it may be, public value is shrouded with ambiguity, because it is often unclear how stakeholders, such as public sector managers, can generate results that are valued, measurable, and most significantly justify their costs (Moore 1995). It is therefore to be expected that public value is defined in many ways (Bryson et al. 2017); however, for the purpose of this entry, we will retain Benington and Moore’s approach (2011) – as they build on the foundations laid originally by Moore (1995). Public value relates to what is valued by the public and what enhances the public sphere (Benington and Moore 2011). As such, public value can be an outcome but also a process that enhances fairness and justice (O’Flynn 2007). It readily aligns with Sustainable Development aspirations. Further, it potentially provides Fourth Generation Universities a paradigm that can inform institutional and collective action. Co-creation of Transformative Change Co-creation, as a concept, is closely linked to that of co-production. Both terms are rooted in the

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field of marketing (specifically the servicedominant logic) and reflect the idea that companies and their customers are involved in value creation processes together and on an equal footing (Payne et al. 2008; Voorberg et al. 2015). The concept is now being used outside of the marketing literature, for example, co-creation is seen as a central element in fostering innovation (European Commission 2016). In public services, co-creation is seen as a means of creating value by engaging service users (Voorberg et al. 2015), while in higher education, the active engagement of learners in their higher education experiences is seen as a means of co-creating higher quality learning outcomes (Díaz-Méndez and Gummesson 2012). Fundamentally, co-creation highlights the benefits of opening up value creation opportunities to a wide range of stakeholders. In fields like sustainability, broad social and institutional mobilization around shared values is seen as a necessary condition for sustainable and just systems to emerge – that is for social innovation to take place. When aiming to create public value, the involvement of a multiplicity of stakeholders from private, institutional, and civic spheres is analyzed using notions such as polycentric governance, collaborative governance, and interorganizational partnerships (Bryson et al. 2017; Emerson et al. 2012; UN Environment 2019a, b). Growing evidence suggests that these emerging forms of governance are deeply embedded within the localities that stakeholders associate with, providing legitimacy and authority to their collective actions (Hambleton 2019). However, there is widespread recognition that these forms of governance are full of challenges. Indeed, as stakeholders seek to co-create novel social solutions, their interests and priorities do not necessarily align (Emerson et al. 2012). Dissonance is likely to occur, but interestingly, this is considered desirable, alongside redundancy, discontinuity, and risk, because they are more likely to be generative of collective learning and innovation that are transformative (Lotz-Sisitka et al. 2015). In the case of sustainable development, the view is that adaptative change (including maladaptive coping strategies) will not suffice, and

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transformative change is necessary to deal with the significant degree of uncertainty and rapid change facing the world (UN Environment 2019a). Co-creation of transformational change is no doubt a tall order. Desirability is clearly expressed, but few writers offer practical guidance to achieve it. Stoker’s (2006) answer to this issue is politics. According to him, political negotiation and decision-making are effective means of social coordination particularly suited to co-creation contexts. He argues that politics enables stakeholders to surpass individualism; that political decision-making is flexible and can cope with uncertain and unpredictable situations; finally, politics “can move beyond a distribution of benefits—a rationing function also offered by markets—to establish a process of social production in which interests are brought together to achieve common purposes” (Stoker 2006, 47). The Sustainable Fourth Generation University Based upon the review of the literature thus far, it is clear that higher education establishments are ideally placed to be active players in society’s transition towards sustainability. We propose that a Fourth Generation University co-creates its socioeconomic environment with core stakeholders to promote sustainable growth. Its mission stretches beyond disciplinary education, research, or economic impact. It is negotiated and legitimized within its stakeholder system to secure public value for a sustainable future. Currently available evidence shows that all form of competencies normally associated with university settings can contribute to the transition. In addition, they can also become catalysts and change agents within stakeholder systems (Healy and Debski 2017). Interestingly, engagement with the sustainability agenda is seen as a factor likely to impact future international university rankings systems (Lukman et al. 2010). As knowledge transmission domains, Fourth Generation Universities can incorporate within the curricula content that explores sustainability issues from all disciplinary lenses. As places of teaching and learning, they can foster disruptive

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and generative conversations that, in turn, can shape beliefs and values of their learners (Redman et al. 2010; Rodríguez-Solera and Silva-Laya 2017). They have scope for outlining the challenges associated with sustainability and the likely impact this will have on learners’ professional, personal, and societal futures. In so doing, they play a role in building the capacity of decision makers, leaders, academics, and entrepreneurs of the future and in facilitating shifts in consumer and business behavior (UN Environment 2019a; Vicente-Molina et al. 2013). As knowledge production domains, Fourth Generation Universities can fuel technological advances that contribute to the sustainability transition, through their involvement in knowledge transfer. This can be the result of basic as well as applied research – although action-oriented research is more likely to address localized and urgent sustainability problems. Much of this type of research would require collaborations that are both cross-boundary and cross-disciplinary (Niu et al. 2013; Sedlacek 2013). As model citizens, Fourth Generation Universities can revisit their own mission statements and operations to ensure that their environmental impact is minimized and they transform into “sustainable universities.” Actions can take the form of divestment strategies, the implementation of sustainable transport policies, the promotion of circular economy practices on their campuses, and the reduction of their carbon footprint through their waste and energy choices and management (Grady-Benson and Sarathy 2016; Healy and Debski 2017; Klein-Banai and Theis 2013; Orme and Dooris 2010; Velazquez et al. 2006). Finally, Fourth Generation Universities can initiate or take part in transformational change projects that are designed to co-create social innovation and promote sustainability. As stakeholders in multiactor environmental governance systems, they can surpass their income generation and entrepreneurship remit and include within their mission the commitment to create public value that addresses the sustainability crises of our era (Sedlacek 2013; Zgaga 2009).

Future Research Issues To a large extent, Fourth Generation Universities interaction with the sustainability agenda is an embryonic field of research. Much of what is published expresses a desirability of universities’ engagement with the sustainability agenda, but very little evaluative work has been published to date. This entry shows that there are three broad areas where further empirical evidence would make significant contributions. 1. How effective are sustainability curricula in (a) facilitating attitudinal and behavioral shifts in learners, (b) equipping future leaders with effective tools, and (c) promoting entrepreneurial endeavors that align with or address sustainability concerns? Emerging evidence suggests that sustainable development education can facilitate attitude changes but can be far less effective in developing competencies that foster learners’ systemic appreciation of issues, their preparedness to dealing with the future, or their ability or willingness to take action (Lambrechts et al. 2013). Likewise, difference in disciplinary input seems to have diverging effects on the sustainability orientation of potential entrepreneurs (Kuckertz and Wagner 2010). When exploring the effectiveness of sustainability-related curricula, the role of learners as educational co-creators is underexplored, although their involvement with university-wide divestment initiatives (for example) is better documented (Murray 2018). 2. How effective is research in promoting the sustainability transition (a) in basic sciences, (b) in applied sciences, and (c) in social sciences and humanities? Researchers agree that in order to address the complexity of sustainability issues, transdisciplinarity and cross-boundary collaborations are requirements. Yet, institutional systems, research funding regimes tend to militate against such forms of engagements to the point where the mainstreaming of transdisciplinarity has essentially be described

Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future

as “rhetorical” and potentially alienating of scholars who take it seriously (Jahn et al. 2012). 3. How do Fourth Generation Universities interact with other regional stakeholders in order to co-create a sustainable future? Although challenging, “governance without government” or multistakeholder governance can appeal, and it may be argued is essential to address sustainability. But how can we ensure that it is legitimate, accountable, and equitable (Stoker 2006)? How do stakeholders negotiate, interact, and co-create when they most certainly start with differing levels of power, urgency, or legitimacy (Miller et al. 2014)? How central will students become in these co-creation endeavors, as it is their future that is at stake (Murray 2018; Warwick 2016)? Finally, yet most importantly, what evidence is there that co-creation is indeed beneficial in practice (Voorberg et al. 2015). The avenues for research in this area are multiple and the range of questions hint to potentially exciting conceptual, theoretical, and practical developments to come.

Conclusion Beyond “a” Fourth Generation University: Co-Existence of Variety There is a long way to go. Where sustainabilitydriven action can be seen, it is likely to be localized and focused in specific areas (for example research). At the time of this review, there is no published evidence to suggest that a single university has transformed in such a way that it presents all the attributes outlined above (Velazquez et al. 2006). In fact, there is doubt as to whether this is desirable or feasible, hence a clear need for further empirical research. This entry supports the view, more commonly found in the literature, that we are more likely to see a variety of models and forms of operations articulated around the range of Fourth Generation missions as they co-exist, interact, and sometimes contradict one another (Scott 2006). Diversity is

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instrumental in effectively tackling complex societal issues like sustainability.

Cross-References ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

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Free Education: Origins, Achievements, and Current Situation Michael M. Kretzer School of Languages and Literatures (African Language Studies Section), Rhodes University, Grahamstown/Makhanda, South Africa

Definition Free Education is defined as the abolishment of school fees. In general, two types of fees exist. Firstly, direct fees or costs such as tuition fees or textbook fees and so on, which means they are spent directly on education. Secondly, indirect fees or costs, which are not directly used for educational purposes, but are a necessity, such as travel expenses to school. There is, however, no consensus about a definition of Free Education or Free Primary Education (FPE), as the predominantly used terminology are used equivalent (Inoue and Oketch 2008: 44). Free Education is mainly seen as FPE and includes the abolishment of tuition or textbook fees (UNESCO 2002). Hence, Free Education is limited most of the time to primary schools and the abolishment of direct fees, but it does not mean a totally free and cost-free education for parents. Research has shown that the best is to lower the direct and the indirect costs for education, as this increases the chances of children being enrolled, especially from marginalized social groups (Akyeampong 2009: 177). Although costs are still involved in education, the FPE reduces the financial costs and can help to overcome inequalities between gender, based on socioeconomic conditions, or created by the urban-rural divide.

Free Education: Introduction Various international and regional documents issued by organizations contribute to the debate on Free Education. This concept can be discussed in relation to Education For All (EFA), the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Furthermore, some general overview of the current situation in countries of the Global South will be provided. Detailed information will be supplied for some countries from the Global South, including countries from Africa, America, and Asia. A significant gap exists between countries of the Global North and countries of the Global South not only regarding the so-called digital divide (Haßler and Jackson 2010) or a socioeconomic divide but also regarding education. When it comes to educational material, those are (mainly) developed in countries of the Global North. Hence, the world is mainly divided into the Global North as contributors of materials and countries of the Global South as consumers of such (de los Arcos and Weller 2018). In general, countries of the Global North focus on increasing their enrollment numbers at tertiary institutions, whereas in countries of the Global South, the universal access to compulsory basic education happened only recently and the quality of their school systems still faces many challenges. Even research, theories about education as well as curricula are very biased and in favor of the Global North and the English language (Takayama et al. 2016). The most recent UNESCO General Monitoring Report emphasizes such differences not only according to geographical regions but also according to low-, middle-, and high-income countries (UNESCO 2018: 278f). Therefore, this entry focuses mainly on countries of the Global South as the question of Free Education is much more severe and urgent. Protests and strikes by high school pupils in 2006 in Chile regarding the unsatisfactory teaching conditions, poor teaching quality, and no social equity show the various conflict lines (Matear 2008: 136). Such conflicts and protests are not limited to developing countries or countries of the Global South. Upon the introduction of university fees in some provinces in Germany in

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2007, huge student protests evolved until those fees were eventually banished again after some very short time (Altbach and Klemencic 2014). Other more recent protests such as the #Fees must Fall at various South African universities showed the economic struggles of many students at tertiary institutions (Booysen 2016). Such protests are not a stand-alone event but must rather be seen in a larger context. Especially in a diverse and socioeconomically divided society such as South Africa, school fees can be a severe burden for pupils or students and their families. Although schooling is tuition-free in some schools in postapartheid South Africa, previous governments allowed the introduction of formal school fees based on the socioeconomic situation of a specific school. This was introduced in 1994 and there was a revision of this policy in 2006, which introduced no-fee schools in South Africa. The aim was to ensure that at least 40% of pupils are enrolled at no-fee schools to enable and ensure social justice (Department of Education 2006). Early research indicated significant existing obstacles during the implementation of this policy at the micro level, in the individual schools (Ahmed and Sayed 2009). Nevertheless, the best schools still charge high school fees in relation to the earnings of the average South African parent. This prevents pupils from a disadvantaged socioeconomic background from enrolling at such schools (Salisbury 2016: 45). There are also schools that struggle to meet the legal requirements when it comes to sanitation, security, textbook supply, and classroom sizes. Research showed that in some provinces, such as the urban province of Gauteng, the situation is much more developed in terms of available resources compared to the more rural province of Limpopo (Kretzer and Kaschula 2019; Kretzer 2018). There are authors who describe the concept of an average pupil or the concept of “average” in a very general way as being very flawed or biased for South Africa. They prefer to define it as a bimodal education system (Spaull 2013: 437). Furthermore, the private school sector is a very fast growing sector in South Africa (Botha 2002: 368) as well as the notion of private tutoring, with many English-medium International Schools

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proliferating. Statistics from Statistics South Africa show that in 2016 more than two million pupils, which equals more than 11% were enrolled at private schools, which is a significant increase in the last two decades (Statistics South Africa 2017: 50). In the following section, further examples show general and country-specific patterns regarding the implementation of Free Education. Overall, those examples highlight how politically and socially contested the scope and question of universality of Free Education is, and that it varies and changes over time.

Origins and Developments of Free Education The idea of Free Education mainly concentrates on primary education. Already in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966, in article 13, 2(a) it states: “Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all” (United Nations General Assembly 1966). Other legal documents such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child from 1989 highlight under article 28, 1(a) the idea to “Make primary education compulsory and available free to all” (United Nations General Assembly 1989). In addition to such international legal documents, there are a variety of regional declarations and documents that exist. One example is the SAARC Convention on Regional Arrangements for the Promotion of Child Welfare in South Asia from 2002 (University of Oslo 2002). Within this document under article V (1) it formulates the following: “State Parties re-affirm the importance of attaining the target of providing free education to all children between the ages of 6 – 14 years.” Very similar formulations exist for the Council of the League of Arab States in the Charter on the Rights of the Arab Child. It states: “We confirm and guarantee the child’s right for free education both in the preschooling, the basic and compulsory education periods.” Another regional document is the Protocol on Education and Training from 1997. This document was established by the member states of the Southern African Development Community

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(SADC). It does mainly refer to a better and easier access to education for all students of the member states (SADC 1997). Nevertheless, it does never mention or focus on free education at all. This is also the case at the current aims of the SADC under Education and Skills Development. It highlights “Inequitable Access to education, especially affecting disadvantaged groups such as women, disabled people, and people from rural areas,” but only mentions this as a challenge and it does not result in demands for a Free Education (SADC 2012). The Education for All (EFA) initiative, which was first launched in 1990 at a conference held in Jomtien, Thailand, follows a similar trend. The World Conference on Education for All (WCEFA) had delegates from 155 countries and was convened among others by the UNESCO. Six goals were defined and article 1 emphasized “Every person – child, youth and adult – shall be able to benefit from educational opportunities designed to meet their basic learning needs” (WCEFA 1990). Among those six goals, the second one aimed at the universal access to and completion of primary schooling by 2000. Each country was invited to set their own targets for these six goals, and all six goals were not only linked to the current priority areas of education but they also tried to consider trends and existing resources (Lewin 2011). Although the WCEFA was very important for the global development of education for everyone, the conference never advocated a free education system and rather remained open about school fees (Bray and Kwo 2013: 483–484). In 2000, The Dakar Framework for Action reaffirms the 1990 EFA declaration and this World Education Forum (WEF) included delegates of 164 countries. The EFA goals align also with the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), in specific with the MDG of universal primary education. Furthermore, it also returned to the pre-1990 overarching common aim of free primary education as highlighted in the documents above (Bray and Kwo 2013: 484). Enrollment rates increased globally and more significantly since the 1990s and 2000s (UNESCO 2015). Nevertheless, this mainly only

occurred for primary schools. High drop-out rates throughout the primary and secondary schools remains problematic, as well as gender parity, which is far from being established. There are also very low competence levels from many children, who even attended several years of schooling as various international benchmark tests revealed. Hence, the current Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) focus not only on purely quantitative enrollment statistics but rather aim at a meaningful qualitative education to ensure and enable the Jomtien aim of education of an education for “every person.” During the discussions around the EFA goals, the number of countries abolishing school fees increased significantly. Between 2000 and 2006, 14 developing countries abolished school fees at the primary school level. Countries such as Benin, Lesotho, Madagascar, Cambodia, and Yemen just to name a few abolished their fees in that period of time (UNESCO 2007: 44). Within the first two decades of the twenty-first century, 15 Sub-Saharan African countries finally legally abolished their formal school fees plus another additional eight countries through nonlegislative policies (UNESCO 2015). Nevertheless, Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region which is “lagging the most” on a global scale (UNESCO 2014: 52). In the most recent UNESCO Global Education Monitoring (GEM) report, countries are listed according to their years of Free Education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, only 22% offer free primary and secondary education, whereas in nearly all other geographical regions in the world, such figures are much higher. In South-Eastern Asia, only 22% of the countries offer free primary and secondary education, too. In all other areas, such numbers are on average between 40% and 60%. There is a list of countries from Sub-Saharan Africa that offer Free Education for their primary schooling, which is mainly between 6 and 8 years of schooling. Nevertheless, such statistics only focus on the public schooling sector and ignore the relevance of that sector in relation to the private schools as this can vary from country to country (UNESCO 2018: 278ff). Free Education is closely related to the target 4.1 “Primary and secondary education” of the

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SDG 4 “Ensuring inclusive and quality education for all and promoting lifelong learning.” SDG 4 consists of seven targets such as “Early childhood” (target 4.2), “Technical, vocational, tertiary and adult education” (target 4.3), “Equity” (target 4.5), and “Literacy and numeracy” (target 4.6) just to name a few. Target 4.1 comprises seven indicators related to primary and secondary education. Some focus on the completion rate at various levels (4.1.4), the out-of-school rate also at various levels (4.1.5) also the “number of years of (a) free and (b) compulsory primary and secondary education guaranteed in legal frameworks” (4.1.7). All in all the Technical Cooperation Group (TCG) on the Indicators for SDG 4 developed 43 indicators (UNESCO TCG 2016: 2). Another major obstacle remains the scope and ever growing influence of shadow education, spreading globally into middle-class families, but even poor families. As EFA focused predominantly on pure enrollment, as on quantitative numbers, some countries failed or were overwhelmed with keeping up the quality of education. Hence, schools introduced double shifts or were forced to recruit untrained teachers or employed many nonspecialist teachers as research showed for Science Education in Malawi (Kretzer et al. 2017). Kosack (2009) argues that the main defining variable of Free Education or EFA is the political will and the power structures in a society, as poorer families demand and are focusing mainly on FPE. Hence, lack of implementation of a basic education which is free for all social groups is mainly an indicator of a faulty or nonexisting political will to do so. Furthermore, not only political will influences strongly the implementation of education policies such as free compulsory (basic/primary) education but also the role of the local community needs to be taken into consideration. The demand for education is therefore highest if the cost-benefit analysis for the enrollment of their children lead to positive results (Akyeampong 2009: 176–177). All in all, shadow education and tutoring can be very complementary and increase the educational outcomes, but the danger lies in the balance of one to the other. As education is a very costly part of the government budget, a tendency and risks exists that

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governments only cater for the absolute minimum and use privatization as a way of outsourcing the costs for the education sector. If applied as such, EFA or FPE can be merely seen as “windowdressing” (Bray and Kwo 2013: 491).

Free Education in the Global South Indonesia As indicated above various documents formulated the vision of a Free Education, at least at primary schools. Within the last decades, progress has been made globally. Nevertheless, huge differences still exist internationally as well as within specific countries. Often gender inequalities and a rural-urban divide also persist. In Indonesia, the world’s fourth-most-populous country, huge regional differences still prevail. The primary net enrollment rate was 91.91% in 2017 (UNESCO Institute of Statistics 2019). Only at the beginning of the twenty-first century, the constitution of 1945 was amended and introduced a free primary education system. To further strengthen such efforts, Law 20 of the National Education System in 2003 declared under Article 34(2) a “compulsory education at a minimum at the basic education level without charging any costs” (Ministry of Education and Culture Republic of Indonesia, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan 2003). To ensure the implementation of such, this education policy under President Yudhoyono significantly increased the government spending on education. This increase was aimed to cover all “operational costs” such as general infrastructure, textbooks, stationary, and teacher training. Nevertheless, research has shown that formal tuition fees are widely abolished in Indonesia, but schools may charge new formal fees such as for the maintenance of the school buildings. In addition, informal fees exist very persistently and many schools demand such payments. This includes, but is not limited to, excursion fees for ad hoc school outings. Bribery also remains a problem, as well as the often demanded “voluntary contributions” (Rosser and Joshi 2013: 182). Due to social pressure, they are not really voluntarily but rather

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another way of introducing new hidden school fees. Nevertheless, above mentioned political reforms significantly influenced enrollment at primary and junior secondary level. This is seen as positive as statistics from the Department of National Education (DONE) attest to. In the following years, resistance grew regarding the universality of the Indonesian Free Education. Hence, Free Education was thereof limited to the socioeconomically disadvantaged pupils. Therefore, Indonesia decided to no longer follow the universal Free (Primary) Education approach (Rosser and Joshi 2013: 183). The so-called “International standard schools” (SBI) were even permitted to introduce registration and tuition fees. This is quite surprising and might open a door to again introduce a step by step officially recognized legal fees system at other schools. This is against the backdrop of the fact that research has proven that costs of education, gender inequalities, and academic performance are the three main factors regarding school dropouts globally. A very recent study done by Zuilkowski et al. (2019) showed again for Indonesia that pupils claimed costs as the main reason for dropping out from school. Malawi In Africa, Malawi introduced Free Primary Education (FPE) in 1994 and focused predominately on increased enrollment rates. This made Malawi the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to introduce FPE (Chimombo 2009: 298). It was only during the Banda-regime’s second Education Development Plan (EDP II) from 1985 to 1995 that the Malawian government focused for the first time predominantly on primary education. The approach of the introduction of FPE was mainly a quantitative one and tried to ensure first and foremost that all children were able to attend a primary school (Inoue and Oketch 2008). All school fees at public schools were totally and as a once-off abolished in the school year 1994/ 1995. This was one of the main promises during the election campaign of the Presidential candidate that followed Banda, Bakili Muluzi. The abolishment of school fees was the main component of his so-called “zasintha” (things

have changed) philosophy (Kayambazinthu 1999). It clearly indicated the disruption with the previous dictator Banda and reflected the ongoing process of democratization first and foremost within the education system (Kendall 2007). Hence, government spending on education increased significantly. Malawi started in 1991/ 1992 to abolish school fees for the first grade with the original idea to introduce such a policy gradually for the whole period of primary schooling. To address also gender inequality and with the donor support of USAID, all fees were abolished for all non-repeating girls from grade 2 to grade 8 (Al-Samarrai and Zaman 2007: 360). This socalled Girls’ Attainment in Basic Education and Literacy programme (GABLE) enabled that for the first time in 1993, more girls were enrolled in Grade 1 than boys (Chimombo 2009: 300). The main features of the waiving on school fees become very visible as it focuses on equity and also on specific gender inequality. Malawi was one of the very first countries to introduce FPE. The enrollment rates increased sharply in the following years from 1.9 million in 1993 to 2.9 million in 1994 (Inoue and Oketch 2008: 49). Other literature such as Kadzamira et al. (2009) see the increase from 1.9 to 2.6 million, which is a slightly smaller increase. Nevertheless, such increase puts any education system under severe pressure to ensure the same quality level. However, the quality of education decreased significantly as the government was not able to ensure the appropriate financial means, which were necessary for such an increase in enrollment patterns (Dzama 2006: 248). The enrollment rates increased continuously up until 2001. Due to a famine in 2002 and 2003, enrollment rates declined significantly. This shows how fragile enrollment rates are in relation to external socioeconomic conditions (Kretzer 2016: 247–248). Up until today, the Malawian government struggles to enable high quality of education as various international evaluation studies revealed (SACMEQ III 2011). This might explain why even a significant share of the poor in Malawi enroll their children at private schools (Tooley and Dixon 2006: 444). Similarly to the situation in Chile, the Malawi Growth and

Free Education: Origins, Achievements, and Current Situation

Development Strategy (MGDS) defines the main educational goal as being the transfer of skills to pupils in order to allow them to become productive citizens. Ghana Contrary to Malawi, Ghana introduced FPE gradually, starting in 1996 and ending only in 2005, with the total abolishment of all legal direct school fees. The so-called “Free, Compulsory and Universal Basic Education” (FCUBE) abolished not only all school fees but also emphasized the improvement of the quality of education to increase the interest for parents to enroll their children. Like in all countries, private schools are allowed to still levy school fees, which are often also unregulated (Inoue and Oketch 2008: 48). The case of Ghana is also quite different to many other African countries as the gradual abolishment of fees plus the still existing indirect costs of schooling only lead to a very slow and rather steadier growth of enrollment rates. Ghana started prior to their independence to enable compulsory universal education. Therefore in 1951, Ghana started the Accelerated Development Plan (ADP) with the aim to fulfil UPE in 1966. In 1961, the Education Act tried to further strengthen the governmental efforts for UPE. Akaguri (2014: 141) states 1960 for the Education Act. Tuition fees were abolished, but costs for books, uniforms, and stationary remained (Akyeampong 2009: 180). In general, Ghana faced similar challenges as Malawi in ensuring the quality of education. The urban-rural divide of schools rather remained unchanged or even increased. Hence, areas with surrounding poorer communities were only able to enroll their children at nearby poorer and less equipped schools. To address such issues, the Ghanaian government introduced in 2005 a capitation grant scheme. All public schools received a certain amount per enrolled child per year. The initial amount was 4.5 US-$. This policy aimed again to significantly improve the quality of education (Akaguri 2014: 141). Various household surveys showed significant improvements in enrollment rates, but the effect was much smaller for the poorest part of the society as well as enrollment seems only to be high at the beginning of

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primary schooling, but high drop-out rates remain a challenge. Hence, a widening age-to-grade structure might affect the low progression level of pupils to the end of primary school (Akyeampong 2009: 182). The challenges in Ghana remain on-going. Papua New Guinea Another more recent example of abolishing school fees is Papua New Guinea. After several attempts, the government’s fourth trial started in 2012 with the introduction of the Tuition Fee Free (TFF) policy (Papua New Guinea Department of Education 2012). Within 2 years, the TFF was introduced and aimed to subsidize all pupils up to year 12 (Walton 2019: 179). In a similar way to Malawi, Papua New Guinea utilized some kind of “big bang approach,” which can be sometimes overwhelming for an education system as the example of Malawi showed. Nevertheless, the TFF policy aimed only for the abolishment of direct school fees. Project fees, which are very common in Papua New Guinea, are used to finance certain defined school projects, and these continued to exist. However, in 2015, the government also announced the ban of project fees. All in all Papua New Guinea achieved at least a partially FPE. Unlike other countries, the banning of school fees went alongside a more centralized funding scheme from the national government and is in total opposition to the global neoliberal policies providing schools with more autonomy (Walton 2019: 180). Similarly to the implementation of FPE in Malawi, the new Prime Minister, Peter O’Neill, used this policy to differentiate himself and his policy in a very clear and visible manner from his predecessor. Due to a controversial inauguration, his main focus was on the fast implementation of TFF to send a clear political sign and improve the access to education in a very visible manner. Chile The so-called “Penguin Revolution,” named after the school uniforms in 2006, was not the only educational protest in Chile in recent years. The whole situation escalated in 2011 with a 7 months strike of pupils and university students. The so-

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called “Chilean Winter” had at its peak more than 120,000 students protesting in the capital Santiago, demanding more public spending and far less private funding. They demanded a significant improvement of the public education system, as well as more social equality within the education system (Cabalin 2012: 219). According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Chile’s government spends very little on education, the share of private expenditure on the contrary is the highest or among the highest within the OECD. Furthermore, in the last years, no real substantial changes occurred, even after the 2011 protests (OECD 2018). The current educational system has its origin in the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet in 1973. Before his violent coup d’etat, free education for all citizens of Chile existed to some extent (Stromquist and Sanyal 2013: 154). Especially during the short socialist government of President Salvador Allende (1970–1973), the focus was on the establishment of a national equal free public education system, which was later opposed and replaced under the military regime of Pinochet with the current extreme neoliberal education system. During his decades of violent dictatorship (1973–1990), he established and imposed an extreme neoliberal education system in Chile, which was very far from establishing Free Education for all. The Chilean Constitution from 1980, however, highlighted in Chapter III under Article 10 the following: “Parents have the preferential right and duty to educate their children. . . . It is the duty of the community to contribute to the development and improvement of education;” or under Article 11: “Freedom of teaching includes the right to open, organize and maintain educational establishments” (University of Minnesota 1980). Even the various democratic governments that followed only marginally modified the very neoliberal education system, which disadvantages not only the poor but also the indigenous population of Chile and enables or even amplifies racial segregation within Chile’s education system (Webb and Radcliffe 2016). From 1990 to 2010, a social democratic coalition, the so-called Concertación governed Chile.

Although they increased public expenditure in education a few times, such efforts were only marginal, because at the same time the government cherished the private sector. Hence, they introduced a voucher system into the education system. According to the number of enrolled pupils, the private and public institutions receive public funding. Hence, both sectors of education are in a deep competition with each other. This reflects the main contested argument in education in Chile between the right to education or the freedom of education (Cabalin 2012: 221). According to the recent UNESCO GEM Report of 2018, Chile offers 12 years of free education, which covers the whole primary and secondary schooling (UNESCO 2018: 284). This is correct, though it nevertheless neglects the above mentioned situation in Chile’s education system totally. The huge role of private expenditure and private schooling are not taken into consideration. Only public schools, which are called municipal schools in the Chilean context, are free from fees. Other schools such as the subsidized private schools and the fee-paying private schools do not offer a tuition-free education (Matear 2008: 136), and as shown above, the majority of children are enrolled at such schools. Hence, Chile does not really offer a universal free education for the children as envisaged in the GEM report of 2018.

Conclusion The above highlighted examples indicate some of the current challenges of Free Education. Firstly, Free Education focuses nearly exclusively on primary education and on quantitative statistics, as enrollment numbers are often the main focus. Secondly, often hidden are indirect fees or costs, which still exist as well as privately funded education. Such developments can contradict all efforts regarding Free Education. The case studies also revealed that the current situation is much more diverse, complex, and heterogeneous as a first glance might reveal. Overall, the political will of governments but also the demand of the communities are two very important variables for the success of Free Education. The example of Chile

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showed that Free Education for public schools can be undermined if the quality is not sufficient and due to other reasons that lead parents to enroll their children at private institutions. Very similar patterns exist in Ghana and Indonesia. Data from the UNESCO revealed that many countries are far from enabling a free and compulsory primary and secondary education as envisaged on indicator 4.1.7 of the SDG 4. Furthermore, even countries, which are on paper fulfilling such requirements such as Chile are in reality not equipping the poor with a meaningful education. They are forced to enroll their children at underfunded public schools, which further disadvantages them compared to their wealthier peers, who are enrolled at nonpublic schools. Hence, to really enable a real and meaningful Free Education system, which is inclusive for all social groups, and specifically for indigenous groups, minority groups, and girls, much has still to be done, although some progress has been made in the last decades.

Cross-References ▶ Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts ▶ Public Expenditure on Education

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Definitions The overall effect of this entry is to illuminate the Global Educational Acceleration Construct of what resources are available to teach our children how they can contribute to society and leave their legacy. Here are the key concepts of the new lexicon which must be added to education:

Neurodiversity:

Transdiscipline:

Self-leadership:

▶ Tertiary Education

Future Trends in Education

Educational Engineering:

Olivia A. M. Freeman Journal of Applied Cognitive Engineering, Society of Cognitive Engineers, Melbourne, FL, USA

Quantified Living:

Synonyms

Heutagogy:

Artificial and intelligent agents; Blockchain; Educational engineering; ePortfolios; Global citizenship; Heutagogy; Human performance; Individualized education; Internet of things; Intersections; Leapfrogging; Learning management systems; Lifelong learning; Linguistics; Macrocognition; Macrograms; Micro-credentials; MOOCS; Neurodiversity; Project management; Self-leadership; Serious games; System design/ integration; Transdisciplinary; Visualizations

Cognitive neuroscience states, all people function somewhere on a large spectrum of cognitive abilities to be understood and accommodated, not cured. Drives processes by looking in many directions at once and determine how best to elicit help and control contributions from multiple sectors creating “knowledge intersections.” Assessing one’s personal and occupational interests to design and achieve their own outcomes. Method to design, develop, and deliver one’s own lifelong learning journey generally through “reverse engineering.” Declares that measurable aspects of one’s life can and should be self-managed and deprogrammed. The study of self-determined learning defined in this construct by “just-in-timeknowledge acquisition” on-demand.

Introduction To reach the United Nation’s Sustainability Development Goal 4: Education for All, changes must be sweeping and systematic, with one vision, sharable and easily described to initiate

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missions that can be conducted on a global scale. The founder and Executive Chairman of the World Economic Forum said of the coming fourth Industrial Revolution that, “the response to it must be integrated and comprehensive involving all stakeholders of the global polity, from the public sectors to academia and civil society” (Schwab 2017). The Cities of Learning model is a massengagement movement around learning and skills in the UK (RSA 2017). In “meeting basic needs, capacity-building, data and information, science” etc., “education must be at the center of raising awareness and training in virtually all areas” (United Nations 1993) Furthermore, “education systems must be flexible, culturally sensitive, relevant and suited to changing people’s values and behaviours” (Leicht et al. 2018). Wiek’s seminal piece on Transdisciplinary Sustainable Research, began with, “One key aspect of sustainability science, therefore, is the involvement of actors from outside academia into the research process in order to integrate the best available knowledge, reconcile values and preferences, as well as create ownership for problems and solution options” (Lang et al. 2012, p. 25), thus elucidating the need for industry intersections and leapfrogging technologies. “The workplace is demanding skills such as communication and critical thinking that we may more easily acquire from informal learning experiences than in institutions” (UNESCO 2015, p. 52). We now have the technology to access vast global knowledge repositories where: (a) Heutagogy provides knowledge on-demand, to achieve mastery faster. (b) Team cognition embodiment connects human-to-human and human-to-machine teammates. (c) The virtues of the ecosystems are developed and maintained. We are asking our young ones to build the next evolution of our civilization, without direction, knowing their assets, appropriate history, and without a clear picture of the endgame. Education leadership must be the civil servant drivers of how to deliver learning and be present in every ecosystem

Future Trends in Education

and share the vision with mature industries to help: (a) make project management skills the premier delivery system for critical thinking skills, (b) prepare the workforce through human performance improvement skills, and (c) “push” down college general education requirements to high school students. As employers see education as an inefficient method to “growing prepared employees,” they may skip the system all together (Worlu et al. 2014). Covenant University Center for Life Long Learning (CELL) in Nigeria decided to bypass the education infrastructure and launched a program of Universal Basic Education on their own (Worlu et al. 2014). Most importantly is to consult all stakeholders when devising new educational systems. Indigenous populations and those often described as “the poor,” have much to teach us about survival, “holistic education,” industry, and psychology and as such possess knowledge which, if we are wise, should drive whatever systems we wish to implement. Only through deprogramming our “colonial” language and disavowing the notion that “the poor. . . need to be helped” “rather than experts to be engaged and heeded.” We are therefore underutilizing this valuable “bi-directional” resource (Luetz et al. 2019). The World Bank describes the “civil society” as “a wide array of organizations: community groups, non-governmental organizations, labor unions, indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faith-based organizations, professional associations and foundations” (World Bank 2003). If we are to beat the current discourse of taking 100 years for the developing world to catch up with the developed world (Winthrop et al. 2018), we must communicate some sort of global learning acceleration construct to the aforementioned stakeholders simultaneously. The three domains of the construct could be: SelfLeadership, Educational Engineering, and Quantified Living. Self-leadership guides students to design their own path from their passion and developed skill set to prepare them for societal contribution. Educational Engineering projects design, develop, and deliver processes and programs specifically for education. The Quantified Living concept captures self-data, builds ecosystems, monitors, and maintains them.

Future Trends in Education

Self-Leadership Industries are awaiting talent with the right skills to start innovative projects. Thus, the earlier a child understands their strength and weaknesses and is introduced to various careers which utilize their passion, abilities, and preferences, the better. “Life-space approach considers career counselling and development an ongoing process that begins in early childhood but encompasses and permeates the entire lifespan” (Maree 2018, p. 1). When classroom behaviors are influenced by those who have made career identity choices, it is possible to begin career education when they enter Pre-kindergarten (Hooley 2015). Moulton’s states that children have a concrete idea of what a career is and are quite able and willing to select realistic actionable careers instead of characters of fantasy (Moulton 2016). Furthermore, “those having low or uncertain education aspirations in adolescents are relegated to poorer later outcomes” (Moulton et al. 2017b, p. 108). The Temperament Consortium, a network of professionals engaged in teaching, research, practice, and education (Temperament Consortium n.d.) espouse “a multidisciplinary approach to the study of temperament by analyzing research from Neuroscience, Personality and Developmental Psychology, and applied psychology in clinical and educational settings.” Buss and Plomin (2014) found temperament is actually a biological manifestation of genetic presentations. The Virginia Education Wizard allows users to make a career decision in the gamified portal, “Imagine” which suggests careers with salaries for users to “try out scenarios” (Virginia Education Wizard: A Career Wizard 2018) based on occupational preferences. In a global talk, the President of the Corporation for a Skilled Workforce said, “Credentials will build social capital in the workforce and tap into hidden talents in underrepresented communities and ecosystems” (Davis 2016). The Lumina Foundation and the Corporation for a Skilled Workforce have joined forces with the Connecting Credential Initiative and launched a campaign to build a well-functioning and sustainable credentialing ecosystem (Lumina

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Foundation 2016). IBM’s “New Collar’ initiatives have developed programs that build a new talent pipeline for key skills (Jordan n.d.). Below is a list of types of micro-credentials that are easily transferable to middle and high school students, (U.S. News 2016, 2017), some with third party verification and certificates which can be accumulated into diplomas and degrees. Stackable certifications “help people advance inside their organization” says Associate Director of the Ohio State University Center for Education and Training for Employment (Friedman 2016). Digital badges show milestones inside a course for ePortfolios with a link to how it was earned (Collins 2018). Nano degrees present evidence of “planning and design to execution and results, analysis helps fledgling data scientists and researchers to hone their skills” (Reddy 2018, p. 1). Nora Priest wrote in Digital Badging and Micro-Credentials that “earned badges in K-12 setting through mastering certain skills” or “completing other badgeworthy challenges, is the catalyst for personalized instruction for students” (Priest 2016, p. 4). Corporations are starting to let employees “try-out” skills, gain experiences, and fail early to ensure a good fit of their talents and interests. “Girls and women with an education are more likely to share this knowledge with their children” as described by the Central Asian Institute, as a major enhancement to the local society through sharing their knowledge with the next generation (Central Asia Institute 2018), which builds a sustainable, motivated pool of students. LinkedIn tested several systems such as “Building Student Networks” looking to make exceptional professional connections (Peterson and Dover 2014). Future students will have a deeper connection between their social ecosystem and work performance as their technology savvy increases. Corporations who embrace these “constructive communication climates” through Enterprise Social Networks (ESN) will engage this enhanced workforce. Internet communities now offer access to services and products to enhance their entry into higher education or the workf orce (Glass and Gesing 2018), providing global access to student ecosystems. The International College Counselors consulting company suggests students use

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social media to showcase their work, be it artwork, writing, volunteering, or internships, etc. (International College Counselors 2018). Project Management (PM) skills are the catalyst to deliver the “critical thinking” needed of a global workforce and can be “framed for young people taught using the same content” (as adults), (Czarnecki 2015). The key is to teach these skills as early as possible for proficiency before high school graduation as the elements are needed to some degree in every profession. Teaching young people structured research skills to conduct their own research has an empowering effect. The Explore Rutgers Training Youth as Researchers project was designed to instruct how to conduct an effective, youthfriendly training and support the young researcher during the project (Van Reeuwijk 2013). These skills can easily be “pushed” down to younger students. The My Environmental Education Evaluation Resource Assistant (MEERA) is an online “evaluation consultant” helping students learn the evaluation process. It “leads the user through an entire process of making deep evaluation of a project or program” (Zint n.d.). All students need the skill of checking their resources for accuracy, validity, and appropriateness (Hudson n.d.). “Introduction to Research in Education” a textbook style research planner for high school students, teaches the structure of research and how to record it (Ary et al. 2018), which also examined “validity and reliability (of one’s research)” through determining what is actual from factual. ePortfolios, as described by Dr. Helen Barrett, (retired) defines the two goals in creating an ePortfolio are to enhance learning and collaboration with showcasing and accountability. The first is the process and the second is the product (Barrett 2015). In Finland, ePortfolios track learning and experiences, planning personal development, and provide evidentiary structures. Learning is multimodal and layered, used for guidance and counseling in groups where they can share the portfolios for peer learning and feedback, (University of Jyvaskayla n.d.). These portfolios are transportable, expandable, and usable to encourage lifelong learning. To ease the burden of providing evidence of a

Future Trends in Education

learning experience, students may add to their ePortfolios using in-depth “macrograms” of images and text to create their own “textbook” (Gramha.net 2019).

Educational Engineering In 1961, an article in the Journal of Educational Sociology stated, “The role of an educational engineer (Ed Eng) is to bridge the gap between research and practice” (Anderson 1961). Just as chemists develop a single solution of a chemical nature, chemical engineers develop a method, product, or process to automate the delivery of that solution. So it is with education. Educational Engineers design and build solutions using engineering principles to provide efficient and effective solutions specifically for education. Ed Eng is the next evolution in providing consultative, umbrella solutions which manages the deployment of Instructional Design, Educational Technology, and Human Performance Improvement in education, saving valuable resources. This revived profession’s mission must offer “content structuring” which is “in-depth, sustainable, reusable, transportable and exchangeable” to its constituent fields of IST, Ed Tech, and HPI. Ed Eng requires transdisciplinary inquiry, system design, and human performance scaffolds to integrate them past the auspices of the constituents to automate learning processes intersecting seemingly disparate technologies and leapfrog to outcomes desired by educational leadership. As education leadership drives the SDG4 goal process using the transdisciplinary approach, Ed Engineers will develop systems that merge education and talent development by looking in many directions at once and determine how best to elicit help from different sectors. Brown’s explanation of the transdisciplinary approach (transd) is that “it provides guiding principles to conduct and evaluate open inquiry with in a generic framework that allows rich experiences (referring to the Snowy Mountain field trip example) which develops inquiry of “why we do what we do and what are some of the consequences” (Brown et al. 2010, p. 6).

Future Trends in Education

The “factory school” where all students receive the same instruction leaves many students disinterested and feeling school is not relevant to their aspirations. In Seldon’s (2010, p. 2) work, “An end to factory schools” he writes: The traditional model for education is no longer working. The new world does not need container loads of young men and women whose knowledge is narrowly academic and subject-specific which they can regurgitate in splendid isolation in exams. It needs people who have genuine understanding not just in one but in several academic domains, and who comprehend how these different fields relate to each other. It needs people who can work collaboratively, with advanced interpersonal skills, as opposed to those who have been tested merely on their ability to write exam answers on their own. It needs problem solvers rather than those who just hold a large body of data in their memories. It needs employees who will have mature thinking skills, able to understand the complexity and the interaction of intricate systems, people who are able to think way beyond standard and formulaic patterns.

If a personalized education system is the key to “growing” students with classical educational skills then their passion must be decoded and matched with an occupation. A study of German employees of diverse occupations reported that a “calling” defined as those who felt a “consuming, meaningful passion for a particular career domain addresses what makes life meaningful.” Additionally, it is cited that “callings also entail a deepseated passion toward work and a sense of fulfilling one’s life purpose in work” (Hirschi 2012, p. 2). Confucianism puts emphasis on “Grand Harmony” which indicates that the world is full of different things, yet all these things harmonize even as they constantly change. The requirement of interpersonal harmony places a constraint on each party in interaction, and, in the meantime, provides a context for each party to have optimal space to flourish interpersonal relationship with a compatible and friendly ambiance before any sign of conflict emerges. This kind of harmonious ambiance potentially facilitates mutual understanding and mutual tolerance, and encourages peaceful interaction and collaboration, (Wei and Li 2013, p. 62). Therefore students must be trained to be contributors to the group, in

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accordance with the group and in the case of Eastern thought, while deemphasizing one’s own needs and thought and Western thought while achieving one’s own desired outcomes. The “harmony” model says every student can be a contributor to society if instruction addresses their passion and faces their personal and occupational interests. Personalized instruction, delivered through artificial and intelligent agents through machine learning, “learns” what the student sees as relevant, fits outputs to their aspirations and delivers content. Global mobile telecommunications systems will provide customizable solutions for individual learners through software and interactive media. Algorithms (pieces of computer code) made for “serious games” are widely available and the coming 5G network will allow the mobile core particularly designed for rural areas (SDX 2018). Many countries are providing the use of Information, Communication Technologies (ICT) in schools, mobile applications (apps) providing educational content unfettered by geography through products such as eBooks, authoring tools, adaptive algorithms, test prep, and distant learning services (Pandit et al. 2012). The nascent market of mEducation as described in Serious Games: How to leverage the investments allows students to “pull” information from an output of lists. Systems can be rewritten to “push” information into offerings as the scientific community and other ecosystems share their data (Bayart et al. 2014). Customization and tracking responses in real-time can easily be accomplished through artificial intelligence embedded in mEducation products such as DreamBox Learning, allowing “differentiated instruction adjusting to difficult levels and the number and type of hints, etc.” (Pandit et al. 2012). Research of the “upside-down” classroom structure lets the space evolve with the students, “where the teacher’s job become orchestrating the discourse of the classroom” (Seely 2017). This configuration is segregated by activity without a teacher at the head of the room. Serious Games using modeling and simulation systems for warfighting created The Training and Readiness Accelerator (TReX)‘s facilitator model by NSTXL, “The Accelerator operates as a highly

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efficient, open-source across networks, including industry, academia, investors, laboratories, and government (TReX 2018). The Wilson Center’s Serious Games Initiative (SGI) encourages psychological immersion events such as cognitive flow to occur through allowing users to “chose your own adventure book” where changing the parameters and outcomes elicits a variant of the game play. These digital games are user-choice based which “directly impacts the outcome of the experience” (Newbury 2017). Classroom management must provide user interfaces with real-time analysis and strategy tracking for all stakeholders. These products can monitor daily activities such as pupil regulatory and compliance reporting for the school and an entire district. Parental engagement and reporting is much easier in a system such as NetSupport. School Information Management System (SIMS) from Capita in the United Kingdom prepares teacher compliance inquiries and has parent connection application software. SIMS delivers software to “capture pupil and staff-related information which can be instantly accessed from a single system” (Capita 2018), accessible by smart phone, in preparation for the 5G mobile cellular roll out whose testing is currently underway. Global integration and leapfrog opportunities require considerations of linguistics, cultural, historical story-telling. African consumers use smartphones for banking applications, thereby leapfrogging past traditional banking access models. Kenyans deployed electricity and Internet access to remote rural schools, developing more than 90,000 teachers and introduced it (Internet access) to more than 18,000 schools. (Diop 2017). Brown et al. (2010) mentions that “knowledge has to move out of academia into other domains.” Leapfrogging requires that what industry has learned about human-machine interaction can be gleaned for educational purposes. The co-founder of the École Nationale Supérieure de Cognitique changed the way we design human computer interaction by introducing the concept of “outside in” design. Rather than design, build, test with humans at the end, this concept designs from the “outsides in” where systems take into account the

Future Trends in Education

human user from the beginning and thereby skips several iterative phases (Boy 2016). It is necessary to leapfrog from teacher-centered education to a user-centered sociotechnological industry. Concerning linguistics in global education, the 2006 EFA “Literacy for Life” report discussed the approximately 300–350 million indigenous people who speak about 4000 to 5000 languages and live in more than 70 countries have literacy rates significantly lower than those of nonindigenous people. One cause is due to limited access to formal education. The Report also recommended the use of mother tongue in education, because it’s recognized to be positive for a child’s cognitive development (Smits et al. 2008). Linguistically, minority children rarely learn from texts in their mother tongue, see images reflective of their culture and are often taught in the language of the previous colonizers or the current dominant culture. If children perceive other languages as superior to their own, the ongoing message of oppression diminishes their cultural identity and negatively affects educational achievement and attainment. Research shows that mass education through foreign languages only benefits the elite. “. . .due to their inherited cultural and linguistic capital and enhanced opportunities, pointing to dominant languages are of limited usefulness for the poor and marginalized, who work in the informal sector and rely on local languages” (Heymann and Cassola 2013, p. 212). Aiming to end the global education crisis, the Global Campaign for Education (GCE) mission is to ensure education is an inclusive right for all. It is necessary we take into account the overwhelming evidence that: . . .children who receive schooling in their mothertongue language in early grades have better learning outcomes overall and, in particular, significantly better literacy levels. This leaves children left in the impossible position of trying to decipher what they are being taught in an unknown language. Children in remote rural areas, who speak a different language at home, often have the biggest problems in trying to learn in the school language (with) which they have no contact outside of school. This is a significant contributing factor to poor education quality, low literacy outcomes and higher drop-out rates in many countries. (MacKenzie and Walker 2013, p. 4)

Future Trends in Education

To provide the most accurate worldview, it is imperative they receive cultural story-telling created and maintained by the population that lives it, which is possible by putting their stories into a global repository and retrieving the same from others throughout their ecosystem. In an address by the World Council, Dr. Assie-Lumumba, pledged to “bring comparative education to bear on the major educational problems of the day by fostering co-operative action by specialists from different parts of the world”(Lumumba 2016). “So much of our guilt, depression and fear is due to our conflict with the stories that are told about us, others’ past, and future” and “stories are often also a tool of ‘enculturation’” (Jadakumar 2015). It is actually a cognitive and emotional understanding that “individuals do not necessarily need outsiders and their resources to shape their daily lives and more importantly to bring them peace,” which can now be bypassed as students retrieve information from their own sources. The concept of leapfrogging to gain synergies that form ecosystems from divergent industries to innovate a new industry is nothing new. The Brookings Institute’s Rebecca Winthrop describes the two components necessary in the “leapfrog path.” “We have the tools in the Brookings catalogue and with professional and industrial organizations of the private sector for that evolutionary step” (Winthrop et al. 2018). It is time to “Scale up effective approaches.” The Center for Universal Education at the Institute created a Global Catalogue of Education Innovations with Innovation Spotters looking for opportunities for synergy. Data management delivery such as artificial intelligent agents and the Internet of Things enable students to participate in more personalized and equitable learning opportunities, through collaboration (Scott 2015). Blockchain is a new tool for education because within the next decade, it will revolutionize the way we disseminate information. Blockchain eliminates the need for a trusted third party to negotiate or moderate transactions peer-to-peer. For example, teachers, professors, and academic providers could post their work on a Blockchain application and specify how they want their work to be used and it would be available to the public directly,

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eliminating the expense of an intermediary. Through these “smart contracts,” those rules are embedded in digital code, in shared databases, protected from tampering, revision, and deletion. Computers make buying and selling content using these prearranged permissions. Both parties are anonymous and the transaction is recorded with unchangeable data security (Puthal et al. 2018). “Afterschool” is a product where the United Arab Emirate parents have a children’s activity marketplace created to discover, plan, and book the most appropriate activities and summer camps for their children using the Blockchain system (medium 2018). According to the Gartner Hype Cycle for Emerging Technologies, (Panetta 2017), the visual monitor and keyboard hardware system is a substantial barrier for the majority of those who are not “early adopters” of technology. According to Jared Ficklin, “A shift is already underway from consumers interacting with handheld screens to move instead to other glass interfaces such as ‘smart’ displays. These systems will engage more senses at one time, moving far beyond today’s basic wearables” (Madell 2017). For educators, the message at the 2017 Samsung Developers Conference is that the “graphical user interface GUI” is being phased out. But today, Voice User Interfaces won’t replace GUIs but live in a “symbiotic” relationship with them as users hear the short version of data inquiry responses, in “chunks” which can also be driven to text, says MarTech Today (Levine 2018). Wearable technology allows users to interface with machines without holding a device. Examples of these human-computer interfaces are: contact lenses, tattoos on skin, clipped to clothes, embedded in clothing, implantables, smart jewelry, head mounted displays, and fitness trackers traditionally worn on the wrist. The International University of Carnival conference on e-learning reported a study that revealed “all smart glasses variables contribute positive relationship with student engagement variables which reflects that students are positively engaged with the learning process when using wearable technology” (Fesol et al. 2018). “IoT connects various devices that function without human intervention to enhance

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the functionality of smart schools and classrooms.” Common classroom IoT devices are interactive whiteboards, eBooks, tablets, mobile devices, 3D printers, student ID cards, security cameras/video, attendance tracking systems, and wireless door locks. “Cloud 2 Cloud” technology provides a place to run all the device automation algorithms for students and schools to alleviate the need to make and keep expensive websites or portals. Integrating a cloud-to-cloud device, into the SmartThings platform “gives the school the ability to see and control that device from the SmartThings application” which requires the device, a connector, and a user interface to communicate desired criteria for operation (Kor et al. 2018, p. 3). Full field of vision augmented reality systems overlaid with computer monitor screen data and information for “on demand” assessments and decision making is the next evolution of communication appliance with machines. The Mapils system in Pakistan is for high-school science students using mobile phones and an augmented reality system in their mobile science learning. This provisions real-time interactions with objects and presentation in 3d space educational applications. These systems generate eBook pages interacting with content in books, gamification content, and object modeling of any learning object and skills training through simulators (Umer et al. 2017). Simulations such as these will create “synthetic experiences” that will be stowed away as actual memories to be retrieved during normal cognitive functioning (Freeman 1997, p. 4). Learner autonomous heutagogy, (Blaschke 2012), the move to Human Performance Improvement (HPI) is vital as we ask young people to know, perform, and to evaluate themselves and others. HPI’s use of cause analysis to formulate inputs for gap analysis is the major factor in bringing new intersections between human performance and education leadership. Chris Ross in an ATD insights article states, “Traditional training is only about 5–10% effective in obtaining meaningful performance results. Another approach is needed. The human performance improvement (HPI) process provides you with a

Future Trends in Education

structure to follow on what can often be a not-sosystematic path. It is justified by the results of a cause analysis” (Ross 2017). Using “self-adaptive and self-organizing systems, personalized analysis, meta-selfarchitecture,” autonomic managers identify adaptation mechanisms to adhere to stigmergy, where spontaneous, indirect coordination between “intelligent” agents promotes “decentralized internal policy” compliance (Jawahar 2015). Self-organization of data is therefore loosely defined as “a mechanism or a process which enables a system to change its organisation without explicit command during its execution time”(Ye et al. 2016, p. 4). Education systems will use this method to aggregate and deliver courses, podcasts, webinars, and other digital media based on the profile of the user. For instance, if a user was a seventh grader interested in medicine, systems would analyze the request of the user to deliver prerequisite courses such as Latin or medical terminology, but without further internal or external instructions adjust for vocabulary appropriateness versus providing the same courses for a college user. The Assessment Digitization Innovation (ADI) workshop supported assessment digitization which increased student engagement, reduced grading loads on faculty which would enhance large enrollment structures such as global online classes. This system would encourage instructors to return to formative assessments (DeMara et al. 2017). This allows student creativity to electronically evaluate design skills, solution structures and conceptual understanding. Neurodiversity, a highly controversial debate, which centers around two ideas: The medical model requires diagnosis and treatment to “change the patient with divergent characteristics” to fit society, which requires a cure. The “rights and citizenship approach” taken by the Neurodiversity movement “aims to modify the social environment to be more inclusive” with the goal of achieving independence, inclusion, and “participation in society by divergent people” (Lollini 2018, p. 3). As a societal issue, it makes the case that there must be an expansion of inclusionary services and accommodations and thereby reframes the focus

Future Trends in Education

towards the legal rights of the NDD population as part of the disability rights and embrace those cognitive diversities as a requirement of “brainbased equality.” Noted paleoanthropologist, Dean Falk suggests genetic research points to the rise in the NDD population, in particular people with Asperger’s is due to “relatively accelerated brain spurts early in life” which are retained showing up as extremely focused and generally highly motivated individuals. Furthermore, she asserts that due to “assortative mating,” these individuals tend to marry like-minded individuals. These talents are highly prized by many professions. She mentions that a Microsoft interview described the talents of certain individuals as “all of my top debuggers. . .can hold hundreds of lines of code in their head as a visual image. They look for the flaws in the pattern, and that’s where the bugs are” (Silverman 2015). The role of society is to find out what a student’s focused attribute is and help them use it to the fullest of their potential (Autism Speaks 2018). The Hain study states, “. . .non-traditional thinkers struggle with the contexts of traditional engineering education curricula.” The current dogma selects the “how and what” students know. The “why and what-if” thinkers are more likely to leave engineering unchallenged. However, “Providing these student opportunities to learn in a style that is more consistent with their unique strengths may positively affect the recruitment and retention of those with diverse cognitive styles” (Hain et al. 2018). Health-care professionals have embraced accommodating students’ academic functioning and participation at school rather than at home. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) developed a “framework that focuses on functioning and participation via a lens of inclusivity, universality, and a holistic approach to health and disability” (Tomas et al. 2018). Similarly, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) created by the Kurzweil Education Company on neuroscience research is an educational “framework for guiding the design of instructional materials, methods, and assessments to be inclusive and accessible for all” (Kurzweil n.d.).

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Large corporations, “such as Yahoo, Microsoft which have launched their own neurodiversity initiatives, believe it will enhance their workforce. Dr. Pamela Block says, “It doesn’t presume that certain ways of being are ‘normal’ and other ways are outside the norm or less than ‘normal’” (Keckley 2018). “What once was seen as an issue to be solved is now being seen as a variant to be accommodated.” Dr. John Elder Robison of William and Mary University says, “If their diversity is part of their makeup, they believe it’s their right to be accepted and supported ‘as-is’”. The Neurodiversity Working Group, composed of administrators, alumni, community partners, faculty, staff, and students, organizes campus events and programs in support of the Neurodiversity Initiative (William and Mary University n.d.). According to the Oxfam organization, there are “big ideas” in teaching global citizenship: interdependence, social justice/equality and identity/diversity (Oxfam 2015a). Schools themselves must embrace the value of other cultures through using the “whole school approach, school ethos, curriculum, participation, staff development, and community engagement” (Oxfam 2015b). China designed a three phase global leadership plan. Phase one was to develop low skills workers to make a fair majority of low quality products for the world. That income allowed them to develop a simple Vocational Education Training (VET) system built around political ideology of work-study instead of teaching STEM, so they could develop a mid-skilled workforce. Half of the students were rural attendees. Phase two was to staff new industries and new service sector jobs to feed the universities for Phase three (Yue et al. 2018). Today, China will take the income from that to encourage college attendance and design, develop, and deliver high-skill products, processes, and services. “Intersectionality” states that everyone carries an overlapping web of various identities with them at all times” each with its own lexicon. Education must engage these other industries in their lexicon using a culture-based, consistent method to collaborate in order to execute the common vision. Leapfrogging, according to Rebeca Winthrop of the Brookings Institute,

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denotes that education must make a jump from the Prussian model of schooling of the 1700s and address the inequality and skills uncertainty and increase the “breadth of skills” for students, starting with literacy and numeracy. Leapfrogging using Unmanned Aviation Vehicles systems to identify areas of plant stress in vineyards to analyze plant irrigation strategies is a practical intersection. Using an artificial neural network to create the model, pattern recognition was developed and identified spacial variability in the area creating a plant by plant stress map which led to the optimal watering schedule (Ju and Son 2018). Macrocognition, the mental process employed by teams to create new knowledge during complex, one-of-a-kind collaborative problem solving, “requires combining visualization and aggregating information” (Salas et al. 2013) in the form of “shared mental models” (an activity based lexicon). During a decision event, teams intuitively “compare the event to the knowledge in the current inventory of “shared mental models” to develop a solution. If that fails, the team conducts an iterative information collection search to “rapidly reach an intuitive consensus” (Newton et al. 2018). Globalization of education requires teams use considerable logistical, linguistic, and cultural sensitivities to increase the depth and breadth of their shared mental models as well as their lexicon to describe them. Teaming with machines is a relatively new science of “team cognition” which studies complex collaborative processes. Morrow and Fiore make a case that “complex cognitive dynamics where human and machine are intimately integrated into a team performance need specialized shared mental models” through process mapping producing a “systematic approach to communication and visualizing problem solving tasks.” With the “melding of human and machine cognition emerging,” the relationship between cognition and context requires us to design new work methodologies (Morrow and Fiore 2013). The seminal research of the FleschKincaid Readability formula proved that the written content leading to adult literacy need only be effective to the 14–15–year-old reader in the ninth grade. At this level graduates can undertake

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specialized training (medical, business, and fundamental science) and even understand legal documents (Kincaid et al. 1975). At PRISM, the Puget Sound Regional Synthesis Model, actual earth science data and visualizations were repurposed to share the environmental data with students. The investigators successfully pushed it down to 11th graders (PRISM 2009). Dr. David Metcalf established the METIL technology accelerator launching spinoff projects growing the next generation of leaders and technologies (METIL n.d.). If these learning accelerators can move the content down to high schoolers, the propensity of creating foundational education at this level will increase the productivity of students as they enter the workforce or higher education, faster. There must be knowledge continuity to save the integrity of the “brain trust.” Research shows that in the last century, stories, languages, and cultures have been lost. Today anyone can leave their own story, in their own voice aggregated and archived for posterity. “The Theory of Contribution” work of Dr. Dange, “The addition of this depth of knowledge would be exponentially valuable when each person is valued.” (Dange 2017.) Hoffman described Fiore’s work of the “gray tsunami” as the imminent retirement of senior experts and highly skilled practitioners is promulgating an “inadequate preparation to continue the mission-critical challenges of business that run our global economies.” Fiore also states that although new jobs have not yet been identified, “they will be cognition-intensive” (Hoffman et al. 2014). Educational leadership must drive the succession planning business model pushing down as much education from higher education to high school, and pushing high school to middle school so students graduate with a deeper knowledge of how the world works to alleviate the “brain drain.” Because so many children are actively engaged in their family’s business, they walk on a doubleedged sword. As young workers involved in the sale of their labor, they are rarely in a formal education setting long enough or consistently enough to gain the full facility of the offering. In Asia, in particular, family businesses comprise

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almost 90% of their enterprises. Across South East Asia, it is between 35% and 66% and seems to be the main engine driving “much of the economic growth in Asia” (Mustafa et al. 2016). There must be ways to gain academic achievement with their business skills to the betterment of both.

Conclusion “We’ve pretended to be doing the best for kids but we haven’t really. We’ve just done what is convenient for ourselves, and that has to change,” says Professor Stephen Heppell as quoted by Lauren Wilson in “The Next 100 Years of Education: What does the future hold?” a research organization studying grassroots educational innovation (Wilson 2018). We finally have all we need to fix this on a global scale. We can now step into the age of heutagogy and promote the passion of each learner, help them determine their societal contribution and leave their legacy on the world. Finnish educator Pasi Sahlberg in the Wilson article hopes, “. . .schools everywhere will work in a way that encourages each individual to find their passion, the flame within. . .to change their lives and their world” (Wilson 2018). To make this work, each person must know where his/her passion lies, taking into consideration their personal and occupational interests. It is our duty and obligation to them to help students know their personal assets, develop a plan, build their network, and deploy it with accuracy and empowerment The defense of humanity has come to resemble science fiction as Sahlberg elaborates that “By 2050, in just 32 years, 10% of the world’s population will be at risk of forced displacement due to climate change and the oceans’ fish-stocks are predicted to have collapsed entirely.” Armed with project management skills at the earliest age possible, students will have formidable critical thinking skills to utilize their creativity and can navigate such “real-world” problems. Educational Engineering (Ed Eng) as a revived profession will build systems for leading instruction

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designers, education technologists, and human performance improvement practitioners to provide education leadership, comprehensive, global systems of education delivery. Utilizing the 5G network, Ed Eng will deliver vast amounts of “vocabulary of ‘who, what, where and when’ content” to deliver personalized instruction anywhere, anytime to anyone through artificial intelligent agents that search content from seemingly infinite sources. Augmented, virtual reality, voice user interface will deliver that content visually and hands-on. New classroom management systems will alleviate many of the mundane work of educators, leaving them to concentrate on sharing the “why and how” of topics connecting students to divergent knowledge and develop a deeper and wider worldview using these new technologies integrated just for them. We no longer have the luxury of teaching in a hierarchal, linear fashion. Data management systems, using the Blockchain platform have all the tools to seamlessly share content. As the Internet of Things drive inanimate objects to provide data points, query students, and remediate their interaction through knowledge repositories, students using “macrograms” can create their own ePortfolios from different sources encouraging lifelong learning. Augmented and Virtual Reality systems are mere means to deliver volumes of dynamic data at greater speeds and with more student-specific accuracy than a teacher alone. As students are becoming responsible for the own growth, Human Performance Improvement skills will prepare them for it by building their “cause and effect, remediate and evaluate skills”. The question of what kind of life do we want for our children is defined by whom do we want left in charge of humanity. The past paradigm of an infrastructure where elite bodies of societal drivers worked when society had limited communication systems and large decisions had to be made on behalf of the people. Today, ecosystems of connected people made up of professional tribes, working clans, and supportive communities bringing people together for their common interests to make their own decisions (Wolf 2011).

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Neurodiversity ensures everyone has a voice, a contribution, and the opportunity to leave a legacy. The “knowledge society” needs to know they have the resources to jump in and add their instrument’s voice to the global symphony. The Global Learning Acceleration construct will give everyone the same vision, a place where they decide how to leave their mark, knowing that the ultimate goal is the freedom to do so.

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349 and development. Martechtoday.com July 9, 2018 at 4:11 pm. https://martechtoday.com/voice-user-inter faces-will-work-together-with-graphical-user-interface s-217977. Retrieved 2 Aug 2018 Lollini A (2018) Brain equality: legal implications of neurodiversity in a comparative perspective. NYUJ Int’l L Pol 51:69 Luetz JM, Bergsma C, Hills K (2019) The poor just might be the educators we need for global sustainability – a manifesto for consulting the Unconsulted. In: Leal Filho W, Consorte McCrea A (eds) Sustainability and the humanities. Springer, Cham Lumina Foundation (2016) Corporation for a Skilled Workforce. http://skilledwork.org/what-we-do/currentpast-work/. Retrieved 18 May 2018 Lumumba NT (2016) Presidential Address, World Council Comparative Education Societies”. http://www.wccesonline.org/presidents-message.php. Retrieved 22 July 2018 MacKenzie P, Walker J (2013) Mother-tongue education: policy lessons for quality and inclusion. Global Campaign for Education, Johannesburg. http://www. campaignforeducation.org/docs/reports/GCE% 20Mother%20Tongue_EN.pdf. Retrieved 9 June 2018 Madell R (2017) Preparing Application Designers for “No User” Interface. Insights. https://insights.samsung. com/2017/10/24/preparing-application-designers-for-n o-user-interface/. Retrieved 14 July 2018 Maree JG (2018) Perspective: promoting career development in the early years of people’s lives through selfand career construction counselling to promote their career resilience and career adaptability. Early Child Development and Care 188(4):421–424. https://doi. org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1438748 medium (2018) Blockchain based opportunities for education: top 3 EdTech ICOS. April 11 2018. https://medium.com/applicature/blockchain-based-opp ortunities-for-education-top-3-edtech-icos-87584f7af4 90. Retrieved 20 May 2018 METIL (n.d.) The Mixed Emerging Technology Integration Lab, University of Central Florida. https://www. metil.org/. Retrieved 7 June 2018 Morrow P, Fiore SM (2013) Team cognition: coordination across individuals and machines. In: Lee JD, Kirlik A (eds) The Oxford handbook of cognitive engineering. Oxford University Press, Oxford, MA, pp 200–215 Moulton VG (2016a, b) Children’s aspirations and emotional and behavioural problems, Doctoral dissertation, UCL, p 108. University College London Mustafa M, Scholes L, Ramos HM, Man T (2016) Special issue introduction: the role of context in understanding Asian family firms. Int J Manag Pract 9:333–343 Newbury E (2017) Understanding gaming audiences. 23 March 2017. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blogpost/understanding-gaming-audiences. Retrieved 18 June 2018 Newton OB, Wiltshire TJ, Fiore SM (2018) Macrocognition in teams and metacognition: developing

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350 instructional strategies for complex collaborative problem solving. In: Building intelligent tutoring systems for teams: what matters. Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley, pp 33–54 Oxfam (2015a) Global citizens – guide for teachers. Oxfam G.B. https://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/ resources/global-citizenship-in-the-classroom-a-guidefor-teachers. Retrieved 5 Sept 2018 Oxfam (2015b) Education for global citizenship: guide for schools. Oxfam, G.B. https://www.oxfam.org.uk/educa tion/resources/education-for-global-citizenship-a-guidefor-schools. Retrieved 5 Sept 2018 Panetta K (2017) Top trends in the gartner hype cycle for emerging technologies, 2017. Smarter with Gartner. https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/top-trendsin-the-gartner-hype-cycle-for-emerging-technologies2017/. Retrieved 22 Aug 2018 Pandit V, Lebraud JC, Seetharaman R (2012) Transforming learning through mEducation. GSMATM McKinsey & Company. Publishers. Mumbai, India Peterson RM, Dover HF (2014) Building student networks with linked in: the potential for connections, internships, and jobs. Mark Educ Rev 24(1):15–20. https:// doi.org/10.2753/MER1052-8008240102Preparing7/10/ 24/preparing-application-designers-for-no-user-interface/ Priest N (2016) Digital badging and micro-credentials, Nellie Mae Educational Foundation. https://bostonb eyond.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Digital_Badgi ng_Paper_NMEF.pdf. Retrieved 18 June 2018, p 4 Retrieved 15 June 2018 PRISM (2009) University of Washington, human-in-theloop. Watershed to Sea Program: 9 March 2009. Puget Sound Regional Synthesis Model, University of Washington, Puget Sound Regional Synthesis Model. http://www.prism.washington.edu/. Retrieved 4 May 2018 Puthal D, Malik N, Mohanty SP, Kougianos E, Yang C (2018) The Blockchain as a decentralized security framework [future directions]. IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine 7(2):18–21. https://doi.org/10.1109/ MCE.2017.2776459 Reddy T, IBM, WATSON (2018) Preparing for AI jobs: why Nanodegrees are the future of education, 23 August 2018. https://www.ibm.com/blogs/watson/ 2018/08/preparing-for-ai-jobs-why-nanodegrees-are-t he-future-of-education/. page 1. Retrieved 2 Sept 2018 Ross C (2017) What is human performance insights, 25 Oct 2017. https://www.td.org/insights/what-ishuman-performance-improvement. Retrieved 21 May 2018 RSA (2017) Cities of learning UK prospectus. Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. https://www.thersa.org/discover/publicat ions-and-articles/reports/cities-of-learning-prospectus. Retrieved 9 Sept 2018 Salas E, Fiore SM, Letsky MP (eds) (2013) Series in applied psychology. Theories of team cognition: cross-disciplinary perspectives. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York

Future Trends in Education Schwab K (2017) The fourth industrial revolution. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/about/thefourth-industrial-revolution-by-klaus-schwab. Retrieved 13 June 2018 Scott LC (2015) Futures of learning 2: what kind of learning for the 21st century, The. Education Research for Foresight, 14 Nov 2015. UNESCO Working Papers, p9 SDX (2018) What is 5G? Everything you need to know – a definition. What is 5G? Everything you need to know – a definition. https://www.sdxcentral.com/5g/defini tions/what-is-5g/. Retrieved 17 July 2018 Seely CL (2017) Turning teaching upside down, Unleashing Problem Solvers. Educ Leadersh 75(2): 32–36 Seldon A (2010) An end to factory schools: an education manifesto 2010–2020. Centre for Policy Studies, London, p 2 Silverman C (2015) Neurotribes: The legacy of autism and the future of neurodiversity, Penguin Random House NY, NY (p12). ISBN 978-1-58222-467 Smits JPJM, Huisman AHM, Kruijff K (2008) Home language and education in the developing world. UNESCO. Education for all global monitoring report 2009, 2009/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/21 Temperament Consortium, (n.d.) Temperament consortium for professionals. https://www.b-di.com/consor tium.html. Retrieved 11 May 2018 Tomas V, Cross V, Campbell WN (2018) Building bridges between education and health care in Canada: how the ICF and universal design for learning frameworks mutually support inclusion of children with special needs in school settings, frontiers in education, vol 3, p 18. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00018. ISSN=2504-284X. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/ 10.3389/feduc.2018.00018. Retrieved 3 Sept 2018 TREX (2018) Training and Readiness Accelerator, The, (2018). “Industry and Academia” National Security Technology Accelerator. https://trainingac celerator.org/industry-academia/. Retrieved 8 June 2018 U.S. News & World Report (2016) What employers think of badges and nano-degrees from online programs. https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/ articles/2016-01-22/what-employers-think-of-badgesnanodegrees-from-online-programs. Retrieved 5 June 2018 U.S. News & World Report (2017) Discover 10 current trends in online education. https://wtop.com/news/2017/10/ discover-10-current-trends-in-online-education/. Retrieved 4 June 2018 Umer M, Nasir B, Khan JA, Ali S, Ahmed S (2017) MAPILS: mobile augmented reality plant inquiry learning system. 2017 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), 1443–1449. https:// www.semanticscholar.org/paper/MAPILS%3A-Mobileaugmented-reality-plant-inquiry-Umer-Nasir/98defefa13 9daab17e8734c132210fde50d677a4. Retrieved 2 Apr 2018

Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development UNESCO (2015) Rethinking education. Towards a global common good? United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. http://unesdoc.unes co.org/images/0023/002325/232555e.pdf. Retrieved 20 Mar 2019 United Nations (1993) Earth summit: agenda 21 – the United Nations programme of action from Rio. Section IV. Means of implementation, chapter 36.1. United Nations, New York, p 320 University Jyvaskayla (n.d.) ePortfolio – a tool for documenting and presenting experience and competence. https://www.jyu.fi/studentlife/en/eportfolio/wha t-is-the-eportfolio. Retrieved 14 June 2018 Van Reeuwijk M (2013) Manual for young people to train as researchers. International Planned Parenthood, Rutgers WPF, March 2013. https://www.rutgers.interna tional/our-products/tools/explore. Retrieved 6 July 2018 Virginia Education Wizard: A Career Wizard (2018) https:// www.vawizard.org/wizard/careersAssess. Retrieved 18 May 2018 Wei X, Li Q (2013) The Confucian value of harmony and its influence on Chinese social interaction. CrossCultural Communication 9(1):62 William and Mary University (n.d.) Neurodiversity Initiative. https://www.wm.edu/offices/dccenter/Neurodiver sity/index.php. Retrieved 17 Sept 2018 Wilson L (2018) Next 100 years of education: what does the future hold? https://hundred.org/fi/articles/thenext-100-years-of-education-what-does-the-future-hold. Retrieved 5 Mar 2018 Winthrop R, Barton A, McGivney E (2018) Leapfrogging inequality: remaking education to help young people thrive, Brookings institution. 5 June 2018. Brookings Institution Press. https://www.brookings.edu/book/ leapfrogging-inequality-2/. Retrieved 5 Aug 2018 Wolf G (2011) What is the quantified self? Quantified self conference, 3 March 2011. http://quantifiedself.com/2011/ 03/what-is-the-quantified-self/. Retrieved 2 June 2018 World Bank (2003) Working together: World Bank civil society relations (English). World Bank, Washington, DC, p 21. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 339011468779979043/Working-together-World-Bankcivil-society-relations. Retrieved 14 May 2018 Worlu R, Atayero A, Owoeye S, Amodu L (2014) Emerging trends in lifelong learning: the covenant university perspective. EDULEARN14 proceedings Ye D, Zhang M, Vasilakos AV (2016) A survey of selforganization mechansims in multiagent systems. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 47(3):441–461 Yue A, Tang B, Shi Y, Tang J, Shang G, Medina A, Rozelle S (2018) Rural education across China’s 40 years of reform: past successes and future challenges. China Agric Econ Rev 10:93–118 Zint M (n.d.) “Planning and implementing EE evaluations” MEERA: my environmental education evaluation resource assistant. School of Natural Resources Education. University Michigan, Ann Arbor. http://meera. snre.umich.edu/planning-and-implementing-ee-evalua tion. Retrieved 9 Apr 2018

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Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development Michael McAllum Centre for the Future Academy, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Sustainability Resource Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Buderim, QLD, Australia

Definition Futures Thinking: the use of the imagination to make real the nonexistent future in the present. Sustainable Development: a way of improve both the quality and quantity of life to meet present needs without compromising either the needs of living and other systems on the planet to thrive or those of future generations.

Overview This entry argues that the term “sustainable development,” the bedrock upon which the sustainable development goals are premised, is incompatible with the notion of future sustainability and thus the goals themselves as a consequence are in part compromised. If this premise (which is the main thrust of this contribution) is accepted, then the goal of “a quality education for all” (SDG4) requires a fundamental reorientation and reexamination of the theory and practice of learning at all levels. It suggests that like many other “global ideas,” learning has been co-opted into and dominated by Western knowledge systems. These systems, by doing what they are designed to do, make other ways of knowing that may be crucial existentially, almost invisible in the dialogue and in thus they are not often manifesting in accepted learning systems. The failure to examine this challenge may mean that advances in “quality education for all” simply perpetuate the systems that have caused the sustainability issues in the first place. It is for this reason that the difference between sustainable development and future

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sustainability matters. This contribution introduces some definitional ideas of the future, design thinking, and ways to reframe understanding. The latter are used as a means to interrogate future sustainability and sustainable development discontinuity and to explore alternative possibilities. It then suggests that the global context for these considerations is disruptive at multiple levels and thus is revolutionary, in pattern as well as consequence. It further argues that if this is so, then what we mean by learning and how it is institutionally delivered, must also be rethought. The contribution concludes with an analysis of the necessary conditions that sustain the normative view of sustainable development and alternatives that might be available if this is not the case.

Introduction In the contemporary global dialogue many terms are proffered and used with little examination of the embedded meaning or metonymy that those words or short phrases have in them. In this context, the term “sustainable development” as used in the sustainable development goals and also “quality education” as in SDG 4’s “quality education for all” should be examined. This is not simply an exercise in pedantry. Rather it is an assertion that the very value laden meanings and framings inherent in both these phrases privilege particular ways of knowing and being in the world that at least arguably have brought about an existential sustainability crisis that the entire human community must now confront. Therefore, this entry tries to do three things. Firstly, it attempts to describe how any consideration of future possibility, be it sustainable or otherwise, might be interrogated and understood. Secondly, it defines and uses a set of particular framings to explore parts of the global dialogue on future sustainability and sustainable development and, by implication, how it is treated within the context of learning system, particularly higher education systems. Thirdly those same framings are then used to explore the challenges to quality education and lifelong learning opportunities brought about by particular framings – that by

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their very definition makes them systemically incompatible with pluriversal notions of inclusiveness and equity. In doing so, the intent is to suggest that the ways we think of being in the world (ontology), and how we come to know things, (epistemology) might be useful in considering both and the many contentions of “sustainable escape” that are central to complex, global environmental concerns. Consistent with this duality, each section of this contribution has a focus on process, or as it is now more commonly termed, design thinking (Madsberg 2017). (A useful description of design thinking, together with its benefits and abuses, can be found in Madsberg (2017), pp. 132–138.) Each also has a number of perspectives that attempt to take the thinking processes suggested and apply these to a wider discourse on futures thinking and sustainable development and by inference our understanding of learning and education. These perspectives include: • How sustainable development is considered within the conventional discourse. • How sustainable development might be positioned as a significant adaptation to the “accepted” normal. • The possibility for a global epistemological reframing as a necessary part of SDG4. Finally, an argument positing that neither future sustainability nor any of the UN’s 17 goals can be achieved within the current worldviews of the private sector and state actors, who sustain the dominant processes of “unsustainable” development. This contribution therefore explores a dialogue of considerable contention and necessarily introduces a number of non-normative ideas, for as Bussey (2016) argues, new forms require new thinking. What Bussey is suggesting is that it is only those who are able to understand both the framing and the lens through which they, and others, see the world (De Sousa Santos 2013; Galtung and Inayatullah 1997; Davis 2009) can have the capacity to explore alternatives to the largely tacit system assumptions, worldviews, and metaphors through which most contemporary

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problems are examined. (De Souse Santos in Epistemicide (2013) for example details how many ways of knowing are made invisible in the Western cosmology, Galtung and Inayatullah (1997) provide a useful taxonomy for the comparative framing of macrohistorical text and Davis in the Wayfinders (2009) cities multiple examples of alternatives to the Western cosmology, for instance, the basis of Polynesian navigation, which predates the discovery of longitude in the fifteenth century.) Such capacities typically go beyond, and blur the distinctions between, the arbitrariness of the academic discipline framework that characterises most enquiry (Toynbee 1947; Gebser 1984). Thus, this contribution tries to reflect how the ideas of “futures thinking” and “sustainable development” are represented in a conventional discourse dominated by an often unexamined world view about what constitutes education. At the same time, it introduces the reader to an eclectic body of work that proffers alternative interpretations.

Origins The phrases “futures thinking,” “sustainable development,” and “quality education” do not have plain and simple meanings. Rather they are, as with any of the many other phrases we use, deeply impregnated with value-laden meaning, known as metonymy (Runia 2014). Accordingly, any enquiry must not only look at the definitions of particular words as they have evolved over time (etymology), but also at the metaphors or images that are embedded in those words or phrases. The Dutch philosopher Eelco Runia argues that “an appreciation of metonymy helps both people fully realise things instead of taking them for granted [what he defines as presence] and also assists in coming to terms with discontinuity” (Runia 2014). In exploring origins, it is therefore useful to look beyond simply the (often) Greek or Latin roots, as the meanings they encapsulate reinforce certain ways of knowing, whilst making others invisible. Futures Thinking. The phrase futures (from the Latin word futurus – “to grow or become”)

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thinking is often conflated with particular theoretical applications of this type of thinking. It is sometimes called foresight (Marsh and McAllum 2002), forecasting (Freedman 2013), trend analysis (Naisbitt 1991), or even (weirdly) in the popular press, it is enmeshed with something called “futurism.” However, it might be considered futures thinking is not the sole province of futurists, or even forecasters. Rather it is a capability whereby a futures literate person has acquired the skills needed to decide why and how to use their imagination to introduce the nonexistent future into the present (Miller 2018). There are several points to note in Miller’s definition that are of use in this contribution. The first is that the “future as a thing” does not exist. When it, either in its entirety or in fragments, comes into existence it is the present. The second is that it is an act of imagination (Ricoeur 1984, 1985, 1998), a faculty that is widely distributed in human society. These acts of imagination often manifest themselves as stories (in more formal futures work sometimes called scenarios) that create meaning. They help us explain why things might happen in a certain way (Schwartz 1995). Where these stories are imagined, whilst in the process of taking those actions that bring them simultaneously into reality, they might better be described as “futures praxis.” This embedding of imagination into action is a way of knowing and being in the world that is very common in non-Western cultures (Davis 2009). If futures thinking is as universal as the above definition argues, there are two important characteristics to note. The first is that the manner in which the future is “imagined” is highly dependent on how the world is seen (worldview), what kind of thinking and framing informs intention and design and how reality is considered (Inayatullah and Milojevic 2015). These “thinking and values” filters determine or frame how we recognize ourselves and others (Ricoeur 2005). They describe how we regard things. This Foucault (1984) described as “the gaze” or the power relationship between the one is who doing the looking and the “thing” being looked at on the one hand, and how past, present, and future senses of time are balanced, on the other. Forecasting, for

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Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development, Table 1 Some conceptions of how “futures thinking” is conceived Future view Mentally stands in the future

Image Future hindsight

Gaze Future – present, or present – future

Forecasting

Using the past to predict the future

Past – present –future

Dromoscopy

Focusing only on what’s coming next The physical and the real are blurred

Those that don’t learn from history are condemned to repeat it Looking through the front window of a car We and our machines are one (Appartgeists) Cycles, spirals, and always in the becoming

Foresight and Futures

Virtual reality

Autonomous and pragmatic futures

Many worlds are in the making

Proponents (McAllum et al. 2002) (Lustig 2017) Max Weber in (Freedman 2013)

Present – near future

(Virilio 1998)

User determined relevance

(Shirky 2011) (Lifton and Paradiso 2009) (Dussel and Mendieta 2003) (Latour and Porter 2013)

Past pasts, Present presents Future futures

Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development, Fig. 1 Adapted version of the Expanded Now. (Image courtesy of Richard Hames © 2007)

instance, by definition is a projection of the “what is known” into the future. Table 1 provides some indication of various possibilities, remembering that these senses of time are humanly determined categorizations. The second point is that, as Miller suggests (op cit.), the future emits no information, and in that sense, it is inherently unknowable. This means that all that any futures thinking or praxis can do is to locate itself in the present, while having some sense of what might be changing (foresight), and what might be possible (intentionality) (Hames 2007). The anthropologist Appadurai (2013) asserts that there are three critical components to this “future oriented” intentionality. These are

imagination (what might be), aspiration (what I hope might be), and anticipation (what I speculate or risk). As the diagram below (Fig. 1) suggests, the capacity to integrate what might have been with what might be, in order to increase the “consciousness” of what is, has been termed The Expanded Now (Hames 2007). This idea of continually moving through past, present, and future states, and attempting to integrate the same, is probably one of the better ways to think about futures and the challenge of sustainable development: the focus of this entry. Sustainable development. What people mean by the term sustainable development matters: the narrowness or expansion of the definition of what

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we mean by the words “sustainable” or “development” (from the French developer – “to unfurl”), or the combination of the two, is often adjusted to the argument being made. One of the important foundational definitions is that used in the 1987 Bruntland Report Our Common Future. Here it is stated that “sustainable development is a means of development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (UN 1987). However since then, models such as the Triple Bottom Line (Elkington 1998) have asserted that “sustainable development” means the balancing of economic, social, and environmental interests. Others (Hawken et al. 1999, 2018; Brown 2009; Lovins 2011) have sought to create framings that demonstrate through case studies and scenarios that capitalist development can be sustainable. However, this idea of “balance” in a world that almost always privileges economic interests (Eisenstein 2018; Raworth 2017; Streek 2016) undermines this contention. Some critics (Scranton 2015; Gilding 2011; Taylor 2008) even assert the Bruntland definition is oxymoronic, as the concept of development and the need to keep the world below the +4  C global warming threshold cannot be reconciled. Still others (Das 2016; Kim et al. 1999) think contemporary evidence suggests this unbalance even extends to the preferring of present interests over those of future generations, and that, in what is often described as neoliberal economic capitalism, the interests of the present are always preferred over those of future generations (who are both voiceless and powerless). Furthermore, all the risks of the assumed “beneficial” present decisions will be placed firmly on the shoulders of these future generations (Das 2016). Through another lens, some scholars (Beddoe et al. 2009; Gibson in Bollier 2015; Escobar 2015) go even further and suggest that the entire idea of development – whether that be the colonization of India by the British (Tharoor 2017) or contemporary projects such as those supported by global institutions or particular governments – acts principally for the benefit of the provide etc and mostly to the detriment of the recipient (Sen 1979). In this third reading of neoliberal economic capitalism, the entire idea of development is seen as problematic,

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and so-called sustainable development as simply a green-washed version of the former. Consequently, if one confronts the variations and contradictions outlined above, the title of this contribution is conceptually challenging because there is a tension between the idea of “sustainable futures” (whose definition, whose future?) and “sustainable development.” How one resolves that tension depends upon the knowledge (epistemology) that is accessed and the manner in which it is understood, and how the world is seen (ontology). What emerges are essentially three future stories, or litanies, about what is sustainable and what is developed. The first suggests that modern society can be developed in a sustainable way with appropriate policies and frameworks. The second argues for the same but with a more radical shift in technology and society. The third story pushes for a complete systemic change (Table 2). Quality Education and Lifelong Learning. If we set aside the relative and conceptually difficult terms “quality” and “lifelong” for a moment, the etymological origins of education from the latin educare to bring up or to lead out (as from the inside out) and educere to bring forth suggest something about preparation and knowing for the world in which we find ourselves. More interestingly, the idea of learning can be traced to the Germanic and English words lemen and leornian, with the latter in particular giving some sense to wisdom or lore. What is more significant though in terms of this contribution is the colonization of the substance of education by mass education institutions that are institutionally chartered to be universal, standardized, and rationalized (Boli et al. 1985). Not only have these established a general Western centric system for expressing broad principles and validity, they are the central organizational components of differentiation in the modern system of urbanization, economic development, and industrialization (Ibid). From this foundation, it is therefore of no surprise that education has been seen, by agencies such as the World Bank, as the means to create the “human capital” necessary to support development initiatives (Heyneman 2003). By tying investment money to a deliberate reorientation of curriculum so that graduates could be employed (ibid), a

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Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development, Table 2 Three litanies (accepted stories) of future sustainability

3 Litanies Manifestations

Exponents Exemplars

Sustainable development in modernism “Leave no one behind” in the current socioeconomic paradigm UN 2030 Sustainable Development Goals IMF & World Bank Klaus Schwarb (WEF)

Reoriented sustainable modernism in the universe Radically redesigned socioeconomics through application of technology, policy, and sustainable values Al Gore Paul Hawken Tony Seba Lester Brown Jeremy Rifkin Kate Raworth

vocational bias was inserted into a quality education; a bias that placed education in the service of development generally or for the purposes of this contribution sustainable development. What this contribution is arguing therefore is that the practice of mass education institutionally is in the service of development generally and perhaps sustainable development. If this is the case, the tensions in the conceptualization of both sustainable development and futures equally apply to notions of quality education and lifelong learning, whose operating models, systems approaches, and worldviews are rarely interrogated. However, while such an examination is beyond the scope of this contribution there is a case to be made to examine whether the themes of SDG 4 might need some rethinking in terms of futures which are completely different from the world in which they were conceptualized.

Context Dominant Western worldviews frame, or define futures thinking, sustainable development and accepted conventions of learning. One of the consequences of our globalized, technocratic evolution has been the imposition of particular ways of how we think of being in the world (ontology) and knowing about the world (epistemology). In the European tradition, two of the most important views have been the Cartesian idea of the individual (I think therefore I am) and the Kantian notion of “what is and is not.” This is sometimes referred to as dualism (Ricouer 2005).

Post growth Post capitalism Post extractivism Creating a plurality (pluriverse) of worlds not dominated by a reconceived modernism Biaventura De Sousa Santos P.B. Sarkar Arturo Escobar

(In the Course of Recognition (2005), Ricouer provides a very useful critique of both Descartes and Kant and the subsequent Heideggerian view of being in the world not on the world.) What they have given rise to are four very important ideas. The first is that the individual (human agency) is the fundamental unit of social organization. The second is that almost everyone and everything can be objectified, that is it can be seen as something “other” than the individual. This subject-object dualism expresses itself in many ways, the most important (for the purposes of this contribution) being a divide between nature and culture on the one hand, and an “Us and the Rest” (sometimes known as “civilisation and the savage”) on the other (Latour 1993). This divide has facilitated the idea that “animate” people live on a world that is for the most part de-animated, rather than, as Heidegger suggested, being in the world (Ricoeur 2005). The third idea is that objectification and dualism informs a view that rationalism, and mostly reductionist, discipline-oriented science, is the foundation of all valid knowledge; a point of view that is now being challenged in the context of both uncertainty (Nowotny 2015) and holism (Giri 2017). Finally, the worldview has an intrinsic domain of thought and action called “economism.” This has, at its core, a model of perfect marketplaces (Adam Smith’s invisible hand) and Samuelson’s circular flow diagram that ignores both energy and so-called externalities. Future Sustainability and Sustainable Development. As technology has evolved and

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the world’s population has grown exponentially, these forces are both testing the limits of the planetary system (Rockstrom et al. 2009; Steffen et al. 2018) and creating significant levels of social and economic inequality (Piketty 2014), which the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are designed to address. The British economist and sustainability advocate Kate Raworth (2017) suggests that both of these issues need to be considered together. For her, the SDGs form an inner global foundational ring, while the planetary limits form the outer ring of a conceptual doughnut. The space in between, therefore, might be considered a “safe operating space,” although this is a slight adaptation of how it was first used by Rockstrom et al. (2009). This conceptual space therefore provides a way of thinking about the form of the three stories referred to above. If any can demonstrate that they are consistent with the idea of a safe operating space, then they constitute viable future possibilities. If they don’t meet this criteria, then they might be described as “used” or “disowned” futures (Inayatullah 2008): images or conceptions of the future unconsciously borrowed from others that, at best, seek to address conditions that no longer exist.

Design Thinking Framing Shapes Design. How we think about (understand) what it is we want to know is the first step (design) in the process of their “being brought into being.” As the cultural anthropologist Escobar (2018) suggests, design needs to be thought about at a macro as well as a micro scale. What this means is that it is not just about how we decide the shape of things we produce (microdesign) but also about “creating cultural meanings and practices, about designing cultural, experience and particular ways of living (macrodesign)” (Escobar 2018). Hence, how we choose to understand matters. Ideas such as “sustainable” development and “sustainable” education are almost always defined within the Western worldview (Hawken 2017; Taylor 2008). Consequently it is unsurprising that such ideas are mostly interrogated within the

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dominant ways of understanding that accompany that view (Eckersley 2016). This kind of interrogation starts from the premise that “sustainable development” is something that can be seen objectively (empiricism); its progress can be measured (analysis); and various expressions can be compared (comparative) (Gebser 1984). It is, as Latour (1993, 2017) asserts, as though the scientific approach has a religious validity. While these aforementioned attributes are perfectly valid ways of understanding many things, they tend to be most useful in conditions that have favored the socioeconomic conditions of dominant Western countries. Consequentially, this has produced the notion that there is a “right way” to progress. However, as will be argued, the current and likely future world condition is very complex, uncertain, and chaotic, and this way of understanding and thinking can be challenged at every level of enquiry. Alternatives begin with starting from different ways of understanding (Inayatullah 1999). These often completely change both what is made visible, and the kind of knowledge that is available (Galtung and Inayatullah 1997; Dussel and Mendieta 2003). This is immediately a challenge as it requires reaching beyond explaining a “new what might be” on the basis of the old; all the while recognizing that old concepts have inherent in them the “misunderstandings, misinterpretations and objections that do not permit the new to stand out in its originality” (Gebser 1984, p. 37). So, if “sustainable development” is not considered to be sustainable then the context through which everything is considered (understanding) and designed needs to change. The following table indicates some of the alternative framings for understanding (Table 3). Postnormal and the Aperspectival. Two examples illustrate how some of these alternatives can be useful. Firstly, the critical theorist Sardar argues that the conditions of “normality” (simplicity, order, rationalism, and certainty) have – as a result of a technologically centric, global connectedness – morphed into “postnormality”; that is, complex, chaotic, contradictory, and uncertain in its manifestations (Sardar 2010). If this premise – based on a “reframing” of understanding – is

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Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development, Table 3 Adaptation of Inayatullah (1999, p. 136) on how to understand the concept of “understanding” Approach (to understanding) Applied (analytical)

Method Applies theory to reality

Benefit Helps create new ways of reading things

Empirical

Determined by what works

Comparative

Structures comparisons across categories

Helps find reliable data and the disproving of alternate theories Useful if taxonomy is developed that helps to create context

Translational

Translate into alternative traditions

Makes information and interpretations available to other communities

Framing

Makes visible the systems and structures within which understanding is being asserted Begins with clarity about how worldviews are constituted Establishes which worldviews are privileged, how ideas and how reality is constructed Ensures that spiritual and the interrelational are not reduced to the relative

Powerful for complexity and interrelatedness; highlights flows in sub systems

Phenomenological

Postmodern structuralist

Beyond discourse

Moves from interpretation to immersion, thus revealing meaning Makes visible multiple ways of knowing and provides a larger structure for critical enquiry Focuses on other ways of knowing. Subject/object duality no longer exists

accepted, then it makes no sense to design “sustainable development initiatives” within a conception of society and organization that no longer exists. Secondly, the philosopher Jean Gebser (1984) asserts modernism has been overly concerned with what can be measured, or what he terms “the perspectival world.” He claims that this perspectival condition has led to “an excessively visual orientation that in turn has led to an unavoidable hypertrophy where the “I” has been overexaggerated as an ego-trophy” (Gebser 1984). The escape from this, he asserts, is the need to create a different kind of consciousness that is aperspectival (arational and holistic, not irrational and reductionist) in nature (Gebser 1984). Gebser’s view suggests that different phenomena would be considered when determining

Challenges Normally selects patterns that fit into pre (scientific) understandings Assumes that objective reality is a thing Normally does not reveal the units of analysis or structures of categories that have been chosen Differences in linguistics, values, and structures may obscure and misrepresent what is intended May still obscure what is privileged and what are assumed natural states Does not problematize the construct itself; does not allow for comparison Often highly complex in language and often inarticulate about power structures Goes beyond privileging the intellect

both what constitutes sustainability and what is considered as development (something beyond the focus on how individuals are faring). If Gebser’s view is the basis of understanding (post individualism, post objectivism, post dualism), then the premises on which the UN SDGs have been established and are judged can be called into question. In other words can we or should we better understand or challenge our ’practices of looking? (Stukem and Cartwright 2009). If the Eckersley premise – that the very idea of sustainable development is flawed from a design and implementation perspective because it emphasizes ideals of progress and development that reflect the inherent dominance of the Western nations – is accepted, then a revolution in design would be required. This transformation needs to be one that “changes the symbols, myths,

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worldviews and values by which we (collectively) define ourselves, our lives and our goals” (Eckersley 2016). In other words, it is not just the developing countries that need to change. Many scholars from the Global South (Dussel and Mendieta 2003; De Sousa Santos 2013; Escobar 2018), some designers from the Global North (Tokenwise 2014) and even some Finish scientists (BIOS Report 2019), suggest that the Western world needs to convert to design for post individualism, post objectification, post dualism, and post economism as quickly as it can because the consequences of its current activities are unsustainable (Escobar 2018). Clearly such a consequence has significant and systemic flow effects for the organizational models and the orientation of contemporary education systems. Further, recent scientific reports across some of the most reputable scientific Institutes (Steffen et al. 2018) are asserting that there is a disparity between our best understanding of the global carbon trajectory by 2100 (+4.5  C), the promises of the Paris Climate Conference (COP21, which at best will only limit warming to +3.5  C) and the aspirational goal of keeping the same under 2  C (this is highly unlikely given that recent science suggests that +2  C is already systemically built into 2050 conditions (Hansen et al. 2016)). From an existential point of view, if this disparity is valid, then a design revolution is imperative, rather than optional (Martin 2006). Taken together, these premises are revolutionary, both in terms of knowledge and behavior. Pragmatism. The revolutions suggested above begins with the premise that the design of “design” itself requires rethinking. The question is: what is pragmatic? Pragmatist theorists over many decades, including Rorty (1997), Latour and Porter (2013), and Sassen (2013), start by asserting that we find truth (in this case future sustainability) not from a scientifically theorized, objective sense of reality, but rather from ways of knowing that are valid if the practical consequences of implementing that way of knowing make them so. Escobar calls the pragmatic approach “autopoietic [self-regenerating] organisation,” in which networks of processes produce components that, through their interactions and

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relationships, continuously regenerate the network of processes and relationships that produced them (Escobar 2018). Pragmatism and autopoiesis begin with a worldview that sees change as a continuous evolutionary process (which policy oriented goals rarely are); experimentalism as necessary at all times (which measurement of authorized investments almost never allows); rejection of categorizations and typologies that put things in boxes (as the UN SDGs do); and finally, a rejection of Cartesian dualisms and the embracing of ecological, inter-relational contexts and organisation (which is counterintuitive to the nation state and its institutions) (Ibid with comments in brackets by the author). (For a longer discussion on these topics see Tompson (2017) on understanding the context of smart city initiatives.)

Revolution Perspectives on what constitutes “sustainable development,” or even those that question if such a thing exists, depend on the contextualization of the concept within a disruptive, disjunctive, global condition that is revolutionary on many levels (McAllum 2018). Of issue to any reader is the consideration of how many of the numerous “revolutionary forces” they will allow into their thinking when considering questions of sustainable development. In brief, these forces might be characterized as follows: 1. Events based revolutions. These consist of actual events (e.g., wars, such as those in Syria or Sudan 2015–2019) or visible colonizations (e.g., the twenty-first Century economic colonization of much of Africa by the Chinese (Taylor 2009)) that either do not allow any kind of sustainable endeavor, or directly facilitate against it. 2. Technology based revolutions. These include emergent network technology and renewable energy technologies that shift the locus, at least in theory, from centralized to decentralized forms, power arrangements, and spaces. The

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3.

4.

5.

6.

widespread use of cell phones on the Indian subcontinent, for instance, has facilitated the extension of microfinance (Gillon 2017) and changed the nature of exchange for poor fisher folk by cutting out often usurous middlemen (Financial Times, Jan. 19. 2010) Epistemological revolutions. Epistemological revolutions change what is considered as important knowledge, something that SDG’s do not really examine. This might be a revolution within a dominant ontology (holistic networks and relationships are more important than a reductionist focus on the parts) (De Landa 2006), or it might be a revolution that completely changes the way of thinking. In either case, they reframe our consciousness of time, form, and space (Adam 1998). Social revolutions. These are sometimes described as civilizational (Toynbee 1961) or cultural (Spengler 1926/1928) revolutions. There are many, including Rifkin (2011), who now argue that the mechanistic society in which ideas like sustainable development were conceived is now in decline and new network-based societies are emerging. The Bio-Geophysical revolution. This revolution is one of our own collective making, but one that we would prefer not to have. It refers to the unfortunate reality that humans have changed the biological, geological, and physical characteristics of the planet to such an extent that we have created a new geological era that is defined as the Anthropocene (Crutzen et al. 2007). Regrettably there are two important consequences. The first is that many previously available conditions for living no longer exist (being a fisherman in the east of Canada for instance – Milch 1999), and secondly, anything called “sustainable development” that exaggerates that condition defies the logic that supports it (emerging concerns about future food security are in tension with the ambitions of the industrial food complex - Godfray et al. 2010). Ontological revolution. This model asserts that future sustainability can only occur if the Western model of individualism, objectification, dualism, and economism is rethought

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while allowing other ways of thinking to become visible. Eisler (1987) suggests it requires the renaissance of the Chalice over the Blade; the former representing cultural power based on partnership, sharing, and relationship whereas the latter describes a world negotiated through patriarchal power (Murrin 2010). For others (Dussel 2009; De Sousa Santos 2013), it is a new era in the Global North that is post growth, post materialist, post economy, post capitalist, and post dualist. For those in the Global South, it is expressed in terms of post development, post or nonliberal, post or noncapitalist, and post extractivist (Bollier 2015). Each of these revolutions contextualizes sustainable development and/or future sustainability in completely different manners, a process that is made even more complicated given that, by their very nature, each of these revolutions, as a complex social act, interacts with, and is folded into, the others (McAllum 2018). Collectively what these perspectives illustrate is the potentiality enabled by conceptual alternative framings and completely different mechanisms of exchange.

Creating Alternative Realities These described deviations into design thinking and revolution illustrate that there is not only a wide spectrum of views about sustainable development (contrast Porritt 2007 and Taylor 2009 for instance), but that there are completely different and competing constitutions of reality through which sustainable development and futures might be viewed. Inayatullah (2005/07), for example, posits that although your reality is not my reality, there are some types of reality that are close together and thus can be clustered. He suggests that we can see similarities or differences in reality at an evidentiary or litany level. Litany, in this context, represents how an idea or story about something in the world might be expressed in a newspaper, a speech, or a policy document. Inayatullah (ibid) asserts that these shared litanies

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have deeper senses of reality embedded in them; senses that are rarely interrogated. These include the structures and systems that are a necessary condition for that litany to exist; the belief systems and attitudes that bought those systems into being; and the very deep mythologies that are the foundations of the belief systems or worldviews. In this way there are causal linkages across groups of people, or whole societies, that experience a shared common litany and also deeper layers of reality as well. Table 4 (below) uses this approach, known as causal layered analysis, to suggest how these different senses of reality might be described when contextualized around the concept of futures thinking and sustainable development.

Reflections Based on this brief discourse into futures thinking and sustainable development and the relationship of the two to “quality education,” a

number of lessons and possibilities seem to emerge. Firstly, the observations of scholars such as Lovelock (2006), Walker et al. (2006), Porritt (2007), and Taylor (2009) reveal many differences in definition and interpretation about what constitutes sustainable development. Secondly, for the good intentions and beneficial aspirations of sustainable development protagonists to be realized, new forms and new thinking are required (Latour 2017). Thirdly, research shows that in sustainable development debates only state, private sector, and NGO actors have a voice, and for the most part these voices are normalized inside a Western worldview of what constitutes sustainable development (Stigleitz et al. 2010). Furthermore, the present we collectively live in is very fragile and many manifestations of that fragility (polluted water, extreme events, poor soils, etc.) (Steffen et al. 2018) act explicitly against the interests of those that have the least (Sen 2009). There are many subaltern voices that speak to the issue (Le Guin et al. in Tsing et al.

Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development, Table 4 Causal layered analysis of the sustainable development “reality and alternatives to that reality”

Litanies Manifestations

Sustainable development in modernism “Leave no one behind” in the current socio-economic paradigm

Underpinning structure and system

Nation states and globalized trade can promote the interests of sustainable development Monetary exchange dominates model

Worldview

Western notions of progress and development are best International agencies and properly targeted development funding exist to benefit recipients Development and growth improve the lot of humanity and with care the state of the planet as well (The COP 21 model)

Mythology

Reoriented sustainable modernism in the universe Radically redesigned socioeconomics through technology, policy, and sustainable values Technology centric social revolution can reduce demands on the planet in ways that are sustainable. Monetary exchange preferred model for value creation in a distributed model The shift towards network technologies and renewables change the nature of time, form and space but the essential “perspectival” worldview remains the same Capitalism can adapt in ways that make a safe operating space possible

Post growth Post capitalism Post extractivism Creating a plurality (pluriverse) of worlds not dominated by a reconceived modernism Both the state as a colonizing actor and private sector capitalism need to give way to a plurality of communing world making. Multiple methods of exchange Large-scale transformation of the capitalist system (post capitalism) and the autonomy are the only way to achieve future sustainability Buen Vivir. Universal Western centric modernism must give way to a pluriverse transformation and autopoiesis

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2017; Bateson 2016; Harraway 2015). However, the ideas constituted in this contribution do not apply just to sustainable development. They apply equally to every part of the social and economic fabric under the sway of the current neoliberal economic model (Eisenstein 2018). Additionally, an explicit recognition or otherwise of the ontology and epistemology in which sustainable development is most often situated must be at the forefront of any study of sustainable development.

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Cross-References ▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework ▶ Systemic Thinking ▶ Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

Conclusion The multifaceted perception of “sustainable development” makes it an unsuitable conceptual model around which to organize global social foundations. It indicates that the entire premise of what we think of as education requires a different and deep enquiry and potentially a rapid evolution into a new diversity of learning systems. New, alternate forms of thinking would free praxis from the boxes, silos, and measurement prisms and prisons in which it is currently confined. Perhaps it is time to listen to other existent voices? Additionally, no discussion about the future in any corner of this planet has meaning if it does not take the existential threat to our biosphere into account. For many of us who have benefited from this present system, a next system adjustment is extremely confronting, yet to not recognize the ontological and epistemological framings through which sustainable development is understood is to attempt to create and sustain an alternative litany within a particular form of reality that will always revert to the logic that one is seeking to escape. It is always the intent in writing for an encyclopedia (itself a Western knowledge construct) to present a summary of both primary and secondary information. While this contribution has attempted to do just that it should be noted that what is selected determines what is privileged, and as such it is a political act. In this instance, what has been selected includes a number of views and voices that are not normally heard in a conversation such as this.

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363 Hawken P (2018) Drawndown: the most comprehensive plan ever proposed to reverse global warming. Penguin Great Britain, UK Hawken P, Lovins A, Lovins LH (1999) Natural capitalism: creating the next industrial revolution, 1st edn. Little, Brown and Co, Boston Heyneman S (2003) The history and problems in making education policy at the World Bank 1960–2000. Int J Hum Dev 23:315–337 Inayatullah S (1999) Situating sarkar: tantra, macrohistory and alternative futures. Gurukula Press, Maleny Inayatullah S (2005/07) Causal layered analysis – deepening the future. In: Questioning the future: methods and tools for organizational and soceital transformation. Metafuture.org, Australia Inayatullah S (2008) Six pillars: futures thinking for transforming. Foresight 10:4–21 Inayatullah S, Milojevic I (2015) C.L.A. 2.0. Transformation in theory and practice. Tamkang University Press, Taiwan Latour B (2017) Facing Gaia: eight lectures on the new climate regime. Polity, Cambridge, UK Latour B (1993) We have never been modern. Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York/London Latour B, Porter C (2013) An inquiry into modes of existence: an anthropology of the moderns. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Lifton J, Paradiso JA (2009) ‘Dual reality: merging real and Virtual’, FaVE 2009. Springer, Berlin Lovelock J (2006) The revenge of Gaia: Earth’s climate in crisis and the fate of humanity. Basic Books, New York Lovins AB (2011) Reinventing fire: bold business solutions for the new energy era. Lustig P (2017) Strategic foresight: learning from the future. Triarchy Press, Axminster Madsberg C (2017) Sensemaking: the power of the humanities in the age of the algorithm. Little Brown, London Martin J (2006) The meaning of the 21st centruy: a vital blueprint for evolving our future. Riverhead, New York McAllum M (2018) All revolutions are equal but some are more equal than others. World Futures Rev Special Edition 23(2):1–12 McAllum M, Marsh N, Purcell D (2002) Strategic foresight: the power of standing in the future. Crown, Mebourne Miller R (2018) Transforming the future: anticipation in the 21st century. Routledge, Oxon Murrin D (2010) Breaking the code of history. Appollo, Fernhurst Naisbitt J (1991) Megatrends 2000. William Morrow & Co Nowotny H (2015) The cunning of uncertainty. Polity Press, Cambridge, UK Piketty T (2014) Capital in the twenty-first century. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Porritt J (2007) Capitalism as if the world matters, Rev. In: pbk edn. Earthscan, London/Sterling Raworth K (2017) Doughnut economics: seven ways to think like a 21st-century economist. Random House Business, London

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364 Ricoeur P (1984, [1985; 1988]) Time and narrative. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Ricoeur P (2005) The course of recognition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Rifkin J (2011) The third industrial revolution: how lateral power is transforming energy, the economy, and the world. Palgrave Macmillan, New York Rockstrom J, Steffen W, Noone K, Persson A, Chapin FS 3rd, Lambin EF, Lenton TM, Scheffer M, Folke C, Schellnhuber HJ, Nykvist B, De Wit CA, Hughes T, Van Der Leeuw S, Rodhe H, Sorlin S, Snyder PK, Costanza R, Svedin U, Falkenmark M, Karlberg L, Corell RW, Fabry VJ, Hansen J, Walker B, Liverman D, Richardson K, Crutzen P, Foley JA (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461:472–475 Rorty R (1997) Truth, politics and ‘post-modernism’. Van Gorcum, Assen Runia E (2014) Moved by the past: discontinuity and historical mutation. Columbia University Press, New York Sardar Z (2010) Welcome to postnormal times. Futures 45 (5):435–444 Sassen S (2013) Does the city have speech? Publ Cult 25:209–221 Scranton R (2015) Learning to die in the anthropocene: reflections on the end of a civilization. City Lights Books, San Francisco Sen A (1979) Equality of what, the tanner lecture on human values [speech], delivered Stanford University, 22 May 1979 Sen A (2009) The idea of justice. Penguin, London Shirky C (2011) The political power of social media. Foreign Aff 90(1):29–41 Spengler O (1926/1928). The decline of the West [2] Steffen W, Rockstrom J, Richardson K, Lenton T, Folke C, Livermore D, Summerhayes C, Barnosky A, Cornell S, Crucifix M, Donges J, Fetzer I, Lade S, Schefffer M, Winkelmann R, Schellenhuber H (2018) Trajectories of the earth system in the Anthropocene. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115(33):8252–8259. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas. 1810141115

Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development Streek W (2016) How will capitalism end?: essays on a failing system. Verso, London Stukem M, Cartwright L (2009) Practices of looking: an introduction to visual culture. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp237–278 Schwartz P (1995) The art of the long view [planning for the future in an uncertain world]. Bantam Doubleday, New York Taylor G (2008) Evolution’s edge: the coming collapse and transformation of our world. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island Taylor I (2009) China’s new role in Africa. Lynne Reinner, Boulder Tharoor S (2017) Inglorious empire: what the British did to India. Hurst & Company, London Tokenwise C (2014) Design (dis)orders and transition design. https://medium.com/@camerontw/designsdis-orders-transition-design-cd53c3ad7d35 Tompson T (2017) Understanding the cultural context of smart city initiatives: a pragmatist methodology. She Ji J Des Econ Innov 3(3, Autumn):210–228 Toynbee A (1947) A study of history. In: First American edn. Oxford University Press, New York Toynbee A (1961) A study of history: vol. 12, Reconsiderations. Oxford University Press, Oxford galaxy Tsing A, Swanson H, Gan E, Bubandt N (eds) (2017) Arts of living on a damaged planet: ghosts and monsters of the anthropocence. University of Minnesota Press, Minnesota United Nations (1987) Chapter 2: Towards sustainable development. UN Report of the world commission on environment and development, our common future, from UN documents A/42/427. Retrieved from http:// www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm. 7 May 2018 Virilio P (1998) Dromoscopy and the ecstasy of enormity. Wide Angle 20:11–22 Walker BH, Salt D, EBSCOhost (2006) Resilience thinking sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world (pp. electronic text.). Retrieved from https://vir tual.anu.edu.au/login/? url = http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ anuau/Top?id=10729958

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Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development Rajesh. M Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) Regional Centre, Vatakara, India

Synonyms Educational access; Educational development; Sustainable education; Universal education

Definition Global access to education refers to the presence of effective institutional and noninstitutional mechanisms that enable people in various age groups to attain socially, contextually, and professionally relevant education without being affected by economic, geographic, sociological, ethnic, or any other differences. This does not refer to uniformity of syllabi or curriculum, but education that can be accessed across the globe and that has to adhere to certain acceptable standards.

Introduction We live in an increasingly interlinked world. Events, fashion, and trends in one part of the globe immediately affect other parts. The

proliferation of social media has led to a collapse of space and time. Today ideas travel faster than the speed of light. The “end of history” thesis seems more likely than ever in probability as far as the creation of a global culture is concerned. Education is intricately linked to culture and economics. The acceptance of a common set of “desirable values” invariably leads to greater spread of education. The development of a new range of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has made it possible for education to be delivered seamlessly and on a real-time basis across countries. However, global access to quality education remains a pipe dream even today. It is in this context that the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) become important. The SDGs are a cluster of 17 goals which are expected to help our fragile planet sustain itself (UN 2015). The 17 goals take into account every form of human development. SDG 4, linked to the provision of quality education, is therefore of direct interest and relevance to this discussion. The moot question that seeks an answer is whether quality and access are mutually exclusive when it comes to education and which will be deliberated in the preceding sections.

Factors Affecting Access to Education Globally It is well known that access to education is extremely skewed globally. In the poorest countries

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of the world, extreme poverty means that one in four children are engaged in child labor (UNICEF 2017). The percentage of boys engaged in child labor in less developed countries is 26%, whereas that of girls is 24%, and in sub-Saharan Africa, this ratio is as high as 30:29 (UNICEF 2017). What is more, these children are engaged in activities that are potentially harmful to their physical and mental well-being (UNICEF 2017). In 15 countries across the globe, more than 55% of children in the age group 5 to 17 are engaged in unpaid household services (Dayıoğlu 2013). What is more painful is that more than 45% of children in the age group 5 to 11 also render unpaid household services in these countries (Dayıoğlu 2013). A large percentage of these children are girls. Engaging in these activities has a significant impact on their school attendance (where enrolled in educational institutions). The Universal Declaration on Human Rights spells out in very clear terms that every human being has an inalienable right to wholesome education. Article 26 of the Declaration states that education should be provided free at least at the basic or fundamental levels (UN 1948) and preferably at all levels. Article 26 goes on to state further that professional education should be equally accessible to all sections of society (UN 1948). It is a matter of great interest that Article 26 of the Declaration propounds the aims of education as development of human personality to its full potential, promoting respect for human rights and enhancing international peace and security (UN 1948). Taking a cue from the UN declaration, though some countries have legislated for education as a fundamental right of the child, developing and less developed countries have found it difficult to implement this right. One of the major reasons behind this is undoubtedly the lack of finances. Arguably, poverty is a major issue hindering access to education. Beyond access, poverty hinders entitlement as well. This is clear from the variation in rates of school completion between countries. In fact, 50% of the young in 57 countries (mostly relatively poorer nations) have not completed their upper secondary school education

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(UNICEF 2017). In 30 out of 127 countries, only 90 females for every 100 males complete lower secondary school, and these are mostly low-income nations. Moreover in 35 countries, at least 25% of the young women are illiterate (UNICEF 2017). Even the primary school completion rate is very low in most sub-Saharan African countries and in South Asia (UNESCO 2018a). Moving beyond poverty, stereotype gender constructs have a major role in keeping education out of reach of a large segment of the population. In South Asia, the girl child has traditionally been seen with less favor when compared with their male counterparts. This perception can be observed even before the birth of the child, wherein sex-selective abortion skews the sex ratio in favor of the male child. When the girl child reaches an age when she can acquire primary education, she is forced into household chores, resulting in the scenario that more than 54% of the unschooled children in the world being girls (Humanium n.d.). In sub-Saharan Africa, the number of such girls is 12 million (Humanium n.d.). Health-related concerns also prevent many children from gaining benefit from education. Communicable diseases wean away the health of a large number of children in low-income countries. Easily preventable ailments such as polio and malaria play havoc in many of the tropical and low-income countries. Frequent illness prevents children from attending educational institutions. More than 30 million students in less developed countries (LDCs) are underweight, while 55 million students suffer from stunting (UNICEF 2011). An often ignored element in the issue of providing global access to education is the cultural differences among nations. Even today, in many countries across the world, the girl child is confined to the four walls of her house. For many orthodox philosophies, women’s education is an anathema. Even in countries of South Asia, the education of the girl child is only a secondary priority in some households and considered a luxury in many others. Such a scenario makes it difficult to provide universal educational access.

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A related problem is that many of the areas steeped in orthodoxy are war zones. Wars and ethnic conflicts have taken a toll on access to education. The fact that quality education does not reach many people in these zones ensure that obscurantist and prurient ideologies take the place of rationality and progressiveness. The situation in Afghanistan serves as an example. This country boasted one of the more progressive education systems in South Asia in the 1960s and 1970s (Lemar-Aftaab 2004). Then the country fell into the grip of civil war, and along with it, progressive and secular education was shown the door (Lemar-Aftaab 2004). The fundamentalist dispensation that came to power in the 1990s ensured that women were confined to houses, and only education that was palatable to fundamentalists held its sway. Similar or even worse conditions today prevail in some countries in Asia and Africa, with Iraq, Syria, Ethiopia, and others serving as examples of countries where educational deprivation is the rule rather than the exception (Roschanski 2007). One of the factors affecting global access to education is the trade rules governing services. In the hay days of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (1948–1995), services were kept outside the purview of trade rules, as rules related to trade in goods could not be directly applied to trade in services. However, with the emergence of the services sector as the bulwark of the global economy, it became imperative that a separate body of rules be framed. Consequently, along with GATT, the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) also became a reality as a part of the new superstructure created to give birth to the World Trade Organization (WTO). However, on the acceptance of GATS as a multilateral agreement within the WTO framework, trade rules clearly apply to services and thereby to educational exchange as well, under four heads (WTO 2018): • From the territory of one member to that of another (commonly termed as cross-border trade). The most common example of crossborder trade in education is that of open,

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distance, and e-learning (ODeL) course content which is designed and developed in one country and then transferred to students of another country in the online mode. • Movement of the education consumer from the territory of one country to that of another to undertake studies. It is a common practice that students from one country move to another country to take up higher studies. • Through commercial presence in another member state. In such a case, educational institutions of one member state establish learner support centers in another member state to transact educational services. • And last but not the least through the presence of natural persons of one member state in another member state. Educational institutions involved in this might prefer to use their own staff for curriculum transaction to maintain the authenticity of study programs, since local experts well versed in effectively delivering the subject matter may sometimes not be available. In all that is mentioned above, an obvious casualty due to deprivation and lack of access is quality, which is at the heart of SDG 4. It is clear that the sections of society that has better access to education also have better quality of education within their grasp. From a study of school-going children in Peru, it has been seen that the richer a child’s family is at 1 year of age, the better are the chances of her/him performing better in mathematics in Grade 4 (Rose 2015). Researchers have found similar results while studying student attainments in Vietnam and Andhra Pradesh (India) (Rose 2015). Further, it is also proved through concrete research that many countries which rank high on the “access to education” scale also rank high on the “quality of education” index, the most poignant example being that of Scandinavian countries (Pfeffer 2012). While it may be argued that this may not always be the case, there seems to be a general consensus that there is a positive correlation between quality and equality of education (Pfeffer 2014).

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Global Access to Education as a Sustainable Development Goal Global access to education is one of the underlying themes with the SDGs. The UN has envisaged the attainment of the following educational goals by the year 2030 (UN 2015). 1. Ensure a substantial increase in the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational for decent employment and entrepreneurship At present in countries like India, this is a major area of concern, since only 7% of BSchool graduates are employable (PTI 2016). Further, according to India Today, not more than 7% of the engineering graduates in India are skilled in core engineering tasks (India 2016). The education systems in most developing countries are not equipped to create quality output. It is therefore not uncommon today to see a “qualified engineer” engaging in tasks as delivering or sorting postal items. The market is the great equalizer, since it offers the most appropriate “price” for each graduate according to her/his skills. The question is no longer the availability of adequate jobs but the availability of skills to meet job requirements. 2. Eliminate gender disparity in education and ensure equal access at all levels of education, including for persons with disability Globally more than 65% of the children rendering unpaid household services are girls. Overall 72% of the children in the age group 15–17 are engaged in such services. This has a significant impact on their school attendance (where enrolled at educational institutions) (Dayıoğlu 2013). Moreover in 35 countries, at least 25% of the young women are illiterate (UNICEF 2017). Even in a country like India, which boasts about its liberal and egalitarian ethos, the percentage of female participation in higher education is only 45% (Renju 2014). This is an anomaly that the SDGs have resolved to ameliorate.

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3. Ensure that all boys and girls complete free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education This goal has been taken with all seriousness by governments in many countries, for example, India. The higher judiciary in India has made free and compulsory education to all children up to 14 years of age a subset of Art.21 (Art.21A) of the constitution, which is the right to life. This makes it a total of 136 countries where primary education is a fundamental right. However, as far as the realization of this goal is concerned, much still needs to be done. 4. Ensure access to early childhood development and care and pre-primary education across the globe The percentage of children aged 36–59 months attaining early childhood education in developing countries is as less as 13% (UNICEF 2017). Since early childhood education can be considered as the bedrock of future educational attainment of learners, lacunae on this is a matter of grave concern. At national levels, governments have been attempting to redeem the situation through a twin process of infrastructure creation and awareness generation. 5. Ensure that a substantial proportion of adults achieve literacy and numeracy The number of adults unable to perform the 3Rs, namely, reading, writing, and arithmetic, is 774 million and upward of which more than 65% are women (UNESCO 2013). In terms of the sheer numbers involved, this presents an unacceptable situation. The global rate of adults able to read and write is 84.1%, of which 88.6% are males and 79.9% females (UNESCO 2013). 6. Ensure that learners also acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development This aspect refers to holistic education, including aspects as human rights, gender equality, peace, non-violence, and global citizenship. The earth’s resources are under immense strain, and the future of the planet

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7.

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hinges on how effectively we can change the prevalent attitudes and create a movement in favor of sustainable development, which is only possible through education. Build facilities at educational institutions that are gender sensitive and disabled and child friendly It is a matter of common knowledge that many children (mostly disabled and girls) opt out of the education system due to absence of such facilities. In many countries, gendersensitive educational institutions are a pure luxury. Obtain active support of the wealthy nations of the world to substantially increase the number of scholarships for students from developing nations The focus needs to be on learners from the LDCs, including many African and island nations. The major subjects/disciplines that need attention include vocational education, engineering, technology, and ICTs. However, we are witnessing an era when countries like the USA and the UK are bringing stringency in visa norms and stricter conditions for earning while studying. The growth in the number of scholarships is also tapering off. Increase the supply of qualified teachers without the constraint of borders, including through international cooperation Such an approach is expected to help the LDCs and small island nations. The number of qualified teachers in the fields of languages, mathematics, and science in LDCs is abysmally low. This can be addressed only through international cooperation. This aspect also presumes that GATS restrictions on the movement of natural persons, subsumed under mode 4 (GATS) of the agreement, have been taken care of. Pay more attention to the non-mainstream categories that aspire to acquire education An example is provided by the large number of jail inmates around the globe. A good segment of people who are lodged in jails would, if given the opportunity, wish to productively utilize the time available by

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acquiring a new skill or by enhancing their general education. Similarly, inmates of juvenile homes and destitute houses fall in a similar category. National governments have to make efforts to reach out to such nonmainstream groups.

Strategies for Enhancing Global Educational Access Minds among policy makers meet when it comes to strategies to be adopted to enhance access to quality education globally. The strategies discussed below have been used with success across the globe and therefore can contribute significantly to attaining SDG 4. Open, Distance, and e-Learning (ODeL) as Tool for Enhancing Global Access to Education The history of distance education can be traced to Isaac Pitman’s postal notes for teaching shorthand which dates back to 1840 (History n.d.). Since then, new technologies have added depth and reach to the process of “learning at a distance.” In the age of new technologies, independence of the learner is undoubtedly enhanced, and distance education institutions have been transformed into open, distance, and e-learning (ODeL) institutions. Ideally, ODeL institutions should provide both access and equity in education without compromising on quality. The mechanism is designed to provide seamless education at the doorsteps of the learner without differentiation of class, race, sex, geography, age, or any other form of discrimination, with examples that will now briefly be considered. The UK Open University (UKOU), founded in 1969, is an example of a single-mode ODeL institution with a significant impact in the field of higher education (IITE-UNESCO 2000). The distinction of being the pioneer in using multimedia to facilitate education in a big way also goes to UKOU (IITE-UNESCO 2000). A wide range of advanced technologies developed and used by this university include the following: trust-based

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E-assessment system, disabled friendly access technologies, user-friendly digital learner analytics, 24/7 seamless student support, technologyassisted personalized learning environments, and a host of other technological applications (UKOU, Institute of Educational Technologies 2017a). All these mechanisms enable this university to maintain quality education while providing wider access. It is therefore no wonder that more than two million students globally have passed through UKOU since its inception in 1969. In Europe alone this university has 173,927 students (UKOU 2017b). The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) provides another testimony for the effective use of technology to provide access to education without dilution of quality. Founded in 1985, this university offers education through both technology based and contact methods (IGNOU 2014). IGNOU has been at the forefront of implementing the latest technologies such as EDUSAT (IGNOU 2014). The university is also the recipient of the Award for Excellence from the Commonwealth of Learning (IGNOU 2014). The popularity of the institution can be gauged from the fact that the university today has nearly 3.5 million students on its rolls (IndiaToday 2015). Apart from India, IGNOU has centres in 13 other countries as well (IGNOU 2018b). An African ODeL institution, the University of South Africa (UniSA), is renowned for initiatives to provide mechanisms to reach out to the disadvantaged sections of African Society (NgubaneMokiwa 2015). An important feature of this model is that this university provides recognition to prior learning of students (UniSA 2017b). UniSA also relies on the use of multimedia to reach out to the diverse student population and has acquired considerable multimedia production capabilities over time (UniSA 2016). E-tutoring is one of the features of learner support service delivery at UniSA (Ngubane-Mokiwa 2015). UniSA has 350,000 students on its rolls and is regarded as one of the 30 mega ODeL universities in the world today (UniSA 2017a). It is noteworthy that the reach of ODeL institutions is a significant asset that will help achieve the SDGs, especially Goal 4. It is praiseworthy

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that even in disturbed areas, this mechanism to provide access to higher education has been found to be effective. It may be relevant to refer here to the Distance Remedial Education Project of Palestine, which was run with the aid of UNESCO and seems to be an example of a success story (Rohwerder 2015). Further, the possibility of facilitating collaborative learning through social media, podcasts, YouTube, etc. across geographical boundaries provides ODeL with the potential of enhancing programmatic quality (Ngubane-Mokiwa 2015). The evaluation system utilized by ODeL institutions is designed to assure quality across learners. Institutions such as IGNOU still rely mostly on the traditional paper and pen final examination system monitored under traditional classroom settings, for which registration forms have to be submitted online (IGNOU 2018). This is apart from the assignments to be done by students as part of their continuous assessment process, completion of which is essential for writing the final examinations (IGNOU 2018). A similar system is practiced by UKOU, which provides examination facilities for foreign students in a few countries (OU 2018). Similarly, UniSA uses both formative and summative assessment to evaluate learning outcomes, and UniSA also provides deferred examinations for students in other countries if they miss exams due to any reason (UniSA 2017c). In Pakistan, the Virtual University of Pakistan (VUP) implemented an accessible virtual (online) assessment system across the major cities of the country by harnessing the power of the Internet (Insung Jung n.d.). In addition, ODeL institutions developed their own framework for quality assurance. In the case of the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL), the quality assurance mechanism consists of inviting experts from professional agencies, industries, and conventional universities to assess the academic work produced within OUSL, subjecting the university departments and processes to external quality assessment (especially by the University Grants Commission) and also working with experts from international agencies such as the Commonwealth of Learning (CoL) to maintain quality (Insung Jung n.d.).

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Such rigor in the assessment processes used by ODeL institutions is intended to result in the desired outcomes in terms of quality. For ODeL institutions to become “SMART” institutions in the age of rapid technological change, these institutions need to be: • • • • •

Socially oriented Motivated Articulating with its clientele Result-oriented Adhering to timelines to produce mandated results

ODel institutions can transform themselves into “SMART” and sleek institutions by adopting relevant technologies and management principles. All said and done, ODeL shall remain an indispensable cog in the wheels of the vehicle carrying education to the needy and marginalized across the globe while maintaining the requisite quality as envisaged by SDG 4. Virtual Learning as a Way Forward In recent times, ODeL has spread through diverse media. One of the latest developments is that of massive open online courses (MOOCs). MOOCs have assisted education to cross borders by creating virtual migrant learners (de Waard et al. 2014). MOOCs from developers as COURSERA and SWAYAM have helped institutionalized the fact the education need not be constrained by policy or geography (Uma Kanjilal 2016). The development of highly interactive learning platforms now makes it possible to transmit lessons through video, texts, games, and other media. The easy and cheap availability of Internet access encouraged the spread of MOOCs. Interaction can take place in synchronous as well as asynchronous modes. MOOCs can be classified as C-MOOCs and X-MOOCs. C-MOOCs connect across learners, and each participant gains from the divergent experience of the other participants. On the other hand, X-MOOCs have diverse learning and assessment components more tuned to the traditional theories of learning such as simulated class videos, assignments, quizzes, etc. Most of the MOOCs that have attained fame are for that

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matter X-MOOCs, the most potent examples being COURSERA and SWAYAM MOOCs. However, in spite of the proliferation of MOOCs, the moot question remains whether they can replace the much accepted traditional face-to-face teaching methods. For one, the credibility of MOOCs has always been a point of contestation. Many national systems have not recognized MOOC courses as equivalent to face-to face-courses. In countries like India though, some credit transfer is allowed from those earned under SWAYAM MOOCs to traditional classroom courses. This indicates that MOOCs are still regarded as only supplementary to traditional courses and do not have an independent existence at this stage. Therefore, quite understandably, MOOCs have not yet emerged as a game changer in providing global access to education. Yet it remains a fact that in the times to come, virtual learning environments (VLE) may prove to be the bulwarks of providing global access to relevant education. In order to provide maximum possible reach of VLEs, they have to provide personalized learning experiences that are rooted in the cultures in which the learners have been brought up (Aldridge and Powell 2018). The quintessence of a successful VLE that caters to a global audience are interaction through multiple formats, a VLE design that can be used easily, availability of learning materials in different modes as per the needs of diverse learners, and an ability to provide a real-life learning experience and inbuilt mechanisms to encourage and initiate group work, debates, and discussions (Aldridge and Powell 2018). It needs to be stated that with the introduction of the modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment (MOODLE), VLEs have not only become affordable but also more effective. Technology Transfer from Developed to Less Developed Nations to Enhance Global Access to Education Many countries in Africa and Asia find it difficult to extend educational services to remote and inaccessible areas due to the absence of relevant technology. There are many parts of the world where even now a television set is regarded as a luxury.

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In India television penetration is limited to 66% (MoneyControl 2018). Internet connectivity is abysmally low in many countries, and where it is available, bandwidth problems are rampant (Venter 2003). In 2018, only 55.1% of the world population had Internet access, while the Internet penetration rate was as low as 36.1% in Africa and 49% in Asia (Internetworldstats 2018). To give access to all sections of society in such countries, provision of enabling technologies is a must. The literature suggests that a country operating with an extremely backward technology is handicapped, to the extent that effective specialization is hard to emerge (Dominique Redor 2011). In many areas of knowledge exploration, technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) are playing a stellar role. Universities are using AI in medical areas such as keyhole surgery (QUT 2017). Positive is that international cooperation is a key factor in such efforts. For instance, Queensland University of Technology is collaborating with AIIMS (Delhi, India), IITK (India), and University of Adelaide (QUT 2017). The medical practitioners of the next generation experience real-life situations through simulations provided by these initiatives. However, such facilities are not even remotely available even in the premier medical institutes of the LDCs. Access to cutting-edge technologies is a real problem here. The developed countries can assist in this scenario by providing such technologies on a gratis basis or at substantially subsidized/reduced rates. Further, these countries can also transfer digital courseware to LDCs for use at educational institutions. Such courseware can also be transmitted through educational television networks. Often, providing satellite uplink and downlink facilities and enhancing the bandwidth capacity of some countries hold the key to the success of such initiatives. The SAARC satellite launched by India for the benefit of South Asian countries (TheHindu 2017) is an example of how international cooperation can achieve policy objectives related to providing access to education. Technology transfer has to be in tune with local conditions in LDCs. Learning-teaching processes have to be closely aligned with the existential realities of recipients in LDCs. The “one-size-fits-all” attitude does not work in

Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

educational processes (Bruce Fuller 1994). It is therefore imperative that the technology transferred to educational institutions in LDCs has to take local conditions into account. The issue of quality assurance is also important. Technology transfer can indeed lead to quality enhancement in LDCs, provided that such transfer is appropriately contextualized. SDG 4 clearly exhorts the world community to make high-quality education available in every corner of the world. Technology transfer is indeed the way ahead to put humanity on the path of achieving this goal, especially if the technology so transferred is in a position to aid the contextual requirements of the host country. Enhancing Investment in Teacher Training Institutes to Create a Multiplier Effect in Education The goal of ensuring global access to education can only be met by creating a wide pool of trained teachers who can spread education to the nook and corner of every society. Notwithstanding the need for penetrative technology, it is a fact that only the teacher teaches; technology only aids. Teachers have to be equipped with relevant pedagogic skills, awareness of sustainable development-related issues, and their related challenges and solutions to impart training to learners. Education for Sustainable Development should be aimed at providing the following types of learning (UNESCO 2008). • • • • •

To know To do To live together To be To transform oneself and society

The absence of trained teachers makes the penetration of appropriate education in society a difficult proposition. On the other hand, every trained teacher creates a multiplier effect (Educationforrefugees 2016) by spreading her/ his skill across a wide range of learners, thereby creating a learned society. The LDCs typically have a dearth of high-quality teachers (UNESCO 2014). This shortage owes its origin to lack of adequate training infrastructure and funding,

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which can be rectified by timely assistance from international institutions and foreign donors both in the form of professional trainers and financial resources. Furthermore, in significant segments such as refugee education, trained teachers can play a significant role, thereby promoting human development (Educationforrefugees 2016).

especially SDG 4. It is suggested that the future overall attainment of a child critically hinges on the type of education they received in their initial years. This is because early childhood care and education (ECCE) affects brain development, sociability, health, sibling school participation, future earnings, and so on (UNESCO 2014).

Incentives to Bring Out of School Children Into Schools Many LDCs across the world have found it difficult to bring potential early learners into schools, especially if they are first-generation learners. It is therefore no wonder that even today, one in five children in the age group 5–17 are out of school (DTE 2018). Adequate incentives should therefore be provided to learners and their parents to go through with the process of early education. In India, the state of Tamil Nadu is famous for implementing the midday meal scheme in the 1980s (RamanathapuramDistrict 2018). This was followed by an effort of a similar nature by the central government covering the whole country later in 1995 (MHRD n.d.). Another method which has found favor in countries like China is the provision of cash incentives to raise early school enrolment. In the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, an incentive of Rs.6000 has been given to put a 4-year-old toddler in school (Lomborg and Razvi 2018). It is expected that this incentive will raise enrolment to 66%, up from the present 35% (Lomborg and Razvi 2018). Such strategies can go a long way in many Afro-Asian Countries in ensuring greater access to education. These direct transfers may also assist in lifting many families out of the quagmire of poverty. Another problem related to early childhood education is that of dropping out of education. It is estimated that only 75% of those who commence their primary education reach their secondary grade (UNESCO 2014). Indeed poverty and conflicts of various hues are said to be the root cause for shortfalls in the achievement of universal primary education (UNESCO 2014). Strategies like the midday meal scheme also help in reducing the dropout rate (Sofi 2017). There is a direct link between getting children to attend schools and attaining the SDGs,

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Through Schools In spite of various constraints, many governments across the world have taken up the task of promoting sustainable development through schools very seriously. An interesting case is that of Finland, where the government has embarked on an ambitious sustainable development education scheme, incorporating active participation of the major schools in the country (Loima 2003). Another program that needs to be mentioned is the “Student Education for Environmental Development” (SEED) program undertaken in the Indian state of Kerala (Mathrubhumi 2013). This program seeks to undertake activity-based environmental awareness programs by enlisting the active participation of school children up to the age of 17 so as to promote sustainable development education (Mathrubhumi 2013). Ensuring the development of high-quality skills also forms part of the SDGs. In order to support sustainable development, skills have to be imparted right from the schooling stage. An impressive program aimed at creating high-quality and employment-oriented skills is the Additional Skill Acquisition Programme (ASAP) of the Government of Kerala, India. Under this program, 163,944 students have so far been trained in 83 skill courses at 121 skill development centers (GoK 2018). The training sectors include gems and jewelry, health care, media, plumbing, logistics, printing, retail, etc., with several success stories reported so far (GoK 2018). Cross-Border Recognition of Qualifications as a Means of Enhancing Global Access to Education One of the factors that critically affect global access to education on an international scale is that of nonrecognition of qualifications across

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borders. Since educational qualifications acquired in one country are either not accepted automatically or only accepted after administering an equivalency test, international transmission of education loses its steam. Many ODeL institutions have membership of the Commonwealth of Learning (COL). But this in itself does not ensure automatic acceptance of qualifications from one commonwealth country in another. For instance, in the case of India, only those qualifications recognized by the Association of Indian Universities are considered equivalent to the corresponding Indian qualifications. Students possessing such qualifications alone shall be considered for higher studies and employment in India (AIU 1995). In recent times national governments have become aware of the need for accepting qualifications from other countries. Countries such as India have moved forward in mutually accepting qualifications from other countries (IndianExpress 2018). Mutual recognition of qualifications is an essentiality if universal access to high-quality education has to happen. This is where an international standard setting and accrediting agency can assist with the cause of spreading quality higher education. Such an agency could come into existence under the aegis of the United Nations system itself. In addition there are various national barriers which stipulate local content rules such as in Indonesia (Joko Nurkamto 2017). In many countries, all top positions in universities and schools are reserved for natives. There are also investment caps in the higher education sector in many countries. For instance, in China, foreign investment in higher education is allowed only in the form of joint/cooperative ventures with native partners (export.gov 2017). All these factors act as disincentives to Foreign Service Providers for providing their services internationally. The current level of domestic investment in many countries is not enough to provide high-quality education to all sections of the society. Investment in basic educational infrastructure is highly capital intensive. This includes investment in buildings, teaching staff, nonteaching staff, and others. Unless this gap is met, the targets

Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

envisaged under SDG 4 will be difficult to be met. Foreign investment can be used to close this gap. Enhancing Access: The Role of UNESCO UNESCO has a major role in enhancing the quality of and access to education. Its role in enhancing the teaching and learning processes and in enhancing the skill quotient of learners is second to none. One of the areas of prime focus of UNESCO is promoting the 3Rs (UNESCO 2014). In order to achieve functional competence in these areas, UNESCO plans to embark on robust literacy programs in the period 2014–2025 (UNESCO 2014). UNESCO also has a stellar role to play in skills development in countries across the world while accepting the fact that many of the graduates in developing countries are not employable (UNESCO 2014). Apart from this, the organization has to play a major role in areas such as developing an internationally acceptable quality assurance framework, which is the first step toward cross-border recognition of qualifications. UNESCO can play a major role in enhancing the quality of teacher training programs (UNESCO 2014). The use of the latest technologies is essential to achieve its goals. This is not implying that UNESCO is not already contributing to the attainment of the SDGs. This organization has already created an online resource bank that provides resources to education practitioners for integrating ESD into pedagogic processes (UNESCO 2018). Furthermore, it is also bringing into focus the overwhelming importance of science, technology, and innovation for the attainment of the SDGs (UNESCO 2018). Another important initiative of UNESCO is the “Social and Human Sciences Programme,” which aims to spread the values of human solidarity, gender equality, absence of discrimination, and inclusiveness across the globe (UNESCO 2018). These fundamental principles are essential for the survival and growth of the human society. UNESCO is at the forefront of achieving SDG 4. The Incheon Declaration was categorical in placing UNESCO in a leadership position for

Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

achieving the goals pertaining to education included under the SDGs, through its technical support and advice (UNESCO 2018). Needless to state, if UNESCO can play its mandated role, access to quality education across the globe will be greatly enhanced.

The Way Forward Providing access to quality education has emerged as one of the key areas of educational reform, without which attainment of the SDGs will remain incomplete. Access to education is a panacea for many ills that confront humankind. SDG 4 is relevant in putting forth the need for providing accessible, high-quality education, including lifelong education across the globe (RIS 2016). As put forward in this contribution, poverty alleviation can aid access to education in no uncertain terms. Appropriate use of relevant technologies can also assist in enhancing access to education. Innovative methods aided by rational objectives alone can create a learned world. A cue can be taken from the successful endeavor of Bangladesh in achieving SDG 4 through a well-planned scheme of education and training programs for the general population, apart from specialized skill training for persons with disabilities (RIS 2016). Such schemes need to be implemented in partnership with civil society agencies such as NGOs (RIS 2016). Such collaboration, especially for the education of persons with disabilities, can be a trendsetter for the future. Furthermore, the need of the hour is concerted action by international agencies in association with national governments to achieve the targets envisaged under SDG 4. The LDCs need international assistance of the developed countries for attaining the SDGs.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ ICT Skills for Sustainable Development Goal 4 ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to High-Quality, Inclusive Education

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Global Citizenship ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship ▶ Future Trends in Education

Global Citizenship Education ▶ Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility Alicia Prowse University Teaching Academy, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

Synonyms Global citizenship education; Global learning; Global perspectives

Definitions Curriculum is a broad term that is commonly understood as a plan of what is learned in a course of education, including the written documentation that prescribes the detailed content and the ways of learning that a student of that course will experience (e.g., Wiles et al. 1989). However, curriculum scholars acknowledge that curriculum is difficult to define (Doll 2008; Marsh 2009; Dillon 2009; Hunkins and Ornstein 2016) and that:

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378 Curriculum may be one of those key terms—like democracy, say—the meaning of which remains forever elusive, open, shifting, dynamic and undecidable. (Green 2017)

Considerations about how a “global” curriculum might be defined, and perhaps most importantly by whom or in relation to what criteria and purposes, are arguably even more critical and potentially complex.

Introduction Fraser and Bosanquet (2006) acknowledge the wide variety of ways that educators use and conceptualize the term “curriculum” and make a plea for the interrogation of underlying and unacknowledged assumptions that are often unwittingly made. Broadening the term further, many educators would agree that the learners and teachers are also part of the curriculum (e.g., Bovill 2013). In this sense, there is explicit inclusion of the learners and the teacher as they cocreate each learning event to a greater or lesser extent. What is learned, and how, in a co-created curriculum will always be to some extent fluid and part of a dynamic classroom process. Trends toward more skills-based curricula have been seen in some contexts, but curriculum theorists argue that the term needs careful definition and focus, such that the centrality of knowledge as a key element of curriculum is not lost as pressures for more skills-based learning come to the fore (Young 2013). Curriculum is also often broken down to describe more specific aspects including the: “Enacted curriculum” (what actually happens in the classroom, e.g., Marsh and Willis 1995) “Experienced curriculum” (what students actually take from the classroom, e.g., Billet 2011). “Tested curriculum” (what gets assessed by standard assessment tests). “Connected curriculum” (what an inquirybased approach to learning can achieve, e.g., Fung 2017). “Hidden curriculum” (what unintended learning may occur, e.g., Margolis 2002).

Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

Curriculum also has clear political elements: any educational system and its process of defining “content,” be it at national or local or even at individual educational session level, are potentially political processes and are therefore subject to contestation and the existence of pre-existing power relationships (Joseph 2015). Pervasive technologies provide many different platforms, collaborative possibilities, and easy access (for many though not all), to information sources. This means there are now, more than ever before, a diverse range of pathways for learning and therefore of “curriculum” that can be accessed and co-created. The focus or purpose of a curriculum is also obviously important in this context. In 2015, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations 2015) were created and used to help make policy decisions and guide investment. Goal 4 and its ten associated targets are focused on education. Target 4.7 deals specifically with curriculum and its place in inspiring and enabling engagement with the sustainable development agenda through education.

Global Curriculum The idea of “global” curriculum is thus a microcosm of the ideas that attach to curriculum as discussed above. The term “global” may in itself be problematic insofar as in uttering it, the speaker has an intended meaning or “imaginary” (Steger 2008). This imaginary thus suggests “subjects” to which the speaker refers. If this is considered to be “all of us,” then that in itself suggests a particular group that sees the world in the same way. This may be very different from the way that the world is seen by those who are among the intended subjects of the utterance “global” – and the question then becomes, in talking of a “global imaginary,” who is included and who excluded? The importance of ensuring that all relevant voices are included in developing such a curriculum is clearly paramount. Ideas relating to global curriculum are not new, and education for greater global understanding has been explored (in some academic literature)

Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

for at least the last 40 years (e.g., in the United Kingdom, Hicks 2003; Richardson 1976; Heater 1980). This has often been under terms such as “world studies” which again begs the question “Whose world?” or “Whose parts of the world?” Additionally, there are two main ways in which the term may be used depending on the purposes behind the activity of curriculum design. Firstly, global curriculum could refer to a curriculum designed primarily at a national level for the express purpose of encouraging a more explicit engagement of citizen-students with a globalized world to achieve the goal of international competitiveness. Alternatively, it could refer to the selection, by members of an academic discipline, of core knowledge that can be successfully deployed by the practitioners of that discipline for use in a globalized world, in order to achieve ends that are more aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (UNESCO 2018). Either of these purposes can be subject to critique as hegemonic ideas of a neoliberal paradigm, but they can also be conceived of (as demonstrated below) in a more localized and community, or community-of-practice-based sense and in relation to the SDGs. If it is used in the former sense, then this requires that teachers and students accept the curriculum as received, with the caveat that there may be opportunities for teachers and/or students and potentially, others, to input into the process of curriculum design. If it is used in the latter sense, then it will be necessary for curriculum designers to establish core concepts that are culturally uncontested, so that those that are contested may be accommodated explicitly within a “global” curriculum. For example, in medical education, a “global” curriculum will depend on culturally agreed values and approaches to beliefs and values around health, well-being, and death. A pragmatic approach to these kinds of issues is sometimes suggested (e.g., Lilley et al. 2016) who contend that curriculum design that tolerates the ambiguities of these arguments about terminology result in work-ready professionals who engage in transformative and ethical thinking. In addition, they say, pedagogical practices, and a tacit moral cosmopolitanism, may encourage a

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common set of skills acceptable to stakeholders in the curriculum design process. On the other hand, a rejection of the need for, or desirability of, a global curriculum is also often voiced. For example, as far back as 2008, the Lucerne Declaration on Geographical Education for Sustainable Development concluded that it would be “unwise to seek consensus on a global curriculum” (Haubrich et al. 2008 p.246) as this would tend to lead to a dismissal of both regional and national differences. Instead these authors suggested that criteria for geographical education align with something similar to the Sustainable Development Goals, an argument that may itself be critiqued for a tendency toward educational homogenization. Finally, there is the level at which a curriculum is viewed, be it primary, secondary, or tertiary. Curricula will be differently designed, planned, delivered, and experienced at each level, with much of the difference explicable by the amount of freedom given to individual teachers within the educational and administrative systems that are in operation. Many countries have prescribed curriculum content at primary and secondary levels, with more flexibility allowed at tertiary (especially university) level. However, as already discussed, teacher and students at any level can be considered to create curriculum in real time, whatever is written in documentation. This entry therefore attempts to set out some of the issues that exist in defining and working toward global curricula. What Epistemologies and Ontologies Help to Define a Way Forward for the Idea of Global Curriculum? There is a dominance in the global north of normative ways of knowing (epistemologies) and ways of being (ontologies), often based on “scientific” foundations. When acknowledgment of other ways of knowing and being is made, these are often termed “alternatives”; yet for the people who subscribe to these, they are indeed normative within their sphere. If in designing a curriculum for the purpose of education, epistemology is not taken into account, then profound assumptions risk being made at the outset. Thus in designing

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a global curriculum, the choice of an underpinning epistemology is vitally important, but often underestimated as the starting point of the curriculum design process. Epistemologies (and ontologies) are also important to the identity of a discipline area, such as “geography” or “medicine” or “history,” and to the communities of practice that educators and students engage in as they become practitioners in these areas. There are potential dangers (a new wave of educational colonization and hegemony?) but also genuinely exciting prospects in developing global curricula. Arguably, the most inspiring examples come from consideration of some of the most dispossessed peoples: so-called indigenous communities. Here people have been historically oppressed: educationally, as well as environmentally, socially, and economically (Hooks 2014; Freire 1972). Development education originated partly from a consideration of indigenous peoples as “other.” However, it has since evolved toward listening to the voices of the oppressed and encouraging ways of working that result in more genuine participation of communities in an inquiry-led contemporaneous process of education and research (e.g., Martin and Mirraboopa 2003). In order to illustrate some of the issues discussed here, the next section uses three case studies to show (a) a top-down approach in medical oncology, (b) a community-of-practicebased approach in social work, and (c) moves toward a global curriculum in geography. Through these examples, an attempt will be made to answer the question “Is a global curriculum a legitimate and desirable goal?” Developing a Global Curriculum and Associated Issues Primary education has been described as having a “core” curriculum worldwide, with language, mathematics, natural science, social sciences, and aesthetic and physical education forming the main core (Meyer et al. 1992, 2017), and noted a tendency toward increasing standardization of national curricular structures and subjects taught, at both primary and secondary levels. The introduction of international school league tables via

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the Programme for International School Assessment (PISA) based on outcomes from national testing has allowed for comparison of educational outcomes and their linkage to education policy at national level. According to these authors, secondary schooling also tends toward increasing standardization although with some changes, such as increased emphasis on environmental and technological elements of curriculum. This entry focuses now on university-level curriculum and considers some discipline-based examples of global curricula constructed or proposed which further illustrate some of the elements outline above. Case Study 1 Global Curriculum in Medical Education In medical education, there is a well-developed body that defines and considers medical education worldwide: the World Federation for Medical Education (WFME 2018). This organization provides international best practice and global standards for quality improvement of medical education and covers Basic (Undergraduate) Medical Education (BME) as well as postgraduate and continuing professional development. They also host the World Directory of Medical Schools, which aims to list all medical schools providing a Basic Medical Education. Over 2900 BME providers are listed, and the executive council meets annually and includes members from a wide range of areas of the globe. Additionally, it provides an accreditation service for medical education via a recognition route of “appropriate and rigorous standards” set out as a framework for curriculum development; to provide the basis for quality improvement and to safeguard medical practice and enable a globally mobile medical workforce. It specifically declares that it does not intend its standards to provide “a universal core curriculum”; instead, they encourage a diversity of educational programs using these standards as a template to allow for differing “educational, social, economic, and cultural conditions and different patterns of disease and to support social responsibility.” They explicitly state that the relevance of these standards to any particular setting will vary.

Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

In some particular areas of medical practice, specific developments of global curricula have occurred, for example, in oncology (Links and Kichenadasse 2017). Their work toward a global core curriculum has been the result of work by 96 experts of mainly European and North American provenance, though Japan and Lebanon and Panama are also represented. The medical oncology community communicates publicly via the production, publication, and dissemination of traditional research papers appearing in journals of medical education as well as arranging exchanges and visiting scholarships. This community recommended a global core curriculum for education in this area as far back as 2004 (Hansen et al. 2004). This work has been ongoing ever since, and later publication traces the path of this endeavor (e.g., Links and Kichenadasse 2017; Castillio Fernandez et al. 2018). These latter publications describe how the concept of a core curriculum has become increasingly competencybased, but has acknowledged the difficulties of seeking and sustaining consensus for emphasis on particular curriculum aspects when local, regional, or national contexts, values, and external relationships are so disparate. However they also recommend an expansion of stakeholders involved in the design to enable a more global perspective. They explicitly recognize difficulties of application to and use of a global curriculum in low-resource contexts in the latest iteration of their global core curriculum. The community has thus an ongoing commitment to evolution of the concept of global curriculum and to increasing inclusion via discussion, dialogue, and intercultural understandings despite the inherent difficulties. Case Study 2 Global Curriculum in Social Work Social work education is arguably one of the most conflicted discipline areas in which to search for practical, locally relevant, and ethically grounded approaches to developing global curriculum. Any discussion of a global curriculum in social work quickly leads to the emergence of complexities including the explicit exposure of imperializing and recolonizing approaches in both the past and

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present, which can be characterized as (at least potentially) racist. For example, Razack (2012) describes the roots of social work in the colonial European and North American “missions” to civilize the uncivilized world. With international social work professional bodies – such as the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) – working closely with organizations like the UN and the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), there is uneasiness that these organizations can themselves be seen as instruments of Western hegemonic values. Nonetheless, Sewpaul and Jones (2004) published Global Standards for Social Work Education and Training. The preponderance of research in the English language emanating from North American and European contexts still shapes “international” social work with attendant problems relating to power and privilege. The reflexive positioning of individual practitioners who acknowledge the spaces they occupy in relation to power and privilege and connect this to an explicit realization that all need to be open to learning from each other, should slowly build ways forward that do not suppress, dominate, or homogenize difference. In attempting to align social work education with “universal” ideas of social justice, advocacy, and human rights, there is thus a need to acknowledge that the translation of these concepts to local contexts still needs careful consideration. Razack (2012) suggests a process of “localizing knowledge to fit particular contexts” as part of an analytic framework for moving forward. At least, in social work education, there is acknowledgment of previous damage done and a determination to avoid further harm wherever possible. Social work professionals, with their profound commitment to global justice (Razack 2012), are working to confront these issues so that, perhaps, elements of global curriculum can begin to be considered. Recent work in this area suggests that explicit attention to power relations between the global north and south is now an important part of the idea of a global curriculum in social work (e.g., Jönsson and Flem 2018). Clearly, debate over

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these global standards has been considerable, though their use and the process of debate have also been seen as beneficial. As Akintayo et al. (2016) assert, it is important to ensur that the global standards are “open to all worldviews and inclusive of all ethno-cultural groups. . .they do not ‘seek homogeneity’ but aim ‘to ensure the welfare of all people’” (Akintayo et al. 2016, p. 406). Case Study 3 Global Curriculum in Geography The Commission on Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union (IGU) has taken a more cautious approach. The 2016 International Charter on Geographical Education contains an action plan for geographical education. The document first sets out the value of geographical education and affirms the IGU’s support for international organizations (such as UNESCO) and standards such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals. In considering the place of a research agenda in geographical education, it specifically exhorts researchers to explore and disseminate research into curriculum development. The action plan exhorts national and local policymakers to promote the place of geography in the curriculum; set minimum requirements for “geographical literacy” and testing; encourage exchange of practice among teachers of geography; develop a research agenda for geographical education; and maintain strong professional networks. Recent work in Germany (Sprenger and Nienaber 2018) showed university geography curricula had very diverse understandings of, and emphasis toward, sustainable development, education for sustainable development, and indeed the UN SDGs. This is perhaps surprising as geography as a discipline might be expected to be particularly engaged with the SDGs. The arguments around cultural hegemony have clearly informed the more cautious approach to global curriculum development in this discipline, and although the IGU has representation from some areas of the world, there are also noticeable gaps (e.g., Africa). These three case studies provide three different ways in which internationally declared bodies

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have sought a legitimate and concrete response to a perceived need to create global curricula in specific (and traditionally demarcated) subject/ discipline areas. The top-down approach taken by the medical education community has revealed a set of assumptions made at the outset that need to be taken into consideration going forward. The approach taken by the international social work community has understandably focused strongly on the issues of the decolonization of education, while the geography community is more divided than perhaps might be expected. Overall, early enthusiasms for creating global curricula seem to have settled into more measured approaches that test and consider the implications of actions taken and at least note the gaps in representation by potential stakeholders.

Key Issues The politicization of curriculum; Government-led decision-making in primary and secondary curriculum levels; Disparate conceptualizations of the purposes of education, who decides?; “Neoliberalism”; education as a public good; disparate terminology around public good; policy for educational curriculum decision-making; conflict between national and global concerns; heutagogy (self-determined learning).

Future Directions Ideas around the development of global curriculum existed as far back as the 1960s. To a large extent, these drove moves toward national curricula in primary and secondary education. Subsequently, Development Education and “International Studies” or “World Studies” provided perspectives on the development of global curricula in various fields. More recently, the terms “internationalization of the curriculum,” “global citizenship,” and “interculturalization” have been used in relation to global curriculum development. These have all been critiqued in various ways for potential implicit neoliberalist agendas, colonialist

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approaches, and cultural hegemony (e.g., Garson et al. 2016; Pashby 2011; Meer 2016; Clifford and Montgomery 2014). Where global citizenship education has become a prominent idea, it is sometimes critiqued on the basis that there is no global state in which a global citizen could be a subject. However, Pashby (2015) makes an argument for the use of the term at least in state-run education, as the state becomes the body to which the “citizen-student” is subject. Global citizenship education also has considerable overlap with concepts of education for sustainable development, and a useful summary of these in relation to teacher education (and thus curriculum) is provided in Bourn et al. (2017). Arguments are made for a continuing critical examination of the concept of global citizenship in terms of the privileges (geopolitical, social, and economic) of those advocating the concept. Given the importance of a process of decolonization in regard to curriculum and education worldwide as discussed earlier, there is also potential for the academic constituencies who subscribe to these terms to work in a more integrated way. Integrating global citizenship with education for sustainable development and making and strengthening the linkages between these and the UN SDGs could be a useful step toward development of global curricula. A further possibility for global curriculum development is the use of a capabilities approach (Sen 1980, 1999; Nussbaum 1997, 2011). This human development-inspired approach focuses on developing a person’s capabilities, their “beings and doings,” in order to live a life they have reason to value. In the context of higher education curricula, Walker (2012) has been a strong proponent of this approach and proposes that “human development and capabilities applied to university education, and specifically to guide and evaluate curriculum and pedagogy, could contribute to teaching and learning for fertile human understanding and vivid human connections” (Walker 2012, p. 457). The focus on “public good” (Walker and McLean 2013) as a core purpose of a university also supposes that a student accessing university curricula develops not only knowledge and skills but also values that form an intention to advance

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the public good, assuming a close connection to the UN sustainable development goals. An attempt at visualizing traditional subject disciplines focusing on the sustainable development goals is provided in Fig. 1. Here curricula of familiar disciplines are presented as focusing in on the problems and opportunities facing humanity represented by the UN goals. A movement of pedagogies away from the provision of information or knowledge and toward “wisdom” implies that curricula can be thought of as providing ways to apply subject-based information and knowledge to practical problems. So, is the development of global curricula a legitimate and desirable goal? The UN sustainable development goals provide one focus for the idea of education for public good. Is a global curriculum, say in medical oncology, or social work or geography a legitimate and desirable way to achieve public good? It seems that attempts to create global curricula, even where the goals of these attempts are specific and clear (e.g., improvement in cancer outcomes), soon encounter difficulties of locality. In order to create the conditions for global curricula to exist and thrive, inequalities in resources, governance, and infrastructure as well as in education need to be tackled. Nonetheless, global curricula are being considered and created. Perhaps the most useful products of this activity is not the emergent “curriculum” itself (in terms of a formal curriculum definition) but the communities of practice (Wenger 1998) that form around the intention to create a global curriculum. These groupings of global professionals are themselves the location where learning is happening. Ensuring that these are constituted of truly global voices will help to create the conditions that enable debate, discussion, and a more truly global voice for subject disciplines. Connecting these communities of practice more explicitly to the UN SDGs (UNESCO 2018) is likely to give new direction to, or renewed emphasis on, sustainable development in every sphere. Recognition of, and challenge to, powerful hegemonic forces and an increased focus on diverse localized solutions to common problems instead seem to be emerging as the direction for development of global curriculum.

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Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility, Fig. 1 Focusing curricula on development goals using a framework of information, knowledge, and wisdom

There is a move toward curriculum brokers who can speak the language of both educational establishments and their communities in order to enable more co-created and locally produced curricula that speak to local community concerns (Leat and Thomas 2018): localised curriculum making is fundamental to providing young people with participatory opportunities to develop competences, work collaboratively and make authentic contributions to society. (p. 215)

Finally, there are strong indications that the future holds change in the “gatekeeping” of traditional curriculum development. At present, the politics and power relations of the question of who designs a curriculum are situated in physical or virtual learning spaces paid for and managed traditionally by teachers, academics, or administrators. In the future, a digitally connected student will have more choices about how, when, and

what to learn, as well as, to a greater or lesser extent, with whom. It may be the case that curation of digital learning will mean that individuals create their own curriculum (Blaschke 2018). Learner agency, critical reflection, and critical digital literacy will all be essential skills for students, while the clarity of focus provided by public good goals such as the SGDs will remain a vital part of the global curriculum as accessed by students.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Global Citizenship ▶ Tertiary Education

Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

References Akintayo T, Hämäläinen J, Rissanen S (2016) Global standards and the realities of multiculturalism in social work curricula. Int Soc Work 61(3):395–409 Billett S (2011) Vocational education: purposes, traditions and prospects. Springer Science and Business Media, Dordrecht Blaschke LM (2018) Self-determined learning (Heutagogy) and digital media creating integrated educational environments for developing lifelong learning skills. In: The digital turn in higher education. Springer VS, Wiesbaden, pp 129–140 Bourn D, Hunt F, Bamber P (2017) A review of Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship Education in Teacher Education. Background paper prepared for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report. UNESCO. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0025/002595/259566e.pdf Bovill C (2013) Students and staff co-creating curricula: An example of good practice in higher education. The student engagement handbook: Practice in higher education, 461–475 Castillio Fernandez OO, Lopez RI, Lasso De La Vega JCAJ, Lim M, Villa-Real A (2018) Ten years of ASCO/ESMO global curriculum for training in medical oncology implementation at Instituto Oncologico Nacional in Panama City, Panama. J Clin Oncol 36 (15):11010. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2018.36. 15_suppl.11010 Clifford V, Montgomery C (2014) Challenging conceptions of western higher education and promoting graduates as global citizens. High Educ Q 68(1):28–45. Special Issue: Globalisation and Higher Education Dillon JT (2009) The questions of curriculum. J Curric Stud 41(3):343–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027 0802433261 Doll WE (2008) Complexity and the culture of curriculum. Educ Philos Theory 40(1):190–212. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2007.00404.x Fraser SP, Bosanquet AM (2006) The curriculum? That’s just a unit outline, isn’t it?. Studies in Higher Education 31(3):269–284 Freire P (1972) Pedagogy of the oppressed 1968. (trans: Ramos MB). Herder, New York Fung D (2017) A connected curriculum for higher education 1–182 UCL Press Garson K, Bourassa E, Odgers T (2016) Interculturalising the curriculum: faculty professional development. Intercult Educ 27(5):457–473 Green B (2017) Engaging curriculum: bridging the curriculum theory and English education divide. Routledge, London Hansen HH, Bajorin DF, Muss HB, Purkalne G, Schrijvers D, Stahel R (2004) Recommendations for a global Core curriculum in medical oncology. ESMO/ASCO task force on global curriculum in medical oncology. Ann Oncol 15(11):1603–1612. https://doi.org/10.1093/ annonc/mdh447

385 Haubrich H, Reinfried S, Schleicher Y (2008) Lucerne declaration on geographical education for sustainable development. Interaction 36(1):243–250 Heater D (1980) World studies: education for international understanding in Britain. Harrap, London Hicks D (2003) Thirty years of global education: a reminder of key principles and precedents. Educ Rev 55(3):265–275 Hooks B (2014) Teaching to transgress. Routledge, London Hunkins FP, Ornstein AC (2016) Curriculum: foundations, principles, and issues. Pearson Education International Charter on Geographical Education 2016. http://www. igu-cge.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/IGU_2016_ def.pdf Jönsson JH, Flem AL (2018) International field training in social work education: beyond colonial divides. Soc Work Educ. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2018. 1461823 Joseph S (2015) Curriculum politics in higher education: what educators need to do to survive. Int J High Educ 4 (3) Leat D, Thomas U (2018) Exploring the role of ‘brokers’ in developing a localised curriculum. Curric J 29(2): 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2018.144 5513 Lilley K, Barker M, Harris N (2016) The global citizen conceptualized: accommodating ambiguity. J Stud Int Educ 21(1):6–21 Links M, Kichenadasse G (2017) Continued Evolution in a Global Curriculum in Medical Oncology-what next? Med Ed Publish 6(3):46. https://doi.org/10.15694/ mep.2017.000160 Margolis E (2002) The hidden curriculum in higher education. Routledge Marsh CJ (2009) Key concepts for understanding curriculum. Routledge, London Marsh CJ, Willis G (1995) Curriculum: alternative approaches, ongoing issues. Merrill, Englewood Cliffs Martin K, Mirraboopa B (2003) Ways of knowing, being and doing: a theoretical framework and methods for indigenous and indigenist re-search. J Aust Stud 27 (76):203–214 Meer N (ed) (2016) Multiculturalism and interculturalism: debating the dividing lines. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh Meyer JW, Ramirez FO, Soysal YN (1992) World Expansion of Mass Education, 1870–1980. Soc Edu 65(2):128 Meyer JW, Kamens D, Benavot a (2017) School knowledge for the masses: world models and national primary curricular categories in the twentieth century. Routledge, London Nussbaum MC (1997) Cultivating humanity: a classical defense of reform in Liberal education. Harvard University Press, Harvard Nussbaum MC (2011) Creating capabilities: the human development approach. The Belknap Press, Cambridge Pashby K (2011) Cultivating global citizens: planting new seeds or pruning the perennials? Looking for the

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386 citizen-subject in global citizenship education theory. Glob Soc Educ 9(3–4):427–442 Pashby K (2015) Conflations, possibilities, and foreclosures: Global citizenship education in a multicultural context. Curriculum Inquiry 45(4):345–366 Razack N (2012) International social work. In: Gray M, Midgley J, Webb SA (eds) The SAGE handbook of social work. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446247648.n46 Richardson R (1976) Learning for change in world society: reflections, activities and resources. World Studies Project, London Sen A (1980) Equality of what? In: McMurrin S (ed) The Tanner lectures on human values. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City Sen A (1999) Development as freedom. Oxford University Press, Oxford Sewpaul V, Jones D (2004) Global standards for social work education and training. Soc Work Educ 23(5):493–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/0261547042000252244 Sprenger S, Nienaber B (2018) Education for sustainable development in geography education: review and outlook from a perspective of Germany. J Geogr High Educ 42(2):157–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098 265.2017.1379057 Steger M (2008) The rise of the global imaginary: political ideologies from the French revolution to the global war on terror. Oxford University Press, Oxford UNESCO (2018) Sustainable development goals. https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs Walker M (2012) Universities and a human development ethics: a capabilities approach to curriculum. Eur J Educ 47(3):448–461 Walker M, McLean M (2013) Professional education, capabilities and the public good: the role of universities in promoting human development. Routledge, London Wenger E (1998) Communities of practice: learning as a social system. Syst Think 9(5):2–3 Wiles J, Bondi J, Guo H (1989) Curriculum development: A guide to practice. Merrill Publishing Company, Columbus WFME (2018) World Federation for Medical Education. http://wfme.org/ [Accessed July 2018] Young M (2013) Overcoming the crisis in curriculum theory: a knowledge-based approach. J Curric Stud 45(2):101–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2013. 764505

Global Justice

Global Justice

Global Perspectives ▶ Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

Globalism ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

Graduate Attributes in Australian Higher Education: Implications of an Economic Rationalist Approach Craig B. Murison1 and Glenda Hepplewhite2 1 Christian Heritage College, Brisbane, QLD, Australia 2 Alphacrucis College, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Definitions Graduate attributes

Human flourishing

Lifelong learning

are qualities, skills, and understandings that equip students to contribute to the social good during their lives (Boud and Solomon 2006, p. 212). is people “doing well, behaving well, and faring well” (MacIntyre 1967, p. 59), and contributing to the common good. is the acquisition of values, skills, and understandings which enable people to continue to learn within new and changing contexts throughout their lives.

▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

Introduction

Global Learning ▶ Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

United Nations Sustainability Goal 4 (SDG 4), Quality Education, includes the improvement of learning outcomes within its goals. One way

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learning outcomes can be measured through the attributes exhibited in graduates. By developing clear graduate attributes, which have the acquisition of lifelong learning skills as their objective, higher education providers can make a valuable contribution to the achievement of equitable access to opportunities for every person to experience flourishing and prosperity, the aim of the 2030 sustainability goals. The neoliberal, economically oriented, education policies currently in place in most developed countries push the development of graduate attributes towards ongoing employability in a challenging and complex future work environment. As such, they risk neglecting the broader concept of human flourishing. When human flourishing is considered in the development of graduate attributes, the goal is bigger than just the narrow focus of a neoliberal view of education. Australia has adopted a neo-liberal approach to its economic development in the last few decades. Examining what is taking place in Australia serves to provide insights for those operating, in other contexts it represents an example of what is happening in many developed countries. This article provides a background from the literature to inform education policy development in relation to graduate attributes and to assist higher education providers (HEPs) to review their graduate attributes considering the full prosperity and human flourishing implications of SDG 4. The paper engages with the question of the implications of SDG 4 for the graduate outcomes which these institutions seek to develop and measure in their graduates. In terms of content arrangement, this article is organized in the following way: section “Economic Rationalism, Graduate Attributes, the Australian Higher Education and SDG 4” introduces economic rationalism, graduate attributes, the notion of human flourishing and the Australian higher education landscape and how they relate to SDG 4; section “Human Flourishing” looks more closely at the concept of human flourishing; beginning in section “Human Flourishing, an Introduction” with an expansion on the concept of human flourishing; section “Lifelong Learning and SDG 4” explores

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the connection between lifelong learning and human flourishing, while section “The Interconnectedness of SDG 4” highlights the interconnectedness of lifelong learning to SDG 4; section “Graduate Attributes in the Literature” provides a brief literature review of graduate attributes; section “An Introduction” introduces graduate attributes; section “Embedding Graduate Attributes in the Curriculum” discusses embedding graduate attributes in the curriculum; section “Assessment Implications” explores issues around the evaluation of graduate attributes; section “Evaluation” highlights the importance of engaging academics and students with graduate attributes; and, section “Conclusion” presents a short synthesis which concludes the article.

Economic Rationalism, Graduate Attributes, the Australian Higher Education and SDG 4 The United Nations (UN) 2030 sustainability goals put forward an agenda which seeks to ensure all people have sustainable opportunities to flourish and experience prosperity. Australia has 40 universities and around 130 other providers of higher education courses (Norton and Kakitaki 2016). Australian education receives large contributions of public funds via governments at both state and federal levels. As such, education is central to the political landscape of the nation. Government policy has mandated the development of graduate attributes for higher education providers. Education is increasingly seen as a commodity which must bring returns for any government investment (Roche 2017). This leads to the development of graduate skills have been driven by the economic imperatives of employability. Rather than ideals of improving accessibility to opportunities for all people to experience human flourishing, the subsequent consequence of regulatory requirement for institution wide graduate attributes has emphasized the narrowing of education to that which government perceives as having value. Neoliberalism has a view of education, understanding it as human capital formation. It is the business of

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forming the skills and attitudes needed by a productive workforce – productive in the sense of producing an ever-growing mass of profits for the market economy. “Human capital” is a metaphor that is economically motivated and goes some way towards encapsulating the future orientation of education (Connell 2013, p. 104). A more holistic approach to development of graduate attributes would be to consider the positive contributions human flourishing can make. Increasingly the Australian government has followed a path of selective investment in higher education in courses which have a clear career destination. It has demonstrated an unwillingness to consider the value of degree programs which seek to create the opportunity for individuals to explore who they are, as opposed to what they will do for living (such as the Liberal Arts). Policy changes across the sector have been introduced by different governments, state and federal, and in different forms. These policy changes all move in the same direction – increasing the grip of market logic on schools, universities, and technical education (Connell 2013, p. 102). It seems the notion of human flourishing, a main aim of the 2030 sustainability goals, has been interpreted predominantly in economic terms without consideration to life satisfaction, contentment, sense of purpose, and happiness. The UNESCO guidelines (2016, p. 8) provide three underlying principles for SDG 4. These are: “Education is a fundamental human right and an enabling right”; “Education is a public good”; and, “Gender equality is inextricably linked to the right to education for all” (Webb et al. 2017, p. 509). One emphasis of SDG 4 is measurable, quality learning outcomes. A review of the progress towards SDG 4 records that many OECD countries, while having made progress towards some of the SDG 4 objectives, still face challenges in measuring learning outcomes (OECD 2017, p. 27). There is a need to employ educational practices which transform education in ways such that it results in knowledge, competencies, and skills which ensure well-being (flourishing) and prosperity for all (OECD 2017, p. 510).

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Human Flourishing Human Flourishing, an Introduction Teachers, policy makers, and parents should focus additionally on outcomes which serve the best interests of students rather than primarily the economy (Nussbaum 2010). Human flourishing should be the ideal aim of education (Wolbert et al. 2015). Flourishing can be evidenced by a person doing well in five domains of life: (i) happiness and life satisfaction; (ii) health, both mental and physical; (iii) meaning and purpose; (iv) character and virtue; and (v) close social relationships (VanderWeele 2017). Students should be educated in ways which enable them to live flourishing lives, without prioritizing their possible future contribution to the economy. In seeking to define human flourishing academic literature almost universally makes reference to the Aristotelian concept of eudaimonia. Eudemonia, in Aristotelian ethics, refers to the highest good in life. It is frequently translated as human flourishing. It speaks of people “doing well, behaving well and faring well” (MacIntyre 1967, p. 59). MacIntyre’s logic draws on a teleological notion of humanity and points away from “manas-he-happens-to-be” and towards “man-as-hecould-be-if-he-realized-his-telos” (a meaningful life purpose) (MacIntyre 2007, p. 52). He argues that it is the development of virtues which best guides a person to achieving his or her telos. Eudaimonia is achieved when what a person wants is in alignment with what is best for all. In other words, when a person’s motivation to act and behave in certain ways is the same as doing the right thing (Annas 1993). Human flourishing is fully achieved when a person’s full potential is being realized in ways which are contributing to the common good. Of course, this ideal is seldom realized and arguably a more accurate picture of human flourishing includes consideration of a person’s circumstances and abilities (De Ruyter 2015, p. 89). Thus, it is not true to say people do not experience flourishing unless their lives are perfect. Humans do not strive to achieve flourishing. Flourishing is a product of achieving other goals. In particular the alignment of a life with a telos.

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One of the outcomes of the economic rationalist policies of government in Australia is a fixation on measurement in education. A consequence of this trend has been the tendency for individuals to approach education with a “what’s in it for me” mindset as opposed to any thought of contributing to the common good (Biesta 2009). Biesta goes so far as to suggest “robust belief in the idea of the common good” (2009, p. 103) has been lost. The dominant values in education actively work against students learning to think about the common good (MacIntyre 1967). In a conversation with Dunne, MacIntyre argues it is a lack of reason in education which has led to this situation. He argues the ability for people to think for themselves is critical to the common good. By this he means the capacity to reason and reflect, juxtaposing different ideas and asking questions about current social and economic orders (MacIntyre and Dunne 2002). This, claims MacIntyre, is thinking for oneself, not thinking of oneself (2016). The person who thinks for themselves is not primarily concerned with the accumulation of “things” for themselves. They are concerned about the pursuit of the common good as well as their own. Education institutions should not be focused on learning outcomes which produce economic outputs but concentrate on teaching students “to think for themselves and act for the common good” (MacAllister 2016). In this way, education can make a substantive contribution to the achievement of SDG 4. Lifelong Learning and SDG 4 Lifelong learning is specifically identified within SDG 4 and is implicit in the achievement of many other SDGs. Lifelong learning is “a continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment, in all roles circumstances, and environments” (Watson 2003, p. 3). It involves “. . .the development of human potentials through a continuous supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and understanding they

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will require throughout their lifetimes and to apply with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances and environment” (Longworth and Davies 1996, p. 22). Lifelong learning has emerged as a focus of government education policy in Australia because of the increasing fluidity of the work environment. Instead of people staying in one career for their working lives they move through several different work contexts. Lifelong learning can create skills which last a lifetime, developing capabilities to acquire new knowledge and skills through self-directed learning activities (Cropely 1980, pp. 3–4). Lifelong learning for sustainability needs to challenge the dominant paradigm of education solely for economic purposes (Webb et al. 2017). Economically motivated approaches have not made any significant inroads towards ending inequities. Lifelong learning should be viewed as more than economic gain; it should be valued for its addition to human flourishing. HEPs should aim to establish graduate attributes that reflect why we learn, as well as what we learn. In this way learning can be designed to enrich all aspects of peoples’ lives (Roche, p. 624). From this approach, a new kind of society, one with a focus on the common good, can emerge. The concept of the common good reflects on an alignment between individual and community virtues (Argandona 2009). It is founded on the “belief that the growth and success of the community also enhances the well-being of individuals in the community” (O’Brien 2009, p. 28). While one human might flourish independently of others, human flourishing, the flourishing of all, relies on working together for the common good as opposed to just the good of the individual. The Interconnectedness of SDG 4 UN reports show the interconnectedness of education to other goals is strongly acknowledged in policy formation in developing countries. However, there is a much smaller focus on the importance of education on achieving the SDGs in developed countries (Vladimirova and Le Blanc 2016). In particular, reports from developed

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countries show they have neglected policy implementation which would lead to an emphasis on developing the skills of lifelong learning (OECD 2017). The OECD has recognized the potential problem of countries with higher gross domestic product (GDP) neglecting to address equity of access and quality of learning in education. The challenge of SDG 4 is for every country, regardless of its socioeconomic standing, to improve the quality of learning and equity in education. The OECD report, Education at a Glance (OECD 2017), comments that while OECD countries have largely succeeded in providing infrastructure for and access to basic education, all OECD countries still have a way to go to progress towards the SDG 4 targets. One significant distinction made in this report is between providing access to participation in education and the transformation of educational outcomes such that they ensure each individual’s well-being and prosperity. HEPs will need to remain mindful of these challenges as the review of graduate attributes continues and attributes are redeveloped to fit with their vision and mission and also meet regulatory requirements.

Graduate Attributes in the Literature An Introduction Graduate attributes are skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values which are distinct from the specific discipline studies and which contribute to the profession being prepared for (Spronken-Smith et al. 2015). They are qualities that help the student in their non-working and working lives. As such, graduate attributes are qualities, skills, and understandings that equip students to contribute to the social good during their lives (Boud and Solomon 2006, p. 212). As Woodhouse (1999, p. 29) claims, the push for HEPs to develop graduate attributes was primarily motivated by increasing expectations of accountability by government. The neoliberal philosophies underpinning economic policy development in Australia saw accountability as essential to justify public expenditure. The Australian government was looking for ways it could ensure

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HEPs were focusing on producing employable graduates to justify its continued funding of the sector. HEPs must now have a statement of graduate attributes as a requirement of funding (Gallagher 2000). Gallagher (2000) states that future accountability measures may include evidence of the measures HEPs have in place to achieve their graduate attributes. This adds weight to the establishment of good processes of development and review of graduate attributes. Embedding Graduate Attributes in the Curriculum There is strong evidence the embedding of graduate attributes in the curriculum provides greater opportunities for the graduate attributes to be acquired by students (Bowden et al. 2000). It creates a greater probability graduate attributes will be contextualized within the relevant discipline and thus be congruent with the professional knowledge and skills being taught (Bowden et al. 2000) The embedded approach also addresses concerns of students that what they are required to cover in their courses be relevant and contribute positively to their engagement in learning (Prosser and Trigwell 1999). The successful embedding of graduate attributes within the curriculum is dependent on the pedagogy of the lecture room (Barrie 2007) and the student-lecturer relationship. Learner focused activities, participatory pedagogies (Hill 2013), and partnering with students, inside and outside the classroom, in their learning journeys (Johansson and Felten 2014) foster the development of graduate attributes more effectively than traditional higher education approaches to teaching and learning. Of the evidence that exists on successful approaches to graduate attribute development, it seems that forms of learning that are student-considered which require active student involvement, that are self-directed, reflective, and relevant to students, seem to be better at promoting graduate attribute development (Ryan and Ryan 2013). Assessment Implications Neoliberalism has created educational policies and reform which have led to education

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increasingly being held accountable for the degree to which it contributes to Australia’s economic competitiveness in the global economy (Creagh 2014). One of the key ways in which education institutions provide evidence of successful learning is through assessment. The embracing of national testing and the weight placed on international test results are evidence of this emphasis on statistical processes of performance measurement in education. The Australian schooling sector has experienced these reforms in the form of the National testing which is reported on the government website “MySchool” (http://www. myschool.edu.au) which publishes school results compared to similar school results and national averages. The move to high stakes testing, such as NAPLAN, has met resistance from those who believe there is a risk schools will “teach to the test” and therefore marginalize life preparation lessons which are not included in the tests. This remains controversial and contested in Australia. The higher education sector has experienced the use of market forces to drive educational priorities in the indicators emphasized by government regulators. These include indicators such as employment outcomes and employer satisfaction ratings. While graduate attributes which lead to improvements in these outcomes are important, they are not necessarily, of themselves, going to result in people experiencing human flourishing. Not all outcomes can be quantified statistically as easily. If the emphasis on economic indicators sees HEPs develop graduate attributes with a narrow economic focus, to satisfy regulators, there is a risk they will neglect broader graduate attributes which may make an equal or even greater contribution to the degree to which individuals can experience human flourishing throughout their lives. Once HEPs have established graduate attributes and designed and implemented curriculum which embeds these as key outcomes, evidence of success will only come as they are assessed and measured. According to Hughes and Barrie (2010, p. 325), the “explicit embedding in assessment” of graduate attributes provides the best evidence of their achievement. Many Australian educators have not developed ways to effectively assess

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graduate attributes within their disciplines (Green et al. 2009). Thus, the use of graduate attributes in the setting, completion, and marking of assessment tasks during the completion of a course significantly contributes to their achievement. The creation of explicit connections between graduate attributes, learning outcomes, and assessment also assists students to develop an awareness of their personal developing acquisition of the attributes during their studies (Thompson et al. 2008). This places importance on the ongoing, developmental tracking and assessing of graduate attribute development (Kamvounias and Thompson 2008). This creates opportunities for educators to rethink their approaches to assessment to enable the inclusion of graduate attributes in the processes (Wood et al. 2011). Evaluation As graduate attributes include values and behaviors students will demonstrate after graduation, many higher education providers create a difficult task for themselves in that the graduate attributes must be taught, developed, and assessed before students graduate (Chanock 2003). Another approach is to describe qualities and skill of which students will develop awareness during their course and which will emerge in the future. Boud refers to “sustainable assessment,” meaning the assessment helps set the student up for continuing development of graduate attributes beyond their university experience (2000, p. 151). Barrie (2004) reflects that graduate attributes cannot truly be evaluated until students are engaged in the workplace. This has significance for higher education providers who deliberately seek to set their student on a lifelong learning journey of some description. These institutions may well need to develop evaluation mechanisms for graduate attribute development in alumni as a mechanism to better inform curriculum development. If the degree of achievement of graduate attributes is not measured over the longer term, it is doubtful if they will be successfully implemented in an institution (Fraser and Thomas 2013). With an emphasis on the development of lifelong leaning capabilities, it is reasonable

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to suggest the true effect of graduate attributes cannot be effectively measured at the point of course completion. Rather, a longitudinal process of collection of evidence is needed. This requires the collection of variety of types of data including student, alumni, and employer perceptions in longitudinal studies (Spronken-Smith et al. 2015). Engaging Academics and Students It has proved to be a challenge at higher education institutions to generate engagement by educators with graduate attributes (Radloff et al. 2009). For academics to embrace the value of graduate attributes, they need to be included in their development (Scoufis 2000). This will contribute to their sense of ownership of the attributes. While involving all academic staff it is, according to Chanock (2003), important the process does not take too much time or make units less flexible. It is when educators understand the importance of graduate attributes and begin to see them as an integral part of what they are trying to impart to their students that they will embrace them in their work. One of the difficulties faced by institutions seeking to fully engage with graduate attributes is the tendency for academics to see them as addons rather than an essential part of their work (Barrie 2004, p. 266), sitting “at the very heart of discipline knowledge and learning.” As Edwards and King (2002) point out, educators often treat graduate attributes as competing with their discipline content and impinging on the choices they can make in regard to pedagogy. Jones (2009) found academics were often resistant to making graduate attributes explicit in their teaching as they did not perceive they were integral to the discipline. Furthermore, academics often base their teaching models on their own experiences as students. Professional development for academics may provide solutions to developing an understanding of the role of graduate attributes across an institution and within various disciplines. Opportunities need to be provided for academics to learn how to integrate the development of the attributes into their curriculum and assessment practices in ways which do not compete with the content

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they are trying to cover (Scoufis 2000). Open discussion in which ideas, values, and goals are made explicit and visible help members of the learning community become more aware the perceptions and perspectives of others (Bowden and Marton 1998, p. 201). This, in turn, helps academics develop more robust conceptions of graduate attributes themselves. This process is not limited to academics alone. It has already been established that higher education institutions are committed to graduating students prepared for the workforce in a global environment. Students are presented with appropriate learning and assessment opportunities to enable them to develop and demonstrate achievement of graduate attributes. Daniels and Brooker (2014, p. 68) acknowledge the value of these skills for students when “successfully implemented” by institutions. The focus, however, remains on graduate attributes as institutional constructs with reference to the role of academics in assuring this outcome. This research highlights a gap in the literature, specifically the lack of focus on student engagement. Daniels and Brooker (2014, p. 68) assert graduate attributes “show little evidence that students have been encouraged to explore their development as students.” As a result, students are required to fit the institutional model of “work-readiness.” More often than not, this gives little or no consideration to broader issues of human flourishing. Daniels and Brooker reiterate the need for student identity to be considered in the construction of graduate attributes. Students develop academically at different rates and it is accepted that their purpose and agenda for studying may undergo a process of maturation throughout their course of study. Daniels and Brooker (2014, p. 73) articulate this development as follows: Similarly, a student’s perception of developing purpose and integrity in their initial year may be [. . .] simply understanding that they must work hard to understand major concepts, and resolve not to cheat in exams. By the time they are ready to graduate, purpose and integrity will be much more sophisticated concepts, likely to be a sound match to graduate attributes such as those currently promoted by many institutions, for example, ‘Exercise critical judgement in evaluating sources of information and constructing meaning’

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The value add of graduate attributes is not diminished with the inclusion of student engagement. Students develop a sense of self-awareness and ownership as they progress. According to Daniels and Brooker (2014, p. 73): If students are encouraged to actively engage in this process throughout their undergraduate years, by the time they graduate their awareness of the role of identity and their own agency in shaping theirs will be well developed.

This adaptable and more flexible approach will sustain them long after their graduation ceremony and their entry into the workforce. As the literature suggests the engagement of post-graduate students with wider society is one factor in the consideration of graduate attributes, student engagement is another. It is possible such engagement of students in the development of graduate attributes would contribute to the broadening of their scope to better include elements of human flourishing as well as prosperity.

Conclusion If the graduate attributes of Australian higher education providers are to substantially contribute to the achievement of SDG 4, Quality Education, significant work remains. SDG 4 has an emphasis on education which seeks to develop of lifelong learning capabilities which enable all people opportunities to experience both prosperity and human flourishing. For SDG 4 to be successfully achieved neoliberalist policies of government should also consider factors which contribute to human flourishing separately to those which contribute to national and international economic objectives. For graduate attributes to make a better contribution to the attainment of human flourishing, and therefore to the achievement of SDG 4, higher education providers must address the development of virtues. The integration of virtues into how we behave is vital to human flourishing (Craig and Snook 2014). Virtues give shape to what we treasure and give our lives meaning and purpose. Carse (2006, p. 42) proposes that the virtues of healthy empathy, a sustainable compassion for others,

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and joining in solidarity with those in need are process which are important for communities to realize human flourishing. Empathy is “feeling with” another (Noddings 1984). Sustaining compassion for others involves being able to identify suffering in others and acting and behaving in ways which makes it clear we want the suffering to stop (Van der Cingel 2009). Joining in solidarity occurs when people care “enough about the plight of others to do something in support of them” (Gunson 2009, p. 246). As long as economic rationalist policies dominate the political landscape within which HEPs operate, they need to resist the temptation to develop programs only to satisfy regulators. Instead Australian HEPs should be exploring curricula which have graduate attributes embedded which deliberately seek to build the potential for all graduates to experience human flourishing. Such curricula would include opportunities for learning experiences and outcomes which strategically give students opportunity to grow and develop as virtuous human beings. Learning activities which explore virtues such as those discussed above. Human flourishing is evidenced when people are doing well in more than just their income level, socioeconomic standing or the degree to which they are making positive contributions to international or national economic objectives of governments. Human flourishing is experienced when people can rise beyond seeking the fulfillment of their own needs and are motivated to engage in working for the common good. As mentioned earlier, it may be possible for an individual to flourish by themselves; however, for all to flourish the flourishing must be directed for the good of many – for the common good. In this way, people who experience human flourishing have a sense they are contributing to something higher, to a purpose beyond themselves, to a Telos. No doubt there is a minimum position of prosperity required before people can truly experience human flourishing. In the case of developing countries, where significant numbers of people may not experience food security, the focus of SDG 4 may well need to be oriented initially towards economic prosperity. There may

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be some people in developed countries, such as Australia, who still need to reach minimum levels of financial prosperity to more fully experience human flourishing. However, Australia can well afford to include human flourishing, as a key objective of higher education alongside prosperity. Even if Australian HEPs successfully develop and implement graduate attributes which scaffold programs which support the achievement of SDG, there is still a long way to go for institutions to successfully adopt graduate attributes as part of their organizational cultures (Clanchy and Ballard 1995). As HEPs review their graduate attributes and how they can be better embedded in curricula, vision and mission needs to be a significant reference point for the work (Popham 2007). To be aligned with SDG 4 and the United Nations 2030 Sustainability Goals, human flourishing must be a part of this vision and mission along with prosperity. As Barrie (2003) points out, “Shared ideas, values and goals [are seen] as being fundamental components of the collective consciousness of an organisation. They may not be explicit; they are often taken for granted and different members of the organisation may have acquired them independently from each other. . .,” (p. 73). Graduate attributes can provide excellent scaffolding within which Australian HEPs can develop courses which transcend the current economic rationalist focus of governments. In fact, if Australian HEPs are to effectively contribute to the achievement of SDG 4, Quality Education, in ways which lead to equal access to both prosperity and human flourishing; they must not restrict their graduate attributes to economic outcomes alone. Graduate attributes must be extended to encompass goals to develop virtuous as well as knowledgeable and skilled graduates.

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Heutagogy ▶ Future Trends in Education

Higher Education ▶ Tertiary Education

Higher Education Institutions and Competing Values Framework ▶ Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives

History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor Richard Leo Millis Institute and School of Education and Business, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane, Australia

Definitions History of Education is a broad field that encompasses both historiographical studies and

discussion of the political, social, and economic influences on education over time and across varying geographical or national locales. The field, while acknowledging that education has occurred throughout the centuries, focusses on the development of mass education in the interest of the nation-state since the Industrial Revolution. Its practice has been influenced by the wider theoretical debates in history and other social sciences (McCulloch, The Struggle for the History of Education 2011). The common good is what is shared or beneficial for all or most members of a community regardless of its public or private origin and characterized by the recognition of the fundamental rights of all people (UNESCO 2015). A collective social endeavor is where the “creation of knowledge, its control, acquisition, validation, and use’ is made available to everyone so that the ways that education is governed is no longer separated from how knowledge is governed (UNESCO 2015).

Introduction Since the second half of the twentieth century, formal education has exhibited several broader social and cultural trends as a global expansion has “poured . . . [students] into all levels of education” (UNESCO 2017, p. 4). The objective of the fourth Sustainable Development Goal to ensure “inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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all” (United Nations 2015) provides an ambitious target as societies wrestle with the rapid and profound environmental, economic, and social challenges that call for both global and local solutions (OECD 2018). An inclusive, equitable, and goodquality education provides the means for current and subsequent generations to be change agents into the future of the collective enterprise of human endeavor. Given that our present actions are often influenced by our beliefs of what has come before, developing an accurate historical framework helps us to understand and evaluate how formal education as it is currently practiced contributes to building the common good (Hansot and Tyack 1982, p. 21). In casting our eyes backward, we can locate our present concerns within larger patterns of change and continuity. Throughout the history of mass education, the crux of discussion has focussed on the overarching purposes of why and how societies educate each new generation. This debate has usually centered around whether education should be turning out knowledgeable citizens or skilled workers. Since the era of the Industrial Revolution, there has been a close link between economic advancement and the success of a nation’s education system in passing on the values and information that societies regard as important for the next generation. In 1914, the English economic historian RH Tawney identified this nexus when he stated that education reflected how we perceive the purposes for human society (Briggs 1972, p. 9). Over half a century later, Charles Webster stated that it was only by referencing the past that we can “retrace the steps” through which humanity has advanced (Webster 1976, p. 211). In contemporary liberal democratic societies, current sociopolitical debates around what future generations are expected to know, value, and do in curriculum development, educational policy, management, or funding arrangements encapsulate how societies struggle to develop effective systems of mass education that capture their “soul” (Kennedy 2009, p. 6). These tensions are often expressed in debates over how to balance the needs of individual rights and communal responsibilities causing the American educationalist David Labaree to describe education as holding that “awkward

position” between our hopes for the future and the reality of the now (Labaree 1997, p. 41). Any survey of education history also recognizes the interdisciplinary nature of the subject matter. The historian of education Gary McCulloch has argued that the field is a site of constant struggle around its identity, rationale, and strategy that varies according to the larger political, educational, or socioeconomic issues that occur in various geographical or national locales (McCulloch, The Struggle for the History of Education 2011). He identifies that there tends to be a separation between “historians,” those who practice the discipline of “history,” and educationists who see education as the practice of applied knowledge to current issues and professional concerns. Therefore, histories of education tend to draw widely from and “linger on the borders” of the fields of history, education, and areas in the social sciences such as sociology, psychology, and economics (McCulloch, New Directions in the History of Education 2016, p. 47). Elsewhere, he draws a distinction between official (the record of the “State”), private (or personal memories), and public (histories that highlight social inequalities) pasts as three distinct types of educational histories (McCulloch, Publicizing the educational past 2000, pp. 9–16). When considering these larger influences, it is also important to note that studies of education, its past and present, are still often discussed within frameworks that draw heavily on Western ideas, praxis, and theoretical concerns. Chen Kuan-Hsing argues for an exploration of the relationship between local wisdom and traditional cultures and Western theories of education in an idea that he calls “internationalist localism” (Chen 2010). Research applying this idea has shown how discussion around reform agendas in education management, curriculum, and pedagogy in non-Western constructs such as Oceania are still being shaped by Western ideals (Chan et al. 2018). These diverse influences have the potential to cause confusion in identifying the broader social and cultural trends that influence the development of mass education since the Industrial Revolution. Labaree suggests three distinguishable goals of mass education which can help make sense of

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how societies have tried to balance economic advancement with a knowledgeable citizenry since global mass education began in the nineteenth century (Labaree 1997). He recognizes that his framework is shaped by the historical experience of education in the USA; however, it is also one that can be applied more widely. The first influence he describes is the “social efficiency model.” This model creates a skilled workforce and economic efficiency, mainly through vocational education with a liberal arts education for the (usually wealthy) fortunate elite. The second is a socially upward and economically mobile model where, as the American President Lyndon Baines Johnson declared in 1965, “people are going to learn their way out of poverty” (Marginson 1997, p. 11). The third goal, under the influence of John Dewey’s “democracy and education model” (Dewey 1916) has been to create an engaged democratic citizen. Labaree calls this the “republican” or “democratic” model in the sense that, at least in the American context, the original “republicans” were citizens acting to promote the wider purposes of a liberal democracy. According to Labaree all three models attempt to answer the question of how education can shape and benefit society through both economic advancement and the creation of a knowledgeable citizenry.

Social Efficiency Model Histories describing the origins of nation-state mass education systems in the nineteenth and early twentieth century are representative of Labaree’s “social efficiency” model. In this model, the economic well-being of a society relies on its ability to prepare young people to carry out useful economic roles. These “Whig,” or liberalprogressive, approaches to history, popular until the mid-twentieth century across the Anglo educational world, have tended to be the dominant reading of educational history. This type of education history developed within the two contexts of history and education. For example, in the 1890s, the British government mandated that in the teacher day training colleges, someone “must be appointed to lecture on theory and history of

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education” (Aldrich 2000, p. 67). Education history texts written during this era traced the formation of the nation-state and how its systems of education were designed and built and were usually meant to be read by teacher trainees. A focus on the biographies of predominantly male founders and contributors to the various systems or educational institutions is common. This approach is generally uncritical and still tends to be the one adopted by many commissioned school or educational institution histories (Campbell 2016, p. 5). Given these early histories of education were usually written by educationists, they tended to be histories “interested in the influence of the [present] society on education” rather than histories that tried to understand the past on its own terms and understand how education influenced society (Richardson 1999, p. 138). As such, the infrastructure and values of the modern nation-state were often reinforced and supported by these histories of mass education as they presented its growth as part of the inevitable progression of the nation-state toward ever-increasing liberty and freedom. Socially efficient state educational systems emerged in the nation-states of Europe because it was thought to be the best way to develop a Western European model of a national society. Even though he lived before the period of mass state education systems, Napoleon managed to capture, in 1802, a vision of how the state could not be established and become a nation unless it was supported by “a teaching body with definitely recognized principles” (Ramirez and Boli 1987, p. 8). In a survey of the creation of state-sponsored education systems in Germany, Sweden, France, Great Britain, and Italy, Ramirez and Boli found that in all cases a national “crisis of confidence” led to an insistence on forming a state-led education system. The typical response followed a four-step pattern of a stated interest in mass education, then legislation for compulsory schooling, the creation of a state educational bureaucracy, and finally the establishment of state authority over all new and existing schools (Ramirez and Boli 1987, p. 9). They also found that the European model was based on five myths: the individual, the existence of the national society relied on these individuals, progress

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underpinned national and individual productivity, the character of the adult was formed through childhood socialization, and the state was the guarantor of the nation and progress. The authors of this study note that their model is not as strong in explaining the early stages of mass education in the USA as the central state has not played as strong a role when compared with the European statesponsored systems; however, they argue that this model describes the US situation well in the postwar period (Ramirez and Boli 1987, pp. 4, Fn 3). Thus, mass schooling became the place where the new national society was created through unified nation-building, progress, and citizenship development. Eventually the “European model” of how to build human capital morphed into a “world model” based on European origins that sought to mobilize the members of the nation-state for the betterment and advancement of that state within the international order. Education based on this socially efficient European model was made possible by the Industrial Revolution which fundamentally altered the character and economic structure of society. It brought about the need for a closer connection between education in schools and the working life of the industrially employed. Before the industrial era, education was largely the purview of the wealthy elite, those who could afford individual tutors or attendance at the few elite formal boarding schools on offer. Some wealthier merchants could also afford to send their sons to smaller local schools giving elementary instruction, but the quality and number of these available were questionable. The only opportunities for an education afforded the poor, especially in the UK, during the first century or so of the Industrial period largely arose through the efforts of voluntary organizations such as the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK) and its charity schools. Others might learn some basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic in the various dame schools, Sunday Schools, ragged schools, or other industrial schools for pauper children that were emerging during the first half of the eighteenth century. The growth of industry, during the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries, however, led various national governments of Europe to

became more and more involved in the process of education, establishing public systems and minimum standards. An increasing demand for technicians, engineers, chemists, foremen, clerks, accountants, and other trained individuals in a variety of areas all required an elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic. So important were the perceptions of these skills to the future national interest that the new schools were described by British historian EL Woodward as being “as necessary as the new machine tools and the new railways” (Jarman 1951, p. 212). Governments insisted that all children should attend school to minimum ages. These ages were gradually raised over the decades. For example, in 1880 the UK set the minimum leaving age at 10 years, which was raised to 14 years by 1918 and 16 years in 1972. In France, schooling became mandatory for all children between the ages of 6 and 13 in 1882 seeing an increase in literacy rates for the general population from 60% in 1870 to 95% by 1900 (Grew and Harrigan 1991). Curriculum generally consisted of the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic while pursuing various cultural, national, social, and ideological goals. For example, the UK Elementary School Code of 1904 stated that the Public Elementary School was to form the character and intelligence of students to prepare them for the “work of life” (Elementary Code (1904), 1965; 2006, p. 154). Secondary or technical education led to the introduction of new subjects into the curriculum that would support the necessary skills for integration of labor into the economy of the modern nation-state. Subjects such as modern languages, history and geography, and maths and the sciences pushed traditional studies in Latin and Greek into the background. In the early twentieth century, the political climate of Europe also saw schools being used to teach various national political or social values. This practice was at its most extreme in the schools of Nazi Germany (1933–1945), Fascist Italy (1922–1943) and Communist Soviet Union (1917–1991) (Blackburn 1985; Holmes 1991; Williams 1994); however, traditional “Whiggish” histories of other Western nations tend to depict an era of positive national progressiveness within the context of particular national characters or types.

History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor

In the post-war period, debates began to focus on questions of how to form a functioning, engaged and educated citizenry as existing and emerging national education systems, especially in Europe, found themselves needing to adapt to the relentless pace of economic and social change in these years. One example of this break with past will suffice. In Germany, so that a clear break with Nazism and distinctly separate identity from the East German system was apparent, the West Germans reinstated the Weimar “toasting fork” model of educational organization: a short 4-year primary handle that branched out into three secondary “prongs” that was designed for the various social classes. In building a mass education system in this manner, the West Germans attempted to balance the competing needs of a productive economic system with new directions in shaping their post-war citizenry. In Australia, the Martin Report (1964) into the future of tertiary education saw education as an investment with “significant economic benefits” that increased the “skill of [the] population and through accelerating technological progress” thus ensuring education was a justifiable “form of national investment in human capital” (Martin 1964, pp. 1–2). UNESCO expressed similar sentiments when it declared in 1968 that “schooling and other forms of education are of vital economic significance” to investment in human capital of developing nations (UNESCO 1968, p. 15). The post-war period in which these comments appear is remarkable for its historically unprecedented global expansion of public education as nations around the world saw education as necessary for both the advancement of their citizenry and as a form of national investment in human capital. Exploding enrolment rates and educational needs in both developing and developed countries throughout the 1960s caused a “world educational crisis” (Elfert 2015, p. 89) bringing the traditional narratives, including the social efficiency model, of education history under challenge. From the 1960s, revisionist approaches inspired by Marxist or New Left social theoretical perspectives challenged these older more traditional approaches as histories of education emerged as a form of social history. New revisionist histories built on the

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insight of Emile Durkheim that studies in history and the social sciences were closely linked (Durkheim 1977, p. 331). Historians of education began to use these insights to investigate the historical connectedness of education to wider societal issues. In the USA, this work was undertaken by Bernard Bailyn and Lawrence Cremin (Bailyn 1960; Cremin 1965), while in the UK, Brian Simon sought to understand the relationship between education and social change, an idea popular in Britain in the 1940s and 1950s (Simon, The history of education 1966). Simon was strongly influenced by his ongoing involvement in, and support of, communist thinking throughout the mid-twentieth century, something that arose from his dislike of fascism in the 1930s. Thus, his work tended to focus on how social classes had different interests and requirements from education (Simon, Can education change society?, 1985, p. 27). These revisionist approaches allowed for the growth of more critical scholarship and a variety of historical interpretations to materialize. In the 1970s and 1980s, an emerging generation of “new sociologists” of education adopted the neo-Marxist theories prominent in the 1970s to engage in debate and inquiry focussing on how to reform education systems. Scholars, such as Michael Apple (USA), Jean Anyon (USA), Pierre Bourdieu (France), Geoff Whitty, Basil Bernstein, and Michael Young (UK), were interested in how the stratification of school knowledge worked to disenfranchise working-class youth. They explored the ways that the organization of the unstated school curriculum and the official curriculum combined to sort students into different classes. Meanwhile, the work of Brazilian Paulo Freire (1970, 1996) in critical pedagogy and liberating the sociopolitical consciousness of the marginalized through education (known in English as “conscientization”) contributed an ongoing challenge to the “topdown” approach adopted in traditional empiricist historical approaches. The revisionary work of the 1960s and 1970s challenged the dominance of the social efficiency model by questioning the underlying epistemological architecture that governed the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of the individual in society. The problem of “high-status knowledge” is one

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example of this process at work. High-status knowledge is knowledge that is linked to the exercise of power and practice of culture in a society. It is usually seen as knowledge that has high economic utility and is also “discrete,” that is, has identifiable boundaries to the content and an inherently stable structure so that the knowledge is both teachable and testable. Such knowledge becomes “prestigious” because it is then directly linked with economic reproduction. Michael Apple argues that such emphasis on the economic utility of STEM-style disciplines is a reason as to why these subjects receive greater funding and political support than less amenable subjects in the arts and the humanities (Apple 2004, pp. 38–39). According to Pierre Bourdieu, the socially efficient nation-state reinforces these cultural rules by linking economic and cultural capital (Bourdieu and Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture 1977). Critiques of contemporary global tracking tests such the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Second International Mathematics Study (SIMS), and the Trends in Mathematics and Science Repeat Study (TIMSS) are examples of the ongoing discussion of what constitutes high-status knowledge in contemporary mass education systems (Sahlberg 2015, pp. 79–80). Results that allow for globally recognizable positions on “league tables” produced from these tests encourage a focus on core subjects such as literacy and numeracy and test-based accountability throughout education systems of the nation-state. These tests, part of the Global Educational Reform Movement (GERM) that emerged concurrently with neoliberal educative practices in the 1980s, are an example of how high-status knowledge can be tracked and tested as education has become commodified within contemporary liberal democratic nation-states as part of contemporary practices of a socially efficient model.

Social Mobility Model One of the advantages of the socially efficient model is that it encouraged economic and cultural alignment with the interests of the nation-state.

Provided that these interests were not challenged, it also offered an opportunity for education to be used as a form of social mobility. From this perspective, education is a commodity that provides students with the necessary credentials to get ahead in any societal structure. In the late nineteenth century, the Cambridge economist Alfred Marshall argued that since over half of the “natural genius” were born in the working classes, the wealth of the nation would be improved by an “extensive system of scholarships” to allow clever students to gain the best possible education of the era (Marshall 1890/1920, p. 212). Throughout the twentieth century, various attempts have been made using this model to improve educational outcomes for the poor and marginalized. In 1921, WB Pillsbury argued in the Scientific Monthly that education systems act as a “means of selecting the men of best intelligence” so that they may go to university and gain employment in the professions (Darling-Hammond 2010, p. 53). In the USA, moves toward desegregation and the passing of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 started a series of “Great Society” programs throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Significant narrowing of educational achievement gaps for African-American and Hispanic students followed, and for a short period in the mid-1970s, Black and Hispanic students were attending college at comparable rates as White students. However, the reduction or elimination of targeted federal programs in the 1980s saw the historical divergence between these groups re-emerge (Darling-Hammond 2010, p. 18). The end of the Cold War and the collapse of communist societies in the early 1990s saw neoliberalism emerge dominant across global politics, society, and economics. Neoliberal thought with its emphasis on how individuals negotiate a free market that touches every part of our personal and public lives encouraged further evolution of socially mobile attitudes toward education. In particular, neoliberalism can be seen in the influence on mounting credentialism and increasing provision at all levels of private education. The rise of credentialism is perhaps the clearest marker of the social mobility approach with its

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emphasis on accumulating educational degrees assessing skills and knowledge in order to find productive employment. If the number of years spent in formal education is used as a proxy for human capital, schooling reaps significant rewards. For example, in the USA in 1960, 41.1% of Americans 25 years or older had completed 4 years of high school, and only 7.7% had completed 4 years of college. By 1980, these figures had increased to 66.5% and 16.2%, respectively. By the end of the twentieth century, these proportions had climbed further still to 83.4% and 25.2%, respectively. Simultaneously, jobs have increased their academic requirements for entry as formal qualifications have become a shortcut to finding an employee that has passed through the required educational filter (Volti 2008, pp. 125–128). Consequently, young people are questioning the “return on investment” of both time and finances required by traditional “highstatus” educational routes (Facer 2011). In conjunction with the rise of credentialism has been an increasing privatization of education at all levels. This has been particularly marked in primary education in lower-income countries and in post-secondary non-tertiary education in more developed economies. Bottery makes a case for educational leaders to be aware of globalism’s “trend to the profit,” away from the public good (Bottery 2006, p. 15). Privatization of school education has occurred through various forms including home schooling; personal tutoring; faith schools; low-fee private schools; charter, contract, and voucher schools; foreign aid or international schools run by NGOs; and market-oriented and for-profit schools (UNESCO 2015, p. 73). Programs such as “No Child Left Behind” or “Race to the Top” in the USA, or debates in countries such as Australia over school funding that were stimulated by the Gonski Reports of 2012 and 2018, are evidence of the increasing influence that privatization of education is having on the delivery of mass education. In reviewing the private sector’s influence, the authors of UNESCO’s Rethinking Education report (2015) raise legitimate questions about the purposes of education and how learning within a contemporary education system is organized. They question the scale, scope, and

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penetration of private education and the impact these have on the delivery of inclusive and equitable quality education that promotes lifelong learning opportunities for everyone. However, they explicitly recognize and address that debates over privatization of education need to reconsider the guiding normative principle of education as a public good within the changing context of market, state, and society (Morgan and White 2014). The 2015 report determined that public goods have been perceived as being directly connected to public or state policy which can cause confusion whereby public goods are provided by the public. Alternatively, common goods are those whereby no matter their origin, public or private, are necessary for the basic rights of everyone (UNESCO 2015, p. 77). To this end they argue that education should be considered as a common good, whereby the “creation of knowledge, its control, acquisition, validation and use” are common to everyone as a collective social endeavor (UNESCO 2015, p. 80).

Democratic or “Republican” Model The era of mass education has been influenced by a third strand, which Labaree refers to as a democratic or “republican” model of thought. The early thoughts of this strand are encapsulated in the work of educationalist John Dewey who advocated that democracy is more than a form of government but is actually a way of living together. He held that for a society to hold common values, there must be “equitable opportunity” for all members of the society to engage with a “large variety of shared undertakings and experiences” (Dewey 1916, p. 84). This vision has been acknowledged as one of the principles underpinning the recent successes seen in the education system of Finland (Sahlberg 2015). In recent years histories of education have broadened beyond the empiricist “acts and facts” tradition through using theoretical approaches that seek to deconstruct the societal and structural frameworks established under the Europeanglobal model of mass education. Voices that had previously been marginalized such as women/ girls, ethnic minorities, indigenous peoples, and

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working-class groups have been brought to light as part of a wider democratic model. McCulloch also notes how various documentation has been used to create new interpretations of the educational past as both oral and visual histories of education have become far more common in recent years. In addition, investigations into sensory histories that use senses of smell, sound, taste, touch, and sight to investigate the past are emerging with some examples including investigations into soundscapes as described in eighteenth-century texts or the how students in the twentieth century understand the sensate environment as part of the curriculum (McCulloch, New Directions in the History of Education 2016, pp. 51–52). Education practices shaped by the democratic model seek to move mass education to embrace approaches that encourage lifelong learning as a collective social endeavor. New challenges in the twenty-first century such as ecological stress and unsustainable patterns of economic production and consumption, greater wealth and rising inequalities, increasing interconnectedness and rising intolerance, and challenges in ensuring the full development of human rights add further complexities to the discussion (UNESCO 2015, pp. 20–25). The importance of incorporating indigenous knowledge in the contemporary era as an act of social justice should also be recognized. As noted earlier through reference to Chen’s concept of “internationalist localism,” by privileging one form of knowledge, we continue to privilege a system of power that was shaped by nineteenth century’s European-global model. A democratic vision of education has been inculcated in the international education community post-1945 through two landmark reports by UNESCO: the “Faure Report” (1972), Learning to be: the world of education today and tomorrow, and the “Delors Report” (1996), Learning: the treasure within. Sitting within the humanist enlightenment traditions of universal values and freedoms advocated by Dewey, both reports promote the concept of “lifelong learning” and have influenced educational policy in systems around the globe in a way that is at odds with

contemporary and historical economically driven utilitarian views of education (Elfert 2015, p. 88). Of the two reports, the Delors Report is more significant, notwithstanding, that it was the Faure Report that established the paradigm of lifelong learning. The earlier report was political-philosophical in nature encouraging cooperation with developing countries and improving all aspects of society. Elfert (2015, p. 89) shows how the Faure Report was influenced by the social and political upheavals inspired by the May 1968 student riots in Paris and the desire to position UNESCO as an international driver of education and policy. As such, it is a report that is reflective of its times, an era where a “global justice emerged as a call for a new social contract” (Elfert 2015, p. 89) and in which “persons [and not states] are the ultimate subjects of international morality” (Moyn 2013). The Delors Report emerged in a very different historical context and offered a very different vision to the economic vision of the day. Written after the end of the Cold War where capitalism and neoliberal ideals seemed to have succeeded it argued for the revisioning of the ideals of the Faure Report. In an era of renewed interest in human rights, rising neoliberalism and the opening of China, the Delors Report drew on ideas emphasizing the equality of all humanity as global citizens and in the potentiality of humans to change their world for the better while confirming UNESCO as an advocate of humanist visions of education. Within this context it continued to advocate for the understanding that learning should be seen as a continuum rather than being limited to life stages and ages. The report described seven tensions that were generated by societal change: global and the local; the universal and the individual in a globalized society; tradition and modernity; long-term and short-term considerations in an age of media immediacy; economic concerns in the need for competition against the concerns for equality of opportunity; the ability of human beings to assimilate the increased expansion of knowledge; and the conflict between understanding spiritual and material concerns (Tawil and Cougoureux 2013, pp. 2–3). Most significantly, however, the Delors Report proposed Four Pillars of Education

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reflecting an integrated approach that has gone on to have sizeable influence on policy debates, teacher training and curriculum development around the world. These four pillars have been identified as having contributed to successful transformations of education systems in Finland, Singapore, and South Korea (Darling-Hammond 2010). The report argued that knowledge that was essential to sustainable human development was being ignored. As a basis for reflection and debate on educational reform, the four pillars (learning to know, do, be, and live together) were designed to provide a framework for education that could develop the richness and diversity of talent for each human being. In 2015, UNESCO acknowledged that in an era where sustainability is becoming a key concern of global development, the four pillars may need some “reinvigorating” suggesting that the fourth pillar could go beyond a focus on human culture and society and consider the relationship of human society with the natural environment (UNESCO 2015, p. 39). Other critiques included questioning whether education had the capability to overcome the seven tensions generated by social change or that the pedagogical vision presented was not new but merely building on previous work of Dewey, Freire, Piaget, and Vygotsky (Tawil and Cougoureux 2013). The difference between the two reports is underscored by the historical contexts from which they come. The Faure Report challenged the broader formal education and schooling systems. While it accepted that a school should be the foundation of any education system, it did call for a critical re-examination of schools so that they became less elitist and promote learning that is more relevant to people’s lives. According to the authors of the report, the school system excluded “hundreds of millions of illiterate people” and that it acted as a “sieve . . . with an eye to selecting the future élite” (Faure 1972, p. 44; 59). This is a perspective that the new sociologists of Europe and the USA (e.g., Bourdieu, Apple) continued to show in their work throughout the 1960s and 1970s. By the 1990s, with the collapse of Communist societies, rising neoliberalism and expanding primary education globally, the Delors Report embraced the school as the basis of the education

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system. In identifying the local school and its context as the basis for creating critical and active participatory citizens, the latter report sees the “central aim of education [as] the fulfillment of the individual as a social being” (Delors 1996, p. 53). In doing so the political messaging of both reports was the political-philosophical perspective of lifelong learning within a democratic context. In 1972, the Faure Report envisioned a new society through education; by 1996, the Delors Report saw that education could create a more just world.

Conclusion The educational landscape has transformed since mass education first emerged. At the Dakar World Education Forum in 2000, a model that was born out of the economic imperatives of the industrial revolution had been transformed as 164 governments agreed to achieve Education for All (EFA) in a global commitment to the provision of quality basic education for all whether children, youth, and adults by 2015. EFA ensured that people’s learning needs are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programs. The emergence of a globally diverse and interconnected world has caused a rethink on the importance of how education is governed and organized. Using a social efficiency model, mass education had traditionally been modelled on a nineteenth century interpretation of shared national identity. Under challenges from both the social mobility and democratic approaches, mass education has become a way to empower communities to build the human resources needed to encourage sustainable development (Power 2015, p. vii). Since post-1945 the premise that the Europeanglobal model of the nation-state acts as the sole provider of education has come under challenge. Rather, it is to act as the guarantor of the right to education for the creation of sustainable and empowered communities. In an increasingly interdependent world with emerging concerns for sustainable development, mass education has become the vehicle of humanity’s collective social endeavor and its common good.

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Europe – nineteenth-and twentieth-century education – university, schools, secondary, and press – JRank articles. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbour Hansot E, Tyack D (1982) A usuable past: using history in educational policy. In: Lieberman A, McLaughlin MW (eds) Policy making in education. National Society for Study of Education, Chicago, pp 1–21 Holmes LE (1991) The kremlin and the schoolhouse: reforming education in Soviet Russia, 1917–1931. Indiana University Press, Bloomington Jarman T (1951) Landmarks in the history of education: English education as part of the European tradition. The Cresset Press, London Kennedy K (2009) The idea of a national curriculum in Australia: what do Susan Ryan, John Dawkins and Julia Gillard have in common? Curriculum Perspect 29(1):1–9 Labaree DF (1997) Public goods, private goods: the American struggle over educational goals. Am Educ Res J 34(1):39–81 Marginson S (1997) Educating Australia: government, economy and citizen since 1960. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Marshall A (1890/1920) Principles of economics. Macmillan and Company, London Martin L (1964) Tertiary education in Australia. Committee on the future of tertiary education in Australia. Australian Universities Commission, Melbourne McCulloch G (2000) Publicizing the educational past. In: Crook D, Aldrich R (eds) History of education for the twenty-first century. Institute of Education/University of London, London, pp 1–16 McCulloch G (2011) The struggle for the history of education. Routledge, London McCulloch G (2016) New directions in the history of education. J Int Comp Educ 5(1):47–56 Morgan WJ, White I (2014) Education for global development: reconciling society, state, and market. Weiterbildung 1:38–41 Moyn S (2013) Lecture at the Center for the Humanities, Wesleyan University. The political origins of global justice. Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/us/ institution/wesleyan-university/id427785946 OECD (2018) The future of education and skills: education 2030. OECD, Paris Power C (2015) The power of education: education for all, development, globalisation and UNESCO. Springer, London Ramirez FO, Boli J (1987) The political construction of mass schooling: European origins and worldwide institutionalization. Sociol Educ 60(1):2–17. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2112615 Richardson W (1999) Historians and educationists: the history of education as a field of study in post-war England. Part 2: 1972–960 . Hist Educ 28(2):109–141 Sahlberg P (2015) Finnish lessons 2.0, 2nd edn. Teachers College Press, New York Simon B (1966) The history of education. In: Tibble J (ed) The study of education. RKP, London

Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework Simon B (1985) Can education change society? In: Simon B (ed) Does education matter. Lawrence and Wishart, London, pp 3–13 Tawil S, Cougoureux M (2013) Revisiting learning: the treasure within – assessing the influence of the 1996 Delors report: UNESCO education research and foresight: Occassional papers. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (1968) Readings in the economics of education. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2015) Rethinking education: towards a global common good? UNESCO Publishing, Paris UNESCO (2017) Accountability in education: meeting our commitments. UNESCO, Paris United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations Volti R (2008) An introduction to the sociology of work and occupations. Pine Forge Press, Los Angeles Webster C (1976) Changing perspectives in the history of education. In: Oxford review of education, vol 2. pp 201–13 Williams GL (1994) Fascist thought and totalitarianism in Italy’s secondary schools: theory and practice. P Lang, New York

Holism ▶ Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

Holistic Education ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework Emilia de la Sienra The Transdisciplinary Collective, Sydney, Australia Environmental Education and Training, Mexico City, Mexico

Synonyms Critical thinking; Integrated thinking; Planetary thinking; Systemic thinking; Transdisciplinary thinking

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Definition Holistic thinking has been broadly defined as a pattern of thought that usually focuses on the whole rather than the parts. The key motivation behind this thinking style is that understanding the behavior of the whole can’t be achieved by looking separately at the behavior of each of the parts but rather from observing their interactions (Jackson 2006; Miller 2009). One of the main challenges inherent to this thinking style is the clear identification of what is a whole and what is a part; everything around seems to be both wholes and parts at the same time (Jackson 2006). An animal may be perceived as a whole integrated by the circulatory, respiratory, and musculoskeletal parts; simultaneously, the holistic approach would perceive that same animal as a part of a more complex whole like an ecosystem, interacting with other multiple parts, in highly complex ways. The term holism alludes to the biosphere constituted by wholes that are both partly autonomous and partly dependent upon or subsidiary to greater wholes; it is the tendency in nature to form connected wholes (Koestler 1970). At its core, this thinking excludes the dualistic mutually exclusive definition of the terms: whole and part, suggesting that within the whole that contains everything, there are many wholes that are simultaneously parts of larger wholes. Indeed, parts cannot exist by themselves either at a biological or social level (Koestler 1970). Depending on the context or the situation at hand, a holistic way of thinking will seek to apply an overarching structure or comprehensive meaning, by focusing on patterns and characteristics that tend to be similar and thus creating fewer but broader categorizations for understanding how the parts (or sub-wholes) can influence each other (Benoit and Miller 2017). Holistic thinking is particularly effective for complex tasks and problems with subjective and opposing worldviews (Benoit and Miller 2017), where the primary need would be to remember that every element in the world is somehow interconnected.

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Introduction This entry first discusses the implications of holistic thinking in the educational context of the twenty-first century. It is argued that the biggest global challenge humanity is facing today is a philosophical one; it is a deep philosophical reconceptualization of what it means to be human nowadays and what education should be reviewing, creating, and explaining today. This reconceptualization is built in this text upon a holistic thinking approach, where the integration between the historically opposed educational paradigms educare and educere is encouraged. This entry then reviews what a worldview is and how it is formed and expressed, setting the foundations for the introduction of some insights into the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework, a useful reference to honor the systemic, complex, and holistic nature of the human condition. This framework offers guidance for the design and implementation of learning experiences advocating for the integration of educare and educere, which means advocating for holistic ways of thinking. Furthermore, holistic ways of feeling, acting, and holistic ways of being in the world.

The Biggest Challenge Humanity Is Facing Today Is a Philosophical One In the last few decades, it has been increasingly argued that the greatest challenge humanity is facing today is to operate within the capacity and boundaries of the natural systems on Earth (Capra 2007). While this statement is indisputable and supported by overwhelming data, this challenge implies, at its core, a profound reassessment of the modern meanings given to the human existence. This entry suggests that hidden underneath the environmental and sustainability crises lay a deep philosophical crisis of identity, purpose, and belonging. The modern era has framed the development of an industrialized society dominated by the assumption that any entity or process in the physical world can be broken up into a fixed number of fundamental parts and laws, in the Newtonian

terms of a machine, with a fundamental division between such physical world and the human mind, separated on a Cartesian grid of time and space (Chatterjee 2013). Although this fragmentary Newtonian-Cartesian (mechanistic) paradigm has permeated every aspect of society in the last three centuries, one of the best examples of its repercussion is the educational context, which certainly demonstrates its profound rooting and impact. The word education has two possible Latin etymological roots: educare and educere with a clear distinction in their significance; educare (or educavi) means to direct someone, to mold, or to train, whereas educere (or eduxi) means to elicit or evoke that which is latent in an individual (Bass and Good 2004). This subtle distinction points to the ancient disputation in the philosophy of education. Those who have stressed the preservation of culture through curriculum emphasizing instruction, obedience, and the acquisition of certain types of knowledge have been opposed by those who prefer self-expression, individual curiosity, creativity, and a flexible curriculum embodying choice (Bass and Good 2004). Educare Educare is widely expressed in the modern educational systems, oriented around the “construction of the child as a future citizen,” where children were conceived as moldable souls in the social, political, and economic growth contexts, who would learn to act from reason and logic in the name of the public and common good (Trohler 2011). Motivated by biological drivers of selfpreservation and reproduction, physical states such as pleasure and fear, and social forces such as cultural morals or power relations involving the means of progress, humans have been assumed to operate according to invariant natural laws and hence can be trained and managed by the proper use of behavioral techniques (through education). These foundational assumptions reflect the conception of human psychology as a logical science, a vision of human nature embodying the Cartesian-Newtonian age (Orr 1991; Trohler 2011). Supported by prevailing Enlightenment and Industrial notions of reason and progress, one

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country after another created their own modern education system, or adopted one, as the new model of socialization and development (Orr 1991; Trohler 2011). The hierarchical administration of schools has long reflected the ideology of efficiency and scientific management, which educators learned from business and industry. Under this system, students are assumed to be moved by competitive impulses largely based on guilt of failure and punishment or on reward and recognition (Orr 1991; Trohler 2011). This mechanistic paradigm evoked an indoctrination process aimed at the preservation of information and the shaping of new generations according to the image of the previous. The curriculum has represented a fragmentation and objectification of the human experience, an abbreviation of life where the world is compartmentalized into subjects and departments for its mechanized consumption (Orr 1991). Pedagogical methods commence with the arrangement of the classroom in separation from the community and continue with the imposition of materials and tasks selected for specific instruction. These methods also involve the use of rigid tests, grades, and tracking, where learning is seen as a final product, an outcome which can be accurately measured. All kinds of facts, techniques, methods, and information have been transferred into the minds of new generations, regardless of how such inheritance has been interpreted and acted out, according to the unique significance each individual has been able to build upon (Kolb 1984). The benefits of modern education (educare) are well documented through large volumes of research evidencing how it has been leading to the high structuration, organization, and professionalization of societies (Schofer 2005). There is strong evidence that the cognitive skills of the population are powerfully related to individual earnings, to the distribution of income, and to economic growth; and then, a developed economy reattributes in a higher quality of life (Schofer 2005). However, the Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm also ingrained the radical view of education as a linear process largely devoted to ensuring social continuity, to the point of endangering social change (Bass and Good 2004).

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Though modern education has contributed to human progress in all possible levels since the eighteenth century, this approach has also involved a high toll on the mental, social, and environmental stability at the global scale. Modern education has implicated the separation of the object and the subject and the dominance of the objective, rational, and analytical mind over the subjective construction of meaning, creativity, humor, emotions, affection, spirituality, and wholeness (Capra 2007; Gardner and Hatch 1989; Nicolescu 2005; Orr 1991). The dominant psychology of the modern industrial age has been fundamentally materialistic, mechanistic, objectivistic, atomistic and, in a word, reductionist; human beings have been conceived as isolated individuals engaged in competition for physical, social and emotional sustenance (Schofer 2005); instead of relational, sentient and acting beings who need each other to learn in an collective evolving engagement with life experiences (Gardner and Hatch 1989). Educere Educere represents an alternative approach to education where the emphasis is placed on selfexpression, affective or emotional understanding, artistic representations, curiosity, creativity, intuition, and choice (Lange and Sletten 2002). By questioning, critically thinking, creating different interpretations, and playing with significance, educere implies the gradual process of self-exploration of the inner capacities and the self-recognition of one’s own potential, embracing the idea of freedom of choice and expression of built meanings (Lange and Sletten 2002). This alternative approach represents the contradistinction of indoctrination represented by educare. Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Steiner, Dewey, Montessori, Freinet, and Freire (Palmer 2001) are among the most renowned authors of the last two centuries who have clearly represented an educere approach. They were among the first scholars strongly arguing the detrimental impact of the dominant model; for example, Paulo Freire in Pedagogy of the Oppressed and the banking concept of education (Palmer 2001) undoubtedly emphasized the downside of the modern

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education. In this alternative approach, one of the central arguments has been the advocacy for an integrated natural and social environment, both inside and outside the classroom and the school itself, where human interconnections as well as interactions with other sentient beings are central to learning. The focus is on the influences from the family, community, and the environment on children’s development; curiosity, confusion, doubt, failure, and emotions in general are other important parts of a whole existential phenomenon not to be fragmented (Schofer 2005). The detrimental impact of breaking down reality and the human experience into parts became increasingly evident in the second half of the twentieth century. A large number of studies criticize the factory model, often used to describe attributes such as standardization, hierarchy, competition, and treating students as a resource and learning as a product, both with economic value (Palmer 2001). However, in modern history, thinkers like those mentioned above, and more recently Gardner (Gardner and Hatch 1989), who shifted from an educational perspective to an intelligence and learning perspective, suggesting the complexity of these mental processes, have not been formally supported. On the contrary, sometimes they have been dealt with harshly and eventually faded from the dominant educational scene (Bass and Good 2004). During the late twentieth century, along with Gardner’s work, three learning theories could also be directly related to the educere approach. These three theories gained attention in the 1980s and continue to evolve, with more or less recognition from the educational global sphere. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb 1984), Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1971), and Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory (Mezirow 2003) have a learner-centered approach and expand into adult and lifelong education. The common goal is to guide individuals into selfactualization and self-direction, encouraging self-knowledge, self-awareness of internal motivations while sustaining harmonious interactions with the surrounding elements (Fenwick 2001). These three theories consider learning as a complex and multidimensional phenomenon,

inextricably connected to the learner’s life experiences (Fenwick 2001). Kolb emphasizes the process of learning from experience, explaining how the learner’s formulation of generalizations and theories about the experience at hand could culminate in the active experimentation and application of derived concepts in new situations (Fenwick 2001; Kolb 1984). Dewey, Vygotsky, Bandura, and other social theorists highlighted that learning takes place not in isolation but through observation and modeling in social settings, such as the family, the workplace, schools, and the community (Bandura 1971). Mezirow defined transformative learning as a process of critical self-reflection, where the interpretive frames of reference about reality are changed due to challenging life experiences (Mezirow 2003). These theories claim that learning is not a linear process but a repetitive mental spiral where emotions and thoughts are the basic elements of understanding, constantly formed and transformed through life experiences (Bandura 1971; Kolb 1984; Mezirow 2003). Learning is a continuous process where an individual constantly recycles meanings, creates new ones, and transforms old ones, in a cyclical process of experience which can take her/him to a higher level of understanding about her/his inner and outer environments (Kolb 1984). At the core, these thinkers and their models challenged the status quo regarding the human mind, learning, and the human potential in its broad sense. They demonstrated the complexity and uniqueness of each individual when learning and forming subjective meanings (Lange and Sletten 2002). They challenged rigid and narrow views about human learning by studying people from different backgrounds, in different contexts, and with different mental abilities and appreciating and reporting on the wide range of learning capacities found in human nature (Fenwick 2001). They noted, for example, that the strengths children may demonstrate in one area of development (sensorimotor) do not necessarily ensure or predict strengths in other areas (abstraction); children soon reveal profound individual differences which call for very different kinds of help from

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their teachers and surrounding environment (Fenwick; Lange and Sletten 2002). Then, as time passes and children mature, experiences are accumulated, complex meanings formed, and critical reflection developed; learning is lifelong, and people are constantly experiencing changes and, occasionally, transformations of meanings (Lange and Sletten 2002). These scholars argued that the interaction of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) plays a significant role in the differentiation of the learning capacities each person develops. Children seem to possess natural tendencies, but the characteristics of the environment where they grow up can greatly enhance their learning capacities or seriously diminish them. In general, identifying, understanding, respecting, and enhancing these differences is of utmost importance for individual and collective well-being and a healthy development (Lange and Sletten 2002). Education as educere embraces the complexity and uniqueness of the human mind and the diversity of the humankind. It emphasizes the role of self-recognition, one’s own construction of unique and subjective meanings, and their creative expression; this approach is based on the freedom to self-explore and critically choose how to be, become, and behave in the world (De la Sienra 2018). Reconciliation of Educare and Educere: Holistic Education The crucial point in this distinction between educare and educere is that both are equally important (Bass and Good 2004). Even when it has been an integral part of the human experience to take for granted that “the work of our hands, heads, and hearts” will live on through those who come after us (Macy and Johnstone 2012), where every generation prior to ours lived with the assumption that the following generations would follow the same paths, it seems that it is now time to acknowledge and adjust such an assumption and to reflect on possible alternatives. If education today is to contribute to addressing the biggest global challenge facing humanity, that is, to transform the unsustainable tendencies of being, then it could be argued that,

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while ensuring the reasoned legacy of humanity (educare), allowing the creative exploration of possible new meanings to such a legacy (educere) is also needed. In the overall scheme, educare and educere are of equal importance and need to be reconciled, because an educational approach that ignores educare dooms its participants to starting over each generation exploring and discovering again, while omitting educere produces good workers incapable of questioning and changing their own unsustainable reality. The ultimate intent would be to enable the creation of a new narrative, distinct from the one rooted in the unsustainable paradigms of the modern era. Indeed, allowing an unprecedently deep philosophical exploration of what individuals, communities, and the environment are, will open the opportunity to explore what they could be. Education today must recognize and promote the complexity of the human condition and encourage a profound reassessment of the modern meanings given to human existence. What is progress? What is success? What is development? What is happiness? Why are we here? Where do we come from? Where do we want to go? Education today must center attention on the inherent human feature to build, change, and transform the meaning of any experience at any time and to, consequently, modify patterns of emotion, thought, and action derived from such meaning. This task demands educare and educere working at unison, honoring the complexity and diversity of human nature. As recently exposed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: dominant education systems have tended to impose a narrow conception of rationality at the expense of emotional understanding, learning acquired through life’s experiences and traditional knowledge systems. Additionally, the transformative education that is now called for is not amenable to easily defined outcomes or measurement. Education must be reconceived in a way that allows space for diverse ways of knowing and new ways of being and becoming that reflect inclusivity in the true sense of the term. (UNESCO 2016)

Education today, while ensuring the preservation and transmission of the accumulated, objective, and reasoned legacy of humanity, must also

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ensure the subjective exploration of possible new meanings to such a legacy (Miller 2009). The priority is no longer to produce human capital for unlimited progress, well-behaved citizens, and good workers, as has been proclaimed since the eighteenth century, but to explore and experience those new ways of being and becoming. Education today at all levels (children and adults; perhaps more so within adult education), and in both formal and nonformal settings, must honor the wholeness of reality; the interconnectedness and interrelationships among all the parts; and the intergenerational flow between humans, other sentient beings, and nature. Indeed, global education today must celebrate coexistence in space and time, by encouraging creativity to find new narratives about the human condition and fostering their embodiment as means to ensure a holistic and more sustainable way of being.

Insights into a Worldviews-Based Learning Framework to Guide Holistic Ways of Being In the previous section, it was argued that nothing less than a revolution in education is needed to address the global challenge posed today by the accumulated impact of centuries of an industrialized human existence. Educational systems today require far-reaching changes in the way they are conceived and implemented (UNESCO 2016), and this text has suggested the reconciliation of educare and educere as the best alternative forward. At its core, this reconciliation implies unpacking and reframing those deeply ingrained unsustainable meanings that present generations have uncritically inherited and are unconsciously acting out daily. In this section, this text proposes that such a reconciliation (unpacking and reframing unsustainable assumptions) may be possible by positioning worldviews at the heart of educational practice and research. This section first provides a brief look into the formation and expression of worldviews, drawing some of the key premises from the recently published Transdisciplinary Framework of Worldviews and Behaviours (De la Sienra et al. 2017; De la Sienra

2018); and then, insights into the suggested learning framework are displayed. The Formation of a Worldview For centuries, and from an educare perspective, it is the brain that has been considered the fundamental source of our deepest self or identity (Spencer-Oatey 2007). In this text, it is recognized that it is the whole neural complex system integrated by the brain, spinal cord, and all the nerves spread across the body, that makes it possible to compute all data gathered from our inner and outer environments, rather than any of its isolated parts (Lancaster et al. 2013). The whole nervous system is greater than the sum of its parts, because it is the whole assemblage working at unison, what gives rise to the mind: an embodied energetic field or interface where all neural connections converge and exquisitely mirror all internal and external stimuli (Greenfield 2002; Northoff et al. 2006). Research on the nature-nurture binomial remarks that everyone’s genotype (set of genes) expresses in a unique way due to multiple influences, both genetically and environmentally (Abeyta et al. 2004). Even genetic identical twins brought up within the same family context compute information gathered by the senses differently, with personalized neural patterns of cellular connections with differentiated strength and extension (Greenfield 2002; Zador 2014). Thus, it is inferred that everyone has a unique nervous system creating a unique mind. Limitations of current empirical research methods to further explore how the nervous system creates the mind make this phenomenon open for debate (Zador 2014). However, drawing from developmental psychology (Barrouillet 2015), theories on embodied cognition (Amin et al. 2015; Anderson 2003; Mahon and Caramazza 2008), the extended mind thesis (Wilson et al. 2015), and the interpersonal neurobiology approach to the developing mind (Siegel 2012), it is argued that when the neural system is activated by a stimulus, a specific pattern of neural firing, in particular regions across the system, creates a specific mental representation mirroring the stimulus experienced by the body. At this initial level of information processing, the basic

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mental unit is a conceptual scheme; multiple stimuli are represented by multiple schema, as isolated data with no meaning (Piaget 1952). Embodied cognition is the sophisticated master process integrated by intelligence (collecting, identifying, classifying), memory (storing and retrieving), and learning (assigning meaning or meaningmaking), through which meaningless schema are constantly mapped and blended to form increasingly complex structures of information and significance, until meaning is developed. Embodied cognition starts by forming meaningless concepts (Amin et al. 2015; Dreyfus et al. 2015), then interpretations (Dreyfus et al. 2015) and perceptions (Wubbolding and Brickell 2009), until forming five interconnected meaning systems mirroring reality and determining what is real (ontological system), what is true (epistemological), what has value (axiological), what is the human condition (anthropological), and what is society (sociological). Embodied cognition creates this hierarchical constellation of five interconnected meaning systems that is conceived in this work as a worldview (Hedlund-de Witt et al. 2014). Each life experience includes multiple simuli which prompt the embodied cognition process, making the body to compute and mirror each stimulus into a scheme. Schema are constantly mapped and blended forming more complex meaning structures (interpretations and perceptions). Embodied cognition makes the unique neural map give rise to a unique mental map or worldview. A worldview is the personal and unique lens through which individuals perceive, apprehend, comprehend, and respond to their realities (Koltko-Rivera 2004), determining how an individual feels, thinks, and acts what is in the world and in the self and framing this relationship (Vroom 2006). A worldview is the subjective meaning given to reality, explaining life experiences and prescribing patterns of responses; it is a complex mental assemblage where the meaning of our deepest self or identity is built (De la Sienra et al. 2017; De la Sienra 2018). The Expression of a Worldview A worldview is a dynamic mental entity constantly processing information and building meaning with the aim of procuring the optimal

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response to the experience at hand. Such dynamism implies a sequence of singular moments where the mind has at play several complex mechanisms, connections, and capacities, all acting together in cooperative and/or competitive forms (Carandini 2014). A worldview is thus expressed depending on what types of mechanisms, connections, and capacities are operating in any given moment. This instantaneous configuration has been called a mental state, and it encompasses a range of specific attitudes or readiness to act in that specific instant (Salzman and Fusi 2010). Once a mental state is installed and has created a range of attitudes, the mind then needs to make a decision and execute the chosen attitude as a specific and concrete behavior. Mental states, attitudes, decision-making, and behaviors are largely emotion-dependent and mostly unconscious, phenomena. The literature about the mind usually marks the conscious and unconscious dichotomy: the ancestral, automatic, unconscious, simpler, and faster majority of mental functioning is distinguished from the more evolved, deliberative, conscious, complex, and slower rational mechanism of abstract thinking (Evans and Stanovich 2013). Choices and behaviors have been traditionally (since Plato) associated to the latter, arguing that conscious reasoning rules over emotions when the individual decides (Lerner et al. 2015). However, recent studies show that while unconscious content eludes detection and self-recognition, conscious content is experienced and subjectively detected but not necessarily explicitly noted, recognized, or reflected upon, making only the meta-conscious content the one that is not only experienced but also targeted by explicit detection, recognition, characterization, and critical self-reflection (Schooler et al. 2015). Based on a numeric metaphor, it has been suggested that 95% of the human mind resides at the unconscious level (Bargh and Chartrand 1999) and that to consciously and meta-consciously evaluate the remaining 5%, it is required a considerable effort, as these are slow processes requiring energetic and attentional resources that are quickly used up because they rarely remain on one topic for an extended period of time without deviation (Schooler et al. 2015). Consciousness

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and meta-consciousness can only occur barely and for a short time, whereas the unconscious or automatic responses are unintended, effortless, and very fast, and they operate at any given time because these are the ancestral and deeply rooted bodily responses, continually guiding the individual safely through the day (Bargh and Chartrand 1999). Also, the science of emotion or affective sciences have emerged a few years ago, in response to the dominance of cognitive sciences, prompting a paradigm shift in decision and behavioral theories, establishing that it is emotions which rule over reasoning (Lerner et al. 2015). Historically, as educare has shown, the cold cognitive system has been recognized as the maximum mental authority when it comes to decisions and behaviors, neglecting the role of the hot system (Lerner et al. 2015), not to mention the omission of the ephemeral and scarce nature of the conscious and meta-conscious mind. But the latest research outcomes and the new, transdisciplinary, holistic and integrative ways of looking at old research premises are changing the argument by recognizing that the hot affective system yields default responses unless intervened on by the cold cognitive one (Evans and Stanovich 2013), at the expense of a rarely conscious willpower (Schooler et al. 2015). The vast majority of mental processes including the formation and expression of a worldview (what is real or beliefs, what is true or knowledge, what has value or values, what is the human condition, and what is society) are unconscious; and they all begin (form) and end (express) in the body (not in the brain), where emotions are the central energy making the whole mental and human phenomenon possible. The Relevance of Worldviews in Education The act of perceiving and responding to the internal and external environments is overwhelmingly complex as multiple stages of sensory processing must take place before people become aware of the world inside and around (Carandini 2014; Salzman and Fusi 2010); however, untangling this complicated web of regulatory interactions holds the promise of a holistic understanding about how the mind allows or constrains the formation and expression of new meanings.

The Worldviews-Based Learning Framework (WBLF) displayed in this section has been crafted as a reference for the design, implementation, and evaluation of holistic learning experiences aiming to unpack and reframe those deeply ingrained unsustainable meanings that have been passed on to present generations, who are acting them out daily, mostly in unconscious ways (De la Sienra et al. 2017; De la Sienra 2018). This WBLF is offered as a guide for the creation, delivery, and assessment of learning activities, projects, and programs aiming to encourage the recognition and transformation of the unsustainable depths of a worldview. Although the inaccessibility of the mind (even to oneself) makes this a challenging task for the educational community, the elements offered in this section may provide some insights into how to boost individual and collective reflections on what it means to be human in the twenty-first century. The ultimate goal is for this framework to aid the transformation of patterns of emotions, thoughts, and actions toward more sustainable and holistic ways of being. The WBLF presented below considers a worldview as: A complex constellation of meaning (beliefs, knowledge, values and perceptions on the human condition and society) from which the wide range of conduct emerges. It is the uniquely personal and subjective meaning given to reality, which explains each life experience prescribing patterns of emotions, thoughts and actions. It is a hierarchical network of significance framing relationships with the self, others and among ourselves, others and the environment. Mental states, attitudes, choices and behaviours unfold from this network. A worldview can help to explore how people apprehend and make sense of their own reality, form their unique structures of meaning and choose their way of being, becoming and behaving. A worldview is the optimal concept chosen in this framework to represent the wholeness of the mental and behavioural complexity of humanness (De la Sienra 2018).

An extract of the five key learning principles in this WBLF are (De la Sienra et al 2017; De la Sienra 2018): • Principle 1. Learning is not cerebral but embodied: the whole bodily complex forms,

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changes, transforms and expresses meaning, not only the brain. Stimulate all senses spread across the body as learning is not only about thinking but mostly about feeling and doing. Encourage reflection on what can be done (improved) with what is known and felt. • Principle 2. Emotions are the central energy activating the body, the mind and its worldview: recognition, management and communication of emotions is thus a fundamental aspect of learning. As learning is largely dependent on emotions, prompt bodily responses, support their self-recognition, help label feelings, and practice their communication. Mainly evoke empathy (individual capacity to self-recognize and communicate emotions, as well as to identify and feel someone else’s emotions) and compassion (discomforting capacity to mentally exchange oneself for the other, making oneself equal with the other, seeing others as not in control but ruled by unrecognized and/or uncontrolled emotions; challenging ability to cherish all sentient beings without exception wishing to release them from suffering, especially unpleasant people, strangers, and those engaged in harmful conducts). • Principle 3. The intricate combination of individual biology and social relationships is what makes worldviews unique: individual and collective learning processes are simultaneously unique and interdependent. Genetic constitution predisposes while mostly social experiences shape, and together both phenomena provide the chance for the person to build unique meanings. Uncover multiplicity of worldviews and celebrate divergence and convergence among all those multiple realities. • Principle 4. A worldview is mostly an unconscious entity: accessing a worldview consciously and meta-consciously occur rarely and only for very short periods of time. A worldview can be always explicitly self-recognized, assessed, modified, or transformed, as a result of personal intention and focused attention. Encourage mindfulness and routines of momentary awareness to prompt increasing opportunities for meta-conscious reflection which, in turn, provides opportunities to better understand the

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processes through which patterns of emotions, thoughts, and actions are generated. • Principle 5. Learning is permanent and goes beyond childhood: throughout the lifespan a worldview is constantly prescribing responses to each experience and, in turn, being shaped by the experience. Learning is an inescapable lifelong feature that occurs intensively in childhood but permanently while the mind is alive. Encourage continuous exploration and adjustment of patterns of experiences and responses to reality, particularly when disorienting dilemmas trigger doubts and open opportunities for more holistic ways of being. Depending on the topics and themes, learning goals and objectives, age group, background, location settings, time, and resources available, among other features, each principle could be applied alone or in combination and with different levels of depth. Aiming to delve into some more detail of how these five principles could be applied, some basic lesson planning tools are provided below. Step 1. Following a backcasting approach, define the desirable mindset to be experienced after the learning event: emotions, beliefs, knowledge, values, attitudes, behaviors, and skills. Consider guiding questions like: What will the participants would need to feel, do, and think after this learning event? or in the near future? What are the key unsustainable assumptions to be uncovered, deconstructed, and unlearned? What are the alternative meanings to be evoked? Use the matrix below to guide the identification of the mindset to be experienced after the event: Identifying desired elements to be experienced during and after the learning event Emotions E1 E2 E3 E4 Beliefs B1 B2 B3 B4 Knowledge K1 K2 K3 K4 Values V1 V2 V3 V4 Attitudes A1 A2 A3 A4 Behaviors Bh1 Bh2 Bh3 Bh4 Skills S1 S2 S3 S4 Note: The random nomenclature in each cell is used to exemplify the next step

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Step 2. Once the components of the desirable mindset have been identified and then working backwards, craft the activities that would be ideal for experiencing them. Using the table above, mix the elements in the most convenient way to ensure the best possible outcome, for example: K1+ A1 + B2 + S4 = Activity 1, or V4 + B3 + C1 + D2 = Activity 2, or S3 + Bh4 = Activity 3. As a probable example in the context of waste management: Activity 1 could be designed to ensure that participants increase their understanding of industrial hazardous waste (K1) while activating openness and compassion regarding human responsibility of the fatal consequences on nature (A1), based on a creationist/anthropogenic versus scientific approach (B2), by measuring the low water quality in the river (S4). Step 3. Once all the activities required to evoke the desirable mindset have been designed in Step 2, then integrate them into a smooth and fun sequence or program that: • Take the learning event into different settings and cultural contexts through pictures, videos, live online streaming or traveling when possible; attempting to contrast multiple realities, as well as content and methods from multiple disciplines, evidencing connections among parts and wholes • Prioritize task-oriented, problem-solving, and solution-construction approaches focusing on systemic and holistic relationships between causes and effects • Diversify resources in order to stimulate all senses, abilities, and readiness (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, emotional, practical, artistic, etc.), and prompt emotional awareness/understanding and abstract thinking. Multisensory experiences integrating critical self-reflection, mindfulness breathing, collective analysis, and body scans • Challenge sets of unsustainable predispositions or underlying assumptions, which might

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be triggering specific patterns of unsustainable emotions, thoughts, and actions, for example, what sits behind success or happiness Encourage unpacking and reviewing the above by tracking down in time when and how such predispositions and assumptions were learned and if they remain functional in the present Practice sustained self-observation as means to increase emotional understanding and become better at identifying how the worldview shapes the chosen way to be in the world Encourage meta-awareness (noticing own consciousness) by constantly asking: How are you feeling? What are you thinking? What are you learning? How are you learning? Prompt the identification of similar and different worldviews honoring empathy and compassion Evoke discovery, exploration, experience, inquiry with minimal guidance and maximum embracement of error as opportunity for creativity Emphasize collective learning strategies: debates, peer teaching or presentation of contents, discussions in pairs and small groups, role-play, team drawing or writing, team quizzing, practical demonstrations, inquiry-based group activities

Regardless of the main theme of interest (finances, construction, health, science, etc.), this highly interactive learning event must offer an original and enjoyable way to explore the complexities of the human condition, including the unsustainable meanings that have been given to the modern life. This event must offer multiple mechanisms for content exploration, testing, and sharing, from emotional, rational, and practical perspectives. The WBLF aims to guide the design, delivery and evaluation of learning events with multiple individual and teamwork experiences based on real-life case studies, where ancient, modern, and postmodern inherited knowledge can receive new meanings: more sustainable and holistic. Step 4. The most accurate evaluation tool is the individual and collective narrative of the learning event, with optional feedback from the

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observations made by the facilitator. Recommendations include the following: • Provide a scrapbook for a learning diary: blank pages and multiple colors for writing, drawing, sticking clippings, or pasting printed pictures, etc. Maybe also a voice recorder, or a camera • Final strategic questioning centered on what can you do with what you have learned? And the subsequent creative or artistic representation of the answer (not only writing). • Self-assessment text or video report may include feedback from peers/facilitator. • Selection of an element from the program and presentation of a deeper explanation. As a final wrap-up, reiterate the invitation to observe and explore their own worldview on daily basis and play with the unlimited possibilities to always shift meanings and the resulting patterns of emotions, thoughts, and actions to, ultimately, find more sustainable and holistic ways of being.

Conclusions (or Final Reflections) It seems almost incomprehensible to even attempt to consider the human extinction; somehow, we have come to believe that humanity has become invincible, that it is simply unthinkable that it could all vanish within the next 100 years. As Allen Tough wrote (1991): “It is hard to picture our planet without a single human being left alive. No one left to play music; no one to listen. No one to watch the ocean waves, reflect on the stars, walk on the streets. No talking, no writing, no hopes, no thoughts, no dreams, no painting, no sports, no laughter, no births, no children. No one to even remember these things. No one at all.” However, from a quick-extinction scenario prompted by global aggression and a nuclear war to the slow-extinction scenario prompted by the chaotic heating of the planet, research shows that the development of the modern industrial civilization has taken humanity almost! to the point of no return (Morgan 2009). The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals are one of many attempts to

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respond to the Anthropocene, whose emphasis on the planetary agency of humanity conflicts with the modern affirmations of the exceptionality of the species (Heise 2016). Climate scientists have become increasingly frustrated with the slow pace of response from society, even in those countries where denial does not constitute a major problem; without detailed attention to the political, social, cultural, psychological, affective, and philosophical forms that the climate problem takes in different communities, reiteration on the hard scientific facts is pointless (Heise 2016). Even the green educational approaches Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development have moved toward a profound philosophical transformation based on a deeper exploration of human psychology (Stevenson et al. 2013; UNESCO 2016), as the main global challenge humanity is facing today is social, cultural, psychological, and philosophical rather than scientific or technological (Heise 2016). This entry presented a glimpse of a new holistic approach to learning that leverages the hidden power of worldviews as means to reassess and redefine what it means to be human in the twenty-first century. This text offered insights into a Worldviews-Based Learning Framework as a potential reference for the design and implementation of learning experiences advocating for a critical review of dominant scientific paradigms, unlearning the unsustainable, bringing together educare and educere. This entry offers arguments and tools to prompt the creative educational effort to shape new stories including speculation, fantasy, futuristic visualization, and utopian narratives that can engage present young and old generations in more holistic ways of thinking, feeling, and acting; hence, in more sustainable ways of being in the world.

Cross-References ▶ Adult Education ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

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▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research ▶ Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals ▶ Systemic Thinking ▶ Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

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Carandini M (2014) From circuits to behaviour: a bridge too far? In: Future of the brain: essays by the world’s leading neuroscientists. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 177–185 Chatterjee SG (2013) Two contrasting paradigms of science: Cartesian mechanism and undivided wholeness. Int J of Sci Soc 4:75–93 De la Sienra E (2018) Exploring the hidden power of worldviews: a new learning framework to advance the transformative agenda of education for sustainable development. Doctoral thesis. University of Technology Sydney De la Sienra E, Smith T, Mitchell C (2017) Worldviews, a mental construct hiding the potential of human behaviour: a new learning framework to guide education for sustainable development. J Sustain Educ 13:1–21 Dreyfus BW et al (2015) Applying conceptual blending to model coordinated use of multiple ontological metaphors. Int J Sci Educ 37(5–6):812–838 Evans JS, Stanovich KE (2013) Dual process theories of higher cognition: advancing the debate. Perspect Psychol Sci 8(3):223–241 Fenwick TJ (2001) Experiential learning: a theoretical critique from five perspectives. In: E.R.I. Center (ed) Information series, vol 385. ERIC Publications, The Ohio State University, Washington, DC, p 76 Gardner H, Hatch T (1989) Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educ Res 18(4):4–9. American Educational Research Association Greenfield S (2002) Mind, brain and consciousness. Br J Psychiatry 181:91–93 Hedlund-de Witt A et al (2014) Exploring inner and outer worlds: a quantitative study of worldviews, environmental attitudes, and sustainable lifestyles. J Environ Psychol 37(2014):40–54 Heise UK (2016) The environmental humanities and the futures of the human. New German Critique 43(2(128)):21–31 Jackson MC (2006) Creative holism: a critical systems approach to complex problem situations. Syst Res Behav Sci 23(5):647–657 Koestler A (1970) Beyond atomism and holism—the concept of the holon. Perspect Biol Med 13(2): 131–154 Kolb D (1984) The process of experiential learning. In: C. W.R. University (ed) Experiential learning. Experience as the source of learning and development. PrenticeHall, Inc, New Jersey, pp 20–38 Koltko-Rivera MC (2004) The psychology of worldviews. Rev Gen Psychol 8(1):3–58 Lancaster MA et al (2013) Cerebral organoids model human brain development and microcephaly. Nat Rev| Neurosci 501(12517):373–380 Lange CM, Sletten SJ (2002) Alternative education: a brief history and research synthesis. National Association of State Directors of Special Education, Washington, DC Lerner JS et al (2015) Emotion and decision making. Annu Rev Psychol 66(2015):799–823 Macy J, Johnstone C (2012) Active hope. How to face the mess we're in without going crazy. New World Library

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Mahon BZ, Caramazza A (2008) A critical look at the embodied cognition hypothesis and a new proposal for grounding conceptual content. J Physiol 102(2008): 59–70 Mezirow J (2003) Transformative learning as discourse. J Transform Educ 1(1):58–63 Miller JP (2009) Holistic education (Chapter 1). In: De Souza M, Francis LJ, O’Higgins-Norman J, Scott DG (eds) International handbook of education for spirituality, care and wellbeing, vol 3. Springer Science & Business Media, Dordrecht Morgan DR (2009) World on fire: two scenarios of the destruction of human civilization and possible extinction of the human race. Futures 41(10):683–693 Nicolescu B (2005) Towards transdisciplinary education. TD: J Transdiscip Res S Afr 1(1):11 Northoff G et al (2006) Self-referential processing in our brain—a meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self. NeuroImage 31(2006):440–457 Orr DW (1991) What is education for? Six myths about the foundations of modern education, and six new principles to replace them. Learn Revol IC#27 Palmer J (2001) Fifty major thinkers on education: From Confucius to Dewey. From Piaget to the present, vol 1&2. Routledge, London/New York Piaget J (1952) The origins of intelligence in children. International University Press, Inc., New York Salzman CD, Fusi S (2010) Emotion, cognition, and mental state representation in amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 33:173–202 Schofer EW (2005) The worldwide expansion of higher education in the twentieth century. Am Sociol Rev 70(6):898–920 Schooler JW et al (2015) Minding the mind: the value of distinguishing among unconscious, conscious and metaconscious processes. In: A.P. Association (ed) Handbook of personality and social psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., pp 179–202 Siegel D (2012) Mind, brain and relationships: the interpersonal neurobiology perspective, The developing mind. The Guilford Press, New York, pp 25–57 Spencer-Oatey H (2007) Theories of identity and the analysis of face. J Pragmat 39(2007):639–656 Stevenson RB et al (2013) The evolving characteristics of environmental education research. In: Stevenson RB et al (eds) International handbook of research on environmental education. Routledge, New York, pp 512–528 Tough A (1991) Crucial questions about the future. University Press of America, Lanham Trohler DEA (2011) Children, citizens and promised lands: comparative history of political cultures and schooling in the long 19th century. In: Trohler DEA (ed) Schooling and the making of citizens in the long nineteenth century: comparative visions. Routledge, New York, pp 1–49 UNESCO (2016) Education as a driver for sustainable development goals, plan of action. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Ahmedabad

Vroom HM (2006) A spectrum of worldviews: an introduction to philosophy of religion in a pluralistic world. Rodopi, Amsterdam Wilson RA et al (2015) Extended mind and identity. In: Alberta Uo (ed) Handbook of neuroethics. Springer, Edmonton, pp 426–439 Wubbolding RE, Brickell J (2009) Perception: the orphaned component of choice theory. Int J Real Ther XXVIII(2):50 Zador A (2014) The connectome as a DNA sequencing Problem. In: Future of the brain: essays by the world’s leading neuroscientists. Princeton University Press, Princeton, p 307

Human Behavior ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience

Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience Johannes M. Luetz1,2, Rebecca Margus1 and Brooke Prickett1 1 School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia 2 School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Australia

Synonyms Behavior change; Education; Human behavior; Multidisciplinary perspectives; Neuroplasticity; Neuroscience; Psychology; Sustainable development

Definition The science of human behavior change is a complex field of investigation (Young 2017). On the one hand, there are those who promote the idea

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that education alone is sufficient to instigate behavior change. According to this view, all that educators need to do is to educate people with sound science about the physical causes of environmental degradation, progressive resource depletion, and corresponding sustainability requirements, and this knowledge will then trigger human resilience and “behavior change” (Luetz and Sultana 2019). However, this conventional view of education, sometimes called “enlightenment reasoning,” is contested by social scientists who insist that more knowledge alone does not spawn or sustain behavior change because human behavior tends to be irrational and governed by social norms and underlying motivations that do not arise uniquely or chiefly from access to more scientific information (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012; Cross 2013; Burton et al. 2015; Kelly and Barker 2016). In summary, understanding what precisely motivates and enables human behavior change for sustainability is increasingly recognized as a leading-edge subject of contemporary research (Sapolsky 2017). Perspectives from psychology and neuroscience offer valuable insights into education-for-sustainability (Birbaumer 2017; Costandi 2016; Ibáñez et al. 2017).

Leveraging Perspectives from Psychology and Neuroscience”). A concluding synthesis will revisit, conjoin, and reformulate selected disciplinary approaches (section “Towards Synthesis: Creating Consilience”). In 2015, the United Nations agreed on a list of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), to be reached by the year 2030, such as addressing poverty, peace, climate change action, and clean energy, among others, in the hope that every person may have a dignified life. For this outcome to be realized, comprehensive changes are needed in respect of systems, structures, the “global commons,” and human behaviors (WBGU 2002, 2011; Johnson et al. 2018). [The term “global commons” describes global resources that are “commonly” owned, e.g., the atmosphere, oceans, space, Antarctica, etc. (WBGU 2002).] Hence activating human behavior change is raised as a strategic priority for sustainable development (Baskin and Sommer 2017), both intragenerationally and intergenerationally (Johnson et al. 2018). Sustainable development on a global scale tends to focus chiefly on “intergenerational equity (rather than intragenerational) and . . . tends to obscure attention to equity, power and justice which were initially central concerns of early proponents of sustainability itself” (Johnson et al. 2018, pp. 7–8). According to Franks et al. (2018), persistent inequities raise opportunities for environmental ethics and behavior change. There is therefore a need for holistic perspectives on the human mind, education, and change (Haidt 2012; Luetz et al. 2018, 2019). Several areas require closer attention and are introduced next. According to change management literature, “resistance to change is a normal and natural reaction to change” (Hiatt and Creasey 2012, p. 22). Furthermore, the question is not so much “if we will encounter resistance to change, but rather how we support [people] through the change process and manage that resistance” (ibid; emphasis original). Expressed in simple language, people everywhere resist change. And naturally the challenges of leading change are exacerbated within change-resistant institutional environments (Nelson and Luetz 2019). Hence, understanding the science of human behavior change is raised both

Introduction to Behavior Change for Sustainability: Debates and Perspectives This entry explores the topic of human behavior change for sustainable development within the broader framework of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4: “Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UN 2019). Canvassing perspectives from psychology and neuroscience, this multidisciplinary discourse reaches beyond conventional portrayals of education. In terms of content arrangement, this entry will introduce the contested relationship between education and human behavior change (section “Introduction to Behavior Change for Sustainability: Debates and Perspectives”) and then explore pertinent perspectives from psychology and neuroscience (section “Promoting Human Behavior Change:

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as a formidable challenge and as a fertile area of investigation for sustainable development (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012; Kelly and Barker 2016; Young 2017). Recent mixed-methods research has called for the inputs of unconventional and unconsulted teachers and educators: “The Poor just Might Be the Educators We Need for Global Sustainability – A Manifesto for Consulting the Unconsulted” (Luetz et al. 2019, pp. 115–140). Even so, as outlined below, there seem to be clear limits to what “enlightenment reasoning” can deliver in the area of education for sustainable development. There are two predominant schools of thought (Fig. 1). On the one hand, there are those who advocate “enlightenment reasoning,” where education is understood as a kind of primordial path to knowledge, “enlightened” thinking, and, ultimately, changed human behavior. In this paradigm, the Enlightenment period of the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, also known as the Age of Reason, Aufklärung, or Siècle des Lumières (Century of Lights), enduringly influenced the world of ideas in Europe and beyond towards “reasoned knowledge” (Roberson 2016). In its wake reductionism, empiricism, skepticism, reasoning, and unremitting adherence to the “scientific method” have come to be esteemed as the quasi-exclusive epistemological pathways to knowledge acquisition (Punch 2014; Bryman 2016; Duignan 2019). This is exemplified and illustrated by the phrase popularized by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant: Sapere aude, “dare to know” or “dare to think for yourself” (Kant 1784; Gay 1996). According to Kant (1784), “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity” (in: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?). In this paradigm of “enlightenment reasoning,” knowledge and reason are commensurate with cognition, expertise, legitimacy, liberty, scholarly authority, progress, and human self-actualization (Kant 1784; Gay 1996). Hence there is a strong historical and philosophical case to comprehend scientific education-for-sustainability as a critical precondition for human development, social betterment, and far-reaching societal behavior change (Walid and Luetz 2018; Luetz et al. 2018, 2019). This perspective was aptly summarized by

Mandela (2003), who famously declared: “Education is the most powerful weapon we can use to change the world” (para 24). In this system, learning is paramount for effective adaptation to environmental and climate change, disaster risk reduction, and human resilience (Luetz and Sultana 2019; Luetz 2020). Stated differently, humans: Learn from the past. Even more importantly, however, they have to learn for the future. Learning . . . is therefore retrospective and prospective . . . The ability to learn may thus indeed be among the most important capabilities (Unger 2006, p. 108) . . . “We have entered the knowledge age and the new currency is learning—it is learning, not knowledge itself which is critical.” (Dixon 1994, p. 1; cited in Luetz 2007, p. 64)

Accordingly, the key to engaging in the knowledge age and preparing for an uncertain future seems to be learning, wherefore education is raised as a critical determinant for transforming human behavior. This desirable ancillary effect of environmental education for behavior change is advocated variously in the literature: It could be argued that, in view of the urgent call to reduce global warming, one of the aims of environmental education should be to engender in learners a preparedness to act in more environmentally sustainable ways. (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012, p. 1592; attributed to Jurin and Fortner 2002, Metzger and McEwen 1999)

Stated differently, simply, and aspirationally, education enhances learning, which promotes knowledge, which supports behavior change for sustainability (Cross 2013; Luetz et al. 2018). In the literature, this perspective on influencing human behavior is described as the so-called “information-deficit” model (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012, p. 1592, attributed to Burgess et al. 1998). This theory of change is: Based on the assumption that if people understood more about the environment and the actions that would cause, or avoid, environmental degradation, they would behave in a rational manner and adopt environmentally sympathetic practices. In other words, . . . there [exists] a relatively direct and positive relationship between a person’s cognitive base about environmental problems and his or her willingness to act in such a way as to reduce these problems. (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012, p. 1592)

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Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience, Fig. 1 Contrasting paradigmatic perspectives on education and human behavior change

In summary, “enlightenment reasoning” seems to suggest that education equips people with critical knowledge and thereby prompts and enables them to change their behavior and adopt more

environmentally sustainable practices based on rational decision-making (Cross 2013). Notwithstanding the inherent logic of this education-for-behavior-change paradigm, social

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scientists have long cautioned that teaching scientific facts alone is insufficient or even irrelevant for human behavior change. The reason is that human behavior tends to be irrational and psychologically, socially, and situationally influenced and constituted (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012; Kelly and Barker 2016; Sapolsky 2017). According to Kelly and Barker (2016), “discussions about behaviour change are subject to six errors” (p. 110), which the authors describe as overreliance on human common sense, appropriate messaging, information/knowledge, rationality, irrationality, and predictability (pp. 110–113). The problems are well-noted in psychology literature, where “cognitive dissonance” is described as “a phenomenon in which a person experiences a discrepancy between an attitude and a behaviour” (Burton et al. 2015, p. 843). One example of cognitive dissonance is climate change action. According to Lorenzoni et al. (2007):

instance, Kelly and Barker (2016) have cautioned against the:

The literature on public understanding of climate change indicates widespread awareness of the issue and a general concern, but limited behavioural response. (cited in Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012, p. 1592)

There is therefore cognitive dissonance in the sense that society manifests a clear “discrepancy between an attitude and a behaviour” (Burton et al. 2015, p. 703). It can be argued that the sum total of individuals experiencing “cognitive dissonance” has effectively stymied global action on climate change cumulatively (Schellnhuber 2008; IPCC 2018). Relatedly, numerous studies have shown that: The relationship between knowledge and action is not robust [Hungerford & Volk, 1990; Posch, 1993; Rajecki, 1982], and it is acknowledged that there is what has come to be known as a ‘gap’ between cognition and action [Kollmus & Agyeman, 2002]. In part, this ‘gap’ is due to the fact that behaviour is influenced by a plethora of other factors, not just knowledge; other beliefs, social pressures, physical facilitators and inhibitors can synergistically influence whether or not a particular action is pursued [Corraliza & Berenguer, 2000]. (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012, p. 1593)

For this reason, the “information-deficit” theory of behavior change mentioned above has been hotly contested in health-related studies. For

Common mistake of which the behavioural science literature warns the unwary. This is to privilege the role of information from expert sources as a driver of behaviour change. It borrows from traditional medical models of the doctor-patient relationship, the basis of which is that patients have an information deficit and come to see medical practitioners to consult them for their expertise to remedy their deficiency in knowledge and understanding. [Parsons 1951] In return they get information in the form of a diagnosis from which treatment proceeds . . . what this model assumes is that if we tell people the negative consequences of eating too much or exercising too little, they will change their behaviour accordingly. This is clearly not true and every front-line clinician and practitioner knows it is not true. This fundamental belief about the role of information and knowledge in determining behaviour is wrong and unscientific. Giving people information does not make them change. (p. 111)

Other research on health education, behavioral change, and social psychology promotes more nuanced perspectives. For instance, Whitehead (2001) posits that health-related behavior change occurs “within a complex system of various interacting influences” (p. 823; attributed to Bennett and Murphy 1997). Citing other studies, Whitehead (2001) stresses the “highly complex and potentially confusing nature of facilitating behavioural change strategies with clients” (p. 823, attributed to Galvin 1992, Tones 1995, McQueen 1996). In summary, human behavior appears to be multifaceted, complex, nonuniform, hard to predict, and governed by multiple inputs (Burton et al. 2015, pp. 10–23; Sapolsky 2017; Young 2017). In his book entitled Behave, Sapolsky (2017) concludes his “extraordinary survey of the science of human behaviour” (Poole 2017, para 1) with the following synthesis: “The biology of the behaviors that interest us is, in all cases, multifactorial” (Sapolsky 2017, p. 602; emphasis original), meaning that “behaviors are constantly shaped by an array of subterranean forces.” ibid, p. 605) The differences between the two paradigmatic approaches (Fig. 1) have also been described by Schütz (1962), who highlighted important distinctives in areas of “objectivity” and “meanings”:

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424 The world of nature, as explored by the natural scientist, does not ‘mean’ anything to molecules, atoms, and electrons. But the observational field of the social scientist – social reality – has a specific meaning and relevance structure for the human beings living, acting, and thinking within it. By a series of common-sense constructs they have preselected and pre-interpreted this world which they experience as the reality of their daily lives. It is these thought objects of theirs which determine their behavior by motivating it. The thought objects constructed by the social scientist, in order to grasp this social reality, have to be founded upon the thought objects constructed by the common-sense thinking of men, living their daily life within their social world. Thus, the constructs of the social sciences are, so to speak, constructs of the second degree, that is, constructs of the constructs made by the actors on the social scene, whose behavior the social scientist has to observe and to explain in accordance with the procedural rules of his science. (p. 59, emphasis added)

The epistemological differences between paradigmatic perspectives have also been described as “paradigm wars” (Punch 2014, p. 15), which were “especially vigorous in the field of education research” (p. 31, endnote 1). In summary, given the complexity of the multifactorial inputs shaping human behavior, there is a compelling argument that a better understanding of human behavior change science can be leveraged to advance sustainable development objectives (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012; Young 2017). While the nexus between human cognition and behavior is subject to ongoing research and scholarly debate, there are perspectives from the fields of psychology and neuroscience (Sect. 2) that offer promising multidisciplinary prospects (Fig. 2).

Promoting Human Behavior Change: Leveraging Perspectives from Psychology and Neuroscience This section offers a deeper understanding of the linkages between the brain, mind, and human behavior and how the underlying premise for behavioral change is capacity for learning (Luke 2015; Gluck et al. 2016; Kolb et al. 2016; Birbaumer 2017; Ibáñez et al. 2017). It chiefly elaborates perspectives in the area of psychology

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and neuroscience. One note of caution is necessary. Burton et al. (2015) have synthesized that “[p]sychology lacks a unified paradigm but has a number of schools of thought, or perspectives” (p. 10) that can be used to comprehend human behavior change: The five major schools of thought or perspectives in psychology—psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanistic, cognitive and evolutionary—guide contemporary psychologists . . . Each school has much to offer but, as in the ancient story of the blind men and the elephant, each provides only part of the picture. (p. 23)

Given this diversity of traditions in the field of psychology (Bonior 2016), this section does not intend to engage all perspectives comprehensively and will intentionally steer clear of indepth analysis (e.g., classical/operant conditioning, associative/non-associative learning, etc.) as may arise from and within individual schools of thought. Rather, approaches presented in this section consider selected relevant cross-cutting psychological perspectives and traditions in light of recent neuroscientific discoveries. People are “creatures of habit” (Danes 2014; cf. Burton et al. 2015), who manifest “resistance to change [as] a normal and natural reaction to change” (Hiatt and Creasey 2012, p. 22). According to Haberman (2017), there are good reasons for inertia or the human “tendency to do nothing or remain unchanged” (para 4) when the headwinds of change begin to blow: “Our bodies’ complex inertia, or resistance to change, is important for maintaining a state of equilibrium known as homeostasis” (para 5). This complex inertia can also be explained by the neurobiology of change, i.e., the “wiring” of the human brain (Langley 2012). According to Davis (2018), human brains: Are prone to react negatively to change [and] the reason lies in human evolution. In short, our human ancestors depended as much on social belonging for survival as they did on food and shelter. Poor social standing on both an individual and group basis can actually lead to a higher mortality rate. (para 6)

Hence there is an argument, based in neurobiology, that change management approaches need to target society, groups, and social norms rather than individuals (Cross 2013). Relatedly, this

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Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience, Fig. 2 Contrasting perspectives on individual cognition and social learning

propensity for humans to behave and learn “in community” explains the enduring influence of groups and interpersonal processes on human behavior (Burton et al. 2015). This is a key reason why “group conformity” (Asch 1956), “group roles” (Zimbardo 1972), “groupthink” (Janis 1972), and “obedience to authority” (Milgram 1974) have long been confirmed as powerful influences on human behavior in seminal research studies (Bonior 2016). [A short documentary on

Solomon Asch’s famous conformity experiment is publicly available at https://youtu.be/ NyDDyT1lDhA]. Expressed in simple narrative: Learning does not occur in an interpersonal vacuum. Cognitive-social theory proposes that individuals learn many things from the people around them . . . through social learning mechanisms . . . A major form of social learning is observational learning — learning by observing the behaviour of others. The impact of observational learning in humans is enormous . . . Observational learning in

426 which a person learns to reproduce behaviour exhibited by a model is called modelling. (Burton et al. 2015, p. 238, emphasis original; cf. Bandura 1967)

It is well-established in psychology that groups and group dynamics can powerfully enable (or disable) interventions (Burton et al. 2015, pp. 733–775; Bonior 2016). For instance, large groups of people tend to elicit diffusion of responsibility – “the presence of other people leads to a diminished sense of personal responsibility” (Burton et al. 2015, p. 845). This phenomenon manifests as the so-called bystander effect, where individuals in obvious need of help may be ignored, or where crimes may be committed in broad daylight and in full view of the public, without any arising “bystander intervention” (Darley and Latané 1968; Burton et al. 2015, pp. 749–751). Hence it is quite clear that human behavior needs to be comprehended, engaged, and changed with “community consciousness” in mind (Rifkin 2009). And yet, despite this clear propensity of humans to behave in groups, there seems to be a misguided tendency for behavior change strategies to focus on influencing individuals intellectually (while attempting to reason with them rationally around the benefits of behavior change), rather than on influencing groups dynamically (Cross 2013). Expressed in simple language, human behavior change is heavily “influenced by others in almost every activity” (Hirshleifer and Hong Teoh 2003, p. 25). There is therefore a strong link between behavioral convergence and fluctuation in the behaviors of others that implies a kind of “herd” mentality (Earls 2007). A case study on investments and the linkages between behavioral convergences and social learning analyzed market trends and individual behavior and found that “an individual’s thoughts, feelings and actions can be influenced by other individuals by several means: by words, by observation of actions, and by observation of the consequences of actions” (Hirshleifer and Hong Teoh 2003, p. 3). The study further reenforced the social cognitive theory (Luke 2015) that describes the reciprocal influence that occurs in the leader-follower exchange. In short, “social influence can promote convergence

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or divergence in behaviour” (Hirshleifer and Hong Teoh 2003, p. 27). In summary, there is extensive literature in both animal studies (zoology) and human behavior (psychology) that suggests a strong link between behavioral change and the imitation of others (Burton et al. 2015, pp. 733–775; Earls 2007). This human propensity to imitate others has also been described as “copycat phenomenon”: Research shows “copycat phenomenon” is prevalent in suicides, where one person taking their own life can trigger others to follow. The same trend can follow in domestic violence crimes . . . human behaviour “follows patterns” and, even with crimes, “people follow.” (Wolfe 2018, para 9–10)

On the positive flip-side, an important impetus for human behavior change would be the desire of most humans to do good in the world, to make a mark, and leave a positive legacy. It is not uncommon for people on their deathbeds to look back on their life, including at their moral achievements, with the desire to leave the world a better place than how they found it (Fehige and Frank 2010). This desire is reminiscent of the American Indian proverb: “We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors, we borrow it from our children” (cf. Fehige and Frank 2010; Baskin and Sommer 2017). [On its negative flip-side stands the quote attributed to Groucho Marx: “Why should I care for future generations? What have they ever done for me!”] Of course, seeing that humanity occupies a world with a multitude of beliefs and cultures, the standards of what is good, right, and ethical may also be controversial (Haidt 2012; Harding 2017; Franks et al. 2018). Even so, there do appear to be some cross-cutting standards within and across cultures surrounding human welfare, truth, justice, happiness, and human rights (Charlesworth 2017). Fehige and Frank (2010) highlight two prominent characterizations of morality: “the claim that it is good and right to do what our sentiments tell us to do; and the claim that it is good and right to do what would maximize the amount of happiness in the universe” (p. 141). Indeed, as shown below, cultivating “happiness” by propagating “positive emotions” can support and sustain behavior change (Quak and Luetz 2020).

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Human values and spirituality hold important implications for influencing human behavior change (Haidt 2012; Cross 2013; Luetz et al. 2018). Humans are born with a surplus of synapses. These connections in the brain are foundational as they are responsible for human behavior through experience and learning (Thomas 2016). Through a multiplicity of life experiences, people begin to build personal moral frameworks. Moral awareness is shaped from early childhood through natural encounters with others and by natural reactions to these encounters (Manning 2009; Charlesworth 2017). Although this learning becomes deep-rooted behavior, change is possible through a kind of “rewiring of the brain,” also known as neuroplasticity (Birbaumer 2017). Helmstetter (2014) states the advance in discovering neuroplasticity has led to a stronger appreciation that the brain is designed to change throughout a human lifetime. Changes in the brain through neuroplasticity take different amounts of time, depending on what is being rewired (Costandi 2016; Birbaumer 2017). Modification of synapses can take milliseconds, synapses and dendrites can take several hours, and new cells can change over several days. Other forms of neuroplasticity such as brain maturation from childhood to adulthood can take months to several years (Costandi 2016). The link between the brain’s enduring capacity for change and human behavior is thus explained by the concept of brain plasticity, which sees the brain as an everevolving circuit, rather than a static organ (Kolb et al. 2016; Birbaumer 2017). Therefore, brain maturation has relevance for both the development of addictions and the changing of habits (Gluck et al. 2016). There are seven basic rules to successful neuroplasticity: mindfulness, choices, intention, focus, repetition, emotion, and belief. When these are utilized consistently, a person’s brain and behavior can begin to adapt to new processes (Helmstetter 2014; cf. Costandi 2016). Furthermore, neuroplasticity also has important connotations for human behavior change through emotions (Birbaumer 2017). Segar (2015) emphasizes that human emotions are the most fruitful cause of behavior change ahead of

willpower and logic. The reward systems of “wanting” and “liking” are what neuroscience has shown to be the basis for all behavior (Berridge et al. 2009). In other words, humans act or change because they are emotionally “charged” to do so. Segar (2015) shows that any new behavior that promotes a positive experience has a significantly higher sustainable rate than new behaviors that have a negative connection. Given this human predilection for positivity, if people are to adopt a new way of living under a sustainable development plan, it will be significantly more successful in the long run to offer emotionally positive rewards within the changing and learning processes (Birbaumer 2017). The relevance of leveraging positive emotions for behavior change is underscored by Segar (2015): Research shows that people often don’t do what is in their best interest, and that willpower depletes with use [Ariely, 2009; Vohs and Heatherton, 2000]. Logic doesn’t motivate us; emotions do. [. . .] Motivation is not the cause we think it is. It is the result. (p. 18; emphasis added)

Relatedly and importantly, it appears to be beneficial to reposition desirable sustainable behaviors with the human predilection for happiness and positive emotions in mind (Quak and Luetz 2020). A good example of this approach is recasting “health” as “well-being”: Health and self-care behaviors have been branded as “medicine,” and are promoted in clinical, instrumental, and uninspiring ways. Instead of branding health or self-care behaviors as medicine, it would be more strategic to rebrand them as direct vehicles that ignite daily success, well-being, and fulfillment [Segar and Richardson, 2014]. Many behaviors that improve health (getting more sleep, moving more, making better eating choices) also lead to experiences (reduced stress, feeling strong, lifted mood) that help us better succeed in our roles and responsibilities — all of which contribute to happier lives. Look no further than Big Pharma to see that marketing outcomes like “happiness” and “quality time with family” are smarter strategies. (Segar 2015, p. 17)

There is therefore an argument that human behavior change strategies should attempt to “charge” educational inputs with “positive emotions.” Relatedly, behavior change strategies that leverage “positive emotions” should focus

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especially on social norms. This is because “social norms have the biggest impact on behaviour” (Cross 2013, para 27):

Finally, educators and those in positions of leadership may catalyze transformation by consistently emulating, exemplifying, and personifying the desired behavior. A case study investigated the question: “What Can We Learn from Pope Francis About Change Management for Environmental Sustainability? A Case Study on Success Factors for Leading Change in Change-Resistant Institutional Environments” (Nelson and Luetz 2019, p. 503). The research identified:

Street musicians know this and . . . put coins and money into their guitar cases . . . What the street musicians don’t know is that feeding their case isn’t really enough because you haven’t actually seen another person doing it. What they really should be doing is bringing their friend with them and asking their friend to come by every five minutes and drop a dollar . . . The number one predictor of giving money to a street musician is walking past the musician directly behind someone who did contribute. [Seeing] somebody else do it, that increases the likelihood that you will do it. (Cross 2013, para 24–25)

This illustration underscores the human need for belonging and conformity to social norms, which constitutes “the biggest impact on behavior” (Cross 2013, para 27) and consequently implies a very simple strategy: “don’t change attitudes, set behavioural expectations” (Cross 2013, para 18). Furthermore, the process of changing behavior appears to have different time limits depending on the age of the individuals. The older a person is, the slower the process of learning new skills and associations becomes, as learning and memory peak in young adulthood (Gluck et al. 2016). Behavioral change is therefore most effective in younger adults, wherefore prompting changes in behavior towards sustainable development would be most successful in this age bracket. Once change is implemented, it can then naturally be taught successfully to children who will in turn internalize this mindset as part of their culture. “The goal of the psychology of sustainable behavior is to create the conditions that make sustainable action the most appealing or natural choice” (Manning 2009, p. 3). In summary, educating people on how sustainable development will benefit humanity in terms of wellness and happiness can be an important determinant for human behavior change (Segar 2015). As stated above, it is human nature to want to do good and leave the world a better place, both intragenerationally and intergenerationally (Baskin and Sommer 2017), and perspectives from neuroscience point to promising prospects (Birbaumer 2017; Ibáñez et al. 2017).

The power of personal example as a key success factor for influencing change-resistant environments. This accords with the leadership maxim made famous by the French-German theologian, humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize winner Albert Schweitzer: “Example is not the main thing in influencing others, it is the only thing.” [Schweitzer 1996, p. xviii, emphasis original]. In the final analysis, it appears that a credible, authentic and authoritative messenger will ultimately supersede the significance of the message itself. Therefore, influencing change-resistant environments succeeds best if the messenger owns, exemplifies, personifies or even becomes the living message. (Nelson and Luetz 2019, p. 519; emphasis original)

As leaders “set behavioural expectations” (Cross 2013, para 18) and lead by “personal example” (Nelson and Luetz 2019, p. 519) to shape “social norms” (Cross 2013, para 27), storytelling may be an effective vehicle to connect, engage, and inspire change (Dolan and Naidu 2013). This is because “[t]he human mind is a story processor, not a logic processor” (Haidt 2012, p. 328). Hence, “telling a human story” is a key strategy backed by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its handbook on public engagement and climate science communication (Corner et al. 2018). Key differences between paradigmatic perspectives featured in this section are summarized in Fig. 2.

Towards Synthesis: Creating Consilience This entry discussed debates and paradigms of human behavior change in the context of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4: “Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UN 2019). It

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noted the contested relationship between education and human behavior change (section “Introduction to Behavior Change for Sustainability: Debates and Perspectives”) and explored pertinent perspectives from psychology and neuroscience (section “Promoting Human Behavior Change: Leveraging Perspectives from Psychology and Neuroscience”). Following these deliberations, the question arises: Is there any common ground between these disparate frames of reference? To answer this question, it is useful to take another look at the enduring legacy of education for enacting sweeping societal transformation:

discussion has shown, education-for-behaviorchange benefits from social learning considerations (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012; Cross 2013; Burton et al. 2015; Bonior 2016; Kelly and Barker 2016). Given the “multifactorial” inputs shaping human behavior (Sapolsky 2017, p. 602), sustainable development outcomes are best advanced by holistic educational strategies and approaches (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012; Luetz et al. 2018, 2019). This is because the conservation of natural ecosystems and the “global commons” is predicated on sustainability and social responsibility (WBGU 2002; Baskin and Sommer 2017; Luetz and Walid 2019). While the nexus between human cognition and behavior is subject to ongoing enquiry and paradigmatic debate (Boyes and Stanisstreet 2012; Burton et al. 2015), perspectives from psychology and neuroscience offer promising prospects (Birbaumer 2017; Ibáñez et al. 2017; Luke 2015; Young 2017; Oatley 2018). Human behavior can be changed and habits reshaped through selfdirected neuroplasticity (Langley 2012; Costandi 2016; Birbaumer 2017). Relatedly, re-habituation may be attained through the repeated practice of sustainable behaviors (Gluck et al. 2016). For example, Wolfe et al. (2014) advocate “establishing habits that foster sustainability: Habits are actions or activities that are carried out automatically, with little conscious effort, and are often cued by factors in the environment” (p. 41). Additionally, behavior change strategies may also leverage “human values” (Cross 2013), “spirituality” (Haidt 2012; Luetz et al. 2018; Luetz and Nunn 2020), “positively charged emotions” (Segar 2015), and human communal or “herding” instincts (Hirshleifer and Hong Teoh 2003; Earls 2007). Furthermore, behavior change strategies may leverage the human need for conformity to “social norms,” which may have “the biggest impact on behavior” (Cross 2013, para 27). Finally, influencing change-resistant people, organizations, and/or institutional environments will benefit from leadership-by-example (Nelson and Luetz 2019; cf. Arbuthnott 2009). In the final analysis, human behavior change strategies will be most effective if they can create consilience by integrating multi disciplinary perspectives and academic cultures (Kagan 2009;

The power of educating children for the build-up of societal resilience has been known for millennia. More than 2300 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), student of Plato and one of the most influential teachers of all times, identified education as the kingpin of societal transformation: “All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth.” (Aristotle, cited in Luetz and Sultana 2019, p. 618)

One area where the relationship between education and human behavior change is virtually uncontested is the “uniquely universal negative relation between female education and fertility” (Basu 2002, p. 1779). This is consistently confirmed in research study after research study: Higher levels of education are conducive to better family planning. Expressed differently, . . . higher levels of education lead to fewer children, and . . . lower levels of education lead to more children. Hence . . . higher levels of education are . . . inversely related to childbearing . . . This makes education a promising adaptation response. (Luetz and Havea 2018, pp. 19–20)

It can therefore be argued that education universally influences human behavior towards sustainability by limiting human fertility (Basu 2002). In view of unabating global population growth, this has been highlighted as an important leverage point for sustainable human development (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 2013). Hence there exists a direct interrelationship between education and sustainable behavior (Luetz and Havea 2018; Luetz 2020). Relatedly, education is positively correlated to adaptation to climate change, disaster risk reduction, and human resilience (Luetz and Sultana 2019). Even so, as this

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Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience, Fig. 3 Creating consilience: Integrating complementary strategies from the academic cultures of

the natural sciences and the social sciences (cf. Cohen 1994; Lewontin and Levins 1998; Arbuthnott 2009; Kagan 2009; Slingerland and Collard 2012)

Chen and Luetz 2020). The most promising behavior-change-for-sustainability strategies are therefore inclusive rather than exclusive and holistic rather than dichotomistic. They conjoin essential paradigmatic perspectives. In other words, the most effective strategies do not dictate a forced choice between either the natural sciences or social sciences (Fig. 1) but rather combine the best of both paradigmatic worlds, thus creating consilience (Slingerland and Collard 2012). In practical terms, this may involve communicating robust peer-reviewed scientific information in social settings through storytelling (Dolan and Naidu 2013), stimulating positive emotions and inspiring action by touching human heads and hearts (cf. Cross 2013; Segar 2015; Oatley 2018):

Furthermore, convergence occurs when dispassionate commitment to rational scientific factuality is complemented with the concomitant realization that:

Most people understand the world through anecdotes and stories, rather than statistics and graphs, so aiming for a narrative structure and showing the human face behind the science when presenting information will help you tell a compelling story. (Corner et al. 2018, p. 14)

‘[i]nfluence’ – peer-to-peer, consumer-to-consumer – is much more important than ‘persuasion’ . . . However self-contained and self-determining you might feel, you and I and the rest of the human race are designed in such a way that what other people do, say and think has a profound and continuous effect upon our own actions, thoughts and feelings. This challenges many of our underlying assumptions about how to bring about changes in mass behaviour. (Earls 2007, p. 165)

The reciprocal influence between the natural sciences and social sciences has been variously documented in the literature (e.g., Cohen 1994; Lewontin and Levins 1998, Chen and Luetz 2020). According to Kagan (2009), their egalitarian contribution to humanity is aptly expressed through their important role of maintaining intellectual checks and balances between academic cultures:

Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development Every democracy requires an opposition party to prevent the one temporarily in power from becoming despotic. And every society needs a cohort of intellectuals to check the dominance of a single perspective when its ideological hand becomes too heavy. The first cohort of natural scientists, especially Kepler, Galileo, Bacon, and Newton, assumed this responsibility when Christian philosophy dominated European thought and their work catalyzed the ideology of the Enlightenment era. However, following three centuries of increasing secular power, natural scientists have become members of the entrenched establishment. This new arrangement leaves writers, poets, philosophers, historians, and social scientists as the loyal opposition against a materialistic determinism that exaggerates the influence of genes and neurochemistry on human behavior and emotion, while minimizing the influence of culture, values, and the historical moment on the meanings of words, sources of uncertainty, and each person’s attempt to render their life coherent.

To conclude, the most effective education-forbehaviour-change strategies are not dichotomistic (either-or) but holistic (both-and) (Fig. 3). They must therefore aim to create consilience through complementary approaches that integrate intellectual communities and academic cultures (Kagan 2009). This will move the human behavior change discourse “Beyond Disciplinary Chauvinism” (Slingerland and Collard 2012, pp. 30–34), and from “Biversities to Universities” (ibid, pp. 32–36).

Cross-References ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development ▶ Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-Disciplinarity in Research

431 Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the Master of Social Science Leadership program at Christian Heritage College (School of Social Science), which through its research and teaching activities on sustainable change management gave rise to this publication.

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Manning C (2009) The psychology of sustainable behavior: tips for empowering people to take environmentally positive action, Minnesota pollution control agency. https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/ p-ee1-01.pdf. Accessed 20 Dec 2018 McQueen DV (1996) The search for theory in health behaviour and health promotion. Health Promot Int 11:27–32 Metzger T, McEwen D (1999) Measurement of environmental sensitivity. J Environ Educ 30(4):38–39 Milgram S (1974) Obedience to authority. Harper Collins, New York Nelson W, Luetz JM (2019) What can we learn from pope Francis about change management for environmental sustainability? A case study on success factors for leading change in change-resistant institutional environments. In: Leal FW, Consorte MCA (eds) Sustainability and the humanities. Springer, Cham. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-95336-6_29 Oatley K (2018) Our minds, our selves. Princeton University Press, Princeton Parsons T (1951) The social system. Free Press, Glencoe Poole S (2017) Behave by Robert Sapolsky review – why do we do what we do? The Guardian, 9 June 2017. https:// www.theguardian.com/books/2017/jun/09/behave-byrobert-sapolsky-review. Accessed 19 Dec 2018 Posch P (1993) Research issues in environmental education. Stud Sci Educ 21:21–48 Punch KF (2014) Introduction to social research: quantitative and qualitative approaches, 3rd edn. Sage, Thousand Oaks Quak D, Luetz JM (2020) Human Happiness: Conceptual and Practical Perspectives, In Leal Filho W; Marisa Azul A; Brandli L; Gökcin Özuyar P; Wall T (Eds.) No Poverty, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, pp. 1–18, Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature Rajecki DW (1982) Attitudes: themes and advances. Sinnauer, Sunderland Rifkin J (2009) The empathic civilization: the race to global consciousness in a world in crisis. Polity, Cambridge, UK Roberson R (2016) Enlightened piety during the age of benevolence: the Christian knowledge movement in the British Atlantic world. Church Hist 85(2):246. https:// doi.org/10.1017/S0009640716000391 Sapolsky R (2017) Behave: the biology of humans at our best and worst. Penguin Random House, London, UK Schellnhuber HJ (2008) Global warming: stop worrying, start panicking? Proc Natl Acad Sci (PNAS) 105(38): 14239–14240 Schütz A (1962) Collected papers. I, The problem of social reality. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague/Boston Segar ML (2015) The right why: the surprising start to cultivating sustainable behavior change. Generations 39(1):15–19 Segar ML, Richardson C (2014) Prescribing pleasure and meaning: cultivating walking motivation and maintenance. Am J Prev Med 47(6):838–841 Slingerland E, Collard M (eds) (2012) Creating consilience: integrating the sciences and the humanities. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK

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434 Thomas CJ (2016) The wisdom of the brain: neuroscience for helping professions. CreateSpace, North Charleston Tones K (1995) Making a change for the better. Healthlines 5:17–19 UN – United Nations (2019) Sustainable development goals – goal 4: quality education. https://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/education/. Accessed 26 Mar 2019 Unger JM (2006) Entrepreneurial success: the role of human capital and learning, inaug. diss. Justus-Liebig-Univ. Gießen, Germany. https://core.ac.uk/down load/pdf/56343208.pdf. Accessed 17 Dec 2018 Vohs KD, Heatherton TF (2000) Self-regulatory failure: a resource-depletion approach. Psychol Sci 11(3): 249–254 Walid M, Luetz JM (2018) From education for sustainable development to education for environmental sustainability: reconnecting the disconnected SDGs. In: Leal FW (ed) Handbook of sustainability science and research. World sustainability series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63007-6_49 WBGU – German Advisory Council on Global Change (2002) Charging the Use of Global Commons. WBGU Secretariat, Berlin. ISBN 3-936191-00-X. https://www. wbgu.de/fileadmin/user_upload/wbgu.de/templates/ dateien/veroeffentlichungen/politikpapiere/pp2002pp2/wbgu_pp2002_engl.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2018 WBGU – German Advisory Council on Global Change (2011) World in transition – a social contract for sustainability. Flagship report. WBGU Secretariat, Berlin, p 400 Whitehead D (2001) Health education, behavioural change and social psychology: nursing’s contribution to health promotion? J Adv Nurs 34(6):822–832

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Human Performance ▶ Future Trends in Education

Human Rights Education ▶ Education for Sustainable Strategies and Key Issues

Development:

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ICT Skills for Sustainable Development Goal 4 Ruchi Tyagi1, Suresh Vishwakarma2, Zubkov Sergey Alexandrovich3 and Shariq Mohammmed4 1 School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India 2 Chartered Engineers Pacific LN, Vancouver, BC, Canada 3 Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Vladimir State University, Vladimir, Russia 4 Department of Accounting and Finance, Dhofar University, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman

Synonyms Computer skills and competence; ICT user skills

Definition Information and communication technology (ICT) skills include technical and application competence (Williams et al. 1998). The technical competence mainly encompasses handling hardware and software, and application competence includes capability in handling and making use of ICT for specific purposes, personal and professional applications.

What ICT for Sustainability Means? Sustainable Development (SD) has its roots in the political discussion including UN Conference on the Human Environment, the Brundtland Commission, and the Earth Summit in 1992 (Goswami 2014). The inception idea on what sustainability means can be traced back from the preamble of the ICT4S conference held at Zurich in 2013. The preamble reads, “The transformational power of ICT can be used to make our patterns of production and consumption more sustainable. However, the history of technology has shown that increased energy efficiency does not automatically contribute to sustainable development. Only with targeted efforts on the part of politics, industry, and consumers will it be possible to unleash the true potential of ICT to create a more sustainable society” (Hilty et al. 2013, p. 284). Unlike other fields, the ICT for sustainability in its conceptual stage also faced overlaps with existing fields. According to Hilty and Aebischer (2015), ICT for sustainability can be subdivided into sustainability in ICT and sustainability by ICT. Sustainability in ICT means making ICT goods and services more sustainable over their whole life cycle, mainly by reducing the energy and material flows they invoke. While the Sustainability by ICT means creating, enabling, and encouraging sustainable patterns of production and consumption by means of ICT.

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ICT Skills and Sustainable Development Goals The 2030 Agreement consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all (UN 2015a). The achievement of the SDGs requires enabling the power of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) along with the innovation, scale, and reach of the private sector (UN 2015b). “Technology does not change practice? People do” (Loveless et al. 2001). As Prof Jeffery Sachs, Director of Columbia’s Earth Institute, in the report “ICT & SDGs” put it, “ICT is the most powerful new tool we have for solving the world’s major challenges . . . yet technology by itself is never a solution” (Sachs et al. 2016). The World Bank dedicated its annual World Development Report for 2016 to the vital role ICT plays in accelerating economic and human development (World Bank 2016). ICT will play a most important role to achieve the SDGs especially SDG 4, “Ensure inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All” (Tjoa and Tjoa 2016). ICT Skills and Sustainable Development Goal 4: “Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All” The Global Technical Consultation Meeting on the future of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) was held in Bangkok on the attainment of SDG with specific reference to SDG4. The meeting established ESD as an outline to Fourth APMED (Asia Pacific Meeting for Education) 2030 technical sessions discussions (Butler 2018). The Fourth APMED 2030 consisted of two parts. The first part being the technical meeting focused on SDG targets 4.3 and 4.4 within the context of Asia-Pacific and under the overarching theme of “Transforming Learning: Meeting the skills demand to achieve the SDGs in the AsiaPacific.” The second part convened the second National Coordinators’ Network Meeting to discuss the regional preparation for the Global Education Meeting (UNESCO 2018a, p 20) and the global review of SDG4 at High Level Political

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Forum (HLPF) in July 2019. The SDG-Education 2030 Steering Committee (2018, p. 11) endorses proposed strategies to input into 2019 HLPF Review for achieving the SDG4. The proposed points to focus on the HLPF 2019 Review are as follows: (i) The identification of a few key messages that are critical to progress toward SDG4, which can be built around such issues as those of quality, life and work skills and TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training), equity, inclusiveness, financing, peace and social justice, and lifelong learning. (ii) An SDG4 Expert Group Meeting to be organized back to back with the Global Education Meeting in December 2018. (iii) A more detailed work plan and the timeline for the preparation of input for 2019 HLPF and the UNGA summit on the SDGs should be developed. (iv) The 2019 HLPF report should draw on Voluntary National Reviews, outcomes of regional consultations, outcomes of the Global Education Meeting 2018, the Global Education Monitoring Reports and UIS data, as well as on the work of the SDG-Education 2030 Steering Committee working groups. The above points are easy to highlight but difficult to implement as they have implementation challenges. Few such challenges, which need to be addressed for attaining SDG goals as per agenda 2030, concerning SDG4 are as follows: 1. ICT and Digital Literacy: ICT and digital literacy often appear in curricular reforms either as an exclusive focus (UNESCO 2019) or as a package of interventions. For example, “Leveraging ICT to Improve Education and Skills in Timor-Leste,” a partnership project of UNDP and UNICEF funded by the Government of India in Timor-Leste where the literacy rate is 30% and more than 60% of young people were unemployed. Under this project, child and young people through the development and implementation of two

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computer-based educative interactive games in Tetum and Portuguese language would be provided knowledge on financial literacy, business development, and environmental awareness by using “Mobile Innovation Lab” (UNDP 2019). Based on their usage or displayed performance, ICT for digital literacy is related to sustainable computing and digital sustainability. The brief on these related fields is as follows: (a) ICT for Sustainable Computing: Sustainable computing is the study and practice of using computing resources efficiently, which in turn can impact a spectrum of economic, ecological, and social objectives (Ahmad 2011, p. 1). ICT skills training is a prerequisite of sustainable computing. For example, the practice of poverty reduction in rural India. The use of ICT applications is enhancing the opportunities of the poor to access to markets, healthcare facilities, and education. Therefore, ICT is expanding the use of government services, and reducing risks by widening access to microfinance (Cecchini 2003). (b) Digital Sustainability: Sustainability communication through digital channels is increasingly playing an important role (Siano et al. 2016). Digital sustainability provides the context for digital preservation by considering the overall life cycle and technical and socio-technical issues associated with the creation and management of the digital item (Bardley 2007). The governments should establish timelines for universal broadband connectivity of public facilities and public services no later than 2020 to achieve the SDGs by the target date of 2030 (Sachs et al. 2016). One such example is Russian e-school website project and proectoria website project. “Within the scope of the Russian Federation’s education system goals, the national education project encompasses 10 federal projects, one of which focuses on digital education environments. Modern technology is used to provide opportunities for continuous training and a

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wide range of open education e-resources. These include distance learning in preschool education, general education (children and adults) and additional education (children and adults); virtual groups and individual lessons, with independent study and study with a teacher; a broad range of programmes in line with user demand and the education services market; and evaluation of open education programme users’ academic achievements. Educators can also be trained and participate in professional associations and complementary professional education through modern technology. In the Teacher of the Future project, around 50% of teachers will receive training through Centres of Lifelong Support of Professional Skills, Centres of Technological Support of Education for Teachers’ Advanced Training, and online education. At least 70% of teachers up to age 35 will receive various forms of support during the first three years of their careers. For example, the Russian Federation’s education system goal, the national education project, encompasses 10 federal projects, one of which focuses on digital education environments. The Russian e-school website (Launched in 2018) features secondarylevel lessons and a wide range of teaching and learning materials in all subjects. The website also helps teachers establish professional communities, develop skills, and link to government bodies and scientific communities (UNESCO 2019, pp. 30–31). 2. Linking of Education Through ICT, Lifelong Learning and Skills: The linking of education, lifelong learning, and skills in the SDGs paves the way for deeper investigation into what capacities should be developed, and when (Dewan and Sarkar 2017). For example, “Aprender Conectados” (Learning Connected), an innovative plan on digital literacy launched in 2018 by Argentina’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Technology. This plan targets to prepare students for life and work in an increasingly digital world powered by artificial intelligence. With a focus on digital literacy, it

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combines curricular reform; development of relevant, engaging content to guarantee education quality and learning outcomes; teacher training; and distribution of innovative and disruptive technology to schools, together with the provision of full connectivity to all state schools. The new curriculum integrates programming and robotics into the national standards from preprimary to secondary education. The Federal Education Council approved the new standards after a consultative process engaging academics and national and international experts, and a participatory drafting process that took almost three years. All provinces are expected to integrate the standards into their curricula by 2020, reaching almost 10 million students, over 950,000 teachers, and 57,000 schools (UNESCO 2019, p. 5). Literacy, numeracy, and (increasingly) ICT skills and digital literacy skills are considered as the foundation skills in UNESCO Education for All in Global Monitoring Report on Youth and Skills (UNESCO 2016, Chap. 13). Initiative at the world level is set to align the youth and skills. For example, in Russia, through “The Teacher of the Future project,” it is expected that around 50% of teachers will receive training from the Centres of Lifelong Support of Professional Skills, Centres of Technological Support of Education for Teacher’s Advanced Training, and online education. At least 70% of teachers up to age 35 will receive various forms of support during the first three years of their careers (UNESCO 2019, p. 31). In Norway, sustainable development was one of three interdisciplinary topics in the general section on values and principles of the new core curriculum for primary and secondary schools (Permanent Mission to the UN in New York 2016). 3. Ensuring Access to ICT Skills for All Levels and Gender Equity: Three-quarters of countries emphasized sustainable development issues in their curricula between 2005 and 2015; 15% included key terms related to gender equality (UNESCO 2016, p. 21). In 2014, 63% of countries achieved gender parity in primary, 46% in lower secondary, and 23% in upper secondary education (UNESCO 2016, p. 22). Survey

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research carried out by Women’s Rights Online Network revealed extreme gender and poverty inequalities in digital empowerment across urban poor areas in 10 cities. Women were 50% less likely than men to be online and 30–50% less likely than men to use the internet for economic and political empowerment (Worldwide Web Foundation 2016). The latter figures speak itself on the being of Target 4.5 (equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities) under SDG4 (UNESCO 2016, p. 30). Various programs are initiated to eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and children in vulnerable situations by 2030. For example, the Egypt ICT Trust Fund, the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, and the United Nations Development Programme implemented education and training programs targeting people with disabilities in 112 slums in Cairo. The Malta Inspire Foundation focuses on children aged 2–5 with special needs and supports training programs for people with intellectual disabilities to improve their employability (UNESCO 2019, p. 14). According to the UNESCO Global Monitoring Report 2017, there are wide gender gaps even in simple ICT skills. The report uncovered that about 75 women for every 100 men could use basic arithmetic formulas in a spreadsheet in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands (UNESCO 2018a, p. 21). Globally, gender divides in digital skills are severe: a woman is 1.6 times more likely than a man to report lack of skills as a factor impeding their use of the internet (Worldwide Web Foundation 2016). To help ICT users and narrow the digital literacy International Telecommunications Union has developed a “Digital skills tool kit.” The proportion of women using the internet is 12% lower than the proportion of men using the internet, and the gender gap in internet usage has widened between 2013 and 2017, in particular, in the least developed countries (ITU 2017). The participation of ICT skilled

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woman can be promoted through policy intervention. For example, the accelerated development of technical and vocational training, a flagship objective of the Senegal Plan is realized by the way of policy intervention. For this in 2015, a vocational training law made training and qualification of human resources a policy priority. The percentage of girls in Technical, Vocational, Tertiary and Adult Education has increased to 52% in 2017, a success attributed to measures including adequate toilets at vocational institutes, scholarships, and prizes to encourage women’s participation. The affordability was promoted through partnership agreements between vocational institutes and businesses (UNESCO 2019, p. 42). 4. ICT for Development (ICT4D): It is the application of information and communication technologies for international development (Heeks 2009), for example, the Community Information Centre (CIC) project as an ICT intervention. UNDP and the Government of Ghana launched the CIC project in 2006. The CIC project indorsed the Deployment and Spread of ICTs in the community, providing the citizenry with ICT skills and access to the internet. This promoted the use of ICTs as an alternative source of livelihood, especially for the youth, and for the economic sustainability of beneficiary communities as a whole (UNDP 2016). UNICEF in partnership with the JustJobs Network, ILO, UNESCO, and the World Bank in their report, “From Education to Employability: Preparing South Asian Youth for the World of Work,” explores how secondary education and skills development can contribute better to the employability of young women and men (Dewan and Sarkar 2017). (a) Need for Nexus Approach: In the light of ICT for sustainability, the studies have pointed on the nexus approach. For example, ICT can reduce wasteful consumption of energy (solid-state lighting is one clear example). Emerging solutions in computing such as thin client (computers without hard disk drives rely mostly on central

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servers for data-processing activities), grid computing, and virtualization technologies promise to reduce redundancies existing in today’s computer-based systems (WEC 2018, p. 9). The new technology together with digitization, automation, and artificial intelligence will radically change the work environment (UNESCO 2018b, p. 18). Therefore, it is of paramount importance to provide upskilling programs for those who will face job redeployment and displacement. Skills provision is not only a challenge for developing countries (UNESCO 2018b, p. 17). According to a survey of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations, 56% of adults have no digital or ICT skills or have only the skills to fulfill the simplest set of tasks in technology-rich environments (OECD 2016). (b) Need for Collaborative Efforts: One way to bridge the gap to attain agenda 2030 is by taking up collaborative efforts through ICT skills and digital literacy. There are success examples of collaborative efforts. One such example is the initiative taken by Korean Software Education, which included Online Coding Party, Software Education Festival, and Parents Day of Coding.

Paths Forward SDG4 is referred as a framework used or being considered as a basis for planning particularly education plans and policies. Many countries including Colombia, Finland, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Myanmar, Norway, etc. have identified strong alignment between existing national education policy and the SDG 4 goals, targets, and indicators. Colombia built its National Decennial Education Plan for 2016–2026 in collaboration with the private sector, academia, and civil society, with the SDGs as one of the benchmarks. Finland mentioned that SDG 4 objectives had strengthened the ideas of equity, inclusion, participation, and global citizenship. Kazakhstan

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described SDG 4 as a key priority in the 2025 Strategic Development Plan. Lithuania’s parliament adopted a resolution on SDG implementation in 2018. Myanmar, which has already developed the National Education Strategic Plan 2016–2021, is now considering aligning it further with 2030 Agenda targets and priorities when updating it beyond 2021. In Norway, the Ministry of Education and Research budget proposal to parliament included a chapter on the SDG 4 targets from both a quantitative and a qualitative perspective. The report, “Internet Access and Education: Key Considerations for Policymakers,” outlines that policies for the internet access and use should encompass the entire education system – from pre-school and primary education, through secondary and tertiary education, to lifelong learning, reskilling, and retraining. The aim should be “to improve the digital literacy and skills of everyone throughout society, to include adults as well as children” (Internet Society 2017). The report signals to fast-track SDG4 with ICT. Peansupap and Walker (2005) conducted a study on “Factors enabling information and communication technology diffusion.” They found that the lack of ICT skills is a key barrier to adopting and using ICT applications. According to End-User e-Skills framework requirement draft, there is a need for developing suitable digital literacy skills in lowand middle-income countries (Farren et al. 2010). To address the rapid technological change over time, IFIP Working Group for “ICT and Sustainable Development” was established (IFIP 2016). Digital solutions (that) can contribute directly to the achievement of each and every one of the 17 SDGs and to over half of the 169 targets within them (GeSI & Accenture Strategy 2016 p. 3). By 2030, a substantial increase in the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs, and entrepreneurship are projected. Pflueger et al. (2017) in their report, “The Feasibility of Mapping ICT Initiatives to the UN Sustainable Development Goals,” suggest that the next step for the researchers and practitioners is to “Expand the analysis on the impacts of the ICT sector on SDG-4 from their report to the impacts of the ICT sector on all 17 of the SDGs.”

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The same report mentions the following as the next steps for the ICT sector. These steps are: (i) Gather and share better ICT data (ii) Find evidence of the impact of ICT solutions on specific SDG goals, targets, and especially indicators (iii) Create sector-wide alliances to establish standards for mapping solutions to the SDGs, collect more reliable data, and collaborate on having a greater impact The countries taken for study in the abovementioned report were on different development levels according to their human development index. The exemplar countries were the USA (very high), Mexico (high), India (medium), and Nigeria (low). The two constraints identified by the report relevant to this chapter are as follows: (i) The UN will measure progress on the SDGs with specific indicators (currently still in draft form) that are not necessarily aligned closely to their targets. In all cases, the indicators are narrower in scope than their targets. (ii) There are few quality studies on the impact of ICT on relevant education outcomes.

Conclusions Support and investment in Information Communication Technology (ICT) by government in any country has a great impact on sustainable development. It also improves that country’s performance, against the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals. As quoted in “Skills for a Connected World” report (UNESCO 2018a, pp. 17–18), the Minister of Information, Communications and Technology of the Republic of Kenya, Joseph Mucheru, states, “That one of the biggest challenges in Kenya is the lack of jobs. To address this challenge, the Ajira Digital Programme was launched to empower one million young people with digital skills to enable them to connect with jobs through online platforms such as Amazon’s M-Turk, Cloud Factory and iWriter.” ICT can, therefore, contribute

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to employment, income generation, and poverty reduction by enabling enterprises to capture economic opportunities by realizing process efficiency, promoting participation in expanded economic networks, and creating opportunities for employment. In conclusion, rolling out ICT solutions will not only transform education and deliver social and economic benefits to people but also provide substantial benefits for the education sector globally.

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441 Hilty LM, Aebischer B, Andersson G, Lohmann W (eds) (2013) ICT4S 2013: proceedings of the first international conference on information and communication technologies for sustainability, 14–16 February 2013. ETH, Zurich International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) (2016) TC 9- ICT and society aims and scopes. Accessed at https://www.ifip.org/bulletin/bulltcs/tc9 aim.htm. 26 Jun 2016 International Telecommunications Union (ITU) (2017) ICT facts and figures 2017. ITU, Geneva. Accessed at http:// www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx. 25 Sep 2018 Internet Society (2017) Internet access and education: key considerations for policymakers. Accessed at https:// www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2017/internet-acc ess-and-education/. 9 Dec 2018 Loveless A, DeVoogd GL, Bohlin RM (2001) Something old, something new. . .Is pedagogy affected by ICT? In: Loveless A, Ellis V (eds) ICT, pedagogy and the curriculum. Routledge/Falmer, London OECD (2016) Skills for a digital world. Policy brief on the future of work. OECD Publishing, Paris. Accessed at https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/Skills-for-a-Digital-World. pdf. 20 Feb 2019 Peansupap V, Walker DHT (2005) Diffusion of information and communication technology: a community of practice perspective. In: Kazi AS (ed) Knowledge management in the construction industry: a sociotechnical perspective. Idea Group Publishing, Hershey, pp 89–110 Permanent Mission to the UN in New York (2016) Norway’s follow-up of Agenda 2030. News on 5 Jul 2016 under News on development and humanitarian efforts. Norway in the UN. Accessed at https://www.norway.no/ en/missions/UN/news/news-on-development-and-huma nitarian-efforts/norways-follow-up-of-agenda-2030/. 7 May 2019 Pflueger J et al (2017) The feasibility of mapping ICT initiatives to the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Walton Sustainability Solutions Initiatives at Arizona State University. Arizona State, USA. Sachs J et al (2016) ICT & SDGs: how information and communications technology can accelerate action on the sustainable development goals. The Earth Institute: Columbia University. Accessed at https://www.ericsson. com/assets/local/about-ericsson/sustainability-and-corpor ate-responsibility/documents/ict-sdg.pdf. 15 Jan 2019 SDG-Education 2030 Steering Committee (SDGESC) (2018) 5th meeting: working documents 12–13 September 2018. UNESCO HQ, Pari. Accessed at https://www.sdg4education2030.org/sites/ default/files/2018-09/SDG-Education%202030%20SC %205th%20meeting%20working%20documents-EN.pdf. 25 Feb 2019 Siano A, Conte F, Amabile S, Voller A, Piciocchi P (2016) Communicating sustainability: an operational model for evaluating corporate websites, sustainability, MDPI. Open Access J 8(9):1–16 Tjoa AM, Tjoa S (2016) The role of ICT to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). IFIP World

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442 Information Technology Forum conference. Published by Springer International Publishing, Switzerland 2016. (Mata FJ, Pont A (eds): WITFOR 2016. IFIP AICT 481. pp 3–13. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31944447-5). Accessed at https://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/ PubDat_251073.pdf. 17 Jan 2019 United Nations (UN) (2015a) Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Sustainable development knowledge platform. Accessed at https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=8936. 25 Dec 2018 United Nations (UN) (2015b) Sustainable development knowledge platform. Partnerships for SDGs. Accessed at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/? p=8936. 25 Dec 2018 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2016) ICT empowers rural folks in Ghana. Posted on 7 May 2016. Accessed at http://www.gh.undp.org/con tent/ghana/en/home/ourwork/povertyreduction/successs tories.html?country=regions+and+countries%3Aafrica %2Fghana. 22 Mar 2019 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2019) Leveraging ICT to improve education and skills in Oé-Cusse. Equipping the next generation of children and young people of Oé-Cusse with 21st century skills posted on 12 April 2019. Accessed at http://www.tl. undp.org/content/timor_leste/en/home/newscentre/articl es/2019/leveraging-ict-to-improve-education-and-skillsin-oe-cusse.html. 22 May 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2016) Education for people and planet: creating sustainable future for all. The Global Education Monitoring report (GEM report) 2016. UNESCO, Paris United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2018a) Education in an interconnected world: ensuring inclusive and equitable development. The Global Education Monitoring report (GEM report) 2018. UNESCO, Paris. Accessed at https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/eng-gem2018_bro chure_final_version-print.pdf. 15 Jan 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2018b) Skills for a connected world. Report of the UNESCO on mobile learning week 26–30 March 2018. UNESCO, Paris United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019) Beyond commitments – how countries implement SDG 4. UNESCO, Paris. Accessed at https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000369008. 11 Jul 2019 Williams D, Wilson K, Richardson A, Tuson J, Coles L (1998) Teachers’ ICT Skills and Knowledge Needs: report on a study conducted for Scottish Office Education and Industry Department. Aberdeen: The Robert Gordon University. Accessed at: www.scotland.gov. uk/library/ict/append-title.htm (20 Jan 2019). World Bank (WB) (2016) World development report 2016: digital dividends. World Bank, Washington, DC. https:// doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0671-1

ICT User Skills World Energy Council (WEC) (2018) The role of ICT in energy efficiency management household sector. World Energy Council’s Future Energy Leaders (FEL) Programme. Accessed at https://www.worldenergy.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/06/20180420_TF_paper_final.pdf. 15 Jan 2019 World Wide Web Foundation (WWWF) (2016) Women’s rights online digital gender gap audit. Accessed at https://webfoundation.org/research/digital-gender-gapaudit/. 20 Jan 2019

ICT User Skills ▶ ICT Skills for Sustainable Development Goal 4

Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas Masrina Mohd Nadzir and Syamsul Rizal Abd Shukor School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia

Synonyms Cooperative learning; Learner-centered

Definition Active learning technique simply means promoting teaching and learning environment where the learners are being actively involved and engaged in classroom instructional activities, involving the learners in doing things and thinking about what they are doing (Bonwell and Eison 1991). The instructional activities in the classroom are designed as such requiring the learners to apply concepts, build ideas, and make connections in ways that construct their own knowledge and learning experiences. Active learning techniques

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help to stimulate learning and improve retention of knowledge, providing a learner-centered teaching environment, promoting learners’ participation and collaboration with peers in a more engaging manner, and hence stimulating creativity by promoting individual and group ideas, thus bridging the link between activity and learning.

Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas, Table 1 Comparison between passive and active learning Instructors

Introduction to Active Learning Even now, the concept of active learning is still unfamiliar to some educators. One reason might be that these educators tend to follow the teaching techniques they were used to when they were students. It is still common practice in learning institutions where the experts (i.e., teachers and lecturers) talk on a subject at the front of a class or lecture theatre while learners are not doing anything but listening or taking notes. This passive learning style makes the expert the focus of the learning environment instead of the learners. Contrariwise, active learning environment focuses on the learners, and learning activities are designed to keep learners engaged. Although both learning styles aim on instilling lifelong learning behavior to learners, the active learning environment works better in motivating learners to acquire knowledge at their own accord for the sake of learning and not grades. Table 1 shows other differences between passive and active learning. To improve the quality of educations and to effectively implement active learning activities, it is important for educators and instructors to understand how people learn. Bransford et al. (2000) stated that environment that best promotes learning contains four interdependent aspects which are focus on learners, well-organized knowledge, on-going assessment, and community support and challenge. This How People Learn (HPL) framework provides a fundamental basis to dissect the science of learning that is applicable to all (from kinder to adult learners) and non-gender biased that emphasizes on the accountability of the whole spectrum of educational environment, i. e., the government, educational institution, policy makers, educators, parents, learners, and related

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Learners

Learning materials

Passive learning Full control of the classroom or learners Requires instructor to have effective speaking and presentation skills to engage learners May be reluctant to ask questions Might be unforthcoming about their level of understanding on information given by the instructors Not consistently engaged in using higher-level cognitive skills Large amount of information could be presented in a short time Instructional materials could be prepared in advance

Active learning Do not have full control of classroom or learners Requires expertise in the content area to effectively organize active learning experiences Need to adapt to new ways of learning The less controlled environment allows learners to express their opinions

Utilize critical thinking skills

Requires more time and energy to cover all learning materials

Instructional materials could either be prepared in advance or in class as part of active learning activities Assessment Limited opportunity Easier to assess to assess how well learners’ learners are learning understanding of the the content content

organizations. This framework embraces active learning which builds on traditional educational theories like cognitivism where a learner develops aptitudes with regard to problem-solving, reasoning, and perceptual processes (Conner 2012) and was further aligned to a more constructive manner. In HPL framework, learner-centered environment outlines the requisite of paying close attention to what learners could bring (i.e., knowledge, skills, and beliefs) to the educational setting. Thus, at the start of a course, instructors need to know the pre-existing knowledge learners have in order to avoid misunderstanding during learning

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process (Bransford et al. 2000). Environments which are knowledge-centered focus on helping learners gain knowledge required for a particular expertise. In this environment instructors guide the learners toward achieving a clear learning outcome by explaining the type of knowledge they will be gaining and its application in real life or in the industries. Learners understanding on topics could be assessed by getting feedback and responses in an assessment-centered environment. In this environment, opportunities for feedback in an informal or formal setting are often provided to enhance understanding and meaningful learning. In a community-centered learning, learners are encouraged to learn from one another, not afraid to make mistakes and learn from their mistakes. Furthermore, this environment fosters learners to be active and constructive toward themselves and others.

Education Quality in Rural Areas Education is a human right as it is the most basic way for people to develop their talents and interest. Having an education is a stepping stone for a lot of people to improve their standard of living, social hierarchy, and for making life chances more equal. The domino effect of education to societies is very straightforward, where a better educated population will effect positively on economic growth, which in turn creates more jobs, and lifted more people out of poverty. Schoolchildren, in particular, are more open toward new experiences and adapt well to changes. Thus, a quality education is important to shape their personality and way of thinking. Unfortunately, not all children have the privilege of getting quality education. The poor education these children received will reduce their earning potential after graduating, even after many years of schooling. The two key elements in quality educations are the increase in cognitive development of learners and providing environment which encourage learners’ creative and emotional development (EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005). These elements are based on the four pillars of education (Delors et al. 1996):

1. Learning to know acknowledges that learners build their own knowledge daily, combining indigenous and “external” elements. 2. Learning to do focuses on the practical application of what is learned. 3. Learning to live together addresses the critical skills for a life free from discrimination, where all have equal opportunity to develop themselves, their families, and their communities 4. Learning to be emphasizes the skills needed for individuals to develop their full potential. In a statement released by Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and Education International (2015), a quality education is defined as the following: 1. A quality education is one that focuses on the whole child – the social, emotional, mental, physical, and cognitive development of each student regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or geographic location. It prepares the child for life, not just for testing. 2. A quality education provides resources and directs policy to ensure that each child enters school healthy and learns about and practices a healthy lifestyle; learns in an environment that is physically and emotionally safe for students and adults; is actively engaged in learning and is connected to the school and broader community; has access to personalized learning and is supported by qualified, caring adults; and is challenged academically and prepared for success in college or further study and for employment and participation in a global environment. 3. A quality education provides the outcomes needed for individuals, communities, and societies to prosper. It allows schools to align and integrate fully with their communities and access a range of services across sectors designed to support the educational development of their students. 4. A quality education is supported by three key pillars: ensuring access to quality teachers; providing use of quality learning tools and professional development; and the establishment of safe and supportive quality learning environments.

Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas

Compared to urban areas, many schools in the rural areas are still substandard. The lack of qualified instructors, difficult access to school, and limited facilities (e.g., electricity, water, Internet, and learning materials) are some of the few challenges faced by the learners and instructors. The quality of education the children received will impact the duration and frequency these children will attend school. Furthermore, poor parents might be reluctant to send their children to get an education if they think the time their children put into schooling could be better invested elsewhere such as working on a farm to support the family. Due to this, accountability from the instructors, learners, and parents is required for children in rural areas to get the quality of education they deserved, regardless of the school’s condition and available facilities. The responsibilities of instructors for quality education are as follows: 1. Should be understanding on the hardship faced by learners. Learners in rural area might need to travel far in harsh conditions such as that endured by Wang Fuman, an 8-year-old boy from Zhaotong, China, who walked about 4 km in 9  C to get to school. His story went viral after a photo of him with icicles on his hair and eyebrows was shared by his principal on January 9, 2018 (Ng 2018). 2. Tailoring the learning activities to engage learners in learning. Although instructors in rural area will have their work cut out to give quality educations to learners, it is still possible to be achieved. In active learning environment, instructors will be able to entice learners to learn for the sake of learning by utilizing appropriate techniques. The word “appropriate” is being used here because not all active learning techniques could be used by instructors in the rural area due to the known limitations in terms of facilities and learning materials. 3. Provide a learning environment that welcomes feedback from learners. Feedbacks from learners might not be the norm in certain culture. An example of this is Malaysian students, who are known to be quite

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reluctant to give feedback during class due to fear of punishment from instructors or being ridiculed by their peers. Although current generation of students are more confident in voicing out their opinion and giving feedback, there are still those who need encouragement to do so. It is the responsibility of the instructors to provide an environment where all learners feel comfortable in being heard. On the other hand, two main responsibilities of learners to acquire a quality education are: 1. Attend school and join learning activities conducted by instructors. Learners should be accountable for their effort to obtain a quality education by going to school and actively involved in learning activities set by instructors. A well-designed learning environment or activities do not matter, if it does not get the full cooperation and participations from learners. 2. Behave in a manner that supports a conducive learning environment. Instructions and rules given by instructors should be followed in order to not disturb the flow of learning activities. This includes providing necessary support and refraining from embarrassing their peers when feedbacks were given in the classroom or during learning activities. As for parents, their main responsibility is to give moral support to their children in pursuing an education. Parents should give ample time to their children to take part or complete learning tasks assigned by instructors. Assistance from parents in completing the task is also recommended.

Strategies for Implementation of Active Learning in Rural Areas Active learning encompasses a broad array of approaches and strategies that can be implemented individually, with partners or in a group of learners either in small number or big number. The instructional approach in active

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learning requires the learners do something that develops their skills, as opposed to passive learning where information is merely transmitted to the learners. The strategies involve actively engaging the learners with the course material through self-reflection, discussions, problem-solving, role-plays, case studies, and many more. Active learning approaches put greater degree of responsibility on the learner than passive approaches such as lectures. This in turn induced deep learning and promotes conceptual understanding of the course material. The range of activities can be conducted in length from a couple of minutes to whole class sessions or may take place over multiple class sessions which may involve learning strategies from quick-and-simple interventions to effective collaborations either in pairs or in groups. Collectively, all the strategies and approaches of active learning facilitate independent, critical, and creative thinking. Stimulating higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation) in an engaging teaching and learning environment acquires the instructor to understand fundamentally the tenets of basic elements of active learning activities (Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning 2018). Unknowingly, all the basics elements have traditionally been implemented and conducted in a classroom or lecture environment. They are: 1. Talking and listening Asking and answering questions, making comments, presenting, and explaining make the learners process information of the instructional course materials more actively and effectively. These actions are prelude toward a more engaging learning environment when the learners act beyond their passive listening to relate, analyze, and make use of what they are hearing. Discussions and interactive lectures are some of the useful strategies to be implemented. 2. Reading This is the most common method in traditional teaching where the instructors are expecting their learners to independently learn through reading. Passive readings tend to make the learners to just read in order to complete a

given task the soonest. Active reading can be induced by providing additional stimulus like coupling the reading task with questions for the learners to seek the answer in their reading, creating summary exercises, and providing opportunities for the learners to reflect or post enquiries of the reading materials. 3. Writing Writing is an effective way for the learners to reflect on the instructional course materials they have encountered or being tasked on. This activity will encourage the learners to organize their thoughts after actively processing the information and express their reflection in their own words. This can be followed with discussions to infuse deep learning activities. 4. Reflecting Information-packed classes tend to make the learners exhaustive and have declining interest in the course materials. Learners most of the time require time to digest and process the course materials and connect it with what they have already learned. Reflecting on the implication and application of the new knowledge at ample given time provides an avenue for the learners to nurture higher-order thinking skills. In-line with the HPL framework and behaviorism theory, a preconditioning of the teaching and learning environment is essential to cushion the impact of active learning strategies toward the learners’ preconceive idea on additional responsibilities or burdens the learners might think they will be facing. Preconditioning is essential in ensuring active learning strategies are implemented effectively and provide meaningful learning to the learners. Proper planning and behavioral management are prerequisite to successful implementation of active learning strategies. 1. Preparation Understanding and learning about the learners are elemental in uncovering the incomplete understanding, false beliefs, and gullible renditions of concepts the learners have when they begin a course. Learners’ expectations have to be changed from the

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beginning of the class session. Instructors are encouraged to prepare written instructional course materials for all the active learning techniques and utilize out-of-class assignments to prepare for the active learning techniques conducted in class. 2. Motivation A proper explanation of the educational purpose of the exercise conducted to the learners is expected from the instructors. This will provide a mental picture of what to be expected in the exercise. To promote deeper learning, challenging task should be created with regard to the educational level of the learners. 3. Absence of fear Get-to-know environment among the learners in a class setup should be encouraged. The practice of “instructional immediacy” by the instructor plays an important role in providing a welcoming atmosphere. Smiling, making eye contact, using student names, and moving around in the class room would physiologically ease the fear of the learners in a new setup of any teaching and learning environment. The basics of implementing active learning in a class or course follow these four steps: 1. Identifying the learning objectives 2. Describing how the learning objectives are achieved via summative or formative assessments 3. Designing and crafting the teaching and active learning activities 4. Providing supports (scaffolding activities) for the preceding three steps and reinforcing each other There are thousands of activities that can be done to invoke learners’ engagement in teaching and learning environment. It is advisable that the active learning activities are conducted in a simple and noncomplex manner at the initial stage and progressively increase the complexity after few rounds of simple strategies and activities as the learners become more accustomed with active

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learning strategies. Listed below are some examples of active learning activities that can be easily implemented and require minimal physical support or facilities. 1. Pause for clarification or reflection After stating an important point, defining a key concept or introducing a new knowledge, the instructor stops presenting and allows the learners to think about the information in a minute or so and then asks the learners whether anyone needs a clarification or have any reflection that can be shared with the whole classroom. 2. Picture prompt A picture is shown to the learners with no explanation which the learners will then identify or explain about the picture and justify their answer. The instructor can also ask the learner to write about the picture using terms learnt from a prior lecture or to name the processes and concepts shown. This technique can be conducted individually or in a group. Always let the learners to explore all the options before providing them the answer. 3. Minute papers The learners write for 1 min on a specific question or topic, like “What was the most important thing your learned today?” 4. Muddiest point The learners write about the “most difficult” or “most confusing” element in a class. This is best done at the end of the class session. 5. Brainstorming A topic or issue is introduced in the class, and the learners are asked for their inputs. The learners are given few minutes to write down their ideas and record them on the board. These ideas are then shared and discussed in the classroom. 6. Role-playing The learners are given a situation and are asked to “act out” a part or a position to get a better idea of the concepts and theories being discussed in the class. The role-playing exercise can range from simple to complex activities.

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7. Think-pair-share The instructor poses an issue or topic after a new knowledge is given or an important topic is lectured in the classroom. The learners are given say 30 s or a minute to think about or write out their response. The learners are then paired to explain their responses to one another in 4 or 5 min. This is followed by the learners synthesized a joint solution to share with the entire class. 8. Questioning strategies The instructor prepares questions where each of the questions is related to learning objectives prior to the lecture. These questions are then acted out by the learners in the classroom. If there is no response or incorrect response, the instructor will then restructured the questions in a simpler manner or lower level questions which will lead the learner to answer the original question. 9. Socratic questioning This technique is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals or group members. This can be done by the instructor peppering the learners with provocative questions, followed by next questions in a way that leads to a learning objective. Alternatively, the learners are asked to prepare the questions related to a learning objective prior to a class and act on it in pairs or in a small group. 10. Snowballs The learners are asked to write down their opinions, responses, thoughts, or feedbacks on a topic or issue presented in a class. The learners then form pairs and compare answers. The pairs discuss their answer and reach an agreed answer which then they record. The same process is repeated in a group of four. Another collectively agreed answer is reached and recorded. The learners now moved into a group of eight and undertake similar process. A further agreed answer is achieved and recorded. This process is repeated in a group of 16 after which 1 person in the group is nominated as a spokesperson. The agreed answers are then shared, discussed, and justified with the other groups in the class and

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collectively achieving to a final agreed answer. This technique is a useful way to encourage less vocal learners to share ideas initially in pairs and then in larger groups. This would ensure every individual learner’s opinions or thoughts are represented and allow a whole class consensus to be arrived systematically even without a class discussions. Jig-saw puzzle A course material is divided into smaller topics (like a piece of a puzzle) that are interrelated. Each member in a team is assigned to read and become expert on a different piece of topic. After each member has become an expert on their piece of the puzzle, they teach the other team members about that puzzle piece. Eventually after each member has finished teaching, all the pieces of the puzzle have been reassembled, and every one of the team knows about every piece of the puzzle, i.e., the course material. Debate This technique requires the instructor to clearly lay out the situation of the topic of interest, define the roles of the interest group involved, and specify the task for each group. The context and setting of the topic of interest are established in the class prior to the debate session. Contemporary local or global issues are often appropriate to simulate this kind of activities as the learners have some common interest in the topics. This exercise requires careful planning by the instructor and adequate preparation by the learners. Group discussions The learners discuss a topic in class based on a given course material. This technique requires the instructor to facilitate the discussion by giving related questions to provide a more constructive discussion environment leading to a meaningful learning and better responses. Fishbowls This technique encourages a full class participation, reflection, and depth of knowledge. A small group of learners become “the fish in the bowl” placed in the middle of the classroom where a topic is given to them to be

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discussed and debate on. The learners who are “outside of the bowl” will listen actively and reflect on alternative viewpoints. Then, the groups are switched; the observers are now becoming the “fish in the bowl” and being observed by the rest of the class. At the end of the session, a refection activity is conducted, and responses are gathered followed by a collective understanding of the overall exercise and its outcome moderated by the instructor. 15. Inquiry learning The instructor identifies an idea or concept for the learners to master and then pose an inquisitive question which will lead them to make observations, pose hypotheses, and speculate on conclusions. This technique requires the learners to use an investigative process to discover concepts for themselves in pursuit of finding possible solutions to the questions posed. 16. Experiential learning This technique epitomizes the essence of active learning strategy. The learners learn through first-hand experience which may include field trips, field work, studies abroad, internships, and the likes. Experiential learning technique forces the learner “to learn by doing” where the activity immerses the learners in an experience and then encourages reflection about the experience to develop new skills, new attitudes, or new ways of thinking. Effective learning occurs when the learners progress through a cycle of four stages: (1) having a concrete experience, followed by (2) reflective observation of the experience which lead to (3) the formation of abstract concepts through analysis and generalizations which are then (4) used to test hypothesis in future situations which result in new experiences (Kolb and Fry 1974, Kolb 1984).

Successful Implementation of Active Learning in the Rural Areas Although implementation of active learning in rural area with the aim of achieving quality

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educations seems difficult, there are success cases which could be used as reference by instructors. Many might believe that teaching technology to children in a rural setting will improved the learning level of students. However, according to a 2-year study conducted by the World Bank in Colombia, the improvement will not happen by merely putting computers in schools and training teachers to use them (The World Bank 2011). One of the suggested reasons is that teachers and students tend to use the computers to learn how to operate the devices, instead of using the computers as part of learning process. The approaches by these instructors may combine some technology with learning activities. 1. Integrative approach to technology in education (ITE) in rural Assam, India Samsul Huda, a math teacher at Kaliadinga High School in Juria of Nagaon district, teaches students trigonometry using a lesson plan that requires them to measure the height of their school building using different distances and angles. The measurements were entered in an Excel sheet, and heights of buildings were calculated using formulas. By using this strategy, students could grasp the concept of trigonometry better as they were able to connect theories with real-life situation (Avadhanam 2017). This ITE strategy is an initiative of Tata Trusts, in which the teaching model includes project-based learning which caters to the needs of adolescents and older children (Tata Trusts 2016). Since this strategy is not language dependent, students can create projects in their own language. Furthermore, the strategy does not rely on the availability of the Internet, making it work even in the remotest areas. 2. Popular pop song as tools to teach English to schoolchildren in rural Kedah, Malaysia Cheryl Fernando was a teacher at Teach For Malaysia, a nonprofit organization. She was placed in SMK Pinang Tunggal, where she teaches English for several years. The school is a “high needs” (underperforming) school, and students there were afraid to speak

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English. To encourage her student to speak English, Fernando utilizes games and popular pop songs by Taylor Swift and Bruno Mars in her teaching. Her students who were initially afraid of speaking English eventually become confident in speaking the language and entered a district-level choral speaking competition where they made it to the Top 5 among 25 schools (Chiew 2017). 3. The art of living together in the province of Boyacá, Colombia Escuela Nueva, a model of active, cooperative, and self-paced learning, is being used by a large number of rural schools in Colombia, including one school which is situated 9000 ft up in the Colombian Andes (Kamenetz 2016). The model utilized a learning guide which has illustrated stories, openended questions, practice problems, in-class activities, and take-home activities. The model emphasizes on “convivencia,” which generally means the art of living together through community, teamwork, social impact, creativity, self-directed learning, and student leadership. In this school, nearly every child has been elected to some position or committee with their own responsibilities. Furthermore, much of the learning takes place through discussion among students, in which students who have mastered the subject will teach those who are still learning it. Students are also able to leave notes of friendship and encouragement to each other on a board at the classroom wall. One of the special features of the learning guide is that many of the takehome activities reinforce real-world applications which are necessary for child survival, covering topics such as vaccination, food safety, and nutrition. 4. Using blackboard and multicolored chalks to explain software in Sekyedomase, Ghana Richard Appiah Okoto is an Information and Communications Technology (ICT) teacher at Betenase M/A Junior High School, in which the school has not had a computer since 2011. In order to let his students know or see how to operate a computer, he utilized multicolored chalks to draw computer features

and software on a blackboard. The drawings make basic computer operations simple for students to enhance their understanding on the subject matter in order to pass a national exam which includes questions on ICT (Mezzofiore 2018).

Conclusion There are vast active learning techniques that could be implemented by instructors in areas with limited facilities and access to learning materials. Actively engaging learners in the classroom will create deep interest of the learners toward the course content, taking more responsibility in their learning and bringing energy to the classroom, and at times help identify to what extent to which they may be struggling with the course material. Implementation of active learning has been shown to successfully engage learners and improve their understanding on various topics, making this teaching strategy a great tool in giving rural learners the quality education they rightly deserved.

Cross-References ▶ Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

References Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Education International (2015) The 2030 sustainable development goals and the pursuit of quality education for all: a statement of support from education international and ascd. http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/ siteASCD/policy/ASCD-EI-Quality-Education-State ment.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2018 Avadhanam RM (2017) How technology is helping assam’s rural children learn better. https://yourstory. com/2017/10/technology-assams-rural-children-educa tion/. Accessed 20 Sept 2018 Bonwell CC, Eison JA (1991) Active learning: creating excitement in the classroom. 1991 ASHE-ERIC higher education reports. ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education, The George Washington University, Washington, DC

Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs Bransford JD, Brown AL, Cocking RR (eds) (2000) How people learn: brain, mind, experience and school, 1st edn. National Academies Press, Washington, DC Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (2018) University of Connecticut. https://cetl.uconn.edu/ active-learning-strategies/#. Accessed 1 Aug 2018 Chiew M (2017) Her story teaching in a rural school has inspired a movie. https://www.star2.com/people/2017/ 02/20/from-school-to-silver-screen/. Accessed 24 Sept 2018 Conner M (2012) A primer on educational psychology. http://marciaconner.com/resources/edpsych/. Accessed 28 Aug 2018 Delors J, Al Mufti I, Amagi I, Carneiro R, Chung F, Geremek B, Gorham W, Kornhauser A, Manley M, Padrón Quero M, Savané M.-A, Singh K, Stavenhagen R, Myong WS, Zhou N (1996) Learning: the treasure within: report to UNESCO of the international commission on education for the twenty-first century. http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001095/109590eo.pdf. Accessed 28 Aug 2018 EFA Global Monitoring Report (2005) The quality imperative. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001373/ 137333e.pdf. Accessed 28 Sept 2018 Kamenetz A (2016) The one-room schoolhouse that’s a model for the world. https://www.wbez.org/shows/npr/ the-oneroom-schoolhouse-thats-a-model-for-the-world/ d87fe2fc-a032-4324-a6a0-05dcd7819b0f. Accessed 24 Sept 2018 Kolb DA (1984) Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development, vol 1. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs Kolb DA, Fry RE (1974) Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. MIT Alfred P. Sloan School of Management, Cambridge, MA Mezzofiore G (2018) New word order: Ghanaian teacher uses blackboard to explain software. https://edition. cnn.com/2018/03/01/africa/ghana-teacher-blackboardintl/index.html. Accessed 24 Sept 2018 Ng C (2018) Chinese boy walks 4 km to school in freezing conditions, arrives with icicles in hair. Available via The Straits Times. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/ east-asia/chinese-boy-walks-4km-to-school-in-belowfreezing-conditions-arrives-with-icicles-in. Accessed 28 Sept 2018 Tata Trusts (2016) Integrated approach to technology in education (ITE). http://www.tatatrusts.org/upload/pdf/ ITE-brochure-2016.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2018 The World Bank (2011) Can computers help students learn? http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/193 881468240323666/pdf/593680BRI0Colo10Box358280 B01PUBLIC1.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2018

Incidental Learning ▶ Informal Workplace Learning

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Inclusion ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

Inclusive ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs Satine Winter College of Arts, Society and Education, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Mt Gravatt, Brisbane, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia

Synonyms Diverse learning; Diversity; Elite; Exceptionality; Exclusion; Exclusive; Inclusion; Inclusive; Integration; Least restrictive environment; Segregated; Selective; Special needs

Definitions Inclusive education refers to the education of all students, regardless of ability, in mainstream classrooms and involves the use of appropriate supports, adjustments, and resource delivery to ensure the successful inclusion of students at a whole-school level, which is supported by inclusive education policy and/or legislation. A key aspect of inclusive education is the philosophical approach underpinning the inclusion of all students in the education environment based on inclusive attitudes, beliefs, and values of all

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stakeholders and founded on principles of social justice and human rights. Exclusive education refers to the education of students by selective merit or exclusion and may or may not involve discrimination by educational authorities, representatives, or other stakeholders. Exclusive education involves attitudes, beliefs, and values that may be viewed as positive or negative, and the presence of exclusion may signal the presence of power within an education system.

Introduction Traditionally, inclusive education was associated with special education services and related to the educating of students who were identified as other, had additional or special needs, or did not fit into the category of normal as deemed by society (Armstrong et al. 2010). More recently, the field of special education has expanded and transformed into inclusive education and involves the inclusion in education students who identify as having a disability, type of exceptionality, or belonging to a minority group. This includes students with: – – – – – –

A disability Learning difficulties Different socioeconomic backgrounds Gifted and talented or twice-exceptional Indigenous Gender (including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex) – Refugees – Religion – Race Other potential student groups encompass disadvantaged youth, including those who are homeless, in foster care or living in poverty, pregnant, in juvenile detention/facilities, or students disengaged from the education system. Armstrong et al. (2010) noted that to discuss inclusion in the context of inclusive education required discussing their potential exclusion. Exclusive education refers to the exclusion of students from mainstream education, on the basis

of labelling, ability, or diagnosis and may involve placement in special educational services or selective entry schools (Ho 2017). Florian (2008) noted that previously special education was viewed as a mechanism where students were both “included in and excluded from the forms of schooling that are otherwise available to children of similar ages” (p. 203). Similarly, selective entry schools include or exclude students from schooling although entry to a selective school is on the basis of academic ability or gender (Ho 2017). Inclusive education is identified as a divisive and highly debated area of education (Slee 2011). The topic of inclusive or exclusive education evokes strong arguments and concerns from all sides about the inclusion or exclusion of students. Some of the concerns raised by key stakeholders in the field include the practical application and implementation of inclusion in classrooms, teachers’ versus parents’ rights and responsibilities, children’s rights to an education, the cost of inclusion, disruptive or violent behavior, and the overall purpose of education (Slee 2011).

An Overview of Inclusive/Exclusive Education At the heart of inclusion and inclusive education are key tenets of social inclusion, social justice, and human rights (Armstrong et al. 2010). Inclusive education has its early beginnings in special education and transformed over decades at varying rates of progress across the world (Ashman 2019). Inclusive education emerged from the field of special education as a result of students [and their families] experiencing injustice in education, particularly related to issues of access and equity (Florian 2008). In many countries, special education is seen as the provision of additional support to learners whose needs extend outside of those of a majority of learners (Florian 2008). Typically, special education focused on a diagnostic-prescriptive approach in contrast to inclusive education which focused on accepting learner differences as a natural part of human diversity and development (Florian 2008).

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Exclusive education is associated with the exclusion of individuals or cohorts on the basis of specific attributes and resulting from direct or indirect discrimination, either of which could be oppressive or empowering, depending on the viewpoint taken. The inclusion or exclusion of students in education is a human rights issue (Degener 2016) and is interwoven with the history of the civil and disability rights movement. Advocacy through political and policy reforms for change in education have been affected by arguments about the technicality of how to implement inclusive education, what inclusive education looks like in practice, how to measure inclusive education, and ongoing debates and differences in defining the concept of inclusive education (Shyman 2015). Countries in the South (e.g., Africa, Asia, Latin America) tend to have stronger conceptualizations of inclusion and inclusive education which address challenges of poverty, gender inequality, and social and economic advances (Armstrong et al. 2010). In contrast, countries in the North tend to advance and develop inclusive policy and then expand these policies through implementation to countries in the South (Armstrong et al. 2010). Conducting comparative research on the inclusion and the progress of inclusive education at an international level is difficult and contentious due to the following three main reasons: 1. Education systems are context specific and different across those contexts. 2. Inclusive education is practiced in general and special education settings. 3. Lack of agreement across different settings about meaning and interpretation of inclusion and inclusive education (D’Alessio and Watkins 2009). Jahnukainen (2011) further highlighted that international research on special and inclusive education primarily focused on a single country at a time with limited research on comparisons with other countries. Often, this research explored either educational policy or practices for students with disabilities.

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Models of Disability To a great extent, the evolution of inclusive/ exclusive education can be explained through the models of disability and systemic approaches to the education of students with disability or students with diverse learning needs. These models of disability include the medical model of disability, the social model of disability, and the human rights model of disability. The medical model of disability refers to the disability as being the “problem” of the individual and a condition to be cured. Inclusion is viewed in the context of the student assimilating into the education environment and a focus on changing the student (Mackenzie et al. 2016). This model uses a deficit approach of labelling and deviance, which may contribute to the exclusion of students in educational contexts on the basis of medical diagnosis and demonstration of behavior from the norm. The social model of disability identifies societal barriers that limit participation of people with disabilities in life, for example, attitudes and beliefs and societal structures. A range of educational settings have contributed to barriers and are examples of the social model of disability where students with additional or special needs were educated in segregated settings of special institutions in the late nineteenth century and special schools and special classes in the early twentieth century (Jahnukainen 2011). Florian (2008) noted that within the field of special education, many researchers have noted its role in being a vehicle for including and excluding students in education. The human rights model of disability recognizes the rights of all people to access education and seeks to decrease the exclusion experienced by those identified as other. This is upheld by human rights legislation such as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006; Degener 2016).

Human Rights to an Education The rights of students with disabilities or students who belong to minority groups are often upheld

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in policy and legislation. Specifically, education systems are supported by a regulatory and legal framework of policy and legislation, which may be education specific or include additional areas of jurisdiction, and establish how these systems are to be governed, managed, resourced, funded, and accessed. The main difference between policy and legislation is that policy is not legally binding in comparison to legislation, which can be enforced through legal means. Policy and legislation may be used as drivers of change and reform in promoting an inclusive or exclusive education or act as barriers to the successful implementation of either education system. Regardless of location in the global North and South, all children have a right to an education, and these rights are upheld through various international human rights instruments facilitated by the United Nations. In 1948, the United Nations introduced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and declared the rights of everyone to an education while noting parents “have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children” (Article 26). While this declaration was not legally binding, it did outline fundamental human rights and an aspiration of common standards across the world. The focus on Education for All emerged in 1990 with the first world conference on Education for All and highlighted the exclusion of marginalized groups from an education. In 1994, the UN education agency, UNESCO, promoted inclusive education and inclusive schools with The Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education and a Framework for Action and provided a global framework for acknowledging the rights of children with additional or special needs. The Framework for Action component complemented the Salamanca Statement component and stated “to be effective, it [the framework] must be complemented by national, regional and local plans of action inspired by a political and popular will to achieve education for all” (UNESCO 1994, p. 14). This commitment to Education for All movement continued to focus on the inclusion of marginalized groups in

education, and at the World Education Forum in 2000, six main goals were introduced: 1. Expand and improve early childhood care and education. 2. Provide free and compulsory primary education for all. 3. Provide equitable access to learning and life skills for young people and adults. 4. Increase adult literacy by 50%. 5. Eliminate gender disparities by 2005 and achieve gender equality by 2015. 6. Improve the overall quality of education (UNESCO 2000, pp. 3–4). Each of these goals either supported inclusion or inclusive practices or explored ways of reducing the barriers to inclusion and emphasized inclusive educational environments for all. This commitment to Education for All continued to be affirmed in the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Miles and Singal (2010) raised concerns that UNESCO’s Global Monitoring Reports failed to suitably address how children with disabilities were still experiencing exclusion, discrimination, or disadvantage in education systems. These authors further highlighted that children with disabilities became less of a focus in the MDGs in comparison to the increased focus on gender and girls. With the ending of the MDG in 2015, a new target was set with the Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the creation of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Goal 4 focused on quality education and affirmed the continued commitment by many countries to inclusive education by identifying seven target areas to achieve by 2030 (VanderDussen Toukan 2017). These target areas focus on learners who have often been excluded from education systems, particularly those experiencing poverty and from minority groups such as different ethnicities, Indigenous people, and people with disabilities or additional needs (UNESCO 2017). With the focus on sustainable change in education, Hardy and Woodcock (2015) analyzed international inclusive education policies and

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found that the concept and practice of inclusion in schools was challenged by neoliberal policies, principles, and practices due to a focus on “success” of and by the individual. The authors highlighted discourses of diversity, difference, and deficit in the interpretation of inclusion policies across all countries with what they identified as a diversity-deficit spectrum. Repeatedly, challenges came down to a lack of understanding of difference and diversity and how to manage such in the education environment, while all countries demonstrated a lack of uniformity in their understanding of inclusion and inclusive education in theory and in practice (Selvaraj 2015). The introduction of various international United Nations treaties, including the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD; United Nations 2006), assisted with advocacy efforts in promoting, upholding, and realizing the rights of children with disabilities to an inclusive education. Policies and legislation vary for each country and affect the degree that Education for All, and inclusive education is implemented at a local level. The argument for inclusion or exclusion of specific students has often resulted in court litigation between key stakeholders (i.e., parents/carers, teachers, schools) as each side fights for their rights and for the court to mediate in determining a suitable outcome. Key considerations in determining an outcome may include in the best interests of the child, the least restrictive environment, and reasonable adjustments as each stakeholder argues their case and justifies their reasons for the inclusion or exclusion of a student. Farrell (2000) identified three problem areas with the argument for the right to inclusion and an inclusive education based on the human rights agenda and argument alone. Farrell (2000) suggested that the first problem is not related to the right to an education but that this right might be best met in a special school rather than a mainstream school. This author suggested the second problem is concerned with working out whose rights were being represented – the child, the parents, or the other students? The third problem identified by Farrell (2000) included the

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rights of parents to choose an educational environment, be it a special school or a mainstream school for their child.

Inclusive/Exclusive Education in Practice Inclusive Education Inclusive education as a concept has limited consensus on an exact definition; however, common features include the right of all students to participate in a regular or mainstream school and for their learning needs to be met through the reduction or elimination of barriers, so they can experience a quality education (Hyde 2015; Slee 2018). Some of the key concepts underlying inclusive education involve defining and describing the difference between inclusion, integration, segregation, and exclusion. Clarifying the difference between these concepts is useful because it assists in developing an understanding of inclusion and inclusive practices and can facilitate a more inclusive school environment (Ainscow and Sandill 2010). In General Comment 4 (2016), the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities offered the following definitions for these key terms (see Table 1). Policy and legislation lay the foundation and framework for establishing the human rights of everyone to an education. A quality education that includes all learners, as recommended by SDG4, is an inclusive education that is achieved through two key concepts of inclusion and equity (UNESCO 2017). In 2017, UNESCO released A Guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education as a resource for countries on how to promote “child-, disability-, and gender-sensitive” education that promoted “safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all” (UNESCO 2017, p. 3). The guide referred to inclusion and equity as a process and involved four main areas: 1. Understanding the concepts of inclusion and equity and embedding this within a national education framework and system

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Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs, Table 1 Key terms and definitions from inclusion to exclusion Term Inclusion

Integration

Segregation

Exclusion

Definition “Involves a process of systemic reform embodying changes and modifications in content, teaching methods, approaches, structures and strategies in education to overcome barriers with a vision serving to provide all students of the relevant age range with an equitable and participatory learning experience and environment that best corresponds to their requirements and preferences” “A process of placing persons with disabilities in existing mainstream educational institutions, as long as the former can adjust to the standardized requirements of such institutions” “Occurs when the education of students with disabilities is provided in separate environments designed or used to respond to a particular or various impairments, in isolation from students without disabilities” “Occurs when students are directly or indirectly prevented from or denied access to education in any form”

United Nations (2016, para 11)

2. Policy at a national level reflected and articulated inclusion and equity and transferred into education systems at all levels of leadership while challenging non-inclusive, inequitable, and discriminatory practices 3. Structures and systems that provide resourcing for inclusion and equity in education 4. Practices to support all learners including appropriate training and professional development of education staff in inclusive and equitable education practices (UNESCO 2017) Importantly, this guide still acknowledged resourcing of special provisions such as special schools and units to promote inclusion and equity in education (UNESCO 2017). This statement of resourcing of special schools and units may appear to be in conflict with the inclusive education movement promoting the full inclusion of all students and further contradicting General Comment 4 on the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities which stated educating

students in separate environments from their peers was a form of segregation (United Nations 2006, para 11) and thus exclusion. However, the guide emphasized that countries that have special schools and units played a role in supporting mainstream schools while they work toward more inclusive practices and countries without such services would still work toward inclusion and equity in education (UNESCO 2017). Planning for Inclusion Frameworks to Promote Inclusion

One way to cater to the needs of all learners, regardless of setting (early years, primary and secondary schooling, higher education), is through universal design for learning (UDL). UDL is based on research into neuroscience and the nature of learning and attempts to address the barriers that affect the learner when accessing the curriculum (Meo 2008). It is a pedagogical framework supported by research and used as a guide for teachers in planning effective and flexible instruction to be inclusive for all learners (Meyer et al. 2016). There are three principles underpinning this framework: Principle 1. Multiple Means of Engagement Principle 2. Multiple Means of Representation Principle 3. Multiple Means of Action and Expression Meyer et al. (2016) explained that each principle is associated with a guideline that is underpinned by research into the neuroscience of why, what, and how people learn. Principle 1 focused on the “why” of learning and promoting engaged and motivated learners. Principle 2 focused on the “what” of learning and promoting resourceful and knowledgeable learners, and Principle 3 focused on the “how” of learning and promoting strategic and goal-directed learners. Each of these principles is supported by guidelines that recommend various options for how to plan teaching and learning experiences, and all principles are meant to be utilized when planning and implementing instruction (Meyer et al. 2016). Overall, UDL is focused on design and extends

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beyond good teaching practices to purposely design and deliver learning experiences to increase student performance (Edyburn 2010). Another way to cater to the diverse learning needs of all students is through culturally responsive reaching (CRT). This approach to educating diverse learners encompasses four main areas of awareness, learning partnerships, information processing, and community of learners and learning environment (Kieran and Anderson 2018). Some of the principles supporting CRT include educational psychology foundations and understandings of child development and how this impacts learning combined with a strong emphasis on student-teacher relationships and building a community of learners while developing learning experiences that are varied, challenging, and meaningful (Kieran and Anderson 2018). Differentiating the Curriculum

When the curriculum has not been designed at the outset using frameworks such as UDL or CRT or a combination of both, the curriculum is then identified as needing retrofitting through differentiated instruction (Stanford and Reeves 2009) to enable and promote equal access to education for students of varying abilities or individual needs. Stanford and Reeves (2009) explained that differentiated instruction had been used to cater to gifted students for many years prior to its introduction into regular classrooms. Other terms associated with differentiating the curriculum include modifications, accommodations, adjustments, or reasonable adjustments. Differentiation is described by Fitzgerald (2016) as “not a single strategy or set of strategies” but an “approach that considers individual differences in every task and provides flexibility in the ways that students are permitted to undertake their learning” (p. 18). Differentiation requires the use of assessment of student learning combined with differentiation of content, process, product, and environment according to three main areas of planning: 1. Students readiness to learning 2. Students interests

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3. Students learning profile including preferences, strengths, and challenges (Tomlinson 2014) This combination of assessment with instruction is important because assessment provides teachers with data on how to improve and modify their instructional practice daily and help students grow as independent learners (Tomlinson 2014). Alchin (2014) identified adjustments as a deficit approach to disability and cautioned that their continued use was a reactionary approach to designing curriculum and did not promote flexibility or reflect an inclusive and proactive approach to teaching and learning. Individualized Planning Needs

Individualized or personalized planning is used to assist students with disabilities or additional needs to access the curriculum and educational environment. This plan may be in the form of an Individual Education Plan and may be title under a different name, depending on the educational context and global location. The focus of the plan is the student and making reasonable accommodations, adjustments, or modifications to the curriculum to enable their access to the teaching and learning activities within the school. This plan utilizes a strength-based approach and may or may not be legally mandated in each country. Data is gathered on the student throughout the process to help make decision and to inform practices used with the student. Teaching Strategies and Behavioral Approaches Instructional Strategies

Inclusive teaching strategies begin with offering students meaningful and challenging learning experiences (Brownell et al. 2012) that use a strength-based approach to the curriculum design and delivery for all learners, regardless of educational setting from the early years to higher education. One of the strategies used to promote inclusive education is response to intervention (RtI). RtI is a three-tiered level prevention model framework

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focused on promoting the use of evidence-based instruction by using student data to inform teacher practice (Brownell et al. 2012; Greenwood and Kelly 2017). A review of the literature on the use of RtI within the United States found the following themes: • Increase in teacher professional learning attributed to RtI. • Teachers acting as change agents. • Acceptance and increased confidence over time. • Trusting relationships and active leadership were essential for change. • Need for continued professional development. • Need to clarify roles among education professionals (Greenwood and Kelly 2017). A key concern in educational settings is teacher preparedness and the appropriate use of evidence-based practices (EBP) for children and students with additional needs (Smith and Tyler 2011). Implementing EBPs may be difficult due to a lack of access to current knowledge and training by education professionals. Smith and Tyler (2011) suggested time-poor education professionals were sourcing alternative solutions such as information via the Internet; therefore, a suitable solution would be accessing free online web resources and training provided by accredited organizations and research centers. Another instructional strategy promoted in inclusive settings is the use of collaborative co-teaching between regular and special education teachers in mainstream settings. Co-teaching may include parallel teaching, station teaching, alternative teaching, one-teach-one, and team teaching (Chitiyo and Brinda 2018). Teachers reported understanding the principles of co-teaching but difficulties in its implementation. Chitiyo and Brinda (2018) recommended more training be conducted on co-teaching strategies for beginning teacher education programs. While overall access to education is improving, barriers to participation in the classroom still exist for a range of diverse learners (Matavire et al. 2013). The exclusion of students through

teaching strategies and approaches such as ability streaming in classrooms has been found to promote segregation of students and discriminatory attitudes and preferences in resourcing and attention between the different ability groups (Matavire et al. 2013). In Zimbabwe, research conducted in schools on ability streaming reported negative outcomes of decreased student self-concept and increased social conflict (Matavire et al. 2013). Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support

An inclusive school environment adopts behavior management strategies such as schoolwide positive behavior support (SWPBS) or positive behavior intervention support (PBIS). SWPBS is a three-tiered behavior support framework (Tier I, Tier II, Tier III) to promote and guide positive behavior in schools (Horner et al. 2010). Tier I is universal supports provided to all students in all settings using direct instruction procedures. Tier II is secondary prevention designed for students not responding to the first tier of support and is manualized intervention strategies. Tier III is tertiary intervention for students who have not responded to the primary or secondary supports and has individualized supports designed to meet the unique needs of each student. Horner et al. (2010) recommend the use of a functional behavior assessment in combination with the collection of other academic and social data on the student to comprehensively complete a student behavior plan at this level. The use of restrictive practices and restraint or violence against children or students with disabilities is recognized as an issue, not only in society but also within mainstream settings (Nelson 2017). Article 16 of the CRPD (United Nations 2006) highlights and advocates for the rights of people with disabilities in relation to abuse and violence perpetrated against them and for the need to monitor, regulate, and legislate the protection of their rights. Measuring Inclusion Measuring inclusion has been difficult to ascertain, implement, and accurately assess due to differing agreements on what and how to measure

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inclusive education (Loreman et al. 2014). Initially, the Index for Inclusion was developed by Booth and Ainscow (2002, revised 2011) and used considerably throughout the world. Some of the critiques of this measure included the material being too complex and the tool requiring additional support and professional development to successfully implement in schools (Loreman et al. 2014). An input-processes-outcomes model was developed by Kyriazopoulou and Weber (2009) to measure inclusive education based on available supports, what occurs during implementation and then the end outcomes of such. Loreman et al. (2014) recommend a “broad varied methodological approach” (p. 12) by “measuring aspects of access, support, policy, curriculum, pedagogy, quality teaching and assessment of achievement” (p. 13) at a whole-school level.

which may or may not include family members with genealogical linkages (Sands et al. 2000). Family system theory promotes the idea of interconnectedness between each family member and how these connections impact external settings outside of the family, such as schools (Christian 2006). Families and their members are important to partnering with schools and professionals as they play a pivotal role in the child’s success in and outside of the school. Keen (2007) explored the literature on parent/ professional relationships and identified four main characteristics of effective partnerships between parents and professionals:

Resourcing Inclusion

The role of parents in the parent/professional collaboration changes according to setting. In the early years, high-quality parent-educator relationships are recommended to address and problemsolve challenging behaviors that stem from living in poverty (Kuhn et al. 2016) and to address the exclusion that occurs so early in the education system from children being expelled from preschool or kindergarten (Gilliam and Reyes 2018). In 2014, the United States Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights (2014) Report revealed that school suspension rates in the preschool years were higher for Black children than White children and resulted in the government advocating for clearly articulated guidelines on suspensions and expulsions of preschoolers and for the use of preventative measures including early childhood mental health consultations. Ingólfsdóttir et al. (2018) noted the contradictions between policy-enacted understandings of a holistic and social model of disability approach to inclusive education embracing a family-centered approach, especially in the early years, with the service delivery that was heavily characterized by a medical model understanding of disability. In developing trusting partnerships with schools, parents of children with and without disabilities identified four main themes of

Teacher Assistants/Aides

The use of teacher assistants or teacher aides is increasingly used to support students with additional or special needs in mainstream classrooms (Giangreco 2013). Five foundational practices are recommended when using teacher assistants/aides to support instruction in the classroom: 1. Instruction provided by these assistants is to be supplementary. 2. Teachers are to develop plans for the assistants using evidence-based practices. 3. Teacher assistants/aides need training on implementation of these plans. 4. Teacher assistants/aides need training on behavior management strategies. 5. Ongoing monitoring and supervision is to be provided by professionals (Giangreco 2013). Family and Professional Collaboration

When working with children or students with diverse learning needs, educators need to be mindful that it is not only the child or student that they are educating and engaging with but also the family. The term “family” or “families” is used to describe a range of family compositions

1. 2. 3. 4.

Mutual respect Trust and honesty Mutually agreed-upon goals Shared planning and decision-making

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communicating: establishing a sense of belonging, demonstrating professional competency and commitment, and building family leadership as contributing to a strong parent/professional relationship in mainstream schools (Francis et al. 2018). In post-secondary education, parents are encouraged to transition from a caregiver to an advisory role with a key goal of promoting selfdetermination of the child/adult in this setting (Francis et al. 2016). Barriers to Inclusion One of the main barriers to inclusion is attitudes and beliefs (Farrell 2000; Florian 2008), and this may be aggravated by teachers’ concern about catering to the learning needs of all students. Florian (2008) suggested the answer lies in educating teachers that they can teach “all” students, including students with disabilities, and develop different teaching strategies while adjusting their attitudes and belief systems about what inclusion is and what it can and does look like in the classroom. Some of the other barriers to inclusion and inclusive education included: • Insufficient training and resources • Lack of time and school support (Farrell 2000; Loreman et al. 2014. • Teacher apprehension about teaching inclusively • Inadequate pre-service teacher training • Support inclusion in theory, less in practice • Underfunding, concerns about allocation of funding • Release time for planning (Woodcock and Woolfson 2019) Exclusive Education Similar to inclusive education, exclusive education is underpinned by social justice and equity. Concerns about the social inclusion or exclusion of all people in society transcend the education systems and extend into communities and wider political spheres. There are two potential types of exclusive education. The first type of exclusive education is where exclusion occurs in educational settings on the basis of a recognized disability, diversity, or

additional need and has a negative connotation. Razer and Friedman (2017) described this cycle of exclusion as encompassing negative experiences felt by both students and educational professionals (teachers and principals). These authors identified how exclusive education was reinforced by “frames of exclusion” and the functioning of education staff within the education environment by either feeling “helpless to change the situation” or “deny the reality of the situation and deny any negative implications of their own action” (Razer and Friedman 2017, p. 147). Other types of exclusion occur when students are denied access to education due to gatekeeping practices at schools (Lilley 2013). The second type of exclusive education is where inclusion or exclusion of a select group of students occurs in an educational setting. These groups of students may include developing the skills and talents of gifted students in schools of excellence (Al-Shabatat 2014), developing students’ skills in sports through sporting academies (Pope 2002), or the separation of students into different schooling systems through selective entry (Skipper and Douglas 2016). At a systemic level, Slee (2018) argued exclusion was costly for two reasons. The first reason was the economic cost to governments and to families where providing segregated school systems put an extra burden on government finances in funding divided school systems, when an already existing system could promote inclusive education. This led to the second reason, which had economic, social, and health cost and implications for the government and society where segregation led to exclusion, underachievement, juvenile delinquency, and a pathway to the prison system costing the government in areas of social security, criminal justice, and health. At a global level, Mukherjee (2017) identified that exclusion in the South was affected by the colonization of different countries and political and geographical tensions such as changing borders of nation-states. These changes resulted in the oppression of local and Indigenous peoples by dominant cultural and ethnic groups by denying them access to education. This author highlighted how different cultural values impact on the

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success of inclusive education in the region and how these values further marginalize minority groups and work against inclusive education. Mukherjee (2017) argued against viewing inclusive education from a Western and linear historicist approach of “North,” “South,” “East,” “West,” and “First World, Second World, or Third World” countries and instead promoted a contextual and cultural approach to inclusive education.

is for students with additional or special needs to transition into society. There are a range of transition strategies and programs on offer for students with additional needs (Richardson et al. 2017) to transition into employment and the community; however, to be truly inclusive, it is advocated that inclusion starts from the beginning and with the hearts and minds of people living alongside each other every day, in the home and wider society.

The Student Voice on Inclusion/Exclusion

Cross-References

Stiefel et al. (2017) attempted to fill the gap in research on whether students feel more included upon receiving inclusive or exclusive forms of education and state that previous quantitative research has primarily focused on academic outcomes of inclusive education. Feeling included was examined across five areas in response to students’ feeling welcome, bullying, harassment, being known, and overall inclusion of students with disabilities in the school environment. The findings from Stiefel et al.’s (2017) study revealed little difference between students with disabilities and students without disability feeling included in regular classroom settings, despite receiving different services. Students indicated they felt only slightly less included with their peers but more included with their teachers.

Transitioning to Society Inclusive education can be confronting for teachers, parents, and students because it prompts and challenges people to confront stereotypes and preconceived notions about humanity and to reconsider their belief systems, attitudes, and values toward people who demonstrate difference or deviant behavior. Peter (2007) referred to the philosophy of inclusive education as “the right of all individuals to a quality education with equal opportunity – one that develops their potential and respects their human dignity” (p. 99). The next step after the education system

▶ History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor ▶ Inclusive Education ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

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Ingólfsdóttir JG, Egilson ST, Traustadóttir R (2018) Family-centred services for young children with intellectual disabilities and their families: theory, policy and practice. J Intellect Disabil 22(4):361–377. https://doi. org/10.1177/1744629517714644 Jahnukainen M (2011) Different strategies, different outcomes? The history and trends of the inclusive and special education in Alberta (Canada) and in Finland. Scand J Educ Res 55(5):489–502. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00313831.2010537689 Keen D (2007) Parents, families, and partnerships: issues and considerations. Int J Disabil Dev Educ 54(3):339–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/103491207014 88855 Kieran L, Anderson C (2018) Connecting universal design for learning with culturally responsive teaching. Educ Urban Soc 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131245187 85012 Kuhn M, Marvin CA, Knoche L (2016) In it for the long haul: parent-teacher partnerships for addressing preschool childrens challenging behaviors. Top Early Child Spec Educ 37(2):81–93. https://doi.org/10.117 7/0271121416659053 Kyriazopoulou M, Weber H (eds) (2009) Development of a set of indicators – for inclusive education in Europe. European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, Odense Lilley R (2013) It’s an absolute nightmare: maternal experiences of enrolling children diagnosed with autism in primary school in Sydney, Australia. Disabil Soc 28(4):514–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.201 2.717882 Loreman T, Forlin C, Chambers D, Sharma U, Deppeler J (2014) Conceptualising and measuring inclusive education. Int Perspect Incl Educ 3:3–17. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/s1479-363620140000003015 Mackenzie M, Cologon K, Fenech M (2016) ‘Embracing everybody’: approaching the inclusive early childhood education of a child labelled with autism from a social relational understanding of disability. Australas J Early Childhood 41(2):4–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/183693 911604100202 Matavire M, Mpofu V, Maveneka A (2013) Streaming practices and implications in the education system: a survey of Mazowe district, Zimbabwe. J Soc Sci Policy Implic 1(1):60–70. http://ir.buse.ac.zw/xmlui/bitstream /handle/11196/613/streaming%20practice.pdf?sequen ce=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed 30 Mar 2019 Meo G (2008) Curriculum planning for all learners: applying universal design for learning (UDL) to a high school reading comprehension program. Prev Sch Fail 52(2):21–30. https://doi.org/10.3200/PSFL.52.2.21-30 Meyer A, Rose DH, Gordon D (2016) Universal design for learning: theory and practice. Cast Professional Publishing, Wakefield Miles S, Singal N (2010) The Education for All and inclusive education debate: conflict, contradiction or opportunity? Int J Incl Educ 14(1):1–15. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13603110802265125

Individualized Education Mukherjee M (2017) Global design and local histories: culturally embedded meaning-making for inclusive education. Int Educ J Comp Perspect 16(3):32–48. https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/ IEJ/article/view/12169/11454. Accessed 15 Nov 2018 Nelson L (2017) Out of the institution, into the classroom: legal challenges to the use of restraint and seclusion in school settings in the United States. Int J Law Psychiatry 53:97–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.20 17.05.013 Peter SJ (2007) Education for All?: A historical analysis of international inclusive education policy and individuals with disabilities. J Disabil Policy Stud 18(2):98–108 Pope C (2002) Plato makes the team: the arrival of secondary school sport academies. Waikato J Educ 8:89–100. https://doi.org/10.15663/wje.v8il.448 Razer M, Friedman VJ (2017) From exclusion to excellence: building restorative relationships to create inclusive schools. UNESCO International Bureau of Education/Sense Publishers Richardson T, Jindal-Snape D, Hannah E (2017) Impact of legislation on post-school transition practice for young people with additional support needs in Scotland. Br J Spec Educ 44(3):239–256. https://doi.org/10. 1111/1467-8578.12178 Sands DJ, Kozleski EB, French NK (2000) Inclusive education for the 21st century. Wadsworth Thomson Learning, Belmont Selvaraj JA (2015) Inclusive education in New Zealand: rhetoric and reality. Hist Educ Rev 45(1):54–68. https:// doi.org/10.1108/HER-04-2014-0029 Shyman E (2015) Toward a globally sensitive definition of inclusive education based in social justice. Int J Disabil Dev Educ 62(4):351–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 1034912X.2015.1025715 Skipper Y, Douglas KM (2016) The impact of a selective entry examination on children’s feelings as they approach the transition to secondary school. Br Educ Res J 42(6):945–961. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3242 Slee R (2011) The irregular school: exclusion, schooling and inclusive education. Routledge, London Slee R (2018) Defining the scope of inclusive education. Paper commissioned for the 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report, inclusion and education. http:// repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/MINEDU /5977/Defining%20the%20scope%20of%20inclusive% 20education.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed 15 Sept 2018 Smith DD, Tyler NC (2011) Effective inclusive education: equipping education professionals with necessary skills and knowledge. Prospects 41:323–339. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11125-011-9207-5 Stanford B, Reeves S (2009) Making it happen: using differentiated instruction, retrofit framework, and universal design for learning. Teach Except Child Plus. https:// files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ967757.pdf. Accessed 12 Feb 2019 Stiefel L, Shiferaw M, Schwartz AE, Gottfried M (2017) Who feels included in school? Examining feelings of inclusion among students with disabilities. Educ Res

463 47(2):105–120. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X177 38761 Tomlinson C (2014) The differentiated classroom: responding to the needs of all learners, 2nd edn. ASCD, Alexandria U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights (2014) Civil rights data collection. Data snapshot: early childhood education. Author, Washington, DC. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdcearly-learning-snapshot.pdf. Accessed 25 Mar 2019 United Nations (2006) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. https://www.un.org/develop ment/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-per sons-with-disabilities.html. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1994) The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. http://www.unesco.org/education/ pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2000) Education for All: meeting our collective commitments. Notes on the Dakar Framework for Action. Retrieved from http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001202/120240e.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2017) A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002482/24825 4e.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 VanderDussen Toukan E (2017) Expressions of liberal justice? Examining the aims of the UN’s sustainable development goals for education. Interchange 48(3):293–309. https://eric.ed.gov/?redir=http%3a%2f%2f dx.doi.org% 2f10.1007%2fs10780-017-9304-3. Accessed 18 Nov 2018 Woodcock S, Woolfson L (2019) Are leaders leading the way with inclusion? Teachers’ perceptions of systemic support and barriers towards inclusion. Int J Educ Res 93:232–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2018.11.004 United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (2016) General comment No. 4. Article 24: Inclusive education. Retrieved from https://tbinternet. ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download. aspx?symbolno=CRPD/C/GC/4&Lang=en. Accessed 10 Aug 2019

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Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education Walid Lutfy1 and Sharni Page-Cameron2 1 London School of Economics, London, UK 2 The Psychodrama Institute of Melbourne, Cobaw, Australia

Synonyms Conversational education; Experiential education; Nonstandard education; Spontaneous learning; Unintentional learning; Vernacular education

Definition Informal education describes a lifelong process a person/community undergo to discover the world around them and explore themselves as they acquire values, attitudes, skills, and knowledge from their daily encounters. Hence informal education becomes a way of life.

Introduction As education has moved from a previously informal, universally accessible structure practiced by indigenous tribes throughout the world to the modern rigid, didactic model, many students are being left behind. Rapid advances in technology are playing their part in the education revolution creating a plethora of opportunities while uncovering complex new challenges. With the daunting speed of change, educators are discovering the benefits and limitations of new technologies in real time, often in front of a class of students. More specifically, schools are grappling with discipline challenges arising from a need to regulate the use of personal devices within

The entry uses terms such as informal learning and informal education interchangeably.

increasingly younger cohorts; devices loaded with psycho-stimulating reward centered features that may cause addictions and often either dilute real-life social interactions or encourage only virtual ones. What is the counterbalance to equilibrate the student? One answer is to allow history to inform the future. The authors contend that the solutions are in the bedrock of thousands of years of indigenous informal teaching methods. The authors offer sociometry and psychodrama as effective ways to convey the benefits of the ancient informal education and blend these with the more formal education approach. Psychodrama sees students engage in meaningful relationships with others and their environment. It helps to develop skills in empathy, spontaneity, creativity, and self-awareness through action. By integrating the thinking, feeling, and action in a whole-person approach to learning, students will gain a deeper sense of self and others that sprouts wisdom. The entry starts by enumerating issues with the current state of affairs of (formal) education. It then provides a canvas of definitions and multiple natures of informal education at the global concurrent level and the indigenous antecedent level. The authors then present a synergistic model of education that pivots education at the psyche level of the individual and the social level of the group. The entry invites the reader to rethink informal education to complement formal education in order to achieve the universal call for education for all, SDG 4.

Issues with Current Formal Education System 1. Rigidly inflexible: Futurist Thomas Frey states that “if we continue to insert a teacher between us and everything we need to learn, we cannot possibly learn fast enough to meet the demands of the future” (2007). The current world is nearly one-fifth through the twenty-first century. The fourth industrial revolution, that of technology, is pulling the population away from mass-driven goods and services and increasingly bringing it toward catering to the

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individual. Today’s current education system is the product of overriding concepts of the nineteenth- and twentieth-century schooling system. The industrial revolution, the concept of economies of scale, and the need for mass production exacerbated by world wars all contributed to today’s current structure of the fourwalled classroom and the work overload that comes with it. School success is often measured with structural objective metrics such as school performance on the various tests and is rated by the weight of the average of all students’ performance. If we work within our existing system for education, the best we can hope for is an improvement of but a few percentage points. The system itself becomes the limiting factor. McClure back in 1981 warned that “to continue to narrowly compartmentalize curricular content may inhibit youngsters’ abilities to generalize, see productive relationships, or be effective solvers of complex problems” (p 183). 2. Economically expensive: Formal education is bound by brick and mortar infrastructure and is preconditioned on the availability of teachers, let alone the necessity of professionalism within the teaching staff itself. Globally, UNESCO (2016) estimates that in order to achieve universal primary and secondary education for all by 2030, 69 million new teachers are required. That exacerbating number does not necessarily solve the UN call for education for all. It only addresses the supply side. Further, demanding solely from formal education to deliver education for all is overly ambitious. Scanning the numbers, the rate at which the production of trained teachers fares, the 69 million new teachers seems to be a far-fetched number. Already in 2016, the Global Partnership for Education helped to train 238,000 teachers worldwide (Rueckert 2018). While highly commendable, if the speed of replenishing teachers stays at that pace until 2030, the target to ensure an education for all will not be reached. Adequate funding therefore becomes paramount. As governments fail to keep up with the growing funding requirements, families will be under increasing

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pressure to make up the shortfall if they want their children to have a formal education. Take the USA, for example, where despite being an overall well-performing economy, states are only responsible for providing approximately 44% of total education funding, leaving schools under pressure to raise the remaining operational amount, either from parents or elsewhere (Lynch 2017). Irrespective of the source, learners feel the pressure, be that directly through work overload or indirectly through parents, peer, or teachers’ expectations to perform due to these growing costs. 3. Standard education does not necessarily make you live a healthier or happier life: While the conventional, almost dogmatic, belief goes like education leads to happiness, peace, and other domains of positive living, the prevalent kind of education that actually leads to such positive outcomes contributes to undesirable lifestyle routine and negative health outcomes. For instance, anomalous results in Japan find that less-educated Japanese men are at lower risk of ischemic heart disease compared to the educated (Fujino 2002). Another interesting piece of research tells conversely that Japanese men in advanced old age are more likely to live longer when they had received less education throughout their lifetime (Liang et al. 2002). The likes of the above findings demonstrate that classical determinants of healthy living, such as education, have to be meticulously scrutinized before being adopted as motto for holistic well-being of people as individuals and as society. Aside of the uncertainty of education leading to a healthy life, it seems that standard education affects happiness of the learners. Childline in the UK gave 3135 counselling sessions to students due to exam stress, a rise of 11% over 2 years (BBC 2017). Cited from the NSPCC report (2017), “young people told counsellors how overwhelmed they were by the whole exam process. Excessive workloads, struggling with subjects and not being prepared for exams all contributed to young people feeling stressed and anxious.” The multitude of challenges students face only to cope with formal education

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requirements does not only leave them mentally and physically debilitated but also energy depleted from the overstimulation of their cognitive abilities. 4. Lack of learning appeasement: According to the European Council, one dimension of the school failure problem is defined as “the number of 18 to 24 years old with only lower secondary level education who are not in further education and training” (Psacharopoulos 2007: 4). In 2010, the European Commission set 10% as benchmark of the proportion of early school leavers, beyond which a failure looms because of the education system. Fastforward into 2017, 12.1% of young men and 8.9% of young women in the EU were early leavers from education and training. It is worth noting that the range of proportion of early school leavers spans 20% difference between the country with low dropout rate, e.g., Croatia at 3.1% and the country with a high rate, e.g., Malta at 18.6% (Eurostat 2018). Not only that the benchmark has yet to be attained; some countries are staggeringly distant from achieving even a proxy to the 10% denominator. Further, variations are found across gender, suggesting that formal education is not tailored enough to appease the male and female population independently. A study commissioned by the Melinda & Gates foundation (Bridgeland et al. 2006) found that nearly 50% of 470 dropouts surveyed said they left school because their classes were boring. 5. Lack of creativity: Following on point 4, lack of learning appeasement that translates into lack of engagement and unhealthy prolonged boredom, lack of creativity becomes a consequence of the former. How many of the world’s great minds were dubbed failures according to the formal education system? From Einstein to Steven Spielberg (Biography 2018), many who did not fare well according to the academic standards in schools ended up excelling in life itself. In a harsh critique by research psychologist, Peter Gray (2009), he openly states, “school is prison.” He goes on in a dramatic manner to ask; sending a child for

their first and most promising foundational 18 years in life to the same place, day on day, year on year, is a confinement to the mind and body. Back in 2006, the incredulous Sir Ken Robinson delivered his infamous Ted talk titled “Do schools kill creativity?” and it went on to be among the top online viewed Ted talks internationally. A 2005 report already finds that the fluidity that comes with creative minds plummets as a child grows older. Of the 1,600 children studied, an impressive 98% of those aged 3–5 were able to apply divergent creative thinking down to only 32% of the 1600 by the age 8–10 to a staggering 2% by the time the child is 25 years old (Literacy Trust 2005). In the following section, the pros of informal education would be laid out as a proposal to cover what formal education miss.

Canvas of Informal Education According to UNESCO (1984), informal education is “learning resulting from daily life activities related to work, family or leisure. Informal learning is part of non-formal learning. It is often referred to as experiential learning and can to a certain degree be understood as accidental learning.” Jeffs and Smith (2011) add, “it is the wise, respectful and spontaneous process of cultivating learning which works through conversation, and the exploration and enlargement of experience.” ILO (2006) takes a more contrasting approach by stating that informal education is “an unstructured training that takes place outside the formal education/training system.” The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP 2008) adds a psychobehavioral element to the definition: “informal learning is in most cases unintentional from the learner’s perspective.” At the national level, few countries defined informal education, one of which is the Kingdom of Jordan. The Jordanian Ministry of Labor defines it as “the acquisition of knowledge and skills through experience, reading, social contact, etc. (Informal education and training)

Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education, Table 1 Instrumental functions and nature of informal education Functions of informal education Expansive to experience Lifelong development Filling the gaps of knowledge Alternative mode of education

Corresponding nature of informal education Liberating Autodidactic selfchallenging Liaising between formal and nonformal education Affordability

Education and training where there is no clear definition of teacher and learner, or where individuals educate themselves” UNEVOC (2014). The authors identify the instrumental functions and nature of informal education in the Table 1. Informal Education: Wisdom of the Past While the modern world is still mostly inundated with the western architecture to development, in many pockets around Earth’s hemispheres, effective learning takes place through daily interactions in the community. Aboriginal society makes an individual’s sense of worth depends upon where he or she can fit within that society – cooperation rather than competition is valued and fostered (ibid: 13,14). A theme emerges when looking at the many indigenous communities around the world and the way in which they learn. Think indigenous communities in Australia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Peru to name a few where education is a daily narrative nurtured through human communication (UN 2003). The methods are largely based on the informal learning approach. Harris (1977) described five major “informal learning” strategies discovered through a study in an Australian Aboriginal community. Most learning is through observation and imitation, personal trial, and feedback and is achieved through real-life performance. The focus is on mastering context-specific skills. And finally, Yolngu learners are more person-oriented than information-oriented (ibid.: 523). Michael Omolewa (2007) notes that “curriculum” is thus considered “a way of life” with the ultimate goal being to create a “complete individual [and] a

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lifelong learner.” The knowledge and practices that are important to the community are generally passed down through the sharing of memories and participation in cultural activities. Their education system serves as “the information base for the community, which facilitates communication and decision-making.” There is a clear understanding that children learn best when they are a part of community activities, and while there might be learning goals, it is not limited to classroom settings. Everything that is a part of their life is used as a means to learn about themselves, their communities, and their culture (Figs. 1 and 2).

The Third Way: Informal Education at Play In the third way for education, as the authors conceptualize it, the past informs the future. The current behavioral system, be that in the domain of education or consumption, creates a generation of people focused on “hyper-individualized solutions” to suit their ever-demanding personal needs (Frey 2007). Therefore, as students move from simply being consumers to being producers of their needs technologically, formal education will need to counterbalance this growing trend to reflect a sense of community in their physical environment. “As group members find their own needs met, interests encouraged and individuality included within the group psyche, each participant becomes less the observer and more the participant” (Ridge 2009: 79). Whereas an indigenous child was [choosing between poisonous and edible berries hunting] “left to their own devices,” our modern children will be increasingly “left with their own devices.” It is important to note that like in western cultures, not all indigenous youth within a community learn exactly the same way. However, there are many commonalities across communities. These are reflected in the Table 2. Feasibility of the Third Way: Future Makes (New) History Perhaps Finland is the most cited country when it comes to revamping its formal education to fit the

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Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education, Fig. 1 It is an illustration highlighting the length of time indigenous informal education and formal education has been in existence. It also shows the impact that formal education has on students. As formal education has compressed the nature of learning to a more

structured, didactic approach, students have become excluded. Informal learning acknowledges that students learn in a variety of ways and that children are valued for the qualities they bring. Future education will need to expand to incorporate new ways of learning in order to adapt to the ever-changing requirements of the future

Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education, Fig. 2 (Illustration by the authors) 1. All learners are recognized for their unique qualities, and education is flexible and adaptable. Learners work together in a cooperative process-oriented environment. 2. Students who fit into the informal learning model now do not. Their way of learning is not recognized in the more inflexible

formal model. Individuals are competing against one another in a result-driven system. 3. Education of the future will acknowledge both these models and integrate elements thereof while using lessons of the past to inform decisions of the future. It will be an inclusive, rather than exclusive approach

future rather than fitting the future into what exists already (Hancock 2011). They prepare kids for life rather than a job as put by a principal of one school. Other endeavors come from independent schools breaking the mold such as Candlebark and the Alice Miller School in Australia and nonformal education organizations that works on the axis of environmental sustainability and spiritual growth of the individual such as the WOW Kampung in Singapore. Then there is the MIT APP Inventor that is technologically driven, enabling students to create their own apps in their classrooms. It is ironic to see how compulsory/formal education became so universal with the international community when a plethora of scientific research in human behavioral domains such as psychology and cognitive sciences disapproved of compulsory education endeavors (Rothon et al. 2008). Even in ancient times, in The Republic, Plato disapproved of compulsion in

Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education, Table 2 Common ways of indigenous learning among communities and list of benefits from learning in this way Ways of learning Holistic – global Context Creative/nonverbal/ visual/expressive Cooperative

Social/affective

Benefits of learning Educating the heart, mind, body, and spirit. Respect and synergy Sense of place within natural landscape Spontaneity, modeling, creativity and intuition Inclusiveness and a sense of belonging, initiative, collaboration adaptability Interconnectedness, empathy, compassion

education (1943). In fact, he believed that education has to come through play. That way, one could learn about a child’s abilities and talents. In his allegory of the cave, Plato narrates the life

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explorative journey and the rewards therefrom received by the caveman. Driven by his natural curiosity and attending to his inner voice, the man goes out to explore the world outside his realm of comfort. Compulsory education never sticks in the mind, laments Plato in the Republic. Rosseau goes a step further. In his Emile, or On Education, the philosopher distinguishes a person’s growth journey to become a man from one that makes him a citizen, which Plato hailed. While Rosseau favored education that creates a man, as in human, he disavows the ability of the education system to make either of them (1979).

The New Informal Education: A Sociometric and Psychodramatic Model Sociometry is everywhere. Sociometry is the basic foundation of the digital social network (Brandom 2012; Daniel 2016). Founded and inspired by the early work of J.L Moreno (1889–1974), sociometry, simply put, is about our relationships with one another including the choices we make in forming these relationships (Daniel 2016). The quality of these relationships can be positive, negative, or neutral. “Sociometry explores and treats the laws of social development and social relations” (Moreno 1951: 7). The same attention students unconsciously or consciously give to their technological social relationships can also be made an active focus in schools. Sociometric mapping (sociograms) can be used to ascertain the quality of school dynamics and relations among students and teachers in classrooms. Chet Bowers (1995: 15) further affirms that “just as who we are depends upon who we are interacting with, how we think, behave and value depends upon the intelligence immanent within the dynamic patterns of the larger systems within which we find ourselves.” As the world becomes more globally interdependent, the future will demand a higher level of understanding, tolerance, and adaptability from students regarding cultural and ethnic diversity. Education futurists emphasize that “education must help students become flexible, able to deal with ambiguities” (Ford 1980; Small 1981).

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Moreno argued when referring to the world of our ancestors that “by means of psychodrama, the primitive healing methods can be raised to a scientific level” (Drakulic 2014). Psychodrama is a holistic active process whereby participants explore their life situations, challenges, or aspirations through action in the moment. The emphasis is on connecting a participant to their thinking, feeling, and action by warming up to their spontaneity in the moment. When these elements are congruent, fresh perspectives and new ways of learning are possible. The focus may be on the individual psyche (psychodrama), or the life of the group (sociodrama), or developing adequate functioning (role training); however the same principles and techniques are applied. This approach is not new and has been used in many settings for different purposes including in educational and community healing. Moreno was inspired by how Greek theater used the power of the group to explore issues affecting the wider community. He saw ancient tragedy as an archetypal representation of the world surrounding us. This is when the future of education and education of the future would benefit from understanding how the processes and techniques of sociometry and psychodrama can bridge the gap between the informal and formal methods of learning. A psychodramatist practitioner of today knows about the importance of embodiment, and they intuitively do this when working with group members. They develop these skills when training in action methods (Ridge 2009). They will direct a student from a cognitive mode of trying to think about how they are feeling to a complete bodymind and heart cycle through tools such as setting the scene, concretization, doubling, mirroring, and role reversal. To do this well, they have a strong awareness of the “shifting tides of emotions, energy flows, and physical/mental states of the group” (Ridge 2009: 224). Elders of indigenous communities have long understood “ways to help people think, feel and “be” through the power of stories” (Archibald 2008: ix). Role reversal is one of the most important techniques in psychodrama, as it is “a technique of socialization and self-integration” (Blatner and Cukier 2007: 302). It enables people to be seen from the perspective

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Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education, Fig. 3 Sociogram. (Courtesy of Alan Cooper 2012). A sociogram shows the dynamics of a classroom and the choices that students make when asked a question about who they would like to sit with. You can

see who the isolates are, who have chosen but not been chosen, the mutually chosen by the arrows, and the stars (most chosen), highlighted in this case by the size of the circle

of the other, by literally taking up their role. “It is one of the most powerful experiences of being in the body” (Ridge 2009: 223). This enriches the sense of self and opens a path to change. Empathy, compassion, and self-reflection are gained through reversing roles (Žurić et al. 2017). This is something formal education has compressed placing value on a fixed cultural conserve model that is complete and known entity – two elements that will prevent evolution and change. “In order to produce change the people themselves have to be included in its operation. You cannot change the world ex-post-facto; you must do it now and here, with and through the people” (Moreno 1978: 115). All in all, there is much knowledge to be gained about human relationships and how a community fits together, and that in itself requires a sensible kind of education that looks at the

individual as a persona with multiple facades and the group that collaborates and competes within a certain submerged identity they co-create. Using tools such as social network analysis, as companies like Facebook have realized (Brandom 2012; Daniel 2016), education will benefit massively (Fig. 3). Psychodrama and the Role of the Psychodrama Director in Practice An example of psychodramatic process was observed by anthropologists in Indian American tribes in the 1950s when a Pomo Indian from California couldn’t suppress feelings of concern and sorrow after being scared by the sight of a wild goose. The healer from his tribe and his assistants set the stage for a re-encounter of that Indian with a wild goose, a role-play, where the role of the goose was played by the healer

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personally. In that play the Indian relived the earlier experience with the wild creature; his anxiety and weakness disappeared, and he soon “began to feel a lot better.” In Moreno’s view, the role as the main tool of psychodrama means a bridge between individual and social psychodynamics (Drakulic 2014). Mathew Robbie, an Elder of the Chisasibi nation, uses language that a psychodrama director would use. “I have to get to know them (children), know how their minds work, learn how their feelings and emotions help or prevent them from learning or accepting themselves. Everyone is included in the teaching and learning process, for the Eeyou believes that even children have something to teach or share with elders. In many instances, I become the student and they the teachers” (1999: para 9). Socio- and Psychodrama Together: The Whole-Person Matrix – Heart, Mind, and Body The emergence of the self comes from the roles we play, rather than the roles emerging from a self. We are role-players, and the more roles we are equipped with, the higher the quality of our life. The self is made up of psychosomatic (physiological) such as enthusiastic climber, or fussy eater; psychodramatic (psychological) such as the dynamic trailblazer, or the quiet reflector; and the social roles, such as compassionate teacher or attentive student. As language is not the first stage of development, we must acknowledge the parts of the self that are preverbal. Each role is made up of the thinking, feeling, and action: the mind, the heart, and the body. It is a holistic approach taking into account the entire person matrix. Process-oriented psychotherapist Arnold Mindell says that “when you are interested in the future of the world, you find yourself searching for paths with heart. . .Indigenous heartful systems include community and environment” (Mindell 1985: 141). Psychodrama and sociodrama intersect with the body alchemical process as to how to be on this path (Ridge 2009: 198). The brain is a “remarkable partner” with the body, but it is not the control master over the body and the heart (Pearsall 1999). Psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (2008) uses the term “psychic entropy” to indicate that worrying is the brain’s default position

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(Gawdet 2017: 188) and declared that the brain carries an evolutionary propensity for pessimism (1993: 36). Your brain often looks for what might pose a threat. What would it do otherwise when its sole purpose is to protect you (Gawdet 2017:191)? While formal education may be influenced by the western mentality, which has placed most of the emphasis on the brain and its functioning, informal education becomes important to encourage encounters that connect individuals to one another and their thoughts, feelings, and actions. After all, if we are to become adaptable to change, then being able to be in the moment with one another is an important skill to harness. Benefits of Socio- and Psychodrama Combined A key competence socio- and psychodrama combined enables a person to hone is spontaneity. It is a key component in ensuring that a role in an individual or a group remains congruent and prevents the counterproductive functions of the brain from dominating, especially as the default function being to worry. Spontaneity, which comes from the Latin word “sponte” meaning “of free will” (Moreno 1971:178), is not something we store up; it is a way of meeting the moment in the here and now, a way of being in life. Not to be confused with impulsivity, spontaneity means we are ready to respond as is required by the situation. Spontaneity warms us up to our creativity. It acts as a catalyst or a companion to the creative process (Dayton 2005: 61–64). Although among the most universal and evolutionarily the oldest reaction quality, spontaneity is the least developed among the factors operating in man’s world. It is most frequently discouraged and restrained by cultural devices. As Einstein famously said, “the measure of intelligence is the ability to change.” “Spontaneity ‘training’ is therefore the most auspicious skill to be taught. . .in all our institutions of learning” (Moreno 1951). Classroom of the Twenty-Second Century: Meta Role Wisdom Cascading from the third way that utilizes psychoand sociodrama in curating learning experiences is focus on high forms of awareness within one’s

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Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education, Fig. 4 Optimal Personal Growth Wheel. (Illustration by the authors). The flow of

spontaneity is a catalyst for creativity to meet change with adequacy using the whole-person matrix of body, mind, and heart through the process of action

self in relation to self and in relation to others. If we are not confined to learning within four walls, there is another alternative to the virtual classroom on a computer screen, and that is the living classroom of the environment around us. As the need to travel for school disappears, the need for connection becomes greater. The third way in education will take on a new realm, and that realm is of relationships and connection with community and our environment. Artificial intelligence will play such an integral role in deciding what our skills and weaknesses are for possible employment, and then we will need an even stronger and deeper knowing of self (heart, body, mind, and spirit) to live and stay connected with others. If it can gain a snapshot of all the inputs and outputs of our body, we will need to be “conversant and enlivened with one’s own energy source of spontaneity” (Ridge 2009: 224). We will need a deep understanding of the roles that we have access to and develop a highly tuned meta role within ourselves. Blatner (2007), in his article Morenean Approaches: Recognizing Psychodrama’s Many

Facets, refers to this role as a “self-manager.” This meta role reflects on, explores, and decides what roles will be played when and how they will be performed” (para 8). It takes an intuitive understanding of self, a body wisdom all of us have as children but have lost through the process of growing up. Therefore, understanding the relationship between the four elements on the axes of environmental sustainability, technological advancement, self and community, and the positive relationship (tele) between them will help create a well-integrated adaptable education model for the future going into the twenty-second century. Personal growth is a fluid conserve where an optimal level of personal growth, shown here as the belly button of the axiogram, will be realized if all the elements on the axes are being valued equally. Tele, developed by Moreno, is the flow of “feeling for,” “insight into,” and “appreciation of” the “actual makeup” of the other (Hale 1981; Moreno 1978). The four elements are seen as mutually positive when an ideal level of personal growth is reached (see Fig. 4).

Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

Methodology Given the temporal range the entry covers, from the definite past to the unknown yet predictable future, the authors conducted a foresight and backsight exercise to identify key trends and variables that may be persistent in the future. These constituents of the future were extracted from major institutional future-oriented reports such as World Economic Forum reports and School of International Future papers. Following that, several scenarios for the best and worst possible futures were sketched out after which the selected were amalgamated into a synergistic one that produced the third way.

Study Limitations The entry’s major limitation emanates from the fact that it dives into education that is rooted in the present while endeavoring to pave a future trajectory for it. By virtue of the angle the entry adopts in discussing education in years to come, the third way of synergistic education model the authors present in this entry needs further scrutiny.

Conclusion Universal education is valued, and giving our children the best opportunity to thrive is not in question. All forms of education share a similar aspired outcome. However, depending on the cultural and political context in which education is received and the agency and medium of communication through which the learner gets their experience that the outcome might be constrained or expanded. By virtue of the nature of formal education – its system of compliance and the curricular structure – it must follow, a learner is unlikely to reach the same level of optimal potential and growth in their learning experience as they would in an informal context. In particular, understanding and using the lessons that indigenous communities have used for centuries are of particular value as a means to answer any current and future challenges. The aspired

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outcome of informal education is reflected through John Dewey’s statement on what successful education should lead to, which is the “emancipation and enlargement of experience” (1933: 340). Whereas, the UNSDGs call for expansion of education and opportunity. That informal education can provide. The intention of the entry has been to highlight the experiential holistic nature of sociometry and psychodrama to bridge the gap between the informal and formal models of learning. Reimagining schools as an extension of the life a student has outside the school is incredibly important and that their view of school will often be the result of how they experience their world outside of school (Luxmoore 2008: 116). It is no surprise that “politicians often find themselves talking about school when they are worried about social cohesion, or disintegration, moral rectitude or decline, cultural diversity or the failure of law and order” (Luxmoore 2008: 117). Therefore, as students find themselves in new learning situations and the world landscape only becomes more complex, technologically efficient, and globally interdependent, the institution of education also needs to reflect this change. School organizations must positively mirror this change. Creativity and spontaneity become important factors in ensuring that adaptability is possible, the kind of adaptability that can actively engage with the future that passively await it. Pressing hard to attain the universal call for education for all and “no one left behind” only through formal education has its own limits. The entry invites to tap into informal education, complement, and supplement where formal education lags.

References Archibald J (2008) Indigenous storywork: educating the heart, mind, body, and spirit. UBC Press, Vancouver BBC (2017) https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland39887096. Retrieved 24 Oct 2018 Biography (2018) https://www.biography.com/people/ steven-spielberg-9490621. Retrieved 24 Oct 2018 Blatner A (2007) Morenean approaches: recognizing psychodrama’s many facets. http://www.fepto.com/pub lications-projects/articles/morenian-approaches-by-adamblatner. Retrieved 24 Nov 2018

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Blatner A, Cukier R (2007) Appendix: Moreno’s basic concepts. In: Baim C, Burmeister J, Maciel M (eds) Psychodrama: advances in theory and practice. Routledge, London, pp 293–307 Bowers CA (1995) Educating for an ecologically sustainable culture: rethinking moral education, creativity, intelligence, and other modern orthodoxies. New York Press, Albany Brandom R (2012) The future of Facebook was born in 1932. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ tommywilhelm/the-future-of-facebook-is-from-1932/. Retrieved 20 Nov 2018 Bridgeland M et al (2006) The silent epidemic: perspectives of high school Dropouts Melinda & gates foundation report, Washington, DC: Civic Enterprises CEDEFOP (2008) Terminology of European education and training policy. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg Cooper A (2012) Sociograms – mapping the emotional dynamics of a classroom. https://www.6seconds.org/ 2012/05/08/sociograms-mapping-the-emotional-dyna mics-of-a-classroom/. Retrieved 24 Nov 2018 Csikszentmihalyi M (1993) The evolving self. Harper Collins, New York Csikszentmihalyi M (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience (1st ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. 336 pp. ISBN 978-0-06-133920-2. FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education 3 (1) Daniel S (2016) The social collective and the social and cultural atom in the age of the social network. Zeitschrift für Psychodrama und Soziometrie: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden Dayton T (2005) The living stage: a step-by-step guide to psychodrama, sociometry and group psychotherapy. Health Communications, Inc, Deerfield Beach Dewey J (1933) How we think. D. C. Heath, New York Drakulic AM (2014) Critical reflections for understanding the complexity of psychodramatic theory Psychiatr Danub 26 (1): 12–19 Eurostat (2018) https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Early_leavers_from_education_ and_training#Overview. Retrieved 12 Oct 2018 Ford S (1980) Redress the educational system (ERIC Document reproduction service No ED 184 996) Frey T (2007) Don’t get blindsided by the future. https:// futuristspeaker.com/future-of-education/cracking-thecode-for-the-future-of-education/. Retrieved 13 Oct 2018 Fujino Y (2002) Prospective Study of Educational Background and Stomach Cancer in Japan. Preventive Medicine 35 (2):121–127 Gawdet M (2017) Solve for happy: engineer your path to joy. Bluebird & North Star Way, UK/New York Gray P (2009) School is Prison https://eqi.org/school_is_ prison.htm. Retrieved 11 October 2018 Hale AE (1981) Conducting clinical sociometric explorations: a manual for psychodramatists and sociometrists. Hale.A.E

Hancock L (2011) Why are Finland’s schools successful? https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/why-arefinlands-schools-successful-49859555/. Retrieved 13 Oct 2018 Harris S (1977) Millingimbi Aboriginal learning contexts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Mexico ILO (2006) Glossary of key terms on learning and training for work. ILO Publication Jeffs T, Smith MK (1997, 2005, 2011) What is informal education? The encyclopaedia of informal education. http://infed.org/mobi/what-is-informal-edu cation/. Retrieved 15 Nov 2018 Liang J, Bennett J, Krause N, Kobayashi E, Kim H, Brown JW, Akiyama H, Sugisawa H, Jain A (2002) Old Age Mortality in Japan: Does the Socioeconomic Gradient Interact With Gender and Age?. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 57 (5):S294–S307 Literacy Trust (2005) http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Data base/thinking.html. Retrieved 11 Oct 2018 Luxmoore N (2008) Feeling like crap: young people and the meaning of self-esteem. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London Lynch M (2017) 18 reasons the US education system is failing. https://www.theedadvocate.org/10-reasonsthe-u-s-education-system-is-failing/. Retrieved 20 Oct 2018 Mathew R (1999) Educating today’s youth in indigenous ecological knowledge: new paths for traditional ways. In: UNESCO world conference on science, Budapest McClure R (1981) The unfinished agenda. In: Edinger L, Houts P, Meyer D (eds) Education in the 8O's curricular challenges. National Education Association, Washington, DC, pp 17–188 Mindell A (1985) River’s way: the process of the dreambody. Viking Penguin Arkana, London/Boston Moreno JL (1951) Sociometry, experimental method, and the science of society. Ambler, PA: Beacon House Moreno JL (1971) The words of the father. Beacon House, Inc, New York. 1971 edition Moreno (1978) Who shall survive. Foundations of Sociometry, group psychotherapy, and Sociodrama. Beacon House, Beacon NSPCC (2017) Not alone anymore: childline annual review 2016/17. NSPCC, London Omolewa M (2007) Traditional African modes of education: their relevance in the modern world. Int Rev Educ/ Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft/ Revue Internationale de l’Education 53(5/6):593–612 Pearsall P (1999) The heart’s code. Broadway Books, New York Plato (1943) Plato’s the republic. Books, Inc, New York Psacharopoulos G (2007) The costs of school failure – a feasibility study. EENEE analytical report no. 2 Ridge RM (2009) The body alchemy of psychodrama. BRIObooks, Minneapolis Rothon C et al (2008) The impact of psychological distress on the educational achievement of adolescents at the

Informal Workplace Learning end of compulsory education. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 44(5):421–427 Rousseau J-J (1979) Emile: or, on education. Basic Books, New York Rueckert P (2018) 10 barriers to education around the world. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/10barriers-to-education-around-the-world-2/. Retrieved 13 Oct 2018 Small M (1981) Systemic and global learning. In Proceedings of the annual north american meeting of the society for general systems research, pp 398–405 Torontf), Ontario, Canada (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED 222 971) UN (2003) Importance of indigenous education and culture. UN Permanent Forum. https://www.un.org/press/ en/2003/hr4674.doc.htm. Retrieved 10 Oct 2018 UNESCO (1984) Terminology of technical and vocational education. Presses Centrales, Lausanne UNESCO (2016) Close to 69 million new teachers needed to reach 2030 education goals http://www.unesco.org/ new/en/media-services/single-view/news/close_to_69_ million_new_teachers_needed_to_reach_2030_educat/. Retrieved 19 Oct 2018 UNEVOC (2014) TVETipedia glossary. https://unevoc. unesco.org/go.php?q=TVETipedia+Glossary+A-Z& id=519. Retrieved 17 Oct 2018 Iva Žurić J, Trpimir J (2017) Teorija uloga i analiza uloga u psihodrami: doprinos sociologiji. Socijalna Ekologija 26 (3):151–169

Informal Learning ▶ Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts

Informal Workplace Learning Omar S. López Department of Organization, Workforce, and Leadership Studies (OWLS), Texas State University, San Marcos/Round Rock, TX, USA

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Definition Dale and Bell (1999) define informal workplace learning as that which takes place in the work context, relates to an individual’s performance of their job and/or their employability, and which is not formally organized into a program or curriculum by the employer.

Introduction Most learning in the workplace today is informal learning (Dale and Bell 1999; Enos et al. 2003; Merriam and Bierema 2014; Schurmann and Beausaert 2016) – and for various reasons. Unlike formal learning – which can delay a worker’s learning process due to the highly structured and complicated process of design, approval, and delivery – informal learning responds immediately to workers’ needs with its learner-centered and need-specific nature. More so, in today’s knowledge-based society characterized by fastevolving technologies, this has made informal workplace learning unprecedentedly important for workers to remain competitive, adaptable, and productive in the workforce (Alheit and Dausien 2002). Even so, this same era of technology has also provided workers with access to information and thereby, increased opportunities to pursue informal workplace learning activities (Schumacher 2018). Here is where organizations can either impede or facilitate these opportunities. To engage successfully in the “war for talent” (Baert 2018, 154), organizations know they must provide workers with a variety of learning opportunities as a means of attracting and retaining them. This has resulted among employers in a growing interest on informal workplace learning (Marsick and Volpe 1999).

Synonyms

The Broader Importance of Informal Workplace Learning to a Sustainable Economy

Explicit learning; Incidental learning; Selfdirected learning; Tacit learning

The accumulated evidence from analyses of economic outcomes is that sustainable economic

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growth is strongly affected by the skills of workers in three ways (Hanushek and Wößmann 2010). First, a higher-skilled workforce can increase labor productivity thereby creating more income overall. Second, a higher-skilled workforce can increase innovative capacity promoting growth of new technologies, products, and processes. Thirdly, a higher-skilled workforce can facilitate the diffusion of new knowledge required to successfully implement new technologies devised by others, which again promotes economic growth. Thus, what people know in the workplace matters. Keeping workers’ skills upto-date through informal workplace learning is therefore important, because skill demands frequently change in response to technological innovation.

The Importance of Informal Workplace Learning to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4: Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All A strong education system is important to sustainable development, because it broadens access to opportunities, improves health, and bolsters the resilience of communities – while driving economic growth that reinforces and accelerates these processes (World Economic Forum 2019). Moreover, education provides people with skills to participate in the new sustainable economy that includes occupations in renewable energy, smart farming, forest rehabilitation, and management of healthy ecosystems. A recent report on progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals was issued by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (UNESC 2019). The report indicated that despite considerable progress on educational access and participation over the past years, 262 million children and youth aged 6–17 were still out of school in 2017, and more than half of children and adolescents were not meeting minimum proficiency standards in reading and mathematics. One reason cited for these continued gaps in progress was the capacities of teachers. Worldwide, only 85% of primary

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school teachers have any preparation to teach, and the proportion was lowest in sub-Saharan Africa (64%). Quality teachers are paramount to a strong education system, because effective teaching helps students learn. To do so, teachers must remain current and engaged in lifelong learning activities of their own to meet the demands of ever-changing requirements in schools. This is where informal workplace learning has potential for immediate positive impact on SDG-4. The most common informal workplace learning activities that teachers practice in schools includes reading professional literature, observation of other teachers teaching in the classroom, collaboration (sharing ideas) with colleagues, reflection on teaching and learning, and learning by doing, i.e., experiential learning. How much teachers benefit from these informal workplace learning activities is highly influenced by their attitudes toward learning, their learning outcomes, and how they are influenced by their workplace context (Kyndt et al. 2016) – but this will be no different for people in other professions in diverse workplaces. The following theoretical foundations explain why, followed by what antecedents are necessary to promote informal learning in the workplace.

Theoretical Foundations Early human capital theorists first recognized the relevance of workplace learning when they included work experience in earnings functions to better estimate the returns to education, which was the early focus of human capital theory (e.g., Arrow 1962). Other early theorists approached the study of workplace learning more explicitly, focusing on the learning potential of a job (e.g., Rosen 1972). Their fundamental hypothesis was that individuals learn from their working experience. Firms provide learning opportunities in the form of different types of work-learning activities, and to that extent learning becomes a by-product of market goods production. More recently, researchers have explored the impact of the high-performance workplace on the firm’s

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performance (e.g., De Grip 2008). A highperformance workplace is one that employs workers in jobs with high workplace learning requirements. Under such conditions, workplace learning becomes central to high performance. This is particularly important because of the growing demand for multiskilled workers which can use information and skills required on one task to improve their performance on other tasks (Lindbeck and Snower 2000). Defining Informal Learning Malcome Knowles (1950) first introduced the term informal learning in his study of informal adult education. Since then, a broad variety and even contradictory definitions have emerged for the term, because it is studied in several disciplines, including adult education, psychology, sociology, and human resource development (Colley et al. 2003). Thus, there is no unified definition of informal learning as it depends on the viewpoint of the various disciplines contributing to conceptualizations of workplace learning (Manuti et al. 2015). In some studies, the informal learning construct is not defined, or defined by what it lacks (e.g., Hager and Halliday 2009; Manuti et al. 2015). This has resulted in issues of comparing studies on informal learning (Werquin 2016). Researchers have proposed conceptual models for unifying the literature (e.g., Jacobs and Park 2009), and there has been progress in establishing the following major forms of informal workplace learning (Mejiuni et al. 2015). There are four forms of informal learning that fall on a continuum from the most intentional to the most unintentional (Schumacher 2018). The most intentional is self-directed learning when the learner actively takes the initiative to learn. Next on the continuum is explicit learning, which is comparable to self-directed learning, but the intentionality of explicit learning is lower than that of self-directed learning (Mejiuni et al. 2015). The third form is incidental learning, which was not prior intended but recognized afterwards when the learner becomes aware of it as learning. The most unintentional form is tacit learning, which the learner is unconscious of and thus is not intentional.

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Thus, a learner is most conscious of the learning process if it is self-directed or explicit, and unconscious of the learning process if it is incidental or tacit. Another feature of these informal learning forms is how the learner knows learning has taken place. In self-directed and explicit learning, the criteria for successful learning are defined by the learner. In incidental learning, the learner recognizes the learning outcomes as a by-product of other actions. In tacit learning, the learner’s outcomes remain unconscious (Schumacher 2018). Because informal learning is often tacit, learners are unaware of what learning took place, and therefore, unable to express what or even if they learned something new (Marsick and Volpe 1999). For researchers, this results in problems with measuring informal learning activities and outcomes, which are often underestimated (Livingstone 2006). However, this form of informal learning can be supported by fostering learners’ reflections on actions and outcomes (Schumacher 2018). In comparison, the informal learning forms of self-directed and explicit learning are closely related to the concept of self-regulated learning (Lin and Cranton 2015; Schugurensky 2015). Self-regulation attributes include an active, voluntary, and self-paced process; influenced by intrinsic motivation; embedded in social contexts that are learner-directed and mediated by peers; highly contextualized objects and settings; informal or self-assessed based on external feedback; and directed by broad goals (Boekaerts and Minnaert 1999). For successful self-directed learning, learners must organize, set goals, apply appropriate learning strategies, and evaluate their learning process relevant to expected or desired outcomes (Knowles 1975; Zimmerman 2000). Here, today’s technologies can provide personalized learning environments that adapt to learners’ needs based on analytics to support these explicit learning processes (Kalz 2015; Schumacher and Ifenthaler 2018). Of course, these explicit forms of informal learning can be supported by fostering learners’ reflections on actions and outcomes (Schumacher 2018).

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Informal Workplace Learning Characteristics The research literature reveals the following observable characteristics of informal workplace learning (Marsick and Volpe 1999): • • • • • •

Integrated with daily routines Triggered by an internal or external jolt Not highly conscious Haphazard and influenced by chance An inductive process of reflection and action Linked to learning from others

Eraut (2004) indicated that characteristics of informal learning include implicit, unintended, opportunistic, and unstructured learning and the absence of a teacher. In comparison, Schurmann and Beausaert (2016) described informal workplace learning as unstructured, tacit, noninstitutional and mostly occurs spontaneously and unconsciously. Still, Foley (2004) stated that informal learning can be intentionally planned. Even so, Kyndt et al. (2009) suggested that most informal workplace learning is difficult to observe and measure.

Informal Workplace Learning Dimensions and Contexts Marsick and Watkins (1990) defined four levels of informal workplace learning: individual, group, organizational, and occupational. They suggested that to make informal workplace learning effective, it requires openness and honest feedback. At the individual level, informal workplace learning requires workers to examine their needs for development, actively seek guidance and learning resources, and build positive and supportive relationship with others. At the group level, teams need to guard against groupthink, which is the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility. At the organizational level, managers need to implement policies and practices that promote a learning culture equally accessible to all workers. At the occupational

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level, professionals need to reflect and share their resources and experiences, and be aware of status quo. More recent studies have examined the contexts where informal workplace learning takes place and that impact informal learning. Mejiuni et al. (2015) assert that the contexts of the workers’ socioeconomic class, ethnicity/race, gender, and culture can affect informal workplace learning. Boud and Rooney (2018) also suggest work context, social context, organizational environment, and political context all impact informal workplace learning.

Informal Workplace Learning Facilitators Thus, informal workplace learning is highly contextual and tied to tasks, processes, roles, and settings (Cseh et al. 1999; Ellinger and Cseh 2007; Eraut 2004; Marsick et al. 2008). Marsick and Watkins (2001) later modified their four-level conceptual model of informal workplace learning to examine strategies and practices at each level that impede or facilitate informal learning. In this modified model, they stressed the central position of the work context as a small circle at the center of the model, surrounded by an outer circle representing larger contexts like the workers’ personal, social, and cultural characteristics. Between the inner and outer circles are different steps workers go through in the informal workplace learning process. Informal Workplace Learning Skills Facilitating workers’ informal workplace learning are their inherent learning skills. A source of information on these skills is the Occupational Information Network (ONET 2019a). The ONET database contains an extensive job analysis on 974 occupations, developed and maintained by the U.S. Department of Labor (for more information, see Tippins and Hilton 2010). The agency continually updates the comprehensive database of worker and occupational characteristics through surveying a broad range of workers and job analysts. The database, available

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to the public free of cost, contains descriptions of the knowledge, skills, abilities, interests, and general work activities associated with each occupation. The ONET refers to skills as strategies and procedures for acquiring and working with the knowledge that comes with experience and practice (Tippins and Hilton 2010). In ONET, 35 skills are divided into basic and crossfunctional skills. The following ten basic skills describe the capacities that facilitate workers’ learning or the more rapid acquisition of knowledge (ONET 2019b). More so, below their definitions are descriptors that ONET (2019c) provides as examples of the skill at three performance levels: low (L), medium (M, i.e., average), and high (H). 1. Active learning: Understanding the implications of new information for both current and future problem-solving and decision-making. • Think about the implications of a newspaper article for job opportunities (L). • Determine the impact of new menu changes on a restaurant’s purchasing supplies (M). • Identify the implications of a new scientific theory for product design (H). 2. Active listening: Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times. • Take a customer’s order (L). • Answer inquiries regarding credit references (M). • Preside as judge in a complex legal disagreement (H). 3. Critical thinking: Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems. • Determine whether a subordinate has a good excuse for being late (L). • Evaluate customer complaints and determine appropriate responses (M). • Write a legal brief challenging a federal law (H).

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4. Learning strategies: Selecting and using training/instructional methods and procedures appropriate for the situation when learning or teaching new things. • Learn a different method of completing a task from a coworker (L). • Identify an alternative approach that might help trainees who are having difficulties (M). • Apply principles of educational psychology to develop new teaching methods (H). 5. Mathematics: Using mathematics to solve problems. • Count the amount of change to be given to a customer (L). • Calculate the square footage of a new home under construction (M). • Develop a mathematical model to simulate and resolve an engineering problem (H). 6. Monitoring: Monitoring/assessing performance of yourself, other individuals, or organizations to make improvements or take corrective action. • Proofread and correct a letter (L). • Monitor a meeting’s progress and revise the agenda to ensure that important topics are discussed (M). • Review corporate productivity and develop a plan to increase productivity (H). 7. Reading comprehension: Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in workrelated documents. • Read step-by-step instructions for completing a form (L). • Read a memo from management describing new personnel policies (M). • Read a scientific journal article describing surgical procedures (H). 8. Science: Using scientific rules and methods to solve problems. • Conduct standard tests to determine soil quality (L). • Conduct product tests to ensure safety standards are met, following written instructions (M). • Conduct analyses of aerodynamic systems to determine the practicality of an aircraft design (H).

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9. Speaking: Talking to others to convey information effectively. • Greet tourists and explain tourist attractions (L). • Interview applicants to obtain personal and work history (M). • Argue a legal case before a superior court (H). 10. Writing: Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience. • Take a telephone message (L). • Write a memo to staff outlining new directives (M). • Write a novel for publication (H). Informal Workplace Learning Triggers According to Marsick and Watkins’ (2001) modified model, informal workplace learning begins with a trigger, which can be a new work-related experience, problem, or vision of future work activities. Workers start to make sense of this trigger as they interpret the new experience. Their interpretation leads them to examine alternative solutions and find learning strategies for problem-solving. Once the strategies are identified, workers begin to take actions to produce the intended results and then assess intended and unintended consequences. This step of assessing the consequences helps workers to draw insights from the learning process for further learning in the future when encountering a new experience. In the ONET database, cross-functional skills refer to competencies such as complex problemsolving, technical skills, and resource management skills (ONET 2019b). These skills are considered necessary for a wide range of work activities, which are sets of similar actions performed together in many different jobs ONET (2019d). These work activities can serve as triggers in initiating informal workplace learning when workers realize a need for further development of competencies required for performing these sets of similar actions. The following 12 work activities are most commonly important across the 974 ONET occupations. More so, below their definitions are descriptors that ONET (2019d) provides as examples of the

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work activity at three performance levels: low (L), medium (M, i.e., average), and high (H). 1. Analyzing data or information: Identifying the underlying principles, reasons, or facts of information by breaking down information or data into separate parts. • Determine the location of a lost order (L). • Determine the interest cost to finance a new building (M). • Analyze the cost of medical care services for all hospitals in the country (H). 2. Complex problem-solving: Identifying complex problems and reviewing related information to develop and evaluate options and implement solutions. • Layout tools to complete a job (L). • Redesign a floor layout to take advantage of new manufacturing techniques (M). • Develop and implement a plan to provide emergency relief for a major urban area (H). 3. Developing objectives and strategies: Establishing long-range objectives and specifying the strategies and actions to achieve them. • Plan the holiday schedule for an airline workforce (L). • Develop the plan to complete the merger of two organizations over a 3-year period (M). • Develop a 10-year business plan for an organization (H). 4. Getting information: Observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining information from all relevant sources. • Follow a standard blueprint (L). • Review a budget (M). • Study international tax laws (H). 5. Identifying objects, actions, and events: Identifying information by categorizing, estimating, recognizing differences or similarities, and detecting changes in circumstances or events. • Test an automobile transmission (L). • Judge the acceptability of food products (M). • Determine the reaction of a virus to a new drug (H).

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6. Judging the qualities of things, services, or people: Assessing the value, importance, or quality of things or people. • Determine whether to remove a tree that has been damaged (L). • Determine the value of property lost in a fire (M). • Establish the value of a recently discovered ancient artwork (H). 7. Making decisions and solving problems: Analyzing information and evaluating results to choose the best solution and solve problems. • Determine the meal selection for a cafeteria (L). • Select the location for a major department store (M). • Make the final decision about a company’s 5-year plan (H). 8. Organizing, planning, and prioritizing work: Developing specific goals and plans to prioritize, organize, and accomplish your work. • Organize a work schedule that is repetitive and easy to plan (L). • Plan and organize your own activities that often change (M). • Prioritize and plan multiple tasks several months ahead (H). 9. Processing information: Compiling, coding, categorizing, calculating, tabulating, auditing, or verifying information or data. • Tabulate the costs of parcel deliveries (L). • Calculate the adjustments for insurance claims (M). • Compile data for a complex scientific report (H). 10. Scheduling work and activities: Scheduling events, programs, and activities, as well as the work of others. • Make appointments for patients using a predetermined schedule. • Prepare the work schedule for salesclerks in a large retail store. • Schedule a complex conference program with multiple, parallel sessions. 11. Thinking creatively: Developing, designing, or creating new applications, ideas,

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relationships, systems, or products, including artistic contributions. • Change the spacing on a printed report (L). • Adapt popular music for a high school band (M). • Create new computer software (H). 12. Updating and using relevant knowledge: Keeping up-to-date technically and applying new knowledge to your job. • Keep up with price changes in a small retail store (L). • Keep current on changes in maintenance procedures for repairing sports cars (M). • Learn information related to a complex and rapidly changing technology (H).

Informal Workplace Learning Strategies and Practices At the individual level, Schugurensky (2015) suggests that workers should be intentional and conscious about learning that occurs informally at work, including tacit learning and incidental learning. Workers’ active reflections on experiences are critical in transforming their everyday work activities to learning opportunities. In addressing self-directed learning as a dimension of informal learning at individual level, he suggests that learners actively take the initiative to learn and be aware of it as learning. Marsick and Volpe (1999) also suggested facilitating informal workplace learning by increasing workers’ awareness of learning and promoting reflection in the learning process. In comparison, Marsick et al. (1999) encourage workers to take a leadership mindset in learning, because such thinking empowers workers to intentionally take in new ideas from the outside environment and turn them into learning opportunities. The empowered worker then can impact the learning environment in an organization as well. To study practices for informal learning at the group level, Lave and Wenger (1991) suggested engaging in a process called legitimate peripheral participation and practicing collaborative reflection to facilitate informal workplace learning. They affirmed that learning is fundamentally a

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social process. Through legitimate peripheral participation and collaborative reflection, newcomers and old-timers in a group build crucial relations in the learning process while they engage in activities, explore their identities, learn new knowledge, and practice their skills. Likewise, Hager and Johnsson (2012) advocate for collective learning in facilitating informal workplace learning where learners change from transfer or acquisition to participation and becoming the learning process. Considering the impact of technology on workplace learning, Goldie (2016) more recently took the perspective of connectivism as network learning theories and suggested taking advantage of the learning opportunities brought by Internet and Web 2.0 in network communications and knowledge formation. At the organization level, Cofer (2000) suggests organizations establish mentoring programs and career planning processes to engage workers in informal workplace learning. Hoyle (2015) provided a process with six steps that he called 6As to help practitioners plan for informal learning at the organizational level, and these steps are: aim, activity, audience, assessment, actions, and assistance. Baert (2018) offered a comprehensive list of factors and variables that influence informal learning at organizational level, such as management style, organizational structures, communication systems, organizational culture, etc., and strategies are discussed to address each of these factors and variables in facilitating informal learning. Schugurensky (2015) asserted that organizations should facilitate informal learning with pedagogical intention, highlighting pedagogical strategies to nurture workers’ learning. Interestingly, Tews et al. (2017) recommend organizations engage workers in fun activities as a viable strategy to promote informal workplace learning because such activities promote learning from oneself and others through non-interpersonal sources. Most recently, Schumacher (2018) has introduced the idea of supporting informal workplace learning through analytics based on comprehensive data of workplace conditions to identify factors that influence informal workplace learning. At the occupation level, the suggested actions include empowering people toward a collective

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vision and establishing systems to capture and share learning. To apply these actions in the informal workplace learning setting, organizations need to establish systems and strategies that encourage a learning culture where informal learning can naturally occur (Beyerlein et al. 2017).

Research Limitations and Gaps Lack of adequate data has been the major limitation to research into informal workplace learning. This has resulted in studies confined to a single firm, sector, or country, which calls into question the generalizability of the study findings in other settings (De Grip 2015). Today, researchers have a major source of data from the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), a worldwide study conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The goal of the program is to assess adults’ proficiency in key informationprocessing skills – literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving – and to collect information on how adults use their skills at home, at work, and in the wider community. The OCED conducts the survey in over 40 countries and measures the key cognitive and workplace skills needed for individuals in the working-age population (between the ages of 16 and 65) to participate in society and for economies to prosper. The first data was released in 2013, and a new PIAAC survey is expected to be published in 2021 (OECD 2019). Still, measures of informal workplace learning need further development, particularly measures of time spent on learning activities, of the learning potential of the tasks to be done in various jobs, and of knowledge spillovers in the workplace (De Grip 2015). Longitudinal studies are needed to understand the importance of informal workplace learning for human capital development throughout a person’s work life and its potential impact on firm performance. Associated with these studies is research into the effects on worker performance from various informal workplace learning management practices, such as task and job rotation, peer and supervisor feedback, and team composition.

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Informal Workplace Learning Online Resources For workers engaged in self-directed and explicit informal workplace learning, the Internet is the most powerful tool for access to learning ever invented. Here, a learner can conduct searches on an endless combination of keywords that often results in hundreds, if not more, websites on a topic. Two websites are worth noting that focus on workplace skills. MERLOT (www.merlot.org) The Multimedia Educational Resources for Learning and Online Teaching (MERLOT) is an online library of over 70,000 free and open educational resources, with over 30,000 with a Creative Commons license. Here, one can find a wide range of online materials of different types: animations, assessment tools, learning assignments, mobile apps, collections, simulations, tutorials, as well as free and open e-textbooks, and free and open courseware (MERLOT 2019). Skills Commons (www.skillscommons.org) The Skills Commons contains free and open learning materials and program support materials for job-driven workforce development. Here, workforce-related Open Educational Resources (OER) can be found, reused, revised, retained, redistributed, and remixed by an individual, institution, and industry for no cost, with the proper attribution to the original author of the resources (Skills Commons 2019).

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because skill demands frequently change in response to technological innovation. More specifically, informal workplace learning is important to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Here, quality teachers are paramount to a strong education system, because effective teaching helps students learn. To do so, teachers must remain current and engaged in lifelong learning activities of their own to meet the demands of ever-changing requirements in schools. This is where informal workplace learning has potential for immediate positive impact on SDG-4. To do so, this review provided a reference to recognize the value of informal workplace learning in the twenty-first century, to understand its varied definitions, complicated yet observable characteristics, its dimension and contexts, and more importantly, to contemplate practical strategies and practices in facilitating informal workplace learning.

Cross-References ▶ Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

References Conclusion Informal workplace learning has created vigorous and complex discussions in the literature in contributing to the exploration on this subject, and in understanding its value to practice in workplace settings. The accumulated evidence from analyses of economic outcomes is that sustainable economic growth is strongly affected by the skills of workers (Hanushek and Wößmann 2010). Keeping workers’ skills up-to-date through informal workplace learning is therefore important,

Alheit P, Dausien B (2002) The “double face” of lifelong learning: two analytical perspectives on a “silent revolution”. Stud Educ Adults 34(1):3–22. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02660830.2002.11661458 Arrow K (1962) The economic implications of learning by doing. Rev Econ Stud 29(3):155–173. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/2295952 Baert H (2018) What do we know more and understand better? In: Messmann G, Segers M, Dochy F (eds) Informal learning at work: triggers, antecedents, and consequences. Routledge, New York, pp 153–187 Beyerlein M, Diran KM, Xie L (2017) A 30-year collaboration of Victoria Marsick and Karen Watkins: learning in the workplace. In: Szabla DB, Pasmore WA, Barnes MA, Gipson A (eds) The Palgrave handbook of

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Informal Workplace Learning Hanushek EA, Wößmann L (2010) Education and economic growth. In: Peterson P, Baker E, McGaw B (eds) International encyclopedia of education, vol 2. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 245–252 Hoyle R (2015) Informal learning in organizations: how to create a continuous learning culture. Kogan Page, London Jacobs R, Park Y (2009) A proposed conceptual framework of workplace learning: implications for theory development and research in human resource development. Hum Resour Dev Rev 8(2):133–150. https://doi. org/10.1177/1534484309334269 Kalz M (2015) Lifelong learning and its support with new technologies. In: Wright JD (ed) International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 93–99 Knowles M (1950) Informal adult education: a guide for administrators, leaders and teachers. Association Press, New York Knowles M (1975) Self-directed learning: a guide for learners and teachers. Association Press, New York Kyndt E, Dochy F, Nijs H (2009) Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning. J Work Learn 21(5):369–383. https://doi.org/10.1108/136656 20910966785 Kyndt E, Gijbels D, Grosemans I, Donche V (2016) Teachers’ everyday professional development: mapping informal learning activities, antecedents, and learning outcomes. Rev Educ Res 86(4):1111–1150. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315627864 Lave J, Wenger E (1991) Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Lin L, Cranton P (2015) Informal and self-directed learning in the age of massive open online courses (MOOCs). In: Mejuni O, Cranton P, Taiwo OM (eds) Measuring and analyzing informal learning in the digital age. IGI Global, Hershey, pp 91–104 Lindbeck A, Snower D (2000) Multitask learning and the reorganization of work: from Tayloristic to holistic organization. J Labor Econ 18(3):353–376. https://doi.org/10.1086/209962 Livingstone DW (2006) Informal learning: conceptual distinctions and preliminary finding. In: Silberman-KellerD, Burbules NC, Bekerman Z (eds) Learning in places: the informal education reader. Peter Lang, New York, pp 203–227 Manuti A, Pastore S, Scardigno A et al (2015) Formal and informal learning in the workplace: a research review. Int J Train Dev 19(1):1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/ ijtd.12044 Marsick VJ, Volpe M (1999) The nature of and need for informal learning. In: Marsick VJ, Volpe M (eds) Informal learning on the job: advances in developing human resources, vol 3. Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, pp 1–9 Marsick VJ, Watkins KE (1990) Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. Routledge, New York Marsick V, Watkins K (2001) Informal and incidental learning. New Dir Adult Contin Educ 2001(89):25. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.5

Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms Marsick VJ, Volpe M, Watkins KE (1999) Theory and practice of informal learning in the knowledge era. In: Marsick VJ, Volpe M (eds) Informal learning on the job: advances in developing human resources, vol 3. Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, pp 80–95 Marsick VJ, Watkins KE, Callahan MW, Volpe M (2008) Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. In: Smith MC, DeFrates-Densch N (eds) Handbook of research on adult learning and development. Routledge, New York, pp 570–599 Mejiuni O, Cranton P, Taiwo O (2015) Measuring and analyzing informal learning in the digital age. IGI Global, Hershey Merriam SB, Bierema LL (2014) Adult learning in today’s world. In: Merriam SB, Bierema LL (eds) Adult learning: linking theory and practice. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp 1–23 Multimedia Educational Resources for Learning and Online Teaching (2019) MERLOT collection. http:// info.merlot.org/merlothelp/MERLOT_Collection.htm. Accessed 15 June 2019 Occupational Information Network (2019a) About ONET. https://www.onetcenter.org/overview.html. Accessed 10 June 2019 Occupational Information Network (2019b) Skills – basic skills. https://www.onetonline.org/find/descriptor/ browse/Skills/2.A/. Accessed 10 June 2019 Occupational Information Network (2019c) Instructions for making skills ratings. https://www.onetcenter. org/dl_files/MS_Word/Skills.pdf. Accessed 10 June 2019 Occupational Information Network (2019d) Instructions for making work activities ratings. https://www. onetcenter.org/dl_files/MS_Word/Generalized_Work_ Activities.pdf. Accessed 10 June 2019 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2019) About PIAAC. http://www.oecd.org/ skills/piaac/. Accessed 10 June 2019 Rosen S (1972) Learning and experience in the labour market. J Hum Resour 7(3):326–342. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/145087 Schugurensky D (2015) On informal learning, informal teaching, and informal education: addressing conceptual, methodological, institutional, and pedagogical issues. In: Mejuni O, Cranton P, Taiwo OM (eds) Measuring and analyzing informal learning in the digital age. IGI Global, Hershey, pp 18–36 Schumacher C (2018) Supporting informal learning in the workplace through analytics. In: Ifenthaler D (ed) Digital workplace learning: bridging formal and informal learning with digital technologies. Springer, Mannheim, pp 43–61 Schumacher C, Ifenthaler D (2018) Features students really expect from learning analytics. Comput Hum Behav 78:397–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.20 17.06.030 Schurmann E, Beausaert S (2016) What are drivers for informal learning. Eur J Train Dev 40(3):130–154. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejtd-06-2015-0044

485 Skills Commons (2019) About us. http://support. skillscommons.org/about/. Accessed 15 June 2019 Tews M, Michel J, Noe R (2017) Does fun promote learning? The relationship between fun in the workplace and informal learning. J Vocat Behav 98:46–55. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.09.006 Tippins N, Hilton M (eds) (2010) A database for a changing economy: review of the Occupational Information Network (ONET). The National Academies Press, Washington, DC United Nations Economic and Social Council (2019) Special edition: progress towards the sustainable development goals. Report no. E/2019/68. UN SecretaryGeneral, New York. https://undocs.org/E/2019/68. Accessed 4 Sept 2019 Werquin P (2016) International perspectives on the definition of informal learning. In: Rohs M (ed) Handbuch informelles Lernen. Springer, Wiesbaden, pp 39–64 World Economic Forum (2019) Why education is the key to sustainable development. https://www.weforum.org/ agenda/2015/05/why-education-is-the-key-to-sustaina ble-development/. Accessed 4 Sept 2019 Zimmerman BJ (2000) Attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective. In: Boekaerts M, Pintrich PR, Zeidner M (eds) Handbook of self-regulation. Academic, San Diego, pp 13–39

Inquisitiveness ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency

Inspection ▶ Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms

Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms Steve Lambert University of Chester, Chester, UK

Synonyms Appraisal; Audit; Culpability; Responsibility; Review; Scrutiny

Inspection;

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Definition Inspection and audit can broadly be defined as the external scrutiny by interested parties. This could be from government or public organizations such as funding agencies which are seeking assurances that public money is being used appropriately and services provided are to the requisite standard. Public services have always been the subject of external scrutiny and education is no exception from this. As traditional deliverers of services, local authority areas (equivalent to districts) gradually became commissioners of services due to continued pressure on public finances. Subsequently, inspection and audit have played a more central theme in ensuring organizations are fulfilling their responsibilities. This entry considers the need for inspection and audit in the delivery of education. In doing so the entry will first explore the development of the policy landscape that has resulted in a culture of inspection and audit, before considering the accountability frameworks which go with it.

Introduction to Inspection and External Audit The inspection of education systems is not unique to the UK or indeed one country. Many countries have adopted a process of external scrutiny whereby judgments are made on the quality of education provided in schools and colleges (Janssens van Amelsvoort 2008). The difference between countries appears to be in the extent to which inspectorates position themselves on a continuum of inspectorates. Grek and Ozga (2013) suggest that at one end of a continuum there is a highly centralized approach to inspection, as in the England, to approaches that are reliant on a school or college’s own self-evaluation, such as in Scotland. Other countries sit somewhere on this continuum, such as Austria and Switzerland who adopt of supportive developmental approach to gaining organizational improvements. The challenge when considering notions of inspection and external audit is that different countries are at different stages in their thinking

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when it comes to the need for inspection. For example, in Europe, counties are more advanced in their thinking and implementation of approaches to inspection. In America, inspection is a relatively new idea, dating back to 2013. Up to that point, the focus for schools has been on using a combination of student feedback, test scores, and lesson observations to hold teachers to account. To hold school principals to account in America the primary measure used is student test scores. However, Cullen and Reback (2006) state that this approach is far too narrow and has led to some schools to manipulate the tests. Two important factors must be addressed in any inspection or audit mechanism. First, what is the purpose of the inspection or audit? Second, how punitive it is going to be? This entry will briefly discuss these two ideas before looking at how these concepts are applied in England. Inspectorates have a range of functions that can be categorized in three main groups: 1. Giving a public account of the quality of education 2. Providing a guarantee of compliance with regulations 3. Providing an imposed service for quality management The predominant function of inspection, particularly in Europe, is to provide a public account on the quality of education, that schools and colleges (those funded by the state) provide. At a national level, inspections provide policy makers and the public information about the quality of education, value for money, compliance with state regulations and can be used to assess the differences between institutions. At the same time, inspections can act as a driver for institutional change or improvements. The subsequent inspection reports provided to institutions have feedback on the schools or colleges’ strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. This may mirror the institutions’ own self-evaluation findings, thus providing stakeholders with external verification of school or college leaders’ ability to evaluate critically itself. The second aspect relating to inspection and audit is the extent to which the process is punitive

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Centralised

Decentralised Purpose of the inspection or audit

Punitive

Supportive/developmental

Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms, Fig. 1 Elements of inspection and audit

or developmental. England has one of the most punitive inspection systems in Europe. Ofsted (the national inspectorate) has indirectly the ability the close or stop institutions who fail to meet their standards. However, in Austria and Switzerland they do not have the same level of “power” than in England, so instead seek improvements through persuasion, providing feedback, and motivation. However, in Germany, they position themselves more in the middle, using data to take a risk-based approach to inspections. It is only by looking at these three elements (Fig. 1) can a true picture of inspection and audit be gained. The following section of this entry will look at how inspections have been implemented in Europe and, in particular, the UK and how the elements identified in Fig. 1 have been applied. This is due to England having a highly centralized approach to inspection. Therefore, approaches to inspection in European countries will encompass to varying degrees components of the English system. In doing so, the entry will look primarily at schools and colleges (equivalent to technical or community colleges) offering qualifications at sub-degree level. The entry will not cover inspection and audit of higher education as this is primarily based on principles of self-regulation and governance, rather than on inspection.

A Case for Needing Inspection and Audit Neoliberalism has been the dominant political ideology in the UK since the end of the Second World War (Steger and Roy 2010). An ideology based on free-markets and private enterprise, it has reformed the political and economic landscape of the UK. As such, education has not been immune to the implications of neoliberalism. Lynch et al. (2012) state that the operationalization

of neoliberalism is commonly witnessed through managerialist principles more commonly found in the private sector. These are typically strict financial controls, performance indicators, the creation of a flexible workforce, effective use of resources, and greater accountability. In education, accountability manifests itself in two principle forms, financial accountability and audit, and educational inspection. Accountability and audit primarily focuses on the monitoring of financial ratios by state-funding agencies in order to assess an organization’s financial health. In education, failure to maintain a satisfactory level of financial security not only jeopardizes an organization’s ability to meet its financial commitments such as paying staff but also the security of providing sufficient levels of resources such as teachers and equipment in order to provide a good level of education. Organizations struggling financially are often faced with more intensive monitoring of budgetary commitments, financial expenditure, and growth plans until a satisfactory level of financial health has been restored. Alongside the financial accountability, data audits are often conducted to provide assurances that data being submitted to national funding agencies is accurate. The importance of such assurances cannot be underestimated, for example, in the UK funding is calculated in arrears. The amount of funding an education provider receives is calculated based on the details of the number of students submitted at key points, called census dates, throughout the year. For example, data submitted in October of an academic year on the number of students registered forms the basis for the following academic year’s funding. This is an oversimplification of the funding formula in England which takes into consideration a number of other factors such as varying costs associated with living and working in certain parts of the country, for example, living

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costs in London and the south of England are more expensive than the northeast of England. Therefore, providers of education receive a fixed amount of funding, in arrears based on the previous academic year’s data. In addition to this, the amount of funding per student is set nationally meaning that there is considerable variation in the levels of funding based on a school’s size (number of students) and where it is located in the country. Over the past 20 years, the funding of education in England has seen two particular challenges, primarily because of an increasingly nationalized funding system. This first arose from the global financial crisis in 2007 (Dimsdale 2009) which required the UK government to implement austerity measures limiting their own ability to finance and meet their spending commitments. This resulted in government departments including the Department for Education (DfE) having to reduce the amount of money they spent on education. For those working in education, they have witnessed the amount of funding from the state government, per student remaining largely static against a backdrop of increasing costs through additional taxation and inflation (Belfield et al. 2018). This places significant pressures on educational institutions and in particular the head teacher or principal who has the dual responsibility of custodian of academic standards and business leader whom many staff are dependent on for their livelihoods. The second challenge and one which has already been alluded to is the gradual shift to a centralized national approach to funding. Historically, local authorities (equivalent to districts) had considerable flexibility over the way in which they allocated funding to schools and colleges. For example, a local authority could include extra funding for a particular school within their geographical area if the school had more students whose first language was not English, or if the school was split across two sites. With the move toward a national funding regime, which has been in place for the funding of post-16 education for over 10 years, but not for pre-16 education, the ability to reflect the distinct character of a school is lost.

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There is an argument supporting the move to a national funding formula particularly around equity and removes the disparity in funding between local authority areas, particularly where students live in one geographical area but go to school in another. However, there is an opposing argument, which suggests that the centralization of the funding system is part of a more sinister approach of the state government to erode the power and autonomy of local authorities. This erosion of power is not unique to the current conservative UK government but is most notably associated with former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (Steger and Roy 2010); but subsequent prime ministers have all continued to adopt similar ideas. Steger and Roy (2010) remind us that Thatcher was an advocate of a smaller government which was seen, at the time, as more effective, and cheaper in terms of not increasing government debt, than the large bureaucratic administrative systems of previous governments. While Thatcher deplored large governments she showed little fondness for local governments (local authorities – equivalent to administrative districts) which she believed be ineffective and susceptible to the corrupting influences of opposition political parties. The landslide victory of Tony Blair in 1997, and the introduction of a Labour Party government in 1997 did not see a reversal of the neoliberal ideas of the former Conservative government. Indeed, Blair had modeled many of his ideas on those of Thatcher (Jenkins 2007). The new Blair government was committed to the strengthening social solidarity without dropping the principles of neoliberalism. Unlike the former conservative government, Blair’s Labour government was keen to limit government spending rather than to privatize government assets. This was in part achieved by ostensibly privatizing parts of the education system through the introduction of academy schools. The academy program saw schools removed from local authority control and become self-governing “businesses” operating in competition with each other. Schools had been shielded from market forces to up this point with local authorities acting as intermediaries ensuring that schools met the needs of the residents in the area they served.

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The move from local authority controlled schools to one of quasi-independence was seem to free schools from the shackles of local control in order that leaders could run the school in a way that they felt most appropriate. A more sinister rationale for the move was the further move by the state government to erode the influence that local authorities had over schools. As a result, the only way that the state could exercise any influence over these newly designated schools was through increasing the level of state imposed regulation and legislation, in essence moving the control from local to state government. The second element is that of educational inspection. In England this is the responsibility of the Office for Standard in Education and Children’s Services (Ofsted), for those education providers who receive state funding. However, Ofsted does not inspect the quality of education in higher education, which has just seen, for the first time in 2017/18 the introduction of the Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) (OfS 2018) which is designed to act as a benchmark for the quality of teaching within higher education. There are many critics of education inspection, for example, Gilroy and Wilcox (1997) argue that the subjectiveness of inspection makes judgments invalid, whereas Gurkana and Deveci (2012) argue that inspection is an important part of the educational landscape. Inspection must be seen as part of wider reforms based on neoliberal values of a state-funded system of quasi-independent education providers responsive to market forces and competition, which would, government believed, improve the performance of education providers by making them directly accountable to service users. Education could no longer be a “secret garden” of an autonomous professional community detached from public scrutiny. Statefunded education had to become publicly accountable (Ranson 2003). Given that in the UK £64.7 million (circa 72.3 million euros) of the government’s money is used to fund education (Ofsted 2018), it does not seem unreasonable to expect the money to be used to provide a good quality education to students. The negativity associated with inspection can be distilled down to a number of key issues. First,

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the attitudes of some inspectors, although in England a majority of inspectors are part time and continue to work for schools and colleges. This creates a workforce that is up to date with current practice but also empathetic to the pressures and challenges leaders in education face. Despite this, there are a minority of inspectors, as in all professions, whose professionalism and approach fall short of the standards expected of them (Ofsted 2016). The result is that already heightened levels of anxiety brought on by the prospect of inspection are unduly increased. The second major factor is where an education provider does not agree with the inspection judgment. This is probably the more contentious part of the inspection process, as inspectors are making quantitative judgments whether that is on a scale from inadequate to outstanding or ineffective to effective based on qualitative information. There will never be an inspection system that satisfies all critics and like the process of inspection itself, it is a best-fit model. A balance has to be struck between the use of quantitative data, such as student performance in national tests, which is historical data, and may not represent the progress of achievement of current students and the sole use of qualitative judgments which are by the very nature subjective and open to interpretation. Coffield (2017) argues that those involved in inspection should not have access to data on an institution’s historical achievement until after the inspection. This, Coffield argues, would remove the risk of inspectors formulating preconceived ideas on the likely quality before they visit an organization. Currently, in England, inspection follows a linear set of presumptions, which is based on the outcomes that students achieve. Simplified they assume that if students achieve well, this is probably as a result of good quality teaching. If this is the case, then leadership must be effectively leading the teaching and learning process. This creates a flat profile of inspection grades whereby more often than not all the grades that an organization receives as part of their inspection will be the same. It is this linear approach which Coffield argues needs to change. Yet, at the time of writing this, there is a new inspection framework being developed for schools and colleges in

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England. The Education Inspection Framework places more emphasis on the quality of teaching and learning and less emphasis on historical data. Due for release in readiness for the start of the 2019 academic year, it is currently unclear as to what extent this is a new framework of a bricolage (Ball 1998) of existing inspection models.

Accountability Mechanisms These developments must be seen as part of wider reforms predicated on a state-sponsored neoliberal-based quasi-independent education system whereby providers are responsive to market forces and competition. Successive governments believed this neoliberal approach would improve the performance of education providers by becoming directly accountable to service users. Education could no longer be a “secret garden” of an autonomous professional community detached from public scrutiny: state-funded education had to become publicly accountable (Ranson 2003). Poulson (1998) argues that few people would disagree with increased accountability being a good thing or that standards in education should be raised. However, accountability is a multi-layered concept defining a formal relationship between the provider of education (school, college, university) and learner and an informal relationship between the education provider and external stakeholder (parents, central government), where one is mandatorily held to account by the other. This locates accountability in a hierarchical bureaucracy, with teachers being accountable to the head of the education provider, who is accountable to the governing body and to the public accounts committee and in turn to the secretary of state for education (a job within the British government reporting to the Prime Minister). However, this rather simplistic view of accountability does not acknowledge the complexities of the relationships involved. If teachers are accountable in this hierarchical bureaucracy, one would assume they are also accountable to any stakeholders for the progress of the student’s learning, yet, their first

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accountability must be to their own employer (the school, college, university). Following this line of argument, if teachers are held accountable, should accountability be reciprocal with an expectation that stakeholders, particularly parents reinforce the learning process? This shifts the role of stakeholders, in this instance the parent, from one that is largely passive to one that holds the education provider accountable for the progress of their child. Such complexity of accountability denies a simple linear hierarchical accountability framework, due to the relationship going beyond that of the teacher and student to a tri-partite arrangement involving a range of stakeholders. As a result, this tri-partite approach appears not to fit the over-simplified linear hierarchical process. Despite the complexities surrounding accountability and the prevailing need to ensure the quality of public services, Ranson (2003) argues that the only way forward is for a system that is open and transparent. Regardless of the constant talk of accountability and an extensive review of the literature, little exists on frameworks that define accountability from a conceptual basis. McLaughlin and Rhim (2007) state that accountability has become a fundamental feature of education policy in the UK, the USA, Australia, and New Zealand; however, there has been a move to an outcomes-based measure, such as apprenticeship participation or success rates. This is a departure from past notions of accountability that have focused on inputs, such as fiscal resources or compliance with rules and procedures. Anderson (2005) proposed that education accountability systems are multidimensional with three key facets: compliance and regulation, adherence to professional norms and results. McLaughlin and Rhim (2007), on the other hand, suggest that there are only two dominant forms of accountability: standards-driven accountability and market-driven accountability. The difference between the current systems of accountability and those previously employed focus largely around the purpose of the systems and for whom they are designed. One of the elements of Anderson’s (2005) model is the focus on compliance and regulation, for example, are

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curriculum and funding requirements being adhered to in terms of learner eligibility or course delivery requirements? This is what McLaughlin and Rhim (2007) call input-based accountability, rather than outcomes-based which is where accountability frameworks seemingly have evolved to. This entry has already discussed the shift in accountability as a result of increases in state-led regulation as a mechanism by which quasi-autonomous education providers can be directed to continue to meet the aspirations of successive governments. This is an example of how the state has used input-based accountability to meet its own political agenda. This reinforces Anderson’s first dimension and emphasizes the need for an element of input-based accountability despite the preference of western governments toward solely an outcome-based approach to accountability. Anderson (2005) also suggests that accountability should be based on professional norms which focus on standards in education. Currently, education standards in the UK are monitored through a state-led inspection regime conducted by the office for standards in education (Ofsted). However, Ofsted only inspect an aspect of the education system (those organizations providing sub-degree level qualifications). Those providers offering higher education qualifications (degree level qualifications or equivalent) standards are not nationally monitored to the same extent as they are in further education in which qualifications are regulated by the office of qualifications and examination regulation (Ofqual) and Ofsted. Providers of higher education, such as universities, have the freedom to determine their own curriculum. Oversight is provided by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), which is entrusted by parliament with monitoring and advising on standards and quality in UK higher education but using a very different framework to that of Ofsted. However, the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE), the organization responsible for funding higher education, recently consulted on a revised quality assurance system for 2017/18 which places greater emphasis on student outcomes from higher education providers rather than process,

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as per the current arrangements (HEFCE 2015). This emphasis on outcomes aligns the approach taken by Ofsted and can be described as outcomebased accountability (McLaughlin and Rhim 2007). This raises questions about whether the professional norms which Anderson (2005) advocates are achievable and if, as Ranson (2003) suggests, we need a system which is open and transparent, how it can be facilitated. The publication of Ofsted inspection reports and an individual education provider’s performance data on a publically searchable website is what McLaughlin and Rhim (2007) and Glatter (2012) define as market-driven accountability, where there is an expectation that market forces such as choice and competition will, in theory, incentivize providers to improve standards. The focus here remains on holding education providers accountable for performance and lacks any form of accountability for stakeholders (such as parents, or governors – volunteers who oversee the strategic direction of the organization, equivalent to a board of directors). McLaughlin and Rhim’s (2007) and Glatter’s (2012) ideas are different to Anderson’s ideas which use outcome measures to judge standards rather than market forces. As education delivery relies on a tripatriate model (learner, education provider, and parent), each person or element must be axiomatically responsible for standards and attainment through an agreed process of monitoring. Another approach to accountability is the move toward a results-driven system. Possibly the most publicized accountability measure, it seeks to make tutors accountable for both student outcomes and to the general public for institutional performance. This form of accountability is what McLaughlin and Rhim (2007) call outcome-based accountability, yet Isaacs (2012) argues that new and changing accountability frameworks for education providers are being introduced as a result of wider curriculum reforms such as the move from the qualifications of the significant amounts of coursework – work done by students throughout their course but not in examination conditions, to linear courses at the end of the duration of study with the students grade being based on the result of a single

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examination. While these accountabilities are talked about as new, there is no clear distinction between what Isaacs suggests and results-driven accountability of Anderson’s (2005) model and that of McLaughlin and Rhim’s (2007). Glatter (2012) suggests that results-driven accountability is the UK government’s instrument of choice for control and uses the combination of subjective Ofsted inspections with graded outcomes, alongside performance tables which allow members of the public to compare institutions on purely statistical indicators. At the same time, the removal of contextual data provides a distorted view of institutional performance in relation to individual learners. Similar accountability systems are in place in many European countries, for example, in Germany, the Federal state implements a nationally regulated quality improvement system, whereas in Italy the shift has been made to a quality improvement system from an approach predicated on quality control. On the other hand, O’Neill (2002) argues that this may afford the government with an ease of measurement and control rather than an accurate measurement of performance. This element incorporates what McLaughlin and Rhim (2007) propose to be standards-driven accountability which measures the extent to which students meet performance expectations and on its own creates an accountability system purely based on assessments. The combined use of performance indicators and narrative inspection reports provide an accountability system built around Anderson’s (2005) three pillars, rather than the single-dimension approach proposed by other systems. However, there are some potential challenges with the current system of accountability afforded to state-funded institutions in England. First, it is dependent on who funds the multitude of different courses offered by education providers. Different funding agencies are in operation depending on the type of qualifications offered. Degree level qualifications are funded through the Office for Students (OfS), while further education qualifications (sub-degree level courses) through the Education and Skills Funding Agency (or one of the predecessor organizations). To complicate the system further there

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are different funding rules for students aged 18 and under compared to those who are 19 and over but studying further education qualifications. For students with learning difficulties and or disabilities there are additional stakeholders involved in the funding of their education. All of these stakeholders have an interest in education but are not accountable in any way for institutional performance. Second, Gilroy and Wilcox (1997) argue that the current inspection process is fundamentally flawed, as it is a subjective process requiring a quantitative judgment to be made based on primarily qualitative data. Again, this only applies to further education and not higher education providers. Therefore, for those organizations that offer both further and higher education courses, there is no single overview of the quality of education and training provider. Thus rendering existing accountability frameworks potentially flawed in terms of providing a complete picture to interested parties such as potential students. Finally, there is the risk of increased stress on tutors through the preoccupation of strategies targeting borderline grade students in order to improve an institution’s success rates, what Glatter (2012) refers to as gaming. While Leckie and Goldstein (2011) argue that performance or “league” tables are not a reliable indicator of performance, suggesting instead that the main purpose of constructing performance tables should be for institution-based accountability and contend that, instead of being the end result they should be used as an internal monitoring tool to identify areas for further investigation. Whether accountability frameworks focus on one discrete area such as standards-driven accountability or market-driven accountability or try to combine a range of foci as adopted by Anderson’s (2005) framework, they are each open to challenges around their appropriateness. McLaughlin and Rhim (2007) suggest looking beyond the detail of each framework and for consideration to be given to whether the chosen framework fulfills its potential by improving outcomes for students. Dyson et al. (2010) have argued that accountability should not be confined to one single dimension, be it input focused such as compliance or

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output orientated as in standards-driven or market-driven accountability, but instead to be explicitly multidimensional, allowing for greater dialogue between all parts of the education system (universities and further education providers) and with all interested stakeholders (government, parents, employer representatives). This would require a significant departure from the currently top-down imposed system of control to one which processes elements of bottom-up and horizontal as well as top-down accountability. The challenge facing the education providers in developing the plethora of strategies aimed at improving results and boost their position in performance tables, what Anderson (2005) describes as results-based accountability and McLaughlin and Rhim (2007) call outcome-based accountability, is that existing accountability frameworks will make education providers accountable for students with whom they potentially have only limited contact with, typically 15 h/week. This is due to government agencies funding education based on hours, with full-time education being notionally 540 h/year. Over the course of an academic year this equates to 15 h/week. Below this threshold an individual would lose any welfare payments provided by the state.

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approach, ultimately the process of inspection and audit results in a judgment being made about the quality of the provision provided by schools and colleges. This entry also highlights the fact that the discourse needs to continue and advocates that institutions need to jointly consider how they can best support the government’s aspirations to have a world-class education system. Glatter (2012) and Waslander et al. (2010) argue that this form of performance indicator is a prime example of the government’s use of decontextualized knowledge which ignores a range of contextual factors including geographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the local area. As institutions grapple with the newly revised qualifications, one may witness a further blurring of an institution’s boundary in relation to the responsibility and accountability. What is important to acknowledge is that the system used in England is not without its critics (Ball 2003; Perryman 2007), and there will always be critics of inspection and audit and the approaches used will never be perfect but with every iteration of an inspection process a small step is taken forward to reflect the consistently changing policy landscape in which education operates.

Conclusion References This entry has highlighted that inspection is predicated on three themes, giving a public account of the quality of education, providing a guarantee of compliance with regulations, and providing an imposed service for quality management. However, different countries position their approach to inspection and accountability on a continuum (Fig. 1), from a decentralized school-based selfimproving approach to the highly centralized national approach to inspection. Scotland and to some extent America focus on either selfimprovement and a very limited number of internal measures such as test scores and lesson observations. Whereas, in England the use of external inspectors employed by a state-led inspectorate using a multidimensional approach to inspection is the prevailing form of inspection. Regardless of

Anderson JA (2005) Accountability in education. The International Academy of Education, Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, 2005 Ball S (1998) Big policies/small world: an introduction to international perspectives in education policy. Comp Educ 34(2):119–130 Ball SJ (2003) The teacher’s soul and the terrors of performativity. Journal of Education Policy 18 (2):215–228 Belfield C, Crawford C, Sibieta L (2018) Long-run comparisons of spending per pupil across different stages of education. Institute of Fiscal Studies, London Coffield F (2017) Will the leopard change its spots?: A new model of inspection for Ofsted. UCL Institute of Education Press, London Cullen J, Reback R (2006) Tinkering toward accolades: school gaming under a performance accountability system. In: Gronberg T, Jansen D (eds) Improving school accountability. Advances in applied microeconomics, vol 14. cullEmerald Group Publishing, London

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494 Dimsdale N (2009) The financial crisis of 2007–9 and the British experience. Oxonomics 4(1):1–9 Dyson A, Goldrick S, Jones L (2010) Equality in Education: Creating a Fairer Education System. Available at: www.education.manchester.ac.uk/research/centres/cee/ publications/ Gilroy P, Wilcox B (1997) Ofsted, criteria and the nature of social understanding. A Wittgensteinian critique of the practice of educational judgement. Br J Educ Stud 45 (1):22–38 Glatter R (2012) Persistent preoccupations: the rise and rise of school autonomy and accountability in England. Educ Manag Leadersh 40(5):559–575 Grek S, Lawn M, Ozga J, Segerholm C (2013) Governing by inspection? European inspectorates and the creation of a European education policy space. Comparative Education 49(4):486–502 Gurkana T, Deveci A (2012) Comparison of the education inspection systems in Turkish republic of northern Cyprus, Turkey and U.K. (England). Soc Behav Sci 47:651–655 Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) (2015) Future approaches to quality assessment in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Analysis of responses to consultation, (HEFCE 2015/30). HEFCE, Bristol Isaacs T (2012) New accountability frameworks for schools and colleges. UCL Institute of Education, London Janssens FJG, van Amelsvoort GHWCH (2008) School self-evaluations and school inspections in Europe: An exploratory study. Studies in Educational Evaluation 34 (1):15–23 Jenkins S (2007) Thatcher & Sons. Penguin Books, London Leckie G, Goldstein H (2011) A note on ‘The limitations of school league tables to inform school choice’. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 174 (3):833–836 Lynch K, Grummell B, Devine D (2012) New managerialism in education, commercialization, carelessness and gender. Palgrave Macmillan, London McLaughlin A, Rhim LM (2007) Accountability frameworks and children with disabilities: a test of assumptions about improving public education for all students. Int J Disabil Dev Educ 54(1):25–49 O’Neill O (2002) A Question of Trust. The BBC Reith Lectures 2002. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Office for Students (OfS) (2018) The Teaching Excellence and Student Outcomes Framework (TEF) A short guide to the 2018 awards. Available online at: https:// www.officeforstudents.org.uk/media/5ff81204-14f44e71-8b48-91f46247c49b/tef_short_guide_2018.pdf. Accessed 14 July 2018 Ofsted (2016) Conduct during inspections. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London Ofsted (2018) Annual report and accounts 2017–18. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London

Instructional Technology Perryman J (2007) Inspection and emotion. Cambridge Journal of Education 37(2):173–190 Poulson L (1998) Accountability, teacher professionalism and education reform in England. Teacher Development 2(3):419–432 Ranson S (2003) Public accountability in the age of neoliberal governance. J Educ Policy 18(5):459–480 Steger M, Roy R (2010) Neoliberalism. Oxford University Press, Oxford Waslander S, Pater C, van der Weide M (2010) Markets in education: an analytical review of empirical research on market mechanisms in education. Available online at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/markets-in-edu cation_5km4pskmkr27-en. Accessed 18 Apr 2018

Instructional Technology ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

Integrated Thinking ▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework

Integrating Sustainability Knowledge in Built Environment Education ▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

Integration ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

Intelligence ▶ Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

495 an education which respects, celebrates and recognises the normality of diversity in all areas of human life. It sensitises the learner to the idea that humans have naturally developed a range of different ways of life, customs and worldviews, and that this breadth of human life enriches us all. (NCCA, 2005: 3) (DICE n.d.)

Wendy Nelson1, Clifford F. Fowler1 and Johannes M. Luetz1,2 1 School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia 2 School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Australia

Based on this definition, it appears that the aim of IE is to foster intercultural competence (IC). Furthermore, growing recognition of the importance of IC is illustrated by the publication of a dedicated journal, entitled International Journal of Intercultural Relations.

Synonyms

Introduction

Attitudes; Cultural liberty; Cultural competence and cultural diversity; Cultural pluralism; Cultural literacy; Ethnocentrism; Knowledge; Skills; Sustainability

In 2015, 193 countries committed themselves to the United Nation’s (UN) 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which provide a vision for a more sustainable future. The achievement of these goals hinges upon today’s classrooms and educators who hold the key. This entry will explore Goal 4, which commits the international community to quality education for all, and it is quite clear that the inculcation of IC is just as important as the knowledge and skills of literacy, mathematics, and science (PISA Global Competence Framework, in OECD 2018). According to the UNESCO report Education for All (2002):

Definition Culture The concept of culture is subject to many different interpretations. For the present purpose, the wide-ranging definition of Pederson (2000), as summarized by Corey et al. (2011), would appear suitable. In this definition culture was conceptualized as including “demographic variables such as age, gender, and place of residence; status variables such as social, educational and economic background; formal and informal affiliations; and the ethnographic variables of nationality, ethnicity, language, and religion” (p.115). Intercultural Education (IE) and Intercultural Competence (IC) “Intercultural competence is part of a family of concepts including global competence, graduate attributes, employability skills, global citizenship, education for sustainable development and global employability” (Monash University 2018, para. 2). The term “intercultural education” (IE) is defined by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) as:

The right to education is articulated clearly in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). This recognizes the intrinsic human value of education, underpinned by strong moral and legal foundations. Seen in this light, education is also an indispensable means of unlocking and protecting other human rights by providing the scaffolding that is required to secure good health, liberty, security, economic well-being, and participation in social and political activity. Where the right to education is guaranteed, people’s access to and enjoyment of other rights is enhanced. (p.14)

The 2004 UN Human Development Report identified growing demands for the inclusion of policies that recognize differences, champion diversity, and promote cultural freedoms, so that everyone “can choose to speak their language, practice their religion, and participate in shaping their culture” (UNDP 2004, p. 1; front cover).

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496 Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development, Fig. 1 Formula for success: In a globalizing world, intercultural education facilitates intercultural competence and sustainable development

In response to this UN Report, The Economist (July15, 2004) drew attention to the difficulty state builders in Afghanistan and Iraq were experiencing in trying to make diverse “fractious ethnic groups work together for prosperity” (The Economist 2004, para 2). Such instances, both past and present, combine to emphasize the global imperative for educational programs to promote IC as “a new kind of literacy.” Thus, if our everglobalizing world is to reach the SDGs outlined by the UN, it must “successfully confront the challenge of how to build inclusive, culturally diverse societies” (UNDP 2004, p.v). The prioritization that the UN ascribes to education has long been reflected in its Human Development Index (HDI), which integrates education as one of three composite measures of human development, alongside health care and economic growth (Luetz et al. 2019, Luetz and Walid 2019; UNDP 2004; cf. UN Education Index 2013). In a world where there are exponential technological advances, increased global sharing, industrialization, and economic development, increased trade and migration have, in turn, increased intercultural interactions (Bissessar 2018). It follows that IE will be of paramount importance for sustainability in many areas of our ever-globalizing world. In short, IE may assist humans in the process of growth and development and thereby becomes “a valuable asset in an increasingly globalised world where we are more likely to interact with people from different cultures and countries who have been shaped by different values, beliefs and experiences” (Monash University 2018, para. 1; Luetz 2019a; Luetz and Merson 2019).

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

Increasing Globalisation

Intercultural Competence + Sustainable Development Intercultural Education

In our increasingly complex multicultural societies, education must enable the development of IC that will permit humanity to live comfortably together with – and not despite – the manifold cultural differences. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO 2007): Cultural diversity has emerged as a key concern at the turn of a new century. . .The essential challenge, therefore, would be to propose a coherent vision of cultural diversity and thereby to clarify how, far from being a threat, it can become beneficial to the action of the international community. (p. 1)

This is summarized by Figs. 1 and 2.

Overlap Between IC and Critical Thinking The recent and rapid increase in multicultural diversity, which is fluid, dynamic, and transformative, implies specific competences and capacities for individuals and societies to learn, unlearn, and relearn so as to meet personal fulfilment and social harmony (UNESCO 2013). There is progressive awareness among civil society and policy makers that IC is increasingly vital in the education of individuals and societies in how to navigate cultural differences and boundaries (UNESCO 2004). IC is defined by Deardorff (2006) as follows: “Intercultural competence is the ability to develop targeted knowledge, skills and attitudes that lead to visible behaviour and communication that are both effective and appropriate in intercultural

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development, Fig. 2 Formula for failure: In a globalizing world, absence of intercultural education fosters crosscultural tension and renders development unsustainable

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Increasing Globalisation

Cross-Cultural Tension & Unsustainable Development Intercultural Education

interactions” (pp. 241–266). Another definition of IC is provided by Fantini and Tirmizi (2006): “a complex of abilities needed to perform effectively and appropriately when interacting with others who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself” (p. 12). This ability to perform effectively in a range of different cultures is recognized by Rasmussen and Sieck (2015), who coined the term culture-general competence, which they define as “the skills and knowledge that allow adaptation and interaction in any culture, as opposed to competencies that enable adaptation and interaction in a specific culture” (p. 75). Lynch and Hanson (2011) humorously stated: It would be wonderful if, with the wave of a magic wand, we could all possess the skills and attitudes that it takes to be cross-culturally effective. But, unfortunately, there are no shortcuts and there is no magic wand. Acquiring the skills is a lifelong process. (p. 73)

It follows that cultural competence requires an acceptance that long-term, ongoing, and persistent development is required. UNESCO (2006) suggests the goal of IE is to not merely to live in passive coexistence, but also to achieve a compassionate and sustainable way of living together in multicultural societies. As Bhawuk and Brislin (1992) suggested, “To be effective in another culture, people must be interested in other cultures, be sensitive enough to notice cultural differences, and then also be willing to modify their behavior as an indication of respect for the people of other cultures” (p. 416).

Recognition of the importance of IE is reflected in the number of courses now being offered throughout the world in organizations as varied as the American military (Miller and Tucker 2015) and the University of Hong Kong (Jackson 2015). Furthermore, the proliferation of such courses has led to increasing interest in methods of evaluating both their content and their effectiveness. Such interest has generated several studies reported in the International Journal of Intercultural Relations. For instance, from a study involving 20 military professionals with extensive intercultural experience, Rasmussen and Sieck (2015) identified 12 competencies important for culture-general competence. Similarly, by investigating the success of an online course for some 3200 middle-ranking military officers, Miller and Tucker (2015) demonstrated “that critical thinking was significantly related to the overall measure of intercultural competence” (p. 127). Working at the University of Hong Kong, Jane Jackson (2015) observed that for many students, their international experience was less effective in increasing IC than might have been expected. As a consequence, she implemented and evaluated a course “designed to enrich and extend the intercultural learning of undergraduates with recent or current international experience” (p. 91). Participants were 37 local and 18 international students. Qualitative data, matching the pre- and posttest results using the Intercultural Development Inventory, showed that the course significantly improved IC. She concluded that

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such courses are of value to maximize the benefits of intercultural experience. The problem of assessing intercultural communication competence was addressed by Chi and Suthers (2015), using social network analysis, in a study of intercultural communication among 280 university students from 49 countries, living in dormitory accommodation in an American educational institution. They argued that, since social network analysis is based on concrete interactions, an individual’s responses can be validated by those of their fellows, making the results more reliable than those of self-assessment inventories. They further noted that sociability and adaptability were important contributors to IC. Authors such as Spitzberg (2015), Kealey (2015), and Chi and Suthers (2015) have also drawn attention to such interpersonal skills in relation to IC. Within the universities there is a growing emphasis on internationalization across the curriculum. From the writings of Jones (2009), Spitzberg (2015), and Hadzic et al. (2015), it is clear that this movement is aimed at developing international understanding and IC. In addition, the role of universities in promoting international research into sustainable development has been explored by Koehn, Deardoff, and Bolognese (2011). Finally, there is the issue of nonverbal communication and its role in intercultural communication. Young Yum Kim (2015) argued that synchrony, defined as “a state of symmetric or complementary non-verbal configurations and rhythms in face to face interaction” (p. 1), was “a necessary foundation of a cohesive and cooperative communicative relationship based on which we may pursue mutual interactional goals” (p. 34). Four factors identified as fostering synchrony were individuated communication style, consonant communication behavior, inclusive identity orientation, and secure individual identity orientation. A useful guide to research in this area is provided in two wide-ranging editorials, by Arasaratnam and Deardorff (2015), drawing attention to a variety of papers, relating to IC, published in the International Journal of Intercultural Relations. More specifically, they noted that sociability and adaptability were important contributors to IC.

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

Case Studies In its 2004 report, UNESCO features several examples of IE: 1. In the Republic of Korea, The Asia-Pacific Center of Education for International Understanding has developed an approach to education that promotes the understanding of the diverse cultures in their region. 2. In Cameroon, education authorities have incorporated competencies on international understanding and tolerance into their teacher training programs. Furthermore, there have been compulsory inclusions of civics and ethics into primary and secondary education curricula. 3. Croatia has integrated human rights education into all levels of schooling and in both formal and informal programs. 4. Communities in Angola and Mozambique are using traditional purification rituals to help traumatized child soldiers re-establish relations with their families and larger communities. 5. In Sweden, joint projects between police and schools and youth centers have reduced ethnic tensions and provide alternative activities for youth (p. 84).

Constituents of Intercultural Education Dr. Deardorff, Executive Director of the Association of International Education Administrators (AIEA) and Research Scholar at Duke University, proposed that there are three constituents for IE: knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Knowledge To work together successfully and sustainably with persons from different cultural backgrounds, one must first become culturally self-aware (Lynch and Hanson 2011). Step one of IE is for the learner to “articulate how one’s own culture has shaped one’s identity and world view” (Monash University 2018, para. 3), which is the first step toward developing IC (Lynch and Hanson 2011). This works at both a micro level and a

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

macro level to overcome ethnocentrism, not only in individuals but also in societies and nations (Monash University 2018). American social scientist and academic William George Sumner coined ethnocentrism, as a concept, in 1906 (Atingdui 2011). Sumner defined ethnocentrism as “the technical name for the view of things in which one’s own group is the centre of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it” (Sumner 1908 p.13). The next stage is culture-specific knowledge (McKinnon n.d.; Monash University 2018). This is the ability to analyze and explain basic understandings of other cultures including history, politics, values, beliefs, cultural practices, forms of communication, and economic systems (McKinnon n.d.; Monash University 2018). This knowledge acquisition plays a central role in reshaping one’s worldview, personal biases, and stereotypes, recognizing the influence of cultural norms and attitudes, and valuing cultural diversity and the validity of differing beliefs and values. Once acquired, this knowledge can be used to create new values, attitudes, and modus operandi (Queensland Government 2010; McKinnon n.d.; Monash University 2018; UN News 2013). Thus, IE provides the tools needed to grasp global issues and trends, including explaining the implications of globalization and issues of global importance such as economics and trade, diplomacy, environmental sustainability, human rights and injustice, racism, xenophobia, cultural understanding, tolerance, and sustainable development (McKinnon n.d.; Monash University 2018; UN News 2013).

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• Using patience and perseverance to identify and minimize ethnocentrism • Working with interpreters and translators • Developing cross-cultural communication skills • Developing collaborative relevant models and those working with people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds • Establishing effective relationships and networks with people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds • The skills to interpret and understand other cultural points of view • Identifying practices and systems that hinder IC (Bennet 1993; Queensland Government 2010; McKinnon n.d.; Minnesota Department of Human Services 2004; Monash University 2018) IE provides avenues and pathways in which these skills can be acquired. However, the development of such skills needs to be ongoing, and every interaction with people from different cultures should be viewed as a unique learning experience (Queensland Government 2010; McKinnon n.d.; Monash University 2018).

Skills IE provides the required ability and skills, namely, to think globally, to consider issues from a variety of cultural perspectives, to respect individual human rights, and to recognize the importance of the cultural diversity needed for intercultural communication and development (Commins 2010). This understanding can be gained from:

Attitudes IE should teach people to relate respectfully and effectively “to people of all cultures, languages, classes, race, ethnic backgrounds, religions, and other diverse factors in a manner that recognises, affirms, and values the worth of individuals, families, and communities and protects and preserves the dignity of each” (Queensland Government 2010, p. 18). It is this style of education that advocates for equality and human rights, challenges unfair discrimination, encourages learning about other cultures, and promotes the values upon which equality is built and thinking comparatively and without prejudice about cultural differences (DICE n.d.; Monash University 2018). Monash University (2018) emphasizes three key attitudes IE should promote:

• Reflecting on, observing, and learning from each interaction with people from different cultures

1. Openness: suspending criticism of other cultures, collecting “evidence” of cultural difference, and openness to being proven wrong

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2. Curiosity: seeking out intercultural interactions, viewing difference as a learning opportunity, and being aware of one’s own ignorance 3. Discovery: being comfortable with ambiguity and viewing it as a positive experience and willingness to move beyond one’s own comfort zone (para. 5) Another example of the important role of attitudes in IE is Dr. Perso’s (2012) discussion in her report for Menzies School of Health Research, Center for Child Development and Education, which highlighted that ethnocentric attitudes were the greatest barrier to the education of Indigenous Australians: The biggest barrier to progress may be the ethnocentric attitude that the ‘Western way’ is the only valid and authentic way of viewing the world. . .Breaking through this barrier into ways of working that respect and try to deeply understand other cultures will likely prove fruitful for all cultural groups. . . We recall the statement by Sims (2011) [. . .] ‘Cultural competence requires more than an awareness of Indigenous culture, but a willingness to engage with heart as well as mind. . .’. (p.11). It is likely that the change in attitude may occur at the point (or period) in time on the cultural competence journey when understanding, moves from the head to the heart, resulting in a ‘how will I respond?’ response rather than a ‘this is all very interesting’ one. (p. 83)

A fresh perspective on the importance of cultural sensitivity is offered by Luetz et al. (2019), where the authors identify so-called reversals of learning as a promising and much-needed approach to equitable learning that sees Western societies learn sustainability from non-Western background instructors. More specifically, those individuals or communities typically labelled as “poor,” “uneducated,” or “lowers” have much to teach the scholarly elite, wealthy, or the “uppers” about frugality and sustainable living: “the economically poor have a unique contribution to make to the growth and transformation of the economically rich . . . and . . . have much to teach about sustainable living and contentment” (pp. 115, 125). Because of this diversity of cultures and associated attitudes evident in our world today, there can be no such universal education process and “a

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

‘one size fits all’ approach” will not suffice (UNESCO 2007, p. 15). However, humanity can work together to provide quality education, which is culturally acceptable and can be adapted to changing societies, inclusive of histories and cultures of all groups in society and must consider “non-mainstream forms of learning (e.g. indigenous knowledge of resource management)” and oral storytelling as a form of knowledge acquisition (UNESCO 2007, p. 16). This would suggest that the notion of monocultural education in our society is not only out of date but also a barrier to sustainable development and does not lead to the reduction of discriminatory attitudes, an increase of cultural competence, or what UNESCO (2009b) calls cultural literacy: it is a new kind of literacy, on a par with the importance of reading and writing skills or numeracy: cultural literacy has become the lifeline for today’s world, a fundamental resource for harnessing the multiple venues education can take (from family and tradition to the media, both old and new, and to informal groups and activities) and an indispensable tool for transcending the clash of ignorance’s. It can be seen as part of a broad toolkit of worldviews, attitudes and competences that young people acquire for their lifelong journey. (cited in UNESCO 2013, p. 5)

Therefore, IE must entail adjusting the learning processes based upon multiple perspectives drawing from the histories and cultures of all groups in society. The goal of such education is “the promotion of human rights, the enhancement of democratic citizenship and the furtherance of sustainable development” (UNESCO 2007, p. 16). An article by Martin (2015) states: intercultural communication competence remains an important focus of intercultural scholars and practitioners, perhaps even more important in a world that has ‘catapulted people, practices and beliefs from different cultures into shared and contested physical and virtual spaces. . .in unprecedented ways’. . .. (Sorrells 2012, p. 372)

Most models still reflect the knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and while these models have provided an “important theoretical clarification and synthesis (see Arasaratnam et al. 2010; Byram 2012; Chen 2014; Deardorff 2006), this conceptualization seems limiting” (Martin 2015, p. 6). To move forward Martin (2015) suggests “A

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

dialectical approach, which emphasizes the processual, the both/and (contradictory), relational dimensions of intercultural encounters – show some promise (Martin and Nakayama 2015; Nakayama and Martin 2014)” (p. 7). This includes the three suggestions below: (1) Move beyond individual-focused, reductionistic models to frameworks that capture a more holistic, relational, and spiritual view of intercultural communication competence – reflecting how most of the world’s peoples view human behavior (including competence). Asian and Asian-American scholars provide some excellent contributions (Kim 2002; Miike 2007; Xiao and Chen 2009; Yum 2012). (2) Move from a focus on national culture groups that are presumed to be homogenous, from assumptions that “one’s culture and identity and that of the other are singular” (Dervin 2010, p. 162), and from an implicit conceptualization of culture as bounded and stable to conceptualizations that acknowledge the fluid, dynamic, contested nature of cultures, multiple cultural identities, and intercultural interactions (Jenks et al. 2013). (3) Acknowledge that power relations are part of every intercultural encounter and that all encounters (and notions of competence) are impacted (and constrained) by larger societal, historical, and political forces (Block 2013; Nakayama and Halualani 2010; Holliday 2012). As Collier (1998) reminded us: “Competence and acceptance from whom? Who decides the criteria? Who doesn’t? Competent or acceptable on the basis of what social and historical context?” (p. 142). For example, individuals of historically marginalized identities (women, ethnic/racial minorities, gays) – no matter they are demonstrating “competent” behaviors as defined by traditional competence frameworks – in some contexts are never viewed as competent (Willis 2011; Martin 2015, p. 7). Finally, a dialectical approach emphasizes the ongoing, processual nature of the continual

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configuring and reconfiguring of the context. Context in a dialectical approach is not simply another variable to be added onto the existing frameworks but rather a rethinking of “context” in which context is a fluid and dynamic space that is shaped by both local and global forces that constantly reconfigure it (Luetz and Nunn 2020). For example, Leonard (2010) describes the complex (and dialectical: privilege/disadvantage, past/ present) intercultural negotiations of white Britishness and local workers in postcolonial Hong Kong. This shows how the individual’s competence can only function within a range of effectiveness, given the shifting global contexts (Martin 2015, p. 7).

Conceptual Frameworks for Intercultural Interactions As globalization continues along with ongoing multicultural interactions, there is increasing interest in IE. An Australian Government Report on IC in the delivery of health services for Indigenous people stated: “Education for health care students that incorporates cultural perspectives and experiences can improve health students’ preparedness for working in Indigenous health and their future commitment to working for change” (Sims 2011 p. 2). Researchers for the International Association of Maritime Universities (IAMU), Wang and Gu (2005) found that education was key in reducing cross-cultural communication barriers between seafarers, stating that: The results showed that linguistic competence, cross-cultural competence, interpersonal relationship competence, and psychological quality, were all indispensable and worked together to contribute to the success of maritime communication. . . In order to make seafarers cross-culturally more competent, the cultural aspects should be incorporated into the maritime curriculum. (p. 1)

Therefore, as educational programs increase and continue to proliferate, there must be a corresponding understanding of suitable frameworks. IE must meet the needs required for understanding of IC and use objective methods to

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design, measure, and assess such training programs in this vital area (Greenholtz 2010). Leading thinkers in the field of intercultural understanding have developed widely used and accepted models for intercultural interaction and four such models are discussed next. Milton Bennett: Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity The research of Dr. Milton Bennet (1993, 2004) informed his conceptual framework for understanding the developmental stages of IC Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS). The DMIS looks at IC as a progressive and developmental process (Bennett 1986, 1993, 2004). This model does not focus on culture-specific information but “on the development of a broader and more complex worldview when approaching difference” (Pedersen n.d.). The DMIS includes three ethnocentric stages, namely, denial, defense, and minimization, which identify individuals whose own culture is central to their worldview and understanding, and three ethnorelative orientations, namely, acceptance, adaptation, and integration, where one’s culture is experienced in the context of other cultures (Bennett 1986, 1993, 2004). The DMIS is based upon on a constructivist view and reflects how one’s world is formed in terms of understanding cultural differences between oneself and other distinct groups (Pedersen n. d.; see also Bennett 1986, 1993, 2004). According to Bennet this model was inductively derived from observations and qualitative interviews in the field of intercultural learning and training (Transmedia Evaluation 2010). Moreover, IE should not only impinge on one’s attitudes and actions cognitively, but also develop one’s behavioral responses, decisions, and practices (Greenholtz 2010). Mitchell R. Hammer: Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) Based on the work of Bennett, Hammer developed the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI). It is “constructed to measure the orientations toward cultural differences described in the DMIS. The result of this work is a 50-item (with 10 additional

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

demographic items), paper-and-pencil measure of intercultural competence” (Hammer M.R, Bennett M.J, Wisemen R, p. 421). Hammer (2012) states “The IDI has been rigorously tested and has crosscultural generalizability both international and with domestic diversity” (p. 117). The “Individual Profile Report presents statistical summaries of the participant’s Perceived Orientation, Developmental Orientation, Orientation Gap, Trailing Orientations, Leading Orientations, and Cultural Disengagement” (Hermanson 2018 p.11). It generates a customized Individual Profile Report and Intercultural Development Plan intended to increase intercultural competence and plots results on the Intercultural Development Continuum (Hermanson 2018). The continuum has six stages, which are broken into two parts. The first part is ‘ethnocentric’ and comprises denial, polarization and minimization. The second part is ‘ethnorelative’ and comprises acceptance, adaptation and integration. The IDI is a key building block for “Developing intercultural competence as a core capability in the twentyfirst century” (Hammer 2011 p.474). Geert Hofstede: The Six Dimensions of Culture Model As a leader in intercultural understanding, Hofstede’s work on culture is widely cited and provides valuable insight into the dynamics of intercultural relationships, including the role of culture in education (Chayakonvikom et al. 2016). He developed a model that consists of six dimensions of culture. He defined culture as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others” (Hofstede 2011 p. 3). The six cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one perspective over another that distinguishes countries (rather than individuals) from each other (Hofstede 2011). These six dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus shortterm orientation, and indulgence versus restrain (Hofstede 2011). For intercultural interactions, these six dimensions serve as a concise, accessible, and a useful tool for developing an

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

understanding of different cultures, values, and beliefs. Furthermore, they provide a detailed insight into how we can better engage, communicate, and act with IC and sensitivity (Agodzo 2015). Emotional Intelligence (EI): Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) Another cornerstone for cultural literacy and IE is emotional intelligence: Against the background of increased global mobility and the need to communicate effectively across cultures, the development of Emotional Intelligence (EI) is of growing importance to those involved in intercultural education. There are important theoretical synergies between EI, which is comprised of components such as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills and models of intercultural competence (IC) commonly utilised in intercultural education. (Guntersdorfer and Golubeva 2018, p.55)

The concept of EI first appeared in academic writing over a century ago when it became evident to experts that factors other than cognitive intelligence were needed for successful interpersonal interaction. EI was defined by professors Salovey and Mayer as follows: “The ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action. . .” (1990, p. 189). This definition was refined in 1997 to include four distinct yet related abilities: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions (Mayer and Salovey 1997). In their model the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS), Salovey and Mayer identified four different levels of emotional intelligence, namely, the ability to perceive emotions, use emotions, understand emotions, and manage emotions. The four levels of the MEIS are perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions (Salovey and Grewal 2005). Empathy and the Toronto Empathy Scale (TEQ) One particular component of EI, which has emerged as paramount within the context of IC, is empathy (Guntersdorfer and Golubeva 2018).

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Bloom captures the essence of empathy by defining it as “the act of coming to experience the world as you think someone else does” (Bloom 2016, p. 16). According to Guntersdorfer and Golubeva (2018), experts in the field have found that the ability to see the point of view of others through empathy is an important component of IC. Deardorff (2006) concurs, emphasizing that empathy is a crucial component for the development of IC and the reduction of ethnocentric attitudes. Guntersdorfer and Golubeva (2018) found that incorporating the concepts of empathy and emotional intelligence into education was important for the development of students’ conceptual understanding and for the application of intercultural understanding. One of the leading measures of empathy is the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ), developed by researchers Spreng, McKinnon, Mar, and Levine, B. They wanted to create a self-report measure to efficiently and reliably assess empathy as an emotional process. Through exploratory factor analysis, they identified a group of highly related items in order to construct a unidimensional scale of empathy (Spreng et al. 2009). Construct validity was verified through comparison with other measures of empathy. Statistical analysis has confirmed that both internal consistency and reliability are high (Spreng et al. 2009; Kourmousi et al. 2017). The finished product is the TEQ “a self-report style, uni-dimensional, 16item, five-point Likert type scale developed to assess the empathy levels of individuals” (Totan et al. 2012, p. 179). Presumably, such a scale would be of considerable value for use with students undertaking courses in multicultural education, where empathy is a crucial component. Overview of Frameworks and Instruments It is apparent that in the area of multicultural interaction, there are not only suitable models to assist in understanding the concept, but also valid and reliable instruments available to measure intercultural development, emotional intelligence, and empathy. The availability of such material clearly facilitates the continuing development of programs in accordance with policy and global needs.

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Ethical Considerations The dramatic increase in intercultural communication and the expansion of intercultural relations has heightened demand for the development of standards and ethical practice in fields such as politics, diplomacy, economics and education (Weaver 2014). The impact of globalization on cultural liberty and ethical considerations is a crucial part of this discussion (Luetz and Havea 2018; Luetz 2019b). An exploratory study into major ethical issues in the field of intercultural relations conducted by the University of Minnesota, Department of Educational Psychology (Kyoung et al. 2015) found: “The top three most important ethical issues were perpetuating stereotypes, deceptive selfpresentation and delivering services not in the best interests of the clients” (p. 69). The study further revealed: The vast majority (84%) of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that there ought to be established ethical standards. Yet, the most common response when asked what separates ethical from unethical behaviour was that ethics are relative to the culture, making it very difficult to establish universal ethical standards. (Kyoung et al, p. 70)

There were common overarching principles of respecting local culture when determining what is ethical, looking at the best interests of the clients and values such as love and justice. In conclusion: Many [. . .] opposed establishing formal standards due to cultural relativity and thought imposing ethical standards on cultural minority groups would in fact be unethical. Still others favoured establishing ethical standards for intercultural trainers, researchers, or business people, but not for the intercultural field as a whole. (Kyoung et al. 2015, pp. 70–71)

According to UNESCO, the goal of intercultural policies and education is to protect, preserve, and increase cultural liberty and diversity (UNESCO 2004). Unfortunately, as well as cultural diversity in our world today, we have cultural prejudice. The above discussion has alluded to racism, xenophobia, and discrimination. Modern society must therefore be aware that less developed nations and indigenous people groups live in the fear “that their ancient cultural practices are endangered by

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

the inflow of foreign investment in extractive industries or that sharing traditional knowledge necessarily leads to its misuse” (UNESCO 2004, p. 90). The goal of development should not be to create one culture but to “delight in our differences” (UNESCO 2004, p.v) as stated by Archbishop Desmond Tutu. Or in the profound words of Gandhi, “I do not want my house to be walled in on all sides and my windows to be stuffed. I want the cultures of all lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off my feet by any” (as cited in UNESCO 2004, p. 85). Therefore, in order for our world to function ethically and maintain cultural diversity, we must not only be mindful of diversity and prejudice, but also recognize that social progress is not dependent upon the adoption of dominant Western market value systems and education (Corey et al. 2011; UNESCO 2004). Furthermore, there is a “belief in the basic moral equality of all human beings” (UNESCO 2004 p. 90). Moreover, the notion to treat others the way one wishes to be treated is an explicit notion in all major world religions including Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, etc. (Armstrong 2011, UNESCO 2004): It is on the basis of these common teachings across all cultures that states have come together to endorse the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, supported by the International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic and Social Rights . . . And more recently, the UN’s Millennium Declaration, adopted by the full membership of the General Assembly in 2000, recommitted itself to human rights, fundamental freedoms and respect for equal rights to all without distinction. (UNESCO 2004, p. 90)

In summary, it is important to be aware that cultural identity may also include not only ethnic groups or races but also religion, economic status, sexual orientation, gender, age, and physical capacity or handicap, among others. However, the same principles apply. We must recognize our own limitations on understanding all cultures and seek consultation, participate in ongoing education, and endeavor to examine our own knowledge, skills, and attitudes so that we can, together, create a more inclusive, diverse, and culturally competent society (Corey et al. 2011).

Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence

Sustainable Development and IE Since 2002, there has been an increasing recognition and awareness of culture as an essential component of sustainable development (UNESCO 2005). Sustainable development is now a major concern for several agencies of the United Nations. These agencies know “how well-being, social justice, cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue, human development and the health of our planet are inextricably linked” (UNESCO 2009a, p. 1; cf. Luetz and Walid 2019). Furthermore, it is impossible to separate culture and development: central to sustainable development are people’s values, worldviews, knowledge and creativity, which are inextricably linked to culture. Sustainable development theory recognizes cultural diversity as a rich source of innovation, human experience and knowledge exchange which can assist communities and societies to move to more sustainable futures. (UNESCO 2009a, p. 2)

Therefore, IC is a: critical component of sustainable development since it not only seeks to create peaceful coexistence between cultural communities, but also to recognize intercultural dialogue as a valuable means to define more sustainable visions for the future. (UNESCO 2009a, p. 3)

Thus, sustainable development in our world must not only be interculturally informed, but must also nurture a culture of IE and learning. Dynamic interaction between cultures, increased educational development, and sensitivity to cultural diversity, developed through carefully designed IE, are key to addressing the interlinked economic, social, and environmental problems confronting our world (UNESCO 2006, 2013). Roberts and Parks (2007) have proposed that a long-term approach to partnerships and research into sustainable development pathways is required “for more effective policies and actions that address poverty and vulnerability” (p. 233). Furthermore, Brinkerhoff (2002) noted that, “the nature and scale of socioeconomic development problems are impossible to address in isolation” and that “nowhere is the increasing need for and experimentation with partnership more in evidence than in international development” (p. 1). UNESCO (2007) states: “the key to successful

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intercultural and interfaith dialogue lies in the acknowledgement of the equal dignity of the participants” (p. 10). The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) suggests a model that integrates the cultural dimension in development thinking and projects, thereby recognizing that people create the cultural context in which communities and groups, local social hierarchies and living patterns, and local forms of communication and expression all exist. IE that generates IC is a crucial factor in the facilitation of sustainability in all spheres, including economic, environmental, education, health care, etc. “In this sense, intercultural education will be a key crosscutting dimension of sustainable development” (UNESCO 2007, p. 25). It is therefore evident that, for internationally sustainable developmental solutions to be widely mainstreamed, strategies and goals will require intercultural partnerships, which requires IC, which in turn requires IE. The two are thus intrinsically linked and cannot be meaningfully discussed in isolation.

Conclusions As intercultural interactions increase globally, holistic IE will become increasingly crucial for environmental sustainability and so-called sustainable development (Luetz et al. 2018; Quak and Luetz 2020). In this context, IE becomes a kind of cornerstone for multilateral harmonious coexistence and multidimensional development that is both socially responsible and environmentally sustainable (Luetz and Walid 2019). In the words of UNESCO (2007): In increasingly complex multicultural societies, education must enable us to acquire the intercultural competencies that will permit us to live together with – and not despite – our cultural differences. (p. 15)

UNESCO again emphasizes humanity’s need for sustainable development, stating: Furthermore, cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. In this sense, it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized and affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations. (UNESCO 2001, para. 12)

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In the words of Selim Jahan, lead author of the 2016 UNDP Human Development Report: Human development reflects universalism—every life values, and every life is equally valuable. Human development has to be sustained and sustainable to enrich every human life so that we all can realize the full potential of our lives. (UNDP 2016, Back Cover)

In summary, humanity has never been more interconnected than today, and many scholars posit that as a species we will likely share a common future (Brundtland 1987; Rifkin 2009). Hence, for our own survival, we must work together across all forms of cultural divide, whether it be ethnic, racial, economic status, religion, gender, and/or generation, among others. It is up to us to learn from each other, educate each other about each other, and work together to provide sustainable development outcomes for our global community (Chen and Luetz 2020). Only when we choose to understand each other and work together can this occur, “My humanity is caught up, is inextricably bound up, in yours” (Desmond Tutu 1999, p. 35).

Cross-References ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-Disciplinarity in Research Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the Master of Social Science Leadership program at Christian Heritage College (School of Social Science), which through its research and teaching activities on sustainable change management gave rise to this publication.

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Interdisciplinarity

Interdisciplinarity

Interpersonal Relationships

▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Internet of Things

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Knowledge ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals

“Knowledge Society: A new society formed as a result of the contemporary societal change pushed by technological innovation and institutional transformation, which is not only about technological innovations, but also about human beings, their personal growth and their individual creativity, experience and participation in the generation of knowledge.” (Yigitcanlar 2015) “Knowledge Societies are societies in which people have the capabilities not just to acquire information but also to transform it into knowledge and understanding, which empowers them to enhance their livelihoods and contribute to the social and economic development of their communities.” (Engida 2016)

Introduction Yuriy Petrushenko and Anna Vorontsova Department of International Economic Relations, Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine

Definitions “Knowledge societies are about capabilities to identify, produce, process, transform, disseminate and use information to build and apply knowledge for human development.” (UNESCO 2005) “The term knowledge society refers to a society in which the creation, dissemination, and utilization of information and knowledge has become the most important factor of production. In such a society, knowledge assets (also called intellectual capital) are the most powerful producer of wealth, sidelining the importance of land, the volume of labor, and physical or financial capital.” (International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 2008)

The modern society undergoes a lot of changes related to the growth and spread of globalization processes, the rapid scientific and technological progress, and the political and economic instability. In this regard, researchers are trying to identify the main features of the new social system and give it the most accurate name. Analyzing the major global trends, it was revealed that the role of information and knowledge in the new society is growing, which are becoming the key factors of production. In this context one can see the emergence of the term “knowledge society,” which requires a detailed research and in-depth analysis. The entry is devoted to the study of the nature and peculiarities in the evolution of the theory of the knowledge society through the lens of

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development of related theories of postindustrial, informational, and learning societies. The paper clarifies the essence of the key terms of the theory of knowledge society – information and knowledge, and defines the main features of the knowledge society and the possible negative consequences of its functioning (in particular, digital and cognitive divides). The existing relationship between the knowledge society and the concept of sustainable development was also summarized.

Knowledge Society: Evolution of Concept Preconditions for the formation of the concept of knowledge society can be divided into four periods: • The theory of “postindustrial society” • The theory of “information society” • The theory of “learning society” and “lifelong learning” • The theory of “knowledge society” The Theory of “Postindustrial Society” The emergence of the concept of postindustrial society as a separate doctrine is related, above all, to new approaches to the structuring of the national economy’s sectors. Based on the work of C. Clark and J. Fourastie, in the 1940–1950s of the twentieth century, a three-sector model of social production was proposed, which included primary (agriculture), secondary (industry), and tertiary (services) sectors (Clark 1940; Fourastie 1945). It is the third sector and its growth that was related to the transition from industrial to postindustrial society. D. Bell is considered to be the founder of the theory of “postindustrial society,” who began to work on it since the 1950s. In his work he focused on the differences between industrialized and postindustrial societies, including the growing role of science, the expansion of production of services and information, the growing share of “white-collar” workers, etc. (Bell 1973). In addition, the researcher noted that a

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significant role in the transition to postindustrial society is played by telecommunications and computer technologies, which served as an impetus for the further development of the theory of “information society.” Bell guided the work of the Futurological Commission in the United States (since 1965 of the twentieth century), which looked at the prospects of social progress. In particular, they explored the transition of social production to the service economy, the shift of the centers of innovation from industrial corporations to research and educational institutions. In the 1970s of the twentieth century, A. Toffler proposed and developed his own theory of technological waves of civilization, according to which significant breakthroughs in science and technology were caused by profound changes in society. An agrarian type of society was formed due to the development of agriculture, an industrial one, due to the industrial revolution, a postindustrial one, and due to the general progress as well as scientific and technological revolution. According to Toffler, the last stage or the “third technological wave” is characterized by the growing role of information, human intelligence and knowledge, the introduction and development of new information and communication technologies, etc. (Toffler 1980, 1991). The Theory of “Information Society” The gradual development of the theory of postindustrial society has contributed to the fact that scientists have begun to identify information as an independent factor of production and the industries related to its production and use – as separate production complexes. In this regard the term “information society” began to emerge in the 1960s, which was associated with the rapid development of computer, information, and telecommunications technologies. A Japanese researcher T. Umesao, who studied the evolution of the three-sector model of the economy, noted the following: the production of intellectual products is gradually becoming the basis of new social development and should become the basis of the country’s economic policy (in particular, he made proposals using the

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example of Japan), forming the information society (Umesao 1963). Another Japanese researcher, Y. Masuda, also made a significant contribution to the development of this theory. In his works he analyzes the major differences between information and industrial societies while emphasizing the innovative role of computer technologies that will help the formation of intellectual industries in changing the social and political fabric of society. As a futurist scientist, he foresaw the emergence of a new global information society in the future, which he called “Computopia” (Masuda 1980). A significant contribution to the development of the theory of information society and its derivatives was made by F. Machlup. His achievements include the actualization of the issue of production and dissemination of knowledge, the development of a sound theoretical base regarding the nature, functions, and classification of knowledge, and the process of their production. It should be noted that he proposed a fourth sector of the economy called “knowledge industry,” which included the following types of activities: education, research and development, mass media, information technologies, and information services (Machlup 1972). M. Castells develops the idea of information society adding its networking properties, which contributes to the emergence of a new term – “network society.” In such society information technology is used to form horizontal relationships between business entities on the basis of decentralization and autonomy (Castells 1998). However, despite its widespread use, the theory of information society cannot be an overarching characteristic and is usually viewed within the postindustrial theory or as its synonym. The Theory of “Learning Society” and “Lifelong Learning” The development of scientific thought gives an understanding that it is knowledge, not information, that should form the basis of a new type of society. This leads to the emergence of the theory of “learning society.” Its origins also date back to the 1960s and 1970s, which is related to the

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transformation of the role of education in the national economy. An important role in the dissemination of this theory belonged to UNESCO, which promoted the principle of continuity in education and offered it as a basis for reforming national education systems. The main documents in this area were the report Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, under the direction of E. Faure (1972), and Learning: The Treasure Within, under the direction of J. Delors (1996). They are based on the idea that the acquisition of knowledge during the learning process should not be limited by space (i.e., educational institutions) or time (i.e., the traditional years of education of children and young people). The development of information technology only contributes to the accessibility and duration of training (UNESCO 2005). To further develop the idea of lifelong learning, a separate unit was created at UNESCO – Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). Its main purpose is to promote and support programs and activities related to adult learning, continuing education and literacy, to promote and approve them at the level of national strategies and programs, to monitor progress in this area, etc. It should be noted that the idea of lifelong learning is inextricably linked to the concept of sustainable development and its goals (identified separately as Goal 4 “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all,” while lifelong learning is a necessary prerequisite to achieve other goals and indicators). The Theory “Knowledge Society” The basic principles of the knowledge society were developed in close connection with, and parallel to, the previously described theories, especially the ones of information and learning society. The founder of the theory of “knowledge society” is considered P. Drucker, who actively developed it during the 1940–1960s of the twentieth century. In his writings he laid out the idea that with the development of society, the role of knowledge was also changing. As a result,

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knowledge becomes a major and determining factor in production and is used to produce new knowledge, which has led to the information and technological revolution and formation of the knowledge society. At the same time, other factors of production (land, labor, capital) have not disappeared but simply moved to the background (Drucker 1969). Observing the changes brought about by the development of information and communication technologies, he introduces such terms as “knowledge work” and “knowledge worker” (Drucker 1994). At the same time, these terms are not equivalents of “mental work” and relevant employees but imply the performance of work based on intellectual knowledge and skills, which contributes to the formation of the most productive members of society (including engineers, technicians in the computer and medical fields, etc.). The dissemination of this theory in the scientific literature has repeatedly been linked with the name of R.E. Lane. It should be noted that in his writings in the 1960s, he used the notion of “knowledgeable society” and explored the impact of scientific knowledge on public policies and governance (Lane 1966). In his writings the Japanese scientist T. Sakaiya tried to envision what the future society would be like and concluded that it would be based on knowledge (“knowledge-value society”). The peculiarity of his approach was in the fact that knowledge is embodied in the goods produced in the society while the economy itself made provisions for the exchange of knowledge and such benefits (Sakaiya 1985). When considering the theories of postindustrial society and its derivatives, some researchers mention J. Schumpeter (1934), who developed the theory of innovative development. He studied innovations (which are simply impossible without knowledge) and linked them to economic cycles, which made it possible to distinguish five waves of innovations. It was the fifth wave of innovations that the researcher associated with the emergence of a new type of economy – the knowledge economy and the formation of the corresponding knowledge society.

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept

A significant contribution to the dissemination and development of the theory of “knowledge society” was made by such international organization as UNESCO, which in 2005 presented a World Report entitled “Towards Knowledge Societies” (UNESCO 2005). The report notes that the information society is characterized by the penetration of information and communication technologies into the economy, politics, and other spheres, while information becomes a kind of commodity. All this has greatly contributed to and accelerated the transition to the knowledge society (UNESCO 2005). In addition, UNESCO’s Assistant DirectorGeneral for Communication and Information notes: “Information society is the building block for knowledge societies. Whereas I see the concept of ‘information society’ as linked to the idea of ‘technological innovation,’ the concept of ‘knowledge societies’ includes a dimension of social, cultural, economical, political and institutional transformation, and a more pluralistic and developmental perspective. In my view, the concept of ‘knowledge societies’ is preferable to that of the ‘information society’ because it better captures the complexity and dynamism of the changes taking place” (Abdul 2003). Summarizing this entry it should be noted that there are different approaches in the scientific literature regarding the correlation of these theories. Some researchers believe that the key and the most conceptual one is the theory of “postindustrial society,” while all others are its derivatives. Others consider each of them to be individual and worthy of study. All of these theories were closely interconnected and related to the social development and evolution of social relations. In this regard the theory of the society of knowledge was formed as a successor to or the theory of social development, which is more relevant to our time.

Clarification of Basic Terminology Studying the evolution of the concept of the knowledge society and its preconditions, one can trace the constant use of terms such as information

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept

and knowledge, which can be confusing. For this reason it was decided to analyze these additional (inextricably linked) terms and to clarify their use in terms of the concept of the knowledge society. The relationships between these concepts are best described by the following definitions: •

• •

“data is elementary descriptions of things, events, activities, and transactions that are recorded, classified, and stored but not organised to convey any specific meaning; information is data that have been organised so that they deliver meaning and value to the recipient; knowledge consists of data or information that have been organised and processed to convey understanding, experience, accumulated learning, and expertise as they apply to current problem or activity.” (Turban et al. 1999).

In this regard, most scientists argue that data and information can exist separately and independently of the person, but knowledge is formed as a result of the activity of human brains. The approach of Braf E. (2002) deserves attention. It schematically illustrates the relationship of information and knowledge concepts through the processes of being informed and being knowledgeable. Their essence is as follows. When we encounter information in the written or verbal form (as input data), we launch the process of understanding and interpreting it, which results in a new or more validated knowledge (as output data). In fact, in the author’s opinion, this is the process of being informed. Instead, if a person already has a comprehensive knowledge (the original is “a knowledgeable person”) and uses that knowledge in the course of his activities, then he receives a new experience and more knowledge. Braf E. calls this process “being knowledgeable” (Braf 2002). The UNESCO report also mentions a sufficiently important point to clarify the terminology, namely, “. . . information is a tool or form of knowledge that needs an educational basis for critical reflection. . .” (UNESCO 2005). D. Bell defines knowledge as “a set of organized statements of facts or ideas, presenting a reasoned judgment or an experimental result,

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which is transmitted to others through some communication medium in some systematic form.” We should pay attention to the part concerning the transfer of knowledge to others, who are scientists according to the definition. What is important here is that regardless of the form and methods of the transfer of knowledge (e.g., from one individual to another, or to a group of people as a result of numerous forms of formal or nonformal learning, using ICT or not, etc.), the obtained result (meaning the final knowledge) can be different for each person individually. In this context it is necessary to determine the relationship between ICT and other analyzed categories. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2011), technology is “the practical application of knowledge or a capability given by the practical application of knowledge.” It should be noted that the rapid development of ICT in the world has contributed to the growth of data and information around us. This phenomenon is even called “the era of big data” and requires special skills to analyze and monitor them. ICT has also a significant impact on knowledge, as it contributes to its more efficient formation, dissemination, and retention. However, the relation between these concepts cannot be reduced only to the form of knowledge transfer. According to some researchers, ICT fully represents knowledge (Weizenbaum 1976).

Main Features of Knowledge Society On the basis of the above information, the authors will try to determine the basic features or principles of the construction and activity of the knowledge society. According to the 2005 UNESCO report “Towards Knowledge Societies,” the knowledge society must be based on the following principles: • • • •

“free access to information and freedom of expression both offline and online; building a knowledge economy; formation of learning networks (learning society), enriching formal educational institutions by informal ones; implementation of the lifelong learning principle;

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• • •

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept changes in classical models of higher education by expanding the sources of funding by using not only the state but also non-state financial resources; conscious and responsible management of scientific and technical knowledge and its results; promoting the preservation of linguistic and cultural diversity; shared knowledge and inclusivity.” (UNESCO 2005)

These are the fundamental principles that are commonly used in the scientific and educational literature. In addition, some authors propose other approaches that are usually based on the essence of the knowledge society and its differences from other social structures. For example, according to the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, the main features of the knowledge society can be summarized as follows: • •

• • • • •

“the mass and polycentric production, transmission, and application of knowledge is dominant; the price of most commodities is determined by the knowledge needed for their development and sale rather than by the raw material and physical labor that is needed to produce them; a large portion of the population attains higher education; a vast majority of the population have access to information and communication technologies and to the Internet; a large portion of the labor force are knowledge workers who need a high degree of education and experience to perform their job well; both individuals and the state invest heavily in education and research and development; organizations are forced to innovate continually.” (International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 2008)

As we can see, these principles are somewhat intertwined with the previous ones but are more focused on the economic component. Knowledge Economy As we see, one of the important features of the knowledge society is the formation and development of the knowledge economy. It is necessary to consider its essence and features in more detail. According to the definition of OECD, “knowledge-based economy” is an “economy

which is directly based on the production, distribution and use of knowledge and information” (OECD 1996). A similar definition is given by the World Bank. According to this “it is an economy in which knowledge is acquired, created, disseminated, and applied to enhance economic development” (World Bank 2007). Both definitions emphasize that knowledge is the basis of such economies as knowledge societies and offers different stages of interaction with knowledge. In addition, the defining features of the knowledge economy are the following: •

•

•

•

effective creation and utilization of knowledge requires knowledgeable and skilled employees who are able to constantly improve and adapt their skills; effective communication, dissemination and processing of information and knowledge requires a modern and dynamic information infrastructure (an indisputable example is ICT); an effective innovative system consisting of enterprises, research centers, universities, consultants and other organizations is needed to support and develop new knowledge, to use world achievements and adapt them to local needs; an effective institutional development of the country is required for the effective creation, dissemination, use and development of knowledge, which will make it possible to use numerous economic and other incentives necessary for efficient mobilization and distribution of resources, stimulation of business activity, etc. (World Bank 2007)

Based on these four defining features, the World Bank calculated the knowledge economy index and compiled a country-specific rating. Unfortunately, currently the data is available only until 2012, after which it was not calculated. Figure 1 shows this integrated index for the last available year across countries. Sweden had the highest indicator (index value 9.43). The top four countries included Finland, Denmark, Netherlands, and Norway. As we see, Africa and South Asia have the lowest indicators. A similar but slightly modified is the EBRD Knowledge Economy Index calculation methodology for 46 economies. It is also based on four components, including:

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Legend Location

0.96 - 2.2 2.2 - 4 4 - 5.6 5.6 - 7.8 7.8 - 9.5

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 1 Knowledge economy index around the •

• •

•

institutions for innovation, which takes into account economic openness (in trade, labor mobility, attraction of investments), business environment (for example, legislative framework, level of corruption) and political environment (in particular, stability, effectiveness of reforms); skills for innovation, which means the general and specific knowledge and skills necessary for innovative activities; innovation system that includes input data (for example, research and development (R&D), output data (for example, patents, development projects, inventions) and relationships between them (interaction between scientists, venture capital, etc.); ICT infrastructure, which is considered in terms of accessibility and sophistication (EBRD 2019).

Figure 2 shows the EBRD Knowledge Economy Index, by which sample countries were divided into three groups according to their development level: the early, intermediate, and advanced KE group. The first group of countries is characterized by weak institutions and skills for innovation, together with poor ICT infrastructure; the second, improved institutions and ICT infrastructure but still relatively weak skills for innovation; and the third, relatively stronger institutions, skills, and

world in 2012 (0 = lowest and 10 = highest). (Source: The World Bank 2017)

innovation-enhancing component. However, its specialized skills for innovation and the efficiency of its innovation system remain significantly behind those of the OECD comparator countries (EBRD 2019). Among the EBRD countries, Estonia has the highest value of the Knowledge Economy Index. Slovenia and Lithuania are also among the top three. Turkmenistan and Egypt have the lowest values. Education in Knowledge Economy According to the peculiarities of formation and the basic features of the knowledge society, education plays a significant role in it. Its peculiarity in the new social system is the need for significant structural changes and adaptation to the new requirements. The rapid development of information and communication technologies (also called technological revolution) contributed to the need for their integration into the educational process. The use of ICT not only contributes to the availability of a vast array of information for learners but also provides an opportunity to study individually according to the convenient schedule (i.e., even outside of educational

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Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 2 EBRD Knowledge Economy Index by

three groups (early, intermediate, and advanced) in 2018. (Source: EBRD 2019)

institutions), using a variety of methods and technologies. ICT also helps teachers diversify their own teaching techniques and deliver teaching materials more effectively and clearly, to use the international teaching experience. In other words, the use of ICT has significantly increased the level of openness in education. As Peters M.A. points out in his article (2015), nowadays, there is a transformation of existing values and the philosophy of functioning of the world (including markets and the mode of production) “based on openness, the ethic of participation, and peer-to-peer collaboration.” These changes also apply to education, in which, since the introduction of e-learning in higher education, there has been a revision of the concept and contemporary forms of “openness,” including “open source, open access,. . . open science and innovations.” It promoted open educational resources (OER) movement, which is commonly understood as “digitised materials offered freely and openly for educators, students and self-learners to use and reuse for teaching, learning and research . . . that includes learning content, software tools to

develop, use and distribute content, and implementation resources such as open licences” (OECD 2007). One form of OER that can be attributed to learning content is massive open online courses (MOOCs), which are gaining in popularity today. They allow the provision of “cost-effective quality educational products” (Pulist 2019) to the large masses (which has limited in traditional educational institutions), including different vulnerable groups. In addition, there is a fairly rapid flow of information in the knowledge society. According to Forbes, “the amount of data we produce every day is 2.5 quintillion bytes and it continue to grow” (Marr 2018). This makes it difficult to process so much information and turn it into knowledge. Such information or knowledge explosion causes fairly rapid knowledge obsolescence. This contributes to the fact that most of the knowledge that a person receives during traditional training become obsolete fast enough and need constant updating to remain a skilled and competitive employee. Significant changes are also observed in the knowledge economy. Shifting the focus of production to knowledge-intensive and increasing its

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept

technologization and innovatization require changing demands on the workforce. This may contribute to the fact that certain professions and types of activities completely disappear or have to change the basic principles of it in accordance with the new requirements. In such conditions a person needs to develop additional skills: be flexible and adaptable, capable of continuous learning and development. This is related to another feature of the knowledge society – lifelong learning. The scientific and technological progress contributes to the elimination of many professions and types of activities. In such conditions a person needs to be flexible and adaptable, capable of continuous learning and development. This is related to another feature of the knowledge society – lifelong learning. Under such conditions a fundamentally new educational system is formed, which is characterized by: •

•

•

•

transformation of the traditional linear tiered form of education into the multidimensional one, which makes it possible to learn throughout lifetime, to engage in both professional and personal development (through non-formal education); individualization of education, which involves both the development of individual curricula in educational institutions, as well as selfeducation and self-training; practical orientation of learning by applying the principle of “learning by doing”, the application of learning in groups and from each other, the use of real-world applications; shifting the emphasis of the results of learning – to the acquisition of “soft skills”, which implies the development of such skills as critical thinking, communication, stress resistance, teamwork, etc. (van Weert 2005)

These changes concern all parts of the education system, from preschool to higher and postsecondary education in the formal sector, as well as different nonformal educational institutions. This raises the question of financing of such changes considering the fact that budgetary funds are usually very limited. In this regard, the international community supported by international organizations (in particular, UNESCO) emphasizes the need to attract all stakeholders of the educational process to

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decision-making and management (UNESCO documents refer to the concept of “multi-stakeholder approach or processes” (UNESCO 2013)). It should be noted that stakeholders include the public sector, the private sector, civil society institutions and their representatives, educational and scientific institutions, etc. The knowledge society should be based on their interaction and various forms of partner relations.

Negative Consequences of Knowledge Society Although the principles of equality and justice are at the heart of the knowledge society, their development can cause certain global social disruptions in society, especially in developing countries and transition economies, which will be discussed below. Digital Divide First of all, there is a digital or quantitative divide, which means that there is still unequal access to information and knowledge in society, which is caused by many socioeconomic and other factors. Specifically, this refers to the level of development of a country, the prevalence of urban or rural population. One of the major issues highlighted in the UNESCO 2005 report “Towards Knowledge Societies” was a low access to electricity. In particular, the report stated that “. . . 2 billion people are not linked to an electricity grid, the precondition of mass access to the new technologies. . .” (UNESCO 2005). It should be noted that access to electricity is one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), namely, SDG ‘# 7 “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all” (United Nations 2015). According to the World Bank statistics, 80.2% of the world’s population had access to electricity in 2005. As of 2017 this indicator increased significantly accounting for 88.9% of the world population (The World Bank 2017). In spite of this, approximately 840 million people (11% of the world’s population) have almost no access to electricity. According to the World Bank, they

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Shaded

Points

< 29.98 29.98 - 48.42 48.42 - 67.18 67.18 - 80.76 > 80.76

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 3 Access to electricity (% of population) around the world in 2017. (Source: The World Bank 2017)

reside mainly in countries of sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asia (Fig. 3). In addition, according to the joint report of several custodian international agencies “Tracking SDG7: The Energy Progress Report,” in 2017 the issue of access to electricity in villages in comparison to cities is still unresolved (the ratio is 79–97% of the population, respectively). The availability of electricity services is also an unresolved issue especially for the problem areas mentioned above. According to statistical data, “. . .basic, subsistence-level electricity consumption (30 kilowatt-hours [kWh]/month) is unaffordable (costs more than 5% of monthly household income) for the poorest 40% of households in half of the access-deficit countries6, representing 285 million people. Pertinently, an electricity connection costs more than one month’s income for the poorest 40% of households, or over 400 million people, residing in access-deficit countries” (IEA et al. 2019; ESMAP 2018). There are similar trends regarding the access to the World Wide Web. According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU 2018),

approximately 51.2% of the global population or 3.9 billion people were connected to the Internet at the end of 2018 (Fig. 4). The number of mobilecellular telephone subscriptions increased significantly in the analyzed period (107.0 per 100 people in 2018), while the number of fixed-telephone subscriptions continues to decline (12.4% in 2018). However, such trends are not observed equally around the world. By region, according to ITU estimates, one can expect 24.4 individuals using the Internet per 100 inhabitants in Africa and 47.0 in Asia and Pacific. In 2018 the highest rates are expected in Europe, 79.6%; CIS, 71.3%; and the Americas, 69.6% (ITU 2018a). It should be noted that access to and the use of ICTs, including the Internet and mobile communications, are also among the numerous indicators of Sustainable Development Goals. The following ones should be distinguished: •

target 4.a “Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all” by indicator 4.a.1: “Proportion of schools with access

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept

521 107.0

Per 100 inhabitants

100 80 51.2

60 40

12.4

20

Mobile-cellular telephone subscriptions

2018*

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

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Individuals using the Internet

Fixed-telephone subscriptions

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 4 Global ICT developments in 2001–2018. (Source: ITU 2018a). Note:  Estimat0065

•

•

•

•

to: (a) electricity; (b) the Internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes. . .”; target 5.b “Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women” by indicator 5.b.1: “Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex”; target 9.c “Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020” by indicator 9.c.1: “Proportion of population covered by a mobile network, by technology”; target 17.6 “Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge-sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism” by indicator 17.6.1: “Number of science and/or technology cooperation agreements and programmes between countries, by type of cooperation”, indicator 17.6.2: “Fixed Internet broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, by speed”; target 17.8 “Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology” by indicator 17.8.1: “Proportion of individuals using the Internet.” (United Nations 2015)

In addition, numerous studies prove that there is a link between the proliferation of the Internet and human development. Pratama and Al-Shaikh (2012) researched and proved the impact of Internet penetration rate with human development level in developed and developing countries from 2000 to 2010, identifying the existence of digital divide. A similar study for the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was empirically conducted by a team of scientists headed by Ejemeyovwi et al. (2019). Cognitive Divide The previous negative trends and the rapid development of the knowledge society only exacerbate the cognitive divide. It is related to the unequal access to knowledge and its absorption, which can manifest itself both geographically (depending on the level of development of countries, e.g., between the countries of the north and the south) and in the individual society (e.g., at equal access to knowledge with other categories of the population, people with higher education can use it more effectively) (UNESCO 2005). A demonstrative manifestation of cognitive divide is brain drain, which involves the migration of professionals and skilled workers to other countries or regions, which are more competitive

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Breakdown of migrant workers

41.6% Female

58.4% Male

8.3% 15 - 24 years old

23% Northern America

2.7% Latin America & the Caribbean

32% Europe

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migrant workers (ILO estimates)

7.9% Africa

7.1% SE Asia & Pacific

13.3% Asia* 13.9% Arab States

∗Asia includes: Central & Western Asia, Eastern Asia and Southern Asia

1 MILLION migrant workers

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 5 Distribution of migrant workers worldwide in 2017, by region. (Source: ILO 2018)

in a particular field of activity. Given the complexity of statistical estimation of such migrants, we consider it appropriate to provide the data of the International Labor Organization (ILO) on the distribution of migrant workers worldwide (Fig. 5). According to the statistical data in 2017, there were approximately 164 million migrant workers globally, most of whom went to Europe (32%) and Northern America (23%) (ILO 2018). As noted earlier, the modern world requires constant learning and development in order to be competitive on the labor market. The proliferation of ICTs, in particular the Internet, offers enormous opportunities, both on a paid and free basis.

Despite this, there is a separate stratum of people in each country (particularly older people, poor families, people living in rural areas, etc.) who do not take advantage of the existing opportunities or simply cannot handle information through modern technologies. Another possible manifestation of cognitive divide is the manipulation of people through misinformation, which shapes certain values and encourages certain actions. For example, such technologies can be used in elections, advertising, propaganda, etc. The most widespread manifestation of this phenomenon is information wars, which are spreading in the world in the conditions of the knowledge society.

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Knowledge Society and Sustainable Development

The OER movement not only expands access to learning for all social groups in both developed and developing countries (including vulnerable groups), while developing the necessary skills for the future life and employment, but it also extends the types of learning (nonformal, informal, and formal learning), promoting lifelong learning based on the principles of low cost, high quality, and equity. At the initiative of UNESCO, the period from 2005 to 2014 was proclaimed as a UN Decade for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Later it was continued under the name Global Action Program (GAP) on ESD (UNESCO 2017). These positions were reflected in one of the SDGs, namely, “target 4.7: ‘By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development’” (United Nations 2015). A special attention should be paid to the UNESCO approach, according to which in order to achieve all SDGs, it is necessary to train the so-called sustainability citizens and to develop a number of “key competencies” (systems thinking, self-awareness, integrated problem-solving, critical thinking, collaboration, anticipatory, normative, and strategic abilities) and “specific learning objectives” (cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral domains) (UNESCO 2017). All these characteristics should help a person understand, analyze, discuss, and take action to achieve SDGs. Therefore, the process of education (both self-training and training through other people) should be directed at their development.

Based on the information given in the previous sub-paragraphs, it can be argued that the knowledge society is strongly linked to sustainable development. It should be reminded that the most common definition of sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987). The concept of sustainable development has been formed by the influence of many scientific ideas and trends. The date of its official recognition is 1992 when the UN Conference in Rio de Janeiro adopted the Agenda for the twenty-first century. Having developed and expanded for a long time, the sustainable development concept includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at ensuring universal economic growth, social progress, and environmental protection. Education and the corresponding knowledge are significant and even fundamental components of this concept, which contribute to the achievement of the set goals. The OECD report has noted: “Education is so central to the achievement of a sustainable, prosperous and equitable planet that failure to achieve this particular SDG puts at risk the achievement of the 17 SDGs as a whole” (OECD 2017). Among the Sustainable Development Goals, education is dedicated to the fourth, which reads as follows: “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (United Nations 2015), and has ten targets. However, all targets are sufficiently related to the openness in education which was discussed above. In support of this statement, there was held by UNESCO the Second World OER Congress with the theme “OER for Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education: from Commitment to Action.” Its purpose was to mainstreaming OER into education policies and practices from early childhood education to higher education and lifelong learning (UNESCO 2017a).

Conclusion The knowledge society can be called the modern stage of civilizational development, which was formed in response to the changes taking place in the world. This theory has its origin in the

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theories of postindustrial, information, and learning societies and is the most accurate description of the current state of affairs. The main feature of the knowledge society is that knowledge becomes one of the main factors of production and affects all spheres of economy. This leads to the transformation of the economic (knowledge economy) and social system (the main manifestation is the transition to a new educational system – the system of lifelong learning). It should be remembered that the development of the knowledge society can also lead to negative consequences, the most common manifestations of which are digital and cognitive divides. As a form of social order, knowledge society is closely linked to the basic paradigm of development – the concept of sustainable development. Such relationship is manifested in the fact that the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals takes place due to the formation of the knowledge society and especially through its educational component.

References Abdul Waheed Khan (2003) Towards knowledge societies. A World Of Science. UNESCO Natural Sciences Quarterly Newsletter 1(4):8–9 Bell D (1973) The coming of post-industrial society. Basic Books Inc., New York Braf E (2002) Knowledge or information. In: Liu K, Clarke RJ, Andersen PB, Stamper RK, Abou-Zeid ES (eds) Organizational semiotics. IFIP – the international federation for information processing, vol 94. Springer, Boston Castells M (1998) The information age: Economy, society, and culture. Cambridge, MA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell Clark C (1940) The conditions of economic progress. MacMillan & Co, London Delors J et al (1996) Learning: the treasure within: report to UNESCO of the international commission on education for the 21st century. UNESCO, Paris Drucker PF (1969) The age of discontinuity. Guidelines to our changing society. Heinemann, London Drucker PF (1994) Knowledge work and knowledge society – the social transformations of this century. The 1994 Edwin L. Godkin Lecture: John F. Kennedy University Ejemeyovwi JO et al (2019) Internet usage, innovation and human development nexus in Africa: the case of ECOWAS. J Econ Struct 8:15. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40008-019-0146-2

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept Engida G (2016) How can digital government support the development of knowledge societies? Keynote Lecture, 9th international conference on theory and practice of electronic governance (ICEGOV2016), Montevideo, 1–3 March 2016. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 ESMAP (Energy Sector Management Assistance Program) (2018) Policy matters: regulatory indicators for sustainable energy. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/ 30970. Accessed on 13 Aug 2019 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) (2019) Introducing the EBRD knowledge economy index. https://www.ebrd.com/cs/Satellite?c= Content&cid=1395281279405&d=&pagename=EBRD %2FContent%2FDownloadDocument. Accessed on 22 Aug 2019 Faure E et al (1972) Learning to be: the world of education today and tomorrow. UNESCO, Paris, p 346 Fourastié J (1945) L'Économie française dans le monde. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris IEA, IRENA, UNSD, WB, WHO (2019) Tracking SDG 7: the energy progress report 2019, Washington DC. https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/data/files/downloaddocuments/2019-Tracking%20SDG7-Full%20Report.pdf. Accessed 13 Aug 2019 ILO (2018) Global estimates on international migrant workers – results and methodology, 2nd ed. International Labour Office International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (2008) Knowledge society. https://www.encyclopedia.com/ social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/ knowledge-society. Accessed 14 Aug 2019 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (2018) Measuring the information society report 2018. ITU, Geneva. https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Sta tistics/Documents/publications/misr2018/MISR-2018Vol-1-E.pdf. Accessed 14 Aug 2019 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (2018a) Global ICT developments in 2001–2018. https:// www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx. Accessed 14 Aug 2019 Lane RE (1966) The decline of politics and ideology in a knowledgeable society. Am Sociol Rev 31(5): 649–662 Machlup F (1972) The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States. Princeton University Press, Princeton Marr B (2018) How much data do we create every day? The mind-blowing stats everyone should read. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/05/21/ how-much-data-do-we-create-every-day-the-mindblowing-stats-everyone-should-read/#45a305c360ba. Accessed 30 Aug 2019 Masuda Y (1980) The information society as postindustrial society. Institute for the Information Society, Tokyo OECD (1996) The knowledge-based economy, OECD/GD (96)102

Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept OECD (2007) Giving knowledge for free: the emergence of open educational resources. http://www.oecd.org/ document/41/0,3343,en_2649_201185_38659497_1_ 1_1_1,00.html. Accessed 30 Aug 2019 OECD (2017) Education at a glance: OECD indicators. https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2017-en. Accessed 30 Aug 2019 Peters MA (2015) “Openness” and “Open Education” in the global digital economy: an emerging paradigm of social production. In: Peters M (ed) Encyclopedia of educational philosophy and theory. Springer, Singapore Pratama A, Al-Shaikh M (2012) Relation and growth of internet penetration rate with human development level from 2000 to 2010. Communications of the IBIMA. https://doi.org/10.5171/2012.778309 Pulist SK (2019) Open educational resources (including MOOCs). In: Leal FW, Azul A, Brandli L, Özuyar P, Wall T (eds) Quality education. Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham Sakaiya T (1985) The knowledge-value revolution or the history of the future. PHP kenkyujo, Kyoto. English translation (1991) Kodansha International Tokyo Schumpeter J (1934) The theory of economic development. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Technology (2011) Merriam-Webster.com. https://www. merriam-webster.com. Accessed 20 Aug 2019 The World Bank (2017) Access to electricity (% of population). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/eg. elc.accs.zs?end=2017&start=1990&type=shaded& view=chart. Accessed 12 Aug 2019 Toffler A (1980) The third wave. William Morrow and Company, INC, New York Toffler A (1991) Powershift: knowledge, wealth, and violence at the edge of the 21st century. Bantam Books, New York Turban E et al (1999) Information technology for management. In: Making connections for strategic advantage. Wiley, New York Umesao T (1963) Information industry theory: Dawn of the coming era of the ectodermal industry. Hoso Asahi, Jan.: 4–17

525 UNESCO (2005) Towards knowledge societies. World report. UNESCO Publishing, Paris, p 45 UNESCO (2013) Towards knowledge societies for peace and sustainable development: final statement, (February), 24. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/ new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/wsis/ WSIS_10_Event/wsis10_outcomes_en.pdf. Accessed 24 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2017) Education for sustainable development goals. Learning objectives. UNESCO, Paris. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247444. Accessed 24 Aug 2019 UNESCO (2017a) Ljubljana OER action plan 2017. Second World OER Congress. https://en.unesco.org/ sites/default/files/ljubljana_oer_action_plan_2017.pdf. Accessed 30 Aug 2019 United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Working Papers of United Nations General Assembly, A/RES/ 70/1. https://www.refworld.org/docid/57b6e3e44.html. Accessed 12 Aug 2019 van Weert T (2005) Lifelong learning in the knowledge society. In: van Weert TJ (ed) Education and the knowledge society. IFIP international federation for information processing, vol 161. Springer, Boston Weizenbaum J (1976) Computer power and human reason: from judgment to calculation. Freeman, San Francisco World Bank (2007) Building knowledge economies: advanced strategies for development (English). WBI development studies. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 918571468183891451/Building-knowledge-economiesadvanced-strategies-for-development. Accessed 19 Aug 2019 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our common future. Oxford University Press, Oxford Yigitcanlar T (2015) Knowledge-based urban development. In: Khosrow-Pour M (ed) Encyclopedia of information science and technology, 3rd edn. IGI Global, Hershey, pp 7475–7485. https://doi.org/ 10.4018/978-1-4666-5888-2.ch736

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Leapfrogging ▶ Future Trends in Education

Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

Learner-Centered

Luis Alberto Camargo Organización para la Educación y Protección Ambiental (OpEPA), Bogotá, Colombia

▶ Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas

Synonyms Active education; Classroom; Holistic education; Learning space; Nature-based education; Placebased education; Regenerative education; Student-centered education; Sumbiosic

Learning ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

Definition

Learning About Sustainability ▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

Learning Difficulties/ Disabilities ▶ Special Education: Exceptionality

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Learning environments are the physical settings, contexts, and cultures in which students learn inclusive to learning resources and technology, means of teaching, modes of learning, and connections to societal and global contexts (The Glossary of Education Reform 2014; EDUCAUSE Center for Analysis and Research). An effective learning environment is critical because quality education, which is essential to real learning and human development, is influenced by factors both inside and outside the classroom (Njui 2018).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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Introduction Throughout an individual’s life, learning is a permanent process. Individuals come across many different learning environments; nonetheless, the greatest amount of time is spent engaging in formal education programs. Starting at preschool, then primary school, secondary school, and university, a person can spend almost a quarter of their life engaged in this type of learning. The importance of creating optimal conditions to enable and sustain learning has sometimes been overlooked as a ‘peripheral’ factor in the provision of quality education. However, a rapidly expanding body of research on the conditions of learning suggests that physical, social and organizational environments in which teaching and learning processes take place have a more central role than previously acknowledged. As the evidence gathered for this report asserts, the design and management of learning spaces are fundamental to the achievement of positive learning outcomes as well as to the health and well-being of learners. Simply put, good learning environments foster quality learning, and bad learning environments do not. (UNESCO 2012)

Most formal education programs use traditional learning environments. Traditional learning environments commonly refer to standard twentiethcentury school classroom environments, rooms with desks or benches facing forward into the board, where students are expected to physically attend a class directed by a teacher who is present through the educational process. A compulsory core curriculum is taught using tools as a board, video beam and textbooks to establish important information being presented. Every student in the classroom receives the same experience, and there is limited student-to-student interaction during classes. Students engage by answering questions asked by the teacher or by body language through the classes, learning is mostly a passive process of receiving, taking note, and memorizing. Single option assignments are regularly taken home, and testing to evaluate achievement or learning is used to monitor student progress. Class routines are preset yearly and standardized evaluations are used to benchmark student level. Traditional learning environments tend to foster teachers as technicians focused on improving student scores (Richardson and Mishra 2018; Craft 2006).

Learning environments are composed of three main components: physical setting, cultural context, and method of delivery. The physical setting or place where learning takes place can vary significantly; usually, it is associated with the classroom but can also include community and family spaces and outdoor settings. In the digital age learning environments can also be virtual, online, remote, or blended (i.e., a combination of face-toface and online learning). Cultural context refers to the learning community’s governing ethos and demographics (i.e., gender, ethnicity, nationalities, social and economic contexts) and how interactions are established between members of the community. Finally, learning environments include the method of delivery or educational approach. This approach can vary in several dimensions ranging from a teacher-centered traditional environment to a student-centered progressive environment and from a low-tech to a high-tech approach (Teaching Methods, 2U Inc).

Face-to-Face and Digital Learning Environments Learning environments have become more diverse as technology improves adding new layers of alternatives. They can be divided into three main types: faceto-face, digital, and blended learning environments. Face-to-Face Face-to-face learning environments require teachers and facilitators to be present and physically interact with the students during the learning process. This is the traditional learning environment and the most commonly used in formal education, especially in schools from kinder through secondary. Most of active learning (i.e., outdoor, experiential) requires face-to-face facilitation. Digital Digital learning environments rely on technology as a means for students to establish contact with teachers and course content. Within digital learning environments, there are different variations starting with computer learning where there is no connection to internet and learning is done

Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

through locally run computer programs limited by the design and information built into the program by “educators.” Online learning opens access to a broader set of alternatives and resources that are available online such as information, communities, and institutions. Digital learning can be synchronous or asynchronous in nature so the students and teachers have different forms of engagement. They can meet virtually and have a class using video, text, or audio chat and other tools to exchange ideas between each other simultaneously in real time, or they can use the tools without having to be present in real time; teachers and students interact either way. Web-facilitated learning allows limiting real-time teacher interaction by adding pre-recorded teacher interventions that are facilitated to the student as progress is made in the course. Materials and instructions are made available following the course syllabus and managed by a course management system. Blended Hybrid or blended learning environments combine both face-to-face and online learning. This can be more or less digital starting with remote learning in which the teacher and students meet synchronously in a common virtual space instead of a physical space. Blended learning combines physical meet-ups and face-to-face instruction or experiences with digital explorations and learning creating a more flexible environment to learn.

The Approach of Learning Environments Beyond the level and amount of technology used, the approach used in a learning environment is fundamental to the type of learning and resulting outcomes. Teacher-centered environments are ones in which teachers impart classes and transfer information to students who are passive in this learning process. Students work individually and have little choice in the subject or way of learning and power mostly resides on the teacher (O’Neill et al. 2005). The role of the teacher is to pass on knowledge to students and evaluation is focused mostly at measuring the capacity to individually retain-return this

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information, generating an environment of competition and sense of win-lose achievements. Most traditional learning environments are teachercentered. In the last decades, an increasing interest has been shifting toward student-centered or learner-centered approaches. The more highly one values outcomes going beyond knowledge acquisition, the more likely it is that student-centered learning will be preferred (Boyapati 2000) even though it also brings up challenges. Learner-centered environments are those that pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting. Teachers who are learnercentered recognize the importance of building on the conceptual and cultural knowledge that students bring with them to the classroom (Vanderbilt University. How People Learn 2010). In learner or student-centered environments, teachers become facilitators, guides, or bridges to discovery and learning. Knowledge and experiences of students are brought actively into the learning process in order to build from them and new knowledge. Students actively engage in designing and molding their learning process generating significance and meaning to their learning. Knowledge-centered environments recognize the importance of using existing well-organized bodies of knowledge to complement learning and become more knowledgeable (National Research Council 2000). Learning is facilitated through problem-solving where the individual’s knowledge is combined with existing knowledge and used to solve a specific problem that might require discovering or using knowledge in new ways to build further learning. Assessment-centered environments shift the focus on summative evaluations as the main evaluation tool and formative evaluations as a learning tool. These learning environments provide constant opportunities for self and teacherled evaluation to determine the level of thinking, understanding, and learning associated with the students learning goals. Formative evaluations give regular feedback to the student on the learning process and allow students to revise their thinking as they learn. Summative evaluations

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are used to evaluate student performance at the end of a set of learning objectives (National Research Council 2000). The role of assessment in the learning process is focused on developing in students meta-cognitive skills that allow them to improve their capacity to be aware of and manage their learning process and outcomes. Community-centered environments recognize the importance of collaboration and interactions in a learning community. These learning environments establish norms that support people’s abilities to learn from one another (De Corte et al. 2004). Learning communities not only refer to class groups, they also include educational institutions, families, and links to broader communities associated with the students learning the process. Nature-centered environments include nature as an important context and support for learning. Learning environments have become increasingly urban and artificial creating a sense of separation between students and the natural world (Moss 2012). The separation from contact with nature has led to what Richard Louv calls nature-deficit disorder which is associated not only with lack of sense of place or connection to the natural world but also with decreased physical and mental health, reduced creativity, empathy, and social skills (Louv 2005). Nature-centered learning environments that include playgrounds, spaces with biophilic design (Kellert 2005), and wild outdoor settings have been associated with better learning and a stronger sense of place (Orr 1992). Sustainable learning environments, such as eco-schools or green campuses, allow educators and learners to integrate sustainability principles into their daily practices and facilitate capacity-building, competency development, and value education in a comprehensive manner (UNESCO 2017). Educators and institutions can combine these six main approaches and others not mentioned in different manners in order to create the desired outcomes and learning experience. The paradigm shift away from instruction to learning requires power to move from the teacher to the student (Barr and Tagg 1995). Environments that best promote learning include learner, knowledge,

assessment, and community centered approaches (National Research Council 2000). Additionally, in order to shift into a nature inclusive and sustainable mindset, it is fundamental to add to these four learning environments a nature-centered approach that allows to re-establish the sense of connection and acknowledge the interrelated and interdependent nature of living systems learning in and from them (Camargo 2018).

Active Learning Environments for Sustainable Development In a twenty-first-century learning environment, new and engaging ways must be developed that depart from the standard school “transmission model” and increase community-based learning (UNESCO Education Research and Foresight 2015). Teachers will need to transform their roles from “content conveyors to content curators” (Institute for the Future 2013). Many learning environments have been designed in order to integrate and implement education for sustainable development components that take into account active learning approaches. In order to achieve deep learning for sustainable development (Warburton 2003), active transformative learning processes that allow for exploration of interactions between social, economic, and environmental factors, direct nature experiences, discovery, reflection, and debate must be incorporated into the learning experience. Diverse active learning approaches to education deriving from constructivism theory in which learners construct their own knowledge and understanding to create meaning and keep on building actively on previous knowledge have evolved as effective ways of shifting the mindset from one of separation to one of interconnection between humans and natural systems. Defining learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience (Kolb 1984); active learning is directly related to experiential education. Kolb’s describes the experiential learning cycle as one in which the learner goes through concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization,

Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

and active experimentation. As described by Kolb, since we always return to the experience in a recursive manner, the cycle constitutes a learning spiral (Kolb 1984). There are many methodologies integrating the theory of experiential and active learning. The following are several examples that have shown to be pertinent tools for education for sustainable development. Movements such as Forest Schools have a history going back into the nineteenth century (Forest School Association. History of Forest School). Mostly focused on preschool and primary, forest schools use a nature-centered learning environment as the foundation for learning. Most if not all learning is done by being immersed in nature through exploration, discovery, and project-based education. Considering the rate of urbanization and increasing limitations of access to urban forest environments, green schoolyards become an option to naturalize urban learning environments. The Green Schoolyard movement has been gaining momentum around the world reshaping their traditional yards, designed for 1940s educational methods, and creating beautiful, ecologically diverse landscapes with an eye toward the future (Danks 2015). Green schoolyards range from spaces integrating food gardens, natural landscapes into naturalized play environments and wild spaces. Learning environments extend outside school grounds. Cities big and small engage the community with play and learning environments that can add value to learning. Beyond urban parks, naturalized urban environments allow easy access to nature within the city are a key component where structured and non-structured learning can occur providing opportunities for cognitive, social, and emotional development. Naturalization allows learners to observe and better understand complex ecological processes occurring in nature (Ingram 2001). Engaging and interacting with the place of learning is a useful approach to strengthening the pertinence of learning especially in environmental education and subsequently in education for sustainability. Evidence gathered indicates that students learn more effectively within an environment-based (place-based) context than within a traditional educational framework

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(Lieberman and Hoody 1998). Place-based learning reveals five thematic patterns that can be adapted to different settings: cultural studies, nature studies, real-world problem-solving, entrepreneurial opportunities, and induction into community processes (Smith 2002). These five patterns are associated with characteristics of approaches that are key to active learning and benefits education for sustainability. Nature-based education, in and outside the classroom, allows individuals to learn through experiential education in, from, and about nature. Articulating nature into the educational setting strengthens the connections between the individual and the natural systems and is a factor in the development of empathy for nature. Nature-based education allows developing a stronger sense of place and the understanding of the interconnectedness and interdependence with nature. The outdoors becomes an important learning environment that needs to be incorporated into the formal learning process as it is the main scenario for nature-based education. Project-based education helps apply learning to solve real-world problems and use a system thinking approach. Inquiry, design-thinking, and maker-based learning add to this learning process allowing for critical reflection and trial-error learning, exploration, and creativity. Projectbased education and real-world learning can align well with key competencies in sustainability (Redman et al. 2010). Problem and project-based learning (PPBL) allows creating a framework for generating knowledge in form of novel solution options to sustainability problems (Brundiers and Wiek 2013). Integrating community into the learning process helps to recognize relationships between additional components of the system and to increase participation in the communities decision-making process. Integrating whole communities, its resources, and their environments (urban and natural) into complex learning environments that not only serve as a place to learn but also continuously learn and evolve themselves creates Learning Ecosystems. An example of this can be seen in the Ecovillage Design Education (EDE) and the “Design for Sustainability” (GEDS) which are

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programs developed by Gaia Education as a whole system approach to learning sustainability. They incorporate face-to-face, online, and community learning environments within Ecovillages and showcase ways in which to integrate multiple types, approaches, and active learning environments in order to address education for sustainable development (East, Ecovillages).

Key Issues: Sustainable Development Goals and Learning Environments The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), known also as the Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity (UNDP Sustainable Development Goals). The SDG’s came into effect in 2016 and will guide UNDP’s policy and funding until 2030 (UNDP). Sustainable development can be interpreted as limiting in concept and needs to keep evolving to a more integral and holistic position. In a historical perspective of education in relation to people and planet (Wals 2012), Environmental and Sustainability Education (ESE) is introduced as the framework for education that combines Environmental Education (EE) and Sustainability Education (SE) and includes the deepening of relations between humans and the planet (nonhuman and more-than-human world) as well as the importance of learning to live meaningful lives and generate change oriented toward the common good (Wals et al. 2017; Wals 2012). The Global Ecovillage Network’s educational program, Gaia Education, developed the 4-D framework for integrative whole systems design for sustainability which goes beyond the three basic dimensions of sustainability (social, ecological, and economic) recognizing and including a fourth component (worldview) that incorporates culture, values, and spirituality as a critical fourth dimension of sustainability (Wahl 2016). It is important to interpret and continuously develop the Sustainable Development Goals considering the contradictions presented in goals such as “sustained and inclusive economic growth”

which in itself might deepen the entrenchment into the current business-as-usual model based on unlimited growth and consumption habits (Kopnina 2014). Environmental generational amnesia limits the conception of healthy natural landscapes in children and youth who do not have access to direct experiences in healthy natural environments during their development (Kahn 1999). Increased access to nature and wilderness enables learners to establish a baseline for what nature is supposed to be, lacking access or access to degraded natural landscapes resets the baseline to a different standard. Our capacity and speed to efficiently incorporate learning environments that promote the shift toward sustainable development require us to reformulate the way in which we, as humans, relate to nature and the systems that regulate our planet’s balance on which we depend. Education must generate spaces for critical reflection that allow breaking the paradigm that is leading us to destroy our home and at the same time threatening us as a species (Camargo 2018).

Conclusion and Future Directions Learning environments are a key part of education. By intentionally creating learning environments that stimulate meaningful learning and enable establishing and strengthening connections between knowledge, people, and nature, educational outcomes obtained can better support education for sustainable development. Understanding the diverse aspects of designing learning environments can enable our capacity to improve the quality and alignment of the learning environments with the desired outcomes not only academically but more importantly in building a cultural mindset for sustainability and strengthening the skills required to shift toward sustainable goals. Considering the limitations of sustainable development, some of which have been previously mentioned, it’s important to explore the evolution toward concepts such as regenerative development defined as “a system of technologies and strategies

Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

for generating the patterned whole system understanding of a place, and developing the strategic systemic thinking capacities, and the stakeholder engagement/commitment required to ensure regenerative design processes to achieve maximum systemic leverage and support, that is self-organizing and self- evolving” (Mang and Reed 2012). Similarly, it is important to explore more holistic modern approaches such as sumbiosic development that go beyond anthropocentric perspectives and is defined “as a process of active invention and creation on the part of humans to achieve and conserve a state of sumbiosity where humans and other life forms can live together indefinitely in mutually supporting relationships. A form of development that has sumbiosity as its goal or end state” (Albrecht 2016). In the longer term, it is fundamental to understand how cultural scaffolding plays a role in our capacity to evolve and facilitate change toward sustainable development (Lin et al. 2012). Education plays a key role in modifying cultural entrenchments that lock us into different possible future results. In order to accelerate change and shift the path of development toward sustainable or more progressive directions such as regenerative (Mang and Reed 2012) and sumbiosic development (Albrecht 2016), it is essential to incorporate cultural design and create the scaffolding required into the educational system; a very large part of this process is assuring learning environments that enable and accelerate the needed cultural shift.

Cross-References ▶ Early Childhood Education for Sustainability ▶ Ecological Thinking in Education ▶ Education for Community Cohesion ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education ▶ Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

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(eds) Handbook of research on educational communications and technology. Springer, New York Hattie J, Yates GCR (2014) Visible learning and the science of how we learn. Routledge, New York Ingram J (2001) Urban naturalization in Canada: a policy and program guidebook. Common grounds tool shed series. Evergreen, Toronto. ISBN 0-9681078-8-5 Institute for the Future (2013) From educational institutions to learning flows. Institute for the Future, Palo Alto. http://www.iftf.org/uploads/media/SR-1580-IFTF_Future_ of_Learning_01.pdf. Accessed 30 June 2018 Jensen E (2000) Brain-based learning. The Brain Store, San Diego Kahn PH Jr (1999) The human relationship with nature: development and culture. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA Kellert SR (2005) Building for life: designing and understanding the human-nature connection. Island Press, Washington, DC Kohn A (1999) Punished by rewards: the trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise, and other bribes, 2nd edn. Houghton Mifflin, New York Kolb DA 1939- (1984) Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs. [1984] ©1984 Kopnina H (2014) Future scenarios and environmental education. J Environ Educ 45(4):217–231. https://doi. org/10.1080/00958964.2014.941783 Lieberman GA, Hoody LL (1998) Closing the achievement gap: using the environment as an integrating context for learning. State Environment and Education Roundtable, San Diego Lin T-C, Hsu Y-S, Lin S-S et al (2012) A review of empirical evidence on scaffolding for science education. Int J Sci Math Educ 10:437–455. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10763-011-9322-z Louv R (2005) Last child in the woods: saving our children from nature-deficit disorder. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill Mang P, Reed B (2012) Regenerative development regenerative development and design. In: Meyers RA (ed) Encyclopedia of sustainability science and technology. Springer New York, New York, pp 8855–8879 Moss S (2012) Natural childhood. UK National Trust, London National Research Council (2000) How people learn: brain, mind, experience, and school: expanded edition. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC Nedovic S, Morrissey AM (2013) Learn Environ Res 16:281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-013-9127-9 Njui HW (2018) Education reforms towards 21st century skills: transforming students’ learning experiences through effective learning environments. Eur J Educ Stud 4(1):2018 O’Neill G, Moore S, McMullin B (2005) Student – centered learning: what does it mean for students and lecturers? In: Emerging issues in the practice of university learning and teaching. AISHE, Dublin OCDE (2009) Creating effective teaching and learning environments: first results from TALIS. Teaching and Learning International Survey, Paris. ISBN 978-92-6405605-3

Orr DW (1992) Education and the ecological design arts. Conserv Biol 6:162–164. https://doi.org/10.1046/ j.1523-1739.1992.620162.x Pink DH (2009) Drive: the surprising truth about what motivates us. Riverhead Books, New York de Corte E, Verschaffel L, Entwistle N, Van Merriënboer J (Eds) (2003) Advances in learning and instruction series. Powerful learning environments: Unravelling basic components and dimensions. Oxford, England: Pergamon/Elsevier Science Ltd. Redman CL, Wiek A, Brundiers K (2010) Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. Int J Sustain Higher Educ 11:308–324. https://doi.org/10.1108/14676371011077540 Richardson C, Mishra P (2018) Learning environments that support student creativity: developing the SCALE. Think Skills Creat 27:45–54. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tsc.2017.11.004 Rieckmann M, Mindt L, Gardiner S, UNESCO: Paris (2017) Education for sustainable development goals: learning objectives Rojas-Drummond S, Torreblanca O, Pedraza H et al (2013) ‘Dialogic scaffolding’: enhancing learning and understanding in collaborative contexts. Learn Cult Soc Interact 2:11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. lcsi.2012.12.003 Seel NM (2012) Learning environment. In: Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning. Springer, Boston, pp 1849–1852 Shea P, Fredericksen E, Pickett A, Pelz W (2003) A preliminary investigation of ‘teaching presence’ in the SUNY learning network. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7 Smith GA (2002) Place-based education: learning to be where we are. Phi Delta Kappan 83:584–594. https:// doi.org/10.1177/003172170208300806 Teaching Methods, 2U Inc. https://teach.com/what/ teachers-know/teaching-methods/. Accessed 30 June 2018 UNDP Sustainable Development Goals. http://www.undp. org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-developmentgoals.html. Accessed 12 July 2018 UNESCO Education Research and Foresight (2015) The futures of learning 3: what kind of pedagogies for the 21st century? Working papers. http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0024/002431/243126e.pdf. Accessed 30 June 2018 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2012) A place to learn: lessons from research on learning environments. UIS technical paper; 9. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: UNESCO Institute for Statistics UNESCO Thematic Think Piece (2012) Education and skills for inclusive and sustainable development beyond 2015. http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/ MULTIMEDIA/HQ/post2015/pdf/Think_Piece_Edu cation.pdf. Accessed 30 June 2018 Vanderbilt University. How People Learn (2010) https:// wp0.vanderbilt.edu/cft/guides-sub-pages/how-peoplelearn/. Accessed 30 June 2018 Vatterott C (2017) Bolstering the teacher pipeline: getting personalization right. Educ Leadersh 74(6):34–39

Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals Wahl DC (2016) Education for meaningful sustainability and regeneration. The Ecologist. https://theecologist. org/2016/aug/17/education-meaningful-sustainabilityand-regeneration. Accessed 4 July 2018 Wals AEJ (2012) Learning our way out of un-sustainability: the role of environmental education. In: Clayton S (ed) Oxford handbook on environmental and conservation psychology. Oxford University Press, London Wals AEJ, Weakland J, Blaze Corcoran P (2017) Preparing for the Ecocene: envisioning futures for environmental and sustainability education. Jpn J Environ Educ 26(4):71–76. https://doi.org/10.5647/jsoee.26.4_71 Warburton K (2003) Deep learning and education for sustainability. Int J Sustain High Educ 4(1):44–56. https:// doi.org/10.1108/14676370310455332 Wimsatt WC (2013) Entrenchment and scaffolding: an architecture for a theory of cultural change. In: Developing scaffolds in evolution, culture, and cognition. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

Life-Changing Skills ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

Lifelong Education ▶ Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Learning for Sustainability

Lifelong Learning

▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia

▶ Future Trends in Education

Learning Management Systems ▶ Future Trends in Education

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L Lifelong Learning (LLL) ▶ Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

Learning Space

Lifelong Learning and Its ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity Goals Learning Throughout Life ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Daniele Vieira Department of Business Administration, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Recife, Brazil

Synonyms

Least Restrictive Environment ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

Adult education; Continuing education; Learning throughout life; Lifelong education; Nonformal education

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Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Definition Lifelong learning is rooted in the integration of learning and living, covering learning activities for people of all ages (children, young people, adults and the elderly, girls and boys, women and men) in all life-wide contexts (family, school, community, workplace, etc.) and through a variety of modalities (formal, non-formal and informal) which together meet a wide range of learning needs and demands. (UIL 2015: 2)

be a useful concept toward a new educational and development paradigm. This entry debates on the topic of lifelong learning and its conceptual origins and evolution in relation to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in order to shed further light onto the vision of learning and education, which has long-lasting development implications. By recognizing the central role of lifelong learning in driving development, the entry explores how the SDGs may be more realistically achieved when learning is “lifelong.”

Introduction The United Nations has set an ambitious sustainable development agenda with implementation by 2030: the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Comprising 17 goals (the Sustainable Development Goals or SDGs), the Agenda sets targets, recommendations, and ways forward encompassing various areas from poverty alleviation to climate protection and partnerships and calls for action by all countries to improve the lives of people everywhere. With special focus on education, the Sustainable Development Goal 4 brings the concept of lifelong learning to the core of the debate on sustainable development and makes a plea to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Goal 4 highlights the importance of developing and promoting lifelong learning policies and initiatives and its role in ultimately achieving quality education and sustainable development worldwide. The world has been experiencing increasing development challenges, most of which are comprised in the SDG framework. These challenges force countries to rethink and rearrange their current development model aiming at a more sustainable future. Nevertheless, the field of education remains very traditional “with more money and resources devoted to doing basically more of the same, with improving the quality of education instead of revisiting it, and education being understood mainly or solely as school education. There is weak attention to learning, easily confused with testing and school achievement” (Torres 2011: 40). To correct this, lifelong learning proves to

Lifelong Learning: An Evolving Concept Preceding modern times as a practical concept, the field of learning saw the growth of a multiplicity of topics, interests, and debates in past decades. Examples of this are the debates about the levels of learning, whether learning necessarily implies cognitive or behavioral change, single- and double-loop learning, the relationship between learning and unlearning, and, of course, lifelong learning. From a theoretical perspective, the academic literature about learning (also lifelong) processes is vast but still evolving. The field has gained importance as evidenced both by the increasing number of publications appearing in scholarly journals and by the growing disciplinary interest and adoption of the concept (Pavlova 2018; Osborne 2014; Easterby-Smith et al. 2000; Crossan and Guatto 1996; Dodgson 1993). In spite of the different uses and understandings of the term “lifelong learning,” various international organizations (e.g., Arab Urban Development Institute, DVV International, European Commission, OECD, UNESCO) have helped and played a key role in determining a common theoretical ground and shaping the concept. Not only in the field of education, lifelong learning as a topic has evoked interest and attention in various theoretical domains. The advancement of the lifelong learning paradigm has coincided with accelerated social and economic change. Most education systems were first developed in the nineteenth century, with the intention of equipping the masses with the knowledge and skills

Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals to work in expanded state bureaucracies and private industries. Pre-industrial societies had little need of literate masses [. . .] Just as industrial economies and populous urbanized societies required more skilled and educated members, the post-industrial economies and knowledge societies that are currently emerging require ever greater numbers of people equipped with the ability and autonomy to learn and adapt. (Roche 2018)

Initially lifelong learning was conceptualized as lifelong education. Lifelong education meant education as a consequence of formal, nonformal, and informal learning which resulted in continuous development of quality of life (OwusuAgyeman 2017: 661). Nowadays, lifelong learning is recognized as a key component in the education system and central for building a knowledge society (Torres 2011: 43). The concept, which has its origins in the 1960s, was developed around the idea that “post-school education should be provided on a recurrent basis, involving alternation between work and study. In addition, educational opportunities should be available effectively to all individuals throughout their active life” (Hasan 2012: 472). This initial idea was then broadened and reshaped with the conceptual inputs from various international organizations (OECD, UNESCO, World Bank, European Commission) in the 1990s when learning replaced education and the new focus became the person (learner), the learning process, and its results (Hasan 2012). By the mid-1990s, a clear preference emerged for the term “lifelong learning” rather than “lifelong education.” There were differing views on the major distinction between these two concepts, but it was generally felt that “lifelong education” reflected a view of education as a prescriptive and normative process, while “lifelong learning” put the emphasis on learner demand and individual choice” (Ouane 2011: 25). For instance, UNESCO has nowadays a clear conceptual understanding of what the key principles of lifelong learning are: learning throughout life, diversity of learners, all age groups, flexible pathways and mobility of learners, variety of learning purposes and needs, and variety of learning contexts. Many organizations have been promoting lifelong learning as a way to achieve economic growth and

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employability, but in recent years, the interest in the noneconomic returns on learning (individual well-being, social prosperity, health, life satisfaction, civic participation, etc.) has increased (Ruber et al. 2018: 544). The formal definition of the concept as UNESCO uses it today begun in the 1970s, with UNESCO itself having played an important role in promoting the discourse on it (for instance, with the Faure Report; detailed below). UNESCO has promoted lifelong learning through its conferences and activities within the framework of a new, more inclusive educational agenda. These conferences include the CONFINTEA series which frames adult learning within the lifelong learning context. In addition, the Dakar Declaration included both early childhood and adult education as part of UNESCO’s Education for All Programme (EFA). Another example is the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee that has pushed forward for a “sector-wide” learning approach and the World Bank which endorsed the concept of lifelong learning in 2002 (Hasan 2012: 488). “Whereas the World Bank and the OECD focus primarily on the economic rationale of lifelong learning, UNESCO has a more visionary and inclusive understanding of the term” highlights Ouane (2011: 34). As such, lifelong learning can be defined as the following: Lifelong learning is rooted in the integration of learning and living, covering learning activities for people of all ages (children, young people, adults and the elderly, girls and boys, women and men) in all life- wide contexts (family, school, community, work place and so on) and through a variety of modalities (formal, non-formal and informal) which together meet a wide range of learning needs and demands. (UIL 2015: 2)

This definition means the learning encompasses all age groups (learning starts at birth and continues throughout the whole life), all levels of education (early childhood, primary and secondary school, higher education, technical and vocational training), all learning modalities (formal, nonformal, and informal), all learning spaces (not just schools but also learning in families, communities, workplaces, libraries, online learning), and various purposes (learning that responds to the needs of different learners). Lifelong

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learning or learning throughout life includes therefore diversity of itineraries in time, in content, and in learning styles, continuing learning opportunities, community participation, decentralization, and diversification of finance and delivery (Carneiro 2011: 6). In particular, the concept entails two important aspects: learning is not confined to a particular period in life (it is lifelong) nor learning is confined to school. It rather takes places everywhere: home, community, workplace, through debate, reading, writing, problem-solving, social participation, etc. (it is “lifewide”) (Torres 2011: 45). It is also important to note that the school age should not be confused with the learning age (Torres 2011: 45) and that people learn from birth to the end of their lives through various learning modalities. Regarding the learning modalities, formal learning entails the system of formal schools, colleges, universities, and other formal institutions that typically contribute full-time education for children and young people. Formal learning modality means learning which is institutionalized leading to recognized qualifications and credentials. Nonformal learning comprises any organized and sustained education activities that do not correspond to this definition of formal education. It can take place both within and outside educational institutions and cater to persons of all ages. Nonformal learning modality means learning which is also institutionalized but alternative or complementary to formal education. Informal learning cannot be classified as formal or nonformal and can take place in daily activities (OECD 2009). Different schools of thought have different interpretations of lifelong learning. Progressivism, critical philosophy, and humanism are examples of domains examining the lifelong learning concept. Progressivism identifies the importance of building on the experiences of learners, and engaging them in problem solving and intellectually stimulating activities to develop their knowledge and skills. Critical philosophy suggests that the development of an individual’s knowledge and skills should be aimed at promoting economic, social and individual development within a broad policy framework. The

humanist philosophy considers activities which promote trust, individual freedom, autonomy, liberation and participatory practice. (Owusu-Agyeman 2017: 662)

Nowadays, lifelong learning is well understood as a process that entails a diversity of itineraries in time, in content, and in learning styles; it provides continuing learning opportunities for learners of all ages; it also involves community participation and new dimensions to knowledge production and acquisition (Carneiro 2011: 5). Still, some criticisms remain. Among many academics and politicians supportive of the lifelong learning approach, the concept remains limited to its 1970s understanding, which equated it with adult learning. Even the academic journals devoted to lifelong learning carry a majority of their articles with this limited interpretation of the concept, says Hasan (2012: 482). Similar to the concept of learning – some topics in this research field appear and disappear showing the “explosion of interest in the discipline” (Easterby-Smith et al. 2000: 784) – various theoretical approaches and perspectives are used to explain what it means and what it entails to have a learning process which is lifelong. Carneiro (2011) discusses this variety of approaches: “how, then, would learning throughout life be different from decades of adult education policies, endless discussions focused on recurrent education, or the recent surge of interest around lifelong learning?” (Carneiro 2011: 5). Hence, despite the fact that the concept is well recognized nowadays and there is some consent around what it means, lifelong learning is still interpreted in different ways and varies according to country contexts. Tracing the history of the concept, the term lifelong learning dates back to old times and has been evolving over the years. Throughout recorded human history, the notion of lifelong learning has existed in many religions, societies, and cultures. When mapping the definitions of lifelong learning, it is important to link it and differentiate it from other related concepts such as adult education, nonformal education, literacy, and basic skills. Terms such as recurrent education and continuing education have also been used to define learning throughout life.

Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

The first comprehensive document to internationally recognize the concept was Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow (Faure et al. 1972). The document describes the development of lifelong education as a concept and introduces the learning modalities (formal, nonformal, and informal) crucial and central to actual understanding of lifelong learning. In addition, the publication debates the social dimensions of learning throughout life – meaning that learning has impact on different areas of life by promoting social inclusion and facilitating employability – and advocates for learning and education to be perceived as a right that can be claimed by different age and social groups. The Faure Report of 1972 initiated a shift in focus from education to learning, with the concept of “the learning society” and the recognition of the principle that “every individual must be in a position to keep learning throughout his [or her] life.” Recognizing that lifelong education is the keystone of the learning society, the Faure Commission took the view that lifelong education was not a system as such but rather a principle on which the overall organization of education should be founded. In that context, lifelong learning was defined as aiming at human development, preparing learners to respond to current and future needs and for “learning to be.” Thereafter, more than 20 years later, the important document Learning: The Treasure Within, which is often referred to as the Delors Report, came to add to the lifelong learning debate. The report focuses on learning from a world/global society point of view, highlighting the existence of an uneven distribution of knowledge, calling for a shift from economic growth merely to human development and discussing on how education should be serving, for instance, women as an essential means of promoting development (Delors et al. 1996). The concept of learning throughout life thus emerges as one of the keys to the twenty- first century. It goes beyond the traditional distinction between initial and continuing education. It meets the challenges posed by a rapidly changing world. This is not a new insight, since previous reports on education have emphasized the need for people to return to education in order to deal with new situations arising in their personal and working lives. (Delors et al. 1996: 20)

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It brought some recommendations on access to education and highlighted that learners should be able to return to education anytime. The report advocated for a “learning society” and the different contexts where learning can occur. The Delors Report of 1996 further defined and broadened the notion of lifelong learning as a continuous process that should be open to all for the improvement of knowledge and skills. Learning throughout life was perceived to be the “heartbeat of society,” and it materialized in a system articulating formal and informal education around four key pillars: (1) learning to know, (2) learning to do, (3) learning to live together/learning to live with others, and (4) learning to be. These pillars provide the basis for learning and are still vastly used nowadays. Learning to know means a combination of a broad and general education with in-depth knowledge of selected subjects: Learning to Know is a form of learning that lies within the scope of scientific and technological progress. This pillar appeals to the urgent need of reacting to the multiplicity of sources of information, to the diversity of rich multimedia content, to new ways of knowing in a society that is closely inter-connected. (Carneiro 2011: 7)

Learning to do, for instance, a job, also includes the notion that one needs to acquire competencies that will enable people to deal with a variety of situations: Learning to Do aspires to connect knowledge and skills, learning and competence, inert and active learning, codified and tacit knowledge, creative and adaptive learning. Learning by doing and doing by learning equip us to face an uncertain world and also the changing nature of work. (Carneiro 2011: 7)

Learning to live together, which brings a more utopic view to the debate, means recognizing our growing interdependence in the world and the necessity to implement common projects: Learning to live Together encompasses the extraordinary challenge to rediscover a meaningful relationship, to raise the thresholds of social cohesion, to make viable the sustainable foundations for community development. It contains the core values of civic life and identity-building within a context of multiple belongings. (Carneiro 2011: 7)

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Finally, learning to be focuses on the exercise of greater independence, judgment, and sense of responsibility in order to reach common goals (Delors et al. 1996: 21). These two reports in particular have played a significant role in the definition of the concept of lifelong learning as it is used today. While the Faure Report shifted the focus from education to learning, thus consolidating the term lifelong learning, the Delors Report brought the human development aspect to the field and set lifelong learning as a precedent of development. Moreover, the Faure Report: was commissioned by UNESCO following demonstrations by students and young people all over the world in 1967 and 1968. It was seen as a turning point and the start of a period of optimism in international education policy, as it recognized that education was no longer the privilege of an elite, or a matter for one age group only. Instead, it concluded that education should be both universal and lifelong. Essentially, this meant moving to a humanistic, rights-based and holistic view of education. (Ouane 2011: 25)

Some other international frameworks and documents have implications for the development of the concept of lifelong learning as well: the six Education for All (EFA) goals adopted in the Dakar Framework for Action, the Belem Framework for Action, and the Incheon Declaration are some examples. The six Education for All goals adopted in the Dakar Framework for Action highlighted the lifespan of learning, which encapsulates early childhood to adults. The framework also mentioned the importance of learning taking place outside the formal school system. The Belem Framework for Action had a clear focus on adult learning and called for the necessity to include it in lifelong learning policies. The Incheon Declaration presented the components of SDG4 and reinvigorated the concept of lifelong learning in international policy debates, emphasizing, for instance, the need for different entry points in education, various and flexible learning pathways, and the recognition, validation, and accreditation of nonformal education. Although one might think that the main value of lifelong learning is to promote continuous

knowledge acquisition in a world which is fastchanging and requesting new skills, there are various noneconomic variables relevant to society that are connected with lifelong learning. These include, for instance, individual civic participation – civic participation are voluntary individual actions (e.g., voting) aiming at community and/ or society benefits – associated with social cohesion and strong citizenship (Ruber et al. 2018: 545). In today’s world, people are continuously asked to build and rebuild their knowledge throughout life to respond to a changing world. They need to learn to adapt to new working and living conditions. Nevertheless, it is then important to highlight here that lifelong learning is not only job-oriented; it is about learning (on a regular basis) the skills and knowledge needed to have a sustainable and health society. Often the work-related lifelong learning is emphasized since nowadays people are increasingly demanded to acquire new skills at work and the continuous introduction of technologies are putting pressure on employees to develop new capabilities, but the concept is much broader. From a policy point of view, while some confusion and lack of knowledge around the concept might still exist, many countries worldwide have developed education policies which take into account the lifelong learning rationale. The evolution and implementation of lifelong learning national policies include (a) countries with a longestablished tradition of lifelong learning like Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the Scandinavian countries, (b) recent national policy drives in developed countries, and (c) recent policies in developing countries (Ouane 2011: 30). Concerning the longestablished national approaches, “Japan has strong laws and policies supporting the promotion of a lifelong learning society and the provision of a wide variety of adult educational activities,” such as the Law for the Promotion of Lifelong Learning (Ouane 2011: 30). Moreover, the Republic of Korea “was officially exposed to lifelong education when article 31 of the Constitution was amended in 1980,” and in addition, “The Lifelong Education Act of 2007 clarified the scope and field of lifelong education at the regional level” (Ouane 2011: 31). Recent national policies in developed countries include, for instance, developments in the UK

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through government papers, developments in Australia (through the Adelaide Declaration on the National Goals for Schooling in the TwentyFirst Century which placed lifelong learning on the agenda of schools), and advancements in Estonia (with the Law on Education of the Estonian Republic adopted in 1992, which brought legal guarantees for lifelong learning). In developing countries, Thailand introduced the National Education Act in 1999, while Namibia included a commitment to lifelong learning in the country’s foundational document on education – Towards Education for All. In Latin America and the Caribbean, “most national and regional education initiatives and plans refer to lifelong education in relation to the adult population” (Ouane 2011: 33). Also, in recent years, China “has issued a series of laws, regulations and policies on lifelong learning” like the National Education Law in 1995 and the Education Invigoration Action Plan for the twenty-first century (Ouane 2011: 33).

The Importance of Lifelong Learning for Achieving the SDGs Recently, the central role played by lifelong learning in ensuring sustainable development is captured in the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The Agenda represents a step forward in placing lifelong learning in the position of one of the main drivers in improving health conditions, fostering economic growth, increasing work opportunities, promoting sustainable consumption and production, and supporting environmental protection (United Nations 2015). The UN SDGs agenda, with Goal 4, has reemphasized the concept, prompting countries, policymakers, and theorists to rethink how learning, which is lifelong, can indeed be implemented, promoted, and integrated in education frameworks. The understanding is that the governance of lifelong learning should entail a sector-wide approach (involving all subsectors of the education system), multiple policy levels (national, state, and local), interministerial collaborations, and different actors and interest groups

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(politicians, NGOs, civil society, education practitioners, cultural institutions, learners, etc.). Ultimately, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the Agenda have reinvigorated lifelong learning as a humanistic, rights-based, holistic, and sector-wide approach to learning. In response to the diverse development challenges the world is facing and the unprecedented speed at which it is changing, the member states of the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015. The Agenda includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 169 targets, which all call for actions from all countries and stakeholders to work toward eradicating extreme poverty, to combat climate change, and to address inequality to build up a sustainable society, among other various development areas. The SDGs, adopted by the leaders of the United Nations member states at the 70th session of the UN General Assembly in September 2015, set out an agenda for global transformation. These SDGs, known as global goals, build on the strategy set by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to end all forms of poverty and focus even further on inequalities and climate change. In contrast to the MDGs, SDGs have been designed to extend the responsibility and loci for action worldwide by ensuring that all countries whether poor, rich, or middle income engage in activities to promote prosperity that is sustainable for all. To ensure greater involvement of all countries with these tasks, a deliberative process involving the 193 member states of the United Nations and many experts and representatives of organizations from across different areas of civil society was undertaken. The 17 SDGs are universal, which means they apply to all countries of the world. They build on the Rio+20 outcomes and on the previous UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which consisted of eight targets to fight poverty. These eight targets were to be achieved between the years 2000 and 2015. As their achievement was not completed as intended, the new timeline was extended to 2030, and the Post-2015 process itself was revolutionary: in order to create the 2030 Agenda and draft the 17 goals, the UN carried out one of the largest consultations in its history,

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including local and regional governments, among other important actors. In a quest for sustainable societies, sustainable development will not be achieved with technological solutions, regulatory frameworks, and financial instruments alone; people must learn to live sustainably. They require certain skills, values, and attitudes, if they are to contribute to the creation of sustainable societies and address the challenges to achieving this goal. That means people must learn to reflect on their own actions, by taking consequences of their current and future actions in relation to social, cultural, economic, and environmental issues into account. They must be equipped to act sustainably in complex situations, and must be included in sociopolitical processes to move their societies toward a sustainable future. In particular, in today’s fast-changing world, where social, economic, and political contexts are constantly being reshaped, learning must be continuous and lifelong. Therefore, a sustainable society must be a society promoting lifelong learning for all. The 2030 Agenda recognizes this importance and thus places the education of youth and adults in a lifelong perspective at the heart of the realization of the majority of the SDGs. This paradigm was already introduced in the Delors Report over 20 years ago and are still valid in the content of the 2030 Agenda: “how can we learn to live together in the global village if we cannot manage to live together in the communities to which we naturally belong – the nation, the region, the city, the village, the neighbourhood? Do we want to make a contribution to public life and can we do so?” (Delors et al. 1996: 14). Lifelong learning therefore is recognized as an important development tool. The world faces today economic, social, cultural, and environmental challenges which can benefit from a lifelong learning education approach. While old global development problems such as poverty and hunger, unemployment, surge of refugees from conflict zones, and gender equality persist, new challenges are emerging. These include climate change, world of work in the technological era, and unsustainable growth which are all pressing matters for individuals

and societies worldwide. Learning continuously throughout life to overcome old challenges and at the same time to create solutions and adapt to emerging issues becomes crucial. In light of this, lifelong learning provides a strong framework for the implementation of the SDGs. In particular, learning can be a good tool for stakeholder engagement, international cooperation, partnerships creation, social inclusion, gender equality, and poverty alleviation. Apart from the Goal 4 (quality education and lifelong learning), the 2030 Agenda also places education at the center of the realization of many of the other Sustainable Development Goals, including Goal 3 Health and Well-being, Goal 5 Gender Equality, Goal 8 Decent Work and Economic Growth, Goal 12 Responsible Consumption and Production, and Goal 13 Climate Change Mitigation. Arguably, the conception of education in these different goals draws on the underlying values of much adult and lifelong education and learning practice. For example, the UNESCO (2017: 8) guidelines on how to unpack education within the 2030 Agenda identify three underlying principles as follows: firstly, “Education is a fundamental human right and an enabling right”; secondly, “Education is a public good”; and thirdly, “Gender equality is inextricably linked to the right to education for all” (Webb et al. 2017: 509). As such, it is important to draw attention to the continuing inequalities in educational outcomes in many countries particularly for those students from a disadvantaged socioeconomic background at the point at which they leave school or access technical and vocational education or higher education. Gender differences among adults persist also in educational participation and outcomes not just in the low-income countries. Clearly, this indicates that SDG 4 is a relevant goal for all countries (Webb et al. 2017: 510). In addition, as stated by Varavarn (2011), learning can be considered a goal of development. Lifelong learning is a key component for education for sustainable development as there are clear connections between both areas: Lifelong learning contributes to Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) as it is a continuing process that promotes well-being on all three levels

Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals of sustainable development – economic, social and environmental. The values and principles underpinning sustainable development should enable learners to identify problems and reflect on them critically and analytically as a means of addressing local and global challenges and of shaping a sustainable future. (Ouane 2011: 27)

Finally, lifelong learning is also a facilitator for social inclusion, an important component in the SDGs framework. “Essentially, inclusion entails ensuring that every individual receives appropriate, good-quality education within and beyond the school system. It is the full and effective exercise of the right to education, i.e. access to learning opportunities, that discriminates or excludes no individual or group within our outside the school system” (Ouane 2011: 27).

Conclusions Lifelong learning has important implications for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development as evidenced by the growing interest in the countries’ experiences, policy themes, and debates around the topic. Whether fighting climate change, promoting partnerships, reducing inequalities, or engaging in responsible consumption and production, to name a few goals, learning throughout life appears in the center as an important tool to help societies constantly move toward the achievements of the SD goals. Still, possible criteria for assessing progress toward the development of lifelong learning systems in the countries for the achievement of the SDGs is missing. Future policy and research agendas are to be expanded in order to overcome this implementation gap.

Cross-References ▶ Free Education: Origins, Achievements, and Current Situation ▶ Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace ▶ Schooling for Working Children ▶ Secondary Education for Sustainable Development

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References Carneiro R (2011) Discovering the treasure of learning. In: Yang J, Valdés-Cotera R (eds) Conceptual evolution and policy developments in lifelong learning. UIL, Hamburg, pp 3–23 Crossan M, Guatto T (1996) Organizational learning research profile. J Organ Chang Manag 9(1):107–112 Delors J, Mutfi IA, Amagi I, Carneiro R, Chung F, Geremek B, Gorham W, Kornhauser A, Manley M, Quero MP, Savane M, Singh K, Stavenhagen R, Suhr MW, Nanzhao Z (1996) Learning: the treasure within. UNESCO, Paris Dodgson M (1993) Organizational learning: a review of some literatures. Organ Stud 14(3):375–394 Easterby-Smith M, Crossan M, Nicolini D (2000) Organizational learning: debates past, present and future. J Manag Stud 37(6):783–796 Faure E, Herrera F, Kaddoura A, Lopes H, Petrovsky A, Rahnema M, Ward FC (1972) Learning to be: the world of education today and tomorrow. UNESCO, Paris Hasan A (2012) Lifelong learning in OECD and developing countries: an interpretation and assessment. In: Aspin DN, Chapman J, Evans K, Bagnall RG (eds) Second international handbook of lifelong learning. Springer international handbooks of education. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 471–497 OECD (2009) International standard classification of education (ISCED 1997). OECD, Paris. www.oecd.org/ edu/eag Osborne M (2014) Why lifelong learning and why learning cities? Pedagogy 86(7):1067–1077 Ouane A (2011) Evolution of and perspectives on lifelong learning. In: Yang J, Valdés-Cotera R (eds) Conceptual evolution and policy developments in lifelong learning. UIL, Hamburg, pp 24–39 Owusu-Agyeman Y (2017) Expanding the frontiers of national qualifications frameworks through lifelong learning. Int Rev Educ 63(5):657–678 Pavlova M (2018) Fostering inclusive, sustainable economic growth. Int Rev Educ 64(2):339–354 Roche S (2017) Learning for life, for work, and for its own sake: the value (and values) of lifelong learning. Int Rev Educ 63(5):623–629 Roche S (2018) What’s the score? Assessing the impacts and outcomes of lifelong learning. Int Rev Educ 64(5): 535–542 Ruber IE, Rees S, Schmidt-Hertha B (2018) Lifelong learning – lifelong returns? A new theoretical framework for the analysis of civic returns on adult learning. Int Rev Educ 64(5):543–561 Torres RM (2011) Lifelong learning: moving beyond education for all (EFA). In: Yang J, Valdés-Cotera R (eds) Conceptual evolution and policy developments in lifelong learning. UIL, Hamburg, pp 40–50 UCLG United Cities and Local Governments (2015) The sustainable development goals: what local governments need to know. https://www.uclg.org/sites/default/files/ the_sdgs_what_localgov_need_to_know_0.pdf

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544 UIL UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (2015) Technical note on lifelong learning. http://uil.unesco. org/fileadmin/keydocuments/LifelongLearning/en/UN ESCOTechNotesLLL.pdf UNESCO (2017) Education for sustainable development goals: learning objectives. https://www.unesco.de/ sites/default/files/2018-08/unesco_education_for_sus tainable_development_goals.pdf United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. UNESCO, Paris. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/trans formingourworld. Accessed 7 Aug 2017 United Nations (2018) Tracking progress towards inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities and human settlements – SDG 11 synthesis report: high level political forum 2018 Varavarn K (2011) Policy framework designed to build a learning society in Thailand. In: Yang J, Valdés-Cotera R (eds) Conceptual evolution and policy developments in lifelong learning. UIL, Hamburg, pp 110–113 Webb S et al (2017) Lifelong learning for quality education: exploring the neglected aspect of sustainable development goal 4. Int J Lifelong Educ 36(5):509–511

Linguistics

Linguistics ▶ Future Trends in Education

Living Laboratory(ies) ▶ Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

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Macro-Cognition ▶ Future Trends in Education

Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals

Mandatory Education

Pascal Frank1, Daniel Fischer1,2 and Christine Wamsler3 1 Faculty of Sustainability, Working Group Sustainable Consumption and Sustainability Communication, Institute for Environmental and Sustainability Communication, Leuphana University of Lueneburg, Lueneburg, Germany 2 School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA 3 Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies (LUCSUS), Lund, Sweden

▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

Introduction

Macrograms ▶ Future Trends in Education

Meta-Research ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

Micro-Credentials ▶ Future Trends in Education

Education plays a dual role in sustainable development: it is both a means and an end. Since the sustainable development discourse began, calls have been made for it to be used (as a means) to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). Indeed, its potential to both raise awareness of problems and to promote the skills, capacities, and motivation needed to address these problems makes it an obvious choice and approach to address any SDG (Rieckmann et al. 2017; Wamsler et al. 2012). As an end, education is classically seen as a process that reveals the potential and talents of human beings in the pursuit of a good life and for the betterment of the common

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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good (Klafki 2000). Ensuring that human beings have the opportunity to embark on this journey can be considered as a SDG in its own right (Foster 2001). Both ambitions are reflected in the United Nation’s SDG 4. A key target is here the provision of learning environments that are safe, nonviolent, and effective (Target 4.A). Others are the need to substantially increase the number of young people and adults in education and training (Target 4.4) and the bold goal to ensure that all learners are capable of contributing to sustainable development (Target 4.7). Delivering these SDGs (education as a means), and ensuring that all human beings can adequately educate themselves (education as an end), requires teaching and learning environments that are based on ethical principles (e.g., non-violence, equity, respect). Furthermore, they should enhance the quality of learning processes for diverse groups of learners and provide safe spaces to critique development trajectories and their sustainability impacts. In the search for new pedagogies and innovative approaches to educational practice, mindfulness has gained significant attention in recent decades (Schonert-Reichl and Roeser 2016). It is gaining popularity as an innovative approach to support learning processes in a number of different ways. Most recently, it has also caught the interest of practitioners, researchers, and policymakers in Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). In this chapter, we critically assess the connection between mindfulness, education, and ESD. The aim is to explore the potential of mindfulness as an educational innovation in the context of the SDGs, in particular SDG 4. After providing some background to the philosophy and practice of mindfulness (section “Mindfulness”), we systematically analyze and present its linkages with education in general (section “Mindfulness and Education”) and, subsequently, with education for sustainability in particular (section “Mindfulness in Education for Sustainable Development”). In this context, two highly relevant fields of application in ESD are discussed in greater depth: climate change and resilience (section “Field of Application: Education for Sustainable Climate

Change Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience”) and consumption (section “Field of Application: Education for Sustainable Consumption”). We conclude with some critical perspectives and possible ways forward (section “Critical Reflections and Ways Forward”).

Mindfulness The concept of mindfulness is rooted in Buddhist psychology and was introduced into Western science around 40 years ago. It originates from the Pali term sati and its Sanskrit counterpart smrti, literally meaning memory, recognition, and consciousness (Pali Text Society 2012). Its role within Buddhism relates to Buddha’s teachings, which are based on the Four Noble Truths, namely, (1) the observation of suffering, (2) the identification of its sources, (3) the realization that suffering can be overcome, and (4) the understanding that there is a path to achieve the latter (Digha Nikaya 1998). The path to overcoming suffering is called the Eightfold Path, whose seventh element is samma sati or right mindfulness (Bodhi 2013). The exact meaning of right mindfulness is controversial, especially since academic interest in the topic has increased at the beginning of the twenty-first century (Williams and Kabat-Zinn 2013). Although current mindfulness research is characterized by conceptual ambiguity (van Dam et al. 2018), in Western culture and science, mindfulness is most commonly defined as intentional, nonjudgmental attentiveness to the present moment (Kabat-Zinn 1990). It is seen as an inherent quality of human consciousness that is accessible to – and empirically assessable in – individuals, independent of their religious or spiritual beliefs (Baer 2003). This conceptualization forms the operational foundation for the vast majority of mindfulness research, including in relation to education (Bergomi et al. 2013; Grossman 2015, 2019). Since its introduction into Western science, an extensive body of research has linked it to established theories of attention, awareness, emotional intelligence, and other cognitive-emotional functions (Brown et al. 2007; Carroll 2016; Goleman 2011). In addition,

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various theories and methods have been developed to assess it as a temporary state (e.g., Lau et al. 2006); an enduring trait, in terms of one’s predisposition to be mindful in daily life (e.g., Baer et al. 2006); and a practice (mindfulness training, e.g., Black 2011). Without training, trait mindfulness appears to be stable over time (e.g., Brown and Ryan 2003). However, empirical studies suggest that repeated mindfulness training can cultivate greater state mindfulness over time, which presumably contributes to increases in trait mindfulness (Kiken et al. 2015). The literature makes a conceptual distinction between two categories of mindfulness practices: mindfulness meditations (MMs) and mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) (cf. Hanley et al. 2016). Even though this distinction is not clear-cut, MMs usually describe different practices that are rooted in spiritual traditions (e.g., Zen, Vipassana). In contrast, MBIs usually refer to secular mindfulness practices. They can incorporate MMs but generally do so within a larger collection of activities and therapeutic techniques. In this context, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction are the most prominent and well-researched (Chiesa and Malinowski 2011). Over the past two decades, mindfulness in general and MBIs in particular have received increasing attention in academia and various fields of practice, including psychology, medicine, businesses, sports, and even the military (see van Dam et al. 2018). The number of scientific publications on the topic has multiplied tenfold over the past 10 years (AMRA 2018). Several studies suggest that MBIs can have positive effects, e.g., on health and well-being (Grossman et al. 2004), emotional regulation (Hill and Updegraff 2012), as well as memory, attention, and cognitive performance (Eberth and Sedlmeier 2012; Zenner et al. 2014). In addition, MBIs are attributed to interpersonal qualities, such as compassion, empathy, and prosocial behaviors (Luberto et al. 2018) and the potential to stimulate ethical virtues (e.g., courage or equanimity; see Grossman 2015). For these reasons, the mindfulness has recently also received growing attention in the field of education.

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Mindfulness and Education The introduction of mindfulness in education has been characterized by the following developments: • It has been piloted in different educational arenas, from kindergarten to adult learning, targeting both students and teachers. • It was primarily intended to change deviant behavior, promote personal resilience, and improve student performance. • Cultivating ethical virtues has only recently been explored as a potential application, with implications for sustainability. • Today, mindfulness is receiving mainstream acceptance in education. Various forms of mindfulness practices have been used in educational contexts for many years (Bush 2011; Morgan 2015). However, it was not until around the post-2000 years that such practices received renewed attention among educators, following a broader interest in mindfulness in other fields (cf. section “Mindfulness”). Since then, mindfulness has penetrated all areas of education, from preschool to K-12 (kindergarten to grade 12), and higher and adult education (Schonert-Reichl and Roeser 2016). This interest has been denoted by some commentators as a “contemplative turn” (Ergas 2018), a “postsecular turn” (Wu and Wenning 2016) or a “therapeutic turn” (Hyland 2009) in education. At the same time, critics have noted that this renewed interest in mindfulness was spurred by surprisingly divergent interests (Ergas 2015). At least three different motivations have been identified. The first, and maybe most prominent motivation, concerns its clinical use in the Western world. Clinical studies have shown that mindfulness can counteract symptoms of depression, stress, anxiety, attention dysfunction, and other related symptoms (Grossman et al. 2004). This inherently pathological notion sees mindfulness as a remedy can treat or prevent medical disorders or other health issues. In education, this line of reasoning is reflected in attempts to use mindfulness as an intervention to remedy aggressive and maladaptive classroom

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behaviors (Singh et al. 2007; Franco et al. 2016). It can, it is argued, help to mitigate deviant behaviors and thus improve students’ functioning in education systems. The second rationale is based on a more salutogenetic narrative. Rather than counteracting the causes of unwanted behavior, the emphasis here is on using mindfulness as a practice and resource to strengthen factors that contribute to good health. In education, this is manifested in programs and studies that explore the positive contribution that mindfulness can make to maintaining and improving individual resilience to stress, both among teachers and students (Meiklejohn et al. 2012). Mindfulness, it is argued, can prepare learners and teachers to cope with the demands and hardships of educational settings. The third rationale positions mindfulness as a contributor to broader efforts to enhance students’ academic performance. Typically, research in this vein refers to the demonstrated effects of mindfulness on awareness and concentration and links these to academic attainment (Beauchemin et al. 2008). Mindfulness, it is argued, can help to boost the quality of academic work in educational settings (cf. section “Mindfulness”). It goes without saying that these motivations are idealized forms and understandings that, in reality, often overlap. However, given the fact that education is a concept that is defined by purposiveness, it is important to bear in mind that these different emphases and framings of mindfulness have paved the way for its infusion into the education system over time. Today, mindfulness is receiving mainstream acceptance in education (e.g., Rhodes 2015). The number of academic publications on mindfulness and education is steadily increasing and multiplied tenfold between 2006 and 2014 (Schonert-Reichl and Roeser 2016). Such studies have mainly investigated the potential of mindfulness to equip learners with social-emotional skills and consequently improve learning outcomes, and the well-being of teachers and learners, and improve learning environments (preschool, primary, and secondary education, as well as higher education). This trend is strengthened by the appearance of numerous textbooks on mindfulness and education, ranging from scientific handbooks

(e.g., Schonert-Reichl and Roeser 2016) to practical guides “for cultivating mindfulness in education” (e.g., Nhất-Hạnh and Weare 2017). The emergence of international organizations and networks, such as the Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education (ACMHE 2015), the Mind and Life Education Research Network (MLERN 2019), the Association for Mindfulness in Education (2019), or the British-based Mindfulness Initiative (2019), provides further proof of mindfulness’ influence in today’s youth and adult education systems. More recently, a fourth potential has attracted the interest of educators. This relates to a longstanding controversy in the field of mindfulness research: its role in cultivating broader ethical virtues (Grossman 2015; Monteiro et al. 2015). According to critics, mainstream education has been almost exclusively been preoccupied with the three aforementioned motivations (i.e., coping with maladaptive behaviors, improving grades, and individual resilience). This preoccupation, and the widespread neglect of the ethical dimension in mindfulness practice, has prompted scholars to call for a revolution in the use of mindfulness in education. Proponents argue however that this revolution should be more critical of, and explicitly address the (unintended) side effects of, mindfulness (cf. section “Field of Application: Education for Sustainable Consumption”). Most importantly, the reinvention of mindfulness in education should place the cultivation of “moral and civic virtues” at the forefront (Simpson 2017). Mindfulness, it is argued, can support transformation by clarifying and challenging values, as well as enabling a radical critique of society. Such deliberations have been a major driver in the introduction of mindfulness training into ESD.

Mindfulness in Education for Sustainable Development Our analysis revealed the following aspects: • Compared to education in general, mindfulness has received little attention in sustainability teaching and learning.

Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals

• It has only recently been explicitly promoted as a new way of teaching and learning that is needed to create a more sustainable society. • The notion of “ecological mindfulness” has emerged, which promotes a different way to learn and foster scientific understanding and action. • Recently, scholars have argued that mindfulness can improve sustainability institutions and curricula. Innovative examples have emerged. In contrast to the prominent role of mindfulness in education in general (section “Mindfulness and Education”), it has, so far, received limited attention in the ESD context, especially in academia (Wamsler et al. 2018). It is only recently that contemplative teaching methods, including mindfulness, have explicitly been promoted by scholars, practitioners, and mindfulness networks as a new way to address socioecological challenges and create a more just, compassionate, reflective, and sustainable society (Gugerli-Dolder et al. 2013; Wamsler et al. 2018). This development is primarily based on the rationale that mindfulness has the potential to support pro-social and pro-environmental behavior, human-nature connections, critical thinking, ethics, and virtues (cf. sections “Mindfulness” and “Mindfulness and Education” and “Field of Application: Education for Sustainable Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience” and “Field of Application: Education for Sustainable Consumption”). In line with this, the concept of “ecological mindfulness” has been emerging in sustainability teaching (Mueller and Greenwood 2015; Sol and Wals 2015). Underlying this notion is the idea that the proliferation of segmented knowledge fields is inconsistent with the interdisciplinary and hybrid learning needed to foster scientific and cultural understanding and actions leading to socioecological change. Hence, ecological mindfulness suggests that the integration of thought, rather than its separation, should be the purpose of sustainability teaching and learning. Accordingly, scholars argue that the ecological mindfulness of teachers is crucial in shaping students’ understanding of nature-society relations and that it requires

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integrating indigenous, cultural knowledge and practices (such as mindfulness) within existing scientific frameworks (Chinn 2015). In addition, an increasing number of pioneering scholars are calling for mindfulnessbased approaches to improve educational institutions and curricula oriented toward sustainability and well-being. It is argued that, in the context of sustainability, teaching and learning require spaces where diverse ecological, holistic, and place-responsive perspectives can take root, be nurtured, and flourish into ways of knowing, being, and becoming that serve people, places, and the planet (Greenwood 2013; Sameshima and Greenwood 2015; Wamsler 2019). In line with the first four potentials of mindfulness that have been identified in education in general (cf. section “Mindfulness and Education”), it is argued that teaching should become a way to work toward a “learning system” in which people collectively become more capable of withstanding setbacks and addressing complex sustainability challenges (Sol and Wals 2015). Two innovative examples for creating such learning systems and systematically integrating mindfulness into ESD can be found at Lund University (in Sweden) and Leuphana University Lüneburg (in Germany). The Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies (LUCSUS) set up the Contemplative Sustainable Futures Program at the end of 2015. The program aims to explore the role of inner dimensions and transformation for sustainability and to create space and opportunities for learning, knowledge development, and networking on the topic. Building blocks include teaching, research, and networking activities, which also explore the interlinkages between mindfulness and the SDGs (LUCSUS 2015). Outcomes have, so far, included the establishment of the following: (i) an Experimental Learning Lab on mindfulness in sustainability science, practice, and teaching; (ii) the integration of mindfulness-based approaches into existing courses in environmental studies and sustainability science; (iii) a new master’s-level course on “Sustainability and Inner Transformation” with a linked Practice Lab; (iv) a professional knowledge database and network; and (iv) various research

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studies and frameworks for more integral research and education (Wamsler 2019). The integration of mindfulness into existing courses includes, for instance, a written reflection on students’ learning in relation to the five key aspects of mindfulness (observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudgment, and reactivity) (Baer et al. 2006); encouraging mindful interactions during listening, debating, reflecting, and working together; and voluntary mindfulness sessions. The latter do not only address individual, but also social and ecological dimensions. At Leuphana University, courses in sustainability science are offered that experiment with two, new pedagogical approaches which incorporate mindfulness practice: reflexive knowledge generation (Frank 2018; Frank and Fischer 2018) and self-inquiry-based/self-experiencebased learning (Frank and Stanszus 2019). In the reflexive knowledge generation format, students systematically observe the way they deal with new information about controversial sustainability issues, for example, meat consumption. The aim is to make them aware of the nonintellectual factors that often unconsciously influence the ways in which we deal with new information and arguments, laying the ground for more open, modest, and benevolent reasoning processes. Self-inquiry and experienced-based learning make students themselves the object of inquiry. Here, students engage in a personal sustainable transformation project designed to encourage them to observe and reflect upon their subjective experience.

Field of Application: Education for Sustainable Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Mindfulness has been applied to various ESD topics. Most progress is observed in the fields of (i) consumption and (ii) climate change mitigation, adaptation, and resilience. Regarding the latter, we identified the following aspects: • Mindfulness-based teaching and learning methods are increasingly explored to address

new demands caused by climate change (e.g., individual capacities and qualities). • In contrast to climate change mitigation, there is little academic discourse on mindfulnessbased education regarding climate change adaptation and risk reduction. • Innovative approaches are, however, emerging, within both private and academic institutions. In the context of growing climate and disaster risks, and associated uncertainties, sustainability is increasingly being referred to as a learning challenge (Doppelt 2017; Whitehead et al. 2017; Wamsler 2018). It is argued that, in addition to creating appropriate forms of governance, legislation, and regulation, alternative forms of education and learning are needed for people to develop the capacities and qualities that will enable them to contribute to alternative, climate-adapted behaviors, lifestyles, and systems, both individually and collectively (Sol and Wals 2015). Increasing research on behavioral sciences and economics supports this understanding (cf. Camerer et al. 2005). Consequently, mindfulness-based teaching and learning methods are being explored, particularly in the context of educational activities that focus on climate change mitigation (i.e., measures and strategies to reduce the causes of climate change). Examples are the revision and development of new syllabuses on global environmental politics, sustainability leadership development, and “mindful climate action” (e.g., Barrett et al. 2016; Litfin and Abigail 2014). At the same time, there is little academic discourse on mindfulness regarding climate change adaptation and risk reduction education (i.e., regarding measures and strategies to reduce the impacts of climate change). This is surprising, given the fact that these topics can be very sensitive, and trigger memories of sorrow and vulnerability (Wamsler et al. 2018; Wamsler and Raggers 2018), making mindfulness-based approaches a potentially valuable approach. It also neglects emerging research on the interlinkages between mindfulness, climate change mitigation, and adaptation. Individual

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mindfulness disposition might, for instance, influence people’s perceptions of climate change and risk, their motivation to support climate policies, and the kinds of actions that are (not) taken (Wamsler 2018; Wamsler and Brink 2018). Based on the increasing knowledge in the field, innovative initiatives are being developed. Neuroscience-based mindfulness training is, for instance, increasingly offered by private organizations to assist people (including students, teachers, and professionals) to cope with, and address, climate-enhanced adversity (Doppelt 2017). An innovative example from academia is the “Sustainability and Inner Transformation” course at LUCSUS (originally named “Mindfulness, Compassion and Sustainability”) (Wamsler 2019; LUCSUS 2015). The overall aim of the course is to critically assess the potential role of inner transformation for sustainability. The objectives are threefold. Firstly, it allows students to develop a critical understanding of the potential interlinkages between inner transformation and sustainability (theories and practices). Secondly, inner transformation theories and practices are assessed in relation to specific sustainability fields, including sustainable climate change mitigation, adaptation, and risk reduction. Thirdly, the course allows students to engage in, and critically reflect on, the nature of inner transformation and its salience in sustainability science and learning. In this context, mindfulness is explored as an inherent human capacity that has the potential to support such transformation. The course is very popular with both students and scholars and has been acknowledged as being the first of its kind (Egan 2019). It is closely linked to the research and network of the Contemplative Sustainable Futures Program (cf. section “Mindfulness in Education for Sustainable Development”). Another network that addresses the link between mindfulness and climate change-related issues is, for instance, The Mindfulness and Social Change Network, which focuses on strengthening mindful pathways toward social justice and environmental sustainability (Mindfulness and Social Change Network 2019).

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Field of Application: Education for Sustainable Consumption With respect to the application of mindfulness to consumption and lifestyles, we identified the following aspects: • Over the past decade, mindfulness has increasingly been linked to sustainable consumption, both in research and education. • Related claims are based on five mechanisms that could, in theory, support the development of sustainable consumption and lifestyles. • Innovative educational approaches have recently been implemented to test-related claims. Like the application of mindfulness to ESD in general, there is increasing interest in relation to consumption and lifestyles. Such developments are based on research that has identified five mindfulness mechanisms that could theoretically support the development of sustainable consumption behavior (Fischer et al. 2017). The first concerns enhancing introspective capacities, thereby laying the ground for changing previously unconscious routines. This is thought to help elucidate and diminish unconscious, non-sustainable consumption choices. Secondly, mindfulness practice may be help to clarify and support the role of nonmaterial values in people’s lives. The third mechanism refers to recent findings that claim that mindfulness explicitly increases pro-social behavior. Pro-social behavior is, in turn, positively linked to pro-environmental intentions and behavior. Fourth, mindfulness is associated with a greater capacity to make congruent choices that may narrow the attitude-behavior gap and support more sustainable consumption patterns. The fifth mechanism has recently been suggested by Geiger et al. (2019). They found that mindfulness may foster sustainable lifestyles due to its potential to improve physical health and well-being. Drawing upon these theoretical developments, innovative educational approaches have recently been proposed. The German research project

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BiNKA (Education for Sustainable Consumption through Mindfulness Training) was the first study designed to empirically investigate the potential through an 8-week consumer-focused mindfulness course to foster sustainable consumption (Stanszus et al. 2017). Reported effects mostly related to changes in attitudes and intentions, a reduced focus on material values, and the ability to observe inner states and processes related to consumer behavior (Geiger et al. 2018). The BiNKA study has inspired a variety of other teaching activities at Leuphana University. One example is the seminar “Transformation toward sustainable consumption: Individual and personal perspectives,” where mindfulness training was used to sensitize students to their inner states and processes as part of the process of deliberately changing their consumer behavior (Frank and Stanszus 2019).

Critical Reflections and Ways Forward Despite an exponentially growing body of literature and extensive interest in education and mindfulness, research on mindfulness in ESD is still in its infancy. Nevertheless, past developments, increasing knowledge, and emerging innovations clearly indicate its potential to contribute to education and the SDGs, both as a means and as an end. However, related explorations require actively considering and engaging in critical debates and associated challenges. Concerns have, for instance, been voiced with regard to the significance and validity of mindfulness research. A number of conceptual and methodical flaws have been identified, mainly concerning the quantitative (and by far most frequent) approach to its study (e.g., van Dam et al. 2018; Grossman 2015, 2019). There are calls for a more humble and cautious interpretation of the (allegedly) positive effects of mindfulness training, together with a more nuanced and differentiated inquiry, based on a clear definition of mindfulness and a transparent description of the related intervention or practice. The integration of a variety of disciplinary and methodological approaches is also warranted.

The tendency to simplify the concept and focus on its positive effects has in parts also driven its social rejection. Mindfulness should not be seen as a universal panacea. Instead, any potential negative applications or side effects need to be actively considered, such as its potential instrumentalization for undesirable purposes, or to reproduce neoliberal ideologies of self-optimization (Reveley 2016; Walsh 2016). In addition, it is important to adapt its use to the context of sustainability and associated fields of application (Whitehead et al. 2017; Wamsler 2018). By actively considering these critiques and challenges, mindfulness can become a vehicle for critical, improved education and social change (rather than individual self-optimization), a field which is clearly underexplored and highly relevant with regard to the SDGs, particularly SDG 4 and 4.7. This could mark the beginning of a radical engagement with inner and outer transformation, facilitated by a more comprehensive engagement with the critical potential of mindfulness in ESD. While this next phase is only just appearing on the horizon, there are strong indications that mindfulness will continue to permeate mainstream educational practice and ESD. Influential players, such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), have started to openly advocate for better recognition of cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral dimensions of learning in SDG-related education (Rieckmann et al. 2017), with mindfulness being the leading facilitator for such learning (Bresciani Ludvik and Eberhart 2018).

Cross-References ▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals

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Frank P, Stanszus L (2019) Transforming consumer behavior: introducing self-inquiry-based and self-experiencebased learning as methods for building competencies for sustainable consumption. Sustainability 11:2550 Geiger S, Böhme T, Fischer D, Frank P, Grossman P, Schrader S, Stanszus L, Sundermann A (2018) BiNKA – Bildung für nachhaltigen Konsum durch Achtsamkeitstraining. Ergebnisse eines Interventionsprojekts. Available via http://achtsamkeitund-konsum.de/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Abschlu ssbroschüre_BiNKA_final_großAufl.pdf. Accessed 21 Mar 2019 Geiger SM, Grossman P, Schrader U (2019) Mindfulness and sustainability: correlation or causation? Curr Opin Psychol 28(28):23–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc .2018.09.010 Goleman D (2011) The brain and emotional intelligence: new insights, 1st edn. More Than Sound, Northampton Greenwood D (2013) A critical theory of place-conscious education. In: Stevenson R, Brody M, Dillon J, Wals AJ (eds) International handbook of research on environmental education. Routledge, New York, pp 93–100 Grossman P (2015) Mindfulness: awareness informed by an embodied ethic. Mindfulness 6:17–22. https://doi. org/10.1007/s12671-014-0372-5 Grossman P (2019) On the porosity of subject and object in ‘mindfulness’ scientific study: challenges to ‘scientific’ construction, operationalization and measurement of mindfulness. Curr Opin Psychol 28:102–107. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.11.008 Grossman P, Niemann L, Schmidt S, Walach H (2004) Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits. J Psychosom Res 57:35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0022-3999(03)00573-7 Gugerli-Dolder B, Traugott E, Frischknecht-Tobler U (2013) Emotionale Kompetenzen in der Bildung für Nachhaltige Entwicklung, BNE-Konsortium COHEP, Schweizerische Koordinationskonferenz Bildung für eine Nachhaltige Entwicklung, Zürich Hanley AW, Abell N, Osborn DS, Roehrig AD, Canto AI (2016) Mind the gaps: are conclusions about mindfulness entirely conclusive? J Couns Dev 94:103–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12066 Hill CLM, Updegraff JA (2012) Mindfulness and its relationship to emotional regulation. Emotion 12:81–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026355 Hyland T (2009) Mindfulness and the therapeutic function of education. J Philos Educ 43:119–131. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2008.00668.x Kabat-Zinn J (1990) Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind. DELTA, New York Kiken LG, Garland EL, Bluth K, Palsson OS, Gaylord SA (2015) From a state to a trait: trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. Pers Individ Differ 81:41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044 Klafki W (2000) The significance of classical theories of Bildung for a contemporary concept of Allgemeinbildung. In: Westbury I, Hopmann S, Riquarts K (eds) Studies in curriculum theory. The promotion of socio-political issues in general and sustainability in

special through education: the German Didaktik tradition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, pp 85–107 Lau MA, Bishop SR, Segal ZV, Buis T, Anderson ND, Carlson L, Shapiro S, Carmody J, Abbey S, Devins G (2006) The Toronto mindfulness scale: development and validation. J Clin Psychol 62:1445–1467. https:// doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20326 Litfin K, Abigail L (2014) Contemplating enormity: climate change. In: Conference presentation/paper. The 6th annual conference of ACMHE. The Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education Luberto CM, Shinday N, Song R, Philpotts LL, Park ER, Fricchione GL, Yeh GY (2018) A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviors. Mindfulness 9:708–724. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0841-8 LUCSUS (2015) Contemplative sustainable futures program: The role of individual inner dimensions and transformation in sustainability. https://www.lucsus.lu. se/research/urban-governance/contemplative-sustain able-futures, and https://christinewamsler.wixsite.com/ sustainable-futures. Accessed 25 Mar 2019. Note that the Program’s database, which can be accessed via its webpage, includes a list of further networks, institutions, and activities that are related to mindfulness and sustainability Meiklejohn J, Phillips C, Freedman ML, Griffin ML, Biegel G, Roach A, Frank J, Burke C, Pinger L, Soloway G, Isberg R, Sibinga E, Grossman L, Saltzman A (2012) Integrating mindfulness training into K-12 education: fostering the resilience of teachers and students. Mindfulness 3:291–307. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12671-012-0094-5 Mind and Life Education Research Network (MLERN) (2019). https://www.mindandlife.org/legacy-programs/ mlern/. Accessed 21 June 2019 Mindfulness and Social Change Network (2019). https:// mindfulnessandsocialchange.org/. Accessed at 21 June 2019 Mindfulness Initiative (2019). https://www.themindfulnes sinitiative.org/. Accessed at 21st June 2019 Monteiro LM, Musten RF, Compson J (2015) Traditional and contemporary mindfulness: finding the middle path in the tangle of. Concerns Mindfulness 6:1–13. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0301-7 Morgan PF (2015) A brief history of the current reemergence of contemplative education. J Transform Educ 13:197–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344614564875 Mueller MP, Greenwood DA (2015) Ecological mindfulness and cross-hybrid learning: a special issue. Cult Stud of Sci Educ 10:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11422-014-9653-5 Nhất-Hạnh T, Weare K (2017) Happy teachers change the world: a guide for cultivating mindfulness in education. Parallax Press, Berkeley Pali Text Society (2012) Sati. In: The Pali Text Society’s Pali-english dictionary. Digital dictionaries of South Asia, University of Chicago. Available via https://arch ive.is/20121212102108/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgibin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:2991.pali. Accessed 12 Mar 2019

Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace Reveley J (2016) Neoliberal meditations: how mindfulness training medicalizes education and responsibilizes young people. Policy Futur Educ 14:497–511. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1478210316637972 Rhodes E (2015). Mindfulness on trial. In: Psychologist. Available via https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/ mindfulness-trial. Accessed 27 Mar 2019 Rieckmann M, Mindt L, Gardiner S (2017) Education for sustainable development goals: learning objectives. UNESCO, Paris Sameshima P, Greenwood DA (2015) Visioning the Centre for Place and Sustainability Studies through an embodied aesthetic wholeness. Cult Stud of Sci Educ 10:163–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-014-9615-y Schonert-Reichl KA, Roeser RW (eds) (2016) Handbook of mindfulness in education: integrating theory and research into practice. Mindfulness in behavioral health, 1st edn. Springer, New York Simpson D (2017) From me to we: revolutionising mindfulness in schools. Contemp Buddhism 18:47–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2017.1301032 Singh NN, Lancioni GE, Singh Joy SD, Winton ASW, Sabaawi M, Wahler RG, Singh J (2007) Adolescents with conduct disorder can be mindful of their aggressive behavior. J Emot Behav Disord 15:56–63. https:// doi.org/10.1177/10634266070150010601 Sol J, Wals AEJ (2015) Strengthening ecological mindfulness through hybrid learning in vital coalitions. Cult Stud Sci Educ 10:203–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11422-014-9586-z Stanszus L, Fischer D, Böhme T, Frank P, Fritzsche J, Geiger S, Harfensteller J, Grossman P, Schrader U (2017) Education for sustainable consumption through mindfulness training: development of a consumption-specific intervention. J Teach Educ Sustain 19:5–21. https://doi.org/10.1515/jtes-2017-0001 van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Gorchov J, Fox KCR, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE (2018) Mind the hype: a critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspect Psychol Sci 13:36–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1745691617709589 Walsh Z (2016) A meta-critique of mindfulness critiques: from McMindfulness to critical mindfulness. In: Purser RE, Forbes D, Burke A (eds) Handbook of mindfulness. Culture, context, and social engagement. Springer, Cham, pp 153–188 Wamsler C (2018) Mind the gap: the role of mindfulness in adapting to increasing risk and climate change. Sustain Sci 13:1121–1135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625017-0524-3 Wamsler C (2019) Contemplative sustainable futures: the role of individual inner dimensions and transformation in sustainability research and education. In: Leal Filho W, Consorte McCrea A (eds) Sustainability and the humanities, vol 13. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 359–373 Wamsler C, Brink E (2018) Mindsets for sustainability: exploring the link between mindfulness and sustainable

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Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace Kian Heng Liew1 and Lee Wai Weng Sandra2 1 Institute for Engineering Leadership, NUS, Singapore, Singapore 2 Holland Dental Clinic, Singapore, Singapore

Definition Minimum level of learning for life is about acquiring basic lifelong skills to continue learning especially in the fast changing and accelerating digitally advancing space and pace disruptive world. The objective of this entry is to reinstitute the innate human learning skills of listening acquired when as a fetus.The key concepts of this entry are lifelong learning, technologically enhanced, listening, motivation, attitude vs. aptitude, and intent vs. content.

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Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace

Introduction Learning for life requires lifelong learning and teaching to encourage such learning. From childhood to adulthood learning, the stages of learning continue to change from pedagogical to experiential to self-determination. Is there then a minimum level of learning on any subject or situation to attain at each stage of learning in life? What is needed in lifelong learning in this digitally advancing space and pace of acquiring new knowledge? The stages of lifelong learning are uncertain, truncating, nonlinear, nor stepwise and differ from the past. A toddler today is able to swipe to learn before knowing how to read or write to learn. The staggering advancements in technologies are creating new disruptions to all aspects of human living for life long. Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IOT), Augmented Reality (AR), etc., driven by 5G telecommunications and supercomputers, demand the meaning of “minimum level of learning for life” to be even more challenging. The need to learn, unlearn, and relearn is commonplace today in these modern technologically advancing societies. Old knowledge gave to old economic gains, while new knowledge paves way for new economic wealth. The digital economy has shown quantum leaps in economic wealth generated with nonstop at-speed-of-light thoughts in creating new technologies and businesses. From oneself to the entire nation, the speed of learning is constantly under stress and strain to keep space and pace with new technologies. Hence, learning and teaching too have to keep the space and pace in evolving new knowledge. Staying stagnant on old learning to advance oneself would result being disrupted in life at some point of adulthood. The largest telescopes of AI on earth are created in search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), and life is by and about listening. This is a mega search for alien intelligence by eavesdropping the universe to answer “Are we alone?” Lifelong learning by listening is the most basic form from birth that should be inculcated throughout life as a minimum level of learning. The meaning of “listen” is very profound in

the Chinese word and philosophy. Other than the phonetic and audible meaning of “hearing,” it is also a connotation of guidance, compliance, and obedience. It is using the ears, eyes, heart, and entire mind concentration to learn like an emperor should from his people. Listening is the most innate basic and minimum learning skills we acquire as a 3-month-old fetus in the womb. The quality of learning and outcome of education is dependent on the minimum level of learning on listening pedagogy as we progress in life. “Motivation to listen and learn” is a critical mantra in a world surrounded by intelligent robotic capabilities overtaking our lives. Humanly, it means it is no more about “aptitude” as it is more about “attitude.” It is not about “content” but is about “intent” that will drive the continuing disruptive world forward. Listen to learn is congenitally a lifelong learning journey.

Lifelong Learning This entry is a joint paper by both long-serving educationists, parents, practicing professionals, and lifelong learners in the industries and society at large. Lifelong education is a long learning unending process. The Chinese saying: 活到老, 學到老 (huó dào lǎo, xué dào lǎo)

is the same adage as Never Stop Learning and Never-too-old To Learn. The definition of learning for life and lifelong learning is provided by Collins dictionary as: the provision or use of both formal and informal learning opportunities throughout people’s lives in order to foster the continuous development and improvement of the knowledge and skills needed for employment and personal fulfillment (Collins Dictionary, Harper Collins Publishers).

From the moment we are on earth, learning begins. As children, parents, students, teachers, working adults, professional practitioners, leaders, etc., we all undergo the process of unending learning and at times learning, unlearning and relearning. No one school has all the answers to keep space and pace with learning as well as teaching.

Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace

From childcare centers to universities, the type of learning is moving toward technologically enhanced media of instructions. Classrooms and chalkboard have been broken down and changed to more computer-enriched flipboard-savvy apps embedded modes. The contents too have to keep up with more apps useable learnings and applications. Mathematics has gone beyond algebra to coding. The digital economy has affected all walks of life and therefore lifelong learning. As AI, IOT, AR, etc. take over the intelligence part of living, the humanistic part from the heart, feelings, and emotions now becomes even more expedient. Intelligence quotient (IQ) now needs more emotional quotient (EQ), productivity requires more creativity, and learning needs listening to tap on new intelligence in this enhanced technological world. With listening as the most basic and minimum learning skills, we certainly then learn more and correctly. Hence, the outcome and quality of learning and therefore education is dependent on the minimum level of learning on listening pedagogy. The lifelong motivation on listening in learning and learning on listening is continuingly critical as we are surrounded by intelligent robotic capabilities continuously overtaking our lives. The soft skills for the living human race become more critical where it is no more about “aptitude” as it is more about “attitude.” The continuing disruptive world is not about “content” but is about “intent” that will drive the human race forward. Genetically, our listening capabilities on listen to learn are congenitally tied to from birth to our lifelong learning journey.

Technologically Enhanced Societies The last 100 years have seen many innovations and advancements. The advent of computers has changed every facet of our lives in modern societies. From smartphone to drones, the personal desire for oneself to have the power of knowledge and mobility in their individual palm is a reality. Learning has taken a shortcut aided by apps with latest information and knowledge stored and made available at a tap on an icon. The

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nanotechnology, the biotechnology, the quantum computing, the Internet, as well as the robotics and digital revolutions powered by artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IOT), and augmented reality (AR) will exponentially accelerate. According to Ray Kurzweil (7 March 2001): So we won’t experience 100 years of progress in the 21st century — it will be more like 20,000 years of progress (at today’s rate). The “returns,” such as chip speed and cost-effectiveness, also increase exponentially. There’s even exponential growth in the rate of exponential growth.

How then can the human body continue to learn in the midst of exponentially accelerating technological enhancements? What should then be a minimum level of learning for life to keep space and pace with the exponential growth of digital societies?

Listening From birth, the most basic form of assimilating learning at the lowest level is through listening. It is the most powerful means to learn from the first step in learning. In Chinese, the word character of listen is 聽 (tīng) It is through this very profound ancient character of listening to learning that this entry is profuse on the minimum level of learning especially so in this technologically enhanced world. Many times listening has taken a back seat relegating to hear only. So motivation should be the approach in where the heart is in listening. As educationists and practitioners, learning for life is the new mantra with the ever-changing technological societies. Even in the policy making by leaders, listening to learn and not hear from the people is important by tapping on the technology of social media. This understanding through listening was shared by the author 8 years ago as part of honoring Teachers’ Day with the Prime Minister of Singapore (by Author, 2001) to make listening conversation: I also shared with you on the word “聽” (listen) and recalled how teaching my then 5 years old son on “聽” (spelling) became a listening lesson for me!

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Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace

I related how I explained to my son that the old version “聽” (listen) was very meaningfully formed with easily recognisable basic characters “” (ear), “十” (ten), “目” (eye), with, “一” (one) and “心” (heart) is a making of an “王” (emperor). When I contrasted further the modern day “” (listen) has a “口” (mouth) and a “”(weight kg), my son shot back wittingly to my complete surprise that modern to listen was with the “mouth carrying weight” unlike the olden days! In listening to my son when teaching listening-writing, I learned from him instead about modern day “listen” is with the shout-loud mouth.

Only when one really “聽” then one would really listen and learn. Reciprocally, when an emperor “聽” to his people, the people would also “聽” to the emperor as the word “聽” is also a connotation of guidance, compliance, and obedience. This concept is unprecedented in the area of education. In education, a learner is guided by what one listens, understands, and follows the educator’s leadership to acquire new knowledge and skills. In doing so, the learner follows and complies with the instructional teachings and obeys by acknowledging and assimilating lifelong learning. Extending to the entire society, the motivation to learn by listening with the authorities as leaders and population as followers also similarly gives rise to the trifecta of guidance, compliance, and obedience. The outcome of this education by listening varies from society to society in whatever is the ultimate motivation. When one disregards guidance, compliance and obedience to “聽” then one would not listen and therefore would not learn to acquire knowledge. The better we listen, the more we learn too. Lifelong listening imbues lifelong learning.

Listening with the Mouth The ancient Chinese character for the word listen is totally and ironically transgressed to that of a mouth “口” carrying weight “” in the modern fastchanging technologically enhanced societies. It is difficult to understand why listening is relegated to a situation when the other party is actually using the mouth to weigh in and talk forcefully to be heard instead. In “聽” we are listening; with

“” we are listening with the mouth carrying weight pose obsessed with the shout-loud mouth. Such listening is not deep, intense, penetrating, fullhearted understanding, or meaningful. One situation when a person is obediently listening with the mouth carrying weight is under a dentist care. A patient undergoing dental treatment is always listening without any and unable to pose a shout-loud mouth. With the mouth at repose when the dental instruments are within the gaps and canals, then the patient’s ears are all too listening. Guidance, compliance, and obedience to the dentist take root on every oral instruction given. This is a unique learning situation of listening with the dentist’s orderly oral “” care. A dentist is king to “ting.” As oral care is lifelong, visiting a dentist faithfully keeping to every appointment also becomes a lifelong listening on lifelong learning. The listening lesson learned is that when one is under an un-enabling and numbing situation, listening takes truly the ancient form of “聽”. So is a society, listening to their leaders becomes meaningful when faced with challenges on livelihood and nationhood to be overcome. In the digitally advanced space and pace, nations are faced with staggering advancements in technologies that are creating new disruptions to all aspects of human living for lifelong societies. When one is under threat such as possibly to an advanced civilization in the cosmos, we then turn “” to “聽”.

Pedagogy of Listening In the psychology of learning-teaching, listening could be included as a pedagogical education for young and adults too. The basic minimum learning on listening and listening for learning should be acquired as early in life as possible. Learn to listen, listen to learn is a crucial skill set for both learners and teachers. Effective learning on teaching and teaching on learning metrics involve listening as a central core relationship. This relationship emphasizes the pedagogy of listening as supported by Carlina Rinaldi (2001, pg3) to be fundamental as shown in early childhood centers of children from age 0 to 6 years.

Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace

Carlina believes that from the beginning, children demonstrate that they have a voice, know how to listen, and want to be listened by others. Listening, by children as listeners, seems to be an innate predisposition, present from birth, which supports children’s process of acculturation. Listening starts from birth (Sciencemag, 2013); it is a birthright of any child. Indeed at 0 age of 2 months as a fetus, sound and voices are discernable already in the womb when the ears are slowly developing. Researches using functional MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) have shown that listening begins in the womb. The voice of the mother – not just what she says, but how she says it – conveys important information that guides a child’s behavior and learning. Further studies have suggested that the linguistic development starts in utero and babies learn to recognize words in the womb. The effective teaching of a child to learn is by listening as soon as a child is born. A child learns and grows by listening that forms a central core relationship in teaching and learning from day zero. The pedagogy of listening (Carlina Rinaldi, 2001, pg 3) suggests that learning starts with the beginning of listening. As the child becomes a listener, into later years of acculturation in society. Leonard J. Waks’s (11 July 2014) book Listening to Teach: Beyond Didactic Pedagogy, features the leading voices in the recent discussion of listening in education. These contributors focus close attention on the key role of teachers as they move away from didactic talk and begin to devise innovative pedagogical strategies that encourage active listening by teachers and also cultivate active listening skills in learners. To entrench the pedagogy of listening in education, basic minimum learning on listening and listening for learning could be a mandatory curriculum in all schools and reinforced in higher institutions to as high as the highest office of a nation. Just like an emperor too listens to his people, listening as a minimum learning is even more relevant in this modern fast-changing disruptive societies of today. The pedagogies of listening offer alternative models to advance lifelong student learning. With improved learning and quality of

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education, more innovative solutions to overcome societal problems would improve sustainable developments and quality of life for all nations. Listening should be a minimum learning for lifelong learning.

A Listening Society In a larger context, a listening society has individuals who places listening to learning and creates a relationship among each other of guidance, compliance, and obedience. The more of such individuals in a society, the more they embrace listening to grow a collaborative culture of learning to achieve the goals of the society as a nation. The listening binds them together to build strength, character, capabilities, and capacities. Like a family, a company, a school, an organization, a community, a government, and a nation, there is a leader within who is able to create the culture of listening and learning to overcome challenges and achieve success. A listening society has a listening leader who constructs the central core relationship of listening to build communication bridges with the people. A listening conversation is the heart of a listening society. Listening leaders are perceptive, they are discerning and listening, and the goal is to build a learning conversation across all layers in society. It has to go through a dynamic process of acculturation to strengthen the character and improve capabilities so as to increase capacities of their people toward a better nation. A listening leader is a concerning leader able to motivate a listening society of a nation. The message shared on Teachers’ Day with the Prime Minister was to start to have a listening conversation for the nation. The motivation to listen and learn is to advance in a dynamically digital fast space and pace disruptive environment. As AI, IOT, AR, etc. take over the intelligence part of living, the humanistic part from the heart, feelings, and emotions now becomes even more expedient. IQ now needs more EQ, productivity requires more creativity, and learning needs listening to tap on new intelligence in this enhanced technological world. There is also a lot of listening a society and a nation has to do for human kind of our world. The IQ from

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AI, IOT, and AR needs more from the ears, eyes, and hearts of the EQ in providing the humanistic feedback to the dynamically digital fast space and pace of the robotic environment. A listening society would place their ears, eyes, and hearts on using the listening strategy to solve global problems in the natural environment of mother earth. The inner natural space and pace on earth is undergoing untold technological impacts such as climate change. It is time to pause and listen to our created intelligence. The motivation to be creative to learn even of other intelligences out in deep space is to answer the question of “Are we alone?” According to SETI Searches Today, Alan MacRobert (2018) answers, “There’s only one way to find out, and that’s to listen.” The aliens out there could be even more advanced and technologically enhanced in listening to our signals in the cosmos. Whoever listens and learns fast will make a breakthrough. This is exactly what Breakthrough: Listen set up and detected possibly advanced civilization burst of radio signals. Listen on as much human kind, as we could be listened by aliens too. From the fetus to the vast space of the cosmos, listening is our only hope to learn and learn fast. A listening society could have a chance to make a breakthrough and is important we continue to be one. Human being may owe listening for it to survive and thrive or becoming extinct into human been.

challenges. The better we listen, the more we learn too. Motivation to listen and learn is about increasing EQ for improving IQ. Both these “aptitude” vs “attitude” and “content” vs “intent” propositions are based on my 30 years of personal observations in educating adult learners under totally different learning and listening environments. Lifelong listening is the core central relationship to lifelong learning. Lifelong learning in this digitally advancing space and pace should be embedded with pedagogical listening education in childcare centers to universities. Be it in a family, a company, a school, an organization, a community, a government, and a nation as well as in a dental clinic listening conversation for lifelong is 活到老, 學到老! It is never too late to adopt this indigenous ancient “聽” to education in our modern oriental and occidental societies. Genetically, listening starts in the womb as a fetus before birth. Therefore, listening to learn is congenitally tied to our lifelong learning journey. A listening conversation is the heart of a listening society by listening with the ears, the eyes, and the heart. Lifelong listening imbues lifelong learning. Minimum level of learning for life in digitally advancing space and pace of exponentially accelerating modern disruptive societies begins with listening.

Cross-References Conclusion One who learns through listening is more profound and complete like listening with word “聽”. The “aptitude” derived from devised technology should not replace the human feel and care in “attitude.” The eyes, the ear, and the heart with full attention bring forth the attitude to listen and learn far better than one with a good aptitude only. Learning in this handheld devised “content”infused world should not be as important as the “intent” in one on learning. The motivation to listen is an “intent” that requires continuous acculturation to gain knowledge and learn to overcome

▶ Adult Education ▶ Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal ▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship ▶ Education for Community Cohesion ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace

▶ Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind” ▶ Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing ▶ Knowledge Society: The Evolution of the Concept in the Context of Achieving Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research ▶ Open Educational Resources (including MOOCs) ▶ Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives ▶ Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being ▶ Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 ▶ Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education: Internalization of Values of Sustainability ▶ Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts ▶ Schooling for Working Children ▶ Secondary Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal ▶ Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

References Author’s personal email to the Prime Minister of Singapore, Mr Lee Hsien Loong on 1 September 2011 titled: Listen to Lead and Leap Forward Together with Singaporeans (in honouring Teachers’ Day) Breakthrough Listen. https://www.seti.org/breakthroughlisten, Alan Mac Robert, SETI Searches Today, 20 December 2018

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Collins English Dictionary, Harper Collins Publishers. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ lifelong-learning Dr. Linje Manyozo, senior lecturer from RMIT, University of Australia and author of Media, Communication and Development (2012) Goleman D (2012) Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ. Random House, New York https://edgy.app/babies-listen-from-the-womb-kansas https://integratedlistening.com/blog/2017/07/14/listeningbegins-womb/ https://static1.squarespace.com/static/526fe9aee4b0c53fa3c 845e0/t/540fce31e4b00c94d884e002/1410321969279/ Pedagody+of+Listening+-+Rinaldi+-+Fall+2001.pdf https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2013/08/babies-learnrecognize-words-womb Integrate # ListenFirst in School, Graham D. Bodie, Ph.D., Chief Listening Officer, School of Journalism and New Media, The University of Mississippi Learning to Listen. https://www.wabashcenter.wabash. edu/resources/book_reviews/listening-to-teach-beyonddidactic-pedagogy/ Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach, The Power of Dialogue in Educating Adults. Revised edition, Jane Vella. https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Learning+to+Lis ten%2C+Learning+to+Teach%3A+The+Power+of+Di alogue+in+Educating+Adults%2C+Revised+Edition-p9780787959678 Leonard J. Waks is Professor Emeritus of Educational Leadership at Temple University and the author of Education 2.0: The Learning web Revolution and the Transformation of the School. 11 July 2014. http:// www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/ may17/vol74/num08/Learning-to-Listen.aspx Listening differently: A pedagogy for expanded listening, Michael Gallenger, Jonathan Prior. https://www.skyand telescope.com/astronomy-news/seti-searches-today/ Listening to Teach: Beyond Didactic Pedagogy. Waks, Leonard J., ed. SUNY Press. Reviewed by: Cherice Bock, Portland Seminary https://onlinelibrary.wiley. com/doi/abs/10.1002/berj.3306 Manyozo also authored Manifesto for Development Communication: Nora Quebral and the Los Baños School of Development Communication published in the 2007 Our Singapore Conversation. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Singa pore_Conversation SETI Searches Today By: Alan MacRobert|December 20, 2018. https://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomynews/seti-searches-today/ The Law of Accelerating Returns by Ray Kurzweil (7 Mar 2001). https://www.kurzweilai.net/the-law-of-acceleratingreturns The Pedagogy of Listening. Listening Perspective from Reggio Emilia by Carlina Rinaldi. http://static1.squarespace. com/static/526fe9aee4b0c53fa3c845e0/t/540fce31e4b00 c94d884e002/1410321969279/Pedagody+of+Listening +-+Rinaldi+-+Fall+2001.pdf, 2001, pg3

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562 The Profundity of the Character ‘listen’ in Chinese, by Joyce Lo and Zhu Li (7 Mar 2017) Updated: May 21, 2017. https://www.theepochtimes.com/the-profundity-ofthe-character-listen-in-chinese_2230261.html To Be a Better Leader, Listen with TING. Written on October 29, 2013 by avadiamond in employee engagement, high engagement culture, leadership. http:// avadiamond.com/listen-ting/

Modern ▶ Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future

Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/ Anti-disciplinarity in Research Jer-Ming Chen1,2,3,4 and Johannes M. Luetz5,6 1 Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), Singapore, Singapore 2 Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA 3 School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia 4 Asian Music Technology Ltd., Singapore, Singapore 5 School of Social Sciences, CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia 6 School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Australia

Synonyms Disciplinarity; Education; Interdisciplinarity; Meta-research; Multidisciplinarity; Multidisciplinary perspectives; Research methods; Sustainable development

Definition This entry scrutinizes approaches to research, knowledge creation, and education through the prism of “disciplinarity” and “interdisciplinarity.”

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The discourse also explores alternative and competing conceptual approaches, terminology, and typology, including “multidisciplinarity,” “systems theory,” “multiliteracies,” and “anti-disciplinarity.” While there seems to be no consensus definition in respect of these terms (and some overlap between concepts), approaches to disciplinarity are best understood in terms of their historical evolutionary context, which will be introduced first and precedes the more detailed discussion of individual concepts. This exploratory discussion also features two Ph.D. case studies which illustrate interdisciplinarity in contemporary research practice.

Introduction: Historical Evolution of Disciplinarity and Interdisciplinarity Strict adherence to “disciplinarity” or “monodisciplinarity” has been linked principally to the Age of Reason, Aufklärung, or Siècle des Lumières (Century of Lights), which enduringly influenced the world of ideas in Europe and beyond toward “reasoned knowledge” (Kant 1784; Gay 1996; Roberson 2016). In its wake reductionism, empiricism, skepticism, reasoning, and unremitting adherence to the “scientific method” have come to be esteemed as the quasiexclusive epistemological avenues to knowledge acquisition (Bosch et al. 2007; Raymond et al. 2010). In terms of its epistemology, disciplinarity leans heavily on a positivist paradigm, which suggests that truth and knowledge are objectively knowable (and thus verifiable) through a deductive process of theory verification (Punch 2014). Relying principally on quantitative research, disciplinarity thus emerged from a background of the natural/physical sciences and was viewed (until recently) as the privileged method to discover the “truth” about the world and generate “knowledge” (Punch 2014, pp. 13–33). According to Nissani (1995): a discipline can be conveniently defined as any comparatively self-contained and isolated domain of human experience which possesses its own community of experts. Every discipline has its peculiar constellation of distinctive components: such things

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as shared goals, concepts, facts, tacit skills . . . methodologies, personal experiences, values, and aesthetic judgments. (p. 122)

of complex systems – they consist of many components and interdependencies that can change unpredictably and frequently. (p. 8)

Relatedly, Bosch et al. (2007) posit that the historical reluctance of disciplines to engage with other disciplines interdisciplinarily is linked to:

The advent of globalization has certainly given rise to a plethora of connectivities, interdependencies, and complexities, which more often than not require a multiplicity of analytical inputs:

entrenchment of the ‘reductionist’ scientific method. The traditional view is that science involves empirical observation, theory formulation, theory testing, theory revision, prediction, control, the search for lawful relationships and the assumption of determinism; and scientists are the ‘experts’ in carrying out this process. (p. 230)

Hence until the second half of the twentieth century, disciplinarity (i.e., mono-disciplinarity) remained largely uncontested as the predominant paradigm of knowledge creation (Punch 2014, p. 15). Thereafter its preeminent position was more and more challenged by the rise in complexity that has progressively characterized our (post)modern era, precipitating the so-called paradigm wars (Punch 2014, p. 15). This rise in complexity has been diagnosed both within (1) the physicality of the world itself and (2) philosophically within the world of ideas. First, in respect of complexity inherent in the physical world itself, Sull and Eisenhardt (2015) have synthesized that: Complexity itself is not new – the Roman Empire was one of the most complex political systems in history – but our recognition of complexity has vastly increased in the past six decades. A search for the word complexity in five million books published since 1800 shows that the term was initially rare, rose gradually for 150 years, and then exploded just after the Second World War. (p. 8)

This relatively recent increase in complexity in the world is amply noted in the change management literature: “Increasingly, clients view their problems as VUCA – meaning ‘volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous’ – a term that is now common in books and articles about change management” (Gardner 2016, p. 8). Relatedly, according to Sull and Eisenhardt (2015): Complexity arises whenever a system – technical, social, or natural – has multiple interdependent parts. The human body, bees in a hive, a soccer team, and international banking are all examples

clients today frequently talk about needing to respond to multiple, diverse constituencies – such as customers, regulators, competitors, employees, shareholders, and local communities – often across many different parts of the globe . . . ‘The reality is that the nature of business has changed sufficiently such that work is more complex, more dispersed, and more global. As a result, we are often not looking for the advice of just one lawyer with one set of expertise. I am looking for the advice of many lawyers across a spectrum of jurisdictions and issues. That puts a real premium on collaboration.’ (Gardner 2016, p. 8)

Indeed, collaboration is incontrovertibly an essential precondition for interdisciplinarity. Furthermore, strict adherence to (mono)disciplinarity has progressively come under pressure by the conspicuous increase in complexity that characterizes the postmodern world. Or stated differently, quasi-perfect scientific conditions for research simply do not exist outside of hermetically sealed laboratories (such as are typically required in strictly disciplinary research). In synthesis, the proliferation of multicausal inputs that collectively (and often interactively) constitute the (post)modern world has given rise to a relatively recent and growing need to comprehend complex phenomena. Sull and Eisenhardt (2015) have synthesized it like this: Scientists can predict the path of two billiard balls with precision, and the average behaviour of two million gas particles. But what about the messy middle ground, where twenty or thirty components interact with one another in unexpected ways? Many of the most critical scientific and social challenges today – the aging of cells, or hunger in emerging markets – result from multiple variables that interact in numerous and often unpredictable ways. Complexity covers the untidy yet vibrant realm where so much of life unfolds. (p. 10)

Second, in addition to this increase in complexity bedeviling the (post)modern world itself, there were also shifts within the world of ideas that progressively challenged the primacy of

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disciplinarity (or mono-disciplinarity). Stated differently, the advent of postmodernism has itself increasingly called into question the various assumptions of “enlightenment reasoning” that hitherto predominated both (mono)disciplinarity and the “scientific method” (Kant 1784; Gay 1996; Roberson 2016; Duignan 2018). In its wake, rigid reductionism has been increasingly contested as the quasi-exclusive epistemological pathway to knowledge acquisition. In terms of its epistemology, interdisciplinarity is far more accepting of (and reliant on) an interpretivist or constructivist paradigm, which implies that truth and knowledge are subjectively “constructed” following empirical observation and an inductive process of theory generation. Hence interdisciplinarity is particularly accepting of qualitative research and enjoys far-reaching support and endorsement from social scientists (Punch 2014, pp. 13–33). (See Table 1 for a summary of contrasting paradigms and perspectives.) In summary, as the world has become (and continues to become) evermore complex and interconnected, interdisciplinarity is indisputably fast gaining currency. “The defining issues of our Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research, Table 1 Mono- and multidisciplinarity: contrasting paradigms and perspectives Disciplinarity/monodisciplinarity Epistemology – more reliant on “positivist” paradigm Truth and knowledge are “objectively knowable” and verifiable through empirical observation Research emphasis – focuses on deductive process of “theory verification” Reliant principally on quantitative research methodological approaches Emerged from and remains steeped in the “natural/physical sciences”

Interdisciplinarity/ multidisciplinarity Epistemology – more accepting of “interpretivist/ constructivist” paradigms Truth and knowledge are “subjectively constructed” from empirical observation Research emphasis – focuses on inductive process of “theory generation” More accepting of qualitative, social, and/or mixed methods research designs Enjoys strong support and endorsement from the “social sciences”

(Based on Punch 2014, pp. 13–33; Luetz et al. 2019b)

time – climate change, the global financial crisis, international terrorism, the shift toward emerging markets – all arise out of the churning interactions of complex systems” (Sull and Eisenhardt 2015, p. 8). Perhaps unsurprisingly, today’s global challenges are progressively precipitating emphatic calls for more interdisciplinarity: Global issues are often seen as being interrelated. One issue affects other issues. For example, climate change (an environmental issue) is related to an energy issue (our reliance on fossil fuels), the population issue (more people produce more greenhouse gases), the wealth and poverty issue (wealthy countries produce the most gases that cause climate change), the technology issue (technology can help us create alternative energy sources that produce less or no greenhouse gases), and the future issue (will the changes we are making in the Earth’s climate seriously harm life on this planet?). As we recognize these interrelationships, we realize that usually there are no simple solutions. Interdisciplinary knowledge is required to successfully deal with the issues [by conjoining] information from multiple disciplines such as biology, economics, political science, environmental science, chemistry, and others. Neither the social sciences nor the physical sciences have the answers on their own. (Hite and Seitz 2016, p. 2)

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are themselves an expression of interdisciplinarity. This global development framework is an assemblage of 17 universal goals agreed by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030. Having been quasi-universally adopted and ratified by 193 countries as part of Resolution 70/1, the goals undeniably reflect sweeping interdisciplinarity and intergovernmental support. Its all-encompassing agenda comprises ending poverty (Goal 1), ending hunger (Goal 2), promoting health (Goal 3), promoting education (Goal 4), achieving gender equality (Goal 5), making clean water accessible (Goal 6), providing reliable energy (Goal 7), promoting employment (Goal 8), fostering innovation (Goal 9), reducing inequality (Goal 10), making cities safer (Goal 11), ensuring sustainable consumption (Goal 12), combating climate change (Goal 13), conserving the oceans (Goal 14), protecting terrestrial ecosystems (Goal 15), promoting peaceful societies (Goal 16), and strengthening global partnerships for sustainable development (Goal 17) (UN 2014).

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According to the United Nations (2019a), the SDGs may be appropriately synthesized as “the blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face” (para 1). Relatedly and importantly, the UN (2019b) emphasizes that “[t]he goals are interconnected – often the key to success on one will involve tackling issues more commonly associated with another” (para 2). Hence the case for interdisciplinarity for sustainability could hardly be stronger or more widely supported (UNEP 2012). The following discussion is organized into three sections. Section “Disciplinarity and Interdisciplinarity: An Overview of Conceptual Approaches” will explore selected disciplinary conceptualizations, including disciplinarity or mono-disciplinarity (section “Disciplinarity/Mono-disciplinarity”), interdisciplinarity (section “Interdisciplinarity/CrossDisciplinarity”), multidisciplinarity or “hybrid” knowledge (section “Multidisciplinarity/‘Hybrid’ Knowledge”), systems theory perspectives (section “Systems Theory”), so-called multiliteracies (section “Multiliteracies”), and anti-disciplinarity (section “Anti-disciplinarity”). Thereafter, section “Case Studies: Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Research” will offer two case studies of recent Ph.D. research that illustrate interdisciplinarity in contemporary research practice. Finally, section “Concluding Synthesis: Challenges, Opportunities and Future Perspectives” revisits core themes and presents a concise synthesis of issues, questions and opportunities.

Disciplinarity and Interdisciplinarity: An Overview of Conceptual Approaches Commencing with an introduction of strict disciplinarity or mono-disciplinarity, this section will provide an overview of relevant conceptual approaches, including interdisciplinarity, multidisciplinarity or “hybrid” knowledge, systems theory perspectives, so-called multiliteracies, and anti-disciplinarity. Disciplinarity/Mono-disciplinarity As framed in section “Introduction: Historical Evolution of Disciplinarity and Interdisciplinarity,” an

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academic discipline is the systematic and focused pursuit of a particular branch of specialized knowledge, which is defined (at least in part), recognized, and organized by the acknowledged specialists/ practitioners (“gatekeepers,” cf. Shumway and Messer-Davidow 1991) of that knowledge, manifest in various forms including academic journals, learned societies, and academic departments and faculties in educational institutions, and has become a standard basis of how knowledge is organized, produced, and propagated in contemporary society (Post 2009). In the university context, both teaching and research are typically structured around specific fields of knowledge (disciplines), and much effort is made to imbue students with expertise in a primary discipline to ensure students are conversant with its methodologies and possess the capacity to obtain, analyze, and employ this focused knowledge. At the same time, disciplinarity paves the way forward for meaningful interaction across disciplines; interdisciplinarity depends directly upon disciplinarity, and one may argue that interdisciplinary interactions enrich, validate, and contextualize the disciplines in question. Disciplinarity, however, is not without contention: for the discipline to maintain relevance, it has to grow and evolve. This requires participants in the discipline to continually critique, test, and negotiate with each other as a community (cf. “gatekeepers” mentioned above), held together by a shared pursuit of excellence. One must also be mindful of the deliberate manipulation of both internal and external forces in disciplinarity, as highlighted by Foucault’s critique (1977) of disciplines as mechanisms of social control: The disciplines characterize, classify, specialize; they distribute along a scale, around a norm, hierarchize individuals in relation to one another and, if necessary, disqualify and invalidate. (Foucault 1977, p. 223)

Interdisciplinarity/Cross-Disciplinarity At its simplest, the very idea of “inter”disciplinarity suggests the feasibility and profitability of conjointly engaging multiple disciplinary realms for the benefit of progressing knowledge, research, education, or theory (see Table 2, based on Nissani 1995): “Interdisciplinarity involves bringing

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Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research, Table 2 Interdisciplinarity in the four realms of scholarly engagement Interdisciplinary knowledge Demonstrating awareness, understanding and mastery of elements of two or more disciplines Interdisciplinary education Combining and synthesizing elements of two or more disciplines in a unitary curriculum

Interdisciplinary research Conjoining elements of two or more disciplines toward synthesis for the generation of new knowledge Interdisciplinary theory Conceptualizing interdisciplinary knowledge, research, or education as focal objects of study

(Based on Nissani 1995)

together distinctive components of two or more disciplines. In academic discourse, interdisciplinarity typically applies to four realms: knowledge, research, education, and theory” (p. 121). A review of the literature suggests that interdisciplinarity is not underpinned by a unified consensus definition. It seems to be rather informed by multiple definitional approaches, and even “interdisciplinary research can have an array of different meanings” (Poole-Warren 2014, p. 25). Although several disparate terminological and conceptual constructs can be found in the literature, their precise points of distinction are not definitively delineated. Nissani (1995) posits that there is no clear-cut consensus definition of interdisciplinarity: Although many have tried to define interdisciplinarity . . . it still seems ‘to defy definition’ (Klein 1990, p. 11). The most widely cited attempts break down interdisciplinarity into components such as multidisciplinarity, pluridisciplinarity, crossdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and even metadisciplinarity. But these subdivisions, it seems to me, throw little light on the theory and practice of interdisciplinarity, in part because they try to grasp points along a fluid, multidimensional continuum . . . Moreover, because such definitions attempt to confer upon this term a precision it does not possess, they run the risk of missing its essential nature. (Nissani 1995, pp. 121–122)

Relatedly, rather than viewing interdisciplinarity as a point of departure or destination, it seems

to be more profitable to try and leverage it operationally for its notable capacity to dissect complexity and solve problems that cannot be solved by any one discipline alone. This benefit is underscored by the following definition of interdisciplinary research: “Interdisciplinary research integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline” (Poole-Warren 2014, p. 25; cf. NSF n.d.; emphasis added). Nissani (1995) uses a “homely metaphor of mixing fruits” (p. 124) to illustrate that interdisciplinarity can be studied by analyzing the following four measures: (1) number of disciplines included; (2) proximity between them; (3) innovation of combining them; and (4) extent of unification. His analogy is useful to better comprehend the dimensions involved in interdisciplinary research. Let us fancy that we wish to determine the amalgamation quotient of fruit mixtures. When an apple, an orange, or a strawberry is served alone, this quotient is obviously zero. But connoisseurs sometimes wish to mingle fruits. One criteria in determining the amalgamation quotient of our particular dish would be the number of different fruits involved. A mixture involving apples and oranges is less amalgamated than one involving apples, oranges, and plums. A second criterion would be distance: mixing Macintosh and Winesap apples would result in less amalgamation than the mixing of oranges and grapefruits, and still less than the mixing of oranges and cherries. Third, there is the novelty of the mixture itself. In Western societies, for instance, mixing bananas, apples, and grapes is not as creative, and unusual, as the mixing of guavas, kiwis, and blueberries. Fourth, and perhaps most important, is the degree of blending or integration. The various fruits can be served side by side, they can be chopped up and served as a fruit salad, or they can be finely blended so that the distinctive flavor of each is no longer recognizable, yielding instead the delectable experience of the smoothie. Note that the amalgamation quotient says nothing about quality, in some circumstances, a plain mango will surpass all the smoothies in the world; in others, only a fruit salad will do. In a similar manner, at any given historical point, the interdisciplinary richness of any two exemplars of knowledge, research, and education can be compared by weighing four variables, the number of disciplines involved, the distance between them, the

Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research novelty and creativity involved in combining the disciplinary elements, and their degree of integration. (Nissani 1995, pp. 124–125)

In summary, interdisciplinarity can fruitfully bring together blends of disparate disciplines “in the search or creation of new knowledge” (Nissani 1995, p. 121). Concrete examples of interdisciplinarity in published practice include the conjoint study of energy and civilization (Smil 2017), urban farming (Calverley 2017), disability and gender (Goodley 2017), ecology and theology (Brunner et al. 2014; Luetz et al. 2018), and indigenous knowledge and community development (Kapoor and Shizha 2010; cf. Johnson Butterfield and Korazim-Körösy 2007; Luetz et al. 2019a), among others. According to Slingerland and Collard (2012), integrating the sciences and humanities assists in “Creating Consilience” (pp. 3–40) by moving “Beyond Disciplinary Chauvinism” (pp. 30–34) and from “Biversities to Universities” (pp. 32–36). Multidisciplinarity/“Hybrid” Knowledge As mentioned above, interdisciplinarity is not definitively delineated from other similar conceptualizations, including multidisciplinarity (Nissani 1995). Notwithstanding, numerous publications overtly call for more multidisciplinary approaches. White (2008) offers a cogent example: Environmental crime prevention ought to be based upon a problem-solving approach, but it is not always easy to discern what is accurate or true when it comes to specific environmental harms. There is a need, therefore, for multidisciplinary approaches to the study of environmental harm, involving cooperation between different ‘experts’, including those with traditional and experiential knowledge associated with culture and livelihood (such as indigenous peoples and farmers), as well as sensitivity to ideas and research generated in intellectual domains such as law, zoology, biology, philosophy, sociology and chemistry. (White 2008, p. 254)

While there is thus clear evidence of a multitude of publications that overtly propagate multidisciplinary approaches, including in areas of climate change (Burroughs 2007) and international development (Haslam et al. 2009), it is decidedly less clear what precisely constitutes

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multidisciplinarity or what definitively sets it apart from interdisciplinarity. Perhaps a more useful concept is that of “hybrid knowledge,” which Raymond et al. (2010) differentiate from experiential/traditional and scientific/formal knowledge. According to their typology, “hybrid knowledge” refers to: Knowledge types that have, in some way been integrated. The level of integration can occur to different degrees. For example, distinctions are made between multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary research. In the former, studies from different disciplines are conducted and most knowledge exchange or integration occurs after results of the separate studies become apparent. In the latter, research approaches and methods are more fully integrated from the outset creating new knowledge in ways that are not possible through less integrative methods using multi-disciplinary approaches. Trans-disciplinary approaches go even further by involving or embedding non-academic participants, such as the public. Some argue that all knowledge comprises a heterogeneous blend of knowledges from different sources as this knowledge is developed through personal experience, interpretation and interaction (even if it is with ‘scientific’ evidence). (p. 1769)

Relatedly, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO 2019a, b, c, d, e) has also collated a typology of pluri-disciplinary perspectives (see Table 3). Accompanying Table 3, Fig. 1 offers the authors’ loose visual interpretation of these four conceptual approaches highlighted in Table 3 and the points of distinction between them. Systems Theory In the social sciences, a “systems approach” explains individual human behavior in the context of social groups. “An individual is part of a system, a group with interdependent parts, and what happens in one part of the system influences what happens in others” (Burton et al. 2015, p. 608; emphasis added). According to this view, “diagnosing a problem in an individual without considering the systems in which he operates is like trying to figure out why a car is getting poor fuel economy without considering traffic conditions or the quality of the petrol the car is burning” (ibid.). The “systems theory” diagnostic approach seems to be broadly concordant with

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Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research, Table 3 Inter-/multi-/trans-/disciplinarity and curriculum design: UNESCO overview Disciplinarity “A model of curriculum in which content is divided into separate and distinct subjects or disciplines, such as language, science, mathematics, and social studies . . . A discipline-based curriculum approach characterizes teaching practice within one subject and encourages teachers for specialization, depth of content knowledge, and integrity to the conventions of their discipline” (UNESCO 2019a) Multidisciplinarity “An approach to curriculum integration which focuses primarily on the different disciplines and the diverse perspectives they bring to illustrate a topic, theme or issue. A multidisciplinary curriculum is one in which the same topic is studied from the viewpoint of more than one discipline. Frequently multidisciplinary and crossdisciplinary are used as synonyms describing the aim to cross boundaries between disciplines” (UNESCO 2019c)

Interdisciplinarity “An approach to curriculum integration that generates an understanding of themes and ideas that cut across disciplines and of the connections between different disciplines and their relationship to the real world. It normally emphasizes process and meaning rather than product and content by combining contents, theories, methodologies and perspectives from two or more disciplines” (UNESCO 2019b) Transdisciplinarity “An approach to curriculum integration which dissolves the boundaries between the conventional disciplines and organizes teaching and learning around the construction of meaning in the context of real-world problems or themes” (UNESCO 2019d)

(Source: UNESCO 2019a, b, c, d)

Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research, Fig. 1 A visual interpretation of the four conceptual approaches in Table 3: Disciplinarity is depicted by three distinct disciplines A, B, and C. The whitespace between them can be taken as Ito’s definition (2016) of Anti-Disciplinarity (cf. section “Anti-disciplinarity”). Interdisciplinarity is concerned with the overlapping

areas of A, B, and C, while the remaining non-overlap areas remain distinct. In Multidisciplinarity, disciplines A, B, and C are connected, and boundaries between them do not require distinction. Transdisciplinarity is depicted by interactions spanning different disciplines which occupy disparate but overlapping dimensions

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interdisciplinarity and/or multidisciplinarity. For instance, it would be inadequate to conceptualize climate change merely as a climate “science” issue, without concurrently considering closely related pathological issues of significance, e.g., human fossil fuel dependency (energy, waste, and consumption issues), population growth (poverty, geography, colonial legacy, gender, and demography issues), rich countries’ disproportionate responsibility for “historical emissions” (development, power, and inequality issues), industrialization innovated coal-fired power, but renewable energy can mitigate the effects of climate change (technology issues), among others (cf. Hite and Seitz 2016, p. 2). Given its capacity for comprehensive critical analysis, “[a] systems approach has been shown to be useful because it takes on a holistic view of the world and allows for interactions to be discovered” (Bosch et al. 2007, attributed to Röling and Jiggins 1998). For instance, numerous “systems” of relevance are implicated in exploring the limits to climate change adaptation (Adger et al. 2009), which apart from “ecosystems” (p. 341), “biological systems” (p. 337), “natural systems” (p. 350), and/or “ecological or physical systems” (p. 337) also include “human systems” (p. 337), “value systems” (p. 347), and “social systems” (p. 337). Finally, the “systems approach” is useful for its capacity to comprehend so-called system changes: When systems change beyond a certain threshold they are often not likely to retain their original state. In this sense a threshold that is linked to irreversible change in particular, represents an absolute limit to maintenance of the status quo, but only a relative limit to adaptation. This is because adaptation could still be possible when the system in question moves to another state. (Adger et al. 2009, p. 345)

For many of the reasons mentioned above, Bosch et al. (2007) “highly recommend the use of Systems Thinking as ‘method’ for scientists in general, and not just systems specialists and practitioners” (p. 231). Multiliteracies This concept is based on the idea that traditional reading and writing is no longer adequate to

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negotiate today’s professional and private spheres of life and that people should rather acquire additional and “multiple” literacies or “multiliteracy.” According to this view, “the multiplicity of communication channels and increasing cultural and linguistic diversity in the world today call for a much broader view of literacy than portrayed by traditional language-based approaches” (The New London Group 1996, p. 60). For example, “in an Aboriginal community or in a multimedia environment . . . the visual mode of representation may be much more powerful and closely related to language than ‘mere literacy’ would ever be able to allow” (Cope and Kalantzis 2006, p. 5). Relatedly, “local diversity and global connectedness” (p. 6) resulted in English “becoming a lingua mundi, a world language, and a lingua franca, a common language” (ibid.), albeit “[m]igration, multiculturalism and global economic integration [have rendered] language diversity an ever more critical local issue [by creating] multiple Englishes” (ibid.; emphasis added). According to UNESCO (2019e), “multiliteracies include linguistic, visual, audio, spatial, and gestural ways of meaning-making” (para 1). In synthesis, since its inception in the 1990s, the idea of “multiliteracies” has gained significant currency, resulting in a new “pedagogy of multiliteracies” (The New London Group 1996, Cope and Kalantzis 2015). Engaging multiple literacies seems closely connected to engaging multiple disciplines, wherefore this area of scholarly work is raised here as a fertile area for future research (Cole and Pullen 2010; Mills 2016).

Anti-disciplinarity Anti-disciplinarity could be broadly described as “going against the accepted wisdom of a discipline” and can be thought as a practice that does not fit within any particular discipline’s framework and methods (Ito 2014). Consequently, in the study of increasingly complex and emergent phenomena – where traditional disciplinarity approaches are no longer sufficient because new knowledge and emergent frameworks do not fall easily into existing

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paradigms – anti-disciplinarity becomes increasingly necessary and relevant. Of particular note is Joichi Ito’s interpretation of anti-disciplinarity: . . .one of the first words that I learned when I joined the [MIT] Media Lab in 2011 was “antidisciplinary.” . . .it’s about working in spaces that simply do not fit into any existing academic discipline. . . When I think about the “space” we’ve created, I like to think about a huge piece of paper that represents “all science.” The disciplines are little black dots on this paper. The massive amounts of white space between the dots represent antidisciplinary space. (Ito 2016)

Anti-disciplinarity invites a fundamental rethinking of academic practice and to focus on the space between and beyond current disciplines. In this light, Ito (2017) offers ten innovation principles toward anti-disciplinarity which are worth noting: 1. Emergence over Authority: complex, bottomup systems beat out top-down authority. 2. Pull over Push: resources and innovation should be pulled from the edges rather than controlled from the center. 3. Compasses over Maps: detailed plans (maps) become less valuable than vision, values, and culture. 4. Risk over Safety: with the cost of innovation coming down, the focus should be on taking smart risks rather than seeking safety. 5. Disobedience over Compliance: agile, effective innovators will question authority and think independently. 6. Practice over Theory: focus less on theory and more on learning by doing. 7. Diversity over Expertise: a nontraditional team approach will be more productive than the abilities of any one individual. 8. Resilience over Strength: resilience will come from failure, especially with complex, selfadaptive systems. 9. Systems over Objects: everything is connected to everything else; to succeed, you must understand the full ecosystem. 10. Learning over Education: fixed educational systems must be replaced with lifelong learning.

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Case Studies: Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Research Section “Case Studies: Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Research” will now offer two short case studies of recent Ph.D. research that illustrate interdisciplinarity in contemporary research practice. The first case study is entitled “Climate Migration: Preparedness Informed Policy Opportunities Identified During Field Research in Bolivia, Bangladesh and Maldives” (Luetz 2013) and comprises and conjoins disciplines of climate science, social science, international development, and human migration, among others (section “Case Study 1: ‘Climate Migration: Preparedness Informed Policy Opportunities Identified During Field Research in Bolivia, Bangladesh and Maldives’”). The second case study is entitled “Vocal tract interactions in woodwind performance” (Chen 2009) and comprises and conjoins disciplines of physics, instrumentation and engineering, music performance and pedagogy, physiology, and humaninstrument interaction (section “Case Study 2: ‘Vocal Tract Interactions in Woodwind Performance’”). Case Study 1: “Climate Migration: Preparedness Informed Policy Opportunities Identified During Field Research in Bolivia, Bangladesh and Maldives” This Ph.D. thesis (Luetz 2013) was completed at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) in Sydney, Australia. Given the currency and relevance of “climate refugees” to events and issues dominating current affairs (Luetz 2019a, b; Luetz and Merson 2019), the research was also picked up and digested (with some distortion and “hype”) in the public media. [As any other understated academic would do, this researcher still cringes at reading the rather loud-voiced headline “Rising seas to push out 500 million”; cf. ABC 2013.] The research has featured in short documentaries on Bolivia (UNSW-TV 2011), Bangladesh (UNSWTV 2015), and Maldives (The Guardian 2015), in addition to having been featured on air (ABC Radio National 2013), in print media (Thomson 2013), and as a 3-min thesis presentation

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Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research, Table 4 Number of in situ interview sites visited and associated cost/benefit trade-offs Number of study sites visited (budget [time and money] fixed) Increasing the number of study sites means less time is available at each location for in situ interviews Decreasing the number of study sites means more time is available at each location for in situ interviews

Benefit (+) Expansive breadth of perspectives implies burgeoning scope for comparative analyses between sites Profundity of perspectives implies burgeoning scope for in-depth analyses of local-level issues

Cost ( ) Constricted depth of perspectives implies diminishing scope for indepth analyses of local-level issues Constricted breadth of perspectives implies diminishing scope for comparative analysis between sites

(Based on field research synthesis documented in Luetz 2013)

delivered at UNSW’s 2012 interfaculty finals (UNSW-TV 2012). Being a quintessential interdisciplinary study, the Ph.D. research project also featured as a small case study in a conference paper presented by UNSW Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research Training) and Dean of Graduate Research at the Eighth Annual Strategic Leaders Global Summit: Interdisciplinary Learning in Graduate Education and Research in Newfoundland, Canada (Poole-Warren 2014). In this conference paper Poole-Warren digests a synthesis of perspectives derived from interviewing this author and former Ph.D. candidate as follows: The key challenges encountered related to the need to have a deep understanding of multiple disciplines, the sheer volume of learning and the continual need to keep up with the knowledge and skills required in multiple fast moving research disciplines. The statement that resonated most during the interview was that doing interdisciplinary research was “like walking on eggshells, wondering whether the research would satisfy the experts across all of the disciplines spanned.” Other challenges to the graduate that were noted included that it was necessary to form multiple networks and navigate multiple research cultures. (Poole-Warren 2014, p. 26)

Relatedly, the research experienced the challenges of navigating along the continuum of depth – breadth, specialization – generalization, and specificity/particularity, commonality/universality. The following aphorism, quoted from the Oxford Dictionary of English, aptly illustrates both the strengths and weaknesses of interdisciplinarity in this area: “jack of all trades (and master of none) – A person who can do many different types of work but who is not necessarily very competent at any of them” (Stevenson 2010, p. 932). According to Devadason (2017):

The phrase “Jack of all trades, master of none” has taken on several forms – with both negative and positive connotations. In fact, in its initial appearances during the early 1600s the phrase was just “Jack of all trades” and flip-flopped between being a form of praise and a diss. This term was popularly used by Robert Greene in 1592 to dismiss William Shakespeare – an actor turned playwright. However, by the 17th century, the phrase was generally used as a term of praise – at least until the phrase “master of none” was tacked on, making its meaning less ambiguous. An alternate version of the phrase now goes: “Jack of all trades, master of none is oftentimes better than master of one.” Yes, this phrase goes in circles. And so does the debate: Which is superior . . . being a jack-of-all-trades or a master of one? Generalisation or specialisation? (para 1–4)

In conceptually preparing the Ph.D. research, the challenges of negotiating the breadth-depth continuum recurrently raised important questions. For example, should more time be spent during field research in individual interview locations to obtain a greater depth of localized data (but at the expense of losing some breadth of perspectives by skipping other interview sites) or should more sites be visited while operating within the constraints of time and resources available for the study to obtain a greater breadth of perspectives (but at the expense of losing local depth of insights made necessary by including additional interview sites and reducing time spent in each one)? In other words, there seemed to be a tradeoff between in situ depth and cross-comparative breadth (see Table 4). According to Poole-Warren’s synthesis of this research, there are also important issues in respect of public good outcomes: While there is a strong case for more investment in interdisciplinary research due to, as eloquently

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Furthermore, the diversity of perspectives accommodated in this Ph.D. research also noted some important limitations of interdisciplinarity: how is multidimensional human vulnerability (or resilience) to be measured, quantified, compared, and computed across vastly divergent developing country contexts? How are computer models to manage the massive compound mix of data and variables, comprising climates, local communities, economies, inequalities, cultural customs, religious traditions, social classes, colonial legacies, gender relations, changeable adaptive capacities (e.g., ongoing learning), and evolving policy formulations, to name just a few (Piguet 2013, p. 157; attributed to Tacoli 2009)? Moreover, how are their interdependent relationships to one another to be understood or computed? (Luetz 2019a, p. 7; cf. Luetz 2017, 2018; Luetz and Havea 2018)

In summary, while interdisciplinary case study research is open to the criticism that it may lack a certain degree of disciplinary ‘purity’ or homogeneity, nonetheless “[s]ome of the best-known studies in sociology are based on this kind of design” (Bryman 2016, p. 60). Case Study 2: “Vocal Tract Interactions in Woodwind Performance” Like Case Study 1, this Ph.D. thesis (Chen 2009) was also completed at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, and answers the long-persistent music acoustic puzzle: How important is the player’s vocal tract during woodwind performance? Significantly, it addresses the varied (and contradictory) opinions of both

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acousticians and musicians ranging from “negligible” to “vocal tract resonances must match the frequency of the required notes” and lays to rest a scientific and musical quandary that has persisted in the literature for over three decades. Further, the work revealed – for the first time – how expert woodwind performers are able to execute advanced musical performance techniques on their instruments (clarinet, saxophone, recorder, trumpet, etc.), such as pitch bending, altissimo, and multiphonic playing, when the physics of the instrument alone indicate that it should be otherwise impossible to do so. The insights derived from the project have immediate implications on performance of advanced musical techniques and offer an objective framework for both teaching and learning of musical instruments. Further the findings offer objectivity to understanding the subtle and unexpected dynamics of human-instrument interaction and shape its design and practice. The successful undertaking of this study required competent and intimate working knowledge of several disciplines simultaneously: • Physics: a sound physical framework is required to understand and objectively explain the complex acoustical interaction of the musical instrument and the player’s vocal tract, as well as account for all other physical factors involved in governing the generation, sustaining and control of the musical sound produced during woodwind performance, as well as the judicious interpretation of complex quantitative data. • Instrumentation and engineering: direct, accurate, and robust measurements of physical and acoustic quantities used to understand the physical phenomena here required an advanced knowledge of instrumentation and engineering – particularly mechanical, electrical/electronic, and ergonomic engineering. Furthermore, because these measurements were made “live” on musicians, inside their mouths during actual musical performance, the equipment and measurement setups had to be designed to be comfortable enough to play unimpeded (so that natural playing behavior may still be observed), robust (high pressure

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and varying bite forces, wet and humid), hygienic, and free from any danger (especially electrical shocks, since the player’s mouth is always wet and the saxophone is made of brass). • Music performance and pedagogy: as rather advanced musical techniques were investigated, we had to be intimately familiar with both standard and nonstandard musical practices, as well as the performance behavior of a wide range of musical instruments. Also required is the ability to communicate effectively with a wide range of musicians, both in terms of musical and technical ability, as well as on a range of musical instruments, in order to ensure the correct physical gestures are recorded. • Physiology: as the study investigates the role of the player’s vocal tract and how vocal tract acoustics (resonances, breath pressure, etc.) may be manipulated to control and couple with the instrument downstream, accompanying know-how to make viable physical and acoustic measurements using available (and custom designed) equipment requires a working knowledge of vocal tract and respiratory physiology. • Human-instrument interaction: to understand and investigate effectively the subtle humaninstrument interaction during musical performance, as well as make correct and reliable physical measurements of acoustic and physical quantities of both the instrument and the human subject, knowledge of the mechanics of musical performance, the instrument’s mechanical behavior, as well as a musician’s expected behavior during performance is essential. Consequently, the outcomes from this inter- and multidisciplinary Ph.D. project were fruitful (Chen et al. 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009a, b, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014), including a paper in the journal Science (2008), featured in short documentaries (UNSW-Newsroom 2008; UNSW-TV 2008), and the research story further picked up by major international news organizations (ABC News 2008; BBC News 2008; Scientific American 2008;

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The New York Times 2008; The Sydney Morning Herald 2008; UK Telegraph 2008). Further, the inter- and multidisciplinary nature of the work fulfilled was recognized and appreciated by both industry and academia in diverse ways: a university nomination for “Excellence in Science,” a national finalist for “Best Ph.D. thesis in Physics,” an “Excellence in Acoustics” award from industry, a Lindau Fellowship (60th Interdisciplinary Meeting of Nobel Laureates), and “Best Student Paper” at a high-impact international acoustics conference.

Concluding Synthesis: Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Perspectives This entry scrutinized approaches to research, knowledge creation, and education through the prism of “disciplinarity” and “interdisciplinarity.” Having also explored in brief a range of alternative and competing conceptual approaches, terminology, and typology, including “multidisciplinarity,” “systems theory,” “multiliteracies,” and “anti-disciplinarity,” the overall synthesis appears to converge around two important conclusions: (1) given some overlap between concepts, there appears to be no unified view around how the abovementioned disciplinary approaches might be conclusively defined, classified, or delineated from other similar conceptualizations; and (2) given the magnitude of complexity and interconnectivity inherent in the world today (which impinges on both the world of “things” and “ideas”), there appears to be much need (and much scope) for more interdisciplinary scholarly work. This notion is supported by research (Epstein 2019). In today’s complex and globalized world, generalism seemingly trumps specialism: “in most fields – especially those that are complex and unpredictable – generalists, not specialists, are primed to excel . . . by sampling widely, gaining a breadth of experiences, taking detours, experimenting relentlessly, juggling many interests – in other words, by developing range” (Epstein 2019, p. 342). In synthesis, progressively people need to know “a little about a lot,” rather than “a lot about very little.” Even so, despite the overall compelling case for more

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interdisciplinarity (in life as in research), a look at contemporary higher education curricula, e.g., in the United States, reveals that “few are interdisciplinary” (Hite and Seitz 2016, p. 293). Similarly, meta-analytical research in UN Human Development Reports suggests enduring interdisciplinary blind spots (Luetz and Walid 2019). There is therefore a sense that greater efforts are needed to implement interdisciplinarity in mainstream contemporary research practice. To conclude, the authors of this entry would like to complement Nissani’s (1995) abovementioned “homely metaphor of mixing fruits” (p. 124) with the analogy of a symphony orchestra that brings solo specialists together “to act in concert.” Gardner (2016) has described “solo specialists [as] people who have deep subject matter expertise, but haven’t had much reason to reach out and collaborate” (p. 14). In keeping with this image, while each expert instrumentalist has an individually significant contribution to make, grand compositions engage the entire orchestra to lead the captivated hearers in the enjoyment of concordant, mellifluous, harmonious, exquisite, symphonious, poetic, and graceful beauty – the kind that causes the music enthusiast’s heart to beat faster and eyes to fill with tears. This image, we feel, reflects interdisciplinarity at its best. Furthermore, there is also a sense that expansive challenges can only be met by enlisting the support of expansive multidisciplinary perspectives: Perhaps, global issues were born on the day, several decades ago, when the Earth, for the first time, had its picture taken. The first photograph of Earth, which was transmitted by a spacecraft, showed our planet surrounded by a sea of blackness. Many people seeing that photograph realized that the blackness was a hostile environment, devoid of life, and that life on Earth was vulnerable and precious. No national boundaries could be seen from space. That photograph showed us our home – one world – and called for us to have a global perspective in addition to our natural, and desirable, more local and national perspectives. (Hite and Seitz 2016, p. 2)

It would seem that this picture of our unitary planet Earth also aptly applies to the realm of academic interdisciplinarity. To conclude, to develop “global” solutions to “global” problems requires inclusive cross-cutting perspectives and

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extensive collaborative capacity. The SDGs exemplify this global problem-solution fit, thus rendering interdisciplinarity incontrovertibly indispensable.

Cross-References ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals Acknowledgments Grateful acknowledgment for essential support is made to the University of New South Wales (UNSW), the development organization World Vision International (WVI), the Australian Research Council, as well as the musical instrument company Yamaha.

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575 Haslam PA, Schafer J, Beaudet P (eds) (2009) Introduction to international development: approaches, actors, and issues. Oxford University Press, Oxford Hite KA, Seitz JL (2016) Global issues: an introduction, 5th edn. Wiley, Oxford Ito J (2014) Antidisciplinary. MIT Media Lab Blog, 2 October 2014. https://doi.org/10.31859/20141002.1939 Ito J (2016) Design and science. J Des Sci. https://doi.org/ 10.21428/f4c68887 Ito J (2017) The antidisciplinary approach. Res Technol Manag 60(6):22–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/089563 08.2017.1373047 Johnson Butterfield AK, Korazim-Körösy Y (2007) Interdisciplinary community development: international perspectives. Routledge, New York Kant I (1784) Answering the question: what is enlightenment? (Orig. in German: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?). Essay Kapoor D, Shizha E (eds) (2010) Indigenous knowledge and learning in Asia/Pacific and Africa: perspectives on development, education and culture. Palgrave Macmillan, New York Klein JT (1990) Interdisciplinarity. Wayne State University, Detroit Luetz JM (2013) Climate migration: preparedness informed policy opportunities identified during field research in Bolivia, Bangladesh and Maldives. PhD dissertation, University of New South Wales. http://handle.unsw. edu.au/1959.4/52944. Accessed 7 Sept 2019 Luetz JM (2017) Climate change and migration in the Maldives: some lessons for policy makers. In: Leal Filho W (ed) Climate change adaptation in Pacific countries. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 35–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50094-2_3 Luetz JM (2018) Climate change and migration in Bangladesh: empirically derived lessons and opportunities for policy makers and practitioners. In: Leal Filho W, Nalau J (eds) Limits to climate change adaptation. Springer, Cham, pp 59–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-64599-5_5 Luetz JM (2019a) Climate refugees: why measuring the immeasurable makes sense beyond measure. In: Leal Filho W, Marisa Azul A, Brandli L, Gökcin Özuyar P, Wall T (eds) Climate action. Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Earth and environmental science. Springer, Cham, pp 1–14. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-319-71063-1_81-1 Luetz JM (2019b) Over-researching migration ‘hotspots’? Ethical issues from the Carteret Islands. Forced Migr Rev 61:20–22. The Ethics Issue (June 2019), Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford. https://www. fmreview.org/ethics/luetz Luetz JM, Havea PH (2018) “We’re not refugees, We’ll stay here until we die!” – climate change adaptation and migration experiences gathered from the Tulun and Nissan atolls of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea. In: Leal Filho W (ed) Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies for coastal communities. Springer, Cham, pp 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70703-7_1

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576 Luetz JM, Merson J (2019) Climate change and human migration as adaptation: conceptual and practical challenges and opportunities. In: Filho WL, Azul AM, Brandli L, Özuyar PG, Wall T (eds) Climate action. Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Earth and environmental science. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-71063-1_46-1 Luetz JM, Walid M (2019) Social responsibility versus sustainable development in United Nations policy documents: a meta-analytical review of key terms in human development reports. In: Leal Filho W (ed) Social responsibility and sustainability – how businesses and organizations can operate in a sustainable and socially responsible way. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 301–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03003562-4_16 Luetz JM, Buxton G, Bangert K (2018) Christian theological, hermeneutical and eschatological perspectives on environmental sustainability and creation care – the role of holistic education. In: Luetz JM, Dowden T, Norsworthy B (eds) Reimagining Christian education – cultivating transformative approaches. Springer Nature, Singapore, pp 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-98113-0851-2_4 Luetz JM, Bergsma C, Hills K (2019a) The poor just might be the educators we need for global sustainability – a manifesto for consulting the unconsulted. In: Leal Filho W, Consorte McCrea A (eds) Sustainability and the humanities. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 115–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95336-6_7 Luetz JM, Margus R, Prickett B (2019b) Human behaviour change for sustainable development – perspectives informed by psychology and neuroscience. In: Leal Filho W, Marisa Azul A, Brandli L, Gökcin Özuyar P, Wall T (eds) Quality education. Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer Nature, Cham Mills K (2016) Literacy theories for the digital age: social, critical, multimodal, spatial, material and sensory lenses. Multilingual Matters, Bristol National Science Foundation (NSF) (n.d.) What is interdisciplinary research? https://www.nsf.gov/od/ oia/additional_resources/interdisciplinary_research/de finition.jsp. Accessed 29 Jun 2019 Nissani M (1995) Fruits, salads, and smoothies: a working definition of interdisciplinarity. J Educ Thought/Revue De La Pensée Éducative 29(2):121–128. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23767672 Piguet É (2013) From “primitive migration” to “climate refugees”: the curious fate of the natural environment in migration studies. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 103(1):148–162 Poole-Warren L (2014) Walking on eggshells: navigating interdisciplinary graduate research in Australia. Conference Paper. Eighth Strategic Leaders Global Summit. https://cgsnet.org/ckfinder/userfiles/files/Poo le-Warren_P1_2014_Global_Summit_web_proceedin gs.pdf. Accessed 1 July 2019 Post R (2009) Debating disciplinarity. Crit Inq 35 (4):749–770

Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research Punch KF (2014) Introduction to social research: quantitative and qualitative approaches, 3rd edn. SAGE, Thousand Oaks Raymond CM, Fazey I, Reed MS, Stringer LC, Robinson GM, Evely AC (2010) Integrating local and scientific knowledge for environmental management. J Environ Manag 91(8):1766–1777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvman.2010.03.023 Roberson R (2016) Enlightened piety during the age of benevolence: the Christian knowledge movement in the British Atlantic world. Church Hist 85(2):246. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009640716000391 Röling NG, Jiggins J (1998) The ecological knowledge system. In: Röling NG, Wagemakers MAE (eds) Facilitating sustainable agriculture: participatory learning and adaptive management in times of environmental uncertainty. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Scientific American (2008) The key to great sax, JR Minkel, 7 Feb 2008 Shumway DR, Messer-Davidow E (1991) Disciplinarity: an introduction. Poet Today 12(2):201–225 Slingerland E, Collard M (eds) (2012) Creating consilience: integrating the sciences and the humanities. Oxford University Press, Oxford Smil V (2017) Energy and civilization: a history. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA Stevenson A (ed) (2010) Oxford dictionary of English, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford Sull D, Eisenhardt KM (2015) Simple rules: how to thrive in a complex world. John Murray/Hachette, London Tacoli C (2009) Crisis or adaptation? Migration and climate change in a context of high mobility. Environ Urban 2(2):513–525 The Guardian (2015) Climate refugees: the communities displaced by global warming. UNSW produced video documentary, 4:24 mins, series: catastrophic science (climate change), 6 Aug 2015. http://gu.com/p/4ba7t/sbl The New London Group (1996) A pedagogy of multiliteracies: designing social futures. Harv Educ Rev 66(1):60–92 The New York Times (2008) The physics of Coltrane’s technique, Kenneth Chang, 12 Feb 2008 The Sydney Morning Herald (2008) Secrets of sax appeal revealed, Deborah Smith, 8 Feb 2008 Thomson O (2013) Climate change exodus looms. Climate migration by millions of refugees is coming. 5 Oct 2013. The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh. com.au/education/climate-change-exodus-looms-2013 1004-2uzls.html UK Telegraph (2008) Secret of John Coltrane’s high notes revealed, Roger Highfield, 7 Feb 2008 UNEP (2012) 21 issues for the 21st century: result of the UNEP foresight process on emerging environmental issues. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi. 56pp United Nations (UN) (2014) UN General Assembly’s Open Working Group proposes sustainable development goals. Press Release, New York, 22 July 2014. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/docume nts/4538pressowg13.pdf. Accessed 29 June 2019

Multidisciplinary Perspectives United Nations (UN) (2019a) About the sustainable development goals. https://www.un.org/sustainablede velopment/sustainable-development-goals/. Accessed 17 June 2019 United Nations (UN) (2019b) What are the sustainable development goals? https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/ home/sustainable-development-goals.html. Accessed 29 June 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019a) Discipline-based curriculum. UNESCO International Bureau of Education. http://www. ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-terminology/d/dis cipline-based-curriculum. Accessed 3 July 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019b) Interdisciplinary approach. UNESCO International Bureau of Education. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-termi nology/i/interdisciplinary-approach. Accessed 3 July 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019c) Multidisciplinary approach. UNESCO International Bureau of Education. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-ter minology/m/multidisciplinary-approach. Accessed 3 July 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019d) Transdisciplinary approach. UNESCO International Bureau of Education. http:// dmz-ibe2-vm.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-ter minology/t/transdisciplinary-approach. Accessed 3 July 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019e) Multiple literacies. UNESCO International Bureau of Education. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-ter minology/m/multiple-literacies. Accessed 3 July 2019 UNSW-Newsroom (2008) Guide to good sax, 8 Feb 2008. https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/science-technology/ guide-good-sax UNSW-TV (2008) Guide to Good Sax, Feb 7 2008, 3:05 mins. https://youtu.be/DaYMSAzfz5E UNSW-TV (2011) Bolivia: leaving the land: researcher Johannes Luetz takes us on a personal journey of Bolivia where people are leaving the land in droves. UNSW-TV documentary produced for 2011 Refugee Conference. 16 June 2011, 5:36 mins. https://youtu.be/ KBq2jNrD-yg UNSW-TV (2012) 2012 Three minute thesis ASPIRE award – Johannes Luetz; 4:07 mins, Leighton Hall, John Niland Scientia, UNSW Sydney. https://youtu. be/f9_RmUuBwmU UNSW-TV (2015) Climate migration: Bangladesh on the move. UNSW-TV produced video documentary with

577 footage filmed on site in Bhola, Chittagong, and Dhaka, Bangladesh. 18 February 2015, 28:56 mins. http://youtu.be/PBJeelgnadU White R (2008) Crimes against nature: environmental criminology and ecological justice. Willan, Devon

MOOCS ▶ Future Trends in Education

Moral Development, Sustainability Ethics ▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics

Multiculturalism ▶ Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities

Multidisciplinarity ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

Multidisciplinary Perspectives ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

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▶ Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices

▶ Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future

Nature-Based Education ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

Nonformal Education ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Neurodiversity ▶ Future Trends in Education

Nonformal Learning Neuroplasticity ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience

▶ Education for Sustainable Development Through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts

Neuroscience Nonstandard Education ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience

▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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Numeracy and the Education Value Chain Munirah Ghazali School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia RCE Penang@USM, Minden, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Definition of Numeracy This section discusses views on the existing definitions of numeracy and its related components. The discussion focuses on what it means to be numerate, knowledge and skills to be numerate, and the cognitive as well as affective factors related to be numerate. Numeracy is not a subset of mathematics, but they are interrelated. All numeracy is underpinned by some mathematics, hence the “basic mathematics” needed for every day or perhaps the basic building blocks of mathematics and involving a grasp of the interplay between mathematics and the social contexts within which it is used (Neill 2001; Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers 1997; Malaysia Ministry of Education 2010, 2011; Ministry of Education New Zealand 2012). Further, while knowledge of mathematics is necessary for numeracy (Neill 2001), having that knowledge is not in itself sufficient to ensure that learners become numerate. A numerate person has the capacity to bridge the gap between mathematics and the real world through their ability to choose and use the mathematical skills they have in the service of other things. The application of mathematics also relies on higher-order thinking, and students need to learn mathematics in ways that enable them to recognize when mathematics might help to interpret information or solve practical problems, apply their knowledge appropriately in contexts where they will have to use mathematical reasoning processes, choose mathematics that makes sense in the circumstances, make assumptions, resolve ambiguity, and judge what is reasonable (Westwood 2000).

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Among the basic mathematical knowledge that is required to be numerate include numbers, data representation, shapes and space, counting, measurement, spatial knowledge, and also basic mathematics operation. Numeracy in everyday life integrates the world around us as a mathematical world through examining numbers around us, matching, classifying, seriation activities, and pattern recognition. Evans (2000) further suggests that numeracy is not about the acquisition of even a large number of decontextualized mathematical facts and procedures but rather discusses that numeracy is about practical knowledge where practical should not be confused with low-level, “hands-on,” or procedural knowledge. The term “practical knowledge” here refers to knowledge that has its origins and/or importance in the physical or social world rather than in the conceptual field of mathematics itself. Numeracy is also defined as the ability to process, interpret, and communicate numerical, quantitative, spatial, statistical, and even mathematical information, in ways that are appropriate for a variety of contexts and that will enable a typical member of the culture or subculture to participate effectively in activities that they value (Evans 2000; Askew et al. 1997). Therefore, numeracy signifies the effective use of mathematics to meet the general demands of life at home, in paid work, and for participation in community and civic life (Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers 1997; Kemp and Hogan 2000; Van Groenestijn 2000; Evans 2000). Numeracy does not specifically describe cognitive ability alone; rather, numeracy also involves a confidence and competence with numbers and measures (DfEE 1998) as well as intuition and experience whenever mathematical knowledge and its understanding are needed in everyday life (Department of Education and the Arts Tasmania, 1995). Therefore, attitude is also considered as one of the key aspects of numeracy, that is, the dispositions that support numerate activity: the inclination to make sense, to try hard, to persevere, and to see mathematics as fun and relevant (Kelleher et al. 2003). In summary, a numerate person has basic mathematical knowledge that encompasses the broad

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areas of numbers, measurement, and spatial knowledge and is able to apply the knowledge in everyday life allowing him/her to participate in community and civic life. Being numerate also involves confidence and competence and an attitude to make sense and persevere in experiences involving numerical situations (Munirah Ghazali and Abdul Razak 2014).

Introduction: SDG 4 and Numeracy Goal 4 aims to ensure that all people have access to quality education and lifelong learning opportunities. The Goal focuses on the acquisition (United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) 2016) of foundational and higher-order skills at all stages of education and development; greater and more equitable access to quality education at all levels as well as technical and vocational education and training (TVET); and the knowledge, skills, and values needed to function well and contribute to society. Numeracy is given special attention in Target 4.6 which states that: By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy. Indicator 4.6.1: Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills. Fundamental skills provide a solid foundation to young people for further learning throughout their life (United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) 2016). SDG 4 touches on one of the most important areas, inclusive and quality education. The target to ensure that all people have access to completely free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education will be a catalyst in strengthening the capacity building, required for other SDG indicators in the future. A focus on quality early childhood development, care, and pre-primary education (United Nations 2016) is an effort to improve the education value chain from the very earliest stage. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) raised concern that 617 million children and adolescents worldwide – 6 out of 10 – are not reaching minimum proficiency levels in reading and

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mathematics. Consequently, millions of youth and adults are unable to play their full part in the social and economic life of their communities and nations because they lack the skills to read or write a simple sentence or make a simple calculation. Quality education should lead to the acquisition of fundamental skills, such as literacy and numeracy, and higherlevel skills. The end of lower secondary school often coincides with the end of compulsory education. By this stage, students should be able to master subject-related knowledge and skills, possess personal and social skills, and have a solid foundation for further learning throughout life (Montoya 2018). As such, skills in numeracy are key determinants of success in schooling, in postsecondary education, and, increasingly, in the workforce. The early years provide the foundation for numeracy skills. For many of the students who do not reach an acceptable standard in numeracy during their school years, this has meant years of school failure, unhappiness, and low self-esteem and increasingly resulted in their being unemployable and denied opportunities throughout their lives. Number Sense Another important concept related to numeracy is number sense. Number sense refers to students’ general understanding of whole numbers, number operations, and number relations as well as to their inclination and cognitive ability to use this understanding in their daily life inside and outside the classroom. The development of number sense is a strong predictor of children’s later mathematics achievements in school. Number Sense and Numeracy Number sense is also a related concept to numeracy. Number sense focuses on the general understanding of numbers and operations, along with the ability and inclination to use this understanding in flexible ways to make mathematical judgments and to develop useful and efficient strategies for managing numerical situations. Numeracy on the other hand does not imply mastering of numbers and basic operations alone (Fleer and Raban 2007); rather it encompassed the broad areas of measurement, spatial knowledge, and the many different aspects of number.

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The ability to subitize small quantities, discern number patterns, compare numerical magnitudes and estimate quantities, count, and perform simple number transformations is key element of number sense in young children. These foundational aspects of number sense are important for the development of higher-order mathematical thinking (e.g., fluency and flexibility with operations and procedures). Number sense has been defined in different ways but is generally thought to include a capacity to work flexibly with numbers, to compare, to recognize patterns, and to solve problems. Griffin (2004) suggests that specific number sense content for the typical five-year-old comprises: • Knowing that numbers indicate quantity and thus have a magnitude • Understanding and using relative terms such as “more,” “less,” “bigger,” and “smaller” • Knowing that numbers in the counting sequence have a fixed position • Understanding the sequence of numbers, for example, that three comes before four • Knowing that higher numbers reflect greater quantities and four is greater than three • Knowing that each count term represents a unit increase (Griffin 2004, p. 174) Most children develop number sense before they receive formal instruction in elementary school.

Numeracy at Early Age Children begin to develop informal understanding of many numeracy concepts before they start learning mathematics at school. Therefore, everyday activities such as doing house chores, having family dinners, going out on holiday trips, and shopping could meaningfully contribute toward the development of children’s numeracy. Activities such as sitting at the dinner table can provide opportunity for children to learn about one-to-one correspondence, helping mothers in the kitchen could expose them to fractions, and going to the grocery store could be a good prospect to venture

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into numeracy. Researchers in mathematics education have advocated that early numeracy skills affect school mathematics achievement. It is, therefore, important to understand the development of preschoolers’ numeracy skills to support and motivate children’s learning of mathematics appropriately. Longitudinal studies showed that numeracy skills in kindergarten children highly predict their performance at the end of Grade 1 and Grade 2 (Aunola et al. 2004). An important implication here is that young children’s experiences at home or preschool should not be taken lightly because these experiences would function as the foundation for mathematical learning in school. The next section will discuss some of the early numeracy components and activities that parents and teachers can do with children to promote their numeracy development. Numbers Young children experience many situations involving numbers that promote the development of their number skills, for example, making the right number of sandwiches for tea or cutting a cake in equal portions. Other activities include but not limited to counting, cooking, managing money, gardening, and building things. Numbers are also part of many games, hobbies, and sports. Matching Matching one to one is the ability to map an object to a specific object or person, that is, the idea that an object can be connected to other objects. There are a variety of activities that can be developed, for example: • Give a piece of number card to each child. Place another card, and ask a child with a matching card to jump, clap, or do an action. Continue until all the numbers can be matched. • The “play dough” cake: make a cake using play dough, and then ask children to serve the cake to each of their dolls. Use a small number first. • A dozen eggs: prepare 12 plastic eggs, and ask the children to insert the plastic egg into the egg container.

Numeracy and the Education Value Chain

Classification Classification is the most basic skill for cognitive development, that is, the ability to identify a feature of the object and collect the object according to a particular feature that has been identified (Ministry of Education New Zealand 2012). The classification concept is basic to understanding the concept of numbers. A child can be classified as a boy or a girl. Furthermore, children can classify objects, people, events, and pictures by color, shape, and size. Children develop their current classification concept thinking about the question “How many?”. For example, provide a variety of objects of buttons, bottle caps, beans, and others to be classified by the child. Therefore, before the children could count, they need to know what to say, and classifying helps to identify what needs to be said. Examples of classification activity: • Use colorful blocks to construct blocks according to color patterns: blue, red, green, blue, red, green, and more. • Activities to classify clothes by color. • Use the basic form – encourage children to guess what shape will be used, for example, triangles, rectangles, and circles. • Ask the children to think and indicate all animals that can fly, swim, ride, lay, and others. • Activities with children looking for how much furniture/equipment in the classroom. Classify equipment according to the building materials, for example, the equipment made of wood, iron, plastic, and others. • Expand classification activities to involve more than one attribute, for example, classify equipment in a classroom that is heavy and small, round and smooth, and others. • Classification of blocks according to size. • Classification of crayons, color pencils, and pencils in containers to store. • Classify animals living in zoos and animals in the fields. • Look for a particular shape or color. • Classification of buttons, keys, coins, pastes, cloths, marbles, balls, stamps, postcards, bottle covers, snails, cereals, and others and why.

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Seriation Seriation is a process focusing on an objects’ attribute and compiling sets of objects by their attributes, for example, by size from small to big. Examples of seriation activities: • Children arrange plastic cups according to size when cleaning plates or bowls. • Children sit in the arrangement of boy and girl in the circle. • Build a graph of a favorite fruit of a child or favorite animal. • Hanging rope with various lengths. Ask the child to arrange the straps of the strings by length from shortest to longest and vice versa. Play-Based Approaches to Numeracy Play provides an important “context for learning” where children are able to explore ideas, solve problems, make connections, and engage with others. Play-based learning has a crucial role in the development of numeracy. Both literacy and numeracy are forms of communication, ways in which we represent and share information with others about our world. Because numeracy is an essential life skill, children need opportunities to use them (and to see them being used) in real-life situations. Worksheets and other “formal” teaching strategies tend to make learning abstract and dry (DEEWR 2009). Materials and resources that allow children to problem-solve and explore the world “mathematically” are therefore key elements in the development of numeracy. Blocks and other construction materials and puzzles offer opportunities for patterning and sorting. By providing the materials that encourage such play and by naming and drawing attention to what children are learning as they engage with the materials, educators play an invaluable role in scaffolding the development of children’s mathematical thinking. Play has long been regarded as a critical element of early childhood curriculum and pedagogy. Play has been described as a context in which children can integrate experiences and understandings, draw on their past experiences, make connections across experiences, represent these in different ways, explore possibilities, and

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create meaning (Bennett et al. 1997). In addition to being recognized as a vehicle for learning, play is described as a context in which children can demonstrate their own learning and help scaffold the learning of others (Wood 2008). Despite this, educators often struggle to explain what it is about play than promote learning and ways in which they can actively facilitate both play and learning (Ranz-Smith 2007). Play is often an inherently social activity. Vygotsky (1967) argued that even solitary play replicates social and cultural contexts, particularly in the rules and roles adopted by players. When play involves others – be they adults or children – opportunities for scaffolding (Bruner 1986) occur as children interact with more knowledgeable and experienced others. The social interactions within play facilitate joint meaning-making, as children test out, explain, and enact their perspectives and understandings, at the same time as they encounter those of others. Social interaction in play provides support for the challenges children often construct in play, creating opportunities for innovation, risk-taking, and problem-solving. Such interactions also underpin mathematical thinking.

Numeracy at Secondary School Level Numeracy at secondary school level is defined as the ability of individuals to identify and understand the role of mathematics in the world, to make judgments, and to use and engage with mathematics in order to meet the needs of an individual’s life as a constructive, concerned, and reflective citizen (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 2004). As such, numeracy is also related to other fields such as the fields of science, technology, arts, English language, health (Western Australian Department of Education and Training 2004), geography, physical education, music, and Islamic studies. In addition, numeracy constructs are also found in the fields of social, culture, history, and politics (FitzSimons 2008). In fact, numeracy also exists in real-life situations of an individual that consists of the daily life, work, social, education, and recreation (Awi et al. 2012).

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“Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies” (PIAAC) propose that the knowledge and skills of numeracy be used to determine the level of numeracy. Numeracy levels in this study were determined by the numeracy test scores. Numeracy test items were constructed with reference to the characteristics of the formulation in the framework of the numeracy item. PIAAC framework (2009) aimed to assess the numeracy skills of adult individuals to monitor their readiness to meet the challenges of the new world of information. PIAAC framework proposed scores obtained from tests numeracy between 0 and 500 can be categorized into five levels of ability: • • • • •

Level of ability 1: 0–225 (lowest level) Level of ability 2: 226–275 Level of ability 3: 276–325 Level of ability 4: 326–375 Level of ability 5: 376–500 (highest level)

A detailed description of the knowledge and skills representing numeracy of secondary level is given by the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF). There are six levels of SCQF numeracy. SCQF Level 1 only discusses on subjects of science, healthy basic cooking, office skills, and computer-aided learning (SCQF 2009). Discussion of mathematics in the SCQF framework started from Level 2 and above. Table 1 shows the description of the numeracy level according to SCQF 2009.

Parental Role for Children’s Early Numeracy Skills Many children arrive at primary school already equipped with an extraordinary understanding of the number system and how it works (Aubrey 1999; Wright 1994; Young-Loveridge 2004). More specifically, research has indicated a strong relationship between the frequency of early experiences and later performance in school mathematics (Blevins- Knabe and Musun-Miller 1996; Dearing et al. 2009; Jordan et al. 2009; LeFevre et al. 2009). Furthermore, the earliest stages of

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Numeracy and the Education Value Chain, Table 1 Description of the numeracy level (SCQF handbook 2009)

Numeracy level 1 (Basic)

SCQF numeracy level 2

2 (Low)

3

3 (Moderate)

4

4 (Intermediate)

5

5 (High)

6

Description At this stage, the individual has knowledge of concrete facts and the simple idea of the subject/field. The individual can do very routine activities in real life and use the very easy skills with some help. At this level, individual skill or knowledge is not enough to perform the tasks in order to achieve a goal At this point, the individual has knowledge of the facts and the simple idea combined with the subject/field. The individual can perform routine activities in the context of personal and/or daily in the world of real life and can use the skills to carry out normal and routine tasks. At this level, skill or knowledge is limited and requires some self-development in order to improve performance At this level, the individual has a basic knowledge of the processes, materials, and terminology in the subject/field, especially the facts and simple ideas associated with the subject/field. The individual also uses some skill and knowledge to complete simple tasks that are not routine in the context of personal and/or practical in real life. At this level, skill or knowledge is at the appropriate level to be achieved; based on real-life activities but those which are less exposed At this level, the individual has the basic knowledge in the subject/field, especially the fact with some theoretical components; knowledge and understanding of the basic processes, materials, and terminology; and a variety of facts and simple ideas related to the subject/field. The individual also uses a variety of routine and nonroutine skills in the context of personal and/or practical. At this level, skill or knowledge is above specified levels to be achieved. It is based on real-life activities but mostly are those which are nonroutine At this level, the individual has a general knowledge in the field of mathematics based on the facts and theories. The individual is also knowledgeable in the various facts, ideas, property, materials, practices, terminology, and techniques related to the subject/field using a variety of skills. The individual also uses a variety of routine and nonroutine skills in the execution of abstract ideas. At this level, skill and knowledge are very good, willing to serve as a mentor in developing other individuals. Based on abstract ideas or nonroutine activities in the context of the new context of the majority

learning numeracy are foundational for future learning and attainment of mathematics across grades (Baroody (2009)). In fact, current studies have found that a child’s performance prior to Grade 1 predicts learning of mathematical concepts up to high school (Duncan et al. 2007). Such researches strongly suggest that children’s experience at home or preschool form the foundation for mathematical learning in school. Children’s informal knowledge then in turn sets the stage for learning more complex mathematical skills and concepts (Baroody et al. 2006). Therefore, this research investigated and assessed young children’s numeracy to address the knowledge gap in learning numeracy at very young and formative age for the children. Student learning is typically affected most directly by the quality of opportunities for

learning that individual child receives. Both international mathematics comparisons and research with low-income children demonstrate that by first grade, children’s performance differs in different environments (Griffin et al. 1994; Mullis et al. 1997; Starkey and Klein 2000). Pritchard (2004) synthesized a number of studies that concluded there were links between parents’ attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs about mathematics and children’s attitudes and performance in mathematics. Goos and Jolly (2004) found that there has been little research on the nature of effective partnerships between school and home and the kind of numeracy learning they might support. Cai (2003) also highlighted the need to examine parental roles, especially with early childhood and elementary school children. This means that the preschool period may be an

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especially important time for examining the effects parents and preschool teachers can have on the development of children’s mathematical skills.

Cognitive Theories Underlying Numeracy A basic challenge in understanding children’s mathematical knowledge is to understand how children acquire number concepts. Children show numerical abilities long before language acquisition and formal education. It is widely believed that numeracy is founded upon an early nonsymbolic system of numerical representation (Feigenson et al. 2004). Numerical acuity is progressively refined throughout childhood, attaining adult’s ability in early adolescence (Halberda and Feigenson 2008). With language acquisition, children understand how number words map onto distinct numerosities (Wynn 1996), first in their counting range and then also outside of it (Lipton and Spelke 2006). Behr et al. (1983), Lesh (1981), Lesh et al. (1983) have identified five distinct types of representation systems that occur in mathematics learning and problem-solving as seen in Fig. 1. They are (1) experience-based “scripts” in which knowledge is organized around “real-world” events that serve as general contexts for interpreting and solving other kinds of problem situations; (2) manipulatable model-like arithmetic blocks, fraction bars, number lines, etc., in which the “elements” in the system have little meaning per se but the “built-in” relationships and operations fit many everyday situations; (3) pictures or diagrams-static figural models that, like manipulatable models, can be internalized as “images”; (4) spoken languages including specialized sub-languages related to domains like logic, etc.; (5) written symbols which, like spoken languages, can involve specialized sentences and phrases (X + 3 = 7, A’UB’ = (AnB)’) as well as normal sentences and phrases. Researchers draw strong connections between the representation children use and their

static pictures

written symbols

manipulative models

real scripts

spoken language

Numeracy and the Education Value Chain, Fig. 1 Representations and connections (Behr et al. 1983; Lesh 1981; Lesh et al. 1983)

understanding. Janvier (1987) describes understanding as a “cumulative process mainly based upon the capacity of dealing with an ‘ever enriching’ set of representations.” Furthermore, representations are considered as a means in the formation of conceptual understanding. The ability to move smoothly between various representations of the same concept is seen as an indication of conceptual understanding and also as a goal for instruction (Lesh et al. 1987). Moreover, according to Kaput (1991), possessing an abstract mathematical concept is better regarded as a notationally rich web of representations and applications.

Conclusion Numeracy can be summarized as the ability to understand and work with numbers. Students become numerate as they develop the capacity to recognize and understand the role of mathematics in the world around them as well as the confidence, willingness, and ability to apply mathematics in their lives in ways that are constructive and meaningful. Since the skills are predictive of children’s future school achievement, it is therefore important to nurture the

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development of these skills and competencies from young through everyday activities and through play. Understanding the development of numeracy can provide educators and teachers with the tools they need to nurture mathematical thinking.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being ▶ Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 ▶ Secondary Education for Sustainable Development

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587 Baroody AJ, Lai M, Mix KS (2006) The development of young children’s early number and operation sense and its implications for early childhood education. In: Spodek B, Saracho ON (eds) Handbook of research on the education of young children, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, pp 135–152 Behr M, Lesh R, Post T, Silver E (1983) Rational number concepts. In: Lesh R, Landau M (eds) The acquisition of mathematical concepts and processes. Academic, New York Bennett N, Wood L, Rogers S (1997) Teaching through play: teachers’ thinking and classroom practice. Open University Press, Buckingham Blevins-Knabe B, Musun-Miller L (1996) Number use at home by children and their parents and its relationship to early mathematical room. Early Dev Parenting 5(1):35–45 Bruner J (1986) Actual minds: possible worlds. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Cai J (2003) What research tells us about teaching mathematics through problem solving? In: Lester FK (ed) Teaching mathematics through problem solving: prekindergarten – grade 6. NCTM, Reston, pp 241–253 Dearing E, McCartney K, Taylor BA (2009) Does higher quality early child care promote low-income children’s math and reading achievement in middle childhood? Child Dev 80:1329–1349. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-8624.2009.01336.x DEEWR (2009) Belonging, being and becoming: the early years learning framework for Australia. DEEWR, Canberra DfEE (1998) The implementation of national numeracy strategy: The final report of numeracy task force. Department for Education and Employment, Sudbury Duncan GJ, Dowsett CJ, Claessens A, Magnuson K, Huston AC, Klebanov P et al (2007) School readiness and later achievement. Dev Psychol 43(6):1428–1446 Evans J (2000) Adults’ mathematical thinking and emotions: a study of numerate practices. RoutledgeFalmer, London Feigenson L, Dehaene S, Spelke E (2004) Core system of number. Trends Cogn Sci 8:307–314 FitzSimons GE (2008) A comparison of mathematics, numeracy, and functional mathematics: what do they mean for adult numeracy practitioners? Adult Learning 19(3–4):8–11 Fleer M, Raban B (2007) Early childhood literacy and numeracy: building good practice. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra Goos M, Jolly L (2004) Building partnerships with families and communities to support children’s numeracy learning. In: Putt I, Faragher R, McLean M (eds) Mathematics education for the third millenium: towards 2010. Proceedings of the 27th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Townsville. MERGA, Sydney, pp 279–286

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588 Griffin S (2004) Building number sense with number worlds: a mathematics program for young children. Early Child Res Q 19(1):173–180 Griffin S, Case R, Sieger R (1994) Rightstart: providing the central conceptual prerequisites for first formal learning of arithmetic to students at risk for school failure. In: McGilly K (ed) Classroom lessons: integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 25–49 Halberda J, Feigenson L (2008) Developmental change in the acuity of the “number sense”: the approximate number system in 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds and adults. Dev Psychol 44:1457–1465 Janvier C (1987) Representations and understanding: the notion of function as an example. In: Janvier C (ed) Problems of representations in the learning and teaching of mathematics. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, pp 67–73 Jordan NC, Kaplan D, Ramineni C, Locuniak MN (2009) Early math matters: kindergarten number competence and later mathematics outcomes. Dev Psychol 45(3):850–867 Kaput J (1991) Notations and representations as mediators of constructive processes. In: von Glaserfeld E (ed) Radical constructivism in mathematics education. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 53–74 Kelleher H, Nicol C, Martin L, Anderson A (2003) Assessing early numeracy: BC early numeracy project (K-1). Ministry of Education, Province of British Columbia, British Columbia Kemp M, Hogan J. (2000) Planning for an emphasis on numeracy in the curriculum Retrieved 16 Sept 2003, from http://www.aamt.edu.au LeFevre J, Skwarchuk S, Smith-Chant BL, Fast L, Kamawar D, Bisanz J (2009) Home numeracy experiences and children’s math performance in the early school years. Can J Behav Sci 41:55–66 Lesh R (1981) Applied mathematical problem solving. Educ Stud Math 12:235–264 Lesh R, Landau M, Hamilton E (1983) Conceptual models in applied mathematical problem solving. In: Lesh R (ed) The acquisition of mathematical concepts and processes. Academic, New York Lesh R, Behr M, Post M (1987) Rational number relations and proportions. In: Janvier C (ed) Problems of representation in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 41–58 Lipton J, Spelke E (2006) Preschool children master the logic of number words meanings. Cognition 98: B57–B66 Ministry of Education, Malaysia (2010) Manual Am Numerasi. Author, Kuala Lumpur, p 3 Ministry of Education Malaysia (2011) Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR). Matematik Tahun 1. Retrieved 17 May 2012, from http://kssr.bpk.my/dokumen_ nkurikulum/tahap_i/modul_teras_asas/matematik Ministry of Education New Zealand (2012) Develop numeracy skills in accounting. Retrieved from New

Numeracy and the Education Value Chain Zealand Curriculum Guides Senior Secondary: https:// seniorsecondary.tki.org.nz/Socialsciences/Accounting/ Pedagogy/Numeracy-skills-in-accounting Montoya S (2018). Meet the SDG 4 data: measuring youth and adult literacy and numeracy. Retrieved from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS): http://uis. unesco.org/en/blog/meet-sdg-4-data-measuring-youthand-adult-literacy-and-numeracy Mullis IVS, Martin MO, Beaton AE, Gonzalez EJ, Kelly DL, Smith TA (1997) Mathematics achievement in the primary school years: IEA’s third international mathematics and science study (TIMSS). Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy, Boston College, Chestnut Hill Munirah Ghazali and Abdul Razak Othman, (2014) Numeracy Studies in Malaysia in Sriraman, B. Cai, J. Lee, K. Fan, L, Shimizu Y, Lim, C.S & Subramaniam, K (eds). The First Sourcebook on Asian Research in Mathematics Education, China, Korea, Singapore, Japan, Malaysia and India. IAP Publishing, Charlotte, N.C. Neill WA (2001) Research gate. Retrieved from The Essentials of Numeracy: https://www.researchgate.net/publi cation/250752991_The_Essentials_of_Numeracy OECD (2004) The PISA 2003 Assessment Framework: Mathematics, Reading, Science and Problem Solving Knowledge and Skills, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264101739-en PIAAC Numeracy Expert Group (2009) PIAAC numeracy: a conceptual framework, OECD education working papers, no. 35. OECD Publishing, © OECD, pp 1–64. https://doi.org/10.1787/220337421165 Pritchard, R. (2004). Investigating parental attitudes and beliefs in mathematics education. In I. Putt, R. Faragher & M. McLean (Eds.), Mathematics education for the third millennium: Towards 2010 (Proceedings of the 27th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Townsville, pp. 478–485). Sydney: MERGA Ranz-Smith DJ (2007) Teacher perception of play: in leaving no child behind are teachers leaving childhood behind? Early Educ Dev 18(2):271–303 SCQF (2009) SCQF handbook: user guide. The SCQF Partnership Starkey P, Klein A (2000) Fostering parental support for children’s mathematical development: an intervention with head start families. Early Educ Dev 11:659–680 United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) (2016) United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). Retrieved from United Nations Statistics Division Web site: https:// unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/goal-04/ van Groenestijn, M.(2000), Assessment of adult students’ mathematical strategies. In I. Gal (Ed.), Adult numeracy development: Theory, research, practice. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press Vygotsky L (1967) Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Sov Psychol 5(3):6–18 Western Australian Department of Education and Training. (2004) Numeracy: demands and opportunities across

Numeracy and the Education Value Chain the curriculum. Catholic Education Office of Western Australia Association of Independent Schools of Western Australia, Leederville. Retrieved 7 May 2012, from http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/7B31EC08-F53D4B04-8F9B-716D29ADA5E0/4582/wa_brochure.pdf Westwood P (2000) Numeracy and learning difficulties: approaches to teaching and assessment. ACER, Camberwell Wood E (2008) Conceptualising a pedagogy of play: international perspectives from theory, policy and practice. In: Kurschner D (ed) From children to red hatters:

589 diverse images and issues of play. Play and culture studies, 8. Rowman & Littlefield Pub. Group, Lanham, pp 166–190 Wright RJ (1994) A study of the numerical development of 5- year-olds and 6-yearolds. Educ Stud Math 26:25–44 Wynn K (1996) Infants’ individuation and enumeration of actions. Psychol Sci 7:164–169 Young-Loveridge JM (2004) Effects on early numeracy of a program using number books and games. Early Child Res Q 19:82–98

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Definition

▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

The introduction of Open Educational Resources (OER) in the form of open courseware took place with the announcement of MIT in 2001 to put substantial number of courses on their website to be available to all for free. However, the term Open Educational Resource (OER) was coined in the Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware (OCW) for Higher Education in Developing Countries organized by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2002 that accepted OER as “Teaching, learning and research materials in any medium, digital or otherwise, that reside in the public domain or have been released under an open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution by others with no or limited restrictions” (UNESCO 2002). This definition promoted open sharing of the digital educational resources without much restriction on their use and reuse. The term OER evolved with the passage of time keeping in view the educational needs. Later on, the definition of OER was further improvised by UNESCO (2011) as “the materials used to support education that may be freely accessed, reused, modified, and shared which includes all those online educational objects which help in acquisition, processing, preservation and retrieval of information at a later stage.” The advancements in OER culminated in offering free online courses in the form of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Fini (2009) considered MOOCs as special type of OER. The term

Occupational Education ▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

Online Learning ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

Open Educational Resources (Including MOOCs) S. K. Pulist Student Evaluation Division, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India

Synonyms Digital learning resources; Digital resources; Educational resources; eLearning resources

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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MOOC originated from an experimental course titled Connectivism and Connective Knowledge offered by George Siemens and Stephen Downes in 2008 from the platform of University of Manitoba registering over 2,200 learners through the online portal (Downes and Siemens 2008). Pulist (2015) while claiming that the “OER and MOOCs go hand in hand and OERs can be considered as father of MOOCs,” defined the MOOC as “the method or model of delivering online learning content to the people who wish to gain knowledge at their own pace and without condition of marking regular attendance in a classroom situation.” On similar lines, Zhan et al. (2015) also defined the MOOC as “a course that provides free learning materials as well as learning support and instructional services for mass learners within a specific period of time.”

Introduction The OER and MOOCs are growing exponentially as a consequence to recent developments in ICT. This phenomenon has opened up new dimensions in educational pursuits accommodating diverse needs of the teacher and the taught in addition to those seeking common information. The OER can play an important role in feeding the MOOCs in order to make them affordable for the host institutions. While the OER can be adapted to different learning situations and their reuse and redistribution is also easy (Wiley 2014), the OER and MOOCs putting together extend huge educational benefits. The use of these educational resources by the teachers and the learning communities gives birth to pedagogical innovations that make the digital learning practitioners recognize the pivotal role of these resources in economizing the educational pursuits. The OER and MOOCs help in providing cost-effective quality educational products that can be disseminated to the users across the globe with the help of best known experienced teachers. They can help the mankind substantially in meeting the Sustainable Development Goal of providing quality education even to the unreached transcending the barriers of time and space.

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The educational needs of different strata of global society at different levels are the driving forces behind MOOCs becoming popular. The MOOCs have gained importance in recent times due to their potential use in reaching the masses in a cost-effective manner. Their development has aroused interest in the content that was not possible to be accessed by a larger population of the world till now (Bliss and Smith 2017). The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) (2017) observed that the MOOCs have been seen as an important agent of positive change in education. One of the important considerations for the MOOCs is that they have an edge over the conventional system of education since they are scalable and can provide educational opportunities to a large number of students at a time (UoP 2014). The catalytic potential of OER and MOOCs including the open courseware cannot be undermined, since with their use, it is possible to extend the opportunities for quality education at a broader level. The MOOCs can help the educational institutions in reaching the masses with relevant programs well founded in local context and fulfill the educational needs that could further boost overall development at mass level. These characteristics empower the MOOCs to be capable of meeting the growing educational needs for the future. The MOOCs bring quality to the educational endeavors for universalization of education that makes it a global phenomenon in true sense. The current chapter studies the potential of these digital resources in the light of fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goal to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO 2016).

Policy Perspective The educational institutions and governments of the states have become more conscious about the potential uses of OER and MOOCs due to spread, availability, and use of ICT devices. As Miao et al. (2016) put it “the full potential of OER and their MOOC offspring can be realised with executive commitments and the approval of strong open

Open Educational Resources (Including MOOCs)

education policies, along with the implementation of appropriate technologies.” COL (2017) has reported that more governments have now come forward to adopt OER policy at national level for development and promotion of OER. Consequently, more and more of such initiatives have been seen during the last few years. As observed by COL (2017), while the institutional ethos and inclination toward use of ICT nurture and promote the implementation of OER, the governments of the respective countries also boost the mission through their enabling policies. However, the impact of their use and effectively satisfying the educational demands at different levels are yet to be proved with sufficient evidences. While UNESCO has been actively involved with the promotion of OER, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation through its Education Programme also has generously supported many projects for promotion of OER at global level (Johnstone 2009). The first World OER Congress organized by the UNESCO and COL in 2012 through Paris Declaration called upon the governments of states to make the educational institutions funded with public money release their digital content under open license so as to make them available and accessible to one and all (UNESCO 2012a). The OER are made available to the users under a schema of open licenses enabling them to use, reuse, adopt, and re-distribute these resources (Hassler and Mays 2015). The popularly known licenses are the Creative Commons Open Licenses that provide a legal framework to the educational resources released under the schema and guide the users as to how a certain educational resource could be used. The growing keen interest of the teachers and learners in MOOCs and OER and initiatives taken by the governments of states and individual educational institutions at global level are expected to pave the way for collaborative and cooperative movements in future (McGreal 2017). Yang and Kinshuk (2017) advocated that adoption of an Open Educational Resource/Open Education Policy at national level is crucial for promoting practice of OER since it will help the educational institutions to adopt an enabling OER

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policy as part of their institutional framework. This policy framework would further provide guidelines and guiding principles for development and sharing of educational resources under open license mechanism that will improve the access, equity, and quality of education with cost-effectiveness at national level. The OER policy at the national level should focus on related important aspects such as ICT infrastructure, educational learning resources, and teaching and administrative abilities (Kerres and Heinen 2015). Such a policy will help the educational institutions in “designing new pedagogical and didactic structures, and collaboration with partners across public, private, and voluntary sectors” (Yang and Kinshuk 2017). With a view to making things simpler, UNESCO (2012b) has provided a template of the national open education/OER policy that could be adopted by governments at national level without much modification. This has made many countries to adopt an OER policy for reaping the benefits of enhanced use of ICT and ever-growing number of repositories of digital educational resources.

Quality Assurance Quality of teaching and learning depends upon the quality of resources available in the form of technology, teachers, medium, and channel of communication including other subjective aspects like motivation, interest, and level of comfort of both – the teacher and the taught. The quality of the digital resources perhaps has become the greatest concern for the stakeholders with the exponential increase of these resources. Quality needs to be ensured not only in terms of content but also in terms of “local environment, culture, and pedagogy” (McGreal 2017). The OER and MOOCs can be customized to follow suitable approaches to learning keeping quality aspects in view so as to address the pressing local needs and contexts. Usually the information seekers think of the quality of the content available on the Internet before they make up their mind to use it. It is worth noting here that an automatic quality control mechanism functions in case of OER. The

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teachers and the educational institutions are the usual contributors of the OER. When they share their content as OER, they negotiate their privacy by putting their reputation at stake and offer their content to open scrutiny and review by the users (Albright 2009). This makes them conscious about the quality of their content that further forces them to adopt alternative mechanisms including peer review to ensure production of quality material. Consequently, the name of the content developer, be it individual faculty or educational institution, becomes the testimony to the quality of the resources so created. The reputation of the faculty and the institution becomes synonymous to the quality of the product. The same is true in case of MOOCs offered by faculty and educational institutions. However, as emphasized by Albright (2009), quality at times is a contextual construct since the content once considered of high quality in one context may not be taken the same way in other context. Therefore, the context and purpose of use of OER may have an impact on how the quality of the content would be perceived. The governments and educational institutions are concerned about imparting quality education at primary, school, and tertiary levels. The use of OER can prove to be instrumental for quality education if used optimally in open curriculum development at different levels of education (Tepe 2017; McGreal 2017). However, Albright (2009) is apprehensive of using the similar quality assurance mechanism for ensuring the quality of OER as is being used for the conventional higher education system since the digital content is dynamic in nature. He emphasizes the need to develop new models of assuring the quality of OER.

Opportunities The OER and MOOCs can help in transforming the learning environment for not only the students but the teachers as well, and thus, can be used to enhance quality of education in terms of content and teaching methods. The digital educational material including the OER and MOOCs not only has an influence on the teaching and learning practices of the teachers and students, it

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contributes to the professional development of teachers as well (COL 2017). It is possible to enhance the efficiency and quality of pedagogical processes and learning outcomes with greater use of OER. McGreal (2017) considered free exchange of knowledge at global level as an excellent opportunity for the OER since they provide useful resources of knowledge to the teachers and students. The digital learning resources can be used to create complimentary or supplementary educational pathways to quality education (McGreal 2017). They can be used by the teachers to compliment the content either already available in their text books or being delivered by the teachers themselves. As Bertini (2010) puts it, the teachers can use the MOOCs to enrich their program in a blended pedagogical curriculum design. The OER and MOOCs can be effectively used by teachers as part of blended learning in order to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in classroom setting. The OER and MOOCs provide an affordable alternative to the costly textbooks inaccessible to many of the students. Though, as pointed out by McGreal (2017), the OER content may not cost much to teachers and learners, it may cost time and development expenditure to the educational institutions that produce and share it with the rest of the world online. The optimal use of OER can effectively minimize, if not overcome fully, the issues of “poor infrastructure, poor libraries, and poor educational resources” (Dutta 2016). Inclusiveness needs to be the focus of MOOC movement in order to make it effective and enable it to play a crucial role in delivering courses at mass level. This inclusion could be on different accounts starting with infrastructure, access, language, and cultural ethos to contextualization and localization of content with situational relevance. The preservation and dissemination of indigenous and traditional knowledge that has accumulated with years of cultural experience and perseverance through generations are crucial for mankind. The use of OER and MOOCs can play an important role in preserving and disseminating this knowledge to the coming generations as well as to the rest of the world (McGreal 2017; Bertini

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2010). The local communities can work collaboratively for development of content that reflects the true ethnic color for posterity.

Constraints Though enough digital content is available on the Internet nowadays, the learners and educators find it difficult to use the material due to various constraints. The major constraints being faced by MOOCs today vary from country to country. The Conference held at University of Pennsylvania (2014) emphasized that the prominent challenges such as relevance of the content to the global perspective, language and cultural differences, scalability of resources, and access with low grade ICT infrastructure that are impediments in free and optimal utilization of digital educational resources need to be addressed before MOOCs are able to penetrate deep up to the bottom of the pyramid and cater to masses at international level. The top rated barriers in bringing the OER to the mainstream as highlighted by COL (2017) are “lack of capacity to access, reuse and share OER, inequitable access to quality content, language and cultural barriers, and lack of policy on OER.” More than its usage, the spread of awareness about OER calls for capacity building of the seekers in use, access, reuse, and contribution to OER. With a holistic point of view, the Paris Declaration (UNESCO 2012a) focused on the following constraints: • • • • •

Capacity of users to implement OER Language and cultural issues Inclusive and equitable access to OER Devising new sustainable business models Supportive policy framework

Hatakka (2009) pointed out various challenges that were connected with contextualization of the content such as scope of content, language, examples, mapping with curriculum, and suitability of the content to a particular context. Not only scope and language, the digital content itself should fit into the pedagogical methodology being used by

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the educators for transaction of knowledge to the students (Paskevicius and Hodgkinson-Williams 2018). However, this constraint leaves an opportunity with the instructor to experiment with new teaching methodologies and devise pedagogical models that could sustain the new normal. Pulist (2014) reported enhancing availability of digital material for different disciplines and developing OER culture in educational institutions among others as the constraints in promotion and implementation of OER. Cox and Trotter (2016) tried to combat the constraints by expanding awareness about OER and MOOCs, integrating them into institutional frameworks, and devising their sustainable business models. One typical challenge in promotion of OER and MOOCs especially in case of developing countries as point out by UoP (2014) is to provide the resources in very low bandwidth and minimal infrastructure. In order to partially overcome the constraints of access, connectivity, and ICT infrastructure, the OER and MOOCs should be mobile device compatible. The size and format of the content should be such that it can easily be viewed on smart devices eliminating the need of possessing personal computers and laptops. All educational resources available online do not come with a clear cut licensing policy that leaves the users in lurch whether to use the resource at all, if yes, what is the extent of restriction for usage (Amiel and Soares 2016). The lack of understanding of the copyright and open licensing mechanism and conditions of use of the online content are some of the other crucial contributors to the slow pace of OER promotion and development (Albright 2009; Czerniewicz 2016; Kapitzke et al. 2011; Muriel-Torrado and Fernández-Molina 2015; Paskevicius and Hodgkinson-Williams 2018). A study revealed that people undertaking MOOCs at Coursera predominantly were “educated, employed, and males” (UoP 2014). Rohs and Ganz (2015) also observed that MOOCs are often criticized for being accessed by the highly educated people rather than the deprived ones. Consequently, they are often blamed for enhancing digital divide among the educated and illiterate people and spreading unequal educational opportunities since digital literacy and ICT access

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are the pre-requisites to make use of MOOCs. Some other issues associated with effective implementation of MOOCs are “information overload, lack of local language support, and access to welltrained teaching professionals” (McGreal 2017). Focusing on digital literacy enhancement and capacity building programs, and removal of the constraints will help the OER and MOOCs in making substantial contribution at different levels of education in developed and developing countries.

Evaluation and Accreditation The emergence of MOOCs has enabled the students to register for a course at mass level. However, the mass registration of students makes it difficult for a teacher to assess their performance manually and give instant feedback. Consequently, this condition forces the institution to think of workable alternative assessment systems. At the same time, it gives an opportunity to the institution to devise new models of assessment, experiment with them, and choose the best ones that could assess the learning and achievement of the students holistically. Academically acceptable evaluation system is essential for establishing credibility and wider acceptance of the MOOCs (Chauhan 2014). The MOOCs though very famous among the teachers and students, are yet to develop an acceptable standard and mechanism for evaluation of student performance. As McGreal (2017) points out, the “future of MOOCs will depend on approaches taken by accreditation.” The assessment and evaluation of learning of the students should be carried out in such a way so as to get due recognition by the institution that are going to accept the credits so earned by the students. Albright (2009) is hopeful that the issues of quality and accreditation will be addressed significantly once the OER are properly established with the passage of time. The assessment systems currently in vogue are “peer review” and “automated assessment system.” In some cases the pattern of interaction and engagement with different online components

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by the student on the platform is tracked by the system for assessment. The automated assessment system has an edge over the peer review system to the extent that it gives instant feedback to the student along with grading on anytime and anywhere basis (Reeves 2000). As reported by Kolowich (2013), the peer-based assessment system also has yielded positive results. The learners can be assessed for the knowledge and skills they have acquired in order to recognize their achievement (Chauhan 2014). The alternative assessment system could be devised to focus on evaluation of different activities performed by the students as part of the evaluation process. Kop et al. (2011) reported that the students were given an assignment to prepare an artifact that was later evaluated for assessment purposes. At times, the text chats and video messages were also recorded for assessment purposes (de Waard et al. 2011). The Item Response Theory (IRT) based assessment system that adapts to the level and ability of the student is advocated by Baylari and Montazer (2009). This system adjusts the difficulty level of the questions based on the responses given by the student. Recognition of prior learning of the students that requires them “to submit portfolios followed by a summative assessment to demonstrate their learning for the purpose of certification” could be another system of student assessment (Conrad et al. 2013). This system can be used for both formative and summative assessment.

OER, MOOCs, and Sustainable Development Goal 4 The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 seeks to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO 2017). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2017) while emphasizing the importance and urgent need of attaining the SDG 4 noted that its achievement will not only bring transformation to the life of people around the globe but also make the journey of attainment of other Sustainable Development Goals easier. The 2nd World OER

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Congress held in September 2017 in Slovenia has viewed the OER as the potential contributor for fulfillment of the SDG 4 – quality education to all. The OER and MOOCs have become extremely important since successful implementation and optimal utilization of the digital learning resources will help the developing nations in addressing the issues of cost, quality, and equity (MacKinnon et al. 2016; Lane 2017; McGreal 2017). Similarly, in spite of different constraints, MOOCs with their scalability and quality content can prove to be boon for the educational institutions to work toward fulfilling the sustainable development goal of providing quality education to all (Haber 2014). Since the OER and MOOCs provide ample opportunities of quality education to the masses, they have got considerable attention and support from the governments and educational institutions globally. The institutions and governments have an overarching role to play in implementation and promotion of use of digital educational material in the form of OER and MOOCs for sustainable development. Perryman and de los Arcos (2016) while visualizing the important role of digital educational resources in achieving sustainable goal of imparting quality education to all, emphasized to (i) release the OER in different formats at the same time, (ii) develop communities of practice, and (iii) give priority to localize the resources already available by translating or customizing.

Way Forward The foregoing discussion tries to establish the potential of use of OER and MOOCs for providing quality education at global level. Trying to depict the future educational requirements, Daniel (2012) elaborated that “there will be a need for more than 80 million places for additional students internationally by 2025.” These additional educational places can be created with the help of optimal use of OER and MOOCs, among others. Their extensive use in education can make the goal achievable. As emphasized by Albright (2009) “increasing the pool of available experts and resources would

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lead to the production of better teaching and learning materials.” Considering reuse, revision, remix, and redistribution as the core principles for promotion of OER, cooperative and collaborative endeavors should be directed toward curating the available content for optimally utilizing the efforts already made in content development process (Wiley 2014). The OERu supported by over 30 educational institutions located in 5 continents that help the students in acquiring their certificates from institutions of repute is a successful model of cooperative movement in the areas of OER and MOOCs (Mackintosh et al. 2011). The MOOC and OER platforms such as Coursera, EdX, Open Content Alliance, Universia.net, China Open Resources for Education (CORE), etc. are the similar products of institutional collaborations. Providing lifelong learning opportunities to the people at global level is another area where the potential of MOOCs and OER can be tapped. However, COL (2017) is apprehensive of OER not being adopted potentially for offering MOOCs since by not doing so the providers will miss the potential of MOOCs in creating the educational technology infrastructure contributing toward social inclusion, gender equity, and special needs education. The MOOCs should become linguistically diverse and technologically accessible with use of content that is simple and reachable to audiences with basic level of education (UoP 2014). The experts at the Conference held at University of Pennsylvania tried to coin a different model freemium in order to make the MOOCs affordable for the educational institutions to produce socially, academically, and culturally relevant programs (UoP 2014). This model of MOOC delivery keeps the basic services for free while premium services such as certification are charged with some amount of fee. This can help substantially the educational institutions at the global level in developing a sustainable ecosystem for the MOOCs and bridging the gap at access and equity level through quality education. At the implementation level “enhancing awareness and capacity building of the functionaries, building communities of practices, setting

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quality bench marks, making the movement sustainable by developing cost effective business models and setting copyright and licensing issues” will be crucial for making effective use of OER and MOOCs in achieving SDG 4 of providing quality education (D’Antoni 2009). Development of communities of stakeholders in the educational institutions will provide a parallel support system to resolve the issues arising during practice from time to time. However, the use of OER and MOOCs for providing quality education should be researched further so as to develop workable cost-effective delivery models for meeting the diverse needs of the society in developed and developing world.

Cross-References ▶ Distance Learning: A Viable Option ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

References Albright P (2009) Discussion highlights. In: D’Antoni S, Savage C (eds) Open Educational Resources; conversation in cyberspace. UNESCO, San Francisco, pp 61–81 Amiel T, Soares TC (2016) Identifying tensions in the use of open licenses in OER repositories. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 17(3). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl. v17i3.2426 Baylari A, Montazer GA (2009) Design a personalized e-learning system based on item response theory and artificial neural network approach. Expert Syst Appl 36(4):8013–8021 Bertini G (2010, November 16) What can the Open Educational Resources movement learn from Indigenous Knowledge Systems? [Blog post]. https://gfbertini. wordpress.com/2010/11/16/what-can-the-open-educati onal-resources-movementlearn-from-indigenous-kno wledge-systems/

Open Educational Resources (Including MOOCs) Bliss TJ, Smith M (2017) A brief history of Open Educational Recourses. In: Jhangiani RS, Biswas-Diener R (eds) Open: the philosophy and practice that are revolutionizing education and science. Ubiquity Press, London, pp 9–27 Chauhan A (2014) Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs): emerging trends in assessment and accreditation. Digit Educ Rev 25:7–18. http://greav.ub.edu/ der/ COL (2017) Open Educational Resources: global report 2017. COL, Burnaby. http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/han dle/11599/2788/2017_COL_OER-Global-Report.pdf? sequence=1&isAllowed=y Conrad D, Mackintosh W, McGreal R, Murphy A, Witthaus G (2013) Report on the assessment and accreditation of learners using Open Education Resources (OER). https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/ 2013/8404/pdf/Conrad_etal_2013_Assessment_Accre ditation_OER.pdf Cox G, Trotter H (2016) Institutional culture and OER policy: how structure, culture, and agency mediate OER policy potential in South African universities. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 17(5). http://www. irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/2523 Czerniewicz L (2016) Student practices in copyright culture: accessing learning resources. Learn Media Technol 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.201 6.1160928 D’Antoni S (2009) Open Educational Resources: the way forward. In: D’Antoni S, Savage C (eds) Open Educational Resources; conversation in cyberspace. UNESCO, San Francisco, pp 161–169 Daniel J (2012, February 1) Invest in clicks not bricks. 5th eLEX conference. Hamdan Bin-Mohamed eUniversity: Commonwealth of Learning [PDF]. Retrieved from http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/ 11599/1096/2012_Daniel_Clicks_Bricks_Transcript. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y de Waard I, Abajian S, Gallagher MS, Hogue R, Keskin N, Koutropoulos A, Rodriguez OC (2011) Using mLearning and MOOCs to understand chaos, emergence, and complexity in education. Int Rev Res Open Dist Learn 12(7):94–115 Downes S, Siemens G (2008) Connectivism and connective knowledge [Blog post]. The Daily Archives. http://connect.downes.ca/archive/08/09_15_thedaily. htm Dutta I (2016) Open Educational Resources (OER): opportunities and challenges for Indian higher education. Turk J Dist Educ 17(2). https://doi.org/10.17718/ tojde.34669 Fini A (2009) The technological dimension of a massive open online course: the case of the CCK08 course tools. Int Rev Res Open Dist Learn 10:1–26 Haber J (2014) MOOCs. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA Hassler B, Mays T (2015) Open content. In: The international encyclopedia of digital communication and society. Wiley, Hoboken. https://doi.org/10.1002/978 1118767771.wbiedcs154

Open Educational Resources (Including MOOCs) Hatakka M (2009) Build it and they will come?–Inhibiting factors for reuse of open content in developing countries. Electron J Inf Syst Dev Ctries 37:1–16 Johnstone S (2009) Open Educational Resources: an introductory note. In: D’Antoni S, Savage C (eds) Open Educational Resources; conversation in cyberspace. UNESCO, San Francisco, pp 29–34 Kapitzke C, Dezuanni M, Iyer R (2011) Copyrights and Creative Commons licensing: pedagogical innovation in a higher education media literacy classroom. E-Learn Digit Media 8(3):271–282. https://doi.org/ 10.2304/elea.2011.8.3.271 Kerres M, Heinen R (2015) Open informational ecosystems: the missing link for sharing educational resources why ecosystems? Int Rev Res Open Dist Learn 16(1):24–39 Kolowich S (2013) The minds behind the MOOCs. The Chronicle of Higher Education. http://chronicle.com/ article/The-Professors-Behind-the-MOOC/137905/#id =overview Kop R, Fournier H, Mak JSF (2011) A pedagogy of abundance or a pedagogy to support human beings? Participant support on Massive Open Online Courses. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 12(7). http:// www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1041/ 2025 Lane A (2017) Open education and the sustainable development goals: making change happen. J Learn Dev 4(3):275–286. http://jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/arti cle/view/266 MacKinnon T, Pasfield-Neofitou S, Manns H, Grant S (2016) A meta-analysis of open educational communities of practice and sustainability in higher educational policy. Apprentissage Langues Systèmes Inf Commun 19(1). https://alsic.revues.org/2908 Mackintosh W, McGreal R, Taylor J (2011) Open Education Resources (OER) for assessment and credit for students’ project: towards a logic model and plan for action [PDF]. http://hdl.handle.net/2149/3039 McGreal R (2017) Special report on the role of Open Educational Resources in supporting the sustainable development goal 4: quality education challenges and opportunities. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 18(7). http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/rt/printerFriend ly/3541/4433 Miao F, Mishra S, McGreal R (2016) Open Educational Resources: policy, costs and transformation [eBook]. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002443/24436 5e.pdf Muriel-Torrado E, Fernández-Molina JC (2015) Creation and use of intellectual works in the academic environment: students’ knowledge about copyright and copyleft. J Acad Librariansh 41(4):441–448. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2015.05.001 OECD (2017) Education at a glance: OECD indicators. https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2017-en Paskevicius M, Hodgkinson-Williams C (2018) Student perceptions of the creation and reuse of digital educational resources in a community development-oriented

599 organisation. J Learn Dev 5(1):22–39. http://www.jl4d. org/index.php/ejl4d/article/view/253 Perryman L-A, de los Arcos B (2016) Women’s empowerment through openness: OER, OEP and the Sustainable Development Goals. Open Prax 8(2):163–180 Pulist SK (2014) Open Educational Resources: concept and practice in India. Jamia J Educ 1(2):93–102 Pulist SK (2015) Massive Open Online Courses: what, why and how in the Indian context. New Front Educ 48(4):15–28 Reeves TC (2000) Alternative assessment approaches for online learning environments in higher education. J Educ Comput Res 23(1):101–111 Rohs M, Ganz M (2015) MOOCs and the claim for education for all: a disillusion by empirical data. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 16(6). http://www.irrodl.org/ index.php/irrodl/article/view/2033 Tepe L (2017) The promise of OER – more equitable education for all. https://www.hewlett.org/promiseoer-equitable-education/ UNESCO (2002) Forum on the impact of open courseware for higher education in developing countries: final report. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/00128 5/128515e.pdf UNESCO (2011) Guidelines for Open Educational Resources (OER) in higher education. http://www. unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/re sources/publications-and-communication-materials/pu blications/full-list/guidelines-for-open-educational-res ources-oer-in-higher-education/ UNESCO (2012a) UNESCO Paris declaration on Open Educational Resources [PDF]. http://www.unesco.org/ new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/Events/ Paris%20OER%20Declaration_01.pdf UNESCO (2012b) A government policy development template to progress effective implementation of Open Educational Resources (OER): draft document. http:// www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ CI/CI/pdf/oer_country_policy_template.pdf UNESCO (2016) Sustainable development goals report 2016. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/The% 20Sustainable%20Development%20Goals%20Report %202016.pdf UNESCO (2017) Sustainable development goals report 2017. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2017/ University of Pennsylvania (UoP) (2014) MOOCs for development: potential at the bottom of the pyramid. Conference report. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Wiley D (2014) The access compromise and the 5th R. http://opencontent.org/blog/archives/3221 Yang J, Kinshuk (2017) Survey and reflection of open education policies. In: Jemni M, Kinshuk, Khribi MK (eds) Open education: from OERs to MOOCs. Springer, Berlin, pp 23–37 Zhan Z, Fong PS, Mei H, Chang X, Liang T, Ma Z (2015) Sustainability education in Massive Open Online Courses: a content analysis approach. Sustainability 7:2274–2300. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7032274

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Organizational Climate ▶ Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives

Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives Jeannie Trudel Christian Heritage College, Carindale, QLD, Australia

Synonyms Collective values and behaviors; Corporate culture; Higher education institutions and Competing Values Framework; Organizational climate

Definition Organizational culture consists of values, behaviors, beliefs and lived out policies, and defined practices and accepted behaviors in an organization. Sustainability comprises of actions that ensure organizational long-term survival and viability, preserve environmental resources, as well as increase capacity to resolve social and economic problems.

Introduction Education is recognized as a powerful means to create a sustainable society, and efforts through agencies such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have led to the charge for Education for Sustainable Development for many years (Cars and West 2015). The approaches to sustainability are varied

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across organizations and industries. Within the broad field of education, there are distinctions between higher education institutions and grade schools (from kindergarten to Year 12) related to regulatory requirements, structure, funding, and other factors which make it very complex to examine organizational culture and sustainability across all these educational institutions. Consequently, this chapter focuses on higher educational institutions and will briefly examine generalizations to schools. Universities and other higher education institutions (HEIs) are experiencing pressures to innovate, adapt to the changing environment, and address issues of sustainability. The requirements for cost efficiencies, accountability, affordability, access, new technologies, as well as increased competition have led to management strategies focused on market positioning and achievement (Altbach et al. 2011). As these institutions seek means to manage, adapt, and survive, attention has been given to studying organizational culture and efforts in incorporating sustainability within HEIs. Organizational culture first appeared in the academic literature in the late 1970s and gained popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, both in management and academia (Hofstede et al. 1990). It has been considered a critical construct in managing and improving organizational effectiveness and performance. Research on HEI culture determined that institutions have distinct cultures from each other (Kwan and Walker 2004). Older, more established institutions are more likely to be structured and rigid and less likely to be adaptive in their cultural orientation compared to the newer institutions. Further, culture in HEIs was linked to organizational success, governance (Chaffee and Tierney 1988), planning (Leslie and Fretwell 1996), and sustainability (Abbett et al. 2010). Schein and Schein (2017) explain that organizational culture and performance are dependent on both the organization’s capacity to survive and adapt to the external environment as well as the effective integration of internal factors and processes. Culture also impacts change processes and strategies. Change processes may be hindered if cultural norms are violated, while culturally

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sensitive strategies can strengthen those change efforts (Bergquist 1992). There is a widespread recognition that sustainability is important to organizations including those in higher education and that it has a positive impact on organizational performance. Higher education’s role in leading and shaping responses to global environmental issues was recognized in the 1990s (Hoover and Harder 2015). Universities train and equip future leaders in many disciplines, influence public policy, and contribute to the development and growth of theory and practice of sustainability. However, there is little agreement on the means by which HEIs themselves integrate sustainability throughout their organizations. Many agree that developing and fostering a culture of sustainability is key to this transformation (Galpin et al. 2015). Universities and other HEIs have been signatories to sustainability declarations, and many expressed commitment to sustainability principles over the years (Adams et al. 2018). Although these HEIs at their core are focused on advancing knowledge, there is little evidence that they are considered learning organizations since few contribute to sustainable development (Albrecht et al. 2007). That is a real challenge for HEIs: to model sustainable development and not just teach it. Further, there seem to be varying understandings of sustainability in higher education institutions to the extent that efforts to embed it have been inconsistent. Stephens and Graham (2010) identified the need to examine the processes of organization change in HEIs to increase understanding of both reflexive and cultural factors. The role of organizational culture in sustainability within higher education will be examined. Based on the literature, the cultural typology of organizations and the links to sustainability will be determined and insights provided for developing a culture of sustainability.

Organizational Culture According to Hofstede et al. (1990), organizational culture consists of the following

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characteristics: it is (1) holistic, (2) historically determined, (3) related to anthropological concepts, (4) socially constructed, (5) soft, and (6) difficult to change. Schein and Schein (2017) define the culture of a group as the “accumulated shared learning of that group as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration . . .to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, feel and behave in relation to those problems” (1990: 6). These self-sustaining norms and values (transmitted through socialization practices) and adaptive functions are complementary (Syvantek 1997). The collective norms, behaviors, values, assumptions, and understandings guide members in the achievement of the organization’s goals. Definitions of organizational culture encompass varied perspectives. Culture consists of both meaning and context within a specific group or set of people (Bergquist 1992). Culture is also conceptualized in terms of cultural strength and organizational effectiveness: a strong culture is one where there is high congruency between values and practices, both of which are associated with organizational effectiveness (Tierney 1988). Organizational effectiveness may be increased through the development and management of, as well as change in, organizational culture (Cameron and Quinn 1999). A study indicated that the common understanding of daily practices forms the core of organizational culture (Hofstede et al. 1990). Employees’ behaviors and common practices will reflect organizational values and beliefs. Congruence between organizational goals and individual employees is realized through the internalization of organizational values (Büschgens et al. 2013). Organizational culture operates on many layers: the whole organization, departmental or team, as well as the individual. According to Schein and Schein (2017), organizational culture consists of three levels. The first level consists of artifacts – visible and discernible structures (examples include the physical environment, dress code, technology and products, charters, organizational charts) and processes such as routines and rituals and how these are institutionalized. They explain that the second level is made

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up of espoused beliefs and values and the third level is taken-for-granted underlying basic assumptions. The visible level of culture is observable, measurable, and likely easier to change. Shared values are invisible and change resistant since these relate to deeply held beliefs. According to Adams et al. (2018), both of these levels inform the conceptualization of sustainability culture. These internal dynamics are affected by external factors that include economic, social, and political conditions and realities. Tierney (1988) observed that in the context of HEIs, organizational culture is recognized primarily during times of crisis management instead of leveraging it to improve institutional and management performance. Times have changed as a greater number of HEIs recognize the need to resolve challenges related to viability, affordability, and regulatory requirements. These challenges are exerting pressure on HEIs to adapt and change. It is important to consider organizational culture when implementing organizational change programs if failure is to be avoided (Linnenluecke et al. 2009). Various studies establish that organizational cultures in HEIs vary. The values, beliefs, and traditions of HEIs’ multiple stakeholders (leaders, administrators, faculty, students, board members, and support staff) form the culture (Bartell 2003). Additionally, within an institution, there may be many subcultures based on discipline academic groups, administrative staff, social faculty and student groups, and office locations (Tierney 1988). These cultures and subcultures guide and influence the decision-making processes of the institution. Subcultures may lead to fragmentation and division of organization into silos with varied values, beliefs, practices, and decision-making processes. Institutions with strong cultures are less likely to have subcultures because values are clearly understood and agreed upon (O’Reilly 1989). The age and size of the institution are also factors that determine culture. Kwan and Walker (2004) noted that established older institutions have hierarchical cultures that may make them more change resistant. They found that smaller institutions are more likely to have a stronger

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group culture. Resistance to change can be an issue in higher education. A number of institutions are so mired in their long-standing history and mission that transforming to a more adaptive, innovative, and market-responsive culture is extremely problematic (Burrell 2008). Studies of cultures in HEIs indicated that institutions with a supportive, proactive approach to goal and task accomplishment reported high performance (Kish 2016; Tharp 2012). In contrast, a dysfunctional culture reflecting low trust, insularity, and defensive behaviors was associated with a low-performing institution (Corry 2016). Research established that organizational effectiveness in an HEI is related to organizational culture (Cameron and Ettington 1988).

An Organizational Culture Framework Analyzing and assessing organizational culture is a critical initial step to diagnose and measure the performance and effectiveness of an organization (Colyer 2000). The analysis of culture can provide insights for organizational change plans and strategies. However, organizational culture is challenging to measure and analyze because of its complexity as a social and organizational phenomenon. Various organizational culture frameworks have been presented over the years. One of the early frameworks was organized around seven key areas in higher education: environment, mission, socialization, information, strategy/decision-making, and leadership (Tierney 1988). Although the framework provides a lens to broadly define areas for culture, it does not prescribe a typology or framework for organizational culture analysis or profiling. Bergquist (1992) describes four primary types of culture in higher education: the collegial culture is one that is faculty driven, with shared governance and focus on scholarly engagement. The negotiating culture focuses on equitable policies and procedures. In contrast, the managerial culture is about efficiency and fiscal responsibility, while the developmental culture is based on the growth of organizational members (personal and professional). Although the categories are

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Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives, Table 1 Competing Values Framework (Cameron and Quinn 2011; Cameron et al. 2014) Culture types Clan (collaborate) Hierarchy (control) Adhocracy (create) Market (compete)

Characteristics Smoothing activities, interpersonal cohesion, human resource development Rules, policies, procedures, reactive, mechanistic Entrepreneurial, innovative, acquiring new resources, proactive Achievement oriented, competition, proactive

differently named, there are some similarities with the Competing Values Framework (CVF) originally developed by Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1981). Both frameworks are based on the premise that patterns of behavior, activity, and values form the underlying structure of an organization. The Competing Values Framework (CVF) (as summarized in Table 1) was conceptualized as a means of identifying and classifying various aspects of organizations that function either in unison or in tension (Cameron and Quinn 2011). The CVF was empirically derived, validated in previous studies, and reflects organizational culture factors. Four types of organizational culture are identified: clan (collaborate), hierarchy (control), adhocracy (create), and market (compete) (Cameron and Quinn 2011; Cameron et al. 2014). These are organized along two dimensions that illustrate the competing values or tensions in organizations – internal versus external focus and flexibility and individuality as opposed to stability and control. Organizations favoring stability and control rely on rules and policies, supervision, and planning to ensure behavioral compliance. In contrast, a flexibility orientation is evidenced by reliance on socialization, peer pressure, and coordination through internalized beliefs, participation, and commitment of individuals to achieve goals (Zammuto et al. 2000). The clan culture is dominated by human relation values, with a collaborative approach and shared decision-making, emphasizing interpersonal cohesion, and internally focused. Trust, tradition, and commitment drive individual compliance (Linnenluecke and Griffiths 2010).

Flexibility/stability dimension Flexibility and adaptability Stability, control, predictability Flexibility and adaptability Stability, control, predictability

Internal/external dimension, time orientation Internal, short-term orientation Internal, short-term orientation External, long-term orientation External, long-term orientation

In contrast, the market or rational culture is achievement oriented and competitive and emphasizes efficiency and productivity with centralized decision-making and a long-term orientation. Individual compliance is through rewards for performance (Zammuto et al. 2000). A similar external focus is reflected in the adhocracy culture, but it is entrepreneurial, innovative, and flexible, emphasizing growth and resource acquisition with informal coordination. Ideology and significance of tasks are the motivating factors for compliance (Zammuto and Krakower 1991; Zammuto et al. 2000). The hierarchy culture is internally focused and exerts control through rules, policies, and procedures to ensure stability and predictability. According to Smart and St. John (1996), the clan and bureaucratic (hierarchy) culture types were predominant in HEIs through the 1960s and 1970s. Many private colleges adopted the adhocracy culture in the 1980s in their efforts to adjust to changing environmental conditions (St. John 1991). Higher education has become more commoditized and consumer driven; HEIs are forced to manage market forces that drive competitiveness, efficiency, and consumer satisfaction (Nixon et al. 2018). There are positives associated with each type of culture and orientation depending on the goals and strategies of each HEI. However, there must be alignment between espoused values and management practices for these benefits to be realized (Smart and St. John 1996). Zammuto and Krakower (1991) report that HEIs with hierarchy cultures are centralized in decision-making and

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reactive with lower trust and morale. Other studies indicate that the clan and adhocracy cultures (people oriented) are associated with more effectiveness criteria in HEIs than the market culture (competitive and goal oriented), and the hierarchy culture is the least effective (Smart and St. John 1996; Trivellas and Dargenidou 2009). Researchers have applied various measures of organizational effectiveness in the study of organizational culture. These include student, faculty and administrative satisfaction or development, system openness and interaction with community and external environment, institutional ability to acquire resources, and organizational health (Smart and St. John 1996). The findings from two studies on 2-year and 4year institutions, respectively, establish that those with an adhocracy culture are more effective in academic development and community interaction, that those with a clan culture are more effective on internal morale performance, and that those with a market culture have a high level of performance with the external environment (Cameron and Ettington 1988; Smart and Hamm 1993). In the context of higher education, the hierarchy culture is found to be the least effective in the areas of the development of academia and collaborating with the community (Cameron and Ettington 1988; Smart and Hamm 1993; Smart and St. John 1996). Organizational culture types are also related to change processes. A clan or collegial culture will engage faculty, staff, and other bodies in the change process, with collaborative leadership and participatory decision-making (Kezar and Eckel 2002a). Using the CVF, a culture profile of an HEI provides a basis for diagnosis and planning. The CVF is used to assess the current organizational culture as well as the preferred or ideal culture (Cameron and Quinn 2011). The comparison between the current and preferred culture will yield information that can be the foundation for strategic interventions and change. Additionally, the CVF will allow an HEI to analyze its culture and determine the extent to which that culture is congruent with its sustainability goals (Büschgens et al. 2013). Decisions can then be made in regard to pursuing the kind of desired culture in the institution.

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Culture is not static and may change over time as organizational members adjust to changes within as well as the external environment. This is evidenced by the number of HEIs that is reinventing themselves and changing from hierarchical to more nimble cultures (Nixon et al. 2018). The changes in the external environment with increased competition, reduced funding, and internal pressures to manage costs force HEIs to change. Such changes may include mergers. In a merger between two HEIs with a research-focused corporate culture and another with a collegial culture, the smaller institution with the collegial culture adapted to the corporate culture (Ribando and Evans 2015).

Sustainability Both corporate and academic entities have recognized that sustainability is important to their longterm success within their sectors and communities. However, there are widespread differences in the definition of “sustainability.” In the current context, sustainability comprises actions that ensure organizational long-term survival and viability, preserve environmental resources, as well as increase capacity to resolve social and economic problems (Dunphy 2011). This list of actions aligns with the findings from a global study (covering respondents from 118 countries) that indicated that economic, environmental, and social issues are significant sustainability issues (Kiron et al. 2013). In the context of higher education, sustainability is ill defined, complex, and difficult to resolve and involves multiple stakeholders. The sustainability journey for an HEI is classified as a wicked problem because it is complex and involves multiple autonomous areas in operations and academics (Adams et al. 2018). Further, the cost-benefit calculations are not directly derived, marked by numerous piecemeal initiatives, and there is a lack of clarity around the definition of a system and differing views on what constitutes sustainability. Sustainability involves making organizational decisions based on the criteria of environmental integrity in

Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions

balance with economic prosperity and social equity (Crittenden et al. 2011). In higher education, sustainability efforts have largely focused on technological and operational activities instead of strategic activities (Adams et al. 2018). Much has been written on specific initiatives and prescriptive cases with a call for universities to do more. This is evident in the reported principal domains for sustainable transformation of universities: technological solutions to sustainability challenges, integrating sustainability as a core strategic principle across the campus and curricular integration (ISCN Secretariat 2014). Others recognize that HEIs have been engaged in sustainability efforts relating to research, teaching, and learning activities yet realizing that organizational change is required (Barth 2013). A systemic and wholistic approach is needed where the change is at multiple levels. Galpin et al. (2015) advocated for a culture of sustainability model that incorporates sustainability into an organization’s mission, values, goals, and strategy, which are all integrated into the human resources value chain. The model is one that requires deep multilevel change. This process, more iterative than linear, will create and maintain a sustainability culture. The creation of new values and promulgation of desired behaviors require organizational culture change over a period of time. Adams et al. (2018) conceptualize sustainability in a dynamic model with various transformational stages where behaviors and values are aligned with principles of sustainable development. Significant progress in the integration of sustainability in HEIs will involve a clear institutional-wide vision, all stakeholders having an awareness of the need for change, resources committed for the process, as well as effective communication of progress to stakeholders (Barth 2013). If sustainability is an organizational imperative, it would be helpful to determine the type or types of organizational culture that would facilitate meeting that goal. What organizational typology would lend itself to culture change that leads to embedding sustainability in higher education?

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Organizational Culture and Sustainability Within the Competing Values Framework Organizational culture and successful sustainability initiatives are closely related (Abbett et al. 2010). However, much of the literature on sustainability and organizational culture, particularly in higher education, focus on steps for transformation to a culture of sustainability. There is agreement that such a transformation is a process or journey (Adams et al. 2018). It is unclear if certain types of organizational culture in HEIs are more open to culture change. Culture types may be linked to the adoption of sustainability principles. Adding to the complexity, multiple subcultures may exist within an HEI with varying attitudes and values on sustainability. For instance, staff from a subculture more focused on hierarchical and bureaucratic values tend toward an economic approach aimed at corporate sustainability (Linnenluecke et al. 2009). Different organizational culture types are also likely to have affect employees’ understanding of and integration of sustainability principles (Linnenluecke et al. 2009). Organizational culture may be changed over time by incorporating sustainability into its ethos, by transforming its cultural artifacts (Crittenden et al. 2011). These artifacts include visible and experienced structures, processes, and behaviors (Schein and Schein 2017). Values, ideologies, and beliefs are other dimensions of culture that must be considered when managing organizational change. Research demonstrated that successful culture change for sustainability depends on the values and ideology of the organization, impacting both implementation and outcomes (Cameron et al. 1993). Organizational culture serves as a means to foster innovation. Culture plays a key role in coordinating activities of organization members and therefore shapes innovation processes (Salvato 2009). Sustainability is considered an innovation for many organizations. An organization that is resistant to change will also be averse to innovation. Organizations with adhocratic cultures are more likely to seek and adopt

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transformational and innovative products, processes, and services (Cameron et al. 2014). Naranjo-Valencia et al. (2011) found that the adhocracy culture fosters innovation, while the hierarchy culture inhibits innovation. Applying the Competing Values Framework (Cameron and Quinn 2011), institutions more likely to adopt a culture of sustainability may be those that have the adhocracy culture since they seek innovative strategies. Further, innovative organizations are future oriented and proactive, so they are more likely to adopt sustainable practices. A study confirmed that organizations with an adhocracy culture are less resistant to change, in part because of their external focus (Chatterjee et al. 2018). This implies that organizations with a hierarchy culture that are internally focused and stability and control oriented are less likely to seek a culture of sustainability. Linnenluecke and Griffiths (2010) posit that organizations with a hierarchy culture will be more focused on economic performance and growth if they pursue sustainability. However, they recognize that without some degree of flexibility and openness to change, such a pursuit is unlikely to be successful. Organizations that have successfully integrated sustainability possess similar culture characteristics. These key culture characteristics include: 1. Trust/honesty/transparency (Benn et al. 2006; Stubbs and Cocklin 2007; Korhonen et al. 2004. 2. Collaboration/cooperation/teamwork (Benn et al. 2006; Rodriguez et al. 2002; Stubbs and Cocklin 2008; Korhonen et al. 2004. 3. Employee engagement/empowerment/involvement (Benn et al. 2006; Stubbs and Cocklin 2008; van Marrewijk 2004) 4. Innovation (Benn et al. 2006; Rodriguez et al. 2002. Many of these characteristics are interrelated. Without trust, it would be difficult to engage employees and have effective collaboration among and between teams. Innovation may be a by-product of shared ideas and collaboration, which involves a high level of trust. It is apparent that sustainability is dependent upon an

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environment built on the foundation of valuing employees and a high level of trust. The human relations characteristics of trust and collaboration are generally found in the collegial or clan culture as defined by Cameron and Quinn (2011). The clan culture is long-term oriented and emphasizes human development and morale. A high level of engagement and focus on career development was found to be associated with a higher level of innovativeness in an organization (Cameron and Quinn 2011). Organizations with the clan culture are likely to pursue sustainability with a focus on organizational learning and capacity building along with internal staff development (Linnenluecke and Griffiths 2010). This implies that employees are driven by ideology or social values and possibly noneconomic interests that would pose a challenge if the change is on the basis of business interests. Organizations with a dominant clan culture may seek culture change that fosters innovation if sustainability is a desired goal, basing the change on shared ideals and employee engagement. Since the clan culture is participative and cohesive, employees may be more susceptible to the negative effects of groupthink which includes limiting innovative thinking and openness to change (Hartnell et al. 2011). A market or rational goal culture emphasizes cost reduction and operational efficiency. Linnenluecke and Griffiths (2010) propose that organizations with a dominant market or rational goal culture will seek corporate sustainability from the basis of resource efficiency that supports value-add advantages and innovation. The external orientation reflecting market responsiveness indicates that sustainability may be pursued if efficiencies can be realized and competitive advantage maintained. The market culture is externally focused and therefore is more open to change than that of the internally focused hierarchy and clan cultures (Chatterjee et al. 2018). The market culture is one that is strongly associated with innovation. The Competing Values Framework can be used to assess an HEI’s culture and capacity for change. It is likely that those HEIs with dominant adhocracy, market or clan culture types may be better prepared for change related to sustainability

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under certain conditions as posited. HEIs with the dominant hierarchy culture may need more work to be change ready since they are prone to aim for stability and predictability rather than being flexible and adaptable. HEIs that are predominantly hierarchical have a strong focus on processes, rules, and policies which tend to resist change. In contrast, the market culture type is characterized by competition, achievement, and proactive activities all of which can encourage, or lead to, change for sustainability. There are always tensions between flexibility versus stability and formal versus informal orientations. Change strategies that allow for flexibility and contextspecific responses are more likely to succeed in HEIs (Hoover and Harder 2015). Organizational culture is critical to driving sustainable organizations: a consistent, shared, and clearly articulated set of uncompromising values related to sustainability must be evident (Avery and Bergsteiner 2010). From an integration perspective, a unified culture of organization-wide consensus among employees is assumed and considered desirable as it creates consistency in perceptions and actions (Zammuto et al. 2000). Realistically, HEIs are more likely to have subcultures, and organizational culture is shared at the group level. This differentiation approach informs the relationship between organizational culture and the pursuit of sustainability: the existence of different subcultures means that attitudes, values, and behaviors toward sustainability vary and may be distinct between groups and subcultures (Linnenluecke and Griffiths 2010). Efforts to develop a consistent culture of sustainability may be hindered by different subcultures in an organization. Recognizing that sustainability initiatives are more successful when they are developed and implemented in close alignment with organizational culture, HEIs will have to manage subcultures and work on developing a common understanding and set of values around sustainability. HEIs implementing change processes that violate their cultural norms and values will find their efforts thwarted (Kezar and Eckel 2002a). Ramus and Steger (2000) note that organizations that support employee involvement in environmental practices were more likely to achieve

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success. Employee engagement in the culture change process is critical. Developing a sustainability culture is a long-term endeavor and involves wide-scale change. Verhulst and Lambrechts (2015) warn that changes on a small scale (such as varying sustainability initiatives and projects) risk a return to the original culture in the different departments and programs.

Paths Forward Organizational culture is closely linked to sustainability in a number of ways including through successful sustainability initiatives (Abbett et al. 2010) and organizational sustainability (Russell and McIntosh 2011). Given the complex nature of organizational culture, effecting changes requires substantive effort. It will require changes to the decision-making framework of an organization and involve collaborative work on the part of the leaders, managers, and employees. Changing organizational culture to one of sustainability must incorporate opportunities for sensemaking at multiple levels: individual, group, and campus-wide. Sensemaking is a process where organizational members are given opportunities to ask questions, structure meaning around organizational change, engage in and accept new conceptualizations of the organization, and act on them (Kezar and Eckel 2002). Managing and changing organizational culture are at the core of successful organizational change. Ignoring organizational culture in change efforts places the organization at risk of failure in change management (Cameron and Quinn 2011). It is clear that a strong, enabling, communicative, and shared culture is required for a transformation to a culture of sustainability. Following Schein and Schein’s (2017) three levels of organizational culture, Adams et al. (2018) assert that a culture of sustainability grows as a result of persistent efforts starting at the visible level of culture and is likely to sprout in varying forms within the subcultures. HEIs seeking to become sustainable are encouraged to assess existing culture and determine if they are ready for change and plan accordingly. An institution that values employment security, conformity,

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and stability is more of a follower than a pioneer (Naranjo-Valencia et al. 2011). The question of what culture should be developed in order to foster innovation and sustainability must be addressed. Büschgens et al. (2013) stated that innovation strategies will take time to yield results and that an adhocracy (developmental) culture should be pursued only if innovation is a long-term goal. Further, change efforts must consider strategies and processes that align with the current organizational culture throughout the journey to sustainability. Working within the existing culture of an institution will in itself facilitate change (Kezar and Eckel 2002a). Continuous efforts to integrate sustainability into all areas of the organizational culture include strategy, capacity building, and financial resources (Verhulst and Lambrechts 2015).

Possible Implications for Schools (Kindergarten to Year 12) In the context of schools, organizational culture is also a key factor in approaches to environmental sustainability. Embracing sustainable behaviors in the daily activities of a school requires the support of organizational culture. Individual role models, governance, culture and school facilities, and operations along with strong communication efforts impact the behavioral and organizational change (Schelly et al. 2012). At the primary school level, governmental policy interventions have been effective in operationalizing sustainability goals across decentralized school systems as demonstrated in Sweden (Cars and West 2015). A common curriculum set of goals were developed, implemented, and supported nationally. Such a strategy would be much more difficult to apply in higher education. Ostroff and Schmitt (1993) validated the application of the Competing Values Framework to secondary schools: they found that those which rely on structure and control with an external focus are distinguished by efficiency. In contrast, schools with a people-oriented, flexible and internal correlate with effectiveness. They found that the person-oriented and internal process model plays a significant role in organizational

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effectiveness, but an overemphasis on people orientation negatively impacts efficiency. Further, schools that were strong on structure, goals, and rules consistent with the rational goal model demonstrated efficiency but lacked effectiveness. Schools may be more focused on effectiveness than efficiency as compared to business organizations (Ostroff and Schmitt 1993). If this is indeed the case, the proposed assessment model for higher educational institutions related to sustainability has similar application to schools. These implications present possible areas for further research across educational institutions.

Conclusion Organizational culture consists of shared goals and values that guide organizational practices and members’ behaviors. This chapter examined the concept of organizational culture types in HEIs in association with sustainability. The Competing Values Framework (Cameron and Quinn 2011) was used to explore the organizational culture types for sustainability change. The resulting cultural assessment and profile can help an HEI determine both readiness for change as well as the appropriate sustainability focus and strategies, moving it toward the goal of sustainability.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Future Trends in Education

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Participation ▶ Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education Sadaf Taimur Graduate Program in Sustainability Science – Global Leadership Initiative, Department of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Synonyms Education for sustainable development; Education to achieve sustainable development; Teaching methods for education for sustainable development; Teaching techniques

responsible actions to ensure economic viability, just society, and environmental integrity, while respecting cultural diversity. The aim of SE is to encourage the transformation of education so that it is able to contribute effectively to the reorientation of societies toward sustainability or sustainable development. In simple words, we can also define “SE” as education to achieve sustainable development. Pedagogy is referred to as learning processes and learning environment usually created/facilitated by teachers in the classroom. In simple words it is the act of teaching. SE requires the kind of learning which can explore the depth of things and brings about pragmatic shift – a shift from transmissive to transformative learning. To engrain this kind of learning, transformative pedagogies are needed. Only such pedagogical approaches can make the development of the key competencies needed for promoting sustainable development possible. For effective implementation of SE it is important for teachers to have with pedagogical knowledge along with the content knowledge, and therefore, it is vital to equip teachers with the right pedagogies via training.

Definitions Sustainability education (referred to as “SE” hereafter) prepares individuals to plan for, cope with, and find solutions for the issues that threaten the sustainability of our planet. SE empowers students to take informed decisions and

Introduction In this entry, the importance of pedagogical training for teachers to effectively implement SE has been discussed. The entry is divided into five sections. In

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the first section, research literature: defining sustainability education, teaching and learning for sustainability, and introducing framework of understanding teaching and learning for SE has been evidenced. In the second section, importance of pedagogical approaches has been established to effectively implement SE by engraining sustainability competencies to achieve behavioral change. Third section puts light on training educators on critical pedagogies of SE while discussing three critical pedagogies for implementing SE. Fourth section talks about some guidelines for designing teachers’ training on pedagogies for SE. In the final section, way forward to reorient teacher education to address sustainability has been discussed by highlighting some important aspects to be considered while designing and implementing pedagogical training for sustainability educators.

Sustainability Education (SE) Humanity’s unsustainable practices are evident as pollution, inequalities, illness, poverty, climate change, wars – all of which are complex, have high potential of damage, and need immediate attention. Hence, sustainability as an emerging field has been established to respond to these wicked sustainability challenges through transformational action (Grunwald 2004; Blackstock and Carter 2007; Talwar et al. 2011). Sustainability education (SE) also referred to as Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) empowers students to take informed decisions and responsible actions to ensure economic viability, just society, and environmental integrity, while respecting cultural diversity – for the present and future generations (UNESCO 2017). The aim of SE is to encourage the transformation of education so that it is able to contribute effectively to the reorientation of societies toward sustainability or sustainable development (Buckler and Creech 2014). According to UNESCO (2017), SE is about lifelong learning and is an integral part of quality education, which means that all education institutions from primary to tertiary education and in nonformal and formal education can and should accept the responsibility to intensively

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deal with the matters of sustainable development and to nurture sustainability competencies.

Teaching and Learning for Sustainability The aim of SE is to develop future leaders who can contribute to building a sustainable society (Onuki and Mino 2009); these leaders are also termed as “sustainability citizens” (Wals 2015; Wals and Lenglet 2016). To nurture such leaders, SE shall allow learners to construct, critique, and act with high degree of autonomy and self-determination (Wals 2011). Sustainability requires self-discipline and taking responsibility; thus, SE has a role in developing learners’ “dynamic qualities” (Posch 1991). SE is transformational and holistic that addresses learning contents pedagogy, learning environment, and learning outcomes. Thus, SE not only integrates contents such as poverty, climate change, or sustainable consumption into the curriculum, but it also requires interactive, learner-centered teaching and learning settings (UNESCO 2017). Providing information, raising awareness, and changing attitudes are not enough to change people’s behaviors (Wals 2011) as these models reflect an oversimplified form of reality that incorrectly assumes a linear correlation between knowledge, awareness, and behavior. Hence, for SE, there is a need for the kind of learning which can explore the depth of things and brings about pragmatic shift – a shift from transmissive to transformative learning (Burns 2011; Cress 2003). Transformative learning enables students to understand themselves (bringing in more autonomy) and their relationship to other humans and natural environment around them, and that is why this kind of learning leads to a paradigm shift (O’Sullivan et al. 2002). It “transforms learners’ values and perspectives so that they are able to embrace sustainability as a new paradigm or a lens through which to view the world and make a change” (Burns 2009). This new form of learning can develop the capacities and qualities of individuals, groups, and communities to meet the challenges linked to sustainability (Wals 2011). To engrain this kind of learning, action-oriented,

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have to understand how students learn and what various students need if they are to learn more effectively. Deep understanding of learning and learning differences as the basis of constructing curriculum. If teachers don’t know how people learn and how different people learn differently, they will lack the foundation that can help them figure out what to do when a given technique or content is not working with all students. 2. Understanding subject matter and goals – Teachers need to have an understanding of subject matter and concepts related to SE, for example, poverty, climate change, and responsible consumption. This also includes the understanding of skills to be taught regarding disciplinary demands of SE. A teacher cannot achieve ambitious goals without understanding how to construct a purposeful curriculum, and for that, teachers need to know the subject matter, and for that, it is important to have concrete grasp on the subject matter and the purpose and outcomes of the subject as well. 3. Understanding of and skills for teaching – This includes pedagogical knowledge for teaching diverse learners, an understanding of assessment, and classroom management techniques. In order to teach sustainability, teachers need to know how and when to use a range of practices and methods to accomplish their goals with different students in different contexts.

transformative pedagogies are needed, which support participation, collaboration, self-directed learning, problem-orientation, inter- and transdisciplinarity, and the linkage of formal and informal education. Only such pedagogical approaches make possible the development of the key competencies needed for promoting sustainable development (UNESCO 2017), where pedagogy is referred to as learning processes and learning environment (Siraj-Blatchford et al. 2002) usually created/facilitated by teachers in the classroom. Educational institutions, specifically schools, play a key role in the implementation of sustainable development, and that is why the term “education” appears in all the programmatic documents regarding sustainable development (Bertschy et al. 2013), and SE, in many cases has entered the official school curricula as compared to being a subject on its own. Studies have revealed that implementation of sustainable development requires specific knowledge and abilities as it can be highly demanding for teachers (Summers et al. 2004). According to Darling-Hammond (2006), in a contemporary society, the power of teaching is very vital. The standards of learning are higher than before as learners, workers, and citizens need to have knowledge and skills to survive and thrive in a rapidly changing society. For effective implementation of SE, it is important for teachers to have content knowledge along with pedagogical knowledge. Both forms of teacher knowledge are crucial for successful learning at school and a part of professional action competency (Bertschy et al. 2013). Hence, it is important to work more intently to prepare teachers for implementing SE, and this can be done with the help of teacher’s training to enhance the knowledge for teaching sustainability among teachers. Framework of understanding teaching and learning by Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2007, p.11) articulates the core concepts and skills that should be covered in teachers’ education. Adapting this framework for SE indicates three kinds of knowledge organized into three intersecting areas (see Fig. 1). These three intersecting areas are:

Role of Pedagogy in Effective Sustainability Education

1. Knowledge of learners and how they develop and learn within social contexts – Teachers

Behavior change is an important aspect in SE, and standard knowledge-based educational

The interaction between all three abovementioned areas is framed by two important conditions of practice: first is the fact that there are some moral and technical expectations linked to teaching profession, and second, education must serve the purpose of democracy, and teachers must enable the learners to participate fully in the society and get equitable access to what society has to offer to the learners.

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Teaching as a Profession

Knowledge of Learners & Their Development in Social Context: ß Learning ß Human Development ß Language

A Vision of Professional Practice as SE Teacher

Knowledge of Subject Matter and Curriculum Goal: Understanding ß the subject matter in SE e.g. climate change, poverty ß the purpose of SE & the outcomes of SE

Knowledge of Teaching: ß SE Pedagogies aligned to the content ß Teaching diverse leaners ß Assesssment ß Classroom management

Learning in a Democracy

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education, Fig. 1 Framework of understanding teaching and learning for SE, adapted from Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2007, p.11)

approaches to behavior change have a disappointing track record (Finger 1994; Nolet 2009; Stern 2000). Therefore, pedagogy holds an important place when it comes to SE. The third area in the framework of understanding teaching and learning by Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2007, p.11) highlights pedagogy as an important aspect of professional practice for teachers (sustainability educators) if they truly want to see the outcome. Frisk and Larson (2011) also integrated three critical areas of research, that is, behavioral research, sustainability competencies, and education pedagogy, in order to explain the interdisciplinary approach toward SE. SE aims to change behaviors which motivate sustainable

actions, but for achieving this it is important to nurture sustainability competencies among learners. For developing sustainability competencies, it is vital to use particular teaching approaches, specifically focusing on transformative actions in the context of systems thinking, a future orientation, and collaborative decision making. According to Frisk and Larson (2011), the competence-oriented education is focused on student outputs; however, the traditional education methods focused on teacher inputs. The inputoriented approach is related to standards for whether the teacher has covered the material related to the conceptual standards. On the other

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education

hand, the output or competence-oriented education is focused on learners acquiring the “concepts and abilities for social action” (de Haan 2006). Taking the output-oriented or competence-based education approach will engrain the concepts and skills required to allow learners to understand and solve complex sustainability problems (Wiek et al. 2011). In the integrated three-dimensional model (Frisk and Larson 2011), four key competencies are referred to as sustainability competencies for SE. These competencies, identified based on previous studies, include: (1) systems thinking and an understanding of interconnectedness (Garrett and Roberson 2008); (2) long-term, foresighted thinking (reasoning and strategizing) (MacKay and McKiernan 2004; Pepper and Wildy 2008); (3) stakeholder engagement and group collaboration (Segalàs et al. 2010); and (4) action-orientation and change- agent skills (de Haan 2006; Sipos et al. 2008; Wiek et al. 2011). The description of these competencies is as follows: i. System thinking and an understanding of interconnectedness – This acknowledges that the world is connected, and decisions made in one area can affect other areas across domains (economic, social, and environmental) and across scales (local and global). In order to bring behavioral change, it is important for individuals to learn to analyze the consequences of their actions, both intended and unintended, while recognizing the tradeoffs now and into the future. ii. Long-term foresighted thinking – This involves thinking about long-term trends and possible future scenarios, while understanding, mitigating, and adaptively preparing for future changes in system dynamics using anticipatory approaches. The concept of sustainability is about long-term future orientation and envisioning, and hence, foresighted thinking also involves placing value on the future, owning and being responsibility for our actions on generations to come, and promoting concepts of intergenerational equity.

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iii. Stakeholder engagement and group collaboration – Sustainability problems are complex and interconnected which means there is no simple right solution to them. Dealing with sustainability challenges requires collaboration across various fields and stakeholders. Collaboration not only mitigates or solves the sustainability issues, but it also has the potential to inclusively incorporate different views on solving these challenges. iv. Action-oriented and change agent skills – Sustainability is actually about changing from our current trajectory or a call for action. Sustainability cannot be achieved by only relying on state’s intervention, legislation, or new technologies. It requires people to actively participate in problem solving and decision making in order to bring about a change. It is bout instilling the importance of action and engagement among learners. As mentioned above, in order to engrain these competencies, it is important to align the pedagogies with the competencies and then train the educators/teachers on pedagogies.

Training Educators on Critical Pedagogies of Sustainability Education While studying the impact of pedagogical approaches in sustainability courses, a study found that experiential, multi-method, active learning approaches improved the cognitive understanding of sustainability and system thinking skills among learners (Segalàs et al. 2010). Redman (2013) identified three critical and interconnected pedagogical approaches for SE, based on their alignment to building key competencies for SE, in order to target behavioral change. These pedagogies include: (a) real-world learning, (b) critical problem solving, and (c) experiential learning (Brundiers and Wiek 2011; Segalàs et al. 2010; Hmelo-Silver 2004). Aside from content (subject matter) of SE, training educators on key pedagogies is essential to ensure effective implementation of SE and develop key competencies among learners.

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a. Real-World Learning This kind of learning incorporates investigations with complex goals and allows individuals to involve their beliefs and values while solving problems (Barab and Luehmann 2003; Brundiers et al. 2010; Frisk and Larson 2011; Segalàs et al. 2010). Through this kind of learning, students exercise what they have learned in the classroom to study a sustainability issue and engage with people in the community (Brundiers et al. 2010). This allows students to bring theory into practice and build interpersonal skills for stakeholder engagement. Real-world learning approach is place-based, and it is very relevant to learners’ local context. These place-based activities can instill a sense of making a difference among participants and create a multiplier effect by stimulating action by parents and boarder community (Sterling 2001, p.68). Through this pedagogical approach students can gain knowledge and skills to be change agents in their own (local context) lives, homes, school, and locality. Following methods can be used to incorporate real-world experience into the classroom (Brundiers et al. 2010): – Bringing real-world into the classroom (e.g., guest speakers or story telling) – Visiting the real world (e.g., field trips or exchanges) – Simulation of the real world (e.g., role-play or reality-based games) – Engaging with the real world (e.g., projectbased learning or conducting interviews) b. Critical Problem Solving Sustainability problem are complex and hence termed as “wicked problems,” for example, climate change, desertification, and environmental injustice (Wiek et al. 2011). In order to deal with these problems, the teaching approaches used in SE are problem driven and solution oriented. The critical thinking and problem-solving process should be student-led, experiential, and collaborative in order to explore multiple dimensions of the problems. Instead of using large-scale

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education

sustainability problems, which may overwhelm students, teachers should encourage students to focus on simple problems and their solutions. This will help in avoiding the likelihood of students distancing themselves due to negative feelings (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002) as distant goals are disempowering for students (Hmelo-Silver 2004). Problem framing should be relevant to the students’ lives, and the solution to the problem should be actionable. Redman (2013) in his study focused on problems associated with consumption and disposal of food and waste because students have multiple interaction points at individual, classroom, and household scales. Most of the problems explored during this study had simple and achievable solutions. Connecting a local or individual scale solution to a larger or global problem can help students in identifying their contribution and allows them to feel empowered while acknowledging the broader system with which the problem was created and propagated. Following methods can be used to critical problem-solving experience in the class-room (UNESCO 2012) – Class Discussions – Discussions can be built around a video, lecture, a series of questions, a plan to be made, a problem to solve, or an activity to be completed. All of these activities require thinking critically and verbal exchange (interactions). Discussions can be teacher-led, pupil-led, or interactive. Discussions do require setting and enforcing ground rules (e.g., one person speaks at a time while the others listen). – Issue Analysis Techniques – These techniques are structured for analyzing the political, social, economic, and environmental roots of the problems that are faced by the communities. This analysis helps learners to identify major assumptions and arguments related to the problem, key stakeholders, and their perspective. Learners also establish goals to solve that problem and examine the proposed solution critically in terms

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education

of practicality and costs. This can be done by asking the learners to critically read a newspaper article and then do a sustainability issues analysis or they can write a brief regarding local sustainability issue analysis. c. Experiential or Active Learning Experiential learning is about involving students in active learning to promote importance of action and engagement in their lives along with understanding of content. This kind of learning endorses direct experiences and contextualizes learning by applying knowledge into action. Experiential learning can overcome the divide between education and action while empowering, motivating, and engaging students (Cortese 2003; Sipos et al. 2008). Developing sustainable operations within the classroom creates a context for conversations about sustainability, provides direct opportunities to engage in sustainable practices, and empowers students by equipping them with the skills to take action (Higgs and McMillan 2006). Following methods can be used to promote experiential learning (Redman 2013): – Modeling sustainable behavior – Teachers should model sustainable behavior in the classroom in order to provide learners with the direct experience to practice sustainable behaviors. Higgs and MacMillan (2006) pointed out that inconsistency behavior of the teachers and the concept being taught can decrease the likelihood of educational effectiveness and transformative change. – Promoting sustainability actions on campus – Integrating sustainability actions in the classroom or on campus is important for promoting behavioral change among learners. For instance, without installing a composting bin or organizing composting activity, the learners can only have theoretical knowledge about organic waste. Therefore, it is important to install composting bins on campus and then reward students for sorting waste. UNESCO (2012) proposed school gardening as another activity promoting sustainable actions on campus.

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Proposed Guidelines for Designing Teachers Training on Pedagogies for Sustainability Education Teachers are key agents for promoting SE, and there are 70 million teachers in the world. Therefore, focusing on teachers’ education is an important part of SE. Fien and Parker (2010) gave some important guidelines to improve the extent to which SE is integrated into teacher education practices. The guidelines for designing pedagogical training of teachers are as follows (adapted from Fien and Parker 2010): • Teachers should be exposed to the importance of SE. SE should be seen as a whole curriculum priority, and cross-curricular possibilities developed at policy, institutional, and programmatic level in teacher education. Teachers’ appreciation of the importance of SE to the national and educational goals should be evaluated. • In preservice teacher programs, pedagogies for SE should be infused in compulsory courses. • In preservice training, SE pedagogies should be infused in range of elective courses as well in order to make sure that teachers can have a more advanced understanding of pedagogies which they can use for SE (if they wish). • Continuous professional development programs, specifically focused on pedagogies for SE, should be available for teachers to build their commitment and capabilities to effectively implement SE. • Teachers should understand the philosophy, objectives, and characteristics of SE and, hence, the importance of pedagogies to implement SE. • Teachers should understand that SE contributes to the overall quality of education. • Teachers should develop the skills to use the right pedagogies to achieve the objectives of SE.

Way Forward to Reorient Teacher Education to Address Sustainability In order to reorient teacher education to address sustainability, efforts are required in many arenas from local to national scales. UNESCO (2005)

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highlighted some important aspect to move forward and reorient teachers’ education for effective implementation of SE based on some real-life examples, and these aspects were monitored, evaluated, and then reported for their success and challenges by SWEDESD (2017). Some of them are discussed as follows: a. Ministerial and National Involvement Primary, elementary, secondary, and teacher education curricula are mandated at provincial/ state or national level, and in order to reorient sustainability education, it is important to talk to and work with officials of ministries of education. Majority of issues occur around the incorporation of sustainability into the curriculum and teacher certification. If sustainability is mandated, reorientation of teacher education to address sustainability becomes easier. Therefore, it is important to liaise with the government. With the emergence of UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development in 2004, Canada also prepared to implement a national strategy. Initially, the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (DFAIT) led the meeting involving various nongovernmental organizations, government departments, universities, and other stakeholders, in order to explore the Canadian response. Later on, subcommittees were created in the national consultation financed by Canada’s Department of the Environment. The UNESCO Chair on Reorienting Teacher Education to address Sustainability at York University assumed the role of co-chair, governance framework was completed, and a few more members were recruited from the sectors who were underrepresented, that is, civil society and private sector. Canadian national government has shown responsibility and involvement to ensure the effective implementation of SE at a national scale (UNESCO 2005). One of the challenges identified by SWEDESD (2017) is that the implementation of SE is under different ministries, and hence implementation becomes a problem. In the

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education

countries where SE policies are already in place, the processes are usually top down, but, in some countries, bottom-up processes are also important as they provide examples to help and inspire policy makers and politicians to make policies for SE. For example, Makerere University in Uganda formed a task force to national education policy for SE in cooperation with Ministry of Education. The task force gathered a lot of voices form the ground, by reaching different stakeholders including teacher-trainers, local-governments, schools, colleges and NGO, to identify what is needed for the new policy. This accelerated the process of policy making and new policy was published at the end of 2016 and will provide a framework for reorienting formal and informal education, in Uganda, toward SE. b. Community and Regional/Provincial Involvement Working at the regional, provincial, and community level is as important as working on the national level to advance SE. Many countries have cultural, economic, and geographic diversity within the bounds to the country that one kind of textbooks or single curriculum cannot be used. Therefore, it is important to address the specific conditions and contexts at local/regional level. Teachereducation institutions should focus on the activities and projects, based on the surrounding communities, related to economic, social, and environmental spheres of sustainability. Addressing local sustainability challenges can allow deeper understanding of the problems and its impact on the community by bringing relevance to the curriculum. In order to prepare teachers to teach in the inner-city settings, a special teacher preparation program was established by York University, Canada. Working closely with parents and existing school teachers, this program is based in a community center in a large, ethnically diverse government-assisted housing community called Regent Park. This community of 12,000 working class residents and their families was rebuilt by the Toronto city after years

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education

of request. As part of their assignment, the teachers enrolled in the program have to discuss this project with their pupil and they prepare reports based on surveys, interviews, and data collection from the community. This initiative prepares teachers to deal with hard-todeal with students while contributing to the sustainability of the community (UNESCO 2005). Similarly, when Philippines was hit by typhoon Yolanda in November 2013, Leyte Normal University, in an effort to address the gaps related to disaster risk-reduction and climate change, established different initiatives. Both students and community members were involved in planning and implementation of these initiatives and this was followed by the participation of both groups in rebuilding the houses and other infrastructures. This led to the increased use of renewable energy sources. Hence, natural disaster shaped the perception of the entire community regarding sustainability (SWEDESD 2017). c. Engaging Preservice and In-Service Teachers Teachers under training can easily note the hypocrisies including programs, policies, and practices that are being taught in the curriculum, but they are not aligned to the principles of sustainability. Teachers under training are very aware of difference between what is being said and what is being practiced in their training sessions, community, and institutions. Therefore, engaging these teachers is very important to ensure effective implementation of SE. Addressing SE will allow teachers to think about their profession in a different perspective and learn skills which were not learned or used by teachers in the previous eras. The new teachers under training will require support and practice as they learn new pedagogies to implement SE. The Environmental Education and Sustainability Unit of the Rhodes University in South Africa developed an accredited module for in-service training of teachers. At local level the university works with the teachers of the disadvantaged schools (from Makana district) to develop activities and lesson plans with a specific focus on sustainability. Teachers

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also attended regular meetings over a 2-year period and undertook audits of their communities and schools, developed policies and plans for their schools, and taught and reviewed lesson plans. All the teachers’ work was organized in the form of portfolio and that was assessed. Teachers participating in this program gained 24 credits toward a fourthyear in-service teacher education qualification, and the participating school got an EcoSchool status. This initiative has now taken to a national level by Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (UNESCO 2005). The General Teaching Council for Scotland also provides and maintains professional standards for teachers since 2013. These standards are built on themes of values, sustainability, and leadership, in line with the wider agenda of Learning for Sustainability (GTCS 2012). According to GTCS (2012), learning for sustainability has been embedded within the Standards for Registration to support teachers in actively embracing and promoting principles and practices of sustainability in all aspects of their work. d. Information Technology Opportunities Sustainability is still an emerging field, and that is why SE keeps evolving both in terms of content and pedagogical approaches. Nowadays, one area that is growing rapidly is the use of computers and internet. Computer technologies are also aligned to the principles of sustainability where they: (a) reduce the use of resources for printing material, (b) reduce waste, (c) make information available to the audience in the areas distant from the teachertraining facilities, (d) reduce commuting cost. Teachers can easily find the relevant teaching material and resources for teaching online. UNESCO teacher-education Web site, Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future (www. unesco.org/education/tlsf ) is a great example of existing resource widely used by teachers. National University of Rosario (UNR), Argentina, has been providing seminars and courses on sustainability to its teaching staff thus equipping them to work with students. In March 2003, UNR’s course on “Education for

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Sustainable Development” for teachers was launched online. Many students, mainly primary and high school teachers from different regions of the country, got enrolled in the online course. Thus, information technology made the course accessible to many teachers who were not able to commute to the university to take face-to-face training sessions. Another virtual platform, that is, Thegoals. org, developed in 2014, is a unique crown learning platform for both teachers and learners. It aims to build understanding and foster cooperation about the UN Sustainable Development Goals. The portal highlights international engagement and stories of local challenges and successes in innovative solutions for pursuing sustainable development (ISYMP 2017).

Conclusion Sustainability as an emerging field has been established to respond to wicked sustainability challenges including pollution, inequalities, illness, poverty, climate change, wars, etc. SE requires the kind of learning which can explore the depth of things and brings a shift from transmissive to transformative learning. To engrain this kind of learning, transformative pedagogies are needed. Only such pedagogical approaches can make the development of the key competencies needed for promoting sustainable development possible. For effective implementation of SE, it is important for teachers to have pedagogical knowledge along with the content knowledge on sustainability, and therefore, equipping teachers with the right pedagogical approaches via training is essential. Educators, trainers, policy makers, academics, and other key stakeholders are called upon to reorient teachers’ education to make sure that teachers are being equipped with the right pedagogies for SE. Teachers’ education can be reoriented by focusing on training teachers on pedagogical approaches including real-world learning, critical problem solving, and action learning. All these pedagogies are guided by the key competencies in SE. To design and implement

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education

these trainings successfully, the involvement of government (national and regional), involvement of community members, engagement of teachers, and use of information technology can help a lot.

Cross-References ▶ Critical Thinking ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Global Curriculum: Desirability and Feasibility

References Barab SA, Luehmann AL (2003) Building sustainable science curriculum: acknowledging and accommodating local adaptation. Sci Educ 87(4):454–467 Bertschy F, Künzli C, Lehmann M (2013) Teachers’ competencies for the implementation of educational offers in the field of education for sustainable development. Sustainability 5(12):5067–5080 Blackstock KL, Carter CE (2007) Operationalising sustainability science for a sustainability directive? Reflecting on three pilot projects. Geogr J 173(4): 343–357 Brundiers K, Wiek A (2011) Educating students in realworld sustainability research: vision and implementation. Innov High Educ 36(2):107–124 Brundiers K, Wiek A, Redman C (2010) Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. Int J Sustain High Educ 11(4):308–324 Buckler C, Creech H (2014) Shaping the future we want: UN decade of education for sustainable development; final report. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris Burns HL (2009) Education as sustainability: an action research study of the Burns model of sustainability pedagogy. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_ access_etds/942 Burns H (2011) Teaching for transformation: (Re) Designing sustainability courses based on ecological principles. J Sustain Educ 2:1–15 Cortese AD (2003) The critical role of higher education in creating a sustainable future. Plan High Educ 31(3):15–22 Cress CM (2003) Critical thinking development in servicelearning activities: pedagogical implications for critical being and action. Inq Crit Think Disciplines 23(1/2):87–93 Darling-Hammond L (2006) Constructing 21st-century teacher education. J Teach Educ 57(3):300–314 Darling-Hammond L, Bransford J (eds) (2007) Preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco

Pedagogical Training for Sustainability Education De Haan G (2006) The BLK ‘21’programme in Germany: a ‘Gestaltungskompetenz’-based model for education for sustainable development. Environ Educ Res 12(1):19–32 Fien J, Parker J (2010) Education for sustainable development lens: a policy and practice review tool. UNESCO, Paris. Available at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0019/001908/190898e.pdf Finger M (1994) From knowledge to action? Exploring the relationships between environmental experiences, learning, and behavior. J Soc Issues 50(3):141–160 Frisk E, Larson KL (2011) Educating for sustainability: competencies & practices for transformative action. J Sustain Educ 2(1):1–20 Garrett S, Roberson S (2008) Systems thinking and students: relationships, student achievement, and the curriculum. AASA J Scholarsh Practice 5(1):21–26 Grunwald A (2004) Strategic knowledge for sustainable development: the need for reflexivity and learning at the interface between science and society. Int J Foresight Innov Policy 1(1–2):150–167 GTCS (2012) The standards for registration: mandatory requirements for registration with the general teaching council for Scotland. General Teaching Council for Scotland, Scotland. Available at http://www.gtcs.org. uk/web/FILES/the-standards/standards-for-registration1212.pdf Higgs AL, McMillan VM (2006) Teaching through modeling: four schools’ experiences in sustainability education. J Environ Educ 38(1):39–53 Hmelo-Silver CE (2004) Problem-based learning: what and how do students learn? Educ Psychol Rev 16(3):235–266 ISYMP (2017) Retrieved from http://www.thegoals.org/ about/ (5th September 2019) Kollmuss A, Agyeman J (2002) Mind the gap: why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior? Environ Educ Res 8(3):239–260 MacKay RB, McKiernan P (2004) The role of hindsight in foresight: refining strategic reasoning. Futures 36(2):161–179 Nolet V (2009) Preparing sustainability-literate teachers. Teach Coll Rec 111(2):409–442 O’Sullivan E, Morrell A, O’Connor M (2002) Expanding the boundaries of transformative learning: essays on theory and praxis. Palgrave, New York Onuki M, Mino T (2009) Sustainability education and a new master’s degree, the master of sustainability science: the Graduate Program in Sustainability Science (GPSS) at the University of Tokyo. Sustain Sci 4(1):55 Pepper C, Wildy H (2008) Leading for sustainability: is surface understanding enough? J Educ Adm 46(5):613–629 Posch P (1991) Environment and school initiatives: background and basic premises of the project. In: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Environment, schools and active learning. OECD, Paris, pp 13–18

621 Redman E (2013) Advancing educational pedagogy for sustainability: developing and implementing programs to transform behaviors. Int J Environ Sci Educ 8(1):1–34 Segalàs J, Ferrer-Balas D, Mulder KF (2010) What do engineering students learn in sustainability courses? The effect of the pedagogical approach. J Clean Prod 18(3):275–284 Sipos Y, Battisti B, Grimm K (2008) Achieving transformative sustainability learning: engaging head, hands and heart. Int J Sustain High Educ 9(1):68–86 Siraj-Blatchford I, Muttock S, Sylva K, Gilden R, Bell D (2002) Researching effective pedagogy in the early years. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/4650/1/RR356.pdf Sterling S (2001) Sustainable Education: Re-Visioning Learning and Change. Schumacher Briefings. England, UK: Green Books for the Schumacher Society Stern PC (2000) New environmental theories: toward a coherent theory of environmentally significant behavior. J Soc Issues 56(3):407–424 Summers M, Corney G, Childs A (2004) Student teachers’ conceptions of sustainable development: the startingpoints of geographers and scientists. Educ Res 46(2):163–182 SWEDESD (2017) Visby recommendations for enhancing ESD in teacher education. Agenda 2030: SDG 4.7 UNESCO GAP on ESD. Action Area 3, 6. Swedish International Centre of Education for Sustainable Development. https://www.swedesd.uu.se/ digitalAssets/611/c_611672-l_3-k_btgvisby2016.pdf Talwar S, Wiek A, Robinson J (2011) User engagement in sustainability research. Sci Public Policy 38(5): 379–390 UNESCO (2005) Guidelines and recommendations for reorienting teacher education to address sustainability. UNESCO, Paris. Available at https://unesdoc.unesco. org/ark:/48223/pf0000143370 UNESCO (2012) Education for sustainable development sourcebook. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Learning and Training Tools, Paris, no. 4., Available at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0021/002163/216383e.pdf UNESCO (2017) Education for sustainable development goals: learning objectives. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002474/ 247444e.pdf Wals AE (2011) Learning our way to sustainability. J Educ Sustain Dev 5(2):177–186 Wals AEJ (2015) Beyond unreasonable doubt. In: Education and learning for socio-ecological sustainability in the Anthropocene. Wageningen University, Wageningen Wals AE, Lenglet F (2016) Sustainability citizens: collaborative and disruptive social learning. In: Sustainability citizenship in cities. Routledge, London, pp 72–86 Wiek A, Withycombe L, Redman CL (2011) Key competencies in sustainability: a reference framework for academic program development. Sustain Sci 6(2): 203–218

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Personalized Instruction ▶ Future Trends in Education

Place-Based Education ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

Personalized Instruction

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being Hassan Sattar1 and Sadaf Taimur2,3 1 Silver Oaks Schools & College, Silver Oaks International Education Services-UAE, Rawalpindi, Pakistan 2 Graduate Program in Sustainability Science – Global Leadership Initiative, Department of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan 3 University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Planetary Thinking ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship ▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework

Pluralism ▶ Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities

Post-Compulsory Education ▶ Tertiary Education

Practice Nexus ▶ Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability

Preparedness ▶ Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education

Synonyms Foundation: initiation; creation; origination. Well-being: Positive-trajectory; Life-quality; Prosperity; Mental-health

Definitions Preschool: Institutional educational establishment or formal learning space offering early childhood education to children before they begin compulsory education at primary school. For the purposes of this entry, preschool is used a term for children between 3 and 5 years of age and can be interchanged with other terms such as nursery school, pre-primary school, playschool, kindergarten, or Pre-K (different nomenclature used in literature). References to findings for learning outcomes of children between 0 and 3 years of age through structured day care/early childhood intervention are passing in nature and excluded from inference or discussion. Cognitive Skills: (1) assessed I.Q.; (2) early language (literacy as witnessed by receptive and expressive vocabulary); (3) achievement (as represented by skills in reading and mathematics). Non-cognitive Skills: (1) Social skills; (2) persistence and motivation; (3) self-regulation and control over attention and behavior.

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

Foundations of Child Development as a Tool for Lifelong Well-Being Introduction Caring for and educating young children took a formal route, beyond the informal family, household, and community responsibility, as late as the nineteenth century. Research projects to assess long-term impact of formal early childhood education started in the 1960s. In this entry, for context, theories of child development are outlined and findings in the literature with regard to practical implications and outcomes of preschool education are listed. These findings are then used to highlight three key forward-looking dimensions as identified in the literature: (1) making the most of preschool education for long-term well-being; (2) expanding preschool education debate as a “Global” Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) in the context of disadvantaged (developing) and advantaged (developed) countries; (3) making sense of and reframing the dialogue for execution. Ramey and Ramey’s “Four Diamond Model” is used to summarize the framework for quality child development and conclusions are drawn. At the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingly contradictory attitudes – an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive they may be, and the most ruthless skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new – Carl Sagan.

Theories of Child Development Nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century early education proponents Margaret McMillan (1860–1931), Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), and Maria Montessori (1870–1952) focused on health, playtimes, and learning through exercise and senses as key drivers for learning in young children (Fisher 1992; Bergen 2002). In recent times, as technology has advanced, the “art of play” has started to transform into “gaming” through technology, and the focus of play has had some distractive criticism2. The contemporary approach promotes guided learning experiences, individualized learning, and developmentally appropriate learning as doctrines of early childhood education (Wolpert 2009). This “developmental

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interaction approach” emphasizes on learning through discovery (Jean Piaget; Erik Erikson; John Dewey, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell) with recommendation for teachers (Jean Jacques Rousseau) to focus on a child’s individual interests to maximize personal development (Nager and Shapiro 1999; Casper and Theilheimer 2010; Bhat 2016). Vygotsky, in the 1930s, proposed a sociocultural learning theory, which underscored the impact of cultural and social experiences on development of the mental processes and individualized thinking that is still discussed and referred to almost a century later as means of improving and reforming educational practices. Treated as a social constructivist, he believed that human cognitive system development is a result of social interactions and is inseparable. His concept of “zone of proximal development,” requiring teachers to adjust to specific-learning needs, has proven especially important to educate persons (children) with disability (Vygotsky 1980). Piaget, gaining significant ground in the 1970s and 1980s, laid the groundwork for “learning from within”: constructing knowledge through experience and reflection. He argued that the “first task of education is to form reasoning” with teachers tasked to encourage acquisition of knowledge as opposed to focus on transference of information. According to Piaget, the two processes of “accommodation” and “assimilation” allow young children to learn by equilibrating their mental representations with reality (Piaget 2001) while also incorporating learning from mistakes through experiential education (Piaget 1964). Piaget’s proposition of reflective abstraction has found purchase particularly in mathematical education (Kato et al. 2002). His theory also implies that computers can be a superb educational tool for young children when used for design and construct projects but another research by Plowman and Stephen (2003) found limited application in preschool, which suggests that the role of teachers is critical in adopting computers at preschool level (Towns 2010). Kolb’s experiential learning theory argues that children need to experience things in order to

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learn – knowledge results from combinations of grasping and transforming experience. The distinctive aspect of this experiential learning theory is that children are seen and taught as individuals, with the teacher asking probing questions for the child to adopt prior knowledge to learning new information. Kolb breaks down learning into four stages – concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Children observe new situations, think (reflect) about it, make meaning, and test that meaning within the world around them (Kolb 2014). Five childhood development domains, which have a broad consensus within literature, are: (a) Physical – development of biological (including eyesight) and physical (including motor skills) functions (b) Social – interaction with others and understanding of responsibilities (c) Emotional – creation of emotional connections and developing self-confidence and sharing (d) Language – development of communication skills, both to other people and oneself. “Normal” language development is measured by the rate of vocabulary acquisition. (e) Cognitive Skills – mechanism for organizing information (Trawick-Smith and Smith 2014). Piaget believed that children depict prominent differences in their thought patterns through stages of cognitive development (Doherty and Hughes 2009). Literature on Practical Implications and Outcomes of Preschool Education There are a significant number of studies conducted on the outcomes of preschool experimental groups (within the US) as well as topical research around the world. For the purpose of this entry, six extensive research references, summarizing and analyzing numerous studies and papers, have been used (Barnett 2008; Yoshikawa et al. 2013; Melhuish et al. 2015; Sammons and Sylva 2015; Stevens and English 2016; Phillips et al. 2017). Findings and conclusions drawn by

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

these selected and referred research projects and reports, in time-sequential order, are summarized below: 1. Preschool Education and Its Lasting Effects (Barnett 2008) • Participation in preschool programs has dramatically increased in the USA with much higher support from public (in 1960, just 10% of 3- and 4-year-olds were enrolled in any form of classroom, and less than half a century later, 75% of 4-year-olds and 50% of 3-year-olds enroll in a preschool classroom). • Since policymakers are always challenged between resources and allocation alternatives, they face key questions about value of preschool education, whom it should serve or subsidize, and which program designs are best. Different programs have shown to produce positive effects on children’s learning and development, but these effects vary in size and persistence. • Economically disadvantaged children reap (higher) long-term benefits from preschool but children from all backgrounds benefit. Increasing public investment in effective preschool education programs for all children can produce substantial educational, social, and economic benefits. • Teachers in preschool programs should receive intensive training and supervision, and the programs should regularly assess children’s learning and development to monitor accomplishment of goals. • Preschool programs, in order to produce positive effect on children’s behavior and later reductions in crime and delinquency, should be designed to develop the whole child, including social and emotional development and self-regulation. 2. Investing in our Future: The Evidence Base on Preschool Education (Yoshikawa et al. 2013) • Meta-analyses (integrated evaluation of 84 preschool programs) drawing together evidence across decades of evaluation research permit concluding that (highquality) preschool programs (implemented

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

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at scale) can have a substantial positive impact on children’s development for language, literacy, and early math skills, for social and emotional outcomes, and in children’s health. While earlier studies focused on children from low-income families, recent studies encompass families from a wide socioeconomic range and make it possible to say that preschool education benefits children from both middle-income and low-income families (although children from low-income families benefit more). There are positive effects for dual-language children, as well as for those whose home language is English, for children with special needs, and for typically developing children. Although test scores (of children who have and have not attended preschool) converge and diminish academic achievement differences over time, and even when this difference declines to zero, children who have attended preschool go on to show positive effects on important adolescent and young adult outcomes (such as high school graduation, reduced teen pregnancies, years of education completed, earnings, and reduced crime). Foundation for positive effects on children are interactions with teachers that combine simulation and support, which build higherorder thinking skills as well as knowledge of specific content. Features of quality (like group size, ratio, teacher qualifications) are important but, on their own, do not ensure simulating and supportive interactions. A more promising route to quality in preschool education is providing support for teachers to implement specific evidencebased curricula and instruction through coaching and mentoring. There are additional benefits of comprehensive services when carefully chosen and targeted (e.g., focused health outcomes through connecting children with medical centers, comprehensive screening, etc.), parenting focus that provides parents with modeling

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of positive interactions, not just information through classes or workshops. 3. A Review of Research on the Effects of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) Upon Child Development. CARE Project (Melhuish et al. 2015) • Disadvantaged children benefit particularly from high-quality preschool provision, and children benefit more in socially mixed groups rather than homogeneously disadvantaged groups. Early childhood interventions do boost children’s confidence and social skills, which provides for a better foundation for success at school (and subsequently in the workplace). There is also an indication of improved outcome for mothers. • For the general population (not just disadvantaged subgroup), evidence is consistent that preschool education is beneficial for educational and social development. OECD report of PISA results (2011) found that students who have attended some preschool outperformed students who had not, by about a year of achievement. Studies indicate that benefits are greater for higherquality education. There is also evidence that (a) part-time provision produces equivalent effects to full-time provision (deprived children may benefit from full-time provision) and (b) age from 2 years onward is most effective for preschool education. • Research demonstrates that the following quality characteristics of early years’ provision are important for enhancing children’s development: (1) adult child interaction that is responsive, affectionate, and readily available; (2) well-trained staff, committed to their work with children; (3) facilities that are safe, sanitary, and accessible to parents; (4) ratios and group sizes that allow staff to interact appropriately with children; (5) supervision that maintains consistency; (6) staff development that ensure continuity, stability, and improving quality; (7) and developmentally appropriate curriculum with educational content. • Child development is affected by children’s experiences, particularly in the early years,

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and early childhood education and care (ECEC) is a substantial part of a young child’s experiences. While these experiences play an important role in promoting child well-being, some other (moderating) factors are also important – the relevant factors do not function alone but interact with each other (e.g., family factors such as deprivation and parental sensitivity; child factors such as gender, temperamental reactivity, and self-regulation). Sometimes, the moderating variable may itself be influenced by ECEC, e.g., self-regulation. • The increasing evidence on ECEC has fueled increasing interest in the universal provision of preschool education as a means of advancing school readiness for children and their later attainment of social, economic, and occupational success. Some countries appear to have adopted this perspective to pursue focused efforts for wide ranging ECEC provision. 4. Preschool and Early Home Effects of A-Level Outcomes, UK Government EPSSE Project Report (Sammons and Sylva 2015) • EPSSE (Effective Provision of Preschool, Primary and Secondary Education) study tracked a large sample of children through different phases of education and identified the effects of background characteristics on children’s cognitive and social behavior development. It showed that attending any preschool, compared to none, predicted higher GCSE scores – the more months spent in preschool, the greater the impact of GCSE scores and scores in English and Math. Additionally, positive parenting experiences, especially a more stimulating home learning environment, helped better long-term outcomes. • The next step of follow-up research for children aged 17 showed that there are continuing effects of preschool attendance that show higher likelihood of entering AS-levels. If children attended a highquality preschool, they were twice as likely as those who hadn’t attended preschool to take the AS-levels’ examination.

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

• For most students, the preschool effect disappeared by the time they took A-levels (generally aged 18), and there were no continuing effects of preschool at entry to A-level exams or on the grades students achieved in them. • An analysis for the Sutton Trust (2015) showed that there is a lasting impact of preschool for specific subgroup of disadvantaged young people who were classified as high achievers at the end of primary school. • The quality of home learning environment (HLE) before attending (primary) school, however, does have a continuing effect at ages 17 and 18. Students with good HLE are more likely to enter AS and A-levels and have higher attainment. 5. Does Pre-K Work? The Research on 10 Early Childhood Programs – And What It Tells Us (Stevens and English 2016) • The report examines ten of the best-known, widely cited programs of the last half century – Abbot Preschool; Abecedarian; Boston Pre-K; Chicago Child-Parent Centers; Georgia Pre-K; Head Start; NurseFamily Partnership; Oklahoma Pre-K; Perry Preschool; and Tennessee Voluntary Pre-K. A close look at these programs reveals that they are as different as they are similar (in terms of focus age groups; number of years they covered; and target group, i.e., children or children and families). • Research conducted on the ten programs varies greatly (some researchers focus on academic skills in kindergarten; some examine performance in elementary school; and others tracked range of long-term social and economic effects into adulthood). • The research neither shows that “Pre-K” works nor does it show that it doesn’t work. Rather, it shows that some early childhood programs yield particular outcomes, sometime, for some children. This report finds that research provides less useful information than is commonly assumed. It shows that early childhood programs can have a significant sustained impact on the

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

lives of children but falls short of showing that all programs have that impact. • The most rigorous research shows that the most meaningful, far-reaching effects (or preschool education) occur when intensive, carefully designed and well implemented programs that target young children, engage parents, and teach a broad range of skills. • The report finds that, within the context of America, most disadvantaged children are facing not an achievement gap but a life’s gap. To close that gap, there is a need to move beyond the narrow focus of improving academic skills and to expand Pre-K as a solution. 6. The Current State of Scientific Knowledge of Pre-Kindergarten Effects (Phillips et al. 2017) • Studies find greater improvement in learning at the end of Pre-K for economically disadvantaged children and dual-language learners. Pre-K programs are not equally effective and several effectiveness factors may be at work (evidence-based curriculum; coaching for teachers; orderly but active classrooms). • Children’s early learning trajectories depend on quality of learning experiences not only before and during Pre-K but also following Pre-K. Classroom experiences in elementary (primary) school can serve as charging stations for sustaining and amplifying Pre-K learning gains. • Convincing evidence shows that children attending diverse Pre-K programs are better positioned for school than children who do not attend. Improvements in numeracy and literacy are most common; a smaller number of studies show modest improvements in social-emotional and self-regulatory development. • Extensive evidence on long-term impact of preschool learning outcomes is sparse, thereby precluding broad conclusions. The evidence that does exist, however, often shows that Pre-K-induced improvements are detectable during elementary (primary) school. There is ingenuity in design and

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implementation of various Pre-K programs. Ongoing innovation and evaluation is needed during and after Pre-K to ensure continued improvement in creating and sustaining children’s gains. • Pre-K programs provide a laboratory for observing learning progress in children with a view to refine programs for future, so that they can fully support intellectual and social skills. Notwithstanding the room for improvement, the scientific rationale, the uniformly positive evidence of impact, and the nascent body of ongoing inquiry about the long-term impacts lead the researchers to conclude that continued implementation of scaled-up Pre-K programs is in order, as long as the implementation is accompanied by rigorous evaluation of impact. The Way Forward 1. Making the most of preschool education for long-term well-being. • Treating preschool education (and Care) as a “holistic” child development service (Marope and Kaga 2015): Early childhood care and education place strong emphasis on developing the whole child, i.e., attending to social, physical, emotional, and cognitive needs. “Care” includes nutrition, health, and hygiene in a secure, nurturing, and warm environment; “Education” includes simulation, socialization, guidance, participation, learning, and developmental activities. Children’s care and educational needs are intertwined. Poor care, health, nutrition, and physical and emotional security can affect educational potentials in the form of mental retardation, impaired cognitive and behavioral capacities, motor development delay, depression, and difficulties with concentration and attention. Quality preschool education and care is considered to be one that integrates educational activities, nutrition, health care, and social services. • Attention to curricula as a driving force: Quality of preschool program will be

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greatly influenced by the quality of its curriculum. Curricula set goals for the knowledge and skills that children should acquire in an educational setting, and they support the educators’ plans for providing the dayto-day learning experiences to cultivate those skills through daily lesson plans, materials, and other pedagogical tools (Ritchie and Willer 2008; Goffin and Wilson 2001). Current curricula can be divided into two broad categories – “whole-child” and “skill-specific” curricula. Whole-child curricula emphasize child-centered active learning cultivated by strategically arranging the classroom environment, to promote learning by encouraging children to interact independently with equipment, materials, and other children. Skill-specific curricula uses explicit instruction focused on specific academic (e.g., literacy or math) or socioemotional (e.g., selfregulation or problem-solving) skills and provide the context of play and exploration. An effective, global, and integrated combination of whole-child and skill-specific curriculum does not currently exist. Focus is needed on developing such a curriculum (Jenkins and Duncan 2017). • Implementing best practices of classroom processes and intensive teacher training: (a) Classroom processes: Several classroom processes have emerged that appear to be important. These include (i) the teachers’ language complexity and level of instruction; (ii) the teachers’ ability to create interesting activities for children that engage their attention; (iii) positive nature of the classroom, specifically more affirmation and warmth and less disapproving and behavioral controls (Farran et al. 2017). (b) Intensive teacher training: Experimental evaluations of supplemental teacher training modules directed at improving children’s socioemotional skills and selfregulation have demonstrated success. Implementing intensive professional development for teachers with coaching at least twice a month (e.g., having expert teacher

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

provide feedback and support for in-class room practice) and using assessments of child-progress to inform individualized instruction. The success of effective preschool learning by children depends greatly on the ability of teachers to promote both cognitive and non-cognitive skills in the context of real-world preschool classrooms (Klein and Knitzer 2006). 2. Expanding preschool education debate as a “Global” Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) in the context of disadvantaged (developing) and advantaged (developed) countries. • An overwhelming majority of research of the last 50 years on benefits accruing from preschool education has originated from progress-analytics in the “developed” countries and has focused on dividing the child population among “haves” and “have-nots” within the context of “developed” societies. Some research has focused on the potential of ECEC to improve general population outcomes in developing countries. Preschool was found to boost primary school achievement in Bangladesh with similar results reported in review of studies from ten countries. Uruguay study revealed clear benefits in increased academic achievement and decreased dropout rates. Similar analysis in Argentina has found increases in primary school attainment by a moderate but important degree. Similar results were reported from poor district of China and positive effects of development-outcomes in Cambodia. In sum, there is a general pattern of strong evidence across different countries and context that – for over 3-yearold children – participation in preschool education as a routine provision is beneficial for the general population. However, there is inadequate research on additional aspects like duration, starting age, or intensity of preschool program attendance (Melhuish et al. 2015). • The case for Universal Pre-K (UPK) vs Targeted Pre-K (within a developed country environment): Proponents of UPK base

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

their arguments on four pillars: (a) everyone benefits; (b) middle class (also) needs help; (c) universal program is easier to administer; and (d) low-income students benefit from interactions with middle-class students. Targeted Pre-K proponents also make four sets of arguments: (a) poor kids benefit most from “good” (quality) Pre-K; (b) Pre-K makes it easier for parents to work; (c) targeted Pre-K is more likely to reduce achievement gaps; and (d) UPK requires classrooms to be integrated by social class. There is a third angle in this debate called “Hybrid Options,” which take at least four different forms: (1) full-day for poor, half-day for middle class; (2) guaranteed fee system (subsidy by household income); (3) begin with targeted, aim for universal; and (4) geographic targeting (targeting disadvantaged communities). • What is the right choice from a “Global” standpoint? Ultimately, the answer to that question must come from individual governments (states) (Farran et al. 2017). One key gap, and therefore a worthwhile goal, is for developing a high level of understanding (among developing countries’ governments) of the literature and its findings with regard to benefits of preschool education in order to allocate appropriate funding and implementation policy. Adapting words (Ramey and Ramey 2017) within this context: There is a need to reframe knowledge about early childhood development to produce a fresh, relevant, and constructive agenda for effective action (in developing countries). 3. Making sense of and reframing the dialogue for execution. • To the extent that scientists, policymakers (within nations and across nations), and public opinion can agree that non-parental care is a shared high priority need for families, they could have a strong basis for moving beyond tired old debates – parents as best teachers; preschool funding only for children deemed at-risk; home visiting

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programs vs high-quality child care centers. Scientific findings indicate that there are many different and effective methods for providing children with experiences and opportunities they need (Phillips and Shonkoff 2000). A substantial proof-ofconcept scientific literature, with multiple replications and variations, exists to support the thesis that systematic early childhood education – in conjunction with health care, good nutrition, physical exercise, and positive family involvement – can be both a short- and long-term positive influence on young children and their families (Duncan and Magnuson 2013; Haskins 1989; Stevens and English 2016). • The expectations of “gains” and benefits” must be adjusted to the populations served. Children from families (or communities/ nations) that already provide high-quality home environments do not need to “gain” per se but rather need to sustain their healthy growth and development. Children at-risk or already showing delays do need to demonstrate good progress and may likely need supplemental and individualized support at different stages in their early years of life. This early childhood emphasis should not be construed to be in competition with educational services for older children; neither should the public expect that high-quality care and early education alone will inoculate children for the rest of their lives. A lifespan continuum of supports is truly what children need, and so do countries (both developed and developing). In the absence of sufficient amounts of the early learning and health essentials in the first 5 years of life, the later ages and adult outcomes of far too many children will be unnecessarily compromised. • Families and nations will benefit when children are protected from harm, are well nurtured, and learn at healthy rates so they enter school well-prepared for future academic and social progress. Sharing scientific knowledge about how to provide these positive experiences should further unify cultures and

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nations. What effective parents and grandparents do for children is truly the same as what effective child care providers and early childhood educators do. Strategies exist to increase adults’ knowledge about how children learn; how best to instruct children in language, early literacy, and math; and how to engage children in learning to become social partners who understand kindness, reciprocity, problem-solving, competition, and conflict resolution. Supporting healthy growth and development requires a set of complex adult skills, insightful dedication, and enormous energy. Four Diamond Model for Improving Quality of Early Education and Child Care Ramey and Ramey (2007, 2017) • Four Diamond Model of Quality for Early Education and Care Programs proposes four major components, each representing a set of functional activities that research has shown to be reliably associated with more or less positive outcomes. The four sets of activities are: 1. Health and safety practices. 2. Adult-child interactions aimed primarily at supporting positive social and emotional development. 3. Language and learning activities that occur mostly in school. 4. Caregiver/teacher-family relationships. The latter are vital to facilitating individualized care and education for a child and to encouraging families to provide additional learning supports outside the school or child care settings. • The Four Diamond Model places these four central components within concentric circles that indicate both the proximal (near) and distal (far) support that influence the quality of education and care. This framework differs from quality rating systems or accreditation criteria that contain multiple structural, administrative, and staffing features as well as observed interactions regarded as actual indicators of a program’s quality. The Model views features such as the educational and training background of teachers

and other staff, recordkeeping systems, and physical plant dimensions as valuable supports that can facilitate positive interactions in the four diamond areas. Programs are not given credit for simply achieving these features. Instead, the emphasis is on the actual and observable transactions in the four diamonds. • The functional activities represented by the four diamond need to be understood within the context of broader factors such as the political and economic climate. In conjunction with the child’s family dynamics and with neighborhood characteristics, these broad factors jointly have a direct impact on children’s outcomes, including health, cognition, and social competence. In order to improve the quality, availability, and continuous implementation of high-quality child care and education, many people need to be at the table.

Conclusion Without adequate early learning and health essentials in the first 5 years of life, the later ages and adult outcomes of far too many children will be unnecessarily compromised. Disadvantaged children around the globe are facing a life-skills’ gap. To close that gap, there is a need to expand preschool foundation, as a solution, for attainment of social, economic, and occupational success. Children who have attended quality preschool go on to show positive effects on important adolescent and young adult outcomes – high school graduation, reduced teen pregnancies, years of education completed, level of earnings, and reduced crime. Families and nations will significantly benefit when children are protected from harm, are well nurtured, and learn at healthy rates so they enter school well-prepared for future academic and social progress. From SDG 2030 (SDG-4, target 4.2) perspective, we conclude that any advances within the “developed” countries, with regard to provision of preschool education, will remain a “targetedpreschool education” provision as opposed to “universal-preschool education” from a “global” standpoint, as a vast majority of the world’s

Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

children reside in “developing” countries. With benefits accruing to “low-income” (developing) families being far more than those accruing to “middle/high income” families, there is a strong case to be made for (a) treating separate “preschool education” targets for “developing” and “developed” countries and (b) sharing scientific knowledge, from the “developed” to the “developing” countries, on how to provide quality preschool education. This would be a key step in the direction of converging nations in terms of poverty levels, workforce productivity and lifelong well-being of citizens of the world.

Cross-References ▶ Critical Thinking ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity ▶ Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

References Barnett WS (2008) Presschool Education and its Lasting effects: Research and Policy Implications (Boulder and Temp: Education and The Public Interest Center & Education and Policy Research Unit, 2008) EPRU Policy Brief - National Institute for Early Education Research Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey Bergen D (2002) The role of pretend play in children’s cognitive development. Early Child Res Pract 4(1):n1 Bhat MS (2016) Accepting early childhood care and education as a challenge in Jammu & Kashmir. Sch Educ Behav Sci 21(1):333 Casper V, Theilheimer R (2010) Early childhood education: learning together. McGraw-Hill, New York Doherty J, Hughes M (2009) Child development: theory and practice 0–11. Longman, Harlow Duncan GJ, Magnuson K (2013) Investing in preschool programs. J Econ Perspect 27(2):109–132 Farran DC, Meador D, Christopher C, Nesbitt KT, Bilbrey LE (2017) Data-driven improvement in prekindergarten classrooms: report from a Partnership in an Urban District. Child Dev 88(5):1466–1479 Fisher EP (1992) The impact of play on development: a meta-analysis. Play Cult 5:159–181 Goffin SG, Wilson CS (2001) Curriculum models and early childhood education: appraising the relationship, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall/Merrill, New York

631 Haskins R (1989) Beyond metaphor: the efficacy of early childhood education. Am Psychol 44(2):274 Jenkins JM, Duncan GJ (2017) In: The Pre-Kindergarten Taskforce (ed) Do pre-kindergarten curricula matter. Brookings Institution and Duke University, Washington, DC, pp 37–44 Kato Y, Kamii C, Ozaki K, Nagahiro M (2002) Young children’s representations of groups of objects: the relationship between abstraction and representation. J Res Math Educ 33:30–45 Klein L, Knitzer J (2006) Effective preschool curricula and teaching strategies. Pathways to early school success. Issue Brief No. 2. National Center for Children in Poverty Kolb DA (2014) Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. FT press, Upper Saddle River Marope PTM, Kaga Y (2015) Investing against evidence: the global state of early childhood care and education. UNESCO Publishing, Paris Melhuish E, Ereky-Stevens K, Petrogiannis K, Ariescu A, Penderi E, Rentzou K, Tawell A, Slot PL, Broekhuizen M, Leseman P (2015) A review of research on the effects of early childhood Education and Care (ECEC) upon child development. CARE Project 613318, Curriculum Quality Analysis and Impact Review of European Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) Nager N, Shapiro EK (1999) The developmentalinteraction approach to education: retrospect and Prospect. Occas Paper Ser 1999(1):1 Phillips DA, Shonkoff JP (eds) (2000) From neurons to neighborhoods: the science of early childhood development. National Academies Press, Washington, DC Phillips D, Lipsey MW, Dodge KA, Haskins R, Bassok D, Burchinal MR, Weiland C (2017) Puzzling it out: the current state of scientific knowledge on prekindergarten effects–a consensus statement. In: Issues in pre-kindergarten programs and policy. Report: Issues in Prekindergarten Programs and Policy, Brookings Institute, Duke Center for Child and Family Policy, Duke University, pp 19–30 Piaget J (1964) Part I: cognitive development in children: Piaget development and learning. J Res Sci Teach 2(3):176–186 Piaget J (2001) Champion of children’s ideas. Scholast Early Child Today 15(5):43 Plowman L, Stephen C (2003) A ‘benign addition’? Research on ICT and pre-school children. J Comput Assist Learn 19(2):149–164 Ramey SL, Ramey CT (2007) Establishing a Science of Professional Development for Early Education Programs: The Knowledge Application Information Systems (KAIS) Theory of Professional Development. In: Achieving Excellence in Preschool Language and Literacy Instruction, ed. L.M. Justice and C. Vukelich (New York: Guilford Press), pp 41–63 Ramey CT, Ramey SL (2017) Re-framing early childhood care and education. In: Dodge K (ed) Pre-kindergarten:

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the state of scientific knowledge. Brookings Institute & Durham, NC: Duke University, Washington, DC, pp 93–98 Ritchie S, Willer B (2008) Standard 7: families and standard 8: community relationships: a guide to the NAEYC early childhood program standards and related accreditation criteria. National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, DC Sammons P, Sylva KTK (2015) Pre-school and early home learning effects on A-level outcomes. Department for Education, London Stevens KB, English E (2016) Does pre-K work? The research on ten early childhood programs – and what it tells us. American Enterprise Institute, Washington, DC, pp 1–53 Towns B (2010) Computer education and computer use by preschool educators. Walden University, Minneapolis Trawick-Smith JW, Smith T (2014) Early childhood development: a multicultural perspective. Pearson, Upper Saddle River Vygotsky LS (1980) Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Wolpert S (2009) Is technology producing a decline in critical thinking and analysis. UCLA Newsroom Yoshikawa H, Weiland C, Brooks-Gunn J, Burchinal MR, Espinosa LM, Gormley WT, Ludwig J, Magnuson KA, Phillips D, Zaslow MJ (2013) Investing in our future: the evidence base on preschool education. Annu Rev Sociol 25:659–706

primary, or basic are used in different countries to describe this stage of education. A good quality primary or basic education is considered as a human right and essential for developing in the child an understanding of the world and the abilities to function in it effectively. It has been defined as “an initial education (formal and nonformal) extending in principle from around the age of three to at least twelve” (UNESCO 1996).

Introduction The contents in this entry deal with the concept of primary education, efforts made for universalization of elementary education, basic issues impacting Universalization of Primary Education (UPE), and its role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4, i.e., Quality Education and its target, SDG 4.1, which aims to “Ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes” (UN 2018).

Concept of Primary Education

Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 Hema Pant Regional Services Division, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India

Synonyms Basic education; Elementary education

Definition Primary, basic, or elementary education is the first stage in formal education after preschool stage and before secondary level education, beginning from about the age of 5 or 6 years and extending to the age of 13 to14 years. The terms elementary,

The word education is derived from Latin words, “educare” and “educere,” which means “to bring up or nourish” and “to bring forth,” respectively (IGNOU 2008). In essence education aims to draw out the innate potentialities of the child by providing a nurturing environment. Education contributes to the quality in life, is a critical factor in human resource development, and impacts all other indicators of socioeconomic development. Nath (2012) elaborates that education has a critical role in fostering economic growth by influencing individuals’ socioeconomic conditions and is a means for alleviating poverty and enhancing social mobility. The belief that education is an instrument of social change can be traced to findings of Schultz (1961), in his human capital theory of development contending that population quality and knowledge determine the future welfare of humankind. This was supported by the arguments of Harbinson and Hanushek (1992) that

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development of knowledge and skills was instrumental for national economic growth and by Psacharopoulos (1985), who considered education as the basis of economic growth, social equity, scientific and technological advancement, and impacting other indicators of socioeconomic development. Based on this rationale, countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia expressed their need for UPE, which later came through the Jomtien and Dakar Conferences on Education for All (EFA) (Chimombo 2005). The major concern confronting the world in primary education was the large number of outof-school children and those who dropped out of school. The international bodies thus framed policies formulating action points to extend opportunities of basic education to such children. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948 recognized basic education as a human right and called for primary education to be compulsory and free. In accordance with the UDHR, the Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) states, “education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realizing other human rights” and categorically mentions in Article 13.2a, “Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all” (ICESCR 1966). The Article delineates four interrelated features of primary education which are: (i) Availability, wherein the institutions offering primary education are required to be equipped with the basic infrastructure such as buildings, facilities of safe drinking water, sanitation, trained teachers, teaching-learning materials, library, computers, and ICTenabled instructional components (ii) Accessibility, enabling access to the institution and the educational programs in a nondiscriminatory manner, along with physical and economic accessibility (iii) Acceptability, which implies relevance, appropriateness, and good quality of all aspects of the education, i.e., curriculum and teaching methods, being offered, thereby rendering it acceptable to the students and community

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(iv) Adaptability, which enjoins the education system to be flexible and responsive to the needs of the society at large and the students within their cultural and social diversities. The primary education system has to be in accordance with the objectives of the Article 13(1) and as per standards stipulated by the state (Mathur 2007) Primary education within the overall system of education is recognized as a basic human right as it is vital for the development of the individual and the society (UNESCO 2008). Some concepts fundamental to understand the factors impacting achievement of UPE are Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), Net Enrolment Ratio (NER), Gender Parity Index (GPI), and PupilTeacher Ratio (PTR). GER is a ratio that indicates the general level of participation in primary education. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) describes “Gross Enrolment Ratio” as the total enrolment within a country “in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the official age group corresponding to this level of education.” GER for primary school GER (PRI) = (enrolment in primary level  population of official age group for primary level)  100 High GER is indicative of a high level of participation at that educational stage. However, it includes participation at that level of all age groups and not just the official primary/secondary age group. A GER of over 100% as in the example above can include over-aged and under-aged pupils in that group. Source: http://www.unsiap.or.jp/e-learning/el_ material/PSS/pcd_fiji/PCD_M2_4_P2.pdf NER is a ratio indicating the participation of pupils belonging to the official primary school age group. It is a more precise indicator than GER. The UN defines NER as “Enrolment in primary education of the official primary school age group expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population.” NER for primary school

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NER (PRI) = (enrolment of the official primary school age  population of official primary school age)  100 NER can also be used to calculate the number of children not in school (out-of-school children) by subtracting NER from 100. NER will always be less than 100, whereas GER can exceed 100. Analysis of GER and NER is helpful mainly to ascertain the number of over- and under-aged pupils at that level, degree of participation, gender, and geographical disparities. Source: http://www.unsiap.or.jp/e-learning/el_ material/PSS/pcd_fiji/PCD_M2_4_P2.pdf GER = enrolled children of all ages and NER = enrolled children in the age group of the grade. Examples of gross and net enrolment rates at primary school level, both sexes (year 2014, UIS): Togo, GER 125 and NER 91; Liberia, GER 96 and NER and 38; Nepal, GER 135 and NER 94 (Abstracted from Education International Toolkit, June 2017). GPI: It indicates the progress toward gender parity in education and is expressed as the ratio of girls/females to boys/males and applicable to all levels of education. A GPI of 1 indicates parity between females and males. Generally, any GPI value less than 1 indicates disparity in favor of males and more than 1 disparity in favor of females. The GPI can be counted for any education indicator. For example, the GPI of GER at primary school level (year 2014, UIS) is calculated as follows: Togo : 0.94 Calculation : GER for female : 121.4028 = 0.94254GER for male : 128.80454 (Abstracted from Education International Toolkit, June 2017) PTR: It is a measure of students per teacher and helps to analyze the inputs and investment made for quality education. PTR is the average number of pupils per teacher at any level of education, obtained by dividing the total number of students at any level by number of teachers at that level. For example, Togo has PTR of 41 pupils per teacher, Liberia has 26, and Nepal is reported to have a PTR of 24 pupils per teacher at the primary school level (year 2014, UIS). A lower ratio indicates lesser number of students per teacher and

implies more time and better-quality education. However, it is no indication of the quality of teachers. The benchmark set by UNESCO for PTR is 40:1, which estimates the cost of educational access and quality. (Abstracted from Education International Toolkit, June 2017)

International Efforts for Universalization of Elementary Education Jomtien Conference, 1990: The international efforts for universalization of elementary education began with the World Conference on Education for All, at Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990. The Conference was attended by delegates from 155 countries and 150 organizations who agreed and committed themselves to the vision adopted by the Conference for universalization of primary education and reducing illiteracy by end of the decade. A framework of action was adopted, and all agreed to take the necessary measures to achieve the goals of EFA through their own governments, organizations, and individuals. The Dakar Framework for Education for All, 2000: The resolve made at the Jomtien Conference was reaffirmed at the World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000. The 2000 World Dakar Framework of Action for EFA: Meeting Our Collective Commitments was adopted for achieving quality basic education by 2015. The six EFA goals that were adopted focused on (i) enhancing access to early childhood care and education especially for the disadvantaged and vulnerable sections; (ii) ensuring provision of free and compulsory elementary education of good quality by 2015 for all children especially girls, children in difficult situations, and ethnic minorities; (iii) equitable access for life skills program; (iv) improving adult literacy by 50% by 2015 focusing on women and for all adults as well; (v) bridging the gender inequalities in primary and secondary education by 2005; and (vi) attaining excellence by improving every aspect of quality education to achieve measurable outcomes in literacy, numeracy, and life skills (UNESCO 2000).

Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

Millennium Development Goals: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are the goals set forth by the 189 UN Member States in September 2000 with the target of achieving the goals by the year 2015 and reviewed every 5 years. Eight MDGs were derived from the Millennium Declaration with the objective of eradicating poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, discrimination against women, and environmental degradation. Out of the eight MDGs, two focus on achieving universal elementary education, i.e., Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education Target 3. Ensure that by 2015 children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower women Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and at all levels of education no later than 2015 (UNESCO 2004). Sustainable Development Goals: The Sustainable Development Goals emerged post 2015, to take forward the process of achieving the unattained targets of the MDGs. The UN adopted in September 2015 the 2030 Development Agenda: “Transforming Our World,” comprising 17 goals and 169 targets. In the context of primary education, the SDG 4 seeks to “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all,” with specific priorities and commitments on education and set to achieve the targets by 2030. The imperative of focusing on SDG 4 is that even though enrolment in primary education in developing countries has reached 91%, yet 57 million children are out of school. It is also emphasized that achieving SDG 4 will help to achieve other SDGs (UN 2018).

Quality Primary Education The concept of quality is frequently referred to in international discussions in the context of achieving UPE and has become a global concern. In the World Education Forum for EFA Framework and Goals, Goal 6 impresses the need for “improving every aspect of the quality of education and

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ensuring excellence so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills” (UNESCO 2000). Owing to its complexity, there are variations and differences in defining quality (Laurie et al. 2016). However, two basic principles of quality education stated by UNESCO are cognitive development as the major objective and education’s role in promoting values and attitudes of responsible citizenship and nurturing creative and emotional development. A common ground has been identified which considers, “respect for individual rights, improved equity of access and learning outcomes and increased relevance” (UNESCO 2004). Laurie et al. (2016) have cited a framework of seven dimensions of quality derived from a synthesis of many studies and popular models of quality in education. The dimensions are (i) effectiveness; (ii) efficiency focusing on economic considerations; (iii) equity dealing with issues of access to all; (iv) responsiveness in meeting the learner needs; (v) relevance to the life of learners; (vi) reflexivity, i.e., adjusting to change; and (vii) sustainability emphasizing the global perspective more than local (Nikel and Lowe 2010). Education for all cannot be achieved without ensuring quality, and evidence reveals a huge gap in many parts of the world between those who graduate from school and those who acquire the minimum cognitive skills. The Global Monitoring Report 2005 has provided a framework for understanding the quality dimension in education. It delineates the factors impacting quality such as centrality of the learners and recognizing their diversity, economic, national, social, and philosophical contexts, inputs such as the physical and human resources, and the teaching-learning process and the outcomes, i.e., knowledge, skills, values, and social benefits (UNESCO 2004). Isao Amagi (1996) emphasizes three aspects of quality of school education to be addressed by policy makers such as (i) upgradation of teacher quality, (ii) professional approach for design and development of curriculum and content of teacher training, and (iii) improvement in school management. Evidence suggests that effectiveness of schools depends primarily on the dynamics of

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the teaching-learning process, learner interactions, and use of instructional materials. UNESCO provides a framework of five dimensions to understand quality in education. These five dimensions are (i) learner characteristics such as aptitude, perseverance, school readiness, prior knowledge, etc.; (ii) economic, social, cultural, and national context; (iii) enabling inputs, such as teaching-learning materials and physical and human resources; (iv) pedagogy dimension, i.e., teaching methods, learning time, class size, and assessment; and (v) outcome, i.e., achievement of skills of literacy, numeracy, life skills, creative and emotional skills, and value dimension (UNESCO 2004). The UNESCO’s conceptualization of quality in education was stated in “Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow,” the report of the International Commission on the Development of Education, by Edgar Faure. The report emphasized the notions of “lifelong learning” and “relevance” focusing on the principles of scientific development modernization, respecting the sociocultural contexts of the learners (Faure et al. 1972). UNESCO’s high priority on the quality of education was also reflected in the report “Learning: The Treasure Within” by the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century 1996, under the Chairmanship of Jacques Delors. The report emphasizes the quality of education through the four pillars: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be. These four pillars of learning focus on the allround development of the child’s personality, i.e., development of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains throughout life (UNESCO 1996). Major organizations at the international level, namely, World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, ILO, and UNFPA, and other agencies make concerted efforts and provide assistance to countries to achieve UEE. Education has been assigned a central role in education in achieving the MDG by UNESCO (2010). Out of the eight MDGs, formulated in 2000, with targets for 2015, two are directly related to education, viz., MDG 2 aimed to achieve UPE by 2015 enabling every

child to complete a full course of primary education and MDG 3 for promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women, focused on removing gender disparities at primary and secondary education level. The report also highlights the linkages between basic education and other MDGs. It categorically emphasizes accelerating the progress toward achieving UPE and expansion of other areas of basic education, which will redress inequalities in other MDGs as well. The GMR 2010 provides the details of the progress made toward achieving MDG 2 and MDG 3. It states that in 2007, the number of out-of-school children was 28% lower than in 2000 and some of the world’s poorest countries registered a dramatic increase in enrolment and gender disparities have been narrowed. The net enrolment ratio at primary level was 86% in South and West Asia and 73% in sub-Saharan Africa. However, the report mentions, declining rates in enrolments and 69 million children out of school in the world, were reported despite the progress made. 28% drop out per year in sub-Saharan Africa, whereas South Asia registered rapidly declining numbers of out-of-school children due to progress made in India (UNESCO 2010). FAO reports that nearly 57 million primary school age children (80% reside in rural areas) are unable to attend school which has resulted in a rural-urban knowledge divide. The main obstacle for achieving the MDG 2 target has been cited as hunger and malnutrition of these children which has affected their learning ability. Hunger, poverty, and illiteracy issues need to be addressed simultaneously to enable poor people to feed themselves and function effectively (MDGMONITOR 2017). One target of MDG 3 focused on gender equality and women empowerment with a target of elimination of gender disparity at primary and secondary levels by 2005 and at all levels of education by 2015. It emphasized equal participation of men and women in the efforts toward achieving the target. Some achievements of MDG 3 in the context of primary education are: • Increase in number of girls in school in 2015 since 2000.

Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4

• In South Asia by 2015, the number of girls enrolled in primary school was 103 for every 100 boys, registering an increase as compared with 74 for every 100 boys in 1990. Though substantial progress was recorded from 2000 to 2015, most of the targets of MDG had not been achieved by the year 2015 (MDGMONITOR 2016). Mishra and Gartia (2013) state the importance of achieving UEE for the individual and the nation and its gains from expanding the realm of choices for the individual. Other benefits cited are improvement in the infant mortality and fertility rates.

Factors Impacting Quality Primary Education Progress has been reported in school enrolment, completion rates, decline in the number of out-ofschool children, and bridging of gender disparity (UNESCO 2011). Increase in the duration of primary schools and increased demand for secondary education are also reported by Nath (2012). However, despite the massive increase in enrollments in primary education, the developing countries experience some issues in getting all children to school and in ensuring access to quality basic education. Chimombo (2005) contends that the “Opportunity costs of schooling” are a deciding factor in families where children are engaged in paid work. The term refers to “the cash earnings or other contributions which a household or individual sacrifice to keep the child in school.” The paper cites studies which indicate that participation of children in school is limited due to their contribution to household economy, especially among rural and urban poor households, even if schools are accessible and affordable. Poor children are less inclined to attend school and are also malnourished which further lowers their learning achievement (Chimombo 2005). Nath (2012) states that socioeconomic background of the students and cultural and environmental factors impact learner achievement and thus the quality of education. Family background

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has been considered as an important factor in educational attainment in both developed and developing countries. Studies have established a relationship between educational attainment and school resources such class size, quality of school teachers, provision of school lunch, school heads education and length of service, and other factors. Achieving quality primary education is also impacted by the extent of its outreach to the marginalized and deprived groups. The differentials in male and female enrollment in school education have been attributed to parental attributes and socioeconomic conditions, even if schools are accessible (Chimombo 2005). Some studies have revealed a strong relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and educational outcomes. Some studies highlight that children from the low SES families will have lower levels of literacy, numeracy, and comprehension, lower transition rates to higher education, and higher display of problematic school behavior and negative attitudes toward school activities, have difficulties in learning, and have lower transition rates to labor markets. However, it is also posited that “low income alone is not the only factor” that creates obstacles in children’s development and educational achievement (Considine and Zapala (2002). Marginalization has been described as a potential factor challenging the spread of primary education. In a report, UNESCO (2010) describes marginalized groups as those groups with “significantly lower incomes, lower rates of life expectancy, higher incidence of health problems, including high maternal mortality rates, and who are more poorly nourished than the rest of the population.” Disability has been cited as a major factor, though invisible, in marginalizing that segment from the rest. Globally, millions of children are still deprived of their basic rights of education owing to disability in some form. This is more pronounced in the Third World countries, grappling with conflict-prone areas, refugees, and urban slums. Nyeris and Koross (2015) have cited a report of UNESCO (2010) which estimates that “out of 72 million children of primary school age who are out of school one third are children with disabilities and more than 90% of children

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with special needs education in the world’s poorest countries do not go to school.” Role of the community and its participation in school education is considered as a powerful resource in ensuring provisions for school children. Education is imparted mainly by the school but not solely. Children learn through interactions with agencies in the community other than their school and family. These agencies are responsible to contribute in holistic education and development of children as useful members of the society. The members should not function as isolated entities. There is need for collaboration and partnership among various constituents of the community for education to be effectively delivered to the children (Uemura 1999). Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for Quality Primary Education There is need for policies and strategies to target the large number of out-of-school children that requires putting in place alternative modes of education. The potential of nonformal education modes focusing on vocational education and life skills was required to be explored to enhance access to the large numbers (Chimombo 2005). UNESCO considered the principle of lifelong learning by harnessing the potential of ICTs. Developing countries are at the forefront in undertaking projects to reach mass audiences. The distance education methodologies employing diverse range of ICTs hold the promise of imparting quality education to large masses. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) in India is a pioneer Open Learning Institution at school level, in India, set up in 1989 with the aim of universalizing basic education (UNESCO 1996). All over the world, the governments are also recognizing the promise and potential of ICTs in fostering primary education. In the present times, the primary school learners belong to the digital generation or the Internet generation. These transitions have necessitated changes in formal education methodologies resulting in integration of ICT in education albeit to different extents and in different ways across different countries (UNESCO 2012).

Progress in Achieving UPE as per SDG 4 Enrolment in primary education in developing countries has reached 91%. According to UIS Data Centre report, since 2000, the percentage of out-of-school children (OOSC) in the primary school age group has declined from 40% to 22% in sub-Saharan Africa and from 20% to 6% in South Asia (UN 2018). Latest statistics of the progress in attainment of the SDG 4 describes a slow and disappointing state of out-of-school children. Two hundred sixty-two million or one out of every five children in the world (one in every three children in the poor countries) and adolescents between 6 and 17 years are out of school. This status reflects a “wasted potential and lost opportunities” with every child who is out of school. This is despite the efforts and progress made by countries to remove barriers to access basic education. SubSaharan Africa is reported to have the highest numbers of out-of-school children, i.e., 34 million of the 64 million in the world. The second highest are from South Asia, numbering 12 million outof-school children of primary age. Girls have been reported to face barriers in many regions of the world. For every 100 boys reported out of school, 121 girls are deprived of the right to education. The report also highlights the widening gap in the rates of OOSC in the world’s richest and poorest countries. This is coupled with other aspects such as non-attainment of basic proficiency levels in reading or mathematics. There is a need to seriously pursue and gear up efforts across the countries, to deliver the promise as stated in Goal 4 of providing quality primary education to all (Montoya 2018).

Conclusion Primary education has been described as the first step in bridging the disparities among various groups in society (UNESCO 1996), and the goals set out in the SDG 4 for quality primary education are achievable, but the road ahead is arduous. Stressing the importance and relevance of achieving the goal of UPE and its centrality to

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achieving the other 16 SDGs, the following are suggested by the UN in its Sustainable Development Report, 2018: • Governments to give higher priority to education in policy and practice • Firm commitments by governments to make primary education free and compulsory for all including the marginalized and vulnerable groups • Encouragement to private sector to invest resources in education • Encouraging NGOs to partner with youth and other groups to sensitize the local communities about the benefits of education (UN 2018)

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exploration of policy options for improved delivery. CICE Hiroshima Univ J Int Coop Educ 8(1):129–152. Available at: https://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/wp-con tent/uploads/2014/03/8-1-11.pdf. Accessed on 24 July 2018 ICESCR (1966) International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966 entry into force 3 January 1976, in accordance with article 27. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Pro fessionalInterest/cescr.pdf. Accessed on 28 July 2018 IGNOU (2008) Concept and Meaning of Education. In: Concept and Nature of Education, Unit1, MES 012, Education: Nature and Purposes. IGNOU, New Delhi, p8 Laurie R, Nonoyama-Tarumi Y, Mckeown R, Hopkins C (2016) Contributions of education for sustainable development (ESD) to quality education: a synthesis of research. J Educ Sustain Dev 10(2):226–242. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0973408216661442. Accessed on 10 Aug 2018 Mathur K (2007) Universalization of elementary education-a big challenge. In: Effective classroom practices (A Resource Book), distance education programme, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, IGNOU, pp 1–3 Mishra P, Gartia R (2013) Administration of elementary education in Odisha: role of village education committee, voice of research, vol. 2, issue 3, Dec 2013. ISSN No. 2277–7733. Available at: www.voiceofresearch. org/doc/Dec-2013/Dec-2013_6.pdf. Accessed on 28 July 2018 MDG-MONITOR (2016). Available at: http://www. mdgmonitor.org/mdg-3-promote-gender-equality-andempower-women/. Accessed on 4 Nov 2018 MDG-MONITOR (2017). Available at: http://www. mdgmonitor.org/mdg-2-achieve-universal-primaryeducation/. Accessed on 4 Nov 2018 Montoya S (2018) No time to lose on the road to universal primary and secondary education. Available at: http:// uis.unesco.org/en/blog/no-time-lose-road-universalprimary-and-secondary-education. Accessed on 6 Nov 2018 Nath SR (2012) Factors influencing primary students’ learning achievement in Bangladesh. Res Educ 88(1):50–63. https://doi.org/10.7227/RIE.88.1.5. https://journals.sage pub.com/doi/abs/10.7227/RIE.88.1.5?journalCode=riea. Accessed on 28 July 2018 Nikel J, Lowe J (2010) Talking of fabric: a multi-dimensional model of quality in education. Compare 40 (5):589–605. In: Laurie R, Nonoyama-Tarumi Y, Mckeown R, Hopkins C (2016) Contributions of education for sustainable development (ESD) to quality education: a synthesis of research. J Educ Sustain Devel 10 (2):226–242. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0973408216661442. Accessed on 10 Aug 2018 Nyeris R, Koross TW (2015) Factors influencing the efficacy of free primary education policy in relation to the enrolment of children with special needs education in

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640 West Pokot County, Kenya. In: Journal of education and practice. www.iiste.org ISSN 2222–1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222–288X (Online) vol 6, no 7, 2015. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1083133.pdf. Accessed on 16 Oct 2018 Psacharopoulos G (1985) Returns to education. A further international update and implications. J Hum Res 20 (4):583–604. In: Chimombo JPG (2005) Issues in basic education in developing countries: an exploration of policy options for improved delivery. CICE Hiroshima Univ J Int Coop Educ 8(1):129–152. Available at: https://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/wp-content/ uploads/2014/03/8-1-11.pdf. Accessed on 24 July 2018 Schultz TW (1961) Investment in human capital. Am Econ Rev 51(1):1–17. In: Chimombo JPG (2005) Issues in basic education in developing countries: an exploration of policy options for improved delivery. CICE Hiroshima Univ J Int Coop Educ 8(1):129–152. Available at: https://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/wp-content/ uploads/2014/03/8-1-11.pdf. Accessed on 24 July 2018 Uemura M (1999) Effective schools and teachers and the knowledge management system HDNED, The world bank community participation in education: what do we know? Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank. org/INTISPMA/Resources/383704-1153333441931/ 14064_Community_Participation_in_Education.pdf. Accessed on 16 Oct 2018 UN (2018) Goal 4. Quality education: why it matters. In Sustainable development goals. Available at: https:// www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-content/uploads/ 2018/09/Goal-4.pdf. Accessed on 5 Oct 2018 UNESCO (1996) Learning the treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the international commission on education for the twenty -first century. Available at: http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001095/109590eo. pdf. Accessed on 28 July 2018 UNESCO (2000) World Education Forum. The Dakar framework for action. Education for all: meeting our collective commitments. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0012/001211/121147e.pdf. Accessed on 28 July 2018 UNESCO (2004) The quality imperative. Education for all: global monitoring report 2005. Available at: http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001373/137333e. pdf. Accessed on 28 July 2018 UNESCO (2008) Overcoming inequality: why governance matters. Education for all global monitoring report, 2009. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0017/001776/177683e.pdf. Accessed on 28 Oct 2018 UNESCO (2010) The central role of education in the millennium development goals. Available at: http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001905/190587E. pdf. Accessed on 28 July 2018 UNESCO (2011) The hidden crisis: armed conflict and education. Education for all: global monitoring report 2011. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0019/001907/190743e.pdf. Accessed on 16 Aug 2018 UNESCO (2012) ICT in primary education analytical survey. volume 1 exploring the origins, settings and initiatives. Available at: https://iite.unesco.org/pics/publications/en/ files/3214707.pdf. Accessed on 16 Aug 2018

Principles of Responsible Management Education

Principles of Responsible Management Education Tony Wall, Langton Mburayi and Nerise Johnson International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK

Synonyms Education for sustainable development; Responsible business education

Definition The PRME (Principles of Responsible Management Education) initiative is a global, United Nations’ Global Compact initiative aimed at promoting responsibility and sustainability through business and management curricula.

Introduction Business and management education has received stark criticism over the last decade on a number of grounds including the extent to which it is producing leaders and managers who are effective, efficient, and, more importantly, ethical (Ghoshal 2005). This includes the claim that business and management education is not doing enough to promote the sorts of awareness and capacities for sustainability which transpire into practice (Crawford-Lee and Wall 2018). Indeed, there is an ongoing view that current forms of business and management education promote dispassionate and detached perspectives in favor of profit, despite the development of social responsibility and triple bottom-line paradigms (Wall 2017; Wall et al. 2017d). Empirical work now seemingly supports this with evidence which suggests that business and management students are less ethical and are more corruptible than students from other disciplines (e.g., Haski-Leventhal 2014) and that the Master of Business Administration (MBA) – the supposed flagship postgraduate program of business

Principles of Responsible Management Education

schools – produces graduates which are demonstrably more self-serving than others (Miller and Xu 2016). The potency of this criticism acknowledges that, in practice, leaders and managers have a role across all aspects of society and, indeed, all aspects of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) – partly in shaping how these problems are conceptualized but also how resources are then mobilized to tackle such global issues. For example, Neal (2017) recently articulated and exemplified four relational modalities which business and management can directly affect local communities in relation to poverty reduction or exacerbation. Although his analysis focused on poverty issues – which in themselves can directly influence access to educational opportunities and their sustenance – his modalities also indicate ways in which leaders and managers could relate or respond to those situational circumstances. The first modality considers how large organizations understand how they can or should operate in developing economies and the knock on impacts on the local people, for example, the extent to which, and the precise way in which, they could help create free local primary and secondary education or help raise educational achievement. The second considers how organizations develop products and services for the (low) income levels of the local labor markets, for example, developing new affordable routes into technical education or university or the development of a new approach to deliver vocational education and training in rural settings. A third modality considers how businesses seek to lend to local people to be able to support development and wealth generation activity (e.g., microfinance), for example, to help fund personal investment in ICT skills to enter new forms of employment. The final modality considers how businesses support or engage in social entrepreneurship to support wealth generation and wider generative welfare effects, for example, finding new ways to provide early childhood care and pre-primary education. Although these modalities are not exhaustive, they indicate and model the ways of thinking and acting that business and management education might tackle global issues with particular reference to developing “inclusive and equitable

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quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (SDG4) (see Neal 2017). From this perspective, the argument was, and remains, that leaders and managers need to develop the capacities relevant to appreciating that they do indeed have a role in creating as well as tackling such global challenges. Within this context, the critical challenge of business and management education was to inculcate this kind of awareness and capacities for transformation. This critical stance formed part of the global backdrop of the United Nations’ creation of the Principles of Responsible Management Education (PRME) in 2007 “by an international task force of sixty deans, university presidents and official representatives of leading business schools and academic institutions” (PRME 2018). The ultimate aim was to embed ways to promote notions and practices of responsibility and sustainability toward a greater social good or as described by the PRME: a platform to raise the profile of sustainability in schools around the world, and to equip today's business students with the understanding and ability to deliver change tomorrow. . . PRME's vision is to realise the Sustainable Development Goals through responsible management education. . . Our mission is to transform business and management education, and develop the responsible leaders of tomorrow. (PRME 2018)

Evidence suggests that the PRME has prompted a range of impacts across the globe, including (1) providing a harmonizing (as well as flexibly unifying) framework to help transform business school education; (2) helping to promote and expand the dialogue in business schools and universities around responsibility, ethics, and sustainability; (3) raising the priority placed on sustainability in business schools and universities; (4) clarifying and increasing awareness of global values through a vast network of global, regional, and local change agents and actors; and (5) communicating and promoting the values and goals of the United Nations as positive opportunities to enhance global business school education (PRME 2017). This entry is structured as follows. First, it outlines the history and emergence of PRME. Second, it discusses the PRME’s core principles and exemplifies studies in relation to each: having a clear educational purpose, clarifying

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educational values, promoting responsibility and sustainability through educational methods, promoting responsibility and sustainability research, and doing this through partnerships and through dialogue. It then discusses the empirical work to date in relation to the implementation of PRME in business schools across the globe, which includes stages as well as productive and generative strategies. Finally, it concludes with a variety of directions which should direct research and practice over the coming period, especially in relation to promoting responsibility and sustainability in business and management education as a vehicle to promote transformations in sustainability and sustainable futures.

History of PRME The PRME (Principles of Responsible Management Education) initiative is a global, United Nations’ Global Compact initiative aimed at promoting responsibility and sustainability through business and management curricula. The UN Global Compact was launched in 2000 responding to the call for companies to align their strategies and operations with ten universal principles derived from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Labour Organization’s Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the United Nations Convention Against Corruption. The PRME emerged out of the 2007 United Nations Global Compact Leaders’ Summit with the primary objective of encouraging higher education institutions to develop students who, as potential business leaders, would be responsible for enacting sustainable business practices in their future organizations. Six principles were developed which lay the foundation for the global platform for responsible management education (which will be discussed in more detail later in the entry) to evolve. In September 2015, all 193 member states of the United Nations adopted a plan called “Agenda 2030” with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) and 169 related targets

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that address the most important economic, social, environmental, and governance challenges facing the world today. As these SDGs are relevant for business and management schools to their teaching of sustainability, they were adopted by PRME. Indeed, the role of higher education is critical to the successful implementation of the SDGs given their ability to influence students (as future business leaders and global citizens) to adopt and embed responsible and sustainable business practices in their organizations and the wider community. Although initiated and governed by the United Nations’ PRME Secretariat, the PRME operates as a form of voluntary arrangement, operationalized by signatory organizational units operating a higher education institution’s business and management curricula. These include business or management departments, faculties, or schools, though are often typically referred to as “business schools” (which is the terminology adopted in this entry). PRME Sharing Information on Progress (SIP) Reports The PRME Sharing Information on Progress (SIP) reports policy requires that all PRME signatories report at least once every 2 years sharing their progress, good practices, and actions in support of the SDGs. Godemann et al. (2011) produced a report on the extent and the ways in which business schools that have published UN PRME Sharing Information on Progress (SIP) reports embed sustainability in their teaching, research, and operational practices. Through an analysis of the SIP reports of the first 100 PRME signatories, 12 key messages were identified which are summarized as follows: • While most signatories aim to integrate PRME principles of research, operations, and teaching, the greatest emphasis is on embedding within teaching. • There is an observed diversity in the institutional goals of sustainable business education. • Integration of sustainability across the curriculum is limited, usually addressed through new program or individual module development.

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• Most business schools embed sustainability within postgraduate programs, in particular MBA. • Creating a community of sustainable practice is enacted in many cases through the establishment of dedicated research groups and research centers. • While sustainability appears to be a primary research focus, their understanding and approach to this are rarely communicated. • There is a commitment by business schools to greener campuses, working in partnership with the local community. • Sustainability was embedded through traditional teaching methods such as case studies but had also given rise to the development of interdisciplinary courses and an expansion of learning settings. • Despite the acknowledgement of the value of participatory approaches to sustainability, few reflected this in their teaching, research, or operations. • While the use of tools to initiate change and overcome barriers is acknowledged as critical for sustainability integration, only a minority of business schools overtly reference this in their strategy. • Business schools are using infrastructural investment in committees and working groups as a way of embedding sustainability. • There remained a paucity of staff support (such as grants or qualifications) to stimulate sustainability research. It is evident from these key messages that while there were areas of common practice such as embedding of sustainability at a module rather than program level, there remained significant tensions in how the approach to sustainability was enacted at an individual institutional level. Godemann concluded that not only was the contribution by these schools to sustainability research unclear but that there remained disciplinary boundaries and limited transdisciplinary research between scholars and practitioners. They highlighted the challenges faced by institutions in implementing PRME principles as well illustrating the tendency to adopt a surface

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approach to sustainability (Godemann et al. 2011). This sense of superficiality was confirmed by Perry and Win (2013), who identified that higher education institutions support for PRME appeared mainly focused on gaining recognition for existing activities rather than taking steps toward deeper engagement with sustainability. There seems to be a tendency by higher education institutions to merely indicate through their policies that they are engaging with sustainability without making institutional and strategic changes necessary to effectively embed it (Mburayi and Wall 2018; Snelson-Powell et al. 2016; Painter-Morland et al. 2016; Akrivou and Bradbury-Huang 2015). There also seems to be a confidence gap between deans and faculty in the way sustainability is being implemented. While deans espouse that they are more confident in the way sustainability is being implemented in their institutions, this view is not shared by faculty members (Hommel and Thomas 2014). Mburayi and Wall (2018) highlight several factors that impede the effective engagement with sustainability in higher education institutions. These include faculty remuneration systems that do not recognize specialist training in sustainability and therefore discourage academics from engaging in research in this area, research metrics such as journal ranking, and impact factors that do not sufficiently recognize sustainability and shortage of investment in faculty with expert knowledge in sustainability who can invigorate the development of sustainability as a research theme. Perhaps more importantly, higher education institutions do not seem to have human resources policies that are consistent with sustainability, and this makes it difficult for faculty to teach what is not being practiced in their institutions (Mburayi and Wall 2018; Wall and Jarvis 2015; Wall et al. 2019; Akrivou and Bradbury-Huang 2015; Painter-Morland et al. 2016). Initiating institution-wide changes for responsible management education requires curriculum revision and faculty and institutional support (Painter-Morland et al. 2016). Misalignment between faculty skills and institutional bureaucracy, together with an inconsistent focus on responsible management across the curriculum, is making it difficult to

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implement these changes (Beddewela et al. 2017). Although management schools’ accreditation bodies are now starting to incorporate responsible management into their business schools’ ranking (Carteron et al. 2014), it is worth noting that sustainable development in higher education will only occur if higher education institutions incorporate sustainability performance into their performance evaluation system.

The PRME Principles There are six principles typically referred to in formal documentation and associated literature (see Fig. 1. on page 3). However, there is also an informal “seventh principle” which, although is not typically referred to, does appear in some PRME literature and is sometimes implicit in the empirical work related to the change work of business and management organizations. Each of the principles is outlined below. PRME Principle 1 Purpose The first principle focuses on being clear about the education direction and outcomes expected from business and management education. Within the context of PRME, this is a commitment toward “developing the capabilities of students to be future generators of sustainable value for business and society at large and to work for an inclusive and sustainable global economy” (Alcaraz and Thiruvattal 2010, p543). For example, Kolb et al.’s (2017) recent empirical work highlighted how Cologne Business School (in Germany) had crafted its purpose as a “house of vision” which was (a) built on a platform of responsibility and (b) constructed through pillars of activity (education, innovation, and research), all of which interact to create (c) particular dimensions (communicating, connecting, motivating, and internationalizing), all of which relate to sustainability. To support this “house of vision,” a new department for sustainability was then established, aimed at “fostering the full integration of sustainability into business management and providing future-oriented management education” (p 285). This included reorienting the

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1 Purpose

6

2

Dialogue

Values

PRME PRINCIPLES 5

3

Partnership

Methods

4 Research

Principles of Responsible Management Education, Fig. 1 The 6 Principles in PRME

curriculum, providing sustainability education for practitioners and industry, raising awareness of sustainability, and conducting research into sustainability. However, empirical work has also found that such purpose can emerge outside of the formal structure of business school structures. For example, Borges et al. (2017) found that student organizations can emerge and operate as communities of practice, sharing similar concerns, interests, passion, and thereby purpose, which can drive their learning and development as students. They found that “The characteristics noted were values that unite the participants of the student organization, relationship interests with other people to join a student organization, utility of the student organization to the practice of theoretical concepts, utility of the student organization to the community, incorporated values of the sustainable development, and mutual support among student organizations’ members” (p 181). PRME Principle 2 Values The second principle sits in contrast to the view that still permeates some business schools that education is and should be “value-free” (Fougère et al. 2014). This principle focuses on explicitly

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adopting the values of global social responsibility into the educational organization and learning experience, which although are open and nondefined (ibid) and can include self-transcendence, altruism, or community orientation (HaskiLeventhal et al. 2017). The PRME articulates this as “incorporate[ing] into our academic activities, curricula, and organisational practices the values of global social responsibility as portrayed in international initiatives such as the United Nations Global Compact” (Alcaraz and Thiruvattal 2010, p543). Some educational approaches seek to generate awareness of ethical assessments (right, wrong, good, bad), perspectives, and conflicts or instill particular values within and through educational activity (HaskiLeventhal 2014; Fougère et al. 2014) (see the next section “PRME Principle 3 Method”). Others, in contrast, seek to take a more reflexive and dialogic approach, where the learner’s awareness unfolds and emerges through more deliberative responses. For example, the Giving Voice to Values approach (Gentile 2017) invites: A focus on how a manager raises values-based issues in an effective manner – what he/she needs to do to be heard and how to correct an existing course of action when necessary; Positive examples of times when people have found ways to voice and thereby implement their values in the workplace; An emphasis upon self-assessment and a focus on individual strengths when looking for a way to align one’s individual sense of purpose and that of the organization; Opportunities to construct and practice responses to frequently heard reasons and rationales for not acting on one’s values; and Practice in providing peer feedback and coaching. (p 122)

However, as the development and display of values appear to be variable in the business school context (Haski-Leventhal 2014), it is also important to recognize that there seem to be other factors which are important, such as cultural context, age, and gender. In terms of the first of these, as business and management students study globally, it has been possible to identify a variety of differences among different cultural histories and contexts; “a good life-work balance” has been ranked higher for American students compared to Chinese students, and the Chinese students ranked higher in “making a lot of money” compared to

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students from America, Australia, and Iceland (Haski-Leventhal 2014). In addition, there also seem to be age- and gender-related differences, whereby (1) female students appear to value “ethical responsibilities” more than male students, (2) female students appear to be more “welcoming” of responsibility-related curricula change, and (3) older students appeared to value “transcendence” more than younger students. Although these dimensions are provide contextual parameters of value development in business schools, empirical work remains limited, and more work focuses on how to develop such values, that is, pedagogical “method.” PRME Principle 3 Method There is significant work in developing the educational activity to stimulate particular educational experiences and outcomes to promote responsibility and sustainability in business schools (Mburayi and Wall 2018, forthcoming). The third principle relates to creating “educational frameworks, materials, processes and environments that enable effective learning experiences for responsible leadership” (Alcaraz and Thiruvattal 2010, p543). One of the most comprehensive frameworks to understand how responsibility and sustainability are embedded is the “matrix model” (Rusinko 2010; Painter-Morland et al. 2016; Wall et al. 2017b). Within this model, there are six curriculum approaches (they are summarized in Fig. 2), and a summary of their relative advantages and disadvantages is presented in Table 1. Integrating sustainability into existing curricula (piggybacking). Here, responsibility and sustainability are taught as a distinct unit of knowledge which is bolted on to existing pedagogical structures. This includes a module or unit on “business ethics,” or specific practices, such as discursive practices which develop relational forms of ethics in the classroom (Verbos and Humphries 2015) or storytelling approaches which reframe and reorient values, beliefs, and assumptions about how individuals interrelate with and to the wider world (Wall et al. 2019 forthcoming). They may also include projects which form part of a unit or module of the

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Principles of Responsible Management Education, Fig. 2 Approaches to integrating sustainability and responsibility. (Adapted from Rusinko (2010), Painter-Morland et al. (2016), and Wall et al. (2017b))

NARROW Curricula BROAD Curricula

FOCUS

DELIVERY EXISTING Structures NEW Structures I. Integrating sustainability into existing curricula (piggybacking)

II. Integrating sustainability through creating new disciplinary-specific curricula (digging deep)

Co-curricula, service learning, and workbased learning?

III. Integrating sustainability into common core curricula (mainstreaming)

IV. Integrating s sustainability through creating new cross-disciplinary curricula (focusing)

V. Integrating sustainability through wider institutional systems (requiring support and commitment)

curriculum, for example, a climate change project conceptualized as a work-based learning project within an employability module (Wall et al. 2017b). Although this approach may be understood as a “bolt on” to the mainstream of the curriculum, when such projects bridge or cross organizational silos, it may indeed initiate wide cultural change in a higher education institutional context (ibid). Integrating sustainability through creating new disciplinary-specific curricula (digging deep). This approach is where specific aspects of responsibility and sustainability are designed into the curriculum, potentially deepening understandings and capacities in a particular area. This might include, for example, developing collaborative partnerships in the local area to examine and help develop disaster recovery capacities in local communities (Philips and Boland 2013; San Carlos et al. 2016). Although this approach might appear to develop narrow sets of awareness and knowledge of sustainability, evidence suggests that such experiences can also develop broader awareness and skills in practice,

including researching complex areas such as community resilience which demonstrate a highly interconnected system of organizations, infrastructures, and communities (San Carlos et al. 2016). Integrating sustainability into common core curricula (mainstreaming). Here, there is a focus on capacity building across a common core curriculum, developing both breadth and depth across that curriculum. This might include developing core- or program-level competences which are developed and assessed in each module or unit of curricula such as contemplative practices (Rowe et al. 2016; Wall and Meakin 2019 forthcoming). This can also be implemented through program-level sustainable development skills, knowledge, and abilities which are referred to in each unit or module of curriculum (e.g., Robertson et al. 2012) or a key conceptual strand such as “the responsible self” which is developed in each unit or module of curriculum (Isacsson and Ritalahti 2015). This approach can also include the development of staff within a teaching team to deliver a particular form of education across a

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Principles of Responsible Management Education, Table 1 Alternative approaches and related systems conditions supporting implementation. (Adapted from Approach I.

Relative advantages Can potentially reach many students with minimal resources and operationally simple compared to other options

II.

Can potentially allow for greater specialization and greater opportunity for creating a more consistent approach across curricula

III.

Can potentially reach a large number of students and enables subject and subdisciplinary boundaries to be crossed more easily which is useful for bigger picture and gradual immersion perspectives and approaches to learning Can potentially reach a large number of students, enables the possibility of promoting a strong and distinctive image and brand, and can facilitate a gradual immersion approach to learning Can potentially develop wider scale capacities across staff groups and can support the development of broader levels of consistency across the broader organizational structure Can potentially initiate and promote boundary-crossing perspectives and collaborations, including community- and studentinitiated sustainability activity

IV.

V.

Cocurricula, service learning, and work-based learning

Rusinko (2010), Painter-Morland et al. (2016), and Wall and Hindley (2018, forthcoming). Source: Mburayi and Wall (2018, forthcoming), used with permission)

Relative disadvantages Often very narrow and limited implementation which is positioned as subservient to other conceptual and practical knowledge in the curricula and may not enable progressively deeper forms of exposure or learning over a program Often requires more resources than above, and although it might make sustainability more distinctive, it might still position it as an optional addon and therefore subservient Often requires major resources to establish and coordinate across subject or even subdisciplinary boundaries

Often requires one of the highest levels of resources out of all options (including leadership, coordination, and maintenance)

Operational conditions within the system When there are limited resources to operationalize sustainability; when there are driven individuals; when exploring or experimenting with approach and developing staff capabilities and/or interest

When there are resources available to establish and maintain the curricula and when there is a need to highlight the sustainability content of a particular area When resources are available to lead, coordinate, and maintain implementation across boundaries, when sustainability is an important focus or priority across a wider organizational structure, and when there is an expertise in sustainability When sustainability is a strategic goal across the wider business and management subject structure and when there is expertise in sustainability

Often requires the highest level of resources out of all options (including leadership, coordination, and maintenance at the institutional level)

When sustainability is a strategic goal across the wider institutional structure and when there is expertise in sustainability (whether localized or distributed)

Often requires additional resource demands and can have a very narrow and limited implementation which is positioned as subservient to other conceptual and practical knowledge in the curricula

When there is a need to increase or enhance student and/or wider community engagement in sustainability, when there is staff commitment, drive, and capability to support collaborative activity

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whole subject, course, or department, for example, forms of pedagogical approach (Wall and Jarvis 2015). For example, there is increasing evidence related to forms of pedagogy which are informed by connectedness and interconnectedness (Wall 2016; Tran and Wall 2018, forthcoming; Wall 2018). Integrating sustainability through creating new cross-disciplinary curricula (focusing). This approach is more holistic which, because it considers cross-disciplinary approaches and activities, needs to consider broader organizational, strategic, and operational issues. This might include creating new curricula which gathers its curricula and teaching staff from across disciplinary boundaries, for example, from marketing, communications, geography, and urban planning, to deliver a sustainability-related curriculum (Kurland et al. 2010; Marchioro et al. 2014). Integrating sustainability through wider institutional systems (requiring support and commitment). This approach is where the wider environment, including but not necessarily limited to the business school, is reoriented to work toward responsibility and sustainability aspirations. This reflects Akrivou and BradburyHuang’s (2015) proposition that highlights the importance of creating broader infrastructures which embody the values and beliefs that aim to be developed and, indeed, reflects the PRME “informal” Principle 7 entitled “organizational practices.” Here, the principle posits that “[w]e understand that our own organizational practices should serve as example of the values and attitudes we convey to our students” (PRME 2018). As such, this model of embedding is about creating a wider environment which highlights and amplifies the importance of responsibility and sustainability issues. Cocurricula, service learning, and work-based learning. These approaches can be a form of “hidden curriculum” (Borges et al. 2017) but, depending on the configuration, can also form part of some of the other approaches above (Wall et al. 2017a, b; Hindley and Wall etc. 2018; Wall 2018 forthcoming; Wall et al. 2018). For example, approaches here can involve volunteering to support various community-based projects

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(O’Flaherty et al. 2011) or unaccredited continuing professional development courses which engage creative approaches to learn or develop sustainability relevant awareness and skills (Wall et al. 2019, forthcoming). PRME Principle 4 Research The fourth principle is about business schools engaging “in conceptual and empirical research that advances our understanding about the role, dynamics, and impact of corporations in the creation of sustainable social, environmental and economic value” (Alcaraz and Thiruvattal 2010, p543). Indeed, there is evidence that there has been a rapid increase in sustainability research in business schools, or more precisely, in the context of business, management, and organization studies, and in terms of outputs and citations (Cullen 2017). Whereas scholarly outputs focused on sustainable development in the mid-2000s, more recently it has shifted toward a mutually beneficial concept of management practice (ibid). At the same time, however, there is a much smaller literature on the teaching of sustainability in the context of business schools (Wall et al. 2017b), but with a particularly sharp increase in the last 5 years (Cullen 2017). Here, the focus has been on how to embed and implement sustainability in the business school curriculum – as demonstrated with the discussion in the previous section – but there remains a lack of empirical work in relation to how the learners respond to the various strategies for embedding sustainability into the curriculum (ibid) and particularly in relation to poverty and climate change (Rosenbloom et al. 2017; Wall et al. 2017b). However, as sustainability and sustainable development issues notoriously require interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and applied perspectives and approaches, there are ongoing issues with the recognition and therefore promotion of this type of research work within business schools (see Wall et al. 2017a). This is not limited to the business but the wider systems of higher education and research assessment. For example, there is now evidence which suggests that research which crosses boundaries or which is applied in nature is not necessarily published in high-ranking

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journals or is eligible for research assessments and, because research careers can depend on such metrics, can be discouraged (ibid). At the same time, there is increasing recognition within the fields of business, management, and organization studies that applied approaches which promote reflexivity and dialogue can promote impact in organizations. This is now discussed in more detail in relation to the final two PRME principles, partnership and dialogue. PRME Principle 5 Partnership and Principle 6 Dialogue The last two principles are significant in relation to explaining how responsibility, sustainability, and the other PRME principles should be delivered and enacted. In terms of partnership, the PRME principle is to “interact with managers of business corporations to extend our knowledge of their challenges in meeting social and environmental responsibilities and to explore jointly effective approaches to meeting these challenges” (Alcaraz and Thiruvattal 2010, p543). And similarly in relation to dialogue, the principle is to “facilitate and support dialog and debate among educators, students, business, government, consumers, media, civil society organisations and other interested groups and stakeholders on critical issues related to global social responsibility and sustainability” (ibid, 2010, p543). These principles reflect not only the complex and multifaceted nature required to address sustainability issues but also contemporary notions of impact in relation to business schools undertaking their teaching, knowledge transfer, and research activities (Wall et al. 2017a). Such processes highlight the collaborative, discursive, and dialogic nature of change and transformation over time, in potentially known and unknown circumstances (Stokes et al. 2018), enabling localized and meaningful action with change agents and actors in organizations. For example, there is some evidence that business schools have adopted organizational development approaches which have intentionally used collaborative story harvesting and story creation with a diversity of stakeholders in order to identify improvements to the health and well-being of

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staff, service users, and the community in complex health and social care organizations (Rossetti and Wall 2017). Other evidence demonstrates the use of appreciative inquiry processes with diverse stakeholder teams in order to improve the provision of health and well-being services to employees, service users, and the wider community (Wall et al. 2017c). However, Rive et al. (2017) demonstrated how dialogic processes with a wide range of stakeholders can be used to fundamentally review and then initiate new reformulations of a business school.

Implementing the PRME Principles The implementation of the PRME principles can be a challenging transformation challenge, given it can be disrupting well-established organizational cultures (Akrivou and Bradbury-Huang 2015). As such, the PRME Secretariat and its vast network of global, regional, and local change agents have combined resources to support others in making changes. One of the more important processes which is deployed in implementing PRME relates to the “transformational model of PRME implementation,” which encompasses five main characteristics and an eight-stage process (PRME 2016b). The five characteristics, or perhaps more accurately described as assumptions, include: (1) Commitment is the main driver of an effective implementation of PRME – as implementation might involve the adjustment of the strategic vision of a business school, the deployment or redeployment of resources, and potentially greater collaborative working with stakeholders, commitment needs to emanate not just from the strategic leadership of the business school but also from its stakeholders. (2) Effective commitment is both top-down and bottom-up – because the changes that might be needed in implementing PRME are essential but not sufficient to have strategic leadership commitment, other business school staff (including academic and professional staff) also need to be committed to PRME.

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(3) “Gradual change is the only way to implement PRME” (PRME 2016b, p3) – this is because PRME is conceptualized as a continuous improvement process and it is recognized that the context and content of the change are complex. (4) Business schools and specifically higher education institutions generally have limited capacity – it is recognized that business schools do not typically have the resources to dedicate staff solely to the implementation of PRME and its reporting requirements. (5) “PRME implementation is the embedding of the values of corporate sustainability and responsibility” (PRME 2016b, p4) – in other words, it reflects wider expectations of businesses in society, and business schools should therefore be organized in ways to, and deploy practices which, promote such values. This includes, for example, expectations in relation to human rights, labor standards, anti-discriminatory practices, and environmental impacts. In addition, the eight stages of transformation are (PRME 2016b, p6): (1) “Top-down communication from leadership” – to help establish and assert the strategic importance of PRME throughout the business school. (2) “Bottom-up commitment from faculty and staff” – encourage and incentivize academic and professional staff to get involved and help implement PRME through all activities including teaching, knowledge transfer, and research. (3) “Long-term planning” – conduct planning over the longer term, but ensure it is over a given time frame, such as a year, 3 years, or 5 years. (4) “Resources” – ensure resources are available for the implementation of PRME, including academic and professional staff as well as monetary. (5) “Implementation for a given time frame” – ensure the plan is enacted with the available resource, within the time frames given.

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(6) “Assessing impact” – identify the progress toward the goals identified, and identify any other forms of impacts which will form part of the reporting process and wider communications and engagement activities (also see the reporting process below). (7) “Sharing information on progress: reporting and communicating” – share progress with stakeholders to promote responsibility and sustainability but also mutual and collective ownership. (8) “PRME as an explicit part of the school’s strategy” – over time, attempt to explicitly embed PRME as part of the business school’s strategy. And finally, the six stages of PRME reporting are: (1) Commit – explore and clarify the strategic rationale for becoming a PRME signatory and its associated reporting mechanisms. (2) Collaborate – decide who the strategic internal and external stakeholders are for the business school, and engage them in the preparation of the analysis and report. (3) Collect – identify what information is required to complete the analysis and the report, and then collect and analyze it, potentially involving a range of stakeholders. (4) Create – generate a report that works for your needs and circumstances. (5) Communicate – once the information has been analyzed and the report has been prepared, share it to help promote and engage others. (6) Continue – with a commitment to continuous improvement, continue to collect information about any changes that occur, reflect on any goals achieved, capture any new learning, and develop any new targets or aspirations, again, utilizing and involving the wider network of stakeholders (PRME 2016a). Within this context of wider principles and stages, David Grayson (as cited in PRME 2016b) formulated a five-stage model related to PRME implementation, as a kind of “maturity

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model.” The stages are (1) denial, where PRME or wider implementation of responsibility and sustainability is treated as a fad; (2) compliance, where implementation is driven by a need for a wider business school accreditation; (3) formal approach, where there are some attempts for embedding PRME or wider implementation of responsibility and sustainability, but are typically “add-on” or “ad hoc”; (4) strategic approach, where PRME or wider implementation of responsibility and sustainability is strategic located in its purpose and governance and infiltrates its teaching, knowledge transfer, and research activities; and (5) leadership approach, where the school has a strategic approach but also becomes a global center of expertise and thought leadership in the areas of PRME, sustainability, and/or responsibility.

Conclusions and Future Directions The United Nations’ PRME initiative has come to represent a framework to unify action toward developing more responsible leaders and managers who are more sensitized to sustainable development, potentially including – but not limited to – enabling them to becoming more aware of their role in creating and sustaining education and lifelong learning for all. Indeed, PRME can have challenging effects within business schools which fundamentally question the power structures and develop new responses to inequalities within those organizations (e.g., Asirvatham and Humphries-Kil 2017). At the same time, however, there are continuing concerns that the PRME can be used by some business schools as primarily a marketing and reputation enhancement device, where issues are “glossed over” (Louw 2015). For example, within such circumstances, there are limited reporting about the challenges in the implementation of PRME implementation (such as change management processes and employee buy-in), limited focus on social and economic impact in practice, and limited reporting characteristics which limit their reliability (Hervieux et al. 2017). Indeed, some have argued that PRME promotes “a positioning of business schools as

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servants of the corporate sector. . . [which] undermines any ‘paradigm change’ claim” (Louw 2015, p 184). As the PRME initiative evolves and matures, it is likely that there will be research and practice development which attempts to examine and address these issues. Some scholars argue, however, that there is a wide diversity of the conceptualizations of responsibility, ethics, and sustainability and that greater clarity and consistency are required to help broaden and deepen transformational work in business schools across cultural contexts (Nonet et al. 2016). At the same time, the PRME initiative has intentionally adopted fuzzier notions of responsibility and sustainability to allow and to some extent promote localized interpretations and implementations which are situated within the histories and trajectories of particular business schools (PRME 2016b). Here, the logic is that allowing such flexibility can enable a greater level of translation which is meaningful for the communities that are implementing the changes in practice. Although there is some evidence which supports such a dynamic process (Greenberg et al. 2017), it is likely that more research will emerge which explores how this emerges and unfolds over time, especially in relation to changes in leadership structures (e.g., changes in the heads of business schools) or changes in the wider environment (e.g., a market shake out due to new regulatory or competitive circumstances). In addition, it is also likely that certain sustainable development goals which currently receive relatively limited empirical attention in the business school – such as poverty and climate change – will rebalance over time. Indeed, and overall, empirically driven research and practice development work will continue to emerge which will examine how business schools intentionally position their work in a wider to enhance the educational opportunities for all.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Tertiary Education

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References Akrivou K, Bradbury-Huang H (2015) Educating integrated catalysts: transforming business schools toward ethics and sustainability. Acad Manag Learn Educ 14 (2):222–240 Alcaraz JM, Thiruvattal E (2010) An interview with Manuel Escudero the united nations’ principles for responsible management education: a global call for sustainability. Acad Manag Learn Educ 9(3):542–550 Asirvatham S, Humphries-Kil M (2017) Feminist reflections on life in (im)balance, career praxis, and the PRME. Int J Manag Educ 15(2):126–137. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ijme.2017.03.005 Beddewela E, Warin C, Hesselden F, Coslet A (2017) Embedding responsible management education – staff, student and institutional perspectives. International Journal of Management Education 15(2B):263–279 Borges JC, Ferreira TC, Borges de Oliveira MS, Macini N, Caldana ACF (2017) Hidden curriculum in student organizations: learning, practice, socialization and responsible management in a business school. Int J Manag Educ 15(2B):153–161 Carteron J.-C, Haynes K, Murray A (2014) Education for sustainable development, the UNGC PRME initiative, and the sustainability literacy test: Measuring and assessing success. S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal 79(4):51–58 Crawford-Lee M, Wall T (2018) Sustainability 2030: a policy perspective from the University Vocational Awards Council, Higher Education, Skills and Work Based Learning 8(3):233–242. https://doi.org/10.1108/ HESWBL-03-2018-0043 Cullen JG (2017) Educating business students about sustainability: a bibliometric review of current trends and research needs. J Bus Ethics 145(2):429–439 Fougère M, Solitander N, Young S (2014) Exploring and exposing values in management education: problematizing final vocabularies in order to enhance moral imagination. J Bus Ethics 120(2):175–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1655-9 Gentile MC (2017) Giving voice to values: a pedagogy for behavioral ethics. J Manag Educ 41(4):469 Ghoshal S (2005) Bad management theories are destroying good management practices. Academy of Management Learning & Education 4(1):75–91 Godemann J, Herzig C, Moon J (2011) “Approaches to changing the curriculum”, presentation given on the ISIBS workshop – session II, University of Nottingham, 20–21 October Greenberg DN, Deets S, Erzurumlu S, Hunt J, Manwaring M, Rodgers V, Swanson E (2017) Signing to living PRME: learning from a journey towards responsible management education. Int J Manag Educ 15 (2):205–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2017.02.007 Haski-Leventhal D (2014) MBA student values, attitudes and behaviors: a cross-cultural comparison of PRME signatory schools. SAM Adv Manag J (07497075) 79(4):29–41 Haski-Leventhal D, Pournader M, McKinnon A (2017) The role of gender and age in business students’ values,

Principles of Responsible Management Education CSR attitudes and responsible management education: Learnings from the PRME International Survey. J Bus Ethics 146(1):219–239 Hervieux C, McKee M, Driscoll C (2017) Room for improvement: using GRI principles to explore potential for advancing PRME SIP reporting. Int J Manag Educ 15(2):219–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijme.2017.03.011 Hommel U, Thomas H (2014) Research on business schools: themes, conjectures, and future directions. In: Pettigrew AM, Cornuel E, Hommel U (eds) The institutional development of business schools. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 6–35 Isacsson A, Ritalahti J (2015) Work-integrated and service learning at HAAGA-HELIA Porvoo campus in Finland. In: Dredge D, Airey D, Gross MJ (eds). (2014) The Routledge handbook of tourism and hospitality education. Routledge, London Kolb M, Fröhlich L, Schmidpeter R (2017) Implementing sustainability as the new normal: responsible management education – from a private business school’s perspective. Int J Manag Educ 15(2B):280–292 Kurland NB, Michaud KEH, Best M, Wohldmann E, Cox H, Pontikis K, Vasishth A (2010) Overcoming silos: the role of an interdisciplinary course in shaping a sustainability network. Acad Manag Learn Educ 9 (3):457–476 Louw J (2015) “Paradigm change” or no real change at all? A critical reading of the U.N. principles for responsible management education. J Manag Educ 39(2):184–208 Marchioro G, Ryan MM, Perkins T (2014) Interdisciplinary student centric approach to work-integrated learning. Asia-Pacific J Coop Educ 15(4):359–368 Mburayi L, Wall T (2018) Sustainability in the professional accounting and finance curriculum: an exploration, Higher education, skills and work based learning 8(3): 291–311. https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-03-20180036 Miller D, Xu X (2016) A fleeting glory: self-serving behavior among celebrated MBA CEOs. J Manag Inq 25(3):286–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1056492615607975 Neal M (2017) Learning from poverty: why business schools should address poverty, and how they can go about it. Acad Manag Learn Educ 16(1):54–69 Nonet G, Kassel K, Meijs L (2016) Understanding responsible management: emerging themes and variations from European business school programs. J Bus Ethics 139(4):717–736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-0163149-z O’Flaherty J, Liddy M, Tansey L, Roche C (2011) Educating engaged citizens: four projects from Ireland. Educ Train 53(4):267–283 Painter-Morland M, Sabet E, Molthan-Hill P, Goworek H, de Leeuw S (2016) Beyond the curriculum: integrating sustainability into business schools. J Bus Ethics 139 (4):737–754 Perry M, Win S (2013) An evaluation of PRME’s contribution to responsibility in higher education. J corp citizen 49:48–70

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Professional Advancement ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Professional Advancement

training opportunities for better output. Professional development can include a variety of approaches such as formal and informal education, vocational, specialized, or skill-based training, or advanced professional learning.

Introduction

Professional Competences ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals Peni Hausia Havea1 and Manoranjan Mohanty2 1 Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji 2 Development Studies, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji

Synonyms Continuing education; Occupational advancement; Professional advancement; Professional competences; Professional growth; Professional learning; Upskills training

Definition Professional development is defined as a consciously designed systematic process that helps professionals to attain, utilize, and retain knowledge, skills, and expertise. It is simply a process of obtaining skills, qualifications, and experience that help in advancement in one’s career. In the field of education, it is defined as the process of improving staff skills and competencies needed to produce outstanding performance of students. It also refers to a process of improving an organization’s staff capabilities through access to education and

In this entry, the concept of professional development is explained covering briefly its history, types, processes, benefits, and framework. At the outset, the concept of professional development is defined. Professional development through education and training increases the capabilities of individuals and improve the productivity of the workforce. It enhances the quality of workforce in different sectors including education, health, economic, environment, and human rights. It thus helps to build sound human resource development of a country, a foundation for sustainability. A lack of professional development will jeopardize the achievement of SDGs as set under the 2030 Development Agenda. Professional development is discussed in this entry in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which are divided under five main sectors: education, health, economic, environment, and human rights. Because of the significance of these sectors to peace and prosperity of the people, professional development is, therefore, a blueprint to the achievements of the 17 SDGs by developed and developing countries, via a global partnership, by 2030. Sustainable Development Goal 4 focuses on the theme “Quality Education” under the heading, “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.” Professional development in education can not only enhance quality education but also can help meeting the targets and SDGs. In terms of the content arrangement, the main text is organized into nine sections. Section “Introduction” deals with a general introduction. Section “Professional Development” focuses on the concept of professional development covering its history, types, processes,

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benefits, and framework bringing linkages between sectors and Goals, thus providing a model linking them to targets and indicators in achieving a resilient and sustainable professional development. Section “Approaches to Professional Development” deals with approaches to professional development. Section “Professional Development in Five Key Sectors” covers professional development in five sectors such as education, health, economic, environmental, and human rights. Section “Factors Affecting Contemporary Trends in Professional Development” highlights the factors affecting contemporary trends in professional development. Section “Professional Development and Sustainable Development” discourses professional development and sustainable development. The section also highlights the progress so far made in the professional development section and the SDG Goals. Section “Challenges to Professional Development” outlines the associated challenges inflicted the professional development in the achieving of the SDG by 2030. Section “Way Forward” unravels the future directions that would be used to guide the implement the SDG framework by 2030 and beyond. Lastly, section “Conclusion” summarizes the chapter with a conclusion.

Professional Development The following section deals professional development covering its history, types, processes, and benefits. History Professional development was originated and came overwhelmingly into inevitably forced in the United States of America in the 1960s (Murphy-Latta 2011). It was designed as a critical part of a professional development program for school staff in the American education system. Since then, professional development emerged as a worldwide tool for both personal and professional growth and development not only in the education sector but in other disciplines as well. For example, many authors pointed out that professional development

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contributed significantly to the overall health care provided by physicians, dentists, nurses, IT professionals, and other allied health care personnel, thus helping in improving the health and well-being and quality of life (Ayeleke et al. 2016; Smith and Johnson 2018). From the SDG perspective, professional development is not only applied to the development in the education and health sector but also in the other disciplines such as the environment, economic, and human rights. As a result, sustainable human resource development is of great importance to the milestone of SDGs, whether locally, nationally, regionally, or internationally (Chams and GarcíaBlandón 2019). Historically, this is vital because, without professional development, SDG Agenda may not be achieved by 2030 in building a pathway which is more resilient and sustainable. Types The literature indicated that professional development (PD) opportunities supporting the SDGs are folded into two main categories: informal and formal (OECD 2009). Informal professional development includes education and training in which no proper qualification is awarded, and it is generally done by individuals (e.g., selfeducation and learning). The other form of professional development is through a formal qualification (e.g., universities) (OECD 2009; ICSA 2019). Formal types include vocational education leading to qualification or credential. Professional development may also in the form of in-service PD programs which may be formal or informal. Professional development on the job may develop or enhance process skills, sometimes referred as “leadership skills” or “task skills,” and some examples for process skills are “effectiveness skills,” team functioning skills, and “systems thinking skills” (Garet et al. 2001). Both types of professional development require personal-critical investment in oneself and ongoing learning. The “state-of-the-art idea” is that if there is always something new to learn, then one must have an open mind to do it whether formally or informally. Through quality education and professional development, SDG is achievable by 2030.

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Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Processes Professional development was founded on the principle of adult learning theory, which explains professional development process in six steps in a cycle, i.e., sustain, design, promote, deliver, follow-up, and evaluate (Fig. 1). The six steps involved in a professional development process are described in Table 1. Using this process as a guide, an effective and efficient professional development program is the one that actively engage in human resource development through planning, designing, marketing, delivering, following up, and evaluating of the professional development offerings. From a sustainability point of view, the six steps are vital in providing a resilient and sustainable profession development service to personnel in education, health, economic, environmental, and human rights sectors, worldwide. Benefits The main goals of professional development are to increase one’s knowledge and skills. Apart from increasing knowledge, skills, and competency, professional development brings in competitive advantages, increase employability and earning potential, increase efficiency, and build professional credibility. Broadly, there are three major areas of benefits through professional development: sociocultural, economic, and political benefits. There are reasonably several tangible sociocultural benefits for effectively engaged

in professional development under the auspices of the SDGs. First, it has benefitted people personally (Wilson et al. 2019). It is what James Froude (2014) called the nemesis of faith, meaning, “You cannot dream yourself into a character; you must hammer and forge yourself one.” This is especially true in the sense that responsible people who are investing wisely in building themselves first are invariably tending to naturally build their level of confidence to grow remarkably and excel professionally at a personal level. Because of this, others (e.g., colleagues) could benefit tremendously from this proficient level of personal expertise timely, systematically, and diligently (Wilson et al. 2019). Second, people are undoubtedly benefiting from professional development due to marketing principle and a sense of professionalism. From what is conventionally known in the empirical literature is that the standard of professionalism is one of the key factors for vertical mobility (Maclean 1992). As a result, lifelong learners are engaged in professional development opportunities in a peculiar sense that they genuinely want to become more professional (e.g., boosting ultimate confidence, skills, and competency) and/or to proportionately increase their executive ranks in the hierarchy (Aslam et al. 2017). Third, political leaders have Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals, Table 1 Steps in professional development process Steps Sustain

Evaluate

Sustain

Design Promote Followup

Design

Deliver

Deliver

Promote

Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 1 Professional development processes. (Source: CDC 2018)

Followup Evaluate

Description Sustain an effective and efficient infrastructure that merits professional development Design effective and proficient professional development activities diligently Promote state-of-the-art strategies to establish and sustain significant contacts and provide high-quality services Deliver activities in a timely and systematic manner Follow-up to support personal growth and development to meet professional goals Evaluate for continuous improvement, excellence performance, and continuing education for further professional development

Source: CDC (2018)

Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

utilized professional development entities into what Silvester and Wyatt (2015, p. 370) called the “routes to power” meaning not only that leaders utilize it to assist them to develop strong and diverse political leadership skills but also their management acumen. As a consequence, although some prominent politicians, as Silvester and Wyatt (2015, p. 370) said, are traditionally hubris (i.e., “I’m elected, so who are you to tell me I need training?”) about carefully introducing philosophical training to politics, empirical evidence suggested that the functional benefits were enormous (Lewis 2016). Fundamentally, this strategy should be supported with a view to prevent politicians from twisting science or other nuances for political purposes (Lewis 2016). Baldwin (2017) said, the net result is that “when politicians listen to scientists, we all benefit” from it. Furthermore, a theological perspective has also emerged that says, professional development benefits religions by helping to address religious diversity (Subedi 2006). Duffy et al. (2010) accentuated on this point by calling on all employers to respect people’s religious faith and spirituality because these make them closer to God, hence improving their physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. This explains why happiness has a direct correlation to better performance in workplaces and other fundamental attributes (Proto 2016). Another critical benefit is that because people study more about the scriptures, as a corollary it is expected that they should foster a more thorough understanding about their religions so that they should be capable of serving their God well regardless of their faith (Havea 2019). Moreover, professional development produces a social benefit (Nilsson 2010; Donelan 2016). Not only it provides a platform for creating networks with people of diverse backgrounds but also creates window of opportunities to get to know new people with multi-specialists, which will benefit themselves in the long-run. For example, the data revolution is already happening worldwide in the professional realm, hence there are dramatic changes about how people think about using realtime data and statistics for monitoring and decision-making purposes (Van den Homberg and Susha 2018; Honeck et al. 2018; Giezen

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et al. 2018; Körfgen et al. 2018). Additionally, professional development has economic benefits. According to many scholars, professional development can come in the form of rewards in terms of monetary value; consequently, benefitting people economically (Ionela 2012; EvoLLLution 2012; Blau et al. 2016; Opperman et al. 2018). EvoLLLution (2012) conducted a study of 200 employers across North America to understand their perceptions on continuing education and professional development and concluded that: • 96% of employers indicated that professional development (e.g., continuing education) had improved job performance. • 87% of employers have influenced wages positively (e.g., pay rise). • 78% factored professional development (e.g., continuing education) into promotions. • Companies supporting employee education for advancement can mitigate turnover costs associated with outside hires, thereby saving money and increase efficiency. • 70% indicated that employees needed professional development (e.g., continuous learning) with the intention to sustain the demands of their present employment. Because of these indispensable linkages between professional development and economic growth and development, there is a long-term benefit from professional development to the world’s economy (Nilsson 2010). Last but not the least, professional development opportunities also have positive implications and benefits to human health. Kamlesh Giri, a multi-specialist homoeopathic physician from India argued strongly that professional development impacted the health of the community positively (e.g., better health care services and health outcomes). Giri et al. (2012) recommended, because of its health benefit, professional development should be an integral part of staff development in the health sector. Most importantly, Smith and Johnson (2018) believed that professional development is the best practice for sustainable and resilient health because it guaranteed the patient’s good health and safety.

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Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Framework The professional development framework for this entry is guided by 17 SDGs, which are categorized under five sectors: education (SDG 4), health (SDG 2, 3, and 6), economic (SDG 1, 8, 9, and 12), environment (SDG 7, 11, 13, 14, and 15), and human rights (SDG 5, 10, and 16). However, the only exception is SDG 17, which is designed to be independent since it has linked to all 16 Goals via a global partnership (Fig. 2). All sectors need to come together in a framework to guide the implementation of the SDGs. Figure 2 is showing a framework for sustainable professional development under the auspices of SDGs.

Approaches to Professional Development There is no single best approach to professional development. A combination of approaches for different situations may lead to a successful professional development. There are several

Education

Health

Environment

Human rights

Economic

Goals

Targets

Indicators

Sustainable Professional Development Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 2 Framework for sustainable professional development under the auspices of SDGs. (Source: Havea and Mohanty based on data from UNDP (2015))

approaches used in professional development in different sectors. Professional development can be developed through various means ranging from informal dialogue, reading professional literature, observations to a more sophisticated one such as courses and workshops, conferences and seminars, professional development networking, individual and collaborative research and peer education, and qualification programs (OECD 2009). Other examples of approaches to professional development include, case study method, consultation, coaching, communities of practice, lesson study, mentoring, reflective supervision, and technical assistance (NPDCI 2008). There are several approaches to improve or enhance sustainable human resource management so as to achieve the 2030 Development Agenda. Smith et al. (2017) in a study on professional development leaders in several States in America using a mixed method found that a reform-based professional development program would be the best approach to develop education, health, economic, environmental, and human rights sector to achieve SDGs by 2030. According to Smith et al. (2017), these professional development approaches can be applied to all sectors and are categorized as: (a) Single episode expert-led group-based (e.g., training, conference) (b) Single episode expert-led individual-based (e.g., certification) (c) Single episode learner-centered group-based (e.g., retreat) (d) Single episode learner-centered individualbased (e.g., self-exploration) (e) Series of episodes expert-led group-based (e.g., class, multiple workshops) (f) Series of episodes expert-led individual-based (e.g., online course, apprenticeship) (g) Series of episode learner-centered groupbased (e.g., lesson study, community of practice) (h) Series of episodes learner-centered individual-based (e.g., mentoring, coaching, peer education) This approach was used by Fernandez (2002) in Japan and Arslan (2019) in Turkey, in an

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Professional Development in Education The professional development in education that is widely used focussed mainly on two major areas: teachers’ professional development and professional development in special education.

health, environment, economic, or human rights, it is predicted that they play a critical role in achieving the 2030 Development Agenda (Gore et al. 2017). For example, a study on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in the thirdyear degree program for teachers (n = 16) in Early Childhood Education (ECE) at the Universitat Internacional de Catalunya in Spain showed that integrating sustainability into Higher Education Curricula (HEC) improved the idiosyncratic competence on SDGs (Fuertes-Camacho et al. 2019). Fuertes-Camacho et al. (2019) recommended that such professional development program should be implemented worldwide in the professionalization of preschool and primary school teachers. Sexana (2012) noted that teacher training programs benefitted their students and gradually add strength to school education.

Professional Development of Teachers

Professional Development in Special Education

Professional development of teachers is critical in improving student’s learning. Teacher professional development is defined as “teachers’ learning: how they learn to learn and how they apply their knowledge in practice to support pupils’ learning” (Postholm 2012). In education sector, the professional development are conducted in the form of a wide variety of specialized training, formal education, or advanced professional learning intended to help administrators and teachers, improve their skill, professional knowledge, competence, and effectiveness. Gusky and Huberman (1995) argued, “Never before in the history of education has greater importance been attached to the professional development of educators” (p. 3). There has been a paradigm shift from traditional professional development in education. As Stein et al. (1999) said “The new paradigm for professional development represents clear departure from the use of workshops to teach‚ techniques’ toward the use of multiple professional development strategies to build teacher capacity to understand subject matter, pedagogy, and student thinking” (p. 263). Professional development of teachers in order to achieve quality education by 2030 is always with education for sustainable development. Whether teachers’ profession is in education,

The Goals also apply to all the vulnerable people including persons with disabilities through a simple virtue of inclusive education and vocational training at all levels. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) as a guiding framework for the implementation of the SDGs has ensured the vulnerable population including persons with disabilities and special needs to quality education is adequately addressed. To corroborate this point, a study on children with disabilities and their right to education in Madagascar showed that professional development in special education contributed significantly to the achievements of SDGs (Education Development Trust 2016). Subsequently, they recommended that such professional development program in special education for children with disabilities should be adopted by relevant stakeholders, globally (Education Development Trust 2016).

attempt to achieve better resilient and sustainable professional development, and their work was found to be consistent with that of Smith et al. (2017) (Coenders and Verhoef 2019).

Professional Development in Five Key Sectors The following section deals with professional development in five key sectors such as education, health, economy, environment, and human rights.

Professional Development in Health Professional development in health care is fundamental that encompasses activities that health care professionals need to maintain, develop, and enhance their skills, knowledge, and attitudes with an eye to stay up-to-date with the state-ofthe-art device, idea, or skills for disease control

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and prevention, as part of its pledge to meet the 2030 Development Agenda (Nunes et al. 2016). Nunes et al. (2016) developed a health and wellbeing framework to guide the implementation of the SDG with a hope that health sector could benefit from it. This is highly significant because not only the framework is connected to health and non-health sector but also the Goals are connected to other sectors linking Goals, targets, and indicators to social, economic, environment, and health determinants (Nunes et al. 2016). Professional Development and Economic Growth Professional development is one of the ultimate factors that enhance human capacity, marketing power, productivity, creativity, better and successful entrepreneurship, and technological advances (Mat et al. 2015). Because of significant linkages between professional development and economic development, it plays a critical role in securing socioeconomic growth and development and eventually can lead to the achievements of the SDGs. World Bank argues that professional development opportunities for those both in and out of work, such as flexible learning opportunities at universities and adult learning programs, enable labor market to adjust to the future work (World Bank 2019). In a study on the relationship between human capital investment and economic development in Sabah, Malaysia, Mat et al. (2015) found that there is a positive relationship between human capital investment and economic development. A similar finding was found by Jalil and Idrees (2013), in which different levels of education influence economic growth and development positively. They suggested that investment in education is essential as it brings people’s prosperity, economic well-being, and happiness. Professional Development and Environment Another imperative of the professional development is to achieve environmental sustainability by 2030 that is to focus on developing a key solution for environmental educators for a sustainable environment. Environmental education professionals are pivotal in the success of the 2030 Agenda, because they encourage not only behaviors that can mitigate

and solve environmental problems but also help achieving environmental sustainability. Being environmentally sustainable and resilient means it can benefit in many ways: building sustainable communities, better health and well-being, better energy efficiency and resilient infrastructure, building better safety and resilience, and most importantly, building sustainable economy (e.g., saving money) (Manno 2017; Muller and Schader 2017). Yuan et al. (2017) conducted a study on environmental educators from 25 colleges in Taiwan to test whether people would improve their care for the environment positively or negatively. Yuan et al. (2017) found a positive correlation between care for environment and environmental sustainability, it thus contributed significantly to professional development and sustainable environment. Professional development in the environmental sector has a significant role in achieving a sustainable and resilient environment Goal by 2030. Professional Development and Human Rights The concern in professional development in SDGs is learning about human rights and how to address these rights for all. This is pivotal for both the professional development and the achievement of SDGs, because the relationship between human rights and SDGs are mutualistic, meaning they both work together and benefit each other. More importantly, from the legal profession point of view, Danish Institute for Human Rights (2018) estimated that more than 90% of the global Goals framework targets is associated with international and regional human rights instruments and labor standards. Theoretically, 90% of the SDGs is linked to the developed and developing nations’ human rights instruments. To reinforce the linkages between professional development, human rights, and SDGs, the professional development has a framework, namely the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), to guide the implementation of the SDGs. The UDHR proclaimed that recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all human beings is freedom, justice, and peace (United Nations 2015, p. 1). The linkages between professional development, human rights,

Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

and SDGs are carefully designed with a purpose of achieving Development Agenda by 2030. The professional development sector should use suitable framework to guide their way forward in addressing economic, social, and environmental concerns vexing the legal profession and Goals. For example, to date, the establishment of the National Human Rights Institutions and its Merida Declaration by the Permanent Mission of Denmark to the United Nations in Geneva indicated that professional development on human rights plays a key role in the implementation of the 2030 Agenda (Jensen 2019).

Factors Affecting Contemporary Trends in Professional Development Despite significant linkages between professional development and SDGs, the professional development may hamper its progress towards achieving global Goals due to the impacts of two major factors: globalization and Information and Communication Technology (ICT). In a study on the impact of globalization on teachers in Turkey by Canli and Demirtaş (2018) and economic growth globally by Samimi and Jenatabadi (2014), they found that globalization has influences teaching profession positively, especially in the professional sector so that it is possible to help them achieve the Development Agenda by 2030. These positive effects may include but are not limited to better education, health, economy, environment, trade, technology, marketing, employment, and infrastructure due to the impacts of innovation and cutting-edge technologies (Canli and Demirtaş 2018). In spite of several positive influences of globalization on professional development, there are however many adverse effects as well. Such negative effects include the destruction of local cultures and traditions by civilization (e.g., western culture) and adaptation to the new model and innovative idea in the sense that it takes time for the professional development sector to adjust since it costs a lot of money and time (Canli and Demirtaş 2018). The other factor that affects contemporary trends in the professional development sector is ICT changes. The rapid development of ICT has

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largely enhanced the quality of sustainable and resilient professional development as they are the key solution to develop better human resource management with the aim to have a better workforce that would be able to contribute significantly to the achievements of the 2030 Agenda. The ICT and professional development are considered to be important prerequisites for accelerating global Agenda by allowing major structural changes in the professional development. According to Hussain (2018), there are two equally important reasons for integrating ICT in professional development. First, labor force must become familiar with the use of ICT, since all jobs in the society in the future will be dependent on it. Second, ICT must be used in the professional development sector as a mean to improve its quality and make it more effective. For example, the launching of 5G by China has prompted professional development sector to advance in a health care setting and better resilient and sustainable infrastructure and better economy (Li and Woo 2019). According to Li and Woo (2019), the limitations for ICT in professional development are human capacity, resources, and costs.

Professional Development and Sustainable Development Professional development and sustainable development are closely intertwined and both are inseparable. Professional development can help achieving sustainable development and sustainable development can promote professional development. Professional development enhances the quality of professionals or skilled labor force in an organization or a country through access to education and training. It enhances professional knowledge, skills, competence, and effectiveness. Professional development leads to increased efficiency and productivity of workforce in an economy and in turn helps building human resource development in a country, the hallmark of the 2030 Development Agenda. According to Redman et al. (2018), the professional development and sustainable development are dependent factors or covariate, meaning these

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two variables or cofactors are positively related to one way or another and they move together in the same direction. To test the relationship between professional development and sustainable development, a study was conducted with 246 teachers in the Arizona State University, and the study found that education for sustainable development has impacted 92% of teachers’ perceptions on sustainability positively (Redman et al. 2018). Consequently, this result called on all stakeholders to adopt such a program as professional development (e.g., continuing education) for sustainable development, globally. Based on the previous discussions, it is clear that professional development is the main driver in achieving SDGs. As mentioned earlier, the 16 SDGs are falling under five sectors: education, health, economic, environment, and human rights, and SDG 17 is designed for global partnership and it encompasses all other Goals in the SDG framework.

some of the challenges in implementing continuous professional development effectively. Besides, a lack of teachers’ technological, pedagogical and content knowledge, inadequate infrastructure, linguistic differences, limitations of internet diffusions are some of the challenges in teacher professional development. Professional development of teachers requires a lifelong learning approach. A systematic professional development also needs lifelong professional processes. An absence of such a process in teacher professional development not only challenges quality education but also a challenge to achieving SDGs. The major challenges for the implementation of the SDGs through professional development sector are that the professional development itself does not have a clear framework on how each Goal, Target, and Indicator should be achieved by 2030 and beyond. Moreover, there is a lack of knowledge on the linkages between professional development and SDGs (Anåker et al. 2015; Duane et al. 2019).

Challenges to Professional Development Teacher professional development is a necessary element in educational change. Professional development is undergoing fast changes with the technological changes. Technophobia in professional development sector is a major issue (Bernadine 2019). However, many people lack access to technology, resulting in new form of exclusion often described as “digital divide.” Inclusive development is a prerequisite of success of development or sustainable development. The “digital divide” is a challenge to successful professional development. Continuous professional development (CPD) can help teachers unlock barriers to learning. One of the challenges for the effectiveness of continuous professional development is that the educators often see it as a top-down approach run by and cater to the goals of the educational managers rather than the needs of the staff. Another challenge to the effectiveness of the professional development is it being delivered in multiple ways due to lack of national strategy and framework. Limited resources, lack of implementation plan, wide range of teachers’ skills and experiences, and poorly designed professional development are

Way Forward Professional development’s main concern is about education and training. There is a need to increase training and education infrastructure to cater to professional development sector. There is a need for awareness program in understanding the linkages between professional development and SDGs and enhancing knowledge of use of ICT tools. Providing the educators access to the ICT tools and training on ICT will not only bridge the “digital divide” but also promote effective professional development. A clear action plan in education, health, economic, environmental, and human rights sector is required. Moreover, a framework to guide the professional development sector that is aligned to the 2030 Development Agenda is a way forward.

Conclusion Quality education is fundamental in achieving sustainable development. Professional development in all sectors especially in education sector

Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

is critical in achieving quality education and in turn the SDGs and sustainable development. Education, health, economic, environmental, and human rights sector are critical sectors that clearly orchestrated in favor of SDGs. Professional development of teachers, health professionals, environment educators, and human right activists requires a lifelong learning approach. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has set in motion on deeper and lifelong learning processes. There is a greater need to provide the educators access to the ICT tools and training which will promote an effective professional development. Moreover, there is a greater need to integrate professional development of various sectors and implementation of a clear framework that guide professional development on a sustainable way. In the absence of sound professional development, the SDGs and the 2030 Development Agenda may not be achieved successfully in building a pathway which is more resilient and sustainable.

Cross-References ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education ▶ Informal Workplace Learning ▶ Lifelong Learning ▶ Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

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Becoming proficient will not limit to the user’s expertise or efficiency in using a method or tool of assessment but in effectively using it for the correct purpose. In quality education, exposure to knowledge will not be sufficient to support the Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SGD4), Target 4.1: “by 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes” as introduced by United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA). “Proficiency for assessment” will play a major role in assuring of attaining the “effective learning outcomes” (UNDESA), to develop knowledge, skills, and attitude up to internalizing the values of the concept of sustainability in a student.

Professional Growth Introduction ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Professional Learning ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education: Internalization of Values of Sustainability Kamani Sylva Department of Engineering Management, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Definitions Proficiency for assessment is becoming proficient in a variety of methods or tools used to measure learning progress and skills acquisition.

The focus on sustainability or sustainable development is eternally increasing and conquering all disciplines with or without a clear insight into what the concept is. The word “sustainability” has become the slogan or the buzzword of recognition for many sectors, institutions, and individuals with or without a clear awareness of the concept. The factor that should be acknowledged is its indispensable nature woven with either reason being essential for life on earth, for physical or psychological survival. The clearly fingered end results of unprecedented growth, detrimental consequences on the survival of beings, initiated and supported building up the concept of sustainability. The unclear aspects of sustainability or sustainable development arise due to its source and the interconnectedness of many disciplines to produce a curative result. Although goals are well defined for sustainable development in relation to the evidenced negatives of growth, no individual can be blamed for the vagueness in identifying a clearcut path of fulfilling these goals, where, when, and how to address, owing to the multidisciplinary nature of the concept. “Sustainability is not a smooth, cumulative, or linear process or a single desired end state” (Miller et al. 2011, 181) Sustainable development is a wicked problem

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(Pryshlakivsky and Searcy 2013). Wicked problems are concurrently dynamic and kinetic; many different stakeholders are involved while having allowances for becoming subjective with individual perspectives; they are a confluence of applied science with politics (Pryshlakivsky and Searcy 2013). Sustainable development issues are a wicked problem “characterized by a lack of clarity, uncertainty, ambiguity, high risk, and limited understanding” (Pryshlakivsky and Searcy 2013, 110). The only fact that is explicit is knowledge of sustainability is indispensable for the survival of beings since the sustainability problems humans face today are related to their relationship with the natural world (Pappas et al. 2013). Sustainable development implies and promises positive outcomes. “Sustainability knowledge has several characteristics including social robustness, recognition of system complexity and uncertainty, acknowledgment of multiple ways of knowing and the incorporation of normative and ethical premises” (Miller et al. 2011, 177) which would require diversified thinking to reach the best solutions. In fulfilling sustainable development goals, free, equitable education can be provided by enrolling all girls and boys in education systems with extra effort. But will they be enrolled in quality education leading to sustainable development with relevant and effective learning outcomes? SGD4, Target 4.7, is stated as: by 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development. (UN-DESA)

Do the education systems capture the concept of sustainability adequately to fulfill these goals? Relevant and effective outcomes require attention on the developing attitudes for internalizing values of the concept while providing knowledge of sustainable development. The fuzzy nature of the source of the concept of sustainability brings in a different problem for the educational institutions in introducing the concept to their curricula:

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

where, when and how to introduce? Reaching goals of sustainability need a process of endorsement for educating every human being to be in line with the identified goals. In addition, to provide education as the vehicle for sustainable development, introducing the concept of “sustainable development” to the curricular is inescapable. The focus has to be to introduce all goals identified to the curricula in some place with the most effective dispatch to reach the expected outcomes fast. Institutions have to address the vagueness of the concept with better strategies of educating, by introducing modifications to their knowledge production processes, to be more adaptive to and engaged with the society (Miller et al. 2011). Students not only require strong content knowledge in relevant fields of sustainability, but they also need active and creative problem-solving, collaboration, and communication skills to attend to problems related to the concept owing to its in-built vagueness or wickedness (Pryshlakivsky and Searcy 2013). To understand the concept, the effects on the whole system has to be identified by each individual, from their own discipline point of view and the interwoven characteristics with other disciplines. The “profound connections and reciprocal influences among the biological, social, economic, and technical factors” (Pappas et al. 2013, 62) will be the forces that determine global, or community, sustainability. This connection has to be introduced through the education systems. Miller et al. (2011) propose epistemological pluralism and reflexivity for knowledge production in sustainability for a better understanding of the concept. Epistemological pluralism deals with recognizing and combining multiple ways of knowing; ‘ignoring the role of multiple ways of knowing, process, etc. in interdisciplinary research can torpedo efforts from the beginning’ (Miller et al. 2008). This differs from epistemological sovereignty in which the object of inquiry is often defined by one discipline enabling the method of approach to be reached by a particular set of values (Singer-Brodowski 2016). Positivism in modern science has been replaced by the factual reality of natural science which is multidisciplinary in nature, and epistemological criticisms discredit the pursuit of absolute truth related

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

to a particular set of values through modern science (Littledyke 1996). Therefore, the absolute truth through the sovereignty of one discipline will no longer be valid for sustainable development. Together, reflexivity, with epistemological pluralism, allows understanding of the institution as a part of the dynamics of the system that it seeks to change (Miller et al. 2011). By introducing reflexivity, it is expected that the foundational assumptions of the work of the institutions or individuals are allowed to continually reexamine and reevaluate by opening up the boundaries to multiple representations and discourses outside the domain of the institutions or individuals (Miller et al. 2008). Although in all human acts of cognition and all conceptualization, reflexivity is potentially involved (Sandri 2009), if the educational institutions do not open up their boundaries to interconnect different disciplines (SingerBrodowski 2016), this reevaluating and reexamining of interwoven concepts may perish with time. Compartmentalization of knowledge – “knowledge about a specific domain is composed of several separate, not intertwined parts” (Mandl et al. 1993, 162) – will not allow space for reflexivity nor for epistemological pluralism. While the boundaries are being opened up, it would be necessary to assess the knowledge dissimilation process to be changed permitting for the future generations to capture the cutting-edge knowledge of immerging fields of sustainability while consolidating important sustainable concepts of legacy. “Educators have slid into the 21st century – and into the digital age – still doing a great many things the old way” (Prensky 2005/2006, 8). The teachers try to “teach,” but students as receivers of information have become believers in technology as the only source of information for their enrichment. Assessing the competencies, up to internalizing the values of the concepts of sustainable development in a student, is necessary to change attitudes of future generations positively toward relevant and effective outcomes for sustainability. Are the institutions practically engaged in transforming into a culture of assessing the process of teaching, up to internalizing the values of the concept of sustainability mandated for sustainable development?

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Are they yet gluing to the cognitive outcomes which are straightforward and easy to assess for their convenience, neglecting the affective domain of a student which is the most nebulous and hardest to evaluate? In the assessment process, teaching and evaluating cannot be separately discussed with aligning of the intended learning outcomes (ILOs) from teaching to evaluating. Majority of assessing processors consider typical cognitive aspects, and in addition, “affective” roadblocks are experienced while attempting to convert into a culture of student-centered (SC) approaches in teaching and learning. Roadblocks initiated and lined up with the generation gap between Generation X (Gen X) as a teacher and Generation Y (Gen Y) and beyond as students have to be verified and eliminated, to characterize the present student with a positive attitude for the student today to become “The Change Agent” for tomorrow’s sustainability. In responding to the question, is the teacher taking the responsibility of the entrusted stewardship of our children’s twenty-first-century education (Prensky 2005/2006) and concurrently meeting the expected outcomes of sustainable development education, the imminent queries compelled are the following: Do the ILOs of sustainability education reflect the multidisciplinary nature of goals of sustainability? Are the ILOs directed toward the development of knowledge, skills, and attitude of a student mandated by sustainable development? Do the assessment methods constructively aligned to measure course ILOs to capture the development of cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains of the receiver: up to internalizing the values of sustainability? Do the assessment methods capture the learner’s abilities to internalize values of sustainability; are the assessment methods student-centered and capture the characteristics of Gen Y and beyond of the contemporary student community as receivers of information? This chapter attempts to answer the above questions while captivating the reader to focus

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on areas of further conceivable research to reach the goals of sustainability.

Catering to the Multidisciplinary Nature of Sustainability The demands of sustainability are multidisciplinary in nature (Shephard 2007). The goals of sustainability, sustainable development goals (SDGs), reflect this diversity. This same diversity has to be introduced to the future generations through education. But does the education that is provided contemporarily capture these diversified goals of sustainability? The drive toward interdisciplinary research is intensified by universities and research centers to fill gaps in knowledge in social-ecological system (SES) interactions (Miller et al. 2008). Institutions integrate aspects of sustainability in their own curricula but often in compartmentalized degree programs (Singer-Brodowski 2016). The wickedness of the system dynamics (Pryshlakivsky and Searcy 2013), uncertainty and complexness of problems and the social value associated being contested and changing (Miller et al. 2011), and uncertainty of acceptance of cutting-edge knowledge by the epistemic cultures (Singer-Brodowski 2016; Cetina 2007; Prensky 2005/2006) itself would further complicate the problem of dissimilation of the knowledge of sustainability. Responsibilities of social and environmental implications are identified as features of postmodern science in the development and application of science for sustainability (Littledyke 1996). Brundiers and Wiek (2011) propose problem and solution-oriented educational opportunities to be connected with entities outside of academic institutions for real-life experience. “Opportunity-led thinking” (Barker 2014) gave birth to approaches such as outcome-based education (OBE) and problem-based learning (PBL) for connecting real-life situations in learning (Chickerur and Kumar 2012). Project-based learning (PjBL) which opens up grounds for work-related learning used in disciplines such as engineering (Jollands 2018; Martínez-Monés et al. 2005) is becoming popular in the integration of fields of science,

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) (Tseng et al. 2011). These concepts are becoming popular in academic institutions for the demonstrated success in teaching real-life scenarios. The expectations of pedagogic learning through such concepts are to develop students as active learners which are different from passive participation at lectures (Tseng et al. 2011). PBL is self-directed and is based on real-life situations where students could extend this learnings to other activities (Chickerur and Kumar 2012; Utecht 2003). Higher educational institutes are in the process of aligning their approaches to teaching with OBE, PBL, and PjBL to cater to the needs of sustainable development as well. Although these approaches help students to become better in identifying the multidisciplinary nature of sustainability or sustainable development, it is yet a question to whether the ILOs of these courses capture the goals of sustainability to a sufficient depth. The entire education system should be aligned with SDGs if a quick fixture to problems associated with modern science (Littledyke 1996) is to be rectified with postmodern sciences. Tertiary education or the higher education systems play a major role in addressing the issues of sustainability. It is at this level where theory to practice could be mixed and students could be made to think in terms of the application of theories. “Higher education has a particular and specific function, to graduate influential citizens who value their environment and appreciate that they have a responsibility to help to sustain it” (Shephard 2007, 88). But various approaches are practiced in different contexts and different levels in achieving the output for sustainability teaching due to the diversity of the conceptual knowledge (Shephard 2007). “University commitment to teaching sustainability varies across universities and across nations” (Pappas et al. 2013, 56). Although the best-practice examples are introduced as courses, a broad integration for education for sustainable development is not experienced thus far (Singer-Brodowski 2016). Without reservation, quality education should capture the concept and multidisciplinary nature of sustainability. The success of the expected

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

outcomes would depend on the extent to which the goals of sustainability are aligned with ILOs of education. General courses for teaching sustainability should be introduced into course structure while incorporating some goals of sustainability in other courses where and as appropriate. For example, since engineering is a discipline which could provide solutions to many other fields, an engineering degree could focus on some courses where multidisciplinary projects could be introduced to design a sustainable city. Students could be exposed to many other goals of sustainability through its ILOs: poverty reduction by employment opportunities, life on land, affordable and clean energy, etc. Introducing an ILO to “identify a renewable energy system for the city with sufficient employment opportunities for city dwellers,” students not only will think about the engineering aspect of renewable energy, but they have to simultaneously provide employment opportunities to people, helping in the reduction of poverty in a city. This is where a student should be able to differentiate technology, decision not based purely on an economic benefit. The multidisciplinary nature of sustainable development could be captured through such projects as experienced by the author, the outcomes yet to be validated. The development of a T-shaped professional is essential for the multidisciplinary problem-solving for sustainability. Having a profound knowledge base on a specific discipline with the possibility of extending to other areas is indispensable: the vertical leg of the T representing expertise in a particular field and the horizontal bar representing the ability and willingness to be open to other disciplines, which could affect due to one’s own discipline (Gardner 2017). The Tshaped professional is demonstrated as a mechanical or industrial engineer with a principal skill that describes the vertical leg, being empathetic to branch out into other skills such as anthropology (Gardner 2017). A T-shaped professional, being ready to explore from many different perspectives to recognize patterns of universal behaviors and relate them to own discipline, is mandatory for sustainable development. The education system should be ready to develop such a person while

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introducing the diverse goals of sustainability as The Change Agent for sustainability.

Development of Competencies Toward Sustainability Higher educational institutes have been following Bloom’s taxonomy or Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) for the preparation of ILOs for courses with the expectations of attaining different stipulated levels of outcomes of these taxonomies in a student in identified domains of learning (Jollands 2018; Pappas et al. 2013; Bumen 2007). Bloom’s taxonomy, which is widely used among academics to grade the learning level required by their students, basically identifies three domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective referring to knowledge, skills, and attitude, respectively. SOLO taxonomy instead tries to assess students’ work in terms of its quality. It questions whether learning is done as one or few aspects of a task, “unistructural”; or many aspects not connected together, “multistructural”; or whether these parts integrated together, “relational”; or whether the student generalize the whole to untaught applications, “extended abstract” (Biggs n.d.). SOLO is becoming popular in academic arenas where project work or application of theory in professional practice may require (Jollands 2018). But, Bloom’s taxonomy is widely practiced for its clear clarifications in identifying the domains of learning and in achieving different levels of difficulties in each domain (Pappas et al. 2013). Bloom’s taxonomy “has provided a basis for test design and curriculum development not only in the United States but throughout the world” (Bumen 2007, 440). The original taxonomy of cognitive domain included categories such as knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation representing a cumulative hierarchy; mastery of each simpler category was assumed to be a prerequisite to mastery the next category (Krathwohl 2002). The revised taxonomy changed some categories to their verb forms and renamed some cognitive categories to present: remember, understand, apply, analyze,

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evaluate, and create, respectively, in the order of achievement (Bumen 2007; Krathwohl 2002). Just as the cognitive domain is testified through six steps, the psychomotor and affective domains have been presented with six and five levels of achievements, respectively (Forehand 2005; Krathwohl et al. 1965). One has to go through the steps of receiving phenomena, responding to phenomena, and valuing and organizing before reaching a level of internalizing the values of a concept in the affective domain although it “does not implicate a concept of man that necessarily represents a Cartesian dualism” (Krathwohl et al. 1965, 168). Internalization of values is identified as characterization by some authors where a person is expected to act consistently with the new value (Bohlin 1998). The development of disseminating processors of knowledge within a classroom has been changing ever since to build up competencies of a student. The systems try to adopt different teaching methods to suit new generations. According to Black (2010), “today’s students have grown up with the speed of video games and MTV. They have little patience for lectures, step-by-step instruction or thinking, or traditional testing. Compared to their experiences with digital technology, they find traditional teaching methods dull” (Black 2010, 98). Methods such as studentcentered teaching/learning (SCT/L) are becoming popular strategies to promote students as active participants in comparison with conducting lectures. It is expected that SCT/L foster transferable skills such as problem-solving and critical and reflective thinking which are also postulated necessary by the concept of sustainability. Although methodologies for teaching sustainability have traditionally been through lectures where the development of knowledge, skills, and attitude of a student may not be guaranteed, the recent efforts focused on other cognitive instructional models such as PBL, OBE, and PjBL which have better proven in transferring the knowledge to the learner (Pappas et al. 2013). Students of the day are able to access information on the concept of sustainability without much difficulty with the help of modern technology. But does this information address the requirements of the concept of

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sustainability? Information is only data; knowledge in contrary is the concise and appropriate collection of information, with cognitive ability, in a way that it makes sense and becomes useful in application. Information complements knowledge. ILOs in a PBL environment, directing toward the cognitive ability of a student to pick the correct information and act accordingly, would give assurance to the knowledge development toward many concepts and now being extended to sustainability as well. Although there are contending facts for the statement “cognitive behaviour is involved in affective behaviour” (Krathwohl et al. 1965, 166), the two domains exhibit a link at the “receiving phenomena” in the affective domain while receiving information. But it could be argued that affective behavior will not always be assured with cognitive ability, to pick the information. The problem-based setting for teaching sustainability in higher education institutions will allow the multidisciplinary aspects and concepts of sustainability to be captured to a greater extent if the problems are well selected with their reallife ill-structured nature (Chickerur and Kumar 2012; Utecht 2003). But the development of expected competencies of a student does not limit to knowledge on sustainability. Creativity, problem-solving, and communication pursuing the demands of sustainability have to be developed simultaneously in a teaching-learning environment. Singer-Brodowski (2016) suggests that key competencies such as systems thinking and anticipatory, strategic, normative, and interpersonal behavior could be fostered through approaches such as PBL. If the setting of SCL is linked with PBL, development of creativity, problem-solving, and communication skills could be possible. Student-centered approaches combined with PBL, OBE, PjBL, and learning from any real-world problems as small groups would enable the development of the psychomotor domain of a student up to some extent. Students get the opportunity of looking at the real-world problems related to sustainable development in these contexts. Critical thinking will develop in a non-threatening environment reaching higher self-esteem and better communication skills with

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

the possibility of unifying students from a diverse society (Overby 2011). Although approaches such as SCT/L are becoming popular, they yet are an aspiration than a reality in social sciences too where the trends toward these methods are better observed than natural sciences (SingerBrodowski 2016). Owing to this, the development of the psychomotor domain in problem handling is yet to be verified in the field of sustainability. Although contemporary approaches of teaching would enable the development of cognitive and up to a certain limit the psychomotor domain, there would be no collateral to the development of affective domain of a student which is entailed in fulfilling the goals of sustainable development, internalizing the values of sustainability. “It is possible to construct an argument that the essence of education for sustainability is a quest for affective outcomes” (Shephard 2007, 88). PBL, OBE, and PjBL will ensure cognitive as well as psychomotor outcomes (Shephard 2007). But do these approaches, although implied, necessarily address the affective domains of a student, the development of attitude, for internalizing the values of sustainability? Evidencing the attention paid to cognitive outcomes: “most teaching and assessment in higher education focus on cogitative skills of knowledge and understanding rather than on affective outcomes of values, attitudes, and behaviours” (Shephard 2007, 87). “PBL would motivate students to participate in active intellectual processes at higher cognitive levels which ultimately would enhance student learning and knowledge retention” (Karimi 2011, 118).

Constructive Alignment of Assessment Process Teaching methods play a major role in introducing the concept of sustainability to future generations. The ILOs of teaching sustainability were observed stipulated to be focused on cognitive and psychomotor development the most. The question to address in this section is whether the assessment methods complement attaining the ILOs of teaching sustainability? “Curriculum, learning activities, assessment and outcomes must

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be aligned in order to achieve a meaningful learning experience” (Nathan et al. 2017, 102). The use of the cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy is visible in most of the curriculum development including assessment systems in higher education. Although there is a transformation happening to using SOLO taxonomy for project-based teaching and assessing, this too is noticeable to be used in its cognitive aspects in assessing students: “PjBL assessment tasks such as reports and presentations can be marked using taxonomies such as the SOLO taxonomy which measure the higher order cognitive processes that are required for sustainability competence” (Jollands 2018, 107, 112). Whichever the method used in assessing students in sustainability education, the assessment process should not only be focused at knowledge transfer but should be able to capture the psychomotor and affective domain. Both attitude and skill of a student should be developed to attain sustainable development goals. Internalizing the values or the attitude development may or may not attain with cognitive patronage. “Measuring graduates critical thinking, problem-solving, group work and communication abilities may not be enough without clearer articulation of the link between ability and behaviour” (Shephard 2007, 92). Without internalizing the values of sustainable development in a student, contribution to long-term sustainability by this student would be doubtful. Students may tend to fulfill their needs of passing examinations where cognitive skills might be the only requirement and disregard the concepts in applications to their life and work (Shephard 2007). In most of the applications, “tendency for affective outcomes carry little or no weight in summative assessment” (Shephard 2007, 94). Are the teachers assessing the development of attitude or the affective domain of a student appropriately for sustainable development? Implication on ILOs for attitude development through PBL might not be sufficient for the emphasis paid on present need for sustainability. Although in early perspectives, the only focus has been Bloom’s cognitive domain in assessing students, methods of testifying the affective domain for assessment have been developed lately and tested for their validity (Nathan et al. 2017) as rubrics for

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assessment. Aligning course learning outcomes (CLOs) to program learning outcomes (PLOs) to attain the affective domain in Bloom’s taxonomy is clearly visible in these rubrics for assessment. Students have been assessed on the internalizing of values by the “display understanding and knowledge of end product” (Nathan et al. 2017, 104) using a five-point Likert scale. Although affective objectives are pervasive in education (Shephard 2007), explicitly stating them for attitude development has become a requisite for sustainability.

Internalize Values of Sustainability The contemporary problems of the receiver end not capturing concepts aggravate the quality education for knowledge transfer for the concept of sustainability. The extraordinary generation gap of sender and receiver that exists in present context in most of the higher education institutions – Gen X, “baby boomers,” as teachers and Gen Y, “eco boomers,” as students – generally has indicated a problem of knowledge transmission. It should be noted that this gap will reduce once the Gen Y replaces Gen X in teaching. By then, the concept of sustainability would be interwoven into all disciplines of teaching with the contemporary introduction of the concept at primary levels of education. But under the present context, where the concept of sustainability has to be integrated into an already established system, reaching the expected goals are made difficult by the existing generation gap of the teacher and the student. Black (2010) recaps the distinction between the two generations, the changing demographics of Gen Y student and their counterpart of “student Gen X,” focusing on the years 1969 and 2009. According to Black (2010), Gen X as students was dependent upon note-taking, paper and pencil. Gen Y is dependent upon technology, introduced and identified as “digital natives” (Prensky 2005/2006; Black 2010), making it difficult for Gen X, as a teacher, to understand why Gen Y does not take notes at a lecture as observed by many teachers today. The expectation of Gen X teacher of the performance of a student, which portrays from their own behavior in class, will not

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

be fulfilled by Gen Y. Similarly, the expectations of Gen Y from their teacher, to understand their demands of a digital age, will neither be satisfied by their teacher of Gen X. Gen X teacher may feel the demand to record a lecture with a smart phone may be unfair in comparison to note taking with a pencil and paper. Many differences may create a barrier in the dissemination of knowledge from Gen X to Gen Y. Gen X is identified to be academically prepared, competitive, lack of experience with diversity, worked and studied alone. Whereas, Gen Y is identified to be lacking in basic skills, collaborative, is ready to accept diversity, is more teamwork oriented and more tolerant (Black 2010; Kian and Yusoff 2012). These differences highlight the necessity in building up teams to support Gen Y to enhance their competencies. Individually assigning tasks for the mastery of a concept as practiced with Gen X may fail with Gen Y. Drawbacks of Gen Y such as the lack of basic skills probably will reduce with their readiness to accept diversity and collaboration at work in small groups where they could get the support of each other for knowledge gaps. The interesting phenomena of being ready to accept institutional structure or a tight grip onto institutional structure by a teacher of Gen X (Black 2010) may increase the gap between the teacher of Gen X and student of Gen Y. But a facilitator role by the teacher of Gen X could reduce the gap as Gen Y are more demanding consumers with customer expectations of immediate services (Black 2010). Gen Y is supported by ‘helicopter parents who hover and assume responsibility for college-age children’ (Black 2010, 94). By transferring parental responsibility to the teacher may reduce the gap between Gen X and Gen Y. Gen X may take this responsibility willingly, as they are more responsible for the self (Black 2010). Allowing the assertiveness and confidence of Gen Y (Black 2010) to express their ideas in small groups could steer to build up further courage in a student to speak for justice of sustainability since Gen Y has been identified to be cynically aware of global warming and other issues and still have hope (Black 2010). Combining PBL with small groups may create an inductive learning environment for Gen Y.

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

Extending this to the use of technology to gather data could increase the effectiveness of the outcome. As Black (2010) presents “digital natives, fluent in acquiring and using technological tools and learning this technology quickly with an intuitive understanding of digital language, seem to use these tools as an extension of their brains (95).” But if the Gen X teacher gets agitated by the actions of Gen Y in these environments, as observed by the author at some occasions, and supported by other authors (Prensky 2005/2006), the positive effects of these attempts may not be visible. As Prensky (2005/2006, 11) expresses, “one of the most important tools for 21st-century students is not the computer that we educators are trying so hard to integrate, but the cell phone that so many of our schools currently ban.” The cell phone/smartphone gives the teacher the ability to “set up and videotaped a meaningful series of Q&A exchanges with students” (Prensky 2005/ 2006, 12). The sustainability experts in these small groups with pre-seminar experience (Singer-Brodowski 2016) enrich the group newcomers to the concept. These small groups allow students to practice listening, developing their “receiving phenomena” (Krathwohl et al. 1965), since they trust information that comes to them from collaborators through “search” from technological devices than from a “dull lecture” (Black 2010) of a teacher. This would enable them to initiate building their affective domain toward sustainability by opening up the receiving end.

Proficiency for Assessment Assessment process itself could provide the basic motivational factors for a student to internalize values of sustainability. As motivated behavior has to be initiated with a created desire that was not present in a person as mental desire (Kian and Yusoff 2012), an attractive assessment method could be the initial focal point for the creation of this desire. Although there is evidence for the conflicting behavior of extrinsic rewards with intrinsic motivation (Acar 2014; Blasi 2001) – the individual’s desire to perform a task for its own sake (Bénabou and Tirole 2003) – it has

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also been found that Gen Y is more inclined toward extrinsic motivation when compared to intrinsic factors (Kian and Yusoff 2012) which are not the same as Gen X. Just as the teacher in the twenty-first century should remember to encourage decision-making among students and involve students in designing instructions (Prensky 2005/2006), the assessment methods should be able to capture the behavior of a student to motivate them to initiate the process of learning as an extrinsic motivator. Students of Gen Y are more careers oriented and more demanding consumers with customer expectations of immediate service (Black 2010); immediate effective feedback could influence them in learning. In Bloom’s taxonomy, the receiving phenomena would be better justified by terms such as “search” than a term like “listen” for the Gen Y (Black 2010). Students are ready to “search” for their information, and they have ample opportunities for this with the advanced technology in their hands. Should the teachers yet measure their students by “listening” to teachers, or should they facilitate the “search” by giving simple guidelines which may be needed by PBL? Characteristics of a student-centered classroom suggest that “new meaning should be acquired through a process of personal discovery” (Utecht 2003, 2). Since there is an urgent need to develop the affective domain of a student, to internalize values of sustainability, and if the teachers try to push these students toward what they will not like in the process of teaching and assessing them through listening to a “dull lecture” (Black 2010), can teachers attain their goal? The student of Gen Y may tend to reject this first step of “receiving phenomena” (Krathwohl et al. 1965) and withdraw from the process by creating a blanket toward the next step of “responding to phenomena” (Krathwohl et al. 1965). They would be reluctant to answer to questions posed at them as observed by the author in teaching classes of Gen Y and beyond. This would create a barrier to go further to fulfill the rest of the ladder: valuing, organizing, and internalizing of values, damaging the development of the attitude of a student toward the concept of sustainability. The assessment systems for small group activities should focus on collaborative approaches, and

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grades should be introduced for tolerating those who are contributing to the group as well as those who are not, but learning through the experience of small group and sharing information when necessary. This would complement the “valuing” aspect of the affective domain of Bloom’s taxonomy. Since Gen Y is different to Gen X, who was willing to accept institutional structure, a more unstructured way of handling problems may be preferred by Gen Y. Finding solutions in a different structure to what was given by the teacher should be assessed positively. Generally, Gen X teacher may not like the use of different structure by a student to what was given. But one has to understand that a student following a different structure, with ample evidence to reach the correct output, may simultaneously increase their creativity and “organizing” ability of affective domain introduced in Bloom’s taxonomy. In the rubrics used for assessing the affective domain, the use of general verbs such as “follow,” “explain,” “organize,” “prepare,” and “display” is visible in assessing the affective domain (Nathan et al. 2017, 104) from the receiving phenomena up to internalizing the values of a concept. Will students of Gen Y and beyond correspond to these “keywords” introduced by teachers is the next question to be addressed? Do teachers need to build up new terms that would measure the abilities of Gen Y more effectively especially toward building attitude toward sustainable development? Can the teacher of Gen X internalize values in Gen Y by judging the “assertive” (Black 2010) behavior of a Gen Y student? In a debate on “providing free education for all,” the Gen X teacher should be ready to tolerate the student building an argument on “why a student should pay for education and why not one pay for the Internet service provider to collect information to develop knowledge for quality education?”. Instead, “why a student should sit at a dull lecture where attendance has become mandatory while plenty of information is available within the reach of a smartphone” could be the argument for “compulsory quality education for all.” An assessment rubric may seem as “herding” which might not be accepted by Gen Y (Prensky 2005/2006) or channeling at behavior to positively influence the student. But it would not

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

directly affect the Gen Y since there is no rigid structure associated with this. The necessity to fill in the gaps of assessment rubrics for Gen Y to assess affective domain could be justified by the obligatory “attitude” development of a student for sustainability of the concept of sustainable development. Quality education should address this problem while developing the information for “cognitive domain” related to sustainable development. Gen Y may display “assertive” behavior in fulfilling the goal of an assignment rather than questioning and verifying the need for sustainable development if they reach the “internalizing of values” state of affective domain. The teacher should be ready to accept this reaction in assessing the Gen Y student for attaining what is required by the attempt to internalize values of sustainability. “Students must be allowed to confront new challenges using their past experiences without the dominance of a teacher/giver of information” (Utecht 2003, 2) and “learners must feel safe and accepted” (Utecht 2003, 2) in a student-centered classroom. Will the Gen X teachers unhand of some holds on teaching and allow stdunts to freely express their ideas to materialize this? Once the students are allowed to find information freely they would be having some ownership for what they find. They could demostrate assertive behavior in trying to fulfill the objectives. If the student displays an assertive behavior on sustainable development concepts through SBL/PBL, “charges of indoctrination or brainwashing” (Shephard 2007, 89) should not be applicable to the teacher. Regardless of any charges, “brainwashing” of a student toward the goals of sustainability in every discipline, from the pre-grade to higher education levels, will be necessary to attain the goals of sustainability. “Rubric designers must create one that is achievable, clarified, and suitable for learners’” age and level of education (Nathan et al. 2017, 102). In the assessment process, “different rubrics are needed to evaluate each learning domain as each has its own defining characteristics” (Nathan et al. 2017, 103) in order to build educated community for sustainable development.

Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education

Conclusion Teaching and assessment practices for developing concepts on sustainability and sustainable development have become indispensable for education entities for their sustainability. Teaching practices are directing toward OBE, PBL, and PjBL in order to capture the rigorous concepts of sustainability in a more systematic way while focusing at SCT/L for better developing the competencies of students as the receivers of the information. But, do the assessment processors capture the attainment of the goals of internalizing the values of the concepts in a student to develop their attitude toward concepts of sustainability was the question to be verified. A transformation of assessment practices toward building the attitude of Gen Y and beyond, with the introduction of new terms in assessment rubrics, is needed to stabilize the concepts of sustainability in the contemporary society for the “sustainability” of sustainable development. The student today should be made “The Change Agent” for tomorrow with the characterization of internalized values of sustainability.

Cross-References ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Tertiary Education

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676 Mandl H, Gruber H, Renkl A (1993) Misconceptions and knowledge compartmentalization. In: Strube G, Wender KF (eds) Cognitive psychology of knowledge. Elsevier Science Publishes B. V, Amsterdam, pp 162–163 Martínez-Monés A, Gomez-Sanchez E, Dimitriadis YA, Jorrin-Abellan IM, Rubia-Avi B, Vega-Gorgojo G (2005) Multiple Case Studies to Enhance Project-Based Learning in a Computer Architecture Course. IEEE Transactions on Education 48(3):482–489. https://doi. org/10.1109/te.2005.849754 Miller TR, Baird TD, Littlefield CM, Kofinas G, Chapin FS III, Redman CL (2008) Epistemological pluralism: reorganizing interdisciplinary research. Ecol Soc 13(2):46 Miller TR, Muñoz-Erickson T, Redman CL (2011) Transforming knowledge for sustainability: towards adaptive academic institutions. Int J Sustain High Educ 12(2):177–192 Nathan SS, Berahim M, Ramle R (2017) Rubric for measuring psychomotor and affective learning domain. J Soc Sci Humanit 25(S):101–108 Overby K (2011) Student-centered learning. ESSAI 9:32. http://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol9/iss1/32/. Accessed 15 June 2018 Pappas E, Pierrakos O, Nagel R (2013) Using Bloom’s taxonomy to teach sustainability in multiple contexts. J Clean Prod 48:54–64 Prensky M (2005/2006) Learning in the digital age. Educ Leadersh 63(4):8–13 Pryshlakivsky J, Searcy C (2013) Sustainable Development as a Wicked Problem. In: Kovacic SF, SousaPoza A (eds) Managing and engineering in complex situations, 109 Topics in Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality 21, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-55154_6, Springer. [pdf]: https://www.natursekken.no/ binfil/download2.php?tid=2172220 Sandri S (2009) Reflexivity in economics. Physica-Verlag (Springer), Heidelberg, p 1 Shephard K (2007) Higher education for sustainability: seeking affective learning outcomes. Int J Sustain High Educ 9(1):87–98 Singer-Brodowski M (2016) Pedagogical content knowledge of sustainability. A missing piece in the puzzle of professional development of educators in higher education for sustainable development. Int J Sustain High Educ 18(6):841–856 Tseng K, Chang C, Lou S, Chen W (2011) Attitudes towards science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) in a project-based learning (PjBL). Int J Technol Des Educ 23:87–102 United Nations, Department of Economics and Social Affairs (UN-DESA) Statistics Division. Sustainable development goals-SDG indicators – metadata repository. Last updated: June 2018. https://unstats.un.org/ sdgs/metadata/. Accessed 2 Jul 2018 Utecht JR (2003) Problem-based learning in the student centered classroom. http://www.jeffutecht.com/docs/ PBL.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2018

Project Management

Project Management ▶ Future Trends in Education

Psychology ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals Chhabi Kumar Department of Sociology and Social Work, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India

Definition Psychosocial well-being is a multidimensional construct consisting of psychological, social, and subjective components which influence the overall functionality of individuals in achieving their true potentials as members of the society. Psychosocial well-being incorporates the physical, economic, social, mental, emotional, cultural, and spiritual determinants of health. Well-being of an individual includes coping with the various stresses of everyday living and realization of the full potential of an individual as a productive member of the society. According to the East African Community (2019), “Psychosocial wellbeing involves developing cognitive, emotional, and spiritual strengths among individuals, families and communities which creates overall positive social relationships among them.” This state of well-being motivates the development of life skills which enables individuals, families, or communities to understand and engage with their environment and make healthy choices which leads to hope for the future.

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

Introduction The term psychosocial well-being pertains to a close association between the mental health and social experiences of an individual. The global development agenda of the UN as prescribed in the SDG-3 speaks about the importance of individual’s overall health and psychosocial wellbeing. The world community is committed to the “prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases, including behavioral development and neurological disorders, which constitute a major challenge to the sustainable development” (UNSDN 2016). The United Nations has recognized the importance to addressing mental wellness globally. As a result they have included “mental health and well-being” in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The aim is to reduce deaths from mental health issues by one third by 2030. The development agenda makes special reference to the promotion of mental health and prevention and treatment of substance abuse. Target 3.5 of SDG-3 calls for strengthening the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol (WHO 2019). It is beyond doubt that improved overall health of individuals can have an impact on the realization of all the other goals under the SDGs. Mental ailments impact not only the developing countries but also the developed countries and in the process create an enormous financial as well as social burden on the countries. According to one estimate, depression alone has been estimated to impact around 350 million persons globally (Dybdahl and Lien 2017). According to the World Health Organization (2018), about 80% of people with mental disorders live in the developing as well as underdeveloped countries. In these countries, mental illnesses and substance abuse both contribute to the major share of the disease burden. Another disturbing trend is that majority of patients suffering from mental illnesses in these countries fail to acquire proper treatment, contributing to the “mental health treatment gap” (Dybdahl and Lien 2017). Mental health has wider implications for individuals and communities alike. Better mental

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health can lead to healthier lifestyles, better physical health, greater opportunities for educational attainment, greater productivity and economic participation, better relationships with people, more social cohesion, and improved quality of life. These outcomes are associated with the presence of overall positive mental well-being (Friedli, 2009). The underlying issues linking mental health to Sustainable Development Goals have attracted the attention of researchers. The mental disorders are believed to be linked to increased risk for poverty, lower socioeconomic status, and lower levels of education (Ahmedani 2011 p. 3).

Psychosocial Well-Being and SDG-4 Psychosocial well-being of the students is a crucial ingredient for accomplishment of quality education. Poor psychosocial status of any community is bound to lead to poor educational levels in that community (Kohn et al. 1998). Several studies have indicated an association between indicators of poverty and the risk of mental disorders, the most consistent association being with low levels of education (Patel and Kleinman 2003). This contention is true in the context of both higher education and school education. Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and psychological wellbeing (happiness, life satisfaction, and depression) are important resources for enhancing students’ learning, success, and quality in education (Salami 2010, p. 247). Psychological well-being has been shown to predict students’ attitudes and academic performance in higher educational institutions (Khramtsova et al. 2007; Salami 2008). Target 4.2 of SDG-4 emphasizes that we need to ensure by 2030, that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education. Under this target “proportion of children under 5 years of age who are developmentally on track in health, learning and psychosocial well-being, by sex” is a crucial indicator for accomplishment of target 4.2 (UNESCO 2018). This crucial indicator can be measured as the percentage of

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under-5s who are developmentally on-track in at least three of the following four domains: literacynumeracy, physical, socio-emotional, and learning (sdgtracker.org).

Factors Impacting Psychosocial Well-Being of Students The student life of an individual at any stage of learning be it school or in an institution of higher learning presents several socio-emotional challenges that have a deep impact on students’ psychosocial well-being. The findings of WHO present a worrisome picture about existing state of affairs across the world (WHO 2018). It further reveals that adolescents with mental health are vulnerable to social exclusion, discrimination, stigma (affecting readiness to seek help), educational difficulties, risk-taking behaviors, physical ill-health, and human rights violations (WHO 2018). However most of the educational institutions across the world and particularly in developing countries are not yet fully equipped to understand the mental health of the students. Thus, it becomes a great responsibility of the educational institutes to provide developmental opportunities in all its forms to its students. Students in every stage of learning are constantly faced with the risk of poor academic achievement or impaired social functioning. They are also faced with the challenges as a result of different social changes, financial and accommodation problems, pressure to perform well, limited career opportunities, and high competition and several other specific demands of the academia (Negovan 2010). As a result of such mental and physical stress, students in different stages of learning are faced with several problems like anxiety, stress, depression, eating disorders, addictions, and other mental problems. In the absence of proper counseling services and other support services, many of such students are unable to cope with the existing conditions leading to several negative consequences. This factor can prove to be detrimental for the achievement of SDG-4 or quality education for all irrespective of their age, class, gender, and ethnicity among others.

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

The situation in several developing countries is all the more challenging. Most of these countries account for a large population of the people in younger age groups. These countries are faced with the challenges of limited access to educational facilities, poor educational infrastructure, limited access to healthcare facilities, lack of awareness about issues related to psychosocial well-being, and mental ailments among others. Absence of counseling services and attitudes related to availing such services if at all they are present are some of the other factors that limit the scope and role of educational institutions in providing a healthy environment to students in securing their psychosocial well-being and achieving SDG-4. In order to improve the health scenario of any community, it is imperative that the government pays special attention to promote awareness on various aspects of health including mental health. This is particularly true for students who are more vulnerable and prone to various psychological ailments owing to their age and socioeconomic conditions. In the developing countries, this situation is generally alarming as they have limited capacity in terms of infrastructure, workforce, and other resources needed to assess, identify, and treat mental health disorders (Ngui et al. 2010). More often than not most people are not aware about the various kinds of mental ailments and often equate them to madness. People are also not aware about the various symptoms related to such ailments, and the social taboo associated with such conditions prevents them from seeking professional help (Ahmedani 2011). This is often the case with depression, and sometimes certain types of depression like the postpartum depression are not even recognized by the society. In these countries paucity of health facilities and discriminations faced especially by women and other minorities create conditions for nonfulfillment of the targets of SDG-4. The goal of improving health situation among the nations not only has a direct bearing on other goals but is also in turn affected by the realization of other goals. Poverty has a direct bearing on the status of mental health of individuals. WHO (n.d.) emphasizes that mental health issues cannot be

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

considered in isolation from other areas of development, such as education, employment, emergency responses, and human rights capacity building. Conditions like lack of proper nutrients and nourishment may lead to certain impairments in brain development causing certain mental ailments particularly in children and young individuals (Cusick and Georgieff 2016). Deficiencies may inhabit proper functioning of the brain, sometimes leading to lifelong disabilities and impairments. This in turn hampers several body functioning and holistic development of an individual. This phenomenon is more pronounced in children below 5 years of age who suffer from mild to severe malnourishment situation. Under such situation the realization of the targets under SDG-4 remains a serious concern. Undernourishment is frequently seen in the developing and underdeveloped countries caused due to both lack of resources and lack of awareness among the families on balanced diet and importance of nutrition. This is sometimes accentuated by several malpractices prevailing in such societies. Malnutrition may lead to severe impact on the brain development of the children as well as their learning capacity and academic performance (Birch 1972; Latham and Cobos 1971). In the similar manner, absence of proper medical facilities or access to medications may further hamper the chances of recovery and opportunity to lead a normal life for such individuals. Such factors are a cause of serious concern for the realization of SDG-4. Poor mental health status has a greater bearing on the most vulnerable and marginalized people. It is estimated that out of nearly two billion young people in the world, 1 in 5 experiences mental health condition in their lifetime and less than 20% receive appropriate treatment. Almost 90% of such patients live in low-income countries (Dybdahl and Lien 2017). Both mental and physical aspects of health are required for optimum functioning of an individual. The World Health Organization has defined health as not only the absence of disease but a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. Thus, there is a clear interrelation between the three aspects, and any ailment or

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dysfunctioning of one effects the functioning of the other. For example, long-term or serious ailments are likely to cause depression among such patients. In a similar manner, substance abuses are known to cause certain cancers, and state of depression among individuals may increase their likelihood of refusing medications and treatments (Dybdahl and Lien 2017). Adolescents and young individuals are particularly high-risk groups as far as substance abuse is concerned. Several social factors including family situation and peer pressure makes them vulnerable to risks associated with drugs and alcohol abuse. These concerns have a direct impact on the realization of quality education for all. Inequality based on gender is perhaps the most serious contributor to the low health indicators particularly in the developing countries. Women and girls still remain deprived of health facilities and treatments which make them vulnerable to various disabilities arising out of them and further accelerate the process of marginalization creating a circle of deprivation (Lynne 2009). Due to their inherent low position and differential treatment faced by them in everyday living, they are often subjected to several mental strains and stresses which degrade their mental health status (WHO n.d.). This is further accentuated by the absence of proper nourishment and poor nutritional intake creating several deficiencies in the body hindering the overall development, particularly in young girls. Further, increased pressure from work and strains of child rearing also has several negative impacts on their psychosocial well-being. Several traditional practices like early marriages and early motherhood often take a toll on the general wellbeing of women (WHO Report n.d.). Such gender-based disparities in nutrition, access to healthcare, and overall institutional bias on the basis of gender are serious violations to the realization of the targets of SDG-4. Clean water for drinking and other domestic uses is a prerequisite for healthy living of every individual. Consumption of polluted water and absence of sanitation facilities lead to several waterborne diseases particularly in children. In several developing countries, waterborne diseases like typhoid and diarrhea are the largest cause of

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high infant mortality rates. Needless to say high morbidity has a direct influence on the mental health and brain development particularly in younger children. Similarly, proper sanitation facilities contribute to personal and environmental cleanliness and directly enhance the well-being of the individual. According to an estimate, more than 650 million people globally still do not have access to clean water. The water is contaminated with several pollutants and impurities and sometimes with certain poisonous and harmful substances like arsenic (Chowdhury et al. 2016). Such contaminated water may affect certain brain functions and in turn directly increase the probability of depression besides other physical conditions (Chowdhury et al. 2016). Excess of certain substances like fluoride, calcium, etc. is often related to several neurosensory and physical ailments. This may hamper the learning process and the overall academic performance of individuals. This acts as a severe hindrance to the realization of SDG-4. Society has become increasingly dependent on various sources of energy be it for personal or commercial purposes. Energy in various forms is required for carrying out several day-to-day tasks/ activities including use of fuel for cooking and transportation and as electricity for lightening and running different appliances among others. Use of nonrenewable sources of energy is often associated with unsustainable, environmentally hazardous, and pollution-generating processes. Pollution caused by such sources is related to several physical and mental ailments. Children are often the first to be impacted by such conditions due to lower body immunity. Needless to say frequent illness has a direct bearing on school attendance and academic performance. Air pollution can cause conditions such as stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases (Mittal 2017). This situation is seen in both developed and developing countries. According to an estimate, 92% of the world’s population reside in places where the air quality is low and below the acceptable standards. Air pollution is the leading cause of about 88% of premature deaths in the developing countries.

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

According to certain studies, women inhaling polluted air are more prone to miscarriage and other pregnancy-related complications (Eckart 2017). Children born with such complications have to face severe consequences during their development period and in the later stages of life. Thus, pollution takes a heavy toll on mental well-being directly and indirectly. Use of clean sources of energy refers to use of such natural and renewable sources of energy like wind, solar, tidal, geothermal, etc. which are not only available in abundance but are also comparatively eco-friendly and cause minimal or no pollution. Thus, we see that the choice of energy source has a direct relation to our health and overall well-being and in turn on the realization of SDG-4. Availability of employment opportunities and economic growth has a positive impact on the overall health and psychosocial well-being as it is related to economic prosperity of individuals and the families. Economic prosperity in turn enhances the overall quality of life and availability of various services including healthcare, education, housing, access to energy, and water among others. This further entails that several ailments which arise due to poverty and other conditions can be avoided and treatment be availed improving the overall health and well-being of an individual. Mental health is very important for enhancing the person’s ability to work and contribute to the economic prosperity of the society. Workplace in turn offers opportunity for mental satisfaction, sense of dignity, and well-being. This promotes the optimization of individual’s potential and productivity. Students in the higher education sector are placed under less pressure and stress when employment opportunities are available. Similarly, parental and peer pressure to face severe competition and perform well are somewhat diluted if employment opportunities are available to young individuals. Under such situation the students are able to study with lesser amount of stress and are likely to perform better in academics. Improved infrastructural facilities like roads, means of conveyance and transportation, places of public utilities, hospitals, etc. have a positive impact on the general health and well-being of the

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

society. This is particularly true for developing countries where a large number of the population reside in remote and often inaccessible villages with little communication with the outside world. A developed infrastructure ensures good connectivity with the urban centers and provision of basic facilities including healthcare facilities to such population. In this way the call for promoting sustainable cities and communities would require bringing about changes in the behavior patterns of the individuals, work culture and innovations related to clean energy use, sustainable consumption patterns, and social networking among others. This is particularly true for educational institutions and centers of learning. A sustainable infrastructure along with availability of various facilities to the students will result in improving their psychosocial well-being and academic performance. Creating a learner-centric environment and enabling support system will ensure better retention of students and their enhanced participation in various scholastic activities. Inequalities in the social, economic, or cultural spheres hinder the opportunity for individual as well as social well-being. Inequalities or discrimination resulting from such processes whether based on ethnicity, gender, or class has a negative impact on the mental health and well-being of individuals. There are several conditions that directly contribute to health inequalities. Firstly, material or economic inequality like poverty, poor housing, and lack of employment opportunities contributes to mental and physical ailments and poor access to treatment (Lynne 2009). Secondly, social inequalities like class and caste discrimination, stigmatization or experiences related to immigration status, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, disability, etc. contribute to poor well-being. Psychosocial well-being may be ensured only when we are able to work toward reducing such inequalities in every sphere of life (Envision 2030 DESA). This is particularly true for educational institutions where discrimination and maltreatment by the school management and staff, students, or parents may culminate into serious incidences of bullying or even use of violence and harassment. The living surroundings of an individual certainly make a big difference to the health and

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quality of life. There are certain “social determinants” of physical and mental well-being which impact the overall quality of life (WHO and UNICEF 2018). Thus, UN has included the concept of coming up with sustainable cities and communities which create amiable conditions for reducing psychological distress or social isolation. Such communities support active lifestyles for promoting physical health, providing pollution free and clean air, coming up with innovative programs and policies that support and promote social and intellectual engagement. These communities are also responsible for coming up with the necessary policies, plans, programs, facilities, and infrastructures that would provide opportunities for their residents to live a comfortable and healthy life. Communities with strong and sustainable infrastructure may offer the best opportunities for healthier and better lives. Schools whether daycare or residential, colleges and universities, and other centers of learning need to make similar efforts to provide such campuses and surroundings for their students so that they may experience the same sense of well-being and good health. Needless to say such effort would go a long way in contributing toward the realization of the SDGs in many ways possible. From conserving the resources to using it in the most optimum manner, adoption of such sustainable systems would encourage students to consume and use resources more responsibly and efficiently. It would help them to learn and follow such sustainable practices and adopt a lifestyle which is environment friendly and in tune with the requirements and objectives of the SDGs. It is beyond doubt that climate change-related events would have a long-term implication on the physical and mental health and well-being in the coming time. The various effects on the psychosocial well-being due to climate change include stress and distress, high-risk coping behavior such as alcohol and drug consumption, and mild to severe mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress among others (APA 2018). Climate change-related events can also lead to loss of employment opportunities, migration, and resulting loss of social support and

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community resources (sdgfund.org Website 2018). These events in turn may have mental health consequences. The climate change may trigger extreme weather conditions like severe storms, frequent flooding, droughts, and heat waves across the globe. These natural calamities may contribute to significant stress and distress for large number of population and contribute to more serious mental health issues. These disasters would create food shortages, destroy public infrastructure, and disrupt transport and other means of communication. They may also effect power supply which would disrupt the normal lives of people (UNEP 2019). These pressures create stress on society and the communities impairing social cohesion and positive identities leading to loss of our most critical sources of mental well-being. This has particularly serious implications for the more vulnerable groups particularly women, children, senior citizens, migrants, people living with a disability, and ethnic minorities among others. Such a state of affairs is likely to have serious repercussion on students as such events and outcomes are likely to disrupt their educational attainment due to destruction of educational facilities and infrastructure leading to closure of schools and educational institutions, migration of families, and economic distress among others. In such scenario, the psychosocial well-being of students would be threatened making them all the more vulnerable. The increasing problems of land degradation, habitat loss, and extinction of several species of plants and animals are contributing to the processes of migration and displacement, increased conflict, climate change, food shortages, loss of biodiversity, and ecosystem services among others, which needless to say have a severe repercussion on the overall health and psychosocial well-being of individuals and community as a whole (IPEBS Report 2018). Peace and justice are the two pillars of development, prosperity, and well-being of the society. Dr. Vamik Volkan describes the nature of the difficulties faced by “traumatized societies” as “psychobiological degeneration” (APA 2018).

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

The various difficulties faced by such societies include the loss of basic trust, difficulty in mourning, and difficulty in reversing a sense of helplessness and humiliation (APA 2018). Emerging behavioral patterns like aggression, domestic violence, prostitution, rape, kidnapping, youth gangs, and organized crimes have posed a serious threat to the social fabric of the society and would ultimately lead to breakdown of societies in the longer run. The process of migration, increased mobility across continents and nations, increased transnational trade, global warming, and other such processes have increased the chances of outbreak of global epidemics. This would require concerted efforts from various stakeholders to come together in partnering for combating the challenges and at the same time working together to improvise the physical and mental health and well-being. Violence and conflict situations have a negative connotation on the psychosocial well-being of individuals. Long-term exposure to such conditions pose problems of intergenerational experience of trauma or the “historical trauma,” problems of rehabilitation of survivors, and an overall feeling of helplessness and loss of wellbeing (Peacebuildinginitiative.org 2008). The psychosocial well-being of students living in such areas of long-term conflict situations is a matter of great concern and would require serious and concerted efforts from educational institutions and the communities alike. Students may suffer from a number of serious issues including grief over loss of loved ones, physical or sexual abuse, physical disability, or grievous injuries among others which may have very serious repercussion on their overall development and wellbeing. The process of migration, increased mobility across continents and nations, increased transnational trade, global warming, and other such processes have increased the chances of outbreak of global epidemics. This would require concerted efforts from various stakeholders to come together in partnering for combating the challenges and at the same time working together to improvise the physical and mental health and well-being.

Psychosocial Well-Being of Individuals

Measures to Promote Student’s Psychosocial Well-Being The present development agenda calls for a greater participation of individuals to the process of development. In order to involve the community, the national governments have called for a more inclusive and lifelong learning opportunities for individuals as mandated by the SDG-4 of the SDGs. This is also imperative for developing skills and capacities of the individuals in order to make them more prepared for the demands of the skill-based knowledge economies. However, in order to make the learning process more efficient and fruitful, it is important that the learners are able to study in a more stress-free and enabling environment. This would not only make the learning process more enjoyable but at the same time would help in enhancing the learning outcomes of the students. There is a need to build a more harmonious relation between the learners and the school authorities as well as between parents and their children. Efforts need to be built at reducing the communication gap between various stakeholders and to promote dialogue between them with a view to create more interactive relations between various stakeholders. This, it is hoped, would give adequate thrust on mutual exchange of ideas and also a chance to the children to bring out the problems and issues related to life and learning (SDG17, UN in India website). Furthermore, there is an undue emphasis on the individual certification and evaluation at the end of the course, particularly in developing countries. Though the scenario is gradually changing, the students are subjected to unmanageable pressure to perform. It has a detrimental effect on their psychosocial well-being. There is a need to shift focus and bring about paradigmatic changes in teaching learning systems. In this context, nonWestern concepts like Ubuntu “an African value system that privileges an I/we relationship in contrast to the Western concept of the I/you individualistic perspective” can be immensely useful to address the psychosocial issues in school education (Chilisa 2013 as cited in Parr and Steven 2019). Community-based teaching learning

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systems, though cited in a different context by Pandey and Kumar (2018), can act as a paradigmatically new idea to enhance psychosocial wellbeing of students. Though continuous assessment systems are already ongoing in school education systems in several countries, the situation remains bleak in several developing countries which are still struggling to enhance the enrolment ratios of children at the primary level and lack even the basic facilities in schools. Identification of inherent talent of the students and accordingly developing their special requirements is also necessary (Parr and Stevens 2019). The availability of professional help like psychiatrists, counselors, or school social workers at school would go a long way to provide much needed counseling to school staffs, students, and parents alike. They can also play a major role to foster and rebuild the communication pathways between various stakeholders and serve as the linking pin to build a more learner centric approach and environment in the school and community. Providing individualized guidance to students based on their requirements and context would help to promote psychosocial wellbeing of students and provide solutions to their problems and concerns.

Final Remarks The Sustainable Development Goal-4 has given a direction to the nations of the world towards which they would have to work together in order to achieve a secured future for the coming generations through the concept of lifelong learning and universal primary education. The challenges faced by the global community in wake of the crisis situation generated by indiscriminate use of natural resources, pollution, climate change, and land and water degradation on one hand and glaring social and economic inequalities and discriminations and conflict situations on the other can be addressed only by integrating their study into the curriculum of schools and Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). Children and adolescents are usually more vulnerable to face such psychosocial issues and

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challenges that are detrimental to their overall well-being. The schools and the community would have to come together to tackle these challenges and create more enabling, participatory, and outward-looking systems that would enable individuals and communities to deal with the changing realities. Various agencies at the national and local levels need to come up and develop indicators for psychosocial support and strengthen monitoring capacity at all levels. These efforts would require coherent policies for sensitizing communities and institutions on the psychosocial challenges faced by the students at all levels. There is an urgent need to create platforms to share good practices and information related to overall well-being of the students across institutions and regions. The states along with various stakeholders need to provide support and at the same time develop, implement, and monitor initiatives and programs to improve the psychosocial well-being of children and youth. The national governments need to mobilize resources to strengthen the capacity of institutions and communities in mainstreaming and delivering psychosocial support to students. The commitment to partnership and cooperation is prerequisite to achieve the various Sustainable Development Goals (UN 2018). Partnerships for achieving the interconnected global development agenda would require common efforts on various fronts. This would include financing for the development process, building networks, and connecting people through technology and strengthening data collection and analysis among others (UN 2018). This is particularly true for the realization of SDG-4 where the partnership would have to be formed at various levels like the governments, the private sector, and civil society including stakeholders in the form of students, school or university management, staffs, parent association, social workers, and counselors among others. The complexity of challenges that are needed to be addressed would require insights and assistance from various academic and technical institutions like universities and scientists and an exchange of knowledge, technology, and dialogues between nations. Besides, inclusive partnerships built upon a shared understanding of

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goals and shared vision about the planet and the people is needed at the global, national, regional, and local levels. Urgent action is required to mobilize various resources and utilize them in order to realize Goal4 and understand its close relation with the psychosocial well-being of the students. The national governments would have to set a clear direction, setting up review and monitoring frameworks, regulations, and incentive structures that would enable and fast track the process. In conclusion it may be said that in order to facilitate an enabling environment for a multidimensional construct like psychosocial well-being, efforts would have to be made at various levels and by various agencies and stakeholders.

Cross-References ▶ Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind” ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Mindfulness, Education, and the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education ▶ Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

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685 students’ psychosocial well being inventory. Eur J Psychol 2/2010:85–10. Retrieved from https://ejop. psychopen.eu/index.php/ejop/article/viewFile/186/85/. Accessed 29 May 2019 Ngui EM, Khasakhala L, Ndetei D, Roberts LW (2010) Mental disorders, health inequalities and ethics: a global perspective. Int Rev Psychiatry 22(3):235–244. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti cles/PMC2935265/. Accessed 21 Sept 2019 Pandey UC, Kumar C (2018) Emerging paradigms of capacity building in the context of climate change. In: Walter L et al (eds) Climate literacy and innovations in climate change education: distance learning for sustainable development. Springer, Cham Parr J., Stevens T. (2019) Challenges of Equity and Discrimination in the Education of Gifted Children. In: Leal Filho W., Azul A., Brandli L., Özuyar P., Wall T. (eds) Quality Education. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham Patel V, Kleinman A (2003) Bulletin of World Health Organization (WHO); Poverty and common mental disorders in developing countries’. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/81/8/Patel0803. pdf?ua=1. Accessed 14 Aug 2019 Report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (2018). https://www.ipbes.net/.../20180322_ipbes6_ media_release_regional_assessments_en.p... Accessed 17 July 2018 Salami SO (2008) Psychopathology and academic performance among Nigerian high school adolescents: the moderator effects of study behavior, self-efficacy and motivation. J Soc Sci 16(2):155–162. Retrieved from http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS16-0-000-000-2008-Web/JSS-16-2-000-000-2008-AbstText/JSS-16-2-155-08-536-Salami-S-O/JSS-16-2-15508-536-Salami-S-O-Ab.pdf. Accessed 28 Aug 2019 Salami OS (2010) Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being and students attitudes: implications for quality education. Eur J Educ Stud 2:247–257. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar. org/4ea5/fdbe46a15822e39e3497aaccdcb90f756d9c.pdf. Accessed 5 Sept 2019 SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals, United Nations in India Website. http://in.one.un.org/page/sustainabledevelopment-goals/sdg-17/. Accessed 17 July 2018 SDG Tracker Website (2018) Sustainable development goal 4-ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning. Retrieved from https://sdgtracker.org/quality-education. Accessed 28 Aug 2019 Trauma, Mental Health & Psycho-social Well-being: Psycho-social Well-being & Peacebuilding Processes, International Association for Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research (2008). http://www.peacebuildingi nitiative.org/index4a66.html?pageId=2045. Accessed 17 July 2018 UNESCO (2018) Quick guide to education indicators for SDG. Report published by UNESCO, retrieved from http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/quick-

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guide-education-indicators-sdg4-2018-en.pdf. Accessed 5 Sept 2019 UNEP (2019) ‘Global Environment Outlook 6 - Summary for Policymakers’ Cambridge University Press retrieved from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/han dle/20.500.11822/27652/GEO6SPM_EN.pdf WHO (n.d.) Mental health, poverty and development. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/mental_health/pol icy/development/en/. Accessed 14 Aug 2019 WHO Factsheet on Adolescents Mental Health (2018). Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/factsheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health. Accessed 14 Aug 2019 WHO Report (n.d.) Gender disparities in mental health. Published by Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. Retrieved from https://www.who. int/mental_health/media/en/242.pdf. Accessed on 22 Sept 2019 WHO Website (2019) SDG 3: ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/sdg/targets/en/. Accessed 5 Sept 2019 WHO and UNICEF (2018) A VISION FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Towards universal health coverage and the sustainable development goals, Technical Series on Primary Health Care. retrieved from https://www.who.int/docs/defaultsource/primary-health/vision.pdf

Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts A. Assis School of Education, Department of Policies, Administration, and Educational Systems, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil South Minas School of Law (FDSM), Democracy and Constitutionalism Area, Law School, Pouso Alegre, Brazil

Definitions The contemporary definition of public and private education can be found indirectly in several UNESCO documents (2004, 2014, 2015, 2016a, b, 2019). As we shall see in this entry, what has been built as a national education to be consolidated in the nineteenth century, driving the

universalization discourse from an international cooperative perspective, is the prevailing understanding of these documents. In other words, since education has become a right of the citizen, a public good, rather than a duty of the subject/vassal, it is a State responsibility, not mattering if subsidizing those which it administers directly (public) or indirectly (public outsourced) or those that are run by private initiatives. This perception is what will provide the basis for discussions on achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. The document “Sustainable development begins with education: how education can contribute to the proposed post-2015 goals” (UNESCO 2015) is concerned with demonstrating the relationship established between education and all other Sustainable Development objectives, assuming it as the responsibility of all, especially from the State, based on decisionmakers and their public policies, but calling the other administrative initiatives into context. Within this scenario, we can affirm that education is the fundamental right of the human being, which makes it a public good under the responsibility of the State that must offer it from the principles of secularity, universalization, and quality as a public education. Nevertheless, the State must also be responsible for private education, which, although not directly administered by it, encompassing from a confessional education to homeschooling, easing, at times, the secularity, has to still guarantee the universalization and quality defined in the democratic processes. Finally, it is important to emphasize that gratuitousness is a characteristic present in several international documents and has accompanied, more presently, the discussion of education since the nineteenth century. Unfortunately, however, it is not yet a universal factor, so that public education may not be gratuitous at present and tolerate the charging of taxes by both the state and private initiative. However, this does not mean let go the defense of a public, universal, socially referenced, and gratuitous education, is just another step to overcame, and still against the initiatives and actions that have exploited education as a commodity in contemporary times.

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Introduction

Education or School?

“In the science of education, (. . .) as in all philosophical sciences, history is the necessary introduction, the preparation for science itself” (COMPAYRÉ 1911). With this statement by Gabriel Compayré, made more than a century ago, we start this article on public and private education, by following the author’s indication; to recognize that definitions and concepts, although directly related to their own time, are also associated to the historical constructions of their own terms and the contexts to which they connect. According to Luzuriaga (1983), some historical factors are crucial for the understanding of education over time, its changes, and developments, such as (i) general historical situation; (ii) character of the culture; (iii) social structure; (iv) political orientation; (v) economic life; (vi) ideals of education; (vii) strictly pedagogical conception; (viii) personality and performance of the great educators; (ix) reforms of official authorities; and (x) modifications of educational institutions and methods. Certainly, there is no room for this scrutiny in this opportunity; however it is important to highlight that such factors were considered for the construction of the path shared here. In this sense, to the avid reader, it may occur to associate public education with gratuitousness and private education with the payment of a fee or similar, misusing words as they were synonyms, like: “education” and “school”; “public” and “free/gratuitous”; “private” and “paid”. Speech situations that, in a way, ended up being established in contemporary times, as common speech most western countries, especially the Americas. Recognizing not only the importance of history in the consolidation of concepts but also the existence of these conceptual confusions, we will build this entry with two main movements, seeking first to differentiate school from education; in a second moment, public from private; and finally the relations of public education with financially subsidized, privatization, and gratuity.

Paulo Freire (2003), an internationally recognized Brazilian author in the educational field, is a very interesting theorist who make the differentiation between education and school, given his progressive educational proposal and commitment, among other things, also with the content of accumulated knowledge over the centuries. For the author, education “is always a certain theory of knowledge put into practice” (p.40). On the other hand, for Freire, school is one of the possible spaces for this to happen. Although quite simple statements, they provide us with several important elements for the differentiation we want to do. If education is the practice of a theory of knowledge, it means it will depend on processes, systematizations, purposes, objectives, and plans. However, is this the only type of education? Freire’s understanding makes us also think about formal, informal, and nonformal education. Formal education is associated with a structure, whether state-owned or not, but respects a formality: “formal education corresponds to a system, organized educational model, structured and administered according to a given set of laws and norms, presenting a rather rigid curriculum as regards objectives, content and methodology” (Melnick and Botez 2014: 214–215). Informal education ends up encompassing learning without associating it with a structure, a purpose related to a theory of knowledge, such as going to the museum or the theater and the carefree search for readings, among others. It is directly associated with the living of each individual (La Belle 1982). Regarding nonformal education, Smith (2001) states: “(. . .) any organised educational activity outside the established formal system – whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity – that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives.” (p.4)

Interestingly, in 1974, T.W. Ward, F.D. Sawyer, L. McKinney, and J. Dettoni stated that “A comprehensive and standard definition of non-formal education is not yet available in common usage”

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(p.38), a problem that Smith indicated, in a way, to remain, still in 2011: “there may well be some overlap (and confusion) between the informal and the non-formal”(p.4). Currently, some literatures relate nonformal education with different learning methodologies, such as distance education, correspondence, and open learning; however, if these proposals are associated with structures and a set of rules, they are part of formal education. In this sense, we can highlight that the differentiation between formal and nonformal education is the presence or absence of a space understood as a school, in which structures and rules converge, but both maintain close relations with theories of knowledge and their own goals/ purposes. When we mention public or private education, we are not dealing exclusively with the school space, but depending on the type of education to which we refer, it will be contemplated or not.

Public and Private Education: A Historical Construction According to Barth (1911), much of the education of ancient peoples was natural, spontaneous, acquired in coexistence, and very close to what we now call informal education. Gradually a kind of division would eventually occur between a private family-based home education and a preparation for work and military activities, which in the case of the Indo-American, such as the Incas and Aztecs, could be called public education, once offered by the state (Larroyo 1947). Not everywhere, war arts education had a/the State as conductor. In the period of feudal princes, both domestic and military Chinese education took place privately, the first one in the paternal house and the other one living with a nobleman. Very similar also to what happened with the IndoEuropeans, the process initially involved the bosom of the family and then to trace paths with figures understood as masters (Luzuriaga 1983). However, in the case of Chinese education in the imperial period – sixth century BC – the education of the region consists of two major sectors,

one for the people – given at home or by masters in private schools that could be subsidized by public revenue – and that for Mandarin officials, which was initially based on Taoism, but some time later substituted by Confucianism, also caring for the study of arithmetic and agronomy. Based on a mechanical method, the purpose was to conduct examinations to meet senior positions, open to all inhabitants (Luzuriaga 1983). In the case of the Egyptians, from the age of 7, the boys went to a formal institution, maintained by the state. Initially it served only the children of higher classes, having been generalized over time, but divided into two structures: one that attended the children of the people, called elementary school, and another, the higher, for the children of the staff (Moret 1933). Spartan education in the first century BC also envisaged a period of private education with the family, up to 7 years; then, until the age of 20, the state took responsibility and carried it out directly with a focus on military instruction. On the other hand, Athenian education has an interesting path. Until the seventh century BC, it reproduced a type of Homeric society but then experienced a radical break, in which culture reaches a prominent place surpassing the importance of the warrior. At first Athens had no educational organization of its own; however, it had institutions that encouraged educational activities; gradually, considering that education was a much more social than state issue, it builds complex pathways that concerted music, civic, and physical education (Jäger 1942/1945). It is with Hellenistic education in the fourth century BC, in Alexander’s empire, that “education ceases to be a matter of private enterprise and becomes public education” (Luzuriaga 1983:43). Perhaps Roman education can be considered a kind of example of a summary of the ancient period, bringing together different formats over time. From the fifth to the third century BC, education had been turned to the aristocracy, much later that commoners were able to participate in some way. The influence of the family was strong enough that education focused on this environment. From the third century to the first century BC, patriarchal education underwent several transformations, such as the expansion of schools,

Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts

whether committed to a predominantly Greek teaching or to Latin, and their division into stages: elementary, middle, and higher, always linked to the structure of the state (Jäger 1942/1945). Finally, from the first century BC to the fifth century of the Christian era, Roman education ceases to be a private matter, to become public, by encouraging the creation of public schools in municipalities. Notice that in the diversity of antiquity, we can already make some distinctions. Public education was one in which the state had active and direct participation; the private education was one carried out within the family and/or with a preceptor, even if it was serving a group of students with state subsidies. Christianity makes a number of changes in Western history and, consequently, in education, which becomes Church-oriented when it is recognized as an organ of the Christian faith. Having developed within the Roman Empire, Christian education had a private character, carried out directly and personally. Despite the emergence of catechist, episcopal, parish, or presbyterian schools, their respective purposes were limited to the formation of ecclesiastics, causing the general population to remain uneducated or to go to the ordinary Roman schools until they disappeared with barbarian invasions and the dismantling of the Roman Empire (Hodgson 1906). The Roman movement from a private, familyoriented, informal education, restricted to the aristocracy, to an informal, in some ways staying familiar, laden with some formality, until a public educational system was established, albeit with different attendance at each social layer, recedes. There is a new format fed by Christianity, which re-establishes a formal private education, concentrated in the organs of the Church (Hodgson 1906). The schools and monasteries of early Christian education became, during the early centuries of the medieval, the only formal centers of culture and education, until between the eighth and ninth centuries we had a valuable initiative for what would become public education in contemporary times. It was the state education, which translates into efforts by Charlemagne to raise the education of the people, based on a secular proposal (outside

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the cloisters), but which, unfortunately, is not established. Chivalric education, also from the medieval period, ends up conquering some space with Christian education, however, based on elements of a determinedly private education (Luzuriaga 1983). While Christian civilization experienced glimpses of secular public education, in the tenth century, Arab education, concentrated even in Spain, was based on a system of primary and higher schools that catered equally to boys and girls. It is with universities in the twelfth century that secular education reappears, considering that the form of emergence is quite varied, from foundations by princes, a partnership between the Pope and an authority, or even joint initiatives between the crown and the church. At the end of the Middle Ages, with the constitution of the bourgeoisie as a new social class, emerged the education professional group, with professional character essentially, concentrated or not in school, forming a formal education of public character. There is also room for humanist education, especially in Italy, with the Renaissance movement, starting with the universities. However, it is Spanish humanism that generally represents the transition between medieval and classical culture (Renaudet 1916). Protestant Reformed religious education, in advocating free bible reading and the supremacy of secular authority over ecclesiastics, is concerned with popular teaching, organizing public education to expand Renaissance humanist colleges and primary education. Although Catholic religious education was also undergoing a restructuring in the counter-reform movement, resistance was still identified in the expansion of schools, as the focus was on surveillance of the Inquisition even on writings. At the same time, the Americas are beginning to be part of this mostly Eurocentric scenario. In Spanish America, since the colonization process, Christianization and population education have become a concern of religious orders and royal power. For the former, it was up to the execution of educational and catechizing processes, while for the latter, the issuance of laws and orders that maintained this obligation, but with special

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attention to middle and higher education. In British America, considering a context of settlement rather than exploitation, although the influence of Puritan and Calvinist ideas encouraged an educational system, education begins with private initiatives, and, as well as the colonizing process itself, gradually incorporate a public character (Luzuriaga 1983). It is at the end of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries that we can begin to speak of a public school closer to the present day, for at that time the states of Protestant countries begin to intervene more in education, promulgating broader legislations. Here we highlight Germany, with the Duchy of Weimar, which in 1619 had regulations with the obligation of children between 6 and 12 years attending schools. A few years later, in 1642, inspired by Comenius’s ideas, Gotha established the first law on the general system of public education in the world. In the rest of Europe, public education only achieved, at that time, a certain increase in the Calvinistic religion countries (Luzuriaga 1983). In the eighteenth century, one of the movements was the development of a state education, which had the most effective participation of official authorities in education. One of the most important moments for this consolidation is a 1799 normative provision in Berlin stating that: “Public schools should be understood as institutes of the State, not as establishments of the various confessions, and it would be desirable, therefore, that in religious schools be limited to the general truths of religion and the common moral doctrine. to all ecclesiastical factions, and that special confessional teaching be given to preachers in the preparation of catechumens” (Luzuriaga 1983:153). This initial proposal for state-church divorce, reflected in education, also began to take shape in France in the same period, establishing its state public school with the extinction of the Company of Jesus in 1762, a fact that will also impact the Americas as we will see later. At the end of the eighteenth century, European education radically changed with the unfolding of the French Revolution. What was formerly called state education, because it was that of the

monarch, of the enlightened despot to his subjects, is now national education, aimed at the citizen, an active participant in governance processes. It is at this time that education ceases to have a compulsory character determined and imposed by the monarch, assuming the duty of the subject, to be understood as the right of the citizen, which, although it starts in France, very quickly extends to other places. Education becomes a function of the state, independent of the church, and initiates the discourse of free primary education. The break with the Company of Jesus and the consolidation of the ideas of the French Revolution soon influenced education in the Americas, which lost their markedly religious characteristics, whether by Protestant or Catholic influences, acquiring more civil aspects. The effort to realize national education is what marks the nineteenth century, especially in Western culture, where education gradually adapts to the historical conditions of each country as they establish their national systems (BOTO 2018). It is the preparation for what would become the flag of the twentieth century: the democratization of education. Universalization demands cooperation from all countries, which, respecting the national sense, can reach a universal understanding. Considering this historical process, we can affirm that public education “is part of the heart of a State pedagogy whose historical purpose was the fabrication of social consensus, especially structured in the light of parameters of rationalization/westernization of customs” (BOTO 2018: 310). On the other hand, once exploited within state-determined parameters (e.g., rules), private education ends up in rationalization but does not necessarily follow a state pedagogy, which hinders the realization of education as a public good and a fundamental right of the human being.

Relations Between Free Public Education, Subsidiarity, and Privatization In the historical construction we made in the previous item, it is clear that, in the beginning, public

Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts

education is understood as that which does not occur within the family, in a particular way, but in a public space, whether collective, bringing together several people, or by means of individual preceptors. The process of universalization of education also has no direct relation with exclusively public initiatives, in the sense of distancing themselves from private interests. On the contrary, it suffers over the centuries from various influences, having been encouraged from private groups, such as the Protestant Church, through mixed Church-State alliances, until the State becomes its chief promoter, but not always its sole administrator. Perhaps because of the need to levy taxes that subsidize social services such as education, one might say that gratuitousness is a fallacy, but what would be lacking in the analysis is the democratic perception of social investment in education collectively, which does not occur on private initiative, as decisions are restricted to the group operating the educational service. On the other hand, what prevents us from characterizing public education as free is the various relations that the state can establish with the market. It would be more appropriate then to declare that public education is the state education, starting from the idea that: The concept of estatization refers to the State’s presence in the exploration and production of public goods and services, directly and indirectly, in order to stimulate certain productive activities, notably in the areas of infrastructure and intermediate goods (inputs needed for production) of other final goods. (Althuon and Landi 2018: 333)

Thus, public education can be mainly composed of (i) gratuitous schools, directly administered by the state; (ii) gratuitous, privately run, state-outsourced schools (e.g., charter schools); and (iii) gratuitous schools for some users administrated by the private sector, as they are paid through vouchers granted by the State to those who would not have access to schools run directly or indirectly by it (Klees and Edwards Jr 2015). The beginning of this twenty-first century challenges us to understand public and private

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relations established in the face of offering social services directly associated with fundamental rights such as education. If two centuries ago we have been building and consolidating a universal idea of national education, nowadays, in some parts of the globe, especially in the Americas, the processes of privatization of social goods have been proceeding quite rapidly. States have been relinquishing previously assumed social responsibilities and handing over public education to private enterprise, either through subsidies, by applying public money to private education; outsourcing management processes by delivering public education to private administrations; or simply leaving critical areas as a result of budget cuts. Such a move seems to gain momentum every day despite the fact that: (. . .) Privatist policies have caused incalculable damage to children and adolescents, injured in access to education due to budget cuts. There is no evidence that charters or vouchers improve school results or efficiency, but there is evidence that vouchers exacerbate inequalities. Arguments supporting outcome-based financing may seem superficially sensitive, but they ignore four decades of practice that highlight their failure. (Klees and Edwards Jr 2015: 23)

Are we, in some places, losing public education?

Considerations to the Future If education enables those in paid formal employment to earn higher wages; offers better livelihoods for those in the nonformal sector; boosts the income of farmers; is critical to escape chronic poverty; prevents the transmission of poverty between generations; leads parents to apply appropriate health and hygiene practices; helps ensure a varied diet that includes vital micronutrients and helps reduce obesity; reduces preventable child deaths playing a major role in containing disease; is a passport for women to enter the labor force, helping them to have a voice and avert child marriage; gives women more control over when to have their first child, influencing

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women’s choice of family size; can boost women’s confidence and perception of their freedom; impacts on how people make use of these resources, especially in areas of resource scarcity; is vital for economic growth, driving local economic development and innovation; helps respond to the problems of urban life, being critical to tackle the roots of discontent in cities; helps change behavior by making citizens more engaged, increasing environmental awareness and concern; helps people adapt to the consequences of climate change; and strengthens inclusive, participatory, and representative decisionmaking, helping to prevent conflict and heal its consequences as a key mechanism promoting tolerance to diversity (highlights from the 2015 UNESCO’s document), why does it seems to be a period of recess now that we know it is essential for all the other main objectives in daily democratic life? Nowadays we have more information and data than in any other time, which may instrumentalize us, our practices, speeches, and discussions aiming a sustainable global development. However, in order to do so, we need to reinforce a gratuity, universalized, social referenced public education, standing against any action that does not consider those characteristics important.

Cross-References ▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ Education for Sustainable Development through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts ▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices ▶ Free Education: Origins, Achievements, and Current Situation ▶ History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor

▶ Public Expenditure on Education ▶ Quality Control in Higher Education ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education ▶ Transformative Education to address all Sustainable Development Goals

References Althuon M, Landi M (2018) Estatização/Desestatuzação. In: Di Giovanni G, Nogueira MA (eds) Dicionário de Políticas Públicas. 3ªed. Editora UNESP, São Paulo Barth P (1911) Geschichte der Erziehung in soziologischer und geistesgechichtlicher Beleuchtung. Reisland, Leipzig Boto C (2018) Escola Pública. In: Di Giovanni G, Nogueira MA (eds) Dicionário de Políticas Públicas, 3rd edn. Editora UNESP, São Paulo Compayré G (1911) la lettre « A » les articles « Analyse », et « Analytique » (méthode). In: Buisson F (ed) Dictionnaire de pédagogie et d’instruction primaire. Partie 1. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/ bpt6k24232h/f83.image. Accessed 23 Aug 2019 Freire P (2003) A alfabetização de adultos: crítica de sua visão ingênua; compreensão de sua visão crítica. In: Ação Cultural para a Liberdade: e outros escritos. Paz e Terra, Rio de Janeiro Hodgson G (1906) Primitive Christian education. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh Jäger W (1942/1945) Paideia. Los ideales de la cultura griega. Fondo de la cultura Económica, México Klees SJ, Edwards DB Jr (2015) Privatização da educação experiências dos Estados Unidos e outros países. Revista Brasileira de Educação 20(60). jan.mar. 2015. http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbedu/v20n60/ 1413-2478-rbedu-20-60-0011.pdf. Accessed 23 Aug. 2019 La Belle TJ (1982) Formal, non-formal and informal education: a holistic perspective on lifelong learning. Int Rev Educ 28(2):159–175 Larroyo F (1947) Historia comparada de la educación en México. Porruá, México Luzuriaga L (1983) História da Educação e da Pedagogia, 14th edn. Editora Nacional, São Paulo Melnic AS, Botez N (2014) Formal, non-formal and informal interdependence in education. Economy Transdisciplinary Cognition 17(1):113–118 Moret A (1933) Le nit et la civilisation chinoise. La Renaissance du Livre, Paris Renaudet A (1916) Préréforme et humanisme [à Paris pendant les premières guerres d'Italie (1494–1517)]. Champion, Paris Smith MK (2001) ‘What is non-formal education?’, the encyclopedia of informal education. http://infed.org/ mobi/what-is-non-formal-education/. Accessed 23 Aug 2019

Public Expenditure on Education United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO (2004) Education for all: the quality imperative; EFA global monitoring report, 2005. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf00001 37333. Accessed 23 Aug 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO (2014) Sustainable development begins with education: how education can contribute to the proposed post-2015 goals. https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230508. Accessed 23 Aug 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO (2015) Fixing the broken promise of education for all: findings from the global initiative on out-of-school children. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000231511. Accessed 23 Aug 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO (2016a) Education 2030: incheon declaration and framework for action for the implementation of sustainable development goal 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656. Accessed 23 Aug 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO (2016b) Sustainable development data digest. Laying the foundation to measure sustainable development goal 4. http://uis.unesco.org/ sites/default/files/documents/laying-the-foundation-tomeasure-sdg4-sustainable-development-data-digest2016-en.pdf. Accessed 23 Aug 2019 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO (2019) Handbook on measuring equity in education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000262806 . Accessed 23 Aug 2019 Ward TW, Sawyer FD, McKinney L, Dettoni J (1974) Effective learning: lessons to be learned from schooling. In: Ward TW, Herzog WA Jr (eds) Effective learning in non-formal education. Michigan State University, East Lansing

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Public Expenditure on Education Noel P. De Guzman Department of Economics, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, Philippines

Definitions Education Expenditure

Public Expenditure on Education

Public Awareness

Under UNESCO’s National Education Accounts (NEA) framework, a country’s education expenditure comes from three main sources: government or public sector, private sector (households and firms), and rest of the world (through grants and aid) (UNESCO 2016). These funds may be used for different levels of education including preprimary, primary, secondary, technical-vocational, tertiary, and nonformal. Educational expenditure includes current expenditures (such as teaching and nonteaching staff compensation, textbooks and other teaching materials, and other goods and services) and capital expenditures. This refers to the component of education expenditure that comes from national, regional, and local government units to finance and/ or produce educational services.

▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

Introduction

Public Education

One of the most prominent features of modernday development thinking and policy is government involvement in the education sector of a country. Rich and poor countries alike have moved away from the “night watchman state,” wherein government is expected only to fulfill minimum state functions consisting of protecting

▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

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“life, liberty, and property.” Rather, the present consensual role for the state in terms of education is “functionalist” and this entails harnessing of human capital for sustained growth and development. Government involvement in the education sector can potentially operate on three levels: financing, production or provision, and regulation. This chapter concentrates on the first but there are intricate relationships between all three. According to World Bank (2018), country spending patterns continue to show increasing willingness to invest in education. As of 2012, the typical public expenditure on education as a share of gross domestic product or GDP is around 4% while public expenditure on education as a share of total public expenditures averages around 15%. Just to have a comparison with another component of public spending, the World Bank reports that in 2015, the amount of military expenditure for low- and middle-income countries is around 2% of GDP while the corresponding figure for high-income countries is 2.4% (World Bank 2017).

Measures and Benchmarks The two most commonly used indicators of public spending on education are (a) government expenditure on education as a percentage of the country’s GDP and (b) government expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure. According to NCES (2019), the former gives a measure of government spending on education relative to the country’s ability to finance education. The latter, according to Roser and Ortiz-Ospina (2019), is an indicator of the extent by which public expenditure on education takes resources away from other sectors of public finance. In both cases, the historical record shows that the amount of money poured by governments into education worldwide has been high and increasing for some time now. Roser and OrtizOspina reveal that educational expansion as a global phenomenon began in the middle of the twentieth century and that by 1990 public expenditure on education relative to income in many

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developing countries was already close to average levels in the developed countries. According to UNESCO (2018), citing the influential Education 2030 Framework for Action, the proper benchmarks for public expenditure on education are as follows: • Allocating at least 4–6% of GDP to education • Allocating at least 15–20% of total public expenditure to education UNESCO (2018) provides data on the above for country income groups (lower income, lower middle income, upper middle income, and high income). (See Table 19.1 on p. 236 of the UNESCO report.) The report reveals that as of 2017 all country income groups still fall short of the upper end of the benchmark for public expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP although they all satisfy the lower end of the benchmark. In terms of public expenditure on education as a percent of total public expenditures, the upper-middle income country group and the high-income country group fall short of the lower end of the benchmark, while the lowerincome and lower-middle income country groups do satisfy this lower end. The report also includes per student expenditure at the primary and tertiary level. It is interesting to note that in terms of the ratio of per student expenditure in the tertiary sector to per student expenditure in the primary sector, the ratio declines as we move up the income ladder. This can be taken to mean that there is still much room for improving the equity aspect of public financing of education, particularly in the lower-income country groups.

The Rationale for Public Expenditure on Education In searching for the reasons behind why governments choose to spend on education, one first encounters the broader question of why governments choose to be involved in this sector in the first place. As indicated above, public expenditure on education is just one of the ways in which government intervenes. Other forms of

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intervention are direct production or provision (via the operation of public schools) and regulation (via the creation and enforcement of educational standards for the entire education system). The reasons behind government involvement in the education sector can broadly be categorized into two motives: efficiency and redistribution. Efficiency Efficiency involves the correction of market failures. The most often cited rationale for government intervention in education is the nature of education itself as a good with positive externalities. In microeconomic theory, an externality is a good or activity that confers unintended benefits or costs to persons other than the one consuming or producing the good or engaging in the activity. Externalities are of two types: they may be positive, in which case the external effect is beneficial, or they may be negative, in which case the external effect is harmful. Pollution is a negative externality while education is a positive externality. The irony behind externalities is that, under a free market scenario, the natural tendency is for negative externalities to proliferate while positive externalities always remain undersupplied. It is thus up to the government to make sure that “merit goods” (or goods that produce positive externalities) such as education are not undersupplied. Hanushek (2002) identifies specific areas of external benefits for education, all of them involving some form of positive behavioral change. These include (a) citizen involvement in community and government, (b) crime reduction, (c) family decision-making and child upbringing, and (d) economic growth. According to Friedman (1962), a stable and democratic society needs a minimum amount of literacy and knowledge for all its citizens as well as widespread acceptance of some common set of values. In other words, a minimum amount of education is needed to make cooperative and productive citizens. This is where the government comes in: it can use its power of taxation to provide universal access to education, especially for those who cannot shoulder the financial burden of formal schooling.

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With respect to crime reduction and improved individual and family decision-making, there is substantial literature suggesting that greater education means higher societal benefits. Belfield (2000) surveys this literature. For example, citing Usher (1997), Belfield illustrates that incorporating education in a model of criminal activity has the tendency to deter crime by raising its price or cost to would-be criminals. Improved decisionmaking also arises from greater education by encouraging more rational behavior and avoidance of costly actions. Hanushek (2002) explores the educationgrowth connection. He explains that a highly skilled workforce enables the adoption of different kinds of technologies. Likewise, a better-prepared workforce allows technology to be introduced in production systems earlier rather than later. Despite the many potential benefits, the positive externality characteristic of education can lead to a tendency for underinvestment. This is especially true if the government imposes minimum standards of education that require higher costs. This creates a further case for public expenditure on education. Many of the arguments outlined above may suggest greater emphasis of public financing on lower levels of education such as the primary level rather than the higher levels. However, Friedman (1962) also explains that public financing for higher education can be justified as a form of government investment in individuals with greater ability and potential for leadership. The question of whether it is better to concentrate public expenditure on one education level over another is based on comparisons of social rates of return. In economic terms, this is similar to the “equi-marginal principle” of microeconomics wherein optimal allocation of expenditures occurs when the ratios of marginal benefits to marginal costs are equated across competing uses of funds. Beyond positive externalities, there are two other efficiency-related factors that may justify government involvement in the education sector. These factors prevent people from acquiring education and can be categorized as types of market failures. First, capital market imperfection may make it difficult for people to borrow money to pay for

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schooling. In other words, it may be difficult to borrow financial capital to invest in human capital. The reason for this, according to Hanushek (2002) (citing Becker (1993)), is that human capital is “embedded” in the individual. Hence, from a creditor’s point of view, the lending of funds for education financing becomes riskier since it would be almost impossible to collect in the event of borrower default. One cannot simply extract the human capital from the borrower to pay for the loan. A second type of market imperfection which is especially relevant in the case of less-developed countries is the fact that many households in these countries are liquidity-constrained. In poor communities, households are more susceptible to income shocks because parents most likely have unstable sources of income. As a result, children are normally expected to help out and seek employment when family income suffers from unexpected declines. If the government can provide steady financing for education targeted at the poor, this type of imperfection may partly be alleviated. One public expenditure instrument in this regard is the conditional cash transfer, which makes government financing of education for the poor contingent on whether the children continue to attend school. Schaffner (2014) reviews the positive experiences of some less-developed countries with conditional cash transfers in raising enrollment rates. Redistributive Motives Benevolent governments may choose to intervene in the education sector as a way to lessen poverty and inequality in society. This is in large part due to the well-documented positive relationship between educational attainment and earnings, particularly in the labor economics literature. Individuals who obtain more formal schooling tend to earn higher wages. This is because education is seen as the key to higher labor productivity which the labor market rewards via an earnings premium. In being an instrument to address poverty and inequality, education becomes an integral part of not only development policy but also social policy. The crux of the problem is the so-called schooling poverty trap as explained by Ravallion

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(2016). He talks of a minimum level of schooling that is necessary for workers to experience higher earnings. Unfortunately, poor families do not have the financial resources to investment in education to even reach the minimum. Therefore, poverty is transmitted across generations. While education is generally regarded as a tool for lessening income inequality, other writers using a political economy approach have expressed some ideas that run counter to this belief. For example, Lott (1987) provides a critique of public education based on several possible inequality-increasing channels. In Lott’s analysis, public education can be used as an instrument of wealth redistribution in favor of certain groups, including influential educators in the public school system, capitalists, and the middle/upper classes. For example, the transfer of wealth to certain influential members of the public school system can be a result of the enhanced monopoly power granted to public schools and the lessening of competition from private schools. The wealth redistribution effect of public education in favor of the middle and upper classes of society is often called Director’s law. The idea behind this is that a greater fraction of more affluent students, especially in higher education, tend to avail more of the subsidized public school system. This perverse effect aggravates inequality since the middle-class and upper-income students will avail of higher education anyway even without the help of subsidies.

Issues and Paradoxes The funding and provision of education by the government is not without controversy. There are many issues yet to be resolved, both theoretically and empirically. These issues can also be treated as paradoxes because they can run counter to popular expectations. In what follows, we discuss each of these “paradoxes.” Difficulty of Measuring Full Private and Full Social Rates of Return to Education Belfield (2000) is of the opinion that public expenditure on education must be based on a

Public Expenditure on Education

comparison of private versus social rates of return. However, he points out that it is essential to capture their full amount. This means that measurement must go beyond pecuniary or monetary costs and benefits. Nonpecuniary and nonmarket effects must be included as well. It is only when the full social rate of return exceeds the full private rate of return does it make sense for the government to provide subsidies. Otherwise, if the disparity is in favor of the full private rate of return, then private individuals may have the incentive to finance their own education without depending on government assistance. The full private rate of return to education includes not only the earnings premium from possessing education but also “individualized” nonmarket and nonpecuniary effects. Examples of these effects include: (a) job conditions may be more pleasant to the more educated relative to the less educated, (b) the educated makes better consumer and savings decisions compared to the less educated, (c) health choices are more positive for those with greater education relative to the less educated, and (d) enjoyment of classroom experiences and school activities adds to the benefits of obtaining more education rather than less. The full social rate of return, on the other hand, includes all individuals’ earning plus all externalities. Since as mentioned previously, externalities are market failures requiring government intervention, capturing the full social rate of return also incorporates the fiscal dimension. This means accounting for all effects on government revenue and expenditures. Examples of these fiscal effects include (a) transfers and costs borne by taxpayers in support of public education, (b) deadweight loss (or social inefficiency) of government intervention, and (c) government savings from lessened expenditures on health and crime prevention. Empirically, Belfield reports that most studies find the social rate of return to be lower than the private rate of return. This therefore suggests that government involvement in the education sector should be small. What then explains the observed trend of increasing public expenditure on education? As is well known, externalities are notoriously difficult to measure. Hence, in the case of

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education, lack of accurate measurement will tend to undervalue the social rate of return. It is therefore possible that policymaker response is one of “incrementalism.” This type of funding formula maintains or increases the level of public spending marginally each period (Guess and Husted 2017, p. 201). A related phenomenon with regard to ballooning expenditures is called “Baumol’s cost disease.” This has been offered as a possible explanation of rising expenses in certain industries (including education) as a result of rising salaries without corresponding productivity improvements. Costs in the affected sector rise to keep up with salary increases in other sectors that experience productivity gains. The Question of Production The bundling together of government finance and production of education that is commonly observed in most countries is a phenomenon that has no obvious justification. After all, an alternative arrangement is one where the government provides funding but leaves school choice to be determined by parents and/or students (i.e., a voucher system). One can only surmise that when the government itself undertakes to be a provider of educational services it is presumably doing so because the private sector is subject to some sort of market failure. This perceived failure of the private education sector may be in the form of inefficiency, inequity, or both. Public provision of education may be more efficient for any of the following reasons. First, there may exist economies of scale. For example, organizing resources to create a common curriculum for all schools removes the need for individual schools to use their resources in developing their own curriculum. Second, education is laborintensive and it may be difficult to improve its productivity if left to market forces; hence, the government can be the one to spearhead educational innovations. There are also reasons why the alternative, a market-based system using vouchers, may lead to greater efficiency. A voucher program gives eligible families public funds that can be used to purchase educational services from eligible schools (whether public of private). The primary aim of

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such a program is to encourage competition among schools so as to increase efficiency in the education sector. Since schools must compete for students, the expectation is that schools will exert greater effort in improving instruction. Another possible effect of a voucher program is to widen the choice of schools, thereby respecting the individual freedoms of families who may have diverse needs and preferences. The Disconnect Between Public Spending and Student Learning The most important issue regarding public expenditure on education is whether it is effective in reaching its goal. Attaining the goal can be described as a two-stage process. The first stage, as described in World Bank (2018), is the socalled spending-learning chain. Does greater public spending on school inputs like classrooms, textbooks, and teachers result in improved academic performance for students? The second stage is the link between better academic performance and higher life achievements. Does improved academic performance eventually lead to greater life achievements, including higher earnings? It is the first stage, the spending-learning chain, that is crucial for education policy. Most studies that attempt to measure the link between public spending and learning rely on a concept borrowed from economics, the production function. Under this framework, there is a hypothesized technical relationship between student learning (as measured, for example, by test scores in standardized exams) and the various inputs in the education process. A typical education production function, as postulated by Hanushek (2002), is the general function O = f(F, P, S, A) + v. The dependent variable, O, represents the educational output which corresponds to student learning or academic performance. The independent variables on the right-hand side of the function represent the inputs. They include F (family inputs), P (peer inputs), S (school inputs), and A (innate ability of the student). The last term, v, represents a random element to account for other factors that are unpredictable and difficult to measure. One can

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therefore see that under this framework, school inputs are just one set of factors that can affect the outcome. It is also normally assumed that the relevant values of F, P, and S are their cumulative totals through time. In other words, unlike other kinds of produced goods in the economy where current output merely depends on current inputs, education is different in that past levels of the inputs also matter in determining the current level of the output. Glewwe et al. (2011) have a similar production function except that the school input is further subdivided into quantity of schooling (i.e., years of schooling), quality of schooling (such as teacher and school characteristics), and schooling inputs directly controlled by the parents. The empirical record so far, both in advanced as well as developing countries, has been negative or, at best, mixed. One of the latest documents that provide evidence on the weakness of the spending-learning chain is the World Bank (2018). According to this report, higher per student spending only leads to higher learning at the lower part of the global income scale. However, this positive correlation vanishes for other levels of countries’ per capita income. The report cites the following as the reasons for the weak link: (a) spending tends to be distributed inequitably with the poor receiving less when it comes to secondary and tertiary education; (b) funds do not reach the schools or are diverted for other purposes; (c) in some cases, households develop the tendency to substitute public spending for their own private spending on education; (d) even when funds reach the schools, there may be lack of coherence in the mix of inputs such that learning outcomes are not met. For example, there may be too much emphasis on one kind of input (say, classrooms) and too little on others (say, textbooks and other teaching materials), and (e) government agencies involved in education (whether national or local) need to improve their efficiency in disbursing the allotted funds. Other previous studies have also confirmed the weak link between spending and learning. Glewwe et al. (2011) give a survey of the studies done on this topic between 1990 and 2010. According to them, the estimated impacts on

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time in school and learning of most school and teacher characteristics are statistically insignificant, especially when the evidence is limited to the “high-quality” studies (which they filtered to be 43 “high-quality” studies out of an initial 9000 available studies). Hanushek and Etterna (2017) compare productivity in the noneducation sectors versus productivity in the education sector in the United States using alternative measures and find the latter to be declining for the past four decades. Hanushek and Woessmann (2017) likewise find evidence of the weak spending-learning chain for most countries in their sample (OECD countries and East Asian countries). They conclude that the international evidence on the role of school inputs in educational production provides little support that quantitative measures of expenditure and class size are a major driver of student achievement, both across and within countries. Glewwe et al. (2017) study the particular case of Vietnam, which has registered impressive results in the 2012 and 2015 PISA (Program for International Student Assessment). This impressive performance of Vietnam is adjusted by the authors to be lower (but still unexpectedly high) when they consider that most students who participated in the PISA were of higher socioeconomic status. They also find that household and school characteristics do not convincingly explain the improved academic performance. Murphy (2019) considers the mismatch between public spending on education and academic performance a paradox. Using data mainly from the United States and Australia, particularly the NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress) as well as PISA, he shows that even if spending continuously rises over time, learning tends to be static, if not declining. His analysis of the problem compares the education sector to other production sectors in the economy in terms of their historical evolution. Over time, most sectors of the economy such as agriculture and manufacturing experience decreasing costs and increasing quality due to technological innovations. However, as observed by Murphy, this trend is absent in the education sector because of what he calls the “low productivity, labor-focused teaching.” Furthermore, citing OECD (2000), he

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reveals that institutional factors (including school resources) and family characteristics (such as home-based educational resources and family wealth) seem not to make any difference in improving learning. What he discovered is that the most important factors that seem to impact learning are those associated with students’ engagement or interest in reading. In line with the previous studies outlined above, the theme seems to be that public spending is a necessary but not sufficient condition for achieving desirable learning outcomes. Simply spending more may not translate to expected results. Rather, the key task for governments seems to be how to find better ways of spending for education, as enunciated by World Bank (2018). Productivity-enhancing public spending on education, according to Wolff and de Moura Castro (2003), requires a transition to what they call “the smart state.” Wolff and de Moura Castro believe that the smart state should engage in three important functions. First, the education agency of the government should increase its research efforts as to what “works” in education. Second, governments must decentralize their education systems especially when the existing centralized structure fails to deliver good results. This type of reform, however, cannot be accomplished without the help of effective and highly motivated public servants. They also mention that effective state leadership in education requires harnessing the contribution of the private educational institutions as partners rather than competitors. Third, because of the strategic nature of higher education in producing innovations conducive to socioeconomic development, the smart state should closely support and incentivize research. Competition with Private Schools, Economic Growth, and Structural Change There have been some notable studies linking public expenditure on education to different aspects of the economy, both micro and macro. First, it is to be expected that the extent of public expenditure on education affects behavior and performance of private schools. This effect is at the micro or industry level. Second, public

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spending on education financed by taxes has implications on long-term growth. Third, as most public expenditure on education may be targeted to rural rather than urban areas, there are also implications on structural change via the rural-to-urban migration process. We discuss contributions to these issues below. Epple et al. (2004) test whether competition leads to stratification of students according to income and ability between private and public schools. One of the questions they investigated involves varying the level of public expenditure on education. Among the results they obtain include: (a) decreased public school spending leads to private school entry and (b) discounts to ability in the lowest-quality private school decline as public expenditure rises, while discounts to ability in the highest-quality private school remain unaffected. This study therefore confirms that competition from public schools has effects on the private sector in terms of entry and pricing. On economic growth, Blankenau et al. (2007) study the impact of public expenditure on education on growth with an eye toward the method of financing, particularly taxation. The main insight is that while public spending affects growth positively, the raising of taxes to do so decreases growth. They find that public spending on education and growth has a non-monotonic relationship. They demonstrate that the negative tax effect can offset the positive education expenditures effect. Basu and Bhattarai (2012) point out that a cross-country stylized fact is the seeming lack of evidence for a positive correlation between public spending on education and economic growth. The effect on growth is seen as a combination of both positive and negative forces. The positive force is the complementary nature of public spending in the education production process through provision of school inputs. The negative force is the potential distortionary impact of using taxes on the noneducation sector to finance the education sector. On structural change, Zhang (2018) tackles the issue of whether public expenditure on education facilitates structural change measured as the transfer of labor from agricultural to industrial sector. The main insight is that myopic government

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officials may choose to under-provide funds for education in order to stimulate short-term economic growth. However, this results in longterm stagnation. Furthermore, there is also evidence of a non-monotonic relationship between public educational expenditure and structural change. In the short run, public educational expenditure crowds out industrial capital accumulation, reduces the demand of nonagricultural sectors for rural laborers, and thus temporarily hinders structural change. Similar to the previous studies discussed, Zhang also tackles the issue of financing. Citing the Ricardian equivalence theorem, debt and taxation are equivalent in terms of long-term effects. However, taxation of the industrial sector to finance education in rural sectors not only crowds out physical capital but reduces ruralto-urban migration and, therefore, structural change.

Future Directions and Implications for Sustainable Development Government involvement in education will continue into the indefinite future as it has become a built-in function of states. The potential contribution of public expenditure on education to sustainable development lies in whether it can be channeled to the most efficient uses. Further research is needed to identify the optimal mix of funding across the education levels, as well as the optimal mix of school inputs. Likewise, the existing research on education production functions highlights the complementary relationship between the two main sources of education finance: public and private. This suggests the need for developing new and more creative public-private partnerships in the education sector. The impact on learning outcomes and life achievements will continue to be a subject of debate. Even more difficult to see are the precise connections with sustainability. Much of the mystery surrounding these questions resonates from the limitation of the spending-learning chain as a measure of success. Some target outcomes of public education expenditure, such as the creation of a more cooperative civil society enlightened to

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the principles of sustainable development, are harder to establish empirically. Yet, the most promising avenue by which public expenditure on education can impact sustainability goals is through its influence on values formation. As mentioned previously, a strong rationale for government intervention in the education sector is the human formation aspect. With public funding, education programs that stress the values of poverty and inequality alleviation, elimination of discrimination by race and gender, environmental protection and justice, climate change adaptation, and other aspects of sustainable development can be promoted. In the future, student assessment may not only focus on the traditional three R’s or reading, writing, and arithmetic. Rather, there is a need to develop measures of students’ understanding and appreciation of the sustainable development goals. The government, through its public expenditure and provision of educational services, can lead in creating curricula and innovative systems of instruction that puts these goals at the center of the learning process.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Community Cohesion ▶ Free Education: Origins, Achievements, and Current Situation ▶ Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace ▶ Public and Private Education: The Construction of Concepts

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701 linking data to theory, American economic review. AEA Pap Proc 97(2):393–397 Epple D, Figlio D, Romano R (2004) Competition between private and public schools: testing stratification and pricing predictions. J Public Econ v88 (7–8, Jul):1215–1245 Friedman M (1962) Capitalism and freedom. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. Chapter VI, 85–107 reprinted in Hanushek EA (ed) (2003) The economics of schooling and school quality volume II: efficiency, competition, and policy. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham/Northampton Glewwe P, Hanushek E, Humpage S, Ravina R (2011) School resources and educational outcomes in developing countries: a review of the literature from 1990 to 2010. Working paper no. 17554, NBER working paper series. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA Glewwe P Dang HA, Lee J, Vu K (2017) What explains Vietnam’s exceptional performance in education relative to other countries? Analysis of the 2012 and 2015 PISA Data. http://www.apec.umn.edu/sites/apec.umn. edu/files/pisa_vn4 Guess GM, Husted T (2017) International public policy analysis. Routledge, New York/London Hanushek EA (2002) Publicly provided education, Working paper no. 799. NBER working paper series. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA Hanushek EA, Etterna E (2017) Defining productivity in education: issues and illustrations. Am Econ 62(2): 165–183 Hanushek EA, Woessmann L (2017) School resources and student achievement: a review of cross country economic research. In: Rosen M et al (eds) Cognitive abilities and educational outcomes, methodology of educational measurement and assessment. Springer International Publishing, Cham Lott JR Jr (1987) Why is education publicly provided? A critical survey. Cato J 7((2), Fall):475–501, (Reprinted in Blaug M (ed) (1992) The economic value of education, the international library of critical writings in economics 17. Edward Elgar, Aldershot Murphy P (2019) Limited government: the public sector in the auto-industrial age. Routledge, London/ New York NCES (National Center for Education Statistics) (2019) The condition of education, May. NCES 2019-144, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC OECD (2000) Knowledge and skills for life: first results from the OECD Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris Ravallion M (2016) The economics of poverty: history, measurement, and policy. Oxford University Press, New York Roser M, Ortiz-Ospina E (2019) Financing Education, OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from https://ourworld indata.org/financing-education. (Online Resource)

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702 Schaffner J (2014) Development economics. Wiley, Princeton UNESCO (2016) Education for people and planet: creating sustainable futures for all. Global education monitoring report. UNESCO Publishing, Paris UNESCO (2018) Migration, displacement, and education: building bridges, not walls. Global education monitoring report. UNESCO Publishing, Paris Usher D (1997) Education as a deterrent to crime. Can J Econ 30:367–384 Wolff L, de Moura Castro C (2003) Education and training: the task ahead. In: Kuczynski P, Williamson H (eds)

Public Expenditure on Education After the washington consensus: restarting growth and reform in Latin America. Institute for International Economics, Washington, DC World Bank (2017) World development indicators. The World Bank Group, Washington, DC World Bank (2018) Learning to realize Education’s promise. World Bank development report. The World Bank, Washington, DC Zhang X (2018) Structural change with public educational expenditure: evidence from the People’s republic of China. ADBI working paper 831. Asian Development Bank Institute, Tokyo

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Quality Control in Higher Education Suresh Garg and Madhulika Kaushik Usha Martin University, Ranchi, India

Definitions The dictionary meaning of quality is “degree of excellence” and “superiority in kind.” It is the result of all-round intelligent effort and is one of the most important issues in present-day higher education ecosystem. However, perceptions of leading educationists about quality vary considerably; some consider it as fitness of purpose and conformance to standards (Green 1994), while others look at it as value for money, relevance to world of work and perfection, and consistency in performance (Powar and Panda 1995). As a continuing march toward excellence, quality becomes an attribute of scholarship. Quality control entails assessment of nature and extent of quality deficit in each sub-system and devising ways to improve quality so that it is recognized in international job market. In this perspective, it can be viewed as synonymous to quality assessment.

Introduction It is believed that the most profound things are the simplest, the unstated very subtle and more pervasive, and fleeting more potent and powerful. These indicators aptly apply to higher education with its relevance in knowledge era. As we know, higher education helps to cultivate human mind and develop individuals as a unique resource for any society. Moreover, only those who master existing knowledge can contribute to pool of new knowledge and be counted. For this reason, every nation state focuses on making education at different levels accessible to all through various means to develop a critical mass of human capital. According to Karim (2011, p. 551) quoted in Ryan (2015), the projected global demand for higher education could reach 263 million students by 2025. (And most of it would be contributed by developing and populous counties in Asia and Africa.) To cater to such numbers with offer of quality education is a Herculean task particularly when knowledge doubling time is in single digit and mobility of students, faculty, and program offerings is on the rise. If the youth in a country is trained suitably, it could be driver for knowledge economy. India, with its huge demographic dividend, is comparatively better placed in this respect. Therefore, a possible way forward to

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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address this emerging trend is to develop a mechanism to ensure quality in higher education and recognize excellence at both bachelors’ and master’s levels in teaching, research, and vocational training. The process to assess quality has been standardized through collective international efforts and we discuss it now.

Quality Assurance Quality assurance is aimed at identifying and addressing gaps which affect learner performance adversely and hinder realization of institutional objectives, listed in its Act. An institution is expected to formulate its vision and mission statements, along with core values. Quality assurance comprises evaluation of policies, procedures, and mechanisms for their suitability, efficiency, applicability, and efficacy and guides each faculty/institute/center/division/ unit/cell. It should ensure that prescribed quality specifications and standards are maintained, if not upscaled, and help in extending the access of the institution to the society, which supports it. Quality assurance is therefore an instrument for: • Continuous improvement in teaching-learning pedagogy through planning, reflection, evaluation, and revision of existing practices for improvement of various academic and support services • Cultivation of a culture of ownership of the institution by each and every member of its fraternity • Assessment whether or not the education imparted is rooted in national ethos, values, and culture so as to develop responsible and competent graduates who imbibe sense of service toward fellow-beings • Application of technology in the delivery of education and bring about paradigm shift in the manner curriculum can be transacted. • Achieving incremental improvement in institutional performance standards through an institutionalized process of continual review and implementation of required improvements

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Assessment, Accreditation, and Quality: International Perspective We do not have to go very far back in history to know that accountability, strategic planning, and quality assurance were considered corporate concepts. Moreover, perceptions about quality varied considerably among different stakeholders of higher education (Powar and Panda 1995). Some scholars view quality as a “relative concept” (Manohar 1999; Koul, 2000, personal communication). They argue that if higher education is made available by opening a new college/university in a region, which was deprived of it hitherto, quality would relate to development of people. But for a metropolitan society, where such facilities have existed for long, quality would be judged by the availability of the latest technologyassisted learning environments and whether or not it promotes critical thinking and helps build reflective capacity and independent learning. However, it is important to realize that quality improvement can be incremental rather than a quantum jump. Experience shows that quality enhancement is facilitated by unbiased assessment (self as well as peer) and accreditation of an institution without preconceived ideas. Assessment and accreditation are perceived differently by different people. Some view these as complementary to quality, innovation, and autonomy, while it is voluntary and selfregulatory for many others. Assessment is essentially evaluation of institutional vision, mission, core values, objectives, plans, input processes, infrastructure, and outcomes by an external agency based on certain pre-decided performance indicators with the sole purpose of improving it further. It gives an idea of the quality of the outcomes. But evaluation of quality of these aspects to qualify an institution for some status or recognition is known as accreditation (Ahmed and Garg 2015) It serves mainly three purposes: (i) formulation of educational norms, including assessment, and institutional recognition, (ii) quality assurance and improvement in standards, and (iii) creation of awareness among stakeholders about the quality of education imparted by an institution. This information is

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invariably used by donors/funding agencies to determine the quantum of support. The accreditation process, if carried out without preconceived notions or prejudices, can be a catalytic agent for quality assurance in higher education and provide value for money, effort, and time. In fact, it can be a win-win situation for all stakeholders: learners get confidence that the program being pursued by them and offered by their institution enjoys acceptability in the system; the public, including the employer groups, get satisfaction that the institution is conforming to certain standard of expectation; and the institution concerned gets a boost in its reputation and legitimacy through societal, regional, national, and international recognition. This, in turn, motivates it to internalize quality parameters through self-regulation and introspection. Moreover, by reengineering its offerings strategically under the guidance of expert committees comprising acknowledged scholars, academic council, planning board, and executive council/ board of management/syndicate/senate with appropriate inbuilt checks and balances, an institution can boast of being “current.” Also, accreditation process generates healthy competition with other institutions (Das et al. 2019). Accreditation systems are of two types: institutional and professional. The focus of institutional accreditation is on institution as a unit and its general characteristics such as vision, core values and objectives, infrastructure, faculty, quality of teaching-learning, research, and national and international achievements through contributions to new knowledge pool and resources. However, issues of major concern are program integrity, research, administrative governance and academic control, quality assurance, and accountability. Institutional accreditation helps to promote improvement through selfevaluation, periodic reviews, peer advice, and SWOT analysis. On the other hand, professional accreditation relates to specific programs and is conducted by associations or councils of professions such as engineering, medicine, and law. While vision, mission, and core values of an institution help to assess the “fitness of purpose,” objectives and plans enable determination of the “value for money.” Similarly, input processes

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concentrate on quality of curriculum transaction; learner support; quality of student intake and teachers; the number and quality of books and journals available in the library to students and faculty members; infrastructure, including lecture halls and laboratory facilities for experimentation and research; support for continuing professional development; and provisions for nurturing talent and promoting creativity. The learner support in the form of tutorials, assignments, and group discussions provide quantum jump to the reliability and authenticity of teaching-learning curve. It is important to use tools of tomorrow to deal with quality issues of today. In the long run, the quality of education imparted and the achievements of the alumni in the world of work determine the standing of an institution. As such, quality is a complex function of several stakeholders: learners, parents, employers, higher education providers, society and government supporting higher education, in addition to assessment and accrediting councils. The concept of assessment of quality in higher education by an external agency was initiated in right earnest in the USA in the early 1960s in reference to private universities and other institutions of higher learning. The information was used to appraise all stakeholders about their status, quality, and performance. The assessment and accrediting system is now well established and mature. Subsequently, several other countries adopted this practice with some variations to accommodate local contexts. The European Network for Quality Assurance (ENQA) in Higher Education, established in 2000, has been working toward convergence in quality assurance and processes to be followed. The standards and guidelines for quality assurance prepared by it and adopted in 2005 are used by internal as well as external assessment agencies. These provide a common basis for facilitating seamless migration of learners across institutions in signatory countries. These procedures have now been streamlined and made learner-friendly; these attract wider attention to proactive practices, work culture, and academic achievements (Das et al. 2019). In Australia, the quality assurance system is very comprehensive; universities are created by

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state or territorial legislation following a detailed analysis and evaluation of their academic and financial viability. Once created, universities are self-accrediting; they put appropriate mechanisms in place, including peer assessment, external examination, and involvement of professional bodies. Most higher education in Australia now is delivered by institutions that operate as dualmode institutions with a mission to offer the same degree programs to both on- and off-campus students. The QA processes have evolved to address this reality (Koul and Kanwar 2006). In the UK, the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAAHE) came into existence in 1998. In South Korea, the Korean Council of Higher Education (KCHE) developed detailed qualitative and quantitative parameters and review procedures to assess individual programs. Countries like New Zealand, China, Russia, and South Africa also have vibrant and dynamic mandatory systems of quality assessment and external quality review (EQR). Every institution of higher learning is to be audited at least once in 6 years, though the timing for audit could be the choice of the institution concerned (Ahmed and Garg 2015). It is important to mention here that in view of growing importance, an International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) was launched as a common forum to discuss the practices and procedures used in quality assurance. With increased internationalization of education, mobility of learners as well as education providers beyond geopolitical borders has grown significantly. For quality assurance across countries, International Quality Review Process (IQPR) is being used by countries like Finland, Australia, the USA, Poland, Kenya, and Malaysia to enhance the quality of international dimension of their education. But developing and less developed countries are as yet in the process of evolving relevant mechanisms. Indian Scenario According to reliable data, the gross enrollment ratio (GER) in higher education in India as of now is about 27%. (GER was 15% in 2009–2010, which increased to 24.5% in 2015–2016 and

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25.2% in 2016–2017. It is projected to increase to 30% by 2020–2021 (MHRD 2018), and this has put the system in a state of flux.) To increase enrollment, particularly of the marginalized, excluded, and isolated, the Government of India (GoI) has formulated positive discrimination policies. The genesis of these policy formulations was to take the benefits of higher education to all through inclusive education. While educating a girl child was considered to have multiplier effect as it implied educating a family, in case of being socially excluded, education was the only entity that could promote their politico-economic development (Sabharwal and Malish 2016). In fact, gender parity index (GPI) grew from 0.86 to 0.94 in the period 2014–2018 (Garg and Panda 2019), which is a significant development. Notwithstanding these encouraging developments, it is now being increasingly realized that emphasis on access and equity, unplanned growth of higher education, and lack of adequate resources (infrastructure, finances and human capital), among other factors, have overshadowed quality. As a result, it is widely realized that majority of our graduates lack skills required for the twenty-first-century world of work. This is one of the reasons why no Indian institution of higher education and research ranked in top 300 similar institutions in the world as per the survey conducted in 2019. Similarly, citations of the work of Indian researchers have gone down considerably over the past few decades. That is, higher education system in India has largely failed to address issues related to quality, which is the unique defining element of knowledge era. To quote the National Knowledge Commission (2009), “there is a quiet crisis in higher education that runs deep. Pockets of excellence remain but the general impression is one of mediocrity. . .”. However, initiatives such as a move toward creation of Higher Education Commission of India by repealing the UGC Act 1956, creation of innovative world-class universities, and recognition of existing institutions as “institutions of eminence” and “national importance” taken recently by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India (GoI), with provisions for added financial support and autonomy to manage

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all their affairs should help improve quality of teaching-learning, research, and training. (But it seems that there are inherent contradictions to be addressed.) However, for a country of India’s size and diversity, it is important to realize that if the number of institutions of eminence/national importance is in single digit, not much should be expected, and in any case, it would take considerable time to create a visible impact, provided other institutions are not adversely affected (Panda and Garg 2019). In India, most of the public universities affiliate hundreds of colleges and are essentially engaged in the task of determining uniformity in academic standards through common curriculum, examinations, and evaluation. And beginning 2015, even the University Grants Commission (UGC), through choice-based credit system, has been promoting implementation of common curriculum all over the country, except for allowing 30% window to include local contexts/realities and OER-/ MOOC-based courses. The private entrepreneurs account for offer of about 80% enrollment in professional education. However, its growth has been largely unorganized, and the quality of education offered by majority of private providers has put the system on crossroads. Unlike Cambridge, Harvard, Oxford, Stanford, and other highranking universities, majority of Indian private universities tend to be small in size and scope, exploitative with little emphasis on R&D. These are invariably guided by “for-profit” rather than for developmental considerations. (Nevertheless, justifiable returns would be in order to sustain further growth.) This is a catch-22 situation: government regulators tend to control rather than facilitate development and private providers like ambiguity (Kulandai Swamy 2006). This undesirable situation persists in spite of intervention of the Apex Court of the country. Ironically, even leading public institutions such as Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and central universities as also teacher associations have not been inclined toward proactive processes. The reasons are many and varied; some valid and others not so valid. Therefore, there is a need to set up dialogue with various stakeholders in higher education and

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remove their apprehensions. Moreover, only knowledgeable and reputed professors should be associated in assessment and accreditation exercise because only they would be equipped with appropriate skills to guide and suggest ways for improvement. (Experience shows that the professors with natural tendency to bend forward find access to corridors of power and do little academic justification in meetings/visits.) We need quality material to raise a grand edifice; pygmies do not build pyramids. This highlights the need to take holistic view while framing guidelines for regulation of infrastructure, human capital, fee to be charged, and admissions so that society gets access to quality higher education. In many countries, the responsibility to check for quality assurance is vested in specialized agencies. But in India, public-funded regulators are expected to evaluate conventional institutions/ programs with a view to enhance quality and suggest ways wherever there are gaps. In view of diversity and its richness, India created multiple agencies for assessment and accreditation of higher education institutions offering liberal, technical, and professional education. However, the University Grants Commission (UGC) is the single largest and, according to a decision of the Supreme Court, the most important regulator of higher education with the mandate to determine, coordinate, and promote standards of teaching, research, and certification. But there is little realization in the Commission and its accrediting arm – National Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC) created in 1994 – that development and management of explosive transition from elite to mass and now universal higher education need professional approach, meticulous planning, and execution. In fact, robust quality assurance processes require much more than an external periodic assessment on certain numbers/ parameters. For evaluating professional education, the central government established the All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) and the National Board of Accreditation (NBA) as its accrediting arm. These agencies are autonomous organizations and grade colleges and universities based on their assessment criteria. This gives students a way to decide the value of a HEI.

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Also, the UGC, AICTE, and state governments accordingly decide their funding support. Till 2014, assessment and accreditation (A&A) process was voluntary and did not make much head way. But in 2015, A&A was made mandatory to receive grants. This had tremendous impact. More and more institutions began to come forward. As on May 31, 2019, the total number of accredited institutions of higher learning by NAAC was 6774, with 320 universities, 5221 colleges, and 123 transition autonomous colleges (NAAC 2019). The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) identified seven assessment criteria – curricular aspects; teaching-learning and evaluation; research, consultancy, and extension; infrastructure and learning resources; student support and progression; organization and management; and healthy practices – for assessment of publically funded institutions and comparison with other similar institutions. The Distance Education Council (DEC), established in 1992 under the statutes of Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), continued to accord program recognition till 2006 on the basis of evaluation, by subject experts, of learning materials provided to distance learners by single- or dual-mode universities/institutions. However, in 2007 DEC decided to move from program recognition to institutional recognition based on the report of the visiting teams on the pattern of NAAC. Due to some unhealthy practices indulged in by the then authorities of DEC, the power of recognition of distance education was taken away by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, GoI, from the Council and handed over to a reluctant UGC, which had no inherent expertise. (This retrograde step was an affront to the Indian Parliament.) It is important to mention that regulation of higher education in India is multilayered as there is multiplicity of regulators, which invariably act in isolation and sometimes at cross-purposes because of overlapping domains. Each regulator seeks to create exclusive space and sphere of influence with the result that universities feel undue pressure. Moreover, it does not require a genius to discover that most accrediting agencies

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are infested with officials who indulge in unfair practices, and at times even highest-ranking authorities have reportedly been brought to justice, but they managed to be back.

Ranking and Quality Assurance It is a well-recognized fact that certain institutions of higher education enjoy definite preferences of students, parents, and employers. Harvard, Stanford, Cambridge, London School of Economics, Yale, and Wharton are glorious examples of preferred institutions internationally. In India, the IITs, IIMs, Banaras Hindu University, University of Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Indian Institute of Science, Punjab University, Calcutta University, and Madras University are some typical examples of publicly funded F2F highly rated teaching institutions of choice in higher education. The graduates of such institutions enjoy definite advantage in the job market as they have been trained better to cope with the requirements of and relate to “the world of work” more naturally. Similarly, the faculties of these institutions are on the academic map of the world through continuous high-quality research and teaching. That is, the quality of learners and teachers helps to ascertain the standing of an institution vis-à-vis the achievements of other institutions, the guiding principle being primacy of academic concerns. Though there is always an opportunity and scope for improvement, continuous introspection is the key for development and growth. It has been realized that assessment and ranking methodology have largely ignored (rather could not handle) the “process” variables in teaching-learning and evaluation, which are foundation to any quality paradigm and institutional ranking. Of late, the process of accreditation by NAAC has undergone gradual change, so as to comply with the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) – institutional ranking by government (besides assessment and accreditation by UGC) – a decision which was an outcome of disenchantment with India’s showing in the world ranking of higher education institutions.

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The NIRF ranking of up to 100 HEIs for 2018 put IISc as no. 1, followed by JNU, BHU, Anna University, Hyderabad, Jadavpur University, Delhi University, Amrita University, Savitribai Phule Pune University, and Aligarh Muslim University (AMU). In comparison, of the world ranking done by Times Higher Education for 1000 universities for 2018 in 177 countries with at least 27 occupying space in the top 200, the IISc of India dropped from 201–250 band to 251–300 band, and only 29 universities could come up within the top 1000 HEIs. IIT-B got included in the 351–400 ranking group, and other four IITs (Delhi, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Roorkee) are in the 501–600 ranking group (Garg and Panda 2019). In case of QS ranking in which 959 institutions were ranked (out of 4300 considered), the variables included academic reputation (40%), facultystudent ratio (20%), citations per faculty (20%), employer reputation (10%), international students (5%), and international faculty (5%). These are indicators that any HEI in India could consider and examine if one stands solid on these grounds. If one analyzes the actual data for QS world ranking of top 500 HEIs in 2014–2015, India could do well for academic reputation and employer reputation, and the danger areas included faculty-student ratio and international faculty ratio. Not surprisingly, therefore, India had only four institutions in top 400, while China had 11, Australia 21, the UK 48, and the USA 102 (Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry 2014). Quality Assurance and the SDGs It is universally accepted that education is the most potent tool for socio-politico-economic uplift of the marginalized and deprived. The UN authorities took note of this and set the goal to help the poor in less developed and developing countries by 2030 achieve equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational, and tertiary education and opportunities to ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills they need to promote sustainable development. With the realization that education can be the most potent vehicle for societal transformation, the youth all over the world created huge pressure on national

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governments for creating provisions for providing cost-effective quality higher education. Moreover, due to globalization-induced internationalization, we have witnessed rapid proliferation of providers of education. The methods of delivery of education have also seen tremendous changes. For sustainable growth of pluralistic societies, international organizations such as the UNESCO, World Bank, and Commonwealth of Learning (COL) have been partnering in creating arrangements and resources such as OERs and MOOCs for quality assurance in education through sponsored training programs. Pointing out that quality assurance has prospered on the philosophy of continuous internal improvement, the Chairman of UNESCO has reportedly said that it “must be the foundation” for higher education’s approach to the SDGs (University World News February 5, 2017). Since the capacity of classroom-based conventional system is limited, alternatives such as open and distance teaching-learning have enjoyed unflinching support and grown very rapidly, notwithstanding the bias of the purists among the conventional academia. Now it is possible to impart education in highly technology-enriched environment in anyone anywhere anytime paradigm. This could have been at best be a fantasy even 50 years ago.

Conclusion Quality has emerged as the defining element of knowledge era powered by intellectual property rights, and we have same faith in it as our ancestors had in religion. If higher education is the driver of knowledge economy, quality assurance is the catalyst that powers it. Experience shows that assessment and accreditation help in managing quality. That is why different countries have evolved procedures for and participated in ranking their higher education institutions. While universities in educationally advanced countries are able to attain higher ranking, those in developing and underdeveloped world are lagging far behind, particularly because of lack of resources (infrastructure, resources, human capital, research.) In these times however, it is essential

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for every society to develop a critical mass of intellectuals and researchers who can contribute to global pool of knowledge.

References Ahmed F, Garg S (2015) Higher education in knowledge era: innovation, excellence and values. Viva Books, New Delhi Das M, Ghosh CK, Garg S (2019) Innovations in distance education. Viva Books, New Delhi FICCI (2014) Higher education in India: moving towards global relevance and competitiveness. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, New Delhi Garg S, Panda S (2019) Higher education in India: developments, status and challenges. In: Aggarwal KK (ed) Towards more effective education: emergence of STEM Education in India. Vivekanand Foundation, New Delhi. pp 14–34 Green D (1994) What is quality in higher education? SRHE and Open University Press, Buckingham Koul R, Kanwar A (2006) Towards a culture of quality: perspectives in distance education series COL. http://hdl.handle.net/11599/119 Kulandai Swamy VC (2006) Reconstruction of higher education. ICFI University Press, Hyderabad Manohar KM (1999) Quality assurance in distance teaching institutions. In: Panda S (ed) Open and distance education: policies, practices and quality concerns. Aravali Books International (P) Ltd, New Delhi, pp 389–403 MHRD (2018) AISHE. Presentation January 5, 2018 NAAC (2019). http://www.naac.gov.in/19-quick-links/32accreditation-status. Accessed 23 May 2019 National Knowledge Commission (2009). http://www. knowledgecommission.gov.in/ Panda S, Garg S (2019) India. In: Zawacki-Ritcher O, Qayyum A (eds) Open and distance education in Asia, Africa and Middle East: national perspectives in digital age. Springer, Singapore, pp 27–43 Powar KB, Panda SK (1995) Higher education in India – in search of quality. Association of Indian Universities, New Delhi Ryan T (2015) Quality assurance in higher education: A literature review. High Learn Res Commun 5(4). https://doi.org/10.18870/hlrc.v5i4.257 Sabharwal NS, Malish CM (2016) Student diversity and civic learning in higher education in India. NUEPA, New Delhi

Quality Education ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

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Quality Education: Entrepreneurship Chiam Chooi Chea Cluster of Business and Management, Open University Malaysia, Bandar Baru Bangi, Malaysia

Definition Entrepreneurship is a process where one involves in designing, planning, and running a business with the aim of making profit despite the presence of risks in every business venture. The people who started the business are called entrepreneurs, while those who manage the business many not be the entrepreneurs themselves but managers of the business. Business involves various aspects that require organizing, planning, forecasting, and execution skills. Each of these fields requires strong and good decision-making to make a business a success. There are several scales of entrepreneurship, namely, microenterprises and small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs), nongovernment-linked companies (Non-GLCs), government-linked companies (GLCs), and multinational companies (MNCs). A healthygrowing enterprise helps an economy to thrive as there are job creation and more employment opportunities when businesses flourish. Entrepreneurship is a required skill in every nation, and it has since become a vital sector and gained much attention from governments around the world. Entrepreneurship skills can be obtained from both formal education and informal education. Entrepreneurship is a strong example of lifelong learning though it may not be from the main and formal education stream. Many countries have made entrepreneurship one of the core courses for any program in tertiary education. The government plays an important role in nourishing the enterprises by providing necessary and ample support; financially, technically as well as efficient and quality regulatory. The words enterprise and business are used interchangeably in this context. There are 17 United Nations Sustainable

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Development Goals (UN SDGs). According to the United Nations (2019), the fourth objective of UN SDGs is quality education with two targets – to substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs, and entrepreneurship – and to ensure that all acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development by the year 2030.(United Nations 2019)

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Quality Education There are 17 UN SGDs, and quality education is the fourth United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, and this shows the level of importance of this skill in ensuring the sustainable growth to a country. Other than that, the UNESCO too believes that quality education can transform lives and is at the heart of its mission to build peace, eradicate poverty, and drive sustainable development. The UNESCO believes that education is a human right for all throughout life and that access must be matched by quality. It covers every aspect of education, formal and informal. Quality education is the pillar of a nation’s growth, and it is a core in mitigating any inequalities or prejudices in the world. Quality education should start from preschool and all the way to tertiary education. The right education path and framework can build the bridge between any disparities between nations as well as instill the right virtues and values in its nation. Quality education in this context covers a wide aspect – not only about academic paper certificates. Due to the democratization of education today, soft skills and various skills domain are equally important to every nation. A successful businessman may not have all the paper

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qualifications as his credentials. Hence, quality education here is a journey to build and accumulate character and knowledge for its learners. Quality education does not confine with proper education channel only as it also covers the cognitive skills that are needed in the society such as digital skills, numeracy skills, critical thinking skills, entrepreneurial skills, as well as non-cognitive character building. All these values and skills can be built on experience as well as good and strong character building.

Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship is a business venture that requires its entrepreneurs to take risk and make decisions before profit can be obtained. Contrary to popular belief, “higher risk higher profit” entrepreneurs need to showcase their analytical skills in decision-making and predicting the market needs and demands as well before profit can be secured. Entrepreneurship is a skill rather than mere luck in business matters. Apart from entrepreneurship skills, good virtues and morals such as patience, ethicality, understanding, tolerance, hard work, etc. with opportunities and luck are needed hand in hand in order for a business to be successful and grow substantially domestically and globally. Entrepreneurship started to gain attention from many governments because it is a skill that has positive relationship with promoting economic growth to a country and there are many active research papers that study how entrepreneurship contributes to the growth of a country. Entrepreneurship is a skill that has positive externalities to a country that spills good and positive effects to a country because entrepreneurship requires an innovative and creative mind in order to respond to a quick-changing business environment. The positive effect of the chain is cultivating the entrepreneurship – reducing unemployment particularly youth, creating job opportunities, and boosting the growth of a country. According to Doing Business World Bank Report (2019), it is important to have quality and efficient regulations pertaining to entrepreneurship

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matters. It is important to have effective rules in place that are easy to follow and understand. In order to realize economic gains, corruption would hinder SMEs from flourishing; unnecessary red tape should be eliminated as well. Nevertheless, certain specific safeguards must be put in place to ensure high-quality business regulatory processes; efficiency alone is not enough for regulation to function well. Government should pay more attention to laws and regulations affecting local small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to improve the economic well-being and advancement of its people because effective business regulation affords micro- and small firms the opportunity to grow, innovate, and, when applicable, move from the informal to the formal sector of an economy.

Entrepreneurship via Education According to Lackeus (2015), the idea of infusing entrepreneurship into education has spurred much enthusiasm in the last few decades. Positive spillover effects that have been stated were economic growth, job creation, and increased societal resilience and also individual growth, increased school engagement, and improved equality. Putting this idea into practice has however posed significant challenges alongside the stated positive effects. Lack of time and resources, teachers’ fear of commercialism, impeding educational structures, assessment difficulties, and lack of definitional clarity are some of the challenges practitioners have encountered when trying to infuse entrepreneurship into education. Infusing entrepreneurship into education is increasingly clear in theory, but in practice much remains. In theory entrepreneurship should start at an early age with a wide definition of entrepreneurship embedded across the curriculum and relevant to all students, preferably in preschool and primary school. Later in the educational system, it should complement with a parallel voluntary and more business-focused approach, applying a more narrow definition of entrepreneurship. In practice however, explicit entrepreneurial activities on primary education levels are rare. Therefore, on secondary and tertiary levels, most initiatives are

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship

business start-up focused, lacking inclusiveness into other teaching subjects. In vocational education and training, entrepreneurial activities are frequent in terms of value creation for other people, but they are seldom connected to the entrepreneurship domain and its tools, methods, and processes for creating value. Entrepreneurship that is relevant to education has so far primarily been viewed from economic points of view. This has worked fairly well for elective courses on higher education level but is more problematic when infusing entrepreneurship into primary and secondary levels of education for all students. Here, a much less discussed but highly interesting impact that entrepreneurship can have on education is the high levels of student motivation and engagement it can trigger and also the resulting deep learning (Lackeus 2015). Entrepreneurship education has become an important part of the curriculum in the higher education institutions in Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2009). The growth of entrepreneurship education has increased the number of entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship programs continued to grow and gain legitimacy within the world of academics; undergraduate students have had increasing opportunities to study topics related to the entrepreneurial career track (Deborah et al. 2002). Young graduates from different fields are interested to be entrepreneurs, and this has proven that entrepreneurship education learned in their tertiary education provides flexibility to graduates in their future workplace (Deborah et al. 2002). Reynolds et al. (1999) said that education is important to the entrepreneurship because education provides individual with a sense of autonomy, independence and self-confidence, self-awareness, and awareness of career choices and broadens the horizons of individuals. In summary, the education provides knowledge to the youngster to develop the entrepreneurial opportunities. Entrepreneurship skills have been embedded in most of the academic curriculum blueprint for most countries, and this is one of the actions taken to build entrepreneurial skills in its nation. Entrepreneurship education and training is one of the driving forces behind the rise of entrepreneurship and small business development that generates the

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship

relevant entrepreneurial attitudes, competencies, and skills. Entrepreneurs need to learn and gain experience continuously in order to be able to stay in the challenging market in the long term. There is no stop-point for entrepreneurs when it comes to doing business. Hence, there is always a need for government and higher educational institutions to offer relevant skills and knowledge to them. Entrepreneurs can learn through formal learning as well as informal learning. Entrepreneurs also can learn through prior learning. On that note, ongoing educational training programs to develop entrepreneurial attitudes begin from early childhood, and continuing lifelong learning is needed on a continuous basis. Adult creative entrepreneurs prefer active learning methods such as role games, learning by doing. All these actions taken are in tandem with the UN SDGs as they can help to promote selfemployment with entrepreneur skills because according to United Nations (2019), approximately 617 million youth worldwide lack basic mathematics and literacy skills. These youth will face difficulty in securing jobs in the market due to lack of market-required skills. An estimated 50% of out-of-school children of primary school age live in conflict-affected areas, and the enrolment in primary education in developing countries has reached 91%, but 57 million primary age children remain out of school. This is called structural unemployment. This problem gap could probably be narrowed down with more entrepreneurs, and guidance and support from the government are required at the initial stage for these youth.

Entrepreneurship Education and Lifelong Learning According to Kaseorg et al. (2010), formation entrepreneurial activity can be influenced by individual related factors which comprise personality traits (self-realization, willingness to take risks, self-discipline, sense of duty and responsibility, stability, moderateness, etc.), personal suitability (appropriate age, good health, mental alertness, stress tolerance, energy, attitudes, identity, motivation), and knowledge/experience (management,

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analysis, decision-making, communication, and administrative skills). Entrepreneurial skills are needed, and educational institutions offer opportunities to increase entrepreneurial skills development via short training programs, practical programs which offer the necessary skills for doing business as an entrepreneur: calculating, communication, delegating, conceptual thinking, practical and technical knowledge, etc. (Kaseorg and Raudsaar 2009; Richards 1999; Timmons 1994). It is here viewed that different interpretations of entrepreneurship, enterprise, and entrepreneur have far-reaching effects on the understanding of the objectives of entrepreneurship as field of study, the setting of specific course objectives, the choice of target audiences, the design of course content, the teaching methods applied, and ultimately evaluating progress and the design of impact assessment frameworks. Education has been recognized as one of the primary essences of poverty reduction efforts and improves social development for a country. Lifelong education is a key factor for increasing the level of knowledge and competence but also to improve the quality of life. Entrepreneurship plays an important role in contributing to the nation economic growth and creates job opportunities to the country. Entrepreneurship education has now become an essential component to cultivate the potential entrepreneurs in the higher learning institutions. According to Ismail et al. (2009), entrepreneurship education is the most effective way to promote the transition of graduates toward the self-employment. Currently, entrepreneurial education as suggested by government has become popular and receptive by the undergraduates in the tertiary education. A subject by itself, entrepreneurship, has been embedded into the programs, and even in a few public and private higher education providers, entrepreneurship is offered as a program. Entrepreneurship education has now become an essential component to cultivate the potential entrepreneurs in the private and public higher learning institutions. Many entrepreneurs were using informal sources of entrepreneurial education such as selflearning via Internet-based sources, experience

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through intuitions, and good forecasting skills. Many higher educational institutions emphasize entrepreneurial education and advocate the application of knowledge and entrepreneurial characteristics (i.e., being proactive and innovative, taking risks, accepting and managing change, etc.). Many tertiary education institutions started to introduce formal educational programs, focusing on entrepreneurship integrating the entrepreneurial-related curriculum at all levels of education, including the lifelong learning values, rather than merely an “add-on” or “an elective” content.

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship Skills Entrepreneurship skill is the result of quality education, and it is a skill that needs to be honed and harnessed throughout one’s lifetime. An entrepreneur is someone who enters ventures and builds a business from the start. An entrepreneur is also a manager of the business because it manages it from all the aspects: financial, economic, accounting, human resource, legal, etc. Hence a successful entrepreneur needs to have the resilience to weather any conditions in the market or industry throughout the years. Other than that, an entrepreneur also needs to be able to accept failure and mistakes and also have self-reflection and make a future prediction for long-term investment. An entrepreneur needs to have a set of good judgment on people and also be able to groom his/her worker, the right placement for the workers, etc. (Forbes 2013). Quality education comprises the ability to do a business successfully and be able to walk through the business storms and turbulences anytime with good decision-making skills, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills with the right attitude and character. Entrepreneurial skills are skills that are acquired through various businessmaking deals and also experiences. It can be honed when learners are in the tertiary education, and the skills will be sharpened over the years of vast experience. Entrepreneurs need to have access to an extensive pool of knowledge that covers various perspectives. Entrepreneurs need to have the skills to

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship

gather and exploit the knowledge to be used successfully. According to the Canada Business Network (n.d.), the main sources of knowledge are: (a) Customer knowledge – regarding the customers’ needs. (b) Employee and supplier relationships. (c) Market knowledge – keeping abreast on the developments in the related sector. (d) Knowledge of the business environment – awareness of the business can be affected by numerous outside factors, including developments in the politics, the economy, the technology, the society, and the environment. (e) Professional associations and trade bodies – publications, academic publications, government publications, reports from research bodies, trade and technical magazines. (f) Trade exhibitions and conferences as a way to study the competitors’ actions and latest innovations in the sector. (g) Product research and development – scientific and technical research and development can be a vital source of knowledge that can create innovative new products and help retain the competitive edge. (h) Organizational memory – continuous learning in order to avoid losing the skills or experience your business has built up. You need to find formal ways of sharing the knowledge about the best ways of doing things. (i) Nonexecutive directors – these can be a good way to bring on board specialized industry experience and benefit from ready-made contracts. Hart and Harrison (1992) have done a study on the tendency of undergraduates in involvement to run their business in Northern Ireland with results showing 47% of students expressed the intention to run their own business. Mohd Salleh (2002) showed that graduates who are associated with entrepreneurship have increased with a small percentage, lower than 0.4%. Chiam (2014) stated that attitude toward behavior is positive or negative evaluation of a person on the performance of certain behavior. This variable is influenced by the total behavioral beliefs. Gelderen et al. (2008)

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship

identified five attitudes toward behaviors that affect a person’s intention to entrepreneurship, namely, independence, challenge, and the accumulation of wealth, while lack of income security and high workload were perceived as uninteresting aspects to be entrepreneur. Davidsson (1995) found that attitudes toward achievement and toward change explained entrepreneurial intention. Meanwhile, perceived behavioral control is an individual’s perception about the difficulty level for starting behavior; it is assumed that this variable is influenced by control beliefs. Gelderen et al. (2008) discovered the factors within this variable, namely, perseverance, creativity, entrepreneurial alertness, and selfefficacy. There is a significant influence of attitude and perceived behavioral control to entrepreneurship intention. However, subjective norms do not significantly influence the entrepreneurship intention among adult learners.

Quality Education: Entrepreneurial Competencies According to Lackeus (2015), the main goal of most entrepreneurial education is to develop some level of entrepreneurial competencies. Entrepreneurial competencies are defined here as knowledge, skills, and attitudes that affect the willingness and ability to perform the entrepreneurial job of new value creation. Marketing skills can, for example, be necessary for a start-up in need to market its newly developed products but also for a student wanting to get classmates excited about an entrepreneurial project in order to get them to contribute to its development. There are striking similarities between many of the outlined entrepreneurial competencies and what researchers label “non-cognitive factors,” such as perseverance, self-efficacy, learning skills, and social skills (Farrington et al. 2012). Cognitive competencies, i.e., primarily intellectual capacity-based competencies, and the bottom rows represent typical non-cognitive competencies. Cognitive competencies are easy to teach and evaluate, whereas non-cognitive competencies require learning by doing and are more difficult to evaluate (Moberg 2014).

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Training is where skills are gained, relearned, and refreshed based on the needs of the current market scenario. It is not a one-off thing, especially in an ever-changing and demanding business world. Entrepreneurshipt training involves the entrepreneurs themselves, and even the direct and indirect (related governmental regulatory departments) staffs regarding the business, i.e., the 11 indicators in business regulations as stated by Doing Business World Bank Report (2019). Well-trained staff will be able to navigate with ease, be more efficient, and be less prone to making errors when assisting transactions or assisting entrepreneurs. Some may need to participate and undertake a series of examinations to gain the qualifications required to perform their duties. For example, Alberta, a province in Canada, requires business registrars to complete three levels of exams to receive the highest accreditation for the Corporate Registry Electronic System because the performing procedures such as registering limited liability partnerships and amending corporate structures, etc. are being taught. However, there are only a limited number of economies that provide training opportunities by business and land registries. However, business registry officers who are associated with higher business registry will have mandatory annual training in order to maintain the qualification as well as to have higher efficiency in the land registry office. Other than that, any changes in regulations on the required documents in the business and land registries, procedures, etc. pertaining to entrepreneurships need to be communicated through workshops, and a proper channel of dissemination of such information is needed to ensure less confusion and errors being made by the staffs as well as entrepreneurs. Therefore, training, education, and communication will be able to provide the necessary support for any implementation of changes in doing business as well as any trade-related regulatory reforms. Other than that, training is not limited only to the staff pertaining to the business directly. Training for judges is pivotal as well in this context because a well-prepared and robust judiciary is fundamental to the rule of law. This is due to the

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fact that there will definitely be disputes among entrepreneurs, consumers, credit lenders, and any of its stakeholders in the market. Hence, the training of judges can lead to a judicial decision of higher quality in a promptly manner. Other than that, it can also foster greater uniformity and predictability of decisions and can also increase public confidence in the country’s legal system. Welltrained judges maintain the rule of law through enduring principles and predictable processes while also responding to a rapidly changing society.

Entrepreneurship Spurs Economic Growth According to Seth (2019), entrepreneurs are assumed as national assets to be cultivated, motivated, and remunerated to the greatest possible extent. Great entrepreneurs have the ability to change the growth of a country. Successful entrepreneurs may improve standards of living, in addition to creating wealth with entrepreneurial ventures via their successful innovations, other than the ability to create jobs and contribute to a growing economy. The new products and services created by entrepreneurs can produce a cascading effect, where it stimulates related businesses or sectors that need to support the new venture, furthering economic development. For example, information technology companies made up the IT industry in India during the 1990s. The industry quickly expanded and many other sectors benefited from it. Businesses associated with the IT industry – such as call center operations, network maintenance companies, and hardware providers – have flourished. It is a positive spillover to a country. Entrepreneurs are able to create social change because creative innovation can change the way things are done in a country. For example, technology advancement such as the introduction of smartphones and apps has revolutionized work and play across the globe. Smartphones are a necessity today, and as the growth of the smartphone market continues, technological entrepreneurship can have a profound, long-lasting impact on the world.

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship

The road to entrepreneurial success is no easy. Entrepreneurs need to have sharp vision of an eagle, the courage and bravery of a lion, as well as flamboyance of a flamingo. There are several common challenges faced by young entrepreneurs today. The main issue is always about the money/finances. They need to find the start-up capital and also a continuous flow of funds for any critical moments. They need to secure loans and projects as collateral. Other than that, age can also be an obstacle today as young entrepreneurs may not be able to pull off as a serious and mature entrepreneur, where they are stereotypes as the immature and impulsive – not a forte trait for a successful entrepreneur as they would not be able to withstand the criticisms from anyone in their circle. Criticisms can be taken positively or negatively by entrepreneurs as an improvement or destructively. Determination is a trait that is crucially needed too because young entrepreneurs will face moments of doubt and the thought of giving up always appears. Getting the right staff and knowing how to appreciate and judge them is another milestone to success apart from getting the customers.

Challenges of Entrepreneurship Education and Entrepreneurs One of the challenges is making the students to be more entrepreneurial. There is a claim that the only way to make people more entrepreneurial is by applying a learning-by-doing approach. There is increasing consensus among researchers that letting students work in interdisciplinary teams and interact with people outside school/university is a particularly powerful way to develop entrepreneurial competencies among students. However, if this kind of experiential learning-based activity is to be classified as entrepreneurial, some kind of value needs to be created for the people outside school or university in the process. It is not sufficient to just interact with outside stakeholders without a clear end result (Lackeus 2015). Next is that the existing entrepreneurs and a business can be easily set up but sustaining a business is not an easy task. Moreover, it is

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship

always a challenge to sustain a business over a long period of time. Sustaining a business requires courage from the entrepreneurs to take risk and also to keep up with every changing demand of goods, e.g., Nokia has been one of the top sellers and the company is one of the largest companies in the world, but it failed to recognize the changing technology and demand needs of consumers today. The company failed to keep up with the changing environment and was overtaken by many other companies. Sustaining a business is a real challenge to the entrepreneurs today due to the heavy and rapid changes in technology. Other than that, consumers have also changed their needs which differ from those of the younger generations. These consumers are more receptive to technology-based products. According to the Canada Business Network (n.d.), entrepreneurs need to use their knowledge to the best extent in order to run a business successfully. Good use of knowledge by entrepreneurs will bear fruitful outcomes such as an improvement in the goods or services offered and the processes that are used to sell them. Entrepreneurs will be able to identify the market trends before they happen, and this will enable entrepreneurs to offer products and services to customers before the competitors. Other than that, this will increase customer satisfaction because entrepreneurs have a greater understanding of the customers’ requirements through feedback from customer communications. Following that is an increase in the quality of the suppliers, resulting from better awareness of what customers want and what the staff requires. This can then improve staff productivity because employees are able to benefit from colleagues’ knowledge and expertise to find out the best way to get things done. They’ll also feel more appreciated in a business where their ideas are listened to. Skilled entrepreneurs can increase business efficiency, by making better use of in-house expertise and via better recruitment and staffing policies. Entrepreneurs can use their knowledge and expertise in an advisory or consultancy capacity. In order to do so, though, make sure that the intellectual property is protected.

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Final Remarks One of the key support factors is from the school management, capacity to build organizational strength and clear goals and incentives (Sagar et al. 2012). Other important factors include a flexible time schedule with students allowing for longer uninterrupted lessons, time allowed for pedagogical discussions among teachers, time allowed for managing the change process, and individual reflections needed to shape a new way of teaching. The teacher’s and his/her colleagues’ personal character traits and dispositions are also key factors since it takes courage to let go of the control when introducing uncertainty and ambiguity into educational processes. A well-functioning teacher team is seen as a requirement, whereas skeptical colleagues are seen as barriers (Sagar et al. 2012). Since entrepreneurial education stipulates interaction with outside world for all levels of education, there should be opportunities for primary and secondary education levels to learn from the more advanced support structures found on higher education levels, given certain contextualization to school environments. Other than at the school level, governments have the enormous task of fostering an enabling environment for entrepreneurs and small- and medium-sized enterprises. Sound and efficient business regulation is critical for entrepreneurship and a thriving private sector. Without them, we have no chance to end extreme poverty and boost shared prosperity around the world. International institutions and research centers can play a central role by building a solid base of knowledge and data to inform governments, researchers, and the general public. Doing Business World Bank Group (2019) is fully committed to this mission. The reforms that the report inspires will help people reach their aspirations; drive inclusive, sustainable economic growth; and bring us one step closer to ending poverty on the face of the earth. Reforms in doing business can be a doubleedged sword; it can pave the way and make things easier for entrepreneurs as well as make it more difficult and complicated for entrepreneurs. Most countries have reforms to ease the process for entrepreneurs after realizing the importance of

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entrepreneurship to a country’s economic growth. However, there are countries that made certain indicators more difficult for entrepreneurs due to the countries’ new administration or new policies and regulations.

Cross-References ▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Lifelong Learning

References Canada Business Network (n.d.) Info entrepreneurs. Importance of knowledge to a growing business. https://www. infoentrepreneurs.org/en/guides/importance-of-knowl edge-to-a-growing-business/. Assessed 22 July 2019 Chiam CC (2014) Entrepreneurship Intention among Open University Malaysia (OUM) learners. Conference Proceedings Widyatama International Seminar, Bali, Indonesia Davidsson P (1995) Determinants of entrepreneurial intentions, RENT (Researchin ENTrepreneurship) Conference, IX, Piacenza, 23-24 November, also Work-ing Paper Series 1995-1, Jonkoping International Business School, Jonkoping Deborah SHH, John JP & Hovis K (2002) University-wide Entrepreneurship Education: Alternative Models and Current Trends. Working paper. http://purl.umn.edu/ 127271 Doing Business, Word Bank Report (2019). Training for Reform.16th edition. A World Bank Group Flagship Report. https://www.doingbusiness.org/con tent/dam/doingBusiness/media/AnnualReports/English/ DB2019-report_web-version.pdf. Assessed 20 July 2019. Farrington CA, Roderick M, Allensworth E, Nagaoka J, Keyes TS, Johnson DW & Beechum NO (2012) Teaching Adolescents to Become Learners: The Role of Noncognitive Factors in Shaping School Performance–A Critical Literature Review, ERIC Forbes (2013) Top skills every entrepreneurs need. https:// www.forbes.com/sites/aileron/2013/11/26/the-top-skillsevery-entrepreneur-needs/#6aeb837376e3. Assessed 11 Sept 2019 Marco van Gelderen, Maryse Brand, Mirjam van Praag, Wynand Bodewes, Erik Poutsma, Anita van Gils,

Quality Education: Entrepreneurship (2008) Explaining entrepreneurial intentions by means of the theory of planned behaviour. Career Development International 13 (6):538–559. https:// doi.org/10.1108/13620430810901688 Hart M, & Harrison R (1992) Encouraging enterprise in Northern Ireland: Constraints and opportunities. Irish Business and Administrative Research 13, 104–116 Ismail M, Khalid SA, Othman M, Jusoff K, Abdul Rahman N, Mohammed KM & Shekh RZ (2009) Entrepreneurial intention among Malaysian undergraduates. International Journal of Business and Management 4 (1):54–60 Kaseorg M & Raudsaar M (2009) Entrepreneurial skills education process and support in pilotproject of Entrepreneurship Home for Young People. International Conference of Education,Research and Innovation (ICERI 2009). Madrid, 16-18 November 2009 Kaseorg.M., Raudsaar.M., Uba.L (2010).Entrepreneurship Education in Lifelong Learning. Conference Proceedings. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2950797 32. Assessed 22 July 2019 Lackeus M (2015) Entrepreneurship in Education What Why, When, How Entrepreneurship360 Background Paper. European Commission. OECD Kåre Moberg (2014) Two approaches to entrepreneurship education: The different effects of education for and through entrepreneurship at the lower secondary level. The International Journal of Management Education 12 (3):512-528 Mohd Salleh Hj Din (2002) Pembangunan keusahawanan: Cabaran kepada pendidikan tinggi. Siri Syarahan Pengukuhan Profesor. Sintok: Penerbit Universiti Utara Malaysia Reynolds PD, Hay M, Camp SM (1999) Global entrepreneurship monitor: 1999 executive report. Kauffman Foundation, Kansas Richards RW (1999) Of Entrepreurship, its Nature and Nurturing. A presentation to the Search Committee for the chair in Youth-Focused Technological Entrepreneurship at Memorial University of Newfoundland Sagar H, Pendrill A-M & Wallin A (2012) Teachers’ Perceived Requirements for Collaborating with the Surrounding World. Nordic Studies in Science Education 8:227–243 Seth S (2019) Why Entrepreneurship Is Important to the Economy. Business Leaders. Entrepreneurs. Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/articles/per sonal-finance/101414/why-entrepreneurs-are-impor tant-economy.asp. Assessed 17 September 2019 Timmons JA (1994) New venture creation. Entrepreneurship for the 21st century, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill College, Irwin United Nations (2019) Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 4: Quality Education. https://www.un.org/sustaina bledevelopment/education/. Assessed 21 July 2019

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Rationale

Responsibility

▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

▶ Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms

Regenerative Education

Responsible Business Education

▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

▶ Principles Education

Research ▶ Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability

Research Methods ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

of

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Management

Review ▶ Inspection and External Audit Mechanisms

Right to Education ▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

Resilience ▶ Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators Sikhulile Bonginkosi Msezane College of Education, Department of ABET and Youth Development, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Definitions School evaluation in the context of this chapter can be defined as the collection, analysis, and interpretation of information about any aspect of a program of education for improvement (Ellington et al. 1993; Kurban and Tok 2018). Alternatively, school evaluation is a training that forms part of a recognized process of judging schools’ effectiveness, its efficiency, and any other outcomes it may have (Patton 1987; Ellington et al. 1993). School evaluation can also be referred to as the means of judging the success of a schools’ performance based on the criteria in an evaluation framework (e.g., DoE 2002; Sanders 2001). Whole-school evaluation in this chapter can be broadly referred to as a collaborative and transparent process of making judgments on the holistic performance of schools, measured against agreed national criteria (DoE 2002). It is a collaborative process because external evaluators and school management teams, teachers, learners,

and parents take part in the evaluation processes. Whole-school evaluation is a transparent process of making judgments because all stakeholders are consulted and guidelines of the evaluation processes are known by participants prior to the evaluation process. Whole-school evaluation can be linked to school self-evaluation, which is defined as a collective, reflective process of internal school review (DoE 2002; Stronge and Tucker 1999). According to the South African Department of Education (DoE 2002), whole-school evaluation is the cornerstone of the quality assurance system in schools. It assists a school and external inspectors to review the schools’ current performance and to show how it meets international, regional, and local goals in education.

Introduction This chapter aims to provide discussion on some of the approaches, frameworks, and indicators in school evaluation that can be considered when evaluating present situation in the school in terms of teaching and learning, infrastructure, resources, and stakeholders’ involvement. Quality education is the cornerstone for development in all nations (United Nations 2019). De Grauwe and Naidoo (2004) indicated that quality evaluation in schools involves assessment of all aspects of the school and its impact on learners; thus, it is the first step toward quality improvement and quality development. Therefore, education should allow

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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children to reach their fullest potential in terms of cognitive, emotional, and creative capacities (UNESCO 2019). UNESCO (2019) stated that quality of education for the young generation is paramount as most human rights legislation focuses upon access to education and is comparatively silent about its quality. This chapter will discussed the following: approaches to school evaluation (South African perspective), influence of school leadership in school evaluation (Ireland perspective), conceptual framework for quality evaluation (CIPP framework – USA’s perspective), nine key areas for evaluation (South African perspective), and six indicators for school evaluation (New Zealand perspective). The primary concern that the Fourth Industrial Revolution is facing cannot be disassociated with the need to improve the quality of education. School evaluation plays a pivotal role in ensuring that all stakeholders have an important role in improving the standard of education (DoE 2002). School evaluation ensures that teachers and school management are provided with the opportunity for acknowledgment of what they have achieved as a school and identifies areas that need improvement. United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 is of the view that obtaining a quality education is the foundation to creating sustainable development (UN 2019). School evaluation ensures that the reasons for lack of quality education, which are due to poor conditions of schools, are minimized. The UN (2019) estimated that 617 million children and adolescents of primary and lower secondary school age lacked minimum proficiency in reading and mathematics. School evaluation can play an important role in ensuring that about 55% who lacked proficiency in reading and mathematics acquire quality education. These selected Goal 4 targets and indicators are essential for school evaluation: Target 4.1: By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes

Indicator 4.1.1: Proportion of children and young people: (a) in grades 2/3; (b) at the end of primary; and (c) at the end of lower secondary achieving at least a

minimum proficiency level in (i) reading and (ii) mathematics, by sex Target 4.6: By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy

Indicator 4.6.1: Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex Target 4.7: By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development (UN 2019)

Indicator 4.7.1: Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development, including gender equality and human rights, are mainstreamed at all levels in (a) national education policies, (b) curricula, (c) teacher education, and (d) student assessment Target 4.A: Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability, and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive, and effective learning environments for all.

Indicator 4.a.1: Proportion of schools with access to (a) electricity; (b) the Internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes; (d) adapted infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; (e) basic drinking water; (f) single-sex basic sanitation facilities; and (g) basic handwashing facilities (as per the WASH indicator definitions) In order to understand the role school evaluation plays in education, let us be guided by the value of ensuring that quality education is the foundation of creating sustainable development. Access to quality inclusive education can assist our communities with the tools required to develop innovative solutions to the world’s enormous problems. Solving these problems could require timeously evaluation of the schools’ systems to ensure that all role players achieve required educational standards. These guidelines

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators

are approach to school evaluation (DoE 2003), influence of quality of school leadership in school evaluation (IDoES 2003), and conceptual framework of quality evaluation (Stufflebeam 2003). Some are school self-evaluation model, nine key areas for evaluation, five pillars of whole-school evaluation, the use of indicators for school evaluation, and evaluation process.

Approaches to School Evaluation The guideline for school evaluation can be designed to assist how schools measure the extent they are adhering to their responsibilities in improving performance. According to South African Department of Education (2002), this evaluation can be achieved through the following approaches: • School-based self-evaluation • External evaluation by the inspectors who are trained and accredited to evaluate schools • Adequate and regular support leading to professional development programs designed to provide assistance and advice to individual staff members and schools as they seek to improve their performance • An agreed set of national criteria to ensure a coherent and consistent but flexible approach to evaluating performance in the education system • Published written reports on the performance of individual schools • Annual reports published by the Department of Education on the state of education in schools These different approaches to schools’ evaluation as seen above have the importance of evaluating to what extent the school is adding value to the learners’ knowledge, understanding, and skills. These approaches requires stakeholders such as school management team, teachers, learners, and parents to be open and collaborate with all evaluation activities (Tamani et al. 2015). According to Mitchell et al. (1997), a stakeholder in education can be a person or a group of people with the goal of achieving the objectives and aims of the organization (a school in this chapter).

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Ulewicz (2017) noted that the role of educational stakeholders is to provide educational services to learners and the community at large. According to the Northern Territory Government (NTG 2019), the school management team has a role to ensure that policies and associated documentation are provided to teachers, learners, and parents. The teacher’s role is to deliver quality educational programs that respond to the needs and abilities of all learners, including learners with disability (NTG 2019). The parent’s involvement in school evaluation is to maintain constructive communication and relationships with schools and other stakeholders to ensure best quality educational, social, and emotional outcomes for the learners (NTG 2019). The guidelines, criteria, and instruments must ensure consistency over periods across all settings (DoE 2002). One of the major principles of school evaluation is to take into consideration the developmental stage of the school to be evaluated and use that circumstance of the school as a main starting point of the evaluation (DoE 2003). These evaluation approaches mentioned above are also similarly used by the Irish Department of Education and Science (DES 2004). Irish education approaches include: • Promotion of school self-evaluation • Extensive support for school development planning • Teacher in-career development and support in the context of curriculum change • School-designed assessment and reporting to parents • Use of standardized assessment and state certificate examinations • External evaluation of schools by the inspectorate • Program evaluations focusing on aspects of curriculum provision and system evaluation through international surveys of attainment

Influence of Quality of School Leadership in School Evaluation School leadership, which is comprised of school management’s, teachers’, and learners’ leadership,

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is paramount to the effective well-being of the school. Positive learning culture should be evident in the school environment to maintain a provision of a holistic inclusive education as SGD 4 stipulates. School evaluation as it targets all spheres of the school environment, it is important that school leadership works diligently to deliver a very effective learning organization through support for areas relating to teaching and learning that include elearning and teacher continuing professional development (DoES 2019). SDG 4 points out to where people are struggling the most to have access to quality education, which is most schools lack adequate infrastructure and teacher training play a vital role in the quality of education (UN 2019). The school management should therefore be at liberty to invite members of the teaching staff to address them on aspects of academic provision, such as how the school is implementing and embedding curricular changes (DoES 2019). In addition, the school leadership should foster respectful interactions and high levels of collaboration and respect for staff, parents, and learners. It is also important that leadership bring a complementary range of skills and qualities to their roles as they work together to ensure functionality of the school as a whole (DoES 2019). As a consequence, SDG 4, Target 4.7, will be realized by ensuring that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, and promotion of a culture of peace.

Conceptual Framework for Quality Evaluation According to Aziz et al. (2018), educational evaluation includes the worth and value of the education that schools are providing to learners and involves product and process. Therefore, school evaluation is important in ensuring quality education is indispensable for the improvement and effectiveness of the education system in the school (Gronlund & Linn 1990 cited in Aziz et al. (2018). Drawing from the work of

Stufflebeam in 1983 where he proposed a context, input, process, product (CIPP) model that can be used for school evaluation, Aziz et al. (2018) developed a conceptual framework that can be used in implementing the CIPP model for quality evaluation developed by Stufflebeam in 1966. Stufflebeam (1983) noted that the CIPP approach is based on the view that the most important purpose of evaluation is not to prove but to improve. He further illustrated that CIPP model is a move against the view that evaluations should be “witch hunts” or only instruments of accountability. The concepts of implementation of CIPP model for quality evaluation are context, input, process, and product evaluation, which are discussed below. Context Evaluation Stufflebeam (2001) is of the view that the objectives of context evaluation are to define, identify, and address the needs of the target population, identify the problems, and assess if the goals are responsive to the desired needs. Document reviews, data analysis, surveys, and interviews are important methods for evaluation (Stufflebeam 2003 cited in Aziz et al. 2018). Aziz et al. (2018) mention that the following questions are used in context evaluation: 1. Are the aims of the school suitable or not? 2. Does the objectives generated relevant to the aim? 3. Are the subjects taught relevant to the aims? 4. Is the school fulfilling social needs? Input Evaluation Input evaluation provides information of the necessary resources needed to meet the goals of the program. Aziz et al. (2018) mentioned that resources in input evaluation include time resources, human resources, physical resources, infrastructure, curriculum, and content for evaluating the quality of education at school. Aziz et al. (2018) identified that the following questions which can be asked during input evaluation are: 1. What are the different learning skills that students will gain?

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators

2. Is there any balance between policy and practice? 3. What type of resources should the school use for effective teaching and learning? 4. Are there science laboratories and library, which are well maintained? 5. How are teachers using their teaching skills for effective teaching and learning? 6. Do the teachers have appropriate knowledge, skills, and attitude for teaching? Process Evaluation The focus of process evaluation is on the teaching and learning. This is an implementation phase where inputs are used in effective manner to achieve the desired aims, objectives, and goals of the product (Aziz et al. 2018). According to Patil and Kalekar (2014), process evaluation is where implementation is taking place. In the context of school evaluation, process evaluation includes teaching and learning activities, parent and teacher meetings, annual functions, and cocurricular and extracurricular activities. The following questions might be used for process evaluations: 1. Has ICT been used in many school practices? 2. Are teachers and students of the school actively participating in different activities? 3. Is there an effective two-way communication between administration, teachers, and other staff? 4. Can formative evaluation of teaching and learning process being done? 5. Which types of activities are being conducted in the school? Product Evaluation Product evaluation includes learner’s achievements in the different grades and skills, attitudes, knowledge, and learned abilities that will be beneficial to the community. Scriven (1994) noted that in product evaluation which are learners in the case of school evaluation, the aim is to ensure that learners become productive in order to improve the society at large. Aziz et al. (2018) suggested the following question that can be asked during school evaluation:

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School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators, Table 1 Objectives of the school self-evaluation model Direct objectives

Indirect objectives

Identification of what is not useful in school practices and what does not work Identification of what changes need to be made to achieve school goals Identification of the priorities for improvement To help establish an effective assessment culture in school To contribute to the formation of a performance-focused school culture To contribute to standardization Education and psychological strengthening of school staff by offering opportunities for collaboration, evaluation, participation in decisionmaking processes and managing resources

1. What are the achievements of the students of the school in cocurricular and extracurricular activities? 2. What are the different summative and formative assessment strategies used by the school? 3. How will students practically implement what they have learned? 4. Are there registers for recording of different activities of the learners? 5. How quality of teachers and school reputation could be improved? As seen in this section that the CIPP model is comprised of the different phases such as the context, input, process, and product evaluation, it is important to realize that the different phases are essentially used as indicators for school evaluation as seen in Table 1 of inputs, process, and outputs. Figure 1 shows a conceptual framework of implementing CIPP model for school evaluation. Figure 1 shows that quality evaluation is entirely dependent on the context, inputs, process, and products that were discussed above. The context is characterized by the objectives, mission, and goals. Inputs are comprised of resources, infrastructure, curriculum, and content. Process involves teaching and learning processes together with cocurricular activities. Product is denoted by the values, skills, attitude, and results/outcomes.

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726 School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators, Fig. 1 Conceptual framework of implementation of CIPP model for quality evaluation. (Source: Aziz et al. (2018))

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators

Context

Input

Process

Product

Objectives

Resources

Teaching and learning process

Skills

Mission

Infrastructure

Goals

Curriculum

Quality

Values

evaluation

School Self-Evaluation Model Şahin and Kılıç (2018) refer school self-evaluation as the identification of a schools’ effectiveness from the perspective of the school through self-evaluation methods. School self-evaluation stakeholders are composed of learners, teachers, parents, and school management. Onen and Sincar (2019) stated that organizations’ such as schools’ success is directly related to the alignment of teaching to school policies. They believe that teachers at school should be evaluated from the perspective of the school besides evaluation about his/her personal traits. School self-evaluation model is made out of two categories, which are the direct and indirect objective shown in Table 1 (Şahin and Kılıç 2018). The direct objectives of school self-evaluation model are comprised of the identification of useful and non-useful school practices. It also identifies what necessary changes need to be made to achieve school goals and unveiling of the priorities for improvement. As seen in Table 1, indirect objectives assist in establishing an effective assessment culture in school and contribute to the formation of a performance-focused school culture. Indirect objectives can also contribute to standardization and improve stakeholder’s collaboration, evaluation, and participation in decisionmaking process and managing resources. The direct and indirect objectives will ensure that SDG 4 (inclusive and quality education for all and lifelong learning) is realised by 2030. As seen in Fig. 2, Şahin and Kılıç (2018) proposed a clearly labeled school self-evaluation model that is comprised of five processes with respective operations. The first process denoted in Fig. 2 is the preparation process that involves

Content

Co-curricular activities

Attitude Results

creation of the evaluation team, determination of objectives and distributing duties, preparation of business calendar, identification of data collection methods, etc. The second process is the monitoring process, which is comprised of the inputs (curriculum, teacher, school management, learners, parents, and physical resources), process (teacher, school management, learners, parents, and physical resources), and product (learners). The third stage is the evaluation process that is comprised of operations such as analyzing data, comparing performance standards and access to standard judgment, and writing the evaluation report. The fourth process in the model is the planning process, which consists of operations such as determinations of priorities, identification of possible solutions, and preparation of new action plan. The last process in the school selfevaluation model is the implementation process that involves putting into practice the action plan. These processes in the model can be used by schools to evaluate their own educational practices in order to improve the standard of education adhering to SDG 4 principles. The New Zealand Ministry of Education (NZMoE 2016) identifies three types of internal evaluation, which are used in whole-school selfevaluation. The first type is strategic evaluation, which focuses on activities related to the vision, values, goals, and targets of the school community. The second type is regular evaluation where all stakeholders such as school management and teachers gather data, monitor progress toward goals, and access the effectiveness of programs or interventions. The last type is emergent evaluation, which is responsible for an unforeseen event or an issue picked up by routine scanning or monitoring.

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators

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SCHOOL SELF EVALUAITON MODEL OPERATIONS

PROCESS

• • •

Creation of evaluation team Determination of evaluation objectives linked to evaluation objectives Distibuting the duties Preparation of business calender Training the evaluation team about necessary topics such as evaluation model, data collection methods and data analysis methods Identification of information sources and data collectin methods Establishing performance standarts Creation of data colleciton tools

• • • • • • •

Curriculum Teacher School Management Student Family Guidance Service Physical Resources

EVALUATION PROCESS

• • • •

Analysing of the data Comparision of existing data and performance standarts Access to standart of judgments Writing the evaluation report

PLANNING PROCESS

• • •

Determination of priorities Identification of possible solutions Preparation of new action plan

IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

•

Putting in to practice the aciton plan

PREPARATION PROCESS

• • • • •

INPUT

MONITORING PROCESS

PROCESS • • • • •

Teacher School Management Student Family Physical Resources

PRODUCT •

Student

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators, Fig. 2 School self-evaluation model by Şahin and Kılıç (2018). (Source: Şahin and Kılıç (2018))

Nine Key Areas for Evaluation According to the South African National Policy on Whole-School Evaluation of 2001 (DoE 2002), there are nine key areas of school evaluation. These key areas are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Basic functionality of the school Leadership, management, and communication Governance and relationships Quality of teaching and learning and educator development 5. Curriculum provision and resources

6. 7. 8. 9.

Learner achievement School safety, security, and discipline School infrastructure Parents and community

These nine key areas of evaluation are focused on both internal evaluation and external evaluation of schools. These areas provide schools with expert advice and support in improving effectiveness of teaching and learning. Furthermore, these key areas ensure that schools are supported in strengthening accountability and promoting the functions in schools.

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The Use of Indicators for School Evaluation In the South African context, school evaluation guideline can be based on indicators covering inputs, processes, and outputs. Inputs, processes, and outputs in Table 2 conform to the CIPP model of school evaluation which comprises context, input, process, and product (Stufflebeam 1966). The success of learners is considered the fundamental goal in education systems; hence, it is important to ensure that evaluations of all systems and process in the school are considered (Onen and Sincar 2019). During school evaluation, indicators that external or internal evaluators need to focus on are inputs, processes, and outputs. In this chapter inputs are human resources which are the characteristics of learners, physical resources, professional and supporting staff, and availability of funds as in Table 2. Firstly, characteristics of learners can include socioeconomic background, different languages spoken, age, and gender statistics. The physical resources include classrooms, external premises, teaching aids, materials, and equipment. Professional and support staff in school evaluation can include statistics by gender, experience and qualification, and teacher development. School evaluation as seen in the proposed

inputs involves looking at the financial state of the school in terms of the donors and other contributions in the form of school fees by learners to ascertain whether the school funds are used efficiently. Secondly, Table 2 also shows that during school evaluation, processes such as the governance of the school are scrutinized and how do school ensure quality teaching, curriculum planning, and effective assessment of what learners are learning. Furthermore, processes involve what the school does to ensure it functions smoothly and the willingness of teachers and learners to adhere to the school systems. How the school manages its resources and how it conducts guidance and counseling are part of the processes that are evaluated. The school processes such as the willingness of the school to encourage parental and community involvement are forming part of the processes that are evaluated at school level. Lastly, Table 2 shows that during school evaluation, outputs such as learner pass rates, progress made by learner while at school, quality of learners’ response to teaching, and learners’ standards of behavior are evaluated. Furthermore, school evaluation of outputs involves commitment of all stakeholders (parents, teachers, school management team, and supporting staff), efficient

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators, Table 2 Inputs, processes, and outputs Inputs (a) Characteristics of learners (socioeconomic background, languages spoken, age, and gender statistics) (b) Physical resources (classrooms, external premises, teaching aids, materials, and equipment) (c) Professional and support staff (statistics by gender, experience and qualification, and teacher development) (d) Funding (Department of Education, learners, and other sources)

Source: Author

Processes How school governance is conducted How do school ensure quality teaching, curriculum planning, and effective assessment of what learners are learning? What the school does to ensure its functions smoothly Willingness of teachers and learners to adhere to the school systems How the school manages its resources How the school conduct guidance and counseling Willingness of the school to encourage parental and community involvement

Outputs Learners’ pass rates Progress made by learners while at school Quality of learners’ response to teaching Learners’ standards of behavior Condition of the schools’ infrastructure Commitment of all stakeholders (parents, learners, teachers, and community) Efficient use of resources by the school The provision of safety and security by the school The orderliness of the school

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators

use of resources by the school, provision of safety and security by the school, and orderliness of the school operations. Input indicators involve characteristics of learners, school infrastructure, funding, and professional and support staff. According to SDG 4, adequate infrastructure and professional teacher training play an important role in ensuring that learners are exposed to quality education (UN 2019). The process indicators scruitinise the intention of the school to achieve its goals. This includes the effectiveness with which schools try to ensure effective leadership and management, safety and security measures, and the quality of teaching (DoE 2002). Output indicators involve achievements in academic standards, standards of behavior, and rates of learners’ and teachers’ punctuality (DoE 2002). The New Zealand curriculum included six domains, which are indicators for school evaluation. The New Zealand Ministry of Education (NZMoE 2016) highlighted indicators, which put learners at the center of the indicator framework, with the goal being successful, confident, connected, actively involved, lifelong learning. These indicators are in line with SDG 4, ensuring inclusive and quality education for all and promoting lifelong learning. These indicators are: • Responsive curriculum, effective teaching, and opportunities to learn • Educationally powerful connections and relationships • Leadership • Stewardship • Professional capability and collective capacity • Evaluation, inquiry, and knowledge building for improvement and innovation The New Zealand Ministry of Education mentioned that two of these indicators which are responsive curriculum, effective teaching and opportunities to learn and educationally powerful connections and relationships, have the major influence to learners’ development and they are mutually interdependent (NZMoE 2016). In addition, leadership indicates that necessary conditions should have been created in ensuring that teachers have opportunities to collaboratively inquire into, reflect on,

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and evaluate their practice, thereby building professional capability and collective capacity (NZMoE 2016). The stewardships’ role is to evaluate learner’s achievement and maintain relentless focus on learning, well-being, achievement, and progress. Evaluation, inquiry, and knowledge building become the important domain that drives improvement and innovation (NZMoE 2016).

Proposed School Evaluation Processes The process of school evaluation can be a set of intertwined activities that involves four phases, which are planning, development, implementation, and action and improvement. These processes are established against a set of goals and objectives. The following schematic diagram represents proposed school evaluation process. The proposed school evaluation process is premised on the USA’s Stufflebeam (1966) CIPP model, and Turkey’s school self-evaluation model by Şahin and Kılıç (2018). The evaluation process is practically composed of four steps which are discussed below as Step (1–4). As shown in Fig. 3, the four steps are planning, development, implementation and, action and improvement. In order to meet SDG 4 goals, this chapter proposes a school evaluation process as seen in Fig. 3 showing that step 1 involves planning of the evaluation process, which involves pre-evaluation visits, self-evaluation, and detailed on-site evaluation. In addition, step 1 in evaluation explores developing a profile of the school about the functionality of the school and the procedure to be followed by the evaluating team. Step 2 includes the developmental phase where the school evaluation team is comprised of capable supervisors who are capable of evaluating the nine key areas for developmental purposes discussed in this chapter. Members should be expert in at least one learning area/subject (DoE 2002). Step 3 is based on implementation recommendation emanation from the evaluation report. This report contains recommendations designed to help the school continue to improve. Step 4, which is action and improvement, shows that the school will get assistance from the

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• Pre-evaluation surveys/visits, self-evaluation and on-site evaluation • Building a school profile about the functionality of the school and procedure to be followed by the school evaluation team.

Planning • School evaluating team should comprised of accredited supervisors capable of evaluating the nine areas for evaluation for developmental purposes.

Development

Implementation

Action and

• An evaluation will result in a published, written report and contain recommendations designed to help the school continue to improve

• A school will be helped by the department of education support services to formulate and implement an improvement plan based on the recommendations in the report and provide the school with support as it seeks to implement the plan.

Improvement

School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators, Fig. 3 Schematic presentation of the proposed school evaluation process. (Source: Author)

department of education support services to formulate and implement an improvement plan based on the recommendations in the evaluation report and subsequently provide the school with support it seeks to improve the plan (DoE 2002).

Other Countries Support for School SelfEvaluation The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) work on key components of the school evaluation and assessment framework showed that some countries have policies that strive to ensure that evaluation processes mentioned in the sections above are implemented (OECD 2019). Table 3 shows that not South Africa, Turkey, New Zealand, the USA, and Ireland who are mentioned in this chapter have support for school evaluation. Indeed, countries such as Australia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and England have a role to play in ensuring national support for school self-evaluation. Some of the national initiatives to support

self-evaluation from selected countries are shown in Table 3 (OECD 2019).

Summary Education enables upward socioeconomic mobility and is a key to escaping poverty (UN 2019). Education is also key in achieving SDGs in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Therefore, in this chapter we see that school evaluation is paramount in ensuring that education helps to reduce inequalities and reach gender equality. One of the approaches to ensure SDG are achieved through school evaluation is the use of CIPP model to evaluate quality in school. This model is not a punitive measure but a support instrument for all stakeholders in the school in ensuring that the product (learners) proficiency in learning is improved, thus enabling upward socioeconomic mobility, which is a key in escaping poverty. This chapter also discussed Şahin and Kılıç (2018) five processes of school self-evaluation model which are preparation, monitoring, evaluation, planning,

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School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators, Table 3 Other countries initiative that has to support school self-evaluation Country Australia

Czech Republic Denmark

France

Netherlands

New Zealand

England

National support for school self-evaluation School level results from national assessments are available to schools via My School public website. Western Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales have developed online information systems to support schools and, in particular, to feedback results from national assessments in a way that allows schools to analyze these more efficiently. A national school improvement tool was developed in 2012 for schools to self-evaluate on nine major characteristics research has identified in effective schools Schools are free to choose self-evaluation criteria, but the Ministry and the Inspectorate provide guidelines, selected models, and examples of good practice (“On the road to quality” project) The Quality and Supervision Agency runs an evaluation portal with online tools and resources for school evaluation and in collaboration with the Danish Evaluation Institute offers voluntary training sessions for school principals and teachers Secondary schools have been equipped with dashboards of performance indicators. Data come mostly from the centrally developed application support for school piloting and self-evaluation. The indicators are mostly related to school population, financial, and student achievement data. In the special education sector, a support tool for school piloting is currently being developed to help school teams self-evaluate their activities in order to collectively increase the “school effect” The Ministry subsidized two national projects to develop quality management systems in secondary schools (1999–2005) and in primary schools (2001–2006). Secondary school council (2010) in cooperation with the Ministry has developed an online information system with quantitative and qualitative information on individual schools with benchmarking data that can be used for selfevaluation and horizontal accountability The Education Review Office provides support tools and training for school self-review and improvement, suggesting a cyclical approach and providing a framework for success indicators (same as those used in external reviews) A national self-evaluation form is provided for schools – this is used by schools prior to school inspections. An analysis tool reporting and analysis for improvement through school self-evaluation (RAISE online) is provided for use by schools, local authorities, inspectors, and school improvement partners

Source: OECD review: https://www.izm.gov.lv/images/aktualitates/OECD_MONITORINGS_PDF.pdf

and implementation. This chapter concluded with the proposed school evaluation process, which is slightly different from the Şahin and Kılıç (2018) model. The proposed model in Fig. 3 is comprised of four steps, which are planning, development, implementation, action, and improvement. These proposed steps are designed to help the school continue to improve by allowing supporting structures such as school management to ensure that learners are exposed to quality education. This chapter also provides selected countries initiatives to support school self-evaluation.

References Aziz S, Mahmood M, Rehman Z (2018) Implementation of CIPP model for quality evaluation at school level: a case study. J Educ Educ Dev 5(1):189 De Grauwe A, Naidoo JP (2004) School evaluation for quality improvement. International Institute for Educational Planning, UNESCO

Department of Education and Skills (DoES) (2019) Whole school evaluation (Management, leadership and learning) report, Dublin. http://www.stcolmcilles.ie/ uploads/1/3/9/5/13957485/wse_mll_2018.pdf Ellington H, Percival F, Race P (1993) Handbook of educational technology. Kogan Page, London Gronlund NE, Linn RL (1990) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. McMillan Company, New York Ireland Department of Education and Science (IDoES) (2003) Looking at our school: an aid to self-evaluation in second-level schools. Stationery Office, Dublin Irish Department of Education and Science (DES) (2004) School self evaluation guidelines. http://schoolself-eval uation.ie/post-primary/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/ 09/sse_guidelines_post_primary.pdf. (Accessed on the 5 September 2019) Kurban C, Tok TN (2018) Assessment of the role of school principals in the performance audit system, based on teacher opinions. Usak Univ J Soc Sci 11(1):1–17 Mitchell RK, Agle BR, Wood DJ (1997) Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: defining the principle of who and what really counts. Acad Manag Rev 22(4):853–886 New Zealand Ministry of Education (NZMoE) (2016) Effective school evaluation. How to do and use internal

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732 evaluation for improvement. https://www.ero.govt.nz/ publications/effective-school-evaluation/ Northern Territory Government (NTG) (2019). https://educa tion.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/268830/Rolesand-Responsibilities.pdf OECD review (2019) Developing a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation system. https://www.izm.gov.lv/ images/aktualitates/OECD_MONITORINGS_PDF.pdf Onen Z, Sincar M (2019) An analysis of teacher’s performance evaluation at private schools: Kahramanmars and Gaziantep sample. Educ Adm Theory Pract 25(1):169–190 Patil Y, Kalekar S (2014) CIPP model for school evaluation. Sch Res J Humanity Sci Eng Lang 2(10) Patton QM (1987) How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newsbury Park, London, New Dehli: Sage Publications Şahin Ş, Kılıç A (2018) School self evaluation model suggestion. Int J Instr 11(3):193–206. https://doi.org/ 10.12973/iji.2018.11314a Sanders JR (2001) A vision of evaluation. Am J Eval 22 (3):363–366 Scriven M (1994) Product evaluation: the state of the art. Eval Pract 15(1):45–62 South Africa Department of Education (DoE) (2002) The National Policy on whole school evaluation. Government Gazette, vol 433, no 22512 South African Department of Education (DoE) (2003) Quality assurance for school development. https:// www.schooleducationgateway.eu/downloads/Gover nance/2018-wgs2-quality-assurance-school_en.pdf. (Acessed on the 30 August 2019) Stronge JH, Tucker PD (1999) The politics of teacher evaluation: a case of new system design and implementation. J Pers Eval Educ 13(4):339–359 Stufflebeam DL (1966) A depth study of the evaluation requirement. Theory into Practice 5:126–133 Stufflebeam DL (1983) The CIPP Model for Program Evaluation. In: Evaluation Models. Evaluation in Education and Human Services, vol 6. Springer, Dordrecht Stufflebeam DL (2001) Lessons in contracting for evaluations. American Journal of Evaluation 21:293–314 Stufflebeam DL (2003) Chapter 2. The CIPP model for evaluation. In: Stufflebeam DL, Kellaghan T (eds) The international handbook of educational evaluation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston Tamani S, Talbi M, Radid M (2015) Evaluation of the trainings in higher education: case of the Faculty of Science. Procedia-social and behavioural. Sciences 191:1038–1042 Ulewicz R (2017) The role of stakeholders in quality assurance in higher education. Hum Resour Manag Ergon 11:93–107 United Nations (UN) (2019) Sustainable development goals. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu= 1300 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2019) EFA global monitoring report. Chapter 1: Understanding education quality. http:// www.unesco.org/education/gmr_download/chapter1.pdf

School Safety

School Safety ▶ Disaster-Resistant Schools for Disaster-Resilient Education

Schooling ▶ Compulsory Education and Its Role in Sustainable Development

Schooling for Working Children Carlos Rafael Rodríguez-Solera Instituto de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo de la Educación (INIDE). Universidad Iberoamericana, Mexico City, Mexico

Synonyms Education and child labor

Definition Working children (or children in employment) “are those working in any form of market production and certain types of non-market production (principally, the production of goods such as agricultural produce for own use). This group includes children in forms of work in both the formal and informal economy; inside and outside family settings; for pay or profit (in cash or in kind, part-time or full-time); and domestic work outside the child’s own household for an employer (pay or unpaid)” (ILO 2017: 20).

Introduction The existence of a population of working children is a social problem that hampers the achievement

Schooling for Working Children

of the 17 goals set forth in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. According to the United Nations: Sustainable development implies that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, combating inequality within and among countries, preserving the planet, creating sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth and fostering social inclusion are linked to each other and are interdependent. (UN 2015: 4–5)

In this context, the issue of schooling for working children is related to at least four of the aforesaid 17 goals – i.e., to that of ending poverty in all its forms everywhere (goal 1), that of promoting sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all (goal 8), that promote just, peaceful, and inclusive societies (goal 16) and, very specifically, that of ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all (goal 4). The eradication of child labor is crucial to the achievement of the above four goals. Specifically, target 8.7 of the said goals calls on the global community to: “Take immediate and effective steps to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking, and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour.” (UN 2015: 20) and target16.2 calls to “End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence and torture against children” (ILO 2019). This article discusses the different contexts in which children carry out productive activities, the impact of the said activities on their education, and the relationship between poverty, child labor, and educational backwardness – three interconnected problems that can only be solved if they are tackled simultaneously.

Different Views on Child Labor The circumstances in which working children operate – i.e., the number of hours they work, the conditions in which they do so, the type of activities they carry out, the impact on their health and emotional development, and the opportunities they have to attend school – vary greatly.

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Academics, government experts, and representatives of international and nongovernmental organizations hold different views on whether it is necessary to eliminate all forms of child labor or if there are some situations in which the involvement of children in productive activities can be allowed. In the literature on the subject, the term “child labor” has negative connotations, signifying work that deprives children of their childhood, potential, and dignity, as well as prejudicing their physical and mental development (IPEC).“Public discourse on child labour uses the said phrase to refer to child time in activities that are somehow harmful to the child” (Edmonds 2008:1). According to Liebel and Plesnicar (2017), the term “child labor” has strictly negative connotations, suggesting that the development and education of underage workers are always hindered, and being based on a concept of childhood that he believes to have emerged over 200 years ago, in the context of European capitalism, in some ways relating to the practice of using or exploiting children as cheap labor, and now be incorrectly applied to societies and cultures whose circumstances and experiences are completely different. Although the involvement of children in work activities can often be detrimental to their development, this is not always the case, and, indeed, such involvement can sometimes even be a good experience, which is why international organizations such as UNICEF do not seek to eradicate it in all its forms. UNICEF does not oppose children working. The participation of children and adolescents in a job – an economic activity – that does not negatively affect their health and development or interfere with their education is often positive. (UNICEF 2018)

According to the International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), not all work performed by children should be eliminated. “Children’s or adolescents’ participation in work that does not affect their health and personal development or interfere with their schooling, is generally regarded as being something positive. This includes activities such as helping their parents around the home, assisting in a family

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business or earning pocket money outside school hours and during school holidays. These kinds of activities contribute to children’s development and to the welfare of their families; they provide them with skills and experience and help to prepare them to be productive members of society during their adult life” (IPEC 2018). The debate about how to combat child labor is a complex one, since, given that children participate in work activities in different ways and with very different potential effects on their development, it is important to identify the various types of work they do and to ascertain which of these prejudices their development and which, on the contrary, can benefit it while also promoting the wellbeing of their families. In particular, it is important to determine which of these forms of child labour seriously impede the children involved from attending school or cause them to drop of school before completing their elementary education and actually learning what it sets out to teach them. According to a study on the subject, published by the Harvard Center for Health and Human Rights: There is a wealth of evidence that hazardous work poses several immediate and long-term risks to children’s health and safety. However, developments in neuroscience research over the last fifteen years have provided incontrovertible evidence that adolescence is a period of significant changes in brain structure and function. There is now a strong consensus that important changes occur much further into a child’s development than had been previously thought, prompting policymakers, practitioners and academics to revisit the assumption that only the early years are important. (Donger 2016: 51–52)

According to Laurence Steinberg (2010: 3), the evidence “points to early adolescence as a time of considerable brain plasticity, which has several important implications. To the extent that patterns of synaptic proliferation and elimination are contextually-dependent (something that is not yet known but crucial to examine), we should expect to see considerable individual differences in brain structure and function that can be linked to differences in experience. In this sense, brain plasticity in adolescence makes this period a time of considerable opportunity for intervention. At the

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same time, however, heightened brain plasticity in adolescence may contribute to increased vulnerability to certain forms of psychopathology, many of which begin or intensify during adolescence.” The evidence on the different brain development of adolescents with respect to adults (As Steinberg (2010) says “different” does not necessarily mean “deficient”) has important implications for social policy, for example, to establish how the justice system should treat adolescents (Scott et al. 2018). But, as Donger (2016: 52) points out, “this new thinking has not been thoroughly applied to policies surrounding child work. It suggests that, while some forms of safe and productive employment can have huge learning and developmental gains for older adolescents, the long-term consequences of hazardous labor are significant. Thus, the costs of inaction on this issue, in both financial and human terms, are likely to be more significant than previously realized.” The population of working children (children in employment) is composed of children between 5 and 17 years of age who perform all types productive activities. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO 2017:20–21), the said population consists of: (a) Children in light work: Those carrying out work that is not likely to: (a) prejudice their health or development, or (b) prevent them from attending school or participating in vocational-orientation or training programs approved by the competent authority or being able to benefit from the instruction received. (b) Children in child labor: This category is narrower than the children-in-employment one, excluding children who are engaged in permissible light work and those above the minimum age whose work is not deemed to constitute one of the worst forms of child labor – or, more particularly, “hazardous work.” (c) Children in hazardous work: Those involved in any activity or occupation which, per se, or due to the nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm their health or

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pose a threat to their safety or moral integrity. In general, hazardous work can include: night work and long working hours; work involving exposure to physical, psychological, or sexual abuse; work done underground, underwater, at dangerous heights or in confined spaces; work with dangerous machinery, equipment, and tools or work that involves the manual handling or transportation of heavy loads; and work in an unhealthy environment which may, for example, expose children to hazardous substances, agents, processes, or to temperatures, noise levels, or vibrations that damage their health. Hazardous child labor is often deemed to constitute one the worst forms of child labor, forming part of one of the categories of child labor set out in Article 3 of ILO Convention No. 182., which are: (a) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale, trafficking, debt bondage and serfdom of children, forced or compulsory child labor, including the forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict; (b) the use or procurement of child for purposes of prostitution, the production of pornography or the carrying out of pornographic performances; (c) the use, procurement, or offering of a child for illicit activities – in particular, for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in the pertinent international treaties; and (d) work carried out by children which, per se, or due to the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm their health or pose a threat to their safety or moral integrity. Categories (b) and (c) pertain to types of participation of children and youths in productive activities that must be eradicated because they are deemed to constitute child labor, defined by Rea (2008: 7) as “work done by children under the age of 18 that is considered to be damaging to their physical, emotional, intellectual, social and spiritual development.”

Child Labour Worldwide Despite efforts to eradicate it, in 2016 there were still 151.6 million child workers, of which 72.5 million were involved in hazardous activities.

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In round numbers, one in ten children is involved in activities that are considered to constitute child labor and one in 20 carries out hazardous work. Although the participation of children in child labor is most widespread in Africa, children all over the world are affected by this problem. The majority (58%) of children involved in child labor are boys. The majority of these (70.9%) work in agriculture, followed by services (17.2%) and industry (11.9%). Almost half of all the children involved in child labor (48%) are between 5 and 11 years of age, 28% are between 12 and 14 years of age, and the remaining 24% are between 15 and 17 years of age (ILO 2017: 5). Although children can do different types of work, and while these activities do not always have negative effects on them, there is a growing worldwide consensus on the need to eradicate child labor. The international community has declared that the persistence of child labour in today’s world is unacceptable and, in the Sustainable Development Goals, has renewed its commitment to eliminating all forms of child labour by 2025. (ILO 2017a: 5)

Relationship of Child Labor with the Goals of the 2030 Agenda There have been advances in efforts to reduce child labor, but these have been insufficient. If the current trend continues, it will be very difficult to achieve the goal of eradicating child labor by 2025. While the number of children in child labour has declined by 94 million since 2000, the rate of reduction slowed by two-thirds in the most recent fouryear period. (ILO 2018: 2)

According to an ILO projection, based on the pace of progress achieved during 2012 to 2016, “maintaining the current rate of progress would leave 121 million children still engaged in child labour in 2025.” This leads the organization to conclude that “We must move much faster if we are to honour our commitment to ending child labour in all its forms by 2025.”

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The main factors that contribute to child labor are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Limited legal protections Poverty and social vulnerability Exposure to individual and collective shocks Poor quality schooling, limited school access Limited decent work opportunities, difficult transitions to work 6. Absence or weak realization of freedom of association and of the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, and of other forms of social dialogue (ILO 2018: 5) Child labor is a complex social problem caused, simultaneously, by several factors, therefore, a consensus has emerged to address child labor through an integrated and rights-based approach. This emerging policy consensus reflects a recognition that child labour cannot be eradicated in isolation, with a narrow sectoral or product focus, or through limited project interventions. Rather, accumulated evidence and experience underscores the importance of a wider focus on systemic change and the eradication of root causes, through the integration of child labour concerns into coherent, integrated economic and social development policies. (ILO 2018: 15)

For the eradication of child labor, it is necessary to adopt measures in four main political areas: education, social protection, labor markets, and legal norms and regulation. These measures, in turn, are related to four goals of the 2030 agenda (Goals 1, 4, 8, and 16). The following explains why eradicating child labor is a measure that would contribute, fundamentally, to achieving these goals and, in turn, why achieving those goals contributes to the elimination of child labor.

Goal 1. Elimination of Poverty Child labor prevents children from poor households from attending school, children who do not receive education will be illiterate or very low educated adults, who will only have access to low-paying jobs. Thus, child labor is one of the

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main factors that cause the intergenerational reproduction of poverty. Therefore, it is essential that child labor be eliminated in order to achieve objective 1 that provides for the eradication of poverty. However, if child labor is eradicated, but children do not have access to quality education, the problem of poverty will continue to exist, hence the elimination of child labor is a necessary but not sufficient condition to eliminate poverty.

Goal 8. Promote Decent and Productive Employment As can be seen in Table 1, many children who work tend to do so in precarious conditions, in what is called “hazardous work” that includes working children who are exposed to risk situations, work long hours, and receive lower wages than adult workers. In many cases, children who work do so Schooling for Working Children, Table 1 Children aged 5–17 in employment, child labor and hazardous work, 2016 Of which Children Children in in child employment labor

Region Number (million children aged 5–17 years) Africa 99.417 Americas 17.725 Asia and the 90.236 Pacific Europe and 8.773 Central Asia Arab States 1.868 World 218.019 Prevalence (% children aged 5–17 years) Africa 27.1 Americas 8.8 Asia and the 10.7 Pacific Europe and 6.5 Central Asia Arab States 4.6 World 13.8 Source: ILO (2017)

Of which Children in hazardous work

72.113 10.735 62.077

31.538 6.553 28.469

5.534

5.349

1.162 151.622

0.616 72.525

19.6 5.3 7.4

8.6 3.2 3.4

4.1

4.0

2.9 9.6

1.5 4.6

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in conditions of exploitation that affect their intellectual or emotional development or that affect their health and that, in extreme cases, constitute forced labor situations, human trafficking, or modern slavery modalities. It is obvious that the goal of all people having decent employment cannot be achieved if a part of the population suffers from what is known as the worst forms of child labor.

Goal 16. Promote a Fair and Inclusive Society Child labor may be associated with situations of exploitation, violence, torture, and various forms of social exclusion, therefore, it is not possible to achieve a just society, while millions of children continue to suffer from the worst forms of child labor. In summary, child labor, especially what is considered as “hazardous work,” prevents reaching the three goals mentioned so far, so its eradication constitutes a strategic objective of great importance to achieve the goals of sustainable development of 2030. In addition to the aforementioned goals, child labor affects, in a special way, the possibility of reaching goal 4, so that all people have access to quality and equitable education. Due to the great importance that the elimination of child labor has to reach that goal, we analyze it separately in the following section.

Goal 4. Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education Participation in child labor affects children’s ability to study in several ways. Those engaged in light work are not impeded from attending school because, rather than preventing them from studying, such work can actually encourage them to do so, as happens with young people who participate in job-training programs. Notwithstanding the above, child labor and hazardous work are associated with educational marginalization: The estimates indicate that a very large number of children in child labour are completely deprived of

737 education– for the 5–14 years age group, there are 36 million children in child labour who are out of school, 32 per cent of all those in child labour in this age range. While the remaining 68 per cent are able to attend school, a growing body of research suggests that these children too are penalized educationally for their involvement in child labour. (ILO 2017)

An analysis of the available data from national household-based child-labor surveys, conducted between 1998 and 2006, with the assistance of the Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC), in 34 countries in all the world’s major regions, shows that: There is a strong effect of child labour on school attendance rates. Cross-country data reveal that with increasing levels of economic activity of children, school attendance rates decline. There is often a significant “school attendance gap” between working and non-working children. Many child labourers are constrained in their school attendance by long hours of work or difficult working conditions. Others do not attend at all. In some countries school attendance rates of working children are only about half of those of non-working children. (Blanco Allais and Hagemann 2008: V)

Another finding of the said research was that high child-labor levels are usually associated with low literacy rates, which is why child labor leads to reduced human-capital formation. The same study concluded that the length of a child’s working day negatively correlates with his/her ability to attend school (i.e., the longer the child’s working day, the lower his/her attendance rate) that the educational performance of children who both work and go to school tends to be worse, and that children involved in child labor are more likely to drop out of school before completing the primary cycle school. These findings agree with what was found in other investigations on the subject (Guarcello et al. 2006). Even when children and youths only work part-time and can devote another part of their day to attending school, the work they do is often exhausting, so that, in their classes, they are tired and cannot pay attention and learn in the same way as children who do not work. Time invested in working activities reduces time available for studying or doing homework assignments and, of course, rest and leisure activities.

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Likewise, “While the group of working students has been subject of relatively little research, it stands to reason that children who are exhausted by the demands of work, or whose work schedule leaves them little time for homework, are less likely to derive educational benefit from their classroom time than their non-working counterparts” (Guarcello et al. 2006: 10). The achievement levels, failure levels, and dropout rates of working children who attend school are lower than those of children who do not work: A significant correlation is found between the levels of economic activity and primary school repetition rates. This suggests that the combination of school and work could potentially affect children’s ability to successfully comply with the requirements and workload of each grade. (Blanco Allais and Hagemann 2008: 12)

Research into the relationship between child labor and education has made considerable progress, but there are issues that still need to be studied in greater depth, a particularly important one being the effects of educational quality on school attendance and child labor. UNESCO 2014 shows how elementary-education coverage was expanded in many low-income countries without meeting minimum quality conditions, so that millions of primary school children had not acquired even the most basic literacy and numeracy skills: Estimates in this Report suggest that of the world’s 650 million primary school age children, at least 250 million are not learning the basics in reading and mathematics. Of these, almost 120 million have little or no experience of primary school, having not even reached grade 4. The remaining 130 million stay in primary school for at least four years but do not achieve the minimum benchmarks for learning. (UNESCO 2014: 191)

When attendance at school does not enable children to acquire knowledge and develop the skills that are essential for adult life, the said children and their families rightly consider that schooling is a waste of time and participation in child labor is a better alternative:

Schooling for Working Children Schooling problems also contribute to child labour, whether it be the inaccessibility of schools or the lack of quality education which spurs parents to enter their children in more profitable pursuits. (Siddiqi and Patrinos 1995)

However, the currently available evidence on the relationship between educational quality and child labor is limited: “Several qualifications and further research and analysis are necessary before we can go beyond the general statement that school quality matters for child labour” (Guarcello et al. 2006: 22).

Breaking Out of the Poverty Cycle Due to the negative effects of child labor, governments, international organizations, and other actors committed to childhood development, promote its elimination throughout the world. However, since the fact that children cease to engage in productive activities does not guarantee their access to, and continuance in, the school system, efforts to eradicate child labor should be accompanied by efforts to provide more educational opportunities to the children who were previously engaged in it. According to ILO (2018: 6), schooling and child labor are inextricably linked. That organization takes up the affirmation of the Nobel Peace Laureate Kailash Satyarthi, in the sense that we cannot end child labor until all the children are in school, and we will not achieve that each child is in school until we eradicate the child labor. There is broad consensus that the single most effective way to stem the flow of school-aged children into child labour is to improve access to and quality of schooling. (ILO 2018: 6)

We must reach a situation in which families from all over the world have the opportunity to invest in their children’s education and the benefits of such investment are greater than those associated with involving children in work. Universal quality education promotes all children’s rights and helps break intergenerational cycles of poverty and reliance on child labour. (ILO 2018: 6)

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The problems of poverty, child labor, and educational backwardness are closely interrelated and form part of the so-called poverty cycle, a social mechanism whereby poverty is transmitted from generation to generation. Adult breadwinners in poor families are paid very low wages, thus obliging the affected households to obtain economic resources in other ways, including child labor. Though poverty is one of the causes of child labor, diminishing poverty by means of child labor only helps to perpetuate it, since such labor prevents children from attending school and, even when they do attend, affects their performance, leading to educational failure and dropout. Working children tend to have low educational levels and, when they grow up, become adults who can only do unskilled work, thus having low incomes and creating poor families whose children resort to child labor, thus repeating the same cycle. This vicious circle of poverty reproduction been repeating itself for generations, mainly in low-income countries. The idea that poverty leads to child labor and impedes attendance at school is not universally accepted. Rea and the Concern Organization (2008) assert that it is a myth and argue that, to the contrary, child labour causes poverty by keeping children in low-paid work and denying them access to the education that would enable them to break out of the poverty cycle. They hold that the link between child labor and poverty is not an inevitable one, arguing that child labor is not a product of poverty alone, and that poverty does not automatically lead to child labor: Rather than merely blaming poverty as the cause of child labour, we must recognise the role governments, social systems, culture and tradition play in allowing children to work. (Rea 2008: 12)

However, in households experiencing extreme poverty, children’s earnings are an important part of family income (Siddiqi and Patrinos 1995), so that it is not feasible to prohibit child labor unless the affected families are compensated for the income they lose when their children stop working, which can only be achieved via antipoverty programs with enough funding to support poor

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households throughout the period in their children are in compulsory education. To break out of the poverty cycle, we must ensure that children receive full-time high-quality education up to the age of 15, thus being able to enter the workforce as young adults equipped with skills that will enable them to be well remunerated and, in turn, form families that can afford to send their children to school (Rea 2008).

Conclusions People born into families suffering from extreme poverty are caught in a poverty trap from which they cannot escape if they do not effectively break out of the poverty-reproducing cycle. Therefore, the aims of eliminating poverty, eliminating child labor, and affording access to high-quality education can only be achieved if they are pursued simultaneously. Child labor cannot be eradicated if high levels of poverty persist, access to education cannot be afforded without eliminating child labor, and poverty cannot be reduced without increasing access to high-quality education. The elimination of the worst forms of child labor would be a strategic action that would impact, simultaneously, on at least four of the sustainable development goals proposed for 2030: Goal 1 to eliminate poverty, goal 4 for everyone to have access to quality education, goal 8 for the entire population to access decent and productive employment, and goal 16 to live in a fair and inclusive society. Particularly important, the eradication of child labor would have a dramatic effect on the possibilities of promoting quality education for all, which in turn would allow the construction of a fairer and more prosperous society. Finally, it is important to quote, again, the words of Nobel Peace Laureate, Kailash Satyarthi, “The only way to permanently eliminate child labour and break the cycle of poverty is for every child to receive a quality education. An education cannot be considered a quality education unless it emphasizes children’s rights and empowerment” (Satyarthi 2018).

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Cross-References ▶ Challenges to Achieve Quality Education for All in the 2030 Agenda, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and Learning Theories ▶ Compulsory Education and its Role in Sustainable Development ▶ Early Childhood Education for Sustainability ▶ Education for Sustainable Development through Extra-curricular or Non-curricular Contexts ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Informal Workplace Learning ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Minimum Level of Learning for Life: In Digitally Advancing Space and Pace ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being ▶ Primary Education: Role in Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 ▶ Proficiency for Assessment in Quality Education: Internalization of Values of Sustainability ▶ Public Expenditure on Education ▶ Secondary Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education ▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

References Blanco Allais F , Hagemann F (2008) Child labour and education: evidence from SIMPOC surveys. International Labour Office (ILO). International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC), Geneva Donger E (2016) The sale of children for labor exploitation: summary of existing data and areas of priority and

Schooling for Working Children good practice. Recuperado de FXB Center for Health and Human Rights, Harvard University website. https://cdn2.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/ 114/2017/12/The-Sale-of-Children-for-Labor-Exploita tion.pdf Edmonds E (2008) Defining child labour: a review of the definitions of child labour in policy research. International Labour Office. Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, Geneva Guarcello L, Lyon S, Rosati FC (2006) Child labour and education for all: an issue paper. SSRN Electron J. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1780257 ILO (2017) Global estimates of child labour: results and trends, 2012–2016. International Labour Office (ILO), Geneva ILO (2017a) Ending child labour by 2025: a review of policies and programmes. Executive summary. International Labour Organization, Geneva ILO (2018) Ending child labour by 2025: a review of policies and programmes, 2nd edn. https://www. ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-ed_norm/% 2D%2D-ipec/documents/publication/wcms_653987. pdf ILO (2019) Relevant SDG targets related to child labour. https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/dw4sd/themes/childlabour/WCMS_559713/lang%2D%2Den/index.htm. Accessed 13 Aug 2019 IPEC (2018) What is child labour. In: International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang%2D%2Den/index. htm. Accessed 6 Oct 2018 Liebel M, Plesnicar L (2017) Las infancias en el orden global desigual. Diálogo con Manfred Liebel. Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales Niñez y Juventud 15:1332–1336 Rea J (2008) Child labour. Concern Worldwide, Dublin Satyarthi (2018) Our mission. In: The Kailash Satyarthi Children’s Foundation. http://www.satyarthi.org/. Accessed 2 Nov 2018 Scott E, Duell N, Steinberg L (2018) Brain development, social context and justice policy. Wash Univ J Law Policy, Forthcoming (Columbia Public Law research paper no. 14–578). https://ssrn.com/abstract=3118366. Accessed 10 Oct 2019 Siddiqi F, Patrinos H (1995) Child labour: issues, causes and interventions. Education and social policy department, human resources development and operations policy, the. World Bank, Washington, DC Steinberg L (2010) Commentary: a behavioral scientist looks at the science of adolescent brain development. Brain Cogn 72(1):160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. bandc.2009.11.003 UN (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations General Assembly, New York UNESCO (2014) Teaching and learning: achieving quality for all. Education for all global monitoring report. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris UNICEF (2018) El trabajo infantil. https://www.unicef.es/ noticia/el-trabajo-infantil. Accessed 21 Oct 2018

Scope of Education for Sustainable Development

Scope of Education for Sustainable Development Chhabi Kumar Department of Sociology and Social Work, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India

Definition According to UNESCO (2019) Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has been defined as the imparting of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that would enable an individual to work towards building a sustainable future. It entails including relevant issues pertaining to the concept of sustainable development in the education curriculum. These include environmental conservation, climate change education, biodiversity conservation, poverty reduction, gender equity, climate change and its impact, sustainable consumption, among others. ESD involves motivating and empowering learners through participatory teaching and learning methods in order to enable them to bring about behavioral changes that would support and promote actions for sustainable development (UNESCO 2017). ESD aims to enhance the attitudes and skills related to critical and systemic thinking which promotes collective and participatory decision-making towards building a better future. Of late, several measures have been taken at the institutional level to promote the building of infrastructure and facilities and creating an overall environment which are in consonance with the ideologies and practices of sustainable development. ESD is seen as a prerequisite to attain Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) that aims to provide quality and continuous learning opportunities to the communities globally and in the process work towards their empowerment especially those who belong to the underprivileged sections of the society.

Introduction The term ESD owes its origin to the concept of Sustainable Development. The term Sustainable

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Development was given for the first time by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, popularly known as the Brundtland Commission in 1987 in its report “Our Common Future.” The report promoted the ideas that the well-being of the environment as well as of the people across the countries is interdependent and interlinked. It also gave the concept of Sustainable Development as a process which can be possible only through cooperation on a global scale (Brundtland report 1987). The process involves decision-making in the present context in a way that considers the likely impact on environment, society, and economy while considering the consequences on the future (Adams 2006). The report came up with a critical conclusion that unless the ongoing process of growth is controlled, sustainability is not possible. This is because the available perishable natural resources would disappear in due course due to indiscriminate use. The report is considered a critical document that helped the world community to realize that the phenomenon of unplanned and uncontrolled growth would have serious consequences on the environment. Subsequently, there grew a realization that the so-called development process ongoing globally would degrade the environment in due course if proper action was not taken by the world community. Thus, there grew a serious concern among the national governments across nations that some immediate steps would have to be taken in order to resolve the crisis faced by the global economy and the environment. There is a general agreement in the world community today that the process of development needs to come up with sustainable options and solutions for the future generations (Strange and Bayley 2008). The realization of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Agenda 2030 as the contextual paradigm in the development process would ensure a sustainable future for the communities globally. The New Agenda calls for affirmative action on various aspects of development issues including poverty and hunger elimination, improving health scenario, providing lifelong learning opportunities for all, conservation of environment and various life-forms, elimination of all forms of

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disparities and inequalities, gender equity, promoting responsible and sustainable consumption patterns, building resilience and adapting to the climate change phenomenon, promoting peace and justice, and fostering cooperation for development through partnerships between various stakeholders among others. Education perhaps is the most important factor that can contribute to the realization of all the 17 goals as mandated by the global community. In the present context, the countries world over are faced with several challenges like cultural and religious intolerance, terrorism and conflict, environmental degradation and resulting climate change, uncontrolled patterns of economic production, consumption and inequitable distribution, the challenges of implementation and protection of human rights framework, conflict situation, among others. In such conditions, education would have to find suitable ways to respond to such challenges and at the same time continue to contribute to the sustainable development goals. This would entail taking into account multiple and alternative knowledge systems and in the process rethink the purpose and goal of education and learning. This is where the concept of ESD comes to the fore.

ESD: A Brief History The important role of education for sustainable development was first suggested by the Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which came up with the document “Agenda 21.” The concept was further developed by the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio+20, in 2012 in its document “Future We Want.” UNESCO launched the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD) in 2005 which reaffirmed the critical role of education in bringing about sustainable development. The UNDESD came up with the final report on “Shaping the Future We Want” at the UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development at Nagoya, Japan, in 2014. The Global Action Programme (GAP) on ESD was launched

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by the United Nations as a follow-up program on the UN Decade of ESD (2005–2014) (SDG Knowledge Platform website 2019). “ESD is placed at the centre of the 2030 Agenda and has been widely acknowledged as a key enabler of all 17 SDGs” (Mohanty and Dash 2018). “Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacities of people to address the environment and development issues” (Rio Declaration 1992). ESD has a critical role to play in achieving environmental, sociocultural, and ethical awareness about the importance of sustainability and in the process create such values, skills, attitudes, and behavior which are consistent with sustainable development process (UNESCO 2017). ESD is meant to encourage people to understand the complexities of various issues which threaten SDGs and their realization (UNESCO Website). It is a learner-centric concept which seeks to engage people in making informed and collaborative decisions and in the process carry out actions for realizing the sustainability goals. The role and scope of education for sustainable development goes beyond the boundaries of any formal educational institution, but encompasses everyday life experiences and habits of people and communities including the nonformal and informal modes of education (UNDESD Final Report 2014). According to Dannenberg and Grapentin (2016), ESD signifies the onset of a new culture of education and suggests a new direction to the process of teaching and learning. ESD implies inculcating the core issues and concerns of sustainable development into the process of education and learning. It also supports the acquisition of competencies that would enable the learners to live and act in a sustainable manner. Dannenberg and Grapentin (2016) view ESD as an integrative process which takes in its ambit every aspect including ecological, social, cultural, and economic. At the same time, it takes cognizance of the local, regional, national, and international structures and processes. The competencies, thus, acquired through ESD are not just cognitive but emotional, social, and motivational at the same time. Sustainable habits and lifestyles are keys to sustainable development process, and ESD is

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responsible to create such conditions and sensitize the people to follow suit (McKeown 2005). The idea is to encourage countries to integrate ESD into all forms of their education systems and at all levels from primary to higher education, including vocational and adult learning. However, it must be said at the outset that there is no universal model of education for sustainable development. The differences in the model would arise based on the local contexts, priorities, problems, and approaches. Each country has to define its own priorities and actions depending on the local conditions and problems they face. The Tbilisi Conference (1977) stated that ESD must be a continuous process which begins at the preschool level and continues through all stages and levels of education. The Conference also mandated that ESD must be interdisciplinary in its approach and content. It may highlight such developmental issues which may be of local, national, regional, and international concerns. It must be able to build cooperation and partnerships for finding possible solutions to ongoing problems. ESD must give opportunities to learners to have a proactive role in planning their own learning experiences, develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills based on practical and field-based experiences.

Characteristics of ESD The inherent characteristics of ESD include giving impetus to both the learning process and the outcomes of the education process (Nevin 2008). The “UN Decade of Sustainable Development,” UNESCO, Nairobi Cluster, 2006, lays down the following characteristics of ESD (Nevin 2008). ESD must be embedded in the curriculum itself and must be interdisciplinary and holistic in nature. It must be able to assist in identifying and assessing the risks and uncertainties related to the unsustainable process of development. It must be able to train the learners to bring about anticipation in their thinking process and the willingness to act according to the need of the situation. ESD must share the values, approach, and principles inherent in the context of sustainable

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development (UNESCO 2017). ESD must be able to promote critical thinking, develop a problemsolving approach and an action-based approach in order to address the challenges to sustainable development. ESD must allow teachers, learners, and other stakeholders to participate in decision-making related to the design, content, and evaluation of various educational programs. ESD must also be able to address the local, national, and global issues related to sustainable development by using simple language and terminology. ESD must be able to ensure that the design and content of education has a long-term perspective on issues and problems related to sustainable development. It must be able to train the learners to motivate others to act in a sustainable way and make choices that are in harmony with the principles and values of sustainable development (UNESCO 2018). United Nations Decade for Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD 2014) describes four major thrust areas of ESD. The first area involves improvising the access to and retention of learners in quality basic education. This has been adopted as the Universalization of Primary Education by several nations across the globe with the view to provide basic education and improve literacy rates. The second thrust area includes reorienting and redesigning the existing educational programs in order to include sustainability issues. The third area includes enhancing the understanding and awareness levels individuals and communities about the issues and concerns of sustainability. Finally, the fourth thrust area of ESD includes providing context-based training to promote sustainability across all sectors. ESD not only involves changes in the curriculum structure and teaching models but also involves changes in the structural and infrastructural aspect of institutions imparting education at every level. In order to support the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio+20, the Higher Education Sustainability Initiative (HESI) was created. This organization was the result of a partnership between several UN entities including UNESCO, UN-DESA, UNEP, Global Compact, and UNU,

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among others. The aim of the initiative was to gather support and commitments from higher education institutions to teach and encourage research on sustainable development. They are also required to create more sustainable and ecofriendly green campuses and support local sustainability efforts. Today, the membership of HESI has gone up to almost 300 universities worldwide which provide the opportunity to various higher education institutions to link policy making and academics and contribute to the process of sustainable development. According to UNESCO (UNESCO 2018), ESD can contribute to the realization of SDGs by making education more relevant and context specific and in the process makes the learners more adapt to face the present day challenges. Further, ESD helps to bring about educational transformation by using innovative and learnercentered approaches to teaching and learning. It helps in empowering students by making them more aware and enhancing their capacities to address challenges faced by them. It also helps to promote alternative learning methodologies to make the whole process of learning more inclusive and reach beyond the boundaries of educational institutions. ESD promotes equity and respect by developing a cross-cultural and intergenerational understanding among the learners to respect and accept the mutual differences. It helps to address the phenomenon of climate change by preparing the learners to adapt to the impact of climate change and make them understand the necessary actions to be taken in changing our lifestyles and consumption patterns in order to address its causes.

Scope of ESD for Sustainable Development SDG 4 is the development goal which can have substantial impact on the achievement of other goals and targets (Vladimirova and Le Blanc 2015). Education can play a key role in achieving the desired goals by way of spreading awareness, creating capacities, and building partnerships for change. A study carried out across 18 countries

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shows that ESD contributes in several ways to promote quality education in primary and secondary schools. The process of teaching and learning transforms and improves in all contexts when the curriculum includes sustainability content (Laurie et al. 2016). The study also shows that ESD pedagogies promote the learning of new skills, perspectives, and values required to create sustainable societies. Enhancing Public Awareness and Understanding of Sustainability ESD would have a major role to play in the area of poverty reduction and employment generation. The cycle of poverty can be broken only when people are capacitated and given an opportunity of sustainable livelihood. This is particularly relevant for the developing countries where livelihood opportunities are either scarce or unsustainable. Problems of unemployment, particularly, seasonal unemployment and underemployment, impacts a large number of populations in these countries. The current context of lifelong learning and skill development can prove beneficial for the communities to adjust to the changing scenario in labor demand and employment and at the same time benefit from the technological advances in other fields. This is true for all the sectors of the global economy (Power and Maclean 2011). Apart from playing the role of a facilitator for taking persons out of poverty trap, ESD can also create awareness about the factors leading to poverty and help the communities, policy makers, agencies, and other stakeholders to take appropriate steps to combat poverty. ESD would not only encourage research but also make optimal use of the shared knowledge, skills, and ideas to improve productivity and technology ensuring that development is sustainable and its fruits are distributed equitably. ESD can facilitate the creation of suitable policy frameworks at every level largely based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies so as to promote poverty eradication measures (UN Website). Poverty alleviation would in the process ensure that the communities are freed of hunger and malnourishment caused due to resource

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deprivation. ESD would help individuals, families, and communities by providing context-based learning and skill development so that they may be able to enhance their employability and find avenues of livelihood locally. ESD can also substantially help to reduce cases of malnutrition caused due to ignorance and lack of awareness related to nutrition and balanced diet. Water scarcity, poor water quality, and inadequate sanitation have a serious repercussion on the food security, livelihood, health, and educational opportunities for resource-deprived families across the world. At present, more than two billion people are living with the risk of reduced access to freshwater resources and by 2050, this number is likely to increase. ESD can create awareness among communities on the importance of maintaining cleanliness both personally and in the surroundings. It may also highlight the factors causing environmental pollution and degradation, its impact and implications for future development. The ESD may also promote research and development for coming up with more sustainable use of resources and technology for safeguarding the environment. ESD can have a positive role in spreading awareness on the importance of sanitation and ending open defecation. This would in turn have a positive impact on the health of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations. ESD can help in promoting policy intervention to improve water quality by reducing pollution by eliminating dumping of hazardous chemicals and other waste materials into rivers and oceans. It can also help to spread awareness on the importance of reducing the proportion of untreated wastewater and promoting recycling of waste globally. ESD can play a prominent role in increasing water-use efficiency through water resource management and ensuring sustainable supply of freshwater to address water scarcity. ESD can help improve the health of populations particularly in the developing countries by spreading awareness on issues pertaining to health and sanitation. Knowledge about factors causing health-related problems can substantially help in preventing several diseases and healthrelated conditions. This may include knowledge

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of worldwide epidemic like AIDS, lifestyle illnesses like diabetes, heart problems, several vector-borne diseases and diseases caused due to pollution, and absence of proper sanitation facilities, unhygienic environment, among others. This would be particularly helpful for capacitating communities to overcome high rates of morbidity and mortality. This has specific implications for deprived segments of populations like women and children who are often denied basic health facilities and are more likely to be affected by the deteriorating health environment. Spreading information and awareness on various aspects of reproductive and child health like institutional delivery, various aspects of pregnancy, importance of nutrition, pre- and postnatal care, importance of immunization, among others can aid in substantially decreasing the maternal and infant mortality rates especially in the developing countries (UN Website). ESD can help to sensitize people on various aspects on psychosocial well-being and mental illnesses including depression which affects a large number of individuals globally. Training and Skills Development for the World of Work According to an estimate, about half the world’s population still lives on the equivalent of about US$2 a day with global unemployment rates of 5.7% (UN Website). Lack of decent work opportunities, insufficient investments, and underconsumption are the major hurdles to sustainable economic growth. Decrease in labor productivity and increase in unemployment rates gradually lead to a decline in the standards of living due to lower wages. Sustainable economic growth requires conditions that allow people to have quality jobs that are in harmony with the environment. ESD is critical for providing lifelong learning opportunities and skill development to individuals and communities so that they may be able to find opportunities of employment and sustainable livelihood. This would promote economic growth and create newer opportunities for people to become self reliant and economically empowered. ESD can also assist in creating awareness and

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providing information to individuals and communities about access to financial services to manage income, accumulate assets, and make productive investments. It can create a positive and conducive environment for policy intervention by the national governments through increased commitments to trade, banking, and agriculture infrastructure to help increase productivity and reduce unemployment levels. Technological innovation and infrastructure development are the key factors and drivers for economic growth and development. Investing in infrastructure development, irrigation, transport, communication and information technology, sustainable industries, and scientific innovation and technological advancement would be crucial for sustainable development. ESD can promote scientific research and technological innovation and play a major role in facilitating creation of quality, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure and a favorable policy environment for promoting research and innovation in technology and access to information technology worldwide. ESD can also help to promote research and development on issues related to agriculture for enhancing productivity and ensuring supply to communities. This would be particularly relevant in wake of the challenges created by climate change. ESD can offer ways of creating resilient and sustainable agriculture and food production, consumption, and distribution. The research and development activities taken under the auspices of ESD would go a long way in achieving the set target of enhancing the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale farmers, targeting the deprived sections, particularly, women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists, among others. ESD can facilitate a suitable policy environment and create opportunities to the primary sector by promoting knowledge and technology transfer to the deprived sections, awareness about financial services, markets, and opportunities for value addition and nonfarm employment, among others. ESD can help to implement resilient agricultural practices which apart from enhancing productivity and production help maintain ecosystems and strengthen capacity for adaptation

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to climate change, extreme weather, drought, floods, and other disasters. Adopting the principle of ESD in areas of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences can assist in maintaining the genetic diversity of plants and food crops, domesticated animals and their related wild species, and improve their quality and productivity at the same time (UN Website). ESD can help create conditions for greater recognition and value to unpaid care and domestic work carried out by women and promoting policy intervention for their empowerment through the provision of public services, infrastructure, access to technology, and social protection policies. ESD would also have a greater role to play in promoting social and economic reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources and ownership and control over property and natural resources. Promotion and Improvement of Basic Education ESD imply a context-based lifelong learning experience to individuals and communities that would in turn capacitate them to understand their environment and problems and at the same time take meaningful actions to find solutions. Providing equitable opportunities to individuals for quality education and skill development would not only assist in finding livelihood opportunities but at the same time help in understanding issues having short-term and long-term implications for sustainable development, both locally and globally. Education can create individuals who are more aware, responsible, and have the potential to bring about meaningful and required change in the society. The principle of lifelong learning implies that individuals can acquire and update the latest knowledge and skills that are required in their day-to-day lives. The process facilitates the personal development of learners and at the same time enhances their employability, social mobility, and capacity to participate in activities to improve the quality of life in the community (Power and Maclean 2011). Apart from being a fundamental human right, gender equality is a fundamental necessity for a

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peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world (UN Website). It is imperative that women and girls are provided with equal access to education, health care, decent work, and representation in political and economic decision-making processes in order to ensure sustainable economies. ESD can play a prominent role in not only reducing the discrimination based on gender but at the same time creating attitudinal and psychological change in the manner the society perceives various gender roles. The idea is not only to capacitate and duties and empower girls and women but also to bring about substantial change in the societal perceptions of their rights and responsibilities. ESD can play a major role in creating a conducive environment for implementing new legal frameworks regarding female equality and the eradication of harmful practices targeted at women. Reorienting Existing Education at All Levels to Address Sustainable Development ESD is critical for improving the quality of life and developing creativity and innovation among the people for ensuring their participation to the development process. ESD is based on a crossdisciplinary approach in thinking and practice which serves to bring about ideas from different fields together (Cerneviciute and Petkute 2013). Thus, ESD represents the new paradigm of education which emphasizes on the importance of developing innovative, critical, and creative thinking of learners on issues related to sustainable development (Cerneviciute and Petkute 2013). Adopting the concept of ESD and its components like Environment Education (EE) and Climate Change Education (CCE) in environmental sciences and other related disciplines would help to protect and restore water-related ecosystems. This can also support water- and sanitation-related activities and programs including water harvesting and watershed development, desalination, and wastewater treatment, among others. Finally, ESD can help to support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management. In this way, ESD can play an important role in solving the dayto-day practices and making them more

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conducive to the needs of responsible and sustainable development. This integration of practice and theory can be seen in a variety of sectors to make them more efficient and responsive to the current scenario. Energy is required for every aspect of life and interlinks with every other sustainable development goal. Focusing on universal and equitable access to energy, increased energy efficiency, and use of renewable energy resources is crucial to creating more sustainable and inclusive communities and resilience to environmental issues like climate change, pollution, and environmental degradation. Sustainable development can be achieved when there is universal access to clean fuel and technology. The current use of energy resources particularly the nonrenewable resources not only are the major cause of environmental pollution but at the same time are on the verge of depletion. ESD can play a major role in spreading awareness on the importance of using clean and green and nonperishable energy resources like thermal, solar, wind, geothermal, among others. ESD can also play a major role in sensitizing the individuals, communities, and the national governments to promote conservation of traditional sources of energy and popularize and incentivize through various policies and regulations, the use of nonperishable resources in order to effectively bring about a shift to a more sustainable energy options. ESD would have a crucial role in creating a policy environment for integrating renewable energy into end-use applications in buildings, transport, and industry. ESD has an important role in creating awareness and sensitivity towards issues related to environmental protection and conservation (McKeown 2005). It can help create awareness on the importance of public and private investments in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology and the need to bring about regulatory frameworks to facilitate the use of clean and renewable energy and related research and cleaner technology, among others. Development can be sustainable only when it is inclusive and its fruits are shared equitably. Despite great strides in the development process worldwide, inequality persists and large

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disparities remain regarding access to health and education services and other assets within and across nations. ESD can have a critical role in reducing inequalities based on gender, race, religion or economic conditions. Promoting equitable opportunities for individuals and communities on social, economic, political, and cultural aspects, spreading awareness on the widespread diversities present in the society and bringing about attitudinal changes for greater tolerance are some of the critical tasks that ESD can accomplish. ESD can promote the social, economic, and political inclusion irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, religion, or economic status, etc. by creating opinion for eliminating discriminatory laws, policies, and practices and promoting just and equitable legislation and its implementation at the same time (UN Website). The percentage of population living in the cities is growing rapidly, and it is estimated that the number of people living within cities are projected to rise to five billion people by 2030. It is imperative that efficient urban planning and management practices are put in place to deal with the challenges brought by rapid urbanization. Integrating aspects of ESD in various fields like City and Town planning, Architecture, Engineering, etc. can have a positive impact for planning to face the challenges of rapid urbanization. There are several challenges that exist in maintaining cities with prosperity without straining land and available resources. These urban challenges include congestion, lack of funds to provide basic services, a shortage of adequate housing, declining infrastructure, and rising air and water pollution within cities (UN 2018). There are still other challenges such as the safe disposal and management of solid waste and provision of sanitation facilities while improving resource use and reducing pollution and poverty and at the same time provide opportunities for all, with access to basic services, energy, housing, transportation, among others. This calls for a greater action on the part of the national governments to create infrastructure and spaces that would be more sustainable, environment friendly, and resilient. ESD can foster such environment and policy decisions that may be favorable to promote such sustainable urban growth.

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Growing inequalities in the world have significant impact on the production and consumption patterns of the society. This is due to the fact that the income levels of some sections experience significant increase which results in enhanced production of certain goods used by such prospering sections. This imbalance in the production process creates problems as the production of such luxury goods often requires more resources on an average. This may in turn effect the production of other goods to be utilized by the economically deprived sections, making their livelihoods unsustainable. This creates challenges for the process of sustainable development. Sustainable consumption and production involves promoting resource and energy efficiency, sustainable infrastructure, and access to basic services, sustainable livelihood opportunities, and a better quality of life for all. Its implementation helps to achieve overall development, reduce future economic, environmental, and social costs, strengthen economic competitiveness, and reduce poverty. Sustainable development can be achieved only when the current trend of unsustainable, inequitable, and extravagant consumption patterns are replaced by a more sustainable, equitable, and responsible consumption pattern. Perhaps the most important aspect is to educate and empower the present and future generations and make them realize about the importance of making more sustainable choices and following practices that would promote environmental conservation. ESD can help raise awareness on sustainable consumption of resources ensuring their most optimum utilization. This would include educating consumers on sustainable consumption and lifestyles, providing information and engaging in sustainable public procurement, among others. ESD can sensitize the consumers on reducing waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse of goods. Needless to say, it is imperative to integrate the characteristics of ESD with the current system of education globally in order to bring about a positive change in the current situation and make the development process sustainable at every level.

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Climate change is affecting every country in the world and its related shocks like extreme weather conditions, frequent natural disasters, global warming, rising sea levels, among others pose serious threat to the sustainability process and is likely to hinder the current pace of development. Under such conditions, it is imperative to consider initiating a response for building resilience to climate change and its aftermaths and at the same time adapting to the changed scenario. ESD can have a crucial role to play in imparting climate change education to individuals and communities and helping them come up with measures to combat climate change and at the same time create sustainable and resilient communities and economies. This would be done by promoting the use of green and sustainable technology, energy resources, and efficient transportation facilities, etc. with a view to cut down carbon emissions and combat climate change. It is possible only when the countries consider the options of creating the link between research and development and innovation in technical knowhow. The national governments may shift their focus in investing in low-carbon infrastructures and technologies and promote policies that would enable energy efficiency, strengthen government institutions, and provide incentives for enabling sustainable development. ESD would have an important role in creating a conducive atmosphere for such policy decisions and at the same time creating awareness in the public and private spheres to support such decisions. A large percentage of human population depends on the oceans for their livelihood as well as their food requirements. As a result of the development activities, oceans around the world have suffered from pollution due to waste disposal, spillage, and nuclear tests, among others. This endangers marine life and severely effects the dependent population. Oceans have a substantial impact on the global climate and the current phenomenon of climate change in turn is likely to impact the life in the oceans. The rising sea levels due to global warming and frequent occurrence of natural disasters have caused a great deal of concern among the world community.

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ESD will have a vital role to play in spreading awareness on the issue and creating an environment for taking collective actions to combat climate change and its impacts. This include cutting down sewage disposal in the oceans, coming up with more green and eco-friendly technology, creating a more equitable and sustainable system of production, consumption, and distribution of marine products among others. This can be done by integrating ESD to the fields of fisheries, ocean studies, and environmental sciences, among others. Needless to say that ESD can address the issues at hand and create a supportive policy environment for coordinated action. Every life form on the earth can be sustained only if there is favorable atmosphere, climate, and availability of food and water for its existence. However, the current challenges of environmental degradation due to pollution, deforestation, climate change and its impact, loss of habitat among others have caused serious risk to many organisms and challenged their survival. It is needless to say that humans are dependent on the biodiversity for their several requirements including food and energy. ESD can create awareness on the current scenario and promote a responsible and collective action on the part of individuals and community to work for possible solutions and play the role of responsible global citizens. Sustainable development is impossible in the absence of peaceful and just social and political environment. Any form of conflict, violence, abuse, and acts of terrorism, among others have a direct bearing on the psychosocial, political, and economic well-being of any society and hinders its development process. ESD can assist in creating awareness on the impact of conflict on communities and help in creating positive conditions for aiding conflict resolution and promoting peace and security. ESD can promote the rule of law at all levels and ensure equal access to justice for all and help to create public opinion on coming up with legislations to reduce all forms of organized crime and corruption in all its forms. ESD can sensitize communities on the importance of having effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.

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The development agenda 2030 can be achieved only after cooperative and joint efforts taken by individuals, communities, civil society, national governments, and other stakeholders. These inclusive partnerships need to be built on shared vision, principles, goals, and values and keeping the people and the planet at the center. Urgent action is needed to mobilize, redirect, and transfer the resources for achieving the sustainable development objectives. Only a proactive role played by the partners for development can promote suitable and conducive conditions for bringing about sustainable development and taking up collective initiatives for change. ESD would have a major role to sensitize various stakeholders for the need for collective response to the current problems and work for the solution in a collaborative manner. It can help to promote review and monitoring frameworks, regulations, and incentive structures that enable such joint action for sustainable development.

Contributions of the UNDESD (2005–2014) The UN celebrated the period from the year 2005 to 2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. This period was utilized to commit the member states to integrate the ESD into their respective education systems based on their individual contexts. At the end of the period, the UN came up with a detailed report on its achievement during the period as “Shaping the future we want” in 2014 (SDG Knowledge Platform Website n.d.). The report came up with certain trends that were observed worldwide on the ESD. It was observed that ESD is a major enabler for achieving the sustainable development at every level. It was seen that education has a critical role to play in advancing the goals of sustainable development and related issues. Several countries have been able to initiate and propagate the process of making education more relevant and at par with the requirements of the current socioeconomic conditions and

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environmental challenges faced globally. In their attempt to solve the current problems, ESD has proved as a major facilitator to provide the vision and purpose for renewed educational policy. ESD has provided a road map to reorient the education policies, curricula, and even infrastructure according to the principles of sustainable development. The report also suggests that there has been a realization that ESD is a lifelong learning process that continues throughout the various stages of life of an individual. It covers every aspect and level of education including early childhood, to primary and secondary education, advances throughout the technical and vocational programs and higher education and research. It also includes job orientation and workplace training and professional development programs among others. Secondly, the national governments and other stakeholders involved in the process of sustainable development are turning to education and other such campaigns of public awareness and training to promote the goals of sustainable development. Thus, education and awareness generation and training programs are now seen as critical components to support the implementation of various conventions and agreements related to sustainable development. The report also suggests that the political leadership of countries has a critical role to play in furthering the goals of ESD. National governments need to have the will and the capacity to create the institutional climate for change and at the same time mobilize the required manpower and resources to secure that change. In this regard, a variety of approaches to reorient education systems can be adopted by the national and local governments which include embedding the goals of ESD in national legislations and policies by involving multiple stakeholders. At the same time, the involvement of multi-stakeholder partnerships is particularly effective in reinforcing the goals and values of ESD. Such collaborations involve the national, regional, and local government institutions, civil society organizations, community-based organizations, the private sector, schools, universities, and research organizations, among others.

Scope of Education for Sustainable Development

There has been a growing realization that contextual learning which is grounded in the local experiences and practices is required to realize the values and principles of ESD. Engagement with the community and utilizing its tacit knowledge would go a long way in furthering the principles of sustainable development. Thus, ESD would encompass various aspects and systems of education at various levels including formal mode of education to informal and distance modes.

Challenges to ESD The commitment to promote and integrate the ESD into the education system is a herculean task. There are several challenges faced by the national governments and other stakeholders due to the overall complexity of the education systems. In most countries, decision-making on educational policy and its implementation are carried out at multiple levels involving a wide variety of stakeholders. Thus, advancing changes within the education systems would require interventions at multiple levels. Another concern is the degree of acceptance to such changes. In several countries, particularly in the third world, the education system is itself faced with several challenges including policy and implementation gaps, poor infrastructure, obsolete curricula, lack of teachers and trainers, poor enrolment ratio, among others. In such countries, mainstreaming the ESD with the national education system is fraught with several challenges. Moreover, a proper system of monitoring and evaluation would have to be brought in place in order to make the ESD programs more relevant and inclusive. Another challenge is the integration of ESD with other nonformal, informal, and distance modes of education. In several countries, formal mode of education based on individual certification remains the most accepted and often the desired form of education. Enhancing the acceptance of the alternative modes and integrating ESD to realize the values and principles of ESD would entail bringing about a systemic and ideological change.

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Conclusion ESD as a concept has a great role to play in the realization of various goals as mentioned in the development agenda. The methodology and characteristics of ESD can support the national governments in achieving the universalization of education at all levels by making the system more contextual, participatory, open, and at the same time maintain the quality of education. The national governments globally are grappling with the challenges of achieving the milestones set by the Agenda 2030. Education would have a crucial role to play in sensitizing individuals and community to play their part in the process. This would require a systematic change in the way knowledge, information, and technology is perceived and utilized. There are several steps that need to be taken in order to ensure the realization of the principles and values engrained in the concept of ESD across and within countries globally. First and foremost a strong willingness followed by a long-term vision for the change and systemic reforms at every level of the education system is required. The national governments need to carry out this exercise in consultation with the multiple stakeholders and in due process provide the ownership to the larger community. A strong partnership and networking across various sectors is required. This has to be followed by consistent training and capacity building of various stakeholders and partners for change. A continuous support for various research and innovation exercises on various aspects of sustainable development and a proactive role of various educational institutions and centers for higher learning would benefit the cause of ESD at every stage of implementation. Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and various monitoring and evaluation tools would support the cause of ESD and ensure a systematic and effective implementation of various policies on the same. It is imperative that across countries, efforts are taken to integrate an altogether new perspective on ESD and in the process evolve a global view in knowledge generation. This is particularly true for the developing parts of the world where a great

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deal of reforms need to be introduced in the education sector to bring it at par with the developed world. Though the approach of ESD needs to be interdisciplinary, it must reflect the context and needs of the country. ESD provides the much required change in the education and knowledge dissemination process as well as the content. ESD calls for a systematic integration of the issues related to sustainable development in the teaching and learning process and also transforming the educational institutions in terms of their process as well as infrastructure. ESD is a context specific concept and countries worldwide would integrate ESD as part of the learning and training programs for creating green, resilient and sustainable economies and societies.

References Adams WM (2006) The future of sustainability re-thinking environment and development in the twenty-first century. Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting, 29–31 January 2006. https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_ future_of_sustanability.pdf. Accessed 16 Dec 2018 Cerneviciute J, Petkute R (2013) The role of education for sustainable development in fostering students’ innovativeness at technical universities. Eur Integr Stud (7):13 Dannenberg S, Grapentin T (2016) Education for sustainable development – learning for transformation. The example of Germany. J Futures Stud 20(3):7–20 ISSN UN (2018) The ISSN Register. https://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/. Accessed 15 Dec 2018 ISSN UNESCO (2017) The ISSN Register. http://www. unesco.org/new/en/newdelhi/areas-of-action/special-th emes/education-for-sustainable-development/. Accessed 5 Mar 2019 ISSN UNESCO (2018) The ISSN Register. https://en. unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development. Accessed 23 Dec 2018 ISSN UNSDG Knowledge Platform (n.d.) Shaping the future we want – UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. Final report. Retrieved from sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view &type=400&nr=1682&menu=35. Accessed 7 Sept 2019 Laurie R et al (2016) Contributions of education for sustainable development (ESD) to quality education: a synthesis of research. J Educ Sustain Dev Sage 10 (2):226–242. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10. 1177/0973408216661442. Accessed 23 Feb 2019 McKeown R (2005) Education for sustainable development workshop Part II: What is ESD? Portland International Initiative for Leadership in Ecology, Language

Scrutiny and Culture. https://www.pdx.edu/sites/www.pdx.edu. elp/files/gse_epfa_lecl_whatisesdpsu.pdf. Accessed 23 Feb 2019 Mohanty A, Dash D (2018) Education for sustainable development: a conceptual model of sustainable education for India. Int J Dev Sustain 7(9):2242–2255 Nevin E (2008) Education and sustainable development. Policy Pract Dev Educ Rev. www.developmented ucationreview.com/issue/issue-6/education-and-sus tainable-development. Accessed 25 Feb 2019 Power C, Maclean R (2011) Lifelong learning for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Presented as a concept paper for international symposium on lifelong learning for poverty alleviation and sustainable development: developing a research agenda for the AsiaPacific Hong Kong Institute of Education, 12–13 January 2011, Hong Kong. http://www.eduhk.hk/isll/ Download%20Files/Lifelong%20Learning%20Sym posium%20-%20Background%20Concept%20Paper.pdf. Accessed 30 Dec 2018 Report of the Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education (Organized by the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in cooperation with the U.N. Environment Programme (UNEP) or Tbilisi Declaration 1977). https://www.gdrc. org/uem/ee/tbilisi.html. Accessed 29 Dec 2018 Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, 1987, UN Strange T, Bayley A (2008) OECD insights sustainable development linking economy, society, environment. OECD report. OECD, Geneva Sustainable Development Goals Knowledge Hub website https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/education. Accessed 21 Feb 2019 UNESCO (1992) The Rio Declaration on environment and development. http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/ RIO_E.PDF. Accessed 15 Dec 2018 UNESCO (2014) Shaping the future we want. UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014). Final report. https://sustainabledeve lopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr =1682&menu=35. Accessed 27 Mar 2019 UNESCO Website (2019) Education for sustainable development. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/themes/ education-sustainable-development Vladimirova K, Le Blanc D (2015) How well are the links between education and other sustainable development goals covered in UN flagship reports? A contribution to the study of the science-policy interface on education in the UN system, UN-DESA Working Papers. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/publica tions/working-paper/education-and-sdgs-in-un-flagshipreports

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Introduction

SDGs ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

Second Chance Education ▶ Adult Education: Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals

Secondary Education for Sustainable Development Harold John D. Culala and John Angelo V. De Leon Institute of Education, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines

Definition This entry focuses on the role of secondary education in the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4 of the United Nations. The secondary education in this entry refers to both middle school and high school on a North American nomenclature. The goal of secondary education in relation to achieving the tenets of SDG 4 is by 2030, it will ensure that all learners will have free access, equitable, and quality education that leads to relevant outcomes. This will be achieved by providing the necessary tools for learners to succeed and the willingness and the capacity of the nations to bolster the education sector (Bourn et al. 2017). Another is the classrooms will be free of gender disparities by ensuring equal access of education and vocational training, including the minorities, indigenous people, and children with disabilities (Education International 2017). Furthermore, it aims to promote inclusivity in all facets of the society, especially those who are in conflict areas.

There has been an increased focus on establishing goals that ensure the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that people need in order to thrive in the ever-changing landscape of the world. These goals, by way of 17 Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs) developed by UNESCO, serve as the blueprint in addressing the problems the world is facing (e.g., poverty, quality education, environmental degradation). As mentioned in the previous statement, one of the primary focuses of the SDGs is to promote education as one of the forefronts in establishing both equality and equity. Specifically, SDG 4 states that the goal of quality education is to “. . .commit every single country to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (OECD 2019, p. 2). Further, it “. . .empowers people to live healthy and more sustainable lives” (United Nations 2018, p. 1). In some parts of the world, primarily in countries tagged as “developing” by the United Nations, there are several challenges (i.e., armed conflicts, income deficiency) that resulted in an increase of dropouts in schools. Also, the literacy rates in the “developing countries” in primary and secondary education continue to decline. In specific, about 51% of worldwide adults were considered as illiterates in 2015, mostly residing in the South and Southwest Asian region (United Nations 2015, p. 3). The challenges mentioned seem to be deeply rooted in the lack of importance of education, primarily in the basic education sector, but which is specifically addressed by SDG 4. In the next section, a brief history of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), the SDGs, and the subsequent focus on secondary education will be provided as context in understanding this entry.

ESD, Secondary Education, and SDG 4: An Overview The notion of sustainability in education started from the idea that there should be a required change in the way of life of all people, including

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those in developed as well as developing countries. From the 1987 Brundtland Report in Belgrade, where the idea of sustainability was first recognized by UNESCO, it has since flourished in the international, national, local, public, and private arena. Following that report, many organizations from around the world started to do sustainability-related research and development in the hope to provide “. . .longterm ability for nature and human beings to survive and prosper together. . .” (Martins et al. 2006, p. 2). As described in the Brundtland Report, sustainability is regarded as a holistic paradigm that encompasses environmental, social, and economic considerations in developing a sustainable future. As an example, “. . .a prosperous country relies on a healthy environment to provide food and resources, safe drinking water, and clean air for its citizens” (UNESCO 2012). Also, it urges participating countries to exhibit accountability and transparency in decision-making. It empowers stakeholders (i.e., government officers, policy makers, citizens) to examine existing sustainability problems and look at it holistically, meaning, to consider social issues and recognize that solutions can have global consequences. Ten years after the conception of the Brundtland Report, the Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education, which was held in Tbilisi, focused on the following themes: “. . .to raise awareness and sensitivity on environmental problems, gain knowledge and basic understanding of the environment and associated problems, change attitudes, values, and motivation to actively participate in environmental protection and improvement, acquisition and development of skills to identify and solve environmental problems, and participation to all social groups and business players” (De Guzman 2003; Gadotti 2008; Scott 2017). Conferences such as these serve as a foundation for policy makers to develop improved frameworks to accommodate the challenges of the twenty-first century. After the conference in Tbilisi, the idea of raising awareness and sensitivity that focuses on environmental problems was viewed as rather insufficient in terms of coverage and complexity to accommodate the needs of the growing world.

Secondary Education for Sustainable Development

In 1992, the Rio Summit sought to provide a detailed blueprint of action to address global, national, and local issues that encompasses international, national, and local groups. The main theme of the summit was the inauguration of Agenda 21, a 40-chapter report that aims to establish goals, priorities for action, programs, and cost estimates for the participating countries (Patterson and Theobald 1995). One of its tenets was to promote education toward sustainable development, to increase public awareness about the importance of education, and to promote literacy training. Furthermore, it focused on addressing the overarching illiteracy problem of the 1990s, which formed part of the agenda of the Education for All movement founded in Jomtien, Thailand. In specific, UNESCO (2016b) reported that there is a rapid spread of illiteracy among young people in Western Asia and Northern Africa. Although most of the Asian states have seen growth in terms of literacy, factors such as extreme poverty and government instability hampered initiatives in this regard. Combating illiteracy and other challenges of sustainability in education has mobilized organizations to provide strategies that will uplift the global initiative started by Agenda 21. The resulting effect was the World Summit on Sustainable Development that took place in Johannesburg in 2002. Its main task was to provide a “global platform to embed Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in all learning spheres and develop initiatives that can showcase the special role of education for sustainable development” (Stakeholder Forum for a Sustainable Future 2012, p. 243). Furthermore, the idea of ESD has gained traction as UNESCO was tasked to lead the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD). This program encouraged the participating countries to frame their educational system along the lines of ESD, together with “a defined set of implementation, monitoring, and assessment strategies” (Benavot 2014). One of its primary focus areas was to encourage “changes in knowledge, values and attitudes with the vision of enabling a more sustainable and just society for all” (de Pauw et al. 2015; UNESCO 2017; UNESCO 2015). In concretizing this, Irina

Secondary Education for Sustainable Development

Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO, in the article Education for Sustainable Development Goals, emphasized the importance of ESD: A fundamental change is needed in the way we think about education’s role in global development, because it has a catalytic impact on the well-being of individuals and the future of our planet. . . . Now, more than ever, education has a responsibility to be in gear with 21st century challenges and aspirations, and foster the right types of values and skills that will lead to sustainable and inclusive growth, and peaceful. (UNESCO 2017, p. 2)

However, it should be noted that there are challenges in order to realize this vision of education as one of the forefronts of establishing sustainability. One of the challenges is the access of basic education in countries, primarily in the primary and the secondary years, which is one of the tenets of SDG 4, namely, that there should be “free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education. . .” (Didham et al. 2013; Ridge et al. 2019) for every individual. These challenges include underdeveloped infrastructure in schools, gender parity among those enrolled, and a lack of basic competency in numeracy and literacy (UNESCO 2013). Further, the challenge of bringing access to education on a global scale was intense as the participating countries seem to resist in aligning their educational frameworks to that of Sustainable Development (UNESCO 2016a). Although there was a report from the DESD in 2008 that 78 countries have reoriented their national curriculum to the standards of ESD, North America and the European states were leading the pack. With this in mind, the push to embrace the worldwide initiative to incorporate sustainable development in education seems to steadily progress with the inception of SDG 4, through which UNESCO aims to “improve overall efficacy of education through a qualitative turn in framing education to provide sustainable well-being for all” (Didham et al. 2013, p. 3). As context, the SDGs were formed to build on the success that the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have achieved. Through UNESCO, the United Nations has tasked them to lead the Global Education 2030 Agenda, where it is aimed to

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eradicate poverty through the 17 SDGs. Further, this agenda encourages a “. . .holistic approach to achieve sustainable development for all” (OECD 2019, p. 2).

Challenges of Education as Addressed by SDG4 Through education, the 17 SDGs play a role in providing nations with a framework in order to prevent the spread of inequality among their people. In specific, the UN have recognized that both primary and secondary education serve as a catalyst in meeting the challenges that exist today. The central role of SDG 4 is to ensure that there is inclusive and equitable quality education and to promote lifelong learning opportunities that are provided for each individual. As a basic human right, it was identified that it is of crucial importance to establish the presence of education at the onset as it can be a driving force in the reduction of inequalities and the improvement in social mobility. Driving this force is the dream in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, coming from the belief that no student should be left behind. Further, it paints the picture that education, as a catalyst of change, is essential in building the “. . .knowledge base that we need to tackle critical challenges like climate change” (UNESCO 2019). However, in terms of the goal of SDG 4, there are still many challenges that exist in terms of providing a free, inclusive, and equitable quality education for everyone. In this section the challenges of gender parity among those enrolled, lack of basic competency in literacy and numeracy, and forced displacement and migration will be discussed as the primary reasons why the SDG 4 was established. Sure, there are issues that are of equal importance in discussing the challenges of SDG 4. However, it should be noted that the aforementioned issues are in the forefront of the global challenges that SDG 4 is trying to address (Benavot 2014; UNESCO 2016a, 2018; Bourn et al. 2017; Leicht et al. 2018). The issue of gender parity has been prevalent in education since it was identified as one of the

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goals that need to be addressed through SDG 4. This entails that a school environment has to be free from discrimination and provides equal opportunities for boys and girls to realize their potential (UNESCO 2014). Countries from South and West Asia are known to have one of the highest gender disparities, among others. An example of which is Afghan primary schools, where there are on average 71 girls in school for every 100 boys (Achyut et al. 2011). In secondary education, gender parity there afflicts girls rather than boys. In countries in the African region and in Afghanistan, Yemen, and Pakistan, it was reported in 1999 that there were no girls enrolled in secondary education. However, because of the continuous push by their governments and the United Nations to break this disparity between girls and boys, the gender parity index of the latter three countries rose to 34%, 35%, and 33%, respectively, in 2011 (Holmberg et al. 2016). Despite the global movement for gender parity in education, the local, regional, and national realities of countries are often overlooked. As a result, it tends to be “. . .one-size-fits-all. . .” (Ridge et al. 2019), which leads to certain populations being neglected. While the global push to eradicate gender parity among boys and girls in school continue, another issue that is often in the forefront on global agenda is the very low literacy rates among the people of many countries. As context, the idea of literacy is well-defined since its identification as one of the core goals of the SDGs. In Education for All (EFA) 2000 Assessment, it is defined as the ability to read and write with understanding in terms of one’s daily life (Oghenekohwo 2017). Furthermore, literacy enables individuals to achieve their goals, develop their knowledge, and participate fully in their communities and in society at large (Dale and Newman 2005). Efforts to improve literacy have recently been renewed, following the literacy target set by the SDGs: “by 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy” (Education International 2017; UNESCO 2017; United Nation 2017; UNESCO). According to the UIS

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literacy report, the global adult literacy rate in 2013 for ages 15 years and above was 84% (UNESCO 2013). However, worldwide over 750 million adults – two thirds of whom are women – still lack the basic reading and writing skills (UNESCO 2016a). In specific, countries from Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and East Asia and in North and East Africa account for 95% of the global illiterate population. The disparity in percentage of illiteracy rates in the latter countries can be traced to low access to education, insufficient textbooks, insufficient ratios of teachers to learners, poor infrastructure, and undertrained teachers (UNESCO 2014). Concerning human resources, there is a global movement campaigning for a better, safer, environment to work and live in. The role that migration plays in the world depicts how societies relate human capital to economic growth and development. A 2015 report of the United Nations estimates that as many as 224 million international migrants, at all skill levels, are uprooted from their homes to new places because of limited job supply and livelihood opportunities. The phenomenon of internal migration is equally important and relates to views of education in urban versus rural areas. People are continuously migrating from rural to urban areas because of the prospect of getting better education. In Indonesia, “. . .those who migrated to the city as children attained three more years of schooling than those who did not” (UNESCO 2018). However, because of the continuous uprooting of families and children from their native homes, some children have had no success in attaining the educational dream they have. In China and Vietnam, the hukou registration system inhibits rural migrants to have access in public school enrollment in urban areas (Tacoli et al. 2014). This continuous trend in migration from rural to urban areas often has the result that children lack behind their peers in terms of achievement. Another issue that is often raised in terms of challenges experienced in the educational sector, and which is continuously addressed by the United Nations in junction with SDG 4, is forced displacement. UNHCR (2012) reported that “. . .65 million people, in which 21.3 million are

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refugees, and 3 million are asylum seekers” (p. 4) are being forced to be sent to other places because of war and persecution in their home countries. This seemingly worldwide forced migration by millions of people affects the lives of children as their families continuously need to find new homes. Furthermore, this type of migration can have serious repercussions on education opportunities for children of those families moving or being left behind, particularly in rapidly urbanizing low- and middle-income countries (UNESCO 2018, p. 5). A quote from SDG 4 on refugee education summarizes the idea: Only 1 in 2 refugee children are enrolled in primary school and only 1 in 4 are in secondary school; around 1% of refugee learners are enrolled in tertiary education. (UNHCR 2012, p. 19)

In war-torn areas, forced displacement directly affects the education of the people who are involved. Infrastructures such as school sites and classrooms are damaged by bullet holes, shells, and shrapnel. In specific, UNESCO (2018) reports that out of 260 school sites, 20% was set on fire, 32% have been looted by armed groups, and 29% are in danger because of the close proximity to the military and the extremists. In these areas, the enrollment rates of learners continuously drop as families fear of their safety to adapt their normal routines, and these include going to school. Educational opportunities in these regions are crucial to ensure that all children have the necessary opportunities to pursue access to free education. In response to this crises, the UNHCR (2012) report urged countries to offer refugee children free access to accredited learning institutions. The idea is to provide these children with the opportunity to catch up with their peers in the host country. Furthermore, the host countries are urged to plan their curriculum in accordance with SDG 4 to advocate the educational rights and needs of refugee children.

Secondary Education and the Achievement of SDG 4 Since the inception of the SDGs, the challenges about gender parity, basic literacy and numeracy

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skills, and forced displacement it had identified for governments to address have steadily been declining (World Bank 2011). In order to devise policies that will lead to real improvement, it is important to understand the nature of these challenges. One such way is to focus on education, and primarily secondary education. Moreover, mobilizing education in transforming the lives of the children and the youth, in general, represents the crux of achieving the dream of the SDGs. (Sterling 2001, 2010; Østby et al. 2016; Jickling and Sterling 2017). One of the most important points to consider how secondary education can address the issue of gender parity is to increase the willingness of governments to provide additional infrastructure to increase the capacity of schools to hold learners (Østby et al. 2016). Additional capacity would mean more learners, and then more teachers can be hired to work in secondary education. Although added capacity does not necessarily imply provision of quality education, it would certainly provide solutions to some of the recurring educational problems common to low- and middle-income countries (Warrington and Kiragu 2012). Higher urbanization rates are somewhat linked as to how secondary education can aid to the achievement of SDG 4. City centers are fast becoming the melting pots and drivers of social change (Beall et al. 2010). The rapid increase of urban migration in developing countries unfortunately tends to correlate with lower teaching standards in rural areas (Holmberg et al. 2016; Østby et al. 2016; UNESCO 2018). An increase in urbanization in rural areas will therefore provide a more efficient means to capitalize on human resources. This will provide people in rural areas the opportunity to increase their economic capital and therefore lessen the risk of forced displacement and internal migration. Moreover, an increase in urbanization in rural areas provides ample training opportunity for teachers and learners to develop their skills (Tembon and Fort 2008). With ample opportunities for teachers training, they are empowered to effectively teach learners in the secondary education phase, thereby providing quality education.

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Urbanization in rural areas has the potential to spread the wealth of knowledge that is needed by society. One of these involve the necessary skills in basic numeracy and literacy, which is crucial in providing quality education to the youth (Oghenekohwo 2017). In secondary education, which is the crucial point in the development of a child (UNESCO 2016b), it is important for the learners to have full access of information, with a strengthened focus on reading especially in the most disadvantaged and marginalized backgrounds (Dale and Newman 2005) pointed out that: one must acquire knowledge of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research methods, including both natural and social science methodology; multiple perspective taking and making; contextual appreciation and analysis, on multiple scales of interaction; and multiple complex systems perspectives that encompasses both the parts and the whole in dynamic interactions. The required skills can be broken down into facts based and processbased skills. (p. 8)

The key in learning these aforementioned skills is the adaptability of teachers to the everchanging conditions of not only the education sector but also the world at large. Further, the awareness of the needs of learners is one trait that secondary education will have to develop as this will initiate new developmental trajectories in accordance with the needs of the SDGs (Rammel and Van Den Bergh 2003). However, one of the remaining challenges in the achievement of the SDGs is the existing structure of the school curriculum, which is organized in terms of the needs of the old curricular structure. Gough (2002) expounded that “. . .school curricula are organized into subjects that are defined by the existing literacy structures” (p. 8). Schwab (1959), on the other hand, states that it is impossible to explore new ways of thinking if people are not willing to understand and challenge the old ways. Furthermore, there is a tendency for secondary education to revert back to the traditional disciplines, thereby failing to capture the holistic nature of current problems and their solutions (Dale and Newman 2005). In order to solve this problem, restructuring for increased organizational

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efficiency is needed. Changing the structure in which people work enables them to have leverage to increase productivity. Barr and Tagg (1995) explained that: . . .structure is the concrete manifestation of the abstract principles of the organization’s governing paradigm. Structures reflecting an old paradigm can frustrate the best ideas and innovations of new-paradigm thinkers. As the governing paradigm changes, so likewise must the organization’s structures.

Moreover, simple ways can be developed in order to assist with the challenges experienced by SDG 4 in terms of secondary education. There seems to be a need to intensify policies which relate to gender parity, migration and literacy. For instannce, bringing gender discussions inside classrooms and not to be conisdered as taboo discussions, providing activities to promote awareness in the light of the recurring problem of forced displacement and providing frameworks that are flexible to needs in learning basic numeracy and literacy skills. As end note, the need to address SDG 4 and its challenges is endless as the world is continuously evolving in terms of the society, economics, and politics. From this perspective, the international community and national authorities need to actively work in removing societal barriers in order to promote the tenets of SDG 4 which provide free, equitable primary and secondary education.

Cross-References ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ Education in Emergencies: Advancing Agenda 2030 and the Ethos of “Leave No One Behind” ▶ Evolving Literacy Perspectives: Towards Lifelong Learning and Sustainable Development ▶ Futures Thinking on Sustainable Development ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Scope of Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Tertiary Education ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

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Segregated ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

Selective ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs

Segregated

Self-Assessment for Students Ijaz Rasool Noorka1 and Muhammad Sarwar2 1 College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan 2 Department of Education, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan

Synonyms Self-evaluation; Self-reflection

Self-monitoring;

Self-rating;

Definitions Self-assessment, “It is a process of self evaluation and self investigation where oneself is engaged in evaluating their learning outcomes and development” Summative “It is type of self-assessment used as a tool for assessment of learning” Formative “It is another type of self-assessment in relation the way to learning” Competitive “It is process of Self-assessment used as a generic competence” Standard self-assessment. This the process of just asking the students for their self-grading. Rubric self-assessment. In this process the students are provided more clearly defined criteria for self assessment Script self-assessment. In this process the criteria presented as questions and the students are required to answer the questions.

Introduction Self-assessment has been popular throughout the twentieth century. Further increased interest in the field was marked by the 1990s. Self-assessment is appreciated for its intrinsic ease, directness, immediacy, and economical value. In recent years exponentially, increasing interest of the stakeholders in self-assessment for students over the globe is evident in the literature (Andrade

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2018; Hussain et al. 2018; Panadero et al. 2018; Shah et al. 2018). Self-assessment all through has been harmoniously defined by the researchers in a congruent manner. Through the process ofselfassessment, students are engaged in evaluating their learning outcomes and development. They are evaluating what and why they are doing this practice. Learners get excitedly involved in selfdirected learning in self-assessment process. Since 1990 to date, many researchers have specifically investigated and contributed substantially into this emerging area of this research methodology (Shah et al. 2018). Present discourse summarizes three dimensions of self-assessment: summative (selfassessment as a tool for assessment of learning), formative (self-assessment as a way to learning), and competitive (self-assessment as a generic competence). Firstly, the researchers agreed that the selfassessment helps in assessing the learning (summative aspect of self-assessment). Selfassessment is the only way perhaps in making students able to be genuine evaluators of their own work and the capacity to observe their own development and learning. It better allows them to recognize their own weaknesses and better promotes their personal understanding of their learning outcomes (Agalianos 2006). It is righty believed to be responsible for deep learning. In this process the main aim is to make students more reflective and preparing them to do peer assessment in a fair manner and honest way that is the conceivably the strongest genealogical trait in self-assessment (Hussain et al. 2018; Shah et al. 2018). Secondly, it makes lifelong learning possible (formative aspect of self-assessment). Researchers consider self-assessment process as a contrivance for further learning. Butler (2016, p. 292) revealed that this process is considered vital in imparting the autonomous and selfregulated learning by many researchers (Hussain et al. 2018; Panadero et al. 2018; Shah et al. 2018). The idea of alignment of self-assessment with self-regulated learning is considered promising (Butler 2016), but it needs to be further investigated. It would not be surprising that like many other fields, it is likely to find imperfections in the

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studies on self-assessment and self-competence. But these imperfections are not potent enough to discourage the researchers altogether. Butler (2016, p. 311) says that the concerns about the precision and prejudice in self-assessment principally stem from its “summativity” (the measurement-based view of the assessment) instead of “formativity” (the learning-based view of the assessment). Recently, it is being (re)considered as a generic competence for its intrinsic value for self-identity and self-realization and to reach the heights of self-actualization in Maslowian sense of the term. That ultimately transforms oneself toward the idea of self-reliance. Ensuing paragraphs encapsulate these dimensions citing from the diversified research paradigms. Conclusively, the formative role of self-assessment is never overemphasized. Its starring role in professional competence development has been recognized since decades. It is a vital component of quality education urged particularly in sustainable development goal number 4 (SDG4) – “Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning”; and it is inevitable to promote global sustainable development (which is envisaged to be attained by 2030) without selfassessment.

Self-Assessment as a Summative Assessment So far it is known that George Jardine, who was professor at the University of Glasgow from 1774 to 1826, was the first to be credited with using self-assessment in his instructional plan (Panadero et al. 2018). Summative role assessment of learning is necessary for students’ grading and licensing, and it is commonplace in teaching and learning nowadays. In absolute sense summative role of the self-assessment is one in which students are made responsible for estimating their grades (self-grading) at the end of a learning process for their licensing, certification, or graduation. It does not involve any formative purpose at all. It is neither intended for generating some informative feedback from all stakeholders

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nor intended for further instructions of any kind. Although self-assessment can serve both purposes – summative and formative (Panadero and Alonso-Tapia 2013; Andrade 2018) – its summative role is regarded as the least optimal form of it (Panadero et al. 2018). Summative aspect of self-assessment may serve the traditional purpose of assessment, which is usually urged for certification or licensing. Such a use of self-assessment is likewise to ensure quality of education and training in terms of the intended learning outcomes. Self-assessment of learning outcomes may be both qualitative and quantitative; but the two occurs exclusively. Summative selfassessment in its qualitative sense answers the question, how much the learners have learned compared to how much they wished to; and quantitatively, rather in more formal institutional settings in strict sense, it is made responsible to award grades to the students. However, it is not common practice to consider self-assessment getting it used in this way either in its qualitative or quantitative sense. Therefore, research literature speaks very little about using self-assessment as an instrument of learning. Butler (2016) says that there is a dearth of empirical studies on self-assessment (Butler 2016). Absence of formal certification or placement in the labor market remains major limitation to his otherwise strong logical rationale and rigorous econometric investigation of a sizeably large international data set. It is interesting that studies into the disposition, which is otherwise ignored in routine assessment procedures for traditional certification process, have often employed selfassessment as it offers the most direct and firsthand source of information besides its reasonably priced value at all (Hussain et al. 2018). Being heavily charged with subjectivity, the self-assessment for students may be considered too weak to play its summative role compared with the teachers’ traditional summative assessment of their students. The myth of allegorically objective and consistent teacher assessment of their students has also been disclosed with empirical evidence. This along with plethora of research evidence makes up the way for

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permissibility, acceptability, and respectability of self-assessment. It is further insisted on giving greater role to students in their assessment than their teachers. Self-assessment is valued for its cost-effectiveness. It may work well with fewer amounts of material and equipment. It is controlled almost effortlessly. Greater ease and wider range in conduct lend it massive applicability. It also saves the time. It is easily quantifiable and analyzable as compared to other methods. Of the most important, it is the most direct source of information and rightly believed to be one having better access to the information about them compared to the observers outside. Self-Assessment and Their Teacher’s Role Butler (2016, p. 304) is apprehensive of pervasive differences in students’ self-assessment and their teachers’ assessment and insists on the need for dialogue to close these perceptional fissures between students and teachers. There is a greater chance of measurement error in self-assessment. There may be either intentional manipulation or unintentional discrepancies, and it is difficult to differentiate between the two measurement errors. The corrections applied to moderate the unintentional errors also help to mitigate the intentional ones. Researchers argue for indirect use of self-assessment to achieve the objective of greater robustness (Hussain et al. 2018). They suggested some more measures for curative purposes in this regard. Nevertheless, researchers are not in conflict with the idea of using selfassessment. However, better orientation and more training on self-assessment are envisaged to have amazing greater accuracy and precision in self-assessment of students (Shah et al. 2018; Hussain et al. 2018). It has empirically been established that repeated self-assessment improves students’ assessing ability. Nonetheless, it is suggested that marks resulting from the self-assessment of the students should not be taken into account without moderation. It is presently urged to redirect teacher efforts from merely grading their students to planning and regulating assessment procedures.

Self-Assessment for Students

Self-Assessment of Students Self-assessment of students has been found (Panadero et al. 2016) positively correlated with the assessment by their teachers both at school and at university level (Brown and Harris 2013; Finn and Metcalfe 2014). However, this relationship has been found weaker among disciplines of social science and highly complex professional milieus. Self-assessment for students (Panadero et al. 2016) is a multifaceted complex construct, and it is further required to be investigated into its very typology in order to have greater benefit of it. Panadero et al. (2016) described five categories of self-assessment with 20 subcategories. Panadero and Alonso-Tapia (2013) offered three categories as given below. i. Standard self-assessment (just asking the students for their self-grading) ii. Rubric self-assessment (the students are provided more clearly defined criteria) iii. Script self-assessment (the criteria are presented as questions and the students are required to answer) Nonetheless, self-assessment has been suggested (Panadero et al. 2016) to be harnessed as an instrument for assessment of students’ learning outcomes. Beyond formal educational context, self-assessment of competence is found helpful in determining how to equate people with their work. Shah et al. (2018) have confirmed the reliability of self-assessment by using the wages of the workers.

Self-Evaluation i. Self-evaluation is the road toward the peer observation, dedication, and interpretation. It gives us a way how to judge our weakness and strengths. ii. It is the way how to be flexible in teaching and research style. iii. Self-assessment is microscoping oneself and self-tracking the progress.

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Self-Assessment as an Assessment Instrument of Evaluation Self-assessment is an assessment instrument of evaluation of the quality of work and presets aims and objectives as well as the measure of performance and then the performance-based identification of the strengths and weaknesses and ultimately the revisions to polish the outcomes. It also encourages the students as well as their mentors to evaluate, to take learning ownership, and to promote qualitative and quantitative outcomes (Dahlgaard et al. 2002; Gaber and Kos Kecojevič 2011). Basically it is the form of paradigm shift in one’s personal, cultural, and regional focuses on the quality of learning, responsibility, and judgments for lifelong problem-solving and learning. Advantages of Self-Assessment Self-assessment creates specific skills in the students, and it helps the teachers to evaluate the learning of the students and their potentials. However some advantages of self-assessment are summarized here: i. Self-awareness: Awareness and selfawareness have a hell of difference. Selfawareness needs more active part in shaping and reshaping the personality of oneself with objective outlook. ii. Exposure and disclosure: Here selfassessment helps the students to evaluate themselves for the identification of gray areas in their personality and methods of their self-improvement. iii. Personal augmentation: Self-assessment results in the improvement in one’s life equipped with the social, educational, and outreach activities by the help of personal relationships and effective communication skills. It augmented both positive and negative areas in best possible ways. iv. Self-reliance: Self-assessment paved the path of self-confidence, participatory approach, and ultimately the self-reliance.

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Disadvantages i. Self-assessment has multifaceted technique. It has proved very beneficial for students and teachers, but there are also some negative points like: ii. Subjectivity: It is very subjective outlook in one’s personality. iii. Engagement of audience: Self-assessments seem an alternate way to engage the audience and look like the activity and combined learning effort with the perception of classroom. iv. Non-accountability: Self-assessment beginning and ending with one’s personality either in shape of evaluation or externalities and influence.

Self-Assessment as a Formative Assessment Hale (2015) is among many of those researchers who have been working on formative aspect of the self-assessment. Formative role of selfassessment has been appreciably regarded important by many researchers. Self-assessment is a highly structured process of gathering information on one’s own educational needs and making judgment of what they have just performed or the quality and quantity of their learning. Researchers go enthusiastically one step further emphasizing upon the self-assessment role to enhance student motivation and autonomy. Being naïve, selfassessment has become vital in the field of formative assessment. Self-assessment is both the process and the product of entire learning activity of the students. Self-assessment has been regarded as the fundamental element for overall learning of the students; their seminal work inaugurated the formative assessment movement. Self-assessment as a way to learning has been widely studied by many researchers. It was found that self-assessment procedures, compared with the traditional tutor-lead assessment and peer assessment, highly contributed to students thinking and learning. However, Butler (2016, p. 301) encouraged to use peer assessment before selfassessment and highlighted the indispensable role of teacher. Self-assessment is “formative”

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because it promotes the process of student learning and helps them focus their energies for their further improvement. Hung et al. (2016, p. 320) cited that self-assessment helps students concentrate on their learning, identify their strong and weak aspects, and take greater responsibility of their learning and suggested to use selfassessment with peer assessment in order to overcome the challenges in using either of the two alone. Referring to the social cognitive theory of Bandura (1991), Hung et al. (2016) further asserted that the combination of peer assessment and self-assessment works good to make students learn how to assess (summative self-assessment) and assess how to learn (formative selfassessment).

Self-Assessment Tool to Assess Own Competence Self-assessment has been regarded as important, probably, because the teachers urge their students be able to assess their own competence for their active engagement in the process of learning. After all self-assessment is an effective learning strategy. Students who had been asked to do self-assessment were found by significantly outperforming compared with those who had been assessed by their teachers over a period of one semester in South African high school context. Increased mathematics achievement as well as of the narrative writing has been observed among those students who had had some training in self-assessment. Self-assessment has now been accepted as an instructional strategy for active engagement of students in their learning process. It does not only make instruction more interactive but also make learning participatory appreciating learners’ active involvement in their learning and instilling lifelong learning competences in them. It does help in deciding improvement needs, therefore, making diagnostics assessment possible (Hargreaves and Fullan 1992; Hočevar et al. 2013). Ability to predict one’s own performance and to evaluate one’s actual level of mastery and understanding is believed to be developed through self-assessment.

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Self-Assessment as an Initiative for Enhanced Self-efficacy Researchers proved that self-assessment may initiate better self-efficacy discernments among students lending them greater confidence to do the same in their future activities. Promoters of the constructivist notion of learning take selfassessment as a principal method of reflection. Finland has included self-assessment into its school education program since the 1970s. Mihaljević-Djigunović (2016) has reported that self-assessment (and also the teacher assessment) is a strong source of motivation for the students. Younger students are less resilient to the idea of self-assessment; this fact adds to the exactness and correctness in self-assessment of their performance as well as abilities (Butler 2016, p. 295). Researchers believe that self-assessment contributes to improve students’ metacognition and learning achievement. Continued interest and focus in self-assessment is what ensures quality of work, and it is the most important characteristic of the effective learners. Effective learners are found more often engaged in self-assessment for the quality of their work (Hatami 2015; Harris and Brown 2018).

Self-Assessment Ensures Quality of Work Self-assessment depends largely on individual differences and personal characteristics of students (Panadero et al. 2016). There is ample research evidence (Brown and Harris 2013) upon the possibility of teaching self-assessment to students. It is further emphasized that students need specific training (including feedback) on self-assessment for better accuracy in their selfassessment (Panadero and Alonso-Tapia 2013). It is never overemphasized that students are required to be willing learners of self-assessment. Those who are more persuaded to take rigorous training in self-assessment will do this more precisely. Self-assessment is understood as a competence (“learning capability”). It is helpful in inciting learning at the workplace through ascertaining

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excellence standards and suggesting the ways for improvement. Teachers are doubtful about the accuracy and the use of self-assessment. Therefore, continuous feedback from the teachers is very important to facilitate the learners in making truthful self-assessment of their learning for further improvement incessantly.

Self-Assessment as a Generic Competence Strength of a generic competence lies in its capacity to add to the learner’s learnability. Selfassessment in this regard is effective (Butler 2016, p. 301) for developing the self-directedness (self-regulation). The self-directedness is, indeed, responsible for transforming students’ cognitive abilities into their academic competence. Selfassessment, together with written feedback on the basis of student ratings, has been studied in clinical teaching by the researchers and is found as a valuable tool to motivate students toward further learning (Leach 2012). Effective learners have a real understanding of their strengths as well as weaknesses. “Good” students are effective selfassessors. Therefore, explicit attempts are required to be made to develop this competence, and the opportunities are required to be exploited to their optimal level. It has empirically been proved that the more capable students have been observed to make more precise self-assessments as compared to their less able peers (MacBeath 2011; Marston and Watts 2003; Medveš 2000).

S Self-Assessment as a Comparison Among Peers Researchers have been comparing selfassessment of students to external criteria, i.e., peers and teachers, and to traditional learning. Self-assessment of reading literacy skills among third graders is found fairly reliable determinant of their progress in academic performance (Kostons et al. 2012; Johansson 2013). Selfassessment of students has been found as a strong determinant of their academic achievement.

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Conversely, self-assessment has also been found uncorrelated with the standardized tests for young students. It is interesting to mention that found self-assessment is at par with the teacher assessment as well as the test results (Wolffensperger and Patkin 2013; Wong 2014; Zamora et al. 2018).

Self-Assessment as a Level of Competence Genericity of self-assessment as a competence is proven and is no more trivial and alien in the research literature. Once attained to a threshold, it contributes to further learning in a multifarious milieu of learning – preschoolers to graduates, greater awareness of quality, and preparedness for further learning in both qualitative and quantitative sense of the term (Nikou and Economides 2016; Oi 2014; Paleczek et al. 2015). Positive effects of self-assessment on academic achievement among students trained in self-assessment have been traced empirically. Self-assessment is a robust parameter of competence level if it is to serve as a formative aspect in the process of learning (Niemi 2008; Johansson 2013).

How Self-Assessment Helpful to the Students If self-assessment is considered as an essential competence to be learnt by the students, then energies should be put together to develop this competence among the students. Panadero et al. (2018) assert that self-assessment is fundamental among the set of competences students are required to develop. Central to the curriculum, self-assessment is a critical competence suggested to be developed by many researchers like Brown and Harris (2014), Keane and Griffin (2016, 2018). Self-assessment is a generic competence which can improve academic achievement of students (Brown and Harris 2013) and ensures success, also beyond formal educational context, in highly demanding labor market. In order to assess

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generic competences, Kyndt et al. (2014) find standardized self-assessment as an appropriate starting point, because competences are a complex learning outcome.

Self-Assessment Tool This is the process which categorized the character traits, preferences, biasness, and tool trains to level with yourself by conducting an honest selfevaluation on the quality of programs, projects, and services (Stufflebeam and Shinkfield 2007). Data collected through self-evaluation, analysis, and their interpretation ultimately eliminates weaknesses and gives maintenance to positive achievements (Stronach 1999; Gaber and Kos Kecojevič 2011). According to Sallis (2002), quality is a dynamic concept that is impossible to define in absolute terms, as it can have a variety of meanings. However interdisciplinary seminars, conferences, workshops, symposiums, travelling seminars, and social gathering can prove to be a great advantage by helping the students (Vogrinc and Valenčič Zuljan 2009). An urgent issue relating the quality of the evidence and out thoroughly trust (Marston and Watts 2003; Thomas 2004; Agalianos 2006; Niemi 2008; Hočevar et al. 2013). In an organization successful self-evaluation depends on mutual support, trust, openness, and cooperation among teachers (Hargreaves and Fullan 1992; Vanhoof et al. 2009). The concept of lifelong learning is closely related to professional development (Vidmar 2014). According to MacBeath (2011, p. 361), this implies a paradigm shift from the passive and subordinate role to the active role in which educators, as the first agents of self-evaluation, assume the responsibility for their individual and collective professional development.

Key Benefits of Student Self-Assessment Self-assessments have established to endow with the improvement of academic results. It gives the assessments to follow up the self-assessment as

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well as to learn about the identification of strengths and weaknesses so that it can be overcome with the passage of time, and on the basis of it, new strategies may be devised. The teachers and researchers encouraged such type of activities to involve the chunk of the students in collaborative learning (McDonald 2013; Demore 2017).

Developmental Approach to Self-Assessment This section is concluded with the “developmental approach to self-assessment” proposed by Panadero et al. (2016). There are three premises of this approach. Firstly, the self-assessment, like other competences, needs practice. Secondly, it requires proficiency in the task at hand. Thirdly, it is necessary to consider students’ developmental level. When asked for self-assessment, the students of low ability level tend to overassess themselves, whereas more competent students self-assess as accurately as their teachers do the job of assessing them (Panadero et al. 2016; Peyton 2017). Greater competence level and greater participation in defining the assessment criteria ensure greater precision in the selfassessment for students (Brown and Harris 2013). In order to be self-directed and selfregulated, the students are required to be able to self-assess their work.

Cross-References ▶ Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Quality Control in Higher Education ▶ Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education ▶ Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

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Self-Reflection ▶ Self-Assessment for Students

Self-Understanding ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Serious Games ▶ Future Trends in Education

Site Specific

▶ Informal Workplace Learning

▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

Self-Evaluation

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

▶ Self-Assessment for Students

Anumala Kalyani Siva Sivani Institute of Management, Secunderabad, India

Self-Leadership ▶ Future Trends in Education

Synonyms Competence; Expertise; Intelligence

Self-Monitoring

Definition

▶ Self-Assessment for Students

Skill

Self-Rating ▶ Self-Assessment for Students

An ability to do an activity or job well, especially because you have practiced it (Cambridge Dictionary). Competent excellence in performance, expertness (Thesaurus. com)

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Skill Building

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

A British definition is “the ability to communicate effectively with people in a friendly way, especially in business.” The term people skill is used to include both psychological skills and social skills but is less inclusive than life skills (https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill). A skill is an ability of a person to do a thing or work with expertise. Skill includes two components – first one is Knowledge – what to do? And the second is Habit – experience of how to do? A skill personally improves the efficiency or productivity of a person. It’s no surprise that income differences between skilled and unskilled workers are huge in any economy around the world. Department of Children, Youth & Their Families defines skill building as: “The specific opportunities for young people to develop and master new concepts and skills that will help them be successful in school, in their personal lives, and in future careers.” According to IGI-Global, skillbuilding is an advanced formation or reformation of professional and personal qualities, the mastery of new ways of solving professional problems and new methods of professional thinking, overcoming negative attitudes and the inhibitory influence of past experience, changing the motivational and operational sphere of professional activity, the emergence of the person himself as a subject of further training.

Introduction One third of the working age population in lowand middle-income countries lack the basic skills required to get quality jobs, leaving them unable to achieve their full productive potential and

limiting economic investment and growth. Foundational skills, such as literacy, provide critical scaffolding for young people and are a prerequisite for numeracy, problem-solving, and socioemotional skills. Helping young people develop these skills makes economic sense. Unskilled workers are forced into unemployment or are stuck in unstable low-wage jobs that offer little career mobility or growth. As they age, they become increasingly vulnerable to job losses and labor market shocks. Key Issues Access: Government policies must promote equity in access to education and learning. Across the world, investments in education – from preschool through higher education – have high returns. The wage penalty for low literacy is 9 percentage points in Colombia, Georgia, and Ukraine and 19 percentage points in Ghana. And the opposite is also true: In Brazil, graduates of vocational programs earn wages about 10% higher than those with a general secondary school education. Quality: Many young people attend schools without acquiring basic literacy skills, leaving them unable to compete in the job market. More than 80% of the entire working age population in Ghana and more than 60% in Kenya cannot infer simple information from relatively easy texts. Early dropout: For every 100 students entering primary education, just 35 complete upper secondary school. Catching up later without foundational skills becomes nearly impossible. Indeed, evidence shows that second-chance adult education programs have limited success and onthe-job training usually favors workers with more education and skills. Second-chance programs provide an important opportunity to get lowskilled youth back on track. Cost: Whether a young adult has resources to continue training is a strong predictor of how much education he or she will pursue. In Brazil and the United Sates, the cost of post-secondary education is cited as a top reason for failing to continue in education and training. In many countries, social norms limiting women, minorities, and disenfranchised youth also contribute to the skills challenges.

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

Relevance: Technical and vocational education and training – which can last anywhere from 6 months to 3 years – can give young people, especially women, the skills to compete for better paying jobs. Nevertheless, a wide range of training programs exist, from teaching specific skills to sparking entrepreneurship and more needs to be done to ensure a relevant curriculum. Less than a third of training programs have positive results for earnings and employment and even those that are successful are costly, with returns that rarely justify the investment. Private sector partnerships and workplace training have been important in helping create programs that match the needs of the labor market and teach critical skills.

Global Perspective According to Jennifer D., there is an increasingly diverse, passionate network of educators around the world who are using the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a foundational framework for global education in their classrooms. The following are the six strategies for engaging the sustainable development in the classroom. Explore the intersections between the subjects you teach and the Sustainable Development Goals. It’s surprisingly easy to find connections between the SDGs and every content area we teach in schools, regardless of where students live; in fact, solving global challenges like No Poverty (#1), Quality Education (#4), and the three goals connected to environmental protection and sustainability (#11, #12 and #13) require all of our disciplines in concert. Build deep insights into the Sustainable Development Goals through global and local partnerships that connect students to people experiencing and working on the topics they’re learning about. It can be life-changing for students to meet and ask questions of individuals experiencing the complexities behind the global goals, such as people without access to clean water, girls who are unable to complete their education, communities experiencing armed conflict, or refugees in our local communities. People who live and work from a deep sense of passion and

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purpose are often willing to Skype into classrooms because they want the next generation to become passionate about the very same topics. In fact, SDG #17 focuses on building the partnerships needed to accomplish the other 16 goals. If teachers engage SDG #17 by building partnerships for the classroom, the concept of multilateral solution building will be the natural response of a new generation who have seen that considering multiple perspectives leads to better solutions. Use the Sustainable Development Goals for the development of global competencies and asset-based global citizenship. Working to understand and help solve any one of the SDGs can help develop global competencies in your students, particularly if students partner with other young people in the world. If we want the development of solutions to start from the best ideas of the people experiencing the problems, it is important we do not solve problems we don’t understand for communities we don’t live in. Instead, students should learn from the world they don’t know and solve the one they do. These kinds of global experiences develop the kind of asset-based thinking about global engagement and citizenship that helps build a world of equity, reciprocity, and collaborative development. Connect the Sustainable Development Goals to local issues and challenges as much as global ones, so that they are real and relevant for students. Particularly for younger learners, “global” alignment makes the SDGs less abstract, allowing students to understand how our biggest challenges exist across borders and contexts. Poverty, for example, is an abstract concept, humanized significantly when students meet people facing economic challenges in their own backyards. Doing “glocal” investigation also keeps students from abstracting such issues as someone else’s problem and helps eat away at the “us vs. them” mentality that sees poverty, for example, as an African or Asian challenge. Most of the SDGs are borderless challenges that face all nations across the planet, if in different ways. A project grounded in locally present SDGs also allows for a powerful alignment between global understanding and local action and service, which

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helps students feel less paralyzed and become true protagonists for change in their own communities. Use the Sustainable Development Goals as a framework for student choice and affinity grouping. In classrooms using project-based learning, student choice is an essential feature, and many non-PBL teachers understand the power choice has to increase engagement and achievement. The SDGs provide a meaningful framework for such choice, as students can choose their focus from all or a limited number of content-relevant SDGs – and then teach each other about what they’re learning.

Skill Building Strategies Student Services Success Initiatives (SSSI) recognizes the importance of building skills essential to student success inside the classroom, the workplace, and the community. To this end, skill building is woven into the fabric of SSSI programming. Students who participate in the program will increase their understanding and application of skills in the following areas: Analytical/critical thinking: Students explore multiple ways to solve any given problem and make decisions. They learn how to develop strategies and plans to achieve a desired goal. They are required to support their decisions through logic and must assess how their decisions are affecting the team as well as others. Leadership: Students learn how to motivate others and inspire vision. They are challenged to assign tasks based on strengths and weaknesses of their team, influence ideas, adapt to unexpected changes, solve problems quickly and accurately, and be creative in solving complex issues. Time management: Students learn how to manage their time wisely in order to fulfil academic obligations and goals, ultimately resulting in timely graduation. They also learn how to use time management tools to plan their time based on task priority. Professional: Students learn etiquette, appropriate dress, professional language, and business

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

ethics. In addition, students learn the importance of punctuality, working efficiently and effectively, and operating with a standard of excellence. Communication: Students learn how to effectively listen and appropriately express ideas verbally and in writing. Organizational: They learn to prioritize tasks and are challenged to practically apply organizational skills through utilizing lists, calendars, and other tools. Technology: Students are expected to utilize current technology (Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, basic Internet skills) in preparing academic and organizational projects. Interpersonal: Through a series of tasks, students engage with their peers and program coordinators. They learn how to effectively give and receive constructive criticism while considering the feelings of others, but not compromising the goal.

Types of Skill Skill can be classified in to three types (Fig. 1). They are: • Transferable/functional skills • Personal traits/attitude • Knowledge-based skills Transferable skills – According to Cheary M, transferable skills are a core set of skills and abilities, which can be applied to a wide range of different jobs and industries. Transferable skills usually picked up over time and can be gained from previous positions, charity or voluntary work, or our hobbies or even just at home. Personal traits/attitude – According to Tom Denham (2010), personality traits are distinguishing qualities or characteristics that are the embodiment of an individual. They are our habitual patterns of behavior, temperament, and emotion. Knowledge-based skills – According to skill and career.com (2016), these skills are knowledge we have of specific subjects, procedures, and

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

Trasferable / Functional

Personal Traits / Attitudes

Knowledge based

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• Actions taken to perform a task, transferable to different work functions and industries • Based on ability and aptitude • Expressed in verbs • Examples: Organize, promote, analyze, write

• Traits or personality characteristics that contribute to performing work • Developed in childhood and through life experience • Expressed in adjectives • Examples: Patient, diplomatic, result-oriented, independent • Knowledge of specific subjects, procedures, and information necessary to perform particular tasks • Acquired through education, training, and on-the-job experience • Expressed in nouns • Examples: Personal Administration, contract management, Accounting

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development, Fig. 1 Source: SkillScan (2012)

information necessary to perform particular tasks or group of tasks. These are usually hard skills. Such skills are acquired through education, training, and on-the-job experience.

Why Skill Development? In today’s world of globalization, skill training is an integral component of increasing efficiency and productivity for sound economic development of any economy. In India, skill development is still at a nascent stage; however the demand for skilled manpower is huge and to cover this gap, and it is very pertinent to reengineer the skill ecosystem (Sinha 2017). Availability of high-level skills in the country is critical to drive economic growth and development. Availability of skills in turn is largely dependent on significant improvements in the quality of schooling outcome and a more equitable distribution in learning opportunities. According to Jayashree Patnaik (2015), in today’s age of globalization and technological volatility, skill building is an important instrument to increase the efficacy and quality of labor for improved productivity and economic growth.

Skill building is a powerful tool to empower individuals and improve their acceptance. One third of the working age population in low-and middle-income countries lack the basic skills required to get quality jobs, leaving them unable to achieve their full productive potential and limiting economic investment and growth. According to A. Mahendran (2015), education alone is not needed. For proper execution, skill is necessary. Considering the above it is important to go for skill development. Why Skill Development in India? India – which aspires to be a global power house of economy and trade – should look into what holds it back from becoming one instead of having a huge workforce and around 60% population in the age group of 15–60 years. Around 250 million young people be joining workforce in India by next decade. The level of competition in the future will be so high that people will have to skill multiple times to survive in their field. Indian economy is being diversified from being agrobased to manufacturing and servicebased economy. This has increased the demand for skilled labor.

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Learning and Innovation Skills

• Creativity and Innovation • Critical Thinking and Problem Solving • Communication and Collaboration

Information, Media and Technology Skills

• Information Literacy • Media Literacy • ICT (Information, Communication and Technology) Literacy

Life and Career Skills

• • • • •

Flexibility and Adaptability Initiative and self-Direction Social and Cross-Cultural Skills Productivity and Accountability Leadership and Responsibility

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development, Fig. 2 Twenty-first Century Skills. Source: p21.org (2015), Compiled by author

Much of India’s workforce is already hampered with outdated and irrelevant skills. As technology continues to surge, both blue- and white-collar jobs will become increasingly sparse. Skill building must be complemented by economic growth and employment opportunities to meet the rising aspirations of youth. The challenge lies not only in a huge quantitative expansion of facilities for skill training but also in raising their quality. India can then become the global sourcing hub for skilled employees. In order to successfully compete in today’s economy, Murnane and Levy emphasize that the following are necessary: • Young people must be able to identify the problem at hand. • Young people must have the incentives and opportunities to solve the problem at hand. • Young people must have the skills and training necessary to pursue the solutions effectively. • Young people must know how to learn from and use mistakes as a learning tool. Role of Skill Building Skill building increases the productivity which in turn increases the wages or payment of the

employee, which ultimately leads to the economic growth of the country or nation. Skill-building activities help an individual learn decisionmaking, interpersonal, community integration, and functional skills. Building such skills and supports helps individual achieve social integration, optimal health, and role productivity (Lyman et al. 2014).

Twenty-First Century Skills A list of skills necessary for young people to develop in order to achieve a positive transition to young adulthood are listed by the Partnership for twenty-first century Learning (Fig. 2). They are: Learning and Innovation Skills Creativity and Innovation

Creativity and innovation includes the following: • Think creatively – Use a wide range of idea creation techniques (such as brainstorming). – Create new and worthwhile ideas (both incremental and radical concepts).

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

– Elaborate, refine, analyze, and evaluate their own ideas in order to improve and maximize creative efforts. • Work creatively with others – Develop, implement, and communicate new ideas to others effectively. – Be open and responsive to new and diverse perspectives; incorporate group input and feedback into the work. – Demonstrate originality and inventiveness in work, and understand the real-world limits to adopting new ideas. – View failure as an opportunity to learn; understand that creativity and innovation is a long-term, cyclical process of small success and frequent mistakes. • Implement innovations – Act on creative ideas to make a tangible and useful contribution to the field in which the innovation will occur. Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving

Critical thinking and problem-solving includes the following: • Reason effectively – Use various types of reasoning (inductive, deductive, etc.) as appropriate to the situation. • Use systems thinking – Analyze how parts of a whole interact with each other to produce over all outcomes in complex systems. • Make judgments and decisions – Effectively analyze and evaluate evidence, arguments, claims, and beliefs. – Analyze and evaluate major alternative points of view. – Synthesize and make connections between information and arguments. – Interpret information and draw conclusions based on the best analysis. – Reflect critically on learning experiences and processes. • Solve problems – Solve different kinds of non-familiar problems in both conventional and innovative ways.

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– Identify and ask significant questions that clarify various points of view and lead to better solutions. Communication and Collaboration

Communication and Collaboration Includes the Following: • Communicate clearly – Articulate thoughts and ideas effectively using oral, written and nonverbal communication skills in a variety of forms and contexts. – Listen effectively to decipher meaning, including knowledge, values, attitudes, and intentions. – Use communication for a range of purposes (e.g., to inform, instruct, motivate, and persuade). – Utilize multiple media and technologies, and know how to judge their effectiveness a priori as well as assess their impact. – Communicate effectively in diverse environments (including multilingual). • Collaborate with others – Demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with diverse teams. – Exercise flexibility and willingness to be helpful in making necessary compromises to accomplish a common goal. – Assume shared responsibility for collaborative work, and value the individual contributions made by each team member. Information, Media, and Technology Skills People in the twenty-first century live in a technology and media-stuffed environment. To be effective in the twenty-first century, citizens and workers must be able to exhibit a range of functional and critical thinking skills related to information, media, and technology. Information Literacy

• Access and evaluate information – Access information efficiently (time) and effectively (sources). – Evaluate information critically and competently.

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• Use and manage information – Use information accurately and creatively for the issue or problem at hand. – Manage the flow of information from a wide variety of sources. – Apply a fundamental understanding of the ethical/legal issues surrounding the access and use of information. Media Literacy

• Analyze media – Understand both how and why media messages are constructed and for what purposes. – Examine how individuals interpret messages differently, how values and points of view are included or excluded, and how media can influence beliefs and behaviors. – Apply a fundamental understanding of the ethical/legal issues surrounding the access and use of media. • Create media products – Understand and utilize the most appropriate media creation tools, characteristics, and conventions. – Understand and effectively utilize the most appropriate expressions and interpretations in diverse, multicultural environments. ICT (Information, Communication, and Technology) Literacy

• Apply technology effectively – Use technology as a tool to research, organize, evaluate, and communicate information. – Use digital technologies (computers, PDAs, media players, GPS, etc.), communication/networking tools, and social networks appropriately to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information to successfully function in a knowledge economy. – Apply a fundamental understanding of the ethical/legal issues surrounding the access and use of information technologies. • Collaborate with others – Demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with diverse teams.

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

– Exercise flexibility and willingness to be helpful in making necessary compromises to accomplish a common goal. – Assume shared responsibility for collaborative work, and value the individual contributions made by each team member. Life and Career Skills Today’s life and work environment require far more than thinking skills and content knowledge. Life and career skills include the following: Flexibility and Adaptability

• Adapt to change – Adapt to varied roles, job responsibilities, schedules, and context. – Work effectively in a climate of ambiguity and changing priorities. • Be flexible – Incorporate feedback effectively. – Deal positively with praise, setbacks, and criticism. – Understand, negotiate, and balance diverse views and beliefs to reach workable solutions, particularly in multicultural environments. Initiative and Self-Direction

• Manage goals and time – Set goals with tangible and intangible success criteria. – Balance tactical (short-term) and strategic (long-term) goals. – Utilize time and manage workload efficiently. • Work independently – Monitor, define, prioritize, and complete tasks without direct oversight. • Be self-directed learners – Go beyond the basic mastery of skills and/or curriculum to explore and expand one’s own learning and opportunities to gain expertise. – Demonstrate initiative to advance skill levels toward a professional level. – Demonstrate commitment to learning as a lifelong process. – Reflect critically on past experience in order to inform future progress.

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

Social and Cross-Cultural Skills

• Interact effectively with others – Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak. – Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner. • Work effectively in diverse teams – Respect cultural difference and work effectively with people from a range of social and cultural backgrounds. – Respond open-mindedly to different ideas and values. – Leverage social and cultural differences to create new ideas and increase both innovation and quality of work. Productivity and Accountability

• Manage projects – Set and meet goals, even in the face of obstacles and competing pressure. – Prioritize, plan, and manage work to achieve the intended result. • Produce results – Demonstrate additional attributes associated with producing high-quality products. Leadership and Responsibility

• Guide and lead others – Use interpersonal and problem-solving skills to influence and guide others toward a goal. – Leverage strengths of others to accomplish a common goal. – Inspire others to reach their very best via example and selflessness. – Demonstrate integrity and ethical behavior in using influence and power. • Be responsible to others – Act responsibly with the interests of the larger community in mind. Soft skills such as interpersonal communication, business ethics, effective presentations, e-mail etiquette, self-awareness, persistence, confidence, self-motivation, trustworthiness, adaptability, and a talent for collaboration now weigh higher importance and can no longer be ignored. The need for the SDGs is challenges born largely out of our collective history of racism,

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colonization, and inequitable thinking. They supersede borders and nations, though some nations are certainly more at fault for creating these problems to begin with. Borderless problems require borderless solutions and intercultural collaboration on deep levels. To turn inquiry into action, schools must find ways to connect their students to the world, to create spaces for collaborative solution building and real participation that start from an asset lens about what all voices bring to the table. From the youngest student to the most experienced teacher, from the most marginalized to the most empowered, we all have an opportunity to become protagonists in reshaping and rebuilding our communities and our collective planet. The question is no longer if you want your classroom to connect to the world; the question now is simply when. India is a skilled country with various innovations reaching out in every field. But going by the present scenario, technology is given more importance than skills (Bose 2017). Increasing the access to education is important; the actual goal of providing schooling is to teach skills and transfer knowledge to students in the classroom. According to EFA Global Monitoring Report (2005), a more educated society may translate into higher rates of innovation, higher overall productivity, and faster introduction of new technology. “Education is one of the basic needs for human development and to escape from poverty” (Sivakumar and Sarvalingam 2010); it is necessary for national development and a prosperous society. Education provides a pool of general cognitive and occupational expertise, and in some cases, specific vocational skills, from which firms can draw the workers they need (Hulten 2018). Recent studies identified the dimensions of quality higher education as quality of students, faculty credentials, academic features, and administrative supports (Akareem and Hossain 2012; Ashraf et al. 2009). The study of Akareem and Hossain (2012) identified that students’ characteristics, such as current status and socioeconomic background, influence perception of higher education quality. Environmental factors such as social, economic, and cultural influences can also play vital roles (Akareem and Hossain 2012).

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According to Rahman and Uddin (2009), parents’ education, their income, attitude, and present examination system affect the education of children. Participatory methods allow all participants (including the facilitator) equal opportunities to listen to, learn from, each other and can appeal to different learning styles. They include self-guided and experiential learning (learning by doing) and are based on the natural processes by which children acquire knowledge, attitudes, skills, and ultimately behavior. Life skills-based education enhances the quality of content by addressing issues relevant to the lives of learners, both boys and girls. Improving quality education and access to job training that equips workers with a diverse skill set would increase the employment opportunities across all education levels and promote economic growth. Objectives • To improve the quality of basic education particularly underperforming schools and schools in rural areas • To develop appropriate labor market skill sets • To increase the access to job training programs which will expedite a reduction in the skill gap in Botswana to diversify its economy, facilitate a stronger, more sustainable economic and employment growth, and equip its workforce with a variety of skill sets that meet employer needs insisting on participatory and gender – sensitive teaching and learning methods According to a study conducted by Harold C. Levine et al. (1980), the students are required to do seven out-of-class assignments. These are briefly described below: 1. “Sudden shock” exercise: During the first hour of class time at the second class meeting, students are sent out into the surrounding community and told to take notes on what they see. This is meant to be confusing; but it is also intended to suddenly immerse students in a field situation, to acquaint them with some

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

of the problems integral to fieldwork, and to introduce them to the need for making typical decisions regarding their conduct in the field. The exercise is discussed in the second half of the class meeting. The notes taken during the exercise are collected, but no formal written report is required as with subsequent exercises. Narrative writing: Students select some aspect of their subjects’ behavior and record it using two distinct styles holistic and “radical empiricist.” Role management: Students are required to describe real and/or anticipated role management issues at their chosen field sites, such as level(s) of “participation” required or desired, entry problems, and problems of rapport with informants and/or gatekeepers. Coding, classifying, and indexing: Field notes collected at the research site are formatted, and a tentative data indexing system must be developed and applied. Interviewing: Students must use one of four possible interview styles with one or more informants at the field site. Participant-observation research report: This is the final field project of the quarter and is designed to make use of the skills already learned and data already collected. The student selects a particular topic or research hypothesis for more focused observation, collects additional data as needed using appropriate skills, and writes a report on this. While the other assignments are of relatively short duration (usually 7–10 days between start-up and completion), this report takes approximately 3 weeks. Class diary: Diary entries are made after each class session and each field site visit. These are to help the students understand and assess their roles as fieldworkers and document their emotional involvement with and reactivity to their “subjects” and field setting. They also assist in an end-of-quarter review of the course.

It’s not enough to focus on average outcomes to assess challenges in education quality (Max Roser et al.).

Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development

Conclusion 1. Skilling and reskilling not only youth but also older “educated” population is required. 2. Solutions-based approach of trainers, where training is provided with proper case studies, is required. 3. Skill training or vocational education should be treated as complementary to mainstream education rather than separating it completely. 4. Ensure that electricians, plumbers, agrimachine operators, and other skilled workers upgrade their skills from time to time. 5. Educational institutes which push out graduates should provide education which is industry focused and not just theoretical approach. 6. Corporate social responsibility, which is to be followed by big companies, should focus on skill development, and such funds are to be properly utilized. 7. Women, marginalized sections, people from remote areas are to be trained and should not be excluded from any developmental programs in the country. 8. Skill programs are endpoint of employability, and education system is primary incubator which is lacking in India. 9. Finally, skill development programs should be avenues for increased (i) production, (ii) productivity, (iii) technology use, (iv) employability (in organized sector), and (v) gross domestic product.

Cross-References ▶ Quality Control in Higher Education ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education ▶ Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

References Akareem HS, Hossain SS (2012) Perception of education quality in private universities of Bangladesh: a study from students’ perspective. J Mark High Educ 22(1): 11–33

779 Ashraf MA, Ibrahim Y, Joarder MH (2009) Quality education management at private universities in Bangladesh: an exploratory study. J Pendidik dan Pendidikan 24:17–32 Bose R (2017) 21st century models of digitization in education and skills training. http://www.franhttpschise india.com/education/21st-century-Models-of-Digitiza tion-in-Education-and-Skills-Training.9522 Cheary M. What are transferable skills? https://www.reed. co.uk/career-advice/what-are-transferable-skills/ Denham T (2010) The 10 most important personality traits for career success. https://blog.timesunion.com/careers/ the-10-most-important-personality-traits-for-career-su ccess/633/ http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework/266-life-andcareer-skills http://www.p21.org/news-events/p21blog/2282-building-abetter-world-six-strategies-for-engaging-the-sustainabledevelopment-goals-in-the-classroom https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/invariable-structureof-research-competence-of-adult-learners-in-skill-build ing-programs/62100 Hulten C (2018) Importance of education and skill development for economic growth in the information era. https://www.nber.org/chapters/c13937.pdf Levine HC, Gallimore R, Weisner TS, Turner J (1980) Teaching participant-observation research methods: a skills-building approach. https://www.jstor.org/stable/ 3216611 Lyman DR, Kurtz MM et al (2014) Skill building: assessing the evidence. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi. ps.201300251 Mahendran A (2015) Education, skill development impact on economic growth in India. https://www.thehans india.com/posts/index/Hans/2015-09-16/EducationSkill-Development-impact-on-Economic-Growth-inIndia/176280 Patnaik J (2015) Why skill development is necessary for India? https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-skill-deve lopment-necessary-india-jayashree-patnaik Rahman AU, Uddin S (2009) Statistical analysis of different socio economic factors affecting education of NW. FP (Pakistan). J Appl Quant Methods 4(1):88–94 Sinha A (2017) Importance of skills training in Today’s education ecosystem. https://www.franchiseindia.com/ education/Importance-of-Skills-Training-in-Today-sEducation-Ecosystem.9151 Sivakumar M, Sarvalingam A (2010) Human deprivation index: a measure of multidimensional poverty. Available at https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/22337/1/ MPRA_paper_22337.pdf Skill Building. Available at https://reachmilitaryfamilies. umn.edu/prodev/lm/pyd/skill-building Skillandcareer.com (2016) What are knowledge-based skills. http://skillandcareer.com/what-are-knowledgebased-skills/ Skillscan (2012) Three types of skills classification. https:// www.skillscan.com/sites/default/files/Three%20Types %20of%20Skills%20Classification.pdf

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Skills

Introduction

Skills ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Smart City ▶ Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

Social Inclusion and Equal Access to High-Quality, Inclusive Education Shiralee Poed Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia

Synonyms Access on the same basis; Equality of opportunity; Equitable outcomes; Equitable provisions

Definition Equal access to education is achieved when all children have not just the opportunity to attend early childhood education programs, schools, and technical, vocational, and higher education, but they are also provided with a quality education program in these settings on the same basis as all other learners. Equal access extends to learners with a disability or a health condition; those who live in rural, remote, and isolated areas; traveler children; indigenous learners; those who experience poverty; children who are homeless or in out-of-home care; those that are displaced or live in locations experiencing conflict; learners who are pregnant or parenting; learners who are marginalized due to their race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, gender, or identity; those who are carers; and other learners who are vulnerable within their community.

In 2016, member states of the United Nations endorsed 17 Sustainable Development Goals [SDG], with 169 indicators, designed to ensure a sustainable, inclusive, resilient future for the planet and its people through economic growth, environmental protection, and social inclusion (Raikes et al. 2017; United Nations 2015). At the heart of social inclusion lies one simple concept: equal access. Built on the principle of nondiscrimination, equal access means that all societal members have the same access to services and supports. Among other things, equal access leads to stronger societal participation, better health care, greater personal and professional mobility, access to employment thereby increased wealth, improved decision-making capacity and greater voice, as well as increased autonomy (Stanford University Center for the Study of Language and Information 2017). As early as the 1950s, the concept of equal access has been fought for; “In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if [he] is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which much be made available to all on equal terms . . .” (Brown v. Board of Education 1954). Globally, vulnerable members of society have sought equal access in the following areas: • • • • • • • • • • •

Education Employment Income Community and family services Justice and support to exercise legal capacity Affordable housing, independent living, and basic necessities such as water, nutrition, hygiene, energy, and sanitation Transportation The built environment, premises, and facilities within buildings Information and materials including those available through digital technologies Medical and health services including those that promote reproductive rights Services such as interpreters, orientation, and mobility instructors (Della Fina 2015;

Social Inclusion and Equal Access to High-Quality, Inclusive Education

García-Moreno et al. 2015; Parashar 2010; Poed 2018a; Pongiglione 2015; UNICEF 2017; Watson 2016) When there are disparities in access for some members of society, the global pursuit for equality is affected. The United Nations (2017) considers access to a quality education is the key that will break the poverty cycle enabling all citizens to live peaceful, productive, healthy, and sustainable lives. Just as “teaching is the profession on which all other professions depend” (Darling-Hammond 2018), education is the field upon which the successful achievement

Framework The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations 1948) The Declaration of Child Rights (UNICEF 1959)

World Declaration on Education for All and Framework for Meeting Basic Education Needs (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 1990) Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Education (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 1994) Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations 2000)

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of all of the other Sustainable Development Goals rests (Vladimirova and Le Blanc 2015).

Access to Education for All Learners Within the field of education, the right to equal access has been defined and entrenched in a number of key frameworks, and beliefs and practices supporting equal access have evolved over time (Poed 2018a; Strnadová et al. 2015). Equal access, or synonyms of this concept, has been articulated in the following frameworks as shown:

Statement supporting equal access to education Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (Article 21[2]) The child is entitled to receive education, which shall be free and compulsory, at least in the elementary stages. He shall be given an education which will promote his general culture and enable him, on a basis of equal opportunity, to develop his abilities, his individual judgement, and his sense of moral and social responsibility, and to become a useful member of society. (Principle 7) These complementary components of basic education need to be designed to ensure equitable access, sustained participation and effective learning achievement. (Pinpoint Reference 10) Special attention should be given to ensuring equality of access and opportunity for girls and women with disabilities. (Pinpoint Reference 19) States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular: (a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all; (b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, make them available and accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures such as the introduction of free education and offering financial assistance in case of need; (c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every appropriate means; (d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance available and accessible to all children; (e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of drop-out rates. (Article 28) (continued)

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Framework Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and Optional Protocol (United Nations 2006) Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 2016a).

Statement supporting equal access to education To ensure that children with disabilities have equal access with other children to participation in play, recreation and leisure and sporting activities, including those activities in the school system. (Article 30 [5][d]) By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university. (Goal 4.3) By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations. (Goal 4.5) By 2030, education systems will need to enrol hundreds of millions of additional children and adolescents to achieve basic education (that is, pre-primary, primary and lower secondary education) for all as well as provide equal access to upper secondary and post-secondary education opportunities for all. (p. 25, pinpoint Reference 6) Education is a fundamental human right and an enabling right. To fulfil this right, countries must ensure universal equal access to inclusive and equitable quality education and learning, which should be free and compulsory, leaving no one behind. (p. 28)

The Dakar Framework for Action. Paris (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 2016b)

General Comment Number 4 (United Nations 2015)

Furthermore, education facilities will be upgraded and investment in STEM education increased; technical, vocational and tertiary education and training will be enhanced, ensuring equal access for women and girls and encouraging their participation therein; and the number of scholarships available to students in developing countries to enrol in higher education will be increased. (p. 69) Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. (Commitment 7v) The learning needs of the disabled demand special attention. Steps need to be taken to provide equal access to education to every category of disabled persons as an integral part of the education system. (Article 3[5]) In line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, States parties must progressively adopt measures to ensure that all children, including children with disabilities, complete free, equitable and quality secondary education and to ensure equal access for all women and men with disabilities to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university, and lifelong learning. (Pinpoint Reference 24) In line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, States parties must progressively adopt measures to ensure that all children, including children with disabilities, complete free, equitable and quality secondary education and to ensure equal access for all women and men with disabilities to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university, and lifelong learning. (Pinpoint Reference 38)

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In sum, international frameworks have sought equal access and opportunity to quality learning experiences across all levels of the education system, specifically for students who are marginalized. As the UN now turns its attention to sustainable development, the role of education as a critical agent of transformation in the lives of marginalized and vulnerable students is irrefutable (Bansal 2017).

Equity of Educational Access The concept of equal access is grounded in principles of equity and is frequently likened to fairness or justness which, when applied to education, aims to enable all individuals to have access to a wide range of quality educational experiences (Chen 2015; Graham and Macartney 2012; Parashar 2010; Shaw 2016). Foreman (2017) reminds us that equity, social justice, and human rights are the underlying principles that shape our beliefs around the educational rights of all students, in particular those who are vulnerable or marginalized. Schools, as suggested by Ball (2013), are “an expression of humanity and a demarcation of the limits of humanity – who was and was not educable, of value, worth investing in” (p. 48). Reports measuring the equity of access to education reveal that globally there are still millions of children not attending schools simply due to factors such as poverty, disability or another vulnerable profile, gender, or location (Ilie and Rose 2016; UNICEF 2016, 2017). Further, UNICEF revealed significant disparities in the quality of educational experiences for students who attend schools, with students from the wealthiest background having “access to up to 18 times more public educational resources, including textbooks and other materials, than students from the poorest households” (UNICEF 2016, p. 97). Slee (2018) refers to this as the “division of schools according to postcodes of privilege and disadvantage” (p. 12). Setting equity of access to education and learning as the central goal for all education systems

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helps guide educational reform, ensuring the needs of the worlds’ most disadvantaged children are not overlooked (UNICEF 2016, p. 65). To achieve equity in education, Hyde (2017) proposed consideration of the following four questions: 1. Do all individuals or groups have the same chance of progressing to a particular level in the education system and beyond? 2. Do all individuals enjoy equivalent learning conditions? 3. Do all students develop the skills and knowledge that are designated as the goals of the educational system? 4. Once they have left the education system, do individuals or groups have the same chances of using their acquired skills and knowledge to realize their potential in society? (p. 6) Researchers, policymakers, and educators require a clear understanding of the distinction between the concepts of equity and equality. There may be some confusion, especially those in secondary, vocational, and higher education, that all students should be offered equal opportunities and that offering advantage to redress disadvantage both places an unjustifiable hardship on schools and higher education institutions and diminishes the academic integrity of the credential awarded to the student (Poed 2016). To avoid this, Graham and Macartney (2012) offer a clear explanation of the difference between equity of access and equality of access. Say we have eight people around a table. Equality demands we cut the cake into eight equal shares. Of those eight people, however, two may be very young children who could not possibly eat as large a slice of cake as the adults sitting at that table. Two others may be refugees from a famine-torn country who have had little to eat for a long time. They could very well benefit from a larger slice of cake than one-eighth would allow. It may not be treating people equally to give them unequal shares of cake but, according to Aristotle, it would be equitable, and it would be just (p. 191).

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Equal Access Through Inclusive Education Globally, inclusive education has been embraced as the key strategy for ensuring equal access to education for all learners (Boyle et al. 2015; Forlin et al. 2015). Carrington (2017) reminds us that, rather than being a progression from segregated education for vulnerable populations, inclusive education settings require a fundamental shift in structures and practices to support the inclusion of children who have been traditionally excluded from the mainstream. Hehir et al. (2016) acknowledge that access to a high-quality, inclusive education is still a challenge for many students, despite the substantive evidence that an inclusive education confers significant and lasting benefits to all learners. For the goal of high-quality inclusive education to be realized, funds must be equitably allocated to support the needs of all learners (All Means All 2017; Mitchell 2017). Mitchell (2017) suggests that equity of resourcing can occur horizontally, in which all students with similar needs or characteristics are resourced equally, or vertically, whereby students are differentially funded in relation to needs. But, as Sharma et al. (2015a) remind us, “concomitant with introducing a new funding model must lie an agreed upon process for measuring the effectiveness of the use of this funding by viewing the impact that it makes on improving student learning” (p. 27).

The Importance of Equal Access to Education Equal access to education, particularly secondary education, is a powerful enabler for entering the labor market and has been shown to both reduce the gap between low- and high-income earners and increase income share particularly for children from low socioeconomic backgrounds (Abdullah et al. 2015; Cars and West 2015). Additionally, equal access to education enables

full participation within society (Kim 2013). UNICEF (2016) notes that “disparities in access to quality education are among the most powerful determinants of income disparities because of the effect learning and skills have on productivity, wages and employment” (p. 54).

Barriers to Equal Access Charged with the responsibility of leading the agenda for Sustainable Development Goal 4, UNESCO (2017) stated that “the ultimate objective is to create system-wide change for overcoming barriers to quality educational access, participation, learning processes and outcomes, and to ensure that all learners are valued and engaged equally” (p. 10). Despite international legislation supporting equal access to education, for many students, barriers to achieving this goal persist globally despite their desire to attend (Kim 2013; Sharma et al. 2015b). Significant educational transformation is needed to redress the barriers that prevent equal access, with “a significant mobilization of resources” (Pongiglione 2015, p. 37). Some of the barriers that contribute to unequal educational access include: • Political, legal, cultural, and attitudinal including implicit bias, prejudice, and resistance to change (Cologon 2015; Hatoss and Huijser 2010; Malaquias 2017; UNICEF 2013; Slee 2018) • Long-held assumptions about the design and organization of schools, infrastructure, buildings and curricula, and resourcing (Hehir et al. 2016; Slee 2018) • Lack of transportation, uniforms, textbooks, learning materials, inadequate nutrition, uncertain living arrangements, and social isolation which can all contribute to poor learning trajectories and increased risk of dropping out (Ann 2018; Biggs et al. 2013; Lewis 2012)

Social Inclusion and Equal Access to High-Quality, Inclusive Education

• Challenges to enrolment, including procedural red tape as well as gatekeeping or forced enrolment in special or segregated settings or programs, rather than inclusive education settings and programs (Cera 2015; Poed et al. 2017; Poed 2018b) • Increased accountability for, and scrutiny of, students’ achievement of educational outcomes, in a climate that celebrates achievement and excellence which in turn further marginalizes children who might tarnish a school’s academic excellence (Conway and Walker 2017; Keddie and Churchill 2016; Poed 2011; Slee 2018) Digital technologies, when universally leveraged, can open up access to information and knowledge through increased inclusive pedagogy (de Freitas et al. 2015; McGhie-Richmond and De Bruin 2015; UNICEF 2017). There is some perception that through open digital access “not only will access to educational resources be generally improved, i.e. more people will be using educational resources, but also that inequalities will be reduced, i.e. people who previously had no access to education will now get access” (Rohs and Ganz 2015, p. 1). However, there is also a risk that the current digital divide that exists due to socioeconomic circumstance and educational opportunity may widen as digital learning increases, further disadvantaging the world’s most vulnerable children (UNICEF 2017). These disparities are caused lack of affordable technology and assistive technology, poor infrastructure and connectivity, connectivity costs, the cost and quality of the educational content and its compliance with accessibility standards, familiarity and confidence with technology resulting in poor digital literacy by students and teachers, limited training to use digital technology, concerns regarding the dangers arising from using technology (identity theft, privacy breaches, access to inappropriate content, cyberbullying, addictiveness concerns), gender and social barriers (UNICEF 2017).

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Overcoming the Barriers: Equal Access Within Multitiered Systems of Support (MTSS) In realizing the goal of equal access to education, it is useful for educators to consider this goal through the lens of multitiered systems of support. MTSS is framework that allows education systems to proactively “prioritize instructional resources and time so that, ideally, all students would access instruction and demonstrate improved outcomes” (Arden and Pentimonti 2017, p. 19). Multitiered systems of support, such as Positive Behavior Interventions and Support (PBIS) and Response to Intervention (RtI), are based on three-tiered models of preventionoriented intervention. PBIS is “a framework or approach comprised of intervention practices and organizational systems for establishing the social culture, learning and teaching environment, and individual behaviour supports needed to achieve academic and social success for all students” (Sugai et al. 2010, p. 13). RtI is “the practice of providing high quality instruction and interventions matched to student need, monitoring progress frequently to make decisions about changes in instruction or goals and applying student response data to important educational decisions” (Kurns and Tilly 2008, p. 1). PBIS and RtI are strongly aligned, with MTSS considered the model that braids these two frameworks together (Eagle et al. 2015). PBIS and RtI share common core features at each tier of intervention, designed to enhance educational access. These common features include high-quality classroom management and instruction and early identification through screening followed by collaborative decisionmaking with regard to who might benefit from additional supports (Dunlaney et al. 2013). At the first tier, known as the primary or universal tier, data on student performance (learning, behavioral, emotional, and social) is evaluated to ensure that all students have, initially, equal access to quality instruction matched to their needs (Arden and Pentimonti 2017). Gamm

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et al. (2012) suggest that within an effective MTSS framework, the principles of Universal Design for Learning would enhance equal access for all students. At the second tier, known as the secondary or targeted tier, interventions are provided to groups of students who have been identified, through screening, as requiring additional learning, behavioral, emotional, and/or social supports (Arden and Pentimonti 2017). These students are then monitored more closely to determine the impact of these interventions on the desired goals. Finally, at the third tier, known as the tertiary or intensive tier, wraparound interventions are offered to students for who tier 2 interventions proved ineffective or insufficient. Early learning centers, schools, and postschool educational settings using MTSS implement evidence-based cultural and structural changes to improve educational access for all learners (Hayes and Lillenstein 2015). Using an MTSS lens shifts the focus from identifying the needs of students for the purposes of containment in segregated classes/settings to a focus on early detection so that interventions can be targeted to support learners to achieve on the same basis alongside their peers, thereby providing equal access to education.

Summary Despite the long-enshrined view that equal access, particularly to education, is a protected human right, there still remain significant barriers to achieving an education system that is inclusive of our most vulnerable learners. Equal educational access requires education systems globally to identify barriers to education for any child, at every level of education, and to take active steps to remove these barriers. In doing so, not only are there significant long-term benefits for the child, but there are valuable benefits for society. Benner et al. (2013) propose the use of prevention science models such as MTSS by education settings has the potential to achieve equal access and close gaps in educational attainment. With the long-standing international commitments toward

equal access for all learners, education settings globally have an obligation to ensure that those that live within their neighborhood have equitable educational opportunities so that they achieve all of the known benefits associated with equal access to education.

Cross References ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities

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Distributed Learning, 16(6). Athabasca University Press. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/ 171366/ Sharma U, Forlin C, Furlonger B (2015a) Contemporary models of funding inclusive education for students with autism spectrum disorder: a report commissioned by the Program for Students with Disabilities (PSD) review unit of the Department of Education and Training for the State of Victoria. https://www.educa tion.vic.gov.au/Documents/about/department/psdlitrev iew_FundingInclusiveEducationforStudentswithASD. pdf Sharma U, Simi J, Forlin C (2015b) Preparedness of preservice teachers for inclusive education in the Solomon Islands. Aust J Teach Educ 40(5):103–116 Shaw K (2016) Historical insights into teaching. In: Churchill R, Godinho S, Johnson NF, Keddie A, Letts W, Lowe K, MacKay J, McGill M, Moss J, Nagel MC, Shaw K, Ferguson P, Nicholson P, Vick M (eds) Teaching: making a difference, 3rd edn. Wiley, Milton, pp 36–75 Slee R (2018) Inclusive education isn’t dead: It just smells funny. Routledge, Milton Park Stanford University Center for Study of Language and Information (2017) Equality of educational opportunity. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/equaled-opportunity/ Strnadová I, Hájková V, Květoňova L (2015) Voices of university students with disabilities: inclusive education on the tertiary level – a reality or a distant dream? Int J Incl Educ 19(10):1080–1095. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13603116.2015.1037868 Sugai G, Horner RH, Algozzine R, Barrett S, Lewis T, Anderson C, Simonsen B (2010) Schoolwide positive behavior support: implementers’ blueprint and selfassessment. https://www.pbis.org/common/cms/files/p bisresources/SWPBS_ImplementationBlueprint_vSep_ 23_2010.pdf UNICEF (1959) Declaration on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Edu cation/Training/Compilation/Pages/1Declarationofthe RightsoftheChild(1959).aspx UNICEF (2013) The state of the world’s children 2013: children with disabilities. Retrieved from https://www. unicef.org/sowc2013/files/SWCR2013_ENG_Lo_res_ 24_Apr_2013.pdf UNICEF (2016) The state of the world’s children 2016: a fair chance for every child. https://www.unicef.org/pub lications/files/UNICEF_SOWC_2016.pdf UNICEF (2017) The state of the world’s children 2017: children in a digital world. Retrieved from https:// www.unicef.org/publications/files/SOWC_2017_ENG_ WEB.pdf United Nations (1948) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/ universal-declaration-human-rights/

Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality United Nations (2000) Conventions on the Rights of the Child (CROC). Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/ en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx United Nations (2006) Conventions on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Retrieved from http://www.un. org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml United Nations (2015) Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Retrieved from https://www.un.org/sustainable development/ United Nations (2017) Quality education: why it matters. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelop ment/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Goal-4.pdf United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (1990) The world declaration on education for all. Paper presented at the the world conference on education for all, Jomtien, Thailand United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (1994) The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. Paper presented at the world conference on special needs education: access and Quality, Salamanca, Spain United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2016a) Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4. Retreived from https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2016b) The Dakar Framework for Action. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000121147 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2017) A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. Retrieved from https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000248254 Vladimirova K, Le Blanc D (2015) How well are the links between education and other sustainable development goals covered in UN flagship reports? A contribution of the science-policy interface on education in the UN system. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/esa/desa/ papers/2015/wp146_2015.pdf Watson J (2016) Assumptions of decision-making capacity: The role supporter attitudes play in the realisation of Article 12 for people with severe or profound intellectual disability [Electronic Article]. Laws 5(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/laws5010006

Socially Just ▶ Financial Literacy Education: Toward Reasonable, Just, and Sustainable Practices

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Socratic Dialogue ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

Sophistication ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality Satine Winter College of Arts, Society and Education, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Mt Gravatt, Brisbane, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia

Synonyms Additional needs; Exceptionality; Inclusive education; Learning difficulties/disabilities; Special needs; Students with special needs/disabilities

Definitions Special education refers to the educating of students with special needs by specialist teachers in special schools or mainstream schools. The difference between the two educational settings is that special schools offer segregated settings and students are educated solely by specialist teachers, whereas mainstream schools offer segregated, integrated, or inclusive settings and students are educated by regular or specialist teachers. Special education is typically associated with educating

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students who have disabilities ranging from mild to severe and may include students with learning difficulties also known as learning disabilities. Special education also covers the area of gifted and talented education and students who are identified as twice-exceptional (i.e., disability and gifted). Special education covers a range of exceptionalities and varying abilities, including disabilities, and varies across the world according to legislative or policy requirements and definitions of disability. Some of the disabilities include specific learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, intellectual disability or mental retardation, mental health, multiple or severe disabilities, hearing impairments, physical impairments, visual impairments, and autism spectrum disorders. From herein, the term “students with special needs” is used interchangeably with “students with disabilities,” “students with additional needs,” and “students who are gifted and talented.”

Introduction Special education is influenced by changes in philosophical understandings of disability and the role of disabled people within society and shaped by social, economic, cultural, and political reforms over time. The early beginnings of special education emerge in care settings through charity, religion, and institutions and combine with work settings to then transform into formal public education systems. Reforms to the disability sector and special education are argued on the basis of morality, values, social justice, and human rights and challenged through advocacy, legislation, policy, research, and practice. Key debates in special education include conceptual understandings of disability, language and labeling, placement, inclusion/exclusion, cost and funding, assessment, curriculum instruction, and behavior management.

A Timeline of Special Education The field of special education is not new. Special education unfolds and maps against

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historical events and movements encapsulating the oppression or empowerment of people with disabilities. The timeline of special education is influenced by discourses of rights, equality, and social justice and progresses back and forth along a continuum of segregation, integration, and inclusion in educational settings. Providing a comprehensive history of special education is difficult due to the enormity of the areas to be covered and complicated by a lack of sufficient data, evidence, or research (Winzer 1993). Prior to the seventeenth century, the early origins of special education emerged through separate and individual instructional approaches (e.g., oralism, an alternative to sign language) that coincided with philosophical, cultural, and societal changes to the viewing of disability and for a more equally just society (Salend and Duhaney 2011). In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the focus on children with disabilities was humanitarian and provided through care and benevolence by charity organizations, churches, and institutions (Salend and Duhaney 2011; Winzer 1993). In some areas of society, children with disabilities were segregated and educated in the home by families or cared for in an institution. Alternatively, children with disabilities were included in the workforce and employed, trained, and educated by employers who were keen to expand their workforce. This industrialization of the workforce aligned with core values of routine, order, productivity, morality, discipline, and social worth, which Armstrong (2002) suggested is evident in special education today and traceable back to this period of industrialization. In the nineteenth century, segregation of children with disabilities continued, and the responsibility of care shifted from the family to charity organizations and placement in specialized settings or schools for children with specific needs such as a blind or deaf school (Anastasiou et al. 2015a). The introduction of mass public education resulted in compulsory schooling for all children and saw the systemic provision of mainstream and special education in schools, albeit segregated settings for children with disabilities.

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During the 1960s and 1970s, the civil rights movement gained momentum and advocacy efforts challenging the segregation of groups of people, such as race (e.g., African American), in all areas of life which led the way for disability advocates to challenge the segregation of students with disabilities and to push for more equitable education systems (Skiba et al. 2008). Parent advocates and support groups were a leading force in challenging governments and education systems through judicial action and litigation in the courts over allegations of human rights violations and unprofessional care toward their children with disabilities (Yell et al. 1998; Winzer 1993). The outcomes of such legal action led to disability reform resulting in a shift away from institutional care (Roulstone and Prideaux 2012) and legislation mandating free public education for children with disabilities (Connor 2013; Yell et al. 1998). However, many barriers to economic and social participation in life still existed for these children and their families. Roulstone and Prideaux (2012) identified that childhood disability continued to be linked with poverty and lower levels of future unemployment due to a range of factors including lack of skill development through education. These authors suggested for policy and legislation to be creatively conjoined and enforced to redress these barriers to participation in life for people with disabilities and their families. Educational settings for children with disabilities varied across different contexts. Special schools continued to proliferate in some countries, while in others they closed (e.g., Italy, Anastasiou et al. 2015b) and children were integrated and mainstreamed. All children can learn became the mantra of mainstreaming as students with disabilities were recognized as having a right to an education. The beginning of the twenty-first century saw the United Nations introduce disability rights legislation with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD; United Nations 2006), detailing the right of all students to have an education and for students with disabilities to be educated “on the same basis” as students without

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disabilities. Disability advocates argued integration was still a form of discrimination and insufficient to meet basic human rights, thus shifting their advocacy toward inclusion and inclusive educational practices. Shifting away from segregated practices and special schools, the education of students with disabilities focused on inclusive settings and the inclusion of all students in mainstream settings, regardless of ability. The movement toward inclusive education is making progress across the world with the development of inclusive educational policies or legislation in many countries (e.g., Thailand, Nigeria, South Africa, Brazil, the Netherlands) at varying rates (Hehir 2016), Notwithstanding such advances, Hehir (2016) acknowledged that in some countries students with disabilities are still denied access to an education and may even be encouraged to enroll in segregated school settings, despite those countries being a signatory to the CRPD and committing to an inclusive educational approach.

Disability Theory and Special Education Approaches to special education are mirrored in how society thinks about and treats people who are considered different to the norm and deemed other. In the field of critical disability studies, the models of disability are useful in explaining how approaches evolving within special education reflect philosophical and epistemological foundations about what is normal versus abnormal and how they influence special education in theory and in practice. Three models of disability are used to illuminate policy and practices within special education, and these include the medical model of disability, the social model of disability, and the human rights model of disability. Notably, these models also correlate with key historical events in the disability sector and reflect changes in conceptual understandings about disability. These models are further useful in exploring and challenging arguments about the morality, ethics, and social justice underpinning special education and where the future lies for this field.

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The Medical Model and Special Education The medical model of disability situated disability as a problem of the individual (Massoumeh and Leila 2012) and facilitated the medicalization of disability by identifying the problem through a diagnosis of impairment, functional limitation, or deficit. Learning difficulties and disabilities were viewed as stemming from a biological basis or disorder and requiring intervention, treatment, and care through specialized services (Massoumeh and Leila 2012). Access to special education required medical assessment and verification of the disability or impairment, which then lead to placement in an educational setting and decision-making about appropriate types of interventions and strategies suited to the diagnosis and needs of the student. Connor (2013) argued this structural framework of special education continued to set up disability within a medical discourse by pathologizing human difference. This labeling of difference and linking of disability as a form of deviance (Armstrong 2002) presented the risk of further oppression, disadvantage, and unequal access to education for students with disabilities. Labeling has positive and negative impacts for all stakeholders (individual, family, school). The decision to label, or not, affects who is identified as “special” and consequently who is eligible to receive special education support and services at an individual level of funding and support and at a school level of funding and resources. There are several concerns with this approach to labeling. The first concern with labeling involved the diagnosis of disability and the education sector. A multidisciplinary approach is used in the diagnosis of disability and includes information and assessment from multiple stakeholders including pediatriciations, educators, and parents. HaileMariam et al. (2002) explored the type of information pediatricians received and preferred to receive from schools. Results revealed pediatricians believed schools over referred students for a diagnosis of disability while also reporting being under pressure by schools and parents to diagnose a disability. The second concern with labeling involved different cultural understandings of disability and how not

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all families or cultures recognized disability and were reluctant to identify disability due to stigma and shame (Werner and Shulman 2015). The third concern with labeling involved issues of social justice and equity for all students who have a label, because there are many students who have a diagnosis (e.g., learning difficulty such as dyslexia or dyscalculia), yet they may not qualify for “special” education due to gatekeeping practices in policy. Armstrong (2017) warned of the flow-on effects of neo-liberal educational policies and how labeling added to the wicked problem within special education where students may experience discriminatory practices or exclusion. Similarly, Lilley (2013) identified gatekeeping practices through the potential exclusion and lack of equal access to education for students with disabilities when parents attempted to enroll their child in a mainstream school once the child’s disability was disclosed resulting in a culture of disablism. While the above concerns are noted, Anastasiou and Kauffman (2011) argued labeling is unavoidable and suggested that to not label is to deny issues of, and realities associated with, disability. The practices of special education are underpinned by the medicalization of disability through the professionalization of the field, use of intervention, and research to support these approaches. The first area is the professionalization of special education, which expanded with the introduction of mass education and the linking of special education with different fields of medicine (Armstrong 2002). The second area is the use of interventions and evidence-based practices by special education teachers, which focus on deficits that attempt to normalize or rehabilitate behavior deviating from the norm (Florian 2008). The third area is the early research in special education that sustained and supported professional practice by segregating students with disabilities in education and later critiqued for lacking awareness of bias in empiricist epistemology for research methods used (Paul and Morse 1997). The Social Model and Special Education The social model of disability situated social, economic, and physical structures (e.g., schools,

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classrooms) and attitudes, beliefs, and values as potential barriers to access and participation in society for students with disabilities (Anastasiou and Kauffman 2011). Special education is experienced across a range of school settings and varies from a continuum of exclusion and segregation (e.g., special schools, withdrawal in mainstream schools) to integration or inclusion (e.g., mainstream schools) of students with disabilities, depending on context and culture. Research in special education changed from focusing on medical model deficits of the learner to social model approaches of developing teaching strategies in accessing the curriculum for all students, not just students with disabilities (Florian 2008). These teaching strategies align with inclusive education and focus on the concept of inclusion and actively including students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms. The social model is also evident in the family-centered approaches to early intervention and homeschool collaboration between parents and professionals by acknowledging the important role and expertise of parents and families in the child with disabilities’ life (Gargiulo 2012). Similarly, the mantra of nothing about us without us permeates the field of disability research and an increasing emphasis on including voices of people with disabilities and acknowledging their role in research to inform special education policy and practice. Despite such advances, Connor (2013) highlighted how the medicalization of disability still pervaded the field of special education. Educators were encouraged to ethically and morally consider the value of human life and to challenge the status quo by exploring the sociocultural role of education in reframing difference and disability as a part of human diversity (Connor 2013). However, Anastasiou and Kauffman (2011) cautioned against viewing special education purely from a social model perspective as this potentially oversimplified the complexity of disability. These authors argued for careful consideration of the individual needs and social inclusion of students with disabilities in education while being practical.

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The Human Rights Model and Special Education The human rights model of disability builds on the social model of disability and recognizes the inherent dignity and worth of people with disabilities while upholding their rights and fundamental freedoms. A key feature underpinning the human rights model is the international human rights treaty, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD, United Nations 2006). Aligning with the CRPD, person-first language acknowledges the human being first before the disability and refers to “people with disabilities.” Degener (2016) argued the human rights model improved upon the social model and offered the following six propositions in support: 1. Disability is a social construct, but human rights do not require a certain health or body status. 2. Human rights are more than antidiscrimination. 3. Impairment is to be recognized as human variation. 4. Multiple discrimination and layers of identity are to be acknowledged. 5. Prevention policy can be human rights sensitive. 6. Poverty and disability are interrelated but there is a roadmap for change. The social model is useful in demanding legal reform, such as international human rights legislation of the CRPD in upholding disability rights. Degener (2016) clarified the CRPD was a codified human rights treaty based on the human rights model of disability. The CRPD introduced a new form of discrimination with the “denial of reasonable accommodation.” Special education is transforming into inclusive education and employing inclusive practices for students with disabilities or additional needs in the mainstream classroom, for example, by making the curriculum accessible through reasonable adjustments or accommodations. Equity and access to education are key features of inclusive education as they promote the human rights of all learners to an education (Florian 2008).

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Degener’s (2016) third proposition suggested impairment (and therefore disability) was a form of human variation. Originating in the field of autism, the neurodiversity movement aligned with the concept of human variation by celebrating and promoting disability as a form of diversity and difference (Baker 2011). Tincani et al. (2009) raised concerns about the over- or underrepresentation of racial or ethnic groups of students identified with disabilities who received special education. These authors also raised concerns about the equitable nature of access to specialist intervention for these families based on socioeconomic status and geographical location and the need for legislation to support equitable educational practices in special education.

Special Education: What Does It Look Like? There are eight key areas that describe and illustrate the current landscape of special education in theory and in practice. These areas cover legislation and policy, place to practice, personalized planning, models of service delivery, pedagogical framework, assessment and behavior management, consultation and collaboration, and gifted and talented education. Legislation and Policy Reforms in special education occur in social practice of political, temporal, and spatial context and in policy practice of legislative enactments and formal policy making (Armstrong 2002). Legislation and policy provide the vehicle for systemic changes to special education. Legislative enactments and policy changes are often a result of disability advocacy and judicial action. Increasing litigation on access to education highlights disability as a civil rights issue on the basis that all children can, and have a right to, learn. In 1954, the case of Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, in the United States contested the segregation of students by race as unconstitutional. This case became a precedent for arguing against excluding students with

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disabilities from public education. Gargiulo (2012) described this cyclical process of litigation leading to legislation, leading to further clarifying of the law and subsequent litigation and amendments to legislation. Gargiulo (2012) queried whether litigation or legislation came first in making changes to the policy landscape of special education. In the 1990s, international efforts to promote Education for All evolved from the 1st World Conference on Education for All in Thailand and acknowledged the need to include groups of students who were excluded from education systems, and this included children with special needs (Miles and Singal 2010). In 1994, the Salamanca Conference on Special Needs Education reaffirmed the commitment to Education for All with the creation of the the Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education and a Framework for Action (UNESCO 1994). The guiding principle information of this framework stated that: . . .schools should accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. This should include disabled and gifted children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups. . .There is an emerging consensus that children and youth with special educational needs should be included in the educational arrangements made for the majority of children. This has led to the concept of the inclusive school. (UNESCO 1994, p. 6)

In 2006, the United Nations introduced the CRPD and specified the rights of people with disabilities in a range of areas including health, employment, education, access to information and justice, independent living, and personal security. The CRPD reinforced the rights of people with disabilities to education, without discrimination and on the basis of equality. In General Comment No. 3, the United Nations Committee on the CRPD noted the potential for discriminatory attitudes, policies, and practices relating to gender and females with disabilities in the form of discriminatory attitudes such as preferential educational treatment of boys over girls,

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stereotyping of gender roles, and lack of appropriate sanitation facilities in schools (United Nations 2016a). This resulted in reduced educational opportunities for females with disabilities and outcomes of lower educational attainment and literacy levels and absenteeism from school (United Nations 2016a). The continued focus on human rights for people with disabilities by the United Nations was further reflected in the 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), which the UN General Assembly identified as a significant improvement on the previous 2001 Millennium Development Goals (MDG: Brolan 2016). Brolan (2016) identified four areas of the 17 SDGs goals where people with disabilities were explicitly referred to, and one of these goals included Goal 4 Quality Education, Target 5. “By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations.” This target was relevant because special education referred to the educating of people with disabilities. Brolan (2016) further noted the significant relationship between the CRPD and sustainable development in advancing the human rights of people with disabilities and, however, urged caution about the potential of the SDGs to achieve progress for people with disabilities on the basis of four reasons: 1. Lack of legally binding status in international law of the post-2015 SDG agenda 2. Weak governance and accountability mechanisms. 3. SDG metrics framework of sidelining human rights 4. SDG metric framework’s insufficient identification and inclusion of people with disabilities (p. 8)

Brolan (2016) recommended the inclusion of the SDG targets in all countries’ policies as the next step in progressing the human rights of people with disabilities and argued for the inclusion of a new cluster of disability-inclusive targets to be explicitly and more strongly inserted into the list of SDGs.

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Place Versus Practice Inclusion or segregation is a highly contentious issue in special education. Florian (2008) identified some tensions between special and inclusive education involving issues of equity relating to inclusion and exclusion of students with additional needs. These tensions revolved around a key debate about place versus practice of instruction for students with special needs. This debate brought to the forefront an ongoing tension about the distinction between special education and inclusive education and whether special education needs to remain a separate, specialized category of support in practice (Florian 2008). Wiley (2015) suggested moral judgments were behind the concerns about place and identified two moral foundations of fairness-justice and harm-care in the debate about inclusive education and full inclusion. The author explained advocates of full inclusion identified such as a “protected value” (Wiley 2015, p. 238) and therefore denounced labeling of categories and segregation of students on the basis of injustice and inequitable treatment (fairnessjustice), with the exception of a small minority of situations (e.g., students with severe impairments). Opponents of full inclusion (e.g., educators, parents) were not resistant to trade-offs with values and identified the need to label and segregate students with special needs on the basis of otherwise being harmful to their best interests (and the interests of others in the classroom) and needing specialist services (harm-care) (Wiley 2015). Kauffman et al. (2017) rejected the emphasis on place of instruction and asserted practice of instruction, as originally conceptualized in special education, as requiring the central focus. These authors argued that improving teaching practices and instruction for students with special needs resulted in better outcomes rather than placement and inclusion of students. While morality underpins the debate, each argument put forth by these authors does not adequately question the role of governments in setting up the place/practice debate in the first instance. This debate leads back to philosophical questions on the role, value, and purpose of people with disabilities in education and society.

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Personalized Planning Education professionals may provide personalized or individualized planning for students with disabilities or additional needs to help them access the curriculum and school environment. In the United States, personalized planning is offered through the development of Individual Education Programs (IEP) and provides information on targeted measurable goals, type of support offered, the location of support, how long the support will last, and an evaluation of success in meeting targeted goals. They are legally mandated and to be written after assessment and verification of a disability but prior to placement recommendation. Gargiulo (2012) suggested IEPs were used as a management or planning tool to ensure an individualized education that meets the needs of the student in the least restrictive environment. In Australia, individualized planning is offered in the form of an Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Similarly, Poed (2015) recommended IEPs be used as a planning tool and highlighted that despite the varying terminology of IEPs (e.g., individual learning plans, education adjustment plan) across educational jurisdictions, they were not legally mandated in Australia. The IEP planning process involves a team of key stakeholders who meet, write, and review the program or plan for the student. Personalized planning is meant to be person-centered and to include the voice of the student with a disability. Participation in this process ideally involves the student and other key professionals as well as the parents, the special education teacher, mainstream classroom teacher, and any other relevant person as required by the education authority. Toward the final schooling years, personalized planning then shifts into transition planning and identifying goals and skills required for postschool education or employment and linking with relevant support and services. In transition planning, the student voice is essential in shaping the post-school planning, and schools are urged to avoid taking on the “expert” role and instead empower young people to actively participate in the decision-making process (Fayette and Bond 2018).

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Models of Service Delivery Collaboration in special education is viewed as best practice and is linked to legislation and policy in special and mainstream schools. There are several models of service delivery involved in collecting information, making educational decisions, and completing assessments for students in special education, and they include a multidisciplinary model, interdisciplinary model, and a transdisciplinary model of service delivery. The multidisciplinary model of service delivery is characterized by trained professionals providing service delivery only in their specific discipline (Zaretsky 2007). For example, a speech therapist provides support with communication strategies to a student who is nonverbal. Team members usually include the special education teacher, teacher aide or paraprofessional, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, parents or carers, psychologists, social workers, school nurse, pediatrician, and other relevant medical, allied health, or other professionals (Pierangelo and Giuliani 2012). The interdisciplinary model of service delivery is characterized by trained professionals who may still work independently in their disciplines but work collaboratively and in a coordinated manner (Zaretsky 2007). The transdisciplinary model of service delivery is characterized by sharing of common goals and uses a systematic approach to personalized planning through an integrated team structure (Zaretsky 2007). An integral component of this model is collaboration between all team members where each member assumes collective responsibility. A transdisciplinary model is promoted as a more effective approach to collaboration than a multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary model because each team member engages in a consultative role and transfers knowledge of disciplines across the team. Pedagogical Framework A pedagogical framework underpins special education in both special schools and mainstream schools and includes varying types of curriculum and interventions according to placement and school context. Enrolment of students with disabilities is either in a special or mainstream school

Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality, Fig. 1 Enrolment and placement in special and mainstream schools

797 Transition to mainstream

MAINSTREAM SCHOOL Segregation Integration Inclusion

SPECIAL SCHOOL Segregation

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or in a transitory phase between the two school contexts (see Fig. 1). Placements may fluctuate back and forth between the two school contexts. Reasons for such fluctuation include behavioral, social, and emotional difficulties in mainstream settings (Osborne and Reed 2011) or academic difficulties. Additionally, some mainstream schools engage in gatekeeping practices by recommending enrolment at another school due to insufficient resources or more appropriate placement in a special school due to disability or behavior, under the guise of doing good by the student and family (Lilley 2013). Special schools participate in segregated educational practices involving full-time placement or part-time placement combined with part-time transitioning to a mainstream school. Mainstream schools participate in segregated, integrated, and inclusive practices involving full-time or parttime placements in a mainstream classroom, withdrawal into a specialized support program, or offering an individualized approach to school attendance. In General Comment No. 4, the United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities clarified the difference between exclusion, segregation, integration, and inclusion in education (United Nations 2016b). Exclusion was defined as a denial of access to education in contrast to segregation, which was defined as the provision of education as being separate to other students. Integration was defined as the placement of students in mainstream classrooms in contrast to inclusion, which is defined as an overall philosophical approach requiring inclusive policy and procedures and adjustments to structures, curriculum, and attitudes within educational settings. This committee highlighted that placement of students in mainstream settings (i.e., integration) did

not equate to inclusion and required a bigger commitment by countries to inclusive education to reduce the barriers experienced by students with disabilities (United Nations 2016b). The pedagogical framework used in special and mainstream schools promotes the use of evidence-based practices (EBP) within a systematic process of decision-making that influences curriculum design and delivery and behavior management. The gap between research to practice in special education is a critical area of concern with teachers using instructional practices lacking scientific evidence supporting their effectiveness. The concern is that teacher knowledge of EBP does not translate into implementation in the classroom (Cook and Cook 2011), and selection and use of EBP need to be individualized to meet the needs of the student (Cook and Odom 2013). The literature on pedagogy and interventions used in special education provided several ways of educating students with disabilities in both special and mainstream school settings. Kirk et al. (2015) identified the following suggestions: • Promoting a response to intervention framework that encompassed three tiers. The first tier provided core instruction to all students. The second tier provided enhanced instruction to some students, and the third tier provided intensive instruction to few students. • Adjusting the curriculum level and environment to meet the specific needs of each student. • Using a strength-based approach rather than a deficit-based approach to teaching and learning. • Adapting instruction by implementing Universal Design for Learning approaches, which promote the flexible design of multiple learning experiences.

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• Providing assistive and instructional technologies. • Implementing transitional planning strategies from educational settings to the community. These authors identified the characteristics of different disabilities and learning difficulties and then identified specific strategies or interventions, which varied greatly according to the category of disability or difficulty while still promoting the above suggestions for special education. In recent years, a major concern in special education is reported cases of abuse and deaths in schools and treatment centers caused by the use of time-out through seclusion or restraint of students with disabilities (Connolly 2017). These types of behavioral-based interventions have potential to cause physical and psychological harm to the students; therefore teachers need to be comprehensively informed on the student’s background, history, and disability before considering such approaches and to ensure the student’s safety is the first and main priority. Assessment and Behavior Management Assessment in special education has been used by professionals to make educational decisions for the purpose of screening, diagnosis, verification, planning, and monitoring of student progress. Formal and informal methods of assessment provide data on student’s strengths and weaknesses, which can then be used to make decisions on placement, intervention, instruction, and reviewing of planning (Kritikos 2010). Assessment is meant to be an ongoing process and individualized for each student’s needs. Some examples of assessment include screening assessment, diagnostic assessment, standardized assessment, criterionreferenced assessment, and behavioral assessment. Screening assessment includes checking hearing and vision, teacher-made tests, rating devices, interviews, checklists for specific disorders, inventories, record reviews, socioeconomic ratings, anecdotal records, and observations (Kritikos 2010). This type of assessment is insufficient for a diagnosis of a condition or disability and used to determine if further assessment is needed.

Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality

Diagnostic assessment includes testing for a medical condition or disability and is to be administered by trained professionals due to the potential for errors in administering, interpreting, and scoring of tests and misdiagnosis of conditions. Such errors could lead to placements of students with special needs in educational programs that do not meet their needs. Standardized assessment is most common in special education and tests students on what they know against a norm group within the student population. This type of assessment is viewed as unfair to the special education population because they are compared against typically developing students rather than against peers within their disability category. Runswick-Cole (2011) argued the standards agenda and inclusion agenda are at conflict with each other, since standardized testing focused on effort and merit as natural in contrast with the inclusion agenda which focused on the social construction of equality and power. Students with special needs who performed poorly on standardized assessment experienced exclusionary practices in mainstream education because they did not fit the standarddriven marketized education system (RunswickCole 2011). Criterion-referenced assessments determine what students know and can do (Kritikos 2010). This type of assessment is useful in collecting and documenting evidence of student progress against the curriculum. Behavioral assessment is frequently used in the form of a functional behavior assessment (FBA) in special education to determine the function of behavior and to implement an intervention to teach an alternative, replacement behavior. Information from FBA are useful in developing behavior management plans or behavioral intervention plans for students with special needs. Dunlap and Kern (2018) highlighted that teachers needed further training on creating better quality behavior management plans based on the data gleaned from the FBA to ensure effective implementation of intervention. These behavior plans are used in conjunction with positive behavior support in the school environment such as school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS), which is a

Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality

three-tiered preventative approach to behavior management delivered across the whole school. Consultation and Collaboration Power imbalances, litigation, and tension are a common feature in the history of parent-professional consultation and collaboration. These power imbalances arose over debates about who was the expert of the child with the disability – the parent or the professional – and who then was acting in the best interests of the child. This tension may erupt into the judicial arena with parents litigating against professionals, service providers, or schools over discrimination, lack of reasonable adjustments, or lack of realization of the child’s rights (Gargiulo 2012; Poed 2015). One way of defusing this tension was by promoting a family-centered approach when working with families of children with special needs. A family-centered approach positioned the family as the primary decision-makers in establishing goals and priorities for their child with a disability and delineated the role of professionals as fostering positive and mutually supportive home-school partnership by empowering families (Gargiulo 2012). Hellawell’s (2017) review of the literature on parent-professional partnerships outlined seven models of partnership evident in special education: 1. Expert model – parents as passive recipients of information from expert professionals. 2. Transplant model – parents as implementers of expert advice upon engagement with professionals. 3. Informant model – parents as providers of information that assists in the decision-making process with professionals. 4. Empowerment model – parents and professionals engaging in mutual decision-making with professionals still as experts. 5. Negotiating model – parents and professionals engaging in mutual decision-making with professionals where these roles interchange. 6. Consumer model – parents are informed decision-makers and engage with the professional provider of information.

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7. Dual-expert model – parents and professionals each have separate roles that are equally valued for their expertise. The difficulty with many models of partnership is the unequal power relationships between parents and professionals. Hellawell (2017) pointed out an equal and democratic relationship between parents and professionals was difficult to achieve due to the assumed role of professional as moderator. However, Ryan and Quinlan (2018) reported parents feeling they were “battling with professionals” (p. 206) in an us versus them power struggle and felt devalued for their ability, knowledge, or expertise as a parent. These authors also identified common themes of parental stress because of their interactions with professionals and offer a counter argument of parents having to assume the role of coordinator of professionals. This constant conflict leads to an ongoing cycle of blame and imbalance of power between parents and professionals in the field of disability and affects the success of this working partnership and ultimately in realizing the rights of children with a disability (Winter 2016). Gifted and Talented Education: Where Does It Fit? The area of gifted and talented education falls within the domain of special education and includes students who identify as gifted, talented, or twice-exceptional. Gagné (2004) referred to students who were gifted as those with untrained and naturally expressed abilities known as aptitudes, in one main domain, in at least at the top 10% of their age range. In contrast, students who were talented demonstrate mastery of developed skills or talent in one area, also in the top 10% of their age range. Twice-exceptional referred to students who were gifted or talented and also had a disability. Ronksley-Pavia (2015) highlighted the inconsistent use of the terms gifted and talented, combined with stigma and misunderstandings about disability being linked with gifted and talented, added to their ambiguity within the field of gifted education. Students who were gifted,

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talented, or twice-exceptional may attend segregated settings or schools that offer specialized programs or mainstream schools.

The Future of Special Education The landscape of special education is changing from exclusionary practices of segregation to educational settings where inclusion is promoted through inclusive practices of all students, not just those students who have disabilities or are identified as gifted and talented or twice-exceptional. Disability advocates continue to challenge for education reforms on the basis of human rights and morality. They are shaping the current educational landscape; however many stakeholders (teachers, parents, and students) are uncertain about what the future of special education will look like and at conflict with each other’s vision. It is a fundamental human right for all students to an education. These rights extend to an inclusive education for all students, and it is this proposition of “inclusive” that has the community divided. A review of the research on inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms revealed their inclusion did not lead to negative academic outcomes for students without disabilities (Hehir 2016). In contrast, teacher’s quality of instruction was found to have significance in affecting student outcomes, and by providing specialized instruction to all students and not just some, then all students benefitted. While funding and resources were raised as an ongoing concern by educators, the success to inclusion was found to be enhanced through a wholeschool approach to collaboration and problemsolving among education professionals (Hehir 2016). The future of special education lies in ensuring that children with additional needs, from the early years through to adulthood, are provided with an education that is flexible, responsive, safe, and supportive in developing their skills and abilities to sustain their participation in life. Going forward beyond 2030, it is unclear what the future of special education will look like.

Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality

Cross-References ▶ History of Education: Seeking the Common Good as a Collective Social Endeavor ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Social Inclusion and Equal Access to HighQuality, Inclusive Education

References Anastasiou D, Kauffman JM (2011) A social constructionist approach to disability: implications for special education. Counc Except Child 77(3):367–384. https://doi. org/10.1177/001440291107700307 Anastasiou D, Iliadou-Tachou S, Harisi A (2015a) The influence of the school hygiene and paedology movement on the early development of special education in Greece, 1900–1940: the leading role of Emmanuel Lambadarios. Hist Educ 44(4):437–459. https://doi. org/10.1080/0046760x.2015.1039773 Anastasiou D, Kauffman JM, Di Nuovo S (2015b) Inclusive education in Italy: description and reflections in full inclusion. Eur J Spec Needs Educ 30(4):429–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2015.1060075 Armstrong G (2002) The historical development of special education: humanitarian rationality or ‘wild profusion of entangled events. Hist Educ 31(5):437–456. https:// doi.org/10.1080/004676002101533627 Armstrong D (2017) Wicked problems in special and inclusive education. J Res Spec Educ Needs 17(4): 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12402 Baker DL (2011) The politics of neurodiversity: why public policy matters. Lynne Reinner Publishers, London Brolan CE (2016) A word of caution: human rights, disability and implementation of the post 2015 sustainable development goals. Laws 5(22):1–18. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/laws5020022 Connolly JF (2017) Seclusion of students with disabilities: an analysis of due process hearings. Res Pract Persons Sev Disabl 42(4):243–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1540796917725710 Connor DJ (2013) Who “owns” dis/ability? The cultural work of critical special educators as insider-outsiders. Theory Res Soc Educ 41(4):494–513. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00933104.2013.838741 Cook BG, Cook SC (2011) Unraveling evidence-based practices in special education. J Spec Educ 47(2): 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466911420877 Cook BG, Odom SL (2013) Evidence-based practices and implementation science in special education. Except Child 79(2):135–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440 291307900201 Degener T (2016) Disability in a human rights context. Laws 5(3):35–59. https://doi.org/10.3390/law s5030035

Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality Dunlap G, Kern L (2018) Perspectives on functional (behavioral) assessment. Behav Disord 43(2): 316–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742917746633 Fayette R, Bond C (2018) A qualitative study of specialist schools’ processes of eliciting the views of young people with autism spectrum disorders in planning their transition to adulthood. Br J Spec Educ 45(1):5–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12203 Florian L (2008) Special or inclusive education: future trends. Br J Spec Educ 35(4):202–208. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1467-8578.2008.00402.x Gagné F (2004) Transforming gifts into talents: the DMGTas a developmental theory. High Abil Stud 15(2):119–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359813042000314682 Gargiulo RM (2012) Special education in contemporary society: an introduction to exceptionality. SAGE, Thousand Oaks HaileMariam A, Bradley-Johnson S, Johnson CM (2002) Pediatricians’ preferences for ADHD information from schools. Sch Psych Rev 31(1):94–105 Hehir T (2016) A summary of the evidence on inclusive education. https://alana.org.br/wp-content/uploads/201 6/12/A_Summary_of_the_evidence_on_inclusive_edu cation.pdf. Accessed 15 Jul 2018 Hellawell B (2017) A review of parent-professional partnerships and some new obligations and concerns arising from the introduction of the SEND code of practice 2015. Br J Spec Educ 44(4):411–430. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/1467-8578.12185 Kauffman JM, Anastasiou D, Maag JW (2017) Special education at the crossroad: an identity crisis and the need for a scientific reconstruction. Exceptionality 25 (2):139–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.201 6.1238380 Kirk S, Gallagher J, Coleman MR (2015) Educating exceptional children, 14th edn. Cengage Learning, Stamford Kritikos EP (2010) Special education assessment: issues and strategies affecting today’s classrooms. Pearson, Upper Saddle River Lilley R (2013) It’s an absolute nightmare: maternal experiences of enrolling children diagnosed with autism in primary school in Sydney, Australia. Disabil Soc 28(4):514–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599 .2012.717882 Massoumeh Z, Leila J (2012) An investigation of the medical model and special education methods. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 46:5802–5804. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.518 Miles S, Singal N (2010) The education for all and inclusive education debate: conflict, contradiction or opportunity? Intl J Incl Educ 14(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1 080/13603110802265125 Osborne LA, Reed P (2011) School factors associated with mainstream progress in secondary education for included pupils with autism spectrum disorders. Res Autism Spectr Disord 5:1253–1263. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.rasd.2011.01.016 Paul JL, Morse WC (1997) Creating and using knowledge for special education practice: the conundrum and the

801 promise. In: Paul O, Churton M, Morse W, Duchnowski A, Epanchin B, Osnes P, Smith R (eds) Special education practice. Brooks/Cole Publishing, Pacific Grove, pp 10–25 Pierangelo R, Giuliani GA (2012) Assessment in special education: a practical approach, 4th edn. Pearson, Boston Poed S (2015) Adjustments to curriculum for Australian school-aged students with disabilities: what’s reasonable? Dissertation, Griffith University Ronksley-Pavia M (2015) A model of twice-exceptionality: explaining and defining the apparent paradoxical combination of disability and giftedness in childhood. J Educ Gift 38(3):318–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0162353215592499 Roulstone A, Prideaux S (2012) Understanding disability policy. The Policy Press, Bristol Runswick-Cole K (2011) Time to end the bias towards inclusive education? Br J Spec Educ 38(3):112–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2011.00514.x Ryan C, Quinlan E (2018) Whoever shouts the loudest: listening to parents of children with disabilities. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil 31:203–214. https://doi.org/10.1 111/jar.12354 Salend S, Duhaney L (2011) Historical and philosophical changes in the education of students with exceptionalities. In: Rotatori AF, Obiakor FE, Bakken JP (eds) History of special education. Emerald Publishing, Bingley, pp 1–20 Skiba RJ, Simmons AB, Ritter S, Gibb AC, Rarusch MK, Cuadrado J (2008) Achieving equity in special education: history, status, and current challenges. Except Child 74(3):264–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 001440290807400301 Tincani M, Travers J, Boutot A (2009) Race, culture, and autism spectrum disorder: understanding the role of diversity in successful educational interventions. Res Prac Pers Sev Dis 34(3–4):81–90. https://doi.org/10.2 511/rpsd.34.3-4.81 United Nations (2006) Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. https://www.un.org/development/des a/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with -disabilities.html. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 United Nations (2016a) General comment no. 3: article 6 women and girls with disabilities. https://tbinternet. ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx ?symbolno=CRPD/C/GC/3&Lang=en. Accessed 20 Nov 2018 United Nations (2016b) General comment no. 4: article 14 right to inclusive education. https://tbinternet.ohchr. org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx ?symbolno=CRPD/C/GC/4&Lang=en. Accessed 20 Nov 2018 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (1994) The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0009/000984/09842 7eo.pdf. Accessed 8 June 2018 Werner S, Shulman C (2015) Does type of disability make a difference in affiliate stigma among family caregivers

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802 of individuals with autism, intellectual disability or physical disability? J Intellect Disabil Res 59 (3):272–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12136 Wiley AL (2015) Place values: what moral psychology can tell us about the full inclusion debate in special education. In: Bateman B, Lloyd J, Tankersley M (eds) Enduring issues in special education: personal perspectives. Routledge, New York, pp 232–249 Winter S (2016) Navigating the battleground: autism policy and human rights for children with autism spectrum disorders in Australia. Dissertation, Griffith University Winzer M (1993) The history of special education: from isolation to integration. Gallaudet University Press, Washington, CD Yell ML, Rogers D, Rogers EL (1998) The legal history of special education: what a long strange trip it’s been. Rem Spec Educ 19(4):219–228. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/074193259801900405 Zaretsky L (2007) A transdisciplinary team approach to achieving moral agency across regular and special education in K-12 schools. J Educ Adm 45(4):496–513. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230710762472

Special Needs ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Special Education: From Disability to Exceptionality

Spirituality ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education Sam Hey CHC Higher Education, Brisbane/Carindale, QLD, Australia

Synonyms Development; Education; Equitable; Inclusive; Interpersonal relationships; Self-understanding; Spirituality; Sustainable; Transcendence

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Definition While many specific religions and spiritualities promote education, some traditions can at times restrict educational opportunities for some members and promote discord and show little concern for promoting the health of the individual, the wider society or the natural environment (Estanek 2006). More generalized approaches to spirituality can promote a more equitable and inclusive education as they describe a universal capacity within humans to reflect on one’s inner life, connections to others, and existential concerns. Fisher (2001) uses the term spirituality in this way to describe “the fundamental dimension of people’s overall health and well-being, permeating and integrating all ...dimensions of health (i.e. the physical, mental, emotional, social and vocational)” (p. 100). Spirituality is particularly useful in education for encouraging a deeper understanding of self, in relationships with self, others, and the biological and natural worlds (Hay and Socha 2005). Spirituality can encourage a dialogue between the student’s inner life and outer worlds (O’Reilley 1993). Spirituality is also helpful for describing elusive and hard-todefine concepts and ultimate eternal concerns that are important for underpinning and motivating educational interests (Palmer 1998). In education, the more generalized insights associated with spirituality are helpful for promoting reflection on personal values; social, mental, and physical environments; as well as transcendent understandings of a larger and less visible world (de Souza 2016). Spirituality often helps to promote a deeper engagement with subjects studied and their relationships with broader social and physical environments. In going beyond the focus of any particular religion, spirituality, or a narrow focus on the concerns of one person or group, spirituality can promote more inclusive and equitable approaches to education that includes consideration of broader concerns for social, biological, and physical environments. Spirituality is thus shown to be useful for promoting approaches to education that are inclusive, equitable, and sustainable, in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.

Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Introduction: Spirituality and Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education The following chapter describes ways in which the inclusion of spirituality in education can contribute to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4: “Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UN 2019). Spirituality is shown to be beneficial for encouraging beyond the interests of particular religions to more generally describe less visible and less measurable meaningful aspects of life. It promotes an awareness of holistic and transcendent understandings of existence and deeper connections between the student, teacher, subject, and environment to encourage increased educational participation by all (Jones 2005). In seeking to provide accessible and universal education to all, it is crucial to understand not only the written language people but also the unwritten heart and spirit languages that inform understandings, motivations, and beliefs. The recognition that many people in contemporary western and global societies continue to be committed to religious (and nonreligious) spirituality, with strong beliefs about unseen ultimate and holistic concerns, suggests that education is most effective when delivery is congruent with the spirituality and beliefs of the people involved. A distinguishing feature of many indigenous spiritualities is how they have drawn meaning from a strong sense of connection with other people and with the natural and unseen worlds. Many indigenous spiritualities have sought to integrate the diverse aspects of life, growth, and even decline and death to the natural, cultural, and unseen worlds, as well as the natural plants, material objects, past ancestors, and shared unseen realms that bind all things together (Mazama 2002). Many schools within strong religious traditions also benefit from a rich storehouse of practices, commitments, values, rituals, scriptures, statements of beliefs, and creeds that can promote, but also restrict, the development of individuals and groups. Education will be most effective when recognition is given to

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different worldviews, motivations, and cultural practices that supply meaning to different people and their communities. Despite recognition of the considerable value of spirituality, the diversity of meanings offered for this term makes it difficult to establish a broad consensus on what this term means (Dyson et al. 1997). Miller and Thoresen (1999) observe that the subjective and personal nature of spirituality has increased this difficulty. In a Danish study, Cour et al. (2011) found that the broad range of meanings for spirituality made a focus on just one meaning potentially misleading. At the same time, they found spirituality is a useful concept for describing a well-integrated life that incorporates established religious (and nonreligious) traditions that bring inspiration and meaning to human activities in a variety of less visible ways. They found general support for the use of the term spirituality to describe positive dimensions in life that promote well-being, relationships with one’s self, others, and the transcendent. While some spiritualties focus more on one of these dimensions, the healthiest and most inclusive spiritualities are often found to be those that integrate each of these areas. Mitroff and Denton (1999) argue for the importance of combining inward and outward focused spirituality in order to promote “the basic feeling of being connected with one’s complete self, others and the entire universe” (p. 83). Other scholars like Fisher have identified how spirituality can integrate mental, physical, and social health. Fisher (2001) says that this approach to spiritual well-being can be described as “the fundamental dimension of people’s overall health and well-being, permeating and integrating all the other dimensions of health (i.e. the physical, mental, emotional, social and vocational)” (p. 100). In applying spirituality to education, there is a consensus that recognition of the value of each religious tradition can help to promote access and engagement in education by participants in that tradition. At the same time, spirituality can be useful for encouraging the integration of education with physical, mental, emotional, social, and vocational development in ways that go beyond any one religious tradition.

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Traditional religious resources can be particularly helpful when they are combined with opportunities for reflection, questioning, explanation, and experimentation as participants are encouraged to pursue “new insights, knowledge, expanded awareness” and “the continuing unfolding of discovered truth” (Kania 2009, p. 177). Kania (2009) however, warns that some approaches to religion are less beneficial when they advocate a “posture of an antiintellectual and anti-scientific religion” that fails to incorporate “valid, known information about the history, and the real nature of the world in which we live.” Kania says that these narrower approaches to religion create significant gaps in beliefs and ideas about life and worldviews that struggle to address growing understandings of our world (Kania 2009, p. 8). O’Murchu (1997, p. vii) says that broader understandings of spirituality and insights from “cultural anthropology and the history of religious ideas” offer educationalists an opportunity to integrate a broad range of insights from a wide diversity of religious backgrounds to provide a greater range of perspectives on the human person. O’Murchu also warns against the potential misuse of corporate and institutional religions to promote fear and reduced access to knowledge and education in ways that inhibit human development. At the same time, Cour et al. (2011) warn that vigilance is needed so that spirituality is not used as a counter-discourse against more traditional religious beliefs, practices, and ideologies. Neither should it be used to promote disconnections between spirituality over and against established religious traditions. Care is needed to avoid using spirituality to demonize religion as overly institutional, constraining, childish, or a dichotomy that posits spirituality to promote maturity over and against religion as a sign of immaturity (Johnson et al. 2004). Caution is also needed to avoid promoting unsupported claims, definitions, and discourses for spirituality over religion (Estanek 2006). Care must be taken to recognize the ways in which a diversity approaches to religion can impact both positively and negatively on

education and the ways in which spirituality can be used to encourage increased educational participation by all members of each community. An increased interest in spirituality in recent times has been identified by Heelas and Woodhead (2005) as being associated with a broader cultural shift toward a “person-centered” or “subjectivity-centered” life (2005, p. 5). This often focuses on an individual’s inner needs, desires, and capabilities. York (2001) links the rising interest in spirituality to efforts to describe inner and ultimate aspirations at a time when there is a society-wide decline in commitment to institutionalized religious traditions and increased freedom for the development of aspirations in which the individual alone is the “locus for selectivity and determination of belief” (York 2001, p. 366). Hay and Socha (2005) see spirituality as having a basis in the physical and mental capacity of human beings independent of a particular religion or religious practices (Hay and Socha 2005, p. 607). In order to overcome the limitations of any one religious tradition, more recent understandings of spirituality have also focused on generalized approaches to transcendence, relationships, and inner life formation. Recent studies of spirituality have frequently drawn on insights from other disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and cultural studies as well as religious studies. The push to understand and define spirituality has led to increased efforts understand the nature of the human person and ways they relate to the inner self, others, and the transcendent and promote a full and meaningful life. Contemporary understandings of the word “spirituality” continue to gain their meaning from a long history of interest in this area. The Latin word “spiritus” which in ancient times was associated with breath, air, or wind continues to influence contemporary understandings. In other ancient sources, including Jewish, Christian, and biblical writings, the Hebrew word Ruach and the Greek term Pneuma were used to describe an invisible inner source of vitality that was likened to the unseen breath that gave life to living things. These ancient and medieval terms

Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

referred to the “animating or vital principles” that were believed to give life to the physical and biological world, including humans. These ancient insights have been incorporated into the humanities and scientific disciplines like psychology (Jung 1957). Contemporary understandings of the human person are also indebted to modern scientific insights from biology, neuroscience, and evolutionary studies while also accepting postmodern insights into the ways many aspects of existence remain contested, difficult to see, and hard to explain. Valuable insights into the nature of the unseen “spirit” realms that contribute to life also draw on other ancient writings, including the church fathers. Gregory of Nyssa, for example, used the term “epektasis” to describe the drawing of the soul toward bigger and higher purposes, beyond the present stage so as to pursue further discoveries and growth. Nash (2002) has drawn on these ancient understandings of spirit to describe spirituality as “a straining forward toward mystery, toward a luminous darkness, toward an insatiated desire for a meaning beyond meaning” (2002, p. 18). Nash said that these historical roots continued to have benefit for promoting insights into the self, others, and the transcendent that are easily overlooked in contemporary worldviews. In applying this term to education, he says that spirituality is important for recognizing hidden motivations for study and success and for promoting joint student and teacher investigations of challenges and opportunities of inner life journeys, relational interactions, explorations of the meaning and purpose of life, and the mystery of existence (2002, p. 168). Nash says that a fully developed education must address life’s most insistent questions such as “What am I? Why am I? How should I act? Why should I be moral?” (2002, p. 21). Nash says that these spiritual questions are the proper end goals for a whole of life education. He maintains that these essential educational objectives cannot leap into existence upon graduation if they have not been addressed in the classroom. Education that fails to include these concerns is unlikely to encourage participation by all students, especially those with religious and spiritual interests.

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Benefits of Including Spirituality in Education Swinton (2011) has argued that despite the varied, and at times, vague language used to describe spirituality, newer understandings are particularly useful for promoting a deeper understanding of the self, growth through relationships with others, and maturity through a deeper commitment to ontological and teleological understandings of larger unseen realities. Swinton (2011) says that more generalized and less religious approaches are particularly useful for describing much that is missing in contemporary religious and secular thinking, including health care and education. Swinton’s approach shows how reflection on inner identity, relationships, the natural world, and notions of the transcendent can promote personal and communal growth and maturity. Spirituality can be particularly valuable for promoting interactions among people from diverse backgrounds in schools and workplaces (Garcia-Zamor 2003). The concept of spirituality is also useful for organization studies as a reminder of the importance of “the vital principle or animating force within living beings; that which constitutes one’s unseen intangible being; the real sense or significance of something” (Scott 1994, p. 64). Tolliver (1997) found that spirituality can raise consciousness, stimulate awareness, foster creativity and imagination, connect people with issues of purpose and meaning, and facilitate a connection with that which enlivens and animates people. Spirituality is strongly related to the sense of identity that people hold within a community, particularly through their relationship with others. Kinchloe (2006) says that “A human being simply can’t exist outside the inscription of community with its processes of relationship, differentiation, interaction, and subjectivity” (p. 192). Reflection on the nature of the sense of shared belonging to a particular group provides an opportunity to develop a growing sense of self in relation to others and the wider social, physical, and biological world. This can inspire a strengthened sense of purpose for education through students seeing themselves as having a great responsibility for

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their development and for the growth of their group and humanity more generally. Additionally, a consideration of relational and ultimate concerns provides a framework that can help people to understand and interpret everyday experiences in meaningful ways. Martin Buber’s use of the terms “I” and “thou” to describe a truly authentic, open, and listening relationship helps each person to realize that they cannot treat others as I/it things or objects in healthy relationships. His insight into the ways in which each person is highly valued, for “Every It is bounded by others; It exists only through bounded others” (Buber 1958, p. 4), is a reminder of the importance of relationships, and a spirituality of relationships, in education, and this, in turn, can promote concern for others and the environment. In recent decades the paradigms associated with spirituality have been shown to be useful for promoting a more holistic integration of the outer and inner worlds of students and teachers within educational settings. The Australian Catholic University lecturer, de Souza (2016), says that spirituality helps to develop approaches to schooling that connect personal values; social, mental, and physical environments; and transcendent understandings of a larger and less visible world. David Tacey (2003, p. 67) writes that these approaches not only promote growth in knowledge, but they include growth of the inner person by providing the language needed to integrate the ways people perceive their personal, social, physical, and nonmaterial environments. These approaches also promote growth in relationships with the wider social, political, and physical environments. Tacey shows that spirituality aids rediscovering “the inner side of everything” so as to “rebuild the world from the inside, after the collapse of meaning that has taken place through modernity and the death of God.” He shows that the insights of spirituality are particularly valuable in education to avoid fragmentation of subject areas and to promote a holistic and well-integrated approach to life. In The Courage to Teach, Parker Palmer (1998) says that the concept of spirituality is particularly useful in education for describing elusive

and hard-to-define concepts that make a big difference in teaching, including ideas such as a sense of purpose, meaning, values, vision, viewpoints, and caring and relationship with others. He shows that the inclusion of spirituality in education opens up opportunities to engage with deeper motivations, use one’s imagination, and reflect, in ways that foster connections to deeper understandings of the self, others, and ultimate concerns. Palmer (1998) demonstrates that spirituality is particularly useful for promoting thinking on and understanding of sources of identity, values, and deeper sources of human realities. He says that the inclusion of spirituality in education helps to promote an awareness of the larger dimensions of existence such as existential guidance, inner guidance, the roles of the teacher’s spirituality in promoting growth, and the nature of a real and authentic, well-integrated self. Palmer also shows ways in which spirituality in education can promote a greater understanding of interdependence with others and awareness of a range of cultures and worldviews. Palmer also warns of the dangers of not including the spiritual dimension in education as this often leads to narrower understandings of the self, subject matter, and relationships with others as well as connections to ultimate and transcendent concerns. He says that a lack of spirituality can lead to a “disconnected” life, compartmentalization, and “departments that fragment fields of knowledge.” This compartmentalization tends to distance students from the subject, self, and others. An emphasis on bureaucracy puts faculty and administration “at odds with each other” and promotes “a grading system that separates teachers from students,” and it promotes competition that makes students and teachers wary of their peers (1998, pp. 35–36). Palmer warns that an overemphasis on objectivist measurable phenomena over subjective and spiritual experiences can lead spiritual imperatives to be regarded as “primitive, unreliable, and even dangerous” (1998, p. 52). In his book, Teaching with Heart and Soul: Reflections on Spirituality in Teacher Education (2003), Palmer says that it is important in fully developed

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education to recognize the “eternal human yearning to be connected with something larger than our own egos” (p. 377). An education that is solely focused on the delineation of narrow subject areas, the rewarding of scepticism, a focus on physical and materialistic explanations, can easily limit the self-discovery and self-expression, the exploration of the diversity of views, and the development of an authentic inner self. Additionally, the over-promotion of teacher-directed textbook answers tends to disconnect schooling from self-directed lifelong learning that promotes personal growth. The exclusion of spirituality from education can also devalue insights and values of traditional communities and families as well as restricting opportunities for existential reflections, including concern for social and environmental sustainability. Parker Palmer accepts that the goals of education need to be broadened to include relational goals that develop the skills needed for the reunification and reconstruction of “broken selves and worlds.” Palmer shows that since relationships are a primary driver of learning, it is vital to develop approaches to education that promote relationship development with others. He says that education needs to promote healthy attitudes, not at manipulating others, nor “exploiting and manipulating creation but at reconciling the world to itself” (1993, pp. 7–8). Palmer recognizes that these relational goals should include the need for “tough love” which connects visions of a better world to the need to address the challenges, realities, and claims on our lives. Palmer also warns that the imposition of external controls can easily promote externalized self-serving that distances people from a fuller engagement with their world, self, and true knowledge and promote attitudes of exclusion and manipulation over integration and care of self, others, and the environment. Learning that emerges from within the student has value over a more externally imposed obedience to directions and controls as it is more likely to promote reflection and ownership of holistic, integrated thinking. Knowledge that springs from an authentic love of self, others, and subject is more likely to “implicate us in the web of life;

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it will wrap the knower and the known in compassion, in a bond of awesome responsibility as well as transforming joy; it will call us to involvement, mutuality, and accountability” (1993, p. 9). Hart (2003) warns that the imposing of teacheroriented views on students can too easily create shadow images of their true selves, particularly when someone stands “between ourselves and our own light” (Hart 2003, p. 179). Earl (2001) too uses the term “shadow” to describe ways in which negative or undeveloped regions of the person restrict the growth of a mature and authentic person. Jung (1968) famously described ways in which this shadow of the self can grow as unacknowledged areas of life, dreams, and fears are left unexpressed. As these authors show, the imposing of teacher-oriented views can limit inner personal growth and lead to overdependence on the views of others and shut down opportunities for inner reflection and development of the inner self that are needed to authentically enage with self, others, society and the environment over the long term. Zohar and Marshall (2000) have formed the concept of spiritual intelligence (SQ) to describe the development of skills in understanding and engaging with issues relating to ultimate meaning and value. The term spiritual intelligence was developed to describe the sense of meaning and purpose that underpins reasons why people are motivated and interested in particular thinking and actions. Zohar and Marshall (2000) argue that the concept of spiritual intelligence provides a necessary foundation and motivation for other intelligences, including IQ and EQ. Gardner (1999, p. 60) too has pondered whether it would be more appropriate to consider spiritual intelligence as a form of existential intelligence. He describes the “spiritual as achievement of a state of being” which represents psychological states and phenomenal experiences that are called spiritual. He uses spirituality to describe its effect on others through social relationships. The inclusion of Spirituality Quotient (SQ) with a discussion of IQ and EQ also helps to promote a well-rounded integration of all aspects of the self, dimensions of identity, and more in-depth understanding of self,

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others, community, the world, and eternal realities. At the same time, spirituality will not aid to education unless it is open to changes with the students thinking in ways that promote growth, agency, and accountability.

The Application of Spirituality to Education Spirituality can be viewed as a part of the ongoing journey of growth and transformation of each person. Mezirow introduced the term “transformative learning” to adult education from 1975 to 1978 to describe how habits such as reflection, questioning, and discourse are essential for mental and spiritual growth. Growth in thinking and spirituality requires a person to examine their views and the views of others in ways that test existing viewpoints and open each person to new ways of thinking. Mezirow found that growth most often occurs as existing frames of reference are challenged when new alternatives considered, as the foundations of beliefs and practices explored. Growth often requires discarding of less accurate habits of the mind and ways of thinking and an openness to different ways of viewing and acting in the world (Mezirow 2000). Reflection that brings transformation requires an openness to changes in one’s frames of reference so that they are tested, justified, and open to continued transition. The inclusion of spirituality in education helps to promote deeper understandings of the person in relationship with self, others and community and it helps to avoid an overemphasis on narcissism or isolated individualism. It also helps to avoid the dangers of over-objectifying knowledge, people and the environment and the underdevelopment of the relationship between learning and growth of the real, authentic self and relationships with others and the world by encouraging a more in-depth development of the student’s inner life through the development of self-care skills and practices. In order for spirituality to be included in education, Susannah Cole (2011) argues for the importance of educators to allocate time to

develop the inner identity and spiritual aspects of student’s lives and the ways these connect to transcendent, existential and environmental realities. Cole observes that many teachers tend to neglect the less visible, inner, transcendent areas of life and they often tend to impose their worldviews on students. Teachers too easily overemphasize conformity and the following of a rigid curriculum over the exploration of a range of ways that students can view themselves and their worlds. She warns that this gives little room for students to explore and develop their own inner experiences and for growth in understanding of their self, core values, beliefs, and relationships. Cole warns that this neglect and restriction can easily send a message that these inner and authentic spiritual aspects of life are not necessary. Kessler (1999) too argues for the importance of educators creating a space of openness where students can feel comfortable exploring relationships with their inner self, and connections to others, in light of self-understandings as well as existential and ultimate concerns. This space should allow the exploration of the different experiences of life and ways in which new possibilities can be better understood. It can be enhanced by creative and playful activities, including art, drawing, drama, story sharing, and even silence. Mary O’Reilley in her book, Radical Presence: Teaching as Contemplative Practice (1998), argues that good teaching can learn a great deal from spiritual traditions that emphasize hospitality, compassion, truth-seeking, being present, and being real. In her earlier book, The Peaceable Classroom (1993), O’Reilley describes the value of encouraging a dialogue between the student’s inner life and their outer world. O’Reilley (1993) advances several classroom practices that promote spirituality. These include the writing down of one’s thoughts and the discussion of ideas in pairs and small groups. Sharing in these ways helps even the shy students to clarify their thoughts and to share their ideas in “spaces.” These practices help students to hear their inner voice and develop greater confidence in their views and ways of understanding before

Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

they share their views with more significant numbers of people. She found that teaching humanities subjects such as English, and many other subjects, can be seen as being related to spirituality in ways that give students opportunity for finding and developing one’s voice and language skills; helping students understand their emotions, such as anger; and developing an understanding of the ways hopes and happiness can be achieved. O’Reilley uses literary studies and contemporary approaches to rhetoric to engage with theories of violence and nonviolence to develop a pedagogy that promotes nonviolence. She shows ways in which students can be given opportunities in freewriting, journaling and language studies, reflective exercises and small group work to develop greater self-understanding and free expression of views and to promote inner authenticity and peace. These exercises help students to develop skills for interacting with, listening to, and respecting other’s viewpoints. The skills needed to develop a strong sense of inner peace are also shown to help promote peace in relationships in ways that contribute to peace in communities and societies. Nash and Murray (2010, p. 119) have identified the need for educators to equip students to engage with their core subjective self-understanding “me” and relational “we” issues as well as deep ontological and ethical enigmas about meaning and life. The years spent at school and university are times when young people have the opportunity and responsibility to reflect on the most challenging questions about life and their future and not just to prepare for immediate future job requirements. These formative education years are times when students make foundational decisions about the worldviews they adopt, and their views on the ultimate sources of meaning for life, be it God and religious traditions, or more general spiritual and existential concepts. To meet this need, educational staff and institutions should provide students with the skills and resources they need to develop well-thought-out positions within broader, pluralistic viewpoints while acknowledging and respecting different ways of seeing and interpreting the world. Nash and Murray

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(2010) provide some useful approaches for this task, including giving time for engaging with big ethical and philosophical questions, purposeful times of silence and reflection, and considering different contexts and viewpoints. They highlight the value of storytelling and engaging with different roles and perspectives in a variety of narratives. They also show the importance of addressing the challenges faced in developing one’s positions so that student’s ideas are well thought out and well owned. They point out that students need to be given the skills to face disappointments in life and thinking and to develop skills needed to rebuild after failures and setbacks. These skills not only come from an educator’s academic training, but they also rely “on the educator’s humanity and willingness to mentor students as they wander [together] down the road of meaning” (2010, p. 279). To help meet this need, they identify four therapeutic approaches that are useful in this process – logo therapy, developed by Viktor Frankl; philosophical counselling, as put forward by Marinoff; narrative therapy; and positive psychology. Nash and Murray (2010) say that the present pluralistic age is not the time for teachers to abandon their role as mentors, role models, and instructors when it comes to spirituality. The present age is a time when students need increased opportunities to explore and establish their sense of meaning and purpose for their lives to be able to challenge dominant cultural stories and agendas. There is a need for considerable resources, role models, and opportunities if students are to make well-informed, educated responses to these opportunities. The paradigms and insights associated with spirituality and education can be very helpful for these tasks. Hitzhusen (2006) reminds us that the majority of the earth’s people are religious and their religions and spiritualities make essential contributions to their worldviews, attitudes, and beliefs. Religious attitudes, spiritual practices, and ethical values shape the ways people understand and interact with the natural world. Thus opportunities to engage with spirituality are an essential component of an education that

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addresses important questions in life, including relationships to the natural environment and a sustainable individual and community lifestyles. In order to be effective, this knowledge needs to be combined with an understanding of science, politics, culture, and other disciplines that are required to implement the insights that people develop.

Conclusion This entry has shown some of the ways spirituality can be used to promote education that is inclusive, equitable, and sustainable. It documents how many students, teachers, and researchers have found that the concepts associated with spirituality provide an invaluable asset for promoting a deeper understanding of self that goes beyond self-centeredness, growth in relationships with others, and concern for the natural world. Spirituality is useful in education as it promotes the development of values, habits, and understandings of the self, others, and the environment that are important for developing holistic and well-rounded approaches to education. Spirituality is also useful for addressing the big questions about life, and it can help to promote increased educational involvement and concern for society and care for the natural environment. In education, spirituality encourages a deeper reflection on the subjects being studied, the nature of knowledge and learning, and interrelationships between areas studied and social, biological, and environmental contexts. Spirituality can motivate an openness to transformation and commitment to ethics and justice. It connects education to deeper and more holistic understandings of the inner self and encourages the relating of the subjects studied to transcendent existential concepts that give meaning and purpose to life. It gives an awareness of unseen realities that can often be as important as the immediate visible domain. It also encourages greater consideration of ontological and teleological concerns, and it can promote a sense of awe as students consider the nature of reality. It helps to promote more significant

heartfelt commitments to a sense of mission and service toward others and the world as well as encouraging increased stewardship, activism, and practical actions in working toward a better world. While tradition-based religious spiritualities can often be helpful for encouraging increased motivation and alignment of education with the religious values of particular participants and groups, more generalized understandings of spirituality are particularly useful for promoting more general understandings of the self, relationships with others and the wider world, and ultimate concerns that have the benefit of going beyond the narrower perspectives of a particular religious tradition, in ways that encourage an education that is inclusive, equitable, and sustainable.

Cross-References ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

References Buber M (1958) I and thou (trans: Smith RG). Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York Cole S (2011) Situating children in the discourse of spirituality. In: Wane NN, Manyimo EL, Ritskes EJ (eds) Spirituality, education & society. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Cour P, Ausker N, Hvidt NC (2011) Six meanings of the word “spirituality” in a secular country. Arch Psychol Relig 34(2012):63–81 de Souza M (2016) Spirituality in Education in a Global, Pluralised World, Routledge, UK

Stakeholder Engagement Dyson J, Cobb M, Forman D (1997) The meaning of spirituality: a literature review. J Adv Nurs 26:1183–1188 Earl M (2001) Shadow and spirituality. J Child Spiritual 6 (3):277–288 Estanek S (2006) Redefining spirituality: a new discourse. Coll Stud J 40(2):270–281 Fisher J (2001) Comparing levels of spiritual well-being in state, catholic and independent schools in Victoria, Australia. J Beliefs Values 22(1):99–105 Garcia-Zamor J (2003) Workplace spirituality and organisational performance. Public Adm Rev 63 (3):355–363 Gardner H (1999) Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century, Basic Books, New York Hart T (2003) The secret spiritual world of children. Inner Ocean, Maui Hay D, Socha P (2005) Spirituality as a natural phenomenon: bringing biological and psychological perspectives together. Zygon 40:589–612 Heelas P, Woodhead L (2005) The spiritual revolution: why religion is giving way to spirituality. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford Hitzhusen G (2006) Religion and environmental education: building on common ground. Can J Environ Educ 11:9–25 Johnson T, Kristeller J, Sheets V (2004) Religiousness and spirituality in college students: separate dimensions with unique and common correlates. J Coll Character 2:1–36 Jones L (2005) What does spirituality in education mean? J Coll Character 6:7 Jung CG (1957) Modern man in search of a soul (trans: Dell WS, Cary FB). Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York Jung CG (1968) The structure and dynamics of the psyche. Collected works, vol 9. Princeton University Press, Princeton Kania W (2009) Healthy religion: a psychological guide to a mature faith. AuthorHouse, Bloomington Kessler R (1999) Nourishing students in secular schools. Educ Leadersh 56(4):49–52 Kinchloe J (2006) Critical ontology and indigenous ways of being: forging a postcolonial curriculum. In: Kanu Y (ed) Curriculum as cultural practice: Postcolonial imaginations. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, pp 181–202 Mazama MA (2002) Afrocentricity and African spirituality. J Black Stud 33(2):218–234 Mezirow J (2000) Learning as transformation: critical perspectives on a theory in progress. Jossey-Bass, New York Miller WR, Thoresen CE (1999) Spirituality and health. In: Miller WR (ed) Integrating spirituality into treatment resources for practitioners. American Psychology Association, Washington, DC, pp 3–18 Mitroff II, Denton EA (1999) A study of spirituality in the workplace. Sloan Manag Rev 40:83–92

811 Nash RJ (2002) Spirituality, ethics, religions, and teaching: a professor’s journey. Peter Lang Publishing, New York Nash RJ, Murray MC (2010) Helping college students find purpose: the campus guide to meaning-making. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco O’Murchu D (1997) Reclaiming spirituality. A new spiritual framework for today’s world. Gill & Macmillan, Dublin O’Reilley MR (1993) The peaceable classroom. Boynton/Cook Publishers, Portsmouth O’Reilley MR (1998) Radical presence: teaching as contemplative practice. Boynton/Cook Publishers, Portsmouth Palmer P (1993) To know as we are known: a spirituality of education. HarperCollins Publishers, New York Palmer P (1998) The courage to teach: exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco Palmer P (2003) Teaching with heart and soul: reflections on spirituality in teacher education. J Teach Educ 54 (5):376–385 Scott RW (1994) Institutions and organisations. Foundations for organizational science. A Sage Publications Series, London Swinton J (2011) What is missing from our practice? Spirituality as presence and absence. J Study Spiritual 1(1):13–16 Tacey D (2003) The spirituality revolution: the emergence of contemporary spirituality. Brunner-Routledge, Hove, East Sussex Tolliver W (1997) Invoking the spirit: a model for incorporating the spiritual dimension of human functioning into social work practice. Smith Coll Stud Soc Work 67(3):477–486 UN (2019) Sustainable Development Goals: Quality education. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ education/. Accessed 21 Oct 2019 York M (2001) New Age commodification and appropriation of spirituality. J Contemp Relig 16(3):361–372 Zohar D, Marshall I (2000) Spiritual intelligence: the ultimate intelligence. Bloomsbury, New York

S Spontaneous Learning ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

Stakeholder Engagement ▶ Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

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Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal Corina Joseph1 and Roshima Said2 1 Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia 2 Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Kedah, Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia

Synonyms Participation

Definitions According to Fredricks et al. (2004), there are three dimensions of engagement which are as follows: 1. Behavioral engagement: It means where it involves students’ participation in education specifically in the academic, social, and extracurricular activities of the school. 2. Emotional engagement: The students’ emotive reactions in the classroom and in the school. This is about a sense of belonging or connectedness to the school. 3. Cognitive engagement is looking at students’ investment in their education (motivation and self-regulation). Appleton et al. (2008) recognize the view of engagement as a primary theoretical model for understanding dropout, and it is essential to stimulate school completion and defines it as graduation from high school with appropriate academic and social skills to participate in secondary enrolment options or the world of working environment. Though, as defined by Trowler (2010), “Student engagement has been defined as “participation in educationally effective practices, both

inside and outside the classroom, which leads to a range of measurable outcomes” (Kuh 2007), and as “the extent to which students are engaging in activities that higher education research has shown to be linked with high-quality learning outcomes” (p. 7)”. Furthermore, Coates (2007, p. 122) in Trowler (2010) describes “engagement as ‘a broad construct intended to encompass salient academic as well as certain non-academic aspects of the student’s experience’ comprising the active and collaborative learning, participation in challenging academic activities, formative communication with academic staff, involvement in enriching educational experiences, and feeling legitimized and supported by university learning communities” (p. 7). Student engagement relates with what the educators strive for in their classrooms. Normally, student engagement is a situation where students are interested in the assignment given, even when the work is challenging. They persevere despite the obstacles and take pride in the completed work (Fletcher 2018). According to Kahu (2013), student engagement is widely recognized, and it is being widely theorized and researched as having an important influence on the achievement and learning in higher education. His study was the first to review and critique the four dominant research perspectives on student engagement, namely, the behavioral perspective, the psychological perspective, the sociocultural perspective, and the holistic perspective. In his study, he found that there are poor definitions and a lack of distinction between the state of engagement, factors that influence student engagement, and the immediate and longer-term consequences of engagement. Klem and Connell 2004 indicated that student engagement is generally associated positively with desired academic, social, and emotional learning outcomes. Moreover, Finn and Zimmer (2012) examined the relationships of student engagement with academic achievement, graduating from high school and entering postsecondary schooling. They reviewed the relationship of each components of the engagement is essential for learning, the engagement is multifaceted with behavioral and psychological

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components, the engagement and disengagement are developmental and occur over a period of years, and the student engagement can be modified through school policies and practices to improve the prognoses of students at risk. The study found that engagement has a concurrent impact on academic achievement and engagement in early and middle grades is predictive of achievement and attainment in later grades. Furthermore, the findings of the study show that engagement behaviors and attitudes can help students to overcome the difficulties presented by status and academic risk factors, including factors associated with behavior problems outside of school.

The History of Engagement Kearsley and Shneiderman (1998) stated that the Engagement Theory is based upon the idea of creating successful collaborative teams that work on determined projects that are significant to someone outside the classroom. There are three components, encapsulated by “Relate-CreateDonate” concepts, suggesting that learning activities: 1. Occur in a group context (i.e., collaborative teams): This first principle is linked with the “Relate” component which highlights team efforts that are implicated in communication, planning, management, and social skills. 2. Project-based: The second principle is interrelated with the “Create” component that makes learning a creative, determined activity. In this principle, students have to define the project (problem domain) and focus their efforts on the application of ideas to a specified context. 3. Have an outside (authentic) focus: The third principle is linked with the “Donate” component where it stresses the value of making a useful contribution while learning. Ideally each project has an outside “customer” that the project is being conducted for. The customer could be a campus group, community, government agency, local business or needy individuals, and others.

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Axelson and Flick (2010) stated that the word engagement has the stimulating history that 500year-old English words originating in France often do. They indicated that to “engage” oneself meant to mortgage one’s lands long before it meant agreeing formally to something (e.g., marriage), but, either way, it was serious business, indicating that one was exposing oneself to risk, offering oneself as the guarantor of something promised. The Norman root word, gage, from which engagement derives, means “pledge” as in tying oneself to a course of action by oath. For hundreds of years, an engagement was a moral, often legal, obligation (p. 40). The Engagement Theory is a framework for technology-based teaching and learning. It is a fundamental underlying idea that students must be implicitly engaged in learning activities through collaboration with others and sensible tasks. Huang (2010) stated that though the Engagement Theory is a result of a long-range educational practice, it is also pertinent to the academia literary education because present-day students are motivated to network association instead of reality. The Engagement Theory stresses cooperation, creativity, and contribution, which could help to lessen the network crisis around universities and have vast advantages in the literary aesthetic education. By using a longitudinal sample of 526 high school students across the USA, Shernoff et al. (2014) revealed a conceptualization of student engagement based on the conclusion of concentration, interest, and enjoyment. They investigated how youngsters spent their time in high school and the conditions under which they reported being engaged. Their findings found that the participants experienced high engagement when they perceived a challenge with the task and their own skills were high, and in balance, the instruction was relevant, and the learning environment was under their control. Furthermore, the findings showed that the participants were more engaged in individual and group work as compared to listening to lectures, watching videos, or taking exams. Pike and Kuh (2005) examined the possibility to form a typology of student engagement for American colleges and universities based on students’ experiences. Their findings showed that a typology could be

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Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal, Table 1 The seven types of engaging institutions Types of engaging institutions Diverse, but interpersonally fragmented

Homogeneous and interpersonally cohesive Intellectually stimulating

Interpersonally supportive

High-tech, low-touch

Academically challenging and supportive

Collaborative

Explanation Students at the colleges have abundant experiences with diversity and tend to use technology, but do not view the institution as supporting their academic or social needs nor are their peers viewed as supportive or encouraging. All in all, not a very easy place to live and learn it seems Students at the colleges have relatively few experiences with diversity but view the institution and their peers as supportive. These institutions are the mirror image of the first engagement type Students at the colleges are engaged in a variety of academic activities and have a great deal of interaction with faculty inside and outside the classroom. They also tend to engage in higher-order thinking and work with their peers on academic matters (i. e., collaborative learning) Students attending these institutions report high frequency of diversity experiences and view their peers and the campus as supportive of their efforts. Students also have a reasonable amount of contact with faculty members inside and outside the classroom Information technology rules at these universities to the point of muting other types of interactions. There is a sense of stark individualism as little collaboration occurs, academic challenge is low, and the interpersonal environment is not a distinguishing feature of the campus Faculty set high expectations and emphasize higher-order thinking in traditional ways. Little active and collaborative learning is required. At the same time, students support one another and view the campus as supportive. A generally friendly and congenial place to be an undergraduate interested in learning Peers rely on and are generally supportive of one another for learning, mediated somewhat by technology. Although there are few opportunities for experiences with diversity, students have a reasonable amount of contact with faculty, who along with other dimensions of the campus climate are viewed as supportive

Source: Pike and Kuh (2005, p. 202)

created, and the types were somewhat independent of institutional mission. Their study identified the seven types of engaging institutions. The Table 1 below shows the seven types of engaging institutions. The findings of the study of Pike and Kuh (2005) are consistent with the observations made in the first four of National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) report where the institutions differ in how they engage students and that no institution is uniformly high or low across all measures of engagement. The study also found that engagement and Carnegie Classification were interrelated. The study confirmed that the interactions among groups are key factors that affect the interpersonal environment at an institution, and when the interactions among diverse groups are positive, the perceptions of the interpersonal environment are expected to be positive and vice versa.

By using several of databases such as the Web of Science, PsycINFO, ERIC, A+Education, Google Scholar, Academic Search Elite, General OneFile, and Index New Zealand, Zepke and Leach (2010) synthesized literature from a variety of research perspectives and developed four perspectives on engagement located in the literature. The Table 2 below shows the four research perspectives on the complexity of engagement and a conceptual organizer with two features and the ten proposals for action that emerged from the synthesis of the literature.

Student Engagement and Sustainable Development Goal No 4 The SDGs include a wide large scale of multifaceted social, economic, and environmental issues. Transformation is needed to ensure that society,

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Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal, Table 2 A conceptual organizer for student engagement Research perspectives Motivation and agency (Engaged students are intrinsically motivated and want to exercise their agency) Transactional engagement (Students and teachers engage with each other)

Institutional support (Institutions provide an environment conducive to learning)

Active citizenship (Students and institutions work together to enable challenges to social beliefs and practices)

Proposals for action 1. Enhance students’ self-belief 2. Enable students to work autonomously, enjoy learning relationships with others, and feel they are competent to achieve their own objectives 3. Recognize that teaching and teachers are central to engagement 4. Create learning that is active and collaborative and fosters learning relationships 5. Create educational experiences for students that are challenging and enriching and extend their academic abilities 6. Ensure institutional cultures are welcoming to students from diverse backgrounds 7. Invest in a variety of support services 8. Adapt to changing student expectations 9. Enable students to become active citizens 10. Enable students to develop their social and cultural capital

Source: Zepke and Leach (2010, p. 169)

economy, and environment issues are tackled appropriately. There are several essential aspects that are required by society to respond to these challenges, namely, education, research, innovation, and leadership. Sustainable Development Goal 4 has seven targets related to the expected outcomes and three targets, i.e., ways of achieving these targets (effective learning environments, scholarships, teachers, and educators). Goal 4 of the SDGs is specifically dedicated to the improvement of quality education, in which target 4.7 is focusing on the education for sustainable development (ESD). All learners are expected to attain skills and knowledge to advance sustainable development in 2030. This can be achieved via various ways, for example, using education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and nonviolence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development. In the education sector, students’ passion and involvement in sustainability-related activities are one of the key success factors to achieve social and environmental goals. A sustainable future requires innovative acquaintance, abilities,

behavior, and values. A proper channel is necessary to enable students with a high level of passion to commit and make changes (Cairo 2011). Since the introduction of sustainability agenda by the United Nations in 1992, sustainability agenda has been integrated in the education’s curriculum globally and at various stages, i.e., from school level to university level. All students in any grade level can learn about the SDGs in age-appropriate ways with the multitude of unrestricted availability of activities, curricula, and classroom activities. Schools, colleges, and universities are the ideal avenues to help introduce the SDGs to young people from all classes. Students can learn, engage, and know how to act on the SDGs upon their graduation. Hence, schools, colleges, and universities need to equip themselves with the skills and tools they need to transform their respective organizations into hubs of SDG engagement. In moving toward sustainable development, the inclusion of active students from various disciplines in the actual sustainability activities is important by identifying the present needs without compromising the needs of future generations. This is part of the efforts to create a new type of professionals, i.e., “Change agents. These people should possess competencies that

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Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

allow them to support and guide the transformation of economies and societies towards a more sustainable future” (Lippuner et al. 2015, p. 37). Several reasons relating to the importance of SDGs in the education sector which requires active student’s engagement are as follows: (www.intrahealth.org). Students Are Required to Learn About the Globe The school children now will become adults in an even more connected and culturally diverse society. Hence, the awareness and knowledge of diversity and cultural value differences are important to students to be successful and prosper in the future. Furthermore, the SDGs are common goals for everyone and unanimous. Engaging and learning about these global agenda would enable learners to have an overview on the world issues, for example, climate change and poverty. Cultural differences are indivisible from these world issues and need to be learnt together by the learners to comprehend SDGs in a better manner. Students Need to Be Active Participant in this World Students must play their role by engaging in both local and global communities’ activities. By doing so, students would obtain insights to resolve world’s never-ending problems. At the same time, student’s engagement would develop student’s attitude to be a global citizen, that is, caring toward others and indicate readiness to be a member of society. Students would benefit in terms of understanding the practical goals and problemsolving skills by engaging in the world issues addressed in the SDGs. Students Learn About Empathy and Compassion In learning about SDGs, students would understand better about issues commonly faced by people around the world, for example, gender equality, poverty, and poor education when they are directly engaged in both local and global communities’ activities. Students would never could

experience the actual challenges when they are not actually engaged in the SDGs learning activity. An empathy skill is needed by learners to create heartful relationships in life. To be an engaged adult that has high level of passionate, compassion needs to be instilled at younger age. By engaging young people with the SDGs, they are more motivated to be change agents. With a developed passion for a single given SDG issue area, or with the SDGs in general, young people would feel a sense of ownership and motivation to contribute to achieving the goals by 2030. Inspiring Students and Teachers to Act Since SDGs involve common issues which are happening all over the world, teachers are not necessarily possessing technical or specific skills, such as environmental management and water conservation to teach SDGs. The learning activities can be explored, planned, and conducted together with their students. An early understanding on SDGs is important for students as this would inspire them to act and make changes. Furthermore, by coaching students to act on SDGs, they will be given empowerment to contribute back to their society in an impactful manner. Teachers and educators are playing an important role to connect students with excessive supply of resources and overcome the barriers that hinder the students to explore more about the SDGs. This type of training is important to equip future leaders for the SDGs in their own communities and fields.

Challenges in Student Engagement There are several challenges in student engagement. Firstly, it involves students’ attitude. Students specifically are very inactive and do not give full commitment and not strong enough to face challenges in life. The negative attitude, such as boredom, anxiety, depression, and anger, can promote inconducive learning environment in classroom (https://en.wikipedia.org). Secondly, the incorporation of sustainable development in the education sector is hindered

Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

by collective history of racism, colonization, and inequitable thinking. These differences surpass boundaries and countries. Detailed borderless resolutions and intercultural collaboration are needed to address borderless problems (Klein and Caobos 2017). Thirdly, different education sector has different set of problems. For example, the main challenge in community college is division in programs and separation among administrators and members of faculty that does not promote the student engagement. Another problem is diminishing roles for students’ affairs practitioners due to lack of institutional support and increase in the number of students’ population (Nguyen 2011). Fourthly, past studies show that various benefits occur when students are engaged in their learning, including improved motivation and achievement. However, there is an argument in defining and measuring student engagement in Science Learning specifically in the measurement of engagement, such as construct definition, grain size of measurement, individual and developmental differences of participants, the single method problem, in situ problems, and problems pinpointing the source of engagement (Sinatra et al. 2015). Lastly, with the new conceptual frameworks for student engagement research, policy, and practice which steered toward social-ecological analysis and social-cultural theory, engagement is now conceptualized as a dynamic system of social and psychological constructs as well as a synergistic process. This new conceptualization generates challenges which invite researchers, policymakers, and school-community leaders to cultivate improvement models that provide a more extensive, engagement-focused reach into students’ family, peer, and neighborhood ecologies (Lawson and Lawson 2013).

Specific Challenges: Nigeria Chika (2012) has documented problems related to challenges in Nigeria. Firstly, this includes a decrease in education budget that consequently

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caused unpaid teachers’ salaries in most states, degradation of education facilities (Infrastructure) at all levels, strikes in universities, and poor literacy rate. There is lack of attention given to policy frameworks within the education sector. Secondly, there is also no priority on the policy implementation within the education sector, which is followed by poor monitoring of innovative policies and programs. Thirdly, the access to basic education is inhibited by gender issues and sociocultural beliefs and practices, which, consequently, affect the educational standards and learning achievements. There is a big gap in the educational standard and learning achievement. Lack of attention has not been paid to the technical, vocational, and entrepreneurial education in the review of school curricular. Fourthly, there is lack interest in education in Nigeria. This can be seen in the poor performance of both Mathematics and English results. In 2008, 47% of students had dropped out of school. It was highlighted that lack of student engagement is a determinant for poor achievements and dropping out of school. At the same time, the vision of student engagement is too rare among students and teachers and in many institutions of learning.

UNESCO Education for Sustainable Development Goals UNESCO has come up with the Education for Sustainable Development Goals which contained the learning objectives related to Sustainable Development Goal 4. The learning goals are as follows (UNESCO 2017, p. 18): “Cognitive Learning Objectives 1. The learner understands the important role of education and lifelong learning opportunities for all (formal, non-formal and informal learning) as main drivers of sustainable development, for improving people’s lives and in achieving the SDGs. 2. The learner understands education as a public good, a global common good, a fundamental

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human right and a basis for guaranteeing the realization of other rights. 3. The learner knows about inequality in access to and attainment of education, particularly between girls and boys and in rural areas, and about reasons for a lack of equitable access to quality education and lifelong learning opportunities. 4. The learner understands the important role of culture in achieving sustainability. 5. The learner understands that education can help create a more sustainable, equitable and peaceful world. Socio-emotional Learning Objective 1. The learner is able to raise awareness of the importance of quality education for all, a humanistic and holistic approach to education, ESD and related approaches. 2. The learner is able through participatory methods to motivate and empower others to demand and use educational opportunities. 3. The learner is able to recognize the intrinsic value of education and to analyse and identify their own learning needs in their personal development. 4. The learner is able to recognize the importance of their own skills for improving their life, in particular for employment and entrepreneurship. 5. The learner is able to engage personally with ESD. Behavioural Learning Objective 1. The learner is able to contribute to facilitating and implementing quality education for all, ESD and related approaches at different levels. 2. The learner is able to promote gender equality in education. 3. The learner is able to publicly demand and support the development of policies promoting free, equitable and quality education for all, ESD and related approaches as well as aiming at safe, accessible and inclusive educational facilities. 4. The learner is able to promote the empowerment of young people.

5. The learner is able to use all opportunities for their own education throughout their life, and to apply the acquired knowledge in everyday situations to promote sustainable development.” UNESCO (2017, p. 19) has given examples of learning approaches and methods for SDG 4 “Quality Education” as follows: • “Develop partnerships between schools, universities and other institutions offering education in different regions of the world (South and North, South and South) • Plan and run a quality education awareness campaign • Conduct a case study on the education system and access to education (e.g. enrolment in primary education) in selected communities or countries • Plan and run an ESD project at a school or university, or for the local community • Celebrate UN World Youth Skills Day (15 July), International Literacy Day (8 September) or World Teachers’ • Day (5 October); or take part in Global Action Week for Education • Organize ESD days at local, regional and national level • Develop an enquiry-based project: “What is a sustainable school?”

Example of SDG Implementation at Gimnasio Los Caobos, Bogotá, Colombia At Gimnasio Los Caobos, the Project-Based Learning is applied throughout the school system to encourage student’s engagement in SDG. SDG No 11, a2, and 13 are applied by junior school students to ensure the facilities are being used in a more environmentally friendly and sustainable manner. SDG No 9 is applied by middle school students in improving lives by venturing into innovative entrepreneurial projects. As for the higher-level students, they are assigned to apply SG No 6 to sustainable peace in Colombia by creating a new identity for the society and nation.

Student Engagement: Catalyst to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal

Teachers are responsible to report SDG implementation in the current curriculum and encourage participations from students (Klein and Caobos 2017).

Way Forward There are many aspects which need to be considered to promote student engagement in education sectors. • Leadership and Governance Dedicated support from the top management is important to promote student engagement in sustainability at all education sectors. It has been discussed in the sustainability literature that strategic leaders have an elevated level of passion for the sustainable development agenda. An organization’s governance (including a specific unit/ department of sustainability, strategies, processes, and people) needs to be implemened, updated, and communicated to the stakeholders. • Inclusiveness and Strategic Partnership One of the essential elements in advancing the sustainable development agenda is the inclusiveness and strategic partnership, which is an integral part of the student engagement. Hence, a few factors that are required to ensure the success of student engagement are the following: (1) What are the objectives of the engagement? (2) Who are the parties involved in the engagement? (3) Where is the engagement taking place? (4) What are the resources available at the education sectors? This is important to ensure that there is no redundancy or overlapping of work. • Facilities and Operations Student engagement initiatives require complex physical and nonphysical resources, as well as strong support systems at the education sectors. These include utilities, resource efficiency and waste management, ICT, construction and renovation, biodiversity, and travel and transport.

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• Learning and Teaching To achieve SDG 4, it is recommended to integrate the student engagement elements, in teaching, learning, and research. This can be implemented by making the student engagement as a key performance indicator for annual performance appraisal for academic staff at the education sectors. Through this formal requirement, all the staff members at the education sectors are motivated to contribute to the sustainability at the education sectors. By integrating a student engagement element, the education sector will be able to serve the community in a better manner. • Continuous Learning One way to achieve SDG 4 is by continuous learning. As for the universities, the implementing universities could refer to the Guide (Getting started with the SDGs in Universities) written by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) – Australia/Pacific – in collaboration with the Australasian Campuses Towards Sustainability (ACTS) and the global SDSN Secretariat. Getting started with the SDGs in universities outlines the key roles universities have in contributing to the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the benefits of becoming engaged. It provides a practical guidance on how to get started by referring to real case studies involving the universities in Australia.

References Appleton JJ, Christenson SL, Furlong MJ (2008) Student engagement with school: critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychol Sch 45:369–386 Axelson RD, Flick A (2010) Defining student engagement. Change: Mag Higher Learn 43(1):38–43 Cairo A (2011) Student engagement in campus sustainability. Facil Manag 27:28–31 Chika OP (2012) Student engagement: issues and concerns for nigerian schools in achieving millennium development goals. Int J Acad Res Prog Educ Dev 1:256–259 Coates H (2007) A model of online and general campusbased student engagement. Assess Eval High Educ 32 (2):121–141 Finn JD, Zimmer KS (2012) tudent engagement: what is it? Why does it matter? In: Handbook of research on student engagement. Springer, Boston, pp 97–131

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820 Fletcher A (2018) Defining student engagement: a literature review Retrieved from: https://soundout.org/defin ing-student-engagement-a-literature-review/ Fredricks JA, Blumenfeld PC, Paris AH (2004) School engagement: potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Rev Educ Res 74:59–109 Huang C (2010) Application of engagement theory in the literary education. J Lang Teach Res 1(4):460 Kahu ER (2013) Framing student engagement in higher education. Stud High Educ 38(5):758–773 Kearsley G, Shneiderman B (1998) Engagement theory: a framework for technology-based teaching and learning. Educ Technol 38(5):20–23 Klein JD, Caobos GL (2017) Building a better world: six strategies for engaging the sustainable development goals in the classroom. Retrieved from: http://www. p21.org/news-events/p21blog/2282-building-a-betterworld-six-strategies-for-engaging-the-sustainable-dev elopment-goals-in-the-classroom. Accessed 31 Aug 2018 Klem AM, Connell JP (2004) Relationships matter: linking teacher support to student engagement and achievement. J Sch Health 74(7):262–273 Kuh GD (2007) What student engagement data tell us about college readiness. Peer Rev 9(1):4–8 Lawson MA, Lawson HA (2013) New conceptual frameworks for student engagement research, policy, and practice. Rev Educ Res 83(3):432–479 Lippuner C, Pearce BJ, Bratrich C (2015) The ETH sustainability Summer School Programme: an incubator to support change agents for sustainability. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 16:37–43 Nguyen CP (2011) Challenges of student engagement in community colleges. Vermont Connect 32:7 Pike GR, Kuh GD (2005) A typology of student engagement for American colleges and universities. Res High Educ 46(2):185–209 Shernoff DJ, Csikszentmihalyi M, Schneider B, Shernoff ES (2014) Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. In: Applications of flow in human development and education. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 475–494. Staff and Student Sustainability Engagement Strategy 2016–2018, Retrieve from: https://staff.brighton.ac.uk/efm/Public_ Docs/Environment%20Team/Staff%20and%20Studen t%20Sustainability%20Engagement%20Strategy%20 2016-18.pdf Sinatra GM, Heddy BC, Lombardi D (2015) The challenges of defining and measuring student engagement in science. Educ Psychol 50(1):1–13 Trowler V (2010) Student engagement literature review. Higher Education Academy, York UNESCO (2017) Education for sustainable development goals, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352, Paris 07 SP. Zepke N, Leach L (2010) Improving student engagement: ten proposals for action. Act Learn High Educ 11(3): 167–177

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education Robyn Press School of Education, Christian Heritage College, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Synonyms Assessment

Definition In the field of education, the concept of feedback can be summarized as “information provided by an agent (e.g. teacher, peer, book, parent, self, experience) regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding” (Hattie and Timperley 2007, 81). Feedback is one aspect of the teaching process – it occurs after instruction. Within education, feedback occurs at the individual level (between student and teacher), at the local level (within a school, faculty, course, or module), and at an institutional level (e.g., graduate surveys). The use of feedback has been identified as a powerful tool with the potential to shape, manage, and implement reform to maximize progress and achievement (Levin 2000, 155). For the purposes of this section, discussion will focus on feedback at the individual level (between teachers and learners).

Introduction The effective use of feedback within educational institutions has the power to advance the United Nations sustainable development goal to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” by 2030 (United Nations 2015, 20). Feedback processes within educational institutions may contribute to “quality education, improved learning outcomes, strengthened processes and evaluation

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

of outcomes and mechanisms to measure progress” (United Nations 2015, 8). Using feedback “requires relevant teaching and learning methods and content that meet the needs of all learners, taught by well-qualified, trained, . . . and motivated teachers, using appropriate pedagogical approaches” (United Nations 2015, 30). In this entry, attention will be given to prominent research regarding feedback in education in relation to the development of approaches to feedback over time, why feedback is valuable, types of feedback, and an examination of the factors which influence the effectiveness of feedback in education contexts.

Feedback: A Historical Perspective Historically the notion of feedback in the context of education has been based on behavioral theory – that is, it focused on “visible behaviour of students [in this case, academic performance], which can be manipulated by means of stimuli such as praise and punishment” (Atkinson et al. 1983, 52). Teachers typically taught content, students reproduced what was taught, and teachers corrected student work. Assessing and marking work was an assumed part of the teaching process which aimed to inform students if they needed to apply themselves more fully to their studies. This behaviorist approach to feedback is linear – feedback is provided, and an outcome occurs in response to this (Thurlings et al. 2013). This view puts teachers in the position of making judgments and “telling” students what they should do to improve performance, rather than students themselves being involved in making judgments about their own progress. Other linear approaches to feedback have been based on cognitivism, which stresses human information processing (Thurlings et al. 2013). In this approach, the feedback process begins with providing feedback to students which is processed by the learners, resulting in determining outcomes. Approaches to feedback have progressed from being viewed as linear, to cyclical, reflecting metacognitivism and social constructivism learning theories. Metacognitivism emphasizes self-regulated learning

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(Boeakarts et al. 2000) in which teachers act as a guide who monitors students while giving them responsibility for their own learning. Feedback is provided to learners at the beginning, and then after further feedback is given, learners progress to another stage. The process is cyclical and continuous as opposed to the linear approach of earlier. Similarly, social constructivist approaches to feedback acknowledge that students are active participants in constructing their own knowledge (Boeakarts et al. 2000). Hence, the feedback process begins with students’ prior knowledge, and teachers guide their learning. Feedback and learning are collaborative, with both involving peers and teacher. Because the learning is continuous, the learners move to a different stage, and the cycle repeats. The value of feedback has long been recognized and has been the topic of much research dating back almost 100 years. Initial studies, however, often involved poor methodology, inaccurate conclusions, and promoted implications based on inconsistent results (Kluger and DeNisi 1996). More recently researchers have recognized that “feedback is one of the most powerful influences on achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative” (Hattie 2012, 81). Current research continues to seek to investigate how to optimize its effectiveness. There has been much discovered since the early linear approaches to feedback processes to foster quality education leading to relevant and effective outcomes (Hattie 2012). The following sections will expand upon some of these topics.

Why Use Feedback? Student feedback at an individual level (between teacher and student) is an important element in the process of continually revising and improving teaching and learning. The notion of “closing the loop” or “closing the gap” has been the focus of studies by many researchers (Sadler 1989; Harvey 2001). The “gap” refers to the gap between a student’s existing understandings and that which they are working toward, that is, the “success criteria” (Hattie 2012). The “feedback loop” refers to a cycle of reflective self-improvement (Black

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and Wiliam 2009). The metaphorical “loops” describe the connections between students’ learning, assessment, and future learning. When teachers have a good understanding of where students are, where they need to be, and how to progress, they can provide specific feedback to students and empower them to take charge of their own learning. The feedback provided has the potential to redirect students to focus on what is important for a task, direct students to processes needed to succeed in a given task, provide information on misinformation or misunderstandings which may exist, motivate students, and hone their focus (Hattie and Timperley 2007). John Hattie’s research involved more than 800 meta-analyses of research studies involving 300 million students and concluded that feedback is one of the top 10 most important influences on student achievement (Hattie 2009). Wiliam (2010) reports that when feedback is used effectively, the pace of learning is increased by at least 50%. Similarly, Black and Wiliam (2010) conclude that feedback is particularly helpful in raising the achievement standards of low-achieving students. On a broader scale, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD 2005) reports that effective assessment and feedback in which learning goals and progress are monitored closely increase equity of student outcomes and students’ ability to learn.

What Makes Feedback Effective? Setting Goals and Criteria The quality of feedback is determined, in part, by whether learning goals are clearly established and communicated (Van den Bergh et al. 2014). “Success criteria” (levels of attainment which relate to a learning goal) (Hattie and Timperley 2007) need to link directly to the learning goals and should involve both challenge and commitment. Feedback is most powerful when it addresses the specific goal-related challenge (Clarke et al. 2003). When learning intentions and success criteria are “shared with, committed to, and understood by the learner. . .the learner can then experiment with the content and the thinking

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

about the content, and make connections across ideas” (Hattie 2009, 23). Hattie and Timperley (2007) describes this as “visible learning.” For this to occur, teachers therefore need to be able to identify students’ prior knowledge and skills; have a range of strategies to assist students according to their needs, are aware of the learning intentions, and provide meaningful experiences which direct students toward achieving the success criteria. Types of Feedback Hattie’s (2009) meta-analysis of the use of feedback concludes that three essential questions help to close the feedback loop and direct the type of feedback required: “Where am I going?” (where the learner is going according to the goals of a lesson), sometimes referred to as “feed up”; “How am I going there?” (where the learner is now in relation to the final desired outcome), sometimes referred to “feedback”; and “Where to next?” (how does the student self-reflect and implement strategies to reach the desired outcome), sometimes referred to as “feed forward.” Feedback plays an important role in this continuous cycle of analysis, reporting, action, and additional feedback (Harvey 2001). In addition, the types and level of feedback provided to students vary in their effectiveness (Hattie 2009). Firstly, feedback may provide students with information on how well a task was understood or how well a product was developed. Airasian (1997) reports that approximately 90% of teachers’ questions in classrooms involve this level of feedback. Hattie and Timperley (2007) conclude that feedback at this level is most powerful when teachers address students’ misconceptions or faulty interpretations. If students lack knowledge, then it is more effective to provide further instruction rather than more feedback at this point (Hattie and Timperley 2007). This type of feedback provides the base on which other types of feedback can be built. Secondly, feedback can be about the process of learning itself and what the student must do to achieve a specified learning outcome, task, or goal (Hattie and Timperley 2007). This type of feedback often involves students’ choosing

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

appropriate strategies to identify their errors, seek help, and/or select alternative appropriate strategies to help them achieve the learning outcome (Carver and Scheier 1981). Hattie (2012, 134) states that “feedback at this process level appears to be more effective for enhancing deeper learning than it is at the task level, and there can be a powerful interactive effect between feedback aimed at improving the strategies and processes, and feedback aimed at the more surface task information.” The use of cues by the teacher is a powerful tool in assisting students to relate the feedback provided to the success criteria which students are striving to achieve (Butler and Winne 1995). Chan (2006) poses that feedback at the process level is most effective and enhances self-efficacy when students are not compared to others, but rather the feedback is self-referenced. Thirdly, feedback can occur at the conditional level which addresses the ways in which students “monitor, direct and regulate actions toward the learning goal” (Hattie and Timperley 2007, 93). At this level, Black and Wiliam (2009) emphasize the importance of students taking ownership for their own learning. That is, they develop their own thoughts, feelings, and actions which assist them to reach the desired goal (Zimmerman 2000). Sousa’s (2015) examination of neuroscience also supports the notion of helping students become masters of their own learning through the type of feedback provided to them. This assists the learner’s brain “to look for patterns and detect errors quickly and accurately” (Sousa 2015, 60). In turn, when success in achieving one goal occurs, this stimulates dopamine – a neurotransmitter in the brain associated with positive feelings that is also responsible for increasing focus, motivation, and memory (Wittman et al. 2007). Self-assessment and peer feedback strategies can be useful in giving students a clearer understanding of what quality work looks like (Harris et al. 2015). Feedback which encourages self-regulation can be a powerful way to develop self-efficacy in students such that they are able to self-regulate and persist in achieving their learning goals. These skills also allow students to succeed in the world beyond formal education, enhancing their ability to define

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goals, adjust learning strategies, and asses one’s own work (OECD 2005). Finally, feedback may be related to the “selflevel” which relates to individual, personal qualities demonstrated by the student. This type of personal feedback expresses positive or negative evaluations about the student themselves rather than performance on a task. Praise, although welcomed by students, has shown to have a “diluting effect” (Kessels et al. 2008) on learning. Because self-level feedback focuses on the person, it does not contribute to the purposes of feedback (Where am I going? How am I going there? Where to next?) in relation to achieving specific learning outcomes. Praise, punishment, and extrinsic rewards have been disputed as being considered “feedback” at all as they contain so little task information and undermine intrinsic motivation for students. As Hattie (2009, 177) states, “When feedback draws attention to the self, students try to avoid the risks involved in tackling a challenging assignment, they minimize effort, and they have a high fear of failure.” Sousa (2015) concurs that anxiety over personal shortcomings has the potential to raise cortisol levels in the brain which causes stress and has a negative impact on learning outcomes. For these reasons, feedback at the personal or self-level should be kept separate to feedback regarding learning (Hattie 2009). Classroom Culture Trust

Giving and receiving feedback involves a level of trust between the teacher and student. To be most successful, this needs to occur in a safe environment where positive relations exist between the receivers and providers (Thurlings et al. 2013). The attitude and attributes of the teacher, and the classroom climate which they foster, are therefore of upmost importance (Hattie 2015). Cornelius-White (2007) identified that teachers who are student-centered have classes in which there is “more engagement and more respect of self and others, there are fewer resistant behaviors, there is greater non-directivity, and there are higher achievement outcomes” (23). This is achieved by building students’ self-efficacy, respecting the

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experiences of the students, allowing these experiences of the students to be recognized in the learning context, listening, and being caring, empathetic, and respectful (Hattie 2009). As Boud and Molloy (2013) identify in relation to higher education students “If they [students] believe that comments are capricious or ill considered, or do not take the student as a person into account, they will not act on the basis of them” (709). Power relations between student and teacher (based on an assumption of expertise) may lead to teachers’ comments being taken seriously; however, a learning environment must first be established so that such relationships can flourish and trust created (Boud and Molloy 2013). Steen-Utheim and Wittek (2017) identify the importance of the dialogue which occurs between teachers and learners as a conduit to developing trust. Dialogue has the potential to build emotional and relational support, maintain communication to provide feedback and support, provide students opportunities to express themselves, and contribute to the growth of an individual’s learning (Steen-Utheim and Wittek 2017, 12). Tolerance of Errors

The tolerance of errors is closely linked to developing a culture of trust within the learning environment. Alton-Lee and Nuthall (1990) support this by concluding that teachers need to foster a classroom climate in which it is normal not to react negatively to “not knowing” or making an error, so that there is a low level of risk for students if they respond publicly with an incorrect answer. The tolerance of errors and encouragement to use these as an opportunity to learn has been identified as an important trait of a safe environment in which feedback can be maximized (Sousa 2015). Errors should be viewed as a normal part of learning new information, skills, and understandings, so that students are comfortable in sharing errors to gain feedback and correct them. As Hattie (2012, 139) states, errors “. . .are exciting because they indicate a tension between what we now know and what we could know; they are signs of opportunities to learn and they are to be embraced.” Dweck (1999) proposes that implicit theory of intelligence about whether

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

intelligence is fixed or flexible is a strong influencer over how learners view errors and therefore their approach to reaching learning goals. Dweck (1999) suggests that an “entity” (or fixed) theory of ability by teachers and students orients people toward giving up easily when faced with setbacks. In contrast, those with an incremental theory of intelligence (or “growth mindset”) are more able to view errors to create positive change (Dweck 1999).

Influences on Feedback The Student Providing feedback is only one aspect of the feedback “loop.” The student receiving the feedback has the option to act upon or ignore the feedback. According to Hattie’s (2009) meta-analyses, there are several personality influences on achievement which affect how likely students are to listen to and implement feedback. The biggest impact on achievement comes from a students’ self-efficacy, self-concept, levels of motivation, and willingness to persevere with achievement (Hattie 2009, 45). McCrae and Costa (1997) examined five personality traits (neuroticism, openness to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion) and concluded that conscientious students are typically more motivated to perform well on academic tasks as they are more organized, diligent, and willing to work hard to achieve learning goals. Hattie (2009, 47) states “The willingness to invest in learning, to gain a reputation as a learner, and to show openness to experiences are the key dispositional factors that relate to achievement.” Dweck (2007) concurs that students with a “growth mindset” (the belief that intelligence is not fixed and can be developed) thrive on challenge and see failure as an opportunity for growth and stretching their existing abilities. Students with this perspective do not view themselves as failing when they make mistakes or do not achieve goals; rather they see themselves as learning (Dweck 2007) and are therefore receptive to receiving feedback. Wollenschlager et al. (2016) confer that despite making learning goals explicit, the students’ level of self-regulation is a strong

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

determinant of the progress they make in response to receiving feedback. Research by Claro, Paunesku, and Dweck (2016) concluded that having a “growth mindset” was a stronger predictor of success in students, regardless of their socioeconomic backgrounds. Motivation is another variable which may influence the effectiveness of feedback. A student’s motivation comes into play during what Cleary and Zimmerman (2004) identify as the “forethought phase” of the learning cycle. In terms of self-regulation, the learning cycle involves pre-active forethought, a performance, and a post-active self-reflection phase (Cleary and Zimmerman 2004). The level of motivation determines which strategies students select, which in turn has an impact on how successfully they complete the task. Wigfield and Eccles (2000) distinguish between different types of motivation which affect students in their “expectancy value” model – firstly, motivation may relate to the student’s beliefs about their own ability in a specific domain, and, secondly, their interest in the relevance of the task. Students ask themselves “Can I do this?” and “Do I want to do this?” (Wigfield and Eccles 2000). The response to these questions reflects the student’s motivation to seek to implement feedback to achieve their learning goal. The type of learning goals and the value placed upon them by students are also identified as critical determinants of students’ openness to feedback (Elliott and Dweck 1988; Hattie 2009). Learning goals which focus on an individual increasing their competence were the most effective in making students more open to feedback and consequently more willing to face challenges until they achieved mastery (Elliott and Dweck 1988). On the contrary, learning goals which related to performance were viewed by students to relate to their innate ability, and students were less likely to persist at implementing feedback as they may question “Can I do this?” (Elliott and Dweck 1988). This is closely related to Dweck’s (2007) concept of having a “growth mindset.” The culture of the student is another important factor which may influence the effectiveness of feedback. Culture “provides the categories by which we understand that world, and the scripts

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and schemes we use to guide behaviour” (Mezias et al. 1999, 326). According to Luque and Sommer 2000, students from collectivist cultures (those which emphasize the priority of the group over an individual, such as Confucian-based Asian cultures) prefer implicit, indirect, groupfocused feedback which does not relate to personal traits. Students from these cultures often spend much time establishing relationships and behaving in ways that avoid losing face (Earley 1997). Deep, trusting relationships are of high importance, and interactions that are nonconfrontational are preferred so as not to disrupt the harmony of the relationship (Earley 1997). Students from collectivist cultures, however, are found to be more likely to accept feedback for the collective good and to accept developmental feedback (Luque and Sommer 2000). If a student is from an individualistic cultural background (such as the USA, Australia, the UK, etc.), there is typically an intrinsic belief in individual decisions, and thus individual goals become the primary focus (Brutus and Greguras 2008). Individuals in these cultures are generally concerned with self-accuracy, self-assessment, and self-regulation and welcome feedback which is highly directive (Brutus and Greguras 2008). The Teacher Teacher effectiveness has been widely researched, and certain teacher attributes are identified as key determinants of student achievement and the impact of feedback provided to students (Hattie 2009). Firstly, one of the most important considerations “is less what teachers do in their teaching, but more how they think about their role” (Hattie 2015, 81). Hattie’s meta-analyses (2009) of the effects of teachers lead to the development of ten “mind frames” which make teachers most effective. These include: 1. Teachers believe that their task is to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching on student’ learning and achievement. This means that the best teaching involves altering instruction as needed based on the feedback teachers receive regarding the effects they are having on students (Hattie 2012). Teachers believe

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Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

that success and failure in student learning are about what they, as teachers, did or did not do. Teachers believe they are agents for change. Teachers are more concerned about the learning that occurs, rather than the teaching. Teachers view assessment as feedback about the impact they are having on students’ learning. This has been termed assessment for learning, or formative assessment (Black and Wiliam 2010), and depends on “what teachers notice and select as a focus and how they interpret and act on the information they have” (Cowie and Willis 2017, 1). Teachers engage in dialogue with students rather than a one-way monologue. Teachers provide challenge for students and encourage errors as opportunities to learn. Teachers believe that it is their role to develop positive relationships within classrooms. The level of risk and involvement which students will engage in is determined by the level of trust which the teacher has set up within the learning environment (Alton-Lee and Nuthall 1990). In addition to teacher-student relationships, positive relationships between peers allow effective use of peer feedback (Hattie 2012). Teachers educate all stakeholders (parents, co-workers, students, etc.) about the language of learning. Teachers see learning as hard work and value positive learning dispositions within themselves and their students. Teachers collaborate with each other as colleagues to seek positive outcomes.

Secondly, the quality of teaching is key to ensuring the effectiveness of their instruction and impact on students’ learning (Hattie 2009). This includes communicating learning intentions clearly, engaging students in the development of learning intentions, and ensuring that these provide the appropriate level of challenge. Communicating short- and long-term learning intentions clearly and in age-appropriate language has been identified as a critical factor for enhancing performance (Hattie 2009; Sousa 2015; Marzano 1991). In addition, an important factor

for the teacher is to know how the goals will be implemented. Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006) call this “implementation intentions” and describe this as the teacher’s ability to “enhance people’s ability to initiate, maintain, disengage from, and undertake further goal pursuit and thereby increase the likelihood that strong goal intentions are realized successfully” (20). If teachers set goals but do not communicate them clearly or are unable to guide students in how to achieve them, they are ineffective in moving students toward success. Effective teachers not only develop learning goals but engage students’ commitment to attaining these. Learning goals have the potential to motivate or de-motivate students according to their appropriateness to the needs of the student. Employing self-assessment and peer tutoring has been identified as an effective teaching strategy to foster this (Hattie 2012). Martin (2006) poses that students are more likely to be motivated as their own agents of change when they are involved in setting their own specific goals, referred to as “personal bests.” Martin (2006) found that setting “personal bests” increased students’ aspirations, participation in learning activities, and persistence levels relating to tasks. Engaging students’ commitment to learning goals means that effective teachers assist students to set goals that are challenging while not being unattainable (Hattie and Timperley 2007). As Elliott and Dweck (1988) reinforce, unrealistic goals may lead to students’ developing anxiety and negative self-esteem, thus preventing them from achieving academic success in future. Effective use of feedback also assumes that teachers have the content and pedagogical knowledge to cater for their students’ learning needs and have the skills required to provide useful feedback (Heitink et al. 2015). The ability to use assessment for learning requires teachers to be able to elicit students’ thinking, identify the learning processes, and identify any misconceptions. Hattie (2012) poses that “disconfirmation” (139) is the most powerful way to effect change and involves feedback which corrects ideas or assumptions which are erroneous. Key techniques which teachers use to maximize feedback include their questioning,

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education

cues, discussion, and per- and self-assessment (Hattie 2009; Heitink et al. 2015). The System, School, and Curriculum Research demonstrates that the potential gains for using student-informed feedback are significant; however, without strong leadership and curriculum support for implementing appropriate strategies, feedback may not be used to its full potential. Sustainable implementation of any educational change requires advocacy from all agents, primarily those in leadership. As Hattie (2012, 170) states “the process of cultural change depends fundamentally on modelling the new values and behaviors that you expect to displace the existing ones.” The optimal environment in which feedback can be maximized is a whole school approach whereby feedback becomes a central feature of engaging students and permeates the curriculum (Boud and Molloy 2013). This should move beyond the written curriculum (course descriptors and documented outcomes) to the “enacted” curriculum which includes the everyday interactions students have with staff and each other (Boud and Molloy 2013). One powerful feature of the enacted curriculum which research advocates in maximizing the power of feedback is the use of peer and self-assessment (Hattie 2012). Self-regulation and achievement are closely connected – students who set goals and monitor their progress achieve better outcomes, and leadership within institutions is a key determiner of how such approaches are valued and implemented. The ongoing need for professional learning for teachers, including opportunities to work collaboratively and give and receive feedback, is another action schools can employ to support the use of feedback (Heitink et al. 2015). However, as Black and Wiliam (2009) identify, teachers need more than just training in the usefulness of feedback; they require professional development which includes living examples of how the use of feedback can be implemented in a real classroom situation, resources to support classroom practice, sharing and collaborating with other teachers both from within their own context and those outside, collecting evidence of their

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effectiveness, and reducing obstacles to the effective use of feedback (such as the compulsory use of external tests to assess progress).

Conclusions Student feedback-informed education is one key component to effective teaching and learning. At the macro level, leadership in educational institutions needs to support and implement feedback as a means to evaluate progress. This requires professional development and resources to support teachers and a culture of collaboration. At the microlevel, giving and receiving feedback is a complex process in which the following needs to occur to maximize its effectiveness: clear learning goals are determined and are ascribed to by teachers and learners; the type and level of feedback are positive, specific, and appropriate to the task and students; feedback is given in an atmosphere of trust, with positive relationships between teachers and peers; and errors are accepted as a means for improvement. When all variables are in alignment, student-feedbackinformed validated education can be enhanced to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (United Nations 2015, 20).

Cross-References ▶ Educational Outcomes Assessment and Validity Testing ▶ Self-Assessment for Students

References Airasian PW (1997) Classroom assessment, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York Alton-Lee AG, Nuthall GA (1990) Pupil experiences and pupil learning in the elementary classroom: an illustration of a generative methodology. Teach Teach Educ 6 (1):27–46 Atkinson RL, Atkinson RC, Hilgard RE (1983) Introduction to psychology. Harcourt, Brace & Jovanovich, San Diego

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828 Black P, Wiliam D (2009) Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educ Assess Eval Account 21(1): 5–31 Black P, Wiliam D (2010) Inside the black box: raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan 92(1):81–90 Boeakarts M, Pintrich PR, Zeidner M (2000) Handbook of self-regulation. Academic, San Diego Boud D, Molloy E (2013) Assessment and evaluation in higher education: re-thinking models of feedback for learning: the challenge of design. Assess Eval High Educ 38(6):698–712 Brutus S, Greguras GJ (2008) Self-construals, motivation and feedback-seeking behaviours. Int J Sel Assess 16 (3):282–291 Butler DL, Winne PH (1995) Feedback and self-regulated learning: a theoretical synthesis. Rev Educ Res 65 (3):245–274 Carver CS, Scheier MF (1981) Attention and self-regulation: a control theory to human behaviour. Springer, New York Chan CYJ (2006) The effects of different evaluative feedback on student’s self-efficacy in learning. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hong Kong Clarke S, Timperley H, Hattie JA (2003) Assessing formative assessment. Hodder Moa Beckett, Auckland Claro S, Paunesku D, Dweck CS, (2016) Growth mindset tempers the effects of poverty on academic achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113 (31):8664–8668 Cleary TJ, Zimmerman BJ (2004) Self-regulation empowerment program: a school-based program to enhance self-regulated and self-motivated cycles of student learning. Psychol Sch 41:537–550 Cornelius-White J (2007) Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: a meta-analysis. Rev Educ Res 77(1):113–143 Cowie B, Willis J (2017) Supporting teacher responsiveness in assessment for learning through disciplined noticing. Curric J 29:464. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09585176.2018.1481442 Dweck C (1999) Caution - Praise can be dangerous. American Educator 23(1):4–9 Dweck C (2007) Mindset: the new psychology of success. Random House, New York Earley PC (1997) Face, harmony and social structure. Oxford University Press, New York Elliott ES, Dweck CS (1988) Goals: an approach to motivation and achievement. J Pers Soc Psychol 54(1):5–12 Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P (2006) Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes. Adv Exp Soc Psychol 38:68–119 Harris L, Brown G, Harnett J (2015) Analysis of New Zealand primary and secondary student peer- and selfassessment comments: applying Hattie and Timperley’s feedback model. Assess Educ: Princ, Policy Pract 22(2):265–281 Harvey L (2001) Getting student satisfaction. The Guardian, Nov 27

Student Feedback-Informed, Validated Education Hattie J (2009) Visible learning: a synthesis of 800 metaanalyses relating to achievement. Routledge, New York Hattie J (2012) Visible learning for teachers. Routledge, New York Hattie J (2015) The applicability of visible learning to higher education. Scholarsh Teach Learn Psychol 1 (1):79–91 Hattie J, Timperley H (2007) The power of feedback. Rev Educ Res 77(1):81–112 Heitink MC, Van der Kleij FM, Veldkamp BP, Schildkamp K, Kippers WB (2015) A systematic review of prerequisites for implementing assessment for learning in classroom practice. Educ Res Rev 17:50–62 Kessels U, Warner LM, Holle J, Hannover B (2008) Threat to identity through positive feedback about academic performance. J Educ Psychol Pedag 40(1):22–31 Kluger A, DeNisi A (1996) The effects of feedback interventions on performance: a historical review, a metaanalysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychol Bull 11(2):254–284 Levin B (2000) Putting students at the centre in education reform. J Educ Chang 1:155–172 Luque MF, Sommer SM (2000) The impact of culture on feedback-seeking behaviour: an integrated model and propositions. Acad Manag Rev 25(4):829–849 Martin AJ (2006) Personal bests: a proposed multidimensional model and empirical analysis. Br J Educ Psychol 76:803–825 Marzano RJ (1991) Creating an educational paradigm centered on learning through teacher-directed, naturalistic inquiry. In: Idol L, Fly B (eds) Educational values and cognitive instruction: implications for reform. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale McCrae RR, Costa PT (1997) Personality trait structure as a human universal. Am Psychol 52(5):509–516 Mezias SJ, Chen YR, Murphy P (1999) “Toto, I don’t think we’re in Kansas anymore”: some footnotes to cross cultural research. J Manag Inq 8:323–333 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2005) Formative assessment: improving learning in secondary classrooms. Policy Brief, Nov 2005 Sadler R (1989) Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instr Sci 18(2):119–144 Sousa DA (2015) Brain-friendly assessments: what they are and how to use them. Learning Sciences International, Palm Beach Steen-Utheim A, Wittek A (2017) Dialogic feedback and potentialities for student learning. Learn Cult Soc Interact 15:18 Thurlings M, Vermeulen M, Bastiaens T, Stinjen S (2013) Understanding feedback: a learning theory perspective. Educ Res Rev 9:1–15 United Nations (2015) Incheon declaration and framework for action for the implementation of sustainable development goal 4. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0024/002456/245656E.pdf Van den Bergh L, Ros A, Beijaard D (2014) Improving teacher feedback during active learning: effects of a

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professional development program. Am Educ Res J 51 (4):772–809 Wigfield A, Eccles JS (2000) Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemp Educ Psychol 25 (1):68–81 Wiliam D (2010) The role of formative assessment in effective learning environments. In: The nature of learning: using research to inspire practice. OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, Paris Wittman BC, Bunzeck N, Dolan RJ, Duzel E (2007) Anticipation of novelty recruits reward system and hippocampus while promoting recollection. NeuroImage 38:194–202 Wollenschlager M, Hattie J, Machts J, Harms U (2016) What makes rubrics effective in teacher-feedback: transparency of learning goals is not enough. Contemp Educ Psychol 44:1–11 Zimmerman BJ (2000) Attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective. In: Boekaerts M, Pintrich PR (eds) Handbook of self-regulation. Academic, San Diego

▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

Sustainability Education ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency

Sustainability Education (SE)

Sustainable ▶ Fourth Generation University: Co-creating a Sustainable Future ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Students with Special Needs/Disabilities From

▶ Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions: Link to Sustainability Initiatives

▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

Student-Centered Education

▶ Special Education: Exceptionality

Sustainability and Organizational Culture

Disability

to

Sustainable Development Sumbiosic ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity

▶ Human Behavior Change for Sustainable Development: Perspectives Informed by Psychology and Neuroscience ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

Sustainability ▶ Intercultural Education for Intercultural Competence: A New Kind of Literacy for Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development (SD) ▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics

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Introduction

Sustainable Education ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

Sustainable Living Lab ▶ Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

Sustainable University ▶ Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

System Design/Integration ▶ Future Trends in Education

Systemic Thinking Luciano Gallón Grupo de Investigación en Gestión de la Tecnología y la Innovación (GTI.UPB), Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellín, Colombia

Definition The theoretical and practical ability to observe, think, model, simulate, analyze, design, and synthetize components, functions, connections, structures, interrelationships, and dynamics across disciplines, functions, organizations, people, trends, and cultures in ways that lead to insightful problem interventions for attaining solutions aligned with sustainable development

The term “general systems theory” originates from Bertalanffy’s General Systems Theory (GST). His ideas were adopted by others including Kenneth E. Boulding, William Ross Ashby, and Anatol Rapoport working in mathematics, psychology, biology, game theory, and social network analysis (François 1999; Hester and Adams 2014). The six major historical classifications for systems theory and their major contributors are (Hester and Adams 2014) (1) general systems theory (Bertalanffy, Boulding), (2) living systems theory (Miller), (3) mathematical systems theory (Mesarovic, Wymore, Klir), (4) cybernetics (Rosenblueth et al., Wiener, Ashby, Forrester), (5) social systems theory (Parsons, Buckley, Luhmann), and (6) philosophical systems theory (Laszlo, Bunge). The term “systemics” was coined in the 1970s by Mario Bunge and others, as an alternative paradigm for research related to GST and systems science (Bunge 1979). The systemic thinking approach draws from disciplines as diverse as mathematics, biology, engineering, computer science, management, philosophy, communication, psychology, or sociology to provide a holistic method for dealing with problems that can be applied to any discipline and is scientifically grounded in systems theory and a wide variety of transdisciplinary-supporting principles providing a discipline-agnostic approach to address problems. Systemic thinking has its origins in a lot of ideas and methodologies, some of them are (Bartlett and Bartlett n.d.) (1) the theory of constraints (TOC) (Eliyahu Goldratt); (2) the theory of inventive thinking (TRIZ) (Genrich Altshuller); (3) system dynamics (SD) (Jay Forrester); (4) systems thinking (Peter Senge); and (5) lateral thinking (Edward de Bono). Each one of these origins is a powerful method and using any one of them in isolation delivers benefits. Using them in combination magnifies their impact – possibly exponentially. Systemic thinking has also been enhanced by – among many others (Bartlett and Bartlett n.d.) – (1) just in time (JIT), (2) total quality

Systemic Thinking

management (TQM), (3) lean, and (4) six sigma. But systemic thinking takes a step further, enabling people to capitalize on the power of the repeating patterns that underlie these techniques. Systems theory is a term that has been used inconsistently in a variety of disciplines, and it is often subject to misunderstanding when used between disciplines. Systems theory provides the underlying theoretical foundation for understanding systems. Understanding the laws, principles, and concepts that underlie all systems understanding, in conjunction with the thought process developed in systemic thinking, is a necessary first step in approaching problems. In the context of systems science, systems philosophy, and systemics, systemic thinking is an initiative to study systems from a system of systems point of view. It is an approach for developing logical, mathematical, engineering, philosophical, managerial, and political frameworks and paradigms in which physical, technological, biological, economic, environmental, social, cognitive, and metaphysical systems can be observed, studied, thought, modelled, simulated, and intervened. The next six sections present a handful of systemic thinking components as a storytelling about finding solutions aligned with sustainable development. The first part of the story is about understanding very well what a problem is and what must be the problem to solve, so not try to solve the wrong one. After gaining confidence about the problem, the story proceeds to the observe component in which the systemic thinking type of observation is defined and explained so that there is an answer to the question: from what kind of observation the problem is being reviewed? With the clearest problem and type of observation, the story continues to a next central stage: think. The think stage is to reflect again on the problem and the type of observation, as a brain simulation, to generate a model of the problem. That is why the next section of the text, model, explains what a model is, what can it be used for, and why, for systemic thinking, all models are wrong. While understanding the background of the above statement, the story continues with the simulate section,

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centered on computer-based simulation as a fundamental tool of systemic thinking and which leads, in a versatile and powerful way, to the final part of the story: finding a solution to the problem. This is an interactive process the systemic thinker must go through to take advantage of it. For example, systemic thinkers might find that they were solving the wrong problem just until they simulated the model, and that would take them back to start the story. So, the fundamental decision is to start the road, describing the problem and following the steps indicated. Solutions don’t appear out of the blue.

Problems The first step to solving a problem is recognizing that one has one. As problems have evolved from simple systems to complex systems, so too must the methods used to address them. Russell Ackoff (1979) used the terms machine age and systems age to refer to eras that were concerned with two distinct types of systems problems. Machine age problems are concerned with simple systems, boundary closed, passive parts, fully observable, and analysis and reductionism methods of understanding, and, on the other side, systems age problems are concerned with complex systems, boundary open, purposeful parts, partially observable, and synthesis and holism methods of understanding. Machine age problems, consisting of simple systems, have traditionally been viewed from a largely technical perspective, and in systems age complex problems, a predominantly technical perspective continues to be used at the expense of other complementary perspectives. Complex problems demand approaches that can account for their inherent complexity, rather than ignore it hoping it goes away. Complex problems have been viewed and, hence, addressed, with a single predominant lens, which has often been unsuccessful in solving many ill-structured, wicked, or messy problems. Ackoff recognized that the technical perspective of the machine age was inadequate for coping

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with what he termed the messy situations present in the systems age, where human activity systems were predominant, and coined the concept of messes as “systems of problems” (Ackoff 1979). To think systemically is to understand the difference between machine age problems and systems age messes. Systems age messes are much grander and more complex than their machine age problem predecessors. Thus, accompanying methods to understand them must also account for this additional complexity. In preparation to observe problems from and within a systemic thinking framework, one of the main tasks the observer must deal with is to discus and document the anatomy of the problem. To do it, there are four dimensions to work with (Hester and Adams 2014): – Understand the five unique elements of context: (1) circumstances, (2) factors, (3) conditions, (4) values, and (5) patterns. – Be able to identify and classify stakeholders for a problem. – Be able to decompose a problem into outcomes and outputs. – Describe the five complexity domains within which messes and problems exist: (1) simple, (2) complicated, (3) complex, (4) chaotic, and (5) disorder. Hester and Adams (2014) also identify what, why, and where questions of systemic thinking as relevant for learning about the problems and messes. The focus of the what question is on attributes of the problem under observation for trying to gain increased understanding of. The focus of the why question is on the analysis of motivation and how each problem has a unique model of motivation and feedback between and among the stakeholders and the problem. The focus of the where question is not associated with physical location and geographic coordinates but with the circumstances, factors, conditions, values, and patterns that surround the problem and the boundaries that separate the problem from its environment. With messes and problems discussed, the next component to systemic thinking is observe.

Systemic Thinking

Observe Observation must deal with reviewing context, the circumstances, factors, conditions, values, and patterns that surround messes and problems; with reviewing boundaries, the representations that provide lines of demarcation between messes and problems and the surrounding environment; with reviewing stakeholders, identification, classification, and assessment of their attitude; and with reviewing time, start, end, and occurrence, for how long and delays. Whichever life path and background, the systemic thinker newcomer can benefit from learning to observe systemically. What exactly is that? Richmond (1991) describe it in a straightforward way: You are adopting a systems viewpoint when you are standing back far enough – in both space and time – to be able to see the underlying web of ongoing, reciprocal relationships which are cycling to produce the patterns of behaviour that a system is exhibiting. You’re employing a systems perspective when you can see the forest (of relationships), for the trees. You are not employing a systems perspective when you get “trapped in an event. (p. 2)

In any observation process, there are two main components: the observer and the observed object or situation. Adopting a systems viewpoint could lead to a second-order observation that can be framed within second-order cybernetics, originated in the 1970s, mainly within biology and the social sciences. The term second-order cybernetics was coined by Heinz von Foerster, who defined first-order cybernetics as the cybernetics of observed systems and second-order cybernetics as the cybernetics of observing systems. The main difference is indeed that the essentially biological paradigm of second-order cybernetics includes the observer (s) in the systems to be studied – which, moreover, are generally living systems rather than inanimate technological or engineering artifacts, like in robotics (Geyer 2004). The development of multiple perspectives, at least with first- and second-order observations, requires those faced with solving messes to include additional perspectives to achieve

Systemic Thinking

systemic understanding. This includes the integration of hard and soft perspectives to ensure that, in addition to the technical perspective, also organizational, social, economic, environmental, political, and human perspectives have been included. The application of multiple perspectives offers a more inclusive framework through which complex problems and messes may be observed. As observation pertains to making conclusions about problems and messes, and any observation implies errors, to mitigate these errors, the systemic observer must know about the effects of bias and heuristics always present in the process. The systemic observer must be focused on attaining the less subjective representation of the observed system, challenge that can be achieved by thinking as will be seen in the next section. A systemic observer has a deep appreciation for viewpoints, space scales, time scales, errors, biases, contexts, boundaries, stakeholders, and time. She or he profoundly knows the need to use different viewpoints as seeds to start thinking systemically problems, messes, and solutions. With messes discussed and a basic introduction to observe them, the next component to systemic think is think.

Think Thinking about problems, messes, observation, and workable solutions determines whether a successful way of addressing and understanding them will be reached. Systemic thinking presents a way of thinking, necessary to address in new ways these always-present concerns and requests. But the way of thinking depends on the way of life. As Richmond (1991) suggests: Anyone who has gazed out at the lights from high above a city or gazed down upon a river valley from a mountaintop, has a good sense of what “standing back far enough” means. Details fade. Patterns of relationships emerge. And, time seems to slow. Conversely, anyone who’s been caught in the frenzy of rush hour traffic on a multilane freeway knows what being “trapped in an event” really means. The former is inherently awesome, empowering and expansive. The latter is inherently mundane, consuming and constraining. (p. 2)

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Systemic thinking involves divergence and convergence. Divergence may involve search, global thinking, confusion, disorientation, and being lost, while convergence may involve finding, detailed thinking, confidence, orientation, and be located. Both perspectives widen the aperture through which a problem is analyzed, which then increases the probability of correctly addressing ill-structured, wicked, and messy systems age problems. Embracing these complementary perspectives helps as guidance on how to begin to separate a mess into several discrete problems for analysis so they become tractable problems about which thinking could be carried out and then synthetize them to obtain a systemic understanding of the mess. Simply decomposing them, as many methods do, is insufficient, as it fails to holistically consider the context in which each problem operates and, as Gallon (2012) proposes, the systemic idea behind must be decoupling problems or components instead of the simple dissection or decomposing of them. The analysis thinking phase focuses on decoupling a problem in a manner that allows identification of outcomes, their derivative outputs, the outputs’ goals, and the relative importance of these outputs in determining goal attainment and the relative importance of outcomes in achieving problem understanding (Hester and Adams 2014). However, analysis thinking alone is insufficient. Therefore, the question is what is necessary and sufficient to achieve problem understanding (Ackoff 1971)? Synthesis thinking, and other perspectives of systemic thinking, could help to answer that question showing a path for holistic problem understanding through models and simulation. So, to think about a mess should imply many things like the following: (a) know how to evaluate the current state of a problem with respect to its goals; (b) recognize the importance of establishing a boundary between a system and its environment; or (c) be able to assess the maturity and stability of a problem. The act of thinking about these issues implies observer attitude, motivation, and willingness to do it. In what human

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context could all this happen to achieve systemic thought? Csikszentmihalyi (1997) saw optimal human activities in what he calls the “flow” channel, a path moving outward as skills are gained and as challenges are higher, certainly before apathy sets in. Other feelings range from anxiety (low skills – high challenge) to boredom (high skills – low challenge). Can daily life human thinking activities become a flow experience? At what observer’s and observed system’s space and time scales? Then, within apathetic situations in life, it is possible to have two alternative activities: firstly, autotelic activities, which are the ones that people do for its own sake because experiencing them is the main goal, and secondly, exotelic activities, which are the ones that people do motivated by an outside goal. The question is if the space and time scales of human perspective for systemic thinking depend on autotelic capabilities, or, in the contrary, autotelic capabilities define the space and time scales of human perspective (Gallón 2009). The idea then is to think before acting on a mess and its problems. The understanding gained from thinking provides information about when or how to interact or intervene the mess to increase the knowledge and understanding about it. Observation, together with thinking, produces a representation of the observed. A representation is a model, a framework, and a new object for communication of the observer-observed system. The next section presents ideas about the model component of systemic thinking.

Model What is a model? How can you make one? How do you know if a model is correct? These are fundamental questions about the model concept. A model theory would be needed to answer them. But the question why there is no general theory of modelling is waiting for an answer (Ritchey 2012). Maybe with the help of systemic thinking, one can be found. To answer what is a model, the first thing to do is to explore possible relationships between the

Systemic Thinking

scales of space and time using a basic representation of the structure and dynamics of a problem or mess formed by data, information, knowledge, understanding, and wisdom, known as Data Information Knowledge Understanding and Wisdom (DIKUW) Hierarchy (Bellinger et al. 2002; Betts 2003; Sharma 2008), in Spanish Cadena DICES (Gallón 2004). As Sharma (2008) explains, the DIKUW Hierarchy has popularity in many domains. In most knowledge management literature, the hierarchy is often referred to as the “knowledge hierarchy” or the “knowledge pyramid,” while in information science it is often referred to as “information hierarchy” or “information pyramid.” It all depends on the observer background. But what is exactly the DIKUW Hierarchy? It is a tool to give context and to create a reference frame, a model, so that the discussions at hand can be conceptually consistent and coherent. The hierarchy is shown in Fig. 1. “Context independence” is related to the degree of differentiation within a mess of one of its problems or components, while “discovery level” is related to the amount of work made by an observer to describe it. The reasoning that is generated from the description of the hierarchy are the following: A collection of data is not information; a collection of information is not knowledge; a collection of knowledge is not understanding; a collection of understanding is no wisdom; and a collection of wisdom is not truth (Bellinger et al. 2002). In this way, the activities related to the processing of information will support, according to the level of discovery, the construction of answers to the related level questions. But digging further on Fig. 1, some more ideas should be presented. According to Russell Ackoff (Bellinger et al. 2002; Ackoff 1989), the content of the human mind can be classified into five categories: – Data is related to symbols; it simply exists by observation. – Information is related to description, definition, or perspective (what, who, when, where) by data relationships.

Systemic Thinking Systemic Thinking, Fig. 1 Data Information Knowledge Understanding and Wisdom (DIKUW) Hierarchy. Following Bellinger et al. (2002) and Betts (2003)

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Context independence

Wisdom Laws Understanding Principles Knowledge Patterns Information Relationships

Data Discovery level

– Knowledge is related to strategy, practice, method, or approach (how) by information patterns. – Understanding is related to causes (why) by knowledge principles. – Wisdom is related to origin, principle, understanding, intuition, moral, or ethics (what for) by understanding laws. Ackoff indicates that the first four categories (i. e., data, information, knowledge, understanding) relate to the past because they deal with what has been or what is known. Only the fifth category (i.e., wisdom) deals with the future because it incorporates vision and design. With wisdom, people can create the future rather than just grasp the present and past. However, achieving wisdom is not easy mainly because people must move successively through the other categories working hard on every discovery level. When the observer does not make an effort and the observed system or component is differentiated, the situation is called a complicated one. When the observer does have to make a considerable effort and the observed system or component is not differentiated, the situation is called a mundane one. In between those two situations, with a balance between observer effort and system differentiation, the situation is a complexity one. There are then boundaries, the complicatedcomplexity and the complexity-mundane, where

crossing constitutes the interesting moment when something can become part (or not, depending on the direction) of the DIKUW Hierarchy. The transactions observer-mess that happens over the boundaries constitutes one interesting field of research. Figure 2 clarifies the possible situations and boundaries. For every field of study or research, it could be possible to draw a border, over the context independence-discovery level plane that could be called the “knowledge frontier.” It is also possible to not just think on a two-dimensional plane and move to other with three or more dimensions, which is another interesting field of research. The general notion of a model is so broad that any attempt to give it a complete and consistent definition may be futile. With the DIKUW Hierarchy in mind, two necessary criteria employed in systemic thinking (Ritchey 2012) for having a model are the following: (a) A model must contain two or more mental constructs that can serve as variables, and (b) it is able to establish relationships either between the variable entities as such or between the values of the value ranges within the variables. Note that the second criterion (i.e., to establish relationships) does not include patterns, principles, or laws (see Fig. 2), leaving for the model, sum of data and relationships, the function of configuring mess (or problem) information.

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Context independence

Complicated-Complexity border

Wisdom

Complicated

Laws Understanding Principles Knowledge

Complexity

Mundane-Complexity border

Patterns Information

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Relationships Data Discovery level Systemic Thinking, Fig. 2 DIKUW Hierarchy and Complexity. Following Bellinger et al. (2002) and Betts (2003)

This is interesting, on one hand, because it gives lights to understand the limitations of a model and, on the other one, because it implies that you must go beyond the model to follow the channel of complexity. It is here that there is a need to simulate, as will be seen in the next section, to advance in the determination of patterns, for example. In systemic thinking qualitative and quantitative (i.e., formal) models are important. Building a formal model takes time and the data needed to build and test it are hard to find. A good qualitative mapping process will surface the mental models of the observer, and often these have narrow boundaries and are dynamically impoverished (Sterman 2002). A systemic thinker knows, accepts, and acts based on the premise that all models are wrong: “A model is a simplification, an abstraction, a selection, because our models are inevitably incomplete, incorrect –– wrong” (Sterman 2002, p. 525). Systemic thinking requires understanding that human knowing has limitations; all models are wrong, but some could be useful. Such understanding is essential in creating an environment in

which learning about the complex messes in which people are embedded is possible. One powerful way to find if a model is a useful one is through simulation.

Simulation Simulation is the representation of the behavior or characteristics of one mess or problem using an especially designed computer program model. Simulation is essential for effective systemic thinking. In systems thinking it is not necessary to build a formal, working simulation model at all, so it is a mistake to only rely on conceptual or causal maps or other purely conceptual models if you pretend to do systemic thinking. This way: systems thinking + simulation = systemic thinking Forrester (2007) is very clear about it: The danger comes from encouraging people to believe that systems thinking is the whole story. Systems thinking is a sensitizer; it calls attention to the existence of systems. Some people feel they have learned a lot from the systems thinking phase.

Systemic Thinking But they have gone perhaps only 5 percent of the way into understanding systems. The other 95 percent lies in the system dynamics structuring of models and simulations based on those models. It is only from the actual simulations that inconsistencies within our mental models are revealed. Systems thinking can be a first step toward a dynamic understanding of complex problems, but it is far from sufficient. (p. 355)

Systems thinking qualitative models expose the observer to one fundamental bound on human cognition: the inability to simulate mentally the dynamics of messes. So quantitative (i.e., formal) computer simulations help to improve human mental simulation capability. When experimentation is too slow, too costly, unethical, or just impossible and when the consequences of a decision take months, years, or centuries to manifest, simulation becomes the main – perhaps the only – way to discover how messes work (Sterman 2002). Now, with simulation results at hand in the form of possible scenarios, the systemic thinker story arrives at its final and crucial stage: finding a solution.

Solution A solution must define the means needed in the attainment of specific, purposeful goals. The means are the mechanisms utilized in moving from the current problem state toward a new desired state where the goals and associated objectives have been satisfied. To adequately treat a mess and its associated problems, sufficient mechanisms must be present. Invoking the redundancy principle from the operational axiom ensures the purposeful duplication of critical mechanisms to improve the reliability of the proposed solution (Hester and Adams 2014). In other words, for example, in finding solutions for a sustainability problem, all the needed and sufficient mechanisms and actions must be taken, but no less. An accepted definition of systems engineering is “Interdisciplinary approach governing the total technical and managerial effort required to transform a set of customer needs, expectations, and

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constraints into a solution and to support that solution throughout its life” (ISO/IEC/IEEE 2010, p. 361). A set of customer needs, expectations, and constraints is a problem, and in systems age, a mess is one with nonlinear nature that defines a complex problem-solving endeavor. Systemic thinking is focused on the solution of complex problems through the pragmatic application of the laws, principles, and concepts that apply to each mess. The complex problem-solving endeavor includes the understanding of the stakeholders because they exist at the center of messes and are important contributors to the possible solution ahead. One common mistake in the process of finding a solution is forgetting about stakeholders in the problem formulation, observation, thinking, modelling, or simulation steps. Many times, only after simulation, when the answers do not fit well, is when the stakeholder’s necessity becomes essential. Also essential are the development and understanding of the motives underlying the stakeholder’s behaviors. The initial and continued motivation serves as the incentive, the stimulus, and the inspiration for continued involvement (Hester and Adams 2014). The range of variability of individual perspectives, objectives, and perceived interests may be so divergent that sufficient alignment necessary to move forward may be unattainable. Two other important solution components are (Hester and Adams 2014) context, the circumstances, factors, conditions, values, and patterns that surround messes and problems, and problem boundaries, the representations that provide lines of demarcation between messes and problems and the surrounding environment. Systemic thinking serves as a framework for defining relevant context and operationalizing the process of developing sufficient problem boundaries. Also, for the solution preparation, it is necessary to precisely determine the appropriate time to intervene in the problem. To develop an approach for determining the appropriate time for intervention, at least two criteria are needed, maturity and

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stability, and the systemic thinker must investigate aspects like life cycles, evolution, or resilience. The maturity discussion focuses on life cycle concerns and on evaluating the cost-to-benefit ratio of mess intervention, while the stability perspective focuses on a discussion of system evolution and self-organization, leading to a method for classifying and understanding the problem’s state (Hester and Adams 2014). Traditional solution approach assumes a unitary perspective where there is assumed agreement on the mess’ problems, contexts, and boundaries. But given that a mess is a system of problems, the decoupling of the given problems from the mess and the structured decision analysis and associated concerns that may be employed to gain further insight regarding its mess are key tasks for the systemic thinker. Anyway the sum of the optimal solution for each component problem taken separately is not an optimal solution to the mess. The behavior of the mess depends more on how the solutions to its parts interact than on how they interact independently of each other. Managers do not solve problems; they manage messes (Ackoff 1979). Finally, two seminal frameworks for identifying viable solutions emerging from the systemic thinking perspective are presented. The first one forms Boulding’s general systems theory – the skeleton of science, and the second forms Meadows’s Leverage Points – Places to Intervene in a System. Boulding’s classification of systems (Boulding 1956) is a nine-component framework aimed to present an interesting classification of levels of systems, and it elaborates on the vastness of the work that is waiting for the scientific endeavor advance: 1. Frameworks. The geography and anatomy of the universe: the patterns of electrons around a nucleus, the pattern of atoms in a molecular formula, the arrangement of atoms in a crystal, the anatomy of the gene, the mapping of the earth, etc. 2. Clockworks. The solar system or simple machines such as the lever and the pulley,

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

even quite complicated machines like steam engines and dynamos fall mostly under this category. Thermostats. Control mechanisms or cybernetic systems: the system will move to the maintenance of any given equilibrium, within limits. Cells. Open systems or self-maintaining structures. This is the level at which life begins to differentiate itself from not life. Plants. The outstanding characteristics of these systems (studied by the botanists) are first, a division of labor with differentiated and mutually dependent parts (roots, leaves, seeds, etc.), and second, a sharp differentiation between the genotype and the phenotype, associated with the phenomenon of equifinal or “blueprinted” growth. Animals. Level characterized by increased mobility, teleological behavior, and selfawareness, with the development of specialized information receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) leading to an enormous increase in the intake of information. Human Beings. In addition to all, or nearly all, of the characteristics of animal systems, man possesses self-consciousness, which is something different from mere awareness. Social Organizations. The unit of such systems is not perhaps the person but the “role” that is part of the person which is concerned with the organization or situation in question. Social organizations might be defined as a set of roles tied together with channels of communication. Transcendental Systems. The ultimates and absolutes and the inescapable unknowables that also exhibit systematic structure and relationship.

Meadows’s Leverage Points (Meadows, 1999) are places within a complex system (a corporation, an economy, a living body, a city, an ecosystem) where a small shift in one thing can produce big changes in everything. The 12 places to intervene in a system, in increasing order of effectiveness, are:

Systemic Thinking

1. Constants, parameters, numbers (such as subsidies, taxes, standards) 2. The sizes of buffers and other stabilizing stocks, relative to their flows 3. The structure of material stocks and flows (such as transport networks, population age structures) 4. The lengths of delays, relative to the rate of system change 5. The strength of negative feedback loops, relative to the impacts they are trying to correct against 6. The gain around driving positive feedback loops 7. The structure of information flows (who does and does not have access to what kinds of information) 8. The rules of the system (such as incentives, punishments, constraints) 9. The power to add, change, evolve, or selforganize system structure 10. The goals of the system 11. The mindset or paradigm out of which the system – its goals, structure, rules, delays, and parameters – arises 12. The power to transcend paradigms

Conclusion Adopting a single perspective has been unsuccessful in solving many problems. Those interested in understanding messes, however, need to go further. To this end systemic thinking is a metamethodology for understanding messes by discussing the interconnected elements necessary from each perspective to be integrated into a coherent whole for advance in understanding. Systemic thinking draws from diverse disciplines to provide a holistic method for dealing with problems in any discipline. It is scientifically grounded in systems theory and a wide variety of transdisciplinary supporting principles providing a discipline-agnostic approach to address messes. Messes are envisioned and constructed in a somewhat arbitrary manner by the observer who is one responsible of identifying a mess and

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deconstructing it and then analyzing its elements, to further reconstitute these pieces into a coherent whole to allow for systemic understanding of it. Everyone has problems and messes, and the way of thinking about them determines whether the observer will be successful in understanding and addressing them. Systemic thinking is a novel approach to use when faced with problems and messes that are seemingly intractable. A solution is a way to articulate the current and desired states for a mess, understanding what steps are necessary to transition it to a more desired, sustainable state. Unintended consequences or counterintuitive behavior happens because of acting based on (a) linear vs. nonlinear thinking-living, (b) non-delay vs. delay thinking-living, and (c) easy problems (predictable) vs. hard problems (non-predictable). The human brain is a fabulous surviving machine but limited in perception and memory that makes survival possible in an environment based on particular time and space scale models. The brain, in general, is limited for simulation within time/detail/memory constraints, and computer simulation is the solution it created to overcome the limitation. Brain systems thinking plus computer simulation equals systemic thinking, a way of observing possible social futures without casualties, using characteristics as nonlinearity, delays, and hard problems. The time has come to simulate (with computers) social systems and take decision based on them for making a better sustainable future possible.

S Cross-References ▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework ▶ Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

References Ackoff RL (1971) Towards a system of systems concepts. Manag Sci 17(11):661–671. https://doi.org/10.1287/ mnsc.17.11.661

840 Ackoff RL (1979) The future of operational research is past. J Oper Res Soc 30(2):93–104. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/3009600 Ackoff RL (1989) From data to wisdom. J Appl Syst Anal 16:3–9 Bartlett G, Bartlett L (n.d.) Systemic thinking origins. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from http://systemicthink ing.com/origins.html Bellinger G, Castro D, Mills A (2002) Data, information, knowledge and wisdom. Retrieved from http://www. outsights.com/systems/dikw/dikw.htm Betts M (2003) Unexpected insights. Computerworld 37:34 Boulding KE (1956) General systems theory – the skeleton of science. Manag Sci 2(3):197–208 Bunge M (1979) Treatise on basic philosophy: ontology II: a world of systems. Springer, Netherlands Csikszentmihalyi M (1997) Finding flow: the psychology of engagement with everyday life, 1st edn. Basic Books, New York Forrester JW (2007) System dynamics – a personal view of the first fifty years. Syst Dyn Rev 23(2–3):345–358. https://doi.org/10.1002/sdr.382 François C (1999) Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective. Syst Res Behav Sci 16(3):203–219 Gallón L (2004) Aumentando la inteligencia de la organización mediante el descubrimiento de conocimiento en bases de datos. Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana Gallón L (2009) Space and time scales of human perspective and sustainability: tools for modeling daily life dynamics Gallón L (2012) Modelo de Sostenibilidad Regional: Dinámica de Sistemas para enfrentar la pobreza en Suramérica. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona Geyer F (2004) What is Sociocybernetics? Retrieved from http://www.unizar.es/sociocybernetics/ Hester PT, Adams KM (2014) Systemic thinking: fundamentals for understanding problems and messes, vol 26. Springer, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-07629-4_8 ISO/IEC/IEEE (2010) ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765 systems and software engineering – vocabulary. Iso/Iec/Ieee 24765:2010(E), 2010, 1–418. https://doi.org/10.1109/ IEEESTD.2010.5733835 Meadows DH (1999) Leverage points: places to intervene in a system. Hartland Richmond B (1991) Systems thinking: four key questions. High Performance Systems, Lebanon Ritchey T (2012) Outline for a morphology of modelling methods: contribution to a general theory of modelling. Acta Morphol Gen AMG 1(1):1–20 Sharma N (2008) The origin of the “Data Information Knowledge Wisdom” hierarchy Sterman JD (2002) All models are wrong: reflections on becoming a systems scientist. Syst Dyn Rev 18 (4):501–531. https://doi.org/10.1002/sdr.261

Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs Néstor Valero-Silva Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK

Synonyms Systems thinking; engagement

Holism;

Stakeholder

Introduction Systems thinking has played a very important role in initial attempts to comprehend the interconnectedness existing between the natural and the social worlds and in challenging the view that humans are intrinsically superior to other biological entities and are thus the “masters” of nature. Many social and health problems have been addressed, including the eradication of illnesses and improvements in food production, through effective systemic interventions. Paradoxically, systems thinking came to prominence during the Second World War (Christopherson and Baughan 1995), playing an important role in the development of the postwar chemical and nuclear industries and economies and in the creation of national health services in the UK and elsewhere. The publication of Churchman et al. (1957) Introduction to Operations Research is considered an important reference for these practical applications. However, it was the work of biologists von Bertalanffy’s (1968) General Systems Theory, Maturana and Varela’s (1980) Autopoiesis and Cognition, and Churchman’s (1979) The Systems Approach that clarified certain aspects of systems’ behavior; they used concepts such as “feedback,” “self-regulation,” and “emerging properties” in understanding the complexity of social systems. Their ideas allowed new generations of social and

Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

natural scientists to frame the relationship between humans and the natural world as being based on “co-dependency” and “coevolution,” rather than on a narrow understanding of the Darwinian concepts of “competition” and the “survival of the fittest.” The publication of R. Bradbury’s short story A Sound of Thunder in 1952, Capra’s books The Turning Point (1982) and The Web of Life (1996), and Senge’s (2006) The Fifth Discipline helped systemic thinking reach wider audiences. Systems thinking has also informed ethical debates on the exploitation of natural resources, biodiversity, and economic and social development and discussions on animal rights and climate change and has contributed to the exploration of ethical frameworks found in Asian, African, Latin American, and ancient cultures. Systemic (holistic) thinking must be at the center of the design and implementation of solutions to achieve existing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, it will allow meaningful interaction and synergy among those working toward individual goals to the benefit of communities worldwide and the natural environment.

Systems Thinking A systemic approach to natural and social phenomena is characterized by its focus on interrelationships, dynamic processes, and on the outputs (both intended and unintentional) that emerge from the interaction of different single elements and clusters of elements, as perceived by an observer. Systems can also be seen as dynamic mental constructs that behave as if they had some purpose. In this sense, at the core of a systemic approach lies a process of boundary definition: a sense-making cognitive process that simultaneously includes and prioritizes (a system’s elements and processes) and excludes (its environment or background) – although there is some degree of interaction across the boundary. It is the boundary definition that provides the system’s identity and differentiation from its context.

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The interest in understanding and improving a situation that is perceived as dynamic and problematic is often an important drive toward developing systemic models. However, improving an element or a cluster of elements (sub-system) in isolation could create unintended consequences in other areas of the system or in its environment. Examples include the unrest and chaos that could result from the swift fall of a head of state whose removal was considered by political opponents as highly desirable to solve certain problems in a political system; the sudden introduction of tariffs to protect a local industry which in turn causes the total collapse of exports and livelihoods elsewhere; or the sending of surplus food products, textiles, and footwear, as a part of wellintentioned aid packages that adversely influences fragile industries in developing economies. In this context, it is easy to appreciate that systems thinking interventions reflect cultural, technical, political, and economic interests, opportunities and constraints, ideology, power, and ethics.

The System A system gathers a group of components (elements and relationships) in an organized manner (Valero-Silva 2017); these components are interdependent, which means that they would behave differently if removed from the system, such as when a bodily organ stops interacting with other organs or is extracted from a living organism; when a particular species becomes extinct or is removed from its habitat; or when members of a community are displaced by war or climate change. In a similar manner, systems produce outputs as a result of certain processes and can, to a certain degree, self-regulate internally through using negative feedback mechanisms (homeostasis). Examples include changes in blood pressure, sugar levels, or body temperature, modifying interest rates in a volatile housing market, the banning of certain chemicals to restore atmospheric ozone levels, and the issuing of work visa systems to

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address manpower shortages. Systems also exhibit emerging properties that cannot be explained by analyzing individual components or processes, such as life, happiness, well-being, or climate change. This is exemplified in the famous expression attributed to the Greek philosopher Aristotle: “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Although changes in the system do not necessarily assume the dissolving of the system into its background, it is always surprising to see how, due to gaps in our understanding, small unexpected changes inside the system itself or within its environment may trigger a range of results: great improvements or the dissolution of an entire natural or social system through a “positive feedback” mechanism (snowball effect), such as those that produce a “bank run” or a share price collapse. This leads to the distinction between open systems, those with important interactions with their environment (e.g., social systems), and closed systems whose interactions with their environment are not relevant to addressing the issues considered. Furthermore, certain systems, such as living cells, are able to use raw materials to produce their own components and to reproduce and maintain themselves (autopoiesis), within certain environmental parameters. In this context, some systems thinkers believe that the most important boundary to consider must be placed around the planet Earth – including its atmosphere and the artificial satellites placed in orbit (that have/could become space litter). This approach is known as the Gaia theory (Lovelock 1979, 2006); it assumes the planet Earth as a dynamic collection of living and nonliving elements and processes in constant interaction. It highlights that within certain parameters, the planet is able to support life over millennia through highly complex self-regulatory mechanisms, such as coevolution, natural selection, extinctions, tectonic movements, and weather patterns. Gaia theory demonstrates how human action could alter the planet’s self-regulatory mechanisms, thus threatening the possibility of life as we know it; examples include the industrial use of pesticides (Carson 1962) and population growth (Fisher et al. 2013). The

Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

interconnectedness of these processes was illustrated by Lorenz’s (1972) butterfly effect metaphor: “Does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?”

From Hard to Critical Systems Thinking A clear typology has been used to classify systems and systems thinking in the literature: “hard systems” are systems with very clear objectives, usually achievable by modelling. This is to say, there is a known current state (S0), a desired state (S1), and a series of routes to take the system from S0 to S1; the role of the systems analyst is to choose the optimum route within certain parameters. Hard systems are very common in engineering-type structured situations using simulation testing models and influence diagrams. “Soft systems,” on the other hand, are those representing problematic unstructured situations, emerging from different perspectives advocating for alternative boundary definitions. Checkland (1981) developed his soft systems methodology (SSM), aimed at addressing these situations, based on the concept of the respective Weltanschauung (worldview) of those involved as represented in rich picture diagrams. SSM shares elements of action research (Lewin 1946; Reason and Bradbury 2006) and participatory action research (Freire 1970; Fals-Borda 2006). Some systems practitioners have also applied elements of hard systems modelling and soft systems in what is called soft operational research “Soft OR” (Forrester 1994; Rosenhead and Mingers 2001). Others have focused on the relationship between systems and sub-systems at different levels to ensure their overall survival and autonomy in a changing environment; these use concepts such as regulation, recursion, communication, and control in what is generally called organizational cybernetics VSM (Beer 1995, 2003). Finally, “critical systems thinking” aims at addressing ethical (Ormerod and Ulrich 2013) and moral considerations linked to the process of boundary definition; examples include Ulrich’s (1983, 1995) work on “boundary judgments” and “boundary critique” inspired by his collaboration with

Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

C.W. Churchman and explorations into systems thinking and poststructuralism (Valero-Silva 2000). Certain pragmatic systems practitioners use a combination of these approaches through which to address real-life situations (Jackson 1991). The next sections will explore how systems thinking has effectively addressed pressing social/natural issues, such as industrialization and consumerism, and how systems, when left unchecked, can also produce undesirable and unintended consequences.

Systems Thinking and Industrialization Serious concerns about the effects of industrialization, urban living, and environment have long been expressed. Examples include the cholera epidemics in London linked to drinking water being contaminated with human sewage in the 1850s and the effects of the widespread use of coal as fuel that culminated in the severe smog episodes that affected St. Louis (USA) in 1939, Donora (USA) in 1948, London in 1952, and New York in 1953. These events were linked to thousands of premature deaths and serious illnesses. The power of systemic (holistic) thinking in explaining the causes of these problems and the contribution of industry in providing new products (e.g., “cleaner” varieties of coal) and of engineering by improving civil works were perceived as the undisputed tools necessary to achieving both social and economic developments and particularly improved health. More recently, the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, together with decisive international action led by the UN and the World Health Organization (WHO), were also seen as a powerful combination that would address certain world problems in a systemic manner. There were the fight against smallpox that began in 1958, which culminated in its eradication in 1979, and the development and widespread use of high-yielding varieties of cereals and grains that, with the use of pesticides and improved irrigation techniques, has since the 1940s saved millions from starvation in the Third World – an initiative called the Green Revolution. These are very good examples of the

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synergy that can be generated between scientific and social systems and models when they combine to address global issues. However, events such as the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962 that highlighted the negative effects of the indiscriminate use of pesticides in the environment; the powerful images broadcast by the media of the devastation caused by the use of chemical weapons during the Vietnam War, including the photographs of the conflict taken by Nick Ut; the threat of nuclear war; the youth and social movements in the USA and in Europe; and the creation of Greenpeace in 1971 challenged the underlying systems models that supported the chemical and nuclear industries – and the lack in their system designs of the inclusion of long-term social and environmental impact considerations. Finally, the recent heightened awareness of the devastating and long-lasting effects of plastic pollution on soil/water and on the marine environment has brought the production and use of plastics in general, and single-use plastics in particular, to the forefront of efforts to protect the environment (BBC 2018). These factors challenged the boundaries of the systems used by science and economics; also, they highlighted the dangers potentially posed by science, technology, and industry when left both unchecked and at the mercy of political and economic interests that had not fully been appreciated. A new era of environmentalism has begun, challenging the image of humans as the masters of the planet and questioning the perceived “neutrality” of current industrial and economic systems.

Systems Thinking and Consumerism Consumerism, and its related term affluenza, has been widely discussed in the context of sustainability. It is broadly applied to the compulsive acquisition of products and services not needed to satisfy basic human needs and to the disposal of still-functioning products to acquire new ones that offer the same or a very similar function. These behaviors are supported by an addiction to economic growth systems, the availability of cheaper

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products, marketing, and financial systems in the form of credit. In this sense, the term “conspicuous consumption” was firstly used by the economist Thorstein Veblen in his 1899 book The Theory of the Leisure Class (reprinted in 1994), referring to the behaviors and attitudes to wealth of the nouveau riche. Thus, products are bought, for example, to satisfy hedonistic values such as fantasies and fun (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982) and status and wealth display, as a proof of success and as a transfer mechanism to compensate for a variety of mild and serious psychological disorders. Other areas of exploration regarding consumerism include the relationship between consumerism and identity, as explored by Williamson (1978), who states that “the conscious chosen meaning in most people’s lives comes from what they consume”; the relationship between advertising and desire/satisfaction as highlighted by Taylor and Saarinen (1994), who argued that “desire does not desire satisfaction. To the contrary desire desires desire. The reason images are so desirable is that they never satisfy”; and, finally, the understanding of the consumer as an active agent in the construction of meaning (Elliott 1997). However, consumerism has also been promoted as an important element of developmental and economic systems in Western capitalist societies. For example, Paul M. Mazur, an investment banker and partner at the now bankrupt Lehman Brothers, introduced the concept of “obsolescence” to the Advertising Club of New York in 1928 as “wear alone” was too slow for the needs of the American industry: “if what had filled the consumer market yesterday could only be made obsolete today, that whole market would be again available tomorrow” (Slade 2007, p. 60). In the same year, Justus George, then editor, introduced the concept of “progressive obsolescence” in the trade journal Advertising and Selling: “we must introduce people to buy a greater variety of goods on the same principle that they now buy automobiles, radios, cloths, namely: buying goods not to wear out, but to trade in or discard after a short time. . . buying for up-todateness, efficiency, and style, buying for the sense of modernness rather than simply for the

Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

last ounce of use” (Slade 2007, p. 58). During the recession that followed, even “planned obsolescence” dictated by government was suggested as a way to reactivate the economy (London 1932). Finally, Brooks Stevens, founding member of the Industrial Designers Society of America, described in the 1950s the concept of “psychological obsolescence” as: “instilling in the buyer the desire to own something a little newer, a little better, a little sooner than is necessary” (Slade 2007, p. 153). More recently, “consumer confidence,” an economic indicator (emerging property) that translates into spending habits, individuals’ feelings about the state of the economy system in general, and their own financial situations, became a topic central to government policy systems. The idea that consumers would “spend our way out of the recession” has been heralded as the answer to the current crisis, regardless of alarming levels of personal debt in the developed world. Nevertheless, governments all over the world look desperately to the latest retail reports in search of an increase in retail activity demonstrating that “consumer confidence” has returned. According to Cooper (2010), such emphasis on obsolescence and consumption in order to sustain increasing levels of economic growth follows a linear (non-systemic) economic model “which assumes at the outset of any production process that the Earth has an unlimited supply of raw materials and energy and, at the end, an infinite capacity to absorb pollution and waste” (Cooper 2010, p. 12). Recent initiatives to improve the manufacturing systems of products and the use of natural resources (given that very few companies will openly acknowledge following this linear model) will fail to have a long-term impact if consumption were to continue to increase. Furthermore, new product features could even cancel any “environmental savings” from previous versions of the same product; that is to say, “green shopping,” “green consumerism,” and “sustainable consumerism” still constitute shopping and consumerism. However, our economic system is so dependent on consumerism that a sudden slowdown of production processes could cause high levels of unemployment and other unintended

Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

consequences in other areas of the wider social and economic systems. In this context, Cooper (2010) advocates instead a circular “systems thinking” economic model, which “requires that the throughput of materials and energy be minimized by optimising product longevity, reusing or reconditioning products and their components, and recycling – alongside other measures such as energy efficiency” (Cooper 2010, p. 12). It would be combined with the concept of “slow consumption” (Cooper 2005, 2010). This approach is supported by increasing “product lifespan,” which involves improving production processes, creating skilled jobs in repair and maintenance work, consumer satisfaction, and secondhand markets. In sum, Cooper believes that the combination of “longer life-spans” and “slow consumption” (within a “systems thinking” economic model) would provide an antidote to the notion of “obsolescence” and would allow the economy to absorb lower levels of production.

Systems Thinking and Sustainable Development The notion of sustainable development (SD) has taken center stage in the redefinition of the interrelationships between humans and the environment and between developed and less-developed societies. This notion has become the formal response produced by NGOs, policy makers, and business leaders toward building “the future we want” (UN 2012). On the one hand, it encapsulates the developed world’s anxieties as these emerged from the failed project of development “designed for” the Third World (Banerjee 2003; Escobar 2011) and realizes that the current economic system has produced certain levels of growth, industrialization, consumerism, and inequality that cannot be sustained indefinitely, as discussed above. On the other hand, SD is also informed by evolving discourses regarding notions such as nature, the overexploitation of natural resources, the rights of nonindustrial indigenous populations, the eradication of poverty, and the provision of quality education. The state of play among these genuine concerns has

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been crystallized in the different UN resolutions, from the 1951 report on Measures for the Economic Development of Under-Developed Countries, then the Brundtland Report in 1987, to the creation of 17 Sustainable Development Goals in 2015; one of these goals (SDG4) aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. Quality education is an issue that needs to be understood and addressed systemically (Banathy 1992; Badrul and Reigeluth 1993; Betts 1992; O’Neil 1995; Por 2008). The need for quality education can be found in less-developed countries, as well as in poor areas in developed societies where poor indigenous and immigrant populations live, or in deprived communities that once enjoyed well-paid manufacturing jobs now outsourced overseas. For example, soft and critical systems thinking could contribute to the required dialogue among multiple stakeholders’ understandings of what constitutes quality and meaningful education (Matengu et al. 2018) and its relationship with training. A distinction exists between policies intended to prepare skilled workers to take up jobs in newer sectors and those to prepare people who, aware of their social and political circumstances, positively and critically engage with other sectors of civil society, government, and businesses, to build the society they want (Freire 1970; Checkland 1981; Ulrich 1983; Fals-Borda 2006). The former does not necessarily preclude the latter, yet the two are not necessary linked. Cultural, religious, and economic circumstances that keep males and females of all ages in/out of education and training or produce unequal access to available opportunities must also be acknowledged. At the national level, agreement on the desirable qualitative and quantitative outputs of its education system needs careful consideration. These could include years of schooling; the quality of certain acquired skills (literacy, numeracy, negotiation, teamwork); access and future employment prospects; and the effectiveness of training in the creation of small businesses, cooperatives, and other social support systems. The relationship between the education system and other areas of government, and national and

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international organizations, must also be included for all to take advantage of synergies and economies of scale. Operational research and simulation models could help in understanding the strong and weak points of the system at this level, targeting important national resources to address salient issues, to promote collaboration between government institutions and international organizations, and to allocate resources where the greatest impact can be produced in relation to other Sustainable Development Goals. Systems dynamics, OR (Johnes 2015; Romm 2018), and VSM could be successfully employed at this macro level of analysis (Hart and Paucar-Caceres 2017). However, corruption (Osipian 2017; Duerrenberger and Warning 2018), incompetence, the lack of tight controls, weak judiciary and auditing systems, and the mismanagement of financial resources are problems that could undermine an otherwise fine-tuned and participatory systems design. At the local level, the analysis would focus on the internal operations of particular schools that could offer different types of education and vocational training. In this instance, the boundary of this system would be located around a school (or group of schools) as they interact with a catchment area. The elements and processes to be considered would be related to the school’s infrastructure and equipment; class sizes; the number of teachers, their qualifications and experience; the schools’ management structures; enrolment and dropout rates; student progression; success rate in external examinations; curriculum and syllabuses delivered; the demography of the student population; and community, parent, and student relations (Matengu et al. 2018). Soft OR, VSM (Espinosa and Walker 2013), and soft systems thinking could provide insights at this level. At the individual or family levels, the focus of analysis would center on practical “on the ground” issues that promote, facilitate, and/or prevent students from accessing education and training: family economics, nutrition, and health; cultural and economic reasons for enrolment and dropout rates; as well as access to learning materials, transport, family structures, roles/gender,

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and the division of labor and childcare at home. Soft systems thinking could capture qualitative aspects of this system in addition to some quantitative information. From this discussion it is easy to appreciate that those interested in working systemically toward a particular SDG, such as quality education, must deeply liaise and collaborate with experts addressing the other 16 SDGs. As in any form of national government, there are clear synergies between, for example, education, poverty, health, water and sanitation, and infrastructure. There will also be tensions when it comes to where to start and how limited financial and human resources need to be allocated to make a greater and faster impact. There will be the inevitable impulse by NGOs, consultants, and governments to export successful models and solutions to other countries – without considering the circumstances that made them meaningful and successful in the first place. From a systemic perspective, institutional economists have observed that certain processes (including education systems from advanced economies) are developed in such a way that, over time, it becomes almost impossible to consider alternatives, even if these could provide superior solutions that could be implemented in less-developed communities. Such a phenomenon can be explained by the systems notion of “positive feedback.” Arthur (1994) described some of the conditions necessary for this damaging process to occur: the presence of high setup costs, which could make the implementation of further initiatives even more expensive; the development of specialized knowledge and expertise, which makes governments and agencies reluctant to invest further time and resources in learning, testing, and adapting further models; and finally, the perceived advantages of using methodologies and systems models successfully implemented in more advanced societies. This is to say, a critical systems analysis of the reasons for the failure of sophisticated economic models and systems that have been exported to less-developed communities would be required, if similar results are to be avoided.

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Concluding Remark

References

Systems thinking is not new within development issues; NGOs have used systems thinking to address practical problems in the developing world for many years (Bowman et al. 2015). Systems thinking provides a unique opportunity to learn from and to address social and natural issues. Focusing on elements, clusters (sub-systems), inputs/outputs, interrelationships, and emerging properties will allow those working on any of the SDGs both to appreciate phenomena holistically and to engage with stakeholders. Examples of how systems thinking could be used to address issues at the national, local, and personal levels in relation to SDG4 were provided in the previous section; the same type of analysis could be conducted for the other SDGs. Furthermore, meaningful engagement with current stakeholders (and considering the effects of their recommendations on future generations) will help those working on different SDGs jointly to provide feasible and sustainable solutions, without limiting the possibilities of future generations. However, those working on any of the SDGs need to be aware of issues such as the availability of reliable data; funding; gaps in their understanding; political, ethical, and ideological considerations; and information processing power. These would also contribute to determining the system’s boundaries, its complexity, and its subsequent ability holistically to operationalize the SDGs to improve our present situation. This is to say, systems and systemic thinking are framed within their current social, economic, political, and historical contexts and limitations. Systems thinking can help us develop just, equal, and sustainable societies, without expanding the developed world’s damaging patterns of industrialization and consumerism to include every region on and each inhabitant of the planet. Systems thinking offers a unique opportunity and a common language through which to communicate and engage with other stakeholders on different SDGs, to go beyond the perceived boundaries of our present situation such that we are able to imagine different futures collectively.

Arthur WB (1994) Increasing returns and path dependence in the economy. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor Badrul K, Reigeluth CM (1993) Educational Systems Design (ESD): an integrated, disciplined inquiry in schools of education. Educ Technol 33(6):36–40 Banathy BH (1992) Systems design in education: forming the future. NASSP Bull 76(542):71–79 Banerjee SB (2003) Who sustains whose development? Sustainable development and the reinvention of nature. Organ Stud 24(1):143–180 BBC (2018) Blue planet II. https://www.bbc.co.uk/pro grammes/p04tjbtx & http://www.bbc.co.uk/pro grammes/articles/1FlfcGGKPSWv3m7JdfBT5dv/getinvolved-with-ocean-conservation. Accessed 17 July 2018 Beer S (1995) The brain of the firm. Wiley, Chichester Beer S (2003) Diagnosing the system for organizations. Wiley, Chichester Bertalanffy L (1968) General system theory: foundations, development, applications. George Braziller, New York Betts F (1992) How systems thinking applies to education. Educ Leadersh 50(3):38–41 Bowman K, Chettleborough J et al (2015) Systems thinking: an introduction for Oxfam programme staff. Oxfam GB, Oxford Bradbury R (1952) A sound of thunder. In: The golden apples of the sun. Doubleday & Company, New York Brundtland G (ed) (1987) Our common future: the world commission on environment and development. Oxford University Press, Oxford Capra F (1982) The turning point: science, society, and the rising culture. Bantam Books, New York Capra F (1996) The web of life: a new scientific understanding of living systems. Harper Collins, London Carson R (1962) Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin, Boston Checkland PB (1981) Systems thinking, systems practice. Wiley, Chichester Christopherson D, Baughan EC (1995) Reminiscences of operational research in World War II by some of its practitioners. In: Keys P (ed) Understanding the process of operational research: collected readings. Wiley, Chichester Churchman CW (1979) The systems approach. Delacorte Press, New York Churchman CW, Ackoff R, Arnoff’s EL (1957) Introduction to operation research. Wiley, New York Cooper T (2005) Slower consumption: reflections on product life cycles and the “throwaway society”. J Ind Ecol 9:51–67 Cooper T (2010) Longer lasting products: alternatives to the throwaway society. Gower Publishing Limited, Farnham Duerrenberger N, Warning S (2018) Corruption and education in developing countries: the role of public

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848 vs. private funding of higher education. Int J Educ Dev 62:217–225 Elliott R (1997) Existential consumption and irrational desire. Eur J Mark 31:285–296 Escobar A (2011) Encountering development: the making and unmaking of the third world. Princeton University Press, New York Espinosa A, Walker J (2013) Complexity management in practice: a Viable System Model intervention in an Irish eco-community. Eur J Oper Res 225(1):118–129 Fals-Borda O (2006) Participatory (action) research in social theory: origins and challenges. In: Reason P, Bradbury H (eds) Handbook of action research. Sage, London Fisher C, Lovell A, Valero-Silva N (2013) Business ethics and values. Pearson Financial-Times, London Forrester JW (1994) Systems dynamics, systems thinking, and soft OR. Syst Dyn Rev 10(2–3):245–256 Freire P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Herder & Herder, New York Hart D, Paucar-Caceres A (2017) A utilisation focussed and viable systems approach for evaluating technology supported learning. Eur J Oper Res 259(2):626–641 Holbrook MB, Hirschman EC (1982) The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. J Consum Res 2:132–140 Jackson MC (1991) Systems methodology for the management sciences. Plenum Press, New York Johnes J (2015) Operational research in education. Eur J Oper Res 243(3):683–696 Lewin K (1946) Action research and minority problems. J Soc Issues 2(4):34–46 London B (1932) Ending the depression through planned obsolescence. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: London_(1932)_End-ing_the_depression_through_ planned_obsolescence.pdf. Accessed 17 July 2018 Lorenz EN (1972) Predictability; does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?. Paper presented at the 139th meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, MIT, 29 Dec 1972. http://eaps4.mit.edu/research/Lorenz/But terfly_1972.pdf. Accessed 14 July 2018 Lovelock J (1979) Gaia: a new look at life on earth. Oxford University Press, Oxford Lovelock J (2006) The revenge of Gaia: earth’s climate crisis and the fate of humanity. Basic Books, New York Matengu M, Korkeamäki R, Cleghorn A (2018) Conceptualizing meaningful education: the voices of indigenous parents of young children. Learn Cult Soc Interact. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LCSI.2018.05.007 Maturana H, Varela FJ (1980) Autopoiesis and cognition. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Boston O’Neil J (1995) On schools as learning organizations: a conversation with Peter Senge. Educ Leadersh 52(7):20–23 Ormerod R, Ulrich W (2013) Operational research and ethics: a literature review. Eur J Oper Res 228(2):291–307

Systems Thinking Osipian AL (2017) University autonomy in Ukraine: higher education corruption and the state. Communis Post-Commun 50(3):233–243 Por J (2008) The use of soft system methodology (SSM) in a serviced-focused study on the personal tutor’s role. Nurse Educ Pract 8:335–342 Reason P, Bradbury H (eds) (2006) Handbook of action research. Sage, London Romm N (2018) Reflections on a multi-layered intervention in the South African public education system: some ethical implications for Community Operational Research. Eur J Oper Res 268(3):971–983 Rosenhead J, Mingers J (eds) (2001) Rational thinking for a problematic world: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainly and conflict. Wiley, Chichester Senge PM (2006) The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization. Random House, London Slade G (2007) Made to break: technology and obsolescence in America. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Taylor M, Saarinen E (1994) Imagologies: media philosophy. Routledge, London Ulrich W (1983) Critical heuristics of social planning: a new approach to practical philosophy. Wiley, New York Ulrich W (1995) Critical systems thinking for citizens: a research proposal. Centre for Systems Studies, University of Hull, Hull United Nations (1951) Measures for the economic development of under-developed countries: report by a group of experts appointed by the secretary-general of the United Nations. Department of Economic Affairs, UN, New York United Nations (2012) The future we want – declaration of the UN conference on sustainable development, Rio de Janeiro, 19 June 2012 Valero-Silva N (2000) A critical history of the origins of critical systems thinking. PhD thesis, University of Hull Valero-Silva N (2017) Systems thinking and sustainable management. In: Molthan-Hill P (ed) The business student’s guide to sustainable management: principles and practice. Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield, pp 362–392 Veblen T (1994) The theory of the leisure class. Dover Thrift Editions, New York Williamson J (1978) Decoding advertisements: ideology and meaning in advertising. Marion Boyars, London

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Tacit Learning

Definition

▶ Informal Workplace Learning

Teacher Evaluation System

Teacher Appraisal System ▶ Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices

Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices Jie Li1 and Yao Zhang Hill2 1 Capital University of Economics and Business, Beijing, China 2 University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, USA

Synonyms Teacher appraisal system

A teacher evaluation (TE) system is a system to collect evidence to form a judgment about an individual teacher’s knowledge, ability, and values as they relate to the teacher’s teaching effectiveness and professionalism. However, not all teacher evaluation systems are equal. The best teacher evaluation systems focus on providing teachers with meaningful and actionable feedback so that they can continuously improve their effectiveness. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) defines teacher appraisal, which is another name for teacher evaluation, as “the evaluation of individual teachers to judge their performance and/or provide feedback to help improve their practice” (OECD 2013b, p. 11).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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Introduction Education is central to the realization of the United Nation’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop ment. Within 17 Sustainable Development Goals, the fourth goal is to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. To achieve this goal, it is critical to maintain a high quality of education. Teacher evaluation systems play an important role in that task. An effective and fair teacher evaluation system will not only help improve teaching quality but will also help sustain the teaching profession by providing constructive feedback. To understand the status of teacher evaluation systems worldwide, this entry reviews key models and frameworks, best practices, and teacher evaluation systems in different countries. After which, it discusses the future for teacher evaluation systems.

Functions of a Teacher Evaluation System Teacher Evaluation systems have two major functions: 1) an improvement function to help teachers improve their personal teaching practices by identifying strengths and weaknesses; 2) an accountability function to ensure teachers perform at their best and are providing high-quality teaching to enhance student learning. The Improvement Function The improvement function in teacher evaluation focuses on the provision of useful feedback to improve teaching practices, namely, through professional development. It involves helping teachers learn about, reflect on, and improve upon their teaching practices. This function typically takes into account the school context so that the professional development opportunities of an individual teacher are aligned with the school development plan (Santiago 2009). The Accountability Function The accountability function in teacher evaluation focuses on holding teachers accountable for their performance by linking performance to a range of

career rewards and consequences. It aims to motivate teachers to perform at their best by typically linking that performance to decisions on tenure, retention, bonuses, penalties, and dismissal. The accountability component of teacher evaluation is summative in nature and usually involves evaluating performance at nodal points in a teacher’s career. It also works as a means to provide recognition to teachers (Santiago 2009). An evaluation system that fosters teacher development (improvement) will differ from one whose aim is to measure teacher competence (accountability). Combining both functions into a single teacher evaluation process often raises difficult challenges. While the result of teacher evaluation is used to inform decisions about tenure, retention, and other actions in many countries, the ultimate purpose of teacher evaluation is to provide feedback to teachers and guide their professional development. Both competence measurement (accountability) and development (improvement) are important aspects of teacher evaluation. When competence measurement is the primary purpose, a small set of elements can determine a teacher’s skill in the classroom. However, if the emphasis is on teacher development, the model needs to be both comprehensive and specific and focuses on the teacher’s growth in various instructional areas. These distinctions are crucial to the effective design and implementation of current and future teacher evaluation systems (Marzano 2012).

Importance of Teacher Evaluation Systems One major underlying assumption of a teacher evaluation system is that capable and qualified teachers can positively impact student achievement outcomes and academic growth. An effective evaluation system can identify, recognize, and incentivize quality teachers, as well as offer feedback for all teachers to increase teaching effectiveness. Increased teaching effectiveness will in turn enhance student learning and achievement.

Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices

Teacher evaluation systems significantly impact teaching practice and the teaching profession. A high-functioning teacher evaluation system can play a crucial role in recruitment, retention, and continuous development of quality teachers (Lavigne and Good 2019). An effective teacher evaluation system allows schools to identify and cultivate individual talent by providing a mechanism that accurately evaluates teacher ability and responsively progresses teachers along a career path with openings to new roles and responsibilities (OECD 2013b). An effective teacher evaluation system also allows for timely support of underperforming teachers and for fair and efficient removal of teachers with sustained underperformance demonstrating no improvement. A well-designed and well-implemented teacher evaluation system can motivate teachers to self-reflect and self-improve, stimulate collegial collaboration and peer learning, and improve student learning outcomes. On the other hand, a poorly designed or implemented teacher evaluation system can cause stress and anxiety; decrease efficiency, satisfaction, and professional commitment; and increase turnover. An effective teacher evaluation system must conceptualize teacher evaluation as just the beginning step in a learning and improvement system aimed toward and supporting continuous improvement for individual teachers and for the profession as a whole.

Design and Implementation of a Teacher Evaluation System Teacher evaluation systems cannot be designed in isolation. Many factors influence the design. It is crucial to understand the interrelatedness of all the aspects of a teacher evaluation system in a big picture. The OECD provides the conceptual framework of teacher evaluation (OECD 2013a, p. 91), depicted in Fig. 1, which could be used as a guideline for schools to conduct their own teacher evaluation. This framework summarizes the main elements which are part of an evaluation and assessment component within the context of the overall evaluation and assessment framework and

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illustrates how they interconnect with each other. These main elements are: 1. Unit assessed Who? Who is the subject of the teacher evaluation system? Teacher evaluation targets a teacher’s performance; teachers are its main subject, while it also works with student assessment and school assessment most of the time. 2. Capabilities to assess and to use feedback By whom? Who is qualified to be an evaluator? What kind of skills are required to become an evaluator and how can evaluators be properly prepared? 3. Aspects assessed What? What will be assessed? How many different aspects need to be covered in a teacher evaluation system? Typical aspects include planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction, and professional responsibilities. 4. Evaluation “technology” How? What tools will be used to evaluate teachers? Many choices are available to conduct teacher evaluation, such as self-evaluation, classroom observations, and a teaching portfolio. An effective teacher evaluation system needs to determine how to combine different methods to build a teacher evaluation model. 5. Purposes Why? Why should the teacher evaluation be conducted, for the purpose of accountability, improvement, or both? The objectives of teacher evaluation should be clarified in advance. 6. Agents involved With whom? Other than teachers, who else has a stake in the teacher evaluation system? Are other stakeholders, such as parents, students, school leaders, teacher unions, educational administrators, and policymakers, involved in developing and implementing the teacher evaluation and assessment processes? In addition to these six main elements, other influential factors in the design of a teacher evaluation system include (OECD 2013a) societal

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Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices, Fig. 1 A conceptual framework of teacher evaluation (OECD 2013a, p. 91). (Used with permission from OECD)

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Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices

factors, such as the political environment, demographic and cultural diversity, economic conditions, and labor market trends; school system factors, such as school governance and autonomy, schooling model, curriculum, and academic standards; and school-level factors, such as social and economic status of schools, as well as community and family involvement. To design a comprehensive and coherent teacher evaluation system, it is ideal that all these factors have been considered (Isoré 2009).

What Aspects of Teacher Effectiveness Are Often Being Evaluated? Teacher effectiveness is often measured by a teacher’s knowledge, ability, and disposition. Knowledge includes both subject matter content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. Ability often refers to the teachers’ skills to plan, implement, and assess curriculum materials and learning activities, such as lesson planning, pedagogical strategies meeting different student needs, and student assessment. Teacher evaluations often examine the teacher’s professional and ethical disposition, such as whether the teacher treats all students fairly and without bias, strives for continuous improvement, and collaborates with others (Darling-Hammond 2013, p. 11). Danielson’s Frameworks for Teaching (edition 1996, 2007, and 2013) are one of the most commonly used fundamental frameworks. In fact, the earlier two editions (Danielson 1996, 2007) informed the aforementioned OECD’s conceptual framework of teacher evaluation (OECD 2013a). Danielson’s framework evaluates teacher effectiveness in four major domains: planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction, and professional responsibilities. 1. Planning and preparation: demonstrating knowledge of content, pedagogy, students, and resources; setting instructional outcomes; and designing coherent instruction and assessment 2. The classroom environment: creating an environment of respect and rapport; establishing a

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culture for learning; managing classroom procedures and student behaviors; and organizing physical space 3. Instruction: communicating with students; using questioning and discussion techniques; engaging students in learning; using assessment in instruction; demonstrating flexibility and responsiveness 4. Professional responsibilities: reflecting on teaching; maintaining accurate records; communicating with families; participating in the professional community; growing and developing professionally; and showing professionalism The framework makes it clear that an effective teacher not only needs to be knowledgeable in content and its delivery, but he/she also needs to support students with different needs, adapt teaching strategies for all student needs, be selfreflective, and engage in professional activities for continuous improvement (Darling-Hammond 2013, p. 11).

Criteria for an Effective Teacher Evaluation System A teacher evaluation system functions best in a supportive educational system that “supports continuous learning for individual teachers throughout a career and for the profession as a whole” (OEDC 2013b, p. 10). The OECD surveyed 29 countries regarding their teacher evaluation and assessment systems. Their review highlights the importance of systematic approaches to teacher evaluation or teacher appraisal: Such appraisal needs to be based on a shared understanding of good teaching and be part of wellaligned procedures for teacher preparation, registration or certification, induction and mentoring, support structures and professional learning opportunities. It needs to be based on designs that are already proven effective, draw on multiple instruments of evaluation, be conducted by well-trained evaluators, offer differentiated appraisal approaches for teachers at various stages of their careers, provide for teachers’ active participation in the process, and be followed up by suggestions for improvement and continuous learning opportunities. (OEDC 2013b, p. 10)

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To evaluate a teacher evaluation system in its own right, Linda Darling-Hammond, a renowned scholar in teacher evaluation, presents a set of criteria in several publications (Darling-Hammond 2013 and 2014) which are adapted below: 1. Use research-based professional standards to evaluate teachers. The most widely used professional standards for teacher certification in the United States is the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). Research shows that teachers attaining certification demonstrated more excellent teaching practice (Bond et al. 2000) and were more effective in improving student learning outcomes than those teachers not certified (Cavalluzzo 2004; Goldhaber and Anthony 2007; Vandevoort et al. 2004). 2. Use performance assessments that incorporate credible and relevant evidence of teachers’ practices, students’ learning, and teachers’ professional contributions. Performance assessments capturing a portfolio of evidence more accurately assess the multitude of skills involved in executing the complex task of teaching. A teacher portfolio required by a standard-based evaluation often requires videos of classroom instruction, lesson plans, samples of student work, and reflection on students’ learning needs and instructional goals. Incorporating student learning evidence when evaluating individual teachers represents an advancement in the teacher evaluation field. Valid, authentic, and multiple measures of student learning outcomes, including classroom assessment, can help teachers gain deeper insights into student learning and solicit feedback constructive to improving teaching practices. 3. Evaluation should provide structures, processes, and instruments for teacher reflection and self-evaluation (Beerens 2000, Airasian and Gullickson 2006). The evaluation should provide opportunities for teachers to think systematically about their teaching practices. This thought process should include reflection and self-evaluation using metacognitive skills in goal setting,

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examining and adapting teaching strategies based on student learning outcomes, and evaluating the effectiveness of teaching strategies for students with different needs. Providing this opportunity for self-evaluation treats teachers like professionals and gives them a “voice” in the evaluation, both of which can boost teacher morale and motivation. The opportunity for teacher reflection can be accomplished in pre-observation and postobservation conferences. Evaluation should result in useful feedback and be connected to professional development support. When teachers receive quality feedback and job-embedded professional learning opportunities, they are more likely to increase teaching effectiveness and student performance. The evaluation system should value and encourage teacher collaboration. In a supportive evaluation system, teachers have opportunities to regularly meet and discuss evaluation standards with their colleagues; share teaching practices, student needs, and challenges related to these standards; and receive actionable feedback. Teachers can be encouraged to find a partner or a mentor among their peers to help them design and implement the action plan to constructively use the evaluation results. Expert teachers should be rewarded and contribute to the review process. The evaluation system should recognize and reward high-performing teachers in ways that leverage and share their expertise, such as serving as mentors and being promoted to headteachers. These expanded roles can often be accompanied by pay increases. These expert teachers can provide additional subjectspecific expertise and the labor power needed in the evaluation process. They can offer the intensive and effective assistance needed to those being evaluated and ensure that decisions about retention, advancement, and tenure are well-grounded. Train administrators and other evaluators in the teacher performance evaluation system, and hold them accountable for using it effectively.

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Teacher Evaluation System: An Issue Overview and Global Practices, Fig. 2 Summary of policy frameworks for teacher appraisal OECD countries (OECD 2013a, p. 282). (Used with permission from OECD)

An evaluation system is only as effective as the people who implement and support it. Administrators and other evaluators (e.g., lead teachers) need training in using evaluation tools and carrying out processes such as conducting classroom observations, giving performance ratings that are consistent with expert evaluators, providing constructive feedback, and supporting teachers’ professional learning and continuous growth.

Teacher Evaluation Systems Worldwide It has always been seen as a difficult and tricky task to evaluate teacher effectiveness and design fair and accurate teacher evaluation systems. Almost all schools worldwide place this issue at the top of their agendas. Gradually, these universities and schools are finding consensus among their education stakeholders about teacher evaluation. In most nations, teacher evaluation systems are essentially a “work in progress,” says Andreas Schleicher of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The OECD report, Teachers for the 21st Century: Using Evaluations to Improve Teaching (OECD 2013b), presents a picture of how different nations are tackling the implementation of an effective and fair teacher evaluation system. Of the 29 countries surveyed in the OECD report, 23 have formal policy frameworks (national or state laws or regulations) in place to regulate one or more types of

teacher appraisal. The six countries that did not have such policy frameworks in place were the French Community of Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Spain (OECD 2013a). The review of the existing policy frameworks reveals that teacher evaluation systems are different across different countries. Most surveyed countries require schools to conduct regular periodic performance appraisals (n = 18). The majority surveyed countries (n = 15) use teacher evaluation for the completion of a probationary period. A few surveyed countries (n = 5) use teacher appraisals for promotions (n = 5) and for teacher registrations (n = 3). Only three surveyed countries had policy frameworks for teacher reward schemes. The teacher appraisal approaches most frequently in place across the 29 countries for which information was available are depicted in Fig. 2. In several surveyed countries that do not have central frameworks for teacher appraisal in place, local authorities and schools have long been in charge of developing local teacher appraisal policies, without much involvement of the central level. Take Finland and Sweden, for example: Finland Finland has been globally recognized and acclaimed for its school improvement and quality education. Finland teacher evaluation system has been recognized as “one of the strongest initial teacher evaluation system” (Darling-Hammond

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2014, p. 6). First, Finland’s well-developed teacher education system allows Finnish teachers to become experts in curriculum design and teaching pedagogies. In Finland, all teachers have master’s degrees and a shared understanding of good teaching, which is grounded primarily on a unified program for initial teacher education at normal universities. Second, every school has the freedom to design its own evaluation standards. The schoolmasters have the right to make their own evaluation policies without the central education authority. Third, broad educational policies are defined in contracts with the teachers’ union while the national Ministry of Education plays no role in teacher evaluation. Teachers are then typically encouraged to align with the national core curriculum and comply with the school development plan. At the same time, the teacher evaluation guidelines are defined in the contract between the local government employers and the teachers’ trade union as a part of labor market negotiations. Finally, teachers are evaluated against the national core curriculum’s goals and content and, to some extent, against their school’s annual development plan (OECD 2013b). Sweden Teacher appraisal in Sweden is similarly not regulated by law, and there are no formal procedures for evaluating the performance of fully qualified teachers. While teachers may be evaluated collectively as part of school self-evaluation and school inspection, there is no official method to appraise individual teachers. But in the context of increasing concerns about variations in the quality and equity of learning across and within schools, Sweden has passed reforms to enhance teaching quality, and some of these reforms have included a stronger focus on teacher appraisal. A new national system for teacher registration was introduced in 2011. Since there is a strong tradition of school autonomy in Sweden, the new national framework and requirements for teacher appraisal have created some challenges in the existing education systems (OECD 2013a). There is a need for education authorities to establish the right balance between central guidance for teacher appraisal

and local flexibility to adapt the processes to individual school needs. Some countries are not included in OECD’s survey; however, their education systems are very important globally, such as the United States, Singapore, and China. The teacher evaluation systems of these countries are summarized as follows: The United States The United States has received unprecedented attention for its teacher evaluation in recent years. In 2012, through the Race to the Top (RTT) initiative (2013), the federal government became a stakeholder in the teacher evaluation process. RTT called for a nationwide overhaul of teacher evaluation systems and was funded with US$4.35 billion. Under RTT, districts and schools are required to demonstrate student gains in standardized test scores to receive federal funding. RTT received widespread criticism both from the academic world and from the teaching practitioners because of the questionable reliability, validity, and fairness issues in using student standardized test scores in English and Math for high-stake decisions (firing and demotion) for all teachers. In the aftermath of this initiative, teachers describe facing additional pressures from both the school and the district to produce students who perform at high levels in the standardized tests. This initiative has led to calls to include student growth and teacher pedagogical skills as evaluation components (Lavigne and Good 2019, Chap. 5). Another significant event was the passage of Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in December 2015. It signaled a new era for teacher evaluation reform. Under ESSA, states and districts have greater autonomy to design and implement teacher evaluation systems independent of federal influence. At the same time, this new flexibility brings with it new responsibilities and challenges for states and districts when considering ways to improve their current teacher evaluation systems. However, departing from their current RTTmandated teacher evaluation systems means once again facing difficult decisions in selecting, setting, weighting, and establishing teacher performance standards. Nonetheless, most states are

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embarking on dramatic overhauls of their evaluation systems for both teachers and administrators. There is no registration process in the United States that all teachers are required to go through. But if teachers want, they can get a national certification using the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), which helps teachers to reflect and enhance their professional knowledge and teaching skills. This approach has significantly improved teacher’s teaching quality and was welcomed by both teachers and schools (OECD 2013a).

The Senior Specialist Track allows teachers to join the Ministry of Education’s headquarters as specialists with particular expertise in specific aspects of education. The Enhanced Performance Management System (EPMS) serves to support teachers’ professional and career development, and its results inform promotion decisions as part of Edu-Pac. Based on their EPMS results, teachers may get annual performance bonus received for the year’s work as well as promotions to the next level of their career pathways.

Singapore In Asia, Singapore is the top-performing nation in education. Singapore generally disavows the use of test scores in its teacher evaluation system and instead emphasizes teacher collaboration. Moreover, Singapore’s teacher evaluation system incorporates a rigorous professional development program on preparing, mentoring, and coaching new educators. New teachers are entitled to up to 100 h of professional development each year and often work in teams. These efforts reflect the country’s philosophy that the key to a first-class teaching force is to provide educators with sufficient support and good preparation. Another unique aspect of Singapore’s teacher evaluation is their use of the result of teacher appraisal, which has been linked to teachers’ different career pathways (OECD 2013a). The Education Service Professional Development and Career Plan (Edu-Pac) in Singapore recognizes that teachers have different interests and aspirations and it provides three different career tracks for teachers:

China In China, the modern teacher evaluation system started in 2001 when the new educational curriculum was first tested. The new educational curriculum aims to reform a traditional curriculum that overemphasizes knowledge delivery and passive learning and to shift the focus from exam-driven education to quality-driven education. As a result of the educational curriculum reform, the teacher evaluation system is likewise needed to be reformed (Liu and Zhao 2013). On December 21, 2008, the State Council of China issued the “Guidelines to the Implementation of Performance Pay in Compulsory Schools” (State Council 2008). Starting from January 2009, under these guidelines, China adopted a new payment system for teachers working in compulsory education to ensure that teachers are paid according to the results of their performance evaluation. In recent years, China also reformed its teacher evaluation systems to enhance its K-12 education. Improvements in terms of teaching quality and professional development followed. Reform of the teacher evaluation systems has significantly enhanced the entire education quality in China (Liu and Zhao 2013).

The Teaching Track allows teachers to remain in the classroom and advance to the levels of senior teacher, lead teacher, or master teacher. This provides an opportunity for teachers to focus on classroom teaching while obtaining a leadership role along with a senior-level salary. The Leadership Track provides opportunities for teachers to take on leadership positions within the school or at the Ministry of Education.

Technology for Teacher Evaluation System Traditionally, teacher evaluation has been conducted using paper-based checklists and questionnaires, an often time-consuming and

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inefficient process. With the help of modern technology, today’s teacher evaluations can be completed online using web services or web applications. These web-based applications streamline the process for faculty and principals, and it seems likely more and more teacher evaluation systems will rely on web-based platforms in the future. The advantages of using web-based applications in teacher evaluation systems are: • Easier accessibility. With online access, a teacher can more easily review the agreedupon goals and training recommendations. Both the teacher and the evaluator can review progress more easily. • Up-to-date insights. A web-based platform allows everyone to easily receive information updates and overcome barriers from information imbalance. • Improve collaboration. In many schools and universities, feedback from peers can be more helpful than feedback from school authorities or administration. With web-based platforms, the teacher evaluation process can incorporate more peer-to-peer feedback. An example of this kind of web-based application is called Teachscape. Developed in partnership with Charlotte Danielson and Educational Testing Services (ETS), Teachscape Focus, a web-based service, is designed to prepare teachers for observations, professional conversations, and reflective practice.

teacher evaluation systems are viewed with mistrust by teachers and add to teacher stress and anxiety levels. A perfunctory teacher evaluation system implementation will subvert the purpose of the teacher evaluation system and transform it into a meaningless and burdensome activity for both teachers and evaluators. Instead, teachers perceive a teacher evaluation to be helpful when it allows them to reflect, receive useful feedback, pursue professional learning opportunities, and collaborate with peers. These favorable conditions are unlikely to be established where administration lack training in teacher evaluation, schools lack an overall collaborative culture, or schools lack interest or resources for continuous professional development for teachers. Other challenges include the capacity for conducting the evaluation process, teacher resistance to teacher evaluation in the school systems, and poor use of evaluation feedback. The effectiveness of evaluation crucially depends on whether evaluators have the knowledge and skills to appraise teachers reliably in relation to established criteria and also on whether teachers are prepared to use the results of the evaluation to improve their performance and facilitate their professional development. A successful teacher evaluation system should not become a burden to teachers or schools but a healthy motivating system to improve the quality of education.

Future Direction Common Challenges with Teacher Evaluation Systems Many challenges exist in designing and implementing effective teacher evaluation systems. Foremost among them, schools and universities must resist the temptation of designing and implementing their teacher evaluation system as a crude tool simply used to justify punitive measures, i.e., to weed out underperforming teachers, rather than to support them. These types of

The twenty-first century represents a new era in technological innovation. Many fields have already been revolutionized – education will no doubt be among them. Online learning, artificial intelligence, big data, MOOCs, and social media are all pushing teachers to adapt their basic instructional strategies into more complex strategies better equipped to help students meet the requirements of a new era. Nations face the same challenge to make changes and need to develop

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effective and coherent teacher evaluation systems. Although each nation’s unique social, economic, and educational structures affect the feasibility of different evaluation and assessment policies, here we can give some pointers for future teacher evaluation systems (OECD 2013a, Ch5). First, there is a consensus that it is necessary to clarify the purposes of teacher evaluation and ensure that it aligns with the national education objectives. This also applies to Finland and Sweden, who have a strong tradition of school autonomy. Second, the results of teacher evaluations should be used for developmental purposes, like teachers’ professional and career development. Take Singapore’s Enhanced Performance Management System (EPMS), for example: it is a pioneering practice which links the results of teacher appraisal to teachers’ different career pathways (Ministry of Education 2019). Finally, it is recognized that strengthening evaluation capacity is important. The effectiveness of teacher evaluation and its contribution to school and teacher development all depends on a school’s human resource management as well as the organizational and pedagogical leadership exercised by school leaders (OECD 2013a).

Cross-References ▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Quality Control in Higher Education ▶ School Evaluation: Approaches, Frameworks, and Indicators

References Airasian PW, Gullickson A (2006) Teacher self-evaluation. In: Stronge JH (ed) Evaluating teaching: a guide to current thinking and best practice, 2nd edn. Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, pp 186–211 Beerens DR (2000) Evaluating teachers for professional growth: creating a culture of motivation and learning. Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks Bond L, Smith T, Baker WK, Hattie JA (2000) The certification system of the National Board for Professional

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Teaching Standards: a construct and consequential validity study. Center for Educational Research and Evaluation, Greensboro Cavalluzzo LC (2004) Is National Board Certification an effective signal of teacher quality? (REC-0107014). CNA Corporation, Alexandria. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED485515 Danielson C (1996) Enhancing professional practice: a framework for teaching / Charlotte Danielson. Alexandria, Va.: Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Danielson C (2007) Enhancing professional practice : a framework for teaching / Charlotte Danielson (Second edition. ed.). Alexandria, Va.: Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Danielson C (2013) The framework for teaching evaluation instrument (2013 Internationally Focused Edition.). Retrieved from https://usny.nysed.gov/rttt/ teachers-leaders/practicerubrics/Docs/danielsonteacher-rubric-2013-instructionally-focused.pdf Darling-Hammond L (2013) Getting teacher evaluation right: what really matters for effectiveness and improvement. Teachers College Press, New York Darling-Hammond L (2014) One piece of the whole: teacher evaluation as part of a comprehensive system for teaching and learning. Am Educ 38(1):4–13 Goldhaber D, Anthony E (2007) Can teacher quality be effectively assessed? National board certification as a signal of effective teaching. Rev Econ Stat 89(1):134–150 Isoré M (2009) Teacher evaluation: current practices in OECD countries and a literature review. OECD education working papers, no. 23. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/223283631428 Lavigne A, Good TL (2019) Enhancing teacher education, development, and evaluation: lessons learned from educational reform. Routledge, New York Liu S, Zhao D (2013) Teacher evaluation in China: latest trends and future directions. Educ Assess Eval Account 25(3):231–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-0139168-8 Marzano RJ (2012) The Two Purposes of Teacher Evaluation. Educ Leadersh 70(3):14–19. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadersh ip/nov12/vol70/num03/The-Two-Purposes-of-TeacherEvaluation.aspx Ministry of Education, Singapore (2019) Enhancing your strengths – Career Tracks. Retrieved from https://www. moe.gov.sg/careers/teach/career-information OECD (2013a) Synergies for better learning: an international perspective on evaluation and assessment. In: OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education. OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/ 10.1787/9789264190658-en. OECD (2013b) Teachers for the 21st century: using evaluation to improve teaching. International summit on the Teaching Profession. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/site/eduistp13/ TS2013%20Background%20Report.pdf

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Santiago P (2009) Teacher evaluation: a conceptual framework and examples of country practices. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/school/ 44568106.pdf State Council (2008) Guidelines to the implementation of performance pay in compulsory schools. http:// www.gov.cn/ldhd/2008-12/21/content_1184109.htm. In Chinese Vandevoort LG, Amrein-Beardsley A, Berliner DC (2004) National Board Certified Teachers and their students’ achievement. Educ Policy Anal Arch 12(46):1–117

Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development Tomé A. Mapotse Department of Science and Technology Education, School of Teacher Education, College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Synonyms

Teaching ▶ Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability

Teaching Methods for Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Pedagogical Education

Training

Definitions

for

Sustainability

for

Sustainability

Teaching Techniques ▶ Pedagogical Education

Training

Career and technical education; Occupational education; Technical and vocational education and training (TVET); Technical education; Vocational and technical education; Vocational education; Vocational education and training (VET)

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) ▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

Technical education is the process of skills transfer that is founded on teaching specific skills directed toward a specific type of work, for example, electrical house wiring, carpentry, electronic repair, automobile maintenance, cleaning services, baking, décor, building, etc. Action learning (AL) is a highly structured, facilitated process, which unlocks the expertise and knowledge of a person, group, or organization to explore and then determine actions to solve problems and move forward to success (Mapotse 2018, xxi). Sustainable development (SD) is defined as a meticulous process of general development in order to meet the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, desires, and wants (Brundtland Report 20 March 1987,16 and 41).

Introduction

Technical Education ▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

Technical education has been known as “education for work,” and in many developing countries, it used to be associated with craft trade to be undertaken by

Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

below-average- performing learners. It is only from the twentieth century, when knowledge increased, that people started to realize that there is a strong relationship between technical education and mathematics and science subjects and that studying technical education may lead one to continue with engineering studies. The question then arose “how a below -average- performing learner could cope with studies in the engineering field. Grubb (1999) shows how communities used to downplay technical education by reporting that the institutions where postsecondary occupational education takes place (community colleges, technical institutes, vocational schools, other public training centres, private proprietary schools) are not well known and are often considered to have a low status. More recently, however, The Online Teachers Resource (2018) reports that students are now enrolling in vocational education programmes at unheard of rates. They further remark that parents are pleased with the offering of these vocational education programmes, saying that ‘these programmes and community colleges are exactly what we are looking for (n.p.).” Craft education is one of the first subjects to be offered in the realm of technical education. Design and craft education were influenced by the national curricula of New Zealand, Canada, England and, more specifically, the Icelandic mode for Innovation (Olafsson and Thorsteinsson 2010). According to Williams (2018), craft education is seen as a subject of low status, in the same sphere as physical education or religious education. Williams further points out that the reason why craft education constitutes an image problem for technology education is that vocational education is seen as having a lower status than pre-university or pre-college education. In addition to this, there is a need for the educational system to prepare students in the technical field for entry-level employment in their specialized careers so that they can fit into the current labor market (Rojewski 2002). This preparation of students as a current and future economic workforce can only be realized through technical education. Zirkle (2017) stresses that in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, the system has also evolved from initially being focused on entry-level job preparation, to include adult retraining programs, college preparatory

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coursework, postsecondary occupation options and programs, and many other options. Developed countries such as Australia, Germany, Great Britain, and South Korea regard the TVET curriculum as a key to economic prosperity, while developing countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) took their TVET as a key to economic self-sufficiency and sustainability. Both developed and developing countries need to map out their TVET curricula guided by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Sustainable Development (SD), as a new concept, was first introduced in 1987 in the Brundtland Commission Report or the World Commission on Environment and Development, which was a United Nations initiative to pursue justifiable economic development in the light of the rapid deterioration of human environment and natural resources. Technical education can be used as a vehicle to pursue such justifiable economic development, especially in the light of the massive unemployment that is crippling so many countries to date and joblessness that runs rampant in so many countries, reducing men to street beggars (Mapotse 2001)”. There are 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) comprising 169 targets, and this developmental agenda spans from 2015 to 2030 (Lu et al. 2015). Out of these 17 SDGs, 3 goals resonate well with technical education, namely, Goal 1 [End poverty in all its forms], Goal 4 [Quality education], and Goal 8 [Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, and full and productive employment and decent work for all]. Technical education can be used as leverage to tackle these three goals, although this chapter will focus more on Goal 4, since it deals with education and technical education. Goal 4 was built on the success of eight measurable Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which ranged from halving extreme poverty and hunger to promoting gender equality by the target date of 2015. Unlike the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were targeted at poor and emerging nations, the SDGs are envisaged to have a global reach. The SDGs will apply to developed and developing countries alike and will concern the

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Earth system, as well as people (Glaser 2012). The SDG framework addresses key systemic barriers to sustainable development such as inequality, unsustainable consumption patterns, environmental degradation, and weak institutional capacity – aspects that were neglected by the MDGs (ICSU, ISSC 2015). While the MDGs focused on quantity of education, the SDGs focus on the quality of education (Shah and Ramanan 2018), and this requires governments to capacitate institutions that offer technical education. Marope et al. (2015a) go on to comment on TVET and point out that TVET also features prominently in strategic and operational priorities of regional economic communities (RECs) such as the African Union (AU), the Caribbean Communities (CARCOM), and the European Union (EU), as well as those of other multinational groups such as the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and those of multilateral organizations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO) and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).

Historical Overview of Technical Education The concepts “technical education” and “vocational education” are used interchangeably in many countries. Some scholars argue that vocational education and training provides career paths, while technical education provides students with a grounding in technical knowledge. Other countries have combined the two concepts (technical education and vocational education) and come up with one term that combines the two – technical vocational education. It should be noted that in this chapter, the term “technical education” will be regarded as synonymous with the following concepts: vocational education, vocational and technical education, vocational education and training (VET), technical and vocational education and training (TVET), career and technical education, or occupational education, as applied in different countries the world over. Zirkle (2017) posits that vocational education, referred to in many other countries as technical vocational

education and training (TVET), also plays a significant role in educational systems across the globe. The notion of providing technical education has been a recurring international theme throughout the history of education. The historical development of technical education across the globe can be outlined as follows (Table 1). The historical overview of vocational and technical education from international perspectives sheds light on how UNESCO’s contribution influences national development processes, in the context of TVET globalization and trends of global mass education. The following section outlines the international development of technical education.

International Development of Technical Education In 1954, UNESCO and the ILO (International Labour Organization) signed the Memorandum of Collaboration in Matters of Technical and Vocational Educational and Related Matters, and since then, the two organizations have cooperated on various occasions and at different levels. The conclusions concerning human resources training and development were adopted by the International Labour Conference at its 88th session in 2000. The Revised Recommendation concerning Technical and Vocational Education (2001) was adopted by UNESCO’s General Conference at its 31st session in 2001. Quality TVET help develop the individual’s knowledge of science and technology in a broad occupational area requiring technical and professional competencies and specific occupational skills (UNESCO and ILO 2002). The international development of technical education was summarized using different sources, which are grouped according to length. This summary is compiled from different sources (Table 2).

Technical Education Meeting Sustainable Development Goal 4 Countries that aspire to be competitive in the world economic market through technical and

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Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development, Table 1 Historical overview of technical education Year 1923

Author(s) Bonser, F and Mossman, L.C.

1949

Prosser, C A and Quigley, T.H.

1964

Venn, G.

1976 (reported in 1981)

de Lange, J.P.

1985

Miller, M

1996

Westerhuis, A. and Van der Meer

1998

Gray, K.C., and Herr, E.

2007 (reported in 2012) 2009

Clarke, L. and Winch, C. Maclean, R and Wilson, D.N.

2011 (reported in 2013)

Sweet, R.

2012

Pilz, M.

2014

Gordon, H.R.D.

2016

Pilz, M.

2018

Preckler Galguera, M.

Contributions or sources Laid out the view of industrial arts as a general school subject for boys and girls in pre-secondary education. Bonser and Mossman attempted to subsume traditional home economics in the subject of industrial arts and envisaged the inclusion of technical education topics in a participatory curriculum A comprehensive examination of all aspects of the vocational education discipline was undertaken, which included theories of vocational education (see a section on theories just before this chapter’s conclusion), vocational education for youth and adults, and the training of vocational education teachers Venn examined the historical development of vocational and technical education following the Vocational Education Act of 1963 In 1980, the South African cabinet requested the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) to conduct an in-depth investigation into all facets of education, including technical education, in the Republic of South Africa Postulated as philosophy to provide a conceptual framework for vocational education and to guide future decision-making and policy development After a long period of discussions and successive mergers, the 1996 Adult and Vocational Education Act introduced a new school type in Dutch secondary vocational education and training (VET) which supposed to serve students as well as industry with a wide variety of courses Gives a common body of background knowledge of workforce education that is applicable to practice in industry, community colleges, and secondary schools for human resource development and postsecondary technical education professionals These authors edited a book that unpacked vocational education for students, researchers, and practitioners Maclean and Wilson covered the latest practice in technical and vocational education and training. They presented models from all over the world, reflections on innovative practice, and case studies Sweet pronounced that in some countries, policy-makers had established institutional requirements to link informal work-based learning to formal assessment and the certification of competencies Pilz compiled a volume that comprised 30 individual contributions, experts from Canada, the USA, India, China, Japan, and Korea, as well as few from European countries, providing a comprehensive overview of early twentyfirst-century issues in vocational education and training, its strengths and weaknesses, and its prospects Gordon wrote a comprehensive, relevant, and up-to-date book which examined the current issues shaping the role of career and technical education in the global, technology-driven economy and trends that would impact the future of the field Pilz edited a volume which provides essential insight into the strengths and weaknesses of the various systems and prospects of VET in contexts ranging from North America to Europe (e.g., Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom) to Asia (e.g., China, Thailand, and India) Preckler Galguera compiled a UNESCO initiated book to assess the influence of international organizations such as UNESCO on the development of national technical and vocational education and training (TVET) systems in the southern African community region (SADC), focusing particularly on Botswana and Namibia. The book is designed around UNESCO’s Better Education for Africa’s Rise (BEAR) project

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Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development, Table 2 Global historical development of technical education Country Argentina

Source Australia

Source Finland

Source Germany

Source Hong Kong

Source Hungary

Initial TVET state Argentina is one of the first countries in Latin America and the Caribbean to initially run apprenticeship and vocational programs; from 1903 to 1909, basic programs were delivered at main cities

TVET development to date Currently, the vocational education programs are delivered by public and private learning organizations, supported by the Argentine Ministry of Labor and the Ministry of Education, the leading providers of technical and vocational education in the country Watson (1994), UNESCO-UNEVOC (2013a), and Answer (2018) By 1914, technical education in Australia had From 2008, the VET system in Australia is clarified its function and assumed its shape for the currently directed to providing people with next half century. A crucial feature of the training knowledge and skills to enter the workforce, package is that the content of the vocational reenter the workforce after absences, to train or qualifications is theoretically defined by industry retrain for new jobs, or to upgrade their skills and not by government or training providers In Australia, vocational education and training are mostly postsecondary and provided through the vocational education and training (VET) system by registered training organizations Murray-Smith (1966), Australian Government (2008), and UNESCO-UNEVOC (2018a) From 1910 to 1990, distinctive VET were In the 1990s, on-the-job learning was included in established. From 1970 to 1980, it was school’s the curricula. After the curriculum reform in 1995, reformation. The education in vocational school is Finnish VET provided 77 basic vocational free, and students from low-income families are qualifications taking 2–3 years to achieve. In eligible for a state student grant Finland, vocational education belongs to secondary education. After completing secondary education, one can enter higher vocational schools or universities Numminen (2000), Ministry of Education (2005), and Stenström and Virolainen (2014) A law was passed in 1969 which regulated and One in three companies offered apprenticeships in unified the vocational training system and 2003; in 2004, the government signed a pledge codified the shared responsibility of the state, the with industrial unions that all companies except unions, the associations and chambers of trade very small ones must take on apprentices. Just and industry. Action by all stakeholders in the before 2010 to date, the German VET system was dual training system is governed by the federal characterized by many interfaces, namely, framework provisions of the Vocational Training transitions between training preparation and dual Act of 1969. This Act was repeatedly amended, VET, between dual VET and full-time schooland the current Vocational Act came into force on based education and training, between initial and 1 April 2005 continuing VET, and between VET and the higher education sector German Government (2011) The establishment of the Junior Technical School In 1982, the government set up VTC under the on Caroline Hill in 1932, vocational education has Vocational Training Council Ordinance to history of more than 80 years in Hong Kong. Yet it promote vocational education in Hong Kong. This led to the second stage of proliferation of was not until the establishment of the Vocational vocational education in Hong Kong, including the Training Council (“VTC”) in 1982 did Hong establishment of three more technical institutes in Kong have a statutory organization dedicated to 1986–1987. Ever since 2000, VTC has stepped up the development of vocational education and its advancement efforts toward postsecondary training (“VET”). Former prevocational schools were first set up in 1969, targeting primary school education and professional training, in parallel leavers mostly aged below 14 who were too with the development of Hong Kong as a young to join the labor market by then knowledge-based economy in the new millennium Chu (2015) The scholarship for vocational school students Since January 2013, the central government was introduced in 2010 to make education and budget covers the labor costs of all teachers, training offered by the vocational schools more trainers, and other staff assisting pedagogical (continued)

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Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development, Table 2 (continued) Country

Initial TVET state

TVET development to date

attractive and to support those who chose a vocational qualification in demand in the economy Vocational training schools initially provide 2 years of general education, combined with some prevocational education and career orientation

Source India

Source Japan and South Korea

Source South Africa

Source Malaysia

Source Mexico

work, including those employed in non-statemaintained education institutions, in case the maintainer concludes a contract with the ministry responsible for TVET Students do not obtain the school leaving certificate but a vocational qualification at the end of a successfully completed program Farkas (2013) and UNESCO-UNEVOC (2013b/2015) Vocational training historically has been a subject Today all skill development efforts through the handled by the Ministry of Labour, other central government (directorate general of training) and ministries, and various state-level organizations. through the public private partnership arm One of the main sources of skill training for the (National Skill Development Corporation) are mass of the workforce in India is informal carried out under the ministry, through the skill apprenticeship in informal enterprises India Mission. The training is often based on traditional technology. In India, there are two skill training models: (1) private-public partnership within an on-the-job model and (2) private-public partnership within “skills training centers” ILO (2003) The economies of Japan and the Republic of Work skills and skill development are to a large Korea have often been termed “economic extent at the foundations of this growth, with miracles,” as both countries went through rapid technical and vocational education and training economic growth from the postwar period to the (TVET) being an important factor in the economic 1990s. Since the 1950s, the Asian Tiger states development of Japan and South Korea emerged as manufacturing El Dorados, their Some have a wide range of majors; others only a governments adopting a state-run capitalist few majors. Some examples are computer approach, providing heavy subsidies to industrial technology, fashion, and English. Japanese activity, and their workforce being of high vocational schools are known as senmongakkō. productivity and low cost They are part of Japan’s higher education UNESCO-UNEVOC (2009) The origin of technical colleges in South Africa During the apartheid era, “black education” in dates as far back as the 1800s. The demand for South Africa has long been vocational, in that it technical education to be made available to the has been concerned with preparing students for youth was an outgrowth of industrial development limited spheres of work. in the late 1800s. It was linked to mining and the A resolution was passed at a conference of development of railways, harbors, and small colonial heads of the four South African education engineering workshops in urban centers. The departments in January 1902 that technical expansion and growth of the railways and schools, in conjunction with higher education, development of the mining industry created a should be established in order to meet the needs of demand for railway technicians with appropriate the colonies technical skills, while in the mining industry, The TVET education, as in the case in time, is engineers were in huge demand predominantly affected by political and economic changes in South Africa Pittendrigh (1988), Abedian and Standish (1992), and Terblanche (2017) There are numerous vocational education centers The first vocational institute in Malaysia is the industrial training Institute of Kuala Lumpur here including vocational schools, technic established in 1964 under the manpower schools, and vocational colleges all of them under department the Ministry of Education Wilson (1991) The large number of school types and Technical and vocational education and training corresponding administrative units within the (TVET) in Mexico (Educación y Formación Ministry of Public Education make the Técnica Profesional) aim to provide quality institutional landscape of vocational education educational services in order to equip individuals and training complex by international standards. with skills that enable them to participate (continued)

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Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development, Table 2 (continued) Country

Initial TVET state

TVET development to date

The Education Sector Programme 2013–2018 (Programa Sectorial de Educacion) is the main reform program in Mexico regarding the education and TVET system

productively in the labor market and have a high sense of social responsibility and civic values In Mexico, both federal and state governments are responsible for the administration of vocational education. Federal schools are funded by the federal budget, in addition to their own funding sources

Source Netherlands

UNESCO-UNEVOC (2018b) Between 1860 and 1890 (North 1997), the massive increase in demand for trained workers was accompanied by a great rise in educational facilities and VET opportunities. The founding of full-time vocational schools was doubled, particularly of those known as ambachtsscholen. In addition, the Leerlingswezen, the bedrijfs-or fabriekscholen, and vakscholen are also detailed. The last two categories were trade and job-specific schools preparatory to employment in large enterprises or sponsored by a given trade, respectively

Source New Zealand

North (1997) and van Gelder (1919) The New Zealand Government first intervened in During the 1980s, the technical institutes and January 1885 when the Premier and Minister for community colleges were reclassified as Education, Robert Stout, encouraged the polytechnics to reflect more accurately the wide secondary schools to provide technical classes. range of courses that they provided. From June The Wellington School became the Wellington 1990, everyone polytechnic was free to develop Technical College in 1905, and in the same year, its own courses subject to accreditation and the Christchurch Technical College was validation by the New Zealand Qualifications established. In 1913, the Auckland Technical Authority School was redesignated the Seddon Memorial Technical College Tertiary Education Review White Paper (1998) and Abbot (2000) The 1870s saw the concept of plurality of training In 2007, more than half of the population aged environments gaining ground in order to put 25–64 had a VET or PET qualification as their greater emphasis on the value of work-based highest level of education. In addition, training in Switzerland universities of applied sciences Swiss vocational training is similarly not the result (Fachhochschulen) offer vocational education at of a forward-looking initiative and planning tertiary A level process; it only came into being in the course of The Swiss vocational education and training the 1930s when attendance at a vocational school system (VET) is regarded by many international was made compulsory for all apprentices experts as the strongest in Europe Gonon (2002) and Tabin (1989) In Turkey, professional competency board carries Vocational training institutions started the out the research done by the competency boards in implementation of these modular programs in 2005–2006 academic year. These institutions European countries implement apprenticeship training. The Furthermore, within the project for the development of vocational training (MEGEP), 42 preparation of the action plan for the certificate of vocational and technical education strategy, occupational fields were determined, and a which was developed for 2013–2017, was based modular vocational training program were on flexibility in policy making designed for 194 majors Municipalities in Turkey also offer vocational Students in Turkey may choose vocational high training. The metropolitan municipality of schools after completing the 8-year long compulsory primary and secondary education Istanbul, the most populous city in Turkey, offers yearlong free vocational programs (continued)

Source Switzerland

Source Turkey

The Nijverheidsonderwijswet of 1919 made the field of school-based VET into a government responsibility. In the 1920s, apprenticeship training was virtually limited to crafts and cottage industries. Dual training only became popular after World War II. It remained, however, subsidiary, as full-time vocational schooling became available throughout the Netherlands As of January 1, 2012, they formed a foundation for cooperation vocational education and entrepreneurship which is responsible to advise the minister on the development of the national vocational education and training system

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Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development, Table 2 (continued) Country Source United Kingdom

Source

Initial TVET state MEB (2012) and Gelişli et al. (2016) In the 1800s, the trade unions actively encouraged the technical education of apprentices and some system of practical examination this was supported in the early 1900s by the minority report of the poor law commission and the report on apprenticeship of the education Committee of the London County Council. The first “trades school” in the UK was Stanley Technical Trades School (now Harris Academy South Norwood) the initial idea was thought of in 1901, and the school opened in 1907 Booth (1895), Bray (1909), and Moll et al. (2005)

vocational education and training (TVET) need their governments’ support in meeting sustainable development goal four (SDG4). This goal (SDG4) of quality education aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” and can best be associated with technical education. UNESCO understands TVET as part of the lifelong learning process that includes education, training, and skill development related to a wide range of occupational sectors, production, services, and livelihoods (Preckler Galguera 2018). Acquiring specialized skills to perform in a job market constitutes quality education, and lifelong learning takes place when one is transferring those acquired skills to others, generation after generation. Education is UNESCO’s top priority, because it is a basic human right and the foundation on which to build peace and drive sustainable development. Given that TVET systems are only beginning to engage with the imperatives of sustainability, there is an urgent need to mobilize new partners from the specialized group of experts with knowledge in this field, to support TVET transformation (Marope et al. 2015b). The UNESCO Education Sector provides global and regional leadership in education, strengthens national education systems, and responds to contemporary global challenges through education, with a special focus on gender equality and Africa. UNESCO is the United Nations’ specialized agency for education, and as such, is entrusted to lead and coordinate the Education 2030 Agenda.

TVET development to date The training board system collapsed in 1970 except for the Construction Industry Training Board and Engineering Construction Industry Training Board, which remain today. British governments have made attempts to promote and expand vocational education. In 1994, publicly funded modern apprenticeships were introduced to provide “quality training on a work-based (educational) route.” Numbers of apprentices have grown in recent years

The Global Education 2030 Agenda is part of the global movement to eradicate poverty through 17 Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. Education is essential to achieve all these goals hence it has been named as SDG4. The Education 2030 Framework for Action provides guidance for the implementation of this ambitious goal and its commitments (Marco 2017) and could be realized by implementing technical education in institutions of learning. Technical education is inclusive in nature. It caters for young ones and adults, physically challenged and unchallenged learners, and underachievers and learners with a high IQ (intelligence quotient). Technical education is all about the process of skills transfer, which is founded on teaching specific skills directed at a specific type of work (ASTE 2016), for example, electrical house wiring, carpentry, electronic repair, automobile maintenance, cleaning services, baking, décor, building, etc. The ontological feature of education as a factor for sustainable development of the society is that between the society and education, there is a dialectical interaction in the form of reciprocal social relations, and, therefore education is both a consequence and a cause in a society adaptation process (Golub 2015). UNESCO has been promoting Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) since 1992. The organization led the UN Decades for ESD from 2005 to 2014 and now is spearheading its followup, the Global Action Programme (GAP) on ESD. The momentum for ESD has never been stronger than now, owing to the burning global issues

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which require of the citizens of the world to change their lifestyles and transform the way they used to do things. To achieve this change, citizens need new skills, values, and attitudes that will lead to more sustainable societies through technical education. For a national education system to respond to this pressing need, it must include technical education and sustainable principles in its curriculum and management structures, respectively. Education is both a goal and a means for attaining all the other sustainable development goals (SDGs). It is not only an integral part of sustainable development but also a key enabler thereof hence it represents an essential strategy in pursuit of the SDGs (Tang 2017). In 2015, the United Nations set as one of the targets of the SDGs to, “by 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, the promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development (21).” Technical education offers learners the skills needed to promote sustainable development in this era of globalization. It is suggested that globalization and sustainable development are two sides of the same coin (Pawlowski 2013). It should be noted that sustainable development relates to the upholding of the rights and satisfying of the needs of both present and future generations (Brundtland 1987). According to Duncan French, when globalization reorganizes the world, sustainable development indicates the threats brought about by this new order, resulting from the earlier history of mankind (French 2002). The technological and vocational higher education (TVHE) focuses on industrial-academic cooperation, which provides students internship to practice their skills (Lin et al. 2016). Lin et al. (2016) further assert that the TVHE institutions have noted that achieving sustainable development requires changes in industrial-academic cooperation, which has an aim to reach social, and environmental and economic goals.

Technical Education Versus Technology Education Technical education and technology education have diverse goals. Technical education teaches specific skills, while technology education has a more general approach. Technical education focuses on improving one’s skills in a trade, whereas technology education in a lower grade is more general and covers a variety of trades in the secondary school curriculum. The students then must choose the trade they are performing well in, to pursue it. One aspect of the background of technology education that has plagued its reputation throughout its history is its close ties with vocational education (Williams 2018). Learning craft trade has brought about the development of technology education and that has a direct bearing on vocational education. One can question if that does justice to the nature of humans, but for technology education, the association that was and often still is made with vocational education causes a lack of appreciation for the subject (Shield 2003). The ensuing sections unpack how the two terms “technical education” and “technology education” can form part of the college curriculum. Technical Education Within the College Curriculum The training for jobs acquired during technical education does require less education and tuition than a 4-year degree program. Technical education programs are significantly less expensive, and hence many students resolve to enroll for them. Instructors offering technical education tend to resort to using traditional methods of teaching. They incorporate the use of lesson plans, teacher resources, worksheets, and other tools in their process of instruction. One way in which technical education differs from other types of education programs is in its on-the-job training component provided by other institutions, which is referred to as work integrated learning (WIL). There are diverse ways in which different countries incorporate WIL in their education and training programs. These open ways for the placement of students. Many

Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

specialized terms are used to indicate WIL, such as work placements, workplace-based experience, work-based learning, workplace learning, career and technical education, experiential training/education/learning, project- and problem-based learning, practicums, job shadowing, on-the-job training, industry certification opportunities, apprenticeship, internship, in-service training, learnership, project-based learning, service learning, and cooperative education. Although different contexts require different approaches to WIL, the duration usually ranges from half a day to 12 months. WIL is the strategic move of combining theoretical knowledge acquired through formal study with practical skills and competences developed through field work experience. Some colleges do offer their intern some stipend after they have enrolled to do the WIL. WIL can benefit the students, the college, and the employers in the following manners: Benefits for Students

(a) It broadens their understanding of how field work is carried out with specifications of time, quality, and cost and through prescribed processes. Students embark on the application of technology at some stages. (b) It facilitates integration of the knowledge and skills learned at the college with the real world of work. (c) It gives students exposure to different career choices, with support to make a final choice. (d) Hands-on learning improves academic performance within a specialized field. (e) Confidence is enhanced during WIL; interpersonal skills are improved, and motivation is developed. (f) The chances of employability are likely to improve, owing to exposure to work experience. Benefits for the College

(a) College programs engaged in WIL can align themselves with the latest industry practices, needs, and skill demands. (b) Employers’ feedback to the college about students’ performance can help the college to

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update and upgrade its curriculum and instructional offering. (c) The college students’ throughput rate will increase, while attrition will be minimized. (d) A relationship is established between the college and the industry/company offering students WIL. Benefits for Employers

(a) During students’ engagement in WIL, the employer benefits from cost-effective labor. (b) Through WIL, companies can grow their own timber from the student pool. (c) WIL serves as a screening mechanism for potential employees. (d) The employer saves on advertising, interviews, and induction costs. (e) Permanent staff have the chance to mentor new trainees as part of skills transfer. (f) The organization will develop a learning culture. (g) The employer, as stakeholder, will have the opportunity to influence college curriculum planners and policy makers. Proposed TVET Program Offering by UNESCO and ILO

Technical education can be offered in middle schools and high schools or through community colleges and other postsecondary institutions and certification programs. UNESCO and ILO (2002, 32) on their recommendations 49 and 50, under the subsection, “technical and vocational education as continuing education,” stressed that organizers of continuing and vocational education should consider the following flexible forms of delivery: (a) Courses and training offered during working hours at the workplace (b) Part-time courses utilizing existing secondary and tertiary technical and vocational education institutions (c) Evening and weekend courses (d) Corresponding courses (e) Courses on educational radio and television and the Internet (f) Short professional “refresher” courses

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The following forms of study leave for training purposes from work should be considered (this is recommendation 50): (a) Day release (b) Block release of varying lengths (c) Release for one or more hours during the working day Technology Education Within the School Curriculum Technology has been taught in schools since the latter half of the 1800s (Ritz and Martin 2018). In many countries, in the last century, technology education has evolved through craft, or technical skills education, from industrial arts and manual training. Industrial arts programs were also known as “shops classes,” a derivation of “workshop.” Today, technology education students generally work in labs and perform laboratory activities (Education Encyclopaedia: Technology Education 2009). In the past, many teachers have encouraged students to use the term “lab.” That follows the hierarchy of science (knowing about the world) > technology (applying that knowledge to solve problems, i.e., to improve the world) > engineering (applying that knowledge on a large scale to develop systems and structures). Technology education is now a stand-alone subject offered within the school curriculum of many countries. It took over half a century to develop the technology education curriculum. Ritz and Bevins (2016) argue that technology education has developed over the past 50 years from a skill-based school subject that focused on tool usage and product making that assisted learners with future employment to a program for studying technological literacy that develops technological problem-solving skills through hands-on project designs. This shows a close relationship between technical education and technology education as far as skills are concerned. When education assisted learners with skills for employability purposes, it was called technical education, but when it equipped learners with problem-solving skills, this was referred to as technology education. Technology education is now a school subject with a low research background when compared to its counterpart. It also calls for

teachers to be developed, since they still experience some challenges and hurdles in presenting some of the technology education themes. Technology education is a late comer within the school curriculum – both nationally and internationally – and therefore, it poses several challenges that differ from the challenges posed by other subjects (Mapotse 2014). This subject is called by diverse names in different countries, for instance, in the UK/Botswana/Namibia, it is known as “design and technology,” whereas in Ireland, it is known as “technology and design”; in the USA/New Zealand/Australia/Finland/ France, it is called “technology education”; in Malawi/Bangladesh, it is “science and technology”; and in Sweden/Israel, it is known as “technology.” In South Africa, the subject has different names, depending on the phase of education. In the intermediate phase, it is called “science and technology”; in the senior phase, it is called “technology”; and in Further Education and Training (FET), it is known as “technology education” (Mapotse 2015). It has been over two decades since technology education has been incorporated into the school curriculum in South Africa, and technology education teachers need to embark on skills transfer with their learners. Both technical education and technology education lecturers/ teachers/instructors should be developed to contextualize their teaching and put it in a global and national perspective, rather than putting it under a Western lens only. What Luetkemeyer and Martin (1979) have shared some decades ago still holds the truth to this day, namely, that at its inception, technology education, and its predecessors (crafts, manual skills, manual arts – learning by doing) had philosophers who proclaimed how the hands-on study of technology could help children develop and prepare industrial workers for the future. Technology education is a practical subject that is minds-on and hands-on, combining knowledge, skills, and resources to help solve community or society practical problems. Technological practices take place within and without institutional setting and are influenced by social context. Both technical education and technology education are processes that encourage creativity and

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innovativeness and focus on skills transfer. It is of interest to note that technical education and technology education have one thing in common, which is to develop and prepare industrial workers of the future. This common goal is in line with the Shanghai Consensus of the Third International Congress on TVET, which made the following recommendations, as reported by UNESCO (2012, 3), on expanding access to and improving the quality and equity of technical education. The recommendations include to: Take innovative measures to provide quality and inclusive TVET, especially to disadvantaged groups including learners who are physically challenged, marginalized and rural populations, migrants and those in situations affected by conflict and disaster. Improve gender equality by promoting equal access of females and males to TVET programmes, particularly in the fields where there is strong labour market demand, and by ensuring that TVET curricula and materials avoid stereotyping by gender.

The South African Ministry of Education in its curriculum reformulation of 2011 came up with the definition of technology as “the use of knowledge, skills and resources to meet people’s needs and wants by developing practical solutions to problems, taking social and environmental factors into consideration” (Department of Basic Education [DBE], Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement 2010). This education ministry has taken the lead, through technology education, to devise education that provides quality and inclusivity and promotes equality for all students. Based on the South African definition of technology education, one can then describe technical education as “the practical application of transferred skills to develop resources according to people specifications in line with acceptable safety regulations as a sign of being knowledgeable in action learning.” Technical education curriculum is diversely structured in many faculties/ colleges of different countries. In many countries, TVET curriculum has a more centralized focus than in different state structures found in the United State (Zirkle 2017). The time is right in the technical education field to think through what is known about student learning, in conjunction with analysis of what it means to understand

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concepts in relation to engineering and technology fields. To generate useful pedagogical practices specifically tailored for each concept, and then to assess, through research, the effectiveness of these practices should be monitored (Williams 2018). It should be noted that technical education has its own challenges, whereas technology education has its challenges on language-sensitive pedagogy of van Dijk and Hajer (2018).

Action Learning as a Skills Transfer Process in Technical Education Action learning (AL) as a mode of learning at work can be attributed to Revans (1998). AL places the emphasis on inquiry-led action to effect the skills transfer required in technical education. AL is typically associated with a project but can characterize a mode of operation in a workplace (Aubusson et al. 2007). For technical education colleges to meet their sustainable development goal, it is advisable for those colleges to apply action learning to, respectively, improve students’ practice and enhance lecturers’ performance during skills transfer processes. Action learning is collaborative, cooperative, and collegial. AL promotes conversation, communication, and consultation. It further encourages care, connectivity, and creativity. All of these “Cs” are built on community engagement, community outreach, and community development. In Mapotse (2018), Malcolm defines AL as “a dynamic and deeply reflective way of problem-solving and learning, from and with your peers” (5). Aubusson et al. (2005) emphasize that action learning has the potential to provide an appropriate and sustainable way of building the capacity of institutions that offer technical education to improve practice. There is an increasing realization that the skills TVET produces can advance the green agenda and that the awareness and attitudes it builds can improve sustainability and promote social harmony and peace (Marope et al. 2015a). Advancing TVET curricula in meeting the targets of SDG4 is a global challenge in both developed and developing countries. Bozell and Liston (2010) charted some actions that need to be

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taken by universities and community colleges in advancing TVET curricula. These include developing new curricula, thinking about new career paths that can promote learners’ social mobility, identifying and accessing new funding routes, and building community and industry partnerships. Globally, enrolments in formal upper secondary TVET have been declining since 1999 in all regions except for sub-Saharan Africa, yet in Germany (with its dual system) and Austria (with its technical and further education of formal TVET provision), more than 55% of each age cohort participated in TVET programs (Marope et al. 2015b). Notwithstanding these regional trends at the beginning of the century, there are countries such as Singapore, where reforms have resulted in increased numbers or percentages of enrolments. Austria, Argentina, Brunei Darussalam, China, Ethiopia, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Kuwait, Lebanon, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Uruguay, and Uzbekistan are among the countries where a growing share of cohorts are following school-based TVET programs (Hiromichi 2011). It is up to higher education institutions (HEIs) to produce technical education teachers who will be well versed in their pedagogical content knowledge and skills transfer in the field of students’ specialization, be it the mechanical, electrical, civil technology fields, or other fields. HEIs should keep track with the most recent technical developments and equip their training centers and workshops with the latest machinery to ensure their students’ smooth transition from school to work. UNESCO and ILO (2002) recommend that machines and equipment used in workshops within educational institutions should be geared and simulate the needs of the workplace as closely as possible. Learners should be capable of operating and maintaining the equipment. To improve technical education teacher preparation, HEIs will need educators/lecturers/teachers/instructors who know their subject matter from both engineering education and technology education background. Of importance is that these lecturers should be able to integrate mathematics and science contents in their instruction.

Networks Available and 16 Theories of Vocational Education There are quite number of vocational education networks to which vocational educators/teachers/ lectures/instructors can affiliate. The networks listed below are from “The Online Teacher Resource (2018)” and are dedicated to the advancement and improvement of high-quality vocational education and training networks throughout the world: 1. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education 2. International Association for Continuing Education and Training (IACET) 3. International Vocational Education and Training Association (IVETA) 4. The National Center for Construction Education and Research (NCCER) 5. National Skill Standards Board 6. New Approaches To Integrate Learning In The Workplace 7. US Department of Education – Office of Vocational and Adult Education 8. Vocational Education and Training for People with Disabilities Theories of education (Online Teacher Resource 2018) serve as the foundation of all the strategies and techniques that the TVET educator/ teacher/lecturer/instructor will apply in practice. An example of the thinking behind theory would be that “if one sees dark clouds outside, one can theorise that it is going to rain.” The 16 theories of vocational education listed here will ensure the alignment of what a TVET educator/teacher/lecturer/instructor does, with what technical education should be. The theories are theory of job training; theory of minimum employment standards; theory of environmental habits; process habits; thinking habits; special attitudes and interests; profit-oriented thinking; repetitive training; theory of experience instruction; theory of market demands; theory of origin of content; theory of general service; theory of specific content; theory of group characteristics; theory of elastic administration; and theory of cost.

Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

Theories are needed as lenses to underpin any technical education research studies.

Conclusions Although the common practice in preparing technical education teachers in many countries is a 4year program attended at a university campus, it is believed that many future pre-service teachers will seek this preparation at the postgraduate level, after receiving technical preparation through another major. This suggests that technical education teacher must be acquired through hybrid systems, where some transfer of knowledge and practices will occur on university campuses or in community colleges, or in public/private schools, and where this will be supplemented with other learning opportunities provided with the assistance of distance learning technologies. South Africa, for instance, has adopted a hybrid model for producing technology education teachers, and now universities in the country have been mandated by the Department of Higher Education and Training to develop programs that will support the growth path of TVET lecturers (as they are called in SA) in meeting the 2030 Agenda. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development clearly reflects the vision of incorporating technical education in institutional curricula. Education is formulated as a stand-alone goal – Sustainable Development Goal 4. Sustainability requires that people working in a range of sectors – including construction, waste management, and agriculture, which consume enormous amount of energy, raw materials, and water – be skilled workers who have knowledge of and commitment to sustainable development as well as the requisite technical knowledge (UNESCO 2012). Technical education is part of SDG4, and it can be applied as an essential strategy to pursue other SDGs and globally address unemployment. Today, TVET is a crucial vehicle for social equity and inclusion, as well as for the sustainable development which goes far beyond its familiar call for contributing to economic growth, employment, and competitiveness (Tang 2015). It can be concluded that countries that would like to

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witness the growth of technical education should make sure that their TVET curriculum and systems are fully prepared to meet the current demands, proportionate with the challenges of global competencies and competitiveness. These countries should also adopt UNESCO and the ILO (2002) recommendation 74, which highlight that all teachers in vocational education, including instructors/trainers who teach practical skills, should be considered an integral part of the teaching profession and should be recognized as having the same status as their colleagues in general education.

Cross-References ▶ Adult Education ▶ Community-Based Education: A Participatory Approach to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal ▶ Education for Sustainable Development ▶ Tertiary Education ▶ Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability

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Hiromichi K (2011) Trends in technical and vocational training. Background paper commissioned by UNESCO Education Sector ICSU, ICSSC (2015) Review of the sustainable development goals: the science perspective. International Council for Science (ICSU) ILO (2003) Industrial training Institutes of India: the efficiency study report, sub-regional office for South Asia, ILO, New Delhi. In: Focus programmes on skills, knowledge and employability. ILO, Geneva Lin M-H, Hu J, Tseng M-L, Chiu ASF, Lin C (2016) Sustainable development in technological and vocational higher education: balanced scorecard measures with uncertainty. J Clean Prod 120:1–12 Lu Y, Nakicenovic N, Visbeck M, Stevance A (2015) Five priorities for the UN sustainable development goals. Nature 520(7548):432–592. https://doi.org/10.1038/ 520432a Luetkemeyer JF, Martin GE (1979) A historical and philosophical orientation to industrial arts. In: Martin GE (ed) Industrial art education: retrospect, prospect. McKnight, Bloomington, pp 10–42 Maclean R, Wilson DN (eds) (2009) International handbook of education for changing the world of work, vol 1–6. Springer, New York Mapotse TA (2001) ABET technology: at the cutting edge of economic change. In: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), international conference, 3rd–4th Apr 2001. Technology Forum for Small Micro and Medium Enterprise (SMME), in Electronics, Electrical and IT, Pretoria, pp 59–67 Mapotse TA (2014) An emancipation paradigm through critical theory in technology education: an action learning paradigm. Mediterranean J Soc Sci 5(3):484–493 Mapotse TA (2015) An emancipation framework for technology education teachers: an action research study. Int J Technol Des Educ 25:213–225. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10798-014-9275-y Mapotse TA (2018) Preface: action learning attached founder. In: Mapotse TA (ed) Cross-disciplinary approaches to action research and action learning. IGI Global, Hershey Marco R (2017) Education for sustainable development goals: learning objectives. UNESCO, Paris Marope PTM, Chakroun B, Holmes KP (2015a) Chapter 1, Introduction: TVET’s race to the top. In: Unleashing the potential: transforming technical and vocational education and training. UNESCO, Paris Marope PTM, Chakroun B, Holmes KP (2015b) Chapter 2, improving TVET’s contextual responsiveness. In: Unleashing the potential: transforming technical and vocational education and training. UNESCO, Paris MEB (2012) Meslekî Ve Teknik Eğitim; Strateji Belgesi Ve Eylem Plani (Taslak); 2013–2017 Miller M (1985) Principles and a philosophy for vocational and training in a changing world. National Centre for Research in Vocational Education, Ohio State University Ministry of Education (2005) Suositus työpaikalla tapahtuvasta oppimisesta ja ammattiosaamisen näytöistä [A recommendation for the organisation of on-the-joblearning and performance-based-assessment]. University of Jyväskylä, Helsinki

Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development Moll I, Steinberg C, Broekmann I (2005) Being a vocational educator: a guide for lecturers in FET colleges. South African Institute for Distance Education, Braamfontein Murray-Smith S (1966) A history of technical education in Australia: with special reference to the period before 1914. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. University of Melbourne, Parkville North M (1997) Geschichte der Pädagogik, Munich Numminen U (2000) Strategies for improving vocational education: the Finnish case. In: Stenström M-L, Lasonen L (eds) Strategies for reforming initial vocational education and training in Europe. Institute for Educational Research\University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, pp 74–91 Olafsson B, Thorsteinsson G (2010) Examining design and craft education in Iceland: curriculum development and present situation [on-line]. Available at: https://files. eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ882743.pdf Pawlowski A (2013) Sustainable development and globalization. Probl Sustain Dev 8(2):5–16 Pilz M (ed) (2012) The future of vocational education and training in a changing world. Springer, Wiesbaden Pilz M (ed) (2016) Vocational education and training in the times of economic crises. Springer, Wiesbaden Pittendrigh A (1988) Technikons in South Africa: an evaluative analysis of the factors influencing the development of the Technikons (1967–1985) and an assessment of their role in educational change at tertiary level in the RSA. The Building Industries Federation of South Africa, Halfway House Preckler Galguera M (2018) Globalization, mass education and technical and vocational education and training: The Influence of UNESCO in Botswana and Namibia. Springer, Madrid. [online] Retrieved from: https:// www.springer.com/gp/book/97833199069 Prosser CA, Quigley TH (1949) Vocational education in a democracy. American Technical Society, Chicago Revans RW (1998) ABC of action learning. Lemos and Crane, London Rita J, Martin G (2018) Visions of the technology education profession by technology teacher. In: de Vries MJ (ed) Handbook of technology education. Springer, Cham Ritz J, Bevins P (2016) Exploration of 21st century skills that might be delivered through technology education. Pupils’ Attitudes towards Technology – PATT 32 international conference, 23rd–26th Aug 2016; Hotel De Bilt Utrecht Amsterdam Rojewski JW (2002) Preparing the workforce of tomorrow: a conceptual framework for career and technical education. Report of National Research Centre career and technical education. Available at: http://136.165. 122.102/UserFiles/pubs/PrepWrkfrceAll Shah S, Ramanan VV (2018) Environmental education and education for sustainable development through Mobile learning: transgressing the geographical boundaries. In: Pandey UC, Indrakanti V (eds) Open and distance learning initiative for sustainable development. IGI Global, Hershey Shield G (2003) Vocationalism and accountability: two threats of design and technology education. In: Dakers

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JR, de Vries MJ (eds) Pupils’ Attitudes towards Technology – PATT-13 international conference. University of Glasgow, Glasgow, pp 277–280 Stenström M-L, Virolainen M (2014) The history of Finnish vocational education and training. Finish Institute for Educational Research: University of Jyväskylä Sweet R (2013) Work-based learning. Why? How? Revisiting global trends in TVET: reflections on theory and practice, Bonn, Germany. UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, pp 164–203 Tabin J-P (1989) Formation professionnelle en Suisse. Éditions Réalités, Lausanne Tang Q (2015) Foreword. In: Marope PTM, Chakroun B, Holmes KP (eds) Unleashing the potential: transforming technical and vocational education and training. UNESCO, Paris Tang Q (2017) Foreword. In: Marco R (ed) Education for sustainable development goal: learning objectives. UNESCO, Paris Terblanche TE (2017) Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) Colleges in South Africa: a framework for leading curriculum change. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Education. Stellenbosch University, Cape Town Tertiary Education Review (1998) Tertiary education in the 21st century. New Zealand Ministry of Education, (White Paper), Wellington The Online Teachers Resource (2018) What is vocational education? [on-line]. Available at: http://www.teachnology.com/teachers/vocational_ed/ UNESCO (2012) Global employment trends 2012: preventing deeper jobs crisis. International Labour Office, Geneva UNESCO, ILO (2002) Technical and vocational educational and training for the twenty-first century. UNESCO and ILO Recommendations. Report compiled by Daniel J. Assistant Director-General for Education (UNESCO) and Hultin G. Executive Director Employment Sector (ILO) UNESCO-UNEVOC (2009) The changing status of vocational higher education in contemporary Japan and the Republic of Korea. International centre for technical and vocational education and training. A discussion paper by Goodman R, Hatakenaka S, Kim T UNESCO-UNEVOC (2013a) Advancing TVET for youth employability and sustainable development. Regional forum report (27–28 Aug) by José, S. form Costa Rica UNESCO-UNEVOC (2013b) International centre for technical and vocational education and training. World TVET database Hungary. Retrieved from: http://www. unevoc.unesco.org UNESCO-UNEVOC (2018a) TVET country profile: Australia. Compile in collaboration with the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER), Australia (Nov 2018) UNESCO-UNEVOC (2018b) TVET country profile: Mexico. Compiled in collaboration with the National College of Technical Professional Education (CONALEP), Mexico (Nov 2018) Van Dijk G, Hajer M (2018) Teaching the language of technology: towards a research agenda. In: de Vries

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876 MJ (ed) Handbook of technology education. Springer, Cham Van Gelder HE (1919) Overzicht van het technies onderwijs in Nederland. Thime, Zutphen Venn G (1964) Man, education and work: post-secondary vocational and technical education. American Council on Education, Washington DC Watson K (1994) Technical and vocational education in developing countries: western paradigms and comparative methodology. Comp Educ 30(30):85–87 Williams PJ (2018) Curriculum perspective in technology education: section introduction. In: de Vries MJ (ed) Handbook of technology education. Springer, Cham Wilson DN (1991) Reform of technical-vocational education in Indonesia and Malaysia. Comp Educ 27(2):207–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050069102702 Zirkle C (2017) Vocational and technical education. [online] Available at: http://www.oxfordbibliographies. com/view/document/obo-9780199756910. https://doi. org/10.1093/OBO/9780199surgeonsouls756810-0068

Technology Integrated Learning ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

Technology-Enabled Learning ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

Technology-Enhanced Learning Belinda J. Rudinger College of Professional Education, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI, USA

Synonyms Computer based learning; Educational technology; E-learning; Instructional technology; Online learning; Technology integrated learning; Technology-enabled learning; Technologyenhanced learning & teaching (TEL&T)

Technology Integrated Learning

Definition Pragmatic Technology-enhanced learning (TEL) has been defined by a variety of different sources. It can be referred to as “integrating the use of digital technology into the learning and teaching process to improve the quality of learning” (Law et al. 2016, p. 73) or “the interface between digital technology and higher education teaching” (Bayne 2015, p. 5). Kirkwood and Price (2014) performed a literature review to examine the exact parameters of TEL. They listed categories of enhancement found in the research as: 1. Efficiency: existing processes carried out in a more cost-effective, time-effective, sustainable, or scalable manner 2. Enhancement: improving existing processes and the outcomes 3. Transformation: radical, positive change in existing processes or introducing new processes (Kirkwood and Price 2014) In addition, Kirkwood and Price named categories of possible performance measurement among TEL literature: 1. Operational improvements (such as greater flexibility or more accessible resources) 2. Quantitative changes in learning (exemplars include increased engagement and improved scores) 3. Qualitative changes (such as reflection, deep engagement, and richer understanding) (Kirkwood and Price 2014) Stephen Downes expands these potential definitions of TEL by proposing the concept of the technology-enhanced learner (Huang et al. 2014). He asserts that TEL exists beyond merely adding to the “same old picture of learning,” stating: It is not that they are simply learning more, they are learning differently. Moreover, the technology enhanced learner will have more and greater capacities than his or her counterpart in the pretechnology era. This especially applies to disabled or disadvantaged learners. As students change and

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adapt to the new technology, they begin to learn differently and to learn new things. (Downes, S. in Huang et al. 2014, Forward, pp. 5–6)

Ultimately, Downes describes a technologyenhanced learner who “access[es] and organiz [es] knowledge and learning in new ways, and with new media, and as a result, thinking and seeing the world differently” (Downes, S. in Huang et al. 2014, Forward, p. 10). Authors Schweighofer and Ebner expanded the understanding of technology-enhanced learning by using a literature review to identify 20 key aspects that can be used for design, application, and implementation (2015). These key aspects outline a variety of areas to inform the creation and practice of technology-enhanced learning and also provide a broad understanding of considerations within its definition. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Acceptance aspects Business aspects Cognitive aspects Course-related aspects Demographic differences Influences from prior knowledge experience Instruction aspects Learners’ learning aspects Learners’ requirements Learning success Mind-set and feelings before TEL Mind-set and feelings during TEL Motivational aspects Requirements on teachers Self-regulation aspects Social aspects Support processes Teachers’ teaching aspects Technical infrastructure aspects Technology-related aspects

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Philosophical Beyond the pragmatic question of defining the concept of technology-enhanced learning, Sian Bayne critiques the notion of defining technology-enhanced learning altogether, calling into question its assumptions and limitations; she states that TEL is an “apparently useful,

inoffensive and descriptive shorthand for what is in fact a complex and often problematic constellation of social, technological and educational change” (2015, p. 5). Ultimately, she recommends a deeper dive into the relationship between learning and technology, in the direction of a consideration of ecologies, networks, and sociomateriality. She identifies three key perspectives from which to consider technology-enhanced learning: 1. The instrumentalization of technology 2. The ontological isolation of the human from its material contexts 3. A broadening of those concerns from educational technology to education itself (Bayne 2015) Bayne emphasizes the entanglements and enmeshed nature of the relationship between society, learners, education, and technology (2015). In a different approach from those who argue the question of technological determinism or the design of technology-enhanced learning (“our over-emphasis on how technology acts on education, or how education can best act on technology”), Bayne asks for a shift in the conceptualization of the inherent relationship: “A critical post-humanist position on technology and education would see the human neither as dominating technology nor as being dominated by it. Rather it would see the subject of education itself as being performed through a coming together of the human and non-human, the material and the discursive” (Bayne 2015, p. 15, 18; Kirkwood 2014). Technology-Enhanced Learning Within Quality Education As goal number 4 of the 17 sustainable development goals developed by the United Nations, Quality Education includes a focus on multiple areas of learning. These areas are literacy and numeracy, assurance of inclusivity for all (especially females, persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and children in vulnerable situations), and lifelong learning to include not only primary and secondary education but also

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vocational training, higher education, and sustainability literacy (United Nations n.d.). According to authors Sclater and Lally, after 20 years of successful research and praxis, the field of technology-enhanced learning is “almost inextricably linked to models of education that were predicated on expansion and massification. All of this was occurring amid increasing turbulence in wider social contexts, including the ongoing globalization and corporatization of learning, and took place against the backdrop of economic and resource crises, long-term increases in economic in-equality, European youth unemployment, the polarization of employment and a very widespread decline in growth. These trends have been pervasive, and also include sovereign debt defaults and banking failures, mineral and energy constraints, and environmental and demographic crises” (Sclater and Lally 2018, p. 54). They argue that the TEL community must consider this wider context and reimagine its future in light of these concerns, so as not only to not re-entrench itself and perpetuate situations of inequality but also to ground itself further within the broader field of sociological education (Sclater and Lally 2018). Richard Hall echoes this concern, stating: Framing technologies as revolutionary without a critique of the socio-cultural forms in which they are used, risks trivialising access to and use of technology for re-framing and re-valuing our social relations and associations. Such an analysis requires a focus on contextual and cultural complexity, in order to uncover nuances of power and control, of participation and marginalisation, and of inequity. (2011, p. 236)

Hall (2011) offers the following edicts for positioning technology-enhanced learning within higher education: 1. TEL and its place within higher education must be understood in order to connect technologies to existing values 2. Higher education strategies for TEL must include awareness of economic, environmental, and sociocultural disruptions or consequences 3. Technologies must be situated within the individual institution’s activities as a community and critical theory.

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4. Strategies must align to reflect an institution’s values and empower its staff and students 5. The areas of personalization, social learning, curriculum, and community activity must be connected within the institution Referencing recent studies on TEL within Quality Education, Law et al. identified an overemphasis on cognitive learning outcomes and argue that Quality Education would also consider social/emotional learning outcomes as well as attitude and affect (2016). Furthermore, they use a systematic approach in asserting that future research education should also consider what conditions support not only students but educators and administrators as well (Law et al. 2016). The EDUsummIT 2015 Thematic Working group was charged with creating indicators of quality technologyenhanced learning and teaching, whose objectives included: 1. Develop a literature-based conceptual model of the impacts of ICT implementation strategies on multiple levels of the education system including individual, classroom, school, district, and system levels. 2. Identify a core set of quality indicators for technology-enhanced teaching and learning at the different levels based on the above conceptual framework. 3. Develop a preliminary mapping of the indicators to existing cross-national studies, and common national/institutional monitoring and evaluation mechanisms (Law et al. 2015). In their 2016 paper, Law et al. sought to address the first two objectives, regarding creation of a research-based framework and considering potential quality indicators, both of which could be used by different countries as they work toward the 2030 sustainable development goals. They explored the four categories of conditions for learning, learning interactions, e-learning use, and learning outcomes across four systemic level contexts: student, teacher, school, and system/ policy.

Technology-Enhanced Learning

TEL in Action: Diverse Examples Empowering Communication One area in which technology-enhanced learning can impact Quality Education is in the realm of students with disabilities pursuing higher education. Exploring a research gap involving the use of computer-mediated communication by university students with Asperger syndrome, James MacDowell found that AS deficits such as impairments in communication and social interaction had not been studied in the context of online group-work using TEL as an intervention. In a case study, MacDowell found that online tools empowered a young man with AS to take on a leading role in online-facilitated group-work, initiating lines of conversation and exchanging feedback with group members in ways he would have been unable to do face to face. (2015). MacDowell asserts that this finding could have potential implications for empowering adults with Asperger syndrome to participate in work more fully through similar TEL-based interventions. Authentic Learning

Referencing Herrington’s 9 facets of authentic learning (task, context, performance, perspectives, collaboration, reflection, competency acquisition, coaching, and assessment), Pillay et al. studied the application of technology-enhanced learning tools in support of social work education within higher education (2015). Interviewees cited different reasons for choosing to use technology as part of their teaching, which included: to get students to keep diaries and to reflect; to integrate theory with practice; to allow students to cooperate and collaborate on tasks and projects; to encourage learning in large diverse classrooms; and to create discipline- specific, indigenous programmes, since there is a lack of such material. These reasons clearly demonstrate technology being used as a driver to promote pedagogically informed social work education, rather than because of its newness, motivational appeal or contemporary acceptability within a competitive higher education context. (Pillay et al. 2015, p. 52)

The authors indicated that the pairing of the framework of authentic learning principles with the tools of TEL was successful. At the same time, they cautioned that such intentional design and

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use of technology can also be resource intensive in terms of the necessary commitment of time and funds (Pillay et al. 2015). Use of TEL to Overcome Barriers to Lifelong Learning

Lifelong learning is listed as a facet of SDG #4, Quality Education, and M. Kalz listed the following barriers to lifelong learning to be considered: • Poor family culture of learning • Lack of finance to participate in lifelong learning • Learning providers not geared to the needs of learners • Poor information services attracting people to learning • Distance from educational provision • Lack of facilities to study at home • Perception that the benefits system discourages learning Kalz asserts that technology-enhanced learning methods that may assist in overcoming these barriers are in the areas of open learner models/ learner analytics, networked learning, open educational resources, and mobile/contextualized learning (2014). The first area consists of recognizing that a typical lifelong learner is constantly in flux, moving within various contexts, goals, and learning environments in a series of “shorter learning episodes” even within 1 day (Kalz 2014). Using learning analytics provides a clearer picture and allows for learner modeling, resulting in potentially more effective instructional design (Greller and Drachsler 2012). Networked learning involves enabling learners to create their own formal and informal connections, access resources, and direct their own learning within multiple contexts; this option allows lifelong learners multiple affordances of context, time, and place (Kalz 2014). Open universities and massive, open, online courses (MOOCs) are examples of open educational resources, while contextualized/mobile learning leverages “enables people to connect their fragmented learning experiences to their long-term learning goals” (Kalz 2014, p. 8).

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Person-Centered Technology-Enhanced Learning (PCeL) and Personalization in TEL

Citing Rogers’ variables of realness/transparency, acceptance/unconditional positive regard, and understanding/empathy, Motschnig-Pitrik and Standl consider the combination of technologyenhanced learning with person centered learning (PCeL). Through a series of surveys, the authors found that TEL tools can provide additional opportunities for connection when combined with Rogers’ variables expressed face to face (Motschnig-Pitrik and Standl 2012). Fitzgerald et al., extend this combination of personalization and technology-enhanced learning by sharing a framework for its creation, using the following aspects: • What is being personalized • The type of learning where personalization occurs • What personal characteristics of the learner may be addressed • Who/what is doing the personalization • How is personalization carried out • The impact/beneficiaries of the personalization (2018, p. 167) Using this framework, the authors examined the following areas: intelligent utoring systems (ITS) and adaptive educational hypermedia (AEH), adaptive assessment, science inquiry learning, gaming and informal learning, learning analytics, and personalized books (Fitzgerald et al. 2018). These examples illustrate how their framework can be used to allow personalized versions of technology-enhanced learning. Use of TEL for Universal Literacy and Numeracy

The United Nations lists universal literacy and numeracy as a target for Sustainable Development Goal #4, Quality Education (n.d.). There are multiple examples of ways that technology-enhanced learning can be deployed to work toward this end. According to Foshee et al. (2016), many higher education institutions must provide remedial math instruction for students who graduate high school without the skills to handle university level math courses. Using self-efficacy theory as a theoretical

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framework from which to consider math instruction using technology-enhanced learning, Foshee et al. posited that TEL using adaptation, autonomy, and mastery-based criteria could bolster student’s mathematics skills and improve students’ beliefs about their own competence. The authors differentiated between adaptive and individualized instruction: Adaptive and individualized instruction are related concepts often used interchangeably yet discrete. Adaptive instruction relates to the process used to adapt or select instructional materials from a range of instructional options and resources. Our TEL assessed students’ prior knowledge (pretests) and responded in real-time by selecting and presenting appropriate content for their skill level – adaptive instruction. Individualized instruction is the product, the customized instruction presented to the learners based on their individualized needs. Because our TEL selected lesson activities based on skill level, each student had a different sequence of activities to complete – individualized instruction. (Foshee et al. 2016, p. 896)

Using TEL in this approach yielded success not only in increased math performance but also self-efficacy and belief in math skills competence (Foshee et al. 2016). This example shows how TEL can be used toward supporting numeracy. There are also many examples of using technology-enhanced learning to achieve literacy for all. Dreyer and Nel (2003) also investigated the use of technology-enhanced learning environments for remediation of reading performance for college freshman entering institutions of higher education. As with numeracy, the authors find that many of these beginning students graduated from high school without the reading comprehension skills necessary for success at a university; this affects not only their coursework but also presents a barrier to entering the world of work and both accessing and maintaining lifelong learning (Dreyer and Nel 2003). Their work focused on providing students with information and practice on various reading strategies through a 13-week strategic reading instruction module in a TEL environment. Students received an interactive study guide with hyperlinks to additional information as well as opportunities to interact with peers and professors through an integrated learning management system; the results

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indicated that the TEL environment was successful in improving their use of reading strategies for comprehension (Dreyer and Nel 2003). Another literacy example comes from Leu et al. (2015), who focused on learners’ abilities to become skilled at reading to learn and reading for research using online information. This area includes the following skills: 1. Reading to locate information 2. Reading to critically evaluate information 3. Reading to synthesize information and solve a problem 4. Reading and writing to communicate information (Leu et al. 2015). They shared a series of Online Research and Comprehension Assessments (ORCAs) with specific examples for each overarching skill area. For example, within the first area of Reading to Locate Information, skills included locating the correct email in an inbox and locating the correct site on the first click (Leu et al. 2015). The authors assert that these skills are so important that they should be spiraled throughout even the elementary student’s day, with teachers modeling appropriate and efficient use of these skill areas (Leu et al. 2015). They also promote the use of digital instruction to teach decoding via online experiences: Appropriate online experiences can develop phonemic awareness, word recognition, fluency, and other beginning reading skills. The added benefit is that these resources also help young children become familiar with online interfaces and navigation. It is a nice “two for one,” with students learning two sets of skills in a single activity (Leu et al. 2015, p. 143).

One final example of using technologyenhanced learning to promote literacy for all within Quality Education, Sustainable Development Goal #4, comes from the field of foreign language instruction. As the world grows more connected, developing the ability to speak and/or read any additional languages increases opportunities to cross cultural boundaries and forge additional connections through communication. Chen and Yang (2014) describe an example of moving beyond instruction toward test scores in Taiwan

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toward a more authentic understanding of the cultures that inhabit foreign languages. Their study juxtaposed relationships between “the role of culture, the use of technology, and language teaching” (Chen and Yang 2014, p. 58). Using the term technology-enhanced intercultural language instruction (TEILI), their study used technological tools to facilitate authentic experiences with English language contexts with 7th grade Taiwanese students learning English (Chen and Yang 2014). Students exchanged weblogs with native English speaking students in authentic contexts; the project was extremely successful from the students’ perspective of experience and performance. In describing the benefits of TEILI, many of the participants criticized the limits of traditional instruction in Taiwanese English classrooms, in which rote memorization of language knowledge is emphasized over language use; two students used the term “dead English” to describe learning in traditional classroom-based instruction (S2, S5) and preferred the “living” English of TEILI. “With traditional classroom teaching, I don’t know how to use the English that I have learned in real life. With TEILI, I can communicate with foreigners. I have more opportunities to use the English that I have learned.” (S6) “With traditional instruction, it takes us a lot of time to memorize vocabulary and grammar rules, but my mind goes completely blank when I need to speak English. With TEILI, I can communicate directly with English speakers. It is a more real experience and is more helpful.” (S7) “I prefer TEILI because it makes English class more interesting, vivid, and lively. With traditional teaching, we only read textbooks. With TEILI, we can use English in a natural environment, just as we use Chinese.” (S13). (Chen and Yang 2014, p. 64)

Clearly, using technology-enhanced learning to promote more authentic avenues of cultural connection and foreign language instruction can serve both literacy and sustainability literacy. Use of TEL in Inquiry-Based Learning and Problem Solving Through Scaffolding

While it may be easy to see how technologyenhanced learning can support skill-based learning objectives, quality education involves more than just competencies. Another target of Quality Education/SDG #4 is the ability to promote sustainable development, which requires complex

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problem solving and higher order thinking skills (United Nations n.d.). Technology-enhanced learning can also offer options and solutions for this kind of constructivist learning. One example can be found in distributed scaffolding, defined by Ustunel and Tokel (2018) as using different tools in a given learning environment for the purpose of supporting constructive inquiry-based learning. The authors reference Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) as they define the instructional practice of scaffolding as learning that occurs through social interactions between a student and a guide with more knowledge (2018). Scaffolding uses the assistance of a guide to allow students to work through complex or higher-level problems, tasks, or goals that would be out of their independent reach. In technology-enhanced learning environments, scaffolding can be provided using embedded tools to offer hints, clues, prompts, or suggestions. Kim et al. (2007) argued that the learning environments created by technology are what can affect student learning, rather than the technological tools themselves. Three forms of distributed scaffolding include: 1. Differentiated Scaffolding: different supports occur to meet different needs. 2. Redundant Scaffolding: different supports occur at different time intervals to meet the same need. 3. Synergetic Scaffolding: different supports interact at the same time to meet the same need (Ustunel and Tokel 2018). According to Kim and Hannafin (2011), one caution regarding the use of in technologyenhanced learning in scaffolding involves the consideration of both previous experience with technological tools and the cognitive load that may be involved for students with limited experience/skill with the tools. Technology tools often require considerable cognitive resources as students learn to skim, grasp, and manipulate data. Students have become disoriented in Web-based learning environments due to the large number of ill-structured resources encountered, particularly when learning environments induce extraneous cognitive load and when students lack adequate prior knowledge and experience. In

Technology-Enhanced Learning such cases, students are inherently limited in their ability to think critically or solve complex problems and tend to focus on task completion rather than meaningful inquiry. (Kim and Hannafin 2011, p. 411)

TPACK: Technology, Pedagogy, and Content Knowledge

Ian Kinchin (2012) points out that when technology is co-opted to entrench the same educational agendas, it runs the risk of “domesticating” otherwise innovative technology. Using Koehler et al. (2011) TPACK framework for Technology Pedagogy and Content Knowledge could help overcome these barriers (Kinchin 2012). Kinchen argues for the pairing of linear models of instruction within networks of understanding: In traditional university teaching situations where undue attention is paid to the transmission of linear components of a subject, the learning that follows is characterized by an acquisition of information without any parallel development in understanding. This has been termed “non-learning” and is typical of content-led teaching modes. In order to attain meaningful learning, the linear chains of information need to be underpinned by complementary networks of understanding. It is the movement between these knowledge structures that confers deep understanding, and eventual expertise. (Kinchin 2012, p. E46)

Use of TEL to Create New Places for Learning

Throughout various articles on technologyenhanced learning, there is an emphasis on the space, place, or learning environment created virtually in online settings. For example, Pillay et al. stated that “features such as chat rooms and discussion forums create new spaces” (2012, p. 528). Within these newly created spaces, there are features that allow for built-in support. Motschnig-Pitrik and Standl indicated that this support “allows for each person having equal ‘voice’ in the virtual world,” indicating the potential emancipatory and empowering aspects of these new places with technology-enhanced supports built-in (2015, p. 408). MacDowell’s findings (2015) provide another example of how support within virtual environments (and the existence of the separate space itself) could allow different learners to exhibit growth in

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social interaction and participation that wouldn’t be possible in a face to face environment. These new spaces provide authentic new realms where learners can interact in ways that allow them to be themselves, thus extending the actual boundary of what is known as the classroom. Crook and Bligh state, “Stripped to essentials, the most familiar patterns for schooling involve a curriculum to be experienced at a particular time (stereotypically: ‘early life’), located in distinctive sorts of places (‘schools’), and orchestrated through a particular social dynamic (‘teaching’)” (2016: 163). However, in their discussion of the situativity and sociality of these new options, Crook and Bligh are careful to point out that dis-placing is not synonymous with un-placing, pointing out that as technology re-mediates ideas of place and relationship, there are expanded opportunities that exist within face to face settings as well (2016).

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the Sustainable Development Goals takes a step toward ensuring this proper context moving into the future.

Cross-References ▶ Contemporary Trends in Education ▶ Distance Learning: A Viable Option ▶ Educating Built Environment Professionals in Developing Countries: Case Study from Indonesia ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ ICT Skills for Sustainable Development Goal 4 ▶ Lifelong Learning and Its Importance in Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals ▶ Open Educational Resources (Including MOOCs)

References Conclusion Kirkwood and Price’s dimensions of technology-enhanced learning were improved efficiency, enhancement, or transformation. As examples from the literature indicate, TEL does not only provide means of enhancement or efficiency to existing instruction but transforms the places where it can occur and provides new avenues for authenticity. Technology-enhanced learning, along with the ideas of the technology-enhanced learner and the technology-enhanced learning environment has powerful implications for Quality Education in the areas of literacy and numeracy, equitable learning conditions for students with disabilities or other barriers, problem solving skills, and authentic learning. At the same time, TEL can run the risk of entrenching existing patterns of inequality within education. Bayne raises questions that must be considered regarding the nature of the relationship between technology and learning, while Sclater and Lally emphasize the need for a broader context and re-imagining of TEL for the future. Grounding technologyenhanced learning within Quality Education and

Bayne S (2015) What’s the matter with ‘technologyenhanced learning?’. Learn Media Technol 40(1):5–20 Chen JJ, Yang SC (2014) Fostering foreign language learning through technology-enhanced intercultural projects. Language Learning & Technology 18(1):57–75 Crook, Bligh (2016) Technology and the dis-placing of learning in educational futures. Learn Cult Soc Interact 11(C):162–175 Dreyer C, Nel C (2003) Teaching reading strategies and reading comprehension within a technology-enhanced learning environment. System 31(3):349–365 FitzGerald E, Kucirkova N, Jones A, Cross S, Ferguson R, Herodotou C, Hillaire G, Scanlon E (2018) Dimensions of personalisation in technology-enhanced learning: a framework and implications for design. Br J Educ Technol 49(1):165–181 Foshee C, Elliott S, Atkinson R (2016) Technologyenhanced learning in college mathematics remediation. Br J Educ Technol 47(5):893–905 Greller W, Drachsler H (2012) Translating learning into numbers: a generic framework for learning analytics. J Educ Technol Soc 15(3):42–57 Hall R (2011) Towards a resilient strategy for technologyenhanced learning. Campus-Wide Inf Syst 28(4):234. Wide Information Systems, 2011, 28(4):234–249 Huang R, Kinshuk, Chen N (eds) (2014) The new development of technology enhanced learning: concept, research, & best practices. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg Kalz M (2014) Lifelong learning and its support with new technologies. In: Smelser NJ, Baltes PB (eds) International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. Pergamon, Oxford

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884 Kim MC, Hannafin MJ (2011) Scaffolding problem solving in technology-enhanced learning environments (TELEs): bridging research and theory with practice. Comput Educ 56(2):403–417 Kim MC, Hannafin MJ, Bryan LA (2007) Technologyenhanced inquiry tools in science education: an emerging pedagogical framework for classroom practice. Sci Educ 91(6):1010–1030 Kinchin I (2012) Avoiding technology-enhanced non-learning. Br J Educ Technol 43(2):E43–E48 Kirkwood A (2014) Teaching and learning with technology in higher education: blended and distance education needs ‘joined-up thinking’ rather than technological determinism. Open Learn: J Open, Dist e-Learn 29(3):206–221 Kirkwood A, Price L (2014) Technology-enhanced learning and teaching in higher education: what is “enhanced” and how do we know? A critical literature review. Learn Media Technol 39(1):6–36 Koehler MJ, Mishra P, Bouck EC, DeSchryver M, Kereluik K, Shin TS (2011) Deep-play: developing TPACK for 21st century teachers. Int J Learn Technol 6(2):146–163 Law N, Niederhauser DS, Shear L, Christensen RW (2015) Thematic working group 7: indicators of quality technology-enhanced learning and teaching. In: Lai KW (ed) Technology advanced quality learning for all: EDUsummIT 2015 summary report. University of Otago College of Education, New Zealand. pp 49–55 Law N, Niederhauser DS, Christensen R, Shear L (2016) A multilevel system of quality technology-enhanced learning and teaching indicators. J Educ Technol Soc 19(3):72–83 Leu DJ, Forzani E, Timbrell N, Maykel C (2015) Seeing the forest, not the trees: essential technologies for literacy in the primary-grade and upper elementary-grade classroom. Read Teach 69(2):139–145 Macdowell J (2015) A black swan in a sea of white noise: using technology-enhanced learning to afford educational inclusivity for learners with Asperger’s syndrome. Soc Incl 3(6):7–15 Motschnig-Pitik R, Standl B (2012) Person-centered technology enhanced learning: dimensions of added value. Comput Hum Behav 29:401–409 Pillay R, Bozalek V, Wood D (2015) The use of technology-enhanced learning (TEL) to facilitate authentic learning: experiences of South African social work educators. Soc Work 51(4):515–532 Schweighofer P, Ebner M (2015) Aspects to be considered when implementing technology-enhanced learning approaches: a literature review. Future Internet 7:26–49 Sclater M, Lally V (2018) Interdisciplinarity and technology-enhanced learning: reflections from art and design and educational perspectives. Res Comp Int Educ 13(1):46–69 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/sustainable development/ Ustunel HH, Tokel ST (2018) Distributed scaffolding: synergy in technology-enhanced learning environments. Technol Knowl Learn 23(1):129–160

Technology-Enhanced Learning & Teaching (TEL&T)

Technology-Enhanced Learning & Teaching (TEL&T) ▶ Technology-Enhanced Learning

Tertiary Education Steve Lambert University of Chester, Chester, UK

Synonyms Further education; Higher education; Post-compulsory education; Tertiary education

Definition The phase of education proceeding compulsory education, including higher education. Typically there is no upper limit to the age at which an individual can participate in tertiary education. It is sometimes referred to as lifelong learning given the lack of upper age limit. Tertiary education often bridges the skills and knowledge gap between the general education that an individual receives at school and work.

Introduction to Tertiary Education A broad range of factors influences tertiary education globally. These include but are not limited to the labor markets they serve, the degree of stateled regulation of specific occupations, and historical structures of economics and industries. Yet despite these variances, the structure of tertiary education is broadly similar. Tertiary education also acts a bridge between the generalist education provided by compulsory schooling and the education, often technical training, that is needed by potential employers. In addition to improving an individuals’ quality of life, access to tertiary-level education can help equip young people with the

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tools required to develop innovative solutions to local and global issues. It is well documented (Kennedy 1997; Dugdale and Clark 2008; Fehring and Herring 2013) that tertiary education brings about increased quality of life, access to employment, and improved social mobility. Yet governments and industries must recognized that tertiary education is not a tap that politicians can turn on and off to meet local economic priorities. Educational organizations and businesses need to work collaboratively to identify and plan for the skill needs in a timely manner to ensure that tertiary education providers have sufficient time to train individuals to meet these economic needs. In addition, policymakers cannot view tertiary education as a tool to correct deficits in aspects of compulsory education. Likewise, tertiary education cannot be perceived by politicians and policy-makers, as they so often do, as second to compulsory education (Augar 2019). This opening section focuses on the further education of wealthy Angola countries before focusing on tertiary education in the UK. Most countries view tertiary education in two phases. Further education, which offers sub-degree-level qualifications and higher education providing qualifications at bachelor’s degree level and above. The World Bank states that tertiary education includes colleges, trade schools, and universities (The World Bank 2017), whereas UNESCO (2018) states that tertiary education focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields, including academic and higher vocational education. Australia’s tertiary education system like so many is divided into technical and further education institutions and higher education. A vast majority of students (circa 85%) study part time through mainly publically funded providers, although there are a small number of privately owned organizations that receive state funding. Most students study courses related to their employment, rather than for personal development. In recent years Australia has sought to grow its work-based learning curriculum through the development of apprenticeships (a combination of technical training and employment) in

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order to ensure that there are sufficient individuals with the skills necessary to meet the economic needs of the country. Unlike Australia, Canada does not have a uniformed approach to further and higher education. Indeed, there is no state-level policy for either compulsory or post-compulsory education. Instead, the ten provinces of Canada are responsible for determining their own education policy. Yet all provinces operate a similar model of community college and universities. However, the lack of consistency in provinces does present challenges. In New Brunswick and Ontario, for example, there are no progression arrangements in place between the community colleges offering vocational and technical qualification and the universities, whereas, in British Columbia and Quebec, progression arrangements are in place to allow students to progress from community colleges onto higher education. Unlike in British Columbia, in Quebec students cannot progress from school directly to university without having first completed 2 years at a community college. Unlike Australia with its centralized approach to tertiary education, the American approach is highly decentralized. Each of the 50 states is able to legislate its own education policy. However, the most distinctive part of the tertiary system of America is the 2-year community college. These institutions, unlike their 4-year equivalents, offer courses up to associate degree level. These are typically equivalent to the 1st year of a degree in the UK or the 2nd year of a degree in Canada, Australia, and the Netherlands. After graduating from community college, students will often progress to a 4-year degree course at university. In Europe, Germany has adopted a system of tertiary education that enables individuals to gain high-level technical skills through the completion of a 2- to 3-year apprenticeship. These apprenticeships combine classroom-based theory learning and the application of knowledge through practical work-based learning. Apprenticeships are taught by specialized vocational education training (VET) institutions and are available as a highly sought after alternative to university. Over half of the working population in Germany are educated through the VET program, and

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annually over 500,000 individuals commence training in order to gain technical training. This opening section of the chapter provided a brief overview of the structure of further and tertiary education in a number of significant economies around the world. Each individual approach is different to reflect the unique circumstances of the host country, yet there are aspects that are familiar to each system. The next section of the chapter explores some of the issues and challenges facing further education, contextualized through the UK’s approach.

Further and Tertiary Education and Its Position in the Topology of Education In many countries, tertiary education, and in particular further education (FE), has an awkward place in the education system. Unlike schools which are defined by law and universities which are protected by state legislation, the same clarity of definition is not afforded to the tertiary sector. Further education as part of the education landscape is broad and encompasses everything from nonschool-based education for young people aged 14 and over through adult learning as well as some elements of higher education. As a result, there remains considerable variation in the accepted understanding of further education, both in terms of its place in the topology of education and its purpose. Before looking at the detail of the FE sector, and what it offers, it is worthwhile considering how one might define the further education. In many countries, such as Australia, the USA, and Canada, further education colleges are referred to as community colleges. In the UK, FE is an umbrella term that has a wide and disparate range of organizations operating under this generic term. Further education is also referred to as post-compulsory education, due to it being a nonmandatory part of an individual’s education. Globally there appears to be inconsistency in the accepted understanding of further education. In particular, the UK uses the term in the broadest sense, whereas other countries have a more defined understanding of the role of community

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colleges and its place in the educational landscape. Therefore, it is worthwhile establishing what is meant by post-compulsory education and where further education fits into this broader category. Jameson (2006) defines post-compulsory education as the field of education that is sometimes referred to as “lifelong learning” and is concerned with the non-compulsory phase of education; the statutory age range is from 16, with no upper limit. Jameson and Hillier (2003) sum up postcompulsory education as: . . .educational provision for post-compulsory age learners at sub-degree level in a range of post-16, adult and extra-mural education and training institutions. . .

There is, however, a fuzziness surrounding postcompulsory education in that while higher education is post-compulsory, it is separated out to form a category of its own. Globally higher education, which forms part of the tertiary education system, is experiencing a period of sustained growth. Calderon (2018) predicts that globally higher education enrolments will reach nearly 600 million by 2040, up from 216 million in 2016. Much of this growth has been attributed to global economic growth in particular exports from developing countries and increasing population trends in Africa. In 2016 the global higher education market was worth $1.9 trillion, the third largest “industry” after transportation and information technology but ahead of the global health market. There higher education market is considerably more regulated than the further education sector. Universities, while they can be either publically funded or private “fee-paying,” they are often governed by state legislation in order to limit organizations establishing pseudo-universities. Jameson and Hillier (2003) and Jameson (2006) all provide their own meaning for what tertiary education is. However, tertiary education must be about providing meaningful and appropriate education for those learners who are beyond the compulsory phase of education. It would be possible to debate what meaningful and appropriate mean, and indeed Wolf (2011) does so, but often people attend tertiary

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education colleges to learn skills so that they can gain employment. This means that institutions need to have central to their mission the ideology that the curriculum they offer does lead to meaningful employment.

Policy Context It is unsurprising that state governments have an interest in education, as it is one of main ways that governments can intervene in family life and the life of individuals. While education does not rely on the state, because it can happen informally at home, between friends, or indeed in independent schools, the state does rely on education. Ward and Eden (2009) suggest that governments will define themselves and sustain their cultural identity, promoting their beliefs, ideas, and knowledge from generation to generation through the state control of education, therefore suggesting that education has become a political tool that transcends different political parties. One of the issues that tertiary education has faced is the rise, in particular in western nations of neoliberal political ideologies a theme of the Thatcher (UK) and Reagan (USA) government (Jenkins 2007). The idea being that the government(s) wanted to stimulate the market in which tertiary institutions operated. By freeing them of local control, politicians believed that colleges would be able to compete for students alongside schools, other institution, and an emerging number of private training providers. Ward and Eden (2009) call this form of competition, which is internal to the state, the “internal market,” whereas Ball (2008) describes this as “endogenous competition.” Colleges had entered the consumer era whereby they were selling education as a commodity and only those colleges whose curriculum matched the needs of their consumers would survive. Observers of the Thatcher government had already seen public services privatized, such as the prison services, elements of the health service, and the rail infrastructure, so it should have been no surprise that post-compulsory education would go this way.

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While there was a move to create a free market for tertiary education which freed colleges from local (district) control, at the same time, the governments often looked to centralize its control and power over education through the introduction of increased regulation and legislation. Fukuyama (1992, p. 124) describes this as market-oriented authoritarianism where there is a high degree of “discipline” with just enough freedom to encourage innovation. The theory was that by bringing education into a free market system, a number of things would happen. Firstly, it was hoped that the education system would bring about efficiencies in the way it operated and in turn ensuring value for money for taxpayers. Secondly, just as competition in the manufacturing sector often drives down prices and pushes up quality, the quality in education would be “driven up” in the same way. Finally, Bash and Coulby (1991) argue that the idea of empowering colleges was less about freedom as autonomous organizations and more about reducing the power of local authorities, particularly the Inner London Education Authority. Based on this idea, it is easier to understand why when Labour came to power in 1997 they did not abolish the ideas of centralized control. Fukuyama’s (1992) idea of market-oriented authoritarianism was simply a way of achieving the best from the education system. Fukuyama (1992, p. 123) stated that “free market capitalism seemed to be the only game in town.” Ward and Eden (2009) remind us that the introduction of greater legislation and regulation in a quest to drive up quality and standards. Many of these pieces of legislation were implemented by an increasing number of nongovernment agencies; this move allowed for the outsourcing of key education targets while keeping an element of control over the delivery on such targets. Bobbitt (2002) suggests that this exonerates the government if targets are not met, effectively reducing their [government’s] responsibility. Despite all the changes in the tertiary education system, what has been a consistent theme through successive governments is the notion that the education system needs to produce individuals, which enable their own economies to remain competitive. Governments throughout the world saw

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further education as a principal mechanism by which this could be achieved. As a result of changes in global economies, national initiatives such as apprenticeships were developed as the primary method of up-skilling the workforce. However, Wolf (2004) notes that while there is a link between qualifications and economic productivity, it is not a linear assumption and that the social benefits of a higher-skilled workforce should not be overlooked. What this section of the entry has done is to provide an overview of the complexity of the policy context that tertiary education operates in. As the bridge between school and employment and/or higher education, further education is uniquely positioned to respond to the economic needs of the country. Yet at the same time, it is also at the mercy of government in terms of respond to their every changing policy needs. This means that the policy landscape for further education remains fluid in nature of changing in practice.

Homogenous Curricular Further and higher education institutions all claim to be unique, in terms of the curriculum they offer and the demographics of their learners, for example, serving learners who did not achieve well at school or who want to change career or indeed those who are furthest way from gaining sustained employment, due to a lack of skills or additional barriers to work. However, universities and colleges cannot all be unique in terms of the communities that they serve and the curricular they offer. Indeed if one were to look at the range of courses offered a vast majority of offered, particularly at the lower levels of the curriculum, they would be identical (Fig. 1).

Tertiary Education, Fig. 1 Curriculum map of colleges

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Figure 1 illustrates the way in which most colleges offer the same curriculum at the lower-level qualifications. The uniqueness that institutions often refer to can only realistically be achieved through courses at the higher level. Many students will attend their local college, not because of its unique curriculum offer, but its proximity to where they live. There will come a point when the student will need to move, possibly to another institution in order to pursue their chosen course at the higher levels. It is at this point where there are fewer institutions offering courses, usually vocational in nature. This is where a college or university curriculum becomes unique, and it is worth pointing out that not all colleges will have this unique element to it. Many colleges, which offer primarily academic programs such as mathematics or history, leading to university entry, are not unique in the context of their curriculum offer. One of the challenges that college face, and as a result of the competition that the government introduced, is balancing the financial viability of the organization with meeting the needs of the local economy. Unlike schools which recruit from a pre-defined geographical area, the tertiary education sector does not. Organizations have to market their courses in order to attract students and as such have to ensure that courses offered recruit sufficient number of students to ensure their financial viability. At the same time, colleges’ ability to respond to the needs of the local economy and population changes is compounded by the skills and abilities of their teachers. The ability to introduce new courses can require changes to staffing and resources which is often slow and costly. This makes many organizations within the further education sector appear slow and unresponsive to the needs of industry.

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This perceived slowness is where smaller private training providers have the competitive advantage over large colleges. These are privately owned companies who have gained government funding to offer education and training, normally apprenticeships. Typically, these organizations have significantly fewer staff and operate from smaller premises specializing in a specific occupational sector, such as construction or healthcare. As private companies, they are often more agile and proactive in seeking new business opportunities. However, with this agility comes a level of risk in part due to the lack of systems and processes in place to assure the quality of the education offered (Ofsted 2018). Regardless of whether institutions operating within the tertiary education sector are agile or not in their ability to respond to the needs of the local economy, they still operate within a quasistate-controlled system. This state-level control has the ability to limit and influence the curriculum offered. This reinforces that notion of a homogenous curriculum for many institutions.

Conclusion This entry has explored what is meant by tertiary education and revealed a sector that is as complex as it is diverse. There is a fuzziness at its boundaries overlapping with the schools, where FE provides education for those individuals of compulsory school age. Likewise, there is also an overlap with higher education whereby colleges provide degree-level courses. At the same time, college is at the behest of central government through the control and regulation that the state has over institutions. Regardless of the complexity of the tertiary education system, it continues to be an important part of the education landscape despite many successive governments not fully understanding the importance of the sector (Martin 2016). However, all too often, government sees tertiary education, and in particular further education, as being able to address the needs of the national economy through education and training. In part, this is true, but FE is reliant on other elements of the

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education system such as schools and higher education and cannot be seen as a panacea for fixing the economy of the state.

Cross-References ▶ Tertiary Education

References Augar P (2019) Review of post-18 education and funding. Stationary Office, London Ball S (2008) The education debate. Policy Press, Bristol Bash and Coulby (1991) Contradiction and conflict: the 1988 education act in action. Continuum International Publishing Bobbitt P (2002) The shield of Achilles. Penguin, London Calderon A (2018) Massification of higher education revisited. ReMIT, Melbourne Dugdale G, Clark C (2008) Literacy changes lives. National Literacy trust, London Fehring H, Herring K (2013) The working lives project: a window into Australian education and workforce participation. J Educ Work 26(5):494–513 Fukuyama F (1992) The end of history and the last man. Penguin, London Jameson J (2006) Leadership in post compulsory education. David Fullon Publishers, London Jameson J, Hillier Y (2003) Researching post-compulsory education. Continuum, London Jenkins S (2007) Thatcher and sons: a revolution in three acts. Penguin Books, London Kennedy H (1997) Learning works: widening participation in further education. FEFC, Coventry Martin W (2016) Successive governments’ policies have ‘failed’ FE, claims former skills minister. Times Educational Supplement. https://www.tes.com/news/success ive-governments-policies-have-failed-fe-claims-formerskills-minister Ofsted (2018) Methodology note: the risk assessment of good and outstanding further education and skills providers. Ofsted, London UNESCO (2018) Tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8). Available online at: http://uis.unesco.org Ward S, Eden C (2009) Key issues in education policy. Sage, London Wolf A (2004) Education and economic performance: simplistic theories and their policy consequences. Oxford Rev Econ Policy 20(2):315–333 Wolf A (2011) Review of vocational education. Stationary Office, London World Bank (The) (2017) Tertiary education. World Bank. Available online at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/ topic/tertiaryeducation#what_why

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Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability

Introduction

Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability Petra Schneider1, Frido Reinstorf1 and Raúl F. Vázquez Z2 1 Department Water, Environment, Civil Engineering and Safety, University of Applied Sciences Magdeburg-Stendal, Magdeburg, Germany 2 Dirección de Investigación (DIUC), University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador

Synonyms Practice nexus; Research; Teaching

Definition According to Collin and Tynjälä (2003), the integration of theory and practice has been recognized as one of the key questions in the development of professional expertise and vocational competence. The integration of theory and practice supports a holistic view on economic, social, and environmental issues and highlights systemic thinking as well as theory-practice integration (TPI) in the educational context. A comprehensive approach to reach this scope is the TeachingResearch-Practice Nexus as framework for bridging potential gaps in education, that is, research and practice and teaching and practice, but also their interrelation with policy. TPI addresses sustainability in its whole dimension and is, as such, relevant for all SDGs. The global aim is anchoring sustainability in all dimensions of daily life as well as on all educational levels. SDG 4 is about quality education for all, and TPI is a powerful instrument on all educational levels including non-formal educational settings. Feasible tools for TPI implementation are knowledge transfer, the implementation of a knowledge value chain, cause-and-effect analysis, DPSIR analysis and indicator systems, standards and norms, best available technique (BAT), as well as cross-curricular teaching.

With the establishment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in September of 2015, the United Nations (UN) set out the framework for global development until 2030 (United Nations 2015). One of these goals is SDG 4 – Quality Education for all. SDG 4 supports the UNESCO World Action Program on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) 2015–2019 (UNESCO 2014). The ESD World Action Program follows a double strategy: on one hand, sustainable development shall be integrated as subject in educational programs on all levels, and, in parallel, education shall become a central part of sustainable development in practice. The conventional education programs need to be reoriented in terms of contents and methodologies to strengthen the role of education. The ESD World Action Program Roadmap summarized five priority fields: • Advancing policy by mainstreaming ESD • Transforming learning and training environments through whole institution approaches • Building capacities of educators and trainers • Empowering and mobilizing youth • Accelerating sustainable solutions at the local level ESD supports the development of dialogue capabilities, contextual knowledge, creative and critical thinking, as well as holistic learning under consideration of religious orientation and cultural values. A special focus is placed on social responsibility. It aims at taking responsibility for one’s own actions, to deal with uncertainties and contradictions, to solve problems, and to contribute to the formation of a democratic and cultural diverse society. ESD serves the implementation of Goal 4.7 of the United Nations SDGs, which states: “ensure by 2030 that all learners acquire the necessary skills and qualifications to promote sustainable development, including through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, a culture of peace and non-violence, world citizenship and the appreciation of cultural diversity and the contribution of culture to sustainable development.”

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Research / Investigation Descriptive theory

Teaching / Training

Gaps in theory

Practical difficulties „Solutions“

Rules, standards and techniques Qualitative and quantitative tools

Practice / Experience

Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 1 Methodological correlation among the components of the TRPN (Schneider et al. 2017, based on Kinney 1989)

ESD also plays an important role in relation to the implementation of all other SDGs because it requires a holistic view on economic, social, and environmental aspects, under the triple bottom line concept (Elkington 1997), in all fields of daily life. In this regard, educators have a wide responsibility to ensure a holistic teaching approach, which correspondingly requires their holistic formation as educators, a life-lasting learning process, which aims at reaching an equivalence between teaching, research, and practical activities, as expressed in the concept of the Teaching-Research-Practice nexus (TRPN) (Schneider et al. 2018). Nexus refers to a link or set of links that join two or more features or topics. TRPN (Fig. 1) was proposed as a framework for the implementation of sustainability in teaching, which leads to the consideration of an intensive practical component in teaching and research. TRNP reflects a practical application of the triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods in research and teaching, that is, the application of mixed methods (Moschner and Anschütz 2010; Ecarius and Miethe 2011), as summarized in Schneider et al. (2018). The methodological correlation within the components of the TRPN is based on the interaction and interrelation between the components teaching, research, and practice. While the teaching component depends on research, which delivers the descriptive theory for teaching,

educators can be the vectors for discovering gaps in theories. While researchers are dedicated to find solutions for unsolved problems, practitioners report difficulties in the practical implementation of theories to implement solutions. Educators teach the framework of qualitative and quantitative rules to their students to prepare them for their practical work, while practitioners develop rules, standards, and techniques, based on their practical experience that will be taught in educational programs for improving the practical experience of students that are supposed to be the future practitioners. The TRPN framework illustrates the teaching, research, and practice interrelations and the need for their inclusion in Higher Education (HE) sustainability learning programs. The practical TRNP implementation in teaching includes the sequence, observe, read, reflect, and joint evaluation, known as the Kolb learning cycle (Kolb 1984). This sequence follows the Deming management cycle (Deming 1982), including feedback loops, that accounts for the practical component for achieving a sustainable teaching effect. It is important to mention that the concept of the TRPN provides also an answer to the question of linking mechanisms (Schneider et al. 2018): research, teaching, and practice must be anchored in equal proportions to HE to be sustainable, although in reality there is often a lack of appropriate communication mechanisms (Grosu et al.

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2015). Setting the focus on problem-oriented and case-based teaching and learning, the students will learn how to act from an interdisciplinary and problem-related viewpoint to achieve sustainable solutions (Schneider et al. 2018). Modern didactic formats are research and service learning. Service learning is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates a meaningful nonprofit service with lessons and reflection to enrich the learning experience (Gerholz et al. 2015). Service Learning combines cognitive learning with the assumption of responsibility in the learning process (Seifert and Zentner 2010). Research Learning describes a didactic concept in which the individual phases of research processes are an essential part of learning approaches (Tremp and Futter 2012; Brew and Jewell 2012). For the university level, this commences already at the bachelor’s level (Bartz-Beielstein 2006). Research learning has several sub-types: research-based teaching and learning (Zeichner 1983; van den Broek 2012), research-informed teaching and learning (Graham-Matheson 2010; Gresty et al. 2013), and research-enriched teaching and learning (Beecher and Sweeney 2008). The research-based approach considers that the knowledge base of the study program is dynamic and that the student or teacher is an active processor of that knowledge (Zeichner 1983). Furthermore, inquiry-based learning inspires students to learn by themselves, bringing a real research-oriented approach to the table (Dostál 2015; Bell et al. 2010; Aditomo et al. 2013). It is important including the innovation that results from research into teaching, ensuring in this way a permanent actualization of the teaching content. Further, it is important to ensure the theorypractice integration (TPI) of teaching and learning. Enhancing sustainability in HE considers TPI as a crosscutting approach.

for the development of teaching and learning practices on sustainable development all over the world and on all educational levels (Leal Filho and Salomone 2006; Cambers et al. 2008). In parallel, other international institutions, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), also highlighted the need for the implementation of sustainability in teaching programs. In this entry, in 2008, the OECD pointed out the following priorities for teaching based on sustainable development: (1) developing strategies for education for sustainable development; (2) devising curricula for education for sustainable development; (3) promoting sustainable schools; and (4) educating for sustainable consumption. Further, the OECD also suggested a general curriculum framework for ESD (Table 1). As reflected in Table 1, teaching in HE as tertiary educational level requires the integration of inter- and transdisciplinary knowledge, including participatory processes, which also consider social aspects. The focus of the general curriculum framework is on courses, concepts, systems, measurement, and practices, highlighting in this way the issues to be considered in teaching for sustainable development (Schneider et al. 2018).

Dimensions of Theory-Practice Integration (TPI)

Secondary Level According to the international standard classification of education (ISCED), the secondary education level has two phases, namely, lower and upper secondary education. Following the triple bottom line concept (Elkington 1997), the integration of

General Remarks The UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005–2014 initiated the activities

Primary Level The primary education level typically describes elementary education, which is the first stage of formal education, coming after preschool. Already at this level, according to Elkington (1997), the triple bottom line should get kids familiar with the pillars of sustainability. At primary schools, single pillars are taught broadly in general lessons. Also at the primary level, TPI is applicable, although the didactic approach is more playful and illustrative, and the didactic means must be appropriate for that age group.

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Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Table 1 General curriculum framework for ESD (OECD 2008) Educational level Primary School Secondary School

Tertiary

Courses Single pillars taught broadly in general lessons Integration of two (or more) pillars taught in existing courses (e.g. social studies) Integration of three pillars taught in stand-alone units (sustainable development studies)

Concepts a) Economic b) Environment c) Social a) Economic/ environment b) Economic/ social c) Social/ environment a) Economic/ environment and social b) Intergenerational concerns c) Participatory processes

Systems a) Markets b) Ecosystems c) Society a) Carbon trading b) Human capital c) Transport

a) Sustainable development strategies (NSDS) b) Sustainable consumption and production strategies (SCP) c) Education for sustainable development strategies (ESD)

Measurement a) Wealth b) Eco-footprints c) Voters a) Costs of climate inaction b) Income distribution c) Measures of Well-being a) Capital-based indicators b) Sustainability indices c) Sustainability impact assessments

Practices a) Fundraising b) Eco-schools c) Citizenship a) Green entrepreneurs b) Poverty reduction c) Fair trade a) Sustainable production b) Sustainable consumption c) Corporate responsibility

two (or more) pillars shall be taught in existing courses (OECD 2008), e.g., social studies. TPI is also of relevance in the secondary education level, for example, the senior secondary school phases and also in non-formal educational settings.

Important is also a reorientation and training of educators on the approaches for linking theory and practice, as well as inter- and transdisciplinarily (Barth and Rieckmann 2012).

Tertiary Level Tertiary level describes education at university level, which follows the upper secondary education as crowning stage. The integration of three pillars is taught in stand-alone units, preferably as sustainable development studies (OECD 2008). The triple bottom line (Elkington 1997) forms the backbone of the OECD (2008) general curriculum framework for ESD, which was complemented by Roetman and Daniels (2011) as the quadruple bottom line (QBL) that is referring to cultural aspects, which are missing in the triple bottom line and are summarized in the section “Adding purpose to the mix.” This approach assumes that sustainable development includes cultural continuity and the development of cultural well-being. Introducing cultural aspects through the QBL into the sustainability teaching provides an upgraded view on the linking concept of Elkington (1997).

Integration Strategies Overview of Types of Potential Barriers and Connecting Strategies To establish a holistic approach for the implementation of sustainability in HE through TPI, it is necessary to remove potential barriers or gaps, which hinder a systemic thinking on all levels. To do so, the following relations of the TPI triangle are analyzed in terms of the scope of their integration: • • • • • • •

Relation between research and practice Relation between teaching and practice Relation between teaching and policy Relation between research and policy Relation between practice and policy Relation between research and teaching Transdisciplinarily integration of subjects

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Bridging strategies and methodologies might be considered in curricula development. Feasible tools that can be applied in the framework of educational programs are needed to overcome potential barriers; these are presented in what follows. Integrating Research and Practice: Knowledge Transfer Numerous countries are forcing knowledge transfer from science to practice to boost their economy, i.e., for developing new products or services. This particular aspect illustrates in turn gaps of research – practice bridging: much less knowledge transfer to practice occurs in the context of social sciences as no immediate economic outcomes are expected. Political participation is a field that was developed in the last decades through knowledge transfer and practical application. It stands for “learning by doing” and refers to the involvement and cooperation of individuals or groups in development and decision processes, in activities affecting politics, etc. It includes both taking part and having a say. An example is the participation of the general public in environmental and social impact assessments (ESIA), which has been implemented as a political participation process in the last decades. The means to explain to the general public a successful participation process are related to research on the degree of institutional openness to include citizens in decision-finding and decision-making processes (Lijphart 1999; Christensen 2011). The so-called power-sharing

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systems cultivate responsiveness toward people’s interests and demands, offer ways to achieve goals by working in the system, and thus emphasize citizens’ involvement in political decisions (Norris 2008). Practically, this stands for TPI through knowledge transfer. At primary education level knowledge transfer also plays a fundamental role, with the didactic style of its application of importance. Figures 2 and 3 show knowledge transfer during a playful teaching lesson on the water cycle and how such basically scientific knowledge can be transferred into a practical understanding for scholars at primary education level. It is important to use appropriate tools and didactic means for knowledge transfer. Practically this means illustrative and conclusive didactic material, particularly for teaching on the primary education level; see Fig. 4. Referring to the secondary education level, appropriate tools and didactic means for knowledge transfer are necessary as well, being suitable for senior secondary school phases and nonformal educational settings. An example is given in Fig. 5, which shows non-formal educational material on ecosystem services, expressed through the ecological cycle of bees. The educational means are installed at the zoo of Magdeburg City (Germany), being generally available for all visitors to the zoo, representing a non-formal educational approach on senior secondary school level, but which might cover the majority of visitors to the zoo.

Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 2 Teaching the water cycle at primary education level through simplified knowledge transfer

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Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 3 Tools for teaching the water cycle at primary education level through simplified knowledge transfer

T Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 4 Illustrative didactic material for teaching the water cycle at primary education level

At the tertiary education level, knowledge transfer means to enable students to apply acquired knowledge themselves through practical application for problem-solving. Figure 6 shows exemplarily knowledge transfer through practical teaching of river restoration. Each student is required to determine the species community in

the river (Fig. 6, left) and to take part in the topographical survey (Fig. 6, right). Integrating Teaching and Practice: The Knowledge Value Chain The integration between teaching and practice in HE is done through the implementation of

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Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 5 Non-formal educational material on ecosystem services, expressed through the ecological cycle of bees at the zoo of Magdeburg City (Germany)

Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 6 Teaching river restoration at tertiary education level through practical knowledge transfer

practical session periods into the curricula of teaching programs. Usually, both sides benefit from this cooperation as students get the opportunity to practice research and inquiry-based learning. This can happen through seminars, but also through practice in the field, laboratories, companies, as well as government offices, etc. The fundamental scope of these activities is to teach systemic thinking in order to understand interrelations causing processes and their consequences. The knowledge is manifested through repetition of activities, after which students will be confident with the activity. The basis of systemic thinking is feedback loops, helping to understand the structuring of operational processes and procedures (Schneider et al. 2018). Weggeman (1996, 2010) transferred the concept of feedback loops to knowledge transfer and developed the knowledge value chain (Fig. 7). A knowledge value chain in the business sector is a sequence of intellectual tasks by which

knowledge workers build their employer’s unique competitive advantage (Carlucci et al. 2004) and/or social and environmental benefit. Considering the foundations of the sustainability triangle, the knowledge value chain approach forms a tool to foster sustainability in knowledge management. The knowledge value chain represents transfer of a technique to teaching, which has proven itself in practice. Referring to this, McElroy (2003) highlighted the components of the new knowledge management: complexity, learning, and sustainable innovation. The knowledge value chain forms the basis for knowledge management in theory and practice. It is a management strategy, which uses the approach of qualitative improvement according to the Deming cycle (Deming 1982), a methodology that is based on continuous improvement. The knowledge value chain fosters continuous improvement through the development of knowledge and its sharing via continuous evaluation for

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Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 7 The model of the knowledge value chain (Weggeman 2000, with kind permission of Weggeman 2017)

identification of the necessary knowledge. For the integration of teaching and practice, knowledge on the continuously increasing economic requirements is transferred to teachers so that they prepare students adequately for coping with these economic requirements. In parallel, teachers provide recent knowledge to students, who apply this knowledge to boost development in general. Integrating Teaching and Policy: Cause-andEffect Analysis Integrating teaching and policy means teaching to students the framework of applicable regulations and the resulting policies through the explanation of political motivation and strategies and resulting effects of the applied regulations. A feasible tool for this is cause-and-effect analysis, also called root cause analysis, a diagram-based technique helping to identify all of the potential causes of problems (Ishikawa 1968, 1990). Although it was originally developed as a quality control tool, the technique is also suitable for other purposes such as the following: • • • •

Understand interrelations between processes. Discover the root cause of a problem. Uncover bottlenecks in a process. Identify where and why a process is not working.

An Ishikawa or fishbone diagram (Fig. 8), also called cause-and-effect diagram, is a visualization

tool for categorizing the potential causes of a problem aiming at identifying its root causes (Ishikawa 1968, 1990). It covers the categories (Fig. 8) “Equipment,” “Process,” “People,” “Materials,” “Environment,” and “Management.” A recent field where cause-and-effect analysis is applied to conclude feasible policies is climate change. A comprehensive regulatory framework can be developed only if all causes of a phenomenon are apparent. Vice versa, through a causeand-effect diagram, one can visualize complex processes and explain them within the scope of a teaching process. Integrating Research and Policy: DPSIR Analysis and Indicator Systems Going a step further than cause-and-effect analysis for policy assessment, the DPSIR framework (drivers, pressures, state, impact, and response model of intervention) was developed to characterize relationships between environmental stressors and environmental and socioeconomic impacts (Armijo et al. 2011; OECD 1993; Linser 2002) and to develop policy responses. The DPSIR framework is applied in practice through indicators, in contrast to the cause-and-effect quantifiable analysis. This is also the motivation for the need of science and policy integration: the indicators must be developed and validated, an activity that can only be achieved through scientific research. The DPSIR framework is a causal chain made up of the following factors:

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Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 8 Illustration of a cause-and-effect diagram

• Driving forces (causes): activities that may cause pressure on the environment • Pressures: resulting pollution • State: state of environmental factors • Impact: specific effects caused by environmental factors • Responses: responses to pollution Sustainability assessment approaches focus on economic, ecological, and social aspects of systems, which are referred to as the pillars or spheres of sustainability. Laws et al. (2004) analyzed how some of the world’s leading engineers and natural scientists understand sustainable development. Most of them, as for instance Lang et al. (2007), defined this concept as an ongoing inquiry process, which (i) assures “the maintenance of a system within functional limits” and (ii) induces “an ethical relationship with the past and the future.” Figure 9 depicts a DPSIR framework analysis for the assessment of the stressors to ecosystems and their services (Schneider and Lüderitz 2018). Integrating Practice and Policy: Standards and Norms, Best Available Technique (BAT) Integrating practice and policy means that regulations are made to permit a seamless functioning of

practical processes, usually through standards and norms. The highest quality form of a standard or norm is the best practice, a technique or methodology that, through experience and research, has been proven to reliably lead to a desired result. Best practices are used to maintain quality as an alternative to mandatory legislated standards and can be based on self-assessment or benchmarking. The further step of best practice is the application of the best available techniques (BAT), the most effective and advanced stage in the development of an activity and its methods of operation (Evrarda et al. 2016). Standards, norms, and BATs are typically applied in engineering. In Europe, the BAT reference documents (BREFs) have been adopted under both the Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention Control IPPC (2008/1/EC) and the IED Industrial Emissions Directive (IED, 2010/75/EU). Each document generally gives information on a specific industrial sector in the EU, on the techniques and processes used in this sector, current emission and consumption levels, techniques to consider in the determination of BAT, and emerging techniques. BAT refers to operating facilities. Good operating practice (GOP) is a strategic management term. The term best environmental practice (BEP)

Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 9 DPSIR framework for the assessment of the stressors to ecosystems and their services (Schneider and Lüderitz 2017)

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means the application of the most appropriate combination of environmental control measures and strategies (Evrarda et al. 2016). The role of HE is to maintain students updated about the latest standards, norms, and BATs, that is, performing knowledge transfer through teaching and learning. This means not only that the teaching aspect is at stake, but it can be also verified how effective this is in the learning experience of the students. Integrating Research and Teaching: TeachingResearch Nexus Several papers about the Teaching-Research nexus (Stappenbelt 2013; Mohamedunni Alias Musthafa and Sajila 2014; Geschwind and Broström 2015) have been published, which focuses on the integration of teaching and research on all educational levels. The majority of universities implement this kind of interrelation and interaction, and usually use research methods in the practical work associated with seminars. Still, sometimes the backward relation from

Integration of Transdisciplinarily Subjects: Cross-curricular Teaching Cross-curricular teaching applies knowledge, skills, and competences to more than one subject area simultaneously with the rationale of forming autonomous citizens, responsible and with public spirit, intended for a democratic, inclusive, and fair society. Amadio (2013) identified at least 88 countries/jurisdictions that make reference to core competences and skills that students are expected to develop across curriculum areas, disciplines, and subjects (Fig. 10). There is a strong need to interlink different teaching subjects as for instance dealing with

100 90

Frequency [-]

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 C So om ci mu al n co ica Pr mp tion ob e le ten m c so e D lv ig ita Cr ing l c ea om tiv pe ity te C N n iv um ce i c Ba co er si m ac c co C pet y ol en m C labo ce In pet r it fo en r rm ce En ica atio at tre l th n s io i pr ink n ns en in pr cie eu g oc rs es nce h si ng and Lit ip an te era d ch cy en no En vi Le qu log ro i nm arn re s y i n en g kil ta to ls l a le w ar ar n en es s

Theory-Practice Integration and Sustainability, Fig. 10 Relative frequency of references to selected cross-curricular competences/skills calculated from the results of 88 questionnaires. (After Amadio 2013)

teaching to research is missing and needs to get more attention. Practically, the TeachingResearch nexus implies to enable students to get involved in research projects and to support ongoing research projects through, for instance, laboratory work, etc. It also implies integrating research results into teaching activities.

Cross-curricular competence

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scientific and cultural issues or scientific and economic issues. In this context, engineering curricula usually contain at least 20% of nonengineering subjects, but very often, these subjects are not integrated with the engineering content. This barrier could be overcome through implementation of cross-curricular teaching.

TPI Case Study The TPI implementation depicted in this case study took place through the curricula of the master (MSc.) Program “Ecological Engineering” that is taught at the University of Applied Sciences Magdeburg-Stendal, which was recently reaccredited by the German Ministry of Education (Schneider and Lüderitz 2018). The Program was established in 2003 and is one of the two available (MSc.) Programs in Ecological Engineering in Germany. The following sub-sections discuss the integration strategies and methodologies referred to in this entry, taking the referred to MSc. Program as case study. The curriculum includes the development of scientific projects through which students carry out research activities as well as project design and development. These research projects include: • Assessment of the biological status of rivers • A life cycle analysis of a product of a nonrenewable resource • Assessment of flooding occurring in a catchment Students work in groups (of usually three students) and thereby also get social competences. They work in both the field as well as the computer laboratory (simulating management/planning scenarios). Teaching and Practice Integration Throughout the study period, there are several practical courses, particularly Biotechnology, Aquatic Chemistry, Hydrology, and Modelling. The practical activities for the subjects Biotechnology and Aquatic Chemistry are conducted, respectively, at biotechnology and chemical

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laboratories. For the Hydrology course, practical activities are carried out in the field, while for the Modelling course, they are conducted in the computer laboratory. This approach is a typical knowledge value chain: transfer of a technique to teaching, which has proven to work in practice. Further, the students prepare a planning task in civil engineering with regard to the project on the biological status of rivers, for which they design the measures to reduce the stressors in the catchment. Usually, this task comprises an engineering planning subject on river rehabilitation to enhance fish migration. Teaching and Policy Integration In the Ecological Engineering MSc. Program, there is a focus on policies and authorization procedures, particularly for environmental studies. Practically, students are taught how authorization procedures work and how the respective inspection by government officials is implemented. Having gained that knowledge, the students learn how to prepare an environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the abovementioned engineering planning project and must publicly defend the EIA; the audience for this defense includes representatives of the respective authorities. EIA comprises a classical cause-and-effect analysis approach, which motivates students to assess effects and impacts of activities and projects, and how these effects are considered within authorization procedures. Cross-Curricular Teaching Cross-curricular teaching plays a significant role in the MSc. Program in Ecological Engineering and has several dimensions, including environmental awareness. In view of SDG 4, crosscurricular teaching receives attention as well. Working in research groups (of usually three students), students develop communication and collaboration skills as well as social competences and creativity for problem-solving. Students also learn to develop digital competences (ICT) through the application of models and the development of competences in science and technology. Their implication in the development of research projects opens their minds for acquiring

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skills related to information processing and enquiry. Through the teaching of critical thinking, they get prepared in the field of responsible citizenship as well. As a result, students are motivated to acquire and expand their competences. Another important aspect in the curricula of the MSc. Program is developing cultural competences through the transdisciplinary learning approach and the contact with foreign students. Cultural diversity is further supported by the preparation of international transdisciplinary projects. The practical experiences gained with the implementation of the TPI approach into the MSc. Program in Ecological Engineering (Magdeburg University, Germany) is to be used in the context of the Erasmus+ financed project “Water Management and Climate Change in the Focus of International Master Programs (WATERMAS)” (Reinstorf et al. 2019), conducting knowledge transfer to Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) in the field of water and ecological engineering under climate change considerations. The LAC region suffers severely from climate change impacts, and existing related local MSc. Programs need a TPI teaching approach for the development of mitigation and adaptation strategies, aiming at forming future local experts who will be the practitioners for implementation of climate adaptation strategies in their respective countries.

Conclusions At institutions of HE, lectures and related seminars are common didactic settings when it comes to teaching theory, which are usually supported by practical references and might not be sufficient for TPI implementation as long as it remains verbal (Meier 2006). This contribution highlighted a set of tools for TPI implementation in teaching programs of HE. Anyhow, the key figure in this process is the teacher and his TPI capability. Meier (2006) proposed the term “theoryutilization competence” for teachers, a thinking and communicative ability, having forwardlooking, retrospective, and explanatory dimensions. The knowledge of relevant scientific theories (specialist, didactic, educational knowledge)

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is only one condition for practicing a profession. Theory-utilization competence refers to the connection between what the teacher plans, does, has made, experienced, or observed, a background knowledge (which also includes experimental knowledge), and, consequently, the openness for TPI. To operationalize theory-utilization competence, according to Meier (2006), some central conditions have to be met in the teacher’s professionalization, i.e., (a) training teachers on guiding ideas or standards to use theory for practice; (b) training teachers on didactical resources; (c) availability of a corresponding repertoire of methods; and (d) teachers and practitioners who are appropriately trained or qualified. Besides these, ICT plays an important role. Growing attention has been given in the last years to e-learning in HE (Ellis et al. 2009). Practically, e-learning can fundamentally support TPI implementation as it provides efficient tools for knowledge transfer and the assessment of knowledge value chains.

Cross-References ▶ Applied Education for Sustainable Development: A Case Study with Plastic Resource Education ▶ Critical Thinking ▶ Future Trends in Education ▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework ▶ Implementation of Active Learning for Improving Quality of Education in Rural Areas ▶ Learning Environments: A Holistic Approach Toward Regeneration and Sumbiosity ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research ▶ Skill-Building Process and Strategies for Development Acknowledgments The current manuscript was prepared in the context of the development of the project “Water Management and Climate Change in the Focus of International Master Programs (WATERMAS),” funded by the Erasmus+ Program of the European Union. In this regard, this manuscript reflects only the views of the authors; as such, the European Union cannot be held responsible for these views or any future use of them.

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904 Lijphart A (1999) Patterns of democracy: government forms and performance in thirty-six countries. Yale University Press, New Haven Linser S (2002) Critical analysis of the basics for the assessment of sustainable development by indicators. Schriftenreihe Freiburger Forstliche Forschung, vol 17. Forstwirtschaftliche Fakultät der Universität Freiburg und Forstliche Versuchs- und Forschungsanstalt Baden-Württemberg, Freiburg McElroy M (2003) The new knowledge management: complexity, learning and sustainable innovation. Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington Meier A (2006) Theorienutzungskompetenz als Schlüsselqualifikation von Lehrkräften. Überlegungen zu einem Grundauftrag von Pädagogischen Hochschulen. In: Nakamura Y et al (eds) Theorie versus Praxis? Pestalozzianum, Zürich, pp 89–106 Mohamedunni Alias Musthafa MN, Sajila KM (2014) Reconsidering the teaching–research nexus in higher education. High Educ Future 1(2):123–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347631114539871 Moschner B, Anschütz A (2010) Kombination und Integration von qualitativen und quantitativen Forschungsmethoden in einem interdisziplinären Forschungsprojekt. In: Diethelm I, Dörge C, Hildebrandt C, Schulte C (eds) Didaktik der Informatik - Möglichkeiten empirischer Forschungsmethoden und Perspektiven der Fachdidaktiken. 6. Workshop der GI-Fachgruppe DDI in Oldenburg. Köllen Verlag, Bonn, pp 11–20 Norris P (2008) Driving democracy: do power-sharing institutions work? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/New York OECD (1993) OECD core set of indicators for environmental performance reviews e a synthesis report by the group on state of the environment. Environmental monographs, vol 83. Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), Paris OECD (2008) Curriculum framework for teaching on sustainable development. www.oecd.org/greengrowth/ 41372200.pdf Reinstorf F, Schneider P, Rodriguez Tejeda R, Santos Roque L, Vazquez RF (2019) Water management and climate change in the focus of international master programs in Latin America and the Caribbean. In: Leal Filho W., Barbir J., Preziosi R. (eds) Handbook of Climate Change and Biodiversity. Climate Change Management. Springer, Cham, pp. 1–23. ISBN: 978-3319-98680-7, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31998681-4_1 Roetman PEJ, Daniels CB (2011) Creating sustainable communities in a changing world. Adelaide: Crawford House Publishing, p. 262 Schneider P, Lüderitz V (2018) Integration of Ecosystem Services as Part of the Nexus Approach into the Applied Teaching of Ecological Engineering. In: Leal, W. (eds) Handbook of Sustainability Science and Research. World Sustainability Series, pp 369–387.

Training https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63007-6_22. ISBN: 978-3-319-63006-9 (online first 2017) Schneider P, Folkens L, Busch M (2018) The TeachingResearch-Practice Nexus as Framework for the Implementation of Sustainability in Curricula in Higher Education. In: Leal Filho W. (eds) Implementing Sustainability in the Curriculum of Universities. World Sustainability Series. Springer, Cham, pp. 113–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31970281-0_8. ISBN: 978-3-319-70280-3 (online first 2017) Seifert A, Zentner S (2010) Service-learning – Lernen durch Engagement: Methode, Qualität, Beispiele und ausgewählte Schwerpunkte, Eine Publikation des Netzwerks Lernen durch Engagement. Freudenberg Stiftung, Weinheim Stappenbelt B (2013) The effectiveness of the teaching–research nexus in facilitating student learning. Eng Educ 8(1):111–121. https://doi.org/10.11120/ ened.2013.00002 Tremp P, Futter K (2012) Forschungsorientierung in der Lehre: Curriculare Leitlinie und studentische Wahrnehmungen. In: T. Brinker & P. Tremp. (Hrsg.). Einführung in die Studiengangentwicklung (S. 69–80). Bielefeld: Bertelsmann Verlag United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations – Sustainable Development knowledge platform. 25 Sept 2015 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2014) Roadmap for Implementing the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development. Available online: https://en.unesco.org/fieldoffice/beirut/ESD. Accessed 10 Oct 2019 van den Broek G (2012) Innovative research-based approaches to learning and teaching. OECD education working papers, no. 79. OECD Publishing. https://doi. org/10.1787/5k97f6x1kn0w-en Weggeman MCDP (1996) Knowledge management: the modus operandi for a learning organization on increasing the yield of the knowledge production factor. In: Schreinemakers JF (ed) Knowledge management – organizational competence and methodology. Würzburg, Ergon-Verlag Weggeman MCDP (2000) Kennismanagement: de praktijk. Scriptum, Schiedam Zeichner KM (1983) Alternative paradigms of teacher education. J Teach Educ 34(3):3–9

Training ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues

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Definition

Transcendence ▶ Spirituality for Sustainable, Inclusive, and Equitable Education

Transdisciplinary ▶ Future Trends in Education

Transdisciplinary Thinking ▶ Holistic Thinking and the Worldviews-Based Learning Framework

Transformative Capabilities ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals Vanessa Odell1, Petra Molthan-Hill2, Stephen Martin3 and Stephen Sterling4 1 NTU Green Academy, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK 2 Nottingham Business School/NTU Green Academy, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK 3 Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of West of England, Bristol, UK 4 Centre for Sustainable Futures/PedRIO, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Synonyms Climate change education; Education for Sustainable Development; Quality education; SDGs; Transformative learning

Transformative education in this entry builds on published works by Mezirow (1978, 2018). It is understood as a process by which individuals acquire knowledge and skills that go beyond ensuring the individual learner is successful in their future careers. It can provide learners with the value orientation, skills, and motivation to contribute to the well-being of the global community. It enables them to contribute to our collective survival during uncertain times by equipping them with the knowledge and skills to address the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNESCO 2016a). In this context, the aim of transformative education is to prepare learners to take transformative actions to address the unsustainability of our current socioeconomic model that influences educational policy and practice, through transformative stages of learning in both formal and informal educational settings.

Introduction Education is recognized as essential to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The critical role education plays in pursuing sustainable development has been highlighted since the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Subsequently, there have been several initiatives which seek to prioritize education and learning for sustainability, in particular, the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005–2014, led by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Its main aim was to encourage governments and policymakers to integrate the principles and practices of sustainable development into all forms of education and learning. Following the decade, action was scaled up via the Global Action Plan between 2014 and 2019, to be followed by the 2020–2030 framework, Education for Sustainable Development: Towards achieving the SDGs. While the relevance of education in achieving sustainable development has been recognized in the global SDG framework in SDG 4: Quality Education,

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education targets can be found in many of the other global goals including Good Health and Wellbeing (SDG 3.7), Gender Equality (SDG 5.6), Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8.6), Responsible Consumption and Production (SDG 12.8), and Climate Action (SDG 13.3). Bengtsson et al. (The World in 2050 2018) noted that quality education is increasingly being recognized as not just an individual goal but as a means to reach the other global goals too; therefore, education should be seen as an essential feature in the strategies to achieve the other 16 SDGs (UNESCO 2016b). Target 4.7 is pivotal in promoting the importance of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and seeks to ensure that all learners receive education and training that develops their knowledge and skills to act and respond to our unsustainable lifestyles. This entry provides an overview of transformational learning theory which explores the processes that are essential for learners if they are to progress and support the achievement of all the SDGs. It will go beyond traditional and existing educational discourse that manifests change through policy, provision, and practice, to seek answers to the purpose of education and to question the current political and economic paradigm in which education operates. Looking beyond 2019, UNESCO (2019) has outlined three key notions to progress ESD: transformative action, structural changes, and technological future. While technology is an important aspect of sustainable development, especially when determining advantages and disadvantages of the impact of technologies in the future economy, this entry will focus on the transformations needed in power structures and embedded values in society to achieve SDG 4.7. While all SDGs could have been discussed in detail in this entry, two were chosen to demonstrate how they impact transformative education.

The Education 2030 Agenda Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is a universal plan of action that calls upon every nation including all governments and citizens in the world, to take

transformative measures to meet the UN’s 17 SDGs, which no country is yet fully achieving. In order to attain the SDGs, six major transformations have been proposed: human capacity and demography; consumption and production; decarbonization and energy; food, biosphere, and water; smart cities; and digital revolution (The World in 2050 2018). Human capacity and demography refer to improvements in education, skills capacity, and healthcare. Education’s role is to make certain that every country has the capacity to deliver a program of lifelong learning, ensuring that every person has the skills to innovate and is prepared for an uncertain and complex future. To reach major transformations in human capacity and demography, ambitions for educational systems are posed by SDG 4: “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.” This quality education goal builds on the lessons from the Dakar Framework for Action 2010 Education for All Goals, which coexisted with and supported the Millennium Development Goals. Through recapitulating and expanding on the previous goals, SDG 4 has widened the scope to ensure all citizens have access to basic education and that all countries create inclusive and equitable opportunities. SDG 4 places significance on lifelong learning, in both formal and informal settings, and provides learners with the right knowledge and skills, through emphasizing quality learning outcomes at all levels of education (UNESCO 2016b). The guide to achieving this goal is laid out by the new Education 2030 Framework for action, set out in the seven underlying targets and three means of implementation. During May 2015, this framework was adopted by 184 UNESCO member states via the Incheon Declaration (UNESCO 2016a). Transformative Education in the Context of SDG 4.7 Goal 4.7 specifically covers the knowledge and skills learners must gain to achieve transformations in society and reach the global goals. By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through

Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development. (United Nations 2019)

This creates opportunities for transformative education to take place in that it recognizes the importance of allowing individual learners and communities to understand global issues and how to address them. UNESCO (2018) has reported that there have been improvements in moving toward the indicators of 4.7. However, they have also highlighted barriers to success, drawing attention to insufficient support for teacher training, reflecting challenges in high level policy commitment. Political priorities are among the top enabling factors to achieve this target, and in their absence, the potential for transformative education and the changes required to reach sustainable development are limited. UNESCO (2016c) has set out three differing political perspectives on sustainable development that influence policy commitments (see Table 1): those who see it as a model to improve current systems favoring economic growth; those who want major reforms to a green economy and technological innovation; and lastly a view which calls upon larger transformations, restructuring power and the embedded values of society. Current action plans such as the Incheon Declaration and the Education 2030 Framework for Action set out to develop and disseminate the good practice of the Global Action Plan with focus on strengthening current policies, plans, legislation and systems. Each calling on governments to invest more and scale up current approaches, which suggest Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals, Table 1 The three different perspectives of sustainable development (Table inspired by the Global Education Monitoring report, UNESCO 2016c) Perspectives 1.Traditional perspective 2.Reform perspective 3. Transformative perspective

Premises Improve current systems favoring economic growth Reform to a green economy and focus on technological innovation Restructure power and the embedded values of society

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the traditional and reform perspectives of sustainable development are being pursued. While it is recognized by UNESCO (2016c) that current education systems support unsustainable societies, also reflected in the work of Wals (2008), quality education is likely to be further developed within the constraints of the marketdriven frame of the current economic ideology. Thomas (2009, p. 248) supports the perspective that education that fits future needs must go beyond and be more sophisticated than a “more of same” approach. There is a need to recognize the influence that prevailing cultures have on ESD and critique the current mechanistic and reductionist paradigm that education sits within (Sterling 2001). For the larger transformations in the values of society and structures to take place, as recognized by the transformative perspective, there must be transformations in education.

Transformative Learning Being able to reflect on current knowledge and question the frameworks that education and sustainable development are operating under strongly aligns with the elements of transformative learning. The concept of transformative learning was coined in 1978 by Jack Mezirow, to challenge students (and teachers) to be more critical of their own assumptions and beliefs that shape their frames of reference or worldview and act on new transformed perspectives. Mezirow (2018) contends that due to our preconceptions, of which we may or may not be aware, we tend to reject ideas that do not fit our current frame of reference. By providing learners the ability to reassess frames of reference, transformational learning is believed to make learners “more inclusive, discriminating, open, reflective, and emotionally able to change” (Mezirow 2003, p. 58), which is needed if we are going to give the learners the ability to overcome the current problems of today’s unsustainable societies. He also makes the connection that the processes of education are functions of culture, comprising of what is taught, when, where, and how (2018). Therefore, applying transformational learning

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theory is conducive to the reassessment of contextually cultural factors such as the dominant economic ideology. Mezirow (2018, pp. 117–118) outlines the process of transformative learning as follows: • Reflecting critically on the source, nature, and consequences of relevant assumptions – our own and those of others. • In instrumental learning, determining that something is true (is as it is purported to be) by using empirical research methods. • In communicative learning, arriving at more justified beliefs by participating freely and fully in an informed continuing discourse. • Taking action on our transformed perspective – we make a decision and live what we have come to believe until we encounter new evidence, argument, or a perspective that renders this orientation problematic and requires reassessment. These processes are not linear and can happen in any combination. They allow learners to become more critical to their own and other’s frames of reference, giving learners emancipation in the discourse and the self-determination to act on transformed insight. Transformative learning can be applied to critically evaluate the frames of reference education operates within. It can ensure that we understand the challenges of the SDGs and the kinds of global collaboration needed in order to balance the synergies and trade-offs within and between the global goals. Based on a systems view of thought (Bohm 1992), Sterling (2003, 2010, Fig. 1) has developed a framework to outline the “levels of knowing” which could apply to both individual learning and collective/cultural knowing. It demonstrates that deeper levels of knowing such as worldview influence those above, including the more immediate levels at the top such as actions taken, so that learning can take place at different “levels of knowing.” In this context Sterling (2010) also points out that every curriculum design is value driven whether the curriculum developers recognize it or not. Transformative learning makes this explicit and reaches the deeper levels of knowing

Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals, Fig. 1 Levels of knowing (Sterling 2010)

to give way to transformative action that can help make the transformations in human capacity to attain the SDGs. Climate and Ecological Breakdown Sterling (2001, 2019) has critically explored the dominant mechanistic/reductionist educational paradigm to find that it is an inadequate fit for the kind of systematic world we live in today, where we are witnessing climate and ecological breakdown, interdependence, and increasing complexity. In this section the focus will be on the climate crisis (SDG 13) and on other SDGs with a focus on ecological challenges to illustrate in more detail some of the many challenges we face, which could be addressed by transformative education. The Earth’s relatively stable and safe operating space which has allowed humanity to flourish over the last 11,600 years may be no more. The timeframe of disruptive human activity has rapidly accelerated over the last 100 years, leading to unintended consequences. It is now being debated whether we have crossed over from the Holocene epoch to a new geological epoch by the “Anthropocene Working Group,” a working group of the “Sub-commission on Quaternary Stratigraphy of the International Commission on Stratigraphy” (Waters et al. 2018). As first emphasized by Crutzen and Stoermer (2009), mankind’s influence on the geology and ecology of Earth suggests we may have crossed over into the “Anthropocene.”

Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

In 2009, nine “planetary life-support systems” were identified by the Stockholm Resilience Centre (Rockström et al. 2009). They warned that crossing any of the nine boundaries could push Earth’s systems out of the relatively stable state. The boundaries of climate and land system change; biosphere integrity (genetic diversity) and biogeochemical cycles (phosphorous and nitrogen) are thresholds that have all been crossed, risking human well-being alongside the resilience of Earth’s natural systems. Rapid transformation of land and ocean use has led to spiralling degradation which are the main drivers of what is being referred to as the sixth mass extinction (Ceballos et al. 2015) as the health of Earth’s ecosystems rapidly deteriorate (IPBES 2019). During the last quarter of 2018, two major reports gave equal weighting to two major environmental crises. The WWF Living Planet Report (2018) highlighted the rapid loss of biodiversity; in the last 40 years, there has been a global reduction of invertebrates by 60%. The second was the IPCC 1.5  C report (2018), which emphasized the crisis of climate breakdown due to human-induced activities changing the atmosphere’s composition through the release of greenhouse gases. The report delineates exactly what the consequences are if rapid transformation is not taken immediately to limit global temperature to 1.5  C. There is certainly no lack of scientific evidence of the profound challenges humanity faces, nor is there any evidence of human activities slowing down fast enough to prevent further exacerbation of these crises. The Antarctic ice sheet gives an important indicator of climate breakdown and sealevel rise. A 1992–2017 assessment estimated that ice loss from West Antarctica has increased from 53  29 billion to 159  26 billion tonnes per year, a substantial increase over a 15-year period (The IMBIE Team 2018). The task for humankind is to apply intensive research and knowledge to reduce the human-induced activities that disrupt natural systems to not only bring about sustainability in ecosystems but also maintain economic development and human well-being while doing so. Given all the empirical evidence around the devastating human impact on climate and ecosystems, there is increasing support for transformation

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to take place. In March 2019, over 1.6 million children across the world took action into their own hands via school striking, sharing the belief that the educational and political systems are not responding to scientific information which forecasts a bleak future due to the continuation of our unsustainable societies and lifestyles (Fridays for Future 2019). More than Scaling Up Given the reality that ecological and climate breakdown is worsening, education has a role to play in bringing about a planetary response. Sterling (2014) argues that guides such as UNESCO Global Action Plan while important are limited by their omission of any critique of current practices and paradigms in the educational mainstream. While the SDG framework recognizes the quality of education being delivered and the importance of education in meeting all the global goals, it does not critique the current sociocultural paradigm that education exists within. Without a shift in this paradigm, Sterling (2001) argues that mainstream education will tend to accommodate and marginalize ESD as Western education systems reflect managerial and instrumental views, resting on a largely mechanistic and reductionist culture. The dominant neoliberal ideology underpinning most national economic policies sees governance interference as unwelcome, and the main goal of business is to maximize shareholder value. As our economic systems have been unable to respond to climate and ecological crises, so too have our educational systems. UNESCO (2016a) has recognized the need for a more humanistic and holistic approach to education; however, UNESCO tends to be weak in its critique of the dominant educational culture (Sterling 2017). Exploring the Current Economic Discourse The dominant global economic system is focused on continued economic growth, based on rising levels of consumption and reduced regulations. Each year the population increases by around 83 million (United Nations 2017), and as countries grow economically, they demand and consume more, exacerbating existing pressure on natural systems and resources. Through the continued

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growth of the gross domestic product (GDP), economies appear to be functioning well, as their only measure of success is growth. However, they are not functioning as well regarding social inclusion, as disparity in equality for the last three decades continues to deepen, where the poorest 40% of the population owns only 3% of global wealth and the richest 10% owns 50% of wealth (OECD 2015). Inequality can also be seen in education, as the poorest 40% struggles to gain access to quality education, not only spending less time in education, but they also achieve less when taught for the same amount of time as wealthier peers (Ibid). As countries try to address inequality, they may strengthen economic growth policies to narrow the gap. Inequality reduction has a major role in creating the transformations needed to achieve all the SDGs. In a recent report made for the Club of Rome (Randers et al. 2018), the Stockholm Resilience Centre concluded that it would be virtually impossible to prevent climate and ecological breakdown using conventional growth policies. They suggest that the only way to avoid this from happening is to adopt non-conventional policies including exponential growth in renewable technologies, accelerating sustainable food production, creating new models for growth in poorer countries, and actively reducing inequality through fair tax systems that ensure that the top 10% of the population do not own more than 40% of total wealth. Economically the case for action is clear as the World Resource Institute Report (2018) makes the case that the economic benefits of low-carbon, sustainable growth could deliver economic gains of at least US$26 trillion by 2030 in comparison to a “business-as-usual” approach. Political leadership is needed more than ever for immediate action to progress the transition to a sustainable global society in which the SDG framework can be successfully achieved. However, “business-as-usual” still prevails; as the situation stands today, many countries have weakened mechanisms to redistribute wealth (OECD 2015), while continually increasing support for fossil fuels. In 2017, global governments gave 300 billion USD worth of subsidies to fossil fuels (IEA 2017). Transformation calls for non-

conventional policies which must come from leadership that will ensure wealthier individuals and multinational corporations pay their share of tax through effective policies. Policies need to strengthen employment and quality work, provide gender equality, support quality education that equips people with lifelong skills, and improve the distribution of wealth through better designed tax and transfer systems (OECD 2015). Many are envisioning what a new socioeconomic paradigm could look like that is conducive to sustainable development in which the restoration of natural environments is central to new modern economic policies. Exploring a Transformational Economic Paradigm The origins of the words ecology and economy have their roots in the Greek word oikos (eco) referring to “house”; ecology, in short, is about the story of the home whereas economy refers to the management (Oxford Dictionaries 2019). The current economic narrative asserts that for environmental/ecological systems to be protected, economic growth and human prosperity must come first. However, holistic thinking recognizes that the management of the house is based on understanding the story of the house itself. To get our global home in order, the economy needs to sit inside its rightful place within ecology. Human activity has brought about disruption in the climate and ecological systems, which can be reconciled with human actions through a new cultural narrative. An emerging field of holistic thinking is bringing a vision of what the new narrative could look like; a recent report to the Club of Rome (Lovins et al. 2018) provides a powerful alternative to the current economic system. It highlights the need to address inequality and find other mechanisms for measuring success beyond GDP, along with a cultural value shift in society. Restoring natural environments needs to be central to modern economic policies; it has been defined as ‘economic vigor is a product of human and societal vitality, rooted in ecological health and the inclusive development of human capabilities and potential’ (Fullerton 2015, p. 40). The

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main distinction between current neoliberal economics and regenerative economics is that of GDP. Regenerative economics calls for a shift away from robust stable GDP growth goals to a focus on the health of societies and the planet’s ecosystems. Several reports and groups support this argument concluding that GDP is inadequate to measure quality of life (Costanza et al. 2014). Not only must our economies function within planetary boundaries, they must also ensure human well-being and dignity (Raworth 2017). Measures moving away from GDP are taking shape, such as the Better Life Index measuring different aspects of human well-being (OECD 2019). The Happy Planet Index measures countries’ environmental impact and wellbeing (New Economics Foundation 2006), and the Gross National Happiness Index in Bhutan influences policy making with not just socioeconomic concerns but a holistic view including ecological diversity and resilience (OPHI 2019). Transitioning to a sustainable global community is a process that is going to take time; to alleviate the pressure on ecological systems, we must accelerate the move to circular economies. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2019) has defined three guiding principles of a circular economy which are to design out waste and pollution, keep materials and products in use, and regenerate natural systems. They have also released several reports giving insights to the different opportunities of the circular economy in areas such as cities, food, plastics, consumer electronics, textiles, and much more. The catalyst to embark on the long transition to sustainable societies requires deep learning across society in which there needs to be mass public awareness and engagement, which can support a global citizen movement to strengthen corrective policies and support a cultural shift (Raskin 2008). In order to overcome the challenge of societies today to ensure that the SDGs are achievable brings into question what role education will play. Will it continue to operate within the constraints of the current economic frame, or will it nurture the opportunity to progress the value shift to sustainable societies?

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Education 2030: Achieving SDG 4.7 Fundamentally, it requires new ways of seeing the world, new ways of thinking about our responsibilities to each other and the planet, new ways of acting and behaving as global citizens. This is why education is the bedrock for sustainability, because it can shape the new values, skills and knowledge we need for the century ahead. Irina Bokova (former) Director General (UNESCO, 3, 2014).

As acknowledged by Irina Bokova, education is central to achieving sustainable development. Education 2030 aims for all individuals to acquire a solid foundation of knowledge and to develop skills such as creative and critical thinking, learning the importance of working collaboratively, while also fostering curiosity, courage, and resilience (UNESCO 2016a). For learners to be able to effect social changes to bring about a new set of values in the dominant culture, educators must set out the conditions for transformational learning to take place. Even though there had been several publications related to transformational learning theory, Taylor recognized in 1998 that transformational learning had not yet been clearly defined, understood, or investigated. In order to improve practice, Taylor sought clarity in this theory by reviewing theoretical and empirical literature, including the work of Mezirow, Boyd, and Freire (Taylor 1998). In this review he set out the essential conditions and techniques for fostering transformative learning, seeing educators as facilitators of learning. Educators should provide the learners with an environment in which they feel safe, and is open to encourage trust, where learner-centered pedagogy takes forefront to promote more learner autonomy, participation, and collaboration. The activities in place must then explore and reflect on differing perspectives, building problem-solving skills and critical thinking and requiring not only the learners to think critically but also the educators to think critically about their own curricula (Thomas 2009). Critical thinking has been highlighted as an essential skill; however, transformative learning goes beyond developing the mind. Jickling (2017) suggests that perhaps for transformations to take place, the learner must have an experience

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Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals, Table 2 Level of learning (Source: Sterling (2010), p. 25)

that is individually held, felt, and disruptive. It is important for learners to develop skills that are not being reflected in current assessments such as unconditional caring or empathy. In his paper on “Transformative Learning and Sustainability: Sketching the Conceptual Ground,” Sterling (2010) has outlined some of the challenges to achieve transformative learning. Building on the work of Bateson (1972), Sterling distinguishes between three orders of learning and change (see Table 2). The most transformative is the third-order change, where the learner must reflect on his/her own worldview rather than reflect within his/her worldview. Designing such learning experiences (which address the transformational level of knowing in Fig. 1) is much harder than designing learning experiences within the first-order change, where the focus is on transmitting existing knowledge within the given well-established frame of reference. Therefore, redesigning curricula as transformative requires the ability to step outside existing preconceptions of the world and to allow for some unpredictability which might be frightening for facilitators and learners alike. In addition, facilitators and learners might have to accept that the new knowledge is not complete and that they must live and deal with some uncertainty while learning new insights. Once the conditions are set for transformative learning to take place, which is not easy to

accomplish due to the difficulties in designing a transformative learning experience and the constraints of the current educational paradigm and structures, learners must develop key competencies in sustainability that enable them to act on their transformed insights and new frames of reference. Surprisingly, little has been done to define what constitutes sustainability competencies that can be broadly agreed (Glasser and Hirsh 2016), which would guide best practice in education. Wiek et al. (2011) have explored the literature to identify five core sustainability competencies which could guide best practice to support evaluation of student learning and effectiveness of teaching. Five core sustainability competencies (Ibid, p. 205): • • • •

Systems thinking competence Anticipatory or future thinking competence Normative or values thinking competence Strategic thinking or action-oriented competence • Interpersonal or collaborative competence The first competence in systems thinking enables the learners to see sustainability related to complex problems and solutions as part of dynamic systems between society, the environment, and economies, on both local and global

Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

scales. It allows the learner to anticipate the future, identify invention points, and enable transitions, giving way to the anticipatory competence. This permits the learner to be proactive and reflexive making decisions based on foresight and scenarios, its links to concepts of the future and intergenerational justice. Normative competence is the ability to assess how unsustainable current systems are and how to create a vision on how they ought to develop. Based on this insight, learners change value orientation and behavior aligning to the stages of transformative learning. Being able to create a transition to sustainable societies requires the strategic competence; this is the ability to work collaboratively to design and implement interventions and governance strategies to bring about transformative change linking knowledge to action. Closely related to the previous four competencies, interpersonal competence is the capability to facilitate collaboration in sustainability research and problem-solving. It enables learners to bring multiple perspectives together to deal with complex sustainability challenges requiring skills such as strong communication, negotiation, leadership, teamwork and empathy. Rieckmann (2012) has also set out to define competencies for sustainability in the Delphi study, highlighting that cultural differences can impact how different competencies are valued. However, both Latin American and European experts agreed that systematic thinking and handling complexity, anticipatory thinking, and critical thinking are most relevant. While it is important to build common frameworks such as sustainability competencies to support ESD, they must be allowed to evolve over time and in different contexts as our understanding about sustainability challenges and solutions progress. Wals and Jickling (2002) emphasize sustainabilityfocused agenda are potentially flawed; not only is ESD conceptually difficult, it conflicts with the ideas of emancipation restricting other frames in which to understand sustainability such as deep ecology or ecofeminism. We should avoid narrowing down concepts and encourage diversity of thought, in which transformative learning can be supported through critical reflection. Sterling et al.

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(2017) have requested that practical frameworks should be developed through an international research collaboration, which can help guide national and local policymakers to adapt sustainability competencies to their local needs, challenges, and opportunities. This will facilitate rapid and effective engagement with sustainability competencies through pedagogic approaches and create reliable instruments to measure their development. Once these frameworks are developed, followed by policy commitment that recognize the relevance to national and local policy levels (UNESCO, 2016b), staff development can take place within and across institutions, ensuring that SDG 4.7 is fully implemented to support the achievement of all SDGs. A Case of Hope: Finland National Agency for Education (Lähdemäki 2018) The Finnish education systems are regarded as a global success story due to its focus on the complex processes of curriculum development and not just the final product. Over decades it has fostered open dialogue to ensure inclusivity of all stakeholders in the process. In 2014, the Finnish National Agency for Education embarked upon an ambitious and progressive change to the National Curriculum which has been described as revolutionary. They wanted to bring all stakeholders together to become experts on the National Curriculum and enable them to renew or redevelop pedagogies and practices. Through the curriculum reform process, all stakeholders were included so that they would become experts in the curriculum including the consideration of over 4,000 comments from over 180 organizations and 30 working and steering groups. A central feature of the change was to define the values and objectives for all schools in Finland that allowed individuals to reflect on what the purpose of education is, which includes a deeper understanding of our rapidly changing societies and the demands this puts on the learner in terms of skills developments and character building. The Counsellor of Education, Arja-Sisko Holappa, reflected that the purpose of the curriculum was to ensure equal opportunities are recognized in the written

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curriculum but also emphasized the importance of the hidden curriculum on influencing cultural norms. The importance of visioning a desirable future and reshaping the education system was recognized to fit three key themes, which emerged as rethinking learning, rethinking school culture, and rethinking the roles, goals, and contents of school’s subjects. Some of the changes that were developed were new understandings of the role of the teacher moving away from the traditional role of the teacher to become a facilitator of learning, encouraging self-assessment and peer assessment. Feedback from the process highlighted issues in additional workloads on teachers and lack of implementation support; however, the freedom to reflect on their own frames of reference and to define the curriculum was appreciated, embodying the process and implementing curricula that develop transversal competencies through project-based learning. Since implementation there has been varying degrees of commitment and implementation across schools. It was found that for the transformative education system to succeed, there is a strong need for leadership from school principals to encourage whole school communities including teachers, parents, and other schools to work collaboratively to strengthen student’s agency to create a culture that allows the new curriculum to emerge into practice. However, given the complexity in such an inclusive process, the Finish education systems remain uniform and equal and that through implementing this progressive change to the curriculum has and continues to challenge conventions.

and systems. The acceleration of climate and ecological system breakdown challenges us to change our current way of thinking and educating to respond to complex crises. We must delve deeper into the educational systems to reflect on the paradigm the education sits within and bring into question not only what the purpose of education is but what role it must play in ensuring that the global goals are reached. In order to achieve transformative education, institutions must recognize the importance of cultural contributions to sustainable development. They must be bold with a strong future-facing vision that can shift current systems and values to not only prevent further deterioration and instability in ecological systems but shift us onto a path of regeneration and restoration to improve socioecological resilience.

Cross-References ▶ Carbon Neutral Education: Reducing Carbon Footprint and Expanding Carbon Brainprint ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development ▶ Education for Sustainable Development and Critical Thinking Competency ▶ Education for Sustainable Development: Strategies and Key Issues ▶ Systemic Thinking ▶ Systems Theory: Implementation of SDGs

References Conclusion Transformational education involves understanding the frames of reference in which educators are operating, being able to reflect on them while exploring new frames of reference, in which processes of deeper learning can evolve. This socalled third order of learning could help to address the SDGs. In order to do so, there is a need to go beyond scaling up good practice to achieve sustainable development that presently focuses on strengthening current plans, policies, legislation,

Bateson G (1972) Steps to an ecology of mind. Chandler, San Francisco Bohm (1992) Thought as a System. London: Routledge Bokova I (2014) Opening of the UNESCO world conference on education for sustainable development. [Online]. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230641. Accessed 7 Apr 2019 Ceballos G, Ehrlich P, Barnosky A, García A, Pringle R, Palmer T (2015) Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: entering the sixth mass extinction. Sci Adv 1(5):e1400253 Costanza R, Kubiszewski I, Giovannini E, Lovins H, McGlade J, Pickett K, Ragnarsdóttir K, Roberts D, De Vogli R, Wilkinson R (2014) Development: time to leave GDP behind. Nature 505(7483):283–285

Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals Crutzen PJ, Stoermer EF (2009) The Anthropocene. IGBP Global Change Newsl (41):17–18 Ellen Macarthur Foundation (2019) What is the circular economy?. [Online]. https://www.ellenmacarthurfou ndation.org/circular-economy/what-is-the-circular-eco nomy. Accessed 2 May 2019 Fridays for future (2019) Fridays for future. [Online]. https:// www.fridaysforfuture.org/. Accessed 26 Apr 2019 Fullerton (2015) Regenerative capitalism: how universal principles and patterns will shape our new economy. Report prepared by The Capital Resouces Institute, Greenwich Glasser H, Hirsh J (2016) Toward the development of robust learning for sustainability core competencies. Sustain J Rec 9(3):121–134 Global Commission on the Economy and Climate (2018) Unlocking the inclusive growth story of the 21st century: accelerating climate action in urgent times. World Resource Institute, Washington IEA (2017) Fossil-fuel subsidies. [Online]. https://www. iea.org/weo/energysubsidies/. Accessed 7 Apr 2019 IPBES (2019) Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services – unedited advance version. https://www.ipbes. net/system/tdf/ipbes_7_10_add.1_en_1.pdf?file=1&type =node&id=35329 IPCC (2018) Global warming of 1.5 C. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pörtner HO, Roberts D, Skea J, Shukla PR, Pirani A, Moufouma-Okia W, Péan C, Pidcock R, Connors S, Matthews JBR, Chen Y, Zhou X, Gomis MI, Lonnoy E, Maycock T, Tignor M, Waterfield T (eds)]. In Press Jickling B (2017) Education revisited: creating educational experiences that are held, felt, and disruptive. In: Jickling B, Sterling S (eds) Post-sustainability and environmental education: remaking education for the future. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp 15–30 Lähdemäki J (2018) Case study: the Finnish National Curriculum 2016 – a co-created national education policy. In: Cook J (ed) Sustainability, human well-being & the future of education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp 397–422 Lovins L, Wijkman A, Wallis S, Fullerton J (2018) A finer future. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island Mezirow J (1978) Perspective transformation. Adult Educ 28(2):100–110 Mezirow J (2003) Transformative learning as discourse. J Transform Educ 1(1):58–63 Mezirow J (2018) Transformative learning theory. In: Illeris K (ed) Contemporary theories of learning, 2nd edn. Routledge, Oxon, pp 114–128 New Economics Foundation (2006) The Happy Planet Index. [Online]. https://neweconomics.org/uploads/ files/54928c89090c07a78f_ywm6y59da.pdf. Accessed 7 May 2019

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OECD (2015) In it together: why less inequality benefits all. OECD Publishing, Paris OECD (2019) OECD better life index. [Online]. http://www. oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111. Accessed 30 Apr 2019 OPHI (2019) Bhutan’s gross national happiness index. [Online] https://ophi.org.uk/policy/national-policy/ gross-national-happiness-index/. Accessed 6 May 2019 Oxford Dictionaries (2019) English Dictionary, Thesaurus, & grammar help | Oxford Dictionaries. [Online]. https:// en.oxforddictionaries.com/. Accessed 28 Apr 2019 Randers J, Rockström J, Stoknes PE, Golüke U, Collste D, Cornell S (2018) Transformation is feasible – how to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals within Planetary Boundaries. A report to the Club of Rome Raskin P (2008) World lines: a framework for exploring global pathways. Ecol Econ 65(3):461–470 Raworth K (2017) Doughnut economics: seven ways to think like a 21st-century economist. Penguin Random House, London Rieckmann M (2012) Future-oriented higher education: which key competencies should be fostered through university teaching and learning? Futures 44(2):127–135 Rockström J, Steffen W, Noone K, Persson Å, Chapin F, Lambin E, Lenton T, Scheffer M, Folke C, Schellnhuber H, Nykvist B, de Wit C, Hughes T, van der Leeuw S, Rodhe H, Sörlin S, Snyder P, Costanza R, Svedin U, Falkenmark M, Karlberg L, Corell R, Fabry V, Hansen J, Walker B, Liverman D, Richardson K, Crutzen P, Foley J (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461(7263):472–475 Sterling S (2001) Sustainable education: re-visioning learning and change. Schumacher briefings. Green Books Ltd, Totnes Sterling (2003) Whole Systems Thinking as a Basis for Paradigm Change in Education: explorations in the context of sustainability (PhD thesis). Bath: Centre for Research in Education and the Environment, University of Bath Sterling S (2010) Transformative learning and sustainability: sketching the conceptual ground. LATHE Educ 5:17–33, 2010–11 Sterling S (2014) Bridging divides: connections for holistic sustainability. In: 14th international ACTS conference action conference, 5th–7th November, Hobart Sterling S (2017) Assuming the future: repurposing education in a volatile age. In: Jickling B, Sterling S (eds) Post-sustainability and environmental education: remaking education for the future. Palgrave Macmillian, Cham, pp 31–45 Sterling S (2019) Stephen Sterling | Re-thinking education for a more sustainable world. [Online] Stephen Sterling. https:// www.sustainableeducation.co.uk/. Accessed 12 July 2019 Sterling S, Glasser H, Rieckmann M, Warwick P (2017) “More than scaling up”: a critical and practical inquiry into operationalizing sustainability competencies. In: Corcoran P, Weakland J, Walls A (eds) Envisioning futures for environmental and sustainability education. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, pp 153–168

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916 Taylor E (1998) The theory and practice of transformative learning: a critical review. Information series No. 374. Center on Education and Training for Employment, Columbus The IMBIE Team, Shepherd A, Ivins E, et al (78 more authors) (2018) Mass balance of the Antartic Ice Sheet from 1992–2017. Nature 558:219–222 The World in 2050 (2018) Transformations to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Report prepared by The World in 2050 initiative. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg Thomas I (2009) Critical thinking, transformative learning, sustainable education, and problem-based learning in universities. J Transform Educ 7(3):245–264 UNESCO (2016a) Education 2030: Incheon declaration framework for action for the implementation of sustainable development goal 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ documents/education-2030-incheon-framework-foraction-implementation-of-sdg4-2016-en_2.pdf UNESCO (2016b) Unpacking Sustainable Development Goal 4: Education 2030. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000246300 UNESCO (2016c) Education for people and planet: creating sustainable futures for us all. Global Education Monitoring Report. http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/ files/documents/education-for-people-and-planet-creat ing-sustainable-futures-for-all-gemr-2016-en.pdf UNESCO (2018) Progress on education for sustainable development and global citizenship education. https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000266176 UNESCO (2019) SDG 4 - Education 2030: Part II, Education for Sustainable Development beyond 2019. https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000366797 United Nations (2017) World population prospects the 2017 revision. [Online]. New York, p 8. https://population.un. org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_KeyFindings.pdf. Accessed 12 July 2019 United Nations (2019) Sustainable development goal 4. [Online]. Available at: https://sustainabledevelopment. un.org/sdg7. Accessed 2 Apr 2019 Wals A (ed) (2008) From cosmetic reform to meaningful integration: implementing education for sustainable

Transformative Learning development in higher education institutes – the state of affairs in six European countries. DHO, Amsterdam Wals A, Jickling B (2002) “Sustainability” in higher education: from doublethink and newspeak to critical thinking and meaningful learning. High Educ Pol 15(2):121–131 Waters C, Zalasiewicz J, Summerhayes C, Fairchild I, Rose N, Loader N, Shotyk W, Cearreta A, Head M, Syvitski J, Williams M, Wagreich M, Barnosky A, An Z, Leinfelder R, Jeandel C, Gałuszka A, Ivar do Sul J, Gradstein F, Steffen W, McNeill J, Wing S, Poirier C, Edgeworth M (2018) Global boundary Stratotype section and point (GSSP) for the Anthropocene series: where and how to look for potential candidates. Earth Sci Rev 178:379–429 Wiek A, Withycombe L, Redman C (2011) Key competencies in sustainability: a reference framework for academic program development. Sustain Sci 6 (2):203–218 World Resource Institute (2018) Unlocking the inclusive growth story of the 21st century: accelerating climate action in urgent times. The Global Commission on the Economy and Climate. Washington. https://newclima teeconomy.report/2018/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/ 2018/09/NCE_2018_FULL-REPORT.pdf WWF (2018) In: Grooten M, Almond REA (eds) Living planet report 2018: aiming higher. WWF, Gland

Transformative Learning ▶ Transformative Education to Address All Sustainable Development Goals

Transmuting Capacities ▶ Developing Transformational Competencies for Sustainable Development

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Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Ecopedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

disciplines, the creative arts offer a means to explore them (Nicolescu 2008, 15).

Introduction David Haley Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China

Synonyms Critical learning; Socratic dialogue; Unorthodox methods

Definition Unconventional educational approaches are diverse methods of learning that are not normally included in formal or traditional education settings (Dewey 2015, 17). Because of this, they may enable learners to generate emergent forms of knowledge for themselves (Ingold 2013, 1). Such approaches offer critical means to address transformative challenges such as the climate crisis and may generate “in vivo knowledge” or “transdisciplinary knowledge” that include cultural, philosophical, and spiritual dimensions (Nicolescu 2008, 3). Although unconventional educational approaches may, therefore, produce knowledge between, across, and beyond all

The text critically reflects on the UN Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations 2015) and focuses on SDG4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all in particular. In pursuit of an unconventional education that addresses our transformative challenges, four key terms are considered: art, ecology, pedagogy, and dialogue (Bohm et al. 1991). Interdependently, these concepts offer systems for learning that may be valued and practiced as unconventional education. As there are no definitive formulas for art, there are no definitive formulas for teaching and learning either. However, there are some conceptual, performative, and practical things that may be done to potentially affect ecological transformation through learning. In this case, these forms of dialogue are integral to some arts practices, and they include actions and understandings that may be considered unconventional approaches to education. Ultimately, they reference Robert Pirsig’s claim that “the most moral act of all is the creation of space for life to move onwards” (Pirsig 1993, 407). This act of learning, in concert with evolution, may be termed “metapoiesis” (Haley 2018, 36).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5

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But first, within the context of this encyclopedia, we must ask some fundamental questions: • How does conventional education support and promote future needs? • How might unconventional education support and promote our transformative challenges? • How does Education for Sustainable Development (UNESCO 2017) meet the needs of our transformative challenges? • How may we ensure inclusive and equitable quality education? • How may we promote lifelong learning opportunities for all?

Conventional Educational Approaches and the Knowledge Industry Socially acceptable by many as the normal, standard approach to education, conventional methods may, also, be regarded as orthodoxy, dogma, or even stasis. US philosopher John Dewey describes this as “traditional”: The traditional scheme is, in essence, one of imposition from above and from outside. It imposes adult standards, subject-matter, and methods upon those who are only growing slowly towards maturity. The gap is so great that the required subject-matter, the methods of learning and of behaving are so foreign to the existing capacities of the young. They are beyond the reach of the experience the young learners already possess. Consequently, they must be imposed; even though good teachers will use devices of art to cover up the imposition so as to relieve it of obviously brutal features. (Dewey 2015, 18)

The basic or conventional approach to education extends beyond the curriculum, as the means of delivery is a vital element. Conventional teaching methods are based on maintaining order, discipline, and power; the teacher is the expert, in control of delivering knowledge to the students, who need to be controlled to receive knowledge. The students are thought to be empty and, therefore, ignorant of their educational needs (Feire 2017, 45). Representing the institution of school, college, or university, the teacher fills the students with knowledge from the curricula of the disciplinary silos. Examination conventions support

Unconventional Educational Approaches

this specific way of knowing and expressions of understanding that promote specific ways of thinking and doing. Learning criteria, outcomes, and notions of success are measured to further enforce the idea that the role of education is to train students to be useful and employable members of a particular kind of society. The political philosophy of the dominant culture decides what that society should be and how it wants it to operate in the future. Critical and even creative thinking may be considered, by the establishment, to be dangerous challenges to the policies and philosophies of conventional education, as they question authority and the establishment. Dewey further questions the viability of conventional learning methods, elucidating the conundrum of their wish to retain perceived traditional standards while pushing for constant development. Here, knowledge itself becomes industrialized: Learning here means acquisition of what is already incorporated into books and in the heads of the elders. Moreover, that which is taught is thought of as essentially static. It is taught as a finished product, with little regard either to ways in which it was originally built up or to changes that will surely occur in the future. It is to a large extent the cultural product of societies that assumed the future would be like the past, and yet it is used as educational food in a society where change is the rule, not the exception. (Dewey 2015, 19)

The Knowledge Industry Originating in the 1950s, the term “knowledge industry” emphasizes the production and distribution of knowledge within the context of international monetary economics. This concept equates to the instrumental, neoliberal values of private education, reaffirming the instrumental functionality of training for service to industrial purpose, entrepreneurship, and the commercial economic activity derived from research. Information technologies and economic development are the primary tools and goal with knowledge (often confused with information) perceived as a practical commodity. Such “transferable knowledge” represents the primary value of education to industry and commerce. Now, widely considered as

Unconventional Educational Approaches

conventional education in many developed countries, the quantifiable factors of success are measured with metrics by financial institutions to comply with particular fiscal and political policies.

The Digital Age: New Conventions It is then necessary to consider some of the impacts of ITC on contemporary educational systems. Few challenge the seemingly inevitable adoption of this ubiquitous educational revolution. In approximately 30 years, most developed countries have installed and/or provided for computers in every classroom, lecture theater, and meeting area of all educational establishments, from preschool to university. Access to the Internet is now considered to be a prerequisite for obtaining information and as a means of both disseminating that knowledge and communicating it to others. It is inconceivable for any “Millennial” to engage in an educational activity without access to an online computer, smartphone, or tablet. The consequences of this cultural shift are enormous in terms of the perceived benefits and the potential harm. There are, also, many unexpected and unknown consequences to the digitization of education. The exponential growth of the worldwide web has impacted way beyond its origins as an educational tool to simply connect academics with each other, to touching and influencing all aspects of life. In some quarters, however, concerns are growing that while digital technologies are increasing human skills in particular ways, they are reducing capabilities in other ways. Indeed, like humanity’s increasing dependence on urban infrastructures, our dependence on digital technology in some respects makes us more vulnerable to withstanding the shocks of transformative challenges. It is similar to the difference between “engineered resilience” and “ecosystem resilience” (Gundersen and Holling 2002, 28). The first definition, and the more traditional, concentrates on stability near an equilibrium steady state, where resistance to disturbance and speed of return to the equilibrium are

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used to measure the property (Pimm 1984; Tilman and Downing 1994). We term this engineering resilience (Holling 1995; Holling Meffe 1996). The second definition emphasizes conditions far from any equilibrium steady state, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behavior – i.e., to another stability domain (Holling 1973b). In this case resilience is measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior. This we term ecosystem resilience (Gunderson and Holling 2002, 22). The delivery of SDG4 places great importance on underdeveloped populations emulating those in the developed world by acquiring the hardware and software of development, thereby rendering them dependent on and undermined by the conventions of another culture. The notion of “wroughting” for industrial-scale manufacturing becomes superseded by service to digital technologies. As the dystopian foresight of 1984 (Orwell 2004) becomes reality, we see the prospect of a compliant workforce being managed as a human resource, conditioned and controlled by digital cognition. The myths of truth, evidence, and meaningless metrics replace reality and experiential knowledge (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 228). But what if the learners want a different form of society, or imagine an alternative future from that chosen for them? Might this situation imply the need for a different form of pedagogy; what might that be, and how might it be delivered? Many different, untraditional, or unconventional forms of education have been designed to challenge the status quo, to consider alternative values, and to imagine different diverse futures. Notable proponents include philosophers John Dewey, Paulo Freire, Ivan Illich, and Maria Montessori and artists Paul Klee and Joseph Beuys.

Some Shortcomings of SDG4 The “Key business themes addressed by this SDG” in the SDG Compass (2015), developed

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by the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), United Nations Global Compact, and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), are: • • • • •

Education for sustainable development Availability of a skilled workforce Capacity building Indirect impact on job creation Youth employment It seems that SDG4 is the means for business

to: • Establish relationships with government entities and higher education institutions to improve education curricula to better align with business needs including responsible management • Create programs (e.g., internships, work-study programs, traineeships, etc.) that give students earlier access to the corporate environment • Provide employees with continuous opportunities to improve their (job) skills for their current and future employment • Develop cost-effective education products and services that eliminate barriers to access and improve the quality of learning (e.g., ICT solutions to improve the delivery of education, innovative measurement tools, etc.) • Ensure learning environments are clean and safe for children by mitigating business-related environmental hazards, like pollution and limited water access (Global Reporting Initiative et al. 2015, 1) Given the WBCSD membership of exclusively invited CEOs from global corporations like DuPont, 3M, Nestlé, BP, Danone, and Royal Dutch Shell, it is hardly surprising that their interests in the SDGs and SDG4, in particular, are based on the business models and ethics that have caused the environmental, human rights, and transformative challenges we face. The paradox of affecting systemic sustainable development transformation with the support of such powerful corporations means that the “leverage point” can be turned back on itself (Meadows 1999).

Unconventional Educational Approaches

Unconventional Approaches to Education This section initially draws on four lessons or contemporary parables that may be learned to convey some different aspects of the diverse potential for unconventional education. They deal with social and cultural perceptions, understandings, and realities, rather than measurable truths. Such thinking is rarely considered in traditional or conventional education, but intuitive, “common sense,” and systems of belief are the basis of most human decisions. Learning Systems and Empathy A student worked on Saturdays, as a kitchen porter in one of London’s largest department stores. Enjoying the physical work and camaraderie, he improved the process of crockery and cutlery collection, washing-up, and redistribution to such an extent that the waitresses passed on some of their tips to him. Management were delighted with his added systemic changes. Then, one Saturday before lunch, the head cook took him to one side and sat him at a small, welllaid table behind the scenes. She sat opposite him and the head chef brought a plate of well-presented steak and chips. The head cook said: “Eat and listen, my Dear. You are a good worker and you have made many improvements, but you need to understand that as a student, you only work here on Saturdays. We have to work here as our full-time job and we can’t keep up with your pace. You must learn to slow down.” The student welled up. She hugged him, smiled, and said: “Eat my Dear; take your time.” To understand the context of others requires empathy. To affect social, political, and systems transformation, the “world views of all concerned” must be understood and respected, if they are to join you (Freire 2017, 153). Empathy and humility are not things that can be taught through conventional education. They may be conceptually addressed through literature and the humanities, but can only be learned through experience. Such nondeterministic approaches are not, as yet, included in SDG4, probably because they are not easy to quantify. However, recent

Unconventional Educational Approaches

developments, like the Global Commission for Adaptation’s report, Adapt Now: A Global Call for Leadership on Climate Resilience (2019), are recognizing these needs: “Solutions to these climate-related inequities must address underlying power structures and dynamics. We will not accept a world where only some can adapt, and others cannot” (Global Commission for Adaptation 2019). Learning Oppression Outside a London Underground station, a wellspoken and not too disheveled beggar greets a man who is waiting for his girlfriend. The man gives the beggar some money, as he learned from his father that anyone who needs to beg should receive our unconditional charity – how they spend that gift is their business. The beggar thanks the man and they chat about the people passing by. The beggar notes that “the biggest problem in the world is snobbery”; the assertion that one person is necessarily superior to another. At first, the man doesn’t believe this apparently simplistic idea, but the more he challenges it, the more he understands the reality of oppression. Like a koan, set by a Zen master, the beggar helped the man to see for himself a deep reality. Seeing and naming oppression for oneself are important steps in personal realization and social liberation. As Paulo Freire writes: I cannot think for others or without others, nor can others think for me. Even if the people’s thinking is superstitious or naïve, it is only as they rethink their assumptions in action that they can change. Producing and acting upon their own ideas – not consuming those of others – must constitute that process. (Freire 2017, 81)

Of course, the values of egalitarianism could be equally learned. Although we may think we already know and practice such values, it is, however, necessary to have them reflected back to ourselves, so that we can experience and thereby embody them. Such experiences may place the teacher and learner on the same co-learning level, something that conventional education finds difficult to accept. This ability to recognize, adopt, and adapt to the needs of the learner, rather than the will of the teacher, is a quality that could

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be included in SDG4 as a means of educating those in authority before they assume and impose their value systems on others. Trust and “The Unruly Protagonist” A performer may discover at a particular moment that their performance has not only broken out of the conventions of the genre in which they perform but has as a result captured the audience. For this moment, neither performer nor audience know what may be the outcome of their deviation from convention. It could go either way. However, the performer may be able to take the audience with them to “another place.” From that electrifying frisson, the performer learns that they have gained the trust of their audience and the audience have reciprocated by gaining the performer’s trust to continue. Breaking with convention renders the performer or protagonist is vulnerable, but on occasion this vulnerability can strengthen and enhance that person’s resilience and may even transform a situation or state of being. The German artist Joseph Beuys noted that “to provoke is to evoke” (Beuys 1990, 86). Challenging the status quo, however, can also incite revolution and in this way may be considered dangerous by those who hold the power of convention. In his Preface, The Unruly Protagonist, to the 2000 edition of Theatre of the Oppressed, Brazilian theater practitioner, drama theorist, and political activist Augusto Boal captures this moment in classical Greek theater, when Thespis broke ranks from the chorus to rage directly at Solon the Great (Mayor of Athens) about the state of the city, politics, and laws. In so doing, Thespis became the first “protagonist” – one who may speak directly to their audience. Solon declared that this ad lib was dangerous, as it could influence the people, but through subsequent turbulent developments, Thespis developed his art to become a dialogue or dynamic equilibrium between him, his audience, and Solon, based on truth. Dialogue is always dangerous, because it creates discontinuity between one thought and another, between two opinions, or two possibilities – and between them infinity installs itself; so that all

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Thespis then found his place as the archetypical trickster (Hyde 2008), the jester, clown, or Lord of Misrule, permitted by society to not just think critically but speak out critically and even create entertainment from the process. Such a break with convention may have its price, as Socrates discovered through the practice of dialogue, when he was forced to commit suicide as a punishment for challenging the state. This may, therefore, seem like a strange thing to advocate, but it reinforces the need for society to understand the place of such dissent. The role of the agent provocateur is an essential catalyst in political evolution, affording the antithesis to transform thesis into synthesis; and in complexity theory, it is the disorder that is needed for a system to pass from order to organization (Haley 2018, 34). While the SDG4 accounts for conventional approaches to education, becoming climate savvy may require such a counterintuitive approach to promote ecological resilience. Society and the SDGs need to create a space of mutual trust for a shared program of learning. Thinking Differently Approximately 60% of university students and members of staff, in the creative arts, are dyslexic. Some need more support than others to cope with what conventional education considers to be a “disability.” Autism, at different parts of the “spectrum,” or when identified in students in non-science disciplines, may also be regarded as a “learning disability” within conventional education. However, such diverse ways of learning may be the source of creativity or profound understanding. Such cases reflect society’s inability to recognize diverse thinking processes. Indeed, for many high achieving students, it is their unconventional learning processes that are the key to their success. For some of these students, their education trajectory has been highly fraught as they meet with traditional educational dogma, but learning to manage such challenges can increase their

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capacity and capability for learning. Such diverse and unconventional approaches to education may provide the creative processes necessary to resolve the “wicked problems” that the SDGs wish to address. These four examples of unconventional approaches point to curricula and learning outcomes that are not normally included in conventional forms of education. Indeed, they are either ignored or denied within traditional disciplinary subject matter and methods of learning, but they are essential to: • Gaining and valuing experiential knowledge of practicable systems and the empathy needed to deploy them • Generating the capacity and capabilities to recognize, adopt, and adapt to the needs of the learner, thereby not perpetuating the abuse of colonialism • Becoming climate savvy through counterintuitive approaches that promote ecological resilience • Providing the creative processes necessary to resolve the transformative challenges and wicked problems that require diverse thinking These unconventional approaches may be considered fundamental qualities to “(e)nsure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all,” but they break from traditional educational paradigms, making them un-assessable, unaccountable, and therefore currently nonexistent (United Nations 2017). To make transition from academia to praxis, SDG4 could consider adopting such approaches.

Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG#4) Quality Education UNESCO produced the Education 2030 Framework for Action that “provides guidance for the implementation of this ambitious goal and commitments” (UNESCO 2017) and provides a set of “Leaning Objectives” to achieve each of the 17 SDGs. Implementation of the SDGs through

Unconventional Educational Approaches

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is envisioned by integrating ESD “in policies, strategies and programmes,” “in curricula and textbooks,” “in teacher education,” and “in the classroom and other learning settings.” Guidance is, also, provided on “(h)ow to assess ESD learning outcomes and the quality of ESD programmes?” (UNESCO 2017). In other words, SDG4 becomes embedded in conventional education. The premise of an “inclusive and equitable quality education” presupposes a set of values for this program, predicated on the concept of sustainable development (United Nations 2015), the cultural assumption of the UN and UNESCO being that their values are just and correct for everyone. Again, this conventional approach to education holds that sustainable development is the fundamental learning outcome. Few will doubt the well-meaning assertion of this program, but some may critique and contest the semantics of this oxymoron that literally promotes the very values and systems that created the problems the SDGs wish to resolve – enduring status quo and unremitting growth (Haley 2017, 2). When we then consider the “global indicator framework” of the Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG SDGs), we may find some further anomalies (United Nations 2017).

Targets and Indicators According to the SDG Indicators: Metadata repository, “(t)he metadata available in this repository is a work in progress,” so a process of ongoing evaluation is in place (United Nations 2019, 1). However, certain phrases in the Target Indicators are somewhat vague. For instance, what is meant by “relevant and effective learning outcomes” (United Nations 2017, 4.1) and “psychological well-being” (United Nations 2017, 4.2.1)? Some indicators seem to promote specific values, like ensuring equal access to “. . . affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university” (United Nations 2017, 4.3), to substantially increasing those “. . . who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and

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entrepreneurship” (United Nations 2017, 4.4) and the proportion of youths and adults with “. . . information and communication technology (ICT) skills, by type of skill” (United Nations 2017, 4.4.1). This ubiquitous set of unchallenged values presupposes the aspirations of a dominant Western, Capitalist elite wanting to do good, but also wanting to instill their beliefs in others. Indeed, in its will to “. . . ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable. . .” they include “. . . persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations” (United Nations 2017, 4.5). How are indigenous peoples necessarily vulnerable, and why is vocational training constantly proposed? This form of conventional educational indoctrination is well described by Paulo Freire as “banking education”; that is, the oppressors assume that the oppressed are educationally empty and therefore need to be filled with education so they may aspire to become like the oppressors (Freire 2017, 45). Furthermore, the SDG Fund asserts that “(d) igital education technologies improves fundamental skills such as collaboration, problem solving and global awareness” and can “. . . open future job opportunities” (UNESCO 2017). Again, this presupposes capitalist economic values based on particular industrial technologies. SDG successes claimed by this program include a “youth access to quality professional training” (United Nations 2017) in Mozambique, where “(y)oung women and men in remote areas are increasing their prospects to find decent job opportunities within the extractive industries. . .” (United Nations 2017). The SDG4’s “pattern of organization” (Dewey 2015, 18), therefore, is designed to train indigenous people to become a compliant workforce for multinational corporations to extract minerals, including oil, coal, and natural gas! An education program that funds such “cultural invasion” (Freire 2017, 133) to perpetuate the carbon industries in pursuit of corporate profit is tantamount to “ecocide” (Higgins 2010), although this has not yet been accepted as an international crime by the UN. Little has changed since Sir William Curtis introduced the “3Rs,” “reading, wroughting and

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arithmetic” in 1795, that were intended to provide basic educational skills for workers to meet the needs of the emerging Industrial Revolution and British Empire. This approach to education – the dominant culture training the “undeveloped” to accept their values and comply with their needs – may be considered conventional or “traditional” (Dewey 2015, 17) forms of education. It would seem that despite SDG4’s aim to prepare future generations to meet climate change and the other transformative challenges, it needs to adopt unconventional education approaches if it is to shift the paradigm from the economic and industrial status quo that sustains carbon industries and colonial forms of development to “integral critical futures” (Slaughter 2004, 12). The SDGs currently present a paradoxical situation: providing both the problem and the solution. They are to “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (United Nations 2017).

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conventional education to unconventionality. It may be aligned in many ways to Paulo Freire’s development of “eco-pedagogy” that emerged from his theory and practice of critical pedagogy. As a response to education that is often tied to state- and corporate-sponsored interests and becomes part of the problem, eco-pedagogy strategically tries to enhance the United Nations Education for Sustainable Development, making it relevant to marginalized and excluded communities. Richard Kahn describes the three main goals of the eco-pedagogy movement to be: 1. Creating opportunities for the proliferation of ecoliteracy programs, both within schools and society 2. Bridging the gap of praxis between scholars and the public (especially activists) on ecopedagogical interests 3. Instigating dialogue and self-reflective solidarity across the many groups among educational left, particularly in light of the existing planetary crisis (Kahn 2010, 8)

Making Our Futures This section describes an example of unconventional learning, developed by the author that was integral to his ecological arts practice, research, and pedagogy. It evolved through working with communities and students across Europe, the USA, and Southeast Asia. The main focus of this educational approach was to determine how the creative arts might address climate change, the Sixth Extinction, and the other transformative challenges. “It means the necessity of the introduction of a new order of conceptions leading to new modes of practice” (Dewey 2015, 5). Rather than being a devised vision of education for sustainable development to achieve predetermined outcomes, it was an approach that “emerged” (Ingold 2013, 2) through arts-led, practice-based research into what students might want and need to learn for their futures? The program varied according to the particular place and culture of the people, but the following nine elements below give a broad outline of this approach. Within this program, Approach 6: “Undisciplinarity” and “Eco-pedagogy” is the point of antithesis that marks the shift from

Approach 1: “The Pattern That Connects” (Bateson 2000, 7) To contextualize (Morin 2008, 14) the program and provide an introduction, A Brief History of Art and Ecology: from the Neolithic to the Anthropocene was provided. This questioned the concepts of ecology and art to arrive at working definitions through some literature research and, importantly, conversation. Meaning became important as ubiquitous terms like “greening” were set aside and differences established between the vague interchangeable use of “environment” and “ecology.” Working through and with language and cultural differences played an important part in interpretation (as opposed to attempts at translation), to establish synergies of mutual understanding and relevance. This approach established the means for evolving an agreed lexicon for the students own narratives to emerge, rather than being given information to learn by rote. Approach 2: The Art of. . . The etymological definition of art originates in the Sanskrit word, Rta from the Rigveda

Unconventional Educational Approaches

(1700–1100 BC approx.). In contemporary Hindi, Rta still means “the dynamic process by which the whole cosmos continues to be created, virtuously” (Haley 2001, 102). It also alludes to the “right way of doing” anything and carries a moral imperative to act correctly, in accord with evolution. The process and the pattern are the ecology. For those with whom we learn, this may be an essential point of information and provocation for dialogue, for it opens up the possibilities of what art might be, how it is connected to all other subjects, and how we might engage with it. The significance of arts-led practice-based research then finds its place. Indeed, the idea that art is doing something with excellence carries through to contemporary English in “the art of. . .,” “motorcycle maintenance” (Pirsig 1991), cooking, football, gardening, and even “war” (Tzu 2008). Education is no exception, and excellence need not necessarily concern “art.” However, “the art of education” does set it aside from “the science of education.” The latter could be conducted with excellence as a conventional approach, while the former may afford the potential to include unconventional approaches. Herein lies the potential to reconcile the differences without loss of either approach. Approach 3: Dialogue – “Learning from the Learners What the Learners Need to Learn” The elements of the program became laid out: • Formal education – lectures for personal and group inquiry • Informal education – seminars of group dialogue • Nonformal education – project-based, self-led group development This led onto teaching and group research as art in action and deep listening as a form of transition and learning for transformation. This process, as a form of Socratic dialogue, involved critical exchange from which the poetic may emerge, before delivery or engagement with the rest of the program. We need to know who we are teaching and what their needs are. Then we can start an empathetic, reciprocal process of learning. This process

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continued throughout the program as a systematic form of reflection and critical evaluation, shared between teacher and students. Above all, it permitted the students to learn for themselves; they owned their learning and seemed to delight in their own rigor. Approach 4: “Capable Futures” (Haley 2008b) and the Wider Context – “Being Present in the World” Having established the tools and form of the approach with the students, this element started by sharing data on climate change, the Sixth Extinction, and related issues to contextualize the students’ possible futures. It opened out to include Education for Sustainable Development and the UN Sustainable Development Goals. At this point, “sustainable development” and its concept and historic context were critically reflected upon to find meaning in this ubiquitous term. Gender, culture, uncertainty, indeterminacy, unintended consequences, power relations, “global citizenship” (Andreotti and de Souza 2012), and whole systems ecology were considered. The Scottish artist Eduardo Paolozzi wrote: “What is needed is a new culture in which way problems give way to capabilities” (Paolozzi 1985, 158); and so in this situation, “the face of disaster turned to the face of opportunity” (Harrison and Harrison 2008, 12) for the students. Approach 5: “Making Our Futures” The project assignment takes its name from the program and “makes time a matter of urgency” (Haley 2008c, 15), as it asks the participants to “make something for our futures.” This was a selfled project, to work collaboratively as teams. Team organization and dynamics were central considerations, as were walking and talking as dialogical action-based research methods. Importantly, “question-based learning” (Haley 2008b, 202) and “inquiry-based learning” are offered as alternatives to solution-led, problem-based learning, as unlike the latter, they open up a situation for to consider “are we asking the right question,” before trying to answer it. Some potential questions were introduced as starting points for the project: “How big is here?” (Harrison and

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Harrison 2008, 5), “How long is now?” (Brand 1999, 29), and “Who is here now?” (Haley 2008b, 206). This approach is, also, similar to Freire’s “concept of ‘problem-posing’”: In problem-posing education, people develop their power to perceive critically the way they exist in the world with which and in which they find themselves; they come to see the world not as a static reality, but as a reality in process, in transition. (Freire 2017, 56)

Approach 6: “Undisciplinarity” and “Eco-pedagogy” The term “undisciplinarity” (Haley 2017) challenges the misunderstandings and appropriation of “transdisciplinarity” (Nicolescu 2002, 1) that turns the potential for emergent knowledge into conventional, predetermined learning outcomes, learning into training, and knowledge into indoctrination. Undisciplinarity, however, may be used as a provocation, a disruptor, and a catalyst to shift stagnant ways of thinking into creative awareness. While the aim is reconciliation, it can sometimes cause shock and discomfort, as it may upset the existing societal paradigm. In tandem with Donella Meadows’ Leverage Points: places to intervene in the system (Meadows 1999), it may open up alternative ways of thinking, including systems thinking, and give permission to play: There are no cheap tricks to mastery. You have to work at it, whether that means rigorously analyzing a system or rigorously casting off your own paradigms and throwing yourself into the humility of Nor Knowing. In the end, it seems that power has less to do with pushing leverage points than it does with strategically, profoundly, madly letting go. (Meadows 1999, 19)

Having introduced undisciplinarity to open the way to unconventional education approaches, the idea of “eco-pedagogy” (Haley 2017, 9) integrates an approach to learning within and with its context. It was adopted as a creative arts practice. Two ancient Greek words and concepts converge to provide a starting point to explore their meanings: • Ecology or oikos concerns the design of a house to harmoniously integrate the family members within their civic and cosmological context. Living in one’s right place did not

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necessarily preclude a person from changing their place, providing this was done within the mores of the culture. • A pedagogue was a trusted slave who led a child by the hand from their house to the teacher’s house. Before the teacher imparted formal knowledge, the child learned from walking and talking with the slave – a dynamic process of seeing the world from diverse perspectives. Other artists and thinkers who have coined the word pedagogy include Paul Klee’s Pedagogical Sketchbook (Klee 1989) and Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire 2017). Augusto Boal’s Forum Theatre and Theatre of the Oppressed (Boal 2008) and Joseph Beuys’ practice of social sculpture (Beuys 1990) expand on the idea. Together, eco-pedagogy may, therefore, mean the process of connecting formal, informal, and non-formal ways of learning about our interconnectedness with the world. It may provide a necessary form of unconventional education; but to reiterate, we need to learn from the learners what the learners need to learn. As Freire points out: Education which is able to resolve the contradiction between teacher and student takes place in a situation in which both address their act of cognition to the object by which they are mediated. Thus the dialogical character of education as the practice of freedom does not begin when the teacher-student meets with the students-teachers in a pedagogical situation, but rather when the former first asks herself or himself what she or he will dialogue with the latter about. (Freire 2017, 66)

Approach 7: The Beauty of Complex (Systems) Thinking Learning to live well in a complex world requires diverse forms of thinking. Systems thinking enables established and novel modes to work in harmony and dream in concert. Paradox, absurdity, unknown consequences (Morin 2006, 15), and wicked problems, the resolution of opposites, creation, and destruction, all have their part to play in how we engage with our futures. The emergence of transdisciplinary knowledge (Nicolescu 2002, 153) extends this method of

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learning beyond predetermined, conventional learning objectives, outputs, and outcomes: “As the prefix ‘trans’ indicates, transdisciplinarity concerns that which is at once between the disciplines, across the different disciplines, and beyond all disciplines” (Nicolescu 2008, 2). Approach 8: The Six Elements of Research All research is concerned with finding something out, but what do we want to find out and how may we do this? These questions offer an approach that may be adopted or discarded by the researcher/ learner: 1. What do I want to find out? 2. Why is this important? 3. How will I find out, and why is this the best possible way? 4. What resources do I need to find out – collaborators, financial needs, equipment requirements, and above all the schedule? 5. Who will I tell what I found out; how will I tell them, and how may that affect them? 6. Do stages 2, 3, and 4 correspond to each other? Neither “tool kit” nor set of instructions, these questions offer a way into a process of exploration and possible discovery. They are deceptively simple, and if they are answered fully, they can provide to foundation of a thesis. Approach 9: Five Possible Ways to Reconcile Resilience With regard to foresight planning and management – sustainable development – the word “resilience” has to some extent become another meaningless term. While science literature differentiates between engineered and ecological resilience (Gunderson and Holing 2002, 28), we may add a further three transformative ways of reconciling resilience: • Engineered – techno-sustainability and resistance to vulnerability • Ecological – creation and destruction, emergent, evolutionary regeneration • Avoidance – absence from potential danger and the precautionary principle

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• Yielding – give way to gain, improvising with change • Vigilance – continued preparedness and training to maintain readiness Offering creative modes of adaptation to survival and evolution is essential to both reduce and understand vulnerability, thus providing realistic hope and reason for meaningful learning. Vulnerability then offered the students strength in knowing. The narrative of invulnerability, still peddled by many institutions in their assurance of a certain future, may then be dismissed as dangerous misinformation. Climate change and species extinction need to be acknowledged, with urgency, across all curricula for students to address these challenges confidently. It may seem strange to still refer to this approach as “unconventional.”

Conclusion: Transformative Pedagogies Academia has developed many useful approaches to learning, but none will ever tell the whole story, so there is a need for diverse forms of education that can enable learners and teachers to adapt to the dynamic indeterminant future needs. Over time however, each discipline has jealously refined, defined, and institutionalized its precise area of knowledge and expertise. There have been attempts in recent years to upturn the pyramid of reductionist education by joining up, sharing, or combining disciplinary practices, including multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary types of knowledge generation. Transdisciplinary knowledge, in the form described by Basarab Nicolescu and Edgar Morin, however, suggests a paradigm shift that creates the space for knowledge to emerge “across, between, and above all disciplines” (Nicolescu 2008, 2). George Lakoff and Mark Johnson suggest a third approach that goes beyond the “myth of objective knowledge” and the “myth of subjective knowledge”: that of “experiential knowledge” (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Again, neither of these approaches will ever tell the whole story but expand our capabilities to survive.

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Despite the paradoxical situation regarding SDG4 and perhaps the SDGs as a whole, they do offer opportunities to pose 17 problems, rather than solutions. Here the paradox may be viewed positively, as each goal, in identifying the reality of a problem, also raises questions to be addressed in dialogue. Freire asserts the essential nature of that dialogue: In the antidialogical theory of action, cultural invasion serves the ends of manipulation, which in turn serves the ends of conquest, and conquest the ends of domination. Cultural synthesis serves the ends of organization; organization serves the ends of liberation. (Freire 2017, 156)

Rather than being the solution(s), the sum and the value of the SDGs are to potentially liberate us from conventional education. The art of unconventional educational approaches then becomes the process of our transformation to ecological resilience through “eco-pedagogy” and as Gregory Bateson suggests: The question is not only ethical in the conventional sense, it is also an ecological question. The means by which one man influences another are a part of the ecology of ideas in their relationship, and part of the larger ecological system within which that relationship exists. (Bateson 2000, 512)

The unconventional approach to education offered here is neither a formula nor a model, but a way of learning how to learn and help others to learn for themselves the importance of meeting our transformative challenges. We may create the space for this through any discipline, education, and research as a system of learning continuum. The potential emergence of novelty, diversity, and life is all we have. How we ensure inclusive and equitable quality education to promote lifelong learning opportunities for all is how we may learn to do this, albeit unconventionally.

References Andreotti VDO, de Souza TM (2012) Postcolonial perspectives on global citizenship education. Routledge, New York Bateson G (2000) Steps to an ecology of mind. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Beuys J (1990) Energy plan for the western man. Four Walls Eight Windows, New York

Unconventional Educational Approaches Boal A (2008) Theatre of the oppressed. Pluto Press, London Bohm D, Factor D, Garrett P (1991) Dialogue, a proposal. http://www.david-bohm.net/dialogue/dialogue_proposal. html. Accessed 23 Feb 2018 Brand S (1999) The clock of the long now. Phoenix Paperback, London Dewey J (2015) Experience and education. Free Press, New York Freire P (2017) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Penguin Modern Classics, UK Global Commission for Adaptation and World Resource Institute (2019) Adapt now: a global call for leadership on climate resilience. P3 https://gca.org/global-commis sion-on-adaptation/report. Accessed 12 Aug 2019 Global Reporting Initiative, United Nations Global Compact and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2015) SDG compass. https:// sdgcompass.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Goal_4. pdf. Accessed 10 Aug 2019 Gunderson LH, Holling CS (eds) (2002) Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island Press, Washington, DC Haley D (2001) March 2001: reflections on the future – “O brave new world”: a change in the weather. In: Remesar A (ed) Waterfronts of art I, art for social change. University of Barcelona, CER POLIS, Spain, pp 97–112. www.ub.es/escult/1.htm and CD ROM Haley D (2008a) A dialogue with oysters: the art of facilitation in 2008 art as environment: a culture of action on the tropic of cancer (English and Chinese), pp 98–117. ISBN 978-986017674-2 Haley D (2008b) The limits of sustainability: the art of ecology. In: Kagan S, Kirchberg V (eds) Sustainability: a new frontier for the arts and cultures. VAS-Verlag, Frankfurt, pp 194–209 Haley D (2008c) Water, time and grace: questions of art and ecology. In. Raney K (ed) Engage 21 art and climate change. Cornerhouse Publications, Manchester, UK. pp 13–18. ISBN 1365-9383 Haley D (2017) ‘Undisciplinarity’ and the paradox of education for sustainable development. In Leal Filho W (ed) Handbook of sustainable science and research. Series, climate change management. Springer, Manchester, UK Haley D (2018) Art as destruction: an inquiry into creation. In: Reiss J (ed) Art and sustainability in the anthropocene. Vernon Press, Wilmington, pp 21–37 Harrison HM, Harrison N (2008) Public culture and sustainable practices: peninsula Europe from an ecodiversity perspective, posing questions to complexity scientists. Struct Dyn: eJournal Anthropol Relat Sci 2(3):Article 3. http://repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/ socdyn/sdeas/vol2/iss3/art3 Higgins P (2010) Eradicating ecocide: laws and governance to stop the destruction of the planet. SheheardWalwyn (Publishers) Ltd., London Holling CS (1995) What barriers? What Bridges? in Barriers and Bridges the the Renewal of Ecosystems and

Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities Institutions. In: Gunderson LH, Holling CS, Light SS (eds) Columbia University Press, New York Holling CS, Meffe GK (1996) Command and control and the pathology of natural resources management. Concervation Biology 10:328–337 Hyde L (2008) Trickster makes this world: how disruptive imagination creates culture. Canongate Books, Edinburgh Ingold T (2013) Making: anthropology, archaeology, art and architecture. Routledge, London Kahn R(2010) Ecopedagogy: an introduction. In: Critical pedagogy, ecoliteracy, and planetary crisis: the ecopedagogy movement. Counterpoints, Peter Lang, New York, USA. vol 359. pp 1–33 Klee P (1989) The pedagogical sketchbook. Faber and Faber, London Lakoff G, Johnson M (1980) Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Meadows DH (1999) Leverage points: places to intervene in the system, sustainability institute. http://www.sus tainer.org/?page_id=106 Morin E (2006) Restricted complexity, general complexity. http://cogprints.org/5217/1/Morin.pdf. Retrieved 27 Feb 2018 Morin E (2008) On complexity. Hampton Press, New Jersey Nicolescu B (2002) Manifesto of transdisciplinarity. State University of New York Press, New York Nicolescu B (2008) Transdisciplinarity: theory and practice. Hampton Press, New Jersey Orwell G (2004) 1984. Penguin modern classics. Penguine, London Paolozzi P (1985) Lost magic kingdoms and six paper moons from Nahuatl. British Museum Publications, London Pimm SL (1984) The complexity and stability of ecosystems. Nature 307:321–326. Pirsig RM (1991) Zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance: an inquiry into values. Alma Books, London Pirsig RM (1993) Lila: an inquiry into morals. Black Swan, London Slaughter R (2004) Futures beyond dystopia: creating social foresight. RoutledgeFalmer, London Tilman D, Downing JA (1994) Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. Nature 367:363–365 Tzu S (2008) The art of war (trans: Minford J). Penguin Classics, London UNESCO (2017) Education for sustainable development goals: learning objectives. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0024/002474/247444e.pdf. Retrieved Aug 2018 United Nations (2015) Sustainable development goals https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainabledevelopment-goals/. Retrieved 10 Apr 2018 United Nations (2017) Sustainable development goals report 2017. http://ggim.un.org/documents/TheSustai nableDevelopmentGoalsReport2017.pdf. Retrieved 20 Aug 2018 United Nations (2019) SDG indicators metadata repository https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/. Retrieved 14 Sept 2019

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Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities Cong Lin Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China

Synonyms Cross-cultural communication; Dialogue; Multiculturalism; Pluralism

Definitions Cultural diversity is a debatable, open-ended term, which generally refers to a reality of coexistence of diverse knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities and disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, nationalities, sexual orientations, etc., of human beings. It could extend to the way people react to this reality and the way people choose to live together with this reality.

Cultural Diversity and Identity Introduction People are divided by several factitious categories and partitions, such as identity politics, around the world where all cultural groups feel their members are to some extent being attacked, bullied, persecuted, and discriminated against. Whether people admit it or not, and whether government hide it or not, it is a fact that people are full of diversity in terms of gender, social class, ethnicity, race, language, abilities and disabilities, religion, sexual orientation, needs, nationality, political ideology, citizenship status, family composition, cultural background, income, occupation, etc. (Banks 2008b; Lin and Jackson 2019a). The human condition has itself become multicultural and interactive. For example, over 500 groups which the group population is more than 100,000 are

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commonly identified as ethnic groups across the world, let alone those groups which the group population is less than 100,000. Nearly about 5000 to 8000 distinct languages are spoken today (Evans and Levinson 2009). There are more than 4300 religions around the world, though over 70% of the world’s population practices one of the five most influential religions of the world: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism. This situation promotes the reflection from institutions, scholars, and the public on how to bring people together and cooperate to solve the problems that all human beings are facing. UNESCO lists “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” as sustainable development goal 4. Cultural diversity brings both opportunities and challenges to the achievement of this goal. Although many noble terms (e.g., equity and social justice) in relation to cultural diversity have been widely used and adopted in policies across the world as a politically correct way to deal with cultural diversity and people from different backgrounds, many cultures and people are still on the margin of society due to historical injustices, prejudices, fears, and misunderstandings. Over the past years, considerable progress on education access and participation has been made. However, 262 million children and youth aged 6 to 17 were still out of school in 2017, and more than half of children and adolescents are not meeting minimum proficiency standards in reading and mathematics (United Nations Economic and Social Council 2019). In addition, people from marginalized countries, cultures, and backgrounds are more inclined to lack equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities. Among 750 million adults who remained illiterate in 2016, two thirds of them are women (United Nations Economic and Social Council 2019). Half of the global illiterate population lives in South Asia, and a quarter live in sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations Economic and Social Council 2019). Many developing countries still short of basic infrastructure and facilities to provide effective learning environments. Sub-Saharan Africa faces the biggest

challenges: at the primary and lower secondary levels, less than half of schools have access to electricity, the Internet, computers, and basic drinking water (United Nations Economic and Social Council 2019). Therefore, it is time for people to rethink what cultural diversity could bring to this world and how people can work together to make good use of this opportunity, which is also the targets of sustainable development goals, especially goal 4. Two Perspectives of Understanding Culture Culture is mentioned and discussed by theorists, policy makers, educators, and the public when they examine and explain many issues, but various stakeholders do not always refer to the same thing. Culture can be used to label “other” people, but it also can serve the purpose of respecting people’s differences and avoiding assimilation and coercion. Thus it is necessary to distinguish what aspects of culture are referred to in different situations. In many situations culture can exist in a society at both superficial and substantial levels. “Superficial” means easily observable things that do not necessarily have an important impact on people’s fundamental identities and sense of belonging, in contrast with substantial level of culture. However, a spectrum view of the concepts should be employed rather than a binary view here. For example, festivals can be superficial, but they can also relate to people’s identities, such as a gay rights parade or a religious festival. Language is another example of cultural differences which can be seen as superficial or substantial. For many people, language (especially languages other than mother language) is just a tool for people to communicate. However, behind the noticeable superficial differences, languages reflect more substantial aspects in relation to psychology, linguistics, culture, politics, etc. Literature in psychology and linguistics demonstrates that languages (especially mother language) shape ways of interpreting, understanding, and communicating with the world; once people established a linkage between heritage languages and themselves at a young age, protecting instead of depriving this attachment is crucial for people’s mental health. Language is essential for a culture

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to survive as it reflects the way that people see the world. Many essential meanings of a culture are embedded in the language that it uses. Additionally, language connects with power and resources. In many societies, social status, a sense of belonging, and access to resources are largely influenced by people’s competence in the dominant language in the society, such as Cantonese in Hong Kong, Mandarin in mainland China, and English in many western countries (Lin and Jackson 2019b, c). In this sense, language is not just a personal matter but also ties with politics taken in the form of identity politics, such as is the case with French in Quebec, Cantonese in Hong Kong, and Scottish English in the United Kingdom. Thus, a distinction should be made between an oversimplified perspective and a more comprehensive perspective to understanding culture. The first perspective associates easily observed cultural items to a particular group, but less easily observed differences are overlooked, to promote substantial homogenization and justify assimilation. Assimilation continues to play its role until substantial homogenization becomes a fact of the society. The idea of assimilation takes it for granted that society has a coherent and unified cultural and moral structure, social cohesion and stability are more important than other things, and only traditional values that reflect the prevailing norms and values of the society can hold people together. These assumptions create a sense that homogeneity among people is normal and valuable and that once people give up their minority cultures, they can be accepted and welcomed as a part of majority without discrimination or prejudice. Noticing that this perspective leads to the situation wherein stereotypes and biases toward minorities are reinforced, scholars argue for a more comprehensive perspective to understanding culture (Levinson 2016; Banks 2008a). The second perspective tries to transcend oversimplified understanding of culture, particularly in relation to those cultures and people who have been historically marginalized. As a way of being, culture shapes people in a way through passing down from one generation to the next. People start to learn everything around them at the very beginning through their cultures, such as having a basic

understanding of what is right/wrong, proper/ improper, and normal/abnormal. After growing up in a culture, it is natural for people to judge other cultures by using their own culture as the standard. Therefore, people would feel shocked, confused, disoriented, and disgusted when they start to experience or even immersed in other cultures. When peoples’ needs for proper recognition are ignored, and when endeavors are made to label and other them, it is natural for them to suffer and feel anger. Humankind need recognition from others to live with dignity, especially in a world where cultural diversity is a fact, rather than something one can choose to believe in or not. People’s understanding of a culture and people associated with this culture influences how people treat the culture and the people (Taylor and Gutmann 1994). This perspective not only requires changes in policies, attitudes of people, and teaching materials but also demands empowering all people with more accurate understanding of each other and their cultures. Identity Issues in Education Culture links closely to identity, such as the way people see themselves and others. Diverse cultures lead to diverse identities which bring both opportunities and challenges to education and the society. Nowadays, different countries, workplaces, and schools increasingly consist of people from various cultural, racial, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. People need to have a level of understanding about each other in order to live together and collaborate with each other, which require learning about other cultures and identities. This situation demands people to understand different perspectives within the world in which they live and to diminish misunderstandings, stereotypes, biases, and discriminations about different cultures and people. In addition, cultural diversity provides people an opportunity to transcend their own ways of being and interact with others to understand and experience different ways of being. It makes countries, workplaces, and schools become more interesting places. Difficulties arise when different identities are not necessarily compatible and have to compete

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with each other. This can be a challenge to overcome, especially when there are underlying prejudices and misconceptions about different cultures, making people with different identities refuse to live together, let alone cooperate together. For people who have spent many years fighting any form of exclusion (e.g., sectionalism and racism), teaching the values of social justice and human rights and bringing equity and inclusion from classroom to society, wars, and conflicts fueled by misunderstandings, fears, and hatreds toward different cultures and identities are disorienting, confusing, and heartrending.

groups and individuals are denied or ignored in many societies, alongside with denial of their cultures and identities (Banks 2008b). Denying the contribution of some groups and individuals and their cultures and identities is dishonest to histories of those countries full of immigrants, such as the United States, Australia, and Canada. This also delivers a message that the shared past of all citizens of a nation-state is not valued by the society. However, without admitting past wrongs, it would be difficult to rectify past injustices, let alone create a just and an inclusive environment for all. Human beings need recognition from one another to live with dignity, especially in a society where cultural diversity is a fact, rather than something one can choose to believe in or not (Bingham 2001). In this sense, recognition is about how people should treat each other (Taylor and Gutmann 1994). This approach views recognizing different cultures and identities associated with them as the first step to teaching about cultural diversity. To better understand it, what recognition means should be explained here. As a fundamental human need, recognition should be seen as a courtesy (Taylor and Gutmann 1994). In a society where people with different cultures mix together both in private and public areas, it is crucial to provide everyone with a sense of belonging. A recognized culture is an indispensable element for cultivating a sense of belonging (Taylor and Gutmann 1994). However, just like any concept, even if recognition is agreed upon as a desirable element for teaching about cultural diversity, there is no universal agreement on what recognition actually means. It could be elementary recognition, respect, esteem, love, friendship, an action of acknowledging and being acknowledged, and allowing coexistence and interplay (Bingham 2001). Given these many meanings, recognition is not a concept that can be well defined and carried out accordingly. People should expand its potential functions (Bingham 2001). This approach basically argues for political recognition, social recognition, curricular recognition, and personal recognition (at individual and psychological levels). These four categories have some overlap with each other while differing in

Different Approaches Toward Cultural Diversity As a term with multiple meanings, cultural diversity is sometimes used in sociology and everyday life as a synonym of ethnic pluralism, but most times it is used in philosophy, politics, and education as a theory, a policy, and a curriculum. In the last few decades, no matter what form cultural diversity takes, the core theme of discussing it always is equity and justice, whose meanings vary widely, ranging from showing equal respect for all cultures to maintaining cultural diversity, to recognizing all identities associated with cultures, and to transforming social systems. As cultural diversity is not just a reality of coexistence of diverse knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, religions, languages, abilities and disabilities, genders, ethnicities, races, nationalities, sexual orientations, etc., of human beings, it also extends to the way people react to this reality and the way people choose to live together with this reality. Therefore, it is necessary to summarize current approaches that people react to cultural diversity and the way they believe would be better for living together with cultural diversity. Recognizing Cultural Diversity Started from pioneering movements in the name of fighting for cultural diversity, such as the civil rights movements, recognizing different cultures and identities is a major approach to acknowledge and rectify past injustices as contributions of some

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some ways. Political recognition refers to recognition of cultures in legal and political areas, such as citizenship and the right to vote. It emphasizes combining recognition and redistribution to provide for equal participation in public life (Fraser 2003). However, it does not have to be supported by the majority in everyday life. This distinguishes it from social recognition, which requires that different groups of people recognize and respect each other’s cultures and identities in the public sphere of a society (Taylor and Gutmann 1994). By pointing out the limitations of a single national narrative which is problematic in practice as sometimes different cultures and identities are irreconcilable and some textbooks are used to denigrate minority cultures and identities, curricular recognition favors an inclusive national narrative in curricula to help bond people with different cultures and identities together (Levinson 2012). Curriculum changes are necessary because students need to be at home in the class and have nowhere to go and no power to put themselves in a more inclusive and relaxed place if they don’t feel included or comfortable (Bingham 2001). Thus, curricular recognition insists that fundamental diverse cultures and identities should be reflected in the curricula. Personal recognition means that an individual can see and feel himself or herself in another’s eyes as an individual with dignity, rather than as a tool to attain a goal, or a representative of a group or a culture. Personal recognition emphasizes recognition in relation to individual relationships and psychological feelings and matters in a private relationship. It requires people to acknowledge and understand each other’s histories, cultures, and identities associated with them, because without this, people are more inclined to feel fear or hatred to other people, feel uncomfortable with other people, and think and act based on bias and stereotype (Dilg 1999). Critics of this approach note that recognition is intertwined with power, and people with power possess the criterion of recognition. Many cultures and identities are not predetermined at birth, but constructed and normalized by compulsory reiteration and repetition of a set of social norms (Moon 2011). Take black racial identity as

an example: many “cultural” features of a black racial group in society (e.g., hairstyle) are constructed and propagandized by people with power, which facilitates and reinforces the prejudice it wishes to reduce (Ford 2005). Sometimes this exercise of power in relation to recognition is invisible to those people who wield it as they take it for granted. In addition, although this approach arouses attention to different minority cultures and groups, it might risk diverting attention from collective cooperation to create a just environment for all people, as different theorists have different focus cultures and groups (i.e., it can be worse if they just focus on a particular culture and group without understanding other cultures and groups) (Yúdice 1995). For example, feminists value gender as the core theme, ethnic-studies scholars emphasize race and ethnicity, and Marxists highlight class. Focusing on a single culture and group is crucial for arousing attention to a culture and group which has been long neglected. However, it might lapse into a group-centeredness and exclude concerns for other identity groups. Treating People with Different Cultures Equally Considering that many concepts (e.g., culture, ethnicity, race, and nation) and differences of people are human-made constructs to divide people and feed stereotypes and hatred, this approach points out that treating people with different cultures and identities differently by adopting these artificial concepts can be problematic. No one should be discriminated against or granted exemptions just because of his or her differences, and everyone should be entitled to participate equally in decision-making processes, especially when they can determine whether or not a minority group could be granted exemptions (Barry 2001). It can be counted as treating all people as free and equal beings as long as the following three conditions are met: (1) all people’s basic rights are protected, (2) no one is induced to adopt the values the majority of people share, and (3) both in theory and in practice, the decision-makers are accountable (Taylor and Gutmann 1994).

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Treating different cultures and identities as equal does not mean that people need to treat strangers as equally as they treat their family, or neglect that people are unequal in terms of many things, such as mentality and weakness. It just refers to the view that morally all people are fundamentally equal and worth being took seriously by others as persons who can be responsible for making decisions; “no citizen should be so opulent that he can buy another, and none so poor that he is constrained to sell himself” (Rousseau 1997, p. 78). For this approach, difference is neither the problem nor the solution, so laying stress on differences among people will be misplaced as it would hinder the most important causes of group disadvantage (Barry 2001). Focal points should be given to common demands, shared disadvantages, and free choice of individual, rather than special groups prerogatives. Otherwise, it will serve as an anti-egalitarian approach and impede mobilization based on shared interests (Barry 2001). Criticisms of this approach are threefold. First, it is unfair to treat all people with different cultures and identities equally when some cultures and people refuse to treat other cultures and people equally (Macedo 2004), and treating everyone equally risks falling into the pitfall of relativism. Relativism denies that there are universal truths, values, and standards in relation to diverse cultures and identities (Schmidt 1955). No person can legitimately judge others, because “[j] udgments are based on experience, and experience is interpreted by each individual in terms of his own enculturation” (Herskovits 1972). By understanding people’s different identities as influenced and shaped by people’s distinct backgrounds, experiences, and values that may not be commensurable, or appropriately judged or wellunderstood by people from different backgrounds, relativism sees it as impracticable to affirm, reject, or compare identities. However, relativism in relation to culture and identity is not equal to skepticism, even though both mistrust absolute truth and criteria of judgment. Skepticism questions all notions of truth and criteria of judgment, while relativism replaces absolute truth and criteria of judgment with numerous equally valid relative

truths and criteria of judgment. Every individual with distinct identities holds a fragment of truth and criterion of judgment. In this sense, critics of this approach warn that relativism risks (1) becoming an absolute approach that wipes out all absolute truths and criteria of judgment and thus violates the principle of all is relative (Dixon 1977) and (2) destroying the natural laws of the human world and obscuring the distinction between truth and personal belief, and if there is no absolutely truth or criteria of judgment which is beyond personal belief, no one can state that a person’s belief is false or mistaken (Putnam 2012). Second, it can lead to touching on everything superficially in education without going into anything deeply. In a diverse society, it is impractical and undesirable to teach children the full range of diverse cultures and identities as “[t]he effort to do so would lead to treating each [culture and identity] so fleetingly and so superficially as to contribute little to children’s genuine understanding of other citizens’ experiences and worldviews” (Williams 2004). Third, minorities are often invisible under the name of equality, and this approach risks maintaining the status quo as the equality position holds the belief that ethnic minority students should be treated the same as all students, no better and no worse (Kennedy and Hue 2011; Seglow 2003; Taylor and Gutmann 1994). In this sense, equality is a cold excuse for obstructing correction for historical injustices and lacking a warm and an inclusive embrace. Protecting Minority People and Their Cultures To understand the roots of this approach, it is worth first understanding the critique of assimilation from the cultural diversity perspective. Assimilation leads to the extinction of minority cultures and identities. For example, Fillmore (2005) shows how schools reflect the lopsided power relationship in a society by enabling minority students to dismiss their home language and become estranged from their heritage. If students hope to succeed in schools or the society by abandoning the connection with themselves, their families, and communities, this kind of losing of their past is a high price they cannot bear

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(Banks 2008a). Spring (2012) and Valenzuela (1999) call this process “deculturation” and “subtractive schooling.” The idea of assimilation takes it for granted that society has a coherent and unified cultural and moral structure, social cohesion and stability are more important than other things, and only traditional values that have proved their worth by socializing many generations of children into the prevailing norms and values of the society can hold people together. These assumptions create an illusion that homogeneousness among people is a normal and valuable condition, once people give up their minority cultures, they can be accepted and welcomed as a part of majority without discrimination and prejudice. As Banks (2012) illustrates, the illusion created by assimilation makes immigrants and minority people experience hope and shame in schools. In this context, cultural diversity is seen by this approach as vital for the long-term survival of humanity. By linking cultural diversity to biodiversity, the protection of diverse cultures thus is as crucial to humankind as the protection of diverse species and ecosystems is to nature (UNESCO 2002). It advocates that many minorities are on the margins of society due to the historical injustice, and policymakers and educators need to take this into account and enact different polices to redress the historical injustice. Therefore, special treatments for people whose cultures and identities are in danger are necessary to redress historical injustice, and special treatments should be seen as a permanent feature of a just society instead of a temporary compensation for historical wrongs (Kymlicka 1995; Taylor and Gutmann 1994). Here, the main difference between this approach and the second approach is that the former acknowledges that the principle of equality can be sacrificed to protect culture and identity, while the latter refuses. For defenders of this approach, special treatments will not conflict with the principle of equality or freedom of choice, as the inequalities and potential options for minorities were produced before they even made their choices. And the survival of a culture is not just for the current people who value that culture

but also for the indefinite future generations to be able to experience that culture (Taylor and Gutmann 1994). This approach has two recipients: individual identity and group identity. The focal point of protecting individual identity is individual’s rights to choose, form, and revise the cultures and identities, which cannot be sacrificed for the sake of the general good, such as protecting and maintaining the survival of a culture or a group. If different individual members are representing and voicing as a single group, different interests and demands among members of a group will be simplified and neglected (Modood 2007; Parekh 2006). A person has several identities, speaks several voices, and values different rights in different situations (Jackson 2014). In this sense, how a society reacts to these identities will largely determine the way people perform in the society and influence people for developing a full sense of self and a sense of shared community (Jackson 2014). The idea of protecting group identity started from the situation that many societies have a history and a present of excluding some particular cultures and groups, and social norms and values are defined by the majority (Kymlicka 1989). Thus, external preservations, which protect the identity from outsiders’ destruction, and elimination of internal constraints which aim to perpetuate the group’s crucial features are necessary (Taylor and Gutmann 1994; Kymlicka and Banting 2006). Critics of this approach come from three aspects. First, it is hard to define to what extent and which protection needs to be applied to different cultures. Respecting and publicly supporting a culture, recognizing and using a language in the public sphere, expressing a religion in the public sphere freely, and self-governing can all be on the list. In different contexts culture protection may mean different things. For example, the measures include exclusively using French in all schools, in all commercial signage, and in federal courts that where attended by Francophones and immigrants in Taylor’s assessment of the situation in Quebec (Taylor and Gutmann 1994), while it refers to special hunting and

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fishing, along with governing themselves for indigenous peoples and original tribes in some parts of Canada and the United States. Second, protecting cultures should not be an excuse for violating basic values or human rights. For example, some cultures (e.g., religious fundamentalists) reject the basic values of a society, such as the idea of inclusiveness and gender equality. The foundation of a society would be destroyed if these groups’ cultures are protected to exercise their actions. In this case, these groups’ cultures should not be protected. Third, this approach has an internal tension: protecting group cultures and identities might conflict with or obstruct individual identities. The identities that members of a group would like to have are plural and open-ended, as each member is the author of his or her own multiple meanings and desires. Each member of a group should have the power to decide whether or not a culture should be protected and which facets of the culture should be protected.

Living in a diverse society requires students to become citizens who are willing to show tolerance and mutual respect to others, as every voice matters in a society (Hess 2011). In many diverse societies where the classroom is monologic, there is no place for students to express or receive diverse cultures and identities (English 2016). Students would not know why cultural diversity is worth being respected and tolerated initiatively, which requires educators to facilitate dialogue among students. Many studies have proved that dialogue among different perspectives and discussion of controversial issues (including culture and identity) could be very helpful for students to cultivate tolerance and mutual respect (English 2016; Hess 2011). Thus, Kazepides states that “[w] hen educational institutions function as centres of dialogue they become genuine human communities of openness, respect, trust, and cooperation that motivate the students and promote long-lasting and transformative learning” (2010, p. 110): Dialogue can take many forms to teach about cultural diversity. For example, it could be

Teaching About Cultural Diversity by Dialogue In many societies, people with different cultures are excluded from the mainstream society, categorized by different labels, lived with segregation, and lead parallel lives (Girishkumar 2015). By arguing that dialogue is indispensable to teach about cultural diversity, this approach emphasizes that diverse cultures should be seen as a treasure for human beings to have a more complete and comprehensive view of this world and preserve human culture. All people should be included in the process of dialogue to attain cooperation (Servaes 2005). In a world which is full of mobility and diversity, dialogue from the vantage points of people’s diverse cultures is essential to explore what human beings have in common (Darling-Hammond et al. 2002). No culture or person can claim holding the whole truth or all valuable things of human beings. Welcoming different thoughts and views can be a remedy to people’s parochialism, as otherness reminds people that the value of a culture is independent of whether outsiders like it or not (Parekh 2006).

religious communion (Martin Buber); philosophical hermeneutics (Gadamer); rational deliberation (Habermas); radical pedagogy (Freire); dialogism and ‘dialogical imagination’ (Bakhtin); dialogue as the ‘awakening of consciousness’ (Bohm); and dialogue as conversation and the medium of liberal learning (Oakeshott and Rorty). (Besley et al. 2011, pp. 3–4)

However, agreement is not always guaranteed by dialogue: [c]ommon ground, or moral consensus, is not the pre-requisite but the product of an ideal dialogue. [dialogue] is not a matter of arriving at the truth, or a matter of explaining to others how they are wrong, or even an appeal to a person’s moral autonomy, but the mutual exchange of public reasons. (Seglow 2003, p. 94)

It should be seen as a progress of understanding each other. Major critique of this approach is that dialogue can still be controlled by the majority, which is not an equal dialogue (Sensoy and DiAngelo 2017). It faces a challenge as:

Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities speaking outside of the dominant meaning system risks losing the ability to communicate altogether. At the same time, speaking only inside the dominant meaning system risks reproducing the language of the dominant discourse itself. (Langmann 2016, p. 236)

For minority students, dialogue does not necessarily seem like a good thing if they have to adopt majority’s language (which has already predefined the meaning of justice and other fundamental values) in order to join the dialogue. However, minority students “do not wish either to be silenced or to be recognized and constrained to speak within the institutions of interpretation of the imperial [modern liberal] constitutions that have been imposed over them” (Tully 1995, p. 24).

Conclusion By exploring different approaches of understanding cultural diversity, and the relationship between culture and identity, this entry shows that cultural diversity is a vast pool where different (and sometimes contradictory) approaches toward it coexist together. There is no unconditionally good or bad, unconditionally effective or noneffective, approach of understanding and teaching about cultural diversity. Rather, it is a question of what kind of approach better fits a specific context and to what extent cultural diversity is understood or misunderstood in the context. By grasping the idiosyncrasy of a context, local understanding of cultural diversity, and the particular form(s) that cultural diversity takes and could take in the specific context, it could bring hope to the society to bring people from different cultures together and cooperate to solve the problems that all human beings are facing.

Cross-References ▶ Educating Indigenous People: Historical Analysis and Contemporary Practices ▶ Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs ▶ Mono-/Inter-/Multi-/Trans-/Anti-disciplinarity in Research

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References Banks JA (2008a) Diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age. Educ Res 37(3):129–139 Banks JA (2008b) An introduction to multicultural education. Pearson, Boston Banks JA (2012) Ethnic studies, citizenship education, and the public good. Intercult Educ 23(6):467–473 Barry BM (2001) Culture and equality: an egalitarian critique of multiculturalism. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Besley T, Peters MA, Xaioping J (2011) Interculturalism, ethnocentrism and dialogue. Policy Futures Educ 9 (1):1–12 Bingham CW (2001) Schools of recognition: identity politics and classroom practices. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham Darling-Hammond L, French J, Garcia-Lopez SP (2002) Learning to teach for social justice. Teachers College Press, New York/London Dilg M (1999) Race and culture in the classroom: teaching and learning through multicultural education. Teachers College Press, New York/London Dixon K (1977) Is cultural relativism self-refuting? Br J Sociol 28(1):75–88 English AR (2016) Dialogic teaching and moral learning: self-critique, narrativity, community and ‘blind spots’. J Philos Educ 50(2):160–176 Evans N, Levinson SC (2009) The myth of language universals: language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. Behav Brain Sci 32(5):429–448 Fillmore LW (2005) When learning a second language means losing the first. In: Suarez-Orozco C, SuarezOrozco M, Qin-Hilliard DB (eds) The new immigration: an interdisciplinary reader. Routledge, New York/ London, pp 289–307 Ford RT (2005) Racial culture: a critique. Princeton University Press, Princeton Fraser N (2003) Redistribution or recognition? A politicalphilosophical exchange. Verso, London/New York Girishkumar D (2015) Multiculturalism or Interculturalism? A conversation with ted cantle. J Intercult Stud 36(6):729–735 Herskovits MJ (1972) Cultural relativism. Random House, New York Hess D (2011) Discussions that drive democracy. Educ Leadersh 69(1):69–73 Jackson L (2014) Muslims and Islam in U.S. education: reconsidering multiculturalism. Routledge, London/ New York Kazepides AC (2010) Education as dialogue: its prerequisites and its enemies. McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montréal Kennedy KJ, Hue MT (2011) Researching ethnic minority students in a Chinese context: mixed methods design for cross cultural understandings. Comp Educ 47 (3):343–354 Kymlicka W (1989) Liberalism, community, and culture. Clarendon Press, Oxford

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938 Kymlicka W (1995) Multicultural citizenship: a liberal theory of minority rights. Oxford University Press, Oxford Kymlicka W, Banting K (2006) Immigration, multiculturalism, and the welfare state. Ethics Int Aff 20 (3):281–304 Langmann E (2016) My way to you: how to make room for transformative communication in intercultural education. J Philos Educ 50(2):233–245 Levinson M (2012) No citizen left behind. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Levinson M (2016) Diversity and civic education. In: Levinson M, Campbell DE, Hess FM (eds) Making civic count: citizenship education for a new generation. Harvard Education Press, Cambridge, pp 89–114 Lin C, Jackson L (2019a) From shared fate to shared fates: an approach for civic education. Stud Philos Educ 38 (5):537–547 Lin C, Jackson L (2019b) Multiculturalism in Chinese history in Hong Kong: constructing Chinese identity. Asia Pacific J Educ 39(2):209–221 Lin C, Jackson L (2019c) Politics in history education in Hong Kong: towards critical political education. Educ Stud Japan 13:39–54 Macedo S (2004) Liberalism and group identities. In: McDonough K, Feinberg W (eds) Education and citizenship in liberal-democratic societies: teaching for cosmopolitan values and collective identities. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 414–436 Modood T (2007) Multiculturalism: a civic idea. Polity, Cambridge Moon S (2011) Rethinking culturally responsive teaching: toward new (Im)possibilities of curriculum studies and policy. Multicult Educ Rev 3(2):69–102 Parekh BC (2006) Rethinking multiculturalism: cultural diversity and political theory. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke/New York Putnam H (2012) Philosophy in an age of science: physics, mathematics, and skepticism. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Rousseau JJ (1997) The social contract and other later political writings. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/New York Schmidt PF (1955) Some criticisms of cultural relativism. J Philos 52(25):780–791 Seglow J (2003) Neutrality and equal respect: on Charles Larmore’s theory of political liberalism. J Value Inq 37 (1):83–96 Sensoy OZ, Di Angelo R (2017) Is everyone really equal? An introduction to key concepts in social justice education. Teachers College Press, New York Servaes J (2005) Beyond differences in cultural values and modes of communication. In: Xu S, Kienpointner M, Servaes J (eds) Read the cultural other: forms of otherness in the discourses of Hong Kong’s decolonization. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin/New York, pp 49–70 Spring J (2012) Deculturation and the struggle for equality: a brief history of the education of dominated cultures in the United States. McGraw-Hill, New York

Unintentional Learning Taylor C, Gutmann A (1994) Multiculturalism: examining the politics of recognition. Princeton University Press, Princeton Tully J (1995) Strange multiplicity: constitutionalism in an age of diversity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UNESCO (2002) UNESCO universal declaration on cultural diversity: a vision, a conceptual platform, a pool of ideas for implementation, a new paradigm. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris United Nations Economic and Social Council (2019) Special edition: Progress towards the sustainable development goals. Available via. https://undocs.org/en/E/ 2019/68. Accessed 15 Aug 2019 Valenzuela A (1999) Subtractive schooling: U.S.-Mexican youth and the politics of caring. State University of New York Press, Albany Williams M (2004) Citizenship as identity, citizenship as shared fate, and the functions of multicultural education. In: McDonough K, Feinberg W (eds) Education and citizenship in liberal-democratic societies: teaching for cosmopolitan values and collective identities. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 208–247 Yúdice G (1995) Neither impugning nor disavowing whiteness does a viable politics make: the limits of identity politics. In: Newfield C, Strickland R (eds) After political correctness. Westview Press, Boulder, pp 255–285

Unintentional Learning ▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

Universal Education ▶ Global Access to Education for Sustainable Development

Universalism ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

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Upskills Training

innovation and outcomes that align technical and scientific possibilities to derive real solutions on the ground. Living labs result in co-creation through active user involvement by multiple stakeholders in a real-life setting. The labs may be a virtual or physical space where various stakeholders work collectively to co-create solutions, most often in urban areas. This entry focuses more on the link between living labs and sustainable outcomes.

▶ Professional Development and Sustainable Development Goals

Introduction

Unorthodox Methods ▶ Unconventional Educational Approaches: An Eco-pedagogy to Address Our Transformative Challenges

Urban Learning Lab(s) ▶ Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting Usha Iyer-Raniga1,2 and Renzo Mori Junior3 1 RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia 2 One Planet Network Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme, UN Environment, Paris, France 3 Design and Social Context College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Synonyms Engagement; Living laboratory(ies); Smart city; Sustainable living lab; Sustainable university; Urban learning lab(s)

Definitions Living labs may be described as an open innovation ecosystem integrating users, academia, and industry or private organizations in generating

Living labs are an empirical phenomenon. In an interconnected and increasingly digitized world, living labs may be used to co-produce and cocreate solutions that provide better outcomes and impacts as compared to traditional, siloed approaches to problem-solving. This entry commences with an understanding of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and the role of living labs in meeting goals and targets resulting from the SDGs. This is followed by an in-depth understanding of living labs and the characteristics of living labs, followed by case studies of its applications at various scales. An example of living labs in a university campus is then presented, followed by discussions. The final section presents the conclusions.

The Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) came into effect in January 2016 (UN Sustainable Development Goals 2019a). It was adopted by all the members states of the UN in 2015. The SDGs encourage all nations to promote prosperity while protecting the environment and recognizing planetary boundaries. Unlike traditional environmental approaches, the SDGs recognize and support stronger social and economic dimensions of sustainability where economic growth may be decoupled from environmental issues while ending poverty, supporting education, creating jobs, promoting health and well-being while dealing with the impacts of climate change, and

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preserving the environmental health of the planet. The SDGs also provide an innovative approach to support partnerships to maximize the value created by collaborations and highlight the principle of interconnectedness, meaning all SDGs are interconnected and success in one affects success for others. The SDGs replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (UN Millennium Development Goals 2019), which started a global effort at the commencement of the millennium to tackle poverty and other development priorities. The time line for the SDGs is from 2016 to 2030 and takes a holistic approach to understanding water, energy, climate, urbanization, transport, science, biodiversity, economic growth, partnerships, equality, and technology. The development of the SDGs puts peace, people, planet, and prosperity at the center of action and decision-making through the process of partnerships. This entry focuses on the role of living labs as an important contributor to the SDGs, particularly SDG 4 on education, which is about ensuring “inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (SDG 2019b). Living labs support innovation through collaboration for developing new solutions and support the development of relevant and effective learning outcomes through informal learning environments. It also supports Target 4.4 on skill development, entrepreneurship, and creation of jobs. Through its implementation, it also embodies SDG 17 (strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development) in action. Living labs may also be used to scale up innovation and businesses while engaging directly with the users. They may operate as intermediaries among citizens, research organizations, public and private organizations, and governments.

Living Labs: A Conceptual Understanding Living labs have a history of cooperative and usercentered design approaches of the 1970s from the Scandinavian countries (Kokareva et al. 2018).

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

Living labs are characterized by co-creation, exploration, experimentation, and evaluation where citizens are core stakeholders. Balloon et al. (2005) support this view where they also consider end users as being the co-producers. Living labs are characterized by a higher degree of openness involved across longer time lines of the test and experimentation platforms. Living labs may be seen to be a method of value creation (Edvardsson et al. 2012) or as management models (Katzy 2012). In recent times, support for living labs has been spurred by ENoLL (European Network of Living Labs), a peak body that has over 150 active living lab members worldwide. Founded in 2006, the EU member states are well presented in this network, and their presence covers five continents, apart from Europe. ENoLL acts as a platform for best practice exchange, learning and support over energy, climate, design, education, ICT, media, mobility, healthcare, and agrifood to name a few (EnoLL 2019). Living labs are a special form of innovation that brings product, technology, or services closer to the market as end users are involved in the process of testing and experimentation. It is perhaps best used in emerging regions as they can experiment with technology under development that need testing and validation. Essentially, as a concept, living labs (ENoLL 2019) may be defined as: user-centred, open innovation eco-systems based on a systematic user co-creation approach, integrating research and innovation processes in real-life communities and settings.

Leminen et al. (2012, p. 7) have defined living labs as: physical regions or virtual realities in which stakeholders form public-private-people partnerships of firms, public agencies, universities, institutes, and users all collaborating for creation, prototyping, validating, and testing of new technologies, services, products, and systems in real-life contexts.

Westerlund and Leminen (2011) present the following definition of living labs: Physical regions or virtual realities, or interaction spaces, in which stakeholders form public-privatepeople partnerships (4P) of companies, public

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting agencies, universities, users, and other stakeholders, all collaborating for creation, prototyping, validating, and testing of new technologies, services, products, and systems in real-life contexts.

As can be seen from the literature on living labs, urban living labs (ULLs) may be considered to be different from living labs (Chronéer et al. 2018). These authors posit that “urban” or “civic” innovation in living labs may be recognized as essential to urban living labs. They analyze definitions by others on living labs and state that innovation, people integration, networking, reallife context, public-private-people partnerships, urban transition labs working on specific problems, and use of methodologies of co-production all characterize urban living labs. They state that urban living labs should contribute to sustainable development of cities to create value for its stakeholders. These city-level problems define urban living labs, whereas living labs refer to the local challenges and solutions. Thus, Chronéer et al. (2018) say that ULL needs to enhance sustainability in an urban area, creating value and long-term sustainability solutions in the process of engagement. These are place-based in that experimentation may happen at a local level, but the impact is global. They define ULL as (p. 10): ULL is a local place for innovative nature-based solutions that aims to solve urban challenges and contribute to long-term sustainability by actively and openly co-constructing solutions with citizens and other stakeholders.

Others (Steen and van Bueren 2017, p. 22) state that ULL refers to urban lab, city lab, test bed, or making space. Hossain et al. (2019) bring two main views of the living lab: living laboratory and living labbing. The former, living labs, is the European view, whereas the North American view is use of living labbing. The North American view considers living labs as a case study or a seed idea/ demonstration project, whereas the European view is to study users in an in situ situation. Although US researchers have been credited with first using the living lab concept in recent times, funding predominantly by the EU has supported widespread use. Open innovation and user innovation are the two main paradigms that

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dominate the discourse of living labs. This suggests that traditional approaches of innovation no longer work and, therefore, open innovation calls for external inputs or engagement to support and develop innovation. Sustainable innovation and living labs are closely related; sustainability refers not only to the opportunities for upscaling but also from a triple bottom line approach to sustainability to focus on urban settings. While sustainable development is implicitly embedded in a lot of living lab studies, there are some studies, however, that do ignore sustainability outcomes. While not explicitly stated in some of the definition of living labs or approaches, however, the link to sustainability is often drawn through the application of the real-life solutions. Living labs can contribute to sustainable development particularly in an urban context, and this entry sees sustainable outcomes as an essential dimension to living labs. As can be observed from the examples provided in the section citing examples of living labs globally, it may be noted that whether the context is Russia, the Middle East, or Latin America, the outcomes are always linked to sustainability outcomes implicitly or explicitly. However, before examining examples, the next section focuses on the characteristics of living labs.

Living Lab Characteristics The role of cities and the need to use living labs as a way for delivering sustainability outcomes have been explored by Martin et al. (2018). Often there are tensions between smart governance and management of cities or smart cities and sustainability. Among a number of considerations, they state that neglecting environmental protection and pro-consumerist cultures have led to breakdowns. Solutions include empowering citizens so that smart and sustainable urban developments can support environmental protection and social equities. Bulkeley et al. (2016) suggest that governance is quite critical where the combination of actors and processes leads to new kinds of capacities and capabilities, particularly those that deliver on intended impacts.

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As user engagement and real-life context of engagement have been typical of living labs since the 1970s, living labs were typically project based, resulting in no clear business models (Kokareva et al. 2018). The experimental nature of ULL makes it very difficult to compare different types of ULL to allow comparisons and determine measures of success. Bulkeley et al. (2018) argue ULLs to be a form of inquiry, characterized by different forms of ULLs. These forms are derived from their experimentation as an ULL and their disposition to the kinds of configuration and practice. They examine different forms of ULLs, strategic demonstration, community platform, civic platform, and civic demonstration, to show the types of ULLs, strategic, civic, and organic, and four types of dispositions underpinning the living lab, trial, enclave, demonstration, and platform. Using the example of UNaLab funded by the European Union funded H2020 research and innovation program, six main components characterizing ULLs have been suggested: innovation in an urban context, engagement with citizens, data collection and various methods of engagement, governance, infrastructure, and a stable relationship (Chronéer et al. 2018). Key characteristics of living labs and key elements that make up living labs have been summarized by Hossain et al. (2019) as context-specific activities, types of users, activity taking place, challenges to be overcome, and innovative outcomes. The elements of living labs are user involvement, service creation, infrastructure, governance, innovative outcomes, and methods and tools. These authors also consider real-life environments, stakeholders, activities, business models and networks, methods tools and approaches, challenges, outcomes, and sustainability as key characteristics of living labs as determined by their literature review. Although not well explored, real-life environments are expected to create experiential domain-based knowledge that provides user feedback from various contexts and innovation activities. Living lab stakeholders are multiple in nature. They typically represent various stakeholder groups so that interaction between these stakeholders leads to something new and innovative not otherwise possible. The innovative activities

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

that take place in living labs are facilitated rather than managed. Business models and networks are diverse and complex and seek to deal with complex solution in a real-life context; they may also show entrepreneurship. Methods, tools, and approaches center on users, often engaged iteratively during the process of engagement, and allow social innovation to occur. Communication may be in varied forms such as pictures, drawing, and other types of communication vehicles. With regard to user innovation in living labs, the way users are engaged may be top down or bottom up, as long as it is applied in a real-life context. When users are engaged in the process, only then co-creation can occur. A challenge may be the recruitment of users themselves but so also governance, temporality, sustainability, and scalability of the activities. There may be unforeseen circumstances in the process which also maybe a hinderance and cannot provide guaranteed results. Outcomes may be tangible or intangible, and usually a diversity of innovation is presented rather than just one innovative practice. Leminen et al. (2018) examine the current discourse in living labs as belonging to the thirdgeneration living labs in an urban city context. The first generation according to them focused on living labs as real-life environments but also on the users and stakeholder activities. The second generation of living labs have been more about the methods/methodologies of innovation activities of the real-life environment unique to living labs. The third generation of living labs are focused on collaborative innovation, where different stakeholders and users have critical roles in the processes of innovation associated with living labs. The focus on urban contexts such as cities supports a range of collaborative innovation mechanisms such as coworking places (shared proactive and communityoriented workspaces), innovation labs (providing opportunities for promoting community, learning, and doing; providing opportunities to engage with people, ideas, and technologies), hackathon (focusing on various stakeholders involved in software projects), and fab labs (global network of local labs where open access for individuals are granted). As innovation is central to living labs, the importance of this characteristic cannot be

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

undermined. The forms of collaborative innovation may be opened or closed following from previous discussions by other authors on inbound or outbound innovation as noted by Saebi and Foss (2015), Dahlander and Gann (2010), and Huizingh (2011). Strategies for inbound innovation may be market-based, crowd-based, collaborative, and network-based. Open source as the name suggests is open to the public and uses open sources of data usually for collaboration. In their analysis, Leminen et al. (2018) state that twofold spaces occurred where two different stakeholders were participating in innovation and development activities as an open innovation example. A particular space was used as a meeting point for these activities resulting in finding solutions for service or developing new products in an urban context. A space that has more meaning to the users becomes a “place” as the place itself becomes the source for inspiration and ideation. Space is a physical location for meeting, but when the “space” becomes the actual point of study itself, it becomes a place. Twofold place occurs also between two actors but often between an organization and a user community. Here, the place of meeting itself has meaning to support and co-create, validate, and test the innovation. This may be in the form of a service to a particular neighborhood in an urban context. Multifold space rather than place uses multiple stakeholders in the innovation activities such as in testing facilities, streets, and other such neighborhood spaces or a university community where collaborative innovation occurs. In contrast, multifold place has similar characteristics of multifold space, but here, a broad variety of not only stakeholders are involved often within their own neighborhoods to make it more attractive or more serviceable. The next section provides some examples of empirical studies focusing on living labs across various scales.

Living Labs’ Case Studies: A Few Examples Sustainable Development Goal 4 focuses on quality education. Specifically, Goal 4.7 “focuses on

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ensuring that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development” (UN SDG 2019b). As living labs are largely an empirical phenomenon, our approaches to understanding are still evolving. This is part of the problem associated with the living labs; in that, since this area of research is still emerging, successes and challenges associated with living labs are still an area of study. Therefore, there is value in understanding the nature of living labs to support the goals of sustainable development across the board, particularly in the context of both formal and informal education and through social learning. This section provides examples in the literature of living labs used in various cities and urban precincts and examples in various universities globally. Living labs have been used at a city level, in urban precincts, universities with focus of projects on campus or curricular engagement with students, and projects on campus. ULLs can provide economic prosperity and social cohesion while achieving environmental sustainability. Marvin et al. (2018) have undertaken an analysis of and provided opportunities for sustainability transitions through ULLs. Their collection of studies from Africa, China, India, Europe, and North America provide a critical and comparative analysis of ULLs and presents new insights into their governance to improve design and implementation. They hone in on the importance of design of the ULLs from the perspective of the purpose and vision of their establishment; the practice which includes techniques and mechanisms of operation on a day-day basis; and, finally, processes, which may become part of the wider socio-technical system of urban areas so that the outcomes become fully embedded such as learning, translation, scaling up, and mainstreaming. They posit that ULLs are about developing new capacities to understand, apply, and produce smart, resilient, and low carbon outcomes. The techniques

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underpinning living labs have moved from corporate to an urban context to become more entrenched in particular contexts. While ULLs offer a technique for experimentation with solutions for urban sustainability which explains their uptake globally, claiming profound transformations as a result of ULLs needs to be viewed with caution and recognition of the difficulties in assessments of success due to multiple stakeholders involved need to be acknowledged. They also suggest that with ULLs focusing on the technological aspects on innovation, only the focus should also deal with other aspects such as social and cultural innovations. This approach allows social innovations and innovation in public and voluntary sectors to be explored in parallel. Longterm approaches are useful as they can then become socially and institutionally embedded and stabilized. They also focus on learning, not as an outcome of the ULL process but as a byproduct of co-production leading to shared lessons across various types of ULLs. In a study by Kokareva et al. (2018) considering the Russian context, the authors investigated the features of living labs, their business applications, and other similar examples of infrastructure innovation in Russia. Their results suggest that since living labs bring product, technology, or service closer to the market due to engagement from end users’ perspectives, they are supportive of the model underpinning living labs. The areas that provide potential for living labs in Russia according to the authors are cross sectoral: ICT, bio-tech medical and public health, advanced materials and nanotechnologies, sustainable use of natural resources, transport and space systems, energy efficiency, and energy savings. Living labs as innovative clusters have potential in Russia with appropriate facilities as long as qualified work force is available. The role of municipalities in promoting sustainability through ULLs in the European context has been discussed by Kronsell and MukhtarLandgren (2018). They link sustainability, climate, and environmental governance with political science literature on governance. They argue that municipalities can act as promoter, enabler, and partner from their analysis of 50 ULL case studies from Europe.

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

In the edition of the “environmental SCIENTIST” (Journal of Institution of Environmental Science 2017), the concept of living labs and the creation of innovative societies to transform research projects have been presented using case studies. Examples of universities using living labs from Brazil, Malta, South Africa, Singapore, Scotland, and England all show success in how different approaches have been trialled using academic and professional staff and students across campus, buildings, and student engagements. Considering the Middle East, Koch (2018) argues that while symbolically university campuses in three of the top universities in the region have treated universities as living labs for sustainability, they do not necessarily transfer to a transformative experience for students. Furthermore, the development of using green field sites for construction with attendant infrastructure changes does change the landscape of universities. Higher educational institutions can play a critical role in demonstrating sustainability research by using their own campuses to trial research and generate new knowledge while also being in a capacity to deliver that new knowledge. Universities are crucial to achieving the SDGs because they can provide the next generation with skills and knowledge to address sustainability opportunities and challenges, as well as through research that advances the sustainable development agenda. Also, universities can influence its stakeholders to adopt more sustainable approaches (Mori Junior et al. 2019). Lozano et al. (2014) have examined the role that education, research, community outreach, campus operations, assessment and reporting, institutions policy and framework, and on-campus experiences may have an impact on how sustainability visions may be realized. Living lab models have been planned to be used for renewable generation, electric mobility on campus, energy efficiency, monitoring, and energy demand management at the University of Campinas in Brazil (Silva et al. 2018). The underlying intention with the use of living labs in this university was supporting public-private partnership using innovation, research and teaching in energy management, measurement and

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

verification, renewable energy generation through photo voltaics, mobility on campus through the use of renewable energy, and sustainability in overall energy consumption on campus. In another example of a Latin American city, Guayaquil, in the Republic of Ecuador, the University of Guayaquil focused on compactness, inclusiveness, resilience, sustainability, safety, and participation as their priority areas (Hugo et al. 2018). They worked closely with the city of Guayaquil to achieve these goals. The University of Málaga in Spain has also taken a similar approach in treating the university campus as a smart city (Fortes et al. 2019). Their key characteristics are innovative educational and research activities and supporting efficient infrastructure, management, innovation, teaching and learning, and research support across energy, water, emission, mobility, ICT, health and wellbeing, and the natural environment on campus. Conservation and construction, sustainability, and new technology use are the main focus areas. The outcome of this development is an expected improvement in the administration, management, and decision-making of the university leading to new areas of interest and development of cross-disciplinary methodologies in teaching and learning and research and increasing the skill, commitment, and knowledge of all parties involved. Using the university campus for chemistry students in the USA has been explored by Lindstrom and Middlecamp (2017). In another example, also in the USA, sustainability outcomes were delivered by staff, students, and the community in a living lab for resiliency to climate change (Boroff et al. 2018). The use of living labs in university for teaching in the architecture undergraduate program was explored by Dadaieh et al. (2018). They focused on the design of a refugee shelter prototype that was passive, low cost, energy-efficient approach suitable for a hot arid climate taking into consideration design for disassembly at end of life. As a pedagogical living lab, the experiment was very successful as the students engaged in real-life scenario for the refugee shelter, and such type of an approach forms sound bases for green architecture education.

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Universiti Teknologi Malaysia’s (UTM) plan was to include environmental and social considerations in its campus operation alongside traditional project management values of cost, time, and quality. They focused on the incorporation of six living labs for research, teaching, and campus development (Omar et al. 2018). The living labs included a sustainable food arcade to practice recycling and resource recovery to reduce carbon emissions. Green offices were yet another living lab, using natural lighting where possible, and appropriate selection of computer and associated energy-efficient hardware, along with improving paper, card, and related recycling practices. Efficient and reduced energy use throughout the campus leads to research and curricular development opportunities and use of a bio recycling center throughout the campus leading to the third and fourth living lab initiatives respectively. Capacity building for future professionals supported the fifth living lab on green schools, and the last living lab, green community, included society education as part of providing sustainable solutions. Their conclusions indicate that while academic, students, professional, and administrative groups contribute to sustainability outcomes arising from the various living labs, they should be phased and prioritized to give people time to develop ideas leading to the desired outputs/outcomes. Genta et al.’s (2019) study of using the ecological footprint not only supported understanding carbon emissions for Politecnico di Torino University and understanding sustainability on campus, but it also supported in guiding sustainable procurement practices by the university operators. The aim of using ecological footprint was to allow comparisons across campuses in Italy and support communication and understanding among university stakeholders: students, administrative staff, and academic faculty. The study showed that using renewable energy through photo voltaics on site would support a lower footprint of energy. Local food production on campus may be used as carbon sinks, and carbon emissions may be reduced by 30% by putting bike paths on campus. Deliberately planning for green areas on campus would support CO2 absorption, thus reducing overall CO2 emissions.

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The next section presents some examples of staff and student engagement in education, curricular development, research, and campus operations at the case study university, RMIT University in Melbourne, Australia.

The University as a Living Lab The underlying premise of student engagement for sustainability underpinnings at a university is to provide opportunities for students to engage in sustainability outside the classroom, to have real world experiences, and to understand what it’s like to work with multiple stakeholders from industry. The campus may be used as a living lab aligning student engagement through education while meeting sustainability outcomes on an urban campus. The example used here is RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. RMIT is a dual sector university with programs in technology, design, and enterprise. The university commenced in the trade sector in 1887. Today, sustainability and industry engagement are seen to be core of the university’s “DNA” (RMIT 2019). As part of university-wide digital credentials program, RMIT delivered on four new sustainability micro-credentials over the last year. The credentials, available to students and staff, include Sustainability 101, Learning to Walk the Talk, Ethical Cities, and Sustainable Change. They were developed in partnership with industry to provide a strong foundational knowledge of sustainability. In addition, launching Bundyi Girri – Shared Future is a demonstration of university-wide change strategy to support nonindigenous people into their relationship with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, demonstrating SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) and SDG 16 (peace, justice, and strong institutions) (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology 2019). Driving campus operations to be energy efficient has continued from previous years, along with a further drive for on-site solar projects, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 45% on 2007 baseline, progressing the goal to be carbon

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neutral by 2030. By becoming a partner of the Melbourne Renewable Energy Project, purchasing 25% renewable energy has seen the construction of 39 wind turbines at the Crowlands Windfarm near Ararat in Victoria, increasing renewable energy generation in the state. At a social level, “Be the Change” and “It’s OK to not be OK” campaigns support the staff and student community through difficult times they may face, ensuring there is always somewhere to turn. Rolling out the Green Impact program designed to help staff and students embed sustainability and social responsibility practices at work was a new initiative introduced over the year. More than 200 actions were completed by staff across Melbourne and Vietnam, recorded by students trained as auditors (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology 2019). • Example of student engagement on campus Using students from a range of discipline projects focused on assessment of the current state of biodiversity on campus, stormwater capture and reuse, urban cooling through campus greening, and ground-based thermal comfort analysis. Greening applications for cooling the built environment were explored, while biodiversity was used for climate change mitigation and adaptation, mitigating urban heat island effect, creating healthier ecosystems, and becoming water sensitive on campus through design, engagement, and behavior including better solutions for stormwater capture and reuse (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology 2019). • Example of research RMIT works closely with industry bridging the gap between research and impact while creating transformative experiences for students. In 2018, over 620 research projects across the university were dedicated to the achievement of the SDGs and contributed to specific SDG targets. To foster collaboration and connect researchers from multiple disciplines under thematic topics, RMIT has eight Enabling Capability Platforms (ECPs) designed to foster multidisciplinary collaboration. The ECPs enable RMIT to more

Urban Living Labs: Explorations in a University Setting

comprehensively address critical local and global challenges. These ECPS are Advanced Manufacturing and Fabrication, Global Business Innovation, Advanced Materials, Information and Systems (Engineering), Biomedical and Health Innovation, Social Change, Design and Creative Practice, and Urban Futures. ECPs serve as a single point of contact within the University for research projects and partnerships that focus on using the university’s strengths to drive high-profile research initiatives with significant impact in the communities where RMIT operates. • Example of engagement with the SDGs A formal role to coordinate work across the university was created dedicated to the SDGs. The intent of the position was to raise awareness, foster collaboration, provide advice and assistance, measure impact, and communicate SDG contributions across the university (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology 2019). The SDGs provide a common platform where organization, civil society, and government representatives can contribute to solving the world’s biggest sustainable development challenges. RMIT recognizes the important role the education sector can play in promoting, supporting, and contributing to the SDGs agenda. The university remains committed to modelling institution-wide excellence in response to local, national, and international calls for a sustainable future. RMIT aims to demonstrate its global leadership by embedding the SDGs into its strategies, processes, policies, and practices. By using measurement and reporting mechanisms, RMIT will continue to fully and transparently disclose performance towards achieving these goals. An example of cross-sectoral collaboration by the university is evident from the UN’s One Planet Network. As a member of the One Planet Network, designed to pool international expertise, resources, and innovation across different sectors to enable the shift to more sustainable modes of production and consumption, RMIT has been engaged in this network since its beginning in

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2015. The network provides a platform for SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) across six key areas: public procurement, consumer information, tourism, lifestyles and education, buildings and construction, and food systems. These programs pool expertise and resources from hundreds of organizations across civil society, government, academia, and the private sector to help countries accelerate and implement mechanisms for SDG 12. RMIT has been working closely with the Government of Finland and the United Nations Environment Programme on sustainable buildings and construction (SBC) as a co-lead. SBC aims to improve the knowledge of sustainable construction and support mainstream sustainable building solutions. Sustainable construction activities have been funded through the initiative across India and Nepal, Burkina Faso and Kenya, and Nicaragua and Colombia. Plans are also in place for smart cities in Egypt and responsible sourcing of concrete in Colombia, Panama, and Costa Rica. Work to date has involved sharing best practice; developing tools for resilience, adaptation and mitigation; promoting supply chain sustainability; discussing tensions in planning and building regulation; researching alternative low-cost building materials; and education and training on creating cooperative networks and garnering commitment to sustainable construction. The next section presents discussions and conclusions.

Discussions and Conclusions Living labs play an important role combining educational experience with technical and scientific possibilities to deliver positive outcomes on the ground. Such an approach allows an effective integration of critical skills from different stakeholders to generate innovation in a real-life context. But the fact that this is largely an empirical exercise brings challenges. Furthermore, as an idea it has proven to be quite effective but still needs more research to ensure that the outcomes desired provide a clear and defined methodological approach(es).

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In the context of the SDGs, living labs can be used as a model to bring together students, industry, governments, community, and academics to collaboratively and innovatively work towards sustainability outcomes as outlined by the SDGs and truly present opportunities for transforming the world. However, to be effective, living labs should recognize that different stakeholders have different expertise and particular roles in the process of innovation. Acknowledging these differences and facilitating interaction between stakeholders is crucial to deal with innovation for real-life sustainability challenges. The interlinked nature of the 17 SDGs also aligns very well with the multi-stakeholder and multidisciplinary co-creation model established by the living lab concept. Transitioning to a more sustainable society requires an integrated approach that recognizes that sustainability challenges are interrelated and solutions, most of the time, depend on a multi-stakeholder cocreation model. The concept of living labs, particularly in the context of the SDGs, is relatively new, and its adoption by universities is still in the infancy stage, not unlike that of living lab applications in cities and the broader urban areas. Nevertheless, the fact that there is not a lot of time for us to progress the SDGs puts empirical approaches such as the living lab as a viable alternative. Using the example of the university shows that there are myriad options and challenges to demonstrate sustainability commitments and leadership by embedding the SDGs into its strategies, policies, processes, programs, and practices. This is not easy, however, as it requires dedicated resources to ensure that different arms of the university share the value proposition and work collectively to defined outputs and outcomes. Nevertheless, as universities are also in charge of educating future professionals, it places an ethical responsibility on universities to experiment and seek practical solutions for supporting the SDGs through education, research, campus operations, staff, student, and broader community engagement in an innovative and co-creative manner.

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V

Values Education ▶ Awareness in Educational Ethics

Vocational and Technical Education ▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

Vernacular Education

Vocational Education

▶ Informal Education as Twenty-Second-Century Future Education

▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

Vocational Education and Training (VET) Visualizations ▶ Future Trends in Education

▶ Technical Education Through Action Learning: Bedrock of Sustainable Development

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W

Well-Being ▶ Preschool Education: A Foundation for Lifelong Well-Being

Worldliness ▶ Cosmopolitanism and Global Citizenship

This encyclopedia includes no entries for X, Y and Z. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Quality Education, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95870-5