Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1: Exploring Organisational Impact 3031267036, 9783031267031

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Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1 Exploring Organisational Impact Edited by Albert A. Anani-Bossman · Takalani E. Mudzanani · Cornelius B. Pratt · Isaac A. Blankson

Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1

Albert A. Anani-Bossman Takalani E. Mudzanani Cornelius B. Pratt  •  Isaac A. Blankson Editors

Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1 Exploring Organisational Impact

Editors Albert A. Anani-Bossman Department of Public Relations University of Media, Arts and Communication, UniMACGIJ Campus Accra, Ghana Cornelius B. Pratt Department of Advertising and Public Relations, Lew Klein College of Media and Communication Temple University Philadelphia, United States

Takalani E. Mudzanani Department of Communication Science University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa Isaac A. Blankson African University College of Communications Accra, Ghana

ISBN 978-3-031-26703-1    ISBN 978-3-031-26704-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Foreword

Writing a preface oftentimes engenders in the writer a mix of elation and self-reflexivity—elation in alerting readers of, say, this volume to a refreshing, heterodox approach that emphasizes getting past the sometimes excruciating challenges of organizational communications on the ground, rather than getting bogged down in their challenges per se; and self-­ reflexivity in offering readers multiple perspectives (absent normative directives) from which they can reflect on their role—both current and future—as strategic communication managers. In the 1970s, following graduation from the University of Lagos, I served as a management trainee in the public relations unit of Flour Mills of Nigeria PLC, then presumably the world’s largest single flour mill. Some 27  years later, I served for six years in the National Office of Communication at the United States Department of Agriculture, Sidney R.  Yates Federal Building, in Washington, DC.  I then returned to the academy—this time in Philadelphia, the fourth-largest media market in the United States. To write this foreword, I persuaded myself that perhaps my perch as a college professor and a former practitioner would instantly provide me with the required distance for a much-needed objectivity and the gimlet eye to fulfill this responsibility effectively. Now, let’s shift gears and move to the essence of this essential guide to excellence in communication management. The chapters in this two-volume Public Relations Management in Africa were written primarily for a trinary readership: (a) mid- and senior-­ level communicators and marketing communication managers poignantly v

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curious about developments in communication management, particularly about how their peers contribute to ethics-guided organizational communications and to the common good; (b) graduate and undergraduate students interested in fostering their creative engagement with communication practices, enabled by theoretical frameworks and focused on Africa; and (c) public relations and multidisciplinary faculty considering or seeking directions for future research at the intersection of marketing communication, public relations qua public relations and rhetorical inquiries. This book offers all three groups approaches to and perspectives on addressing public relations issues. A hallmark of educational and training institutions worldwide is the granting or awarding of certifications to enrollees, following the completion of specified courses, seminars, or workshops. To do so, such institutions are required to meet standards agreed upon by their preceptors and teaching and research faculty, as well as those stipulated by professional associations or government agencies whose responsibility is monitoring or overseeing the offerings of such institutions. This points to an essential outcome: the institutional codification of rigorous accreditation criteria as indicators of the avowed standards and expectations of a profession or practice—and the trajectories for self-assessing and strengthening them. All of those considerations inspired Public Relations Management in Africa, which was written to provide readers with a granular understanding of public relations in the management of organizational communication. The two-volume format of the book—Volume 1 examines the organizational impact of the practice, whereas Volume II focuses on its practical, conceptual and empirical aspects—offers an eclectic, yet comprehensive, read. Public relations, broadly conceptualized as organizational communications, increasingly attracts institutional interest from two major constituencies: organizations that have communication specialists on their staff and those whose responsibility it is to prepare them for their evolving organizational roles. The two volumes of this book address the communication interests of both camps by presenting cases, scenarios, illustrations and analyses, each from a perspective that enables communication specialists, on the one hand, to reflect on their organizational roles while examining pointers that can be applied to subsequent undertakings, thereby facilitating more effective communication outcomes. Those outcomes offer communication students, on the other hand, an opportunity to

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participate in a public relations experiential process and role-play. Such students occupy front-row seats in an unfolding public relations activity that proffers a bird’s-eye view of the function. What can these volumes contribute to Africa’s public relations practice? Despite Africa’s notoriety as a socioeconomically unstable continent, its economies, pre-COVID-19 pandemic, had healthy growth rates. Ghana’s, for example, was 8.4% in 2017—the world’s third fastest. Rwanda’s gross domestic product averaged 7.2% from 2010 to 2019, but plummeted to 3.4% in 2020 (https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/rwanda/overview), hobbled by COVID-19 lockdowns. Egypt’s informal economy, parallel to the formal economy, has been booming during the past 50 years, accounting for 68% of new jobs and for up to 50% of the country’s GDP, and making it the largest recipient of remittances in Africa (Soliman, 2020). South Africa’s Economic Reconstruction and Recovery Plan (ERRP), announced in 2020, and the country’s commitment to growth and fiscal sustainability contributed to the finding of the International Monetary Fund, during its visit from May 26 to June 6, 2022, that some sectors of the country’s economy—tourism, hospitality and construction—were improving significantly in the aftermath of the decline in the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, its economy, benefiting from favorable commodity prices, grew by 4.9%. According to World Population Review (https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-­rankings/richest-­african-­countries), “The African economy is expected to reach a GDP of $29 trillion by 2050, powered by its agriculture, trade, and natural resources sectors. The region has an eager and expanding workforce, with 20 million new job seekers a year in sub-Saharan Africa alone. Africans are starting to catch up with the rest of the world technologically as well” (para. 2, n.d.). The overarching message here is clear: there is a growing continentwide need for skilled communicators who will increasingly guide their organizations toward meeting their strategic communication goals as they establish and maintain two-­ way symmetrical relationships with their disparate stakeholders. The outlook for the contributions of such a management function looks promising primarily because African governments’ economic policies—for example, South Africa’s ERRP—are focused on creating and expanding businesses, on reducing poverty and on improving the business environment through, among other things, massive investments in infrastructure.

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Beyond the business environment across the continent, there has been a significant growth in college-level communications education, particularly since the 1960s, when a number of African countries severed their political subservience to colonial institutions and created their own communication curricula that attempted to resonate with local sensibilities. But that growth had been much more pronounced in numerical terms— that is, in the number of universities and colleges that have communication programs—than in the resources needed to make such growth (in numerical terms) sustainable. These volumes aim to address that lacuna. Each volume takes readers from specific, case-focused analyses (e.g., “Redefining media relations in higher education institutions in Ghana: A qualitative case study approach of public and private universities,” Chap. 10, in Volume I) to broader considerations in public relations in organizations (e.g., “Public relations research and practice in Africa,” Chap. 1, Volume II). The mix of research methodologies in both volumes spans the landscape of the practice—from launching a three-pronged, functionalistic research process (exploring, designing [qualitative and quantitative], executing), absent experimental designs, to delivering, say, a campaign or a research report. Such an approach will be particularly helpful to students enrolled in public relations courses as they seek to avoid some of the common mistakes detailed in “The seven deadly sins of communication research” (Neuman et al., 2008). Also from a broader perspective is the final chapter of Volume I, titled “Future of public relations in Africa: A case for rethinking inquiry and practice,” in which the authors bemoan the adoption of Western-style frameworks/theories, concepts, and practices in African public relations and argue for the development of frameworks based on variables that proclaim African agency and draw upon African philosophical approaches that underpin African business practices as the corpus of our current knowledge, pedagogy and research in public relations management. Given the relevance and application of public relations to socioeconomic development, the authors advocate that African scholars move from the debate of developing African-oriented concepts and practices in communication and public relations to build them if Africa is to catch up with other parts of the world. Those arguments are inarguably spot-on. These analyses by the contributors, collectively continentwide, will encourage self-reflexivity among readers, enabling them to draw their own

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well-informed, inspiring conclusions based on their own specific job experiences, their own professional inclinations, and their own expectations of public relations as an evolving management function in organizations. On that note, this book has the potential to occupy an indelible spot in the annals of Africa’s public relations management, as it seeks to expand and enrich our discourses in the classroom, in the newsroom, in the boardroom. Philadelphia, PA, USA September 2022

Cornelius B. Pratt

References Neuman, W. R., Davidson, R., Joo, S.-H., Park, Y. J., & Williams, A. E. (2008). The seven deadly sins of communication research. Journal of Communication, 58(2), 220–237. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.00382.x Soliman, M. (2020). Egypt’s informal economy: An ongoing cause of unrest. Journal of International Affairs, 73(2), 185–193.

Acknowledgments

This book has been made possible through the efforts and cooperation of many people, and we would like to show our gratitude to them. First, we want to thank the authors who responded to our call to contribute to this volume. We very much appreciate the time and effort they put into their chapters. This book would not have been published without their contributions. Second, we thank the publisher Palgrave Macmillan, particularly Arunaa Devi and Lauriane Piette, for the unalloyed support, professionalism, and constant guidance offered throughout the development of this book. Finally, we thank our families for their unwavering support during the preparation of this volume. The Editors

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Contents

1 Introduction:  Public Relations Management in Africa  1 Albert A. Anani-Bossman , Takalani E. Mudzanani , Cornelius B. Pratt , and Isaac A. Blankson 2 Public  Relations in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Ten-Year Review 17 Prisca S. Ngondo and Anna Klyueva 3 The  Use of Social and Digital Media in Public Relations: Empirical Perspectives from Ghana 41 Albert A. Anani-Bossman 4 Tensions  Between Public Relations and Journalism: A Namibian Perspective 69 Albertina Kashuupulwa and Eno Akpabio 5 China’s  Public Diplomacy for Image Making in Islamic North Africa: Frames of the Belt and Road Initiative in Daily News Egypt 89 Muhammad Khalil Khan , Cornelius B. Pratt , and Nadeem Akhtar

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6 Public  Relations Evaluation in Ghana: Are We There Yet?121 Albert A. Anani-Bossman and Derek Onomah 7 Image  Building Versus Relationship Building in Public Relations Practice in Tanzania: A Survey of Practitioners145 Zamda George and Eno Akpabio 8 Is  China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Africa Effective Public Diplomacy? Valences in Dialogic Communication in Three Newspapers159 Cornelius B. Pratt 9 The  CEO Activism Playbook: An Empirical African Perspective from Ghana187 Eric Kwame Adae , Gregory Gondwe , and Jared Macary 10 Redefining  Media Relations in Higher Educational Institutions in Ghana: A Case Study of Public and Private Universities215 Daniel Nkrumah and Daniel Norris Bekoe 11 The  Fourth Industrial Revolution: Artificial Intelligence and Its Implications for Public Relations Practice in Africa241 Isaac A. Blankson and Albert A. Anani-Bossman Index

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Notes on Contributors

Eric Kwame Adae, PhD, APR, is Assistant Professor of Public Relations at Drake University School of Journalism and Mass Communication. He holds a PhD in Media and Communication from the University of Oregon School of Journalism and Communication (SOJC), as well as a BA (Sociology with English) and MPhil (Communication Studies), all from the University of Ghana. He is an accredited public relations practitioner and was a communications consultant for more than 15 years in Ghana. His research interests include Afrocentricity, responsible management, CEO activism, social justice, corporate social advocacy, and corporate social responsibility/sustainability. Nadeem Akhtar  (PhD, Wuhan University, People’s Republic of China) is an associate professor in the School of Urban Culture, South China Normal University, Nanhai Campus, Foshan, China. He is also a visiting associate professor in the Department of One Belt, One Road Institute, Chu Hai College of Higher Education, Hong Kong. He also served in the India-Pakistan Research Center, focusing on China’s Belt and Road Initiative, and in the School of International Education, South China University of Technology, China (2018–2019). He was an assistant professor in, and chair of, the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Pakistan (2012–2018). His research has been published in top-tier SSCI journals (e.g., Journalism Studies, Frontiers in Public Health, Frontiers in Psychology, Sage Open, The Social Science Journal) and has book chapters in Routledge

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series. Apart from these, he has also presented several research papers at national and international academic conferences. Akhtar’s research interests include journalism, new media and social interactions, interreligious and intercultural conflicts, intercultural and interpersonal communication, international communication, and China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Eno Akpabio  has a bachelor’ (English) from the University of Calabar, MSc, and PhD in Mass Communication (from the University of Lagos and the University of Uyo, respectively). He was a lecturer in the Department of Mass Communication at the University of Lagos, Nigeria. He served as a senior lecturer, an associate professor, and the head of Media Studies Department at the University of Botswana, as well as a professor in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Dar es Salaam, before taking up his present post as Professor of Information and Communications Studies, University of Namibia. Akpabio has authored three books (African Communications Systems and the Digital Age being the latest), chapters in books, as well as numerous articles in scholarly journals. He is a member of the International Communication Association (ICA), Association of Communication Scholars & Professionals of Nigeria (ACSPN), African Council for Communication Education (ACCE), and International Association of Media and Communication Research (IAMCR), where he serves on the International Council. Albert  A.  Anani-Bossman  PhD, is a lecturer and head of the Public Relations Department in the Faculty of Public Relations, Advertising and Marketing at the University of Media, Arts and Communication, UniMAC-GIJ. He is also a communication specialist with nearly 20 years of experience. Anani-Bossman’s scholarship has been published in journals such as Communicare, Corporate Communication: An International Journal, Corporate Reputation Review, Journal of Marketing Communications, and Public Relations Inquiry. He holds a PhD in Communication Science (University of South Africa [UNISA]), an MPhil and Postgraduate Diploma in Communication Studies, and a BA in English and Linguistics, all from the University of Ghana. He is also a coeditor of Marketing Communications in Emerging Economies: Foundational and Contemporary Issues Vol. 1 (2021). As a communication professional, Anani-Bossman has consulted for several institutions, including public, private, local, and international organizations. His research interests include public relations practices, measurement and evaluation,

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organizational communication, crisis communication, and reputation management. He is a member of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR, UK) and the International Communication Association (ICA). Daniel Norris Bekoe  is an academic with more than 23 years of teaching experience at the basic, secondary, polytechnic, and university levels. He is also a PR practitioner and has consulted for many organizations in Ghana. He is the Deputy Registrar in charge of University Relations at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. He has extensive knowledge in public relations planning, media relations, and crisis communication. Bekoe was also Lecturer in Communication Studies at the Pentecost University. He was later appointed as Director for Quality Assurance, in addition to his teaching duties. His area of research interest includes public relations, media and development, development communication, and broadcast journalism. Bekoe holds a PhD in Communication, Culture and Media Studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, an MA in Communication & Media Studies (University of Education, Winneba), a bachelor’s in education, and a Certificate in Education (University of Cape Coast). Isaac A. Blankson, Professor of Communication and Public Relations, is the president of the African University College of Communications (AUCC). Prior to assuming that responsibility, he served as the vice president and interim pro-vice-­ chancellor of the Ghana Communication Technology University, the chair and director of Technology in the Department of Applied Communication, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, United States, among others. He is a resource person and consultant to several local and international organizations on communication, media, public relations, and environmental issues. Professor Blankson holds a PhD in Communications (Ohio University), two master’s degrees in International Affairs/Public Relations (Ohio University) and Human Geography (University of Oslo), a bachelor’s degree in Geography (University of Ghana), and a certificate in Environmental Geography (University of Oslo). His research focuses on communication technologies and media in new and emerging democracies, public relations practices in developing societies, and media criticism. He has authored several publications and is the co-editor of Negotiating Democracy: Media Transformations in Emerging Democracies, published by the State University of New York Press.

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Zamda  George is a tutor in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, as well as the Marketing and Outreach Manager for the same University. She holds a bachelor’s degree in Public Relations and Advertising and a master’s degree in Mass Communication, both from the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Dar es Salaam. She is a master’s degree candidate in Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Development on her campus. Her research interests are in the areas of public relations, relationship building, marketing communication, and entrepreneurial marketing. She is a member of the Public Relations Society of Tanzania and has participated in a number of conferences within East Africa. Gregory  Gondwe is Assistant Professor of Journalism Studies at California State University, San Bernardino. Gondwe’s research focuses on journalism, civil society, and digital technologies in Africa. He researches contemporary media ecosystems and their implications on society. Some of his works include cross-national studies about mis/disinformation in sub-Saharan Africa related to gender, geo-location, age, and media literacy and the role of China in the African media. Gondwe’s research works have appeared in various peer-reviewed journals, including Digital Journalism, Journalism Studies, Media and Culture, International Journal of Communication, Journalism Practice, Journalism Studies, and African Journalism Studies. Albertina Kashuupulwa  is the Senior Community Liaison Officer at the Ministry of Health and Social Services in Namibia. She is responsible for overseeing the Communication Department of the Directorate. She holds an MA degree in Media Studies, a BA in Media Studies (Honours) with a specialization in Public Relations and Industrial Psychology, and a diploma in Public Relations, all from the University of Namibia. She is pursuing her PhD in Marketing Management at Unicaf University. Muhammad Khalil Khan  is an associate professor in the Department of Journalism and Communication, School of Media and Law, NingboTech University, Ningbo, China. He holds a PhD degree in Journalism and Communication from Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China, and was awarded the honorary credential of “Outstanding International Graduate” of Zhejiang University in 2017. His research work has been published in top-notch SSCI Journals (e.g., Journalism and Communication Quarterly, Social Science Journal, Media, War & Conflict), and he has also presented

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at prestigious International Conferences (e.g., ICA-2017, 2018, 2020; IAMCR-2019) in the United States, Czech Republic, Australia, Spain, Turkey, Hong Kong, and China. His research interest mainly focuses on the areas related to China’s Belt and Road Initiative, China’s image construction, social media and public engagement, strategic communication and global communication, and so forth. Anna Klyueva  is Associate Professor of Communication at the University of Houston—Clear Lake, United States. Her scholarship and teaching emphasize international and global strategic communication, media transparency, public relations, and social media. Her articles have been published in the International Journal of Communication, Journal of Historical Research in Marketing, Public Relations Review, Health Communication, and Journal of Russian Communication, among others. Her professional experience includes broadcast journalism, strategic communication, and management in Russia, Central Asia, and the United States. Jared Macary, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Strategic Communications in the Department of Journalism and Mass Communications at Washington and Lee University. Macary holds a doctorate in Media and Communication Studies from the University of Oregon School of Journalism and Communication. Macary has worked as a media consultant in Africa and Asia and in public health communications for the US Food and Drug Administration and National Cancer Institute. Macary’s research interests include strategic, visual, and environmental media and communication with a focus on wildfires. Takalani E. Mudzanani  is Professor of Communication Science at the University of South Africa (UNISA), where he teaches public relations. Before joining Unisa in 2011, he worked with the South African government as an assistant director (2004–2006), and later Deputy Director (2007–2011), in the National Department of Arts and Culture. He has a PhD in Tourism Management (North-­West University), an MBA (UNISA School of Business Leadership), a master’s in Organisational Communication Research and Practice (UNISA), a Postgraduate Diploma in Marketing Management (UNISA), a Postgraduate Diploma in Business Management (University of Kwazulu-Natal), and a Bachelor of Arts in Education (University of Venda). He supervises master’s and PhD students. His published research is on tourism, marketing, and public relations. He served as a project leader for the development of a fully online Diploma in Public Relations at UNISA.

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Prisca S. Ngondo  is Assistant Professor of Public Relations in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at Texas State University. She teaches public relations, social media, and health communication campaigns. Ngondo’s research interests are in strategic communication, social media, and international public relations. Her focus is on bridging the gap between strategic communication scholarship and industry practice. Her research has been published in the Public Relations Journal, Public Relations Review, Russian Journal of Communication, and Journal of Media and Communication, among many others. Ngondo holds a PhD in Mass Communications from Texas Tech University and an MA from the University of Oklahoma. Daniel  Nkrumah  is a lecturer in the Department of Language and Communication Sciences at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Ghana. He has more than 18 years of experience in media and communication. He also works as a media and communication consultant. Before joining KNUST, he worked as a communication lecturer at Pentecost University. He later served as the University’s head of Public Relations. Nkrumah also worked as a journalist with the state-owned Daily Graphic. He holds a PhD in Communication from the Fudan University, China, an MA degree in Communication Studies, and a BSc in Biochemistry, both from the University of Ghana. Derek Onomah  is an assistant lecturer at the University of Media, Arts and Communication, UniMAC-GIJ. He has a Master of Philosophy in Communication from the University of Education, Winneba. Derek is a PhD candidate at the University of South Africa (UNISA). His dissertation focuses on the measurement and assessment of public relations efforts in Africa. In addition to public relations, his research interests include social media, educational decolonization in Africa, and digital media. Cornelius B. Pratt  is professor emeritus of global communication and leadership in the Lew Klein College of Media and Communication at Temple University in Philadelphia, United States. From 2019 to 2021, he served as a professor in the School of Journalism and Communication at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China. From 2018 to 2020, he was a research fellow at the India-Pakistan Research Center in the School of International Education at the South China University of Technology. He is also a visiting professor (2016–2023) at Northwest University of

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Politics and Law in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China. He also serves as honorary director of its Communication Psychology and Application Research Center. His recent journal articles include those in Media, War & Conflict (2021); Frontiers in Public Health (2021, 2022); The Social Science Journal (2020, 2022); and the International Journal of Communication (2019). Pratt holds a PhD in mass communication from the University of Minnesota Twin Cities, United States.

List of Figures

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 9.1

China’s comparative image perception in Egypt (2006–2014). Source: Pew Research Survey, 2006–2014 91 China’s positive image perception in African countries. Source: Lekorwe et al. (2016); and afrobarometer.org 101 Respondents’ posture on the role of PR in fostering mutual understanding152 Respondents’ views on persuading publics over to organizations’ point of view 153 Routes of the Silk Road Economic Belt (“the Belt”) and of the Maritime Silk Road (“the Road”). Source: Xinhua Finance Agency, 2017 163 The author at the Tanzania-Kenya Border, a hub of the Maritime Silk Road Initiative in Africa. Photo by Dr. Ying Hu 163 The CEO activism guidelines continuum. Source: Authors 210

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 3.1

Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4

Table 3.5 Table 3.6

Summary of backgrounds of select SSA countries Data collection Article count by country/region of research Cross-tabulation of research topics by country Methodologies used Mean analyses of responses to the question: “Please tell us whether you agree or disagree that the emergence of social and other emerging media has changed the way your organization (or your client organizations)” Mean scores on responses to questions on practitioners’ agreement or disagreement with statements on the use of social media Responses to these questions: “On the average, approximately what percentage of your time working in public relations and communications is spent with blogs and other social media?” Responses to the question: “Which organizational function is primarily responsible and should be primarily responsible for monitoring and managing social and emerging media communication in your organization?” Mean analysis of responses to these questions asking subjects if they agreed or disagreed that public relations practitioners should measure Percentage of respondents answering the question, “To the best of your knowledge, has your organization (or a client organization) ever measured.…”

20 26 27 28 29

50 51 51

52 53 53

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Table 3.7

Table 3.8

Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 7.4 Table 7.5 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3

Mean paired sample t-test analysis comparisons between responses to the questions: “How important ARE/SHOULD each of the following in the overall communications and public relations efforts of your organization (or your client’s organizations)?”54 Mean analysis comparisons to the question: “Please tell us how frequently you access each of the following social networking, micro-­blogging and video sharing sites as part of your work in public relations” 55 China’s development engagement in the Islamic countries in Africa from 2000–2017 95 Geographical distribution of Muslim and non-Muslim countries associated with the Belt and Road Initiative 97 China’s investment in Islamic North Africa 99 China-related news coverage in Daily News Egypt from January 1, 2016 through December 31, 2018 106 China’s image dimension in Daily News Egypt from January 1, 2016 through December 31, 2018 107 Assessment of the effectiveness of public relations 132 Demand for evaluation and measurement in organizations 134 How insights from evaluation is used 135 Assessment of practitioners’ measurement capabilities 136 Demographic characteristics of respondents 151 Predominant focus of PR 153 Kind of relationship 153 Respondents’ evaluation of the focus of PR initiatives 153 Respondents’ perception of the role of communication in public relations 154 Summary themes in sample discourses on the Belt and Road Initiative in China Daily Africa Weekly172 Summary themes in sample discourses on the Belt and Road Initiative in the Daily Nation (Kenya) 175 Summary themes in sample discourses on the Belt and Road Initiative in The Nation (Nigeria) 177

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Public Relations Management in Africa Albert A. Anani-Bossman , Takalani E. Mudzanani , Cornelius B. Pratt , and Isaac A. Blankson

Globally, the body of knowledge in public relations practice is more than half-century old. Since the 1970s, when the first conceptual attempts at theory-building began, the corpus of knowledge in public relations has evolved, establishing itself as a profession and as a management function (Sriramesh, 2004). The onset of globalization and the evolution of Web 2.0 and social media have accelerated the convergence of technology, culture, economy, and politics worldwide (Kelleher, 2021). The strong

A. A. Anani-Bossman (*) Department of Public Relations, University of Media, Arts and Communication, UniMAC-GIJ Campus, North Dzorwulu, Accra, Ghana e-mail: [email protected] T. E. Mudzanani Department of Communication Science, University of South Africa, Muckleneuk, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_1

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influence of globalization and the internet is particularly evident in the development of public relations practice and pedagogy worldwide. Research shows public relations is developing at a rate of about 10% per year in developed economies and up to 20% per year in fast-emerging economies (ICCO, 2013). An IBIS World report showed that the public relations industry’s growth outpaces that of the world economy. According to the World Bank, global GDP has grown at an annual rate of 2.85% on average since 2013. Within the same period, IBIS World reported the growth rate of the public relations industry to be 5.3% annually (N6A, 2019). A report by the Public Relations Global Market (2022) shows that the global public relations industry was worth $63.8 billion in 2018. The report forecast that the industry will grow from $92.55 billion in 2021 to $102.80 billion in 2022, growing at an 11.1% compound annual growth rate (CAGR). The growth has been attributed to the reorganization of operations by organizations recovering from the effects of COVID-19, which had previously resulted in strict containment measures such as social distancing, remote working, and the shutdown of commercial activities, all of which created operational issues, as well as a surge in need to enhance an organization’s competitive edge. Organizations, therefore, increasingly embrace the importance of public relations in their operations. In the words of Chodor (2022, p.  2), “PR professionals have an incredible opportunity to use the high-stakes work they are doing to educate internal stakeholders on all areas of the business that can benefit from a strategic, data-driven communications effort.” In Africa, professionally and academically, public relations is growing in several countries, particularly South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, and Ghana. South Africa has a relatively mature public relations industry and is regarded as the largest public relations market on the continent (Rensburg, 2014).

C. B. Pratt Communication Psychology and Application Research Center, Northwest University of Politics and Law, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China Lew Klein College of Media and Communication, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States e-mail: [email protected] I. A. Blankson African University College of Communications, Accra, Ghana

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The growth of the industry is further reflected in the development of public relations pedagogy, especially in the United States, Europe, and, to some extent, Asia (e.g., Duhe, 2014; Jain et al., 2014; Ju et al., 2021; Ki & Ye, 2014; Ye & Ki, 2012). However, of the extensive corpus of international research on the subdiscipline, little has been viewed from the perspectives and worldviews of practitioners operating in other emerging economies such as those in Africa. Notwithstanding the size and growth of the continent, scholars continue to acknowledge the paucity of knowledge and understanding of public relations in Africa (Kiambi & Nadler, 2012; Ngondo, 2019; Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2009). Over the years, several public relations scholars (e.g., Grunig, 1992; Pompper, 2014, 2015, 2020; Toth, 2007) have sought to introduce various perspectives and models of inquiry that focus on how public relations practice supports excellence in the performance of large organizations. Many of these global studies mostly employed either JE Grunig’s (1984) models of public relations or Broom and Dozier’s (1986) public relations roles. The excellence theory, for example, has resulted in extensive follow­up research by scholars to determine, among other things, the applicability of these theories in different countries mostly in the Western environment. Unfortunately, the body of knowledge on what has been conceptualized as “global” public relations has largely been restricted to a few countries in Asia and Western Europe (Sriramesh, 2009). Accordingly, empirical research on the practice of public relations in regions such as Africa is scarce (Sriramesh, 2009). According to Sriramesh and Verčič (2002), this hinders public relations scholarship and practice. The authors thus advocate further empirical research from other cultures, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Since that call, Asia, in particular, has produced several studies detailing the practice in the region (e.g., IPR, 2021; Macnamara et al., 2018; Sriramesh, 2004). In addition, the Asia-­ Pacific Association of Communication Directors, since 2015, has been publishing the Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor (APCM), a transnational study exploring challenges and upcoming trends in public relations and communication management in Asia. However, the same cannot be said of the African continent with regard to public relations pedagogy. Public relations in Africa is growing and becoming more competitive by the day. It is increasingly viewed as a must-have function by organizations. The State of the African PR Industry Report (2022), by Reputation Matters, for instance, indicated that the reputation of public relations in business and society in Africa has improved significantly. Further, other

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reports (e.g., Boulos, 2016; de Villiers, 2016; Kiambi & Nadler, 2012; Forbes Africa, 2019; Ngondo, 2019) demonstrate the growing nature of the PR industry on the continent. Also, the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR, UK), together with the CIPR International Group, recently announced its support for the annual Africa PR and Communications Report, led by BHM Research & Intelligence (based in Nigeria). The report will provide insights into the state of public relations continentwide to guide businesses and governments and assist practitioners in delivering value to stakeholders. The maiden report is expected in 2022. These developments are expected to enhance further the visibility of public relations practice and development in Africa. Although public relations in Africa has been active for more than a half-­ century (Skinner, 2013), research on the practice on the continent has mostly been “sparse and fragmented, a large proportion of it carried out on specific aspects of [the] practice in specific countries” (Skinner & Mersham, 2009, p.  284). While this observation was made over two decades ago, it nevertheless holds today. Because of a dearth of relevant materials for public relations education and research in most African countries, African public relations educators mostly rely on U.S.-style curricula and materials, even though they are not robustly relevant to local conditions. There is, therefore, a need for research that spans a broader range of African countries. Giving Africa a voice in public relations scholarship, the main purpose of this volume is valuable not only because of the diverse cultural viewpoints, which will enhance public relations scholarship and practice but also because of Africa’s extensive marketing potential, which has made the continent attractive to multinational organizations. Africa’s collective GDP is expected to reach $5.6 trillion by 2025, while household consumption is expected to reach $2.1 trillion by the same year (McKinsey Global Institute, 2016). Africa houses six of the top ten fastest-­ growing economies in the world. According to PwC, Nigeria, South Africa, and Egypt will remain in the top ten by 2050. Nigeria, Africa’s largest economy, has a total GDP of $432.3 billion as of 2020 (Zandt, 2021). Other notable mentions include Egypt, South Africa, Algeria, Morocco, and Ethiopia. In 2018, Africa once again showed its resolve to further develop the continent by creating the world’s largest free-trade area, the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCTA). AfCTA serves as a great opportunity for African countries to deliver almost 30 million people out of extreme poverty and to raise the incomes of over 68 million others who live on less than $5.50 per day. If well implemented, the trade

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area will lead to significant changes required to boost Africa’s long-term growth. Africans have worked to recapture the narrative in recent years, emphasizing their countries’ tremendous development as well as the continent’s high potential as a means of attracting investment and enhancing regional and global engagement (World Economic Forum, 2019). The level of development, as well as the corresponding interest and investment from local and global businesses, will undeniably raise the demand for high-quality public relations and communications management on the continent. This is already being realized as global agencies such as Hill+Knowlton Strategies, Edelman, Ogilvy, GlobalCom PR Network, and Burson-Marsteller have established offices in some African countries. Other multinationals such as Toyota, Unilever, Coca-Cola, Volkswagen, Hyundai, and KFC have set up manufacturing plants/offices in various African countries. Despite these opportunities, Africa also faces major challenges that it has to overcome in order to realize the expected growth. For instance, the continent has constantly been plagued by neverending conflicts. There are also issues of labor market restrictions, power outages, rising income inequalities, poor communication infrastructure, and the persistence of the digital divide despite the gradual growth of information and communication technology, among others (PwC, 2015; ITU Africa, 2021). These factors make Africa an ideal place for public relations activities as well as conflict resolution. Despite its significant contribution to public relations, Africa has been underrepresented in public relations scholarship. It has been argued that public relations practice and its academic infrastructure are generally well developed on the continent (Rensburg, 2014; Skinner, 2013) despite the lack of well-structured and established systems (Van Heerden & Rensburg, 2005). The literature (e.g., Kiambi, 2014; Mawerera, 2014; Thompson, 2018; Ukonu et al., 2018) documents the history of formal public relations in many African countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Kenya in the British Colonial Administration. In South Africa, public relations, in its formative years, was premised on Western practices in the form of one-way communication (Skinner & Benecke, 2014). In Uganda, Natifu (2014) attributes the development of public relations to the authoritarian sociopolitical environment of 1962–1986, which gave rise to the use of propaganda. Ayyad and Farouk (2014) trace the history of modern public relations in Egypt to national events between 1952 and 1970, which witnessed the dominance of the state over society. Despite its documented history, the early beginnings of public relations

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are traced to ancient civilization (Skinner & Mersham, 2009). For instance, the pharaohs of ancient Egypt employed word pictures on impressive monuments to proclaim their accomplishments (Rensburg, 2009). In traditional African societies, the linguist was the official spokesperson for the chief. No chief or elder statesman spoke directly to their visitors under traditional African leadership. The chief linguist served as the link between the chief and his subjects, hence the main contact for all communications (Rensburg, 2009). This practice is still prevalent in most African countries, where the chieftaincy system still exists. Because of their potential to reach large numbers of people, traditional communication tools such as talking drums and wooden drums were also used as a type of mass communication (Wilson, 2008). The principles of public relations can also be found in African traditional music, dancing, and drumming, among others. These are used as channels to transmit messages to communities. Public relations, although different then, is not a new concept in Africa (Rensburg, 2009). Notwithstanding the rich history of public relations, African public relations pedagogy is still underrepresented or not visible to the rest of the world. Akpabio (2009) notes that this makes the continent’s contributions to the practice relatively unacknowledged, a situation that makes academics and practitioners appear to be ignorant of contemporary theories, research, and practice in the field. Of the 54 African countries, only a handful of scholars have investigated the nature of public relations in Africa. Moreover, these studies have been “sparse and fragmented” (Skinner & Mersham, 2009) and conducted in a small number of countries, including Zimbabwe (Ngondo, 2019; Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020); Kenya (Kiambi & Nadler, 2012); Ghana (Anani-Bossman, 2021, 2022; Thompson, 2018); Nigeria (Molleda & Alhassan, 2006; Ukonu et  al. 2018); Uganda, Mauritius, Guinea, and Tanzania (Van Heerden & Rensburg, 2005); and Gabon (Oksiutycz & Enombo, 2011). The exception has been South Africa, which has been engaged in the promotion of the body of knowledge on Africa due to its relatively mature public relations industry. Even though the empirical studies have contributed to gaining a better insight into the nature of public relations in Africa, they are insufficient in generating a thorough body of knowledge in the field. Moreover, much of the practice on the continent is examined through the lenses of Western philosophies and pedagogies, which, as scholars have identified, mostly do not reflect Africa’s socioeconomic, political, and cultural contexts. The gap, therefore, limits the continent’s ability to “fulfill

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its responsibility towards the global public relations society as well as other developing countries” (Van Heerden & Rensburg, 2005, p. 69). Rensburg (2007) calls the African continent “a greenfield for research and scholars have finally realized that some, but not all, aspects of the Anglo-European-­ American concept and practice of communication management can be transplanted onto the field in Africa” (p. 38). As well as having an extensive body of knowledge in public relations in Africa, it is also essential to forecast the optimum approach to practicing public relations in specific African countries. This can be accomplished by analyzing the relationship between public relations and different sociocultural environments. Except for a few studies that have examined the relationship between public relations and culture in Africa, mostly from South Africa, most of Africa has not examined this area. This book, therefore, sets out to address the gap in relation to public relations pedagogy in Africa. It aims to address not just the practice but also the environmental factors that affect the practice. Literature (e.g., Mersham et  al., 2011; Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020; Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2009) shows that public relations in Africa is influenced by the sociocultural, political, and economic environment, as well as major national events. This book provides a key milestone in the development of the body of knowledge on African public relations. As we start this process, it is crucial to keep in mind that new variables may arise that will help us better grasp what we have learned so far.

Framework for the Book This book, the first of two volumes, is in 11 chapters. It brings together African scholars to share their perspectives on public relations on the continent and within its cultural, global, and technological milieux. This book encourages scholars on or from the continent to examine current pedagogical modules and research directions in public relations and identify emerging issues driving the practice in Africa. Through analyzing the organizational dynamic, this volume attracts contributors from various African countries to provide valuable insights into how public relations contribute to organizational effectiveness in Africa. The chapters consist of topics such as the status of the public relations practice, media relations, measurement and evaluation, the impact of social and digital media on public relations practice in Africa, and the role of the African CEO as a public relations activist. Because of the nature of the practice in respective

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countries, the level to which each chapter gives information on each of these aspects may differ. Nevertheless, we believe that readers will find several factors that influence the practice of the profession in the countries.

Chapter Organization An important aim of this book is to help make visible public relations scholarship in Africa by attempting to include chapters from various regions of the continent. Sriramesh (2009) acknowledged the desperate need to have a more holistic view, which can benefit practitioners, academics, and students in several ways. Indeed, most edited volumes on public relations have had representations from mostly North America, Europe, and Asia and little from Africa, mainly due to the lack of empirical studies. We believe this volume is the starting point for the gathering of an overarching body of knowledge of public relations from an African perspective. Chapter 1, the introduction to the book, provides an overview of the public relations landscape in Africa. It discusses the lack of public relations pedagogy despite the continent’s rich history of public relations. In Chap. 2, the authors undertake a systematic review of the breadth of available public relations research in Africa to capture the diversity of conceptual and practical approaches. Even though public relations is growing in Africa, only a handful of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have been studied. The chapter addresses this gap by discussing results from a content analysis of academic literature from 2011 to 2021 on African public relations. Initial findings show that public relations in Africa continue to be dominated by Western Approaches. Moreover, many African countries remain unrepresented in the public relations conversation. The chapter generates key takeaways and suggests pathways through which Africa can crystallize its presence and inform theory in the global public relations industry. In Chap. 3, the author analyses the use of social and digital media by public relations practitioners in Ghana. The literature demonstrates the impact of social media on public relations practice. Nevertheless, research on the subject in relation to Africa is either limited or non-existent. The chapter contributes to global literature by exploring how social media and other emerging media are shaping public relations practice in Ghana. The chapter replicates the 12-year longitudinal study of Wright and Hinson (2014, 2017) by surveying 137 public relations practitioners in Ghana. The chapter demonstrates that social media are influencing public

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relations in Ghana. However, practitioners were underutilizing social and digital media. The chapter ends by offering significant implications for both practice and scholarship. Chapter 4 evaluates the relationship between government public relations practitioners and journalists in Namibia. It examines how practitioners relate to journalists in the discharge of their duties as well as the perception of journalists regarding the release of information by public relations practitioners working in the government sector. The relationship between public relations professionals and journalists has been one of interdependence, difficulty, and complicated. Even though both professions have a mutually beneficial relationship, this can also be adversarial because their jobs differ and sometimes they do not have the same communication goals. The study uses in-depth interviews and focus group discussions to examine the tension between practitioners and journalists. The study found a poor relationship between the two parties, hindering the media from adequately executing their duties. The study recommends strategies that various government agencies can use to establish a good working relationship with the media in Namibia. Chapter 5 investigates how China uses public diplomacy to enhance its image in Islamic North Africa. The global image of China has been a major challenge and a strategic threat to its goal of being perceived as a global power and a counterweight to the influences of the West. China has thus increased its strategic engagement in Islamic North Africa through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) framework as a means of enhancing its global image. The authors use longitudinal content analysis to identify frames on China’s image construction in the Daily News Egypt, a privately owned newspaper. The authors note the need for China to address issues related to its trade deficit, debt distress, antitheses in its strategic interests, and perceptions of its alleged abuse of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang through people-to-people public diplomacy and the establishment of Chinese media in Egypt. Chapter 7 discusses the paradigm shift from image building to relationship building in Tanzanian public relations practice. Relationship building/management is the core of public relations. It is premised on the concept that organizational-stakeholder relationships work best when they are based on mutual interest and shared goals and when they engender understanding and benefits for the organization and the public. The authors examine the current practice of public relations in Tanzania in relation to whether it has moved from its previous approach of image building to relationship building. The authors note that practitioners in

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Tanzania practice both, focusing more on relationship building in line with global public relations. The communicativeness of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), an evolving dimension of China’s foreign policy, is the subject matter of Chap. 8. BRI is an attempt by China to engage in robust communication with foreign audiences to gain a favorable global image. The author draws upon the dominant ethical values of select news publications from Asia and Africa. The chapter offers alternative perspectives by which communication practitioners and news media can apply dialogic communication to improve public perception of China’s infrastructure program on the continent, defuse continentwide concerns about China’s global ambitions, and bolster its public diplomacy. Chapter 9 examines an interesting yet very much unexplored area in Africa, the chief executive officer (CEO) as a corporate activist. While conventional wisdom discourages companies from mixing business with politics, we are witnessing this traditional maxim being tilted on its head. There are growing signs of various corporate agents taking public stances on diverse sociopolitical and environmental issues as part of non-market strategies. In particular, chief executive officers (CEOs) are weighing in on greater-good issues that may not be directly related to their companies’ operations or the profit-maximizing logic through diverse corporate social advocacy campaigns. Given the lack of literature in this area in Africa, the authors embarked on this research by interviewing 24 CEOs who self-­ identify as activists in Ghana. The authors offer a model for safer and more effective CEO activists’ campaigns. The findings feed into literature streams on corporate social advocacy and sustainability transitions and contribute to the literature on CEO activism from a non-Western perspective. Chapter 10 analyzes media relations strategies in Ghana’s higher-­ education institutions (HEIs). The liberalization of the education sector in Ghana has resulted in the establishment of several universities, public and private. A new phase of competitiveness is driving the sector to new heights with policies of inclusiveness for students from various economic backgrounds. HEIs in Ghana have been challenged to find more effective ways of engaging with key stakeholders to help maintain profitability and address challenges in an era of new media technology that presents both benefits and threats to HEIs. The authors investigate media relations strategies being used by HEIs and their impact in terms of helping stakeholder engagement, increasing enrolments, as well as managing reputation and crisis. The chapter draws on cases of selected HEIs and identifies strengths

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and weaknesses in their media relations strategies using a phenomenological approach. The study identifies institutional weaknesses such as a lack of appreciation regarding the strategic role of public relations as mitigating against effective media relations in HEIs. The final chapter (11) offers a befitting end to the book by examining the implications of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which is powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI), for public relations practice in Africa. The rapid (r)evolution of the world, with globalization and the continuous advancement of technology, is influencing businesses and professions alike. Consumers are moving online; media outlets keep expanding while the gatekeeping concept is gradually being removed, allowing businesses to have direct access to consumers. With the onset of AI, organizations are transforming and will continue to transform the way they conduct business. The adoption of new digital communication tools provides public relations practitioners with a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to reinvent themselves to deepen connections, increase client happiness, better monitor the environment, and improve communication. The author reviews relevant global literature on AI in public relations, which has not received any attention in Africa. The chapter offers suggestions for practitioners on the continent on how to take advantage of and use AI tools to benefit their organizations and the continent.

Conclusion This chapter sets the tone by highlighting why it is essential we focus on expanding the body of knowledge on public relations practice in Africa, an underrepresented continent. This book, Public Relations Management in Africa: Exploring Organisational Impact, aims to fill the gap in public relations scholarship from African perspectives. We offer an illustration of how essential Africa is to global business and bring to the fore some of the fundamental reasons for focusing on Africa, particularly in the current era of globalization. This chapter summarizes each chapter, highlighting its contributions. We believe this book will interest students and scholars on the continent and audiences in Western environments, as well as organizations (local and multinational) in Africa. We hope this book enhances the growing body of knowledge in public relations management from non-­ Western perspectives. Conflict of Interest  We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

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Sriramesh, K. (2009). Introduction. In K. Sriramesh & D. Vercic (Eds.), Global public relations handbook (pp. xxxii–xxxix). Routledge. Sriramesh, K., & Verčič, D. (2002). International public relations: A framework for future research. Journal of Communication Management, 6(2), 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1108/13632540210806973 The Business Research Company. (2022). Public Relations Global Market Report. https://www.thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/public-­r elations-­ global-­market-­report Thompson, E. E. (2018). Public relations education in an emerging democracy: The case of Ghana. Journal of Communication Management, 22(4), 476–489. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-­04-­2018-­0038 Toth, E. (Ed.). (2007). The future of excellence in public relations and communication management: Challenges for the next generation. Routledge. https://doi. org/10.4324/9781410613967 Ukonu, M. O., Anyadike, D. O., & Okoro, N. M. (2018). Issues in the evolution of public relations in Nigeria. Journal of International Communication, 24(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/13216597.2017.1391108 Van Heerden, G., & Rensburg, R. (2005). Public relations roles empirically verified among public relations practitioners in Africa. Communicare, 24(1), 69–88. Wilson, D. (2008). Research on traditional communication in Africa: the development and future directions. African Communication Research, 1(1), 47–59. World Economic Forum. (2019). Six of the world’s 10 fastest-growing economies are in Africa. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/08/afcfta-­proof-­that­africa-­heading-­for-­substantial-­growth/ Wright, D. K., & Hinson, M. D. (2014). An Updated Examination of Social and Emerging Media Use in Public Relations Practice: A Longitudinal Analysis Between 2006 and 2014. Public Relations Journal, 8(2). http://www.prsa. org/Intelligence/PRJournal/Documents/2014WrightHinson.pdf Wright, D. K., & Hinson, M. D. (2017). Tracking how social and other digital media are being used in public relations practice: A twelve-year study. Public Relations Journal, 11(1). https://prjournal.instituteforpr.org/wpcontent/ uploads/PRJ-2017-Wright-Hinson-2-1.pdf Wu, M., & Baah-Boakye, K. (2009). Public relations in Ghana: Work-related cultural values and public relations models. Public Relations Review, 35(1), 83–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2008.09.015 Ye, L., & Ki, E.-J. (2012). The status of online public relations research: An analysis of published articles in 1992–2009. Journal of Public Relations Research, 24(5), 409–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2012.723277 Zandt, F. (2021). Africa’s biggest economies. Stat. https://www.statista.com/ chart/26371/african-­countries-­with-­the-­highest-­gdp-­over-­time/

CHAPTER 2

Public Relations in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Ten-Year Review Prisca S. Ngondo

and Anna Klyueva

Public relations is an actively growing field in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), but this fact is not reflected in the same capacity as other countries in public relations scholarship, and when it is, it is mainly in South Africa. Of the 46 SSA countries, only a handful of nations have been studied in connection with public relations: Kenya (e.g., Kiambi & Nadler, 2012); South Africa (e.g., Benecke & Verwey, 2020, Holtzhausen, 2005; Holtzhausen et al., 2003; Rensburg & Botha, 2014; Tindall & Holtzhausen, 2011); Nigeria (e.g., Molleda & Alhassan, 2006; Ukonu et  al., 2018); Ghana (e.g., Anani-Bossman, 2021a; Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2009, 2014); Uganda, Mauritius, Guinea, and Tanzania (van Heerden & Rensburg, 2005), and

P. S. Ngondo (*) School of Journalism and Mass Communication, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, USA e-mail: [email protected] A. Klyueva College of Human Sciences and Humanities, University of Houston-Clear Lake, Houston, TX, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_2

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more recently Zimbabwe (Muchena, 2017, 2018; Ngondo, 2019; Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020; Oksiutycz & Nhedzi, 2018, among others). In this chapter, we examine available academic literature on public relations in SSA over the past ten years (2011–2021) published in nine PR-focused peer-reviewed journals to understand the current state of the field in the region. Located, fully or partially, south of the Sahara Desert (excluding Sudan), SSA comprises 46 African countries. SSA differs from North Africa, which is considered a part of the Arab world. Although geographically part of SSA, Somalia, Djibouti, Comoros, and Mauritania also belong to the Arab world (World Bank, 2015). SSA is considered the most impoverished region in the world, containing many of the least developed countries globally, such as Benin, Mozambique, Malawi, and Burundi (New World Encyclopedia, 2021). Although still suffering from the legacies of colonial conquest and occupation, neocolonialism, inter-ethnic conflict, and political strife, the region has experienced appreciable economic growth due to its plentiful mineral and energy resources over the last ten years (Adedoyin et al., 2021). This has prompted the rapid development of the communication industry in SSA nations, including public relations. Yet still, studies that explore global public relations either exclude Africa or underrepresent it. In Ki and Ye’s (2017) examination of global public relations research from 2001 to 2014, Africa had 11 publications compared to 69 from China, 64 from North America, and 45 from Europe. Of the 11, South Africa led the charge with 6 publications. A global study discussing the structure of communication departments by Moss et  al. (2017) interviewed one chief communication officer from Africa compared to Latin America (7), Europe (7), North America (6), and Asia (3). For their study on the relationships between public relations professionalization, social capital, and democracy, Yang and Taylor (2014) identified 36 countries with national public relations associations. From SSA, only South Africa made the list. However, public relations research and practice are evident but not as well documented in SSA.  There is no systematic effort to survey and examine the breadth of available public relations research on the continent to capture the diversity of conceptual and practical approaches. To close this gap, this chapter explores public relations research conducted in sub-­ Saharan Africa since 2011. Although this chapter deals with SSA as a whole, we acknowledge that each country is unique, as not all African

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countries have the same ecological, political, media, economic, or cultural structures. Therefore, in order to contextualize the available research, we first provide an overview of the media landscape and public relations educational background.

Literature Review Overview of the Media Landscape Media access is key to the functioning of public relations and its theory development (Mersham et al., 2011). The communication industry infrastructure and media landscapes in SSA vary by country (see Table 2.1). In many SSA countries, media are state-funded and state-controlled. However, high mobile phone penetration has resulted in social media being the primary source of media content and consumption (Moore, 2018). Mobile phone technology use has grown exponentially and represents today’s main communication vehicle and platform for Internet access in SSA (Cariolle, 2020). Users in Africa’s emerging economies of Ghana, Kenya, Senegal, Tanzania, Nigeria, and Tunisia ranked Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram as the top news sites, and citizens from developing nations use social media to access news as much as their counterparts in developed nations (Pew Research Center, 2018). Additionally, mobile phones are being utilized for advocacy, campaigning, trade, and education (Mersham et al., 2011). This type of access has far-reaching implications for communication management in SSA, as mobile phones are typically the only technology people have to access information, share their opinions, and interact with the media (Mersham et al., 2011). According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), oil-rich Nigeria is SSA’s largest economy and hosts one of the larger telecom markets in Africa (CIA, 2021). The media environment in Nigeria is competitive and vibrant, with roughly 70 federal government-controlled national and regional television stations and several privately owned stations. Additionally, Nigeria has an estimated 40 government-owned and about 20 privately owned radio stations; access to cable and satellite television subscriptions is also available (CIA, 2021). The media landscape in Ghana is equally eclectic, resulting from a complicated history of its development. From the 1970s to 1992, Ghana found itself under military rule, which only allowed state-owned media to operate. When liberation came in 1992, public relations practitioners were

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Table 2.1  Summary of backgrounds of select SSA countries Country

Public relations Professional education public relations resources organizations (examples)

South Africa

4-year degree, master’s and doctoral programs, certifications, workshops 4-year degrees, certifications, workshops

Nigeria

Kenya

Ghana

Country

Regime (CIA, 2021) Regime’s character (ECPS, n.d.)

Media landscape (CIA, 2021)

a

Flawed democracy Constitutionally Parliamentary republic (ECPS, n.d.) Nigerian Federal Institute of presidential Public Relations republic (NIPR) certification required to practice public relations 4-year degrees, Public Relations Pseudo certifications, Society of Kenya democracy workshops (PRSK) Constitutionally Chartered Presidential Institute of republic (ECPS, Public Relations n.d.) 4-year degrees, Institute of Presidential certifications, Public republic workshops Relations, Ghana Public relations Professional Regime (CIA, education public relations 2021) Regime’s resources organizations character (ECPS, (examples) n.d.)

State and private

(32; 21.59)

State and private

(120; 39.69)

State and private

(102; 33.65)

State and private

(30; 21.33)

Media landscape (CIA, 2021)

a

Public Relations Institute of Southern Africa (PRISA)

World Press Freedom Index (RSF, 2021) (Rank; Score)

World Press Freedom Index (RSF, 2021) (Rank; Score) (continued)

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Table 2.1  (continued) Country

Public relations Professional education public relations resources organizations (examples)

Zimbabwe Certification, workshops

Zimbabwe Institute of Public Relations (ZIPR), International Public Relations Association (IPRA)

Regime (CIA, 2021) Regime’s character (ECPS, n.d.)

Media landscape (CIA, 2021)

a

World Press Freedom Index (RSF, 2021) (Rank; Score)

Pseudo democracy (ECPS, n.d.) Constitutionally Presidential republic

State

(130; 43.12)

Rank out of 180 countries, global scores range from 0 to 100, with 0 being the best and 100 the worst (RSF, 2021) a

Federal presidential republic = a state in which the powers of the central government are restricted and in which the component parts (states, colonies, or provinces) retain a degree of self-government (CIA, 2021). Flawed democracy = a political system with free elections and basic civil liberties but with media freedom infringement and minor suppression of political opposition (ECPS, n.d.). Presidential republic = a system of government where the executive branch exists separately from a legislature (to which it is generally not accountable) (CIA, 2021). Pseudo democracy = a political system that calls itself democratic but offers no real choice for the citizens—characterized by government media control, political rival intimidation, and voter suppression (ECPS, n.d.).

once again able to freely communicate using various platforms and build relationships with the public (Thompson, 2018). According to the CIA (2021), Ghana has a highly competitive Internet market, and the majority of the population accesses the Internet via mobile services. For broadcast media, Ghana has one state-owned television station, two state-owned radio stations, and several privately owned television and radio platforms, with access to international broadcasters as well (CIA, 2021). Although Zimbabwe is home to one of the oldest newspapers in Africa (The Herald, which dates back to the 1890s), its media is mostly state-­ owned and tightly controlled through draconian laws and regulations (British Broadcasting Corporation, BBC, 2017). Typically, the government-­ owned media fully support the ruling party, while

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independently owned media are partial to oppositional political figures and issues (Mare, 2018). Despite the licensing of some newspapers and commercial radio stations, state-run media continue to dominate the landscape. For those who can afford antennas and receivers, foreign media is available via satellite TV and shortwave broadcasts (CIA, 2021). Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Instagram are accessible. Thus, social and digital media have given Zimbabwean citizens, organizations, and practitioners a platform to communicate with each other with minimal government intervention and gatekeeping (Mutsvairo & Sirks, 2015; Ngondo, 2019). Kenya enjoys a vibrant media scene, considered one of the most competitive and sophisticated in the region. Its media landscape is characterized by a combination of state- and privately owned media outlets, with some operating beyond the nation’s borders. However, RSF (2021) observed that Kenya experienced a weakening of media freedom in recent years due to security concerns and political situations). As the first in the region to launch 5G services, the telecommunication system in South Africa is the best-developed and most modern in Africa (CIA, 2021). South Africa has a robust state-run and private television and radio broadcast system, which provides a mix of local and international programming (CIA, 2021). Overview of Public Relations Education in SSA Access to public relations education is quite uneven in SSA.  Aspiring public relations practitioners either have full access to public relations undergraduate and graduate degrees or must rely on workshops, short courses, and on-the-job training. In some cases, public relations is taught as a module in marketing or journalism. In Nigeria, corporations place value on practitioners with public relations degrees (Otubanjo & Amujo 2013). As a result, students seek public relations degrees at Nigerian universities and abroad. Several Nigerian universities, polytechnics, and professional institutions now offer standalone public relations programs to match this rising need. Additionally, public relations agencies partner with well-known Western agencies such as Edelman and Hill and Knowlton. These affiliations help with training, development, professionalization, and access to the global market (Otubanjo & Amujo 2013). Although public relations in Ghana has been around since colonial times, formal public relations education was established in the 1960s

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when a former British prime minister, Harold Macmillan, and the director of information services of Ghana and public relations adviser to President Nkrumah, Jimmy Moxon, established the Ghana Institute of Journalism (GIJ), the first journalism training institutions in SSA (Thompson, 2018). In the following years, the GIJ started awarding diplomas and bachelor’s degrees in advertising and public relations. In 1972, the Institute of Journalism and Mass Communication (now Department of Communication Studies) at the University of Ghana offered two options for a communication studies master’s degree. Public relations and advertising would be taught as a combined course of study for over 15 years after the department was established (Thompson, 2018). In 2001, the program shifted to a 12-month master’s degree and then a doctoral degree in 2013. Until 2006, these were the only two institutions training public relations professionals. Currently, there has been a proliferation of more than 15 accredited universities and programs offering public relations education and training (Thompson, 2018) and countless other unaccredited institutions, such as Practical Communications Africa Ltd. (Practcomm), which was established by the public relations agency Stratcomm Africa. Practcomm was intended for recent graduates as well as practitioners who want to refresh and augment their public relations skills through exposure to practical public relations approaches (Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2014). Thompson (2018) explored how public relations educators prepared students to be effective practitioners and discovered that Ghanaian public relations education is shaped by the local socio-political and economic context and influenced by Western approaches. Focusing mainly on Grunig’s theories and systems theory, some public relations educators were partial to the cultural interpreter model and the personal influence model, as they better reflected public relations in Ghana. At the same time, Thompson observed that the extensive use of social media in Ghana invites teaching about the strategic use of these technologies in the industry (2018). Looking east to Kenya, it is evident that while public relations in Kenya has been in existence since the 1950s, the profession is only just beginning to take off (Ngonyo & Ramakrishna, 2016). Kenyan public relations practitioners consider their professional practices as mainly positive but need more professional education. Ngonyo and Ramakrishna (2016) suggested tertiary education programs partner with the Public Relations Society of Kenya (PRSK) in the drafting of the curriculum that identifies and deals with ethical issues, developing short-term training courses to address the

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wrong perceptions some managers have about the profession and educating management on the role of public relations in organizations. South Africa has a more established history of public relations education, with the first textbook published in 1965 (Niemann-Struweg & Meintjes, 2008). Historically, one could receive public relations education at a traditional university or public relations training at a “technikon” university of technology. In the former, South African public relations courses were typically modeled after the theoretically inclined European model. In the latter, training at universities of technology and technical colleges followed the more skills-based American model (Niemann-Struweg & Meintjes, 2008). This difference in public relations education and training was called into question, and in an effort to improve the professional standing of South African public relations, the government merged the tertiary education institutions, which now offer courses of study ranging from certificate to doctoral levels. On the other hand, access to public relations training in Zimbabwe is still in its infancy. Although professional organizations such as International Public Relations Association (IPRA) and Zimbabwe Institute for Public Relations (ZIPR) have existed since the late 1960s, formal public relations education and training are still sparse and/or nonexistent. To date, no Zimbabwean university offers public relations as a full qualification. In contrast, all three public universities in Zimbabwe offer accredited undergraduate or postgraduate degrees in marketing (Oksiutycz & Nhedzi, 2018), where some public relations practitioners receive their education. Most public relations practitioners in Zimbabwe receive training via on-­ the-­ job training, postgraduate diplomas offered by ZIPR (Muchena, 2017), or training programs offered by South African companies that cover topics such as media relations, speech writing, social media management, and public relations management (Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020). Similar to the experiences of other countries, public relations education in Zimbabwe is often included as a module in marketing, English, communication, media studies, or human resources and customer care, but not as a standalone degree (Muchena, 2018). In recent years, the Zimbabwean government charged higher education to reflect industry trends (Matambo, 2018). In 2018, the Marketers Association of Zimbabwe (MAZ), in partnership with a local university, started offering a two-year professional diploma called Public Relations and Corporate Reputation Management. The diploma-granting program, developed with local and international industry experts in marketing and public relations, aimed to

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address the problem of formal training and bridge the gap between education and practice (Matambo, 2018). Although not all SSA nations are discussed here, the highlighted countries offer a glimpse into the state of public relations education in SSA. While some countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa have formalized public relations education, other countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe, and many others are just starting. The quality of public relations education and the state of media influence the development and professionalization of public relations (Table  2.1 summarizes these and other factors for select SSA countries discussed in this chapter). Professionalization indicates the maturing of the field, simultaneously highlighting the accumulation of specialized knowledge and the need for theory development (Yang & Taylor, 2014). Growing professionalization of public relations in SSA countries helps solidify the role and function of the profession in society. The differences in education and media structures create important implications for public relations practice and research and explain why a select few SSA countries receive more attention in public relations scholarship. The following section describes how SSA public relations is discussed in nine leading academic journals.

Examining Public Relations Literature from SSA We examined nine academic peer-reviewed journals that focus on and publish public relations scholarship. We chose six Western-based publications (Public Relations Review, Journal of Public Relations Research, Public Relations Inquiry, Public Relations Journal, International Journal of Strategic Communication, and Corporate Reputation Review) and three Africa-based publications (Communicare: Journal for Communication Studies in Africa, Communicatio: South African Journal for Communication Theory and Research, and Journal of Contemporary Management). To identify relevant scholarship, we focused on the articles published over the last decade (2011–2021) and conducted a search of the journals using the broad keyword “Africa” for U.S.-based publications and the keyword “public relations” for Africa-based publications. The initial search yielded a total of 663 articles across all journals. We then screened all the articles to make sure they met several parameters: articles must be peer-­ reviewed, must be focused on public relations, and must research countries of SSA. The final count included for content analysis constituted 57 articles (See Table 2.2).

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Table 2.2  Data collection Journals Public Relations Review Communicare: Journal for Communication Studies in Africa Communicatio: South African Journal for Communication Theory and Research International Journal of Strategic Communication Journal of Contemporary Management Corporate Reputation Review Public Relations Journal Public Relations Inquiry Journal of Public Relations Research Total

Initial search

After screening

242 37 14

26 15 5

18 23 23 208 40 58 663

3 3 3 1 1 0 57

To understand the scope and nature of the available public relations research in SSA, we examined the identified literature using quantitative content analysis. Each article was examined at two levels. The first level was the entire article and included manifest variables of title, author names, year published, and journal names. The second level consisted of content elements and included the country or region of research interest (e.g., South Africa and Zimbabwe), the general topic of research (e.g., CSR and reputation), applied methodology (content analysis and case study), population under study (e.g., public relations practitioners, public relations scholars, and the general public), industry under investigation (e.g., oil and gas, and non-profit), and main findings and recommendations that were recorded as bullet points with statements. While the results of the analysis demonstrated the presence of a diverse and active public relations agenda on the African continent, it also revealed several trends concentrated around the five countries discussed in this chapter (see Table  2.3). First, within the examined literature (n  =  57), only five individual countries received the attention of the researchers, with South Africa unsurprisingly leading the way (n  =  34), followed by Ghana (n = 7), Nigeria (n = 3), Zimbabwe (n = 3), Kenya (n = 2), and Gabon (n  =  1). In addition, two studies focused on the more general regions of Central and East Africa (n = 1) and sub-Saharan Africa (n = 1). When the geographical focus of the research was cross-examined with journals, South Africa was represented in seven out of nine journals, Ghana in four, Zimbabwe and Nigeria in three, and Kenya in one. Journal of

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Table 2.3 Article count by country/region of research

Country/region South Africa Ghana Other (conceptual) Nigeria Zimbabwe Kenya Central and East Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Gabon

27

Count Percent 34 7 5 3 3 2 1 1 1 57

59.4 12.3 8.8 5.3 5.3 3.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 100

Public Relations Research did not publish a single article focused on SSA in the last ten years. We also wanted to capture what types of topics research in SSA is focused on. Among the top research topics were relationship management (n = 12), public relations practice (n = 11), corporate social responsibility (n = 6), crisis management (n = 4), and public relations education (n = 3). However, when topics were compared by country, we noticed that the public relations research agenda in South Africa was very diverse, covering a variety of topics, yet dominated by relationship management focus (n = 9) followed by the examination of public relations practice (n = 3) and CSR (n = 2). Public relations research in Ghana examined public relations practice (n  =  2), CSR (n  =  2), crisis communication (n  =  1), and research methods (n = 1). Nigerian public relations scholarship similarly focused on public relations practice (n = 1), CSR (n = 1), and crisis communication (n = 1), while all research in Zimbabwe (n = 3) explored different aspects of public relations practice in the country (see Table 2.4). Several approaches stood out in terms of applied research methodologies (see Table  2.5). The majority of examined studies used either semi-­ structured or in-depth interviews (n = 18) or quantitative surveys (n = 14). In addition, case studies (n  =  6), quantitative content analysis (n  =  6), qualitative content analysis (n  =  2), and conceptual/metatheoretical approaches were used (n = 4), among others. One of the striking observations from our analysis is that the flagship public relations journals publish scarcely on topics related to public relations in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 59 percent of all published research

Relationship management PR practice CSR Crisis Comm Reputation PR education Employee and organizational comm PR and activism Communication management Public affairs Ethics Global PR Investor relations Culture and PR Financial communication Research methods Nation-building Media relations Other 3

1 1 1

Nigeria

7

1

1

1

2 2

Ghana

3

3

Zimbabwe

Table 2.4  Cross-tabulation of research topics by country

1

1

Gabon

1

1

Central and East Africa

1

1

SSA

2

1

1

Kenya

1 1 34

1 1 1

2 2 2 1

9 3 2 1 2 3 2

SA

5

1

1

1

2

2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 57

12 11 6 4 4 3 2

Multiple Total countries

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Table 2.5 Methodologies used

Method Interviews Surveys Case study Quantitative content analysis Conceptual Other Qualitative content analysis Literature review

Frequency 18 14 6 6 6 4 2 1 57

29

Percent 31.6 24.6 10.5 10.5 10.5 7.0 3.5 1.8 100

articles from identified journals covered one country—South Africa in the last decade. Our analysis showed that while public relations scholarship in SSA differs from country to country, it concentrates only on a few. Importantly, we focused on PR and communication-focused journals for our analysis, but more research on SSA public relations is published in journals of adjacent fields. In the next section, we discuss the state of the public relations scholarship in SSA, relying on sources used for our content analysis as well as sources that were outside the scope of content analysis.

The State of Public Relations Scholarship in Sub-Saharan Africa In this chapter, for the first time, we attempt to paint a picture of the state of the field of public relations scholarship in SSA. Our focus on select SSA countries in this chapter is based on our examination of the available public relations scholarship conducted in the region of the five most researched countries: South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and Kenya. South Africa South Africa’s public relations practice is deeply rooted in its apartheid past, and steps continue to be taken to transform and decolonize public relations knowledge and practices through education and diversified scholarship (Benecke & Verwey, 2020). As our analysis showed, public relations research literature in South Africa is multifaceted, covering

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relationship management (Meintjes & Grobler, 2014; Steyn et al., 2004), dialogic theory (Benecke & Oksiutycz, 2015), activism (Benecke & Verwey, 2020), nation-building (Chaka, 2014), crisis communication and disaster management (Le Roux, 2014a), excellence theory (Tindall & Holtzhausen, 2011), and CSR (Holtzhausen, 2017), among others. In general, it can be reasoned that South African public relations scholarship aligns more with a European reflective approach and a strategic communication management view of public relations. For example, Le Roux (2014b) postulated that the purpose of public relations is reciprocal strategic reflection, and public relations practitioners must approach decision-­making with a concern for the consequences of organizational behavior toward their stakeholders and society at large. Based on this perspective, organizations must work to preserve their “license to operate” by appeasing their multiple stakeholders’ needs. According to Steyn and Niemann (2014), this school of thought emphasizes the role of public relations and communication to keep organizations in “harmony with, and add value to, society” (p. 182). This view positions the strategic role of public relations within the European reflective/societal approach that focuses on broader societal issues. According to Holtzhausen et  al. (2003), normative public relations models are irrelevant to the South African context, and there is a need for culture-specific public relations models. Mersham et  al. (2011) argued that the growing importance of regional economies within the global economy created lasting implications for public relations and called for more exploration and development of an African body of knowledge of public relations and theories based on African philosophy and worldview. Further, South African scholars argue for a specific scientific worldview of public relations and call it the Pretoria School of Thought (de Beer et al., 2013; Steyn & Niemann, 2014). Notably, South Africa continues to be at the forefront of public relations practice, education, and research, laying down the blueprint for the SSA region. However, this creates inequality in public relations knowledge generation and representation of the profession from the African continent. As the most developed country of SSA with a stable government, democratic tradition, and established public relations education system, South Africa is the most researched African nation and the most published about.

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Nigeria Public relations in Nigeria experiences challenges of ideology, culture, and professionalism (Ukonu et al., 2018). Consequently, the public relations history in Nigeria has not developed within the context of public relations education and professional standards system. It has impacted its research agenda as the content analysis revealed only three publications covering public relations practice (Olatunji, 2014), crisis communication (Adamu & Mohamad, 2019), and CSR (Adeola & Adeola, 2019) since 2011. Furthermore, professional bodies such as the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR) struggle to have binding effects on the field (Ukonu et al., 2018) due to a number of misconceptions, “which sees public relations as war, reactive, media relations, propaganda, lies, errand running, events planning and receiving press kits also called brown envelope” (Ukonu et al., 2018, p. 43). Although not all organizations engage in the brown envelope, it is a well-documented and accepted practice of gift-­ giving in Nigeria and other SSA countries. Moreover, some practitioners could not distinguish between receiving gifts and bribery as gift-giving is customary in African culture and justifiable in Nigeria (Ukonu et al., 2018). According to Ukonu et al. (2018), public relations practice in Nigeria is linked to the British style but informed by American pedagogical practices. The practice is referred to as a British paternalistic model, or government influence model, tied to the history of British colonial rule. The juxtaposition between the model of practice and the academic approach has made it difficult for Nigerian practitioners to evolve and construct their own public relations identity (Ukonu et al., 2018). The government influence model is related to the legal requirement for practitioners to practice public relations only with certification from the professional organization NIPR (Molleda & Alhassan, 2006). Importantly, Nigerian practitioners relish their accreditation titles and argue that the public relations certification adds to their professional legitimacy and prestige. Despite a more formalized Nigerian public relations practice and education structure, there is still very little literature addressing public relations theory and practice locally. Kenya Although the practice of public relations predates modern conceptualizations of the field, the industry continues to experience steady

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growth. In their study of the public relations practitioners’ perceptions of their own professional practice, Ngonyo and Ramakrishna (2016) found that practitioners hold the profession in high esteem but have conflicting views about the role of public relations within organizations, resulting in divergent understandings of public relations. The researchers also credit the Kenyan publics’ misconceptions of public relations to how it was introduced after Kenya gained its independence in 1963. Under the pressure of the Kenyan government to “Africanize” the industrial sector, expatriate business owners hired local Kenyan citizens and created positions such as “Personnel Manager” and “Public Relations Officer.” The people hired for these positions were untrained and were never part of the decision-making process. Consequently, today’s Kenyan public relations professionals are still not part of the decision-making process. The position is undervalued and under constant threat of being easily replaced by marketing or advertising (Ngonyo & Ramakrishna, 2016). According to Kiambi and Nadler (2012), public relations practice in Kenya mainly uses two international models—the cultural interpreter model and the personal influence model (Kiambi & Nadler, 2012), which is a deviation from the four traditional Western-centric public relations models (Grunig & Hunt, 1984) that are more commonly relied on in other SSA nations such as South Africa and Zimbabwe. The predominant practice of the cultural interpreter and the personal influence models underscores the importance practitioners attach to good interpersonal relations. Kiambi and Nadler (2012) challenged scholars and professionals to “rethink often generalized propositions about the cultural values that are inherent in certain continents or regions of the world” (p. 507). Ghana Like other African countries, Ghana’s public relations history is heavily rooted in its colonial past. The first government Public Relations Department (now Information Services Department) was established in 1957 (Amoakohene, 2015). However, public relations was not valued as a profession, and many professionals came from journalism. Between the late 1960s and early 1990s, the advancement of public relations was stifled as Ghana was transitioning between civilian and military governments. With the return of democracy in 1992, the media’s freedom was restored, and the public relations industry was revived (Amoakohene, 2015).

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In our examination of the literature, we observed Ghana as being the second most researched SSA country in public relations. The seven identified articles focused on the topics of public relations practice (Anani-­ Bossman, 2021a, b), corporate social responsibility (Amoako et al., 2019; Xiao et al., 2019), reputation (Anani-Bossman, 2021c), global public relations (Anani-Bossman & Bruce, 2021), and research methods (Anani-­ Bossman & Tella, 2017). The growth in scholarship has coincided with the increasing professionalization of the field. As of 2018, there were more than 1500 registered public relations practitioners. Wu and Baah-Boakye (2009, 2014) observed the growing professionalization of public relations in Ghana, reporting that practitioners practice two-way communication and become increasingly involved in conducting more summative and formative research for their organizations and clients. This resulted in a move from technician-­ level duties, media monitoring, reporting, and writing to managerial positions with decision-making power. However, Anani-Bossman (2021a) observed that Ghanaian practitioners are rarely involved in the decision-­making process, complicated by the fact that senior management lacks understanding and appreciation of the public relations value. This, in turn, limits the ability of practitioners to fully perform the strategic role. Further, while a growing and vibrant field, public relations in Ghana is rarely approached from a strategic management perspective, predominantly being practiced at the technician level, conditioned by the country’s cultural norms (Anani-Bossman, 2021b). It can be argued that the collectivist culture of Ghana explains public relations’ reliance on the cultural interpreter model. Ghanaian practitioners help their international clients interpret local cultural particularities and successfully conquer cultural barriers to entering the local business. In general, public relations scholars in Ghana tend to focus mainly on the excellence theories and systems theory, yet favor the cultural interpreter model and the personal influence model, as they better reflect local public relations practices (Thompson, 2018). Zimbabwe Although Zimbabwe’s public relations practice can be traced back to the mid-1950s and its first professional organization, the Rhodesia Public Relations Institute in 1966, renamed to Zimbabwe Institute of Public

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Relations (ZIPR) after Zimbabwe’s independence from Great Britain (Oksiutycz & Nhedzi, 2018), its public relations research is still in its infancy and lacks diversity. Zimbabwe is in the early stages of developing standalone public relations education programs. The public relations labor force consists of professionals from different fields and with various professional and educational backgrounds, such as marketing and journalism (Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020). Based on the analyzed journals, we found three studies covering the practice of public relations (Oksiutycz & Nhedzi, 2018; Ngondo, 2019; Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020). The studies show that practitioners in Zimbabwe performed the roles of technician, manager, and strategist and viewed public relations as a strategic management function in line with the Western definitions of public relations. Muchena (2017) also argued that because most public relations literature used in SSA stems from the developed world, the “public relations flair in Zimbabwe is either South African, European or American” (p. 64). Despite the increasing appreciation of the cultural perspective, most employed theories and concepts are still fundamentally Western-centric.

Moving Forward Contemporary public relations is a relatively new discipline in SSA, and public relations scholarship on the continent is sparse and fragmented (Mersham et al., 2011). It can be argued that the research agenda of SSA public relations (with a notable exception of South Africa) has been dominated by the Western perspective, specifically by the excellence theory and models of public relations practice as explicated by numerous studies (e.g., Anani-Bossman, 2021a, b, c; Kiambi & Nadler, 2012; Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020; Tindall & Holtzhausen, 2011; Thompson, 2018; van Heerden & Rensburg, 2005; Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2009, 2014). Studies conducted in SSA nations to date predominantly attempt to understand local public relations practices and professionalization trends by seeking to understand the profession in general, its models of practice, professional public relations roles, and various cases of strategic communication campaigns. Although this chapter deals with SSA as a whole, we acknowledge that each country is unique, as not all African countries have the same ecological, political, media, economic, or cultural structures. Gershman and Rivera (2018) reported persistent national and subnational diversity among SSA countries, particularly highlighting ethnolinguistic diversity

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and religious diversity, affecting communication patterns. Kiambi and Nadler (2012) challenged scholars and professionals to “rethink often generalized propositions about the cultural values that are inherent in certain continents or regions of the world” (p. 507). This chapter attempted to map out public relations scholarship in SSA using a systematic approach. We focused on several countries with vibrant communication and public relations industries to provide context for how and why the public relations research agenda on the continent varies. We identified several important takeaways that could help crystalize the new vision for public relations research and practice. First, the findings confirmed our original observations that public relations scholarship in SSA is dominated by the Western school of thought, predominantly U.S.-based (relationship management, excellence theory), although European-­based perspectives were also present (reflexive approach). In fact, relationship management and stakeholder management frameworks clearly dominate the research agenda in SSA. Second, we found that South Africa produced 59 percent of all public relations scholarships in SSA. Even though, due to the journal selection, other countries with a vibrant public relations industry may not have been included (we selected these journals as flagship publications in their respective regions), the prevalence of South African scholarship undeniably sets the stage for the public relations research agenda in SSA. Finally, our findings demonstrate a glaring omission: the African perspective. Equipped with the knowledge of what has been done, we should be able to identify what needs to be done to propel the African public relations school of thought. Mersham et  al. (2011) called for a more intentional incorporation of traditional African views of communication built on the principles of humanism and communalism, known as Ubuntu. This uniquely African concept prioritizes the community above the individual through its guiding principle “I am because we are.” The philosophy of Ubuntu, shared by diverse countries representing SSA, could inform the region’s public relations development. Ubuntu has already found an application in journalism ethics literature and has relevance and potential for public relations practice, research, and theory development. Conflict of Interest  We have no conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 3

The Use of Social and Digital Media in Public Relations: Empirical Perspectives from Ghana Albert A. Anani-Bossman

The evolution of Web 2.0 technology and social media has dramatically transformed and influenced public relations practice and scholarship. According to SmartInsights (2022), out of 62.5% (4.95 billion) internet users, 58.4% (4.62 billion) are active social media users. The ramifications of these developments are significant for the profession and academic research. For example, because of its ability to spread content, create interactivity, and facilitate long-term relationships, practitioners can now reach their target audiences faster, thus enhancing the relationship between organizations and stakeholders. At the academic level, there have been extensive studies on social media and its impact on how it might be used to improve public relations (Navarro et al., 2017; Robson & James, 2013). The array of studies on public relations and social media is reflected in the

A. A. Anani-Bossman (*) Department of Public Relations, University of Media, Arts and Communication, UniMAC-GIJ Campus, Accra, Ghana e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_3

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work of several scholars (e.g., Ju et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021) who have examined developments of social media public relations research over the last two decades. This study aims to investigate the use of social and digital media by public relations practitioners in Ghana. While there has been a surge in new studies in the last decade on the impact of social media on public relations practice and scholarship, there is a dearth of academic research on the subject from African countries, including Ghana. Despite their remarkable growth, African scholars have noted the minuscule knowledge and understanding regarding public relations practices (Ngondo, 2019; Skinner, 2013). Van Heerden and Rensburg (2005) note, for example, that even though much of the literature emanates from well-structured and established systems, that does not mean public relations is not practiced in emerging economies. Skinner (2013) further asserts that public relations has been practiced successfully in Africa for over 50 years, with membership in professional bodies totaling more than 12,000. In Ghana, for example, the Institute of Public Relations (IPR, Ghana) has been operating since 1971; it currently has a registered membership of more than 1500. Despite this, public relations practice and scholarship remain underrepresented. Except for South Africa, which has a relatively mature public relations industry and a strong body of scholarship (Rensburg, 2014), very few studies have been conducted in the rest of Africa, for example, in Ghana (Anani-Bossman, 2021, 2022; Thompson, 2018), in Zimbabwe (Ngondo, 2019; Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020), in Gabon (Oksiutycz & Enombo, 2011), in Nigeria (Pratt, 1986; Ukonu et al., 2018), in Kenya (Kiambi & Nadler, 2012), and in Africa in general (Blankson, 2009; Pratt, 1985; Pratt & Okigbo, 2004; Pratt & Adamolekun, 2008; Pratt & Omenugha, 2014). Regarding the use of social media, the literature shows that the body of knowledge on the influence of social media on public relations is largely from Europe, the United States, and, to some extent, Asia Pacific and the Middle East (Alikilic & Atabek, 2012; Duhé, 2015; Ju et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2017; Moreno et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2021). This leaves a gap in the global discussion on the issue. Macnamara and Zerfass (2012) acknowledge this when they state that “significant gaps remain in knowledge of how organizations are using social media and how these important new channels of communication can and should be used in the context of public relations and corporate communication” (p. 289). In other words, there is still much to discover regarding social media’s influence on public relations. Sriramesh and Verčič (2009) opined that the lack of empirical

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evidence from other cultures could hinder public relations scholarship and practice. Sriramesh (2008), therefore, argues for “more empirical evidence from other Asian cultures as well as Africa and Latin America” before anyone can be certain about the global nature of public relations practice. Although the literature on public relations practice in Ghana is growing exponentially (Anani-Bossman, 2021; Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2014), it pales in comparison with other countries like South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya. The minuscule research on the public relations practice, especially on the use of social media by practitioners in Ghana, leaves a gap that must be filled. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate how social and other digital media are used by Ghanaian public relations practitioners through the replication of Wright and Hinson’s (2014, 2017) 12-year longitudinal study in the context of public relations practice in Ghana. However, unlike Wright and Hinson, whose study has spanned 12 years with practitioners mainly from North America and a few countries outside of that continent, this is the first time such a study is being conducted in Ghana, hence making the study relevant.

Literature Review Public Relations Research in Africa Unlike Europe, the United States, and, to a large extent, Asia, public relations research in Africa appears to be moving at a snail’s pace. Akpabio (2009) and Skinner and Mersham (2009) alluded to the lack of visibility of public relations research on the continent despite its growth. Rensburg (2007) hence described the continent as a “greenfield of research” (p. 38). Gallagher (2014) suggested that public relations was primarily an American, British, and European concern. Nonetheless, there was an atmospheric change due to three key factors: • The increasing interconnectedness in a global economy. • The increasing prosperity of a ‘middle class’ in what were once called emerging economies. • The disruptive expansion of social media and information technology. (para. 2) As a result, public relations will become more inclusive and diverse, evolving into something more Indian, Arab, or African (para. 4). Recent

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research provided evidence of the growth of public relations on the continent. Research on public relations has been investigated in a few countries with a focus on roles (e.g., Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020; Anani-Bossman, 2021), on the nature of public relations practice (e.g., Holtzhausen, 2005; Oksiutycz & Enombo, 2011), on public relations models/cultural influence (e.g., Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2009; Kiambi & Nadler, 2012), and on social media influence (Ngondo, 2019; Nejo & Amodu, 2021), among others. Even with the strides made, African countries still suffer in comparison to countries in Europe, North America, and Asia. More troubling is that most of the literature is from a few countries, with South Africa leading the way and others such as Nigeria, Kenya, and, to some extent, Ghana contributing a fair amount of research to the field. The present research, thus, aims to contribute to the progress made in Africa by examining how practitioners in Ghana use social and digital media in their practice. Public Relations and Social Media Use The concept of public relations, as we know it, has undergone several transformations in terms of practice and definition. Although there is no single definition of the concept, some key features underpin its definition. Public relations has been described as the management of communication between an organization and its publics (Broom & Sha, 2013; Grunig & Hunt, 1984), as a planned communication activity with a strategic or purposeful goal in mind (Russell & Lamme, 2016), and as the management of relationships (Coombs & Holladay, 2014). From a digital perspective, Huang et al. (2017) defined digital public relations based on three developmental stages: the study of the internet in general (1998–2003), the internet as a communication tool with emphasis on social media (2004–2007), and social media and their development in public relations scholarship (2008–2017). The authors, therefore, described digital public relations as a research paradigm in public relations scholarship. Like public relations, no single terminology defines social media. Motion et al. (2016) note how the concept is constantly changing due to the continuous evolution of technology and social media practices. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) defined social media as “a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content” (p.  61). Felix et  al. (2017, p, 123) described it as “an

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interdisciplinary and cross-functional concept that uses social media (often in combination with other communication channels) to achieve organizational goals by creating value for stakeholders.” Regardless of the differences, scholars agree that social media share the following characteristics: construction of profiles to build digital connections (Boyd & Ellison, 2008); it is premised on user-generated content; platforms are based on the web 2.0 application; it facilitates the development of social networks; and individuals and groups can create user-specific profiles (Obar & Wildman, 2015). Regardless of the definition, there is no question that social media has had an impact on public relations practice and scholarship (Freberg, 2021). Ju et al. (2021), based on these characteristics, defined social media public relations as “the management of communication between an organization and its stakeholders through technologies sharing” (p. 15). The driver of such communication management is technology. The next session discusses public relations and social media use. Much has been discussed regarding how social and digital media have changed public relations practice and scholarship (e.g., Ngondo, 2019; Ju et  al., 2021; Wright & Hinson, 2017). Over the years, social media’s growth has resulted in transforming public relations theory, research, and practice (Freberg, 2019). Social media has become a fundamental aspect of current public relations practice (Brown et al., 2013), with its attendant opportunities and challenges. For example, Freberg (2021) suggests that social media has been at the forefront of causing both pain and gain for organizations, businesses, and public relations professionals, as well as driving some of the most well-known campaigns and crises in the field. Similarly, Motion et al. (2016) opined that social media had changed the concepts and practices of public relations, including authenticity, knowledge, power, transparency, truth, relationships, dialogue, and sharing. From a research perspective, social media is perceived as constituting a new research subject area and facilitating a new research paradigm (Huang et al., 2017; Kent & Li, 2019). Within the context of digital technologies, social media has gained prominence in public relations as the new channel not only for engaging with stakeholders but also for fostering relationships with these stakeholders (Verhoeven et  al., 2012). Solis and Breakenridge (2009) suggested that the advent of social media had increased the profession’s legitimacy. Argenti and Barnes (2009) also noted how social media had changed the rules of strategic communication, including relationship management. Other means by which social media has impacted public relations include

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the creation of dialogue and relationships between organizations and publics (Elliott, 2011; MacNamara & Zerfass, 2012), the circumvention of the traditional news media and direct communication with publics (Kent, 2013; Wright & Hinson, 2014), the increase in the visibility of organizations (Yang & Kent, 2014), and the influence of opinions of customers regarding a brand (Men & Tsai, 2013). In addition, several studies have examined various ways social media has been used in public relations practice. Wright and Hinson (2017), in a 12-year longitudinal study on the use of social and other digital media, found that practitioners spent various amounts of time on different social networks, especially Facebook and Twitter, as part of their roles. Moreno et al. (2015) examined the relationship between public relations practitioners’ perceptions of social media and their personal and professional use of social media in Europe. The findings indicated that practitioners who used social media frequently placed more value on social media channels, the impact of social media on internal and external stakeholders, and the relevance of important gatekeepers and stakeholders, as well as having a higher opinion of their own capabilities. Macnamara et  al. (2018), in a survey of the capabilities, knowledge, and abilities of public relations practitioners in 22 Asia-Pacific countries, found that despite the importance of social media and digital platforms, practitioners had low-to-moderate capabilities in using social media. Social media was mostly used for one-­ way information transmission. Plowman and Wilson (2018) explored the link between strategic and tactical communication and social media usage. They found that practitioners used social media at the tactical rather than strategic levels. Michel et al.’s (2016) research to identify media richness dimensions of social media discovered that social media had more medium characteristics than traditional media. Neill and Lee (2016) found support for seven social media roles for public relations practitioners, including social media technician, social media listening and analytics, online media relations, and internal social media manager and policy. Other areas of research regarding public relations and social media use include the positive impacts of social media on organizational communication (Holtz & Havens, 2009); the use of social media in crisis planning and communication (Wigley & Zhang, 2011); an examination of the impact of social and emerging media use on practitioners in Malaysia (Lim et  al., 2018); a reflection on the “goodness” of social media for public relations practitioners (Valentini, 2015); the use or abuse of social media by public relations practitioners (Macnamara, 2010); communication strategies and public

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engagement on WeChat (Tsai & Men, 2018); online practices and digital media perceptions (Moreno et al., 2015); an analysis of YouTube apology videos and viewer comments (Sandlin & Gracyalny, 2018); an analysis of the nexus between public relations and ICTs, and digital, social, and mobile media (Vercic et al., 2015); and an exploration of social media’s empowerment of the public relations functions (Smith, 2013). Use of Social Media in Africa and Ghana Research has acknowledged the continuous growth of the internet and social media in Africa (SmartInsight, Jan. 2022; Pew Research Center, Oct. 2018). The 2018 Pew Research Center study identified an increase in internet use in countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, Kenya, and South Africa. Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram were the top news sites in Ghana, Senegal, Nigeria, Tanzania, Tunisia, and Kenya. Ghana’s current population stands at 32,261,140 (World Population Review, 2022), of which 8.8 million are active social media users. WhatsApp is the leading social media platform, followed by Facebook and Instagram (Statista, April 2022). The growth of digital and social media penetration in Africa, and in Ghana specifically, has implications for public relations practice, including enabling practitioners to engage in audience research faster, disseminating information quickly, building a corporate reputation online while managing crises quickly, and engaging in interactive two-way communication. Some studies have been conducted on digital media, especially in South Africa, with diverse results. Oksiutycz and Kunene (2017), for instance, found that millennials used digital media to interact with and learn about brands. Mambadja et al. (2015) examined 24 South African universities’ online stakeholder relationship strategies on Facebook and concluded that, on average, the universities were not making full use of the platform for communication. The research found that information dissemination was the most common technique used among the three virtual communication techniques (disclosure, information dissemination, and involvement). Kwansah-Aidoo (2004) investigated the technology adoption rate by Ghanaian public relations practitioners and discovered a wide gap between the experience of practitioners in Ghana and those in the developed environment. Naude et al. (2004) recommended that NGOs adopt two-way symmetrical communication to enhance the communication role of their organization’s website.

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In the context of social media use by public relations practitioners in Africa, the literature identifies few studies. Ngondo (2019) investigated social and digital media use in Zimbabwe. The result showed that practitioners mostly used Facebook in internal and external communication and that most (52%) of practitioners spent more than half of their time on digital media. Nejo and Amodu (2021), in a position paper, admonished practitioners to fully utilize social media and other new media platforms at their disposal. Nchabeleng et  al. (2018) examined social media’s uses, benefits, and limitations for public relations in South Africa’s nonprofit organizations. They concluded that social media had changed how practitioners in NGOs communicated in South Africa. In Ghana, research on social and digital media use is relatively nascent and is mainly centered on the academic environment (e.g., Asare-Donkoh, 2018; Dadzie & Fiawotoafor, 2020; Manu et  al., 2021; Mensah & Onyancha, 2021a, b; Owusu-Acheaw & Larson, 2015). Few studies are in the non-academic context. For example, Ansah (2022) explored how Ghana’s Ministry of Information, the official mouthpiece of government communication, engaged citizens on Facebook during the COVID-19 outbreak. Results showed that citizens rather demonstrated a higher level of participation by asking questions on the Facebook page of the Ministry of Information, while the Ministry remained passive. In essence, authorities rather disseminated information and were largely inactive participants. The study also highlighted that, in a pandemic era, certain challenges, including inflexibility of action, quality of information, and disparity of knowledge, are likely to affect crisis communication. Tabong and Segtub (2021) also analyzed misconceptions and misinformation on social media during the COVID-19 period in Ghana. The study concluded that the misconceptions and misinformation were widespread and influenced the ability of the government to contain the spread of the pandemic. They suggested the need to develop culturally sensitive health communication strategies that are cognizant of local perceptions of COVID-19 to prevent the spread of misinformation. Other studies on social and digital media include social media and political campaign communication in Ghana (Amenyeawu, 2021), an examination of user-level factors that influence social media use, their consequences, and the moderating effects of consumer demographic variables (Karikari et al., 2017), demographic factors influencing the adoption and use of social media in university libraries in Ghana (Mensah & Onyancha, 2021a, b), and the use of social media for political campaigns in Ghana (Asante, 2020; Gyampo, 2017). The studies

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reviewed so far show a serious gap in research on social and digital media and public relations in Ghana. Although Ghanaian public relations practitioners are using social and digital media, there is no known empirical data to determine the extent of usage. Moreno et al. (2015) suggest the need for further knowledge and understanding of the use of social media by practitioners in different regions of the world “through empirical and cross-cultural studies” (p. 2). As Ngondo (2019) observed, it is essential to know and understand how practitioners in Africa deploy social media in their public relations activities. This research contributes to the discussion with a focus on Ghana. The following overarching question guides this chapter: RQ: How do public relations practitioners in Ghana use social and other emerging media in their daily activities?

Method Respondents consisted of public relations practitioners solicited to fill an online survey via Google Forms and personal administration. For the online survey, practitioners were conveniently sampled from a database developed by the researcher over the years, while a research assistant was recruited to gather data via face-to-face. The personal or face-to-face data gathering served to compliment the online survey due to the challenges involved in gathering data online in a country like Ghana. The survey yielded a total of 137 responses. The questionnaire items were adapted from the work of Wright and Hinson (2015, 2017) in their 12-year longitudinal studies. The demographics were, however, modified to reflect the Ghanaian environment. The data were analyzed using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, version 24). Demographics On gender, males (58%) outnumbered females (42%). More than half (52%) were between 31 and 40 years, while a quarter (25%) were between 41and 50  years. Regarding education, 77% had master’s degrees, with 23% holding bachelor’s degrees. The gender dynamics of those with master’s degrees were 57% for males and 43% for females. Respondents worked in various fields: financial (21%), public service (20%), education (15%), nonprofit (10%), public relations agency (9%), and extractive industry (7%). Regarding their designation, respondents were mostly at the senior

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level of management (50%), while 37% were at middle-level management, with the rest (13%) being junior officers. Most (47%) have practiced for more than ten years, with 25% having practiced for between six and nine years. The rest (a total of 28%) had a total experience of two to five years.

Findings The practitioners (Table 3.1) confirmed that the emergence of social and other emerging media had changed how their organizations/clients communicated (M  =  4.5; SD  =  0.63), handled external communication (M  =  4.0; SD  =  1.06), and handled internal communication (M  =  3.7; SD = 1.53). The moderate mean for internal communication shows a lack of strong agreement regarding the influence of social media on internal communication. Overall, practitioners acknowledged (Table 3.2) that social and other emerging media had enhanced the practice of public relations (M = 4.3; SD = 1.05) as well as influenced traditional mainstream media (M = 4.27; SD  =  1.03). However, practitioners responded moderately (M  =  3.50; SD  =  1.10) to whether traditional mainstream media influenced social media and emerging media. The moderate mean response rate demonstrates uncertainty (or a decreasing influence) regarding the influence of traditional media on social media. Overall, 62% of respondents reported spending much of their time on social media and blogs. Of these, 36% said they spend between 26 and 50% of their time on blogs and other social media, while 26% said they spend more than half of their time there. Only 8% of practitioners spend less than 10% of their time working on social media (Table 3.3). Table 3.1  Mean analyses of responses to the question: “Please tell us whether you agree or disagree that the emergence of social and other emerging media has changed the way your organization (or your client organizations)”

Communicates? Handles external communication? Handles internal communication?

M

SD

4.5 4.0 3.7

0.63 1.06 1.53

Mean scores are based on responses to five-point Likert-­type scales where “1” = “strongly disagree” and “5” = “strongly agree”

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Table 3.2  Mean scores on responses to questions on practitioners’ agreement or disagreement with statements on the use of social media M

SD

Social media and other emerging media have enhanced the practice of public 4.3 1.05 relations? Social media and emerging media influence the traditional mainstream media 4.27 1.03 Traditional mainstream media influence social media and emerging media 3.50 1.10 Mean scores are based on responses to five-point Likert-type scales, where “1” = “strongly disagree” and “5” = “strongly agree”

Table 3.3  Responses to these questions: “On the average, approximately what percentage of your time working in public relations and communications is spent with blogs and other social media?” Percentage variable 1–10% 11–25% 26–50% 51–75% >75%

% of time 8% 20% 36% 26% 10%

Regarding the organizational function primarily responsible for monitoring and managing social media, a clear majority (81%) pointed to the communication and public relations department. When asked whose responsibility this should be, the majority (82%) again mentioned the communication and public relations department. More than one-eighth (13%) pointed to the digital/social media department as being responsible for monitoring and managing social media. A slightly higher percentage (16%) believed monitoring and managing social media should be the responsibility of the digital/social media department (Table 3.4). To determine whether practitioners engaged in any research as part of their duties, they were asked questions about scientific measurement. Nearly four in ten respondents (37%) said their organizations had conducted research measuring what members of other strategic publics had communicated about their organization via blogs, social media, and other emerging media; 41.5% indicated they had not carried out any research while 21.5% were uncertain.

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Table 3.4  Responses to the question: “Which organizational function is primarily responsible and should be primarily responsible for monitoring and managing social and emerging media communication in your organization?”

Communication/ PR Digital/social media Legal Technology Don’t know Not assigned

Organizational function: Primarily responsible for media monitoring and managing social/emerging media (%)

Organizational function which should be primarily responsible for media monitoring and managing social/emerging media (%)

81

82

13

16

1 2 – 3

– 1 1 –

Respondents, nevertheless, were positive about the need to measure the amount of communication that is being disseminated on social media (M  =  4.44; SD  =  0.92); the content of what is being communicated (M = 4.44; SD = 0.93); the impact that information disseminated about their organizations has on influentials, opinion leaders, and members of other strategic audiences (M  =  4.38; SD  =  0.99); and the impact that information has on the formation, change and reinforcement of attitudes, opinions, and behaviors (M = 4.30; SD = 0.97) (see Table 3.5). Overall, 42% of practitioners (Table  3.6) affirmed that they had measured the volume of communication that their organization/client’s organization disseminated through social media, while half (50%) also claimed that their organization/client’s organization had at some point measured the content of what is being communicated via social media. Respondents also noted that they had measured the impact of information disseminated on key publics (42%) as well as change and reinforcement of attitudes, opinions, and behavior (41%). Despite the positive response, when the “no and uncertain” responses are put together, the picture appears different and shows a worrying trend regarding the issue of measurement. For example, a total of 58% either responded in the negative or did not know whether their organization had ever measured the amount of communication that is disseminated about their organization/client’s organization through social media. Half (50%)

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Table 3.5  Mean analysis of responses to these questions asking subjects if they agreed or disagreed that public relations practitioners should measure M The amount of communication that is being disseminated about their organizations (or client organizations) through blogs and other social media And/or analyze content of what’s being communicated about their organizations (or their clients) in blogs and other social media The impact information disseminated about their organizations (or their clients) through blogs and other social media has on influentials, opinion leaders, and members of other strategic audiences The impact information disseminated about their organizations (or their clients) through blogs and other social media has on the formation, change and reinforcement of attitudes, opinions, and behavior

SD

4.44 0.92 4.44 0.93 4.38 0.99

4.30 0.97

Note. Mean scores are based on responses to five-point Likert-type scales where “1” = “strongly disagree” and “5” = “strongly agree.” Consequently, the higher the mean score the stronger the agreement

Table 3.6  Percentage of respondents answering the question, “To the best of your knowledge, has your organization (or a client organization) ever measured.…” Yes

No

Uncertain/ Don’t Know

The amount of communication that is being 42.2% disseminated about their organizations (or client organizations) through blogs and other social media And/or analyze content of what’s being communicated 49.6% about their organizations (or their clients) in blogs and other social media The impact information disseminated about their 42.2% organizations (or their clients) through blogs and other social media has on influentials, opinion leaders, and members of other strategic audiences Yes

39.3%

18.5%

33.3%

17.0%

35.6%

22.2%

No

The impact information disseminated about their 40.7% organizations (or their clients) through blogs and other social media has on the formation, change and reinforcement of attitudes, opinions, and behavior

36.3%

Uncertain/ Don’t Know 23.0%

of the practitioners gave similar responses regarding measuring what is being communicated about their organization/client’s organization. Measurement of social media activities may thus not be as positive as the result portrays.

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The result shows that social network sites (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn) were ranked highest in terms of their importance in the overall public relations efforts of practitioners’ organizations. YouTube was ranked second, with Search engine marketing and Micro-blogs sites such as Twitter being slightly below in third. Podcast was the least ranked, indicating its minuscule importance in public relations efforts in Ghana. When asked, “how important is each medium?” again, social networks (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn) ranked highest, followed by search engine marketing (second), social media management sites (third), micro-blogs (Twitter, etc.) (fourth), and YouTube (fifth). Table 3.7 also shows that respondents see some gaps between how important the selected social media tools are and how important they should be. Whereas YouTube and Social Networks (e.g., Facebook and LinkedIn) each showed an insignificant difference, the importance of blogs, podcasts, search engine marketing, and micro-blogging sites was significantly lower than respondents expected. Finally, the study measured the frequency with which selected social and emerging media were used for public relations purposes. Facebook

Table 3.7  Mean paired sample t-test analysis comparisons between responses to the questions: “How important ARE/SHOULD each of the following in the overall communications and public relations efforts of your organization (or your client’s organizations)?”

Blogs Podcasts Video sharing (YouTube) Social networks (Facebook, LinkedIn, etc.) Search engine marketing Micro-blogging Sites (Twitter, etc.) Social media management (Hootsuite, etc.)

Are

Should

Mean difference

t

p

3.48 3.21 3.97 4.33

3.91 3.78 4.09 4.48

−0.43 −0.55 −0.11 −0.15

−4.02 −6.08 −0.95 −1.85

0.000 0.000 0.339 0.066

3.88 3.88 3.64

4.30 4.16 4.27

−0.42 −0.27 −0.62

−4.26 0.000 −2.98 0.003 −5.87 0.000

Note. Mean scores are based on responses to five-point Likert-type scales where “1” = “Very Unimportant” and “5” = “Very Important.” Consequently, the higher the mean score the greater the perceived importance

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Table 3.8  Mean analysis comparisons to the question: “Please tell us how frequently you access each of the following social networking, micro-­blogging and video sharing sites as part of your work in public relations” Social network Facebook YouTube Twitter LinkedIn Instagram Hootsuite Flickr Pinterest

M

SD

4.24 3.87 3.87 3.77 3.74 3.62 3.62 3.63

1.23 1.19 1.35 1.34 1.49 1.83 1.83 1.92

Note. Mean scores are based on responses to five-point Likert-type scales where “1” = “Very infrequently” and “5” = “Very frequently.” Consequently, the higher the mean score the greater the frequency

turned out to be the most frequently accessed medium by practitioners (M  =  4.24; SD  =  1.23), followed by Twitter (M  =  3.87; SD  =  1.35), YouTube (M = 3.87; SD = 1.19), LinkedIn (M = 3.77; SD = 1.34), and Instagram (M = 3.74; SD = 1.49). The preference for Facebook is unsurprising considering its popularity across the world. It is also consistent with similar findings over the years (Table 3.8).

Discussion This study aimed to explore how Ghanaian public relations professionals used social and digital media for public relations purposes. Overall, findings showed that social media had a major impact on public relations. The result is consistent with the findings of various scholars (e.g., Motion, et  al., 2016; Wright & Hinson, 2014; Xie et  al., 2018). This result is unsurprising, considering that social media has transformed communication from one-way to two-way interaction, as postulated by Kaplan and Haenlein (2010). Practitioners agreed that social media and other emerging technologies had affected the communication process, including internal and external communication. This is consistent with other findings (e.g., Ngondo, 2019; Wright & Hinson, 2014, 2017). Notably, practitioners did not focus so much on the use of social media for internal communication. The moderate mean rating evidenced this. Again, the result shows clear evidence that social media and emerging media have improved

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the practice as well as influenced traditional mainstream media. Nevertheless, the moderate-to-low mean score for the item asking if the mainstream media has influenced social media demonstrates the dwindling focus on traditional mainstream media for public relations purposes. The finding is not surprising as mainstream media consumption has been declining for years (Pew Research Center, 2008). Journalists frequently use social media to gather information, and it is not uncommon for the news media to reference a Facebook post or tweet. Several organizations now use social media to communicate information, engage in promotions, and provide customer service. Even if they do not use them directly, their audiences will likely discuss the organization’s brand, products, and practices on social media (Robson & James, 2013). The result further aligns with previous findings (Ngondo, 2019; Wright & Hinson, 2014). Like other results (Lim et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2020), the present study found that, overall, the majority (82%) of practitioners spend a significant portion of their day using social media and blogs for public relations purposes. The result shows that Ghanaian public relations practitioners actively use social and digital media. Consistent with the findings of Wright and Hinson (2017) and Ngondo (2019), as well as other researchers, practitioners noted that the responsibility for monitoring and managing social media lay with the communication and public relations department (81%), followed by digital/social media (13%). Practitioners also agreed that such responsibility should remain with the communication and public relations department. There was a slightly higher percentage (16%) of practitioners who felt that digital media monitoring and evaluation should be within the domain of the digital/social media department. Unlike the result of some scholars (see Lim et al., 2018; Ngondo, 2019; Wright & Hinson, 2017), marketing was not included as the department responsible/should be responsible for social media activities. This is interesting, considering public relations and marketing tend to use social media for communication purposes. A significant aspect of the study was the issue of measurement. The result shows that measurement is clearly an issue with practitioners. This is seen in the fact that 41% responded in the negative when asked whether there had ever been any research conducted to measure what members of other strategic publics had communicated about their organization via social and emerging media, while a significant percentage (21%) indicated their uncertainty. Only 37% responded in the affirmative. Although practitioners claimed to have measured social media communication activities,

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the high percentage in relation to those who answered “no” and “don’t know” gives the impression that measurement is hardly done. The practice of measurement is inconsistent with practitioners’ general acknowledgment that social and digital media should be measured. This result affirms literature in several areas, including Ngondo (2019) in Zimbabwe, Lim et  al. (2018) in Malaysia, and Wright and Hinson (2017) in North America. The lack of research and measurement has been discussed for decades by both practitioners and scholars. The issue has been attributed to a gap in knowledge, skills, and capabilities (Macnamara et  al., 2018; Zerfass et al., 2017). This situation calls for improvement in practitioners’ knowledge, skills, and capabilities as far as evaluation is concerned. Since practitioners tend to spend several hours online, they need to develop the requisite skills to effectively measure online activities. The result shows an apparent disconnection between what is measured and what practitioners believe should be measured. Interestingly, micro-blogging sites such as Twitter, an essential tool for public relations work, were rated fourth in terms of their importance in the overall public relations efforts, coming after social networks, search engine marketing, and social media management. This result differs from Ngondo’s (2019) findings, which showed that micro-blogging sites (Twitter, etc.) ranked second among the list of social media that organizations should use. The global report on the world’s most used social media platforms shows Facebook as the leading platform, followed by YouTube, WhatsApp, and Instagram. Twitter is at the lower rank (SmartInsight, Jan. 2022). The result may explain why micro-blogging sites were not ranked highly in the study. The selection of Facebook as the most frequently used platform for public relations activities is consistent with other research findings, such as Wright and Hinson (2017). Facebook was closely followed by YouTube, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram. Indeed, there were minimal differences between YouTube, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram usage. It can therefore be surmised that there is no difference in the amount of time spent on these apps by practitioners. The result is consistent with the rising use of social media in Ghana and other African countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, Senegal, and Tanzania (Pew Research Center, 2018). Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram, in particular, reflect global trends of social networks used frequently (Smart Insights, 2022).

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Implications for Practice and Scholarship The study shows that social and digital media, despite the challenges they bring, have also resulted in immense opportunities for practitioners. However, the result shows that practitioners are underutilizing social and digital media. The lack of strong research and measurement practices by practitioners is problematic but not surprising, as literature has shown. Practitioners need to enhance their skills and capabilities in social media measurement. Scholars and practitioners worldwide have continuously underscored the importance of research to the public relations function, including demonstrating the profession’s value to the business (Thomas, 2016). However, without the capabilities to undertake rigorous research, practitioners’ use of social media will only be at the tactical level instead of being strategic, as Plowman and Wilson (2018) showed. Several analytical tools are available that practitioners can use to measure their organization’s social media activities effectively. The result also challenges professional associations such as the Institute of Public Relations (IPR, Ghana) to provide increased professional training for practitioners on how to use social and digital media effectively. Public relations practitioners are expected to take advantage of current and emerging media technologies to deal with various communication challenges, including the increase of their digital footprint beyond urban communities and into rural areas (Ukonu et al., 2018), especially given the progress made in digital communication penetration in Africa (International Telecommunications Union, 2021). Significantly, the result provides an opportunity for public relations scholars in Ghana, and Africa as a whole, to start focusing more on how social and other digital media are influencing public relations practice on the continent. African public relations scholars can examine the status of public relations research on the continent to identify gaps, skills, and capabilities of professionals, not only for social and digital media but the profession as a whole. Thanks to globalization, the evolving nature of the world means that African public relations scholars will have to step up in the development of the body of knowledge. This can start with the formation of an African body of knowledge similar to the European body of knowledge (EBOK), the North American body of knowledge, and the American Commission for PR education. Such a body will be responsible for coordinating public relations scholarship on the continent to promote scholarship and theory development.

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The findings also have implications for the teaching of public relations. The researcher has, over the years, observed that social media teaching in communication schools/departments is mostly at the generic level but not tailored to public relations. The result means that public relations educators must make conscious efforts to ensure public relations students graduate with the requisite skills needed to be relevant in the digital world.

Conclusion and Limitations This research provides insights into public relations practitioners’ social and digital media use in Ghana. It contributes to the limited body of knowledge on the continent. It has been proven that social and digital media have significantly improved the way public relations, and communication in general, is done in Ghana. This research has its limitations. First, practitioners were selected from a database that the researcher already had, limiting the scope of practitioners who participated in the study. The study was also premised on the work of Wright and Hinson (2014, 2017), hence limiting it to specific research areas in social and digital media use. Again the study did not explore the organizational structural positioning of digital media function nor how the measurement was done. Over the years, scholars have investigated several social media and public relations topics, including measurement and evaluation, crisis communication, reputation management, and skills and capabilities. The fact that practitioners did not identify marketing as one of the departments responsible for social media is intriguing and deserves in-depth research. Future research on Ghana, and the continent, in general, should look at these. Given the limited study on the continent, the researchers believe it is time scholars turned their attention to Africa, a gold mine for research in public relations. Public relations is flourishing in Africa; however, there is little evidence to demonstrate its growth. Only by improving the scholarship on the continent can Africa truly take its place in the global discussion on public relations. Conflict of Interest  I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 4

Tensions Between Public Relations and Journalism: A Namibian Perspective Albertina Kashuupulwa and Eno Akpabio

Tensions between public relations (P.R.) practitioners and journalists are rife in Namibia (Aochamub, 2016; Kapitako, 2013; Mahan, 2014; Mutambo, 2014; New Era, 2016). Mutambo (2014) notes that despite the establishment of the Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (MICT) in Namibia to harmonize government information management under one umbrella, communication remains painstakingly uncoordinated and fragmented across government institutions, offices, ministries, and agencies. Mutambo (2014) further asserts that ministries still disseminate their own media releases, sometimes without the knowledge of the designated mouthpiece of the government—the MICT. What is more nerve-wracking is hearing a custodian of government information quoted in the media saying, “I am not aware of that.” Mahan (2014) argues that access to information held by the government or public institutions is not easily obtainable even though freedom of expression and human rights are guaranteed in democratic Namibia. The

A. Kashuupulwa • E. Akpabio (*) Department of Social Sciences, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_4

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Namibian government, Mahan further posits, is not legally obligated to share or disclose any details regarding its operations. It primarily acts under a veil of secrecy unless it decides on its own accord to share information or the information is leaked to the media by whistle-blowers. Mutambo (2014) asserts that only a few government institutions allow their communication practitioners to be part of management meetings. This strips this important function of the armor of information it needs to successfully defend its institutions or the firsthand information it requires to discharge its functions in a manner that adds value to the organization. However, in a meeting with editors, President Hage Geingob requested that government information officers bring to his attention government officials that are withholding information from the media, arguing that “transparency is the cornerstone of this administration. This is not about my personal legacy but the legacy of Namibia. We would like to be open. We want a media-friendly government, and we mean that” (New Era, 2016, par. 20). But some of the sentiments expressed by government officials seem to be diametrically opposed to the president’s posture. The former Minister of Information and Communication Technology, Tjekero Tweya, prefers that “a statutory body be set up to watch over the media” in order to protect members of the public (Immanuel, 2016, par. 5). Similarly, Albertus Aochamub, the former state house press secretary, inveighed against The Namibian news story titled “Geingob hits pay dirt,” arguing that In a clear open war against the person of Dr Hage Geingob and in furtherance of what some declared to make the country ungovernable, this article confirms a worrisome trend in some segments of our society. The paper in question has been consistent in its hatred and stigmatisation of the president and evidently taken a stance of consistent anti-Geingob reporting since his inauguration a year ago. To that end, one is not too surprised about that piece. In fact, anything to the contrary would have been a pleasant surprise (Aochamub, 2016, par. 5).

The sentiments expressed by President Geingob and the Minister of Information Communication and Technology are in line with the role of public relations officers (PROs) in government institutions. Government PROs are responsible for disseminating relevant information on policies, plans, and achievements; informing and educating various publics about

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legislation; and providing feedback regarding actual and proposed policies (Ogwezzy, 2005). They are also responsible for highlighting success stories, facilitating communication with the internal and external stakeholders, and changing public perception of the quality of government services. This can contribute greatly to the country’s global competitiveness (Mutambo, 2014). Based on these conflicting signals from the government and its communication machinery, this study set out to investigate the status of the relationship between public relations officers in the public service and one of their key publics—journalists—who are critical players when it comes to explaining government policies and actions in order to carry citizens along. They also provide feedback that will be critical input toward national development to the government so that programs and policies can be modified, amended, or continued, among others to ensure maximum benefit to the citizens for whom the policies or services are meant (Akpabio, 2005; Onabajo, 2005). Objectives of the Study • To explore the attitudes of public relations officers in the Namibian public service toward the media. • To determine if there exist differences in the relationship between public relations officers and journalists from government and privately owned media. • To find out from journalists if public relations officers assist or serve as hindrances in the execution of their duties.

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework The review discusses journalism and public relations from global, African, and Namibian perspectives by investigating tensions, as well as the merits of the relationship. The dialogic theory, which acknowledges tensions and the state of flux, undergirds this study. Global Perspectives on Public Relations and Journalism Public relations and journalism share many similarities. According to Inamdar (2015, para. 6), journalism and public relations both work as public informers, but they differ in terms of the definition of newsworthiness and how the public should be informed. Broom and Sha (2013) also

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acknowledge the differences based on their communication goal. Public relations and journalism can also be seen as two sides of the same coin. One side has news and interesting events it wants to get out into the public domain; the other side needs news and interesting events to cover (Curtis, 2011). The work of the public relations practitioner entails a wide range of activities, including speechwriting and messages, strategic planning, event management, image creation, and crisis communication. But in most institutions, the practitioner’s primary task is still media relations. Hence, it is essential for every practitioner to understand how the media can affect public views, attitudes, and behaviors (Parell & Talan, 2022, p.  27). Developing a mutual relationship with the media is, therefore, critical to the work of public relations practitioners. Government communications efforts are crucial to a country’s well-­ being and are especially important for educating the populace about health and education, public safety, and how to use government services. The communicator’s objective is to offer uplifting, practical, and truthful information about how the organization uses taxpayer funds while preserving the organization’s and its leaders’ reputations (Parell & Talan, 2022). They are also responsible for communicating the activities of government agencies so that citizens can benefit from them; getting feedback from citizens so that programs can be amended, modified, or continued; advising government officials on how best to communicate with citizens; solving taxpayers’ problems; and educating administrators and bureaucrats about media relations (Akpabio, 2005). Clearly, there is a need for public relations activities to help citizens understand their privileges and responsibilities under a democratic form of government. McCollough (2015) asserts that government public relations officers are responsible for providing citizens with information about the work of their respective agencies/ministries. In the democratic system, it is assumed that government will respond to the wishes of the governed, and public relations work to determine the wishes of the governed and strive to make the government responsive to those wishes (Omondi, 2012, p. 16). Public relations is a key component of the administrative system, specifically designed to bridge the gap between popular and bureaucratic government (Broom & Sha, 2013). The news media, on the other hand, is a for-profit sector of outlets motivated by ratings, subscribers, and click-­ throughs. Journalists are instructed to “find the scoop,” “uncover the truth,” and preserve constitutional rights (Parell & Talan, 2022).

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Government public relations officers need favorable and consistent media coverage that directly influences the public’s opinion and the support of major stakeholders. They need the media, who serve as the gatekeepers, to deliver their messages. In other words, journalists provide the means through which public relations officers can communicate to the public. Therefore, government public relations officers and journalists share an important role in co-creating knowledgeable citizens (McCollough, 2015). Given their need for each other, the relationship between public relations professionals and journalists should be premised on collaborating in a respectful and trusting environment. However, the literature on the relationship between public relations officers and journalists shows that both parties are skeptical of each other’s roles (e.g., Inamdar, 2015; Kaur & Shaari, 2006; Young, 2021; Parell & Talan, 2022). Parell and Talan (2022, p.  32), for instance, describe the relationship between the two parties as complex—mutual but mostly adversarial—meaning the relationship is premised on mutual cooperation as well as tension and conflict. Broom and Sha (2013, p. 250) refer to it as mutually beneficial but “adversarial to their core.” McCollough (2015) also refers to this relationship as antagonistic, a situation that has simmered for several decades. McCoy et al. (2011) argue that journalism and public relations have had a long and often contentious relationship. Much of the disharmony comes from the major difference in how the two groups serve their constituencies. Journalists write stories to inform a general audience. Public relations practitioners provide information to particular audiences on behalf of their clients. Both groups use similar techniques, but their responsibilities, objectives, and how they frame information can differ (McCoy et al., 2011, p. 3). At the heart of the relationship problem is the perceptual climate. Much of the literature indicates that attitudes journalists have toward public relations practitioners are generally negative (McCollough, 2015). Inamdar (2015, para. 7), for example, posits that public relations professionals are seen as “spin-doctors” or “truth benders” as people think that the role of a public relations practitioner is to lie or manipulate the truth. According to Grabowski (1992), some researchers believe public relations practitioners often make fundamental mistakes when interacting with journalists. Grabowski (1992) identifies such mistakes to include being ignorant about the needs of journalists, offering media releases and story ideas that lack news value or relevance to the target audiences, contacting journalists

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when they are frantically busy on deadline and being obstructive. These mistakes and tactics, as Grabowski (1992) states, frustrate and annoy journalists and often result in them viewing public relations practitioners negatively. Sallot and Johnson (2006) posit that journalists cite a lack of transparency, withholding information, a lack of ethics, a lack of professionalism, a lack of understanding of news values, and a lack of objectivity in providing news content to journalists as major causes of animosity. Bollinger (2003) also points out that journalists and editors do not trust public relations practitioners and have a poor attitude toward the profession. Wilcox and Reber (2014, p. 92) identified causes of conflict as consisting of poorly written materials (too much hype, lacking hard news, buries main points or pitch), distribution of irrelevant materials (displaying ignorance of publication’s format and content), not being able to gain access to practitioners, not taking “no” for an answer, and inability to be concise. A survey conducted by DWPub (2014) on what journalists think about P.R. people produced interesting findings. From the study, journalists asserted that public relations practitioners had little understanding of their needs or what constitutes quality news. Approximately half of the journalists believed practitioners did not understand what journalists required. Nearly 80% thought one of the most frustrating aspects of P.R. pitches was a “lack of understanding of [the] publication and subject area.” Another finding revealed little had changed over the years, and public relations was not improving. On the other hand, public relations practitioners complain that journalists do not understand the public relations role. Also, they have a reputation for engaging in “ambush media journalism” (confronting and interrogating public officials unexpectedly), asking for interviews under false pretenses and then asking the interviewee questions on issues they are unfamiliar with or not permitted to answer, engaging in sensationalism, constantly changing their minds about publishing a story, and failing to do their homework before doing an interview or report (Parell & Talan, 2022; Wilcox & Reber, 2014; McCollough, 2015). The tension between the two disciplines is reflected in some derogatory names they have given themselves. According to Delorme and Fedler (2003), difficulties in the relationship can be traced to the rise of publicity in the nineteenth century and the unethical tactics, such as bribes, gifts, and stunts that early public relations practitioners used as a way to garner media attention and coverage for their clients or organizations. Over time, this behavior led journalists to

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view public relations as “deceptive, unethical and foolish” (p. 105). White and Hobsbawm (2007) note that while public relations practitioners appreciate the extent to which they work with and provide information to journalists, journalists are perhaps less willing to acknowledge the use made of information subsidies. According to Stegall and Saunders (1986), over time, journalists and public relations practitioners have tried to work out what each other’s role entails to determine where the boundaries in their relationship lie. During this process, however, misunderstandings have arisen, and stereotypes have been created. Such stereotypes include journalists dismissing P.R. practitioners as “spin doctors, media manipulators, corporate flunkies, flak catchers and paid liars” (Comrie, 2002, p. 158). On the other hand, P.R. practitioners’ view of journalists is not always healthy with some believing journalists are “incompetent bunglers who quote out of context and sensationalize the negative” (Stegall & Saunders, 1986, p. 341). Therefore, the historical origins appear to have laid the foundations for a troubled relationship that has done anything but ease the friction over the years. Shin and Cameron (2005) believe that both sides bring conflict to the relationship through the nature of their roles and goals, as well as the values, attitudes, and views they hold about each other (Callard, 2011). The skepticism and cynicism have given rise to labels such as “hack” (journalist) and “spin doctor” or “flack” (public relations) (Johnston, 2012). Understanding the relationship between public relations practitioners and journalists is paramount to practicing effective media relations. The interaction between public relations practitioners and journalists as they exchange information often for mutual benefit is referred to as media relations (Grunig & Hunt, 1983). Similarly, Slusarczyk and Ward (2021) described it as a symbiotic relationship in which the public relations practitioner promotes clients through media channels that invariably seek to report news, disseminate information, or entertain. Its goal is to establish trust, understanding, and respect between the two groups (Lattimore et al., 2012). However, seemingly as problematic to define as public relations, media relations can generally be viewed as the relationship management between an organization and members of the media who write, edit, produce, and deliver news (Slusarczyk and Ward, 2021). Public relations practitioners who take the time to develop good media relations skills and who make the effort to build good relationships with journalists are more likely to achieve better results for their clients or

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organization. Additionally, Kaur and Shaari (2006) state that public relations plays a vital and strategic role in building and enhancing ongoing or long-term relationships with an organization’s key constituencies, including the media public. Callard (2011) states that every day, journalists and P.R. practitioners around the world interact with each other as part of the news production process (p. 2). He further states that public relations practitioners suggest stories and provide journalists with the information they have shaped that they would like to see published in the newspaper. Journalists contact public relations practitioners with requests for information or interviews to help produce news stories they are writing. While this may, from the outside, seem like a simple and smooth transaction, it is often not the case. According to Delorme and Fedler (2003), by the start of the twentieth century, journalists had developed a unique writing style and complained that public relations practitioners failed to conform to it. Editors wanted stories that were clear, specific, and interesting. As a result, to save valuable space, they taught reporters “to state a fact and to state it quickly,” cutting reporters’ cherished adjectives (DeLome & Fedler, 2003, p. 107). They note that three other factors that worsened the conflict include journalists being envious since PR practitioners seemed to enjoy better salaries and working conditions. Secondly, PROs annoy journalists by repeatedly calling with unimportant stories. Thirdly, journalists felt that their work of informing the public was noble and pure, whereas public relations practitioners were propagandists willing to work for anyone that is able to pay. Howard and Matthews (2006) explain that the only way for media relations people to overcome the skepticism and hostility from journalists is to master the fundamentals on how to assist them, as this makes the difference in the long-term relationships with the media. Sallot and Johnson (2006) found that journalists perceived public relations practitioners who were former journalists to be more skilled and ethical than those who have no journalistic experience. African Perspectives on Public Relations and Journalism The precise nature of the relationship between those who practice public relations and those who practice journalism is vaguely defined (Owanda, 2010). According to Mersham, Skinner & von Essen (2001), South African public relations practitioners working within the communication industry argue that the relationship between public relations practitioners

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and the media is one of the most important responsibilities of a public relations practitioner. Mersham, Skinner & von Essen (2001, p. 8) states that media liaison includes writing and delivery of media releases from the organization to print and broadcast journalists. It is also the development of a relationship between the public relations practitioner and the journalist to ensure the distribution of the organizational message contained in the media release. Other scholars (e.g., Johnston, 2012; Slusarczyk & Ward, 2021; Wilcox & Reber, 2014) note the importance of media relations not just because it is the crux of all public relations activities despite its many functions but also because the media serve as a conduit through which organizations can reach key stakeholders. Public relations practitioners need the media to publish or broadcast organizational information to obtain positive publicity and to make the organization known to the public. It is their duty to demonstrate this by appearing knowledgeable, professional, and trustworthy, and to permeate the boundaries and attain the necessary recognition that the public relations industry deserves through the strategic contributions they bring to the organization (Mutambo, 2014). The Communication and Public Relations Officer at Agra Limited Namibia sees media practitioners as partners with public relations officers (Mhundura, 2016, par. 7). She stressed that “media practitioners are independent entities that provide public relations officers with a platform to share the company’s profiles and it’s offering.” Mhundura (2016) notes that the media allows public relations practitioners to reach out to different parts of the country and that media practitioners are important stakeholders in the communication industry. The Director of Communication and Marketing at the Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST) notes that “there are instances where journalists present negative information to the public about institutions while getting factual information from public relations officers” (Kapitako, 2013, par. 12). He had more criticisms “that there are also instances where journalists would misquote public relations officers as well as instances where a journalist has a story about an institution but does not have the courtesy to check with public relations officers or wait for comments from those responsible. And these create bad synergy between journalists and public relations officers” (Kapitako, 2013, par. 13). He also contends that there is often a misconception among

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journalists that public relations practitioners engage only in cover-up and do not supply real/hard facts. In conclusion, understanding the relationship between public relations practitioners and journalists is paramount to practicing effective media relations. The literature on the relationship between journalists and public relations practitioners indicates an ambivalent one, and this study brings a Namibian perspective to bear on the issue. Dialogic Theory A central tenet of the dialogic theory is an acknowledgment that the world is in a state of flux as it is being pulled in different directions by centripetal and centrifugal forces (Littlejohn et al., 2016). This situation also characterizes the relations between journalists and public relations officers (Charron 1989). But not addressing the issues to find a way forward would qualify those involved to be labeled as pretenders given the messy situation or unfinalizability—nothing is decided yet—and heteroglossia— many voices (Littlejohn et al., 2016, p. 243). In fact, dialogue, process of negotiation involving various ideas, helps in charting the way forward (Graham, 2014). According to the dialogic theory, relationships incorporate a variety of “voices” that pull and push on the relationship over time. Dialogue is frequently argued to be an effective method for overcoming differences, otherness, and foreignness (Littlejohn et al., 2016). Kent (2018) opines that the theory, which he describes as “genuine dialogue,” can occur if the parties involved respect each other, minimize power dynamics and exploitation, are taught how to interact ethically and effectively, and are willing to trust each other enough to self-disclose or share personal or sensitive information. In relation to the theory, the relationship between public relations and journalists must be based on trust, positive regard for others, commitment, engagement, and mutuality. In other words, the tension between journalists and public relations practitioners can only be resolved by overcoming differences. A consequence of this is a mutually beneficial outcome. Lane and Kent (2018) call this dialogic engagement. The present study is thus a way of initiating a dialogue given the tensions between these two vocations—public relations and journalism.

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Methodology The study employed the qualitative research design which is concerned with the opinions, experiences, and feelings of research participants (Treadwell, 2014). The population of the study comprised 23 government ministries (Government of Namibia, 2016) and the 13 print media houses. The study used simple random sampling to select 5 ministries (Ministry of Health and Social Services; Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry; Ministry of Gender and Social Welfare; Office of the Auditor-­ General; and the Ministry of Information and Communication Technology) from the 23 government ministries in Namibia. The same process was used to select 16 print media journalists. The study used interview guides with open-ended questions for in-­ depth exploratory interviews with public relations officers because the open-ended questions define the topic under investigation and provide opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss the issues in more detail (Treadwell, 2014). The study also used a focus group discussion (FGD) to obtain responses from print media journalists. The FGD took place at Bokamoso Entrepreneurial Centre in Katutura and was tape-recorded. A digital voice recorder was used for the in-depth exploratory interviews. The interview guide and FGD guide comprised demographic information, questions about the relationship between journalists and public relations practitioners composed of various scenarios such as information provision, answers to press inquiries, and attitude toward each other. The study’s data was analyzed using categorization that is informed by the study’s objectives (fixed coding) while making allowance for other incidental findings through flexible coding (Treadwell, 2014). The University of Namibia’s Research Ethics Committee approved the study. All participants signed an informed consent form explaining the nature of the research and what was expected of them. Participants were also assured of confidentiality.

Findings Demographic Data The study participants, comprising both public relations officers as well as journalists, were 21  in number. There were 4 female public relations

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practitioners and 12 female journalists, 1 male public relations practitioner and 4 male journalists. Participants were between the ages of 26 and 34 years. The public relations officers were from the Ministry of Health and Social Services; Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (MICT); Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry; Ministry of Gender and Social Welfare; and the Office of the Auditor-­ General. The focus group discussion was conducted with journalists from The Namibian, New Era, Namibia Sun, and Republikein newspapers. Government–Media Relations in the Namibian Public Service: Perspectives of Public Relations Practitioners The public relations officers were asked how they saw journalists’ attitudes toward them. Most practitioners described journalists’ attitudes toward them as positive because whenever they need information, their first point of contact is always the public relations department. However, this approach depends on the good working relationships between public relations practitioners, their organizations, and journalists. Only one participant (1) was of the view that “journalist attitudes are bad because they get aggressive when they have deadlines for their articles,” stressing that “this is also not fair on them [PROs] because they also have tight schedules.” Another question posed to the public relations officers was regarding their working relationship with journalists. Most of the research participants indicated they had a good working relationship with journalists. Journalists are free always to contact them, and for good planning purposes, they do communicate with journalists when they have something they want to be covered. Most public relations officers indicated that they treated all journalists the same because they all have the same task: to inform the public without preference whether a journalist is from a private or state-owned newspaper. Only one public relations officer was of the view that “even though journalists are good at building relationships, the problem only arises with public relations officers as they lack understanding of the journalists’ duties” (Participant 2). Many of the participants were dissatisfied with the coverage of their ministries. A participant (3) indicated that “in most cases, journalists do not cover news about their ministries fairly, timely or accurately.” Another noted that “the information that journalist always chooses to cover regarding the ministry they represent is always not newsworthy” (Participant 4). However, they acknowledged that if wrong information regarding their

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ministries is communicated to the public, they always request the newspaper editor rectify the information through a press release. A majority of public relations officers made some recommendations that would assist in the creation of a good working relationship with journalists: journalists need to be open and upfront about their needs and intentions; journalists also need to know the PRO names and have their contact details at all times; journalist must also visit PROs regularly at their ministries to understand their working environment and news dynamics better; and journalists must further create avenues for engagement and prompt responses. Government–Media Relations in the Namibian Public Service: Perspective of Journalists A minority of journalists believed that the attitude of public relations officers toward journalists is good. Still, they note that it keeps improving as younger and educated PROs enter the field. However, the majority said that the attitude of PROs in Namibia toward journalists is poor. Participant 6 said that “PROs have a tendency of treating journalists like they are all not media practitioners.” Another noted that “most PROs are always not ready to answer questions regarding a story that involves their ministries” (Participant 7). The participant was angered by the fact that PROs of ministries are always pushing them to other people or requesting journalists to get answers from the ministries’ executive directors that they find difficult to access. They felt that PROs think journalists are doing them a favor by covering news about their ministries. They expect journalists to do their [PROs] jobs for them in the sense that sometimes PROs will give irrelevant information to journalists to publish and expect journalists to clean that information up and publish it. They also protested against access to PROs, noting that they have an open-door policy with PROs, but the reverse is the case when they try to reach out to the latter. They did acknowledge that it is imperative to have a good working relationship with PROs mostly because PROs are the mouthpiece of every organization and are better positioned to always provide them with the correct information. They also acknowledge that most PROs are good at building working relationships, but the only problem is the bureaucracies in their ministries and not knowing what information to give to the media. As a result, most PROs stay away from even building a relationship.

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All journalists said PROs serve as hindrances in the execution of their duties. Elaborating, Participant 7 said that “PROs mostly need to be pushed to give correct information.” Another accused some PROs of being “very dodgy” (Participant 8). Having to wait on clearance from executive directors is very frustrating and goes against the news value of timeliness. About half said that PROs are always not ready to respond to the queries of journalists. They only respond when it suits them, and at all times, the information they provide to journalists is never newsworthy, mostly press releases to present their ministries in a good light. In order to improve the communication between PROs and journalists, the following suggestions were made: PROs’ duties need to be clearly outlined so that they become the only contact with the media; journalists and PROs also need to attend training in order to understand what media relations entails; and engagement is required to determine how they can best meet each other halfway for the purpose of informing and educating the public.

Discussion From the study’s findings, Namibian journalists’ attitude toward PROs can be characterized as good because whenever they need information their first point of contact is always the public relations department, which requires a good working relationship with PROs. This is consistent with the views of Kaur and Shaari (2006), who posit that public relations has a vital and strategic role to play in building and enhancing ongoing or long-­ term relationships with an organization’s key constituencies, including the media public. It is also consistent with findings by Owanda (2010) regarding South African public relations practitioners who believe that the relationship between the public relations practitioners and the media is one of the most important responsibilities of a public relations practitioner. Pincus et al. (1993) also found that public relations practitioners who take the time to develop good media relations skills and who make the effort to build good relationships with journalists are more likely to achieve better results for their clients or organizations. Journalists’ reports of ill-treatment from PROs and consequent hostility are also reflected in the literature. Jeffers (1977) found that journalists viewed public relations practitioners as “obstructionists” who prevent journalists from obtaining the truth and journalists also considered themselves “superior” to public relations practitioners in status, ethical, and

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skills terms. According to Mutambo (2014), little credibility is accorded to public relations in the public sector as only a few government institutions allow their communication practitioners to attend management meetings. This strips this important function of the armor of information that they need to successfully defend their institutions or the firsthand information to discharge their functions in a manner that adds value to the organization. Comrie (2002) also reports similar results that journalists dismiss PR practitioners as spin doctors, media manipulators, corporate flunkies, flak catchers, and paid liars. The literature also reflects the Namibian PROs’ treatment of journalists in government and privately owned media and their sensitivity to their differing roles. Moehler and Singh (2009), for instance, found that, in general, the private media are more responsive to the public because they cannot rely on tax subsidies and government advertising; hence, they must generate revenue by being relevant or entertaining. For these reasons, the initial expectation is that trust in private media will exceed trust in public media. Scholars (Comrie, 2002; Pincus et al., 1993) are also in agreement with the acknowledgment by both journalists and PROs on the need for good working relations by noting that PROs who develop good media relations skills and who make the effort to build good relationships with journalists are more likely to achieve better results for their clients or organization.

Conclusion and Recommendations The aim of the study was to evaluate the tensions between public relations and journalism using the Namibian public service as a case study. The objectives of the study were mostly to explore the attitudes of public relations officers toward the media to see if there exist differences in the relationship between PROs and journalists from privately owned and state-owned media houses as well as to find out from journalists if PROs serve as hindrances in the execution of their duties. Most of the findings of this study reflect the extant literature. The study recommends that government at all levels in Namibia needs to establish a coordinating forum between the government and the leadership of the media. This forum can be used to straighten out any misunderstandings that may arise and be a means to kick-start a new culture of cooperation between journalists and public relations officers in Namibia as enunciated in the dialogic theory (Littlejohn et al., 2016).

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This study, while contributing to the literature on the tensions between public relations and journalism from a Namibian perspective, as well as offering a way to make for a smooth relationship, does have some limitations. Because it is a qualitative study, its results cannot be generalized to reflect Namibia’s relationships between journalists and public relations practitioners. Other scholars may, therefore, consider investigating tensions in other sectors other than the public service covered by this study. A survey whose results are generalizable would also be very helpful in uncovering how widespread the issues are as a step toward ensuring better working relationships between the two fields. The inroads of journalists into public relations and the deployment of social media are dynamics that can also be investigated to determine if these have affected the fraught relationships. Conflict of Interest  We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 5

China’s Public Diplomacy for Image Making in Islamic North Africa: Frames of the Belt and Road Initiative in Daily News Egypt Muhammad Khalil Khan , Cornelius B. Pratt , and Nadeem Akhtar

China uses public diplomacy networks on state-owned social and mainstream media to engage strategically its international publics; however, a limitation of that engagement is its “traditional one-way monologue” (Jia & Li, 2020). To the degree that “public diplomacy emphasizes the communication between a government and citizens of another country” (Khalitova et al., 2020, p. 2), this chapter investigates the patterns of public diplomacy as indicated in a privately owned Egyptian news medium vis-à-vis China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

M. K. Khan (*) Department of Journalism and Communication, School of Media and Law, NingboTech University, Ningbo, China Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_5

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Why Egypt in Islamic North Africa? Egypt evokes a central geopolitical interest among government policymakers primarily because it connects three key regions: Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean in President Xi Jinping’s key public diplomacy initiative—the BRI. China’s growing interest in North Africa encompasses the broader geoeconomics and geopolitical plan and is not limited to infrastructure development, financial cooperation, manufacturing, trade, tourism, ports, and shipping. It aims to strengthen North Africa as a bridge that links Africa, Asia, and Europe—that is, a major BRI goal that will have pervasive geoeconomic and geopolitical outcomes in BRI countries and around the world. Islamic North Africa offers a unique geostrategic and geoeconomic value to China’s BRI as it links Africa, Asia, and Europe. Particularly, Egypt has an integral role in the successful implementation of BRI in Africa as it connects the three key regions: Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean. Under BRI, China has upgraded its strategic relations with Egypt to the preeminent level of “comprehensive strategic partnership” to boost the mutual cooperation in the economy, defense, culture, and technology (Chaziza, 2016; Sun & Xu, 2022). The Egyptian government is interested in Chinese foreign capital to modernize domestic manufacturing industries and national infrastructure and boost the national economy, whereas China desires not only economic returns but also protection of its strategic interest in the region. However, the perception of China’s image in Egypt faces arduous challenges. China’s perceived positive image in Egypt declined from 57% in 2011 to 39% in 2013, whereas negative views of its image increased from 39% in 2011 to 54% in 2014 (Fig. 5.1). The Egyptian people have also been concerned about China’s massive investment and infrastructural engagements in Egypt and the latter’s favorability toward those projects declined to 38% in Egypt (Lekorwe et al., 2016). Yet, a majority (57%) of

C. B. Pratt Communication Psychology and Application Research Center, Northwest University of Politics and Law, Xi’an, China Department of Advertising and Public Relations, Lew Klein College of Media and Communication, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States e-mail: [email protected] N. Akhtar School of Urban Culture, South China Normal University, Foshan, China e-mail: [email protected]

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70 63

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65 59

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57 52

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50 Percentage

43 48

39

40 32

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2006

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30

42

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20 10 0

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2009

2010 2011 Time Frame

Positive Image

2012

Negative Image

Fig. 5.1  China’s comparative image perception in Egypt (2006–2014). Source: Pew Research Survey, 2006–2014

Egyptians still believed that Sino-Egyptian relations are “important” for Egypt (Pollock, 2021), even as there are challenges in and criticisms of China’s financial and strategic involvement in Egypt that can upend their bilateral relations and undermine China’s positive image in Egypt, in other parts of the Middle East, and in North Africa. It has been argued that China’s massive investment under BRI has increased Egypt’s hefty foreign debt and the country has begun to feel debt distress as its foreign debts rose to $137.85 billion in June 2020 (e.g., Elleithy, 2021; Hurley et  al., 2019). Egypt’s debt to China alone increased from $4.7 billion in 2017 to $7.5 billion in 2020. There is concern that China’s multibillion-dollar investment in infrastructural projects may lead to a debt trap that will compel Cairo to accede to Beijing’s political influence as investment projects tend to be used as collateral for government-­owned assets (Khan et al., 2018; Selim & Moaaz, 2021; Sun & Xu, 2022). The upsurge in Chinese imports into Egypt is weakening the local industry. The trade deficit between China and Egypt has sharply increased in recent years, engendering negative spillover effects on China’s

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image in Egypt and in the African region. The Egyptian economy recorded a $11.2 billion trade deficit with China in 2019, making China the major source of the trade deficit in the Egyptian economy. Analysts in Egypt believe that China’s colossal investment in the Suez Canal region has some worrisome strategic dimensions that could undermine Egyptian sovereign security concerns and regional stability in the future (Al-Khair, 2021). They argue that under economic disguise, China is seeking a support base in the Suez Canal region to manage Chinese naval units deployed in the Black Sea and connect its strewn bases in African countries (e.g., Somalia) (Al-Khair, 2021; Sun & Xu, 2022). Sino-­ Egyptian strategic and geopolitical interests may also collide on some regional issues in, for example, the Egyptian-Turkish conflict over Libya and the Eastern Mediterranean gas fields. Additionally, Egyptians also see China’s construction of the “Ethiopian Renaissance Dam” project as a threat to its water security and national interests (Selim & Moaaz, 2021). Sino-Egyptian bilateral relationships have been investigated (e.g., Bazanova et  al., 2018; Chaziza, 2016, 2021b; Selim & Moaaz, 2021); however, frames on China’s public diplomacy and image construction in the Egyptian news media have been largely ignored. Cast against that background, then, this chapter highlights the role of China’s government communication practitioners to enhance the country’s image through public diplomacy. It analyzes news content on BRI in the privately owned Daily News Egypt (hereinafter DNE) from January 1, 2016, to December 31, 2018, to identify frames on China’s image construction in the Egyptian news media. News media content has been shown to influence a nation’s international public opinion (Golan & Carroll, 2012). In essence, this chapter aims to answer the question: how does China’s BRI influence its (public) image construction politically, economically, socially, culturally, and technologically in an Egyptian news medium? This chapter also provides policy guidelines to enhance the country’s international communication system and offers a roadmap for how China can apply BRI projects as a platform for public diplomacy and image making in the Islamic North, particularly in Egypt.

China’s Public Diplomacy in Africa Public diplomacy is one of the most salient and debated issues in political and international communications (Snow & Cull, 2020). However, its definitions, tools, and methods remain fraught with confusion and

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ambiguity (Fitzpatrick, 2009). Studies in international relations (e.g., Melissen, 2013; Mor, 2006; Nye, 2004), on the one hand, describe public diplomacy as a tool for cultivating soft power; they, therefore, call for evaluating public diplomacy activities (Golan et  al., 2015; Pamment, 2014). Communication studies, on the other hand (e.g., Entman, 2008; Sheafer & Shenhav, 2009), analyze public diplomacy through media frames and call for using mass media (both new and traditional media tools) to build a country’s positive image and to “increase support of a country’s specific foreign policies among audiences beyond that country’s borders” (Entman, 2008, p. 88; Hartig, 2016). Historically, a nation uses public diplomacy as an image-building tool to expand its soft power in an effort to attract, engage, and win the hearts and the minds of a foreign public (Melissen, 2005; Nye, 2004). Put differently, public diplomacy is “[a] government’s process of communicating with foreign publics in an attempt to bring about understanding for its nation’s ideas and ideals, its institutions and culture, as well as its national goals and current policies” (Tuch, 1990, p. 3). China is no exception; it channels resources toward fortifying its public diplomacy (Rawnsley, 2012). In recent years, China invested billions of dollars in public diplomacy initiatives (e.g., financial diplomacy, infrastructural diplomacy, humanitarian diplomacy, and COVID-19-related diplomacy in BRI countries). It also extended its global media industry to boost China’s international image and to establish a Chinese global media imprint around the world. Particularly, China has established international broadcast outlets (e.g., Xinhua News, People’s Daily, China Daily, Global Television Network [CGTN], China Radio International [CRI]) in Africa, and purchased the ownership/shares in international media (e.g., in South Africa, Taiwan, Czech Republic, and Portugal) to fortify its soft power and build a peaceful national image around the globe (Cook, 2021; Thussu et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2016). Studies conclude that Africa has become a vital part of China’s public diplomacy and foreign policy initiatives that provide China a space for experimenting with innovative practices and initiatives to improve its global image (Benabdallah, 2018; Madrid-Morales, 2017; Wu, 2016). For example, China opened its first international media center in Nairobi, Kenya; it dispatched the first U.N. combat peacekeeping mission to Sudan and built its first overseas military base in Djibouti. China’s engagement in Africa has taken a new turn, particularly since Xi Jinping, the country’s President, paid his first official visit to Africa (South Africa, the Republic

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of Congo, and Tanzania) alongside Russia, thereby pivoting the relevance of that continent toward China’s foreign policy. The raison d’être for China’s strategic engagements in Africa may not only be for expanding trade, but also for searching for global political legitimacy, and for engaging with friendly governments to cultivate new relationships that “transcend the somewhat confrontational, not necessarily belligerent, nature of China’s relations with other parts of the world” (Madrid-Morales, 2017, p. 136). It is plausible that China views Africa as a proving ground of sorts for its new diplomatic endeavors such as the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) and BRI by which it aims to improve its global soft power through major investments in infrastructure, mining, and service sectors, and in the media industry (e.g., CCTV-Africa, Chinafrica magazine, China Daily, People’s Daily, CRI, Xinhua) (Madrid-Morales, 2017; Wu, 2016). However, China’s media engagement in Africa received cynical responses from Western powers, which assailed China for providing technology and expertise to autocratic African governments to curb dissenting voices and censor the freedom of expression in the African continent (Wu, 2016). Even though China instituted relations with Africa in the early 1950s, the synergy in those relations blossomed only when China built local partnerships in Africa’s natural resources industry (e.g., oil and gas in Angola, Gabon, Nigeria, and Sudan) and kicked off cross-regional diplomacy to mend its international relations in the aftermath of the Tiananmen Square incident (Fijałkowski, 2011; Taylor, 2009). In 1996, former Chinese President Jiang Zemin proposed a five-point proposal based on sovereignty, non-interference, mutual benefits, mutual development, and international collaboration as a principal policy to strengthen relations with African countries. Since then, Africa has become a major recipient of Chinese investment (Fijałkowski, 2011). According to AidData (2022), from 2000 through 2017, China financed 6313 development projects in 47 African countries. Most of those financial programs were offered in the form of grants (N  =  3335), followed by loans (N = 1322), free training (N = 697), scholarships (N = 294), and the like. Muslim countries in Africa received the lion’s share, as 17 Muslim countries received a total of 1 442 developing projects, among them were 820 grants, 291 loans, 143 free training, and 143 scholarship programs (Table 5.1). China has also established 42 Confucius Institutes (C.I.s) in 42 African countries. Among them, 16 C.I.s were opened in the Islamic countries in Africa to promote the Chinese language, culture, and indeed

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Table 5.1  China’s development engagement in the Islamic countries in Africa from 2000–2017 Sr.

Islamic African countries

1. Algeria 2. Burkina Faso 3. Chad 4. Djibouti 5. Egypt 6. Gambia 7. Guinea 8. Libya 9. Mali 10. Mauritania 11. Morocco 12. Niger 13. Nigeria 14. Senegal 15. Somalia 16. Sudan 17. Tunisia Total

Muslim C.I.s Projects Grants Loans Free Scholarships Misc. population training (Millions) 45.4 12.1

0 1

40 0

18 0

7 0

11 0

2 0

2 0

9.2 0.8 87.5 2.0 10.5 6.6 17.5 3.8 37.9 21.1 99.0 15.1 11.0 39.6 11.2 430.3

1 0 2 1 1 0 1 1 3 0 2 1 0 1 1 16

96 96 71 16 101 7 149 95 59 115 104 83 50 285 75 1442

57 59 46 8 66 4 84 42 35 87 42 47 41 142 42 820

15 16 19 3 12 1 29 40 9 10 27 21 0 67 15 291

11 12 2 2 15 1 16 2 8 11 6 8 0 22 16 143

8 2 1 2 0 0 6 8 2 0 5 1 3 13 0 53

5 7 3 1 8 1 14 7 5 7 24 6 6 41 3 140

Sources: AidData, 2022; worldpopulationreview.com

its soft image in Africa. Chinese scholars (Wang et al., 2021) argue that C.I.s contribute largely to the understanding of Chinese culture and language abroad. They facilitate cultural exchanges and people-to-people contacts, attracting support for China’s BRI. However, Western researchers (e.g., Schrader, 2019; Joske, 2019 in Jakhar, 2019, p. 1) believe that China uses C.I.s to build a great sphere of influence around the world and as “propaganda tools” that “propagate state-approved narrative,” and that it is “fundamentally hostile to liberal ideas like free speech and free inquiry” (in Jakhar, 2019, p. 1). Schrader (2019) even alleged that China was using C.I.s for “inappropriate covert activities like intelligence gathering, and facilitating military research.” China denies categorically those allegations and insists that C.I.s are “a bridge reinforcing friendship” through promoting the Chinese language, culture, and academic exchange with the world (in Jakhar, 2019, p. 1).

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Belt and Road Initiative in Islamic North Africa In 2013, China’s President Xi launched the world’s largest development and infrastructure program—the BRI with an initial investment of $8 trillion to connect China with Asia, Africa, and Europe through land and sea routes (Alves & Lee, 2022; Khan et al., 2018; Khan & Pratt, 2019). It aims to develop much-needed infrastructural, economic, and energy corridors between China and the rest of the world (e.g., connecting Asia, Europe, and Africa) to facilitate free trade, economic and financial integration, systematic policy coordination, people-to-people contact, and to strengthen China’s regional and global connectivity. BRI is an ambitious initiative that is reshaping China’s diplomatic and economic strategy while increasing its investment to enhance its soft power across the world, particularly in South Asia, Central Asia, and Africa (Halsall et al., 2022; Khan et al., 2018). It is further argued that “the principle of wide consultation, joint contribution, and shared benefits” in BRI projects will foster China’s trust among the participant countries as it guarantees “state sovereignty, political choice, shared economic interest and mutual benefits” (Khan & Pratt, 2019, p. 121). Some 153 sovereign countries have joined the BRI and signed memoranda of understanding with the Chinese government through March 1, 2022. However, the majority of the participating countries (48) are in the Islamic world and are in Africa (54 countries), thereby reemphasizing the importance of the Islamic world and of Africa to BRI projects (Table 5.2). In recent years, China’s economic engagement in Africa has been fast-­ tracked as it became more active in the BRI program. The recent upsurge in economic activities is also evident from the increase in the annual flow of Chinese foreign direct investment (FDI) to Africa—from $74.8 million in 2003 to $5.4 billion in 2018. Chinese FDI stock has increased up to 100% during a 17-year period—from $490 million in 2003 to $43.4 billion in 2020, making China Africa’s largest investor, ahead of the United States since 2010 (Fu, 2021; Oluwole, 2022). Under BRI, President Xi proposed a four-point plan for Africa during the 8th ministerial conference of the FOCAC in Beijing on November 29, 2021: (a) fight COVID-19 with solidarity, (b) deepen practical cooperation, (c) promote green development, and (d) uphold equity and justice in Africa to strengthen the strategic relationship and to build a community of shared future driven by BRI.  He also pledged multibillion-dollar

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Table 5.2  Geographical distribution of Muslim and non-Muslim countries associated with the Belt and Road Initiative Geographical regions

Majority Muslim countries (N = 48)

East Asia & Pacific (N = 25)

Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia,

Majority non-Muslim countries (N = 105)

Cambodia, China, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, South Korea, Lao PDR, Micronesia, Mongolia, Myanmar, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Vanuatu, Vietnam Central Asia & Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Europe Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Georgia, (N = 35) Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Luxembourg, Moldova, Montenegro, North Kyrgyz Republic, Macedonia, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Turkmenistan Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Ukraine Middle East Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Israel, Malta and North Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Africa Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, (N = 20) Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Palestine South Asia Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri-Lanka (N = 7) Pakistan, Maldives Sub-Saharan Djibouti, Mauritania, Central Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Africa Somalia, Sudan, Niger, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burundi, Cabo (N = 47) Nigeria, Mali, Senegal, Verde, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Sierra Leone, Chad, the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte Burkina Faso, Guinea, d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Gambia, Comoros Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Africa, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sao Tome & Principe, Malawi Latin America None Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bolivia, & Caribbean Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, (N = 19) Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela Source: https://www.yidaiyilu.gov.cn, March 1, 2022

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investments in 54 African countries under the first three-year plan of the “China-Africa Cooperation Vision 2035.” It includes the following: • one billion doses of COVID-19 vaccines; • 10 poverty-reduction and agricultural-improvement projects; • $300 billion in imports from Africa; • $10 billion in support for African exports; • China-Africa industrial park for Belt and Road cooperation; • $10 billion for businesses investment; • 10 industrialization- and employment-promotion projects; • $10 billion credit facilities to African financial institutions; • 10 digital-economy innovation projects; • 10 green development, environmental protection, and climate action projects; and • 10 peace and security programs along with capacity building, cultural and people-to-people exchange programs to consolidate the China-Africa strategic relationships (Xi, 2021). To fulfill those objectives, the Export-Import Bank of China (EXIM) pledged $1trillion to Africa for the next decade (Guerraoui, 2016). Therefore, BRI projects can facilitate China’s public diplomacy in Africa and burnish further its positive image and soft power across the world, particularly on the African continent. China is also expanding and deepening its strategic relations with Islamic North Africa (comprising six countries; namely, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia) because of their strategic geographical location among BRI countries. The Islamic North has a crucial role in the Maritime Silk Road Initiative, which links China to Europe via the Suez Canal (Egypt) and the Mediterranean Sea. It provides China’s trade and maritime connectivity across the Maghreb, Mediterranean, and Sahara regions (Chaziza, 2018, 2020). Therefore, China has established a strategic partnership with Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia under the BRI and started huge investments in ports and infrastructure across Islamic North Africa. According to the China Global Investment Tracker (2022), China has invested about $32.01 billion in Islamic North Africa, from 2005 through 2019 (Table 5.3). From 2005 through 2020, Algeria received a Chinese investment of $23.85 billion in the energy, transportation, and real-estate sectors (Calabrese, 2021), followed by a hefty investment in Egypt. Recently, China pledged $50 billion in

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Table 5.3  China’s investment in Islamic North Africa Sr.

Islamic North Africa

Chinese investment (2005–2019)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Mauritian Tunisia Total

$22.3b $5.99b $2.60b $2.30b $1.01b $0.11b $32.01b

Source: China Global Investment Tracker (2022)

investment in Egypt’s new, unnamed capital and in the Suez Canal cooperation zone; $3.3 billion in Algeria’s Mediterranean central port of El Hamdania; and also signed a strategic partnership agreement with Libya, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia under the auspices of BRI (Chaziza, 2020, 2021a; Khan et al., 2022; Li, 2020). China’s growing stature in Islamic North Africa is likely to have implications for the entire African continent and beyond. And if China’s BRI strategy succeeds, it could shift the power alliance with, and destiny of, African nations (Capri, 2017).

China’s Image in Islamic North Africa In globalized and mediated societies, a country’s “favorable image and reputation around the world […] have become more important than territory, access, and raw materials” (Gilboa, 2008, p.  56). Consequently, nations have devoted more effort toward projecting a country’s soft image, soft esteem, and soft power to create a more stable, strong, and reputable country’s image in the global competitive environment (Kunczik, 2003; Melissen, 2005; Nye, 2004; Price, 2003; Werron, 2014). China has become one of the leading actors in international politics. However, the “major issue” and “strategic threat” to China’s dream of becoming a new global power is its image abroad (Hayden, 2012; Ramo, 2007). Even though China has committed, in recent years, significant resources to strengthening its favorable image among foreign publics, the international media have been skeptical of its new role in the world order, and have been critical of its expansionism abroad, its alleged violation of human rights, its suppression of the freedom to worship, and its

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abridgment of the freedom of expression (Armony, 2012; Ezell, 2021; Hayden, 2012; Kurlantzick, 2007). Therefore, President Xi asserts the need to strengthen China’s international communication “to tell China’s story well” and to “increase China’s soft power, give a good Chinese narrative, and better communicate China’s message to the world” (Xi, 2014, p. 1). China’s strategic engagement and extensive investment through BRI in Africa have engendered its favorable image in Africa. A recent public opinion survey by the Washington Institute indicates that 57% of Egyptians considered Sino-Egypt relations as “important” for Egypt. However, 58% disagree to count on China and Russia at the expense of US-Egypt relations (Pollock, 2021). A public perception survey conducted by Afrobarometer (2016)—a pan-African research institution in 36 African countries—indicates that African nations have a relatively positive perception of China’s economic and political engagement on the continent. An average of 63% of respondents believe that China’s investment in infrastructure and business development in African countries are making positive impacts on Africa (Fig. 5.1). However, the positive sentiments did not prevail across Africa. There are a few African countries where the positive attitude is less than 50% of the total responses: Algeria (33%), Egypt (38%), Ghana (34%), Lesotho (48%), Madagascar (44%), Morocco (35%), and Zimbabwe (48%). It is pertinent to note that Islamic North African nations have shown low favorability toward China’s economic and infrastructural engagement: Algeria (33%), Egypt (38%), and Morocco (35%) (Lekorwe et al., 2016). Pew Research survey also indicates that China’s positive image has declined in Egypt and negative image perception has increased from 2006 to 2014. There was a sharp decline in China’s positive image perception from 57% in 2011 to 39% in 2013 and an upsurge in negative image perception from 39% in 2011 to 54% in 2014 in Egypt (Fig. 5.2). This might be the result of China’s passive “wait and see policy” toward the Arab spring and its initial displeasure with Egypt’s Revolution Day on January 25, 2011. Kandil (2012) argues that China initially supported ex-­President Mubarak who faced a “democratic storm” during the Egyptian revolution and openly disparaged U.S. demand for Mubarak’s resignation in 2011. However, the public diplomacy grounded in the benevolent BRI projects is reshaping the Egyptian people’s perception of China.

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Fig. 5.2  China’s positive image perception in African countries. Source: Lekorwe et al. (2016); and afrobarometer.org

China-Egypt Relations and BRI Egypt is among the world’s oldest civilizations and the earliest in North Africa. It is the most populous Arab country and the second-largest economy in Africa (Chaziza, 2016; Shapshak, 2016). Because of its strong military and economic status, it enjoys strong influence in the regional courtiers and is considered an influential regional power in North Africa, the Middle East, and the Islamic world (Chaziza, 2016; Zhu, 2011). Egypt is considered a key regional player that has a visible and impactful role as a “diplomatic mediator” and a “peace contributor” in the Middle East (Alterman, 2016). Egypt is also a founding and an active member of organizations such as the United Nations, the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the African Union. Egypt was among the first to develop a diplomatic relationship with China in 1956 and paved the way for China to establish its relationship with other regional Arab countries (Elmagherbi, 2010). However, China’s relations with Egypt became strained when Egyptian President Sadat left

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the Soviet bloc, signed the Camp David Accords with the United States and Israel, and became a major U.S. ally on September 17, 1978 (Sun & Xu, 2022). Sino-Egyptian relations normalized again when Mubarak became Egyptian President in 1981 and thereafter visited China in 1983 to mend the strained relationships (Chaziza, 2021b). In the aftermath of the Tiananmen Square incidents of June 1989, the United States and other Western countries imposed strict economic sanctions on, and international blockade against, China. In September that year, President Mubarak invited Chinese Foreign Minister Qianchen to Egypt to assuage China’s international isolation. However, Zhu (2011) noted that the Egyptian government parlayed the saber-rattling over Taiwan as a Chinese outpost vs. its sovereign status into gaining economic incentives from China, and broached the idea of establishing an office in Taiwan. Thereafter, Sino-Egyptian bilateral relationship advanced to a new level of comprehensive strategic partnership under the BRI framework, particularly when Egyptian President Sisi visited China and signed a memorandum of understanding with the Chinese government in 2014. Since then, the strategic relationship between the two countries improved and President Xi made a historic visit to Egypt in 2016. During the visit, China signed multibillion dollar infrastructure projects (including construction projects, energy projects, and transportation projects) with the Egyptian government (Dahshan, 2021) and pledged more than $50 billion in investment in Egypt’s new capital and the Suez Canal cooperation zone under the BRI framework (Kliman & Grace, 2018). The trade volume (both import and export) between the two countries peaked in 2015 at $14.0 billion; however, it fell to $12.1 billion in 2016 (U.N. Comtrade, 2018). China’s growing investment in Egypt indicates that China attributes great significance to the Sino-Egyptian strategic partnership as it contributes 35% of China’s trade with North Africa. However, Dahshan (2021) argues that “[d]espite huge economic cooperation and unrestrained reciprocal praise, Egypt and China’s relationship is more complex and unilateral than either would admit” (p. 1). There is concern that the rapid flow of Chinese investments in Egypt under the BRI framework might increase the risk of debt distress in the future (Selim & Moaaz, 2021). Another growing challenge is the mounting trade deficit between China and Egypt that may amplify negative accounts of, and perceptions of, China’s growing economic engagement in Egypt. For example, in 2019, China imported $1 billion in products from Egypt while the export to Egypt

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increased to $12.2 billlion, making China the largest source of trade deficit for the Egyptian economy (Sun & Xu, 2022). It is against the preceding background that we now turn our attention to the theoretical underpinnings of this study.

Framing Theory Framing theory provides a broader understanding of a country’s image in a mediated, globalized world. Therefore, researchers often apply framing theory to measure and analyze foreign countries’ image in news media (Armony, 2012; Han & Wang, 2014; Li & Chitty, 2009; Saleem, 2007; Schatz & Levine, 2010). It has been argued that media content examined through framing enhances our understanding of an issue by conceptualizing and reorienting our thinking in a particular direction (Chong & Druckman, 2007). Goffman’s (1974) seminal work argues that frames help audiences understand events by organizing collective experiences that guide individual behavior. He termed frames as “schemas”—that is, cognitive structures that construct reality and structure individual understanding of how the world functions (Kaufman et al., 2003; Sweetser & Fauconnier, 1996). Framing establishes meanings for events; therefore, frames are a strategic tool for generating the desired level of public support for institutional policies (Callaghan & Schnell, 2005; Druckman & Nelson, 2003). Certain issues have multiple perspectives that can be unpacked by assessing their various implications for values considerations for people and for reorienting audiences’ thinking about an issue (Chong & Druckman, 2007). Therefore, this study uses framing theory to analyze China’s image construction, interpretation, and dissemination in the Egyptian news media.

Method Longitudinal content analysis was used to measure and assess China’s image in the reportage of DNE from January 1, 2016, through December 31, 2018. This study used a two-level sampling technique. First, we used a keyword “China” in the Nexis Uni search engine and extracted a complete set of 1859 articles related to China in the DNE for this three-year study. Second, a stratified random sampling technique was used to select 300 articles (a single year was used as a stratum to select 100 articles per year) for human coding. Measures were as follows: political image,

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economic image, cultural image, social image, and high-tech/technological image (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). The entire newspaper article was the unit of analysis. The raison d’etre for the study period and selection of the DNE are threefold. First, the study period coincides with President Xi’s historic state visit to Egypt in January 2016—on the 60th anniversary of diplomatic relations between China and Egypt. During that visit, both countries signed 21 multibillion-dollar agreements related to economic and infrastructural development under the BRI framework that kicked off a new era of the political and economic relationship between the two nations and further consolidated the existing comprehensive strategic partnership between China and Egypt (Noueihed & Abdelaty, 2016). Second, in 2016, President Sisi launched a national reforms program for a wide range of economic transformations and China infused $16–$18 billion into the Egyptian national economy in investments, loans, and development projects (e.g., infrastructure, energy, and telecommunication) such as the development of the Suez Canal Economic Zone, a rail transit system for new Egyptian capital and Benban solar energy park that make Egypt a strategic partner in BRI (TIMEP, 2019). Finally, the selection of DNE was guided by its being the “only independent” English daily newspaper in Egypt that provided “unbiased and forthright” news and analyses to its audiences. The newspaper, which was banned in 2012 and 2017 because of its independent editorial policy, is considered free from government censorship (Khazbak, 2012). It is well regarded among the Egyptian elite, government officials, young adults, corporate entities, and the influential business community in Egypt. It is distributed in Egypt as a section of the world’s leading English daily, the International Herald Tribune (Daily News Egypt, 2018). Measures China’s Image We used the tracing approach (e.g., Armony, 2012; Fong & Chia, 2017; Liu & Yang, 2015) to measure China’s image through the implicit or explicit connotation, tone, and expression related to China in the DNE’s articles. The overall tone of the newspaper article was classified into three categories—positive, negative, and neutral—to determine China’s overall image in Egypt. The article was coded “positive,” if the author expresses

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favorable views toward China, and coded “negative,” if the author expresses unfavorable views toward China. The article was coded “neutral” when the author’s views are neither positive nor negative toward China.  hina’s Image Dimensions C Countries enjoy a polygonal relationship with other states and the media tried to cover every aspect of the bilateral relationship between the countries. Therefore, a country’s image is multifaceted, encompassing various dimensions (e.g., political, economic, cultural, social, high-tech/technological). We found five dimensions of China’s image in the Egyptian news media (i.e., political, economic, cultural, social, and technological). Those specific dimensions were also measured in three categories, that is, positive, negative, and neutral. Political Image China’s political image was measured in three categories: (a) political and diplomatic relations, (b) defense and security, and (c) global values (e.g., human rights, freedom of speech, freedom of religion). Economic Image China’s economic image was measured in six categories: (a) business, trade, and investment; (b) economic growth; (c) infrastructure development; (d) natural resources; (e) economic policies and reforms; and (f) economic aid and loans. Cultural Image China’s cultural image was measured in eight categories: (a) sport; (b) tourism, history, and artifacts; (c) media and entertainment; (d) fine art; (e) ethnicity; (f) education; (g) Chinese language; and (h) Chinese cuisines. Social Image China’s economic image was measured through six categories: (a) health; (b) welfare; (c) corruption; (d) natural disasters; (e) crime; and (f) gender gap. Technological/High-tech Image China’s technological image was measured through a single category: science and technology, which includes China’s scientific and technological

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innovation and developments, such as a breakthrough in space technology, nuclear technology, artificial intelligence, military hardware and software, engineering breakthrough (e.g., high-speed rails, bridges, tunnels, etc.) and scientific contributions.

Results Results indicated significant attention by DNE to the coverage of China-­ related news in Egypt. The extent of media attention reached 1859 articles related to China from January 1, 2016, through December 31, 2018. DNE published 648 news articles on China in 2016, 555 in 2017, and 656 in 2018. The content analysis of the newspaper’s news articles indicates that it often uses a positive tone to cover China-related news. The majority of the news articles were positive (n  =  155, 52%); however, a substantial number of news articles (n = 97, 32%) also reported negatively China-related news. It is pertinent to note that news initiated by foreign sources (e.g., foreign journalists and news agencies like Deutsche Welle, and Reuters) portrayed China’s image more negatively than the local journalist who often used a positive and neutral tone to cover China-related news in Egypt. Results indicate that among 97 negative news articles related to China, 63 (64%) were reported by foreign journalists or foreign news agencies. A total of 48 news articles (16%) were reported as neutral in this study (Table 5.4). During a three-year period, this study identified five dimensions of China’s image (i.e., political, economic, social, cultural, and technological/high-tech) in the news coverage of DNE. Most of the news coverage was related to the political dimension as the study identified 124 articles (41.3%) related to China’s political image construction in DNE. The economic dimension had 105 articles (35%), followed by cultural image (25 Table 5.4  China-related news coverage in Daily News Egypt from January 1, 2016 through December 31, 2018 Valence of article Years

Positive (N = 155)

Neutral (N = 48)

Negative (N = 97)

2016 2017 2018

47 (30.3%) 44 (28.4%) 64 (41.3%)

20 (41.7%) 14 (29.2%) 14 (29.2%)

33 (34.0%) 42 (43.3%) 22 (22.7%)

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articles, 8.3%), social image (18 articles, 6%), and technological image (3 articles, 1%). A total of 25 articles (8.3%) were assigned to the miscellaneous category because they did not fall into any of the previous categories (Table 5.5). The study found an incontestable coverage of China’s technological/ high-tech image in the DNE, compared with the coverage of other image dimensions. All articles related to China’s technological image were positively presented (n  =  3, 100%). However, it received the least attention intensity (3 articles) during the study period. China’s cultural image received the second-most positive coverage as a total of 17 articles (68.0%) were positively reported. A few articles related to China’s cultural image were reported negatively (n = 4, 16%) and neutral (n = 4, 16%) (Table 5.5). China’s economic image also received positive attention (n  =  62, 59.0%), as China has pledged and invested copious funds in trade, businesses, and infrastructure in Egypt in recent years. However, a significant number of articles (n = 26, 24.8%) negatively presented China’s economic image. A total of 17 articles (16.2%) were neutral (Table 5.5). The study indicates that the majority of the discourses related to China’s political image were reported positively (n = 54, 43.5%), although a significant number of articles (n = 49, 39.5%) showed a negative tone, for example, toward China’s diplomatic engagement with North Korea, China’s military expansion, freedom of speech, and human right violations. This study also found that 21 articles (16.9%) in the political dimension were neutral. China’s social image received the least positive coverage (n = 7, 38.9%) and the most negative coverage (n = 10, 55.6%) because of corruption, gender discrimination, and health-related stories (Table 5.5). Table 5.5  China’s image dimension in Daily News Egypt from January 1, 2016 through December 31, 2018 China’s image dimensions

Valence of article  Positive (N = 155) Neutral (N = 48) Negative (N = 97)

Political (N = 124, 41.3%) Economic (N = 105, 35.0%) Cultural (N = 25, 8.3%) Social (N = 18, 6.0%) Hi-Tech (N = 3, 1.0%) Misc. (N = 25, 8.3%)

54 (43.5%) 62 (59.0%) 17 (68.0%) 7 (38.9%) 3 (100%) 12 (48.0%)

21 (16.9%) 17 (16.2%) 4 (16.0%) 1 (5.6%) 0 (0.0%) 5 (20.0%)

49 (39.5%) 26 (24.8%) 4 (16.0%) 10 (55.6%) 0 (0.0%) 8 (32.0%)

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Discussion Since the establishment of FOCAC in 2000, Beijing has intensified its strategic partnership with African countries and adopted multidimensional strategies of public diplomacy (e.g., financial diplomacy, humanitarian diplomacy, infrastructural diplomacy, mask diplomacy) to enhance China’s positive image and to strengthen its national interests on the African continent. Under the auspices of BRI, China has invested substantial capital in Africa’s infrastructure development (e.g., energy, minerals, transport, rail, roads, and seaports) and increased its financial support (in aids and grants) and humanitarian assistance (e.g., masks and COVID vaccines) to African countries in recent years. Researchers (e.g., Lekorwe et al., 2016) argue that the majority of Africans view positively China’s growing economic engagement and infrastructure development in Africa. China’s economic relations with Africa have engendered positive perceptions of China in Africa. Particularly, the social infrastructure projects (such as schools and hospitals) have been warmly welcomed by the underprivileged population in Africa (Xu & Zhang, 2020). Other studies (e.g., Bluhm et al., 2018; Maruta et al., 2020) also indicate that Chinese economic infrastructure projects (e.g., electricity grid, dams, roads, railways, and ports) and pro-poor social infrastructure aid (e.g., health and education and transportation) had a positive spillover effect in the BRI countries. In recent years, China’s economic and social partnerships in Islamic North Africa were manifold. But Egypt has become the hub of Chinese investment in the region. Therefore, the Egyptian media have given significant attention to China-related news coverage. The analysis of Egyptian news media (e.g., DNE) indicates that the volume of media attention on China has increased because of China’s intensive economic engagement and political interest in the region, particularly in Egypt in recent years (Table 5.4). In the BRI context, China and Egypt had signed a “comprehensive strategic partnership” framework to strengthen mutual cooperation in defense, economy, culture, and technology during President Sisi’s state visit to Beijing in 2014 (Sun & Xu, 2022). China has aligned BRI with the Egyptian national development strategy “Egypt Vision 2030” which accentuates the positive synergy in cooperation between China and Egypt (Soliman & Zhao, 2019). The positivity in bilateral relations is presented in DNE’s positive deposition toward both China and its BRI. This study found that the majority of the news articles related to China were positive (n = 155, 52%) and neutral (n = 48, 16%). Although there was

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significant negative news coverage related to China in DNE, it had been argued that the relationship between the two countries significantly influences media coverage (Lu, 2016). Positive vibes in relations may lead to positive media coverage, and, conversely, unhealthy relations may lead to negative media coverage. Therefore, the healthy relations between China and Egypt under the BRI framework will lead to more positive and neutral coverage in news articles related to China in DNE. China’s rising global stature and political engagement in Egypt and Africa and with the rest of the world as a whole received the highest attention in DNE. The majority of the discourses on China’s political image were presented positively; they included China’s diplomatic engagement, security, and peace collaboration within Egypt, Africa, and the rest of the world. However, a significant number of news regarding China’s domestic politics, China’s military expansion, alleged human rights violations in Xinjiang, an abridgment of the freedom of expression, gender discrimination, and democratic values in mainland China were negatively reported (Armony, 2012; Deutsche Welle, 2018a, b; Hayden, 2012; Kurlantzick, 2007). To the degree that the news media can amplify negative accounts of bilateral relationships, it is important that the sources of such negative reports be ascertained. In the present study, the majority of those negative news reports were initiated or based on the Western news agencies and human rights commissions or by Western countries. For example, DNE published a news report under the headline “U.S. accuses China of putting over 1 million minority Muslims in ‘concentration camps’” was mainly based on Western sources (e.g., reports from the U.S. Department of Defense, the European Union Human Rights Commission, and from interviews with Reuters) that accuse China of serious human rights violations in Xinjiang (Daily News Egypt, 2019). Similarly, DNE published a news story initiated by Deutsche Welle that described, on May 19, 2018, China’s military activities in the South China Sea as “China’s maritime aggression” (Deutsche Welle, 2018a). These results suggest that China’s national image may receive favorable coverage from the domestic news media/reporter in BRI countries and that news contributed by foreign news agencies/sources project negative accounts of China’s image to a friendly country. China’s economic image attracts the second-highest news coverage in DNE. The majority of the news related to China’s economic image was positively reported under the comprehensive strategic partnership between China and Egypt (Table 5.5). The news report suggests that the Egyptian

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government has shown its desire to boost its relationship with China to lure Chinese investment under the BRI framework, thereby contributing to the positive coverage of China-related news in DNE (Morgan, 2019; Salah, 2017; Xu & Zhang, 2020) under the BRI framework through which “China’s growth has brought great opportunities to trading partners all over the world” (Deutsche Welle, 2018b; Omran, 2018). Although positivity largely prevails in the news related to China’s economic image in the DNE, significant negative reporting also surfaced on issues such as trade deficit, low-quality projects, an abundance of Chinese products on the Egyptian market, debt trap, and financial transparency (e.g., Selim & Moaaz, 2021; Sun & Xu, 2022). For example, a news report suggested that China possesses a $7.7 trillion (7.06 trillion euros) shadow banking sector that poses a threat to global financial stability (Deutsche Welle, 2017). China’s cultural image also received positive coverage, particularly in sports, media and entertainment, fine art, education, Chinese cuisines, and language. Few negative news reports also were indicated in the tourism and ethnicity categories. China’s social image was also projected positively, particularly, the Chinese government’s efforts in eradicating poverty in rural areas, whereas crime, gender discrimination, and corruption in China were reported negatively. China’s high-tech/technological image received the least attention in the news coverage; however, China’s technological image received the most positive coverage in DNE. It was presented as an “innovation hub,” a “high-tech industry,” and was praised for “support innovative solutions,” “high-speed railway,” and developing new communication technologies such as “4G” and “5G” (El-Din, 2017; Schwan, 2021). In recent years, China’s technological advancement has attracted global media attention and has contributed positively to China’s global stature and positive image (Eichenauer et  al., 2018; Kornphanat, 2016; Shambaugh, 2015). Beyond Egypt, Chinese contributions to the development of new technologies and innovation have earned it a positive image such as “fascinating China” and “innovative China” around the world (Xiang, 2013). Such results have three major implications for Egypt’s public information programs that seek to establish the forms of international image the Chinese seek on the continent. First, they could fuel discussions among the principals of such programs about strategies for disseminating messages on government positions that accommodate—and express—more effectively the nation’s Islamic sensibilities.

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Second, they can provide opportunities to normalize Egypt’s historic penchant for free speech, while not enabling the powers that be to engage in government overreach. Third, they provide an opportunity for engaging in civic discourse that abhors falsehoods that can subvert civil society. The point here is that Egypt’s public information officers have an opportunity to establish an active (not a reactive) information culture that rejects the excessive regulation of free speech while protecting and projecting key tenets of Egypt as an Islamic republic.

Limitations and Future Research The study provides data on China’s image construction in an Egyptian news medium in the context of BRI. However, has limitations. First, the study analyzed China’s image in a single English-language newspaper. Therefore, it limits the generalizability of its results. It is recommended that additional news sources (both English and Arabic news media) and a comparative study of English and Arabic news media should be done to analyze the broader picture of China’s image construction in Egypt. Second, this study analyzes China’s image frames during a three-year period. To better understand China’s image construction in Egypt, we recommend an extended longitudinal study of, say, five to ten  years. Finally, China’s image study in Egypt should be supplemented with survey research to assess public opinion on China and on the Chinese in Egypt. Conclusion and a Way Forward Undoubtedly, BRI has improved China’s national image in Egypt and Islamic North Africa. However, the negative sentiments do exit on the issues related to the trade deficit, debt distress, regional strategic interests, and mistreatment of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang. Those negative sentiments can trigger undesirable impacts on China’s image and bilateral relationship under the BRI. Therefore, China needs to engage in the following: 1. Examine the growing trade deficit between the two countries. Currently, China’s imports from Egypt amount to $1 billion, whereas export stands at $12.2 billion. China can import cotton textiles, ­readymade clothes, citrus fruits, rice, vegetables, and petrochemical product from Egypt to bridge the trade deficit gap. It can

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also relocate its manufacturing units through local joint ventures to facilitate the Egyptian export and can also mitigate the issue of the abundance of Chinese products on the Egyptian market. This will help China earn local industry support and also boost its positive image in Egypt. 2. Focus more on social investment (e.g., transport, schools, hospital, and roads) in underprivileged areas and should not ponder money on government overly ambitious projects (e.g., a new Egyptian capital) that might increase the risk of debt distress under the BRI in Egypt. 3. Have more transparent investments in curtailing conflicts in the region. For example, China’s investment in the Ethiopian “Renaissance Dam” project and the Egyptian Suez Canal both can engender negative perceptions in the region. 4. Increase Chinese media presence and people-to-people diplomacy in the Islamic world to manage China’s negative perceptions in responding to alleged concerns among Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang. The possible scenario can be a mutual exchange of religious scholars, journalists, and academics between China and the Islamic world that can bridge the long-growing misunderstanding of mistreating Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang. The reality is that the Uyghur Muslim issue magnifies negative reports on China and compromises China’s positive image in Egypt, in the MENA region, and in the Islamic world generally. Conflict of Interest  We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 6

Public Relations Evaluation in Ghana: Are We There Yet? Albert A. Anani-Bossman

and Derek Onomah

The debate on the contributions of public relations to organizational success has been discussed by practitioners and academics since the 1970s (Likely & Watson, 2013). Indeed, Watson and Noble (2014) suggest that the discussion on public relations evaluation goes further back to the 1920s. In other words, public relations evaluation and measurement discussions are not as recent as some might think (Watson, 2012). Manning and Rockland (2011) posit that despite every year being tagged as the year of measurement in public relations, practitioners still fail to engage in meaningful evaluation. Evaluation is regarded as the cornerstone of effective public relations. It constitutes the basis for determining whether and how any deliberate use of communication by an organization contributes to achieving its mission, goal, and strategy (Buhmann et al., 2018). When viewed from the rational decision-making process, evaluation becomes a

A. A. Anani-Bossman (*) • D. Onomah Department of Public Relations, University of Media, Arts and Communication, UniMAC-GIJ Campus, North Dzorwulu, Accra, Ghana e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_6

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fundamental element of the entire public relations process, from situational analysis to program execution (Hallahan et al., 2007). The importance of evaluation and measurement of public relations activities is evidenced by the stream of literature that suggests that public relations value can only be determined by its contribution to organizational excellence. This means that evaluation is the yardstick to determine how the practitioner contributes to organizational goals (Michaelson & Stacks, 2014). Macnamara (2021, p. 213) further highlights the essence of evaluation and measurement when he outlines three fundamental reasons practitioners must engage in evaluation. First, he likened engaging in public relations without evaluation to “a pilot taking off in an aircraft without a flight plan and then ‘flying blind.’” This signifies that the practitioner will be moving without any purpose or direction. Second, performing evaluation and measurement at the early stages of public relations activities and after a campaign are fundamental for developing effective evidence-based strategy as well as reporting to the executive, which increasingly demands evidence of outcomes and impact instead of a pile of media clippings or anecdotal information. The third is the demand for accountability by senior management from all areas of the organization, including public relations. The competitive nature of today’s business environment means organizations are forced to invest vast financial and human resources in connecting with and listening to stakeholders. This has undoubtedly increased the demand for accountability in all areas, and public relations is no exception. Organizations want to see how they are performing reputation-wise, while clients also want to gain insight into how public relations brings a good return on their investments. Practitioners are therefore required to prove their value by showing the effectiveness of message strategies as well as demonstrating how communication has contributed to the overall bottom line (Zerfass et al., 2017). Today, there is recognition among practitioners that public relations should be measured and that there is value in doing so. However, the literature consistently demonstrates that public relations evaluation is more discussed than practiced. Research shows practitioners attribute this to several challenges, including budgetary constraints, lack of time, research expertise to conduct reliable and valid evaluation, and lack of understanding of measurement and evaluation (Bajalia, 2020; Buhmann et al., 2018; Zerfass et al., 2017). Evidence also shows that where evaluation is conducted, concentration is mostly on output-level and outtake metrics more

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than outcomes (Schriner et al., 2017; Zerfass et al., 2015). The current paper investigates the practice of evaluation and measurement among public relations practitioners in Ghana. Public relations in Ghana, and in Africa in general, has grown steadily in the past decade (Anani-Bossman, 2021). Corporate Ghana, non-profit organizations, and even Institutions of Higher Education have all embraced the value of public relations in attaining organizational goals. The business environment in Ghana has become very competitive due to the digital (r)evolution and the influx of foreign direct investment. With the onset of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, competition is expected to increase significantly. Despite the growth in public relations practice, very little is known about the practice of evaluation and measurement among practitioners in Ghana. Specifically, there is a lack of literature on whether practitioners in Ghana practice evaluation, the nature of evaluation, skills and experiences of practitioners, which measurement practices are applied, and whether measurement and evaluation are even demanded by management. Although some work has been done in this area (Anani-Bossman & Tella, 2017), it is very limited and focuses on the general use of research in public relations. Zerfass et al. (2017) note that for practitioners to engage in valid and reliable evaluation, they understand and develop skills on how to conduct evaluation, evaluate whether communication activities have reached those goals in practice, and use insights gained to advance and manage their future activities (p. 3). The current study addresses the gap in the literature by examining the current state of evaluation and measurement of public relations practice among Ghanaian practitioners. The study examines the skills and experiences of practitioners, measurement methods applied in the evaluation process, and how practitioners use insights gained to support and improve public relations programs.

Literature Review Defining Evaluation There is no general agreement regarding what constitutes evaluation. For instance, Watson and Noble (2014) pointed to the confusion surrounding its specific meaning due to its broad nature. However, it is generally referred to as the systematic appraisal of the merit (the quality of the object) and worth (the specific costs and contexts—both financial and

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nonfinancial—that the object’s merit depends on) of an object (Stufflebeam & Coryn, 2014). In this context, evaluation serves two fundamental purposes: accountability (were objectives met?) and improvement (how were objectives met?) (Buhmann & Likely, 2018, p. 653). According to Jakus (2018), evaluation can be defined from two perspectives: short term and long term. In the short term, it consists of determining the success or failure of a particular public relations program, strategies, activities, or tactics by measuring the outputs, outtakes, and/or outcomes against set objectives. In the long term, it involves determining the success or failure of public relations activities to improve and enhance the relationship between the organization and its publics (p. 141). One of the most recent and authoritative definitions is from the Institute for Public Relations (IPR) Measurement Commission’s Dictionary of Public Relations Measurement and Research which defines evaluation research as: A form of research that determines the relative effectiveness of a public relations campaign or program by measuring program outcomes, including cognitive changes (to levels of awareness, knowledge and/or understanding), affective changes (to attitudes and opinions) and/or connotative changes (behaviors) of a targeted audience (or public) against a predetermined set of objectives that initially established the level or degree of change desired (Stacks & Bowen, 2013, p. 11).

This definition demonstrates that evaluation is an essential aspect of all public relations activities as program outcomes should be measured against the set objectives of a campaign or activity. Wippersberg (2017) summed it up by defining evaluation based on three categories: data acquisition, rating and judging of data, and utilization of results to make further decisions. State of Public Relations Evaluation and Measurement The state of public relations evaluation and measurement has been discussed for over half a century. Interest in issues of evaluation has increased in recent years as the field continues to grow in size and complexity. Moreover, as the business world becomes more competitive, practitioners have found themselves being pressured to produce “hard facts” to prove their contribution to organizational goals (Watson, 2012, p. 394). Simply put, the call for accountability is now more intense than ever.

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There is a stream of literature that gives insight into the state of evaluation and measurement practices in various jurisdictions, including the e United States of America (e.g., Bajalia, 2020; Lindenmann, 1990), Europe (e.g., Baskin et al., 2010; Zerfass et al., 2015), Australia (e.g., Watson & Simmons, 2004), and, more recently, Asia (e.g., Macnamara & Zerfass, 2017). These studies tended to focus on several areas, including knowledge and understanding of evaluation, attitudes toward evaluation, methodological approaches, skills and competency, and how insight gained is used to plan future public relations activities. Notwithstanding the increasingly positive attitude by practitioners toward measuring outcomes, studies have found a lack of evaluation knowledge and measurement skills to be a fundamental reason for not deploying more complex outcome evaluation methodological approaches (Baskin et al., 2010; Zerfass et al., 2009). Scholars have also examined perceived barriers to evaluation and have found the lack of time, financial constraints, knowledge and expertise, and management demand to impede effective evaluation by practitioners (e.g., Watson & Noble, 2014; Swenson et al., 2018). Other barriers identified include a lack of standardized terminology, especially regarding fundamental concepts like Return on Investment (ROI) and evaluation modeling, and the lack of requisite expertise to undertake reliable evaluation and measurement (Macnamara, 2014a, b; Michaelson & Stacks, 2011). At the methodological level, two main approaches have primarily been used, quantitative approach such as survey and qualitative techniques such as interviews, to gain greater insight into evaluation and measurement practices. A few have utilized secondary sources such as entries for industry awards (e.g., PRSA Silver Anvil Awards) (Gregory, 2001, Schriner et al., 2017) or evaluation reports (O’Neil, 2013) to examine the state of evaluation practices. A key area that the various studies have frequently discussed is the metrics or standards practitioners use in evaluation. Over the years, several evaluation metrics/standards have been developed and categorized into several stages, including input, output, outtakes, outcomes, and impact (see Michaelson & Stacks, 2014; Watson & Noble, 2014). These stages have been modified with new concepts such as outflow and outgrowth (AMEC, 2017; PRIA, 2017, Macnamara, 2015a, b, etc.). Three key concepts define the various stages despite the differences: outputs, outtakes, and outcomes. Output metrics include media placement/hits, reach, share of voice, impression, and advertising value equivalence (AVE). AVE, in particular, has been discredited by leading researchers/research organizations

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and many public relations practitioners as it is considered flawed (Michaelson & Stacks, 2014). Outtake, on the other hand, moves beyond message dissemination and gauges reaction to communication messages, including favorability, recall, and retention of messages, as well as whether the audience responded to the call to action within the message. Examples include views, likes, clickthroughs, downloads, comments, tone, sentiments, and shares (Macnamara, 2014a). Outcome measures impact of public relations programs—short, medium, and long terms. Examples include measurement of influence, awareness, trust, loyalty, reputation, and relationship (Macnamara, 2014a). Regardless of the differences in the terminologies and stages, the underlining objective is the need to move beyond focusing on content analysis to demonstrating outtakes and outcomes as well as the impact of public relations activities on organizational objectives (AMEC, 2017). Buhmann and Likely (2018, p. 3) distinguished between three evaluation levels: the formative, process, and summative. Formative evaluation occurs at the situational analysis and strategic planning stage. This is where outcome-level objectives are set. Macnamara (2021, p. 215) affirms that formative evaluation is fundamental for several reasons, including the fact that it is needed to establish baseline data, which is necessary for providing benchmarks for later comparison, identifying current reputation, understanding public knowledge and attitude, and identifying media or other channels for communication that are most used and relevant for the audience. Process evaluation monitors ongoing communication activities and tracks immediate outputs and outtakes. This stage determines whether the activities are on track. Media content analysis/monitoring is one of the best-known methods of process evaluation. Macnamara (2021) again suggests that measures such as clip counts and counting the number of event attendees is no indication of a change in behavior or attitudes or that events participant will take away the key message(s) that the event seeks to convey. The summative evaluation is where the outcome of activities or campaigns is evaluated in line with program objectives. It examines communication’s effect on business objectives and corporate goals. This stage further provides relevant feedback that can improve future strategies. According to Macnamara (2021), practitioners usually refer to summative evaluation when they use the term evaluation. The author notes that where practitioners tend to focus mostly overlook formative evaluation without realizing its importance.

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The body of literature on evaluation shows that most evaluation and measurement practices focus on output-level metrics such as social media impressions, publicity, websites, and video views rather than outcomes (Buhmann et al., 2018; Zerfass et al., 2012). According to Watson (2012), this situation is not surprising as it has been around for decades. Michaelson and Stacks (2011, p. 1) assert that public relations practitioners have never been able to agree on the core evaluative measures or how to undertake the underlying research for evaluating and quantifying public relations performance. A 2016 Global Communications Report by the USC Annenberg Center for Public Relations  noted, “current measurement models are still alarmingly focused on measures of output—such as total reach or impressions—rather than business outcomes” (p. 10). In addition, one-third of practitioners continue to rely on AVEs along with “vanity metric” (Bartholomew, 2016, p. 97) such as high volumes of likes or internet clicks to demonstrate effectiveness. The 2015 European Communication Monitor, in a survey of 2253 communication professionals in 41 countries, found that output measures such as clippings and media responses (82%) dominated evaluation practices (Zerfass et  al., 2015, p. 71). The Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor found a similar result in a survey conducted across 23 Asia-Pacific countries (Macnamara & Zerfass, 2017). Wright and Hinson (2016, p. 1) also found that “most of the measurement currently taking place focuses on outputs and content analysis with only about one-quarter of the organizations employing outcome-­based methodologies.” These findings show that despite the rapid growth of the profession and becoming more professionalized (Gregory, 2001), evaluation and measurement practices have mainly “improved very slowly across the profession in scope and sophistication over the past decades” (Swenson et al., 2018 p. 4). Evaluation obviously remains a big challenge among practitioners. Several organizations and individual scholars have developed models and frameworks that can serve as best practices to address the challenges. This includes the popular Barcelona Principles by AMEC (2015), the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR, 2021), the Public Relations Institute of Australia  (2017), and the Institute for Public Relations (IPR) Measurement Commission (Stacks & Bowen, 2013). Academic scholars such as Macnamara (2006), Watson and Noble (2014), Cutlip et  al. (2000), Lindenmann (2003), etc., have also developed standardized frameworks that, aside from generating a better understanding of the value of public relations, practitioners can adopt and adapt in their

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practice. Notwithstanding these efforts, research continues to show practitioners have failed to “prove the impact of communication activities on organizational goals” (Zerfass et  al., 2012, p.  36). Scholars, therefore, describe public relations evaluations as being in a state of “stasis” (Gregory & Watson, 2008; Macnamara & Zerfass, 2017, p.  319) and what Macnamara (2015a, p. 371) describes as “deadlock.” Evaluation Research in Africa The literature examined so far shows public relations evaluation research is primarily concentrated in the USA, Europe, and Asia. Empirical studies on evaluation in public relations practice appear to be very limited in Africa despite the rapid growth of public relations practice and scholarship on the continent (Anani-Bossman, 2021). This shows a lack of concerted effort to contribute to the body of knowledge on the subject matter. The few articles on evaluation have produced results similar to the ones found in developed economies. For instance, Anani-Bossman and Tella (2017) found media monitoring and content analysis dominated evaluation in Ghana. Similarly, Mutua (2016) and Wambua (2013) found media coverage and content analysis as the main tools that Kenyan public relations agencies deployed. Kwansah-Aidoo and Aggrey (2008) found that media content analysis and news clippings were the most prominent methods used in research among Ghanaian practitioners working in the public sector. Nyakamba and Muraya (2018) reported that practitioners in Kenyan parastatals found it difficult to engage in effective evaluation due to several challenges, including their inability to use evaluation to convince upper management, financial constraints, time, and lack of standards. A 2020 report on the South African PR measurement and Evaluation Landscape noted that “measurement maturity is still relatively low in South Africa, with many practitioners focusing on output metrics and a high use of advertising value equivalency” (Landsberg et al., 2020, p. 3). Although these studies give some insight into the situation in Africa, it is, nevertheless, woefully inadequate compared to the data produced by scholars in the Western world. Insight needs to be gained on various aspects of evaluation, including skills and expertise of professionals, social media measurement, evaluation stages, and how practitioners use insights gained from evaluation. The paucity of research in Ghana regarding evaluation makes this study relevant. The study will, therefore, be informed by the following research questions:

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RQ1: How do public relations practitioners in Ghana assess the effectiveness of their communication activities? RQ2: Is there a demand for evaluation and measurement by senior management? RQ3: How are insights from evaluation and measurement activities employed in public relations management? RQ4: Do public relations practitioners have the requisite skills to engage in evaluation?

Method The present study examined the current practice of public relations evaluation in Ghana. The study utilized a mix of surveys and in-depth interviews to gather data from public relations practitioners from various sectors, including government, non-profit, consulting, and commercial/ corporate organizations. Sampling and Procedure Questionnaires were distributed to 200 practitioners using both online and face-to-face administration, of which 113 responded. The decision to include face-to-face administration was primarily due to the challenging nature of doing an online survey in Ghana. The data-gathering process took two forms. We conveniently sampled respondents from a list of a network database that we had built over the years. We also used the snowball approach to recruit respondents. Fifteen practitioners were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. Some of the interview participants also participated in the survey. The interviews were conducted via zoom due to the schedules of the practitioners. Each interview lasted between 25 and 30  min. The interviews were recorded and transcribed using computer-assisted software. We sought permission from practitioners before recording the interviews. Practitioners were also given a consent form which they read and signed before the interview was conducted. The analysis and interpretation were based on the process outlined by Rossman  and Rallis (2017, p.  434): immersion (knowing the data in detail), analysis (organizing the data into several pieces), and interpretation (developing meaning or themes from those pieces).

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Measures The research instrument consisted of 31 itemized questions and made up of 4 sections. Three of the sections—assessment of public relations effectiveness (RQ1), how insights from measurement are used (RQ3), and personal skills in measurement (RQ4)—were adopted from the work of Zerfass et  al. (2015), with slight modifications to some of the variables while the perceived demand for measurement (RQ2) was adopted from the work of Gratham et al. (2011). Each item was anchored on a five- (5) point scale with different variables depending on the nature of the question. A semi-structured interview guide with 12 questions was used for the one-on-one interview. Evaluation was examined on four levels—input, output, outcome, and outflows—also referred to as impact (Watson & Noble, 2014). Respondents for the survey consisted of 51% females and 49% males. Most (47%) of the respondents were in their late 30 s and mid-40 s (20%). The majority (63%) of the respondents possessed a master’s degree. Overall, 56% held the position of (senior) managers, with 47% constituting communication officers. In total, 46% work in commercial/corporate organizations, while 30% are in the public sector. The rest include consultants (19%) and non-profit organizations (5%).

Results Assessment of Communication Activities To assess communication effectiveness, practitioners were asked to rank (on a Likert scale of 1–5; 1, never; 5, always) activities that they measured or monitored. The result shows practitioners do not focus on measuring the financial cost of projects (M = 2.53, SD = 1.52) and personnel cost of projects (M = 2.41, SD = 1.44) at the beginning of the communication process. This suggests measurement of expenditure devoted to communication activities is not a priority for practitioners. Regarding output, the result demonstrates a heavy emphasis on media clippings (volume of exposure) and media response (favorability or otherwise) (M = 3.92, SD = 1.25). Other output measures such as satisfaction of internal clients (M = 2.87, SD = 1.44), internet/intranet usage (M = 2.47, SD = 1.60), advertising value equivalence (M = 2.92, SD = 1.52), and process quality of internal

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workflow (M = 2.39, SD = 1.58) recorded low means, which suggests that practitioners do not see the measurement of these activities as essential. Interestingly, despite receiving a low mean rating, the interviews revealed a high usage of advertising value equivalence (AVE) among practitioners. Overall, 11 out of the 15 practitioners interviewed acknowledged the practice of AVE. The following comments from some of the practitioners reflect the overall attitude toward the use of AVE: We do it for several of our clients. Sometimes the clients do not understand why they should use a PR consultant instead of just going to pay for advertising. So, we do that for them to understand that when you quantify the result of PR, it is more than spending a lot of money to place an ad in the newspaper or buy airtime; It may not be a good practice, but I believe it is the quickest way to measure your activities especially because the result is instant, and it is there for you to see. Sometimes my bosses see a series of ads in the media, and they ask, how much did this cost? When I tell them it is free and then quantify it in terms of advertising cost for them, they become appreciative because I am saving the company money. So even though it may not be a good method, it serves its purpose; and, whenever management calls me to give them an update on my activities, I tell them, listen, this is what we’ve done. We’ve saved the organization 100,000 or 50,000 cedis on these campaigns. They are always surprised. So it makes them value what I do for the organization.

Ingham and  Bagnall (2017), like other opponents of AVE, describes AVEs as constituting meaningless metrics because they are very easy to do and require no level of thinking. Other scholars (Watson & Noble, 2014; Macnamara, 2021) have rejected AVE because it only measures the cost of media space and not the value of public relations activities. Macnamara (2021) sums it up by intimating that “the value of advertising is not measured by how much it cost, but rather by its reach and impact on the audience. So, it does not make sense to purport to evaluate editorial media coverage in such terms” (p. 223) (Table 6.1). Communication outcomes such as understanding key messages (M = 3.12, SD = 1.55) and public attitudes and behavior change (M = 3.09, SD = 1.54) are less employed by practitioners. The result further shows impact-level communication measurement, such as the impact on financial/strategic targets (sales, turnover, cost) and the impact on intangible/

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Table 6.1  Assessment of the effectiveness of public relations Variables Clippings and media response Impact on intangible/tangible resources (i.e., economic value of brand) Stakeholder attitudes and behavior change Satisfaction of internal clients Understanding of key messages Internet/intranet usage Impact of financial/strategic targets (sales, turnover, costs) Financial cost of projects personnel costs for projects Advertising value equivalency Process quality (workflow)

M

SD

3.92 2.27

1.25 1.47

3.09 2.87 3.12 2.47 2.35

1.54 1.44 1.55 1.60 1.47

2.53 2.41 2.92 2.39

1.52 1.44 1.52 1.58

Note: N = 113. All items were measured on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always)

tangible resources (economic value of the brand) are measured even less (M = 2.35, SD = 1.47, and M = 2.27, SD = 1.47, respectively). Most of the interviewed practitioners felt that it was easy to quantify output communication activities than behavioral or attitudinal change, hence the reason most practitioners in Ghana prefer that, as the following comment by a practitioner shows: I believe practitioners tend to focus more on output levels because they are easy to measure. Counting clippings, the number of followers, impressions, and all that is very simple compared to behavioral evaluation. It is a matter of finding better ways to measure behavior. That means being open about our deficiencies and finding ways to address them.

A practitioner attributed the focus on output to less quantifiable objectives: It is time practitioners started setting smarter objectives because in the past, it was easy for you to say, my objective is to create awareness or to inform or get people to adopt. Exactly what do you mean? What level of awareness are you talking about? So, you need a baseline to be able to measure effectively. I believe we can do all this well if we can get professionals who know scientific ways of measuring our activities to help us.

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Overall, the result demonstrates practitioners are more concerned with output measurement than outcome and impact. The result shows that despite the advancement in the body of knowledge and the development of advanced standards for measurement, very little has changed. Practitioners still focus on output activities, which is a fraction of the overall measurement process (Zerfass et al., 2015). Ingham and Bagnall (2017) thus call on practitioners to move beyond counting activities to show effect and rather demonstrate how public relations and communication have driven organizational objectives. Evaluation Requirement by Senior Management Practitioners were asked whether they felt there was a demand, real or perceived, from senior management for evaluation. The overall result shows that practitioners believe performing evaluation is a requirement. Practitioners believe that providing measurable results about public relations effectiveness (M  =  4.53, SD  =  0.80), providing measured results regarding the impact of a campaign (M = 4.41, SD = 0.79), and providing measured results on perceptions of the organization’s image (M = 4.38, SD = 0.99) are crucial and a requirement. The minimal differences in the responses are indicative of this. Practitioners also consider the measurement of results for how the organization’s products/services are positioned as an important requirement (M  =  4.26, SD  =  0.82). Although practitioners are of the view that the organization considers public relations highly (M = 4.00, SD = 0.99), they, nevertheless, do not fully believe management considers the measurement of their activities to be very important (M = 3.73, SD = 1.12), which is quite contradictory given the fact that they did indicate their belief that measurement is a requirement (Table 6.2). The result is consistent with that of the interviews. Practitioners expressed their strong belief in the importance of measurement and the fact that, in most cases, it is a requirement, as seen in the response of this practitioner: We have the KPIs that guide us in whatever we do. At the end of the day your position in the organization is based on the result you achieve at the end of the year. For us here, the ability to deliver determines your survival. It is tied to your bonus, salary, etc. So at the end of the year, we have to

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Table 6.2  Demand for evaluation and measurement in organizations M My organization considers public relations and communication activities to be very valuable Management considers measuring PR impact to be very important. In my view, providing measured results on perceptions of the organization’s image is always required In my view, providing measured results for how the organization’s products/ services are positioned is always required In my view, providing measured results regarding the impact of a campaign is always required I believe that providing measurable results about PR effectiveness is very important

SD

4.00 0.99 3.73 1.12 4.38 0.99 4.26 0.82 4.41 0.79 4.53 0.80

Note: N  =  113. All items were measured on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)

justify to management how we managed the organization’s reputation and what we did to build a positive reputation.

Other practitioners indicated that they had to educate their management on the essence of evaluation and that management now values their work and expects quarterly reports on how their activities yield results in terms of bringing profits to the organization. For consultants, reports of campaign programs are a must. In the words of this consultant: Several of our clients want to know how they fared in the media, what people are saying about them, and whether the campaign is yielding the required result. They sometimes demand these reports two weeks after the campaign. So sometimes we give them an interim report, then after a month, when we have done a full evaluation, they get the final report.

For profit-driven organizations, the value of public relations is based on how it improves the figures, as this practitioner pointed out: For us, management looks at the figures. How many cars have we sold; how many people have bought spare parts etc.? Of course, we still have to keep a positive image out there, but we are judged based on sales.

The result generally shows a strong belief by practitioners regarding the importance of evaluation and what is expected of them by their

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management. The demand for accountability has been growing over the years, and public relations professionals are not exempt (Buhmann & Likely, 2018; Swenson et  al., 2018). Clients and organizations want to know the result of public relations programs to gain insights that will enable them to improve upon their programs, assess the cost-effectiveness of different approaches, and have a good return on these investments (Jakus, 2018). Notably, the interview results show senior management values public relations based on sales, quality, and quantity of media coverage, and how practitioners can save the organization money. Use of Measurement Insight Result demonstrates that insights from measurement activities are primarily used for planning upcoming public relations activities (M  =  3.75, SD = 1.33), evaluating the success of public relations activities (M = 3.73, SD = 1.29), and explaining the value of communication to top executives and internal clients (M = 3.66, SD = 1.43). Insight from the evaluation is also used moderately to reflect goals and direction of communication strategies (M = 3.53, SD = 1.50) and lead communication teams and steering agencies/service providers (M = 3.53, SD = 1.48) (Table 6.3). Although the result shows encouraging signs on how insights are used, the moderate result shows the need for practitioners to review how they evaluate public relations activities and for what purpose. Zerfass et  al. (2015), for instance, found low use of measuring data for leading teams or steering agencies and service providers, meaning that the use of evaluation for managing communication is not highly valued. There is also not much Table 6.3  How insights from evaluation is used Variables Evaluating the success of public relations activities Planning upcoming communication activities Explaining the value of communication to top executives and internal clients Reflecting goals and direction of communication strategies leading communication teams and steering agencies/service providers

M

SD

3.73 3.75 3.66

1.29 1.33 1.43

3.53

1.50

3.53

1.48

Note: N = 113. All items were measured on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always)

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difference between the present result and that of Zerfass et  al. (2017) regarding the use of insights to explain the value of communication to top management and internal clients (M  =  3.66, SD  =  1.43 and M  =  3.60, SD = 1.19, respectively). Measurement Skills of Practitioners Overall, practitioners displayed a high to moderate experience regarding their evaluation abilities. Performing content analysis (M  =  4.15, SD = 1.21) was the highest level of experience reported. This was followed by preparing and conducting interviews (M = 4.10, SD = 1.19), interpreting and analyzing budgets (M  =  4.07, SD  =  1.42), and compiling and interpreting data (M = 4.04, SD = 1.30). Practitioners also reported having skills in developing and managing surveys (M = 3.91, SD = 1.39), the use of tools for analysis of the internet and social networks (M  =  3.89, SD = 1.22), and organizing focus groups (M = 3.79, SD = 1.22). On the other hand, practitioners demonstrated a slightly lower level of competency in calculating reputation value/brand value (M = 3.34, SD = 1.56) and analyzing financial/strategic targets (M = 3.17, SD = 1.69). This provides evidence that practitioners are not skilled in determining the actual brand/reputation value or determining how their activities result in the financial improvement of the organization (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4  Assessment of practitioners’ measurement capabilities Variables Compiling and interpreting data Performing content analysis Developing and managing surveys Interpreting and analyzing budgets Use of tools for analysis of the internet and social networks Organizing focus groups Calculating reputation value/brand value Analyzing financial/strategic targets (e.g., sales, turnover) Preparing and conducting interviews

M

SD

4.04 4.15 3.91 4.07 3.89

1.30 1.21 1.39 1.41 1.22

3.79 3.34 3.17

1.22 1.56 1.69

4.10

1.19

Note: N = 113. All items were measured on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (no experience) to 5 (very high experience)

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There was consistency in the interviews regarding measurement capabilities. However, many (ten) of the participants did indicate that they hired the services of agencies to perform key research services, including evaluation. In the words of one practitioner: We use PR agencies to assist us with our work, especially media monitoring, as we do not have the staff to do that. They do not do everything but their assistance allows us to concentrate on other things.

Some of the participants said they subscribed to research agencies such as Meltwater and Geopoll, so they can get information about their activities and the industry much faster. The result shows practitioners believe in their abilities to conduct sophisticated evaluation. Studies by Anani-Bossman and Tella (2017) and Landsberg et  al. (2020) report that practitioners in Ghana (59%) and South Africa (80%), respectively, believe in their ability to conduct research and have the necessary skills to do so. The current study contrasts with the findings of Zerfass et  al. (2015), who concluded that practitioners in Europe did not have a high level of experience and capabilities in robust measurement. However, given the timeframe between that study and this one, the researchers cannot make a valid conclusion that the situation is the same in Europe now as it was then. However, the result validates the study of Zerfass et al. (2015, 2017) and Macnamara and Zerfass (2017) that practitioners lack the competence to employ evaluation methods for reporting how communication contributes to organizational objectives at both the outcome and impact levels.

Discussion The study sheds insights into the current state of evaluation of public relations activities in Ghana. The issue of evaluation and measurement has been discussed for decades in public relations literature (e.g., Watson, 2012; Volk, 2016). Literature has consistently identified evaluation to comprise output metrics—an essential part of evaluation but certainly not the main purpose (Zerfass et  al., 2017). Overall, the result shows that evaluation in Ghana is premised mainly on media exposure. The interviews, in particular, demonstrated practitioners’ difficulty in evaluating behavioral and attitudinal change. Practitioners did not appear to have the necessary skills and competencies to engage in robust evaluation methods

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despite the belief in their own capabilities. Despite the continuous growth of the public relations profession in Ghana, and Africa in general, the issue of evaluation and measurement in Ghana tends to follow the same trend as those identified in the Western world (Macnamara & Zerfass, 2017; Wright et al., 2009; Zerfass et al., 2015, 2017). Furthermore, evaluation continues to be a challenge for practitioners in Ghana despite their claim of attaching importance to it. Even though several evaluation standards and frameworks have been articulated by academics and scholars alike, the result showed a lack of appreciation of these measurement standards/frameworks, hence the difficulty in determining impact.

Practical and Theoretical Implications The study has pointed out the lack of thorough evaluation among public relations practitioners in Ghana. The insight gained from the study shows evaluation has not reached a maturity level, which has implications for the industry’s growth. It means that public relations’ contribution to organizational effectiveness cannot be fully realized if practitioners consistently emphasize output levels of measurement. Practitioners must move beyond focusing on media exposure to link their work to organizational achievement “the same way that the toe bone is connected to the foot bone, to the leg bone and all the way to the head bone in the human” (Macnamara (2014b, p.  13). The study also demonstrates that practitioners do not deploy sufficient methods to evaluate their activities. Evaluating output through media impressions continues to be the main activity among practitioners in Ghana. The fact that key indicators such as outflow are hardly measured means that linking the public relations process with financial outcomes is challenging for practitioners. Practitioners do not have the requisite knowledge and skills to properly measure impact. Practitioners will continue to face the challenge of proving themselves if this is not changed. The need to undertake further training in evaluation is therefore necessary. The result also means that evaluation is not being given much attention at the university level. In other words, practitioners are likely to come out of school with a basic knowledge of evaluation without knowing how to properly engage in evaluation. It is important for departments offering public relations to better equip students with comprehensive knowledge

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on how to apply sophisticated research methods and hence provide the means by which practitioners can engage in advanced evaluation skills. The result also has implications for the body of knowledge regarding evaluation and measurement in Africa. As the study has revealed, discussion on evaluation does not seem to be a focus of African scholars. If the body of literature will grow and influence the practice, scholars will need to pay attention to this area of study which is grossly underrepresented in the history of public relations research in Africa. This requires collaboration between industry and academia. Continuous exchange of information between the two is necessary for the progression of research in evaluation and measurement. The two parties need to give attention to developing a constant and exhaustive exposition of how public relations contribute to organizational impact.

Limitation and Future Direction and Conclusion One limitation of the study is that the sampled population is not representative of public relations practitioners in Ghana. The study sample was based on established networks of the researchers. However, given that there is very little information on the subject in Africa, the result is significant in shedding light on the issue from an African perspective. Future research can look at evaluation with a larger, more representative population. There is also the need to integrate evaluation and measurement teaching in public relations curriculum at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, given that Ghana currently has several universities offering public relations at both levels. Future research can also review the perceived demand for evaluation from the perspective of senior management and how this influences practitioners’ ability to engage in evaluation. A study on the lack of focus on the outflow level of evaluation is also essential. This is clearly a barrier to successful evaluation practice and the reasons for this should be investigated. Given the continuing growth of public relations in Ghana, improvement in the practice of evaluation and measurement is fundamental if practitioners are to show how they contribute to the bottom line. The ability to link evaluation results with public relations efforts remains a challenge for practitioners in Ghana. Even more challenging is how to employ understanding gained from evaluation to adjust public relations strategies and predict essential issues in the environment. The lack of expertise in sophisticated evaluation techniques and the low level of

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implementation of evaluation methods may be a key reason why explaining the value of communication has continued to be a major issue for years (Zerfass et  al., 2017). The solution then, as Watson (2012) puts it, to show business value, practitioners must evaluate their activities. The similarities with findings in other jurisdictions prove that the issue of the state of evaluation is real, not only in Ghana but across the world. Conflict of Interest  We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 7

Image Building Versus Relationship Building in Public Relations Practice in Tanzania: A Survey of Practitioners Zamda George and Eno Akpabio

The study examines public relations practice (PR) in Tanzania in the context of the paradigm shift from image building to relationship building. The practice of public relations in Tanzania gained traction in 2002, driven primarily by the communication initiative of the government of the United Republic of Tanzania under former President William Benjamin Mkapa, who had a media and communication background. He saw the need for effective communication between the government and the people. More so, as “civil society and pressure groups had become aware of their role in educating and communicating to the public, and also providing criticism

Z. George School of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Dar es salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania E. Akpabio (*) Department of Social Sciences, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_7

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of the government when needed” (PR Conversations, 2007, par. 4). In addition, according to Mindi Kasiga, Directorate of Communications, State House, “Tanzania’s multi-party system provided a platform for opposition parties to explain or dismiss government success stories” (PR Conversations, 2007, par. 4). Consequently, President Mkapa was concerned that government’s success stories were not being heard. He was also concerned with the capacity in his office in the areas of information, communication and outreach. It was thus his commitment and tireless efforts that drove the initiative to increase and improve communication with the Tanzanian people (PR Conversations, 2007, par. 5).

On the private sector front, public relations took its pride of place as privatization emerged soon after the introduction of multiparty system and the adoption of an open market economy. Multinational Corporations and public corporations which had now become privatized entities needed public relations services in order to compete favorably in the Tanzanian market. This outlook clearly reflects the image-building emphasis whereby public relations is used for propaganda and public information rather than relationship building, which is the core focus of contemporary public relations practice (Akpabio, 2009; Culbertson & Ni, 1996; Grunig, 2009; Jo, 2003; Ledingham, 2003). However, what was unclear in all these developments was whether Tanzanian public relations practitioners had adopted the paradigm shift to relationship building or were still stuck in the image-building past. The study attempted to determine the current focus of public relations given the change in the global practice environment through a survey of practitioners. This survey of practitioners attempted to answer two research questions: RQ1 What constitutes the predominant focus between image building and relationship building as regards public relations practice in Tanzania? RQ2 Do public relations practitioners perceive the shift to relationship building as capable of assisting them in achieving their objectives? The rest of the chapter contains literature review on the shifting emphasis of public relations, methodology, findings, discussion of findings, and conclusion.

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Literature Review Shifting Emphasis of Public Relations Two theories used as a backdrop to this study underline the paradigm shift in public relations practice: the Excellence Theory of Public Relations and the Relationship Management Theory. The Excellence Theory of Public Relations is a fundamental and defining statement about what effective public relations can achieve provided “it follows the generic principles and applies them with appropriate variations for local cultural, political, social, and economic conditions” (Grunig, 2009, p. 2). The theory, among others, emphasizes two-way symmetrical communication that references dialogue and relationship building (Grunig, 2009). In the same vein, Ledingham (2003) posits that the Relationship Management Theory identifies relationships as the core focus of public relations. There is broad agreement among scholars that relationship management represents a pivotal change in the nature and function of public relations so much so that it not just about communication outputs but behavioral outcomes (Ledingham, 2003). Public relations is not a new phenomenon in the African continent. Akpabio (2009) notes that African public relations practice existed before the independence movement and achievement of nationhood. In the beginning, African public relations practice utilized traditional forms of communication that assisted in changing people’s perspectives rather than just reaching them, something akin to modern public relations practice (Akpabio, 2009). As Africa is not static, there are advancements as well in public relations practice. Akpabio (2009), while correcting misconceptions about African public relations, points out that public relations in Africa, like the rest of the world, has moved toward a two-way symmetrical approach from the one-way publicity model in different parts of the continent. Culbertson and Ni (1996) specify two developments in public relations: the two-way communication that has begun to replace the one-way and the PR goals that have extended beyond enhancing awareness and information level to persuasion and later relationship building. Media relations marked the image-building age of public relations. Good public relations was equated with an organization having a positive image in the media. According to Jo (2003), the two were mixed up as the value of

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public relations was measured by counting the number of news clippings and broadcast reports. But this trend has changed with the passing of time. Public relations is said to have “new” value now, which was there before but was not recognized. Mackey (2003, p. 3) argues that: The emergence of relationship management as a paradigm for public relations scholarship and practice calls into question the essence of public relations—what it is and what it does or should do, its function and value within the organizational structure and the greater society, and the benefits generated not only for the sponsoring organizations but also for the publics those organizations serve and the communities and societies in which they exist.

It is obvious now that there is a shift, which is said to be from merely influencing opinion to establishing and maintaining a relationship, indicating an essential change in the conceptualization of the main purpose of public relations (Ehling, 1992). Due to the shift in public relations practice, the focus now on is on relationships, and the new and proper term for the desired outcomes of public relations is public relationship; thus, the positive public relationship of an organization will be attained through effective public relations (Broom et al., 1997, p. 4). Jo (2003) describes the central notion of public relations as relationship management and suggests that public relations should focus on developing long-term behavioral relationships between organizations and key constituencies. Perceived public relations roles, which rely on symbolic activities designed to enhance organizational image, have been extended to a new paradigm, fostering long-term relationships that lead to mutual benefits for both organizations and key publics. Hung (2003) provided a generic principle of public relations when emphasizing the importance of relationships in public relations research and practices. He stipulated that building and maintaining fundamental relationships with publics, internal and external, is the overriding goal for public relations practice. It is evident that there are more positive outcomes from the relationship-building perspective of public relations practice than in the era of image building. In cementing the whole idea in favor of public relationships, Hon and Grunig (1999, p. 8) state that:

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Effective organizations choose and achieve appropriate goals because they develop relationships with their constituencies, which public relations practitioners typically call publics. Ineffective organizations cannot achieve their goals, at least in part, because their publics do not support and typically oppose management efforts to achieve what publics consider illegitimate goals.

Clearly, the new approach to public relations confers tremendous benefits to all concerned. It consigns the business as usual propaganda and persuasion approach to the periphery, more so with the advent of social media (Ihlen & Levenshus, 2017). Corporates have deployed new and social media in their bid to achieve their relationship-building objectives (Moussa & Benmessaoud, 2021; Shin et al., 2015). There are several benefits accruing from this: hearing directly from stakeholders and engaging with them, fostering openness and transparency, as well as enhancing relationships (Shin et al., 2015).

Methodology The quantitative survey design was employed to gather data. Surveys confer several advantages: a large number of respondents can be surveyed, and they can answer many questions rapidly, in addition to findings being generalizable (Treadwell & Davies, 2019). The population of this study was composed of public relations practitioners in Tanzania. Stratified random sampling was employed. This design was used because there is no documented list of public relations practitioners in the country. The researchers obtained a list of organizations based in Dar es Salaam and placed them in four strata 1. Government institutions, 2. Private companies, 3. Internationally affiliated organizations, and 4. Non-governmental organizations From each category, 15 organizations were chosen, and the 2 most senior public relations executives were picked, thus making a sample size of 120 respondents. Before the final questionnaire administration, a pilot study was conducted to collect reliable data necessary for the final questionnaire design.

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Joppe (2000) defines reliability as the extent to which results are consistent over time and accurately represent the total population under study. He contends that if the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument would be considered reliable. According to Wimmer and Dominick (2013), reliability consists of stability, internal consistency, and equivalency. The component of reliability—internal consistency—is of primary concern to this study, as it involves examining the consistency of performance among the items that make up a scale. Twelve copies of the study questionnaire were administered to public relations practitioners during the pilot study. This constituted 10% of the study’s sample size. Generally, the instrument was found to be valid for the main study. Cronbach’s Alpha was adopted in scoring the pilot study questionnaire in order to determine the reliability of the study instrument. The Cronbach’s Alpha was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The Cronbach’s Alpha value was about 0.7, which indicates that the survey instrument was suitable for the study. Reliability Statistics Cronbach’s Alpha

Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items

N of Items

0.667

0.731

12

In gathering the main data, the 120 respondents were guaranteed anonymity in that they were not expected to provide any identifying information. They also filled in a consent form that explained the purpose of the study and what was expected of them. Part of the content of the consent form indicated that they could withdraw from the study at any time as well as informed them that no harm was envisaged in line with the principles of autonomy and non-maleficence (Wimmer & Dominick, 2013).

Findings Of the 120 copies of the study questionnaire administered, 105 copies were retrieved, thus making a response rate of 87.5%.

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Demographic Characteristics of Respondents The study had more male respondents (58.1%) than female respondents. A majority of respondents were aged 26–35 years (64.8%). A third of the respondents earned less than 10 million Tanzanian Shillings annually. More than half of the respondents (52.1%) are degree holders, while about the same number (48.6%) had backgrounds in communication, mass communication, or media studies. A clear majority of respondents (62%) had less than five years’ experience in public relations, while a little over half (53.3%) were part of the dominant coalition (see Table 7.1).

Table 7.1  Demographic characteristics of respondents Demographic attributes

Indices

Gender

Female Male Less than 25 26–35 36–45 46–55 Less than 10 million 11–20 million 21–30 million Above 31 million Diploma Degree Higher degree Others Public relations and advertising Marketing/business Communication, mass communication, or media studies Others 0–5 years 6–10 years 11–15 years 16–20 years 20 years and above Yes No

Age

Income

Qualifications

Field of study

Years in PR

Management level

Number Percentage 43 62 4 68 26 6 35 23 27 14 12 58 34 1 18 22 51

41 58.1 3.8 64.8 24.8 5.7 33.3 21.9 25.7 13.3 11.4 55.2 32.4 1 17.1 21 48.6

14 65 26 11 3 0 56 49

13.3 61.9 24.8 10.5 2.9 0 53.3 46.7

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The Predominant Focus of Public Relations Practice in Tanzania and Its Effect When asked the question “what constitutes the predominant focus of public relations practice in Tanzania?” a majority of respondents indicated “relationship building” over and above “image building” and “others.” In tandem with the above posture, respondents also believed that mutual understanding between their organizations and stakeholders was much more important than getting stakeholders to see things the organization’s ways (see Figs. 7.1 and 7.2, Table 7.2). A slight majority of respondents characterized the relationship between their organization and their public as being exchange (giving with expectations) as opposed to communal (giving without expectations) (see Table 7.3). A majority of the study’s respondents (64.4%) felt that the effectiveness of their PR effort is best judged on relationships fostered than on a positive image (see Table 7.4). A majority of respondents were of the view that communication was much more than a central function and was rather an effective strategy (66.3%) (Table 7.5).

Strongly disagree Neutral Percentage

Agree Strongly agree 0

50

100

Fig. 7.1  Respondents’ posture on the role of PR in fostering mutual understanding

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Fig. 7.2  Respondents’ views on persuading publics over to organizations’ point of view Table 7.2 Predominant focus of PR

Focus of PR

Freq/ %

Image Building Relationship Building Others

Table 7.3  Kind of relationship

Relationship Freq/ % Communal Exchange Others

Table 7.4 Respondents’ evaluation of the focus of PR initiatives

31 (29.5) 44 (41.9) 7 (6.7)

Focus of PR initiatives Positive public image Good relationships with publics Others

61 (58.7) 36 (34.3) 7 (6.7)

Freq/ % 16 (15.4) 67 (64.4) 21 (20.2)

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Table 7.5 Respondents’ perception of the role of communication in public relations

Communication in PR Freq/ % Central function Effective strategy Others

32 (31.7) 67 (63.8) 2 (2.0)

Discussion Professional public relations practice in Tanzania is a recent phenomenon that started around 1992 when multiparty politics was introduced in Tanzania and the inroad of the open market economy. This is reflected in the findings as only a tiny percentage of respondents (2.9%) have been practitioners for about 15–20 years, while a majority (61.9%) have between 0 and 5 years of experience. This also accounts for the relative youthfulness of practitioners, with most of the study respondents being below 50 years old. Even though PR is dominated by women (73%) (Campaign Creators, 2022), this trend has not caught on in Tanzania as most of this study’s respondents were male. It is gratifying to note that most practitioners are part of the dominant coalition, a condition enunciated by the excellence study as critical for effective practice (Grunig et al., 2006). Even though the focus on image building made a strong showing, it is clear from this study that Tanzanian PR is aligned with the global shift to “relationship building,” as most practitioners identified this as the objective and focus of their efforts. More than half of those in the image-building category responded to relationship building as their way of evaluating their PR programs and initiative effectiveness. This confirms Grunig et al.’s (2006) view that the value of public relations comes from the relationships that organizations develop and maintain with publics, impacting the quality of relationships that results more from the organization’s behavior than the messages it disseminates. The findings yet show more than 90% find that a good media image assists greatly in achieving organizational objectives. Only about 5% were neutral, whereas nobody disagreed or strongly disagreed with that. This is against the literature as Jo (2003) posits that public relations, which relied on symbolic activities designed to enhance an organizational image, has been extended to a new paradigm—fostering long-term relationships that lead to mutual benefits for both organizations and key publics.

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Tanzanian PR practitioners, going by this study’s findings, have moved away from the asymmetric model of communication that focuses on persuasion and manipulation to influence audiences in favor of the symmetric model that uses communication to negotiate with publics, resolve conflict, and promote mutual understanding and respect between the organization and its public. This concurs with Akpabio’s (2009) postulation that African public relations, like the rest of the world, has moved toward a two-way symmetrical approach away from the one-way publicity model that formerly held sway in different parts of the continent. This also aligns Tanzanian PR with Culbertson and Ni’s (1996) two developments in public relations: The two-way communication has begun to replace the one-way and PR goals that have extended beyond enhancing awareness and persuasion to relationship building. This posture also finds support in Ki and Hon’s (2009) view to the effect that effective organizations achieve their goals because they develop relationships with their constituencies and ineffective organizations cannot achieve their goals because their publics do not support and typically oppose management efforts to achieve what these publics consider illegitimate goals. When respondents agree that communication is key if there is to be effectiveness in the public relations function, they are aligning themselves with the extant literature. The Relationship Management Theory envisions communication as strategic. Ledingham (2003), when elaborating the relationship management concept, posits that the change in public relations involves rethinking the role of communication, message production, and dissemination for the greater good. Based on the literature, earlier practitioners saw communication as the central function of public relations, whereas today’s public relations managers recognize the management of key relationships as the core function of public relations. The findings of this study, while reflecting the paradigm shift from image to relationship building, still indicate a mix of relevant methods for reaching various publics more effectively (Akpabio, 2009; Davidson, 2016).

Conclusions Even though the focus on image building made a strong showing, it is clear from the findings of this study that Tanzanian PR is aligned with the global shift to relationship building, as most practitioners identified this as the objective and focus of their efforts—thus confirming Grunig et al.’s

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(2006) view that the value of public relations comes from the relationships that organizations develop and maintain with publics, which, in turn, impacts the behavior of the organization. This study’s findings provided a status and position update on public relations practice in Tanzania from a relationship-building perspective. The study results benefit practitioners and the organizations they represent because they provide evidence of the paradigm shift to the relationship-­ building perspective within the Tanzanian context. Thus, they can use this study as a benchmark as well as a basis for making the required changes if needed. The study also contributes to the literature, specifically to the differing approach called for by the Excellence Theory that takes account of local culture and practice environments. Other scholars may wish to undertake the same study using a qualitative approach to obtain more nuanced and detailed findings. Conflict of Interest  We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

References Akpabio, E. (2009). African public relations and the mainstream of global practice. African Communication Research, 2(3), 351–366. Broom, G. M., Casey, S., & Ritchey, J. (1997). Toward a concept and theory of organization-public relationships. Journal of Public Relations Research, 9(2), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532754xjprr0902_01 Campaign Creators. (2022). Why are there so many women in PR? Retrieved from https://www.campaigncreators.com/blog/women-­i n-­p r/#:~:text=A%20 whopping%2073%25%20of%20the,numbers%20reach%20up%20to%2085%25 Culbertson, H.M. (1996) Introduction. In H.M. Culbertson & C. Ni [Eds]. International public relations: A comparative analysis. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Davidson, S. (2016). Public relations theory: An agonistic critique of the turns to dialogue and symmetry. Public Relations Inquiry, 5(2), 145–167. Ehling, W. P. (1992). Estimating the value of public relations and communication to an organization. In J. E. Grunig, D. M. Dozier, W. P. Ehling, L. A. Grunig, F. C. Repper & J. White (Eds.), Excellence in public relations and communication management (pp. 617-638). Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalization. PRism, 6(2), 1–19. http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/prism_on-­line_journ.html

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Grunig, J. E., Grunig, L. A., & Dozier, D. M. (2006). The excellence theory. In C.  H. Botan & V.  Hazelton (Eds.), Public relations theory II (pp.  21–62). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Hon, L. & Grunig J. (1999). Guidelines for measuring relationships in public relations. https://instituteforpr.org/wpcontent/ uploads/Guidelines_Measuring_Relationships.pdf. Hung, C.  F. (2003). Toward a normative theory of relationship management. http://www.instituteforpr.org/topics/normative-­t heor y-­r elationship-­ management/ Ihlen, Ø., & Levenshus, A. (2017). Panacea, placebo or prudence: Perspectives and constraints for corporate dialogue. Public Relations Inquiry, 6(3), 219–232. Jo, S. (2003). Measurement of organization-public relationships: Validation of measurement using a manufacturer-retailer relationship. http://www.instituteforpr.org/topics/measurement-­of-­organization-­public-­relationships/ Joppe, M. (2000). The research process. http://www.ryerson.ca/~mjoppe/rp.htm Ki, E., & Hon, L.  C. (2009). A measure of relationship cultivation strategies. Journal of Public Relations Research, 21(1), 1–24. Ledingham, J. A. (2003). Explicating relationship management as a general theory of public relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 15(2), 181–198. Mackey, S. (2003). Changing vistas in public relations theory. PRism. http:// www.praxis.bond.edu.au/prism/papers/refereed/paper3.pdf Moussa, M. B., & Benmessaoud, S. (2021). Online engagement as a multimodal discursive practice: The case of Dubai Cares’ Facebook page. Public Relations Inquiry, 10(1), 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/2046147X20979291 PR Conversations. (2007). Read this! The Government of Tanzania at the forefront of public relations management…an in-depth interview with Mindi Kasiga and Gerhard Butschi. https://www.prconversations.com/read-­this-­the-­ government-­of-­tanzania-­at-­the-­forefront-­of-­public-­relations-­managementa-­in-­ depth-­interview-­with-­mindi-­kasiga-­and-­gerhard-­butschi/ Shin, W., Pang, A., & Kim, H.  J. (2015). Building relationships through integrated online media: Global organizations’ use of brand web sites, Facebook, and Twitter. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 29(2), 184–220. Treadwell, D. M., & Davis, A. M. (2014). Introducing communication research: Paths of inquiry. Sage Publications. Treadwell, D. M., & Davis, A. M. (2019). Introducing communication research: Paths of inquiry. Sage. Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2013). Mass media research: An introduction (8th ed.). Thomson/Wadsworth.

CHAPTER 8

Is China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Africa Effective Public Diplomacy? Valences in Dialogic Communication in Three Newspapers Cornelius B. Pratt

It is not lost on many African leaders that hardly 30 years ago China was in a similar place that they are now—a backwater country whose economy made up hardly two percent of global GDP. But over the past few decades, China shocked the world in the way that it used infrastructure to propel economic growth. (Shepard, 2019, Nothing Without Infrastructure section, para. 10)

C. B. Pratt (*) Communication Psychology and Application Research Center, Northwest University of Politics and Law, Xi’an, China Department of Advertising and Public Relations, Lew Klein College of Media and Communication, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_8

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A Confucian imprint is visible in every step of China’s engagement in Africa– from the brotherhood of anti-colonialism and anti-hegemonic Third World theory to the five principles of peaceful coexistence and co-prosperity developmentalism. (Cao, 2013, p. 64)

China is on the radar of most households, organizations, and government agencies in Africa. Its ubiquity on the continent is viewed by its residents as a marker of digital revolution in areas such as smart cities and 5G wireless networks (Zheng, 2021); of outward foreign direct investment in Africa’s economy (Abdulsalam et al., 2021; Draper et al., 2010); of economic growth and development and of social change for improving the well-being of Africans (e.g., Gordon, 2012; Donou-Adonsou & Lim, 2018; Simelane & Managa, 2018); and of trade practices that advance development, complementing African development action plans in host countries (Abdulsalam et al., 2021; Blanchard, 2021). Those Africa-wide activities have engendered widespread questions, discussions, comments, and criticisms of China’s growing presence and influence on the continent (e.g., “The Daily Show,” 2021). Debates ensued on China’s potential to establish financial and geostrategic aspects of Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects (Mboya, 2021); discussions were held on China’s development model (Chaziza, 2021); disputes raged over project-ownership shares (Masabo, 2021); and obstacles surmounted and agreements reached on construction plans (Masabo). This chapter acknowledges the importance of dialogic communication between a major economic power and the fledgling governments and agencies in Africa and its people. Such communication, as public diplomacy, can contribute to a nation’s global image, identity, and reputation, and to its (continuing) worldwide impact and influence. Consequently, the aim of this chapter is twofold: (a) to analyze public communications as public relations for China’s partnerships with Africa, as exemplified in BRI as a case study; and (b) to seek answers to the overarching question it poses: is China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Africa effective public diplomacy? This chapter accomplishes both purposes in six main sections. The first identifies the lacuna that this work seeks to fill, thereby determining its significance to the extant literature on BRI. The second section provides an overview of BRI. The third explores the ethical frameworks that guide the analysis. The fourth presents valences in dialogic communication as a tool of public diplomacy—that is, it  examines the tones in purposively selected dialogic communication in three newspapers: China Daily Africa

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Weekly (hereinafter China Daily Africa), Daily Nation (Kenya) and The Nation (Nigeria). The fifth describes the article-selection procedure and the five identified themes. And the sixth responds to the main question this chapter seeks to answer—as indicated in its title.

Significance of Chapter This chapter analyzes valences in dialogic communication on BRI, drawing upon frameworks from two cultural settings: Asia and Africa. Even as Chinese investments in Africa have been criticized (e.g., Akoyoko, 2012; Chan, 2013; “China’s Empty Promises,” 2018; Isaksson & Kotsadam, 2018; Megbowon et al., 2019; Shen & Taylor, 2012; Tawiah et al. 2021), no published study has placed such criticisms strictly within an ethical framework cast against the backdrop of China’s global infrastructure plan—the BRI—as a tool for conducting public diplomacy. University students in two African countries tended to have negative views of China and perceived its media, conduits of public diplomacy, as making “a minimal contribution to boosting China’s soft power in both countries” (Wasserman & Madrid-Morales, 2018, p. 2220). However, that study did not have a large-scale point of reference. This chapter fills that lacuna by focusing on BRI as both a connectivity plan and a critical fulcrum of China’s quest for international prominence through public diplomacy. Under the aegis of BRI, major development projects, spearheaded by the government of China through its private sector, are fueling massive development across the continent. Examples: the $12 billion Coastal Railway in Nigeria; the $4.5 billion Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway; the $11 billion port and special economic zone in Bagamoyo, Tanzania; the $1.90 billion modernization of the Abidjan Port; and the 183.2-­megawatt, $566 million Isimba Hydro Power Plant near Kayunga Town, in Uganda. Such investments have generated questions on, and concerns and criticisms about, China’s investment intentions. A 16-nation study of China’s global influence reported that “People generally see China’s growing economy as a good thing for their country and believe China is having a predominantly positive influence on their country’s economic affairs (Silver et  al., 2019, p.  4). Of the 16 nations, 4 were African countries, where the percentages of respondents who said China’s growing economy was a good thing and that investment from China was a good thing were 66 and 69, respectively, in Tunisia; 83 and 82, respectively, in Nigeria; 68 and 60, respectively, in Kenya; and 64 and 59, respectively, in South Africa. On

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balance, China is viewed as engaging in the common good in Africa. Those survey results have implications for China’s reputation on the continent—and for the effectiveness of its public diplomacy there. Because news coverage tends to influence audience attitudes toward others and institutions and nurtures beliefs about them, I adopt a case-­ study approach to examining China’s public diplomacy in Africa. Inarguably, that case (the BRI) has been a flashpoint for assessing the overall impact of China’s investments in Africa’s future. Analyzing media content can also provide evidence of the ethicalness of media messages that project the intentions and behavior of the government in Beijing. An Overview of BRI This section provides highlights of the initiative—from its inception to the present. On September 7, 2013, China’s President Xi Jinping, in a speech at Nazarbayev University, in Kazakhstan, announced a plan to build a Silk Road Economic Belt with Central Asia. That plan eventually became known as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), that is, “the Belt” in short. In a speech to the Indonesian parliament on October 2, 2013, President Xi pledged to “vigorously develop a maritime partnership in a joint effort to build the Maritime Silk Road of the twenty-first century,” as the sea-­ route segment of BRI; that idea was eventually dubbed “the Road.” (Fig. 8.1 shows “the Belt” on land routes connecting Asia with Africa, and its sea-route equivalent, “the Road.” Figure 8.2 shows the author at the BRI hub in Africa.) In addition, since 2015, China has expanded President Xi’s signature policy efforts well beyond the traditional boundaries of both plans to include a “Digital Silk Road” that will make communication technologies and 5G a major part of the infrastructure development (Hillman, 2021). Today, 138 countries cooperate with China under the aegis of BRI.  In the rest of this chapter, all three segments, collectively, will be referred to simply as BRI. BRI is primarily about infrastructure development, direct investment, bilateral trade, and human resource development. Beyond that, it seeks to build “an even closer China-Africa community with a shared future” (“China-Africa Economic,” 2021, p. 56). Beijing describes its vision for, and experience with, it in these terms: bilateral coöperation; in-depth coöperation in trade and tourism; win-win coöperation; friendly consultation; political mutual trust; coöperation in infrastructure construction, trade relations, investment.

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Fig. 8.1  Routes of the Silk Road Economic Belt (“the Belt”) and of the Maritime Silk Road (“the Road”). Source: Xinhua Finance Agency, 2017

Fig. 8.2  The author at the Tanzania-Kenya Border, a hub of the Maritime Silk Road Initiative in Africa. Photo by Dr. Ying Hu

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The end of the Cold War opened vistas of opportunities for expanding China’s nascent interest in Africa for boosting its presence on the continent, funneling diverse investments through more than 10,000 Chinese enterprises in Africa, for developing human capital by creating employment opportunities for millions of Africans, and for opening new markets for the continent’s resources and commodities (Agbebi, 2019; Ylönen, 2020). China has investments in 52 of the 54 African countries, 13 of which accounted for more than $100 billion in investments in 2020. From 2004 to 2016, Chinese direct investments on the continent grew at an average compound rate of 18%, and China’s total loan to Africa peaked at $25 billion in 2018. Such investments have resulted in greater political alignment between China and Africa, increasing by about 80% over 18 years—from 2001 to 2018 (Jones et al., 2022). But African countries’ direct investment in China is comparatively minuscule—$470 million in 2019 and accounting for 8.8% of the continent’s total foreign investment (“China-Africa Economic,” 2021). China has been Africa’s largest trading partner for 12 consecutive years through the end of 2020, a major development partner, and the fourth-largest investor on the continent, whose governments and state-owned enterprises signed 1141 loan commitments between 2000 and 2019 worth $153 billion with Chinese financiers (“China-Africa Economic,” 2021): To further deepen China’s support for Africa, in December 2020, a “Cooperation Plan” was signed between China and the African Union to, effectively promote the dovetailing of the joint construction of the B & R [Belt and Road Initiative] and AU Agenda 2063, promote the complementary advantages of the two sides in industry, agriculture, telecommunications, e-commerce, new infrastructure, green energy and the financial industry and other fields, jointly address global challenges, promote ­high-­quality development of the B & R, and add new impetus to common development. (“China-Africa Economic,” 2021, p. 50)

BRI is China’s vision for a cooperative mechanism for enhancing regional connectivity and for building a brighter future globally. BRI has been lauded worldwide, not least in the African news media. But the initiative has attracted its fair share of criticisms among African constituencies, some of which:

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criticize it for its asymmetric connectivity… . It is indisputable that [BRI] ventures have caused various negative social and environmental externalities in African and MENA countries, though it is not readily apparent that they are worse than those produced by non-Chinese parties. (Blanchard, 2021, 3–4, 24)

A 2021 report commissioned by the Secretariat of the China-Africa Economic and Trade Expo acknowledged the challenges of cultivating China-Africa relationships: “it is undeniable that China-Africa coöperation also faces some difficulties and obstacles… . cultural differences between China and Africa have caused some local social contradictions, and problems such as the attack and smear of Western public opinion on China-­ Africa coöperation still exist” (“China-Africa Economic,” 2021, p.  56). More important, however, are evolving global economic challenges and “a waning appetite in Beijing for large foreign investments” (Miriri, 2021, para. 5), on the heels of the coronavirus pandemic, that are prompting changes in China’s investments in 138 BRI countries. In Africa, particularly, such investments “fell from $11 billion in 2017 to $3.3 billion in 2020” (Miriri, 2021, para. 8). But there is a reason for optimism: China’s extensive media operations on the continent are mechanisms for showcasing its soft power, for deepening its relationships with the continent, and for implementing its public diplomacy initiatives as part of its foreign policy. Its policies are designed to help integrate the continent into an increasingly globalizing economy propelled by technological and managerial innovations. Two landmark examples of such policies are the Beijing Action Plan, which was declared on November 4–5, 2006, in Beijing, during a meeting with 48 African countries; and the triennial ministerial summits of the Forum on China-­ Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), organized in October 2000, in Beijing. At the Sixth FOCAC Summit in South Africa in December 2015, China launched “a new era of ‘real win-win coöperation” (Jadesimi, 2017, para. 3) by pledging to invest $60 billion in new funds on the continent, thereby “indicating that this will remain a critical dimension of the relationship” (Alves, 2013, p. 222) between China and Africa. The FOCAC Beijing Action Plan (2019–2021) launched eight major initiatives on China-Africa coöperation. FOCAC “has helped to expand and deepen China’s footprint on the African continent” (Qobo & Ngcaweni, 2021, para. 9). With so much Chinese-managed development activity on the continent, it is plausible that China expects the continuing

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coöperation of nations and institutions, not least that of the local news media. Since President Xi Jinping announced BRI on September 7, 2013, his government has been engaging in concerted efforts toward ensuring the success of the initiative, an outcome Forje (2018) enunciates: “The success of the [BRI] Initiative regarding China-Africa relations will be clearer in 2030, after the partnership has had time to evolve and benefit from what has already been constructed, and is being constructed today” (p. 15). The next section of this chapter presents theories on ethics as a framework for assessing valences in three newspapers—two dailies and a weekly—as a basis for assessing the effectiveness of BRI as public diplomacy. Ethical Frameworks in Asia and Africa In presenting the implications of this analysis for institutional responses to BRI issues, this chapter draws upon two dominant ethical theories, one from each of the two continents: Confucianism from Asia and ubuntu communications from Africa. Confucianism At its core, Confucianism, an ethical-moral dynamic between individuals in a family unit, is the bedrock of communication (read: relationship) in much of Asia, most notably in China, the Koreas, Singapore, and East Asian countries with large Chinese populations, as the second of the two epigraphs in this chapter states, “A Confucian imprint is visible in every step of China’s engagement in Africa” (Cao, 2013, p. 64). Based on teachings of sixth-century Chinese philosopher Confucius, this moral doctrine seeks to create an ethical rationale for an action and for a just universe. Do China’s policies and actions in Africa engender a just, peaceful, harmonious, and a virtuous society on that continent, and, perhaps most important, better economies? Those outcomes are plausible largely because “China’s ‘soft appeal’ to Africa bears a Confucian hallmark–its primary objective is to win the moral argument. In Confucian parlance, this is zheng min—to have a recognized moral standing” (p. 65). China is the world’s largest manufacturing country and the world’s second-largest economy; therefore, to what degree do China’s actions in Africa—as indicated in news accounts—serve to perpetuate its “‘soft’ appeal to Confucian benevolence” (Cao, p. 64) of peace and harmony in

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its relationships with African communities and contribute to its public diplomacy? Ubuntu The African philosophy of ubuntu is an ethos for social cohesion and for the voice and views of the community, not those of the media or of the journalist (Chasi & Rodny-Gumede, 2016). It is an African concept of humanness, by which Africans “are educated for otherness, altruism, this high form of being in society” (Koné, 2021, p. 144). Its key characteristics overlap with those of Asia’s moral systems in the degree to which they emphasize community dialogue for the common good (utilitarianism in the West), community participation and involvement, community consensus, and the well-being of the collective, not that of the individual (again, resonates with utilitarian ethics). Rooted in Zulu and Xhosa languages, it celebrates respect of, and sensitivity to the needs of, others and “empowers citizens to come to agreement about social problems and solutions among themselves rather than depending on the political elite or professional experts” (Christians, 2004, p. 235). To what degree does selected dialogic communication indicate that community members rally the grassroots for collaboration on taking a desired BRI-related action? Public Diplomacy and Dialogic Communication Public diplomacy is strategically a soft-power approach to winning the hearts and minds of stakeholders. It is persuasive, not coercive; it is dispute-­resolving, coöperation-embracing, not conflict-generating; it is a state of true consensus, not one of dissensus; and it is harmonious, not environmentally or ideologically turbulent. Banks (2020) defined public diplomacy as “an international actor’s policy-based communication activities designed to understand, engage, inform, and influence foreign publics in support of national/institutional interests” (p. 64). It is the use of promotional and persuasive strategies and media relations by nations and organizations that operate globally (L’Etang, 2009). In contrast to traditional diplomacy, “public diplomacy is almost always, by definition, an open process [emphasis added]. Publicity is its inherent purpose; the appeal is to the public: we want people to know and understand” (Tuch, 1990, p. 4). But assessing public diplomacy effectively can be challenging because, among other reasons, “The impact of a PD program often only manifests

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itself over the long term… . PD success is often measured in intangibles (changes in opinions, attitudes, values)” (Banks, 2020, p. 64). “For many in the evaluation community, the difficulty of measuring long-term impact puts a premium on intermediate results, which can be used to indicate that the PD intervention is on the right track” (Banks, p. 70). That direction informs the “right track” approach adopted in this chapter. What, therefore, do press officers in state agencies and state-appointed media staffers in state-owned news organizations do? They facilitate dialogic communication in hopes of persuading and influencing stakeholders within a two-way symmetrical communication context. That two-way symmetry is critical to evaluating the effectiveness of public diplomacy as an open dialogic communication process in which target individuals and groups exposed to it “increasingly network to network” (Snow, 2020, p. 8), contributing in various ways to enabling a nation brand and manage its image or aggregate soft power. According to Taylor and Kent (2014), dialogic engagement, dedicated to truth and mutual understanding in a fraught environment, acknowledges that “interactants are willing to give their whole selves to encounters. Engagement assumes accessibility, presentness, and a willingness to interact” (p. 387). For public information officers, dialogic communication may be the persuasive channel of choice. The essence of dialogic communication, then, is engagement for social good. As described by Kent and Taylor (1998), it is “a negotiated exchange of ideas and opinions” (p. 325). In the context of the present research, then, it casts public information officers and news media staffers as “chief engagement officers” (Men et al., 2018, p. 84) who engage in dialogue, negotiating the meanings of government responses to global stimuli—for example, the terms of a loan agreement between an African country (a recipient) and China’s Exim Bank (a loaner) and the implications of a China-spearheaded project for the public interest. The processes and outcomes of such negotiations are captured by various media outlets as news stories and commentaries that are the subject of this chapter. In that context, “dialogic communicators not only care about other interlocutors’ values and beliefs, but also feel obligated to design their communication interactions with other people to facilitate interaction, self-discovery, and cocreation of reality. Dialogic communicators are open-­ minded, patient, and empathetic” (Taylor & Kent, 2014, pp. 388–389). They also use digital dialogic communication to contribute to discourses in online forums hosted by newspapers or posted on third-party websites

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such as Yelp (Novak & Sebastian, 2019). Media discourses are the subject of their engagement with publics—serving as arbitrators in the dialogue between a national government and its citizens and among a foreign government, an African government, and nationals. They integrate dialogic communication into contexts that foster institutional engagement, particularly in light of the heuristic relevance of media fare to public-­ government engagement. China places a premium on a variety of international media, which express the country’s identity and present its “mode of development to gain the respect of the world” (Zhou & Wu, 2018, p.  248). During a 50-year span—that is, between 1931 and 1981—China launched seven international news media outlets: in 1931, Xinhua, which has news offices in more than 100 countries; in 1941, China Radio International; in 1948, People’s Daily, in Chinese; in 1952, China News Service; in 1958, China Central Television; in 1981, China Daily, whose readers include foreign diplomats, expats, and Chinese diplomats and policymakers; and, in 2009, the English edition of the Global Times. Their collective goal is clear: They are channels of China’s public diplomacy, seeking to cultivate, promote, and sustain positive relations between China and the world. According to Zhou and Wu (2018), the pursuit of that goal manifested as three patterns of international communication: (a) show the world to China, that is, China learns from the world, guided by its foreign correspondents; (b) show China to the world, that is, the world learns about China’s development trajectory since the country’s founding in 1949, guided by events such as the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics; and (c) show the world to the world, that is, Chinese media increasingly engaging in setting the news agenda, in investing in overseas projects, in building hardware, and in using dialogues and discourses to tell its own story, consistent with its global mission. “From the Chinese point of view,” Hartig (2018) writes, “there is an urgent need to communicate better with the wider world, as the skepticism towards China mostly results from an incorrectly perceived picture of the PRC” (p. 123). But because “China is still entrenched in traditional one-way or monological public diplomacy communication despite a move to social media platforms” (Jia & Li, 2020, 5.2. Practical Implications of Networking section, para. 5), its chances of meeting that need seem politically fraught. The reasons for such an outcome are also historical: as Ha et al. (2022) note, “Chinese media still play a primary role in promoting the government’s views … The party press outlets focus

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on the leaders and the government, indoctrinating the public with the party’s policies” (p. 170).

Article Selection And Five Themes Article Selection A graduate research assistant, supervised by the author, identified articles on BRI in the Nexis Uni database from September 7, 2013, when President Xi of China announced it, through December 31, 2021, as the cut-off date determined by this researcher. The Nexis Uni search, with “Group Duplicates” off, used the terms “Belt and Road” and “Silk Road.” That study period is consistent with having a census of all Africa-focused BRI articles published in China Daily Africa (N = 187), in the Daily Nation (Kenya) (N = 73), and in The Nation (Nigeria) (N = 49). China Daily Africa was selected because it is one of five international editions of state-­ owned China Daily, China’s largest English-language newspaper launched June 1, 1980, as the voice for the Publicity Department of the Communist Party of China. The Daily Nation, which has Kenya’s highest daily circulation of 170,000 and an average daily readership of 4.4 million, is considered an agenda-setter (Ireri et  al., 2019) and a popular medium for analyzing Kenya-China relationship (Basu & Janiec, 2021). And The Nation is the second-most-widely read newspaper in Nigeria (Olaniyan, 2019). Five Themes Both readers, blind to each other’s analyses, identified, in purposively selected articles, five non-discrete summary themes: (a) coöperation for Africa’s growth and development, (b) concerns about repayment of crippling debts, (c) expertise for Africa’s development, (d) China as beneficiary of BRI partnership, and (e) Africa or African country as beneficiary of BRI partnership.  hina Daily Africa C Three of those five themes—coöperation (i.e., win-win coöperation for growth and development); expertise (i.e., building Africa’s expertise); and Africa as partnership beneficiary—were indicated in the discourses in China Daily Africa (Table  8.1). Such themes resonate overwhelmingly

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with the precepts of Confucianism, which emphasize ensuring harmonious social relationships (read: coöperation) and extending oneself in service to others. A headline that projects the Confucian principle, “Algeria to boost coöperation with China under BRI framework: president,” is backed by the following: As both countries have entered a new stage of development, it’s hoped that they will deepen coöperation in the areas of economy, trade, investment, energy, mining and infrastructure construction under the BRI framework, so to achieve common development which will also benefit other developing countries. (July 20, 2021, para. 6)

Another headline: “China-Ghana relations will prosper further,” September 18, 2020. Excerpts on two themes from sample discourses in China Daily Africa: • “It is expected discussions will revolve around how China would support African countries in combating the virus and achieving economic recovery, as well as advancing coöperation through the Belt and Road Initiative,” in a news story headlined “Nigeria, China mark 50th anniversary of diplomacy,” January 7, 2021, para. 14. (Theme: Coöperation for growth and development) • “China will continue to support Africa in developing agriculture and building a community with a shared future for all,” in a news story headlined “Student aims to eliminate hunger in Africa,” April 20, 2021, para. 5. (Theme: Expertise for Africa’s development)

In the preceding news story, an African student studying at Shenyang Agricultural University does fieldwork in Liaoning Province during its festival of Grain Rain, to learn techniques unique to the Chinese in hopes of applying them to transforming agriculture in her homeland (Table 8.1). This boost to Africans’ expertise is consistent with Confucian principles of supporting and relating courteously to one another. As shown in Table 8.1, China Daily Africa offers two-sided analyses on the initiative. An article by Liu and Lu (2016) refers to “the complex and varied laws, rules and regulations shaping the business environment in each country,” stating that “it is virtually impossible for Chinese enterprises to understand fully each environment before entering it. But any

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Table 8.1  Summary themes in sample discourses on the Belt and Road Initiative in China Daily Africa Weekly Summary theme

Summary theme (message valencea)

Byline, headline, date, and location

Coöperation

“[A] sense that China and Africa have reached a new point of embracing broader strategic prospects for common development toward a community with a shared future that benefits all parties.” (Two-sided valence) “China will continue to support Africa in developing agriculture and building a community with a shared future for all.” (One-sided valence) “As Botswana places great emphasis on growing its digital economy, Zhao reiterated that China will help Botswana accelerate the development of the digital economy by continuously providing human resources assistance such as training, scholarships and exchange programs.” (One-sided valence) “[T]he construction of the 472-kilometer Mombasa–Nairobi Railway was completed in only two and a half years.... This largest infrastructure project in Kenya’s history is a good example of China-Africa coöperation in capacity building.” (One-sided valence) “The China-Africa Joint Research is another landmark China-Kenya coöperation project.... Since its inception, the center has helped train more than 30 master and doctoral degree candidates from different African countries, and has achieved a number of research results in prevention of disasters and disease, cultivation of crop variety, and application of traditional African medicine.” (One-sided valence) [China has developed] “a comprehensive strategic partnership” [with Kenya]. “The high-level exchanges between the two sides have been frequent, political mutual has been continuously enhanced, and bilateral coordination in international and regional affairs has been closely coordinated.” (One-sided valence)

“Nation reaches out further to Africa,” November 29, 2021, para. 7.

Expertise sharing

Expertise sharing

Coöperation and Africa as beneficiary

Expertise sharing

Coöperation

“Student aims to eliminate hunger in Africa,” April 20, 2021, para. 5. “Botswana’s relations with China continue to deepen,” March 23, 2021, para. 7.

“China, Africa are building a model for the community of a shared future,” August 29, 2018, para. 6. “China, Africa are building a model for the community of a shared future,” August 29, 2018, para. 8.

“China, Africa are building a model for the community of a shared future,” August 29, 2018, para. 10.

(continued)

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Table 8.1  (continued) Summary theme Africa as beneficiary

Summary theme (message valencea)

“China will practically help Madagascar create jobs, improve the people’s livelihood, eliminate poverty and realistically transform the nation’s unique advantages in geographical location and natural resources into achievements in development, and help Madagascar accelerate industrialization and agricultural modernization and finally realize independent sustainable development.” (One-sided valence) Coöperation “The Belt and Road Initiative is set to China and promote win-win coöperation [emphasis Africa as added], shared development and prosperity, beneficiaries peace and friendship, through enhancing and Expertise friendship, through enhancing mutual sharing understanding, trust, and exchanges. The initiative advocates peace and coöperation, openness and inclusiveness, mutual learning and mutual benefit. It promotes coöperation in all fields, and works to build a community of shared interests, destiny and responsibility featuring mutual political trust, economic integration and cultural inclusiveness.” (One-sided valence) Debt concerns “Each country along the ‘Belt and Road’ faces a unique combination of risks and challenges. Many face macroeconomic risks, owing to exchange-rate volatility large debt burdens, and non-diversified, unsustainable economic structures. On the microeconomic level, risks include, for example, weak banking sectors.” (Two-sided valence)

Byline, headline, date, and location “China’s FM meets Madagascar’s president on coöperation under Belt-Road Initiative,” January 9, 2017, para. 10.

“China’s Belt and Road Initiative conducive to efforts to carry out UN sustainable development agenda,” July 20, 2016. (Shared Vision and Principles section, para. 11)

Mingkang Liu and Wenzhi Lu, “Belt and Road Initiative needs good laws,” January 22, 2016, para. 5.

a Message valence is described as either one-sided, in which only the positive or the negative aspects of the initiative are presented in a news story or opinion column, or two-sided or mixed valences, in which both positive and negative aspects are presented. One-sided message valence is deemed asymmetrical and less ethical than two-sided or mixed valences, which are deemed symmetrical and more ethical

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violation could put a company’s entire operation and investment at risk (para. 7). Liu and Lu (2016) present “practical steps that can be taken to mitigate specific risks” (para. 11). They recommend, for example, that businesses establish links in advance with a local entity to guide their activities, manage impact on community and environment, adhere strictly to market rules, ensure projects are transparent and include effective checks and balances, eschew corruption, which would not only hurt the Belt and Road Initiative, but would also undermine China’s ability to pursue future cross-border initiatives; and consider the financial costs, benefits, and ecological impact of infrastructure projects. They conclude: Realizing the Belt and Road Initiative will not be easy. But China has all of the tools it needs to succeed. As long as it uses them in a way that is clean, green, and transparent. [emphasis added] (para. 12)

These directives are the elements of an open, dialogic communication with stakeholders.  aily Nation (Kenya) D In this Nairobi (Kenya)-based daily newspaper, two-sided message valences in news reports and opinion columns are apparent. For example, in an opinion piece, Sun (2018) raises some of the criticisms of the initiative, namely, that it does not abide by the rules, that it is deemed “discrimination and prejudice,” that it is a debt trap. To those notions, the writer noted that “No country has been crippled by a debt crisis due to its coöperation with China” (para. 11). In a similar vein, in an article the newspaper sourced from Agence France-Presse (2019), it stated that “the infrastructure investment scheme had ‘known problems’ with corruption and debt distress” (para. 1). Ten months later, an Agence France-Presse (2020) news story noted that BRI “has also faced criticism for swaddling poor nations with crippling debt and for being too opaque. A lack of information on deals and ‘non-­ transparent’ procurement systems were the biggest barriers identified by European firms in [a] survey” (paras. 2–3). Table 8.2 shows the Daily Nation’s two-sided dialogic communication, which also presents several situations in which BRI serves as a training ground for Africa, enhancing its professional expertise. In calling on African journalism to report the truth, China also called on Chinese and

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Table 8.2  Summary themes in sample discourses on the Belt and Road Initiative in the Daily Nation (Kenya) Summary theme

Sample discourse (and message valencea)

Byline, headline, date, and location

Expertise sharing

“Jubilee, which became the first party in Kenya to sign a coöperation agreement with the Chinese Communist Party, says it is picking key lessons from the world’s largest political movement with about 92 million members.” (One-sided valence) “The CCP had, under the arrangement, promised at least 200 scholarships per year to Jubilee members to go learn governance lessons in China.” (One-sided valence)

Aggrey Mutambo, “Jubilee praises China for Kenya’s infrastructure projects,” June 17, 2021, para. 8.

Expertise sharing

Africa as beneficiary

“Its more than $150 billion in infrastructure loans have been scrutinized for opaqueness even as Beijing argues it has helped erect more than 1000 crucial projects on the continent since 2010.” (Two-sided valence)

Coöperation

“[BRI] acts in the spirit of extensive consultation, joint contribution and shared benefits. And it boosts policy consultation, trade promotion, infrastructure connectivity, financial coöperation and people-to-people exchanges.” (One-sided valence) “[Some] deem it discrimination and prejudice.. .. [Some] claim that there Is a debt trap when they just see the Word ‘loan.’ They are full of anxiety even while the relevant countries do not worry about it themselves. Not a few countries in Asia and Africa are, indeed, worrying due to the situations of poverty, unemployment, ethnic conflicts and refugee crisis. If I may ask the critics and doubting Thomases, what could you bring to these countries?. .. No country has been crippled by a debt crisis due to its coöperation with China.” (Two-sided valence)

Debt concerns

Aggrey Mutambo, “Jubilee praises China for Kenya’s infrastructure projects,” June 17, 2021, para. 12. Aggrey Mutambo, “China’s ‘poverty eradication’ suggestive of next Africa policy, experts say,” February 27, 2021, para. 30. Baohong Sun,” No traps, prejudice in Belt and Road,” August 2, 2018, para. 4.

Baohong Sun, “No traps, prejudice in Belt and Road,” August 2, 2018, para. 11–12.

(continued)

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Table 8.2  (continued) Summary theme

Sample discourse (and message valencea)

Byline, headline, date, and location

Coöperation

“China, along with other 26 countries, has formulated the ‘Guiding Principles on Financing the Development of the Belt and Road’ which advocate a transparent, friendly, non-discriminatory and predictable financing environment and ensure sustainable economic and social development.” (Two-sided valence)

Baohong Sun, “No traps, prejudice in Belt and Road,” August 2, 2018, para. 17.

a Message valence is described as either one-sided, in which only the positive or the negative aspects of the initiative are presented in a news story or opinion column, or two-sided or mixed valences, in which both positive and negative aspects are presented. One-sided message valence is deemed asymmetrical and less ethical than two-sided or mixed valences, which are deemed symmetrical and more ethical

African journalists to “jointly advocate objective, rational, and scientific media coverage” (Mutambo, 2020, para. 21), asserting its commitment to helping train African journalists to exercise professional judgment, but with a caveat: “The Chinese … will be ready to help train African journalists on new technologies. The biggest question, however, is whether the quality of journalism will also improve” (Mutambo, 2020, para. 22).  he Nation (Nigeria) T This newspaper addressed extensively the challenges of BRI on the continent. For example, as presented in Table  8.3, it wrote that “Observations have also been made regarding China producing substandard products to Nigerian markets, and Chinese employers maltreating Nigerian workers in their companies, or showing disparity in payment of wages” (“Nigeria-­China,” 2020, para. 21). But it also reported that, in January 2019, Nigeria’s Ekiti state government canvassed the government and people of China for their “support to include training and retraining of workers, mechanized and commercial agriculture, healthcare delivery, development of educational institutions and establishment of industries to absorb unemployed youths” (“Ekiti Woos,” 2019, para. 5).

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Table 8.3  Summary themes in sample discourses on the Belt and Road Initiative in The Nation (Nigeria) Summary theme

Sample discourse (and message valencea)

Byline, headline, date, and location

“In recent years, we have achieved results such as. .. the consensus of building a community with a shared future, the co-construction of ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ and China-Africa pilot projects for production capacity coöperation, and so on. All of which have brought groundbreaking influence in the history of China-Africa relations, and helped push China-Africa coöperation into a new era.” (One-sided valence) Nigeria as “Nigeria has leveraged Chinese funding to execute beneficiary $3.4 billion worth of projects—upgrade of airport Debt terminals, Lagos-Kano rail line, Zungeru hydro electric concerns power project, and fibre cables for Internet infrastructure. These are in addition to signing a $1 billion loan from China for another rolling stock for new rail lines, road rehabilitation and water supply projects, dispelling insinuations about the debt trap by China on developing countries.” (Two-sided valence) Challenges of “These developments have not been without initiative challenges. Some scholars have observed that there is dearth of information on the genuine scale and character of China’s educational aid. This continues to fuel misrepresentations and feed misconceptions of Chinese aid in Nigeria. There are, however, prospects for improved academic partnerships and joint endeavours between China and Nigeria though more strategic institutional responses. “Observations have also been made regarding China producing substandard products to Nigerian markets, and Chinese employers maltreating Nigerian workers in their companies, or showing disparity in payment of wages. Besides the fact that these allegations are addressed at the diplomatic and or institutional levels, they have never constituted a significant force to erode the 50 years of friendship and bonding between Nigeria and China. “Challenges and difficulties that threaten friendship are issues that can be resolved through consultation, and in the spirit of equality and mutual respect.” (Two-sided valence)

“Chinese foreign minister in Nigeria on a two-day state visit,” January 5, 2021, para 11.

Coöperation Africa and China as beneficiaries

“Nigeria-China: Celebrating 50 years of friendship,” September 30, 2020, para. 14.

“Nigeria-China: Celebrating 50 years of friendship,” September 30, 2020, paras. 20-22.

(continued)

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Table 8.3  (continued) Summary theme

Sample discourse (and message valencea)

China and Africa as beneficiaries

“President Xi Jinping explains that no matter how the international situation changes and in spite of the interference of certain powers, the original aspirations of China and Africa for win-win coöperation and common development remain.” (One-sided valence)

Expertise sharing

Coöperation China and Africa as beneficiaries Coöperation China and Africa as beneficiaries

Byline, headline, date, and location

“How China’s Belt and Road Initiative affects Nigeria, Africa,” January 30, 2020, para. 24. “China’s commitment toward promoting sustainable “China promises economic development programs, growing relationship technology with Nigeria and other African countries, especially in transfer to the area of technology transfer.” (One-sided valence) Nigerians,” May 21, 2019, paras. 1 and 3. “As an international framework of coöperation to be “Africa and driven by ‘extensive consultation’ and whose beneficial China’s Belt and outcomes ‘will be shared by all,’ many African countries Road strategy,” have become coöperation partners of the BRI.” May 8, 2019, (One-sided valence) para. 11. “Guided by the principle of consultation and “Nigeria collaboration for shared benefits, China-Nigeria formally joins coöperation can become a model for China-Africa China’s belt, coöperation.” (One sided valence) road initiative,” January 31, 2019, para. 9.

a Message valence is described as either one-sided, in which only the positive or the negative aspects of the initiative are presented in a news story or opinion column, or two-sided or mixed valences, in which both positive and negative aspects are presented. One-sided message valence is deemed asymmetrical and less ethical than two-sided or mixed valences, which are deemed symmetrical and more ethical

Africa-Focused BRI as China’s Public Diplomacy As noted in a preceding section, BRI contributes to China’s public diplomacy. Consequently, China invests massively in its soft power in an attempt to improve its international image (Turcsanyi & Kachlikova, 2020). The focus of this chapter is to investigate the degree to which the coverage of BRI in select African newspapers contributes to China’s public diplomacy interests. An outcome of its action plan was that two of the

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leading newspapers in each of three European countries (the United Kingdom, Spain, and Poland) propagated Chinese BRI frames on economic opportunities, coöperation, and benefits, enabling a positive public perception of the country’s image (Turcsanyi & Kachlikova). In Africa, China is on the “right track” in its strategic use of dialogic communication, a relational communication strategy, to engage foreign audiences to ensure clarity of exchanges, of understanding meanings and contexts, and of ascertaining consistency between those exchanges and expected BRI outcomes. Paradoxes occur when there is turbulence in any of those relationships. In late 2021, for example, there was concern that Entebbe International Airport, Uganda’s only international airport, could be taken over by China’s government because of Uganda’s possible default on a 20-year $207 million loan it acquired from the Export-Import Bank of China to expand the airport. The issue was provisions of the loan agreement; the more concerning issue, however, was Ugandan officials’ responsibility for due diligence before committing their country to an international agreement. But how much of the backstory does the African public know? This is the essence of dialogic communication as relational communication, one that offers China’s public affairs specialists an opportunity to present their organizational perspective strategically before the facts are distorted and well before paradoxes besmirch the relational communication between China and Africa. Tables 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 show areas in which one-sided messages were presented publicly, raising questions on full organizational disclosure— that is, how much of what press officers know about a situation is being shared with stakeholders. The organization-public relationships management framework in public relations (e.g., Hung, 2006; Seltzer & Zhang, 2011; Toth, 2010) is informed by two-way symmetrical communication consistent with two-sided message valences. Interestingly, all the three newspapers investigated in this study—China Daily Africa, the Daily Nation (Kenya), and The Nation (Nigeria)—embraced both the one- and two-­sided notions of relational communication; however, The Nation (Nigeria), had much more critical coverage. So concerning was such coverage that Chinese press officers advocated more professionalism in African journalism. Instructively, discourses in China Daily Africa highlight strengths and risks of BRI (Table 8.1). That said, such an approach is telling more so if we argue that communications used by the People’s Republic of China are a public affairs tool not only for global diplomacy but also for their

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cautionary, strategic value in national and regional development. Dialogic communication that is one-sided is asymmetrical; its two-sided equivalent is symmetrical. As Grunig (1992) states, “symmetrical public relations is more ethical and socially responsible than asymmetrical public relations” (p. 10). Even though it is the audiences’ responsibility to seek alternative news sources for additional perspectives on the news, China Daily Africa, a government news outlet, ensures coverage of the initiative.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research Focusing on the analysis of the text of dialogic communication raises the specter of a dissonance between China’s dialogic communication and its actions on the ground. And it suggests future research directions: direct measures of public attitudes toward, and opinions and beliefs about, BRI generally and toward its major ground activities specifically.

Conclusion Does China’s dialogic communication showcase its signature initiative effectively as public diplomacy? The five summary themes identified in BRI-focused newspaper coverage analyzed in this chapter—coöperation, expertise sharing, China as a beneficiary, Africa or an African country as a beneficiary, and debt concerns—suggest mutuality of interests and an additional perspective, which I provide here by concluding this chapter with a telling anecdote. In October 2016, I attended Africa’s first International Communication Association Regional Conference at Daystar University, in Nairobi. During my forays into downtown Nairobi and into its outskirts, some passers-by applauded affectionately a visiting ethnic Chinese colleague with whom I was exploring parts of the city. Several called out approvingly “Chinese!” In local markets and in business districts, retailers and store owners gravitated toward my colleague, fawned over her, engaged her in good-natured banters, invited her to browse their merchandise because “looking is free,” and regaled her to the endearing practices typical of the local culture. Granted, such xenial sentiments were limited in scope and locations; however, they were reassuring even as some misgivings occurred in parts of the continent regarding China’s economic and infrastructural activities there. And such sentiments, at the grassroots, and Africa’s institutional reception of BRI, at the macrolevel, point to BRI’s effectiveness as public diplomacy.

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A definitive answer may be premature at this point; after all, the global initiative has been active on the continent only since May 2017 in Kenya and since September 2018 in Nigeria. As The Nation (Nigeria) observes, “countries, mostly African nations, [are] already defaulting on their Chinese loans…. [W]hether [BRI] represents Eureka or a debt peonage … can only be determined in the near future” (“Chinese Silk Road,” 2018, paras. 3 and 10). But a keyword that looms large in the dialogic communication is shared—as in “shared future,” “shared interests,” and “shared benefits.” And that word resonates with the slogan for the 2022 Beijing winter Olympics (“Together for a shared future”) and reflects Confucianism. Sharing is an elemental principle of China’s long-term strategic interest in effective public diplomacy in Africa. Conflict of Interest  I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 9

The CEO Activism Playbook: An Empirical African Perspective from Ghana Eric Kwame Adae , Gregory Gondwe , and Jared Macary

Given growing discontent with the current state of affairs in societies across the globe, there have been calls for various corporate actors to step up to the plate and be agents of positive social change (Chatterji, 2016). While diverse corporate agents have heeded this call, Chief Executive

E. K. Adae (*) School of Journalism and Mass Communication, Drake University, Des Moines, IA, USA e-mail: [email protected] G. Gondwe Department of Communication, California State University, San Bernardino, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] J. Macary School of Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA Washington and Lee University, Lexington, VA, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_9

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Officers (CEOs hereafter), in particular, continue to publicly speak up on sociopolitical and environmental issues (see Hambrick & Wowak, 2021), to achieve various ends, including improving social outcomes, enhancing corporate/brand images, and driving business revenues (Josephs, 2019). CEO activism is conceptualized as situations where corporate leaders take open stances and make public pronouncements on controversial sociopolitical and environmental matters, which may not be connected to the economic profits or operations of their corporations (Chatterji, 2016). While the term “CEO activism” is relatively new (see Chatterji & Toffel, 2015; Wettstein & Baur, 2016), it has been argued that the idea of business leaders playing a role in addressing key societal issues is not (Keim & Zeithaml, 1986). CEO activism tends to run counter to the conventional business wisdom of shareholder primacy and financial profit-maximizing principles (e.g., Friedman, 1970, 2007). The growing incidence of CEO activism appears set against the backdrop of recent redefinitions of the social purpose of corporations to include the pursuit of the interests of multiple stakeholders rather than only financial profits for corporations and their investors (Business Roundtable, 2019). Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) priorities are becoming a common driver of business strategy and taking what was previously known as corporate social responsibility (CSR) to new heights. Thus, the social purpose of the corporation is undergoing a repositioning (Business Round Table, 2019), just as responsible management practices and a sustainable development roadmap are being more stridently promoted (see Adae et  al., 2021). Popular CEO activists include Google’s Eric Schmidt, Goldman Sachs’ Lloyd Blankfein (Chatterji & Toffel, 2015); Chick-fil-A’s Dan T. Cathy, Starbucks’ Howard Schultz (Chatterji & Toffel, 2016); and Apple’s Tim Cook (Hambrick & Wowak, 2021). CEO activism campaign issues have included race relations, gender equality, same-sex marriage, climate change, income fairness, immigration, racial discrimination, and gender equality (Weber Shandwick, 2016). Larcker et al. (2018) note that CEO activism is a highly debated topic in corporate governance and that it can be a risky move that is often seen as a double-edged sword. It has been posited that the phenomenon is signaling a significant shift in corporate public relations, a reason why it is enjoying growing media profiling, fast becoming the subject of increasing scholarly investigation (Wettstein & Baur, 2016), and PR firms now offering whole-new practices to assist CEOs (Chatterji & Toffel, 2018).

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CEO activism is growing in its global appeal (Chatterji & Toffel, 2018) due to growing social injustices and the inability of governments to address key concerns of their constituents. For example, consider its rising incidence in Ghana (Adae, 2020) with campaigns to address many socio-­ cultural, economic, legal, business/workplace, political, and environmental issues (Adae, 2021b). Yet, the bulk of current scholarly literature on CEO activism displays a discernible exclusion of non-Western cases (Adae, 2021a). CEO activism scholarship is also dominated by an ideological bias for modernist perspectives that privilege consensus and center around corporate and investor interests while excluding alternative perspectives such as Afrocentric philosophies (Pompper & Adae, 2022) and postmodernism that supports agonism and the promotion of multiple stakeholder interests (Ciszek & Logan, 2018). While CEO activism is becoming commonplace as a non-market corporate strategy with significant outcomes for society, corporations, and CEOs, precious little has been investigated regarding guidelines for activist CEO campaign management. Extant postulations about CEO activism guidelines appear somewhat limited to the findings of Chatterji and Toffel (2018, 2019) and their prescriptions for CEO activists and Adae’s (2020) conceptualization of CEO Activism Safeguards. Importantly, we are yet to locate an empirical study on the CEO guidelines based on evidence from non-Western socio-cultural contexts. Even as CEO activism continues to gain traction as an expression of corporate social advocacy, what lessons could be derived from the experiences of other corporate leaders from global contexts? This study is thus designed to address the relative dearth of literature on the CEO activism playbook question by focusing on an empirical examination of the guidelines that corporate leaders with track records in CEO activism say should inform such campaigns within an African context. Based on their lived experiences as activist CEOs within the African context of Ghana, what do participants in this study say ought to be important guidelines for engaging in CEO activism? This study is positioned to contribute to current discussions in public relations for social responsibility (see Pompper, 2021), corporate social responsibility, sustainability, responsible management (see Adae et  al., 2021), corporate social advocacy (CSA; Dodd & Supa, 2014, 2015), and contemporary attempts at prescribing guidelines for safer and more effective CEO activism (Chatterji & Toffel, 2018, 2019; Adae, 2020).

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Theory and Literature Review Responsible Management, Public Relations for Social Responsibility, and Afrocentricity Several theoretical and conceptual lenses inform this study. These include notions of responsible management in emerging markets (see Adae et al., 2021) and public relations for social responsibility (see Pompper, 2021); Afrocentricity (see e.g., Asante, 1989) and Afrocentric philosophies of sustainability (see Pompper & Adae, 2022) and Africapitalism (see e.g., Elumelu, 2012; Amaeshi & Idemudia, 2015); and corporate social advocacy (see Dodd & Supa, 2014), and CEO activism (see e.g., Branicki et al., 2021; Chatterji & Toffel, 2018). The African School of Thought in Leadership and Public Relations Globally, the negative effects of capitalist logic and business activities have been highlighted (e.g., Banerjee, 2008). Thus, calls have been made by corporations, especially those operating in developing societies, to uphold inclusive management philosophies and principles in order to “be responsible and balance the conflicting interests of diverse stakeholders, including the biosphere and future generations” and “the installation of responsible and sustainable management practices that seek to integrate economic, social and environmental missions into corporate goals and strategies” (Adae et al., 2021, p. v). In this regard, the field of public relations is positioned as playing a pivotal role, especially because of its focus on pursuing multiple stakeholder perspectives, particularly at the intersections of public relations, corporate social responsibility, diversity/equity/ inclusivity, and the significant role of public relations professionals as insider-activists and guardians of corporate and business ethics (see Pompper, 2021). Given the relative omission of African perspectives and the Eurocentric colonization of most disciplines, the theory of Afrocentricity is a pro-­ African stance that is sympathetic to African genius and values, and advocates the re-centering of the African culture and worldview in historical and contemporary phenomena (see e.g., Asante, 1987, 1989, 2003, 2007). It advocates for the intentional analysis of phenomena from the standpoint of the agency of African people, culture, history, and roles in

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socio-cultural phenomena (Asante, 2017; Asante & Dove, 2021; Mazama, 2003; Rosier & Sekai, 2016). It has been argued that, on the African continent, public relations plays significant roles in driving the sustainability logic and social inclusion. This argument particularly holds true, especially when viewed from the perspective of the agency of public relations professionalism in driving social development and addressing social justice issues (Pratt, 1993) and the fact that public relations professionals in Africa (such as those in Nigeria) display a greater sense of professional ethics and commitment to social responsibility, compared to their Western colleagues (Pratt, 1986). Afrocentric Philosophies of Sustainability are seen as traditional African worldviews, beliefs, customs, and usages that not only align with contemporary sustainability transitions but promote multiple stakeholder interests and perspectives, including Bilchiinsi (Mohammed, 2022), and Ma’atic philosophy (Asante & Dove, 2021), Caritas, Negritude, Ujamaa, Consciencism, Bantu philosophy, Ubuntu, the spirit of Harambee, Akan philosophy, Yoruba epistemology, and Sankofa philosophy (Pompper & Adae, 2022) among many other genres of African holism and human-­ centered mores. The role of corporate agents in driving progress and prosperity on the African continent is not limited to the role of public relations professionals. Africapitalism describes a management philosophy that highlights the role of corporations, brands, and corporate executives in spurring the African continent’s socioeconomic development such as through the routinization of Afrocentric inclusive capitalist philosophies (Elumelu, 2012). It has been explained that Africapitalism is built on several Ubuntu-­ derived pillars that set it apart from neo-liberal capitalism, including unique senses of progress and prosperity, parity, harmony, and place and belongingness (Amaeshi & Idemudia, 2015). CEO Activism as Corporate Social Advocacy Corporate social advocacy (CSA) refers to instances of corporations making public statements on sociopolitical issues that may not align with the profit-maximizing corporate logic (Dodd & Supa, 2015). Dodd and Supa (2014) conceptualize CSA at the intersection of corporate social responsibility and strategic issues management. Adae (2020) argues that various corporate agents may spearhead CSA and that CEO activism is a unique genre of CSA entailing heads of

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profit-oriented corporations making public statements and taking open stances on social and environmental issues that may not directly relate to the economic bottom line of their corporations. In arguing for CEO activism as a legitimate field of scholarly inquiry, Adae (2020) identified several sites/streams of research, including (i) dimensions of CEO social-­ mindedness, (ii) motivations, (iii) causes, (iv) strategies and tactics, (v) outcomes, (vi) safeguards, and (vii) guidelines. Generally, CEO activists are motivated by the desire for social change (Chatterji, 2016), bolstering or projecting a desired corporate image (Eilert & Nappier Cherup, 2020), signaling to market players a corporation’s values and concerns for promoting social justice (Cartabuke et al., 2019), and achieving specific market-related strategic goals (Dodd & Supa, 2015). Within the African context, CEO activism motivations have been found to include Caritas, the African Ubuntu philosophy, Africapitalism, and some postmodern values (Adae, 2021a). The major cause clusters for CEO activists have been found to align with extant brand activism issue categories (see Kotler & Sarkar, 2017) and tend to include broad legal, socio-cultural, economic, political, environmental, and business/workplace issues (Adae, 2021b). Chatterji and Toffel (2018) suggest that CEO activism tactics include raising awareness and leveraging economic power, while Iivonen (2018) discusses persuasive tactics, disruptive/coercive tactics, and supportive tactics. However, Adae (2020) argues that the activist CEO tactical repertoire within the African context is more nuanced and includes (i) leveraging economic power, (ii) awareness creation and persuasion, (iii) disruption and protest, and (iv) support tactics, but also involving (v) naming and shaming, (vi) activism by living by example, (vii) activism by industry group representatives, and (viii) legal activism. Scholars have tended to focus on the association between CEO activism on organizational outcomes such as consumer purchase intents and public opinion. Chatterji and Toffel (2018) argue that CEO activism could produce societal, corporate, and personal rewards for activist CEOs. The rewards or tonic factors could include diverse strategic/business case arguments (Adae, 2020). Weber Shandwick (2017) found a strong influence of CEO activism on the buying decisions of Millennials, while Chatterji and Toffel (2016) reported a strong influence on public opinion and customers’ interest in buying a company’s brands. However, CEO activism also presents risks for corporate leaders and their corporations, including such toxic outcomes as criticisms against CEO activists, negative

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business, and reputational consequences for companies, such as charges of hypocrisy, double standards, and bad press (Chatterji & Toffel, 2017). For example, Adae (2020) observed that some CEO activists in Ghana had been arrested and detained, suffered physical and media attacks, removals from offices, and negative business outcomes such as loss of contracts. The CEO Activism Playbook, Guidelines, and Safeguards Scholars have scarcely offered empirical examinations of measures that could be taken by activist CEOs to insulate themselves and their companies from the undesirable consequences of engaging in CEO activism. Chatterji and Toffel (2018) suggest that guidelines must include (i) the careful selection of issues; (ii) ensuring that the CEO’s voice is seen by the public as appropriate for the chosen issue/cause; (iii) undertaking joint actions with other activists, rather than solo campaigns; (iv) adequately engaging internal corporate stakeholders; (v) predicting the reaction of other external stakeholders; and (vi) taking the trouble to gauge the overall campaign results. Chatterji and Toffel (2019) posit additional guidelines such as tactful campaign execution and being governed by two broad classes of what could be interpreted as communication-specific guidelines, each with three specific pointers for further consideration. These include tips on (i) when to speak and (ii) how to speak effectively. In speaking out, CEOs are advised to gauge the level of support from their employees; speak in ways and on issues that reflected their corporate values; and to speak as close to when the issue is live as possible. These scholars also advocate for having the support of a rapid response team (a Kitchen Cabinet), anticipate and plan for any backlash, and work with professional communicators. It is, however, unclear whether these prescriptions emanated from any empirical data. Adae (2020) made a case for CEO activism safeguards, generally conceptualized as measures that could be adopted by activist CEOs to help identify, avert, and minimize the risks and pitfalls of engaging in CEO activism campaigns. Based on empirical data involving self-identified activist CEOs within the African context of Ghana, Adae (2020) offered a typology of six distinct classes of CEO activism safeguards, including (i) personal safeguards, (ii) spiritual safeguards, (iii) social safeguards, (iv) corporate safeguards, (v) communication-related safeguards, and (vi) CEO activism best-practice safeguards.

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With the growing popularity of CEO activism, there is the need for a deeper examination and modeling of the strategies that could guide the safer and more effective implementation of activist CEO campaigns. In this regard, it is especially instructive to profit from the experiences of real-­ life CEO activists, rather than assumptions, suppositions, and conjectures by scholars and commentators. Thus, this study addresses the relatively thin literature on CEO activism in non-Western contexts by focusing on an empirical examination of guidelines, as disclosed by self-identified men and women activist CEOs in Ghana. The research question is: Based on their lived experiences as CEO activists, what do participants say should be guidelines for more effective and safer activist CEO campaigns within the African context of Ghana?

Methods We opted for the qualitative method because of the exploratory nature of the inquiry and the desire to gain an interpretive understanding of the issue at hand (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). The qualitative inquiry involves semi-structured interviews because of the nascency of the phenomenon of CEO activism and the desire to inductively examine the CEO activism playbook question to understand what practicing activist CEOs think should be guidelines for safer and more effective CEO activism campaigns within the African context. We interviewed 24 purposively selected corporate executives in Ghana who self-identified as CEO activists, comprising 12 men and 12 women. We engaged the participants in semi-structured conversations (Brinkman, 2018), conducted as part of a large-scale investigation into various themes relating to CEO activism in Ghana. The participation of multiple participants enabled us to identify and confirm the key themes and patterns while serving as a check against response bias from any specific participant. Participants’ Self-Identification as CEO Activists It was important for the investigators to establish the CEO activism track records of participants. Although we had some indications of previous social resistance actions before purposively approaching participants, we wanted them to self-identify as CEO activists. Thus, each interview opened with several definitions of CEO activism (e.g., Hambrick & Wowak, 2021;

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Chatterji & Toffel, 2016). Also mentioned at the start of each conversation were some exemplars of CEO activists and their actions. These included America CEO activists Dan Cathy of Chick-fil-A and Tim Cook of Apple. African and Ghanaian examples included Tony Elumelu of the UBA Group, who has been advocating for Africapitalism; Senyo Hosi, who had engaged in diverse actions, including calling for public accountability, educational and constitutional reforms in Ghana; Kofi Bentil’s actions such as electoral reforms in Ghana, and Dr. Charles Wereko-Brobbey, whose Activism was pivotal in liberalizing the media landscape in Ghana. After these initial definitions and illustrations, we asked participants the question: “Now, have you personally ever engaged in activism of this sort?” All of them then self-identified as CEO activists. Research Ethics The study was approved by the Human Subjects Board of the University of Oregon, which reviewed it under the pre-2018 Common Rule, determined it to qualify for exemption under Title 45 CFR 46.101(b)(2) (IRB Protocol Number: 10092018.007), and approved for the period July 01, 2019–October 15, 2023. All participants voluntarily consented to participate in the study by signing consent forms in addition to providing recorded verbal consent at the start of each conversation. While all participants agreed (with many demanding) to have their identities disclosed and their sayings attributed to them, we decided to protect the identities of the participants in this research paper. Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria The selection/inclusion criteria required that participants be (i) men and women CEOs who are leading/have led corporations operating in Ghana (be they Ghanaian nationals or not) and (ii) who have engaged in CEO activism in Ghana. Based on these criteria, the researchers followed a purposive sampling strategy in compiling an initial list of participants. Snowball sampling supplemented this initial participant pool, whereby participants recommended other participants. The researchers maintained an open-­ ended sample size and included more participants until data saturation was reached.

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Data Collection Once identified, prospective participants were contacted through emails and phone calls to brief them about the study and gauge their willingness to participate. Some were contacted through their social media accounts. Prospective participants who expressed a desire to be interviewed were then emailed formal invitation letters. Interview sessions were then scheduled with each participant. Data collection involved semi-structured face-to-face interviews with participants. The qualitative interview is a purpose-driven conversation between the researcher and the participant (Englander, 2012), to discuss various experiences and themes (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018), describe the lived experiences of interviewees, and illuminate the essence of the phenomenon under investigation (Brinkman & Kvale, 2015). All interviews were conducted in English, based on an interview guide that covered the major themes while containing prompts for follow-up questions and deeper probing. These interviews averaged 60  min and were digitally recorded. Journals were maintained for taking field notes. Data collection was stopped when data saturation point had been reached. The audio recordings were each then transcribed, prepared for data analysis, and subsequently analyzed manually in a systematic manner consistent with qualitative data analysis (van Manen, 2016).

Data Analysis The conversations with participants in this study produced digitally recorded narratives, which were transcribed verbatim and carefully prepared for data analysis based on the human science approach of van Manen (2016). Data analysis involves closely studying, categorizing, and recombining evidence to ascertain meaning related to the study’s goals (Yin, 1994). Data analysis followed a thematic method. An open coding system was employed to help compare the similarities and differences in patterns of data collected (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). Guided by the research question, this method saw the organization of the voices of participants into relevant categories/themes (van Manen, 2016).

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Results While some scholars have contributed to the idea of having a playbook to guide the successful implementation of CEO activism in general, most of the current proposals appear limited and pertain to Western socio-cultural contexts (see, e.g., Chatterji & Toffel, 2018, 2019). This study thus sought to address this lacuna in the literature. Based on their experiences as activist CEOs, the participants in this study were asked to suggest some guidelines that CEOs desiring to become activists could follow in order to ensure more effective or successful social resistance campaigns, as presented in the ensuing sections. Overall, participants described three main classes of activist CEO campaign guidelines. These include (i) ex-ante CEO activism campaign guidelines (considerations before rolling out campaigns), (ii) process/ campaign implementation guidelines, and (iii) ex-post CEO campaign guidelines (considerations after each campaign). The following sections explain the details of the key findings. Ex-Ante CEO Activism Campaign Guidelines For many participants, it is important to ensure campaign success even before embarking on the effort. Various pre-campaign sub-themes emerged, including personal conviction and emotional safeguards, CEO social-mindedness and signature advocacy, authenticity, and truth-based activism, playing by the book, and community creation.  ersonal Conviction and Emotional Safeguards P Participants noted that a key guideline involved activist CEOs convincing themselves that it was the course of action to pursue. This was found to be a foundational guideline, requiring activist CEOs to bring themselves to the point of personal conviction beforehand. Despite his enduring track record as an activist CEO, Participant #10, a man CEO (Managing Partner) of a major law firm had on more occasions than once wondered whether it was a path he wanted to tread: You have to sit down and take a deep look at yourself to see if it is something you really want to/have to do. Honestly, sometimes, it feels like it is not worth it at all.

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Some participants disclosed that CEO activism was a minefield that exposed the activist CEO to many risks, such that anyone who desires to undertake such campaigns ought to candidly do some serious soul-­ searching. Most of the study participants shared that without personal conviction, an activist CEO would soon give up when they faced pushbacks and attacks from strong socio-cultural, economic, and political systems that nurtured and supported corruption. As explained by Participant #13, a woman CEO of a television production company, without these attributes, any CEO’s attempts at activism would fail or be short-lived: You might think that your Activism might only produce benefits, but it may actually backfire. So, you have to go deep and be sure the fire is coming from deep within. You must be totally committed to the struggle. CEO activism is a marathon, so always speak to issues you are passionate about and are sure you can sustain.

It also emerged that guidelines for CEO activism on the African continent must include emotional safeguards, particularly the caution to prepare for hypocrisy from diverse quarters. Some participants urged activist CEOs to have safeguards against mistrust, back-stabbing, and being thrown under the bus by all manner of actors, as testified by Participant #12, a man CEO activist who once led a major electrical power authority: There is a steep price to pay for CEO activism. I have woken up many times and told myself, ‘I am done … I am not going to do this again.’ The thing is that when you fight corruption, it fights you back … very hard. It doesn’t matter the verbal assurances people give you, you’ll find that some who cheer you openly, jeer at you behind your back. On social media, you see people who supported you elsewhere, now attacking you on the self-same issues. It is not just hypocrisy; it is duplicity. You ask yourself whether all this is worth it.

 EO Social-Mindedness and Signature Advocacy C Some participants spoke about the importance of the modern CEO developing a keen sense of their social environment based on the realization of a strong inter-connectedness between the company and the wider operating context. Other participants shared the idea that it made business sense to think beyond the narrow confines of a company’s profit motive. Participant #21, a woman CEO of an ad agency, expressed the importance

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of being socially minded since corporate leadership was a corollary to social leadership: You must also be conscious of the fact that you live in an environment, and that you cannot be cocooned or unconcerned about happenings around you. You must be conscious of your environment, and be prepared to put your voice to things that matter to you because if you are a business leader, you have to extend that leadership to your environment.

Some participants felt that CEOs owed it to themselves, their companies, and society to leave a good legacy for the next generation. Several participants observed that it was inappropriate to limit the evaluation of the performances of CEOs and their companies only to the attainment of business metrics. Thus, most participants urged CEOs not to limit the evaluation of their roles to the ability to deliver shareholder value only. For some participants, pre-decision considerations must include potential CEO activists deepening their personal knowledge about citizenship. Based on the belief that an uncommon sense of patriotism and citizenship served as the bedrock for activism, several participants underscored the importance of activist CEOs becoming more knowledgeable about active citizenship. We found that the deep interpenetrations between corporations and their operating environments made it imperative for CEOs to concern themselves with the creation and maintenance of social systems that promoted the realization of corporate strategic objectives. Many participants underscored the need for CEO activists to select their issues properly to ensure campaign effectiveness. For many participants, accurate issue selection was important because of the plethora of possible causes, relative to limited available resources. Here, Participant #14, a man CEO of a chamber of downstream petroleum companies, highlighted the need for having what he termed “a signature advocacy”: You need to select the issues properly since you can’t pretend to be able to solve every social problem. Have a signature advocacy–issues that define who you are and what you stand for, and causes that can deliver the change you seek.

Such a signature advocacy was found to be associated with diverse campaign benefits, such as consistently sticking with an issue or a family of

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interrelated issues for which an activist CEO and his/her company could become known for.  uthenticity and Truth-Based Activism A Participants unanimously testified that an important guideline is for CEO activism to be grounded on authenticity and truth. Many argued that CEO activism that is contrived would be scarcely successful since the key publics would see through any veneer of deceit and selfish motives. For Participant #2, a woman CEO of a major international financial services firm, a CEO should not take the activist stance for the wrong reasons, such as because it is a cool thing/the in-thing: Authenticity comes first. It [Activism] has to start from what you can relate to authentically. The great thing about being authentic is that it means your Activism will be expressed in unique ways. If you’re authentic, you will do what comes naturally to you … and what comes naturally to you will not be what comes naturally to me. So, we will express our Activism in different ways.

Candor also emerged as an important expression of authenticity because of its ability to serve as a protection from attacks against perceptions of the lack of objectivity on the part of the activist CEO, as explained by Participant #14: In Ghana, when you’re candid, you always end up ruffling feathers. Still, be candid with them and make them realize that your Activism is based on your personal conviction and that you’re fighting for the good of all.

Others drew attention to the role of consistency and authenticity in driving down the cost of activist campaigns while improving the effectiveness of the communication effort. Several participants observed that being consistent, speaking the truth, and being authentic had contributed to increasingly minimal activist campaign budgets. Truth-based campaigns were more likely to be effective and successful because the element of authenticity was pivotal in determining desirable campaign elements, such as the meaningful selection of issues and causes and the definition of campaign strategies and tactics, which ensured greater success and offered a strong shield of protection for the activist CEO.

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 laying by the Book P Many participants saw a useful guideline in being above reproach and coming to the table with clean hands. It was found that a vital personal trait that is shared by activist CEOs is their abhorrence of social injustices. Thus, most participants noted the need for all activist CEOs to lead by example in ensuring that every facet of their lives was above board, since engaging in CEO activism necessarily brought activists into direct conflict with entrenched and powerful interests in the societal and political establishment. Participant #24, a woman CEO of an agro-processing firm, explained the importance of operating above reproach: When you want to engage in Activism as a CEO, be sure that you yourself are right; that you can’t be found culpable in any way. Your business, books, licenses, permits, etc. should all be in order, before you can start thinking of helping others. Otherwise, it would be used against you, for sure.

We found that a part of playing by the book involved getting the inside game right with employee relations. Those that shared this perspective stressed the importance of running a transparent business that employees supported. Participant #5, a man CEO of a finance and leasing firm, shared that to be transparent and gain the support of employees: Nobody is perfect, but you must run a transparent business because those who either carry or crucify you are your employees. They’re the first to either encourage people to do business with your company or not. So, get your employees to believe in you and your cause. Have a clear strategy and share it with your team.

Thus, while CEO activism was driven mainly by the personal convictions of the CEO, many participants saw the need to carry their employees along through effective internal communications. Community Creation It was found that virtually all participants shared the view that the CEO activist ought not to be a lone ranger. Thus, for many participants, an important success factor in CEO activism revolved around the need to create what some described as “a coalition of the willing,” referring to the imperative of having a group of like-minded people and organizations who can help with various aspects of the campaign, from legwork to brain

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work. Participant #6, a man CEO of an association of telecommunications firms, described perspectives on forming such a coalition during his long-­ standing fight against illegal small-scale gold mining activities in Ghana: It is important to form a coalition of the willing … of people who can help with the activities since you can’t achieve so much as a lone ranger. You must identify people who would have a significant impact on the project, and those who can ask you tough questions.

Such community-building often involved creating well-knit groups of people who shared the ideas and ideals of the campaign and who also found each other within a defined locality or digital echo chamber. Such a community could provide the opportunity for community members to meet each other to plan actions within the community and support each other to achieve what they planned to do. This study saw the importance of activist CEOs developing a mindset of supporting other CEO activists as a vital guideline for successful CEO activism campaigns. Some participants stressed the need for unity and support for other CEOs, even when they disagreed on key aspects of campaigns. Some participants explained that this notion of standing together as CEOs was reminiscent of traditional African values that talked about finding strength in unity. It emerged that such social support systems could include providing funding and moral support to each other. Participant #17, a woman CEO of a leisure and hospitality firm, aptly articulated this notion: The CEO must always be supportive of other activists, even if you don’t agree with them. There’s something about people who’re prepared to put themselves on the line for others; they are rare and only a small fraction of people have this attitude. Even if you’re unprepared to be an activist, you must support the few who decide to do this.

For many participants, because of the nascence of the phenomenon, activist CEOs in Ghana were in the minority. Thus, it was important for them to close their ranks and strongly support each other. Interestingly, other participants in this research study extended the need for partnerships and alliances beyond working with other CEO activists. For example, for Participant #5, a guideline involved drawing strength from all

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manner of sources, including company directors, employees, and one’s kinsfolk: An important thing is for one to find good people to work with, such as employees, other CEOs, your family, the community, civil society organizations, and directors. I could never have done this alone without the support of a great and supportive team of backers.

Process/CEO Activism Campaign Implementation Guidelines The participants cited various factors that must be considered during the CEO activism campaign rollout phase, including campaign effectiveness factors and active and passive safety measures. These specific campaign implementation guidelines were found to include taking cover and setting boundaries, audience profiling and strategic targeting, benchmarking and following CEO activism best practices, being courageous and passionate in campaign implementation, developing a viable social support system, and engaging in on some level of offensive play.  aking Cover and Setting Boundaries T Participants indicated a range of defensive mechanisms as part of guidelines for rolling out CEO activism campaigns, including the need for setting boundaries from the get-go to determine how far to take the campaigns. Participant #7, a man CEO of a car care company, observed that it was vital to determine from the outset what the safe limits of the campaign are: Driven by their passion, there’s the tendency to get carried away. However, you need to draw boundaries for yourself. There is an extent beyond which Activism should not go.

At the operational level of activist campaigns, such boundaries must include budgeting and budgetary control. Others expressed the importance of staying focused on the campaign and its goals, and counting personal and other costs. Participant #11, a woman CEO of a power/energy firm, supported this viewpoint and called on CEOs to keep their sights on their business and campaign goals, while exercising great caution in their activist campaigns:

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When doing Activism, you must count the cost and know exactly how far you’re willing to take things; how far you would want to go with their activities. This is important because many people have found themselves wrong-­ footed and lost significant business opportunities.

Several participants indicated that in undertaking activism, CEOs in Ghana ought to be aware that activism was a risky activity and take steps to manage the risks involved. Some participants opined that despite the attendant risks, CEOs owed a responsibility to help change society, by speaking up whenever they felt discontented about any aspect of the workings of the society.  udience Profiling and Strategic Targeting A Several participants urged CEO activists to take the time to profile their audiences thoroughly by carefully studying and understanding various factors, including the motivations and characteristics of the target audiences of their campaigns. Participant #9, a woman CEO of a holding company comprising insurance companies, underscored the need for such audience profiling, segmentation, and targeting: To ensure that you speak to the hearts and minds of the people who need to hear your message, you must know your audience very well. Be sure to know how best to engage them and relate effectively with all manner of audiences.

It was found that many participants saw an important guideline in building flexibility, nimbleness, adroitness, and agility into practically every facet of their campaigns. Thus, a useful guideline involved having various scenarios. These scenarios ought to be based on several factors, including effective stakeholder mapping and the performance of issues analysis and sensitivity testing of how various strategic constituents would be impacted by or react to diverse risk issues brought on by the campaign. Participant #16 is a man CEO of a business advisory firm, whose activities have always involved various what-if scenarios: Have various what-if scenarios that specify guidelines for action. The guidelines should have various triggers and commensurate actions that the CEO would be prepared to take. These triggers and CEO actions must be agreed upon ahead of time.

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 enchmarking and Following Best Practices B Several participants indicated the importance of timing in ensuring successful messaging and delivery of campaign messages. Participant #15, a woman CEO of a tourism and media company, shared some insights about how some time-related factors shaped the release of some of her messages: When the Year of Return was peaking, I began to talk about issues relating to our tourism sites and the need for their development. So, yes, I gauge the time before I talk about issues since proper timing would also send the message further and better. Timing is critical … it is like agenda-setting in the mass media. You can also use your campaigns to set the agenda and set the occasion for things to be talked about.

Others pointed to the importance of profiting from the experiences of other CEO activists. In expressing this view, several participants called for the need for CEO activists to have access to some documented cases of the works of other CEO activists. Participant #6 called for the establishment of Afrocentric research-informed guidelines for successful CEO activism within the African context: CEO activists [current and potential] must be able to go back to some rule books to find out how others who have been activists have done so; to learn what are the things that have negative repercussions; what are the boundaries; what are the needed resources; and the toolkit you should have in your arsenal before engaging in such battles. This is why I think your research is very important.

It turned out that corporate and CEO activism was a core part of the corporate strategy. For instance, it emerged that, right from the incorporation of a firm led by one of the participants, activism was identified as one of the ways of competitively positioning and promoting the company. It was found that CEO activism should not be a knee-jerk (re)action. Most of the study participants underscored the importance of embedding corporate principles at the core of every corporate activity, including activist stances by CEOs. They testified that this was essential in selecting and defining those issues on which to pivot activist campaigns. Participants recounted several benefits of grounding CEO activism on long-established corporate purpose(es), including guarding against inauthentic activist CEO campaigns and ill-prepared protest efforts. Thus, it emerged that a

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useful guideline for CEO activism involved ensuring that the range of causes championed by the activist CEO was not regarded by the public as far-fetched, given the corporate purpose. Participant #4 advocated for selecting issues that people would see as a reasonable thing for an activist CEO to concern themselves with: The cause must ring true and be in sync with what you or your organization stands for. CEO activists must first identify something that lies within their area … something that makes sense for them to be doing, because it is not contrived or too far-fetched, looking at the operations of your corporation. You must not engage in an activity that would make people wonder or question why you are concerning yourself with such a matter.

Other frequently expressed guidelines for CEO activism included the importance of being measured and taking the middle line, communicating clearly, being able to defend one’s position, based on facts, and showing neutrality by being apolitical. Here, participants such as Participant #18 urged CEO activists to be very strategic and tactful in their activism. Indeed, for them, being strategic also meant having a media strategy that would not needlessly expose the CEO to unnecessary attacks: Speaking out tactfully, and not always going on radio and talking. You need to know when, where, and how you speak, and to whom you speak because your voice can easily be taken away and you become speechless. How you activate your Activism is important.

Courage and Passion Some of the participants noted that an important principle in ensuring impactful CEO activism is the courage to select controversial issues and the conviction to speak the truth to power. In reflecting on the importance of courage, several participants indicated the importance of self-­ belief and not paying heed to discouraging comments from others who may not have the same level of understanding and belief in the issues/ causes being pursued by the activist CEO. An important part of being courageous involves being prepared to face failures. Some participants revealed that it was important to bear in mind that although they may not have been able to achieve all of their goals, at least they derived great satisfaction in knowing they made some efforts. Participant #20, a man CEO of an accounting and business advisory firm, testified that he started

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noticing tangible benefits from his activism when he injected significant doses of courage and passion into his activities: If I hadn’t had self-courage, I probably wouldn’t have come this far … When we started to speak out on these big controversial issues, even our employees advised me against it. I may well be a trailblazer in Ghana because not many CEOs work as activists in Ghana. Not many would have the courage to publicly question some of the economic policies of the government, especially those of a sitting government and the current Finance Minister.

S ocial Support System and Offensive Play We found that it was worth engaging in CEO activism in a manner that carried employees along because doing so could produce desired business outcomes, including deepening employee loyalty and attracting a company’s customer base. It emerged that CEO activism was rarely seen as a solo or individual activity. Several participants underscored the value of having and deploying a varied arsenal of strategies and tactics. For instance, some indicated the need for alliances and coalition-building and deploying various media vehicles. For Participant #22, a man CEO who once led a national petroleum authority, it was important for activist CEOs to be adept at employing diverse approaches to activism: “Activism indeed does not always have to be feet-on-street. There are various ways of advocacy. It doesn’t have to be open or in the public all the time.” Ex-Post CEO Activism Campaign Guidelines Other participants stressed the importance of evaluating campaigns. These participants emphasized that the same rigor and performance-driven approach to business management ought to be applied to CEO activist campaigns. They stressed the need for measurement, metrics, key performance indicators, and periodic reviews of campaigns. For Participant #2, a great CEO, activism campaign is one backed by sound research from thought to finish: I like to back a lot of what I say with facts, so I tend to do a lot of research around human Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and developmental KPIs. In Activism, you need facts … evidence-based Activism is crucial. Your Activism should be based on research and figures that validate what you are talking about.

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A recurrent theme related to issue analysis and owning the issue meant that CEO activists must gain a deeper understanding of the issues advocated. Some participants expressed the idea that a regrettable faux pas in CEO activism involved taking on an issue of which the activist lacked knowledge. According to Participant #1, a necessary step on the road to success entailed ensuring that the activist CEO takes steps to steep himself/herself in the knowledge of the matter at hand through deep research and thorough briefing. For them, speaking authoritatively on an issue was a question of credibility and impact: The worst thing an individual can do is to talk about issues they are not conversant with. Be sure you understand the issue before you go out to speak. You make more impact when you are sure about what you’re talking about, and whatever you say becomes very credible.

Discussion There has been a persistent lacuna in the CEO activism literature relating to guidelines for safer and more effective social resistance efforts spearheaded by corporate leaders, especially those within the African context. This chapter sought to address the CEO activism guidelines question by eliciting from some purposively selected self-identified men and women activist CEOs in Ghana what salient guidelines for safer and more effective CEO activism campaigns ought to be. Overall, it emerged a continuum of guidelines spanning ex-ante phase guidelines, in-campaign/implementation guidelines, but also ex-post campaign guidelines should be followed in the planning, rolling out, and evaluating activist CEO campaigns. Chatterji and Toffel (2018) offer what could be considered to be some CEO activism campaign guidelines. These include strategically choosing what issues to weigh in on, when to weigh in, how to weigh in, playing the inside game well by aligning the objectives of the activist CEO campaign with the ideals of internal stakeholders, effectively predicting the reactions of diverse stakeholders, and gauging the results of such campaigns. Further, Chatterji and Toffel (2019) suggested two broad classes of what could be considered communication-specific rubrics, with each containing three considerations, covering (i) when should you speak and (ii) how to speak effectively. These guidelines offer some tips on listening to employees, connecting activism to the corporate purpose, staying on message, having a Kitchen Cabinet, performing issues management, having a crisis plan, and involving professional communicators such as public relations professionals.

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Adae (2020) conceptualized CEO Activism Safeguards and offered a typology of defensive mechanisms, including personal safeguards, social safeguards, spiritual safeguards, communication-related safeguards, CEO activism best-practice safeguards, and corporate safeguards. While aspects of these findings were consistent with the extant literature on the CEO activism playbook, there are some remarkable contributions. The findings in this study illuminate the CEO activism guidelines issue further in several respects. It offers a new and more structured model of CEO activism guidelines, which conceptualizes it as a continuum comprising (i) ex-ante CEO activism campaign guidelines, (ii) process/ CEO activism campaign implementation guidelines, and (iii) ex-post CEO activism campaign guidelines. The findings include specific examples of each class of guidelines. Ex-ante guidelines were found to embrace pre-campaign considerations, including (i) introspection, (ii) assuring personal conviction, (iii) careful campaign planning, (iv) putting in place emotional safeguards, (v) the development of CEO social-mindedness, (vi) having a signature advocacy, (vii) authenticity and truth-based activism, (viii) playing by the book, and (ix) community creation. Process/in-campaign considerations included campaign implementation phase guidelines. These were found to include (i) diverse defensive mechanisms and setting boundaries, (ii) audience profiling and strategic targeting, (iii) benchmarking and following CEO activism best practices, (iv) being courageous and passionate in campaign implementation, (v) developing a viable social support system, and (vi) putting on some offensive play. The main ex-post campaign guideline is related to research and campaign measurement. Here, participants advocated for the application of rigor and key performance indicators to the evaluation of CEO activism campaigns. The CEO Activism Guidelines Continuum—showing the temporality, activity, and flow of the various phases: ex-ante guidelines, in-campaign guidelines, and ex-post guidelines—is illustrated in Fig. 9.1:

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Fig. 9.1  The CEO activism guidelines continuum. Source: Authors

Conclusion and Recommendation This study contributes to the corporate social advocacy literature and helps to internationalize CEO activism research by bringing global perspectives to the discussion. Several classes of guidelines are reported, which can serve as the basis for investigation by scholars who may be interested in undertaking further studies in the developing world or comparing the value of such guidelines in Western vis-a-vis non-Western societies. It helps to enrich a literature stream that currently displays a Western cultural and a modernist ideological bias, and a gender-blind spot. It contributes findings from the developing world to the literature, in addition to the inclusion of the voices of women CEO activists, whose lived experiences as activist CEOs have been significantly muted in the current literature on CEO activism. The findings inform CEO activism campaign risk management strategies. It also expands upon nascent research streams such as PR for social responsibility, responsible management in the Global South, and contributes to current discussions on the ancient Kemetic doctrine of Ma’at (see Asante & Dove, 2021) and its variants, such as Ubuntuism and Africapitalism (see Adae, 2021b) and similar Afrocentric philosophies of sustainability (see Pompper & Adae, 2022). Conflict of Interest  We have no conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 10

Redefining Media Relations in Higher Educational Institutions in Ghana: A Case Study of Public and Private Universities Daniel Nkrumah and Daniel Norris Bekoe

Formal education in Ghana emerged around the sixteenth century following the arrival of European settlers on the then Gold Coast. The Portuguese, British, and Danes established what became known as Castle Schools to provide basic education in reading and writing and religious education (State University, n.d.). One notable strategy adopted was to send Ghanaian students abroad to be educated. One such Gold Coaster, Philip Quaque, originally named Kweku Quaicoo, returned to the Gold Coast and established one of the first formal education institutions (Glasson, 2009). This assertion is, however, disputed as Anglican Priest Rev. Thomas Thompson, before Quaque, was also believed to have established a school to train local boys. Bartels

D. Nkrumah (*) • D. N. Bekoe Department of Language and Communication Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_10

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(1955) notes that following Rev. Thompson’s retirement and departure from the Gold Coast in 1756, his school may have suffered because of European conflicts in the region that undermined its continuity and stability (Bartels, 1955). Subsequently, many other basic and secondary schools were established mostly by Missionaries seeking to spread the Christian religion. Over time, education became more entrenched, and with the production of many graduates of secondary schools, the requirement for higher education in British colonies became very pressing. The West African Commission of the Asquith Commission on Higher Education proposed that the Prince of Wales College should undergo some segregation to convert its post-­ secondary education section into a University College affiliated with the University of London (British Colonial Office, 1945). According to Hussey (1945), the West African Commission of the Asquith Commission under the Chairmanship of Rt. Hon Walter Elliot recommended that the University College at Achimota should also have an Institute of Education for the West African sub-region to provide the requisite research in psychology, linguistics, and education. Subsequently, the University of Ghana emerged from the Prince of Wales College. Over a period, many other public universities were established following the attainment of independence from British colonial rule. In 1993, a process commenced accrediting privately owned universities in the country. The introduction of private universities has provided further boost and competitiveness to the Tertiary Education landscape in the country (Adu, 2009). Accordingly, private universities emerged under a system affiliated with already established public universities. This has resulted in enhanced visibility of higher education in the mass media through more intensified activities by both public and private universities. In 2017, the government of Ghana introduced a Free SHS policy that has resulted in a more than 11 percent increase in student enrolment in senior high schools with a further impact on university admissions (Forson, 2017; Ghana Ministry of Education, n.d.). According to the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission, there are 16 state universities, 7 fully chartered private universities, 10 public technical colleges, and 110 private tertiary schools offering approved Higher  National Diploma (HND)/degree programs (GTEC, n.d.). Because of the expansion of these higher education institutions (HEIs), there is fierce rivalry for students who wish to pursue higher education,

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resulting in intensive public relations (PR) efforts aimed primarily at increasing enrolment in the face of the university’s attendance crisis. Public relations practice, expressed actively in media relations as one of the roles of public relations, is important to maintaining good internal and external relations for corporate organizations. As a management function, public relations can help higher education institutions (HEIs) to attain positional strength in their areas of operation with roles such as Corporate Social Responsibility, Crisis Management, Integrated Marketing Communications, Media Relations, and Research (Austin & Pinkleton, 2015). The public relations function is a key management function of an organization that is critical to projecting an image that is considered more credible than an image generated by a purely commercial advertisement. The effective use of public relations for service-oriented institutions such as HEIs is key, particularly for the provision of education and research, both of which thrive on credibility. The media relations function is a critical PR function that helps HEIs maintain effective communication lines and engagement with the media (Johnson, 2020). This function can be expressed in ways such as regular interactions with media professionals to help establish networks that aid rapid response activity in times of crisis, providing story ideas to media professionals to aid in publicizing the institutions, building social media groups that provide a forum for discussions with media professionals and serve also as early warning systems, building relationships with media to help in effective coverage of events organized by the institutions, helping to project the institutions by serving as outlets in the branding of the institutions. It is critical for HEIs in Ghana, usually prone to crisis through student demonstrations and industrial actions of workers, to adopt good media relations strategies to help address this crisis and manage their reputations effectively.

Aim and Objectives of the Study The study aims to examine the use of media relations strategies such as social media group interactions, press soirees, and other engagements, pitching of story ideas and sharing institutional stories with mainstream media or journalists, among others, in public and private higher education institutions in the country.

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Specific objectives include: • to study the influence, prominence, and role of media relations in the PR structure of the studied institutions; • to study the nature of media relations strategies such as media engagements, pitching story ideas, and media publications of the institutions studied; • to analyze the effectiveness of media relations strategies used in the selected institutions. Research questions include: • What is the importance placed on media relations within the PR structure and the systems of the studied institutions? • What are the media relations strategies and systems used by the selected cases? • What are the resources available to the selected cases with regard to their media relations activities? • How effective are the current media relations strategies of the selected cases?

Literature Review Public Relations Practice Hussain and Rawjee (2014) underline the importance of effective Crisis Communication, an important aspect of public relations, in managing conflicts and crises in HEIs. They note that for HEIs to effectively address crises when they emerge, there should be proactive strategies that would provide a blueprint for addressing the crisis. A key concern that they identify is the prevalence of rumors and distorted communication during crisis times and a tendency to have distorted communication. They emphasize the importance of pre-planning and strategizing on possible blueprints in anticipation of a crisis. This requires maintaining close and strategic interaction with the media that emphasizes early warning signals to address the emerging crisis. Coman (2010) traces the growth of private HEIs in Romania following the country’s revolution in 1989 and notes that great emphasis has been placed on advertising as a strategy to popularize the institutions and attract

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students. He argues that such advertising had not necessarily helped maintain standards for many institutions as they tend to be “misleading and superficial.” Farte (2013) examines the concept of Marketing Public Relations and argues that HEIs cannot thrive without effective marketing communications. He argues that HEIs need to be customer-driven and attract the right caliber of students. Effective marketing communications thrive in the organization’s ability to effectively use the right media and communication channels and strategies to disseminate relevant messages. Othman and Othman (2014), in a comparative study of the use of social responsibility programs by public and private universities in Malaysia, established that while public universities tended to look internally in respect of their social responsibility programs, the private universities focus on their social responsibility strategies toward the outside communities. In Africa, complaints that governments are increasing university education costs by reducing fees subsidies have raised concerns. For instance, in South Africa, the FeesMustFall highlighted widespread concern about the shifts in university Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) policies relative to fees (Langa et al., 2017). Media Relations Media relations refer to the activities involved in building and maintaining effective lines of communication between an organization and the media in its area of operations. These activities include pitching stories to editors and reporters, sending press statements to the media, and ensuring coverage of statements (Johnson, 2020). A core element of media relations is the interactions between an organization, usually through the PR Unit, and the various media to address a critical PR need. This may include issues related to the promotion of new products/services, addressing an issue that has the potential to create reputational issues or seeking engagement with the organization’s publics in an organizational activity (Howard & Mathews, 2013). There is the professional expectation that media relations is proactive rather than reactive. Proactive media relations require organizations to continuously maintain their relationship with the media even when the services of the media are not required. This also requires that PR practitioners continuously adapt, scan the media environment, and monitor events that may directly or indirectly impact their activities (Singer, 2005; Dozier et al., 1995).

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Many factors contribute to ensuring successful media relations. Critical to this is a more direct engagement with journalists on how corporate organizations want stories pitched and delivered (Howard & Mathews, 2013). Cho (2006) focuses on the power relationship between journalists and PR practitioners and argues that a good appreciation of the nature of the power dynamics is essential to getting the PR practitioner the best outcome in an engagement with the journalist. At the heart of this issue is a proper understanding of the perceptions, both favorable and unfavorable, that exist among the two sets of practitioners: PR officers and journalists. While journalists and PR practitioners share many professional similarities and easily transition between the two professions, there are still challenges in building relationships between them, devoid of prejudices and unfavorable perceptions. Some researchers believe that journalists don’t usually perceive PR practitioners in favorable terms, which may influence corporate organizations’ media relations (Cameron et  al., 1997; Tilley & Hollings, 2008; Shoemaker & Reese, 1996; Shaw & White, 2004). Additionally, good media relations require that an organization continuously assesses the nature of past coverage and how to replicate good coverage and address areas of bad coverage (Cho, 2006). HEIs require media relations to thrive primarily because as service-oriented organizations with huge public interests and engagement, there is the requirement to maintain regular engagements with both internal and external publics, and this cannot be effective without actively relating with the mainstream media with mass public patronage. Media Relations Practice in Ghana's Higher Educational Institutions Dornyo and Adiku (2015) established that two Ghanaian Universities studied portrayed a model they considered to be the public information model with emphasis on publicity and media relations. They also describe a PR strategy in these institutions that emphasizes one-way communication, although two-way communication principles are applied in some cases. The study identified some deficiencies in PR practice in the HEIs in the country and noted that very little had been done to move away from an old paradigm. One of such challenges they identified was the dominance

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of what they described as the “technician role” in the universities under study. Aikins and Adu-Oppong (2015) also identify significant handicaps PR practitioners face at one of Ghana’s leading public universities, the University of Education, Winneba. They note that the Public Relations Unit of the University is relatively isolated from top management with limited involvement in the decision-making at the top management level, Additionally, they argue that this contributes to the inability to have a well-defined media relations role for the PR Unit, because of which the unit cannot function effectively as the mouthpiece of the university. They recommend that The PR unit should be given a higher status that makes it accountable directly to the office of the Vice-Chancellor. This will allow practitioners to be part of top management decisions and thus, in turn, will enable the unit to understand the vision of the university. The unit should also be given an official means of transportation, equipment to facilitate information communication and management and an office with schedule officers for different PR functions in strategic management (p. 14).

Agbo (2017) also notes that many HEIs are relying on social media to maintain engagement with their key stakeholders. Agbo recommends that HEIs in Ghana should have well-defined guidelines and policies to effectively harness the potential of social media for internal and external communication. Similar results were found by Dornyo and Adiku (2015), Narteh et al. (2013), and Anani-Bossman (2022) in Ghana. Theoretical Framework Three theories—Competing Values Framework, Framing in Organizations Theory, and Network Theory and Analysis in Organizations—provide a general theoretical framework for analyzing the approaches and effectiveness of media relation strategies of the selected institutions. These theories are relevant as they present ways of conceptualizing and understanding how the PR Units of the institutions are structured and media messages framed to attain the desired effect.

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 ompeting Values Framework C The primary foundation of this theory is an examination of the indicators of organizational effectiveness (Campbell, 1977; Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1983). Four models were identified by Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983), and these are the Human Relations Model, Rational Goal Model, Open System Model, and Internal Process Model. The framework reflects two dimensions in analyzing the competing values that are identified in organizations. In one spectrum, flexibility and stability are expressed in a continuum on a vertical axis, while the other consists of a band that expresses efficient internal process and external positioning on a horizontal axis (Cameron et al., 2007). Cameron and Quinn (1999) explain that the four quadrants captured under the spectrum are identified as Clan, Adhocracy, Hierarchy, and Market. According to them, the Clan (upper left) describes teamwork among members working together in a team or as collaborators. Adhocracy (upper right) represents the capacity of people to work together or collaborate in new and innovative ways. The lower right quadrant of the Market talks about the ability to focus on outcomes such as achievements and results, emphasizing the competition and positioning in the external environment. An important claim of this theory is that the most effective leaders are those who display capability or competency in all four quadrants. Thus, such leaders demonstrate adaptations between flexibility and stability by demonstrating both stern and soft dispositions. Similarly, they can demonstrate both creativity and rigidity in their professional attitude as well as being self-dependent and collaborative in their disposition (Cameron et al., 2007). This theory comes as a useful theory in examining the use of media relations in organizational communication in the institutions studied by providing a framework for analyzing how organizations adapt to changing situations while also maintaining some internal consistency in the management of the institutions. It is also helpful for understanding how the institutions respond to competition through innovation and good external positioning. This scenario plays out in the higher education landscape in the country; with competition emerging from the liberalization of the education sector and the related implications for media relations, it helps appreciate the adaptations of PR Units in media relations and whether there has been the relevant response by institutions studied (Cameron et al., 2007).

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 etwork Theory and Analysis in Organizations N This theory examines how relationships affect organizations through the influence of relationships on behavior. The theory is usually traced to Barnes (1954), who was the first to use the phrase social networks. This study examines how the institutions studied use relevant media channels to maintain relationships, address crises, and manage their reputations. The major assumption of this theory is that the social structure that characterizes the relationship surrounding an organization, group, or individual has a resultant effect on attitudes, beliefs, or behavior. The theory emphasizes the nature of the relationship among people in groups and organizations without necessarily focusing on the attributes or characteristics of the group. This theory also examines how organizational communication structure is set up by analyzing the roles, structural characteristics, communication strategies, philosophies, or approaches (University of Twente, n.d.-a, b). The theory’s primary emphasis is on relationships and how they affect the organizational structure and systems; thus, in an organization, the positioning of employees in the communication network has the potential to influence the exposure and control of information (Haythornthwaite, 1996). This theory is relevant for the study because it helps understand how organizations perform communication roles and organizational communication structures. Within the context of relationships, it helps explain how the nature of an organization’s internal and external relationships contribute to shaping its communication strategy. In this study, we focus on the issue of media relations and analyze how PR Units of the institutions studied are structured to play this role, as well as the level of effectiveness. While there is increasing awareness of the importance of social media, this theory helps assess whether PR Units are set up in a manner to effectively reflect the media relations function.  raming in Organizations Theory F The Framing Theory is drawn from the Agenda-Setting Theory and refers to how the media characterizes a particular issue to present a particular image of the issue in the minds of media consumers (Fairhurst & Star, 1996). Framing in organizations refers to how a particular meaning is accepted relative to other meanings and how members of an organization respond to such meaning. Three elements are considered in Framing Analysis: thought, forethought, and language (University of Twente, n.d.-a, b).

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In HEIs, leaders should be able to use framing techniques at both the institutional level and in relation to the mass media to project a favorable image about their organization without distorting the facts. This theory is useful in examining how PR practitioners in the institutions studied project their organizations in good frames as they seek to enhance their reputation. It also helps examine the level of institutional framing of issues for the use of the media for the institutions studied. For instance, how do the institutions studied adopt particular story angles as emphasized in press statements to frame stories about their institutions to project a particular viewpoint about the organization? In the Ghanaian context, it can be noted that universities faced with student protests over issues are sometimes compelled to frame stories in a way that emphasizes the management of crisis rather than the effects of the crisis.

Method The study adopted a qualitative phenomenological approach with information gathered from unstructured, informal interviews (conversations) with PR practitioners in the studied institutions and also former PR practitioners of institutions studied; observation of PR strategies, systems, platforms, and structures; and the experience of the researchers (Teherani et al., 2015). This methodology was chosen because it is very effective as it helps explore a phenomenon from those who have experienced it and helps describe such experiences by looking at the critical issues in the phenomenon that were experienced and the nature of the processes of the experience. Sampling Using the case study approach, we purposively  selected  four HEIs in Ghana based on their institutional strengths and PR Units to represent some of the HEIs in the country and some of the best PR models in the country’s higher education landscape. In this regard, two public and two private universities were selected to provide a comparative basis for the study. The real identities of the universities are kept anonymous but are identified as PBU1 and PBU2 for the public universities and PRU1 and PRU2

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for the private universities. Information was gathered through observation, informal interviews, and experience. Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis was the PR or media relations unit of the selected institutions studied. Data Analysis Data analysis was done using thematic and interpretive approaches. The responses were guided by themes that were analyzed to identify similarities and differences in the findings, responses, or observations relative to the institutions studied. The interpretive approach adopted helps to provide a critical understanding of the factors that underlie the issue under study and how the relevant actors explain their experiences and bring out the relevant meaning to their experiences (Peterson, 2017). Validity Data validity was ensured using the criteria espoused by Whittemore et al. (2001). The four primary criteria which were observed were: Credibility: Ensuring accurate interpretation of participants’ meaning. Criticality: Critically appraising all aspects of the research. Authenticity: Accessing different perspectives from the various institutions studied in respect of the approaches to media relations. Integrity: Researchers endeavored to maintain an objective position, constantly analyzing approaches to ensure that the most credible interpretations were made of findings. The secondary criteria observed were: Explicitness: The study was as much as possible made explicit; Findings and responses were explicitly captured without deleting details. Creativity: Researchers used a creative approach to retain the uniqueness of the study to help provide new insights. Thoroughness: The study was thorough, detailing the PR structure and strategies in the institutions studied to identify the media relations roles.

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Congruence: There was agreement in the research questions, methods, and findings. Sensitivity: The research was conducted in a manner that was sensitive to human interests as well as the sociological and cultural issues involved. One way of ensuring this was maintaining the anonymity of the objects of study.

Findings PR Structure and Systems of PBU1 PR Unit PBU1 is a leading public university with a very large student population. The PR Unit has a clearly defined role for media relations that has the mandate to liaise with the media in respect of issues relating to the university. The unit is also responsible for managing a campus radio station that serves the university and surrounding communities. While the university can employ a dedicated media relations officer under the Public Relations Unit, the university has no such officer but instead has a PR officer working under the head. Aside from the head of the unit, there seems to be only one specialized person with expertise in public relations. The Public Relations Unit of the university is also responsible for publications of the university, and these include speeches of key officers, publicity material, diaries, and calendars, and coordinates with other units to manage the university’s website and produce important statistics on the university (PBU PR Unit). Media Relations A Media Relations Unit should have reporters capable of news reporting and writing to keep the university’s internal and external public informed about events and issues relating to the university. The unit is charged with telling the university’s story most accurately to help control misinformation. A well-established media relations function sends press statements and organizes media engagements for its officials when necessary. Although the university identifies a media relations function, it fails to adequately provide the requisite human resource to handle this task, which renders it unable to discharge its role effectively. This has implications for

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effective crisis management, branding, publicity, and ultimately, reputation management. As one of the well-established HEIs in the country, PBU1 is well-­ resourced financially and has the requisite human resource to deliver on the mandate of ensuring effective media relations. PBU1 also has an active social media presence, which is an important platform to engage its public. It has an active YouTube Channel, Facebook Page, and Twitter Page, all managed by the PR Unit of the university. This helps it to maintain good lines of communication with its publics and is effective to also ensure good media relations and useful in managing crises and reputation. While these channels are active and buzzing, they are predominantly used to publicize university activities and engagements. They have also been used to broadcast live events of the university, serve as a poster board for announcements relating to the university, and publicize the university’s activities. This has helped in information dissemination and served as a platform where mainstream media journalists and other important stakeholders can access information about the institution. The university’s primary strategy for media engagement is usually in events and the management of a crisis. As a large public university, it is usually in the news because of public events it constantly organizes and sometimes crises the university encounters. In recent times, issues of university ranking have also attracted the public’s attention, and the university has engaged the media in that regard. The university succeeds in drawing a lot of media coverage for its activities, and in some cases, especially for technical issues, attempts are made to guide the media in its coverage through the provision of notes or statements. While the university regularly publishes good news content relating to the university on its website, the lack of a dedicated portal for university-related news does not help focus and amplify these new items adequately to attract the attention of mainstream media.  R Practitioners and Place within the Management Network P PBU1 has employees who specialize in PR although there may not be more than two. The head of the unit is a top management member and hence can exert some influence at the top management level. There is a gradual shift from a traditional management system emphasizing rigidity and internal stability to a more liberal orientation that has witnessed increased commercialization of the institution, although significant conservatism remains. The role of the PR practitioner and its place in the

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overall management structure indicates the priority placed on media relations, which is one of the most important PR functions of HEIs. PR Structure and Systems of PBU2  ublic Relations Unit P PBU2 is a public university of comparable stature to PBU1 and with a large student population. The university has a PR Unit which is headed by a Deputy Registrar charged with providing strategic planning for the university’s PR. The duties include, but are not limited to, coordinating all events, ceremonies, and programs; providing policy options on PR matters for the consideration of the appropriate committee/board through the submission of papers and memoranda; serving as Editor-in-Chief for publications of the university; and performing media relations role. While there is an attempt to provide some emphasis on media relations, there are obvious limitations as there seems to be a dearth of specialized professionals in the unit to effectively handle tasks related to media relations (PR Unit, PBU2). He is supported by three (3) key offices that help in the media relations roles, namely:  edia and Events Office M The office is managed by a Senior Assistant Registrar/Assistant Registrar who is tasked to: provide general assistance to the Deputy Registrar; develop and execute content for social media platforms of the university; plan and execute university functions and events; facilitate and supervise internal/external advertisements of the university; facilitate placement of advertisement from Colleges, Faculties, Departments, Centers, Units/ Sections inappropriate media; produce creative designs for official university activities; conceptualize and create official university audio and video creatives (adverts/documentaries); supervise the external broadcast of university news items; monitor the media space for intelligence reporting on the university’s brand; manage advertisement platforms in the university; manage and oversee facilities, personnel and all event details; assist in the production of university paraphernalia/souvenirs for protocol and other purposes; and perform any other duty that may be assigned by the Deputy Registrar. The office has in-house journalists/reporters and professional photographers who gather news daily and process it for publication. Additionally,

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the unit has graphic designers who produce artworks and infographics for the university’s social media handles and the university’s main website. This office is expected to play a key function in helping build relationships with the media. The media cover university events, and thus invitations to the media should be a key responsibility of this office. Thus, the Media and Events office is expected to play a key media relations role by ensuring a good connection with the media and that the media turns up for the university’s events and provides the necessary coverage required. Media Platforms The university maintains an active website that serves internal and external audiences with information. Again, the university uses major social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube to deliver real-­ time information to the public. They also provide poster boards for the distribution of university and stakeholder announcements. The university also has a campus radio station that is maintained by the university or other educational institution students. Programming may be done solely by students with the assistance of professionals or may include programmers from the public. It is run with the purpose of training students who have a desire to work in the radio industry. Another significant goal is the dissemination/communication of information from management to students and vice versa, as well as broadcasting educational content. The university’s media platforms are vital to maintaining a critical base of news and information about the university. These platforms can serve the interests of mainstream media by serving to provide news and information about the university that may be published to the wider public on mass media organizations.  R Practitioners and Place within the Management Network P PBU2 has public relations specialists as well, though not more than one. Because the head of the unit is a member of high management, he has some clout there. The conventional management technique of shifting any top-level administrator to the Deputy Registrar level to lead the unit has gradually given way to poaching specialists to run the operation. The unit leader also attends or votes on strategic decision-making boards, and his input is frequently sought and carefully examined on all significant decisions. He is often invited to executive management meetings to share his expert opinion on issues before decisions are taken.

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Because of the influence of the head of the unit in determining the overall media relations strategy of the organization, his presence on strategic decision-making boards helps him to influence the overall media relations strategy of the organization. He is, therefore, in a position to inform the institution’s strategy in terms of the PR strategy and, invariably, the media relations strategy. PR Structure and Systems of PRU1 PR Unit PRU1 is a private university that has been operating in the country for more than a decade. Its student population is quite small. It has a Public Relations Unit that is relatively smaller compared to PBU1 and PBU2. There is no clear reference to media relations in the unit functions, although there is an expectation that this function is carried out. The unit handles important tasks, including speech writing for key university officers, media relations roles, events and promotions, publications, publicity, and sometimes marketing roles. Media Relations Additionally, no specialized officer is dedicated to the media relations function, and this is a responsibility that is expected to be handled by the head of the unit. The unit is under-resourced both financially and human resource-wise, with just about two or three officers, including the head of the unit. The obvious human resource challenge renders it difficult to perform sound media relations roles as the PR Unit is overwhelmed with tasks and renders it not optimally efficient. The Unit also handles the university’s social media pages and is expected to provide regular updates. There is no clearly defined media relations strategy. The organization’s communication with the media is usually with respect to event/coverage and there is very minimal use of press statements. There is no sustained attempt to maintain a continuous relationship with the media. Usually, when there is a university event, the PR Unit sends out an invitation to the press for coverage. The university usually manages to attract coverage, but coverage is usually not guided by the PR Unit; there are no special Press Guides to provide the media with a more focused guide on media coverage of events in the institutions, particularly, in cases where there are multiple story angles and activities. Additionally, the use of accompanying

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press statements is very minimal, and this usually limits the ability of the university to influence issue salience in terms of coverage. Additionally, because of the inconsistent nature of media relations, the university is usually facing challenges in the quick mobilization of media coverage in times of crisis, and this has reputational implications.  R Practitioners and Place within Management Structure P The challenges the university faces in media relations are perhaps reflected in the management structure of the university. The top management of the university has no public relations officer. The university operates a management style quite typical of public universities in the country in the past and this style de-emphasizes the importance of active marketing and public relations—a rigid management system that epitomizes the emphasis on academic rigidity and integrity with a cautious approach to commercialization with the concomitant absence of advertising flexibility. Yet, the university has, over the years, in response to dwindling student numbers in the face of intense competition, strengthened the institution’s commercialization. This has required the university to adopt a more aggressive advertising strategy. Yet, the limited expertise in terms of human resources leads to a failure on the part of top management to appreciate the critical strategies and investments they need to make in that area. While the university has a website with published news on the university, the frequency is not regular, and this is primarily because of human resource constraints. The quality of news stories is also not optimum; thus, stories produced by the university PR Unit do not usually attract mainstream attention. Also, there is an absolute lack of relationship with the media regarding sharing such stories. The absence of a dedicated portal for news, as is the case of some reputable universities, reflects the lack of focus in this area. Clearly, there is the absence of a serious appreciation at the top management level of the importance and the effective strategies required to achieve good media relations and ultimately impact the reputational positioning of the institution. PR Structure and Systems of PRU2 PR Unit PRU2 is a private university that has existed for more than a decade. Like all other universities studied, it has a PR Unit that manages the university’s

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internal and external relationships. The university traditionally had an Admissions Office and a PR Office. The two offices were subsequently merged into a single unit during a period of financial strain because of dwindling student numbers. Similar to PRU1, the role of the PR Unit of PRU2 includes media relations, protocol duties, publications, and events. While there are clearly defined roles for the Unit for which media relations seem prioritized, there are obvious human resource constraints. The university has social media handles that serve as platforms to engage stakeholders of the university, and the PR Unit manages these units. The PR Unit of this institution has a challenge as it appears that there is a serious dearth of specialized professionals in the unit. While it has more employees in the unit than PRU1, it suffers from a lack of specialization as none of the employees, including the head, seem to have an undergraduate or postgraduate degree in public relations. The lack of the requisite specialization has implications for the professional discharge of PR functions, particularly for specialized areas such as media relations. Media Relations The university operates a system that is reactionary in media relations. Usually, the media relations function emerges during events and in times of crisis. Like PRU1, during events, the university sends an invitation to the press and gets some coverage, and the usual thing is to allow the press to dictate the nature of the coverage. There are no special guidelines and hardly any press statements accompanying such events. While there is an attempt to make it a prime emphasis, the irregularity of engagement with the media has implications for the university’s reputation in terms of media coverage in times of crisis. There is no dedicated news portal for news stories on the university to provide mainstream media with stories about the university. There is no deliberate policy to set an agenda concerning a sustained and continuous relationship with mainstream media to produce such stories. This deficiency ultimately has implications for the reputation and attractiveness of the university.  R Practitioners and their Place within Management Structure P The PR practitioner traditionally operates under the Registrar of the university but is quite distant from the university’s top management. The university has strengthened its commercialization drive in the face of

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intense competition, which is reflected in the aggressive mass media advertising strategy it has adopted over the years. Yet, like PRU1, the lack of strategic leadership in this department seems to have had an impact on the effectiveness of its strategies. Importantly, this reveals the likelihood of poor management appreciation of the importance of media relations in the institution and confusion of the media relations function with traditional marketing or advertising roles.

Discussion Public Relations and Media Relations All the institutions investigated have PR Units dedicated to maintaining strong communication and relationships with their internal and external audiences. As a result, they show that they grasp the role of PR in academic institutions. It is worth noting that while all the institutions have PR divisions, they are all labeled differently. However, all the PR Units encountered considerable challenges, with private institutions having more severe limits in their PR operations. This directly impacts the media relations role, which has historically been poor. Also, the PR Units have developed to reflect the shifting dynamics of business communication in today’s world. While social media has grown in popularity, and news generation and publishing have become a major component of PR practice in service-oriented institutions like universities, there appears to be little change in the management structures and operations of PR Units. As a result, the various units’ PR duties do not reflect these changes. For example, none of the organizations surveyed has a particular portal for publishing and spreading news items. While one of the private universities featured news reports on its portal, the other had almost no reports about the institution. This shortcoming could limit the portal’s influence as a source of information about the institution for the general public and journalists, as well as a platform for crisis and reputation management. The institutions analyzed have once again displayed an understanding of the relevance of the media relations function in public relations. Indeed, media relations was designated a vital responsibility within each institution’s unit. It is worth noting that, along with publications, this is arguably the only PR role listed as a vital role by all the PR Units. As well as a connection to the study context, it shows these institutions’ desire for media exposure, which is understandable given the reputational benefits

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that media exposure can bring to an organization. Media relations, as highlighted in the literature, is crucial for promoting organizations and helping to improve their reputation. Perhaps the prioritization of media relations reflects the fact that strong media relations can be challenging for many organizations, especially in a media landscape like Ghana, which faces major professional and ethical issues (Dozier et al., 1995). Wells and Spinks (1999) note that establishing and maintaining good relationships with the media requires a sustained effort and the cooperation of the media. There is no doubt that media relations are perhaps the first role that PR Units in all the institutions are identified with, primarily because of the recognition of the importance of the media in projecting organizations and crisis management. The media is a primary agenda-setting platform that significantly impacts public opinion. When Framing Analysis is considered, this influence is magnified even further. The media’s role in defining organizations is crucial for HEIs in Ghana, especially given the fierce competition for students among these institutions. According to the Framing in Organizations Theory, media projections of issue qualities, rather than the issue itself, have the potential to produce a favorable or unfavorable picture of the issue in the minds of media consumers, depending on the reason for the framing activity. The tertiary institutions studied clearly are conscious of the role of the media not only in setting an agenda at the first level but also at the second level to establish issue salience by highlighting specific attributes in a manner that does not only confer salience but also confers positivity or negativity. Place in Management Network This section presents two narratives: one for public universities and the other for private universities. Private universities do not place heads of PR Units at top management levels or close to the top, but public universities do. This has repercussions for the PR Unit’s operational approach, as well as their recognition and funding. Public universities are progressively acknowledging the importance of the PR function in university administration. However, private universities appear to still regard the PR role as less important in the management of their institutions. Indeed, the Heads of PR Units at both private universities lacked the required undergraduate or postgraduate degree in PR, although they have gained considerable experience on the job. On the other hand, the heads of the PR Units at public universities both earned

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postgraduate degrees in public relations. This could impact the level of professionalism with which PR roles are carried out in the various institutions studied. The PR issues faced by private universities may reflect theoretical viewpoints in Network Analysis in Firms, which studies, among other things, the structure of communication systems in organizations and how they are set up with analysis. As noted by the University of Twente (n.d., pp. 163): Causal pressures are inherent in social structure. Network analysis is a set of methods for detecting and measuring the magnitude of the pressures. The axiom of every network approach is that reality should be primarily conceived and investigated from the view of the properties of relations between and within units instead of the properties of these units themselves.

The communication systems within organizations are constructed in such a way that for private institutions, there seems to be a management restriction on the Head of the PR Unit within the organizational system, which may put pressure on the PR Unit. To put it another way, PR directors at private institutions are restricted in their talks and participation with upper management, and they may not be able to easily influence decisions affecting their unit. Financial and human resource issues, as well as a poor strategic approach to media relations, may be a result of these limits, as seen in the case of the two private institutions. Thus, for private universities, any argument for the cause and operations of the PR Unit is subject to interpretation and discussion by top management members at a forum without a direct representation from the unit. This limitation may affect the effectiveness of professional decisions made in respect of resources and strategy for the unit. In the case of public universities, leaders of PR Units are recognized by senior management, which may help under-resource the units. Public universities, on the other hand, are conservative in their management systems and less willing to open up to the media, as stated in the Competing Values Framework’s theoretical perspective. This tendency backs up Othman and Othman’s (2014) assertion that public universities’ PR tactics tended to be more internal, whereas private institutions’ PR strategies tended to be more external. This seems to affect the inclination to build trust in the media and help establish enduring media relations. Additionally, because of this rigidity in terms of management strategy, there is no motivation to recruit more PR practitioners to strengthen the media relations role of the PR Units, although there is the financial capacity to do so.

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Implications for Practice and Theory Both public and private higher education institutions must redefine the importance of media relations in their PR strategies. The study demonstrates that media relations will not be effective if the PR Unit continues to be constrained by inflexible management structures that are closed to the media, as in the case of public HEIs, or by insufficient resources. These restrictions ultimately lead to reputational issues, poor crisis management, ineffective publicity, and inadequate marketing communication activities. These influence student enrolment and also lead to limited stakeholder participation, posing reputational risks. Theoretically, per the Competing Values Framework, there is the observation that institutions that exhibit Clan and Hierarchy attributes are similar as both are public HEIs. Also, organizations that exhibit Adhocracy and Market orientations are similar as they are both private HEIs. Thus, from a theoretical perspective, per the Competing Values Framework, public HEIs are more likely to exhibit Clan and Hierarchy attributes or orientations, while private HEIs are likely to exhibit Adhocracy and Market attributes or orientations.

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An adaptation of the Competing Values Framework (Cameron et al., 2007) shows the attributes exhibited by the four cases (PBU1, PBU2, PRU1, and PRU2) studied.

Conclusion, Limitations, and Recommendations The study reveals that media relations in higher education institutions in Ghana lack the level of rigor, detail, and professionalism required to help the institutions maximize their gains from their engagement with the media. The study shows that all the institutions studied face significant challenges in meeting contemporary demands of media relations, although private universities face greater limitations because of serious financial challenges. For the public universities studied, availability of resources does not appear to be a challenge yet, and media relations have faced serious limitations primarily because of a failure to transition from a system that limits exposure of the university to the external environment and emphasizes more profoundly the concept of internal stability. For the private universities studied, the paradox is that while these institutions are more inclined to commercialization and should be less inclined to rigidity, they seem to fail to appreciate a critical requirement in contemporary PR for commercialization and marketing communication in terms of recognizing the strong management function of PR and recruiting the right professionals to head PR Units. Ultimately, both private and public universities will have to respond in unique ways to address media relations challenges: for private universities, redefining the role of PR heads in the management structure, and for public universities, more liberal or flexible engagement to refine the external positioning of the organizations. Funding limitations restricted the ability to engage more in respect of the research. Also, the research’s qualitative methodological approach was a limitation as a quantitative assessment using a larger sample size could have produced a more representative or generalized conclusion. Conflict of Interest  We have no conflict of interest to disclose.

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CHAPTER 11

The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Artificial Intelligence and Its Implications for Public Relations Practice in Africa Isaac A. Blankson

and Albert A. Anani-Bossman

The rapid (r)evolution of the world, with globalization and the continuous advancement in technology, is shaping societies, businesses, and professions alike. Consumers are moving online; media outlets keep expanding while the gatekeeping concept is gradually being removed, allowing businesses to have direct access to consumers. With the onset of what is now commonly referred to as the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), with its associated technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), organizations are transforming and will continue to transform the way they conduct business in the future. The way organizations communicate with their

I. A. Blankson (*) African University College of Communications, Accra, Ghana e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Anani-Bossman Department of Public Relations, University of Media, Arts and Communication, UniMAC-GIJ Campus, Accra, Ghana e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8_11

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customers is also changing as focus shifts more and more toward online and digital content. Globally, there has been a growth and adoption of digital communication technologies for a variety of applications and purposes. The African continent has also seen rapid growth in digital applications in recent times. Over the past 20 years, technological evolution has been transforming workplace practices, how people live, and how businesses are conducted. As a practice and profession in Africa, public relations is no exception. The adoption of new digital communication tools offers public relations practitioners an unprecedented opportunity to reinvent themselves in order to strengthen relationship building, enhance customer satisfaction, effectively scan the environment to detect threats and opportunities, and improve communication. Considering the prediction of the number of technologies and communication tools likely to be available in the near future, which is likely to lead to users synchronizing multiple devices to gain optimum experience, how can PR practitioners on the continent embrace new forms of technology and reinvent themselves in order to further enhance relationship building and strengthen their communication with clients. Even though it is early to form firm conclusions about AI’s impacts on PR in Africa, it is important that practitioners and the profession familiarize themselves with developments in these technologies (Galloway & Swiatek, 2018). Thus, this study explores a relatively new topic that has received little or no scholarly attention in Africa, unlike in Western countries, that is, the growing relationship between AI and public relations on the continent. This exploration is justified because the demand for improved public relations and strategic business communications in Africa has become apparent in recent times due to Africa’s robust economic growth, the influx of foreign multinationals looking for new growth markets with the onset of the global financial crisis, the development of the African public relations industry, and a corresponding need for improved technology-driven practice. Africa’s PR industry must adapt to new technologies and explore AI capabilities in its day-to-day functions to realize its potential, simplify client operations, and create new experiences that enhance its value (Chittick, 2021). This study attempts to fill this research and knowledge gap. The study outlines several key roles that AI may play in the African public relations landscape, based on trends in what is happening within the public relations field in advanced countries and other communication

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industries worldwide, and considers the implications for public relations practitioners and agencies operating in Africa. The goal, among others, is to launch a scholarly and professional dialogue about AI’s potential uses and impact on public relations practice on the continent. The authors believe that AI’s broader technological, economic, and societal implications for public relations in Africa warrant critical attention. This does not imply that African practitioners become expert technologists; rather, they should develop a sufficient understanding of AI’s present and potential uses to be able to offer informed counsel (Galloway & Swiatek, 2018). The study employs an exploratory approach because the questions asked are new and have not been studied in-depth (Makri & Neely, 2021; Stebbins, 2008). The chapter explores a relatively new topic that has received little or no scholarly attention in Africa through a rigorous review of academic publications (e.g., Cristianini, 2016; Gadzala, 2018; Galloway & Swiatek, 2018; Gouda et  al., 2020), online articles (Chittick, 2021; Dahir, 2018a, b; Elliott, 2019; Mfonobong, 2015; Ndung’u & Signé, 2020), and agency and professional sites (e.g., Boulos, 2016; Chartered Institute of Public Relations, UK, 2021; Douglas, 2016; Fitzgerald, 2021; ITU, 2021). It hopes to close the knowledge gap that exists and launch a scholarly and professional dialogue about AI’s potential uses and impact on public relations practice in Africa. Research through literature review lays the foundation for knowledge furtherance, development of new and existing theories along with finding the gaps for future research (Webster & Watson, 2002). Such a type of review as a research practice obtains its results from the available literature (Jesson & Lacey, 2006). The chapter is organized into sections. It first looks at the growth of technology in general and its impact on the PR practice. It then examines some of the successful applications of 4IR technologies to address developmental and business challenges across the continent. This is followed by a discussion on the implications of the 4IR, with specific emphasis on Artificial Intelligence, on the future growth and transformations of Africa’s PR industry. It finally examines critical challenges that could impede the effective adoption and application of AI to enhance public relations practice on the continent.

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Technology and Public Relations in Africa The advent of the Third Industrial Revolution and its emergent digital and mobile technologies have leapfrogged Africa onto the global scale. The continent skipped traditional landline connectivity to go online through mobile technology, and this is boding well for citizens, organizations, and businesses in the region. With the high penetration of mobile phones on the continent, digital media is providing access to information on a scale never experienced before. Smartphone penetration across Africa continues to increase and so is broadband availability. Social media channels provide the platform for engagement and advocacy among a youthful, tech-fueled population. The populace now has the power to communicate in real-time internally among themselves and externally with its global neighbors. Similarly, the ICT sector in Africa has continued to grow, a trend that is likely to continue. According to Ndung’u and Signé (2020), mobile technologies and services have generated 1.7 million direct jobs (both formal and informal), contributed $144 billion of economic value (8.5 percent of the GDP of Sub-Saharan Africa), and contributed $15.6 billion to the public sector through taxation. Digitization is also resolving information asymmetry problems in the financial system and labor market, thus increasing efficiency, certainty, and security in an environment where information flow is critical for economic growth. Nevertheless, the continent still lags behind the rest of the world when it comes to technology, even though the usage of mobile applications is high on the continent. As mobile penetration and social media usage continue to increase over the years, public relations and communications companies are presented with huge opportunities. Mobile marketing is no longer seen as an add-on but rather as an essential platform for reaching target audiences, especially the rapidly growing and digitally connected middle-class demographic (Gadzala, 2018). According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2021), digital economy services have been on the rise as African governments and enterprises adopt digital strategies, policies, and plans across the continent. A 2020 United Nations E-Government Development Index (EGDI) survey of African economies showed positive signs of rapid growth. It also showed that Africa has the largest share of countries that have moved to a higher EGDI group (15 countries or 28 percent) (ITU, 2021). Africa is witnessing robust economic growth. As a result, the continent has become an important market for businesses with global ambitions.

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Within the last decades, the business environment has caught the interest of global companies. According to Mfonobong (2015), six of the ten fastest-­growing economies in the world were in Africa. As foreign multinationals began to look for new growth markets with the onset of the global financial crisis, the demand for improved public relations and strategic business communications in Africa has become apparent. Africa’s public relations industry continues to benefit from advancements in digital and social media technologies, partly due to the growth in investments. This is especially true for African markets, where opportunities are expanding as the economy in the region continues to grow (Boulos, 2016). According to the World Bank’s Global Economic Prospects report, 6 African countries were among the top 13 countries in the world with the highest projected compounded annual growth rate from 2014 to 2017 (as cited in the World Economic Forum, 2017). The growth and increase in investment from local and international companies is creating a need for quality public relations and communications on the continent. Global public relations agencies such as Hill+Knowlton Strategies, Ogilvy PR, and Weber Shandwick have opened fully fledged offices and expanded their services on the continent to cater for their global clients (Douglas, 2016). Countries like South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, Angola, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Mozambique have caught the attention of these multinational firms due to their positive business climate and media communities (Douglas, 2016; Gadzala, 2018; Mfonobong, 2015). The successful adoption of digital and mobile communication technologies in Africa is raising hope that the new wave of technological advancement, dubbed the Fourth Industrial Revolution, will take roots on the continent. The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Characteristics and Driving Technologies The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a technological evolution which describes the combination of major innovations in digital technology. The term was coined in 2016 by Klaus Schwab, Founder and Executive Chairman of the World Economic Forum. It is characterized by the fusion of the digital, biological, and physical worlds, as well as the growing utilization of new technologies (Ndung’u & Signé, 2020). According to Hawthorne (2018), several specific types of technology are driving this

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industrial revolution. These include Big Data (i.e., big data platforms help companies join, analyze, and make meaningful decisions based on all the data available to them), Artificial Intelligence (i.e., computers are taught to learn and make decisions rather than simply following a set of instructions), Robotics (i.e., devices that perform jobs that humans cannot and speed up other tasks), Virtual and Augmented Reality (i.e., digitally adding to the physical world or creating entirely new digital worlds), Advanced Security Systems (i.e., require all sorts of new authentication systems, from simple two-factor all the way up to bio-identification), and The Internet of Things (i.e., the ability of many non-computers such as cars, manufacturing machines, appliances, and hospital equipment to connect to the internet and other devices). All of these technologies involve massive connectivity or the blending of the digital and physical worlds. In fact, the 4IR is the force behind many products and services that are fast becoming indispensable to modern life. Examples include voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, personalized Netflix recommendations, and Facebook’s face recognition and tagging a user to his/her friend’s photo (Jabal, 2019). While many agree that the 4IR is changing how we live, work, and communicate, others believe it can also change the things we value and the way we value them in the future (Hawthorne, 2018). Indeed, it is reshaping almost every aspect of our life. It is important to note that each of the 4IR technologies, that is, Big Data, Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things, Robotics, and Virtual and Augmented Reality have their own unique characteristics, applications, uses, and potential impacts. In this chapter, we limit our discussion to the application of Artificial Intelligence across the continent. This is because it has the most promise and potential to help address some of Africa’s major challenges. It is also because the continent has already seen or begun to see positive deployments of AI technologies to solving financial, health, education, and agricultural challenges. Next, we take a cursory look at the application of Artificial Intelligence in Africa. Overview of Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence is an umbrella term for technologies that enable machines to perform cognitive tasks—like seeing, writing, moving, reading, or analyzing data—as well or better than humans. It has its origins in 1956 when Dartmouth College students began inventing the new field of

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science (Cristianini, 2016). There are two types of Artificial Intelligence: Weak Artificial Intelligence and Strong Artificial Intelligence. Weak artificial intelligence is also known as narrow artificial intelligence and is used for specific or familiar functions. Strong artificial intelligence is also known as artificial general intelligence and has the ability to improve itself because it can find solutions, making it able to perform unfamiliar and familiar tasks. AI technologies can be trained on tasks by humans or, in the case of machine learning, learn to improve on their own. Examples of AI technologies include phone’s voice assistant which uses AI technologies like natural language processing (NLP) and natural language generation (NLG) to answer questions, voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, personalized Netflix recommendations, and Facebook’s ability to recognize face and tag a user in a friend’s photo, Gmail’s use of AI to predict what will be typed next and complete sentences for the user, and Amazon’s usage of AI to recommend products for consumers based on their past purchases (Jabal, 2019). At its most basic, AI uses algorithmic techniques loosely modeled on the human brain to enable machines to discover patterns, generate insights from the data to which they are exposed, and then apply those lessons learned to future decision making and predictions. AI, in the form of virtual assistants like Apple’s Siri or Amazon’s Alexa, uses algorithms to match single voiceprints against subsequent repetitions of the same phrase to learn and predict natural language requests (Gadzala, 2018). To perform such functions, AI depends on robust digital foundations, which include the availability of large volumes of data—usually referred to as Big Data. Machines can analyze this data to learn, make connections, and arrive at decisions. But AI also relies on significant know-how among its human adopters. Industry leaders must know how to successfully implement AI into their operations, and consumers must be comfortable with its use. Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Africa The success of mobile technologies across Africa has raised speculation about whether the tools of the 4IR such as AI will also take root in African nations (Gadzala, 2018). This is because mobile technologies have permitted African nations to dramatically increase their communication capabilities while leapfrogging the need for old-fashioned infrastructure. Many have argued that successful deployment of AI technology holds promise in

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African countries where governments have made technology a national priority and are taking rigorous measures to stimulate innovation and to improve data protection, research, and development (Hao, 2019). Countries like South Africa, Kenya, Ghana, Ethiopia, and Nigeria are among a few nations in which the efforts are most aggressive and advanced. Not surprisingly, they are the nations in which the adoption and applications of AI technologies are beginning to pay off. South Africa leads the continent in AI adoption with a robust ecosystem that includes numerous technology hubs, research groups, and forums such as the AI Summit (sponsored by multinational companies including Intel, Salesforce, Amazon, and IBM) and Singularity University’s South Africa Summit (Ferrein & Meyer, 2012; ITU, 2021). An estimated 100-plus companies in South Africa are either integrating AI solutions into their existing operations or developing new solutions using AI.  South Africa and Nigeria alone accounted for 2.4 billion in investment in AI between 2008 and 2018 (ITU, 2021). In Kenya, the Ministry of Information, Communication, and Technology established a Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence Taskforce to explore how the technologies can best be used to advance the country’s development (Odhiambo, 2018). AI solutions are being successfully deployed in some African countries, especially in Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, Ethiopia, and South Africa. In these countries where the technology is taking root, digital foundations in the form of widespread mobile phone penetration and established mobile technology solutions are in place (Gadzala, 2018). For example, a 2017 Pew Research Center study found that mobile phone penetration in Kenya was 94 percent, South Africa was 91 percent, Ghana and Nigeria with 80 percent each, and Senegal 79 percent (Elliott, 2019). Such foundations ensure a baseline of technological infrastructure and consumer awareness and acceptance of technology-driven solutions on which AI providers can build trust and discover new avenues for consumer engagement. Most AI applications on the continent currently target the financial services, agriculture, and healthcare sectors. According to Nyabola (2018), machine learning is the most used AI technology by companies in Africa. This is due to its wide-ranging applicability, making it relevant for several use cases across the value chain. In the last few years, the AI and machine-learning community has blossomed on the continent, applying the technology to challenges like food security and healthcare (Hao, 2019). In 2013, a local group of industry practitioners and researchers began Data Science Africa, an annual workshop for

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sharing resources and ideas. In 2017, another group formed the organization Deep Learning Indaba, which now has chapters in 27 of the continent’s 54 countries. University courses and other educational programs dedicated to teaching machine learning have burgeoned in response to increasing demand (Hao, 2019). The international community has also taken notice. Global technology companies, including IBM, Microsoft, Google, and Facebook, are making inroads on the continent. For instance, Google opened its first AI research lab in Accra, Ghana, in 2018 (Hao, 2019), citing the country’s strong ecosystem of local universities and expanding network of technology hubs as reasons. In 2018, Ghana had 24 tech hubs, the most in sub-Saharan Africa after South Africa (59), Nigeria (55), and Kenya (30) (Dahir, 2018b). In late 2013, IBM Research opened its first AI-oriented research labs in Nairobi, and in 2016, it added another in Johannesburg, South Africa. In Kenya, IBM’s initiative “Project Lucy” is working to address the country’s development challenges, including healthcare, financial inclusion, water and sanitation, human mobility, and agriculture. Facebook opened its first African technology hub in Lagos in 2018. According to ITU (2021), the AI landscape in Africa is very mixed, with successful deployments in financial services, agriculture, and healthcare in countries such as Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, Ethiopia, and South Africa and a complete lack of the necessary foundations for AI ecosystems to blossom in other parts across the region. The effective deployment of these technologies is based on the realization that Africa offers a context with which AI can return to its original promise: creating technology that tackles pressing global challenges like hunger, poverty, and diseases. Both IBM Research labs in Kenya and South Africa and Google’s AI lab in Ghana share the same aspiration: the use of AI to focus on issues such as increasing access to affordable healthcare, making financial services more inclusive, strengthening long-term food security, and streamlining government operations (Hao, 2019). African-led AI research and collaborations have produced a homegrown AI community that attracts global attention and financial support. For instance, the Indaba AI conference has drawn in Google, Microsoft, Apple, Amazon, and Netflix as sponsors. Other smaller operations have sprung up in the last decade. Notable ones include iCog Labs, a privately operated AI research lab in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, launched in 2013, which is working together with other international partners to provide a variety of AI research and development services for Ethiopian and

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international customers and to educate young Ethiopians in computer coding, hardware, and entrepreneurship (Gadzala, 2018). In Nigeria, a chatbot called Kudi AI, launched in 2017, is integrated into Facebook’s Messenger app and facilitates mobile banking and payment services to users who may not have access to, or may be unfamiliar with, browserbased online banking but are comfortable with text-based messaging. IBM also launched its Watson Workspace, a messaging app designed to streamline corporate workflow in Nigeria in August 2018 (AkiyodeLawanson, 2018; Gadzala, 2018). Similarly, MomConnect, a chatbot initiated by South Africa’s National Department of Health, connects expectant mothers with pre- and post-natal services including the opportunity for women to chat with the app and receive healthcare advice relevant to their pregnancy (Shapshak, 2017). AI apps like UjuziKilimo, a precision farming app that uses machine learning and data analytics to help Kenyan farmers optimize their irrigation practices, relies on established SMS technology for its interface (UjuziKilimo, 2018). Researchers at the Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Center of Excellence at Addis Ababa Science and Technology University are developing AI-powered solutions for the country’s agriculture sector, for example, flying insect robots, for instance, to assist with crop surveillance (Gadzala, 2018). Similar collaborations between South African universities and technology hubs have proven to be strong drivers of AI innovation. These include, among others, the LaunchLab at Stellenbosch University (which incubates student-led start-ups in blockchain, fintech, 3D printing, and AI) and the Centre for Artificial Intelligence Research (CAIR), a joint initiative of the School of Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science at the University of KwaZulu-Natal and the Council for Industrial Research (Gadzala, 2018). Potential Impact of AI on Public Relations Practice in Africa As technology continues to evolve, companies are turning to AI as a means to help streamline repetitive processes and find efficiencies in their operations. The public relations industry is no different. In the field of public relations, AI offers a new relationship between humans and intelligent machines that is enabling PR professionals to create data-driven campaigns, automate repetition-based tasks, analyze online conversations, predict a crisis, and even produce personalized content (Alawaad, 2021; Gouda, et al., 2020). PR firms are looking for ways to use AI for certain

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aspects of the business that can benefit from AI functions. In a 2021 survey of 235 senior-level PR professionals conducted by Notified, a PR firm in the USA, more than half (51 percent) of respondents said they were enthusiastic about AI’s potential to help them do their jobs better, and only 9 percent remain nervous about the technology. Nearly two-thirds of respondents (64 percent) cited a notable improvement in their team’s tech proficiency as compared to three years ago, and 61 percent said that AI is helping them to link PR efforts directly to organizational goals like sales and brand awareness (Chodor, 2021). Jabal (2019) claims that public relations and communications campaigns are all about personalized relations, which is immersive, defined, tailored, and surgical. This allows companies and organizations to target diverse demographics and personalities with content that is tailored to what they want rather than sending out one-size-fits-all messages (NIIT Editor, 2019). He again argues that we are gradually moving away from digital natives (i.e., people who enjoy highly personalized experiences) to a new breed of mixed reality natives (i.e., those who enjoy even faster speed of data connectivity). This has implications for public relations professionals who must accept that they will soon have to target and engage mixed reality natives. One way to achieve this is to adopt Artificial Intelligence in public relations practice. Even though the number of AI tools available for PR professionals is exponentially growing, there seems to be little understanding of this technology’s impact on the industry. There exists a significant knowledge gap about the actual state of AI technology advancement as it can be applied to supporting or evolving the capabilities within the PR industry. Fortunately, this trend is changing in the advanced countries where academics, PR professionals, and agencies have been engaged in studies, workshops, and panel discussions on AI and public relations. For example, in 2018 the UK Chartered Institute for Public Relations (CIPR) founded the #AIinPR panel to study the impact of Artificial Intelligence on public relations and the wider business community. Similarly in 2019, the ICCO Global Summit dedicated two sessions to exploring the PR tech landscape and discuss how to prepare for the age of Artificial Intelligence and automation. Additionally, in 2019, the PRSA Los Angeles (USA) chapter hosted the panel “AI, Tech and the Future of Public Relations,” where professionals discussed the current state of technology in PR, the myth that AI will replace PR practitioners, and the reasons why tech companies

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may need to rely more heavily on PR experts in the future. Unfortunately, similar efforts are lacking in Africa. Africa presents an exciting and fresh opportunity for public relations agencies and practitioners willing to engage in digital transformation, adapt AI tools, and approach the market strategically (Hao, 2019). Kaput (2021) has identified many AI tools that can be used by public relations and corporate communicators, including those in Africa, to do anything from writing communications to social listening. These tools include, among others, Beautiful.ai (which uses AI to automatically design presentations), Grammarly (which uses AI to offer suggestions to improve any type of written communication, identify typos, recommend language choices, and improve style and tone), HyperWrite (a sophisticated AI that writes entire sentences and paragraphs for you), and Talkwalker (an AI-powered listening tool that tells you how consumers are perceiving your brand in real time). To be relevant in future global market economy, the PR industry in Africa must adapt to new technologies and begin to explore AI capabilities in their day-to-day functions, to realize its potential, simplify client operations, and create new experiences that enhance brand value (Chittick, 2021; Taylor, n.d.). Sharma (2021) and Fitzgerald (2021) opine that AI technology, through the application of robotic process automation (RPA) and machine learning (ML), can assist with various tasks like creating reports, drafting emails out of a press release, writing and disseminating press notes, converting speech to text, and creating hyper-targeted media lists, among other things. Advantages of AI Adoption in PR Practice in Africa The adoption of AI tools in public relations practices in Africa presents specific advantages to the industry and practitioners alike. These include, among others, the ability to streamline routine workflows, automation of routine PR tasks, real-time data analytics capabilities, real-time media monitoring, broader content marketing, and targeted influencer outreach programs. S treamline and Automation of Routine PR Tasks The PR industry and practitioners could benefit from AI’s ability to streamline routine workflows and, ultimately, eliminate the time required to complete many everyday tasks, such as collecting and analyzing

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consumer data, media monitoring, and social listening. As a tool, AI has the ability to automate daily tasks performed by practitioners. This will allow practitioners to focus more on strategizing and making data-driven choices. They will be able to see how their clients are interacting with a particular content and the frequency of interaction. Additionally, they can rely on AI’s automation to help track and analyze coverage and public sentiment. When they automate processes like these, practitioners can then dedicate more time to strategy and develop thoughtful approaches to their campaigns and efforts.  ata Analytics Capabilities D Apart from the advantages that come with the automation of routine tasks, the PR industry in Africa can also benefit from AI’s data analytics capabilities (Sharma, 2021). This will allow practitioners to gather, process, and analyze online data in real time at a rapid speed and make reliable predictions. By combining big data with social listening tools such as Brandwatch and Talkwalker, the practitioner can gather useful information about the sentiments of their clients from online communities. This information can inform the strategic direction for brand management. Public relations agencies can search through vast amounts of information available across any digital platform at lightning speed and pull out relevant content to their clients by programming to search out specific words or phrases. This will ensure that only the important content gets flagged to the agency. This will help to eliminate time wasted on unwanted content.  eal-Time Media Monitoring R Additionally, the adoption of AI in the industry will equip PR practitioners on the continent with the necessary tools for real-time media monitoring. With the aid of AI automation tools, PR practitioners can scan news coverage, monitor, or track media impressions or coverage of competitive products and client’s competitors to ensure that their clients are reacting as needed or getting their fair share of media coverage with their own campaign.  roader Content Marketing B In addition to improving an organization’s ability to keep the pulse on media coverage and sentiment in real time, AI has the potential to bolster broader content marketing efforts through SEO optimization, improved

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personalization, and gauging audience response. This will allow the practitioner to further tap into the hearts and minds of their target audiences. Additionally, practitioners will be able to determine the best time of day for press releases, social media posts, and other avenues of engagement with their target audience, based on when people are interacting with the information and what platform or means of communication receives the most interaction. This will provide data that the PR agency can use to ensure they are reaching their target clients in a way that makes sense and to make recommendations on what channels to push their message through, how the content should be built, and even what type of content to include.  argeted Influencer Outreach Programming T Furthermore, the adoption of AI will enable the public relations practitioner to execute targeted influencer outreach programs. AI-enabled tools such as Atomic Reach and Article Forge can create specific material aligned with audience’s interests by examining earlier content written by social media and media influencers and recommending the best time to send out campaign emails or publish social media posts. Public relations practitioners on the continent can employ AI tools to send direct, relevant messages to specific audiences. Real-time big data offers practitioners the information they need to provide current content that consumers want to see.  ocus on Creative Tasks F Finally, the use of Artificial Intelligence will free public relations professionals to focus more on creative pursuits like crafting compelling messaging or planning strategic media outreach. Advances in sentiment analysis, predictive analytics, chatbots, and natural language generation (NLG) are already directly impacting the public relations industry globally, and Africa will not be an exception. Despite these potential benefits of AI technologies to PR practice in Africa, their prospective impact on the public relations industry cannot be realized unless critical challenges or bottlenecks are addressed. Obstacles to Successful Adoption of AI in PR in Africa Several critical factors necessary for AI technology to take hold are absent across most of the continent. These include, among others, serious

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challenges with data, lack of data protection laws, and education and skills training challenges. Data Challenges There are serious data challenges. Lack of data, faulty data, unreliable data, or reluctance in releasing data severely limits the realization of the benefits of AI on the continent. Unfortunately, this is the reality in many African countries. Even though the growing popularity of social media and messaging applications across the continent has made data more readily available, quality, timeliness, and the availability of large volumes of data (usually referred to as ‘big data’) on critical indicators such as data on births and deaths, growth and poverty, taxes and trade, health, education, safety, and land and the environment are often poor in quality or missing (Gadzala, 2018). According to van Belle (2016, 2018), Africa has the lowest average level of statistical capacity in the world. Only half of the African countries had carried out more than two comparable household surveys in the past ten years, and only 29 percent had published household surveys with education data since 2005. These drawbacks jeopardize the likely benefits to be derived from data sharing, or open access data, which is central to effective AI deployment.  ack of Data Protection Laws L Another limiting factor is the lack of data protection laws across Africa. There are insufficient regulations to protect against data misuse and to ensure personal privacy (Dahir, 2018a, b). In 2014, the African Union (AU) adopted a Convention on Cyber Security and Data Protection which encourages African governments to recognize the importance of data security and provides a framework for leaders to integrate into their respective legislations. As of 2018, the Convention had not taken effect as only 10 out of the 54 AU member states had ratified it (Dahir, 2018a, b. In Kenya, a data protection law was in parliament for six years before a draft was published in June 2018. In Nigeria, the Nigerian Data Protection Regulation 2019 was passed into law after it had lingered in parliament for nearly ten years. Only a handful of countries, such as Ghana and South Africa, have enacted comprehensive data protection legislation or have established an open data initiative. Ghana’s 2012 Data Protection Act regulates how personal information is acquired, stored, and disclosed. South Africa’s Protection of Personal Information Act, 2013, similarly

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provides the framework for processing personal information and sets up a supervisory function to ensure legislative compliance.  ducation and Skills Challenges E Education and skills training remains a critical challenge across Africa, and these could impede the realization of any benefits of adopting AI tools in PR. The skills base of the continent’s workforce is lower than that of any other global region (World Economic Forum, 2017). PR agencies need practitioners with the technical skills necessary to understand the business case for AI and to engage consumers successfully. This requires the ability to separate the excitement surrounding AI from its actual capabilities in specific, real-world contexts. It also includes a pragmatic view of AI’s capabilities and limitations, which requires at least a high-level grasp of how AI works and how it differs from other conventional technologies. For the technologies of the 4IR, including AI to impact businesses and professions on the continent, there must be reforms in the areas of data collection and data privacy, infrastructure, education, and governance. Without those reforms, most African nations and industries will have little chance to exploit the technologies to advance sustainable development and inclusive growth (Gadzala, 2018).

Conclusion The chapter explored the potential impact and the challenges of adopting the 4IR technologies, particularly AI tools, on the practice of public relations in Africa. The technologies of the 4IR, including AI, have the potential to impact African economies, businesses, and professionals positively. The PR industry also stands to benefit from the effective adoption of these tools. Unfortunately, in many countries where data ecosystem and infrastructure are limited, and the workforce is not equipped with the skills necessary to adopt and advance AI solutions, the case for the widespread adoption of the technology is uncertain. Nevertheless, the apparent success of AI ventures in select African economies gives hope to future adoption of more robust tools in the industry. In some African countries, the factors needed for the successful adoption of 4IR technologies are rapidly converging, even though the initiatives are still mostly small-scale, pilot, or ad hoc. They, however, appear promising and have thus attracted significant backing from global corporations.

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The realization of the potential impact of AI on Africa’s public relations industry is hinged on several factors. Practitioners should clearly understand how the technology works and the potential advantages it brings to their profession. These include the potential to improve monitoring and forecasting, optimize operations, develop targeted campaigns, and enhance user experiences. The industry must develop a workforce able to take advantage of AI solutions. African practitioners should stay open-­ minded about the introduction of AI in their practice. Although they should be careful about how they deploy AI in their profession, they should also accept the technologies for what they really are, that is, potent tools that promise a more prosperous and comfortable future for the industry. They should also recognize that AI is only as effective as the professionals who use it, and the technology is not without its shortcomings. Because of potential risks such as disinformation/misinformation, data bias, and ethical issues, PR professionals should not put too much trust in reports their tools generate without human input or oversight. They should not implement the technology in an unmonitored setting, as the proper interpretation of data is vital to the success of its applications. Although Artificial Intelligence offers benefits to the PR industry, creative thinking and messaging are aspects that would fundamentally need human input. Artificial intelligence will be able to make public relations more efficient while dealing with numbers, but it cannot replace human creativity, which is essential to public relations. As with any tool, we must evaluate whether the features fulfill our needs and whether or not the capabilities meet our expectations. It is our job to stay informed so we can optimize available technology to enhance our business processes and improve our work productivity. As an exploratory study, the sole reliance on existing literature on the subject limits the generalizability of the conclusions made and a deeper understanding of the actual experiences of PR practitioners with the AI technology. Thus, further in-depth study of the experiences of public relations practitioners in Africa with AI and other 4IR tools in their practice is recommended. Such a study could provide insights into how knowledgeable PR scholars and industry experts in Africa are about AI technologies’ impact on public relations and, most importantly, why they should care. Conflict of Interest  We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

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Index

A Activism playbook, 187–210 Activists, 188–190, 192–195, 197–208, 210 Advertising value equivalence (AVE), 125, 127, 128, 130, 131 Africa, 1–11, 160–181, 241–257 African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCTA), 4 African countries, see Ethiopia; Ghana; Kenya; Namibia; Nigeria; South Africa; Tanzania; Zimbabwe African development, 160 African public relations, 147, 155 Africapitalism, 190–192, 195, 210 Afrocentricity, 190 Artificial Intelligence (AI), 241–257 Asymmetric, 155

B Barcelona Principles, 127 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 89–112, 160–181 Body of knowledge, 1, 3, 6–8, 11 C Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 19, 21, 22 CEO activism, 187–210 Chief Executive Officer (CEOs), 187–210 China, 89–112, 160–181 China-Africa Economic and Trade Expo, 165 China Daily Africa Weekly, 160 Communication, 42, 44–48, 50–52, 54–56, 58, 59, 89, 92, 93, 100, 110

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. A. Anani-Bossman et al. (eds.), Public Relations Management in Africa Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26704-8

261

262 

INDEX

Competing Values Framework, 221, 222, 235–237 Content analysis, 103, 106 Content marketing, 252–254 Corporate social advocacy, 189–193, 210 Crisis, 217, 218, 224, 227, 231–234, 236 Culture, 1, 3, 7 D Daily Nation (Kenya), 161, 170, 174–176, 179 Daily News Egypt, 89–112 Dialogic communication, 160–181 Dialogic theory, 71, 78, 83 Digital communication, 242 Digital media, 41–59 Digital Silk Road, 162 Digital transformation, 252 E Economic, 6, 7, 10 Egypt, 90–92, 98–102, 104, 106–112 Emerging media, see Digital media; New media; Social media Ethical frameworks, 160, 161, 166–167 Ethiopia, 4–8 Evaluation, 121–140 Ex-ante, 197–203, 208, 209 Excellence theory, 147, 156 Ex-post, 197, 207–209 F Formative evaluation, 126 Fourth Industrial Revolution, 241–257 Frame, 89–112

Frameworks, 127, 138 Framing, 221, 223–224, 234 Framing theory, 103 G Gabon, 26 Ghana, 4–8, 17, 19, 21–23, 25–27, 29, 32–33, 41–59, 187–210 Globalization, 241 Global public relations, 18, 33 Global technology, 249 Government, 69–73, 79–83 Grunig, James, 3 H Higher education, 216, 222, 224 Higher education institutions (HEIs), 215–237 History, 5, 6, 8 I Image, 89–112 Image building, 145–156 Impact, 122, 125–128, 130, 131, 133, 137–139 Islam, 89–112 J Journalism, 69–84 Journalists, 69, 71–84, 217, 220, 227, 228, 233 K Kenya, 4–8, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 29, 31–32 Knowledge gap, 242, 243, 251

 INDEX 

M Management function, 217, 237 Management network, 227–230, 234–235 Marketing strategy, 189 Measurement, see Evaluation Media, 69–77, 79, 82–84 Media clippings, 122, 130 Media landscape, 19–22 Media monitoring, 252, 253 Media relations, 72, 75–78, 80–83, 215–237 Metrics, see Impact; Outcome, Output; Outtakes Mixed reality natives, 251 Mobile communication technologies, 245 N Namibia, 4–8, 69–84 The Nation (Nigeria), 161, 170, 176–179, 181 Network theory, 221 New media, 46, 48, 50–52, 54–56, 58 News media, 92, 103, 105, 108, 109, 111 Nigeria, 4–8, 17, 19, 22, 25, 26, 29, 31 North Africa, 89–112 O Outcome, 122–127, 130, 131, 133, 137, 138 Output, 124–128, 130–133, 137, 138 Outtake, 122, 124–128, 131, 137 P Paradigm, 145–148, 154–156 Political, 6, 7

263

Private, 215–237 Process campaign implementation, 197 Process evaluation, 126 Professionalization, 18, 25, 33, 34 Public, 215–237 Public diplomacy, 89–112, 160–181 Public relations, 1–11, 41–59, 69–84, 188–191, 208 Public relations education, 22–25, 27, 30, 31, 34 Public relations management, 1–11 Public relations research, 18, 26, 27, 29, 34, 35 Public relations research in Africa, 43–44 Public relations roles, 3 Public relations scholarship, 3–5, 8, 11, 17, 25, 27, 29–35 Public service, 71, 80–84 R Relationship, 71–84 Relationship building, 145–156 Relationship management theory, 147, 155 Responsible management, 188–190, 210 S Skills, 123, 125, 128–130, 136–139 Social listening, 252, 253 Social media, 41–59, 244, 245, 254, 255 Social media management, 54, 57 Social Network, 45, 46, 54, 57 Social responsibility, 188–191, 210 Sociopolitical, 188, 191 South Africa, 4–8, 17, 18, 22, 24–27, 29–30, 32, 34, 35 Strategic, 90–92, 94, 96, 98–100, 102–104, 108, 109, 111

264 

INDEX

Sub-Saharan Africa, 17–35 Summative evaluation, 126

Universities, 216, 217, 219, 221, 224–235, 237

T Tanzania, 4–8, 145–156 Tension, 69–84 Theory, 1–11 Twitter, 46, 47, 54, 55, 57 Two-way communication, 147, 155

W Western, 3, 5, 6, 8, 11 Worldview, 3

U Ubuntu, 35, 166, 167, 191, 192 Underrepresent, 5, 6, 11

Z Zimbabwe, 4–8, 18, 21, 24–27, 29, 32–34

Y YouTube, 47, 54, 55, 57