Principles of Roman Law

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PRINCIPLES OF ROMAN LAW BY

FRITZ SCHULZ Emeritus Professor of Roman Law University of Berlin

TRANSLATED FROM A TEXT REVISED AND ENLARGED BY THE AUTHOR BY

MARGUERITE WOLFF M.A. (CANTAB.)

OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1936

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS AMEN HOUSE, E,C. 4 London Edinburgh Glasgow New York Toronto Melbourne Capetown Bombay Calcutta Madras HUMPHREY MILFOR D PUBLISHER T O THE UNIVERSITY

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD BY JOHN JOHNSON, PRINTER TO THE UNIVEljl>lTY

TO MY WIFE

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PREFACE

HIS book is the second edition of my Prinzipien des Romischen Rechts, published by Messrs. Duncker und Humblot (Munich) in August 1934. Before it was translated into English I revised the text, making some corrections and omitting a few passages which I believed unlikely to interest readers in England and America; above all, I added references to literature which appeared later than the German edition. I saw no reason to make any considerable alterations. I am sincerely grateful to the translator for her onerous work. She was good enough to submit her manuscript to me before it went to press and to allow me to assist in reading the proofs. My special thanks are due to the world-famous Oxford University Press for allowing my book to appear among their eminent publications. If this little volume should contribute in some small degree to the stimulation of Anglo-American cupida legum iuventus in respect of Roman law, it will have served its purpose. BERLIN,

August I936.

F. S.

CONTENTS (Figures in brackets indicate pages) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .

xiv

I. EXPLANATORY OBSERVATIONS. i. Principles of Roman law: I. Conception (r); 2. Certainty (2); 3. Principles as a constant (2)-ii. Literature (2)-iii. Delimitation of task (3). II. STATUTES AND THE LAW i. Statute here means all general enactments of law by the State (6)-ii. The Roman principle (7)-iii. Roman codifications (7)­ iv. Leges rogatae and datae (8): I. Leges infrequent in spite of complaints about their 'over-large number' (9); 2. Some leges in republican and principate era (9)-v. The senate as lawgiver (n)­ vi. Imperial constitutions (r2)-vii. Edicts (12)-viii. Savigny's attitude to legislation (12)-ix. Roman customary law (14). III. ISOLATION i. Jurisprudence as art of analysis. Roman attitude compared with German (19)-ii. Distinction between law and extra-legal matters (20): I. Strict severance in Rome; German aversion to such sever­ ance (20); 2. Roman isolation of the law (21); Lack of interest shown by Roman jurists in typical contents of acts-in-the-law (23); Non-mention of extra-legal restrictions (pietas, .fides, reveren­ tia) (24); Indifference to politico-economic conditions (24)­ iii. Distinction between sacred and profane law (26)-iv. Severance of public law from private law (27): r. Conception of ius publi­ cum (27); 2. Isolation of the two groups of rules (27); Literary neglect of constitutional and administrative law (28); Criminal law and procedure (31); Law of civil procedure (32); Neglect of law of evidence (32)-v. Distinctions within the domain of private law (33); Point of view of the City of Rome (33)-vi. Result of the various processes of isolation (34): I. Roman jurisprudence is mainly the science of the private law of the City of Rome and private Italic law (34); 2. The character of Roman private law as law of nature (35); Savigny's characterization of the classical jurists (36); Post-classical law of nature (36)-vii. Isolation prin­ ciple in German jurisprudence of the nineteenth century (37):

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CONTENTS

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r. Leaning towards law of nature (37); 2. Indifference to typical content of legal documents and modern investigation of legal facts (38); Indifference to politico-economic conditions (39); Isolation of public law; Laband and Gierke (39). IV. ABSTRACTION i. Decision of cases and abstract legal rules (40)-ii. The Roman attitude: reserve in abstraction (41)-iii. Treatment of the law from the standpoint of actiones (41); Same in post-classical times (42)-iv. Roman disinclination for abstract definitions (43): I. Lack of technical terms (43); 2. Lack of definitions (44); 3. Im­ perfections of classical definitions (45); Post-classical defini­ tions (47)-v. Roman disinclination for abstract formulation of legal rules (48): I. Casuistic style in statutes (48); Comparison with English statutes (49); 2. Casuistic method in juristic litera­ ture (49); Collections of opinions and cases in the republican era (49); Abstract formulation of legal doctrines by Q. Mucius and Servius (49); Republican 'maxim-jurisprudence' (5r); Casuistic method predominant in classical era (5r); Abstract formulation in post-classical era; post-classical 'maxim-jurisprudence' (52)­ vi. Attempts at systematization (53): I. The Roman systems (53); Q. Mucius' system (53); The Sabinus system (53); The edict system (54); The Digest system (55); Post-classical systematiza­ tions (55); 2. Systematization in detail (55); Q. Mucius' genera (55); Gaius' institutiones (56); Ulpian's method of arrangement (57); Post-classical distinctions and categories (64); Cicero's demand for a legal system (64). V. SIMPLICITY i. The Roman principle: simplicity not multiplicity; uncom­ plicated forms. Contrast to German law (66)-ii. The Roman principle in private law (68): I. Economy in developing and apply­ ing legal institutions (68); 2. Roman feeling for the monumental; formulation of legal conceptions as clearly defined contrasts, avoidance of hybrid formations (72); 3. The simplifying function of formalism (76)-iii. Public law (77); Striving after unitary State (77); No provincial patriotism or separatism (78)-iv. Roman legal terminology as expression of Roman strivings after simplicity and clarity (79); Style of the laws passed by the people (79); Of the senatus consulta and the edict (So); Language of classical juristic literature (So); Language of the imperial constitutions (82); Of Justinian's constitutions (82). 42s4

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VI. TRADITION i. Tradition in Roman life and Roman law; the Roman prin­ ciple (83)-ii. The Roman principle in constitutional law (87): I. Reconstruction of the State under Augustus (87); 2. Diocletian's State reconstruction (91) ; 3. The East Gothic Empire in Italy (92) -iii. The Roman principle in procedural law (92): I. Criminal pro­ cedure (92); 2. Civil procedure (93)-iv. Conservatism in private law (95)-v. Rejection of legal criticism and legal policy (97); Classical era (97); Post-classical era (99); Positivism of legal science in the nineteenth century (100)-vi. Absence of historico-legal research (100); Lack of historical perspective on the part of classical jurists (101); of Justinian (105)-vii. Absence of periods in history of Roman law and legal science (106); Lack of in­ dividuality in Roman jurists; Savigny's 'fungible personalities' (106). VII. NATION i. Conception of nation (109)-ii. Latin nation, Italic nation, nation of the Roman imperium (no)-iii. Rome's historical mis­ sion; consciousness of special destiny based on military and legal superiority (rr5)-iv. Roman national feeling as a factor in the development of Roman law (u8): I. The Roman citizen and the nation (n8); The peregrinus (u8); Result of the Social War (120); Augustus' legislation relating to marriage and children (120); The Constitutio Antoniniana (121); Peregrines in the late Roman Em­ pire (121); Acquisition of citizenship by birth and manumission (122); 2. The question of the national development of Roman law (124); Problems (124); (a) Period from second century B.c. to end of second century A.D. (125); Summary (125); Influence of Greco-hellenistic law (126); Influence of international customs (128); Influence of Greek philosophy and rhetoric (129); Influence of oriental law (131); (b) Epoch of the Severus dynasty (132); (c) Epoch from the Constitutio Antoniniana till Diocletian (134); (d) Constantine's era (136); (e) Justinian's era (138); Justinian and the classical jurists (139). VIII. LIBERTI. 140 i. Roman conception of liberty (140)-ii. Principle of liberty in constitutional law(142): I. No regnum (142); 2. The civitates liberae and the peregine communities under State control (144); 3. De­ cline of civic freedom, particularly of communal local self-govern­ ment (145)-iii. Principle of liberty in private law; individualistic

CONTENTS nature of private law (146): I. Joint rights in private law (146); (a) Relation of husband and wife (147); (b) Private associations (149); (c) societas (150); (tl) co-heirship (150); 2. Law relating to property (151); Conception of and law relating to ownership (151); Prohibitions of and limitations on alienation (153); Game, fishery, mining law (153); Servitudes (153); Overlordship and subowner­ ship, ownership of one story of a house, of undetached fruits (154); Legal protection of ownership (155); Usucapio (155); 3. Law relating to obligations (155); 4. Law of succession (156); Frequency and freedom of will-making (156); Substitutio pupillaris (157); Interpretation of wills (157); Contract of succession (157); 5. Summary: liberal not capitalistic nature of Roman private law (157); 6. Abuse of the law (158)-iv. Principle of liberty in the relationship of the individual to the State (r 59); Paucity of legal guarantees of freedom (163). IX. AUTHORI1Y i. Conception of authority; the Roman principle (164)-ii. Prin­ ciple of authority in the Roman household (165) : 1. Original nature (165); 2. Later weakening (167)-iii. Authoritative prin­ ciple in relationship of the subject to the Roman State and its magistrates (168): I. Administration by notabilities (168); 2. Status of the magistrate in relation to the popular assembly (170); 3. Status of the individual towards the State (172); (a) In general (172); (b) Authoritative character of Roman criminal law (173); (c) Legal relation of the individual to the State in matters pertaining to property (176); (tl) Authority in civil pro­ cedure (178)-iv. Magistrate's liability (178)-v. No separation of powers (179)-vi. The consilia of the magistrates, particularly the Senate (179); Authority of the Senate: right of obstructive speech (180)-vii. 'Charismatic authority' of the princeps (180); True charisma of Augustus (181); Institutional charisma of later emperors (183)-viii. Authority of the jurists (183) ; Of the republican jurists (183); Of the classical jurists (185); The ius respondendi (186)-ix. Freedom and bondage (187). X. HUMANI1Y i. Meaning and history of the word humanitas (189)-ii. Principle of humanity in the family (192): I. Husband and wife '(192); (a) Decline of manus marriage (192); (b) Personal status of the wife (193); (c) Matrimonial property (195); (tl) Intestate succession between spouses (196); 2. Legal relationship between parents and

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children (198); (a) Humanization of the patria potestas (198); (b) Relationship between parents and children apart from potestas (201)-iii. Principle of humanity within the group of cives Romani (202): r. Restriction of capital punishment (202); 2. Only the guilty to be punished (203); 3. Accusatorial procedure; Torture of accused and witnesses (204); 4. Legal status of women (208); 5. Humanization of private law (209)-iv. Principle of humanity in the law governing peregrines (212); Roman leniency (212)­ v. Principle of humanity in the law relating to slaves (215): r. Republican era (215); 2. Imperial era (218); Seneca (218); Protection of slaves in imperial constitutions (219); Favor libertatis (220). 223 XL FIDELITY. i. The Roman fides (223)-ii. Informal acts-in-the-law (224)­ iii. Strictly binding nature of a contract of obligation (225); Withdrawal from and denunciation of contracts (226)-iv. Bona fides (227)-v. Fidelity to oaths (228)-vi. Principle of fidelity in doctrine of legal sources (229): r. The magistrate is bound by edict (229); 2. Legal rules have no retroactivity (230)-vii. Per­ manent relationships based on fidelity (231): I. The freedman and his patron (231); 2. Patron and client (232); 3. Contracts of hospitality (232); The quaestor and his superior (233); Roman amicitia (233). XII. SECURITY 239 Conception of legal security (239)-i. Legal security as certainty that right will prevail in struggle with wrong (239): I. Suitable persons to administer the law (240); (a) Persons of social eminence (240); (b) Legal knowledge (241); 2. Cost of civil proceedings (242); 3. Duration of civil proceedings (242); 4. Summary (243)-ii. Legal security as certainty as to what is the law (243): r. Uncertainty regarding existence and content of legal rules (243); Insufficient publication of the laws (244); Confidence in the jurists (246); 2. Free discretion of organs of the State (247); 3. Application of legal consequence to facts which are not 'external facts' (247); (a) Acquisition in good faith (248); (b) usucapio and praescriptio (248); (c) The principle of publicity (249); (rl) Attachment of legal consequences to physical and psychical human attributes (250); (e) Presumptions (251); 4. Summary (251); Reason for the Roman attitude: Separation of private law from law of pro­ cedure, respect for ius quaesitum (251).

CO NTENTS CONCLUSION INDICES

I. II.

NAMES AND SUBJECTS PASSAGES CITED

xiii 2 53

ABBREVIATIONS THE sources are quoted according to the philological method; e.g. D. (45.1) 7.1 = Digest, Book 45, Title 1, Fragment 7, para. I. Bruns or Bruns, Fontes= Fontes iuris Romani antiqui, ed. Bruns, 7th ed. Otto Gradenwitz, 1909. The quotations are all from Pars prior (leges et negotia). C. = Codex Justinianus. C. Th. = Codex Theodosianus. Coll. = Collado Mosaicarum et Romanarum legum. C.l.L. = Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum. D. = Digesta Justiniani. Epit. Ulp. = Epitome Ulpiani, ed. F. Schulz, 1926. Gaius = Gaii lnstitutiones. Inst. = lnstitutiones Justiniani. Paul. Sent. = Ps.-Pauli Senten#ae. Vat. or Fr. Vat. = Fragmenta Vaticana. In Latin texts brackets thus: [ ] indicate interpolated passages; brackets thus: < > reconstructions. Acta Congressus z934 = Acta Congressus Juridic£ lnternationalis, Romae, 1934. Albertario, lntroduz. = Emilio Albertario, lntroduzione storica allo studio del diritto Romano Giustiniano, i (1935). Albertario, Studi = E. Albertario, Studi di diritto Romano, i (1933). Annali Palermo= Annali del Seminario Giuridico di Palermo. Arch. giur. = Archivio giuridico. Atti del Congresso z933 = Atti del Congresso internazionale di diritto Romano (Bolognae, Roma), Bologna, i (1934), ii (1935), Roma, i (1934), ii (1935). Beseler = G. Beseler, Beitriige zur Kritik der romischen Rechtsquellen, 1-5. BGU. = Agyptische Urkunden aus den Kgl. Museen zu Berlin. Grie­ chische Urkunden. Biondi, Prospettive = Biondo Biondi, Prospettive Romanistiche. Pubblica­ zioni della Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Scienze Giuridiche, vol. x=vii (1933). Bonfante, Corso = P. Bonfante, Corso di diritto Romano. Bonfante, Scritti = P. Bonfante, Scritti giuridici varii. Bremer = Jurisprudentiae antehadrianae quae supersunt, ed. Bremer. Buckland = W. W. Buckland, A 'Textbook of Roman Law, Cambridge, 1921.

A B B RE V I AT I O N S

xv

Bull. = Bullettino del lstituto di Diritto Romano. Cambridge A.H. = The Cambridge Ancient History. Chiazzese, lntroduzione = Lauro Chiazzese, lntroduzione allo studio del diritto Romano privato, 193r. Conferenze = Conferenze per il XIV centenario delle Pandette I5 Dicembre 530. I5 Dicembre I930. Pubblicazioni della Universita Cattolica del Sacra Cuore. Serie z, vol. xxxiii (r931). DP R. = Deutsches Privatrecht. Fuchs, Augustin = H. Fuchs, Augustin und der antike Friedensgedanke, Neue philologische Untersuchungen, iii (r926). Guarneri Citati, Indice = Andrea Guarneri Citati, Indice delle parole frasi e costrutti ritenuti indizio di interpolazione nei testi giuridici romani, I927. Supplemento all'Indice, Studi in onore di S. Riccobono, i (1934). Heuss, Grundlagen = Alfred Heuss, Die viilkerrechtlichen Grundlagen der riimischen Aussenpolitik in republikanischer Zeit. Klio, Beiheft xxxi (1933). Ihering = R. v. Ihering, Geist des riimischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwicklung, vols. i and ii, 4th ed., vol. iii, 3rd ed. Interp. Index or Itp. Index = Index lnterpolationum. Jolowicz = H. F. Jolowicz, Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law, Cambridge, 1932. Kroll = W. Kroll, Die Kultur der Ciceronischen Zeit, 1933. Kruger = Paul Kruger, Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des Riimischen Rechts, 2nd ed. 1912. Kubler, Geschichte = Bernhard Kubler, Geschichte des R iimischen Rechts, 1925. Kunkel = ]ors-Kunkel-Wenger, R iimisches Recht, 2nd ed. 1935. Lengle or Lengle, Strafrecht = Josef Lengle, Romisches Strafrecht bei Cicero und den Historikern (Neue Wege zur Antike, i, ii), 1934. Lenel, Ed. = Otto Lenel, Das Edictum perpetuum, 3rd ed., 1927. Lenel, Paling. = Otto Lenel, Palingenesia iuris civilis. Lubker-Ziebarth, Reallexikon = F. Lubker, Reallexikon des klassischen Altertums, 8th ed. by Geffcken and Ziebarth, 1914. Mitteis = L. Mitteis, R iimisches Privatrecht (1908). Pohlenz, 'Antikes Fuhrertum' = Max Pohlenz, 'Antikes Fuhrertum', Neue Wege zur Antike, z. Reihe, Heft 3, 1934.. Pr. R. = Privatrecht. R. = Recht. RE. = Paulys Realenzyklopadie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft. Neue Bearbeitung von Wissowa, Kroll, und Mittelhaus. Riv. = Rivista.

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D e Robertis, Espropriazione = F . M. de Robertis, La espropriazionc per pubblica utilitd nel diritto Romano, Bari, 1936. Schanz = Martin Schanz, Geschichte der Romischen Literatur, 4th ed. by Carl Hosius, 1927 seq. Schulz, Einf. = Fritz Schulz, Einfuhrung in das Studium der Digesten, 1916. Siber = H. Siber, Romisches Recht in Grundzugen fur die Vorlesung, ii. Ri.imisches Privatrecht, 1928. Siber, Analogie = H. Siber, Analogie, Amtsrecht und Ruckwirkung im Strafrechte des romischen Freistaates. Abhandlungen der philolog.­ histor. Klasse der Sachsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. xliii, nr. iii, 1936. SZ. = Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fiir Rechtsgeschichte. Romani­ stische Abteilung. Taubenschlag, Diocletian = Rafael Taubenschlag, Das romische Privat­ recht zur Zeit Diocletians, 1923. (Extrait du Bull. de l'Academie Polonaise des Sciences et des Lettres, 1919-20.) Tellenbach, Reichsgedanke = Gerd Tellenbach, Romischer und christlicher Reichsgedanke in der Liturgie des friihen Mittelalters. Sitzungs­ berichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-hist. Klasse, 1934. 'Iijdschrift = 'Iijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis. Volkmann = Hans Volkmann, Zur Rechtsprechung im Principat des Augus­ tus, Miinchner Beitrage zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechts­ geschichte, =i, 1935. Max Weber = Max Weber, Wirtschaft u. Gesellschaft, 2 . ed. (Grundrisse der Soziali.ikonomik, iii). Wilamowitz, Glaube = U. v. Wilamowitz-Mi.illendorff, Der Glaube der Hellenen, 1931, 1932. Windscheid or Windscheid, Pand. = Windscheid-Kipp, Lehrbuch des Pandektenrechts. 9. ed. 1906.

I EXPLANATORY OBSERVATIONS1 'The elements (of the "brew" of judge-made law) have not come together by chance. Some principle, however unavowed and inarticu­ late and subconscious, has regulated the infusion . . . a choice there has been, not a submission to the decree of Fate; and the considera­ tions and motives determining the choice, even if often obscure, do not utterly resist analysis.' CARD OZO, erhe Nature of the Judicial Process. (first published 1921), p. I I ,

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HE title 'Principles o f Roman Law' calls fo r ex­ planation. We do not intend to deal with the main elementary rules of Roman law. These might be called 'Principles of Roman Law', but are generally known to­ day as 'Elements of Roman Law'. Rather do we desire to elucidate the basic views of law and justice animating the Romans responsible for the law ; it is from them that the rules of the Roman law system were derived -these are the true principia, the true 'beginnings' of Roman law. It is not possible to arrive at these principles by the simple process of extracting them from available texts. The Romans did not formulate them, self-analysis and research into underlying first principles being foreign to their nature : it may be assumed that in many cases they were not even aware of them. Nevertheless, it is not mere fantasy to presume their existence. The principles animat1 For the following cf. in general Jhering, i, Introduction, particularly pp. 15, 23 ; Jae. Burckhardt, Griech. Kulturgeschichte (ed. 4, ed. by Jakob Oeri), i, introd., pp. I et seq. ; Weltgeschichtl. Betrachtungen (ed. by Rudolf Marx, Kroners eraschenausgaben), ch. i, pp. 3 et seq. ; cf. also Walter Otto, Kulturgeschichfe des Altertums, 1925, pp. 1 2 et seq. 4254

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ing Roman jurists must necessarily be present in the results of their work and may be disclosed by means of research into individual facts of Roman legal history. Nay, more, the certainty that such principles exist is at times even greater than the certainty regarding historical facts. 1 Hundreds of details pertaining to the Roman legal system and its history have come down to us in such fragmentary form and so riddled with interpolations that they are and must necessarily remain problematical. The sources for ascertaining the fundamental views and modes of thought of the Roman lawgivers are, on the other hand, crystal­ clear and plentiful. In this sense the principles appear as a constant2 when compared with the facts of legal history. Nevertheless, they are of course subj ect to the law of change; they, too, have a history. Their changes must be ascertained and demonstrated; there is even a peculiar fascination in in­ vestigating the struggles on behalf of a principle, in ob­ serving how it fought for and obtained recognition, was crossed and hampered by other principles, and possibly, after paling into insignificance, ended by losing its power of inspiration altogether. The historical task to be attempted here has only once been attacked in toto, when Rudolph van Jhering wrote his great, unhappily unfinished work (J'h'C Spirit of Roman Law in the /7arious Stages of its Development, 3 the subject Burckhardt, Griech. Kulturgesch. i. 3 : 'Cultural history has primum gradum certitudinis.' 1

2 Cf. Burckhardt, l.c. i. 4: 'Possibly, however, the constant . • • is the truest 'real content' of antiquity. . • . Here we meet the eternal Greek, we sense a form instead of grasping only a single factor.' 3 For the editions cf. E. Landsberg, Geschichte der deutschen Rechtswis­ senschaft, iii. z, notes volume, p. 336. Particularly for present purposes : J hering, part z, section I (first publ. 1 8 54).

E X P L ANATORY O B S E RVATI O N S

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of which is not limited to what is here called 'Principles of Roman Law'. The book, the incalculable value of which is not confined to its own age, is epoch-making, if some­ what chaotic ; 1 much that is essential is therein recognized and stressed for the first time. Naturally, however, since more than half a century has elapsed since the appearance of the book, there are some details to be corrected and many things that should be added. Jhering barely touched on the whole classical and post-classical period of Roman law, as the scope of his book did not extend beyond the sixth century of the City. No treatise dealing with Roman principles as a whole and carrying on Jhering's work has thus far appeared, 2 but a large number of individual obser­ vations revealed by recent researches into legal history have considerably furthered our knowledge of the prin­ ciples. The present 'lectures' are not intended to be an exhaustive treatise ; the 'Principles of Roman Law' here dealt with are not identical with the principles of Roman law ; altogether we retain the right of a lecturer 1 Landsberg, I.e. (text volume, p. 792) calls it a 'magic witches cauldron'. Cf. also Mitteis, Allg. deutsche Biographie, l (1905), pp. 65 2 et seq., 656 seq. , who, however, does not do full justice to Jhering's work. 2 Studies relating to this subject: Carl Adolf Schmidt, Der prinzipielle Unterschied zwischen dem rom. u. german. Rechte, i (1853) ; also Landsberg, Gesch. d. deutsch. Rechtsw. iii. 2, notes volume, pp. 275, 3 3 3; K. D . A. Roder, Grundgedanken u. Bedeutung d. rom. u. german. Rechts (1855),on this Landsberg, Le., text vol., p. 656 ; Friedrich v. Hahn, Die materielle Ober­ einstimmung der rom. u. german. Rechtsprinzipien (1856), (Landsberg, I.e., p. 636) ; Wilhelm Arnold, Kultur u. Recht d. R omer (1868), (Landsberg, I.e., p. 761). Much more interesting are the studies comparing Roman with English law by James Bryce (Vangerow's pupil), entitled Studies in History and Jurisprudence, z vols. , 1901 ; two of these studies were published separately in 1914 under the titles: 'Ihe Ancient Roman Empire and the British Empire in India. E EV µEv To ev µepe1

&pxecr6cx1 KCXi apxe1v. KCXl yap TO 2>iKCXlOV TO 2>TJµOTJKOV TO icrov EXEJV EO"TIV. 3 Georg Simmel, Logos, xi (1923), p. 25. 4 Polybius only says : (j)VO"EI yap TI