Principles of Hindu Law: Personal Law of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains & Sikhs [1 ed.]

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Prin~j.ples.

of

Hind.u Law Personal Law of

Hindus, Buddhists, Jains & Sikhs

~·--------~---------· The daring publisher, Universal Law Publishing Company, among the foremost in the law publishing field and progressive i~ venturing to bring out rare legal literature of avant garde character has rightly enriched the corpus juris of India

Justice V R Krishna Iyer. Random.Reflections, page 14,

•

•

Principles of

Hindu Law Personal Law of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains & Sikhs The Sindh Hindus Marriage Act, 2016

410A-410D

The Hindu Marrla2e Act, 2016

410E-410L

··------------~------------· TAf!". .da~ng piibfisher, · Universal law Publishing Company, among the foremo~t in the law pu~lishing fleld and P.rogr~ssive in ven~rlng to bring out rare legal iiterature of avant-garde azar~er itizs rightly

mridred the corpus juris ojind:ki Justic~· V R Krishna Iy~r Random R.ctlectiom, pag~ 14·

'

•

Principles of

Personal Law of Hindus, Buddhist.s, J ains & Sikhs .The Sindh Hindus Marriage Act, 2016

410A-410D•

The Hindu Marriage Act, 2016

410E-410L

Tahir Mahmood

Edition 2017-18 Price Rs. 12001-

UNIVE SAL Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. NEW DELHI - INDIA

or

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Co1nputer TYPmt at Aes~hetid and Printed at Nice Printing Press, '"'.•lhi.

PREFACE The personal law system has for- centuries been, and remains, a distinctive feature of pluralist India's legal culture. The so-called 'Hindu· law' is actually the personal law, largely reformed and codified, of four Indian communities - Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and .Sikhs. As they have ~ogether over 80% share in India's population, their personal law· constitutes the principal chapter of modem Iridia's family and succession 'laws. This book offers a critical study of it~ provisions in a historical, constitutional and human rights perspective. · Hindu law has beeri one of my major interest areas since the beginning of my acaqemic career. My *st elementary book on the subject Changing Law of' the Hindu Society, a monograph l;>ased on th~ lectures I had delivered as a greenhorn at the Aligarh Muslim University, was published in Delhi in 1968. Thirteen Y.eai:s later came out from AU.aruibad my 750-page critical work Studies in Hindu Law. Brought out in a second edition in 1986 and in several reprints until 1998, it was cited a number of judicial decisions.~ year I was· approached by the publishers for its revision, but:.instead of updating that outdated book I decided to venture a fresh work on the subject.

This

m

an

Besides elaborate Prologu~ intrOducing the subject,. this. book is arranged into three Parts -. Matrimonial Law, Family Rights and Relations,. Property and Succession Laws - each beginning with the texts of the governing statutes and offering in the succeeding_ Chapters my understanding and. evaluation of their provisions. Texts of other Jaws relt:vant .to the subject .have beeu provided in three Appendices to the book. A large number of cases have been decided in the last two decades .by fi?.e Supreme Court of ID.dia and various High Courts covering almost all provisions of the four Hindu-law Acts of 1955-56. In dealing with case law the focus of the book is on the recent cases reported till January 2014; old cases have been referred to only where considered necessary.

and

I hope the book will be found of some use by the Bench and the Bar and in the fraternity of law teachers, researchers and students.

Tahir Mahmood Institute of Advanced Legal Studies ·Amity.University, India

CONTENTS Preface

v

Table of Statutes

Table of Cases

PROLOGUE History, Nature and Scope of Hindu· Law I

'

I. Historical Perspective · '

'

A Religious Groups & Personal Laws_ B. Sources & Schools of . Laws . C. Development during Muslim Rule D. · Development ~Uring British ~ule E. Salient _Features & Misconc~ptfons

2 4-. 6'

7 10

II. Legislative Reform till Date

A First Century of Reform . B. ·Reforming Acts of 1955-56 C. Status of Old Refonriing Acts D. Application. of General Laws E. Opting out of Hindu Law

12 15 17 18 19

JII..Law of Four Communities

22 23

A 'Hindu' Law: A Misnomer B~

Hindu Community C. Sikh Community D. Buddhist Community E. Jain Community IV.

Ana~ysis

26

28 29

& Appraisal of Acts

.30 33

A .Scope & Extent B.. Overriding Effect . vii

·Principles of Hindu Law

viii

C. Terms & Expressions D. Effects of Ceasing to be Hindu E. Need for Rationalization

34 35 37

V. Human Rights Perspective .

A Mandate of CEDAW B. India's Reservations on CEDAW · · C. Mandat~ ofNo-Religious Discrimination D. Mandate of Indian Constitution E. Aberrations under Modem Hindu Law VI.

Supple~ental

f:aws

A Menace of Child Marriage B. Evil of Marital Dowry C. Domestic Violence Trends D. · Sati & Devadasi Customs

yn. ·A B. C. D.

L~cal

39 40 .4f 41 42

·4~

45 . 46

46

& Foreign Laws

Jammu-Kashmir Hindu Law Acts Portuguese Hindu Law of Goa French Law for Hindus in Puducheey. Hindu. Buddhist & Sikh Laws Abroad

47 49 50 52

· PARTI MATRIM:ONIAL LAW

Chapter 1 Governing Statutes-I

A Hindu Marriage Act 1955 B. Additions in South India 1967-1971 C. P'roposed Changes 2010-2013

57 78 80

Contents

D. 0 Id .Central Acts in Force (a) Anand Marriage Act 1909 [amended 2012] (b) Arya Marriage Validation Act 1937

ix

86 86 . 89

· : Chapter 2 ·. Marriage and Cohabitation I~ Legal Requirements

A Religion & _Legal· Status :B. Mandate for Monogamy C. Mental & Physical liandicaps D. · Age & Consent Requirements E. Bars of Kinship & Ancestry

90 93 97 98

99

II. Solemnization. & CompletiQn

A ·Marriage Rites & Rituals B; Documentation & Proof C. Presumption of Marriage ' . . D. Registration Laws and Rules ' E. Live-in Relation & Same~Sex Marriage

102 104 105 106 109

III. Remedies for Unlawful Marriages ·

A Polygynous and Po~yandrous Marriages B. ·Incestuous & Endogamous Marriages. C. Marriage. without Necessary Capacity D. Marriage by Force-or Fraud . E. Marriage in Violation of Age Rules F~ Status of Children of Unlawful Marriages

111

114 115

117 119

121

IY. Marital Rights in Lawful Marriages

A Cohabitation & Maintenance · B. Rupture & Restoration of Cohabitation

123 126

Principles of Hindu Law

x

of

C. Suspension Cohabitation by Court Order D. Wife's Entitlement to Live Separate E. Reliefs Ripening into Divorce· Grounds

129 132 134

Chapter 3 Divorce and Post-Divorce Subsistence I. Nature & Scope of Divorce Law

A B. C. D.

Traditional Law Position pn Divorce Legislative Recognition of Divorce Diyorce Laws Saved by .1955 Act Divorce Policy & Procedure

135 136 137 138

II. Fault .& Disability Theories

A B. · C. D.

Diseases as Divorce Grounds Disabilities as Divorce Grounds Matrimonial Wrongs as Divorce Grounds Women-Only Divorce Grounds

140 142 143 154

III. Breakdown & Consent Theories

A Diyorce via Transitory Remedies B. Legislation on Irretrievable Breakdown C. Case Law on Irretrievable·Breakdown D. Consensual Divorce in Broken Marriage

155 157 158 159

IV. Life after Divorce

A B. C. D.

Available Ancillary Reliefs Maintenance & Residence Property & Cl?-il~ Custody Rights without Liabilities

162 163 165 167

••

Contents~

xi

Chapter 4 Settlement of 1\1atrimonial Disputes I. Bars to Granting Relief .

A B. C. D.

Limitations for Courts !aking Advantage of OWn Wrong Condoned &. Abetted Wrongs Collusive & Delayed Actions E. Bars to Consensual Divorce

169 169 170 171 .172

II. Pre-Decision Reliefs

A Nature & Scope of Reliefs . . B. Expenses Proceedings . C. Maintenance d':lring Proceedings

of

.

172 173 .174

.

III. Litigation. & Conciliation

A Civil .Courts' Jurisdiction B. Family Courts' Jurisdiction · C. Efforts for ,Reconciliation I\~ ·Processes &

175 177 178

Pleadings

A Statutory Provisions B. High Court Rules . C. Application CPC

179· 182 183

of

PARTll .FAMILY RIGHTS & RELATIONS

.

·chapter 5

Govemiitg Statlltes-11

A

Hind~

Minority and Guardianship Act 1956 ~- Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act 1956

(89 196

xii

Principles of Hindu La»:

C. Related Provisions in General Acts. (a) Guardians and Wards Act 1890 [amended 2010] (b) Juvenile Justice.. (Prctection and Care of Children) Act 2000 [amended 2011]

212 212 218

Chapter 6 Natural Family Relations I. Child & Law ·

A Legal Framework B. Legitimacy & Illegitimacy· Abo~on

& Surrogacy D. Childhood & Minority· E. Minors' Disabilities & Privileges

C.

221 222 225 227 228

II. Guardianship & Custody .

.General Principles B. Guardianship of Person

230 233 236

C. Custody & Visitation

D. Guardianship of Property E. Forums & Procedures . . .· ~

239

. 241

ID. Maintenance· Rights & Liabilities•·

A General Principles B. Children & Daughter-in-law C. Parents & Grandparents

D. Legal Heirs' Liability . · . E.. Forums & Procedures

242 .243·

245

246 248

Chapter 7 ·Family Relations by Adoption

.I. Concept & General PrinCiples

·A Legal Framework B. .Traditional Hindu Law

249 250

Contents

xiii

C. Modem Law of 1956 . D. Eligibility to be Adopted E. Adoptee's Rights & Liabilities

252

253 256

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II. Taking & Giving Children ·in· Adoptim

. A Legal Capacity.to Adopt a Child '

257 258

B. · Adoption by Married Persons C. Adoption by Single Persons D. Natural Children Barring Adoption . E. Giviµg a Child in Adoption· . . III. Adoption Process & _Procedure

259

26l 262

A Ceremonies & Formalities B. Documentation & Registration · C. · Guidelines for Inter-Country Adoptions D. Adoption under .Juvenile Justice Act E. · Forums & Procedlires · I

•

264 265 .266 266

267

PARTfil _

PROPERTY & SUCCESSION Chapter 8

Qoveming Statutes-HI A B. C. D.

Hindu Succession Act 1956 Additions in South· & West India 1986-1994 Kerala Joint Hindu Family Sy~tem (Abolition) Act 1975 . Old Central 'Laws in Force

(a) Hindu Disposition· of Property Act 1916 · . (b) Hindu Inheritance (Removal of Disabilities} Act 1928 , (c) Hindu Gains of Leaming Act 1930

271 289 294 298 298 299 300

xiv

Principles of Hindu Law

Chapter 9 Suc~ession

Rights & Liabilities

]. Concepts & Kinds of Property

A B. C D. E.

Familial & Individual Ownershlp Pre-Independence Legislation · New Succession Law of 1956 Succession Law Terms Defined Other Succession Law Terms ·

302 303 305 306

307

II•. Properties Governed ·by 1956 Act

A B. C D.

Individuals' Separate Propeey ' Shares in Joint Family Property Women's Properties in General Women's Property under Gift or Will E. Agricultural Property & Land Reforms

308 308 309 310 311

III. Law of Inheritance .

A Inherj.tance to Men's Property B. Inheritance to Women's Property Some Recent Judicial Rulings D. Principles of Common Applicati~n . E. Effect of Conversion on Succession Rights

c:

·312 317 320

321 325

Iv. Law of Gifts and Wills

·A B. C. D. E.

Traditional Law & Custom· Legislation on Wills 1870-1925 Legislation for Unborn Persons 1916 Indian Succession Act 1925 Hindu Succession Act 1956

326 326 328 329 329

Contents

xv·

Chapter 10 Joint Families & Impartible Estates I. Traditional Law

A B. C. D.

. Basic Mitakshara Doctrines Supreme Court on Mitakshara Law Dayabhaga Joint Family Pre-Iri.dependence Legislation

331 333 338 339

II. Modern Law

A liUF under Fiscal Laws

B. Partial SubJection to· Succession Law 1956 C. hnpact ofSupreme Court's Interpretation D. Total Subjection to. Succession Law 2005

341 342 343 344

[II. South India's · Traditional I~stitutions

A Matrilineal Joint Families

B. Codifying Statutes of 1932-1949 C. Subjection to Succession Law 1956 D. Sthanam Properties· & R;oyal Estat~s

345 346 347 348

Iy. Revolutionary Changes

A Abolition of Joint Families !n Kerala .1975 B.- St~te Laws on Daughtdr-Coparceners 1986-1.994

C. Central Law on Daughter-Coparceners 2005 D. Abolition of Pious (?bligation for Debts 2005

349 350 354 355

Appendix I · Texts of Jammu-Kashmir Hindu Law Act~

A. Hindu Succession Act 1956 B. Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act 1957 C. Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act 1960

358 363

364

.,

xvi

·Principles of Hindu Lavi

D. Hindu Maniage Act 1980 [amended 2013] E. Hindu Maniage Registration Rules 2013

368

372

Appendix II

Texts of Miscellaneous Laws (Central & Local) .

A Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987 B. Maharashtr~ Devdasi System (Abolition) Act 2005 C. Goa Code of Gentile Hindu Usages 1880

37 6 385 395

. Appendix III . Texts of Repealed Hindu Law Acts (Central) '

A B. C. D.

Hindu Widows Remarriage Act 1856 Hindu Law of Inheritance (Amendment) Act ~929 Hindu Women's Right to Property Act 1937 Hindu Married Women's Right to Separate Maintenance and Residence Act 1946 E. Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act 1946 F. Hindu Mamage Va~idity Act I 949

402

405 406 408 409 41 o

BibliograjJhy

-1. Author's Works on Hindu Religion & Law 2. Some Other Select Works

411 41_

. Subject Index

41..t.

Table of Statutes

A. Central Laws. Anand Marriage Act 1909... 14, 18, 37, 53, 86, 87, 104, 107 Anand Marriage (Amendment) Act 2012 ..• 87, 88 . Arya Marriage Validation Act 1937... 14, 18, 89, 92, 104

Births, Deaths an.d Marriages Registration Act 1886... 224 .

.

Caste Disabiliti.es Removal Act 1850..• 12, 18, 37, 303, 325 Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929•.. 45

Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act 1978 •.. 98; 154 . Christian Marriage Act 1872..• 20, 137 Code of Civil Procedure 1908... 71, 112, 115, 176, 184, 228, 241, 248, 387, 390 Code of Criminal Procedure 1973•.. 21, 46, 67, 110, 113, 114, 124, 125, 133, 156, 165,

177,215,222,244,245,246,248,259,376,390,392 Commissi0n of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987... ~76, 383 ,Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order 1950... 24, 27, 28, 29, 92, 256 ·constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order 1951... 31 Constitution ofindi~ 1950••• 3, 17, 24, ~7, 31, 41, 43, 46, 47, 96, 127, 197, 221, 311, 312, 319,325 . Divorce Act 1869.. .'20, 136, 137 Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 ... 19, 46, 151 F8milyCourtsActl984... 177, 178, 179, 180, 181,233

Foreign Marriage Act 1969••. 19, 20, 93, 102, 137

·

Guardians and Wards Act 1890... 16, 18, 21, 36, Sl, 167, 189, 193, 197, 212, 222, 228 1 229,230,231,232,233,234.237,239,240,241~242

.

Hindu Adoption andMaintenanceAct.1956..• 15, 16, 17, 21, 34, 36, 38, 42, 49, 67, 113, 124, 125, 131, 132, 133, 156, 16S, 167, 196, 197, 1_98, 228, 229, 232, 233, 234, 245, 247, 248,

250,252,253,254,255,256,257,259,260,262,263,264,265,266,267,408 . .

IDn~u Disposition of Property Act 1916.•. 13, 1~, 48, 51, 298, 328

Hindu Gains. ofLearning Act 1930... 13, 18, 53, .300, 304, 340 . xvii

xviii

Principles of Hindu Law·

Hindu Inheritance (Removal of Disabilities) Act 1928 ... 13, 8, 48, Sl, 53, 299, 304, 323, 339 Hindu Law of Inheritance (Amendment) Act 1929... 13, 17, 53, 304, 405 Hindu Marriage Act 1955 ... 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 42, 43, 48, 57, 80, 81, 88, 90, 91; 92, 93, 94, 95;96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119. 120, 121, 122, 126, 129, 130, 131, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184, 223, 228, 229, 255, 256, 258, Z59, 321, 368, 409, 410 · Hindu Marriage (Amendment) Act 1956.•. 16 Hindu Marriage (Amendment) Act 1962... 16 Hindu Marriage (Amendment) Act 1964... 57 Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act 1946.•• 13, 17, 92, 100, 409 Hindu ~age Validity Act 1949 ..• 14, 17, 90, 91, 92, 410 Hindu Marriages (Validation of Proceedings) Act 1960••• 175 Hindu Married Women's Right to Separate Maintenance and Residence Act 1946 ... 13, 17, 53, 408

Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act 1956..• 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 33, 36, 38, 43, 51, 98, 143, 167, 189, ... 222, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 23.4, 235, 236, 237, 239,240,241,242,243,244,363 . JUndu Succession Act 1956... 15, 16, 17, 21, 34, 35, 37, 42, 43, 45, 49, 196, 271, 272, . 273, 305, 306, 308, 309, 310, 312, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 328, 330,339,340,341,342,344,347,348,349,350,353,354,356,358,367

.

.

Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 ... 16, 271, 273, 277, 278, 279, 305, 308, 311, 324, 351, 354 . . Hindu Widows Remarriage Act 1856... 13, 17, 48, 53, 402

.

.

Hindu Widows Remarriage (Repeal) Act 1983 ••• 17, 404 Hindu Wills Act 1870... 13, 304, 326 . Hindu Women's Right to Property Act 1937..• 13, 17, 304;340, 406 · .,.

Indian Evidence Act 1872... 18, 143, 151, 222, 321

.

.

.

Indian Majority (Amendment) Act 1999.•. 227 .

Indian Penal Code .1860, •• 18, 46, 47, 69, 110, 111, 114, 121, 131, 144, 151, 154, 225, 229, 369, 377, 393 . '" Indian Succession Act 1865 ... 12, 20, 328

Table of Statutn

xix.

Indian Succession Act 1925•.. 12, 18, 32, 272, 277, 298,.304, 306,. 326, 327, 328, 329~ 330 .

Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000... l~, 21, 218, 221, 222, : 230, 236, 266 . ' . . . . Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) (Amendment) Act 2006••• 218, 266 •

I

Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) (Amendment) Act 2011... 218 Limitation Act 1963 .•• 140 Majority Act .

1875~ •. .

18, 51, 98, 189, 212, 222, 227, 228 .

,

·Marriage Laws (Amendment) Act 1976....16, 21, 57, 129, 139~ J46

Marriage Laws (Amendment) Act 1999.•• 51, 91 · Marriage Laws (Amendment) Act 2001 ... 57, 182 Marriage Laws (~endment) Act 200~ ••• 51, 176. Marriage Laws (Amendment) BiU 2010... 80, 158, 162 Married Women's Property Act 1874••• 12, 18, 303 Married Women's Property (Amendment) Act 1959... 304 Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971... 19,· 226 Medical T~ation of Pregnancy Rules 2003••• 226 -

.

Miscellaneous Personal Laws (Extension) Act_ 1959••• 298, 299, 339 MUslimPersonal Law(Shariat) Application Act 1937.•• 159, 249, 311 National Commission . for Minorities. Act 1992... . 27, 28 Personal Laws (.Am'.endment) Act 2010.•• 16,' 196, 198, 212, 232, 233, 252

Precon~tion and Prenatal Diagnostic Technique'S (Prohibitio~ of Sex Selection) Act 1994... 226 -

Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006••. 16, ,19, 45, 51, 57, 98, . 119, 120, 122, 228, 229 Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 ... 19, 46, 109, 113, 151 Registration Act 1908... 279

Registration of Births and Deaths Act 1969... 1~8, 224 , Registration ofBirths and Deaths (Amendment) Bill 2013.,. 108 S~ial·MarriageAct

1872... 12, 14, 15, 90

Special Marriage Act 1954... 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 38, 77, 80, 81, 92, 93, 96, 102, 137, 158, 159,164, 166,277

xx

Principles of Hindu Law

Specifi~ Relief Act 1963 ... 112, llS Transfer of Property Act 1882... 298, 328 Transfer of.Peoperty Amendment (Supplementary) Act 1929... 298, 328

B. Regional & State Laws A.ndhra Pradesh

Compulsory RegiSt:ration of Marriages Act 2002 ... 107 Devadasis (Prohibition of Dedication) Act 1988... 47 Hindu Marriage Act High Court Rule8 1955... 183 Hindu Marriage Registration Rules 1965 ... l 06 Hindu Succession (And.bra Pradesh Amendment) Act 1986... 291, 293, 350 Arunachal Pradesh

Hindu Marriage Registration Rules 2007•.. 106 Rec0rding of Marriage Act 2~8 .••-108 Assam Agricultural Credit Act 1977.•• 240

• Hindu Marriage Act High Court Rules 1955... 183 Hindu Marriage Act High Court Rules 1988.•• 183 Hindu Marriage Registration Rules 1961... 106

Bihar Hindu Marriage Act High Court Rules 19~6 ... 183 Hindu Religious . . .Trusts Act 1950, •• 22

'

Marriage Registration Rules 2006 ..• 107 Goa, Daman & Diu

Daman Customs and Usages of Non-Christian Inhabitants 1912... 49 Diu Customs and Usages ofNon-Christian Inhabitants 1894... 49 Goa Code of Customs and Usages of Gentile Hindus.1880... 49, 50,)95 Goa, Daman and Diu (Administration) Act 1962... 50

Table of Statutes

Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganization Act 1987..:50 Marriage & Divorce Decrees 1910.. .49 Portuguese Civil Code 1867.•: 49, 50 Portuguese Civil Code Ex.tension Decree 1869.•• 49.

Gujarat Baroda Hindu Nibandh 1937... 13, 18 Registration ofMarriages Act 2006... 107 Saurashtra Hindu Divorce Act 1952... 145 · Saurashtra Prevention of Hindu Bigamous Marriages Act 1950 ..• 14

Haryana Compulsory Registration

of Marriages Act 2008 ..• 108

Hindu Marriage Registration Rules 2001 .•. 106

Himachal Pradesh Hindu Marriage Act Hi~ Court Rules 1982.•. 183 ·:Hindu M~age Registration Rules 1996..• 183 ·Registration of Marriages Act 1996..• 107

Jammu and Kashmir B~ddhist

Polyandrous Marriages Prohibition Act 1941. •• 14

Code of Civil Procedure 1977 8 ... 370 . Guardians and Wards Act 1977 S ... 363 Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act 1960... 48, 364 Hindu Disposition of Property Act 1916..• 48 Hindu Inheritance (Removal ofJ:?isabilities) Ae .the Act of Settlement of 1781, i,md the Bengal Regu1ationofl793. ·

of

2. The ancient legal texts of India had given custonflland usage an overriding · status over religious law, and this legal position was to be maintained by the British-Indian courts. Takingjudicial notjce of this feature the Privy Council of England, then the highest court for India, had observed in an old case: "Under the Hindu. system of law clear proof of usage. would outweigh the written text of the law'' - Collector of.Madura v Moottoo Ramalinga (1868) 12 Moo IA 397. 3. The dictum was later translated into the provisions ofActs passed since 1872 to regulate the working of the civil courts. The Punjab Laws Act 1872, for instance, laid down in Section 5 : · · "In· q\lestions regarding sucicession, special pr~perty of femal~, betrothal, marriage, dower, divorce, adoption, guardianship, minority, . bastardy, family relations, wills, legacies, gifts, wakfs, partitions or any religious usage or institution, the rule of decision shall be:

(a) any custom applicable to the parties which is not contrary. to justice, ecju.ity and good cons~ience and has not been by ·this or any other enactment altered QI' abolished and has not peen declared to be void by any competent ·authority; (b) the Mohammedan law in cases where parties are Mohammedan and Hmtfu law in cases where parties are Hindu, · except as such law has been, by this or any other enactment, altered or· abolished by a legislative enactment, or iS opposed to the provisions of this Act, or bas been. modified by any such custom as is above referred to."

Prologue

'.

9

4. Identical provisions were found in. the Madras Civil Courts Act 1873 [Section 16], Central Provinces Laws-Act 1875 [Section S], and Oudh Laws Act 1876 [Section 3]. The Bengal, Agra and Assam Civil