Postmedieval Boat and Ship Archaeology: Papers based on those presented to an International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology in Stockholm in 1982 9780860543275, 9781407341620

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Postmedieval Boat and Ship Archaeology Papers based on those presented to an International Sytnposiutn on Boat and Ship Archaeology in Stockholtn in 1982

edited by

Carl Olof Cederlund Swedish National Maritime Museum, Stockholm Report No 20

BAR International Series 25 6

1985

·B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR -s256,1985 :'Postmedieval Boat and Ship Archaeology'

©

Swedish National Maritime Museum,1985

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543275 paperback ISBN 9781407341620 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543275 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

S wedish N ational M aritime M useum R eports w ith s ummaries i n E nglish o r G erman l anguage

R apport 1

0 D avid P app , A lgndsk a llmogeseglation 1 800-1940 . 1 971 ( Reprinted b y R aben & S jögren 1 977)

R apport 2 R apport 3

A rne R ydberg o ch L asse S cotte , F isket p ä K räkö. D avid P app

o ch B o 4 mgren ,

k ring s ekelskiftet .

A rbetarna

1 973.

v id O skarshamns

v ary

1 973

R apport 4

A nders B jörklund o ch D avid P app , G gvle . 1 973

R apport 5

G unnar N ordlinder ,

S jöfartsyrken i h amnstaden

S trömmingsfiske i L övsele .

O m f isket i e n V gsterbottensby f rän s ekelskiftet t ill i d ag . 1 977 R apport 6

A nders B jörklund , S plitvedsjäntor o ch a ndra a rbeterskor v id d e n orrlgndska l astageplatserna . 1 977

R apport 7

C arl O lof C ederlund ,

E tt f artyg b yggt m ed s yteknik .

s tudie i m arinarkeologisk d okumentation . R apport 8

U lla W essling ,

H ivet g är .

n orrlgndska s mäbrukare.

S tuveriet s om b ingring b land

1 978

R apport 9

A nders B jörklund , L undebusar o ch b ondesjfare . U r s jöfartens o ch s tuveriets h istoria i Malen . 1 978

R apport 1 0

p ders

BOrklund ,

U lf

E n

1 978

B jörklund,

J an G arnert

o ch B jörn

A ström , F rän s kgrgärdsbygd t ill f ritidsdröm . N ägra d rag i o mvandlingen a v b yn M arum , B jörke r -Arholma . R apport 1

B jörn V arenius , B ulverketbäten - e tt g ammalt f ynd i n y b elysning . 1 979

R apport 1 2

C arl O lof C ederlund o ch S verker S öderberg . t alets S tockholm - o m s ex b ätfynd i k v H asten .

R apport 1 3

I ngrid K aijser ,

V raket v id Ulvsnabben .

o ch U trustning .

1 981 .

R apport 1 4

C arl O lof C ederlund, b yggnad. 1 981

R apport 1 5

P er L undström , p ä G otland .

R apport 1 6

C arl

O lof

b yggnad.

V raket

D e k ommo v ida

1 979

B ätar i 1 6001 980

D okumentation ,

v id ' Ä lvsnabben .

L ast

F artygets

V ikingars h amn v id P aviken

1 981 C ederlund .

1 982

V raket

v id

J utholmen .

F artygets

R apport 1 7

I ngrid K aijser .

V raket v id J utholmen .

L ast o ch u trustning .

1 982 R apport 1 8

G unnar N ordlinder .

R apport 1 9

A nders S andstrdm , P ansarfartyg ä t S veriges F lotta . o m f lottan o ch s triden o m Fbäten 1 9061909 . 1 984

E n s tudie

C arl

a nd

R apport 2 0

O lof

A rchaeology .

S ing8bätar .

C ederlund 1 985

( ed .) ,

1 982

P ostmedieval

B oat

S hip

C ONTENTS C ontents

i ii

E ditor's f oreword

v ii

L ist o f c ontributors

I .

v iii

I NTRODUCTION 1 .

L undström ,

P .

T he o pening o f

t he m eeting .

2 .

C ederlund,

C .O.

P ost m edieval s hip

1

3

a rchaeology a s a s ubject 3 .

H aasum ,

S "

S weden

T he A ncient M onuments

9

A ct a nd t he s hipwrecks. I I.

T HE WASA 4 .

H äfors,

B .,

T he P reservation o f

S weden

t he

1 5

W as a . 5 .

S oop ,

H"

T he d ecorated s hip . A s mall o utline o f t he c arved d ecoration o f t he w arship

S weden

1 9

W as a . 6 .

K varning,

L .X .,

S weden

T he p lanning o f a n ew

2 7

m useum f or t he W asa. I II.

P OST M EDIEVAL S HIP A RCHAEOLOGICAL P ROJECTS 7 .

T he C attewater w reck:

R edknap, M ., U .K .

a

3 9

c ontribution t o 1 6th c entury m aritime a rchaeology. 8 .

C ederlund,

C .O.,

S weden

M erchantmen f rom t he 1 7th t o

6 1

1 9th c enturies w recked i n t he B altic S ea.

9 .

N orman ,

P .,

1 0.

R einders,

S weden

R .,

H olland

T he K ronan P roject.

7 3

T he i nventory o f a c argo

8 1

v essel w recked i n 1 888. I V.

I CONOGRAPHIC A ND D OCUMENTARY E VIDENCE 1 1.

V illain-Gandossi, F rance

C .,

I conography o f m edieval s hip.

t he p ost-

1 01

1 2.

B arkham, M .,

U .K.

S ixteenth c entury S panish

13

B asque s hips a nd s hipb uilding: n ao . 1 3.

L itwin,

J .,

P oland.

t he M ultipurpose

T he w arship i n t he p ainting

1 37

f rom A rthur's C ourt i n G dansk - a n a ttempt a t a r econs truction . 1 4.

U nger,

R .W.,

C anada.

D utch D esign.

S pecialization

1 53

a nd b uilding me thods in t he s eventeenth c entury. 1 5.

S molarek,

P .,

P oland.

V istula m erchant-ships f rom

1 65

t he X VI-XVIII c enturies. 1 6 .

F ilgueiras,

B ook o f a ll T agus b oats,

0 .L.,

1 93

i ncluding c argo a nd p assenger

P ortugal.

a s w ell a s f ishing c raft. V .

A SPECTS O F NAVAL ARCHITECTURE 1 7.

A dam,

B .,

F rance.

A n a utomatic m ethod f or b oat

2 33

d esign . 1 8.

G illmer,

T h.,

U .S.A.

E volving s hip d esign t echnology. A s R evealed i n W recks o f P ost M edieval

2 55

S hips. 1 9.

H ausen,

J .,

W est G ermany.

M odern S hip

S trength C alcul-

2 69

a tion - a m ean f or t he R econstruction o f W ooden S hips. V I.

L OCAL C RAFT 2 0.

A rnold,

B .,

S witzerland.

F rom l ogboat t o p lankboat s ome t raditional c raft o f

2 85

S witzerland. 2 1.

G Sthche, M .,

D enmark.

" Sandskuder" - v essels f or

2 99

t rade b etween N orway a nd D enmark i n t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c enturies. 2 2.

2 3.

K eweloh ,

L itwin ,

H .-W.,

W est

R ecent b oats i n t he

G ermany.

R hineland.

J .,

T he d evelopment o f

P oland.

3 15

f olk b oats

i n P oland f rom t he e xample o f s tructures u sed o n t he S an a nd t he B ug r ivers.

3 27

2 4.

R udolph , W .,

E ast

B oats o f

t he S outhern B altic.

3 51

G ermany. V II.

C URRENT S HIP A RCHAEOLOGY P .,

( GENERAL)

2 5.

B usch, v on ,

S weden.

2 6 .

C hristensen, A .E., N orway.

N ew f inds o f b oat-graffiti.

3 65

T he w reck o f a s mall b oat

3 69

f rom P ort9 5r. 2 7.

C rumlin-Pedersen ,

O .,

D enmark . 2 8.

D ean , M .,

2 9 . H arris,

3 0.

U .K .

D .C .,

C anada.

I ngelman-Sundberg,

I .,

S weden . 3 1.

R einders,

R .,

S hip a rchaeology i n D enmark

3 73

1 979-1982. S hip a nd b oat a rchaeology i n B ritain 1 979-1982.

3 81

C anadian s hip a nd b oat a rchaeology.

3 85

T he F oteviken i nvestigation,

3 91

S cania, H olland.

S weden .

R ecent d evelopment i n s hip a nd b oat a rchaeology i n t he

3 99

N etherlands. 3 2.

R ieth,

E .,

F rance.

R esearch o n n autical a rchaeo-

4 13

l ogy a nd t raditional b oats i n F rance. 3 3.

S molarek, P .,

P oland.

T he d evelopment o f a rchaeology o f b oats a nd s hips i n P oland.

4 21

3 4 .

V arenius ,

S weden .

Medieval s hips f rom t he c entre o f S tockholm .

4 37

B"

E DITOR 'S F OREWORD.

T his r eport i s b ased o n t he p apers p resented a t t he t hird m eeting o f T he I nternational S ymposia o n B oat a nd S hip A rchaeology , h eld a t t he S wedish N ational M aritime M useum i n S tockholm i n S eptember 1 982 . I t i s a lso t he f irst i nternational p resentation o f t he s eries o f s cientific r eports f rom t his m useum . B ritish A rchaeological R eports h as c onsented t o p roduce a j oint p ublication c ombining i ts I nternational S eries a nd t he m useum 's S eries o f R eports. T his l atter s eries w hich h as b een e dited b y t he u ndersigned , w as s tarted i n 1 971 a nd c omprises m ainly r eports o n a rchaeological , e thnological a nd h istorical i nvestigations p erformed a t t he S wedish N ational M aritime M useum . P articular m ention s hould b e m ade o f c oncerning

t he

r esults

o f

e xtensive

t he r eports 2 - 6 a nd 8 - 1 0

e thnological

a nd

a rchaeological

i nvestigations a long t he n orthern p art o f t he S wedish e ast c oast , a s w ell a s r eports 7 , 1 1 - 1 4 a nd 1 6 - 1 7 d ealing w ith s hip a rchaeological a nd u nderwater a rchaeological d evelopment p rojects c omprising s ix d ifferent i nvestigations . A ll o f t hese r eports h ave s ummaries i n E nglish o r G erman l anguage. T he c ontributions t o t his r eport a re p resented i n m ore o r l ess t he s ame o rder a s t hey w ere a t t he I SBSA m eeting . T he t hemes o f t he s essions a re u sed a s h eadings f or t he d ifferent s ections o f t he r eport . T he p resentation o f c urrent s hip a rchaeological p rojects d ealing w ith m aterial p redating t he p ostmedieval a ge, h as b een p laced a s t he f inal s ection . T he m any p apers

f rom t he

s hip a rchaeological

f ield p resented

i n

t his

v olume m irror a s tage o f d evelopment o f t he s cience i n q uestion . I t a lso a ccording t o m y o pinion g ives u s u seful i nformation o n i mportant p rojects , s ource m aterial a nd i nvestigation m ethods.

O ctober 1 984

C arl O lof C ederlund

v ii

L IST O F C ONTRIBUTORS P aul A dam , 1 5 R ue d u G rand M oulin P aris,

F rance

B gat A rnold, C urator, M usge C antonal d 'Archaeologie, N euchatel, S witzerland M ichael B arkham, M emorial U niversity o f N ewfoundland, S t J ohn's, C anada C arl O lof C ederlund,

P h D

H ead C urator a t t he S wedish N ational M aritime M useum D ocent i n M arine A rchaeology a t T he U niversity o f A rne E mil C hristensen , H ead C urator, O slo, N orway

P h D

U niversity C ollection o f N ational A ntiquities,

O le C rumlin-Pedersen, N aval A rchitect D irector, R oskilde,

V iking S hip M useum , D enmark

M artin D ean ,

B S c

D iving O fficer, L ondon, U K

N ational M aritime M useum,

O ctavio L ixa F ilgueiras, P rofessor,

C entre f or H istorical

S tudies,

U niversity o f O porto, O porto, P ortugal T homas G illmer,

N aval A rchitect

P rofessor o f N aval A rchitecture U SN aval A cademy, A nnapolis,

( retired)

U SA

M orton G Sthche, C urator,

A rchitect

V iking S hip M useum ,

R oskilde,

D enmark

S ibylla H aasum , H ead C urator, S tockholm ,

P h D

S wedish N ational M aritime M useum ,

S weden

D an G . H arris, L c ommander M aritime M useum o f G t L akes a t K ingston, C anada

S tockholm

J ürgen H ausen ,

D r-Ing

L ehrstuhl f ür S chiffbau, A achen ,

K onstruktion u nd S tatik

W est G ermany

B irgitta H äfors,

f il m ag

Head C urator, S wedish N ational M aritime M useum, S tockholm , S weden C atharina I ngelman-Sundberg,

f il k and

C urator, M aritime M useum o f M almö, M almö, S weden H ans W alter K eweloh , W issenschaftliger M itarbeiter,

D eutsches

S chiffahrtsmuseum ,

B remerhaven, W est G ermany L ars-Ake K varning, f il l ic H ead C urator, S wedish N ational M aritime M useum, S tockolm,

S weden

J erzy L itwin ,

N aval A rchitect

C urator, M aritime M useum o f G dansk, G dansk, P oland P er L undström , D irector,

f il l ic

S wedish N ational M aritime M useum

S tockholm ,

S weden

P eter N orman , f il k and Antiquarian, C entral O ffice o f N ational A ntiquities, S tockholm ,

S weden

E ric R ieth , D r Attache d e r echerche, P aris,

Mark R edknap, C urator, L ondon,

C NRS ,

M usie d e l a M arine,

F rance B A

P assmore E dwards M useum , U K

R einder R einders,

D r

D irector, K etelhaven M useum , D ronten, H olland W olfgang R udolph , P h D A kademie d er W issenschaften d er D DR , B erlin ,

E ast G ermany

Prezmys/aw S molarek, D irector,

P h D ,

D ocent H abile

M aritime M useum o f G dansk,

G dansk, P oland H ans S oop, f il l ic C urator, S wedish N ational M aritime M useum , S tockholm , S weden

R ichard W .

U nger,

P rofessor, V ancouver,

U niversity o f C anada

B jörn V arenius, S tockholm ,

P h D B ritish C olumbia,

f il k and

S weden

P eter v on B usch ,

f il l ic

D irector, N aval M useum, K arlskrona,

S weden

C hristiane V illain-Gandossi,

P h D

g cole p ratique d es H autes E tudes, I Ve S ection, S ciences H istoriques e t P hilologiques, S orbonne,

P aris,

F rance

1 .

T HE O PENING O F T HE T HIRD M EETING O F I NTERNATIONAL S YMPOSIA O N B OAT A ND S HIP A RCHAEOLOGY . P er L undström

D ear c olleagues,

d ear f riends,

T he f irst I nternational s ymposia o n b oats a nd s hip a rchaeology was h eld i n L ondon 1 976 ,

t he s econd i n B remerhaven 1 979.

T oday we o pen t he t hird

m eeting i n S tockholm . N o d oubt t he e arlier m eetings h ave s hown u s h ow i mportant i t i s t o m eet o n a n i nternational b asis t o i nterchange e xperiences a nd i nform e ach o ther a bout a ll i mportant n ews i n o ur s cience s ince w e m et l ast t ime. Ia m s ure t hat t he p rogram f or t his s ymposia w ill g ive u s t hree d ays o f h ard w ork b ut a lso w ill g ive u s f ull p rofit. W e o pen o ur meeting o n t he Wasavarvet s o t o s ay i n t he s hadow o f t he R oyal W arship Wasa f rom t he 1 7th c entury a nd I t hink t hat t he n earness o f t his b ig , marine a rchaeological p roject w ill b e a s ource o f i nspiration f or o ur

w ork . N ow I wish a ll o f y ou h eartily w elcome a nd d eclare

t he t hird m eeeting

o f I nternational s ymposia o n b oat a nd s hip a rchaeology o pened.

1

2 . P OST M EDIEVAL S HIP A RCHAEOLOGY A S A S UBJECT C arl O lof C ederlund

W ith t he t hird m eeting o f t he I SBSA we a re a pproaching o ur own t ime. We f irst met i n L ondon i n 1 976 t o d iscuss b oats a nd s hips f rom p rehistory and r ecording t echnique ; t he s econd t ime w e g athered i n B remerhaven f or t he s tudy o f t he m edieval p eriod a nd i ts s hip a rchaeological o bjects . N ow t he t ime h as c ome f or t he p ostmedieval p eriod . T hat p eriod i s c losest t o u s i n t ime. I n t erms would s eem quantity.

o f

a rchaeological

s ignificance

t he m aterial

f rom

t o b e r elatively unimportant d ue t o i ts l ow B ut s uch a n a ttitude I t hink i s v ery wrong.

t hese s hips

a ge and g reat L et me t ry t o

e xplain. W e

i n

t he

a nd p roblems,

s o-called

m odern

t ime,

v ery

much p roject o ur o wn q uestions

o n t o t he s creen o f t he p ast - f rom t he e arly s tone a ge t o t he

1 9th c entury - f or o ur o wn s akes a nd f or t he s ake o f o ur o wn t ime. W hat

i s

t he m eaning o f

t he p ostmedieval p eriod t hen , 1 .

t he

s hip a rchaeological f inds a nd r emains

f rom

i n t he l ight o f o ur o wn c ultural s ituation?

P rimarily t he s hipwrecks f rom p ost medieval t imes a re t he imediate

predessesors o f o ur o wn v essels. T hey b elong t o t he h istorical p hase d irectly b efore o ur own t ime. T his makes t hem important f or t he understanding o f o ur own t ime and s ociety . They a lso h ave c onsiderable meaning as o bjects i n o ur own t ime, f or e xample a s o ld b oats p reserved i n museums. 2 .

They

a lso

a re

c losely

c onnected

with working

t raditions

and

t echnical s kills which s till e xist i n o ur s ociety o r h ave o nly r ecently p assed a way. T hey a re t hus i mportant f or t he i nterpretation o r t he r evival o f s uch v aluable, l iving t raditions i n o ur c ulture, t echniques o f y esteryear,

s uch a s s hipbuilding

s ailing t echniques a nd s eamanship.

A s a b asis f or t he s tudy o f

t hese s ubjects,

t he v essels and wrecks

f rom t he p ostmedieval p eriod c onstitute i mportant h istorical material. They a re evidence o f p ast t echniques a nd t raditions which s till h ave a m eaning f or u s. 3 .

A s s cientific r esearch m aterial,

c arvel-built s hips a nd t he w recks

o f s uch ships, o ccupy an important p osition . T hey c an b e s een a s t he f undamental t ools i n p ostmedieval t echnical d evelopment, e conomics a nd politics.

It

was

t hese

v essels

t hat

c arried

big

s ea-farers

and

merchandise, a nd w ere t he m ain i nstrument u sed f or w arfare a t s ea . I n t his r espect t hey c an b e e mployed a s c entral s ources f or t he i nterpretation o f v ery i mportant f actors i n t he d evelopment o f o ur s ociety d uring t he l ast f ive h undred y ears. T he boats and s hips f rom t he l ast f ive h undred y ears r egarded a s t he 3

p redecessors o f t he v essels o f s ubjects t o c onsider a nd d iscuss:

o ur

own

t ime,

g ive

t he

s ymposium

many

h ow c an we p reserve t he b oats a nd s hips which h ave s urvived until n ow " alive" - a float a nd s till i n u se? h ow c an we p rotect a nd e conomically s upport o ld p reserved v essels i n u se? I s i t p ossible t o g ive t hem l egal p rotection? h ow c an we s tore a nd e xhibit o ld b oats i n museums,

r estore t hem and

m aintain t hem i n a g ood c ondition? h ow c an we p rotect t he wrecks o f o ld s hips o n t he s ea b ottom, n ot o nly l egally b ut a lso i n p ractice? T he

b oats

and

s hips

a s

e vidence

o f

p ast

working

t raditions

e tc.,

g enerate o ther q uestions. T his a pplies t o b oth p reserved v essels and w recks . B y k eeping t he t echniques , n ecessary f or , s ay, s ailing a N orwegian Nordlands b oat, a o ne-masted s quare r igged s ailing v essel w ith v ery o ld t raditions, y ou a lso k eep a n o riginal e lement o f t he p ast a live. M aybe t hat i s t he m ost i mportant t ask o f t he m useum r esearcher a nd s hip a rchaeologist? T his

i s

a lso

r elevant

when

i t

c omes

t o

s ustaining

o ld

b uilding

t echiques . Y ou c an l earn f rom t he a ged b uilder o f l ocal b oats, a nd y ou c an a lso l earn f rom w recks w hich h ave r ested o n t he b ottom s everal c enturies. I t i s a lso r elevant t o p ut t his a spect i nto t he c ontext o f o ld s eamanship i n g eneral. Y ou c an l earn s eamanship b y s ailing a s chooner t oday a nd y ou c an c ertainly s upplement y our p ractical k nowledge t he r emains

o f

t he s ailor 's

r eal w orking c onditions ,

b y s tudying

t ools a nd e quipment i n

o ld w recks. T he

c entral q uestion i n t his

s hould b e

p reserved,

p resented

c ontext

t o a nd

i s h ow

i ntegrated

t he t raditions o f i n o ur

s ociety .

t he p ast T he

ways

a re m any. T he

s cientific

c ulture

might

i mplications o f

b e,

f or

t hose

o f

t he p ostmedieval

b oats a nd s hips i n o ur

us

the

h ere

t oday,

most

important

c onsideration. T hese p reserved v essels

a nd w recks h arbour a s ubstantial a nd

m ass o f h istorical i nformation , p repared a nd p resented. I myself

t hink

t hat

t his

m ost

o f

which

i s a c hallenge .

i s

w aiting

t o b e

What c an b e m ore

i mportant r ecovered,

t hrilling

a nd e ngaging t han t o b e a ble t o s eek a nd r etrieve i nformation w ith w hich y ou c an g ive

y our

f ellowmen n ew,

q ualified k nowledge and u nderstanding o f

h istory a nd t hus i mprove t heir l ives. T he s cientific q uestions a re i nnumerable . m any o f

t hem f orward .

A ll

S o I w ill n ot t ry t o p ut t o

t he s ame I w ould l ike

t o m ake a s tatement o f

a

p rincipal c haracter. T he b ig w arships a nd t he w recks o f t hese s hips a s h istorical o bjects, s erve t o an ot s o i nsignificant e xtent a s n ational s ymbols . This i s t he 4

c ase with t he Wasa, s imilar s hips.

a nd i s p robably a lso

t rue o f

t he V ictory and

o ther

T his i s o ne o f t he r easons why t hey h ave s uch a s trong p osition a s s hip a rchaeological a nd s hip h istorical o bjects .

I t hink t hey p lay a n i mportant

r ole i n a rousing i nterest i n s hip a rchaeology i n g eneral with t he a id o f t his s ymbolic weight . I a lso t hink t hat t hey p ossess a g ood d eal o f i mportant h istorical i nformation. I n S weden t he W asa d ominates t he s cene . 9 0% o f

t he r esources f or s hip a rchaeology

Iw ould g uess t hat a bout 8 0 -

i n S weden g oes

t o

t he W asa .

A nd

t hat h as c reated a v ery p ositive s ituation i n m any w ays. B ut o n t he o ther h and t he Wasa must b e f ollowed u p b y r esearch a long o ther l ines ,

o n o ther f inds w ith a d ifferent c haracter .

That i s n ecessary i f we want t o g ive t he p ublic a d ifferentiated a nd s ubtle p icture o f o ur p ast maritime l ife, i ts c onditions a nd c ultural a nd s ocial i mplications .

T he l atter i s t he r esponsibility o f

t hose who p resent

t he h istory, i n d ifferent a spects, i n ad emocracy, t hat i s t he h istorians a nd a rchaeologists t o m ention t wo o f t he c ategories o f i ntroducers. U nless w e e nsure t hat t he s cope o f o ur r esearch i s e xtensive a nd v aried t here i s ar isk t hat t he v iew o f h istory t hus p resented will b e v ery o nes ided a nd m isleading. Maybe

o ur

p resentations

h ere

t oday a nd

t omorrow - t ogether w ith t hose

g iven y esterday - w ill g ive a g ood p icture o f p ostmedieval s hip a rchaeology.

t he a bundant p ossibilities o f

I w ill e nd t his i ntroduction b y g iving a f ew p ractical e xamples o f what I h ave t ouched u pon h ere.

And I will b e p resumptive e nough t o u se o ur

e xperiences h ere i n S weden a s e xamples: C oming b ack

t o

t he c oncept o f

t he v essels a s o bjects o f h istorical

v alue, I would l ike t o p oint o ut a n i nvestigation with t he Swedish t itle " Bevara f artyg - a tt v arna om k ulturarvet." ( In E nglish " Protecting a nd p reserving s hips - s afeguarding o ur c ultural h eritage"). I t h as b een written b y B engt Ohrelius and a sta Webe a t t he Swedish N ational M aritime M useum a nd w as p resented i n 1 978. I t d eals with t he s tage b efore t he s ituation when o ld s hips b ecome a rchaeological o bjects . t he q uestions c oncerning what t o p reserve, The

T he i nvestigation s crutinizes t he m any a spects o f p reserved o ld v essels: why p reserve a nd p rotect ,

who p reserves a nd h ow t o p reserve?

i nvestigation c larifies many t hings c oncerning t he c are o f o ld

s hips w ith a n h istorical v alue . I t hink i t i s a u seful t ool f or t he f uture t reatment o f t hese q uestions g enerally. One

o f

t he

c onditions

a rchaeological

f inds

t he m apping o f

t hem .

i s

t he

f or m aking

t he o f

e valuation

a nd

a s ystematical

t reatment

r egister

o f

o f t hem

s hip a nd

T he i nformation y ou t hus c ollect c reates a b ody o f i nformation which g ives c redence t o s hip a rchaeological m aterial i n m any w ays . I t g ives t he 5

p ossibility

t o s tart s cientific i nvestigations o n a b road b asis,

o r t o m ake

g eneral s tatements f or t he c are o f s hip a rchaeological f inds, o r t o e xchange i nformation w ith t he p ublic. The

S wedish

N ational

Museum

c ontaining a mong o ther t hings t he p ostmedieval p eriod.

h as

c ompiled

a r egister

o f

wrecks

m ore t han 1 000 w recks, m ost o f which a re f rom T his i s a n i mportant t ool f or o ur s hip

a rchaeological a nd m arine a rchaeological w ork. C oming t o t he a spect o f t he l iving t raditions o f maritime s ociety, I w ould l ike t o g ive o ne e xample c onnected w ith s hip a rchaeology . O ne o f t he m any a spects o f p ostmedieval s hip a rchaeology i s i ts d irect c onnection w ith t he g eneral public and with t he s ociety o f t oday. Maybe we a s a rchaeologists h ave n ot g rasped

t his c onnection i n i ts r eal s ense .

T he majority o f i nvestigations a nd p resentations a re s ometimes h eld within a r ather r estricted c ircle o f i nterested p eople - t he s o c alled s cientific s ociety . A f ew b ig p rojects a re e xceptions t o t his . A ll t he s ame I t hink t here i s c onsiderable i nterest e ven i n t he-not-so-spectacular s hip f inds o f

l ater

t imes,

n ot l east a l ocal

b y u s i n a f actual a nd i n t he s ame O ne o f t he b est w ays p reservation o f m aritime In

c onnection

i nterest ,

which s hould b e

m et

t ime q ualified a nd e ngaging w ay.

t o d o t hat

i s t o a ssociate

i t w ith t he r evival o r

t raditions.

w ith

t he

p lanning

o f

t he

n ew

Wasa

museum,

a s hip

a rchaeological w ork-shop h as a lso b een p lanned i n t he m useum . T he p ublic w ill b e g iven t he o pportunity t o c ut t heir t humbs t esting 1 7th c entury a xes o r t o t est t he b ig, t wo-hand s aw. There will a lso b e s pace f or u s t o c arry o n a rchaeological r ecording work, r estoration o f o ld b oats e tc., u nder t he e yes o f t he p ublic . T he i deal w ould b e t o b e a ble t o h old c ourses i n b oatbuilding, s hip r estoration , s ailmaking, m arine a nd s hip a rchaeology e tc. S tockholm h arbour will b e s ituated j ust o utside t he museum. would b e m ore n atural

t han t o

o f o ld s hips a nd b oats a nd o f W ell p reserved o f

t he museum.

l ocal

t urn

What

t he W asa m useum i nto a r eal-life-centre

t he t raditions c onnected w ith t hem.

c raft c ould,

f or i nstance,

b e moored

t o

t he

q uay

I t would b e v ery p ositive f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he

g eneral p ublic i f a n a nnual D ay o f t he L ocal C raft B oat i n S tockholm H arbour w ould b e h eld w ith c ompetitions , i nformation , p ublic v iewing o f t he b oats e tc. . S uch a n a nnual d ay might b e a v ery g ood market p lace f or s hip a rchaeology, m aritime t raditions a nd c ulture . O ne h as s uggested t hat t he 2 2 .5 m l ong f ull s cale r eplica o f a m edieval b oat which i s n ow b eing b uilt c ould

s erve a s

t he

j udges ' s hip a t s uch a c ompetition e vent .

T he s cientific a pproach t o t he s ubject m ay b e e xemplified i n t wo w ays. The A rchaeological

I nstitute

o f

t he U niversity o f S tockholm h as b een

o ffering c ourses i n marine a rchaeology a nd s hip a rchaeology f or 1 0 y ears n ow. M ore t han o ne h undred s tudents h ave h itherto c ompleted t he c ourses . T his e ducational work i s a c ondition f or t he i ntegration o f marine a rchaeology

i n t he work o f museums a nd o ther s imiliar o rganizations i n

Sweden . T he u niversity work i s a lso i mportant f or t he e stablishment o f s cientific f ormulae a nd q ualified s cientific w ork i n t his f ield .

6

T he p lan i s t o i nclude t his i n t he r egular c urriculum a nd c onnect i t t o o ther i nstitutions d ealing w ith m aritime h istory, T he wrecks

o f

n ot l east t his m useum.

t he b ig c arvel-built s hips f rom t he p ost-medieval p eriod

a re v ery c haracteristic S wedish m arine a rchaeological m aterial . l arge n umber o f s uch wrecks i n S weden a nd many o f t hem a re p reserved. T he

Wasa

e ntirety .

i s

t he

o nly

o ne

o f

t hese

which h as

T o g ive y ou a n i dea o f t he m any o thers,

b een

T here i s a v ery well

s alvaged

i n

i ts

w e h ave a rranged a s mall

e xhibition f or t his s ymposium. W e h ave n ow p assed t he f irst s tage i n t he d evelopment o f t he s cience o f s hip a rchaeology .

D uring

t he e stablishment t echniques.

o f

This

means

t hat

t he

s hip

we

n ow

t reatment a nd p resentation o f

1 960s

a nd

7 0s

a rchaeological

c an

s tart

t o

w ork h as

b een c oncentrated

r ecording

c ollect

a nd

o n

i nvestigating

i nformation

f or

t he

h istorical k nowledge .

I n c onnection w ith t he e xhibit t he m useum w ill p resent t wo d evelopment projects t he r eports o f which n ow a re p ublished. T heir p urpose h as b een t he d evelopment a nd p racticing o f underwater a nd s hip a rchaeological t echniques,

e specially a daptable t o S wedish c onditions .

7

3 . T HE A NCIENT M ONUMENTS A CT A ND T HE S HIPWRECKS S ibylla H aasum

Ih ave g iven my l ecture t he t itle " The Ancient Monuments A ct and The S hipwrecks" . A s i t i s n ot t he l aw i tself a nd i ts l egal c ontents I i ntend t o

t alk about I s hould l ike

t o g ive t he c ontribution t he s ub-title:

C are o f A ncient M onuments a nd b ig s hipwrecks" .

t he p roblems

" The

c onnected w ith t he f inds o f

t he

What I want t o a ccount f or h ere r eally a re s ome u nsorted r eflections around t hese p roblems a nd I will t ry t o i lluminate t he s ituation f or o ur S wedish m aritime a rchaeology . I s uppose

a ll

o f

y ou

k now

t he

p rovisions

o f

t he

S wedish Ancient

Monuments A ct c oncerning s hipwrecks s o I w ill j ust m ention t hat s hipwrecks p rotected according t o o ur l aw must b e a t l east 1 00 y ears o ld a s wrecks. A s ab ackground t o my d iscourse y ou a lso o ught t o know t hat t he c osts o f n ecessary a rchaeological i nvestigations i n c onnection w ith e xploitation r est u pon t he e xploiter. We p ossess i n t his c ountry t he warship Wasa a nd we a re v ery g rateful f or t his . W asa h as m eant i ncredibly m uch t o S wedish m aritime a rchaeology . W ithout t his s hip w e h ad n ot a rrived a s f ar a s w e h ave d one t oday w ithin t he maritime archaeological d omain . T his f ind h as e nforced a d evelopment; enforced investigation a nd working methods, d eveloped t echniques and p reservation m ethods,

b rought a bout p ossibilities o f

i ncreased e conomic a nd

p ersonnel r esources a nd g iven u s t rained maritime a rchaeologists, b ut p erhaps f irst and f oremost; i t h as b rought a bout a t remendous i nterest i n maritime a rchaeology i n S weden . W e a re - a nd t his I w ill r eally e mphasize - i mmensely g rateful

t o A nders F ranzt i l a nd o ur N ational M aritime Museum f or

a ll t his. B ut what I w ant

t o s ay h ere i s

t hat

t he m aritime a rchaeology

t oday i s

s o much more t han Wasa a nd I will with t his c ontribution t ry t o s tart a d iscussion o n t he a ppropriate a ction w e o ught t o t ake w ith a ll t he f inds a nd e xpected w e

f indings o f b ig s hipwrecks .

t o d o?

A nd I h ope

What c an w e d o w ith t hem ,

what o ught

t o g et s ome c omparison w ith t he w ay i t i s p roceeded

i n o ther c ountries. W e

h ave

a g reat

n umber

o f

r elatively

w ell

p reserved

w recks

a long

o ur

c oasts . We u sually s ay l ike t his: while t he r egistered a ncient monuments on l and can b e c ounted i n h undreds o f t housands t he u nderwater ancient monuments c an c ertainly b e e stimated a t t ens o f t housands . T hat i ncludes o ther r emains t oo. T he r egisters a t o ur Maritime Museum c ontain t oday a bout 8 00 r egistered w recks a nd a bout 9 .000 f oundering d ata. We are well f avoured

i n

t his c ountry,

s ince

t he s hipworm - T eredo

Navalis - which i n o ther w aters w ith h igher s alinity c onsumes s unken t imber, d oes n ot e xist i n t he B rackish s ea w ater o f t he B altic . T he B altic h as i n t his b ecome a g oldmine f or Swedish u nderwater a rchaeology a nd maybe t he g reat n umber o f w ell p reserved wrecks i s i n t his w ay s omething r ather u nique

9

a nd m aybe t he p roblems a re t herefore n ot a s g reat i n o ther c ountries. I a lso w ant

t o m ention t hat

w e h ave

t wo c ategories

o f

f indings;

f inds

i n c onnection with e xploitation where t he e conomy i s f acilitated b y t he p rovisions o f t he l aw a nd f inds which h ave b een d iscovered i n p ure r esearch a nd i n s kindiving. O ur p ossibilities o f c arrying o n r esearch o urselves a re l imited o n a ccount o f e conomic o ch p ersonnel c onditions a nd w e h ave t o t ake what w e g et i n e xploitation a s well a s b y s kindivers. A nd t hen t he q uestion - what s hall we d o with i t?

T hey a re p rotected a ccording t o t he l aw.

h ere o nly a bout s hipwrecks. d ifferent c ontexts.

I t alk

B ut w hich m easures a re n essecary- a nd s uitable i n

There i s s till much which o ught t o b e d eveloped within o ur maritime a rchaeology a nd b oat

a rchaeology.

- w e n eed t o f ill i n t he g aps i n o ur k nowledge r eferring t o c hronology a s w ell a s t o t ype a nd b oat b uilding h istory . -

w e n eed t o d evelop m ethods a nd

t echniques e ven m ore.

-

w e n eed t o d evelop o ur d ating m ethods.

-

w e n eed t o s upplement t he f inds a nd o bjects a nd

-

w e n eed t o w ork m ore w ith whole c ontexts a s f or e x . F oteviken .

( You

w ill h ear m ore a bout t hat l ater). O ur

i n m any w ays l imited k nowledge m akes t he j udgement s ometimes v ery

d ifficult .

W e m ust ,

h owever ,

l earn t o g ive p riorities

i n c onnection w ith

e xploitation i nvestigations a s w ell a s f inds f ound i n a nother w ay. A nd w ithout d epriving t he b ig s hipwrecks o f t heir v alue b ut f or f illing i n t he g aps i n o ur knowledge we must c onsequently t hink t he matter o ver c arefully h ow t o m ake t he b est u se o f o ur s mall m eans. How d o we t hen p roceed w ith t he b ig s hipwrecks - which i n f act a re a bove a ll t he t heme o f t his s ymposium . I s hall n ot h ere d escribe t he f inds w e h ave o f

t hem j ust n ow o r s how p ictures .

words a nd p ictures

o f f inds

o f

c urrent

Y ou w ill b e g iven a n a ccount i n

i nterest

d uring

t oday a nd

t omorrow .

j ust t he

s hipwreck

I j ust w ant t o t ry t o i lluminate t he p roblems. I t g oes w ithout s aying t hat i n m any c ases i t i s n ot i n i tself t hat w ill g ive u s s omething . i n t his c onnection . T ake f or i nstance

W e m ust n ot d isregard o ther v alues t he K ronan ( Crown) w reck which w ill

b e i ntroduced t o y ou l ater . T his f ind h as f urnished u s w ith a g reat m any p articularly v aluable o bjects, i t g ives u s f urthermore a g ood i nsight i nto t he " ship c ommunity" , i t g ives u s p ossibilities o f d eveloping t echniques a nd m ethods a nd f inally i t m eans f rom a p ublic r elation p oint o f v iew e normously t o o ur C ounty m useum i n K almar a nd t o t hat whole r egion . t o b uild u p a m aritime a rchaeological a ctivity a long o ur

A nd i t e nables u s s outheastern c oast

w ith a p lanned d ecentralization a t h and o f h andling m aritime a rchaeological m atters. I am c onvinced t hat w e c an w ork w ith t he K ronan ( Crown) w reck f or t he c oming 1 0 m aybe 2 0 y ears i f w e w ish t o . B ut a s I s aid b efore i t i s s o m uch

1 0

more w e a lso w ant t o d o . N ow o ur c ontributions c oncerning K ronan o ught n ot r eally t o b e e xaggerated . T he i nvestigation i s d one a lmost c ompletely o ut o f p rivately c ollected m eans . Ik now t hat many p eople s earch e agerly f or t he r est o f o ur f oundered w arships f rom t hat t ime .

T he s earch i s

f or S värdet

( the

S word) - t he

s hip

which f oundered a t t he s ame t ime a s K ronan a nd which o ught t o l ie s omewhere n orth o f i t . T he s earch i s f or a w reck c alled R esande M an ( Travelling M an) - another warship f rom t he s ame c entury f oundered i n t he s outhern a rchipelago o f S tockholm. T he s earch i s f or a warship c alled Mars e ven o lder - f rom t he s ixteenth c entury - l ying s omewhere b etween t he i slands o f Öland a nd G otland. A nd i n S cania t hey d ream o f b eing a ble t o t ake u p t he r emains o f f or e xample t he w arship t he N ew S word i n L andskrona h arbour o r t o i nvestigate o ther s imilar w recks l ying a long t he c oast S o c ertainly t he f inds c an s till b e m any a nd b ig . A nd w e

o f

h ave a d ifficult e xploitation m atter i n S cania

S cania

t oo

( Skgne) .

a nd

t hat

t he p ossible e nlargement o f L andskrona h arbour . H ere s everal w recks l ocated a nd t here i s i nformation o f n ot l ess t han s ome 1 5 f ounderings. B ut

l et

p erspective o f

u s

r elate

t hese

d reams

t o

o ther

w ishes

a nd

p ut

i s a re

t hem

i n

t he w ishes I h ave a lready p ut f orward t o y ou.

A nd I want t o m ention a nother f ind o f c urrent i nterest . A t a bout 4 0m d epth i n L ake Vät t ern t he wreck o f a s teamship - a p addle-steamer b y t he n ame o f E rik N ordewall h as r ecently b een f ound. T he wreck i s a lmost c ompletely i ntact . I t i s b uilt i n w ood, o ak a nd p ine , a t t he e ngineering i ndustry

i n Motala

i n 1 836 a nd

i t b ecame a w reck i n

1 856 .

E rik N ordewall

was b uilt at a v ery i nteresting p oint o f t ime i n t he d evelopment o f t he s hip-building t echnique; t he c hange f rom p ropulsion b y o ars a nd s ails t o t he n ew s teamship r espect

t o

h ull,

n avigation .

T his

b uilding methods,

b rought a bout g reat

c hanges

c onstruction t echniques e tc.

with E ric

N ordewall i s b uilt e xactly i n t his i nterval a nd f or t his r eason i t i s o f p articular t echnical-historical i nterest. F or t he t ime b eing we ( that m eans t he C entral B oard o f N ational A ntiquities) h ave o nly g ranted p ermission t o t he s alvage o f s ome s eparate o bjects . T he d ivers who f ound t he wreckage a re p lanning b esides t o make a v ideo-film o f i t. B ut i t i s q uite e vident t hat t here i s a g reat i nterest i n t his w reck t oo a nd t hat many p eople w ant t o s alvage t his v ery i mportant f ind. A nd we h ave r elatively well p reserved r ather b ig wrecks o f merchant v essels. C arl O lof C ederlund i s g oing t o p resent t wo o f t hem t omorrow, b oth l ocated i n t he S tockholm a rchipelago . A nd p ersonally I s hould l ike v ery much t o f ind more o f

t he

smaller

u tility b oats f rom t he t ime t his s ymposium d eals w ith . W e h ave c ertainly made q uite a l ot o f f inds o f small b oats, f or i nstance a t t he g reat e xcavations i n S tockholm, b ut unfortunately we h ave n ot y et h ad t he t ime, money a nd

t he

p ersonnel

t o d ocument a nd

a nalyze

t hem

t horoughly.

A s

r egards t hese s mall u tility b oats t here i s s till m uch t o b e w anted a s f ar a s r esearch i s c oncerned. T oday we many t imes f ind i t v ery d ifficult t o d etermine t heir t ype a nd t o d ate t hem. Bear i n m ind t hat we i n t his c ountry c annot y et f or i nstance d erive t he o rigin o f t he f lat s tern o f s ome o f t he s mall b oats - j ust t o t ake a n e xample .

I n o ther w ords I m ean

t hat

w e

o ught

1 1

t o h ave a s omewhat b etter b alance

i n o ur b oat-research .

W e w ant t o h ave t he b ig s hipwrecks - w e n eed t hem -

b ut a t t he s ame t ime we want t o h ave more and t his i s t oday n ot s o e asy t o g et f or i nstance b y e conomic r easons . A gainst t he b ackground w hich I h ave d rawn u p h ere t he q uestion i s: what s hall w e d o w ith t he f uture f inds o f t he b ig s hipwrecks? L et u s

s ay t hat w e i n t he n ear f uture h ave t he w recks o f a f ew w arships

more a nd s ome merchant v essels i nvestigations a nd s alvages! T hen y ou w ill h ave

a nd

o ther

b oats

a nd

many

wishes

f or

t o r emember - s omething which a ll o f y ou k now v ery

well - t hat t he r eal h eavy e xpenses c ome a fterwards w ith t he working-up, analyses, d ocumentation a nd t aking c are o f a nd k eeping t he f inds. T hen what t o d o? D o w e

j ust l ocate a nd r egister t hem - a nd t hen k eep t hem l ying?

S hall w e t ry t o d ocument t hem i n s ome w ay? M aybe f ilming i s a g ood o ne. S hall w e s alvage c ertain o bjects f or d ating a nd i dentification? I s i t f or e xample s ensible t o t ake u p m ore c annons o ut o f t he d epths? I t

i s

c annons

w orth m entioning

f rom K ronan .

Two

t hat w e o f

h ave

t hese

s alvaged

s alvaged

1 8 o ut

c annons

o f o riginally

1 28

are p articularly

i nteresting . One o f t hem i s t welve-angled a nd d ecorated w ith h eraldic l ilies, a nd t he o ther o ne i s a v ery o ld o ne f rom 1 514 . Among t he o ther c annons f rom K ronan t here a re t hirtysix-pounders , a s ize which w as n ot f ound o n t he W asa. The q uestion i s e asily p ut - i s i t r eally a dvisable a nd d esirable t o c ontinue

t aking

u p

c annons?

We

h ave

b esides

p reservation worries c oncerning b ronze c annons. s olving t hese? S hall w e many

t imes

s alvage

t o a void

e xaggerated?

f or

t he

t ime

b eing

Mustn't w e b egin w ith

t he r isk o f p lundering o r i s t his r isk m aybe

C an

we

m anage

t his

p roblem

b y

i ncreased

i nformation a nd c o-operation? I t

i s

e vident

t hat

t hese q uestions c annot b e a nswered u niformly -

a djustments m ust b e d one i n e ach s pecific c ase o f c ourse. B ut a ll t he s ame t hey a re p roblems w e h ave t o g rapple w ith a nd i t w ould b e i nteresting t o h ave y our o pinions o n t hem o r o n s ome o f t hem. A nd o f c ourse t he d emand f or g iving p riority m ust c oncern a ll t ypes o f s hipwrecks a nyhow. B ut much c an a lso b e d one w ith t he b ig s hipwrecks. f or d eveloping m ethods a nd t echniques,

f or c o-operation,

W e c an u se t hem f or t raining e tc.

A nd a t t he s ame t ime we must n ot d eny t he e normously g reat l ocal a nd r egional p ublic r elations s ignificance t hese f inds r eally h ave . I r emember t he h ead-line o f a n a rticle a bout K ronan q uite r ecently, " Kronan/the C rown/ i s w orth e very s ingle ' öre'/cent/" . A nd I b elieve t he h ead-line i s r ight b ut what s hall w e d o when w e b esides t his w ant s o much more a nd i s i t q uite 1 2

r ight

i n

t hese c onnections

t o

t rust

c ompletely

we o urselves t oo b ad p ublic r elation p ersons a rchaeology"? A nd

j ust

t hink

a l ittle

a bout

t he

t o p rivate m eans?

A nd

t o m arket " the whole

b asic p rinciple

o f

o ur

a re

m aritime

ancient

monuments o n l and - w e l et t hem d eliberately l ie t here, w e p reserve t hem , p rotect t hem a nd r evere t hem . I a dmit t hat t he s tarting-point i s n ot q uite t he s ame f or t he c ultural - h istorical r emains u nder w ater . I t i s p ossible only f or v ery f ew p eople t o l ook a t t hem; b esides t hat t hey d ecay more r apidly t han t he r emains o n l and a nd what 's m ore w e s ometimes o ften n eed t he k nowledge

t hey c an g ive u s.

I n a ddition u nderwater a rchaeology

( if

w e

s ay s o - i t r eally o ught n ot

t o b e s eparated i n t hat way f rom a rchaeology) i s y ounger a nd f or t he t ime b eing t he f ind o f a w reck g ets t he f eelings r unning h igh . I t d oes n ot s eem t o b e q uite s o e xciting t o c ome a nd t ell a bout a magnificent c airn s omewhere a long o ur c oast o r a bout a whole maritime c ontext - a s F oteviken - w ith a h arbour , l and.

with a d efense

u nder

w ater,

s hipwrecks

a nd

c onnecting

r emains

o n

t hat we h ave

t o

B e t hat a s i t m ay - w hat I w anted t o s ay i s t his: T here i s a c ertain i mbalance i n o ur i nvestigations a nd f ight w ith

i t

i n

s uch a w ay

t hat

o ur

t he b oat-archaeology w on't h eel o ver.

1 3

m aritime

a rchaeological r esearch a nd

4 .

T HE P RESERVATION O F T HE W ASA B irgitta H äfors

I ntroduction F rom t he p reservation p oint o f v iew t he Wasa p roject f ell i nto f ive m ain c ategories . T hose w ere T he h ull i tself The l arge, d isconnected c omponents C ast i ron o bjects - m ainly c annon b alls S ails L eather g oods E ach c ategory w as f airly e xtensive a s w as e ach s ubcategory . a lso g roups o f more e asily h andled o bjects,

T here w ere

f or i nstance smaller wooden

o bjects l ike s poons a nd b owls which w ere i n a v ery d eteriorated c ondition .

The H ull I t was d ecided t hat t he h ull s hould n ot b e t aken a part b ut t reated i n o ne p iece . r ests was e rected .

F or t hat p urpose t he p ontoon s tructure o n which t he h ull s till c onstructed and d uring t he s ummer o f 1 961 t he b uilding was T o p rotect

t he

were u sed a nd t he t ips o f a s

w ood

f rom d rying

o ut

i mmediately,

p lastic

s heets

t he r ibs w ere w rapped w ith p lastic r ibbons a s s oon

t he h ull b roke t he w ater s urface .

D uring

t he p eriod a s

t he b uilding w as

g oing u p t he d ecks w ere s prayed w ith f resh w ater a utomatically, u sing g arden e quipment, a nd t he o uter p lanking w as s prayed w ith s eawater b y h and.

t he

E ven t hough t he d ecision t o t reat t he h ull i n o ne p iece h ad b een m ade , e xact f ormula o f t he p reservative h ad n ot y et b een d ecided u pon .

S everal e xperts were c onsulted a nd, 4 000 w as s uggested .

f inally,

t he p olyethyleneglycol ( PEG)

T he f unction o f t he P EG i s t o d iminish s hrinkage o f T he o ther p roblem - t o p revent f ungus

t he wood o n d rying .

f rom g rowing when t he m oisture l evel

b ecame s uitable - w as t o b e t aken c are o f w ith b oric a cid a nd s odiumborate . T he m ost d esirable w ay o f a pplying t he f ungicide w as t o a dd i t t o t he P EGs olution and t hus b e a ble t o d o b oth t he d imension s tabilizing a nd t he f ungus p rotecting t reatment a t t he s ame t ime . T o

c ombine

t he

s ubstances

i n

s olution was

m y

f irst

t ask when

j oining

t he W asa p roject i n 1 961. T he b uffering c apacity o f t he b oric a cid/boratemixture was u sed a nd i t w as p ossible t o d issolve a s much a s 8 % o f a m ixture o f 7 p arts o f b oric a cid a nd 3 p arts o f s odiumborate i n a s olution c ontaining 3 0% P EG 4 000 . O n r aising t he P EG-concentration t he e quilibrium i s s hifted t owards s odiumborate.

a mixture

containing

more

W hen t he s praying o f t he h ull s tarted i n A pril PEG

1 500

was

t o

b e

u sed

i nstead

o f

P EG 1 5

4 000

boric

acid

and

l ess

1 962 i t w as d ecided t hat

b ecause

o f

t he

g reater

s olubility o f t hat molecular g rade a t l ower t emperatures . L ater - i n 1 971 when i t h ad b een e stablished t hrough l aboratory t ests t hat t he P EG 6 00 h ad a g reater a bility t o d iminish s hrinkage - t he 1 500 was s ubstituted b y t his molecular g rade. T his was o f g reat a dvantage b ecause o f t he e ven g reater s olubility o f t he P EG 6 00 which b ecame t he more important a s t he c oncentration w as

i ncreased .

S praying o f t he h ull was f irst c onducted b y h and o nce o r t wice a d ay, b ut i n March 1 965 a n a utomatic s praying s ystem was i nstalled. T his p ermitted t he h ull t o b e s prayed 3 2 t imes d uring a 2 4 h our p eriod. T his s praying s chedule r emained u nchanged f or s ix y ears d uring w hich p eriod t he c oncentration o f P EG was i ncreased f rom 1 0 t o 2 5% . D uring t he f ollowing e ight y ears o f c onservation t here was a s uccessive p rolongation o f t he p eriods b etween s prayings a nd a f urther i ncrease i n P EG-concentration t o a bout 4 5% . T o

g et

s olution o f

an

i dea

about

p reservative

o n

t he t he

e fficiency o f w ood,

s ome

t he

m ethod o f s praying t he

l aboratory

t ests

w ere

made a nd

a lso s ome t ests o n a l arger s cale . T est p anels which measured 1 .5 x 1 .5 m were b uilt f rom t imber f rom a 1 7th c entury s hip, b rought u p b y d ivers f or t hat p urpose. T hese t ests mainly s howed t hat i t i s n ot p ossible t o a ccelerate t he p rocess - t hat a l ong s praying p eriod i s n eeded and a lso a l ong d rying p eriod . E xcessively f ast d rying t ends t o d raw a w ater s oluble p reservative t owards t he s urface o f t he w ood . T he r esults o f

t he p reservation p rocess ,

a s

o bserved

w ith t est p ieces,

t he t est p anels a nd o n t he o bject i tself, t he h ull, a re c onstantly b eing monitored b y t aking s amples f rom t he w ood which a re i mmediately d ivided i nto p ieces, e ach r epresenting a c ertain l evel i n t he w ood . T hese p ieces a re p ut i nto p reviously-weighed t est t ubes a nd t aken t o t he l aboratory where t hey a re a nalysed . T he a nalyses g ives t he c ontent o f w ater a nd p reservatives o n t he l evel r epresented b y t hat p articular p iece o f c ore . T he a verage w ater c ontent o f t he o ak t imbers f rom t he W asa c alculated o n t he d ry f ibre w eight , was 1 50% 1 961. T oday t he o uter p lanking h as d ried d own t o a n a verage o f 2 3% a nd t he b ig t imbers i n t he h old a nd o n t he o rlop d eck t o a n a verge o f a bout 4 0% .

T he P EG-content v aries a nd t he v alues r ange b etween 0 a nd 1 00% . D uring

t he p eriod

t hat

t he

h ull

w as

b eing

s prayed

b y

h and ,

t he R H w as k ept a t a l evel o f 9 5% b y a n a ir-conditioning u nit .

1 962-1965 , A nother a ir

c onditioning u nit, c ontrolled b y h ygrostates, w as b rought i nto u se i n 1 972 when t he s praying w ith p reservation s olution w as g etting l ess f requent . T o p revent t he wood c losest t o t he a ir o utlet f rom d rying o ut a d iffusing d evice w as mounted o n t he o utlet . T he R H w as b rought d own f rom t he o riginal 9 5% t o a bout 7 0% .

1 979,

A fter t he s praying o f t he h ull with P EG 6 00 was f inished i n J anuary i t w as p ossible t o s tart t he f inishing t reatment o n t he p arts o f t he

h ull where t he moisture c ontent i s i n e quilibrium w ith t he R H . P EG 4 000 w as c hosen a s a s urface c oating. B efore t he t reatment with P EG 4 000 c ould s tart ,

t he

s urface h ad

t o b e

c leaned

f rom d irt a nd d ust u sing s ponges .

T he

P EG 4 000 , a s a 4 5% s olution i n water , w as s prayed b y h and o n t o t he s urface . T his t reatment h ad t o b e r epeated 3 t o 4 t imes . A fter d rying , w hich t ook a c ouple o f d ays,

h ot a ir w as a pplied a nd t he P EG w as a bsorbed .

1 6

D isconnected f inds A s

t he d isconnected f inds which w ere b rought u p f rom t he W asa h ad t o b e

p rotected f rom d rying o ut , s everal w ooden t anks w ere b uilt . T he t anks w ere l ined w ith p lastic s heets . E verything t hat w as b rought u p w as p ut i n a t ank w ith w ater c ontaining f ungicide . T o b e a ble t o t reat t he h uge mass o f t imber t wo p reservation t anks w ere b uilt, measuring a t otal o f t ogether 3 .6 x 1 .15 x 2 0 m . T he t emperature o f t he s olution c ould b e r egulated a nd k ept w ithin a n arrow r ange o f t he d esired v alue. T he s olution was c irculated s o t hat a n e ven c oncentration c ould b e maintained. A v entilation s ystem was u sed t o c oncentrate s olution b y e vaporating t he s olvent ( water) . T he o bjects w ere p laced n ot

t o

o bstruct

t he

t he

i n t he t anks - i n f rames where n ecessary s o a s

c irculation o f

p reservation

s olution .

T he

p rocess

w as

s tarted b y f illing t he t ank with a measured q uantity o f water which was h eated t o t he d esired t emperature . A bout 1 .5% o f b oric a cid/sodium b orate m ixture w as a dded a fter w hich c ommenced t he r aising o f t he P EG c oncentration b y a dding t he c hosen P EG ( mostly 4 000 o r 1 500) i n b atches a t a p recalculated r ate. W hen

t he

d esired P EG-concentration w as

r eached,

which

i n

t he

c ase

o f

t he Wasa's o ak h appened a bout 1 8 months a fter t he p rocess s tarted, t he s olution w as a llowed t o c ool d own . T he p reserved o bjects w ere t hen t aken t o a c limatized s pace where t hey were t reated b y means o f s praying with a s olution o f t he s ame P EG-concentration a s w as i n t he t ank a t t he e nd o f t he t reatment . T he s praying c ontinued a t i ntervals d uring t he d rying p rocess a nd t he R H o f t he c limatized s pace w as l owered f rom a bout 9 0% t o t he v alue ( about 6 5%) which was g oing t o b e k ept i n t he museum . The p rocess t ook a nother

1 2-18 m onths .

While d rying, o bject.

e xcess P EG r emained v isible o n t he s urface o f t he

T hat e xcess P EG was r emoved b y t he a pplication o f h ot a ir which

l eaves a p rotecting s urface o f P EG o n t he o bject . I n a ll,

a bout 2 50 m3 o f m aterial f rom t he W asa h as b een t reated i n t his

w ay.

T he L eather A ll l eather g oods a s well a s small wooden o bjects, b owls ,

h ave b een t reated b y f reeze-drying a fter b eing

l ike s poons a nd

i mpregnated

w ith P EG

6 00 o r 4 00 .

C ast I ron C ast

i ron

articles

h ave

b een

r educed

b y

hydrogen

g as

at

h igh

t emperature a nd t hen i mpregnated w ith m icrocristalline p araffin w ax .

S ails The

s ails

were

f ound

e xcavated b efore t reatment .

i n

a h eap

o n

A s t he m aterial 1 7

t he

o rlop

d eck

and

w as v ery f ragile

h ad

t o

b e

t he u nfolding

h ad t o b e d one u nder water . d rying t he

A fter r emoving t he r ust w ith o xalic a cid a nd

t extile w ith a lcohol a nd x ylene ,

T o b e a ble

t o p reserve

t he s ails,

a v ery b rittle f abric w as l eft .

i t w as d ecided

t o m ount t hem o n t o a

n on-flexible b acking . A g lassfibre f abric w as c hosen f or t he p urpose . T he g lassfibre f abric was p ainted w ith a a crylic-styrene p olymer t hat was c omposed s o t hat i t w ould h ave t he s ame r efractive i ndex a s t he g lassfibre . T he s ails w ere p laced o n t he p olymerpainted g lassfibre f abric a nd w ere t hen f astened t o t he s upporting s heet w ith t he a id o f a n e mulsion o f t he p olymer . The

s eparate

s heets

h ave

a s tandard

mounted t ogether t o f orm t he e ntire s ail .

1 8

s ize

o f

1 .5

x 2 m a nd

c an

b e

5 .

T HE D ECORATED S HIP

A s mall o utline o f t he c arved d ecoration o f t he w arship WASA H ans S oop

I n a f ew w ords I s hall t ry t o g ive y ou a s hort r epresentation o f o ne o f t he m ost c omplex a spects o f

t he w arship WASA ,

n amely t he c arved d ecoration .

We w ill s tart i n 1 956 . A s hort t ime a fter t he s hip h ad b een f ound b y Mr. A nders F ranzen i n A ugust , t he p reparations f or t he s alvaging s tarted . When d igging t he s ix t unnels u nder t he h ull, t he f irst s culptures w ere b rought u p f rom t he b ottom . S oon a l ot o f r emarkable a nd f ascinating w ooden o bjects w ere s pread o ut a ll o ver t he d ivers' r aft , e xciting t he i magination . T here w ere w arriors i n R oman a rmour w ith g rim a nd c losed f aces ,

s mall n ice-looking

c herubs a nd p utti, e nigmatical s miling m ermaids, b earded t ritons, i mpressive k nights dressed i n m agnificent medieval c uirasses , w ild l ions w ith b ushy m anes, g rotesque l ooking h eads a nd b izarre mascaroons, s plendid h eraldic a rms a nd e scutcheons, f abulous b easts, p ilasters, o rnaments d ecorated i n s croll work, g rotesques a nd e ar s hell o rnamentations e tc . I t was a f antastic and imaginative world, s peaking t he r ich and f ull-flavoured l anguage o f n orth E uropean r enaissance a rt , w ith i ts m ixture o f c lassical a ntique f orms and t he r emnants o f t he o ld, g ermanatic g othic-medieval t radition . I t w as a c ounterpart i n w ood t o t he v oluminous s tone d ecoration o f p alaces, b urghers h ouses a nd c hurches i n t he s eventeenth c entury c apital o f t he n ewly e stablished S wedish " great p ower" , d ecorations which t o a g reat e xtent s till c an b e s tudied i n t he O ld T own o f S tockholm . A bout 2 00 s culptures w ere f ound d uring t he t ime o f s alvaging .

A fter t he

WASA h ad broken t he s urface i n A pril 1 961, t he d ivers c ould c oncentrate t heir w ork o n t aking u p t he r est o f t he d ecorations f rom t he b ottom . D uring t he s ummers 1 963-1967 t he r emaining s culptures w ere b rought t o l ight , a nd i n a ll n early 5 00 f igure s culptures a nd s everal h undred o rnaments o f d ifferent k inds h ave b een p reserved t o t his d ay. T hey will a ll g ive u s a g ood i dea a bout t he

manner o f d ecorating

a b ig

warship

i n

t he

e arly

s eventeenth

c entury. B ut what d id a ll t hese w arriors a nd k nights,

m ermaids,

t ritons a nd s ea-

g ods r epresent? What d id t hey s ymbolize? Where o n t he s hip h ad t hey a ll b een p laced? T o a ll t hese q uestions t here w ere n o i mmediate a nswers . T he s culptures s eemed m ysterious a nd b affling . R unning

p arallel

w ith

t he

c onservation

o f

t he

w ater-soaked

s culptures,

t he r esearch u pon t his u nique c ollection o f a rt o bjects t ried t o g et a nswers t o t he many q uestions. T he r estoration o f t he h ull, which means a r eb uilding o f t he s hip i n o rder t o f ind o ut h ow s he l ooked i n 1 628 , g ave b ack t he m ost d emolished p arts o f t he WASA : t he s tern c astle w ith i ts b ulwarks, g alleries and c abins, t he b eakhead and t he r ailings. S o, l ike a Phoenix, t he WASA a rose anew, and i t b ecame p ossible t o f ind o ut e xactly - b y c omparing t he b ack s ide o f t he c arvings w ith t he c onstruction o f t he s hip where e ach s culpture o nce h ad b een p laced. D uring t his work, i t b ecame q uite o bvious t hat t he d ecoration must h ave b een a n i ntegral p art o f t he a rchitecture o f t he s hip , a nd t hat t he f inal s tage o f t he r estoration s hould

1 Q

b e

t he

r e-placing o f a ll t he s culptures .

T he

w ork

o f

f inding

t he

p ositions

r an p arallel

w ith

t he

i conographic

r esearch u pon t he c arvings, i n o rder t o g et a n a nswer t o t he q uestions o f what t hey r epresented a nd s ymbolized a nd what r ole t hey p layed o n t he s hip . B y s tudying t he s ources o f r enaissance a rtistic i deas and m otifs, i t s oon b ecame c lear f rom where t he a rtists, t he wood c arvers, h ad g ot t he p rototypes f or t heir work . I t was mainly t he a ncient G reek a nd R oman mythology, t he R oman l iterature , h istory a nd p hilosophy, t he O ld T estament a nd t he o ld G othic-Scandinavian m ythical t radition . S o a rmoured o r n aked male f igures c ould b e i dentified w ith a ntique m ythical h eroes a s H ercules o r P eleus, s ea-gods a s P roteus a nd T hetis , I sraelian k ings o r l eaders a s D avid a nd G ideon . w ith R oman

S lender m en w ith m antles a nd l aurel w reaths c ould b e i dentified e mperors

- t heir

f eet o f e ach e mperor - a nd k ings o f S weden .

n ames

a ctually

t all k nights

c arved

i n b lock l etters

i n G othic a rmour

a t

t he

w ith o ld m ythical

I t's a s pectacular g allery o f i nvented o r r eal p ersonages,

k nown b y

name, d erived f rom t he s agas a nd h istory . D uring t he t ime o f t he r enaissance , t hey s ymbolized b rilliant a nd g lorious v irtues s uch a s b ravery a nd c ourage, p ower a nd wisdom, p atience a nd s trength . At t he t ime o f t he WASA , a ll t hese v irtues were s aid t o c haracterize p rinces a nd s overeigns. On t he WASA , t hese r epresentatives o f v irtues a re p aying h omage t o k ing G ustavus A dolphus, who i s p resent o n t he t op o f t he s tern , i n t he s hape o f a y oung b oy w ith l ong h air ,

s urrounded

b y

t wo g riffins h olding a r oyal

c rown

o ver t he h ead o f t he y oung k ing . T he whole d ecoration o f t he s tern m eans t o g lorify t he k ing, t o t ell t he world a t l arge what an i llustrious and b rilliant man h e i s, an e qual t o H ercules, t o k ing D avid and G ideon, and a w orthy s uccessor t o h is g lorious o f

f orefathers a nd p redecessors o n t he t hrone

S weden . J ust n ow,

t he l ast c hapter o f t he r estoration work i s t o b e written .

I t m eans t hat t he s culptures w ill b e r eturned t o t heir o riginal p ositions o n t he s hip. T he c ircle will s oon b e c losed. a gain w ill a ppear i n i ts f ormer s plendour .

I n a f ew y ears,

t he WASA o nce

B ut i n o ne v ery i mportant a spect , i t w ill n ot b e e xactly t he s ame s hip a s i t was i n 1 628 . T he o riginal c olours o f t he h ull a nd t he c arvings - o f which t races s till c ould b e s een o n t he c arvings when b ringing t hem u p f rom t he b ottom - h ave u nfortunately d isappeared d uring t he t ime i n t he s ea , a nd a lso d uring t he t ime o f c onservation . T he wooden c arvings w ill n o l onger g leam o f g littering g old a nd b right c olours . T hat 's s omething w e m ust h ave i n mind when s tudying t he r esults o f t he s kilful works o f t he G erman a nd D utch w oodcarvers, a s t hey a re s een i n t he s culpture h all o r o n t he s hip .

2 0

a ; w 1 4 c ; 0 c o • r e 4 . 4 r z • c a • , -, 4 t O

u t o

c i ) ON

3

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a ;

0

C O

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H

.

•

t O2 • O

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•

c e

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-

w

s t e r n c a s t l e w a s d e c o r a t e d w i t h t h e

a o

• •

• 4 + • • ( i j 0 4 4 c v 0 9 4

• 0 ) 4 -1 % , 0 t y ru c i f W › , P a • C e m y ' 4 0

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a3 ; :o ' " 'AC" . '" "'?

•

WOOLW ICH ( f ound 1 9 12 )

F ig. 7 .3: T op: s ite s tratigraphy a long p rofile b —b ' ( see F ig. 7 .2). Maximum a nd m inimum l ines a re i ndicated o n t he r estored p rofiles a t b —b ' ( h) a nd f —f' ( d). B elow: s ections t hrough t he s hip e xposed a t Roff's Wharf, W oolwich.

S n

CATTE WATER

1m .

R YE V ESSEL ' A '

7 3\ LZ ZZ:

1 m . 3 f t .

0

' L apped D ove ta i l ' A

9

,

F ig . 7 .4 : T op : v iew o f t he C attewater a nd R ye k eelsons . B ottom : A . F rame t o f uttock f astening - ' lap-dovetail ' f -22; B . i llustration f rom d e l a P enne c . 1 697.

5 1

2

1

3 5

6

0

F ig. 7 .5:

5 cm

N os. 1 , 3 , 4 t ripod c ooking p ots i n s andy g rey f abric a nd weak

s plashed g reenish-brown g laze . N o . 2 , b ase , h ard f ired r edware ( possibly D utch). N o. 5 , S iegburg m ug b ase . N o . 6 , l eather p urse , a nd N o . 7 , l ine d rawing o f s imilar f rom l ime w ood c arving b y N iclaus H agenauer .

59

N M

F ig . 7 .6 a

5 3

F ig . 7 .6 b

F ig. 7 .6a a nd b : T hree v iews o f 1 :20 s cale model o f t he wreck, s howing k eelson r eplaced i n p ossible p osition . T he d ark a rea r epresents l ost o r u nexposed t imber .

5 4

F ig. 7 .7: The f irst f loor t imbers t o b e f ound s hortly a fter e xposure i n 1 977. A = F 4, B = p i, C =F3. S cale i n 1 0cm. d ivisions.

F ig. 7 .8: b allast a nd P 9

5 5

V iew o f g ravel j unction o f f 3 ( A),

( B) a nd p 8 ( C) .

t z

• r f

* -4

o

t 4 L 4

4 o

4 )

4 - 0 0 44

— : 1

°

0 4 c t C O

5 6

F ig. 7 .11: V iew l ooking s outh , o f g arboards G S1 ( C) and G S2 ( B) a t F 16.

F ig.

F ig.

7 .12:

7 .13:

k eel

( A)

a nd

F 24 w ith h orizontal t reenail f astening.

F illing p iece m 4.

5 7

b ar re l s t aves

F ig.

7 .14:

D etail o f h ull s tructure.

5 8

C A T E W A T E R W R E C K .

a s e m b l y d r a w n

z

2

0

,

C M

0

59

8 .

M ERCHANTMEN F ROM T HE

1 7th T O 1 9th C ENTURIES W RECKED

I N T HE B ALTIC C arl O lof C ederlund

T he a rchaeological

i nvestigations

o f

t wo

w recks

o f

m erchant

s hips

a t

J utholmen 1 970 - 1 974 a nd Ä lvsnabben 1 974 - 1 980 b y t he Swedish N ational M aritime M useum h ave y ielded c onsiderable i nformation o n t he o riginal s hips. T he Jutholmen wreck was e vidently b uilt i n t he m iddle o f t he 1 7th c entury f ollowing t he D utch m anner o f b uilding . T he m ain c haracteristics o f t he s tructure o f t he s hip c orrespond t o what w e, a ccording t o o ther s ources , c all a f lute . I t c arried a n e xport c argo o f t ar a nd w rought i ron , and f irewood. There i s e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he c rew h ad a S wedish b ackground. T he l atter s hip s eems t o h ave b een b uilt a round 1 700 o r al ittle l ater and s ank around 1 730 . I t i s o f t he g roup o f s hips which i s d enoted a s b oejers , g aliots o r k offs . I t c arried a c argo o f g rain , t he m ost i mportant Swedish import a t t he t ime, which i n t his c ase o riginated i n N orth West G ermany . A ccording t o a n umber o f P ommerania b ound f or S tockholm. T he f ollowing p ictures a nd

i ndications

i llustrate

t he s hips

t he r ecording p erformed o n t hem ( Fig. O ne c an s tate t hat t hese

8 .1

i t w as a s hip f rom S wedish

i n

t heir p resent s ituation

- 8 .6).

t wo i nvestigations a re t he t wo f irst more

e xtensive a rchaeological i nvestigations o f o ld merchant s hips b uilt a ccording t o c arvel t echnique i n t he B altic . While a n umber o f o perations a nd i nvestigations h ave b een p erformed o n o ld w arships o f t he s ame b uilding t echnique. I n c ontrast t o t he w recks o f w arships , w recks o f m erchantmen i n S wedish w aters a re n umerous . 8 6 w recks o f c arvel-built s hips h ave h itherto b een r egistered i n t he S wedish M arine A rchaeological R egister f rom t he e astern c entral c oast o f S weden ( Fig . 8 .7) . M ost o f t hem a re f rom t he 1 7th t o 1 9th c enturies ,

a f ew f rom t he

1 6th .

O f t hese 86 , 4 6 c annot y et b e c lassified a s t o t heir o riginal f unction . O f t he o thers, 9 were s ailing warships, 2 8 s ailing merchant s hips, 2 b arges a nd o ne a c omposite-built s teamship. T he merchant s hips r epresent a f airly l arge b ody o f a rchaeological material.

T hey

B altic d uring t he

are e vidence o f

t he e xtensiveness

o f

s ea

t rade

i n t he

1 7th t o 1 9th c enturies.

T rading o n a b igger s cale i n t he B altic w as t o a g reat e xtent p erformed with c arve 1 -built s hips.

T hey c arried

t he e ssential i mport a nd e xport

g oods t o a nd f rom S weden . S weden gm ajor e xport g oods i n t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies were i ron, c opper, wood a nd t ar . T hese g oods were b ecause o f c ertain

p olitically-influenced

c ustoms-regulations

6 1

t o

a h igh

d egree

t ransported o ut o f S weden o n c arvel-built s hips , S weden's m ain i mport f or a l ong p eriod.

a s w as

t he g rain which w as

U p t o n ow h istorians h ave o nly b een a ble t o d o r esearch o n t his t rade t hrough w ritten s ources .

T he

w recks o f

t he m erchant s hips d escribed h ere,

and which were u sed i n t his t rade, r epresent a n ew s ource which i s c onsiderably m ore d irect a nd w hich a lso t hrows n ew l ight o nto t he s ubject. T he

w recks

o f

t hese

n ot y et i nvestigated m erchant

d escribed h ere w ith t he h elp o f a f ew i llustrations We

a re

d ealing

with

a h ighly

e xtensive

s hips c an b etter b e

( Fig.

s ource

8 .8. o f

- 8 .13).

a rchaeological

material, t he o bjects o f which a re a s a r ule l ocated s uch t hat i t i s v ery d ifficult t o r each t hem f or s tudy, e .g. u nder w ater. T he w recks o ften a ppear a s b ig a nd a nonymous h eaps o f o n t he b ottom, I s

i t

t imber a nd p lanks

w hen f ound.

a t a ll

p ossible

t o

c ollect m eaningful

h istorical

i nformation

o n

t hese o bjects w ithout s ubstantial i nvestment o f r esources a nd m oney? I t hink i t i s . W e h ave n ow p assed a p eriod o f i nitial d evelopment i n o ur d iscipline - t he 6 0s a nd 7 0s, d uring which t ime t echniques f or s hip a rchaeological r ecording w ere d eveloped .

W e h ave a lso s tarted a s ystematic

r egistration o f w reck f inds. N ow

c omes

t he s econd s tage which i nvolves s ubjecting

t he f inds

t o m ore

g eneral s tudy - i n o rder t o c ollect a nd p resent h istorical i nformation. W e

t hen n eed a model o r a s ystem f or c ollecting i nformation which g ives

u s t he b asic d ata f or a g eneral c lassification o f

t hese b ig s hipwrecks.

Much o f t his i nformation c ould b e c ollected i n a s imple, r elatively i nexpensive way,

b y a mateur s kindivers,

c oast g uard d ivers a s

t raining e tc .

The main t hing i s t hat t he a pproach t o t he o bjects i s a imed a t s ystematic c ollecting o f s hip a rchaeological d ata . T he d ata s hould b e b rought i n i n s uch a w ay t hat i t c onveniently c an b e p rocessed f or h istorical e xamination. U p

t o n ow

w e h ave u sed

f orms

f or

t he r egistration o f

wreck f inds,

making n otice o f t he l ocation o f t he s ite, t he d epth o f t he s ite, t he g eneral c haracter o f t he wreck, t he f inds i n i t e tc ., ( Fig . 8 .14) . T his s hould b e c omplemented with a n ew f orm, t he o ne f or s hip a rchaeological r egistration. T his o ne s hould b e d esigned f or c ollecting i nformation s uch a s e vidence o f: t he a ge o f

t he s hip

i ts t ype i ts o rigin t he t races o f i ts b uilding t echnique t he s hape o f t he h ull

6 2

t he t ype o f r igging t he c argo T o o btain s uch i nformation m eans c hosen d ata i n t he wreck, m aterial c ollected. Most o f

t he

t he c ollecting o f c ertain ,

t horoughly

and t o make d ifferent k inds o f a nalyses o f t he

t his i nformation c an b e b rought " to t he s urface" q uite

e asily. O ne r emains

m ain o bjective i s

t o c hange

- t o

o bjects

s ee

t hem a s

monuments o f s hipbuilding,

o ur w ay o f v iewing a nd h andling f or

t he

s eafaring e tc.,

s tudy

a s

well

a s

t hese

h istorical

- a nd n ot o nly a s a ttractive

d iving s ites. T echnically,

we

h ave

t oday

t he

c apability

o f

r eaching

i nto

t hese

r emains a nd s tudying t hem. B ut t hat which i s a lso n eeded i s a b road s cientific g rasp o f t he m aterial . O f p rimary i mportance i s k nowing h ow t o s elect t he r ight i nformation f rom t he w recks - o r r ather h ow t o d irect t he r ecording w ork i n t hese h uge r emains.

R EFERENCES C ederlund, S tatens

C .O.,

1 981.

F artygets b yggnad.

V raket v id Älvsnabben .

s jöhistoriska m useums r apportserie n r 1 4.

C ederlund,

C .O.,

1 982.

F artygets b yggnad.

V raket v id J utholmen .

S tatens s jöhistoriska m useums r apportserie n r 1 6. C ederlund, A rchaeological I nternational

C .O.,

S eries

K aijser, S tatens

o f

The t he

O ld

wrecks

Wrecks o f

o f

t he

c arvel-built

B altic s hips.

S ea. B AR

1 86 .

K aijser, I ., 1 981. u trustning.

1 983.

r ecording

V raket v id Älvsnabben .

D okumentation , l ast o ch

S tatens s jöhistoriska m useums r apportserie n r 1 3. I .,

1 983 .

V raket

v id

J utholmen .

s jöhistoriska m useums r apportserie n r 1 7.

6 3

L ast

o ch u trustning.

t h e e x c a v a t i o n

s e a s o n i n

F ig .

8 .2:

T he u pper p art o f

t he b ow o f t he wreck

a t J utholmen, p ort s ide. T o t he l eft p art o f t he s tem c an b e s een , t o t he r ight f rames s ticking u p a bove t he b oardingplanks. I n t he b ackground t he f oremast i s v isible .

F ig.

8 .3:

The

s hip's

s ide

o f

t he

wreck

a t

J utholmen h ad b een t orn d own a bout o ne meter, m easured f rom t he main d eck, i n c onnection w ith s alvage o perations a fter t he f oundering . T he p hoto s hows t he u pper p art o f t he p reserved s hip's s ide a t t he b ow,

p ort s ide.

6 5

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F ig . 8 .7 : M ap o f t he 8 6 w recks o f c arvel - b uilt s hips h itherto r egistered i n t he Swedish Marine A rchaeological R egister a long t he e astern, c entral c oast

o f

S weden .

6 8

F ig. 8 .8 : T he c argo o f p lanks i n t he h old o f ab ig s hip a t t he b ottom o f t he h arbour a t D alarö , p ossibly f rom t he 1 7th c entury .

F ig . 8 .9 : S lätharan ,

T he f raming a nd i nner p lanking o f a n u nidentified wreck a t R ödlöga , p ossibly f rom t he 1 8th o r 1 9th c entury .

6 9

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a t H ögskär ,

E ast

o f

O xelösund .

SV ,ssen 4990 . - e ndos4 p & v i sue l lo i a l

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c aulking s uch a s a c aulking a nd a m aking i ron a nd h oes f or r aking o ut o ld c aulking m aterial . I n t he s torage s pace w ere a lso c asks a nd p ots s till c ontaining p itch , ap itch m op a nd r esin . An eedle a nd a f id s erved a s t ools f or s ailmaking . E xcavations o f o ther v essels o f t his t ype p roduced m any o f t he s ame o bjects , u sually a ugmented b y a n a uger a nd a n a dze . N umerous a rtefacts w ere f ound t hat b elonged t o t he c ategories h ousehold e ffects , g alley u tensils a nd e ating a nd d rinking g ear . I n g eneral , o ne c an s ay t hat l ife o n b oard t his s hip c ould b e r easonably c omfortable d espite t he m odest d imensions o f t he l iving q uarters . T he l arge q uantity o f a rtefacts f ound t here e ven i ndicates t hat t he s kipper h ad h is p ermanent r esidence o n b oard .

O ne o f t he m ost n oticeable i tems i s ac ooking s tove ,

p laced a gainst

t he s tern , w ith a f ew i ron p ots s till o n t op o f i t ( Fig . 1 0 .3) . T he e ating a nd d rinking g ear a s aw hole i mpressed u s a s s omewhat s habby , c ompared w ith s imilar o bjects f ound i n ' D e Z eehond% a v essel w recked i n 1 886 . T hree p ewter s poons c arry t he p ewterer 's m ark w ith i nitials H K , o f t insmith H endrik K amphof f rom Z wolle , c apital o f t he p rovince o f O verijssel ( Dubbe , 1 978). I n t he c ategory v ictuals,

a s ack o f p otatoes h ad

' remained ' ,

a nd

s everal s tone j ars u sed f or s alted o r p ickled f ood a s w ell a s s maller p ots f or s alt , b utter a nd m ustard . W e a re n ot s ure a bout t he w ater a nd b everage p rovisions ; a r eal w ater-butt h as n ot b een f ound , w hereas t he s tone b ottle f or s pring-water a nd t he t hree b ottles f or j enever c ould h ave b een u sed f or o ther p urposes . O n t he o ther h and , t he e leven j enever g lasses f ound m ay i ndicate t hat t he b ottles h ave b een p roperly u sed. A s p ersonal b elongings c ount i n t he f irst p lace t he c lothes a nd s hoes f ound o n a s keleton i n t he f ront o f t he s hip : c ap , s hirt , t rousers , c oat , s oc ks a nd b oots . A t h ip l evel , p ocket m oney w as f ound : 1g uilder 3 4 c ents . T he s avings , w orth 1 26 g uilders , w ere l ying n ext t o t he s keleton a nd h ad p robably b een p ut i n a c oat p ocket . I n t he l iving q uarters w e a lso f ound t rousers , s hirts , v ests , a s econd p air o f b oots , a nd a b eautiful p ipe , w ith t he e xquisite i nscription ' D eutschlands F riede , D eutschlands G lück , K aiser W ilhelm b rachts z urück ' . O bjects i ndicating t he p resence o f aw oman o r c hildren o n b oard , a s w as v ery c ommon i n t he N etherlands i n t he 1 9th c entury, w ere l acking . W e t herefore a ssume t hat t he s kipper w as a lone o n b oard w hen t he s hip w ent d own , o r, c onsidering t he q uantity o f c lothes, t ogether w ith a nother m ale. L ot H 4 8 c argo v essel s hows t hat a c lassification o f o bjects a ccording t o u se o n b oard i s p racticable a nd y ields m ore a nd d ifferent i nformation t han a c atalogue o f f inds a lone . M oreover , i t s timulates t he r ecording o f f ind c onditions d uring e xcavations .

T he s hip o f

l ot H 4 8

w as

e specially

s uitable f or t his e xperiment , s ince i t w as r elatively s mall a nd s till m ore o r l ess i ntact, which e nabled u s t o r elate t he f inds t o t he s hip 's a ccommodation p lan . r ecognizable o bjects .

F urthermore , i t w as a ' young ' s hip w ith e asily I nformation f rom w ritten s ources , e specially t hose

c oncerning t he V OC , t he A dmiralty o r o ther o rganizations o f t he k ind ,

c an

c orrect o r s upplement a c lassification o f o bjects a ccording t o m aterial t ype o r u se o n b oard . I t c an a lso l ead t o a c hange i n t he s equence o f c ategories o r g roups.

9 4

6 .

T HE W RECKAGE O F T HE

U TINA'

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I n t he f irst p lace ,

t he s hip i t w as a pparent t hat i t h ad

b een b uilt

f rom t he c onstruction o f i n O verijssel .

S everal

o bjects f ound i n t he w reck i ndicated t hat t he s kipper h ad c onnections w ith t his a rea . T here w ere t hree p ewter s poons , m ade i n Z wolle , a nd a c ask w ith t he Z wolle A rms i nscribed o n i t . F urthermore , t he c omposition o f t he c argo i ndicated t hat t he v essel w as p robably o n i ts w ay t o Z wartsluis ( Fig . 1 0 .2) . F rom t he p ersonal b elongings i t w as e vident t hat t here w ere o nly m en o n b oard , p robably j ust t he s kipper a nd a m ate . T he s keleton o f o ne m an h as b een f ound . T he e xtent t he t eeth w ere w orn a nd d efects i n t he v ertebral c olumn i ndicate t hat t his m an w as o ver 5 0 y ears o ld a nd s uffered f rom b ack a ilment . T wo g roups o f a rtefacts f acilitated t he d ating o f t he s hip 's w reckage ; t he c oins a nd t he p ottery . T he m ost r ecent o bject w as a s oup b owl d ating f rom 1 887 . A n i mportant i tem w as a c alendar f rom a n a lmanac , d ated 1 88? . O nly t he l ast f igure w as i llegible , b ut s ince 1 J anuary f ell o n a T uesday , t he c alendar w as m ost l ikely t hat o f t he y ear 1 889 . O n t he b asis o f t hese d ata , F . P eereboom

(Usselakademie , K ampen ) h as

c hecked n ewspaper r eports f rom t he p eriod a round 1 890 . O ne s eries o f r eports c orresponds p articularly w ell w ith t he a rchaeological d ate . T hese r eports s tate t hat o n T uesday e vening 2 0 N ovember 1 888 t he v essel lutina% w ith s kipper J an K isjes , 6 8 y ears o ld , a nd h is m ate R einder T ulp , 6 2 y ears o ld , h ad b een w recked . T he v essel w as c arrying a l oad o f s hells a nd b ricks a nd w as o n i ts w ay f rom B rielle t o Z wartsluis . L ater r eports t ell o f e fforts m ade t o r aise t he v essel , b ut t hat b y t hen i t h ad s unk t oo d eep i n t he s eabed .

7 .

S UMMARY E xcavations o f c argo v essels i n t he I Jsselmeerpolders ( The N etherlands)

n ot o nly u ncover s hip a nd c argo , b ut i n m any c ases a lso a l arge q uantity o f a rtefacts: e lements o f t he e quipment a nd i nventory o f t he v essel, a nd p ersonal b elongings o f t he c rew a nd p assengers . T he n eed w as f elt t o i ntroduce , a part f rom t he u sual c lassification o f a rtefacts a ccording t o m aterial t ype , a nother c lassification a ccording t o u se o n b oard . T his c lassification h as , s o f ar , b een u sed m ainly i n t he d escription o f o bjects f rom V OC s hips . A p rovisional

c lassification w as d rafted o n t he b asis o f

t he o bjects

o riginating f rom e xcavations i n t he I Jsselmeerpolders . I n a s hipwreck f ind , t he f ollowing e lements a re d istinguished : s hip , e quipment , i nventory , p ersonal b elongings , c argo a nd n on-related a rtefacts . E quipment , i nventory a nd p ersonal b elongings h ave b een s ubdivided i nto e leven c ategories o f a rtefacts. T his c lassification h as b een t ested i n t he c ase o f a c argo v essel l oaded w ith s hells a nd b ricks O ostelijk F levoland .

t hat

w as

e xcavated

i n 1 976 a t l ot H 4 8

i n

I t t urned o ut t o b e a w orkable m ethod t hat y ielded

m ore i nformation t han a c atalogue o f f inds a lone . I n g eneral , t here i s o ne r estriction : t he v essel h as t o b e i n r easonably g ood s hape , s o t hat t he r elation b etween t he p osition o f t he o bjects a nd t he a ccommodation p lan o f t he s hip i s s till e vident . T he h ull , c argo i nventory , e xcavated a t l ot H 4 8 , p resumably b elonged t o t he c argo v essel l utina% w recked o n T uesday 2 0 N ovember 1 888 . 9 5

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I w ould l ike t o t hank D r . P .H .J . P rins f or t he s timulating d iscussions o n t his s ubject , a nd R . O osting , J . S amwel a nd K . V lierman f or t heir h elp i n p reparing t his p aper .

R EFERENCES C ederlund ,

C .O .

J utholmen w reck , G reen ,

&I ngelman-Sundberg ,

1 9701971 .

J .N . ,

1 977 .

J acht V ergulde D raeck ,

I JNA ,

2 :

T he l oss o f

C "

1 973 .

T he e xcavation o f t he

3 01-327 . t he V erenigde O ostindische C ompagnie

W estern A ustralia

1 656 .

B AR S upplementary

S eries ,

3 6 . H art , S .,

1 954 .

H et W aterschip.

I ngelman-Sundberg , J utholmen w reck.

C "

I JNA , 5 :

1 976 .

A mstelodamum :

P reliminary r eport o n f inds

P "

1 975 .

t he D utch E ast I ndiaman A msterdam

A rchaeological r eport.

P ernambucano d e M ello ,

U"

S acramento, 1 668 o ff B razil.

1 979 .

I JNA , 8 :

I JNA , 4 :

1 980 .

2 78-300.

T he s hipwreck o f t he g alleon

2 11-223.

P rice , R . & M uckelroy , K . , 1 974 . T he s econd K ennenmerland s ite, 1 973. I JNA , 3 : 2 57-268 . P rijs d er Z ee ,

t he

T he D utch E ast I ndiaman H ollandia w recked o n t he

i sles o f S cilly i n 1 743.

Z ee'.

f rom

5 7-71.

M arsden , P " 1 972 . T he w reck o f n ear H astings, 1 749. I JNA , 1 :73-96 M arsden ,

1 53-154 .

s eason o f w ork o n t he

H andleiding b ij d e t entoonstelling Prijs d er

R ijksmuseum , A msterdam . R echt .

3 4 e n 2 176 ,

A rch .

G emeente-Archief v an A msterdam ,

R echt . A rch .

2 167 ,

f ol

f ol 2 30 .

R einders ,

H .R . ,

1 977 .

v an e en s cheepsvondst .

O ver

s chelpen e n

s chelpkalk ,

n aar a anleiding

B ijdragen u it h et l and v an I Jssel e n V echt ,

1 :

4 7-

5 9. R einders ,

R . ,

1 982 .

S hipwrecks o f

t he Z uiderzee _ .

L elystad.

96

F levobericht 1 97 .

0 C . 1 0 . 0 4 ) 0 7 E

4 . D O C U M E N T S A N D S T A I O N E R Y

4 ) 0 . 0 0 . 0 3 • ( 0 0 . . . 0 , f )

• 4 ., O 0 c . . . O 4 ) 1 0 1 4 ( 4 )0 U . 0 3 0 X . 0 0 1 O . 0 ) . .. I, 0 0 0 C

0 4 . 0 3 . 0

X 0 . 0 I . c ( 4 0 U C O 0 0 C . > « s 0

0 0 0 .0 C u r 0 0 C U . . C . .

c ( 4 ' a . . u . C . 4 4 ) e l 0 . C O 7 I . c c a ) 0 4 ' . - 4 ) 0 . C . 0 0 0 . 1 ) 0 . ( 5 E -4 . . 4 0. , 0 C U ) . C .X 4 I 0 C . . 0 ... 0 . e

a E 0 . 4, i n X 0 3 . 7 0 a ) C 0 . . . 0 c . c ( 1 ) . 4 E

0 ) 0 0 C 0 0 . U )

1 3 O O C • . . 0 0 0 1

V

O 0 0 c 0 • 4 -1 , 4 , ( , 0 0 4 ) 0 C . 0 • ( 4 0 O - 60 C 0 00 0 . 0 C . .

C 7 0 0

m s 0 4 ) 0 4" -0. C 0 . 7 . . . 0 0 ..0 . 0 C O 0 . O . 4 . 4 - 0 . 0 0 4 ) 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 F . • U ) -4 1 4 4 I V 0 C 0 3 .0 . . 0 0 0 3 0 C I 0 C 4 6 0 ( 4 0 0 0. - 0 0. . 1 W r . . . . . 1 , 4 . 1 -4 .1 0 L . 0 . . . 4, ' 0 4 -1 O . C . 0 1 3 0 . • . 7 0 0 0 0 0 E .0 1 0 M C / 0 E
, 0 0 . 4 I V 4 . -, 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 V . . 34 , I 3 . r e 0 0 -U ) a l 0 - F . 3 . I 0 - 0 E 12 - C C E . V 0 . C 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 0 4 . E . . . I 0 . I 0 , 0 . 0 . 1 -1 0 .1 I 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 V V C . c n O . 3 3 0 . 4 ) .0 0 0 11 . 0 0 0 0 . a 0 0 U
> 0 1 1 ( 1 4 ) I 4 4 4 1 4 , >.4 • • 1 . . 1

4:

4 .

1 0 4 -, 0 I t o 0 . 4 . .

u ) 7 0 0 C 0 1

4 r C C I, « 1 0 C. I . , C 0 0 O . .

. 0 0 0 0 1 C / . ( 4 4 . A E

0 . E c 0 .

4 -, C O 0 • E 0 1 t o X - 0 c i 0 . o . 41 . 0 . . E . 0 0 . . . 0 . 0 4 -1 0 0 0 0 4 I 0 . o C V . . 1 0 0 . 0 1 . 1 £ 0 . 0

0 40 . 0

7 a ' 0 . W 0 . 0 0 E 0 . . . . 0 4,

0 0 0 . > 0 0 V 0 V . 0 0 0 L .

a

C i )

: 1 a

b

1

1

1 I

i 1

I I r

F -

•

-

41 ,

•

b

F ig . 1 0 .1 : P rovisional r econstruction o f t he c argo v essel a t l ot H 4 8 : l iving q uarters ; B =B erth ; C= h old ; D =s torage s pace.

A=

NORTH SEA Zwa r ts lu is

Zwo l le H aa r lem

Ove r i jsse l

Z andvoo r t

B r ie l

F ig . 1 0 .2 : P ossible s hipping r oute f rom B rielle v ia R otterdam, G ouda , H aarlem , A msterdam a nd t he Z uiderzee t o Z wartsluis .

QR

F ig . 1 0 .3 :

C ooking r ange o f t he c argo v essel a t l ot 1 4 8 .

9 9

1 1.

I CONOGRAPHY O F T HE P OST M EDIEVAL S HIP C hr. V illain-Gandossi

T he p aper s ubmitted a t

t he I nternational

S ymposium o n B oat a nd

S hip

A rchaeology ( Bremerhaven , 1 979) p resented i lluminations f rom v arious m edieval p ainted m anuscripts l ocated i n P aris ( " Edbliotheque N ationale" a nd " Edbliotheque d e lUrsenal" ) . T he p eriod c overed w as f rom t he 9 th t o t he 1 5th c enturies . I t w as p ossible t o p ropose a t ypology o f t hese s hips a ccording t o f orm a nd s ilhouette . T he s imple s kiff , t he s hip w ith a m ast ( and e ither a s quare o r al ateen s ail) , t he v essel w ith s uperstructures , t he n ef-carrack, t he f lat b ottom v essel , t he c oastal o r r iver v essel , t he g alleys a nd o ther l ong b oats ,

t he i deal o r i maginary b oats,

a ll w ere

s chematically d rawn t o t he p oint o f b eing o ften d ifficult i f n ot i mpossible t o i dentify d efinitely . T he i nterpretation w ork h ad t o p roceed t hrough m ultiple c omparisons a nd c onfrontations , w hich c ould f inally l ead t o a n u nderstanding o f h ull s hapes , T he

t he e volution o f

t he d ifferent p arts o f

o f i ts s teering a pparatus ,

t erminus p ost q uem

o f

s uperstructures ,

a p ost m edieval

t he s hip ,

r igging ,

o f t he

e tc .

i conography would b e

c oncentrated o n t he y ears 1 4801500 a nd t he i nquiry m ust g o t hrough m any m ore d ifferent s ources t han f or t he m edieval t imes : i lluminations a re n o l onger t he m ain s ource o f i nformation a nd h ave t o b e s upplemented b y e ngravings, p aintings, j ewelry, e tc . A g eneral l ook a t t he s ources s uggests , t hat b etween 1 460 a nd 1 480 t he t hree s quare m asted v essel b egun t o b e w idely a dopted , a fter , p erhaps , a s hort i nterim p eriod w ith t wo m asts .

I t i s i n a ny c ase o bvious t hat t he

m ultiplicity o f m asts a nd s ails i s t he m ost i mportant i nnovation i n t he d evelopment o f t he f irst m odern d ay v essel . O ne o f t he e arliest t races o f a t hree m asted, s quare s ail v essel i s i n t he F lorentine m ap o f 1 457. I n 1 500 t he m ain m ast w as s till b y f ar t he b iggest m ast a nd i t w as m ade i n o ne p iece . T he m asts s ubsequently e vened o ut i n s ize a nd w ere m ade o f s everal p arts , e ach p art h aving i ts o wn s ystem o f s hrouds . Ag ood e xample o f t he f irst s tep t owards t his a chievement i s s hown i n F ig . 1.1 : t he m ain f eature o f t his s hip , w hich w as h ighly a dvanced f or i ts d ay i s t he r igging which s hows a m uch m ore c omplex a nd s ophisticated s ystem f or t he c ontrol a nd t he o rientation o f t he s ails . I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he a rtemon m ast ( foremast) i s o ften a bsent o r h idden b y t he m ain m ast a nd s ail: i t i s a f act t hat b oats a re o ften r epresented b y t he s tern ( Fig. 1.2). I n r eality t he a rtemon a nd t he m izzen m asts s hould h ave b een i ntroduced t ogether . I t w ould e ven h ave b een l ogical t o s tart w ith t he a ddition o f t he a rtemon . I t i s f rom t he b ow t hat t he s ail p lan b egan t o t ake s hape . T he g reat s ingle s quare s ail o n t he s eal o f L a R ochelle d oes n ot a llow f or t he s hifting o f t he c entre o f e ffort . W hen o ne h as a w aterline l ength o f m ore t han s ixty f eet , i t i s n ecessary t o a id t he r udder w ith a s ail w hich i s n ot a m anoeuvring s ail ( in i mitation o f t he l ittle f oremast o f G recoR oman m erchant s hips :

t his s ail i s p laced v ery f ar f orward , f inally m oving

1 01

t he c entre o f g ravity ; b owsprit) .

t he s mall m ast w hich c arr ies

i t

i s

r aked l ike

a

A s t he i ncrease i n s ail a rea m akes m anoeuvring m ore d ifficult ,

o ne h as t o d ivide t he m eans o f p ropulsion , e nlarging t he f oresail , w hich t hus b ecomes a d riving s ail . B ut t hen t he v essel h as t oo m uch f orce f orward o f t he c entre o f g ravity , a nd h as a t endency t o f all o ff t he l eeward . T o r e-establish e quilibrium a nd t o a id l uffing , o ne t hen h as t o p lace t he m izzen a ft , w hich d oes n ot h ave a ny p ropulsive v alue ( and w hich i tself b e m ultiplied , s till i n t he s earch f or e quilibrium , i nto t he b onaventure m izzen ; o f w hich t here a re r epresentations f rom a bout 1 475) . I n t he d ocuments , t he f oremast l ooks l ike a s mall m ast s erving t o s upport t he m ainstay; t he m izzen l ong r esembles a s ort o f l ittle j igger . The e ngraving o f I achopo B arbari ( Fig . 1 1 .3) s hows t he s mall t op s ail a bove o f t he m ain s ail a rea .

T he p ainting o f C arpaccio (74>

1.4) a lso s hows t he

d isposition o f t he s ails , a t t he e nd o f t he 1 5th c entury w ith t his i nteresting r epresentation o f ak ind o f s ky s craper s ituated a bove t he m ain s ail a nd d ivided i nto t wo p arts .

I n F ig .

1 ,5 a s econd u pper s ail c an b e

n oticed t ogether o n t he m ain m ast a nd o n t he a rtemon .

I n s pite o f a n

a rchaic d esign , t he s ame f eature i s s hown o n t he m ap o f P in i R eis ( Fig . 1.6). T he m ultiplicity o f m asts c ould b e u nderstood a s a c onsequence o f t he g rowing i mportance o f s hips ; i mmediately. O ther f eatures o f

i n f act ,

t he h ull s ize d id n ot i ncrease

t he f irst p ostmedieval

s hips

s hould b e e mphasized :

t he f orm o f t he t op, t he i mportance o f i ts d efences,

t he s hrouds w ith

r atlines , t he d eadlines , t he r eefs o n t he s ails , e tc . I f o ne o f t hose m ust b e s ingled o ut , i t m ight b e t he s ide p ort h oles : t hey a ppear w ith t he f irst p ost m edieval s hips ( Fig . 1.7) . T he v essel b ecomes a m uch m ore p owerful w ar i nstrument t han t he g alley w hich c annot e asily a ccomodate g uns. A g eneral s urvey o f m aritime i conography f or a ll t he 1 6th c entury d oes n ot s uggest a ny s ignificant c hanges i n t he c urrent t ypology. T he t hree m asted s quare s ail v essels a re n ow t o b e g athered i n f leets ( like t he f leets o f C abral, A cademy o f S ciences o f L isbon ; F ig . 1 1.8) . F ig . 1.9 d epicts a n e xcellent e xample o f a t ypical 1 6th c entury p rofile w ith l arge e legantly s haped s uperstructures o n ar ound , r ather b ulky h ull .

F ig .

I n s pite o f t he e xaggerated d esigns o f m asts a nd h ull , t he b oats i n 1.10 a re a c onfirmation o f t he t rend t owards a b igger u pper s ail o n

t he m ain m ast . T he a nonymous p ainting o f c . 1 600 o f t he l anding t o A zores ( Fig . 1 1 .11) s hows t he s ilhouettes n ow c haracteristic o f t he e nd o f t he 1 6th c entury. F inally f ollowing t he d iscoveries ,

i conography b egins t o g ive p ictures

o f e xotic c rafts ( cf . F ig . 1.12 a nd 1.13) , w hile i t a ppears t hat i n t he m entalities o f t he m en o f t he R enaissance , t here a re t he s ame f antastic d reams , t he s ame m yths , t he s ame s ymbols a s b efore ( Figs . 1.14 a nd 1 1 .15) .

1 02

F ig . 1.1:

1 500

M eister d er h eilige S ippe , A lte P inakotek ,

M ünchen .

F ig . 1.2 : L isbon .

1 497 .

V asco d a G ama 's L og , M inistry o f I nformation ,

1 03

F ig . 1 1.3 :

1 500 .

E ngraving o f

I achopo B arbari , M useo S torico N avale , V enice .

F ig .

1.4 :

c .

1 500 .

G iorgio d egli S chiavoni ,

C arpaccio ,

C hurch S an

V enice .

1 04

•

F ig. 1.5 :

F ig. 1.6 :

1 497.

1 513 .

V asco d a G ama'Log , M inistry o f I nformation , L isbon .

P in i R eis T opkapi S aray , I stanbul.

1 05

F ig. 1.7:

1 483.

B iblioth& p ie N ationale P aris, m s. f r. 3 8 ,

1 06

f° 1 57 v °.

4 , c h mIk t s 'a ‚ et*. s t t a •

t4

eS 10

M.% r e TM

4 , : r1 e l '«

N r s • *

t

"N.

O Xi e

9 1, >t

u Vatee.4.

et • i d, A t ,t

. t0 , "

4 : 1r4/1

• I , •

b o t i t 4

e

e

F ig. 1.8 :

c . 1 500.

tüv.4

#4,

p tf

'

Ads ö .

e t

edt J

o' ,"

1t r

a lt e k iaM

44 .1 1 1* -

e

t '

" Livro d as A rmadas" , A cademy o f S ciences, L isbon.

1 07

F ig . 1 1.9 : 1 548 . B iblioth 4ue P aris , m s . f r . 2 5374 , f ° 2 8 v°.

F ig .

1 .10 :

1 597 .

G rassi ,

N ationale

T he G enoese

F egli.

1 08

f leet

i n

1 480 ,

M useo N aval ,

F ig. 1.11:

c . 1 600.

A non ., E scorial , t he l anding t o A zores.

1 09

g e 1 1 4»

*

10111›.

r

"

*A W

l i

M.

*

ghi li

e•

"

L S

••

• •• •

e s i s et .

m m e

"*" • 1 1 1 • • • • • •• • • • •

F ig . 1 1.12 : 1 519-1522 . A ntonio P igafetta , D eutsche S tadtsbibliothek.

I nsel M ikronesiens , B erlin ,

F ig . 1 1.13 : 1 592 . T heodore d e B ry, A mericae t ertia p ars . m emorabilem p rovinciae B rasiliae c ontinens . . . , c hap . X XXII , p age 5 6, P aris , S ervice H istorique d e l a M arine.

10

••• •

F ig . 1 1.14 :

L eonardo d a V inci , C odex H ammer ,

f ormerly

c odex L eicester , R oyal L ibrary W indsor C astle .

F ig .

1.15 :

1 480

7 99 ,

f° 2 34 v°.

N ew

Y ork P ierpont M organ L ibrary ,

1 11

m s .

1 2. S IXTEENTH C ENTURY S PANISH B ASQUE S HIPS A ND S HIPBUILDING: T HE M ULTIPURPOSE N AO M ichael B arkham

F rom t he o utset i t m ust b e r ealized t hat t he d ocuments o n B asque s hip c onstruction u nder d iscussion

i n t his p aper d o n ot 1r efer t o v essels ) s pecifically b uilt f or o ne p articular t rade o r f unction . T hese v essels c annot b e c lassed a s s hips u sed e xclusively e ither f or whaling o r c odf ishing i n T erranova , f or t he t ransport o f C astilian w ool t o F landers , f or t rade t o t he I ndies o r a s w arships i n t he r oyal a rmadas . O n t he c ontrary t he s hips r eferred t o a s n aos o r g aleones i n t he d ocuments c ould h ave b een u sed t o f ulfil a ny o r a ll o f t hese f unctions . M oreover , t he s ixteenth c entury B asque m erchant s hip s hip ,

w as a lways

t o

a c ertain

e xtent

a f ighting

a s n o B asque m erchant w ould h ave s ent h is v essel u narmed o n a ny

v oyage .

U ndoubtedly c ertain a djustments h ad t o b e m ade t o c onvert a

m erchant s hip i nto t he t ype o f f ighting s hip r equired f or r oyal a rmadas , b ut t he b asic d esign o f t he v essel r emained t he s ame . T he t erms n ao a nd g aleon w ere g eneric t erms a pplied i nterchangeably , a t l east d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he s ixteenth c entury , t o B asque s hips w ith a n o verall l ength o f a nywhere f rom s ome 1 8 m etres u pwards . H owever , i n s pite o f t he s ame g eneric n ames b eing a pplied t o s mall s hips o f 1 20 t ons a s w ell a s t o l arger s hips , t he c onstruction d ocuments f or B asque v essels r eveal a c lear d ifference i n o verall p roportions b etween t he n aos a nd g aleones o f 1 20 t o 1 80 t ons a nd o ver .2 ) T he s maller s hips u nder

t he n aos a nd g aleones o f 1 80 t ons a nd 1 80 t ons w ere n arrower i n t he b eam i n

r elation t o t he k eel t han t he l arger o nes e ven t hough t he s maller n aos o ften f ulfilled m any o f t he s ame f unctions m entioned a bove . T he

d emand

f or

B asque

s hips

m ade

b y

t he

C arrera d e l as I ndias

( the

a nnual f leets t o a nd f rom t he W est I ndies) f rom 1 505 o nwards g radually r esulted i n t he b uilding o f a g reater n umber o f s hips p er y ear a long t he C antabrian l ittoral b etween F uenterrabia a nd S antander , a nd e e a verage t onnage o f i ndividual v essels i ncreased a s t he c entury w ore o n . A t t he s ame t ime, t he n aval r equirements o f t he S panish C rown w ere s uch t hat f inancial a ssistance w as m ade a vailable t o s hipbuilders a s a n i ncentive t o i ncrease

t he

t onnage

o f

t heir

v essels .4 )

T hese

t wo

f actors ,

which

i nitially s timulated t he b uilding o f l arger s hips i n t he B asque c ountry , f itted i n w ith t he g eneral t rend o f e xpansion i n c ommercial a ctivity a t t he t ime ( Fig. B y

1 2.1).

t he m iddle o f

a greement a ppears

t he s ixteenth c entury,

i f n ot b efore,

t o h ave b een r eached a mongst S panish B asque

a c ommon

s hipwrights

w ith r egard t o t he m ost f avourable p roportions f or t he m ultipurpose n ao . I f w e c onsider a n a rbitrarily c hosen g roup o f t wenty-five b uilding c ontracts f or s hips b uilt a long t he S panish B asque l ittoral , b etween L equeitio a nd F uenterrabia f rom 1 545 t o 1 611, a r emarkably s imilar s et o f m easurements f or t he h ull i s a pparent ( see T able 1 ) . O ne c haracteristic t he t wenty-five s hips h ave i n c ommon i s t he p roportion b etween t heir g reatest b readth a nd t he l ength o f t heir k eel . I n e very c ase t he g reatest b readth o f t he s hip i s a lways h alf o r s lightly m ore t han h alf t he l ength o f t he k eel, t he

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a verage k eel/beam r atio b eing o nly 1 . 89 I f w e a rrange t he k eel/beam r atios f or t he t wenty-five s hips i nto s even e qual i nterval c lasses , t he m odal c lass i s t hat o f s hips w ith a k eel/beam r atio b etween 1 . 90 a nd 1 . 94 ; a c lass i nto w hich e ight s hips f all , a lmost d ouble t he n umber i n a ny o f t he o ther c lasses . T his i s o nly o ne o f s everal f requency c harts p ossible d epending o n t he i ntervals a nd n umber o f c lasses c hosen b ut i t c learly i ndicates t he m ost f requent k eel t o b eam r atios a s w ell a s t he d eviations f rom t he m ean k eel/beam r atio ( see T able I I). 6 )

T ABLE I I:

F requency o f k eel t o b eam r atios .

1 .70

1 .75

1 .80

1 .85

1 .90

1 .95

2 .00

1 .74

1 .79

1 .84

1 .89

1 .94

1 .99

2 .04

1

2

4

8

1

4

5

S ome i nteresting f acts a bout t he l ack o f e volution o f t he h ull s hape o f t he B asque n ao c an b e o bserved b y l isting t he t wenty-five k eel t o b eam r atios c hronologically . T able I II r eveals n o a pparent t rend i n t hese r atios a nd a t t he s ame t ime i t i llustrates t he r emarkably s mall v ariation i n t he k eel t o b eam r atio o f t he n aos o ver a p eriod o f t ime t hat s panned a t l east s ixty-six y ears . S hips w ith k eel t o b eam r atios o f 1 J 8 -1 . 82 w ere b uilt i n 1 574 , 1 583 , 1 585 a nd 1 596 w hile s hips w ith a k eel t o b eam r atio o f 2 .00 w ere b uilt i n 1 568 , 1 573 ( two ) , 1 600 a nd 1 6 11 .

T ABLE I II:

C hronological l isting o f k eel t o b eam r atios.

1 545 1 566

1 .93 1 .96

1 583 1 584

1 .81 1 .87

1 567 1 567 1 568 1 573 1 573 1 573 1 574 1 576 1 577 1 578

1 .94 1 .93 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00 1 .93 1 .81 1 .87 1 .94 1 .94

1 584 1 585 1 585 1 590 1 590 1 591 1 593 1 596 1 600 1 601 1 6 11

1 .79 1 .82 1 .73 1 .93 1 .85 1 .75 1 .86 1 .80 2 .00 1 .94 2 .00

I n t he c onstruction a greements f or t hese B asque s hips t he o verall l ength i s i n m any c ases l eft t o t he d iscretion o f t he m aster s hipwright w ho w as i n c harge o f b uilding t he v essel o r , a s i s s tated i n s everal b uilding c ontracts , t o " however t he s tem a nd s tern p osts w ork o ut" . N evertheless ,

115

e leven d ocuments o ut o f t he t wenty-five , d o s pecify t he o verall l ength a nd a L OA/ b eam r atio o f 3 . 1 t o 3 .2 i s o ne t hat i s c losely f ollowed i n m ost c ases ( see T able I V) . T he o nly c ase w here t he L OA/beam r atio d eviated t o a ny c onsiderable e xtent f rom t he n orm i s a s hip t hat w as s pecifically d esigned f or t he C arrera d e l as I ndias ,

b uilt i n t he p ort o f O rio o ver t he w inter o f

1 577-78 . T he L OA/beam r atio o f t his n ao i s 3 .4 a lthough h er k eel/beam r atio o f 1 . 94 i s i n k eeping w ith t he k eel/beam r atios o f o ther B asque s hips . T his m eans t hat t his n ao f or t he C arrera w ould h ave h ad a n o verall l ength s ome 2 .8 m et es l onger t han o ther s hips w ith t he s ame k eel a nd b eam m easurements. O f t he e leven s hipbuilding c ontracts t hat g ive t he o verall l ength o nly t wo s pecify a t w hat h eight a bove t he f loor o f t he h old t his l ength w as t o b e m easured a nd i n b oth c ases t he h eight i s a t t he e xtreme b readth . T he s imilarity o f m easurements i n T able I V g ives t he i mpression t hat i n t hese B asque s hips t he o verall l ength w as u sually c alculated a t t he m aximum w idth o f t he s hip . T able I V a lso g ives t he d epth o f h old a t b eam/beam r atios o f t en o f t he l arger s hips , w hich h ave a f airly c onstant v alue o f c lose t o 0 .69 e xcept f or t wo c ases .

T ABLE I V :

Y ear

D epth a t b eam/beam a nd L OA/beam r atios o f B asque n aos ( beam = 1 ). U nit : 1c odo = 5 7 c ms.

K eel

B eam

D epth a t

D epth/

B uilt

L ength

M ax.

B eam m ax.

B eam

1 596

2 7

1 5

1

0 .73

4 7

3 .1

1 600

2 8

1 4

1 0

0 .71

4 3 a t 1 0

3 .1

1 584 1 567 1 574 1 6 11 1 585 1 584

2 8 2 9 2 9 2 9.5 3 0 3 0

1 5 1 5 1 6 1 4.75 1 6 .5 1 6 .75

1 0 9 * 1 2

0 .66

1.5

0 .69

4 6 4 7 4 6 4 6 5 3 5 0

3 .1 3 .1 3 .1 3 .1 3 .2 3 .0

1 601 1 567 1 578

3 1 3 1 3 2.5

1 6 1 6 1 6 .75

1 0 .5 1.5* 1

0 .66 0 .72 0 .66

5 1 5 0 a t 1 1.5

3 .2 3 .1

1 577 1 573

3 2.5 3 4

1 6 .75 1 7

1 1 0

0 .66 0 .59

5 7 5 4 a t 1 0

3 .4 3 .2

*G iven o nly a s

0 .75

L OA

L OA/beam M ax.

' height' a nd n ot a s d epth a t b eam .

T he r atio o f k eel l ength t o h eight a t t he u pper d eck i s n ot a s u niform a s t he r atios a lready d iscussed s ince i t d epended o n t he n umber o f d ecks i n a s hip . S hips w ith k eel l engths r oughly b etween 2 4 a nd 2 8 c odos ( 13 .6 t o 1 5 .9 m etres) o r f rom c . 2 00 t o c . 3 25 t ons u sually h ad a r ow o f b eams i n t he h old a nd t wo f ull d ecks a bove . O nly w hen t he k eel l ength a nd t he o verall l ength o f a s hip p assed t he 2 7/28 c odo m ark a nd t he c . 4 5 c odo m ark r espectively, a nd t he s hip r eached s ome 3 25 t ons, c onsidered l ong e nough t o c arry a t hird d eck .

116

w as s he a pparently

T hese t wo g roups o f s hips a re g ive i n T able V .

G roup I i s c omprised

o f f ive s hips w ith k eel l engths f rom 2 5 t o 2 8 c odos a nd t hese h ave k eel h eight a t u pper d eck ( H .U .D .) r atios c lose t o 0 .38 . T he e ight s hips o f g roup I I w ith k eel l engths b etween 2 7 a nd 3 2 .5 c odos H .U .D . r atios w hich c entre a round t he v alue o f 0 .5 . T his r atio i s h igher t han t hat o f v essels i n g roup I b ecause , w hile a t hird d eck h as b een a dded t o t he s hips i n g roup I I , t heir k eels h ave n ot b een l engthened i n t he s ame p roportion . A t hird g roup o f s ix s hips w ith k eel l engths f rom 2 8 t o 3 1 c odos i s a lso s hown i n T able V . T his g roup r epresents a t ransitional s tage b etween t wo-deck a nd t hree-de c k v essels . A lthough t he k eels o f t he s hips i n t his g roup a re l ong e nough t o ' carry ' at hird d eck i t h as n ot b een a dded, t he b uilder h aving p referred t o r aise t he l evel o f t he f irst d eck b y a bout o ne

T ABLE V : 1 ).

H eight o f d ecks f rom f loor o f h old a nd k eel/H .U .D . r atios ( keel =

U nit : 1c odo = 5 7 c ms.

K eel l ength

i st

i st

2 nd

D epth

U pper

S ide

K eel/

b eams

d eck

d eck

a t b eam

d eck ( U .D .)

a bove U .D .

H .U .D .

G roup I 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 6 .5 2 8

4 .5

1 0 9 1 0 1 0 .75 1 0 .5

7 7 .5 7 .5

3

0 .4 0 .35 0 .38 0 .38 0 .41

G roup I II 2 8

8 .5

1 0

1.75

0 .42

2 8 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1

8 .75

1 0

8 .75

1 2

9 .5

1 0 .5

1 2 1 2 .5 1 2 1 2 1 2 5 /6

0 .43 0 .44 0 .41 0 .4 0 .41

3 .25

G roup I I a-

a -

2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 0 3 0 .5

4 4

3 2 .5 3 2.5

5 51 /3

7 7 .5-8 7 .75

1 0 1 1 0 .5 1.25

1

1 3 .5 1 5 1 3 .83 1 4 .75 1 5 1 5.5

1.5 8 9 .5

1.25 1 2

1 1

1 4 .515 1 5 1 /3

2 .5 2

0 .5 0 .54 0 .48 0 .49 0 .5 0 .51 0 .45 0 .47

G arcia d e P alacio , o p . c it . , w riting i n 1 587 g ives t he f ollowing d eck p lan f or a n ao o f 4 00 t ons : 4 .5 i st b eams , 7 .5 i st d eck , 1 0 .5 ( 11) m ain d eck, 1 4 ( 14 .5) t he j areta w hich c an b e ad eck o r ag rating .

117

c odo a s w ell a s t hat o f t he s econd o r u pper d eck . T he r esult w as a t wo d eck v essel w ith a t otal h eight t o t he u pper d eck g reater t han t he t wo-deckers o f g roup I b ut l ess t han t he s hips o f s imilar k eel l engths i n g roup I I t hat h ad a t hird d eck . T wo h eight p atterns f or t he p ositioning o f d ecks c an b e d iscerned i n T able V . T he f irst , w here t he i nitial r ow o f b eams i s p laced s omewhere b etween f our a nd f ive c odos a nd t he d ecks a bove a t m ultiples o f 3 o r 3 . 5 c odos , i s f ound i n m ost s hips o f g roups I a nd I I . T he s econd h eight p attern i s t hat f ollowed l argely b y s hips i n g roup I II where d ecks a re p laced a bout o ne c odo h igher t han i n o ther s hips . I n t he c ase o f b oth h eight p atterns t he h eight b etween a ny t wo l evels p ractically a lways r anges f rom 3 t o 3 . 5 c odos ( 1 .71 t o 1 . 99 m etres) 8 ) ( s ee T able V I) .

T ABLE V I:

K eel L ength

H eight p atterns o f d ecks

i st B eam

i st D ec k

U nit: 1 c odo = 5 7 c ms.

2 nd D eck

U pper D eck

H eight p attern a ): 2 6

7

1 0

2 6 .5 2 8 2 7 2 8 3 0 3 2 .5

7 .5 7 .5 7 7 .5-8 7 .75 8

1 0 .75 1 0 .5 1 0 1 1.25 1.25

4 .5 4 4 5

1 3.5 1 5 1 4 .75 1 4 .5 t o 1 5

H eight p attern b ) : 2 8

8 .5

1.75

2 8 2 9 3 1

8 .75 8 .75 9 .5

1 2 1 2 1 2 5 /6

9 .5

1 2

3 2 .5

51 /3

1 5 1/3

S ome u nderstanding o f t he c onstruction o f d ecks l aid a t d ifferent l evels c an b e g ained f rom t he f ollowing e xtract f rom t he b uilding c ontract f or a t hree d eck s hip b uilt i n Z umaya , i n 1 584 :9 ) " Ihe s aid u pper d eck m ust b e a f irm d eck a s f ollows : t he f irst d eck b elow m ust b e t hat a m an 's f oot d oes n ot p ass t hrough d eck w ell p lanked a nd s imilarly t he t hird

a nd t he o thers h alf-planked s o i t , t he s econd d eck [ the u pper

d eck ]. -I tem , a ll t he b eams , t he f irst r ow a nd t hen t hose o f t he t hree d ecks , a re t o b e p laced s o t hat f rom o ne b eam t o a nother t here i s a s pace o f 6 . 5 p alms a nd a ll o f t hem f itted i nto t he c lamps a t b oth e nds w ith d ovetail j oints

118

a nd t he l edges a nd c arlings a re t o b e f itted a nd s et i n w ith t his s ame t ype o f j oint ." I n t he l ight o f t his n ew i nformation r egarding t he d esign o f S panish B asque s hips t he f ollowing a verage p roportions f or a m id t o l ate s ixteenth c entury n ao b uilt i n t he s hipyards o f V izcaya a nd G uipüzcoa a nd r anging i n s ize f rom c . 2 00 t o c . 8 00 t ons m ay b e p ut f orward : 1 ( beam) , 1 .9 ( keel) , 3 . 1 ( LOA) , 0 .69 ( depth o f h old a t b eam) . T hese a verage p roportions c an b e c ompared t o t hose o f s everal m erchant v essels o f t he s ame p eriod a nd o f s imilar t onnage ( see T able V II) .

T ABLE V II :1 0) . t ons .

M ain p roportions o f 1 6th c entury m erchant s hips c . 2 00-800

B eam

K eel

L OA

D FD

D epth

T ons

a t b eam d 1 550

V enetian

1 575 1 582 1 582 1 587 c .1590 c .1590 1 591 1 597 1 599 1 550 t o 1 600

S panish E nglish E nglish S panish E nglish E nglish V enetian V enetian V enetian S panish B asque n ao ( average)

a b c -

d -

2 .17

3 .1

. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 .27 2 .25 2 .14 2 .1 2 .00 2 .00-2 .25 2 .04 2 .12 2 .1

3 .18

1

1 .9

3 .2

0 .5

0 .5

3 25

b a -

0 .47

3 .22

0 .5 0 .51 0 .56

3 .1

0 .5 0 .58

0 .5 0 .5 0 .7c 0 .5 0 .45 0 .5 0 .51 0 .56 0 .69

4 00

5 00 3 50 4 20

a a b b b -

2 00 t o 8 00

T onnage n ot s pecified. C apacity g iven i n b otte , o ne b otta = c . 0 .6 d eadweight t ons o f 2 240 l bs. D epth a t b eam i s n ot a ctually s pecified b ut b ecause t he d eck p attern i n t his s hip i s i dentical t o t hat o f t he B asque n aos i n g roup I I ( see T able V ) w e c an a ssume i t h as a s imilar d epth o f h old . T he E nglish d imensions g ive o nly t he ' depth o f h old ' a nd d o n ot s pecify w hether t his i s a t t he b eam o r f irst d eck a bove t he f loor . I n t he V enetian s hips d epth a t t he b eam c oincides w ith d epth a t f irst d eck ( DFD) s o p erhaps o ne c an a ssume t he s ame f or t he E nglish p roportions . H owever , i n t he B asque n aos d epth a t b eam d oes n ot c oincide w ith d epth a t t he f irst d eck . T he a verage D .B ./B . r atio i n t he n aos i s 0 .69 , w hereas t he D FD/beam r atio i s 0 .5 o r 0 .58 d epending o n w hether t he s hip h as d eck-height p attern a ) o r b ) .

119

W hile l ittle o r n o d ifference e xists b etween t he L OA/beam r atios o f t he B asque n aos a nd t hose o f t he v essels i n T able V II , ad ifference d oes e xist , i n m ost c ases , i n t heir k eel/beam r atios . T he l owest k eel/beam r atios i n T able V II , 1( beam) : 2 ( keel) , a re t hose o f a V enetian n ave ( 1591) a nd o f W illiam B orough 's ' merchant s hip f or p rofit ' ( c . 1 590) , while t he o ther s hips h ave r atios o f 2 . 1 o r a bove .

T he k eel/beam r atios o f t he m ajority o f

t he B asque s hips a re n oticeably l ower t han t hese r atios ; a lthough f ive o f t he t wenty-four B asque n aos d o h ave k eel/beam r atios o f 2 .00 , t he r emaining n ineteen n aos h ave r atios c loser t o 1 .8 o r 1 .9 . A d ifference i s a lso a pparent i n t he d epth a t b eam/beam ( D .B ./B ) r atios . T he h igher r atio o f t he B asque n aos i ndicates t hat t hey w ere m uch d eeper i n t he h old a t t he b eam t han t heir E nglish a nd V enetian c ounterparts . T he s imilarity o f t he s hip p roportions i n T able V II , e xcluding t hose o f t he ' a verage ' B asque n ao , s uggest t hat W illiam B orough 's c omments o n t he m ost s uitable p roportions f or m erchant s hips , m ade t owards t he e nd o f t he 1 6th c entury , d id i n f act h old t rue i n s everal s hipbuilding r egions o f E urope . B orough , who b etween 1 580 a nd 1 598 w as s uccessively C lerk o f S hips , S urveyor o f S hips a nd C ontroller o n t he N avy B oard , i n t alking a bout t he ' merchant s hip f or m ost p rofit ' ( keel/beam = 2 .00) , s tated t hat t his w as t he " shortest , b roadest a nd d eepest o rder" o f s hip ; h owever , t hat t he " mean a nd b est p roportion f or s hipping a nd m erchandise, l ikewise v ery s erviceable f or a ll p urposes" w as a k eel/beam r atio o f 2 .00 t o 2 .25 11 M ost B asque s hipwrights w ould p robably h ave a greed w ith B or o ugh 's k eel/beam r atio o f 2 .00 b ut r ather t han s etting i t a s t he l owest p ossible r atio t hey w ould h ave s et i t a s t he h ighest , i nsisting t hat a s hip f or a ll p urposes c ould e asily h ave a k eel/beam r atio o f 1 . 8 o r 1 . 9 . A t l east t his w ould h ave b een t he c ase f or s hips o f o ver 2 00 t ons while f or s hips o f l esser t onnage B asque s hipwrights w ould h ave a ccepted k eel/beam r atios o f m ore t han 2 .00 1 L) . I t i s e vident t hat t he g reater p art o f t he B asque s hips i n t his s tudy a re c haracterized b y k eel/beam r atios a ppreciably l ower t han t hose o f c ontemporary s hips o f t he s ame t onnage f or w hich o verall d imensions a re a t p resent a vailable . T hat S panish B asque n aos h ad s hort k eels b ut a p ronounced r ake t o c ompensate f or t his w as a f eature n oted b y w riters o n m aritime a ffairs a t t he t ime 1 3) T ome C ano , ap ilot w ith s ome 5 4 y ears o f s ailing e xperience , m ostly o n t he t ransatlantic r outes b etween S pain a nd t he W est I ndies , a nd a uthor o f a n e arly t reatise o n s hipbuilding , p ublished i n S eville i n 1 6 11 , s tated t hat i n t he B iscay p rovinces n aos w ere b uilt w ith s hort k eels a nd a l ot o f r ake a nd h e u nderstood t his t o b e a m easure p reventing s hips f rom b reaking a s w ell a s b ecause o f

f or

t he h abit o f l eaving

s hips d ry f or r epairs 1 4) . I f

t he

o verall

m easurements o f

s ome

o f

t he B asque

s hips c an b e

f avourably c ompared t o t hose o f ac ouple o f s hips i n T able V II, t hey a re i n n o w ay s imilar t o t he d imensions s uggested b y T ome C ano f or e arly 1 7th c entury S panish v essels n or t o t hose g iven i n t he r oyal o rdinances o f 1 607 , 1 6 13 a nd 1 6 18 ( see T able V III) . I n h is t reatise o n t he b uilding o f b oth m erchant a nd w ar s hips C ano s tates t hat a m erchant s hip w ith a b eam o f 1 2 c odos a nd a t otal h eight t o t he u pper d eck o f 8 . 5 c odos s hould h ave a k eel l ength o f 3 6 c odos a nd a n o verall l ength o f 4 9 c odos . I n c omparison , a B asque v essel , o f t he t ype b eing d ealt w ith i n t his p aper , w ith a b eam o f 1 2 c odos w ould h ave a k eel o f 2 4 c odos a t t he m ost r ather t han 3 6 a nd a n o verall l ength o f p erhaps 3 8 c odos b ut c ertainly n ot o f 4 9 c odos . T hese a re d ifferences o f o ver s ix m etres i n b oth k eel a nd o verall l ength f or a s hip w ith t he s ame b eam .

1 20

T ABLE V III :1 5) s hips.

M ain p roportions o f e arly 1 7th c entury

B eam

K eel

D epth a t

S panish m erchant/war

L .O .A .

T ons

B eam 1 607

1 6 11

R oyal l aws

T one C ano

1 6 13

R oyal l aws

1 6 18

R oyal l aws

1 6 11

B asque n ao

1

3

0 .54

3 .58

2 38 2 /8

1 1 1

2 .84 2 .63 2 .44

0 .54 0 .54 0 .53

3 .54 3 .56 3 .44

2 97 5 /8 5 67 7 /8 7 55

1

3

0 .58

4 .1

1 1

2 .7 t o 2 .9

-

-

1

2 .7

0 .5

3 .45

5 39 1 /4

2 96 c .300 t o c .500

1

2 .58

0 .47

3 .29

5 30

1

2 .8

0 .45

3 .46

1 98

1

2 .00

3 .12

c .350

C ano 's t reatise c learly r eflects t he e arly 1 7th c entury S panish m ove t oward b uilding s hips l ess d eep , n arrower i n t he b eam a nd l onger i n t he k eel a s w ell a s l onger o verall . B ut , o ne o f t he B asque s hips , b uilt i n 1 6 11 , h as m easurements w hich c omply w ith t hose o f t he e arlier n aos a nd n ot w ith t hose p rescribed b y T ome C ano . T his s hip w ould h ave b een a mong t he l ast b uilt i n t he ' t raditional ' s hape , t o a c ertain e xtent i n k eeping w ith t he o ld S panish s hipwrights ' r ule o f t humb ' a s , d os , t res% w here t he k eel a nd o verall l ength a re t wo a nd t hree t imes t he b eam r espectively " ). U p u ntil t he e arly 1 600s B asque s hipwrights w ere c ontent w ith b uilding s hips a long l ines t hat h ad c hanged v ery l ittle s ince t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 6th c entury , b ut t he r oyal o rdinances o f 1 607 , 1 6 13 a nd 1 6 18 i mposed m ajor c hanges i n s hip d esign . T he 1 607 o rdinances w ere s low t o g ain a cceptance a mongst B asque s hipwrights a nd i t w as o nly w ith t he i ssuing a nd e nforcement o f t he l ater o rdinances , t ogether w ith t he f act t hat s hips n ot b uilt a long t he n ew l ines w ere f orbidden t o s atk i n t he C arrera , t hat t he n ew m easurements f or s hips g radually t ook h old » ) I n s pite o f w hat m ay a ppear t o b e r ather u nusual d imensions B asque n aos w ere i n g reat d emand i n S pain t hroughout t he 1 6th c entury a nd , m oreover , t hey w ere h eld i n c onsiderable e steem b y c ontemporary e xperts o n m arine a ffairs .

T o q uote f rom E scalante d e M endoza w riting i n 1 575 1 8) , " in g eneral t hey ( the B iscayans) g ive v essels t he b est p ossible m odel a nd t he m ost s uitable d imensions , s o t hat t hey c an s ail b etter a nd w ith l ess r isk a nd d anger ; a lthough t he n aos a nd g alleons b uilt i n L isbon f or t heir ( the P ortuguese ) n avigations a nd a rmadas a re a ltogether

1 21

s turdier t han a ny t rade".

o ther

s hips ,

a s

i s r equired

b y

t heir

T ome C ano w as o f t he s ame o pinion a s M endoza a nd h e a ffirmed t hat , " the s hips t hat a re c ommonly h eld a s t he b est a nd m ost w ell b uilt a nd which I r egard a s sf i are t hose o f t he p rovinces o f B iscay a nd o f P ortugal". / E lsewhere

i n t he

t reatise C ano v oices c ertain r eservations a bout t he

s ailing q ualities o f s hort-keeled s hips a nd a bout t he s hape o f v essels b uilt a ccording t o t he ' as, d os, t res ' r ule , b ut i f i t a ppears h e d id n ot n ecessarily c onsider t hese r eservations a pplicable t o B asque n aos 20) . D uring

t he

1 6th c entury w hen S pain e xerted h egemony o ver t he r est o f

E urope h er p rincipal s hipbuilding a rea f or o cean-going v essels w as l ocated o n t he n orth c oast o f t he I berian p eninsula f acing t he B ay o f B iscay . A n a mple s upply o f e ssential s hip c onstruction m aterials , o ak t imber a nd i ron , c oupled w ith a h igh d egree o f t echnical s kill a mong s hipwrights a nd t he a vailability o f c apital, e nabled t he B asque p rovinces o f V izcaya a nd G uipuzcoa t o b ecome t he f oremost s hipbuilding n ucleus i n S pain . I t c an b e s aid t hat o n a verage, d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 6th c entury, t his n ucleus o f s hipyards o n t he s hort s tretch o f c oast , b etween t he b order w ith F rance a nd B ilbao , p roduced e ach y ear a pproximately 2 0 s hips o f m ore t han 1 00 t ons a nd s ome a s l arge a s 8 00 t ons , ( a n umber o f s hips b uilt f or t he k ing e xceeded t his t onnage) . O ne o f t he b est y ardsticks a gainst w hich t o m easure t he r ole p layed b y B asque s hips i n S panish m aritime a ffairs d uring t he 1 6th c entury i s

t heir

i nvolvement i n t rade w ith t he N ew W orld . I n a v oluminous s tudy o f S eville 's m aritime a ctivity f rom 1 504 t o 1 650 t he C haunus m ade i t a bundantly c lear t hat t he " great i nfantry" o f s hips o n t he C arrera d e l as I ndias, p articularly d uring t he 1 6th c entury , w as b uilt i n t he s hipyards o f n orthern S pain . T hey c lassify t he i nvolvement o f t hese s hips a s f ollows : am inimal p articipation u p u ntil 1 500 ; 8 0% o f t he t otal b x 1 520 , a p ercentage m aintained u ntil 1 580 ; a nd a d ecrease f rom t hen o n2 1) . T he e xact p ort o f o rigin o f t hese s hips i s r arely g iven i n t he r egisters o f t he C asa d e l a C ontratacion , w hich c ontrolled t rade w ith S panish A merica , b ut t hey a re r eferred t o u nder t he g eneric t erm in ao v izcaina% C orroborative e vidence f or t he C haunu 's s tatistics i s o ffered b y a r eport o n s hipping i n t he p orts f rom F uenterrabia t o S antander i n 1 571 c ompiled f or F elipe I I b y o ne o f h is a gents .2 2) T he r eport i ndicates t hat a t otal o f 2 3 s hips w ith a n a verage t onnage o f 2 90 t ons w ere s old i n S eville o r C adiz

i n t he p eriod i mmediately p receeding J anuary 1 571 .

s hips 1 7 h ad b een b uilt i n G uipuzcoan s hipyards ,

O f t hese 2 3

t he l argest o f 5 50 t ons a nd

t he s mallest o f 8 0 t ons . A s

m entioned

p reviously ,

B asque

s hips

w ere

a lso

p redominant

i n

t he

S panish N ewfoundland c od a nd w haling e nterprises a nd i n t he t ransport o f C astilian w ool t o F landers , a nd t hey p layed a n i mportant r ole i n s uccessive r oyal a rmadas . P rior t o t he a rmadas o f t he 1 580 's t he k ing o f S pain h ad n o p ermanent A tlantic n avy . H e r elied a lmost e ntirely u pon a rmed m erchant v essels p ressed i nto s ervice t hrough a s eries o f e mbargos . W henever n ecessity a rose h e h ad n o c ompunction a bout r equisitioning m erchant s hips s ince h e h ad,

t hrough h is a gents,

l arger n aos .

I t w as n ot u ntil t he 1 580s t hat w arships p urposely b uilt f or

i nvested r oyal m onies i n m ost o f t he

1 22

t he S panish c rown a ppeared o n t he A tlantic s cene a nd ,

m ore o ften t han n ot

t hey w ere b uilt i n B asque s hipyards 2 3) . I t i s n ot s urprising t o f ind t hat a t l east 5 3 o f t he 6 0 t o 7 0 m ajor s hips b uilt f or t he k ie b etween 1 589 a nd 1 598 w ere p ut d own i n s hipyards o f G uipuzcoa a nd V izc aya ) . P erhaps t he s implest w ay o f e mphasizing t he g eographical s pread o f t he u se o f B asque n aos a nd t he v arious f unctions t hey c arried o ut i s b y n oting where w recks o f t hese m ultipurpose v essels a re b eing f ound t oday . W e h ave d ocumentary a ccounts o f s ix v essels w recked i n h arbours o f N ewfoundland a nd L abrador ; o ne o f t hese w as t he S an J uan , b lown a gainst t he s hore i n R ed B ay , L abrador , d uring a g ale l ate i n 1 565 2 5) . Q uantities o f v essels w ere wrecked i n t he W est I ndies . A s t he C haunus h ave n oted d ozens o f l a w s hips s erving i n t he C arrera , l ike t he S anta M aria d e Y ciar l ost i n 1 554 u ) , a ccidentally e nded t heir l ives e ither i n t he N ew W orld o r o n t he o utward o r r eturn v oyage f rom S pain ,

a s w as t he c ase o f M artin d e A rtalequ 's S an

S alvador . T he S an S alvador , o f 2 60 t ons , w as l aunched i n P asajes i n 1 549 , t he s ame B asque p ort i n w hich t he S an J uan w as l ater b uilt . S he w as u sed f or a c odfishing v oyage t o N ewfoundland , w as p ressed i nto r oyal s ervice f or f ive m onths d uring 1 554 a nd 1 555 t o p atrol t he r oute t o F landers ,

a nd l ater

o n i n 1 555 s he w as s ent t o P uerto R ico b y t he C asa d e l a C ontratacion a long w ith t wo o ther v essels . T hese t hree s hips , u nder t he c ommand o f G onzalo d e C arbajal, w ere t o r ecover t he c argoes o f t hree t reasure s hips a bandoned d uring t he p revious s eason b y C os i ne R odriguez d e F arfan . F ar f rom b eing a p rofitable v oyage t o P uerto R ico a nd b ack , A rtalequ l ost b oth h is s hip a nd v aluable c argo o n t he c oast t 9 Sarrapateira , n ear L agos i n P ortugal ( though h e d id m anage t o s wim a shore)2?) M any o ther B asque s hips w ere , o f c ourse , l ost w hile s erving i n t he ' Invincible A rmada ' . T he S anta M aria d e l a R osa , f or e xample , w hich s ank i n B laskett S ound o ff t he s outh w est c oast o f I reland , a nd w hich h ad b een l ocated a nd e xcavated , w as b uilt i n S an S ebastian f or M artin d e V illafranca w ho h ad p reviously o wned a nd c omanded a s eries o f s hips o n w haling v oyages t o L abrador 28).

I n 1 571

V illafranca

w as

c aptain a nd

o utfitter

o f

J ofre

I banez d e U billa 's M aria S ebastiana , o f 3 00 t ons , o n a L abrador w haling v enture 29). H owever , t he v enture a ppears t o h ave b een d oomed f rom t he o utset f or U billa w as d rowned w hen h e f ell o ff h is s hip a t a nchor i n t he p ort o f P asajes a nd t he s hip i tself w as l ost o ff t he c oast b etween F uenterrabia a nd H endaye a s a r esult o f a s torm t hat b lew u p w hen t he s hip w as l eaving P asajes f or N ewfoundland . I t m ust b e s tressed ,

t herefore ,

t hat n ot o nly o n t he C antabrian c oast

b ut i n t he C aribbean , i n C anadian w aters a nd a round t he c oasts o f G reat B ritian a nd I reland t he r emains o f s everal s ixteenth c entury B asque s hips s hould b e l ocated . B ecause o f t he p robability t hat s everal m ore o f t hese v essels w ill b e f ound a f ew m ore d etails a bout t heir c onstruction m ight b e b riefly m entioned h ere . A part f rom t he p rincipal m easurements o f B asque n aos t hat h ave b een d iscussed, r elating t o t he a ctual b uilding

a l arge n umber o f o ther s pecifications a nd s tructure o f t hese v essels a re a lso

g iven i n t he b uilding c ontracts . F or e xample , w e a re t old t he n umber o f b eams t hat w ere t o b e s et a t e ach l evel , t he d istance b etween d eck b eams , t he n umber o f k nees p er b eam a nd w here s tanchions w ere t o b e p laced . T o q uote f rom a c ontract f or a v essel o f a pproximately 3 25 t ons b uilt i n Z umaya i n 1 59630) ,

1 23

" the

b eams

o f

t he

s hip

must

h ave

s tanchions

f rom

t he k eel t o t he u pper d eck a nd b etween t he m ain d eck a nd u pper d eck s he m ust h ave s tanchions t o b oth p ort a nd s tarboard." T he s ame s hip w as t o b e g iven t he f ollowing w ales: " she m ust h ave t he f irst w ale a t 1 0 2 /3

c odos a nd

t he

b eam a t 1 c odos , t he n ext w ale a t 1 .5 c odos , t he t hird a t 2 /3 c odo a nd t he n ext o ne a t a nother 2 /3 c odo." W ith r egard t o f ore a nd s tern c astles w e a re g iven t heir h eight ,

w hich

i s u sually t he s ame a s t hat b etween a ny t wo d ecks ( 3-3 .5 c odos) , h ow f ar a long t he u pper d eck t hey w ere t o e xtend a nd whether o r n ot t he s terncastle w as t o h ave a r ound-house a bove .

F urthermore ,

o ther d etails s uch a s

t he

p ositioning o f c apstans , b itts , p ump a nd d ale , t he h eight o f t he s ides a bove t he u pper d eck, a nd t he n umber o f l edges, c arlings a nd r iders a re a lso i ncluded i n t he c ontracts . A g ood i llustration o f t he t ype o f d etail p rovided c an b e f ound i n a n e xcerpt Aom a 1 574 v essel o f 3 50 t ons b uilt i n L equeitio 3 1) . ' Item ,

t hat f rom t he s aid m ain d eck

b uilding

c ontract

f or

a

t o t he u pper d eck

t here s hould b e 3 .25 c odos ( 185 e ms .) , s o t hat t he s hip 's t otal h eight t o t he u pper d eck i s 1 2 c odos ( 684 c ms .), a nd a t t he s aid u pper d eck s he m ust h ave f our d eck b eams amidships a nd, f orward a nd a ft o f t hese, l edges w ith t heir k nees ; a nd t he d eck b eams m ust h ave c arlings ; a nd b etween t wo d eck b eams , al ittle f orward o f t he m ainmast , s he m ust h ave a l arge h atchway f rom o ne b eam t o t he o ther . I tem , b itt.

t hat

t he b owsprit m ust b e w ell f astened

t o

t he

I tem , t hat t he m aster c arpenter m ust p lace t he f oremast s tep a t t he m ost s uitable p lace , w ith s even r iders, w ithout c ounting t he s tep i tself" Af ull d iscussion o f t he v arious d etails c ontained i n t he b uilding c ontracts f or B asque n aos w ould b e t oo l engthy a t t his s tage b ut b y w ay o f c onclusion a c ouple o f p oints c an b e r eiterated . I t i s e minently c lear t hat i n t he c ases o f t he s hips w recked i n s uch d isparate l ocations a s L abrador , t he W est I ndies , t he B ritish I sles a nd t he B asque C ountry , d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he s ixteenth c entury , w e a re d ealing w ith p recisely t he s ame t ype o f v essel w ith i dentical p roportions . T he o verall m easurements o f t he 2 5 B asque n aos b uilt f rom 1 545 t o 1 6 11 r epresent , o n a verage , o ne n ew s hip l aunched j ust u nder e very t hree y ears , a nd i t s tands o ut a t a g lance t hat t heir m ain p roportions r emained c onstant o ver t his p eriod o f t ime . I t i s a lso s ignificant t hat t hese m easurements a re n ot f or v essels o f m inor i mportance i n t erms o f b oth t rade a nd w arfare b ut t hat t hey a re f or t hose s hips t hat f ormed t he b ackbone o f S pain 's A tlantic f leet a t t he t ime . T he b uilding c ontracts o f B asque n aos , a long w ith c omplimentary d ocumentation c oncerning o ther a spects o f t he c onstruction a nd f itting o ut o f t hese s hips 32) , g o a l ong w ay i n p roviding d ata f or t he h ypothetical r econstruction o f a m id t o l ate 1 6th c entury S panish B asque n ao , a nd when u sed p roperly a longside t he d etailed e vidence t o b e g ained f rom m arine a rchaeology , t hey p rovide a n e xcellent s ource f or t he s tudy a nd f urther u nderstanding o f e arly m odern s hipbuilding h istory .

12 4

F OOTNOTES 1 .

T his

a rticle

i s b ased

l argely o n u npublished d ocuments f rom

v arious

a rchives i n n orthern S pain : A rchivo G eneral d e S imancas ( AGS) , A rchivo d e l a R eal C hancilleria d e V alladolid ( ARChV) , A rchivo H istörico d e P rotocolos d eGuipüzcoa e n 0 1 1ate(A 1PG0) . S ome o f t he d ocuments r eferred t o h erein h ave b een p ublished i n R arkham 1 981 . T he a uthor 's c ontinuing f ield o f r esearch i s S panish B asque M aritime h istory o f t he 1 6th a nd 1 7th c enturies . 2 .

D uring

t he

1 580 's a g radual

d ifferentiation b etween

t he

u se

o f

t he

t erms n ao a nd g aleon a ppears t o h ave t aken p lace a s t he t erm g aleon b ecame i ncreasingly a ssociated w ith t he n ew p urpose-built r oyal f ighting s hips. T he t on r eferred t o i n t his a rticle i s t hat u sed i n t he d ocumentation w hich i s g iven a s 2 250 C astilian l bs . ( " cada t onel d e 2 2 .5 q uintales c entenales" ) a nd a v olume o f e ight c ubic c odos ( linear c ubits) ( " cada t onel d e o cho c odos d e h ueco e c ada c odo d os t ercios d e v ara y u n d edo a trabesado") e quivalent t o 1 .4-1.5 c u . m . o r 5 0-53 c u . f t . T he d eadweight t on o f 2 250 l bs . a nd t he m easurement c argo t on o f 1 . 4-1 .5 C u . i n . i n u se i n t he d ocuments c an b e c ompared w ith t he m etric t on o f 2 204 .6 l bs . , a nd t he l ong t on o f 2 240 l bs" a nd t he F rench t onneau d e m er o f 2 158 l bs„ a nd t heir v olume e quivalents . F or a d iscussion o f t he r elationship b etween t hese t ons s ee L ane 1 964 . 2 13-233 . G arcia d e P alacio i n h is I nstrucciön N äutica p ara N avegar ( Mexico , P edro O charte , 1 587) g ives t he c odo a v alue o f 2 /3 o f av ara o f C astile ( 83 .5 c ms .) o r 5 5 .6 c ms . V eitia L inaje s tates t hat a c odo i s 3 3/48ths o f av ara o f C astile o r 5 7 .4 c ms . T he S panish R ule o f T rade t o t he W est I ndies ( Seville 1 672 , L ondon 1 702 , r eprinted b y A NS P ress , N ew Y ork, 1 977 , 2 87) . T he c odo v aried s lightly f rom s hipyard t o s hipyard , a t l east i n t he S panish B asque C ountry , b ut i t c an b e t aken a s e qual t o 5 6-57 c ms. ( See a lso n ote 4 i n M artin 1 977) . ( 1957) r efers t o t he t on o f 1 .4 C u . m . a s t he ' short

C haunu t on ' a nd

d ifferentiates i t f rom a ' l ong t on ' w hich h e a ssigns a v olume o f 2 .6 c u . i n . C haunu a rrives a t t his v alue o f 2 .6 c u . m . u sing t he f ollowing d efinition f or a t on g iven b y V eitia L inaje i n 1 672 : " each t un b eing t he b igness o f t wo p ipes , o r e ight c ubical c ubits , m easured b y t he r oyal s traight c ubit o f 3 3 i nches s uch a s t he v ara , o r y ard o f C astile , h as 4 8" . T his d efinition o f a t on i s t he s ame a s Ih ave f ound i n d ocuments a nd t o w hich I r efer a bove a nd y et C haunu g ives t he t on a v alue a lmost d ouble t hat w hich a ppears t o b e i ts r eal v alue . 3 .

I n 1 505 M artin d e Z amudio, a b urgess o f B ilbao , w as e ngaged a s a n a gent b y t he C asa d e l aContrataciönfor t he p urchase o f B asque s hips a nd a rtillery f or u se o n t he C arrera d e l as I ndias . ( Chaunu 1 9551 959).

4 .

B y r oyal d ecree o f 2 0 M arch 1 498 a s um o f 1 00 ,000 m aravedis w as m ade a vailable t o t hose w ith s hips f rom 6 00 t o 1 000 t ons , t o b e p aid t o t he o wner e ach y ear t he s hip w as r eady f or s ervice . I n A pril 1 563 t his s ubsidy w as e xtended t o t hose w ith v essels o f 3 00 t o 6 00 t ons a nd a l oan o f 1 0 d ucats p er t on f or t he b uilding o f s hips o f 4 00 t ons a nd o ver w as a lso o ffered ( Artil lano y G aldäcan01920 ; s ee a lso C arande 1 965, 3 56) . I n 1 567 t he f ollowing G uipuzcoan s hipowners r eceived r oyal l oans t o b uild o r f inish t heir s hips : R amos d e A rrieta o f P asajes 6 00 d ucats f or a n ao o f 4 30 t ons , M arquesa d e V illaviciosa d e P asajes 5 000 r eales

19S

f or a n ao o f 4 00+ t ons , D omingo d e O layz o f L ezo 4 000 r eales f or a n ao o f 4 00 t ons , J ofre Y bar iez d e U billa o f M otrico 6 00 d ucats f or a n ao o f 3 50 t ons ( AGS , Cy J d e H acienda 9 0-312) . 5 .

A .H .P.G.O., p artido d e A zpetia , 3 299, f . 4 4 , 2 7 S ept. 1 573 ,3 327 , f .

1 5 ,

1 4 M ay 1 590

,1 899, f . c xx, 2 5 A pril 1 568 ,3 321, f . 16 , 1 3 M arch 1 593 ,3 298, f . 4 98 , 1 9 M ay 1 566 ,3 324 , f . 16 , 1 7 M ay 1 596 S an S ebastian , 4 20 , 6A pril 1 600 A .R .Ch .V ., p leitos c iviles , L a P uerta f en ., 2 42-2 A .H .P.G.O., p artido d e A zpeitia , 3 300 , f . 1 5, 2 7 M ay 1 573 "S an S ebastian , 2 710 , f . 5 8 , 1 0 O ct. 1 583 "A zpeitia , 3 312, f . 1 86 , 2 5 J uly 1 584 "S an S ebastian , 2 711, f . 2 8 , 1 8 F eb. 1 591 A .G.S., C . yJ . d e H acienda , 9 0-312. A .H .P.G .O., p artido d e A zpeitia , 3 318 , f . 4 3 v ., 6March 1 590 d e V ergara, 2 583, f . 4 5 , 2 8 A pril 1 574 A rchivo M unicipal d e Z umaya ( A .M .Z .), l ibro 2 08 A .H .P.G.O., p artido d e A zpeitia , 3 303, f . 19 , 2 7 O ct. 1 576 ,3 313 , f . 14 , 5A pril 1 585 ,3 312, f . 11, 7 A pril 1 574 A .G .S., C . yJ . d e H acienda , 9 0-312 A .H .P.G.O., p artido d e S an S ebastian , 2 709 , 3J une 1 601 I ,2 710 , 3 5 , 5M ay 1 585 u u H , 1 804 , 2 7 J uly 1 578 ,1 803 , f . 4 6 , 1 6 S ept. 1 577 A .R .Ch .V., p leitos c iviles, Z arandona y B alboa f en ., 1 67-852, f . 5 91 6 .

S ix c lasses w ith t he s ame i nterval v alue o f 0 .05 f rom 1 .71 t o 2 .00 g ive t he f ollowing f requencies: ( 1.71.75) ( 1.76.80) ( 1.81.85) ( 1.86.90) ( 1.91.95) ( 1.96-2.00) 2 2 4 3 8 6

7 .

T his e xtra l ength m ay b e d ue , i n p art , t o t he n eed f or m ore d eck s pace f or c annon i n a s hip t hat w as p urposely b uilt f or s ervice i n t he f lotas t o a nd f rom t he S panish A merican c olonies.

8 .

I n t he r oyal o rdinances o f

1 6 18 t he h eight b etween d ecks a s w ell a s

t hat o f t he f ore a nd s terncastles i s s pecified a s 3c odos ; A rtir ianoy G aldäcano1920 , 3 00-305 . V eitia L inaje g ives t he h eight b etween d ecks a s 3 c odos a nd t he " height o f t he g reat c abbin , s teeridge a nd r oundh ouse" a s 3 1 /4 a nd 3 1 /3 c odos ; V eitia L inaje , 1 702 , 2 75-277 . 9 . 1 0 .

A .H .P.G .O., p artido d e A zpeitia , 3 312 , f .

1 86 , 2 5 J uly 1 584

T he V enetian s hip p roportions a re f rom L ane

1 934 ,

2 35

a nd

2 37 .

T he

1 575 S panish p roportions a re t hose g iven b y J uan E scalante d e M endoza i n h is " Itinerario d e N avegaciönde l os M ares y T ierras O ccidentales" ( 1575) p ublished i n F ernandez D uro 1 876-91, v ol . V , 4 13-515 , c ited i n A rtinano y G a1d5cano 1 920, 1 28 a nd 2 72-276 . T he 1 582 E nglish p roportions a re f rom O ppenheim 1 896 . T he 1 587 p roportions a re f rom G arcia d e P alacio 1 587 . W illiam B orough 's p roportions c .1590 a re g iven b y O ppenheim 1 896 , 1 26 , c ited i n G lasgow 1 964 , 1 79. 1.

O ppenheim 1 896 ,

1 26 , c ited i n G lasgow 1 964 , 1 79.

1 26

1 2.

T he a uthor i s p reparing a n a rticle o n S pan ish B asque s hips o f l ess t han 2 00 t ons.

1 3.

C ano 1 611, e dited b y M arco D orta 1 964 , 6 5-66 . A nonymus , " Dialogo e ntre u n V izcaino y u n M ontanes s obre C onstrucciön d e N aves" ( c . 1 640) , U sher ,

p ublished i n F ernandez D uro , 1 932 , 1 97 .

1 876-9 1,

V ol .

V I ,

1 08 ,

c ited i n

1 4.

C ano 1 611, 6 5-66 .

1 5.

F or t he 1 607 r oyal l aws : M useo N aval , M adrid , C olecciön d e d ocumentos d e F ernandez d e N avarrete , t omo X XIII , f . 2 88 , d oc . 4 7 . C ano 1 611 , 6 66 7 a nd 9 0-93 . F or t he r oyal l aws 1 613 a nd 1 618 s ee A rtinano y G aldäcano 1 920 , 2 87-305. F or t he 1 611 B asque n ao , A .M .Z., l ibro 2 08.

1 6.

C ano , 1 611, 6 2 . S ee a lso A rtii iano y G aldäcano 1 920 . 1 20 , f or a d iscussion o f t his p oint w ith r eference t o I talian a nd P ortuguese r ules.

1 7.

T he e nd o f t he 1 6th a nd b eginning o f t he 1 7th c entury w as a c rucial p eriod i n S panish s hipbuilding h istory . I t m arks e ssentially t he c hangeover f rom m edieval t o m odern s hip d esign . T his p eriod o f e xperimentation w ill b e d ealt w ith e lsewhere .

1 8 .

I n A rtinano y G aldäcano 1 920 , 2 72.

1 9.

C ano 1 611, 4 7.

2 0.

C ano 1 611, 6 2.

2 1.

C haunu 1 9551959 , v ol . 8 , p art I , 2 57-259.

2 2.

A .G .S G uerra A ntigua , l eg . i n 1 571 s ee B arkham 1 977 .

2 3 .

N ine s hips w ere b uilt b y t he K ing i n S atander b etween 1 581 a nd 1 584

7 5 .

F or a p icture o f G uipuzcoan s hipping

b ut i t w as r eally t he b uilding o f t he ' Twelve A postles ' , f rom 1 589 t o 1 591, a t G uarnizo ( Santander ) a nd D eusto ( Bilbao ) w hich m arked t he b eginning o f S pain 's p ermanent A tlantic n avy . M artinez G uitian , 1 935 , 1 5 . 2 4.

T hompson 1 976 , 1 92.

2 5.

B arkham 1 982 . I n t he s ummer o f 1 977 a n e xpedition h eaded b y S elma B arkham a nd f unded b y t he R oyal C anadian G eographical S ociety l ocated s everal 1 6th c entury B asque w haling e stablishments a long t he n orth s hore o f t he S trait o f B elle I sle , L abrador . W hat w ould a ppear t o b e t he S an J uan w as f ound a t o ne o f t hese e stablishments ( Red B ay) i n t he s ummer o f 1 978 b y t he m arine a rchaeology u nit o f P arks C anada u sing a ccounts o f t he 1 565 d isaster f urnished b y M rs . B . B arkham . S ince t hen t wo o ther v essels a pparently f rom t he s ame t ime p eriod h ave b een f ound i n t he h arbour . A s t he S an J uan w as a round 3 25 t ons w e w ould e xpect h er o verall d imensions t o b e c lose t o : 8m etres b eam , 1 5 .2 m etres k eel , a nd 2 4 .8 m etres L OA .

2 6.

C haunu ,

1 955-59 , p assim . T he S anta M aria d e

1 27

Y ciar w as o wned b y M iguel

d e J auregui , a B asque , a nd w as n amed a fter t he c hurch o f t he m uch r evered V irgin o f I ciar n ear D eva i n G uipuzcoa . S he w as o ne o f t hree s hips l ost o n P ADRE i sland , T exas , i n 1 554 . T he o ther t wo s hips , t he S an E steban a nd t he E spiritu S anto ,

m ay w ell h ave b een s imilarly o f

B asque o rigin . O ne o f t hese t hree w recks h as b een e xcavated a nd i n a h ypothetical r econstruction D oran a nd D oran g ive t he s hip t he f ollowing p roportions : 1 ( beam) 2 .2 ( keel) , 3 . 1 ( L W , 0 .5 ( depth o f h old) , ( Doran a nd D oran , 1 979 , 3 77) . I f t he P adre I sland w reck w as aB asque n ao , a nd e vidence p oints t o t his , t hen w e m ay r econsider t hese p roportions i n t he l ight o f m easurements i n T able 1 . 2 7.

A .G .S.,

C ontadurfas G enerales ,

2 8.

F or a n a ccount o f t he e xpedition t hat l ocated t he S anta M aria d e l a R osa s ee ' The S panish A rmada . 1 968-70 ' ( Martin 1 973 a nd 1 975) . T he p roportions o f B asque n aos g iven h erein w ill a llow f or a r eassessment o f t he d imensions o f t he S anta M aria.

2 9.

A .R .Ch .V . ,

p leitos

c iviles ,

l eg. 3 019 , n ot f oliated.

C eballos E scalera ,

l eg .

2 29 .

T he

M aria

S ebastiana m ay w ell b e t he s ame s hip a s t he o ne b uilt b y U billa i n Mortico i n 1 567 ( see T able 1 ) , w hich a ccording t o t he b uilding c ontract was t o b e o f 3 50 t oneles o f 2 250 l bs . e ach a nd h ave t he m easurements : 1 5 c odos b eam , 2 9 c odos k eel , 9 c odos h eight a nd 4 7 c odos L OA. 3 0.

A .H .P.G.O., p artido d e A zpeitia , 3 324 , f . 16.

3 1.

A .H .P.G.O ., p artido d e V ergara , 2 583, f f. 4 5-46v .

3 2.

S ee B arkham

1 981,

1 9-47 f or a p reliminary d iscussion o f t he t imber ,

i ron ( anchors , n ails a nd c annon) a nd m asts, s ails a nd r igging f or B asque n aos.

R EFERENCES A nonymous , c . 1 640 . D iglogo e ntre u n V iczafno y u n M ontänes s obre C onstrucciön d e N aves , f irst p ublished i n F ernandez D uro , 1 876-91 , V ol . V I : 1 08. A rtinano y G aldgcano . G . d e , M adera , M adrid. B arkham , S hipbuilding ,

1 920 .

L a A rquitectura N aval E spanola e n

M " 1 981 . A R eport o n 1 6th c entury S panish B asque c . 1 550 t o c . 1 600 , M anuscript R eport S eries N o . 4 22 f or

i nternal u se b y E nvironment C anada , P arks C anada , O ttawa . B arkham,

S"

1 977 .

G uipuzcoan s hipping i n 1 571

w ith p articular

r eference t o t he d ecline o f t he t ransatlantic f ishing i ndustry ,

( in) A nglo-

A merican C ontributions t o B asque S tudies : E ssays i n H onor o f J on B ilbao , e d . W .A . D ouglass , D esert R esearch I nstitute P ublications o n t he S ocial S ciences ,

R eno .

B arkham ,

S .,

1 982 .

D ocumentary e vidence f or 1 6th c entury B asque

w haling s hips i n t he S trait o f B elle I sle , ( in ) E arly E uropean S ettlement a nd E xploitation i n A tlantic C anada , e d . G .M. S tory , M .U .N . , S t . J ohn 's

1 28

N ewfoundland. C ano , T " 1 611 . A rte p ara F abricar y A parejar N aos , S eville , L uis E stupinan ; E d . E . M arco D orta , 1 964 , I nstituto d e E studios C anarios , L a L aguna , T enerife . C arande , R .,

1 965.

C arlos V y s us B anqueros, v ol. 1 , M adrid.

C haunu ,

1 957 .

L a T onelada E spagnole a ux X VI e t X VII s i ' ecles.

P . ,

( in) L e N avire e t l 'Economie Maritime d u X V M ollat) , P aris, S .E .V .P .E .N ., 1 957 . C haunu , P . v olumes , P aris .

& F L ,

1 9551959 .

a u

X VIII

S eville e t L 'Atlantique

s i cles ( ed . M .

( 15041650) ,

1

D oran , E . &D oran , M . , 1 979 . " A R econstruction o f t he P adre I sland S hip" , b eing A ppendix E o f T he N autical A rchaeology o f P adre I sland : t he S panish S hipwrecks o f 1 554, A cademic P ress , N ew Y ork : 3 75-384. E scalante d e M endoza , J " yT ierras O ccidentales , 4 13-515.

1 575 .

I tinerario d e N avegaci6n d e l os M ares

f irst p ublished i n F ernandez D uro ,

F ernandez D uro , C . ,

1 876-91.

1 876-91,

v ol . V :

D isquisiciones N äuticas, 6 v olumes,

M adrid. G arcia

d e

P alacio ,

D . ,

1 587 .

I nstrucciön N ä

U t i c ap ara N avegar ,

M exico , P edro O charte , f acsimile e d . C olecciön d e I ncunables v ol . V III , I nstituto d e C ultura H ispänica , M adrid , 1 944 . G lasgow ,

T "

1 964 .

T he S hape o f t he S hips t hat D efeated t he S panish

A rmada , M ariner's M irror , V ol. 5 0 : L ane ,

F .C . ,

1 934 .

F .C . ,

1 964 .

Americanos ,

1 77187.

V enetian S hips a nd S hipbuilders o f t he R enaissance ,

B altimore. L ane ,

T onnages ,

M edieval

a nd

M odern ,

E conomic H istory

R eview , 2 nd S eries, X VII, 2 13-233. M artin , C .j .M" M arine A rchaeology ,

1 973 . T he S panish A rmada E xpedition , e d . D .J. B lackman , A rchon B ooks.

M artin , C .J.M ., Martin , v ol. 6 3 : 3 65-367. M artinez

1 975.

F ull F athom F ive, N ew Y ork.

1 977 .

S panish A rmada T onnages,

G uitian ,

L "

1 935 .

D urante e l R einado d e F elipe I I, O ppenheim ,

M"

1 896 .

T homson ,

I .Ad i„

Mariner 's M irror ,

S antander .

A H istory o f

1 976 .

( in )

C onstrucciön N aval y N avegaciön e n C orso

t he A dministration o f t he

N avy a nd o f M erchant S hipping i n R elation t o t he N avy ,

1 600 ,

1 968-1970 .

War a nd G overnment i n H absburg

L ondon .

1 29

R oyal

L ondon . S pain 1 560-

U sher , A .P .,

1 932 .

S panish S hips a nd S hipbuilding i n t he 1 6th a nd

1 7th C enturies, F acts a nd F actors i n E conomic H istory, V eitia L inaje,

J .

d e,

1 672 .

C ambridge, M ass.

N orte d e l aContratac i l inde l as I ndias

O ccidentales , S eville ; E nglish t ranslation " The S panish R ule o f T rade t o t he W est I ndies" , L ondon , 1 702 , f acsimile e d . A NS P ress , N ew Y ork , 1 977 .

1 30

1 31

c e n t r e s i n t h e S p a n i s h B a s q u e C o u n t r y

F ig .

1 2 .2 :

1 6th c entury s tone c arving

o f

aS panish B asque n ao

( lintel

o f t he h ouse o f U rasandi , D eva , G uipuzcoa) . N ote t he s ingle f ore d eck a nd s tern c astles o ne l evel a bove t he u pper d eck ( as s pecified i n b uilding c ontracts f or t hese n aos) , a lso t he b eak-head a nd p osition o f w ales . ( 121 l o tx ) : B arkham) .

F ig . 1 2 .3 : T his s tone c arving o f a1 6th c entury B asque n ao i s v ery s imilar t o t he n ao o f F ig . 1 2 .2 a nd i t d isplays a lmost a ll t he s ame f eatures , ( lintel o f h ouse i n M otrico , G uipuzcoa ) . ( Photo : B arkham) .

1 32

F ig . 1 2 .4 : L ine d rawing o f t he S panish B asque n ao N uestra S enora d e C o rK .e 0 _on , 1 611 ( A .H .P .G .O ., p artido d e V ergara , l eg . 2 567) . N ote : T he s pritsail t opmast , ad istinctive f eature o f 1 7th c entury s hips . ( Photo : B arkham) .

F ig . 1 2 .5 : I ncised o utline o f a 1 6th c entury s hip f ound o n ap lank o f t he B asque n ao S an J uan ( Red B ay , L abrador , 1 565) d uring t he 1 983 f ield s eason . I t p rovides a n i nteresting c omparison w ith t he 1 611 s ketch o f t he Na .S e-.d e C on ion a nd w ith s tone c arvings o f F igs . 1 2 .2 a nd 1 2 .3 . ( Source : M .A . S topp a nd R . S kaynes p ublished i n E vening T elegram , S t . J ohn 's , N fld . , v ol . 1 04 , n . 1 66) .

1 33

a r t

••

4 +

e 0 n .

0

4 4 4 4

e -4

wj . NO

w . =

c o 0 C r O " 0 e . 4 0

G L I

1 34

c o 0 " 0 0 ( „ 1

C U

F ig . 1 2 .8 : L ongitudinal v iew a long k eelson o f t he B asque n ao S an J uan t hat s ank i n R ed B ay , L abrador , i n 1 565 . I n t he b ackground a re c ollapsed b arrels f or w hale o il a nd b allast s tone . ( Photu : P arks C anada) .

F ig . 1 2 .9 : O blique v iew a cross t he h old o f t he S an J uan . N ote k eelson i n t he f oreground a nd t he f loor t imbers e xposed b y r emoval o f a l imber-b oar& ( Photo : P arks C anada). 1 35

1 3.

T HE WARSHIP I N T HE P AINTING F ROM A RTHUR'S C OURT I N G DANSK A N A TTEMPT A T A R ECONSTRUCTION J erzy L itwin

T hrough t he c enturies t he d evelopment a nd w ealth o f G dansk d epended o n c lose h istorical, e conomical a nd p olitical c onnections w ith P oland . T hrough t his t own , s ituated a t t he V istula r iver m outh , p art o f P olish e xports .

f lowed f or c enturies a l arge

T he c lose t ies t he c ity h ad w ith P oland a s well a s i ts maritime e conomy, a re r eflected i n m any w ritten d ocuments . T hey a re c ommemorated i conographically, b y o ld p aintings which h ave b een p reserved until o ur t imes . T hese w orks a re a lso u seful i n t he s tudy o f X Vth - X VIIIth c entury s hipbuilding. O f a ll

t he G dansk works o f a rt,

p ainting " The V essel o f t he C hurch" ,

o ne o f

t he most i nteresting i s

t he

which b ecame t he s ubject o f m y s tudies .

When I s tarted r esearch o n t he s hip p resented o n t his p ainting I i ntended t o: 1 .

c arry o ut a d etailed a nalysis o f

2 .

u ndertake a n a ttempt a t i ts r econstruction.

3 .

e valuate

t he

s tability

o f

t he v essel.

t he

r econstructed

v essel

i n

t he

v ersion

p resented o n t he p ainting a nd i n i ts o riginal - p resumed - v ersion b ecause I t hought t hat t his e valuation w ould c onfirm t he a bsurdity o f l ater a dditions

t o t he p ainting .

A nalysis o f t he w arship i n t he p ainting " The V essel o f t he C hurch" The ' The V essel o f

t he

C hurch" was p ainted b y a n u nknown a rtist o n

s everal c onnected p anels, and i ts d imensions were 2 .36 x 1 .74 m ( Fig.13.1) . R esearchers d ated i t t o b etween t he l ast y ears o f t he X Vth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he X VIth c entury . U ntil 1 944 t he p ainting w as i n t he A rthur's C ourt i n G dansk. A t t he b eginning o f 1 945 i t was d ismantled a nd t ogether w ith o ther v aluable w orks o f a rt e vacuated f rom G dansk . A fter t he w ar o nly t he n arrowest middle b oard was f ound. T his o riginal f ragment i s o f i nestimable v alue f or s tudies o f t he p ainting 's c ontent . A s s upplementary material, photographs o f t he p ainting, t aken b efore 1 945, may b e u sed. T hough t he

n ot

v ery

c lear

- t hey

f acilitate

i nterpretation

o f

s ome

d etails

o f

w ork . I n

a f ew

a dditions

t o

papers

o n

t his

p ainting,

t he p ainting a re m entioned .

p resented a m ore d etailed a nalysis o f

t he

c hanges,

H owever ,

n one

t ouchings o f

t he

u p

a uthors

o r h as

t he w ork .

B efore 1 945, t he m ost c omprehensive t reatment o f t he warship o n t he p ainting

w as

m ade

b y O tto L ienau ,

p rofessor o f 1 37

t he T echnical U niversity

i n

G dansk ,

who among h is o ther i nterests,

u ndertook r esearch o n t he h istory o f

P omeranian s hipbuilding . A ccording t o h im , t he p ainting d ates f rom c .1500 , while t he s uspicious f ourth m ast, f lat s tern and g uns b elow t he m ain d eck a re l ater a dditions. P resenting h is own d rawing o f t he warship, d rawn i n t he s ame p osition a s t he o ne o n t he p ainting , L ienau i nsignificantly r educed t he n umber o f g uns a long t he s hip's s ide. H owever , h e s tressed t hat t he p roportions a nd s cale o f t he warship i n t he p ainting h ave b een d epicted c orrectly. ( Fig. 1 3.2) . The main s ubject o f t he p ainting i s a warship manoeuvring i n ap ort c hannel. I n t he b ackground, o n t he l eft s ide, t here a re c ity walls a nd f ortifications, which h istorians t hought r esembled t he o ld f orm o f G dansk b uildings.

O n t he r ight s ide, t he a rtist p ainted a h igh , r ocky c oast with

c ontours o f a c ity was a pproaching . P russia ,

f rom which t he s hip m ay h ave b een r eturning o r which i t I n t he u pper p art o f t he p ainting t he a rms o f E ast

t he J agiellon d ynasty a nd o f G dansk a re p laced ,

a rranged i n t he s o-

c alled h eraldic c ourtesy a rrangement . T he warship a nd i ts r igging a re v ery i nteresting t o a h istorian o f s hipbuilding . T he h ull i s p ainted i n a ccordance w ith t he l aws o f , what i s n ow c alled , f rontal p erspective . A ccurate d epiction o f i mportant s tructural a nd d ecorative d etails o f t he s hip p roves t hat t he a rtist was s hips o f t he p eriod . T ypologically,

f amiliar w ith

t he s hip r esembles a d eveloped c arrack w ith many d etails

b elonging t o t he g alleons a ppearing a t t hat t ime , f or which r eason i t i s a g ood e xample o f a t ransitory-period s hip a t t he t urn o f t he X V/XVIth c entury .

A t t hat t ime ,

t he v ery c ommon c arrack which was e xtremely c ommon

b egan t o m ake r oom f or t he g alleon . The s hip's p lanking i s s quarely j ointed and s trengthened with f ender b eams a long t he whole h ull l ength a nd b onded o n t he a fter c astle with v ertical b eams s trengthening t he b ackstays s tool . T he e scutcheon r eaches f rom t he water l ine t o t he f irst c astle o verhang . T o t he e scutcheon a dheres t he e xternal p art o f t he s ternframe o n which t he h inged r udder i s m ounted . T he r udder c rosshead i s

l ead i nside

t he v essel .

The t hree - l evel a ftercastle i s r elatively l ong and c ompact. O n i ts s ides a nd s tern , o n t he f irst a nd s econd l evel, t here a re many o penings t hrough which g un b arrels protrude. An i nteresting d etail, known mainly f rom medieval i conography,

i s t he s ide h ole i n which s tand two s ailors

p robably t aking s oundings

t he p ort c hannel .

o f

Above water l evel t he s tem i s c urved,

with t he t opbearing s lightly

b ackwards. O n t he f ore p art o f t he t wo-level f orecastle a re p laced f igureheads, d ragons, o ne o n t he l evel o f t he l ower c astle d eck, t he o ther o n a l evel w ith t he r ailing . A rmament o f t his p art o f t he warship i s m uch t he s ame a s i n t he s tern , w ith a dditional g uns d irected t owards t he s tern . Above t he s econd c astle d eck t here i s a r oof s upported b y a wooden s tructure , t ypical f or c arracks f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he X Vth c entury . I t i s d ifficult t o s ee o n t he e xisting p hotographs o f " The V essel o f t he C hurch" whether t here a ctually were a ny c annon i n t he waist b elow t he maindeck, t he b arrels o f which h ad b een o bserved b y O . L ienau . L ienau p ut a bout e ight g uns i nto h is o wn d rawing o f t he v essel . S even g uns w ere p laced i n t his part o f t he s hip b y t he a rtist o f ar ather b adly d one c opy o f t he p ainting which i s n ow i n t he c ollection o f t he l ibrary o f t he P olish A cademy

1 38

o f S ciences i n G dansk ( Fig.13.3). Therefore I a ssume t hat t here a ctually w ere g uns b elow t he m aindeck o n t he o riginal p ainting . T he c astle s ides a nd t he s tern e scutcheon a re o rnamented . T he c oat-ofa rms o f G dansk , E ast P russia a nd P oland - t he w hite e agle a re d epicted i n a c ircle . I n s ome p laces t hey d iffer i n small d etails. O n l arge s urfaces t hese c oats-of-arms a re n ot e ntirely v isible , b ecause t heir c entral p arts a re c overed b y d ark b rown a reas i ndicating t he g un p orts. F rom t hese g un b arrels p rotrude s upported b y w ooden b eds . T he f ender b eams o n t he c astle a re p ainted i n r egular o blique s tripes o f white, r ed a nd b lack . B elow t he s tern b oom, o n t he l ower p art o f t he f orecastle a nd o n t he s tern a t t he l ower a ftercastle g un d eck, white, r ed a nd b lack s quares a re a lternately p ainted . T he r ailing l atticework o f t he u pper a ftercastle h as b een p ainted i n a s imilar w ay . S ome d etails o f t he s hip's f ittings c an b e s een . F or e xample, t wo a nchors h ang a longside t he l eft b ow h awsepipe - m eaning t hat t he s hip c ould h ave f our o f t hem . B elow t he b owsprit a b oarding g rapnel i s s uspended a nd i ts c hain d isappears o n t he s tarboard s ide a t h awsepipe l evel. t owing a b oat a nd a r ope l adder h angs f rom t he a ftercastle .

T he s hip i s

T he v essel h as f our masts. T he f ore-mast and mainmast a re p rovided w ith s quare s ails a nd t he mainsail i s i n t he l ast s tage o f f urling. F our s ailors l ashing t he s ail a re p laced b y t he a rtist o n t he y ard . T he y ard h as c haracteristic e ndings

i n t he

f orm

o f

d ouble

h ooks

u sed

f or

b oarding .

T he

m izen a nd t he b onaventure s ails a re t riangular . O n e ach mast t here i s a t op a nd a bove i t a f urled s mall s ail . T he m asts a re s trengthened w ith s hrouds a nd s tays ( the a rtist p ainted s hrouds on t he p ort s ide o nly). T he s hrouds f or t he main mast a re s ecured t o as pecial b ench, a nd i n c ase o f t he f orem ast - t o t he s hip 's s ide . T he s hrouds o f t he t wo a fter m asts a re p robably f astened

t o

t he d eck e dge.

On

t he

l evel

o f

t op

r ailings

t he

masthead

s hrouds s tiffening t he m astheads a re a ttached . I n s ome p laces , t he r unning r igging i s s hown i n more d etail - t his i s e specially t rue i n c ase o f t he f ore- a nd m izen m ast s ails . O n t he m ainmast t op t wo j ibs a re i nstalled w ith r opes r unning d own t o t he a fter- a nd f ore-castles . F lags w ith t he c oat-ofa rms o f G dansk,

E ast P russia and P oland a re

f lying f rom

t he mastheads.

S imilar motifs a re p resented o n s hields o n t he t ops a nd on t he p ennant o n t he mainmast . T he p ennants are a lso d ecorated w ith r epresentations o f u nidentified s aints a nd o f S aint G eorge f ighting a d ragon .

S ome m ore i mportant a dditions

t o t he p ainting

I a ssume t hat t he s hip r epresented o n t he p ainting w as

p ainted

t owards

t he e nd o f t he X Vth c entury, and t hat i n i ts o riginal v ersion t he s hip was p ainted a s af our masted v essel with o ne s ail o n e ach mast . D uring l ater a dditions and r epaintings t he h ull was l eft unchanged. Only a n umber o f e quipment a nd o rnamental d etails w ere a dded . T he m ost c ontroversial d etails o f t he p ainting o f t he s hip's s tructure a re: t he f lat s tern which e xtends f ar a bove t he waterline a nd t he g un p orts s ituated b elow t he m ain d eck i n t he w aist . T he f lat s tern , more w idely u sed i n t he X VIth c entury, s uggests t hat t he p ainting s hould b e d ated l ater

t han 1 500 .

I n

t he X Vth c entury

c aravels h ad s imilar s terns b ut w ith r egard t o c arracks a nd o ther more a dvanced c raft , i conography s hows t hat s uch a f eature w as r ather u npopular . R egarding t he l ocation o f t he ship's a rtillery b elow t he maindeck i n t he w aist , s ome l ight m ay b e t hrown o n t he s ubject b y c omparison w ith t he s hip 1 39

r epresented o n t he 1 493 s eal, g un p orts, i n t he a long t he m aindeck, c an a t p resent i n t he S aint

s eal o f M aximilian a ls P rafekt v on B urgund . O n t his f orm o f s quare o penings i n t he s hip 's s ides a rranged b e s een . A nother p icture o f t he p eriod d ated 1 489, M ary 's C hurch i n L übeck, r epresents a s imilar s hip

t o o urs with f our masts a nd with g uns i nstalled a bove t he maindeck i n t he c astles o nly. T herefore, i t may b e a ssumed t hat t he a rtillery i n t he waist o f " The V essel o f t he C hurch" , w hich d oes n ot h ave a n a nalogy i n o ther i conographic s ources o f t hat t ime, i s c ertainly a l ater a ddition . I t may b e s upposed t hat t he s hip i n o ur p ainting i n i ts o riginal f orm d id n ot p resent i tself s atisfactorily a t t he b eginning o f t he X VIth c entury, a nd t o i mitate wars hips o f t hat t ime, a ppropriate a dditions w ere made . T he s hip b ears a s triking r esemblance t o s hips d epicted i n a p ainting o f t he s hips o f H enry V I a t D over i n 1 520 , which w as d one a f ew y ears a fter t he K ing o f E ngland 's c ampaign i n F rance . R epaintings

c oncerned

a lso

t he

s hip 's o rnamentation .

I ts

s ides

o n

t he

c astles a bove t he m aindeck w ere c overed w ith c yclically r epeated h eraldic s ymbols . A ttention i s d rawn t o t he c oat-of-arms o f G dansk w ithout a c rown v isible on t he f ore c astle and o n i ts wall o n t he waist s ide . T hese a rms w ere u sed o fficially u ntil 1 457 when K ing C asimir I V j oined G dansk t o P oland ( Fig.13.4). I t may b e s upposed t hat o riginally a ll h eraldic s hields p resented t he c oat-of-arms o f G dansk i n t his f orm . T he c rowns i n t he c ity arms o f G dansk, which a re s hown on t he e dges o f p ainted g un h oles, a re e vidently p ainted much l ater .(Fig.13.5) P robably t hey a ppeared when t he a rtist who d id t he r epainting a dapted s ymbols o f t he h eraldic r epresentation t o t he a ctual p olitical s ituation a nd i ntroduced h eraldic s hields w ith t he Prussian b lack e agle. T his f irst a ddition c ould h ave t aken p lace a fter 1 466 ,

s ince a t t hat d ate E ast P russia w as e stablished .

T he s hip i n i t 's o riginal f orm w as n ot a rmed . A s l ate a s t he b eginning o f t he X VIth c entury t he g un p orts and t he g uns were p ainted. T he a rtist making t his a ddition p ainted i n a t otal o f 5 9 g uns o n t he p ort s ide a nd 1 1 g uns d irected a long t he h ull a xis. T his, t aking i nto a ccount t he s ymmetrical a rrangement o f a rtillery, g ives a t otal o f a s m any a s 1 29 g uns . A s r egards g un t ype, most p robably t he a rtist w anted t o s how b reech-loadings g uns. T he b arrels o f t hese g uns were made o f p ressure welded i ron b ars s trengthened w ith h oops . F or r easons o f s trength a nd o f t heir l oading t hey were s upported o n l ong wooden c arriages which a re e asily s een i n t he p icture . N ear t he c entre o f g ravity o f s uch a g un a f ork h older w as p laced which w as mounted i n t he b ulwark . I n e ffect g un b arrels p rotruded o utside t he

s hip

s ides

p ermanently

a nd

a s

may

b e

s upposed,

t he

g un

p orts

c ould

n ot

b e

c losed .

T he marked c ongestion o f t he g uns a rouses much s uspicion . T his i s e specially t rue w ith r egard t o t he s pacing o f t he g uns p laced i n t he c orner o f t he f orecastle , where t he l ast p ort s ide g un m ay c ome i nto c ollision w ith t he g un s ituated o n t he midships s ide. T he l ength o f t he g uns w ith c arriages was a bout 3 m etres, i n t he p ainting t hey s eem t o b e t oo n ear t o e ach o ther. A s imilar s ituation i s v isible i n t he f ore p art o f t he a fter c astle.

On t he p ort s ide g uns a re s hown, while o n t he s tarboard s ide t he

b ulwark s trengthenings a re v isible a nd g uns h ave b een o mitted . T he o riginal r igging o f t he s hip w as more m odest . T he p resent r igging c orresponds t o t he p eriod 1 520-1530, when t he a rmament was a dded a nd t he masts e nlarged. T hey w ere e longated i n s uch a w ay t hat t hey a re n ot i n l ine 1 40

w ith t he l ower m asts . a nd

t he

b onaventure

T his i s e specially v isible i n t he c ase o f

m asts .

T his

v ery

m uch r eminds

o ne

o f

t he m izzen

e xtending

m asts

w ith t opmasts , b ut a t t hat t ime t his m ethod w as n ot k nown . T his d etail i s p roof o f i ntroduced a dditions.(Fig.13.6) T he p erson making t he a dditions d id n ot t ake i nto a ccount t he p erspective i n w hich t he s hip i s r epresented, i t i s p ossible t hat h e d id n ot k now t he p rinciples o f p erspective. I f h e d id k now t hem h e would h ave p ainted t he mizzen—mast t op, s ituated o n t he h orizon l ine, i n p rofile, a nd t he t op o f t he f ourth mast would h ave t o b e s hown a s i f s een f rom s lightly a bove . B ecause

t he masts w ere l engthened,

t here i s n ot e nough r oom i n t he

p ainting f or t he m ain t opmast . T his e lement i s a n e rror i n t he p ainting 's c omposition . O riginally, t he mainmast t op was a t, o r j ust b elow, t he m asthead . I t w as t he h ighest p oint i n t he s hip . T his o pinion i s s upported b y a d ouble hoisting d evice u sed f or s upplying a rms f rom t he c astles o n which m asts w ere p laced t oo . T he a rtist m aking t he a dditions a lso p ainted i n t hree s ailors moving i n t he r unning r igging i n p ositions i n which i t d oes n ot

s eem p ossible

t hat t hey c ould k eep

t heir b alance .

c limbing t he t opping l ine o f t he l ateen s ail y ard. w ould c ollide w ith t he m izen m asthead .

O ne

o f

t hem

i s

s een

T his l ine i n p ractice

P rinciple o f r econstruction The

p roblem

o f

e valuating

t he

main

d imensions

o f

t he

s hip

i n

t he

p ainting " The V essel o f t he C hurch" c an b e s olved t hrough c omparison w ith t he

d imensions

o f

o ther known

s hips

o f

t hat

t ime.

T his method

c an b e

a ccepted o nly i f w e a ssume t hat t he r econstructed v essel e xisted i n r eality , a nd w as n ot , a s c an b e a ssumed f rom c omparative s tudies , a n i magined s hip . T herefore , s hown, w e a re

f or c orrect r econstruction o f t he p roportions o f t he v essel l eft w ith t he method o f p rojection u sed b y t he a rtist

c enturies a go, b ut p erformed i n r everse d irection . in accordance with p rinciples o f f rontal

T he p icture was p ainted p erspective i n which

r epresentations m ay b e t ransferred f rom t he p rojected v iew t o a d rawing o n a f lat p lane . T his m ethod w as u sed f or r econstructing t he s hip 's p rofile . T he p rinciple o f c opying a p erspective v iew i s q uite s imple.

On t he

e xtension t o t he r ight o f t he h orizon l ine v isible i n t he p ainting i s s ituated a t p oint A which c onverge a ll l ines d rawn t hrough t ransverse e dges o f t he c astles and h ull o f t he s hip ( Fig. 1 3.7) . I t i s a lso p ossible t o d etermine t he a pproximate p osition o f t he s hip 's a xis i n t he p lane o f l oad waterline. T herefore, i n o rder t o t ransfer t he s hip's p erspective r epresentation t o a f lat p lane, f ulfilling a t t he s ame t ime t he r equirement f or o btaining t he d rawing i n a s elected s cale , t he g eometrically d etermined c entres o f s elected t ransverse s ections, p arts o f t he s hip s tructure s uch a s r ail e dges, s trengthenings , b racings e tc" s hould b e p rojected o n t he a xis o f t he s hip's w aterline . T hrough t he t hus o btained p oints o n t he w aterline a xis s traight l ines s hould b e d rawn f rom p oint A . T aking o ne o f t he d imensions o f t he t ransferred s hip s ilhouette i n a n a rbitrary s cale p ermits t he r econstruction o f t he entire p rofile t o b e c ompleted. T he o ptimum s olution would b e t o t ake t he s hip's l ength a long i ts w aterline b ut I d id n ot h ave t his d imension . T herefore I d ecided t o a ssume o ne o f t he v ertical d imensions — t o b e m ore p recise,

t he h eight o f t he r ail C D ,

i n t he f ore p art

o f t he a ftercastle , a nd f rom t his I o btained t he r emaining d imensions o f t he s hip . Ic arried o ut a f ew t ests f or d ifferent r ail h eights w hich c ould h ave b een u sed on s hips a t t hat t ime.

E xtending t he l ines p assing t hrough t he 1 41

u pper r ail e dge - p oint C a nd t hrough a p oint D , which c ould d etermine t he r ail b ase , I o btained a n a rea , i nto which , p arallel t o t he v ertical e dge o f t he r ail, t he s egment C D - which d etermined r ail h eight i n s elected s cale s hould b e p ut i n . Next, I l ead a s traight l ine t hrough s egment C D which i ntersected a nother s traight l ine p assing f rom p oint A t hrough t he p rojection o n t he w aterplane a xis o f t he m iddle p oint o f t he r ail . I n t hat w ay p oint B w as f ound, which d etermined t he t heoretical l oad w aterplane o f t he t ransferred s hip .

On t he d rawing,

t his w aterplane i s p arallel t o t he

waterplane o f t he s hip i n t he p ainting. B y f urther u se o f t he method I o btained a ll c haracteristic p oints o utlining t he s hip 's p rofile . D uring t he t ransferring a n i nteresting d ependence b etween t he s elected d imension C D a nd s hip's l ength was o bserved. F or a r ail h eight o f 1 .3 i n I o btained

s hip 's

l ength

a long

w aterline

e qual

t o

2 8 .6

m .

F or a h eight

o f 1 .4 i n t he l ength was 3 0.5 m . I ncreasing r ail h eight r esulted i n s mall i ncreases i n l ength . F inally I d ecided t o a ssume t he s ide h eight o f t he c astle p art m entioned a bove a s t he r emaining d imensions o f

e qual t o 1 .40 i n . T his e xplicitly d etermined t he v essel, i .e . t he w aterline l ength K lw _

3 0.5 m , l ength b etween t he s tem a nd s ternpost Ls = 3 2.1 m ( Fig . 1 3.8). Of

course,

unavoidable.

I r ealize,

t hat

with

t his

method

s ome

e rrors

a re

B ut t hese p ossible i naccuracies d uring t ransferring o f t he

v essel p rofile a nd s electing i ts d imensions a re o f n o r eal t he c oncept o f r econstruction a nd t o f urther c alculations .

s ignificance

t o

O ther main d imensions o f t he s hip were s elected o n t he b asis o f t he r atio b etween s hip width , k eel l ength and h ull l ength f rom s tem t o s tern . T his r atio i n t he m iddle a ges w as a s 1 :2:3 . T herefore , f or s hip l ength 3 2 .1 i n , k eel l ength c ould b e 2 1.4 m a nd s hip w idth - 1 0 .7 i n . T he r emaining d imensions w ere a ssumed b y a nalogy t he X Vth/XVIth c entury, i dentified m ainly a s c arracks .

t o

o ther

s hips

f rom

T he s elected m ain d imensions o f t he warship m ay s eem c ontroversial,

a nd

t he s hip may s eem t oo s hort. A t t he t urn o f t he XVth a nd XVIth c enturies l arger s hips w ere b uilt. T his i s a lso r ecorded i n G dansk c hronicles, i n which b uilding o f m uch l arger v essels i s m entioned . H owever , t he b uilding o f l arger v essels i s o nly o ccasional, a s t he b uilding o f medium-size s hips a re m ost c ommon . T he r econstructed s hip c ould h ave b elonged t o s uch v essels i n h er

o riginal

f orm.

H er

c argo

c apacity,

c alculated

u sing

t he k nown

f ormula, c ould b e 2 92 l asts/584 t ons/ a nd h er d isplacement, d etermined a fter t heoretical l ines h ad b een r econstructed - 8 29 .6 T w ith a d raught o f T = 4 .5 m . T he s hip p roportions and d imensions t hus o btained c onfirm t hat t he a dditions a nd c hanges a re a bsurd, s ince f or t he 1 29 g uns s hown o n t he s hip, s he i s d ecidedly t oo s hort . F or c omparison : " Henry G race a D ieu" f rom 1 545 w ith 2 1 h eavy g uns a nd 1 30 s maller o nes w as 4 4 .2 m l ong , a nd t he w ell k nown p rivateer " Piotzr G danska" ( Peter v on D anzig) f rom t he e arly 1 470s which c arried 1 7 g uns a nd h ad a c rew o f 3 50 w as a bout 5 0 m l ong .

D etermination o f T o

s olve

t he r econstructed s hip's s tability

t he p roblem o f

t he

s hip 's

s tability

i t

w as

n ecessary

t o

c arry

o ut s ome c alculations a nd t o e laborate t he m oulded l ines . T he s hape o f t he u nderwater p art o f t he h ull w as t ransposed b ased o n s omewhat l ater l ate X VI

1 42

c entury t heoretical d rawings o f h ulls e xcavations d one i n H olland . ( Fig . 1 3 .9)

and

a lso

b ased

o n

d ata

f rom

U sing d ata f rom t he moulded l ines, c oordinates f or t he g raphs o f h ydrostatic c urves, B onjean s cale a nd c ross c urves o f s tability, were c alculated o n a c omputer o f t he C entrum T echniki O kretowej ( Ship T echnique C entre) i n G dansk - p rogram 3 5 -T O . O f i mportance f or t he s tability c alculations w as t he e valuation o f t he v essel's w eight a nd i ts r igging a nd e quipment weight a s well a s a c alculation o f t he p osition o f t he s hip 's c entre o f g ravity . R econstruction o f midship a nd l ongitudinal s ections was a ttempted. ( Fig .13.10) F or e ven a pproximate w eight c alculations , d etermining t he b ulk d ensity o f t he t imber p robably u sed f or b uilding t he s hip w as q uite i mportant . I a ssumed t hat t he v essel w as b uilt o f o ak ,

i ts d ecks w ere p ine a nd m asts a nd y ards o f s pruce .

W eight c alculations o f

t he

s hip

w ere

c arried o ut b y g raphical

m ethods .

T he d rawings o f t he h ull w ere d ivided b y l ines d rawn a long w aterplanes a nd f rames. I n t he c ase o f f rame d ivision, i nto o ne s egment, were t aken t he f rames a nd b eams, knee p lates, p art o f t he p lanking, p art o f t he d ecks a nd l ongitudinal s trengthenings , p art o f t he k eel, a nd t wo h alves o f t he f rames t o

t he

r ight and l eft o f t he main f rame i n t he s egment .

f rame s pacing o f 0 .5 m ,

F or a n a verage

t he l ength o f t he f rame s egment w as

1 .0 m .

B y c alculating t he w eight o f s elected c haracteristic s egments I o btained a h ull weight c urve. A fter c omputing t he a rea b elow t he c urve w ith a p lanimeter I o btained t he w eight o f t he e mpty h ull, which w as 3 04 T . The

a bscissa

o f

t he

h ull's

c entre

o f

g ravity

was

s egments

i n

c omputed

f rom

S impson% f ormula . S imilarly

I c omputed

t he

weights

o f

t he

w aterplane

a rrangement. I n t his w ay I o btained a s econd weight c urve and I c ould c ompare t he t wo r esults . T he weight o f t he h ull o btained f rom t he w aterplane w eight c urve w as 2 98 T . F or f urther c alculations I a ssumed t he a rithmetic m ean o f t he t wo v alues ,

i .e .

P = 3 01 T ons .

T he h eight o f t he h ull's c entre o f g ravity w as f ound a lso f rom S impson 's f ormula,

a nd zG = 5 .04 i n w as o btained .

A ssuming i dentical c oordinates f or t he h ull 's c entre o f g ravity I made f urther c alculations f or e ach weight g roup o f t he v essel i n h er e arlier m erchant v ersion b efore r epainting and l ater-warship v ersion a fter r epainting w hich i s t he v essel a s d epicted a t p resent o n t he p ainting . T he m etacentric h eight o f t he m erchant s hip w as GM = 0 .457 i n , o f t he w arship GM = 0 .186 i n . These

r esults

c omputer w ere u sed v ersions.

and

c haracteristics

f or d etermining

o f

t he v essel

o btained

t he r olling moment

c urves

f rom f or

t he b oth

C onclusions A s

I b egan

t his

s tability c alculations o f

t he

a dditions

t o

r econstruction I e xpected f or

t he

w arship

v ersion

t he p ainting . 1 43

t hat

would

t he

r esults

c onfirm

t he

o f

t he

a bsurdity

I t hink t hat I h ave c arried t hrough t he t ask, a lthough t he s tability r esults a re t o s ome d egree s ubject t o d iscussion . T here a re a t l east a f ew r easons f or t his . I t m ust b e s tressed t hat t he m ain d imensions o f t he s hip w ere t he m aximum w hich I c ould a ssume . T his i s e specially t rue o f t he w idth a nd

d raught

o f

t he w arship ,

t he s tability o f t he u sed ( at t he e nd o f

which a re o f r elatively i mportant i nfluence f or

r econstructed v essel . I f a g reater L /B r atio h ad b een t he X Vth c entury i t r eaches 5 o n l arger s hips!) t he

w arship 's s tability w ould d emonstrate m uch m ore a dditions a re f ar r emoved f rom r eality .

c learly

t hat

t he

p ainter 's

The a ssumed d imensions a lso l ed t o t he c alculation o f a r elatively l arge c arrying c apacity i .e. 1 152m 3. T his m ade p ossible l oading o f a ll t heoretically a ssumed c argo , e quipment a nd s tores . D epending o n t he t ype o f c argo a nd s tores, i t was p ossible, b y a ppropriate a rrangement, t o o btain l ongitudinal t rim a nd e ven t o l ower t he c entre o f g ravity o f t he whole s hip . I n t his way a s w ell t he metacentric h eight o f t he v essel would i ncrease, which f or v ersion I - t he merchant v essel - w ith a GM = 0 .457 m i s n ear t o t he v alue o f c ontemporary s ail s hips, which w as n ormally 0 .6 - 0 .9 m . H owever , t he s tability o f t he v ersion I I - w arship - i s r ather d oubtful ( GM =0 .186 m ) . I f t his i s t o b e a ccepted a s t rue a nd e ven a ssuming t hat t he s ides and d ecks were l eakproof, e xcept f or t he g unports which were n ot c losed w ith t his t ype o f a rtillery, f or s uch a m etacentric h eight w ater w ould f low i nside e ven a t a 1 00 h eel . A f ully

r igged

v essel

i n v ersion I ,

h ave a h eel o f 3 2° a nd t hen i t would

i n c ase o f a s udden 6°B w ind w ould

s tabilize a t 1 6° h eel .

W hen d anger o f

l osing s tability a ppeared, s ail a rea w ould h ave t o b e r educed . I n c ase o f s uch a w ind t he h ull i tself would h eel b y 8° . F or v ersion I , t he angle a t w hich w ater w ould f low

i nto t he v essel i s e qual t o 3 7° ( Fig .

1 3 .11)

I n c ase o f t he w arship ( version I I) t he s ame w ind w ould c ause a h eel o f 5 3 °3 0', a nd i f water would n ot enter t he s hip, t he h eel would s tabilize a t 3 0° F or t his v ersion c onsecutive a ngles o f w ater e ntry are: f or midship g un p orts - 1 0 0, f or h old h atch c oaming o n m ain d eck - 3 7 °, f or t he l owest g un t he

p ort i n t he a fter c astle - 5 2 °. T herefore, j udging b y t his c alculation r econstructed s hip 's s tability, t he s hip w as d efinitely r epainted.

W ork o n t he c alculations a lso r evealed i nteresting s tability p roperties o f o ld t ime s hips . I n s ome p ublications a ppear o pinions t hat t he o ld s hips w ith h igh s uperstructures-castles d id n ot h ave p roper s tability . This i s n ot a t otally a ccurate s tatement. V olumes o f t he a ftercastle t aken i nto a ccount i n t he c alculation o f c ross-curves o f s tability d ecidedly i ncrease t he r ange o f t he c urve o f r ighting m oment l evers . T his c ould b e c onfirmed i n r eality p rovided t hat t he d eck a nd c astle were r easonably watertight; s o t hat d uring a n e xtreme h eel t he s hip w ould r ight i tself,

n o w ater w ould e nter a nd s ailing a t a s table h eel,

t hen , a fter a m oment , m uch smaller t han t he

i nitial o ne . A s

I h ave

t he s tability

m entioned e arlier , c alculations a nd

t here m ay b e a c ertain d egree o f e rror i n

c onsiderations b ecause

t he d imensions

o f

t he

s hip a nd p arameters o f i ts e quipment h ad t o b e a ssumed. T his w as c aused b y a L ack o f g ood c omparative s ources c oncerning s hip s tructures f rom t he t urn o f t he XVth and r econstructions o f

XVIth c entury, which would h ave enabled correct t he h ull f rames, a nd i n e ffect c alculation o f p arameters

n ecessary f or s tability c omputations . c orrection

o f

o ur

c alculations

H owever , I t hink t hat i n t he f uture a

will

b e

1 44

p ossible.

I h ope

t hat

much

i nformation w ill b e g ained f rom i nvestigations o f t he wreck o f t he " Mary R ose" . I t a lso would b e q uite i nteresting t o c arry o ut t heoretical c omputations b ased o n a n a ttempt a t r econstructing t he " Mary R ose" , w hose p icture was a lso p ainted i n f rontal p erspective. A c omparison o f t he t heoretical

c onsiderations f or a r econstruction o f a w ell-preserved w reck

c ould a llow an o pportunity t o d etermine t he u sefulness o f t he method o f t ransferring a nd r econstruction f or s tudies o f X V/XVIth c entury v essels.

1 45

T h e p a i n t i n g o f " T h e V e s e l o f t h e C h u r c h " f r o m A r t h u r ' s C o u r t

F ig .

1 3.2:

O tte

L ienau 's

i nterpretation

p resented o n t he p ainting " The V essel o f

F ig .

1 3 .3:

T he c opy o f

o f

t he

warship

t he C hurch" .

t he p ainting " The V essel o f t he C hurch" i n t he

c ollection o f t he l ibrary o f t he P olish A cademy o f S ciences

i n G dansk .

F ig. f ore

1 3.4: c astle

T he n arrowest m iddle b oard f ragment - t he a rms o n t he s ide .

F ig . 1 3 .5 : T he n arrowest m iddle b oard f ragment - t he a rms o n t he a ft c astle s ide c overed b y g un p orts a nd g un b arrels .

F ig . 1 3.6: A pproximate v iew o f t he s hip b efore r epainting o n " The V essel o f t he C hurch" p ainting .

F ig.

1 3.7:

T he p rinciple o f t he s hip r econstruction. 1 49

a dditions

a nd

10 41,« W IWY , O W ,

I lde r .

J E CO M— We lg e,

=

•

F ig.

1 3.8:

" The

V essel

o f

t he

d rawing.

1 50

C hurch"

- r econstruction

p rOfF ee. . . . . .er f OOrL

-

F ig.

1 3.9:

1 3 . 9 :T he

l ine

m,

I MML .11 1 11I 2

d rawing

o f

t he

r econstructed

w arship.

F ig .

1 3 .10 :

R econstruction

o f

s ections o f t he w arship .

1 51

m idship

a nd

l ongitudinal

Version l

—

MerChantrnan

7 6 5 4 3

1 00

' 20°

APL-I6 °

3 0

' 40 0

5 00

6 00

7 00

8 0°

9 00

7 50

8 0°

9

MA R -37 1

. . W o r _ l t

1 9

M e t r e T o n s

Version I— Warship

7 6, 5 4

2

3 2

0

1 0°

20°

3 00

4 0°

APL 30

F ig.

1 3.11:

D ynamic

5 0°

6 00

A MR-53 ' 3o

s tability

a nd

h eeling

moment c urves o f t he two v ersions o f t he r econstruction o f t he v essel - I ) m erchantman , a nd I I) warship. 1 . S tatic S tability C urve. 2 . H eeling Moment. 3 . D ynamic S tability C urve . 4 . D ynamic H eeling E nergy . A PL = A ngle o f P ermanent L ist. AMR = A ngle o f M aximum R oll. ( 10 c m)

1 52

1 4.

D UTCH D ESIGN S PECIALIZATION A ND B UILDING M ETHODS I N T HE S EVENTEENTH C ENTURY R ichard W .

U nger

T he D utch R epublic i n t he s eventeenth c entury was t he e nvy o f a ll o f E urope. T he e conomy t hrived o n t he e xpansion o f a griculture b ut more o bviously on t he g rowth i n s hipping . D utch s hipbuilders s upplied t he v ehicles f or t he p rosperity o f t hat s hipping.

" The a dvantages g ained b y

c heap a nd a daptable s hipbuilding, a nd c heap a nd c areful n avigation, w ere s ummed u p i n t he l owest f reight r ates i n E urope, a nd t he m ost e xtensive a nd e fficient m erchant m arine" ( Barbour 1 930 , 2 85) . M any e xplanations h ave b een o ffered f or t he ' great s uccess o f t he D utch s hipbuilding i ndustry. T he D utch , i t has b een s aid, b ought t heir wood a t l ower p rices t han o ther E uropeans a nd t hat d espite t he f act t hat a ll o f i t h ad t o b e i mported f rom t he R hineland, W estphalia , N orway o r t he B altic . T he e xtensive c ommercial n etwork, t he l owest i nterest r ates i n E urope a nd l ow c ustoms d uties a llowed D utch b uilders t o g et t heir s upplies f or r elatively l ow c ost, e ven p aying l ess 2 74;

f or N orwegian B arbour 1 950,

t imber t han N orwegian s hipbuilders ( Barbour 1 930 , 2 699 1) . The l ower p rices were a r esult o f t he s uperior

D utch s hipping i ndustry which i n t urn d epended o n s uperior s hipbuilding . T he a rgument i s c ircular . A n e xplanation b ased o n l ower c ost r aw m aterials e ssentially

b egs

t he

c entral q uestion .

T he D utch i ndustry h ad a m assive c entre i n t he Z aanstreek j ust t o t he n orthwest o f Amsterdam . S o many y ards n ear e ach o ther a nd n ear a l arge market f or

t heir p roducts a nd n ear s ources o f s upply made f or,

s o i t was

s aid, g reater e fficiency . L arge q uantities o f t imber a s w ell a s m any o ther s upplies w ere s tored i n t he Z aanstreek which m ade i t p ossible t o b uild s hips q uickly a nd

a lso

t o

s tandardize

s ome

o f

t he

p arts .

B ut

c entralization

c an

n ot b e t he principal e xplanation f or D utch s uccess. G rowth b egan i n t he l ate s ixteenth c entury when t he Z aanstreek was h ome f or a f ew f arming v illages. Industry g rew u p t here i n t he wake o f c ommercial e xpansion . Moreover s hipbuilding w as c arried o n i n p laces o ther t han t he Z aanstreek , i n c ities a nd t owns l arge a nd s mall t hroughout H olland a nd Z eeland d espite t he p resence o f

a c entralized Z aanstreek i ndustry .

D utch b uilders w ere s aid t o b e b etter a t t he j ob b ecause t hey w ere m ore e conomical i n t heir u se o f w ood . T hey w ere a lso s aid t o b e e xtremely n eat, o rderly, c lean a nd i ndustrious. T hey u sed c heaper wpod which n ot o nly l owered c onstruction c osts b ut was a lso e asier t o work . D urability t ook s econd p lace t o c ost a nd t he c arpenters a t t imes worked i n p oor p ieces o f wood j ust t o s ave money . T hose h arder working a nd more p roductive D utch s hipcarpenters w ere a lso p aid m ore t han w orkers i n o ther c ountries s o D utch l abour c osts w ere r elatively h igh .

T he g reater p roductivity was i n p art

b ecause o f t he u se o f m echanical d evices, e specially b locks a nd t he w indp owered s awmill ( Barbour 1 930 , 2 74 , 2 77-278 ; C lgment 1 864-1865, p art 1 , 2 11, 2 95, p art 2 , 3 05-307; C olenbrander 1 919, 2 , 1 5) . T he g reater i nvestment o n t he d ock, t he l abour-saving d evices d id s erve t o g ive D utch b uilders a n a dvantage t hough o ne which d eveloped o nly s lowly w ith t he d issemination o f t he u se o f s uch d evices a nd o ne f or w hich t hey p aid i n h igher wages .

1 53

D utch s hipbuilders c ommitted t hemselves e arly t o s pecialized d esign . T hat e xplanation f or D utch s hipbuilding a nd s hipping s uccess s eems m uch m ore c lear a nd m ore f irmly b ased o n t he e vidence t han a ny o ther . I n t he c ourse o f t he f ifteenth and s ixteenth c enturies a s n orthern E uropean s hips w ere t ransformed b uilders g radually c ame t o a ppreciate t he a dvantages o f c onstructing v essels t o d o o ne j ob o r s et o f j obs . S pecialized d esign m ade t he v essel m ore d urable , m ore e fficient a nd m ore p rofitable . T he g reatest d ivision was b etween t he warship c arrying g uns a nd t he s ailing p acket. A lready b y t he c lose o f t he s ixteenth c entury t he D utch w ere b uilding s pecialized

c argo s hips,

t he

m ost

i mportant b eing

t he f luit ,

w hich

c arried

f ew o r n o g uns a nd h ad a l arge o pen h old i deal f or c arrying b ulk g oods . T he t ype w as m odified t oo f or c ertain t rades f or e ven g reater s pecialization a nd t hus g reater e fficiency . O ther b uilders, m ost n otably E nglish o nes, w ere s lower t han t heir D utch c ounterparts t o s eize t he o pportunity c reated b y t he e volution o f s hip d esign a nd t hus s lower t o p ass o n s ignificant s avings t o s hippers . D utch c argo s hips w ere n ot h ighly d efensible b ut t hat p roblem w as s olved b y h aving t hem s ail i n c onvoys p rotected b y s pecialized warships whenever t here 1 981, 2 33-236 ,

w as a ny d anger o f a ttack ( Barbour 1 930 , 2 64 , 2 79-282; U nger 2 47-252) . S pecialization i n d esign c oincides p recisely w ith

t he g rowth o f D utch s hipping a nd c ontinued a long w ith e xpansion t hrough t he e arly p art o f t he s eventeenth c entury . I t s eems t hat t he r esidual f actor, t echnical c hange i n s hip d esign a nd t o a l esser e xtent o n t he s hipbuilding wharf s erves a s t he m ost a cceptable e xplanation f or t he d ominant p osition o f D utch s hipbuilding . A s with t he s uccess o f t he D utch e conomy a n umber o f d ifferent e xplanations h as b een o ffered f or t he t echnical s uperiority i n s hipbuilding . T he l ocation o f

t he D utch R epublic,

o n t he s ek and with much o f i ts l and

b elow s ea l evel g ave i t a l ong t radition o f s hipbuilding. c entre o f t he g rowing n orthern E uropean t rading p attern .

I t was a t t he L ong e xperience

w ith s hipbuilding , m ade a lmost a n ecessity b y l ocal g eography , g ave D utch s hipcarpenters c hances t o i mprove t heir d esigns . D utch g uilds b ecause o f t heir o penness and t heir a bility t o t rain h ighly s killed men m ade t hem a n i mportant v ehicle f or t he d evelopment a nd d issemination o f b etter w ays o f b uilding s hips. T he c ompetition among t owns i n t he c oastal p rovinces o f H olland a nd

Z eeland w as a n i mpetus

t o t echnical c hange s ince g uilds

l imited

c ompetition i n m any way b ut n ever i n improving d esign o r q uality o f t he f inal p roduct ( Unger 1 978, e specially 6 3-82) . U ndoubtedly t hese and o ther f actors p layed a p art i n t he s uccess o f D utch s hipcarpenters i n e stablishing a l ead o ver t heir c ounterparts i n o ther p arts o f E urope .

T here i s o ne o ther

explanation however t hat a ppears t o b e promising and worthy o f i nvestigation . D utch c arpenters m ay h ave b uilt t heir s hips i n a d ifferent way f rom s outhern a nd w estern E uropean s hipwrights . T he g reatest c ontribution o f s hip a nd b oat a rchaeology o ver t he l ast f orty y ears h as b een t o d emonstrate t he d istinction b etween s hell c onstruction where t he s trength o f t he v essel c ame f rom t he e xterior p lanking a nd s keleton c onstruction where s trength c ame f rom t he i nternal f rames . E xcavations i n t he M editerranean e specially h ave s hown t hat i n t he f irst m illenium E uropeans d eveloped a u nique w ay o f s olving t he p roblem o f c arrying g oods b y w ater .

S keleton b uilding w as a r evolutionary

m ethod, o ne

w hich m ade i t p ossible t o b uild l arger, m ore v ersatile a nd m ore e conomical s hips . S keleton b uilding p roved , t o b e o ne o f t he m ost i mportant t echnical a dvances i n making p ossible E uropean d omination o f t he w orld's o ceans. N orthern

E uropean

s hipbuilders

a dopted

s keleton

c onstruction

i n

t he

c ourse

o f t he f ifteenth a nd s ixteenth c enturies. T hey c opied t he d esigns o f s outhern E uropean v essels, e ven u sing v isiting s hips f rom t he S outh a s

1 54

models, o r l earned h ow t o b uild i n t he n ew s tyle f rom s outhern s hipwrights i mported b y monarchs l ike K ing H enry V III o f E ngland . W ith t he o ld m ethod, c linker-building, n orthern c arpenters b uilt t he h ull f irst o verlapping t he p lanks t o g ive s trength a nd w atertightness . W ith t he n ew m ethod t he f rames were s et up f irst and t hen t he h ull p lanking was a dded o n, p inned t o t he i nternal t imbers. T he h ull p lanks w ith s keleton c onstruction were t hus f itted e dge-to-edge

r ather

t han o verlapping a s b efore .

D utch s hipbuilders i t a ppears d id n ot c ompletely a dopt

t he n ew

f orm o f

s keleton b uilding. T he d istinguished maritime e thnologist , O lof H asslöf, h as p ointed t o e vidence w hich s hows t hat D utch s hipcarpenters f irst b uilt t he s hell u p

t o t he w aterline a nd t hen f rom

t here o n b uilt t he s keleton .

I n

pure s keleton b uilding t he f rames g o u p b efore any o f t he h ull p lanking while i n p ure s hell b uilding t he h ull i s a ll b ut f inished b efore t he f irst f rame i s put i n . A nother important f igure i n t he s tudy o f s hipbuilding, G erhard T immerman, f ollows H asslöf i n s eeing t he D utch method a s a t ransitional s tage b etween t he c linker-built s hell c onstruction o f t he N orth and t he r evolutionary s keleton b uilding o f t he S outh . D utch b uilders c ompromised, s o H asslöf a nd T immerman s ay , b etween t he t wo v ery d ifferent a pproaches . T here w as a n umber o f s uch c ombinations o f t he t wo m ethods i n t he l ate s eventeenth c entury, c ombination m ethods w hich w ere c arried o n a s s hipbuilding t raditions well i nto t he t wentieth c entury i n p arts o f S candinavia ( Hasslöf 1 972, 5 8; H asslöf 1 963, 1 69; T immerman 1 979, 2 6-27). Hasslöf's principal c ontention i s t hat t he c hange f rom s hell t o s keleton b uilding " does n ot c onstitute a n u nbridgeable a byss i n p ractice a nd t hat a gradual evolution f rom t he f ormer t o t he l atter i s b y no means i nconceivable , b ut p recisely what w e m ay h ave t o r eckon w ith , e ven i f i t h as not y et proved f easible t o e stablish t he e xact s equences i n t heir v aried a spects" ( Hasslöf 1 963, 1 72) . P utting u p f rames f irst was n ot a o ne-time i nvention b ut r ather a g radual d evelopment . A rchaeological e vidence h as i n r ecent

y ears

c ome

t o

t he

s upport

o f

H asslöf

t o

s how

t hat

e ven

i n

t he

Mediterranean, t he h ome o f t he f irst s keleton c onstruction, s hipwrights s lowly m oved f rom b uilding t heir h ull f irst t o p utting u p t he f rames b efore t he h ull . T he s eventh c entury Y assi A da s hip w as b uilt i n a c ombination o f s hell a nd s keleton m ethods. E dge-joined p lanking o f t he o uter h ull was c arried u p t o t he waterline a nd t hen t he i nternal f rames were i nserted. A fter t hat t he h igher h ull p lanks w ere a ttached t o t he i nternal f rames . T he s ame p rogression may h ave b een f ollowed i n a f ourth c entury v essel a lso e xcavated a t Y assi A da . T here was t hen a n umber o f h ybrid f orms i n t he e volution o f t he s keleton-built s hip . R ecent e xcavations i n n orthern E urope have u nearthed more e xamples a nd e thnologists h ave f ound o thers i n s outh A sia . T he p resence o f e dge-joined p lanks t hus c an b e n o g uarantee t hat t he v essel w as s hell-built o r f or t hat m atter s keleton-built ( van D oornick 1 972, 1 40-144; van D oornick 1 976, 1 30-131; G reenhill 1 976 , 6 3-70). H asslöf h as f ound t hat D utch s hipbuilders p ractised a c ombination m ethod o f b uilding s o i t i s n ecessary t o e xplore what t he i mplications f or D utch c ommercial s uccess m ay h ave b een f rom t he a pproach o f D utch s hipwrights . A t t he o utset t he a ccuracy

o f

r eports o n D utch b uilding m ethods m ust b e c onfirmed .

I f

i n

f act D utch b uilders o nly h alf-heartedly a dopted s keleton b uilding t hen t heir c hoice d eserves s ome e xplanation . Moreover i f t he D utch d id u se t he h ybrid a pproach why d id t hey s tick t o i t s o l ong while a ll o thers w ere f ully e mbracing s keleton b uilding? I t s eems o dd t hat o ne g roup o f s hipbuilders, e specially

h ighly s uccessful o nes,

s hould

a dhere

t o a spects

o f

a n

o utmoded

m ethod . Were t hey a lone i n f ollowing t he c ompromise s ystem? M ost i mportant t hough i s t he p roblem o f what e ffect u sing t he b astard b uilding s ystem h ad on D utch t echnical s uperiority . m ethods

c an h elp

t o e xplain

t he

P erhaps t he i nformation o n c onstruction l ow c ost o f 1 55

c onstruction i n D utch y ards

o r

t he

s peed

w ith which

s hips

w ere b uilt

o r

t he h igh q uality o f

t he p roducts .

P erhaps a lso t he b uilding m ethod c an h elp e xplain why D utch s hip d esigners s o e arly s aw t he a dvantages o f s pecialized d esign a nd s o e arly c ommitted t hemselves t o t he c onstruction o f p urpose-built s hips . S ome h istorians o f D utch s hipbuilding s ay n othing a bout t he u nique method ( Barbour 1 930; C rone 1 939, 3 2 a nd passim; U nger 1 978) . H istorians c ertainly a re f allible a nd c an e asily b e g uilty o f o versight b ut t he f ailure o f s ome t o e ven m ention a c ompromise a pproach s uggests a n eed t o l ook m ore c losely a t t he e vidence. I nformation f or t he u nique procedures o f D utch s hipcarpenters c ome f rom t wo s ources: c ontemporary d escriptions o f D utch s hipbuilding b y D utch writers a nd t he r eports o f F rench s pies s ent t o H olland b y t he f inance m inister o f L ouis X IV , J ean-Baptiste C olbert . T o t he f irst c ategory b elong t he t wo g reat works o f t he s eventeenth c entury b y N icolaes Witsen a nd C ornelis v an Y k . Amsterdam p olitics

i nvolved

Witsen was a p rominent

i n a n umber o f

o ther p rojects

f igure i n

while w orking o n

h is A eloude e n H edendaegze S cheeps b ouw e n B estier which f irst a ppeared i n 1 671. T he 1 690 e dition w ith a nother t itle w as s lightly e xpanded . While h e h imself k new l ittle o f s hipbuilding h e r eported what e xperts t old h im. W itsen k new what s keleton b uilding w as . i n a d iscussion o f s hipbuilding i n 1 520 .

H e d escribed t he p rocedure e xactly H e c opied t he i nformation f rom a

P ortugese t ext , a m anuscript which w as a t h is o wn u niversity a t L eiden . When i t c ame t o b uilding s hips i n h is o wn d ay W itsen d id n ot s ay t hat f rames went u p f irst and t hen t he p lanks were a dded. H e s aid j ust t he o pposite. A fter s etting o ut t he n ames o f a ll t he p ieces t hat g o t o make u p a s hip h e l aid d own t he s teps f or b uilding a warship o f 1 34 f eet.

The p rocedure a t

t he s tart w as e xactly w hat o ne would e xpect f or s keleton b uilding w ith t he k eel l aid d own f irst f ollowed b y t he s tem- a nd s ternposts a nd t he t ransom . A t t hat p oint Witsen s ays t hat t he g arboard s trakes a re t o b e f itted i nto t he r abbet o f t he k eel. Then t he b ottom o f t he s hip i s t o b e b uilt o ut t o t he b ilges . T hen c ome t he f rames f ollowed b y t he r ibbands . O nce t he f rames a re c omplete u p t o d eck l evel t hen t he r est o f t he h ull p lanking i s t o g o i nto p lace ( van B eylen 1 970 , 1 5-21, W itsen 1 690 , 8 8-89, 1 64-165) . C ornelis v an Y k w as a p rofessional s hipcarpenter who h ad b een p racticing h is t rade s ince t he a ge o f 1 2 . H is b ook i s m ore s ystematic a nd c oncrete t han W itsen 's a nd d eals

m ore e xtensively w ith c ontemporary s hipbuilding .

H is d escription

i s s imilar t o t hat o f W itsen . A fter k eel a nd p osts t he s hip g ot a c omplete midship f rame. Then t he b ottom was l aid d own, g radually r ising u p t o t he b ilges . A fter t hat t wo r ibbands w ere p ut i n p lace a nd t wo m ore r ibs b uilt . Then a s eries o f r ibbands was s tretched f rom p ost t o p ost o ver t he t hree r ibs . T he r emaining r ibs w ere b uilt u p f rom t heir c onstituent p arts i nside t he r ibbands . A fter t hat t he k eelson , a h eavy t imber f itting o ver t he r ibs a nd s itting o n t op o f t he k eel, w as l owered i nto p lace . O nly t hen was h ull p lanking a dded ( van B eylen 1 970 , 1 9-20 , 3 8-39 ; v an Y k 1 697, 6 7-78) . N either W itsen n or v an Y k t hought b uilding t he f loor f irst w as o dd . T he S wedish writer A ke R älamb i n a c ollection o f p rints with e xplanations , p ublished i n 1 691 s hows a s hip under c onstruction with t he f loor i n p lace b ut w ith o nly o ne r ib e rected. H e s aid i t w as aD utch f luit b eing b uilt with k lampar. T he b ottom p lanks were f itted e dge-to-edge b ut were n ever a ttached d irectly t o e ach o ther s o t hey n eeded s ome s upport t o h old t hem i n p lace u ntil a ll t he f loor t imbers h ad b een f itted . R glamb s hows s ome s mall b locks o f w ood , t he k lampar , p resumably t emporarily n ailed t o c onnect t he p lanks . H asslöf f ound a n e xample o f a y awl b uilt a t S tavern i n F riesland i n 1 955 i n e xactly t hat w ay w ith t he e ntire e xterior s hell b uilt u p b efore t he f rames w ere i nserted .

O nce t he h ull p lanks w ere f irmly n ailed t o t he f rames

t hen t he s mall b locks w ere r emoved ( Greenhill 1 976 , 1 56

6 6 ,

7 1-72; H asslöf

1 972,

5 2-53; H asslöf 1 963, 1 66 ; R älamb 1 691, 3 4-44; T immermann 1 979, 2 6-27) . While t he F risian e xample i s a n i nteresting o ne i t i s n ot o bvious t hat t here i s a d irect c onnection t o t he method s hown b y R älamb o r t he p rocedures o utlined b y Witsen a nd v an Y k . A D utch a rtist , S ieuwert v an d er M eulen , i n t he

s econd o f

a s eries o f

1 6 p rints f rom t he e arly e ighteenth c entury s hows

as hip u nder c onstruction . I n t his, t he f irst s tage o f b uilding t he h ull, t here a re n o r ibs: o nly k eel, p osts a nd b ottom p lanks. T hose p lanks a re h eld i n p lace b y p rops o n t he g round, b y c lamps a nd b locks o f wood most o f which a re small ( De G root and V orstman 1 980, 1 39). I t i s o dd t hat n either W itsen n or v an Y k e xplained h ow t he f loor w as t o b e h eld i n p lace . T hey d id n ot s ee i t a s ap roblem worth c onsideration which p erhaps s uggests u se o f s mall b locks, a lso c alled k lötzchen , k napper , k nab , k naben , w as a t l east n ot c ommon o n s eventeenth c entury D utch wharves. A bove a ll t hough e ven i f l ittle b locks w ere u sed t he a ttachment o f t he e xterior p lanks o f t he f loor t o e ach o ther was p urely t emporary. Though p art o f t he s hell was b uilt f irst i t w as n ot a c ase o f s hellbuilding . T he t hree s pies C olbert s ent t o H olland i n 1 669,

1 670 a nd

1 671 i ncluded

a well-trained s hipbuilder, t he s on a nd u ltimate s uccessor o f t he c hief n aval a dministrator a t Marseilles and C olbert's own s on, p resumably a n e xperienced a dministrator w ith a p romising f uture . E ach went o ff with c opious d irections f rom C olbert o n e xactly what t hey were t o d o a nd f ind o ut. E ach went b oth t o H olland and t o England . E ach was t o c ompare b uilding m ethods i n t hose t wo c ountries w ith t hose i n F rance . j ob a bove a ll was t o f ind o ut p roportions, t he m ajor d imensions

T heir f irst o f s hips o f

a ll t ypes b ut e specially warships. A rnoul was t he s on o f t he Marseilles i ntendent d es g aleres a nd t he f uture a dministrator a t Marseilles. H e h ad a lso m ade a t rip t o I taly t o e xamine s hipbuilding p ractice t here .

S eignelay

w as C olbert 's s on . B oth r emarked o n t he q uaint D utch m ethod o f b uilding t he b ottoms o f t heir s hips f irst. The D utch, s o t hey s aid, a fter l aying t he k eel l aid p lanks , t en o r t welve o f t hem , a nd t hen c ut t he r ibs t o f it t hose p lanks ( Clement 1 864-1865, 3 , p art 1 , 2 11, 2 34-237, p art 2 , 2 96-300, 3 29; C olenbrander 1 919, 1 2; H asslöf 1 972, 5 9-60, H asslöf 1 963, 1 70) . B oth o bservers c ontrasted t he D utch m ethod w ith c ommon p ractice i n E ngland a nd F rance . I t i s p erhaps s ignificant t hat a t t he e nd o f t he s eventeenth c entury

d espite

h is

c lose

a ssociation with D utch

s hipbuilding

i n p art

t hrough h is f riend W itsen , P eter t he G reat s till f ound D utch methods b ackward c ompared t o E nglish o nes . T he c ompromise p rocedure a s d escribed b y t he two F rench a gents m ay b e what t he T sar o f R ussia h ad i n m ind. The F renchmen r eported o n p ractice i n t he Amsterdam a dmiralty e xclusively. O bviously t he D utch w ere v ery o pen t o t hese e missaries a nd m ore t han w illing t o share i nformation w ith t hem. The D utch may w ell h ave b een t rying t o i mpress t he F rench o fficials i n t he h ope o f g etting a nother l ucrative c ontract t o b uild warships l ike t he o ne f or s ix s uch v essels won b y Amsterdam and Z aandam s hipcarpenters i n 1 666 ( van D illen 1 974, n os. 1 563, 1 565-1568 , 1 570 , 1 571, 1 574) . I t i s d oubtful t hat A rnoul a nd S eignelay w ere m isinformed o r f or t hat matter t hat t heir o bservations a pplied o nly t o w arships. A fter a ll W itsen a nd v an Y k t alked a bout b uilding t he b ottoms f irst a nd d id n ot d istinguish b etween w arships a nd o ther t ypes . B estekken o r b uilding c ontracts s uggest t hat t he b ottoms o f s hips c ould h ave b een b uilt f irst. I n t wo s uch a greements f rom t he l ate s ixteenth c entury f or f ishing v essels t he d escriptions o f k eel, p osts, t ransom a nd t he t hickness o f t he b ottom p lanks c ome i n t hat o rder b efore t he d etails a bout t he f rames . V an Y k r eprints i n f ull s ome t ypical c ontracts a nd t hey f ollow a s imilar p rogression f rom k eel t o p osts t o b ottom t o b ilges t o f rames . O n t he o ther h and a 1 640 b estek f rom Amsterdam f or a s hip w ith a f ull t ransom 1 57

g oes

a nd o nly

t hen i s

mention made o f any p art o f t he h ull p lanking ( AA , n o . 1 26 ( 1567),

f rom k eel

t hrough p osts

t o f rames

i n a ll

t heir p arts

n o . 1 27

( 1598) ; v an D illen 1 974 , n o . 4 97 ; v an Y k 1 697 , 3 08-315) . O f c ourse t here i s no g uarantee t hat s hipbuilders p roceeded i n t he o rder l aid d own i n t he b estek . I t w as a c ontract t o e stablish t he d imensions o f t he f inal p roduct a nd n ot n ecessarily h ow t he b uilder w as t o g o a bout p roducing t hat r esult . A ccounts o f b uilding s hips d o n ot t ypically s ay anything a bout t he c ompromise m ethod . I f t he m ethod w as s o o dd a nd o ut o f s tep w ith p ractice e lsewhere i t s eems l ogical t o e xpect t hat m ore n otice w ould h ave b een t aken . No matter t he a pproach t he d esign was b ased o n t he s hape o f t he c entral f rame. I t was d rawing a p recise o utline o f t hat f rame which was t he d esigner 's i ncludes

m ost

t he

i mportant

m an 's

w ife

t ask .

R embrandt %

d one a bout

1 633 ,

s hipbuilder ,

w as a bsorbed

a p ortrait

w hich

e xclusively w ith t he

d rawing o f f rames . G overnment o fficials i nterested i n i ntelligence a bout s hipbuilding l ike C olbert i n F rance a nd P epys i n E ngland h ad m any q uestions b ut t hey d id n ot a sk a bout t he p rocess o f b uilding . T hey d id n ot s ee s uch i nformation a s i mportant o r p erhaps s imply a ssumed t hat t here were n o d ifferences .

T hus when r emarks a bout t he b uilding m ethod d o a ppear t hey a re

i ncidental a nd a lmost o ff h and ( Bredius 1 969, 3 22, B r. 4 08; C lement 1 8641 865, f or e xample 3 , p art 1 , 2 11; C olenbrander 1 919, 2 , 2 -7) . A rchaeology i s n ot l ikely t o p roduce e vidence o n which p art went u p f irst. B oth a pproaches p roduced a lmost e xactly t he s ame f inal p roduct . W ith t rue s hell c onstruction w ith f rames a dded a fter t he h ull w as i n p lace t he f rames h ad t o b e n otched , c ut t o f it p recisely i nside t he h ull p lanks . Wrecks o f c linkerb uilt v essels i n t he I jsselmeerpolders s how s uch n otching o f t he f rames ( IJ Wreck N OP, J 1 37 f or e xample) . W ith b ottom p lanks a lready i n p lace b efore b uilding i n t he f loor t imbers s ome e xtra c are h ad t o b e s hown i n s haping t he p arts o f t he r ibs b ut t here w as n o d ramatic d ifference w ith t he f loors .

A ny

d ifficulty was minor . The b ottom was f lat a nd, i f Witsen 's a dvice was f ollowed, c hecked w ith a l evel. Moreover t he f rames were b uilt u p f rom a n umber o f d ifferent p arts s o o nly t he f loor t imber f it o ver t he p lanks a lready i n p lace .

T hat p iece w as s upposed t o b e f lat a s

well .

I t a ppears t hat D utch s hipwrights d id l ay d own t he b ottom p lanks f irst b efore p utting u p t he f rames w ith t he e xception o f t he m idship o ne . H owever i t i s n ot c ertain t hat t hey d id i t f or a ll t ypes o r a t a ll t imes o r i n a ll y ards . W itsen d id n ot s eem t o c are which j ob w as d one f irst . H e s aid t hat t he p rogression w as r eally n ot c ritical a nd s uggested t hat b uilders s hould p roceed a s t hey s aw b est . V an Y k i n o ne c ase s hows a small v essel u nder c onstruction w ith t he f rames a ll u p b ut n o e xterior p lanks i n p lace a s y et . R älamb

o n

t he

s ame

p late

a s

t he

D utch

f luit

s hows

o ther

s hips

u nder

c onstruction w ith f rames u p f irst b efore a ny o f t he b ottom p lanks were l aid d own ( Rälamb 1 691, p late 1 ; v an Y k 1 697, 9 0, W itsen 1 690, 1 64) . R älamb's i llustration s uggests t hat D utch practice w as c onsidered u nique a nd n ot i mitated i n S weden . D utch s hipcarpenters may h ave h ad g ood r eason t o a dopt a c ompromise m ethod .

A s i n a ll o ther p arts o f n orthern E urope t he s keleton s ystem h ad t o

b e i mported . T he f irst i nstance o f b uilding i n t he M editerranean s tyle i n t he N etherlands d ates f rom 1 439 . T he D uke o f B urgundy h ad t wo v essels b uilt f or h im n ear B russels b ut n eeded t o i mport P ortuguese s hipwrights f or t he j ob . I t was 1 460 b efore a ny s hipcarpenters i n t he p rovinces which would b ecome t he D utch R epublic t ried s keleton b uilding . Z ierikzee b uilders t ried t o c onstruct a b ig s eagoing s hip b ut c ould n ot h andle s uch a l arge

t ask s o a

B reton s hipcarpenter h ad t o b e b rought i n t o s how t hem h ow t o d o i t . I t i s n ot c lear h ow q uickly D utch b uilders w ent o ver t o t he n ew t echniques . T he 1 58

a dvantages o f s keleton b uilding w ere g reater o n l arger s hips a nd D utch y ards t ended t o t urn o ut f ew b ig s hips e specially t hrough t he f irst h alf o f t he s ixteenth c entury ( GAZ R egister o p d e C harters d er S tad Z ierikzee , n o . 2 24 ; van B eylen 1 970, 7 -8; v an C ortgene 1 551, 1 90). C ertainly D utch s hipcarpenters d id g ain t he s kill t o b uild i n t he n ew s tyle b ut a t t he s ame t ime t hey c arried o n w ith o ld m ethods. The e xcavated wrecks f rom t he I jsselmeerpolders c onfirm t he s urvival o f c linker-building t hrough t he s ixteenth a nd t he s eventeenth c enturies . T here w ere s igns o f c onservatism among D utch s hipbuilders , o f a r eluctance t o p lunge i nto s omething r adically n ew. B ut t hat i s c ertainly n ot s urprising e specially s ince t he c osts o f f ailure were s o h igh ( IJ Wrecks N OP 0 28 a nd P 33 f or e xample; U nger 1 978, 2 8). D utch c arpenters h ad an e xample o f b uilding a f lat f loor o ut t o t he b ilges b efore p roceeding w ith t he r est o f t he s hip. T he c og, p erhaps d escended

f rom a C eltic t ype ,

w as t he most i mportant c argo s hip i n n orthern

E urope i n t he h igh M iddle A ges . I t a pparently a lways h ad a f lat f loor w ith p lanks f itted e dge-to-edge b ut with o verlapping p lanking o n t he s ides. T here i s n o q uestion t hat t he c og w as s hell-built . N etherlands s hipwrights b uilt s uch v essels f rom t he e arly C hristian e ra a t l east d own t hrough t he n ineteenth c entury . I n t he c ourse o f t he s eventeenth c entury t he c linkered s ides w ere c hanged t o h aving t he e dges o f t he p lanks a buting b ut t he e ssential f orm r emained t he s ame . T he t jalk m ay h ave b een d escended f rom t he e arlier c og ( IJ Wrecks NOP M40 and M93 f or e xample; v an B eylen 1 970, 1 63-165; Greenhills1976 , 6 9-70, 2 59) . D utch s hipcarpenters m astered t he b uilding o f af lat b ottom f irst l ong b efore t hey e ver t ried b uilding with t he s keleton m ethod . W hen t hey f aced t he p roblem o f h ow t o p roceed w ith t he n ew i mported m ethod i t w ould h ave b een e asiest t o b egin i n a f amiliar w ay e specially f or t he c og, t jalk, a nd o ther r elated t ypes. A lso D utch s hips c ontinued t o h ave f lat o r n early f lat b ottoms t hroughout t he s eventeenth c entury e ven o n t he l argest o f s hips s o t he a nalogy w ith t he c og was a s trong o ne . A ll o bservers m entioned t he s quare s ection o f D utch s hips, t he s harp a ngle o f t he b ilges, h old

h ad

a dvantages

i n

t he a lmost f lat f loor .

i ncreasing

c arrying

T he b ox-like s hape o f

c apacity

i n

c argo

s hips.

t he

D utch

d esigners b uilt w arships w ith t he s ame f orm . T he e xplanation a lways o ffered f or t he f lat b ottoms o f D utch s hips w as t he s hallow h arbours i n H olland a nd Z eeland. There were o ther a dvantages t o t he d esign b esides n ot r unning a ground when a pproaching a D utch p ort . D utch s hips r olled l ess, e specially i mportant when f iring c annon i n b attle ( Clement 1 864-1865, 3 , p art 1 , 3 363 37, p art 2 , 3 04-305 ; C olenbrander 1 919, 2 , 1 2-13 ; C rone 1 939, 3 5 , 1 67-169) . Whatever t he r easons f or t he f lat b ottoms o f D utch s hips a nd whatever t he a dvantages c ertainly i f t he b ottom w as f lat i t w as a much s impler p rocess t o b uild t he b ottom f irst b efore t he r ibs . I t

i s

n ot p ossible

s hipbuilders a dhered

t o

t o s ay,

a t l east a t

t heir way o f

t he

moment,

h ow l ong D utch

c ombining b uilding s tyles.

I t

i s

d ifficult t o f ind a ny e vidence f or b uilders a bandoning t he b astard s ystem i n t he l ate s eventeenth o r e ighteenth c enturies. T he D utch s hipbuilding i ndustry declined a nd a ll b ut c ollapsed i n t he e ighteenth c entury. T here was a g eneral s tagnation i n D utch t rade a nd a d rop i n o rders f or n ew s hips at h ome and e specially a broad. T here i s s trong e vidence t hat D utch t echnical s uperiority h ad b een e clipsed a nd t hat D utch b uilders l agged s eriously b ehind o thers i n E urope . U nder t hose c onditions i t i s h ard t o s ay whether D utch b uilding m ethods c hanged . E fforts w ere m ade t o i mprove t he p oor s tate o f t he D utch i ndustry t hrough b ringing i n f oreign , s pecifically English , shipwrights t o improve t he c ompetence o f n ative b uilders. C ontemporaries wrote b ooks a bout t he d ecline o f D utch s hipbuilding a nd 1 59

s uggested ways t o r ecoup l ost g round ( Anderson 1 947,

2 18-225; v an B eylen

1 970, 3 0-31, B ruijn 1 972, 1 8-24; U nger 1 978 , 4 2-45, 6 0-62; v an Y k 1 697, 1 92 1) . I t m ay w ell b e t hat u nder p ressure t o m odernize, t o c hange a nd f ollow p ractice i n E ngland a nd F rance t hat D utch b uilders i n t he e ighteenth c entury a bandoned t he b uilding o f t he b ottoms o f t heir s hips f irst . J ust a s a uthors l argely i gnored t he c ompromise m ethod i n t he s eventeenth t hey f ailed t o m ention a ny c hange i n t he e ighteenth . I t w as m uch l ess l ikely f or a uthors t o s ay h ow s hips w ere b uilt i n t he e ighteenth c entury s ince w riters t urned a way f rom b eing p ragmatic t o b eing r ather m ore t heoretical . T he i ncreasing n umber o f b ooks o n s hipbuilding w ere w ritten t o t each s hipbuilders h ow t o b ecome d esigners u sing c ompasses t o d raw o ut t he s hape o f t he s hip . E ven i n 1 586 when t he m aster s hipwright o f Q ueen E lizabeth I o f E ngland, M athew B aker , p ut t ogether h is " Fragments o f E nglish S hipwrightry" h e w as t rying t o r educe t he j ob o f s hip d esign t o d rawing a p roper f rame o r f rames ( Baker 1 585). B y t he e ighteenth c entury t he e ffort t o e xploit t he b urgeoning k nowledge o f m athematics a nd p hysics m ade b ooks o n s hip-building

c atalogues

o f p roportions with t ables and i nformation o n d oing c ertain t ypes o f c alculations . O fficials a t t he h ighest l evels w anted r esearch d one o n h ow t o u se mechanics and g eometry t o a id s hipbuilding . S cholars o bliged t hem. T he r esulting b ooks would a nd d id h ave a g reat impact i n t he l ong r un . B ut t hey and

s ay l ittle a bout what e ven

l ess

a bout

what

s hipcarpenters t hey

i n

f act

t hought d id.

i n t he e ighteenth c entury W itsen

h ad

i ncluded

a

d escription o f h ow t o b uild a s hip a nd h e i mplied t hat b uilders c ould h ave t oo m any r ules t o f ollow . I n t he e ighteenth c entury s uch s cepticism a bout t he v alue o f t he n ew s cientific k nowledge f or s hipbuilders w as c ompletely d rowned o ut ( Bushdell 1 664; D uhamel D u Monceau 1 752; Hasslöf 1 963, Murray 1 754; S utherland 1 711; T immerman 1 963 , 1 9-27; W itsen 1 690 , 2 23) .

1 75; T he

l ack o f e vidence o f t he u se o f b ottom-first c onstruction t hen d oes n ot p rove t hat i t w as n ot p ractised . J ohann R iding i n h is m arine d ictionary p ublished i n 1 793 m entioned t he s mall b locks o f w ood u sed t emporarily t o h old p lanks i n p lace b ut t here i s n ot t he s lightest s uggestion t hat t hey w ere t o b e u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he h ull ( Röding 1 793 , " knapen") . H e i s i ncorrect i n t ranslating

t he w ord

i nto E nglish a s

" forelock" .

I t would s eem v ery o dd t hat o nly t he D utch b uilt t heir s hips b ottom f irst . I f t he o rigin o f t he method was b uilding c ogs t hen a ll G erman a nd S candinavian s hipwrights s hould h ave f ollowed t he c ompromise p ath . A lso i f D utch b uilders u sed t he m ethod t hey p resumably t ook i t w ith t hem when t hey w ent o ff t o o ther p arts o f E urope. D utch s hipcarpenters b y t he end o f t he s ixteenth c entury were i n g reat d emand b ecause o f t heir s uperior s kills. T hey were h ired away b y f oreign g overnments, most n otably b y t he S wedish c rown f or t he b uilding o f warships s uch a s t he V asa, and p resumably t hey b uilt i n t he s ame s tyle a broad a s t hey d id a t h ome ( Baasch 1 899 , 1 1-12 , 2 13; v an D illen 1 974, 2 , n o . 1 368, 3 , n o. 9 46 , 1 312-1313, 1 316 , 1 637). I t i s c ertain t hat D utch b uilders d id n ot s uccessively i ntroduce b ottom-first c onstruction i nto e very c ountry where t hey worked. F rance i s t he most i mportant a nd o bvious e xample. C olbert h ired l arge n umbers o f D utch s hipwrights t o w ork i n n aval y ards ( Barbour 1 930 , 2 74 ; C lement 1 864-1865 , 3 , p art 1 , 1 32-133, 1 99-200, 2 11; v an D illen 1 974, 3 , n o. 4 0, 1 683) . T he a gents s ent f rom t hose s ame F rench n aval s hipyards t o H olland w ere a mazed w hen t he s aw c arpenters l aying d own t he b ottom b efore p utting u p t he f rames s o

t heir i mported D utch c arpenters

w hen t hey g ot I f

o bviously d id n ot u se

t he b astard m ethod

t o F rance .

t he D utch w ere

i ndeed a lone

i n b uilding i n t heir d ifferent w ay t hen

t he m ethod i tself m ay h ave i mparted s ome r eal b asis f or t he s uperiority o f D utch s hipbuilding. B ut t he c ase f or e xplaining D utch d ominance o f

1 60

s eventeenth c entury s hipbuilding b y t heir b uilding m ethod i s n ot a s trong o ne. I t was c ertainly e asier f or D utch s hipcarpenters t o a dopt t he c ompromise method. T he t ransition f rom t he o ld s hell t echnique t o t he r evoluntionary s keleton o ne would h ave b een made s impler, l ess d ramatic. B ut t he g ain w ould h ave b een o nly a s hort t erm o ne . O ver t he l ong p eriod o f t wo o r t hree c enturies D utch b uilders c ould h ave c omfortably t aken t he n ext s tep t oward b uilding c ompletely i n t he M editerranean f ashion a s d id s o m any o thers i n western E urope. F or most d esign p ractices i t was r eally unimportant i n which p rogression t he j ob was d one. D utch s hipbuilding g ained a dvantages f rom h aving s tandardized p arts f or t heir v essels. B ut s uch

s tandardization

was

p ractical,

e ffective

a nd

c ost-saving

i n

a ny

b uilding method. T here was n o d ifference i n t he t ype o r q uality o f wood u sed f or b uilding i n t he c ompromise o r p ure s keleton m ethod . T he D utch w ere f ree t o u se l ower q ualities o f

wood and t o u se t hem more e conomically n o

matter which p rogression t hey f ollowed . I t may w ell b e t hat t he b ottom o f a s hip w here t he p lanks w ere f itted e dge-to-edge f irst w as m ore w atertight t han o ne where p lanks w ere t acked o nto t he f rames a fter t he t imbers h ad b een e rected. More important t hough t o watertightness was t he s kill o f a nd e xecution b y t he s hipcarpenter . N o m atter which m ethod w as u sed t he b ottom o f t he s hip s till h ad t o b e c aulked. I t was s aid t hat D utch b uilders were v ery g ood a t c utting t heir s hips i n h alf a nd l engthening t hem b y i nserting n ew r ibs b etween t he o ld h alves ( Colenbrander 1 919, 2 , 1 4) . B ut what m ade t hat e asy was t he f lat f loor t ypical o f D utch v essels a nd n ot t he way i n which t he b ottom w as b uilt . T he s kills r equired o f s hipcarpenters w ere m uch t he s ame with b oth methods. I t may b e t hat h aving t he men f it t he b ottom p lanks f irst r equired m ore e ffort . G reater p recision m ay h ave b een n eeded t o g et t he p lanks t o f it e xactly b ut a g ood d eal o f p recision was n eeded w ith t he o ther a pproach t oo . I t a ppears t hat t eaching c arpenters w as m uch t he s ame n o m atter t he m ethod . S o w ith t raining a s w ith m ost o ther a spects l aying t he b ottom f irst m eant l ittle a dvantage t o D utch s hipbuilders . T here were s ome ways t hat made t he D utch method t echnically b etter, ways n oticed b y c ontemporaries . T here w as g reater f lexibility i n t he d esign o f t he s hip o nce b uilding w as u nderway . I f t he f rames w ent u p f irst t heir s hape i rrevocably e stablished t he f orm o f t he h ull . B ut i n t he c ompromise method t he s hape o f t he h ull c ould b e a djusted while t he b ottom was b eing l aid o r e ven a fter i t was c ompleted. T he t imbers were c ut t o f it t he p lanking a lready t here, t he p lanking s erving a s s omething o f a mould t o d ictate t he s hape o f t he l owest m ember o f t he f rame . T he b asic d esign o f c ourse determined b y t he l ength o f t he k eel, t he c urve o f t he p osts t he c urve o f t he m idship f rame . T hat w as t rue n o m atter t he a pproach . o nce t hat was d one i f t he f rames w ent u p f ollowed b y t he r ibbands t here

w as a nd B ut w as

n o r oom f or c hange b y t he b uilder . D utch d esigners t hen w orked m ore b y e ye t han b y t heory . T hey s aw what t he s hip w ould l ook l ike o nce t he b ottom w as i n p lace and t hen h ad c arpenters s hape t he r est o f t he f rames t o f it t he b ottom ( Hasslöf 1 972 , 5 9-60 ; H asslöf 1 963 , 1 70) . B uilding t he b ottom f irst d ecreased t he n umber o f e rrors i n d esign . T hat m ade i t e asier t o t rain t he d esigners o f s hips, t he c hiefs o f t he s hipbuilding y ards, s ince t hey d id n ot h ave t o h ave t he

s ame c ommand o f

t heory a nd

o f

m athematics a s d esigners

i n

F rance o r England. P resumably t here was l ess n eed t o m ake c hanges o r a djustments o nce t he s hip was l aunched. A dding e xtra t imber t o improve s ailing q ualities w as a c ommon p ractice i n t he s eventeenth c entury o nce t he c rankness o f as hip h ad b een d etermined o n a s hakedown c ruise. I f i ndeed t he c ompromise m ethod m ade D utch d esigners s urer o f t heir p roducts t hen t he a pproach t hey t ook t o d esign m ay i n f act h ave h elped t hem t o p roduce s hips q uickly and t o p roduce r eliable o nes . T hey m ay a lso h ave f ound t hemselves b etter a ble t o e stimate t he d raught o f a s hip b efore i t l eft t he ways . T hat

1 61

w as a c ritical s kill i n t he L ow C ountries .

N ot u ntil

t he e ighteenth c entury

c ould d esigners r eliably p redict h ow m uch a s hip w ould d raw u sing t he s cientific a pproach s o a gain D utch s hipbuilders m ay h ave b een b etter ( Perrin 1 918 , l xx-lxxiv ; T immerman 1 963 , 1 516 ; W itsen 1 690 , 3 02-309) . D utch d rive t oward s pecialized d esign b egan w ith t he h erring b uss i n

n ew o ff T he t he

f ifteenth c entury which h ad a f lat b ottom . I t a lso h ad a h igh r atio o f l ength t o b readth . T he c ompromise m ethod c ould h ave b een e asily p ractised a nd p robably w as o n t he b uss . T he f luit d esign g rew o ut o f e xperiments w ith t he b uss a nd i t t oo h ad a f lat o r n early f lat b ottom . I t i s e asy t o s ee h ow t he c ompromise a pproach c ould h ave b een c arried o ver f rom o ne d esign t o t he o ther i n t he p rocess o f s pecialization . B ut D utch d esigners a ppear t o h ave u sed t heir u nique m ethod o n m any d ifferent t ypes o f v essels . Warships g ot t he

s ame

t reatment

a s

f ishing b oats,

c argo s hips a nd

i nland c raft .

S o f or

t he c ritical q uestion o f d esign s pecialization i t a ppears t hat c hoosing t o b uild t he b ottom f irst b efore t he f rames h ad l ittle i f a ny i mmediate e ffect . T hough i t w ould b e h elpful t o h ave m ore s ubstantiating e vidence s till i t s eems l ikely t hat H asslöf a nd T immerman a re r ight . D utch b uilders i n t he s eventeenth c entury p robably d id b uild p art o f t he s hell o f t heir v essels f irst , j ust t o t he b ilges, b efore t hey p ut u p t he f rames . H owever t hey w ere u nquestionably s till p ractising s keleton c onstruction . T he s trength o f t he v essel c ame e ntirely f rom t he i nternal f rames. T he p lanks o n t he b ottom were c ertainly f itted e dge-to-edge b ut n ever e dge-joined a s would b e t he c ase i n p ure s hell c onstruction . T he p rincipal c onclusion which H asslöf d raws f rom h is e xamination o f b uilding t echniques c an n ot b e d isputed . T he s hift f rom s hell t o s keleton c onstruction i n n orthern E urope was n ot a s ingle e vent , n ot o ne r evolutionary c hange b ut r ather a g radual p rocess w ith m any i ntermediate s teps . I n f act i t m ay w ell b e t hat t here w as n ot e ven a n e volution a t a ll b ut s imply b orrowing f rom d ifferent t raditions a s b uilders t ried t o f ind t he most p ractical a nd e ffective way t o b uild t heir b oats ( Greenhill

1 976 ,

a re u ncertain .

7 0-72, I t

9 1-95,

2 94) .

B ut

t here a re

s till

s ome

m atters

t hat

i s n ot c lear h ow c ommon i t w as f or b uilders i n t he D utch

R epublic o r f or t hat m atter i n a ll o f n orthern E urope t o b uild t he b ottom o f t heir v essels f irst o r i f t hey u sed t hat a pproach o nly f or c ertain t ypes o r s izes o f s hips. I t i s a lso u nclear h ow l ong t he m ethod s urvived i n t he N etherlands. T he e ffect o f t he D utch c hoice o f b uilding m ethod o n t heir c ommitment t o d esign s pecialization s eems t o h ave b een m inimal . While t here w ere s ome p ossible s avings t o b e r eaped f rom p utting d own t he b ottom f irst i n t he t raining o f d esigners a nd a voiding m istakes i n c onstruction t hose s avings d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een g reat e nough t o e xplain t he m assive s uccess o f t he D utch s hipbuilding a nd i n t urn t he s hipping i ndustry i n t he s eventeenth c entury. T he s trengths o f D utch s hips a nd o f t he i ndustry which p roduced t hem s eem t o h ave c ome f rom o ther s ources . O n t he o ther h and t he c hoice b y D utch s hipcarpenters t o r etain s ome o f t he o lder ways o f d oing t hings, t o r ely o n p ast p ractice d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave i nhibited t he i ndustry i n a ny w ay .

T he w ay D utch d esigners a nd b uilders p ut t ogether

t he m ost p rofitable

s hips o f t he s eventeenth c entury i s c ertainly o f g reat importance t o t he h istory o f s hipbuilding . T he c hoices which t hose m en made i ndicate c learly t hat i n g eneral a nd i n s eventeenth c entury i ndustry i n p articular t echniques c hanged o nly d ocumenting

g radually . M aritime e thnology h as p roven a v aluable t ool i n t he s low a nd o ften t entative a doption o f n ew t echnology.

H owever i t a ppears t hat, until f urther i nformation a bout t he v alue o f t he c ompromise a pproach o r t he p revalence o f t hat a pproach b ecomes a vailable , i t w ill b e f rom t he w ell-known o lder e xplanations t hat t he r easons f or D utch c ommercial a nd i ndustrial s uccess i n t he s eventeenth c entury w ill c ome .

1 62

R EFERENCES A .A.,

A rchief v an A drichen,

A nderson ,

R .C"

1 947 .

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( 1947),

A lgemeen R ijksarchief,

E ighteenth C entury

B ooks

o n

T he H ague. S hipbuilding,

Baasch, E ., 1 899. B eiträge S eeschiffbaues u nd d er S chiffbaupolitik.

z ur

Geschichte

d es

B aker, M ., 1 585 . F ragments o f E nglish S hipwightry, C ollege, C ambridge U niversity, P epys L ibrary, 2 820. B arbour,

V .,

B arbour,

1 950.

V"

v an

B eylen,

d eutschen

Magdalene

C apitalism i n A msterdam i n t he 1 7th C entury.

1 930 .

S eventeenth C entury,

T he

2 18-225.

D utch

and

E nglish

E conomic H istory R eview 2 ,

J"

1 970.

Merchant

S hipping

i n

t he

2 61-290.

S chepen v an d e Netherlanden V an d e

l ate

m iddeleeuwen t ot h et e inde v an d e 1 7e e euw. B redius, r ev.

H .

A"

1 969.

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G erson.

B ruijn, J .R ., 1 972. E ngelse s cheepsbouwers o p d e Amsterdamse A dmiraliteirtswerf i n d e a chttiende e euw: e nige a specten, Mededelingen v an d e N ederlandse V ereniging v oor Z eegeschiedenis 2 5, C lgment, P" c d., 1 864-1865. C olbert. C olenbrander,

H .T .,

e d.,

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1 919.

1 8-24.

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e t

Mgmoires

d e

B escheiden u it V reemde A rchieven

o mtrent D e G roote N ederlandsche Z eeoorlogen 1 652-1676. v an C ortgene, C rone,

J .R.,

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J .G .,

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1 974 .

B ronnen

B edrijfsleven e n G ildewezen v an A msterdam ,

t ot

v ol.

d e

3 ,

G eschiedensis

v an

h et

1 633-1672.

v an D oornick, F" 1 972 . B yzantium m istress o f t he s ea: A H istory o f S eafaring b ased o n U nderwater Archaeology ( ed. G .

3 30-641, i n B ass), 1 33-

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F" t he

1 976 . h ull,

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A rchaeology a nd U nderwater E xploration 5 , D uhamel D u M onceau,

J .R.,

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1 15-131.

E lgmens d e l 'architecture n avale.

1 63

G AZ, Z ierikzee.

G emeente A rchief Z ierikzee,

G reenhill, B" s tudy.

1 976 .

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Archaeology

o f

t he

B oat.

A n ew

i ntroductory

H asslöf, 0 ., 1 972. Main Principles i n t he T echnology o f S hipB uilding , i n S hips a nd S hipyards S ailors a nd F ishermen, Introduction t o Maritime E thnology 2 7-72.

( eds.

0 .

H asslöf,

H asslöf, 0 ., 1 963. Wrecks, M ariner's M irror 4 9, 1 62-177. I J,

H enningsen ,

A rchives

a nd

A .E .

L iving

C hristensen

J r .),

Traditions,

T he

I jsselmeerpolder W recks.

M urray, M .,

P ett,

H .

1 754.

P errin , W .G ., x v-civ. R älamb, A .,

A T reatise o n S hip-Building a nd N avigation.

1 918 .

1 691.

I ntroduction,

i n T he Autobiography o f

S kepps B yggerij e h er A delig Ö fnings T ionde T om .

R öding, J .H ., 1 793. A llgemeines Wörterbuch d er Marine E uropaeischen S eesprachen n ebst V ollstaendigen E rklaerungen. S utherland, W ., T immerman , G ., S chiffbauhandwerk, T immerman, G .,

Phineas

1 711.

B ritain's G lory o r,

in A llen

S hip-Building U nvail'd.

1 963. D as E indringen d er Naturwissenschaft i n d as D eutsches Museumi A bhandlungen u nd B erichte, 3 0 , 5 .53 . 1 979.

D ie

S uche

n ach d er

S chriften d es D eutshcen S chiffahrtsmuseums, U nger, R .W., 1 981. T echnology a nd C ulture 2 2,

g ünstigsten S chiffsform,

1 1.

Warships a nd C argo S hips 2 33-252.

1 64

i n Medieval E urope,

1 5.

V ISTULA C ARGO-SHIPS F ROM T HE X VI-XV III C ENTURIES P rzemys/aw S molarek

P olish b oat-building a nd t he s hips i t p roduced b elong t o t he p roblems w hich a re a lmost c ompletely u nknown i n E uropean l iterature o n t he s ubject . T he a im o f t his a rticle i s t o g ive a c oncise p resentation o f o ne s pecific s ubject , n amely t he t ypes o f P olish m erchant r iver v essels f rom t he 1 6th t o 1 8th c enturies . T his i s u ndoubtedly a n arrow t opic , i f i t i s r estricted t o o nly o ne p eriod i n h istory a nd o ne g roup o f s hips , b ut s uch a c hoice i s , I t hink , j ustified f or t wo r easons . F irstly , t here w ere s hips w hich w ere t ypical o f V istula s hipping d uring t he p eriod o f i ts p articularly i ntensive a nd a t t he s ame t ime v ery s pecific , " Polish" s tage o f d evelopment . S econdly , t he t ypes o f s hips m entioned i llustrate f eatures c haracteristic o f n ative , P olish r iver c raft i n a ll t he p eriods o f t heir e volution . I n t his s ense t hey m ight , I t rust , g ive a c ertain , g eneral v iew o f f ormer P olish b oat-building .

S plaw s hipping ,

i ts o rigin a nd c haracter

T he g eographic d iscoveries o f t he c lose o f t he 1 5th a nd b eginning o f t he 1 6th c enturies w ith t heir c oncomitant e conomic-social p henomena , l ed t o c hanges i n r elations i n E uropean s hipping .

T he e ra o f t he H ansa h egemony

w as r eceding i nto h istory . T he c entre o f g ravity o f t rade t urnovers s hifted t o p orts s ituated o n t he A tlantic c oasts . T he t ransformations a lready t aking p lace i n E uropean e conomy : i n t he W est - u rban d evelopment ( the " demographic e xplosion " i n t he t owns) a nd i ndustrialization ( at t he e xpense o f a griculture i n H olland a nd E ngland) , w hereas s ome c ountries r egressed i n t heir a grarian e conomy - i ntensified a nd i ncreased t o ag rowing d egree , t he d emand f or a griculturaland f orest p roducts . T he K ingdom o f P oland b ecame t he m ain s upplier o f t hese p roducts a nd m any r aw m aterials f or i ndustry , t hus g aining t he n ame o f " the g rainery o f E urope a nd t imber-yard f or t he n eeds o f s hipbuilding" . C ontemporary P oland b oasted e very p redisposition t o f ulfil j ust s uch a r ole .

I t s tretched o ut

o ver a t remendous a rea o f a bout m illion k m' f rom M iedzyrzecz i n t he w est , t o S molensk i n t he e ast a nd f rom t he B altic i n t he n orth t o t he B lack S ea i n t he s outh ( Fig . 1 5 .0 . W ithin i ts b oundaries c ould b e f ound b oth r egions w ith e xtremely f ertile s oils a nd i mmeasurable a nd p rimaeval f orests a ffording e xcellent r aw m aterial f or b oat-building . c entury , T hese

E ven b y t he 1 3th

t imber a nd f orest p roducts w ere b eing e xported f rom t hese f orests .

e xports

g radually

i ncreased .

s ource m aterials f airly e arly ,

E xports

o f

g rain ,

i ncreased s uccessively

a lso

r ecorded

i n

w ith t he g rowing

d emand a broad . I nitially , t his w as o f l esser i mportance t han t he e xport o f f orest p roducts , b ut t he p roportions u nderwent a c hange a bout t he m iddle o f t he 1 5th c entury .

I n t his p eriod, P oland 's a griculture e ntered i nto a

s tage o f i ntensive d evelopment , e xpressed i n ag reat i ncrease i n p roduction ; t his e nabled t he e xport o f a gricultural a nd s tock-breeding p roducts o n a g reat s cale .

T owards t he c lose o f

t he 1 5th c entury ,

p lace o n t he l ist o f g oods e xported f rom P oland . 1 65

g rain o ccupied f irst

T he r ivers - o n w hich s hipping a nd r afting h ad b een p ractised f rom t ime i mmemorable - c onstituted t he m ain e xport r outes f or P olish a gricultural a nd f orest p roducts . I n v iew o f t he c haracter o f t he c argoes, r iver t ransport w as - c onsidering t he s tate o f t he r oads a nd p ossibilities o f c arriage o verland - t he m ost c onvenient a nd c heapest m eans o f c arriage . M oreover , c arriage b y w ater w as f avoured o wing t o a w ell-developed n etwork o f g reat w aterways f lowing d own t o t he B altic ( Fig . 1 5 .0 .

t hese

F rom a ll r egions o f t he e xtensive k ingdom , g oods w ere c arried d own r ivers t o t he B altic p orts : d own t he D zwina t o R iga , t he N iemen t o

K rolewiec , t he W arta a nd O dra t o S zczecin , b ut t he m ain t raffic w as a long t he V istula t o G dansk . I n t he 1 6th - 1 8th c enturies , a bout 3 /4 o f P oland 's e xports a nd a bout 2 /3 o f h er i mports p assed t hrough G dansk. I n t he B altic p orts ,

t he c argoes w ere t ransferred t o s ea-going v essels,

m ainly D utch , a s t hey h ad t aken t he p lace o f t he H ansa i n B altic t rade . I t i s p robably w orth r ecalling t hat i n 1 671, d e W itt s tated t hat " the g rain t rade w ith t he B altic c onstitutes t he s ource a nd r oots o f t he N etherlands ' g reatest t rade a nd s hipping" . I n e ffect , a bout 2 /3 o f i n A msterdam , i n a bout 1 660 , w as e ngaged i n t his t rade.

t he a ctive c apital

D utch s hips p redominated a mong t hose c alling a t G dansk . A t t he s ame t ime - l et u s n ote - t owards t he c lose o f t he 1 6th c entury , a bout 5 0-75% o f a ll t he s hips p assing f rom t he w est t o t he B altic v ia t he S ound w ere d estined f or G danak . I n c onsequence, a t t he t urn o f t he 1 6th/17th c enturies , a lmost 2 /3 o f t he B altic t rade w as c oncentrated i n t he p ort o n t he R iver M otlawa . I t c ould t hus b e s aid t hat a k ind o f g reat g rain r oute h ad f ormed ;

i ts

o ne b ranch w as f ormed b y P oland 's w ater-ways a nd t he o ther - t he D utch s ea r outes . T his p eriod w as t hat i n w hich P oland 's r iver s hipping w as a t i ts p rime. W ho w as t he m ain r epresentative a nd o rganizer o f t his s hipping a t t he t ime? T his e xcellent e conomic s ituation w as p ut t o g ood u se b y t he P olish n obility w hich d ominated t he s tate a uthorities a nd t o w hich t he r emaining s ocial c lasses w ere s ubordinated . B y m eans o f t he S ejm ( Parliament) , t he n obles l aid d own t he l aws , i ncluding t hose c oncerning t rade , s hipping a nd c ustoms d uties .

E nsuring t hemselves f reedom o f s hipping o n t he " navigable

r ivers" b y l aw, t hey w ere a ble t o f orce t he p rofessional m erchants a nd c arriers w ho h ad p reviously p redominated o n t he V istula , i nto t he b ackground . T he n obles w ere l andowners f or w hom t he p easants w orked a s s erf l abour ; t hey t hus h ad a t t heir d isposal t he a gricultural p roducts w hich c onsitituted t he b asis o f g oods s hipped t o G dansk . T he s erfs c arted g rain t o t he g ranaries a t t he l anding-stages ( the m ajority o f t he p orts a lso b elonged t o t he n obles) . F or t he p urpose o f t ransporting t he g rain , t he n obles b uilt o f w ood f rom t heir o wn f orests - s hips s uitable f or t heir n eeds. T he v illeins c onstituted t he c rews o f t hese s hips. I n P oland ,

t he p eriod f rom t he 1 6th t o 1 8th c enturies m ight b e c alled

t he e ra o f " gentry s hipping" . I n P olish l iterature , h owever , i t b ears a m ore a dequate , b ut d ifficult t o t ranslate , n ame - s p/aw s hipping , s piaw m eaning t o d rift , f loat , o r s hip a c argo d ownstream .

1 66

A s

m entioned ,

t he V istula

w as

t he

m ain w aterway

f or

t his

s hipping .

W ith i ts t ributaries , i t c overed a h interland o f a bout 2 00 ,000 k m 2, t he l anding s tages a nd p orts b eing s ituated a long t hese r ivers . P roducts w ere b rought i n n ot o nly f rom t he n earby r egions , b ut e ven f rom m ore d istant p rovinces , e .g . V olhynia , P odolia a nd t he U kraine . T he g oods w ere c arried i n s tages a long r oads o ften s tretching o ver 3 00 k m , b efore r eaching t he p orts, i n s ummer i n l ong c aravans o f c arts, i n w inter , o n s leighs. T he s hipping s eason o n t he V istula l asted f rom M arch t o N ovember .

T he

f irst s hips s et o ff a long t he r oute f rom t he l anding s tages a t t he b eginning o f s pring , a t h igh w ater . T o g ive s ome i dea o f t he t raffic , I s hall m ention , t hat i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 6th c entury, a bout 1 ,000 s hips s ailed d own t he V istula t o G dansk a nnually . I n 1 555 a t otal o f 1 ,669 s hips p assed t hrough t he c ustoms o ffice a t W /ociawek , 2 ,000 r iver b oats w ere r ecorded a t G dansk i n 1 729 , w hereas 1 ,878 i n 1 793 . T he l argest n umber o f r iver b oats t o c all a t G dansk w as 2 ,222 ( in 1 751) . T here w ere f ewer , o n a verage, b ut t hese f igures g ive s ome i dea a s t o t he e xtent o f b oat p roduction i nland. I t i s n ow t ime

t o p ass o n t o t he r eal s ubject o f t he a rticle ;

l et u s

t herefore i ntroduce t he m ost i mportant t ypes o f s hips b uilt t o s erve V istula s hipping i n t he 1 6th - 1 8th c enturies.

T ypes o f s hips u sed i n s p/aw s hipping F irst , h owever , s everal g eneral c omments . G enetically , P olish i nland w aterways ' c raft o riginate f rom t wo b asic p rototypes ; t he d ugout a nd t he r aft . D uring t he c enturies p receding t he p eriod u nder c onsideration , t hey u nderwent a n e volution i n w hich t he d evelopment , f irst o f t he d ugout a nd r aft t hemselves a nd t heir m utual i nfluence , t hen t he e volution a nd m utual i nfluence o f t he b oats a nd s hips o riginating f rom t hese p rototypes , c an b e t raced. S uch f actors a s , t he c haracter o f t he w ater c onditions , a bundance o f b oatbuilding m aterials , l evel o f t echnology , o rganizational f orms o f t he r iver s hipping a nd t he k ind o f t ransport r equirements i n p articular s tages o f i ts d evelopment , h ad a n e ssential i nfluence o n t he s ilhouette a nd c onstruction o f t he g radually d eveloping m erchant s hips . T he e ffect o f t hese c an b e s een i n e ach c onsecutive s tage o f d evelopment o f t he V istula s hips . I am s ure t hat o ur r eaders w ill h ave n o d ifficulty i n d istinguishing t he i nfluence o f t hese f actors a lso o n t he t ypes o f V istula s hips f rom t he 1 6th - 1 8th c enturies. U ndergoing a s pecified e volution ,

t he i ndigenous t ypes o f V istula s hips

d id, a fter a ll, t hroughout t heir whole h istory , r etain t heir b asic d istinguishing f eatures , p articular t o f loating c raft i n t he P olish c ultural a rea. T he s pecifics o f t hese t ypes w ould , u ndoubtedly b e m ore d istinct , i f i t w as p ossible, h ere, t o c ompare t hem , w ith t hose c haracteristic o f t he n eighbouring r ivers , e .g . t he s hips u sed o n t he E lbe , O dra , w ith t he w iciny o f t he N iemen , o r s trugi o f t he D zwina , n ot t o s peak o f c raft t ypical o f t he r ivers r unning d own t o t he B lack S ea .

1 67

R afts A s m entioned, t imber , w as o ne o f t he m ain g oods e xported f rom t he P olish C ommonwealth . I t w as f loated d own r ivers i n r afts. T he f orm a nd c onstruction o f t he r aft d epended u pon t he t ype o f t imber t o b e f loated a nd t he p eriod i n h istory . e .g . f or c oniferous r ound t imber , ( Fig. 1 5 .2). T hose

r afts d id ,

h owever ,

b aulks ,

T he m anner o f l ashing d iffered o ak b eams o r s taves a nd s plit l ogs

h ave c ertain m utual f eatures .

T heir b asic

f orm w as t he s o-called p lenica , o r s et o f s everal l ogs a rranged s ide b y s ide a nd l ashed t ogether . T he b asic e lement o f t he t ransverse l ashing c onstituted r amiona ( " arms" ) o r c ross-timbers p laced a t e ach e nd o f t he r aft . T he m anner i n w hich t hese c ross-timbers w ere t ied o r f astened t o t he l ogs o r b alks, d epended u pon t he s ort o f w ood o f w hich t he r aft w as b uilt. T hus o ak b eams w ere t ied t o t he c ross-timber b y m eans k o/acze , i .e. r opes o f t wisted o ak t wigs.

o f

s o-called

I n t he c ase o f ap lenica c onsisting o f b aulks , t hese w ere j oined t o t he c ross-timbers b y m eans.of w ooden p egs. Ap lenica o f r ound t imbers c onsisted o f f rom s everal t o 2 0 l ogs , a lways a rranged w ith t he y ounger ( narrower ) e nd p ointing d own r iver , h ence t hey w ere t rapezoid i n s hape ( Fig . 1 5 .8) . T hese w ere l ashed a s f ollows : h oles w ere b urnt ( later b ored) i n e ach l og l ying u nder t he " arm" , o n e ach s ide o f t he c ross-timber .

T his e nabled e ach l og t o b e l ashed t o t he c ross-timber

w ith o ak w ithes ( so-called c hluby) .

T he l ashing w as t hen s trengthened b y

f itting w ooden p egs i nto t he h oles. S everal p lenicas a rranged o ne b ehind t he o ther a nd b ound t ogether w ith w ithies a nd s pecial w ooden c rooks ( so-called r ykiels) f ormed a p as ( " belt" ) . T his m ight c onsist o f s everal , e .g . 3 -5 p lenicas . E ach o f t hese b oasted i ts o wn n ame : t he f irst w as t he g lowa ( "head" ) , t he s econd t he z aglowek ( "behind t he h ead" ) , t he t hird t he b uchta , t he f ourth p rzedcal a nd t he l ast t he c al . T he r ule o bserved w as t hat e ach p lenica b e w ider t han t he o ne p receding , i n c onsequence o f w hich , t he l ast ( the c al) s hould b e h alf a s w ide a gain a s t he " head ' ' . I n t urn , t wo " belts" p laced s ide b y s ide a nd j oined t ogether , f ormed a p /ta ( this w ill f urther b e c alled a " big r aft" ) . I n s uch a " big r aft" , t he l eft " belt" w as c alled t he " Gdansk b elt" a nd t he r ight - t he " Torun b elt" . T wo a djacent p lenicas o f n eighbouring " belts" f ormed a g len! F or t he n eeds o f t he r aftsmen , e ach r aft h ad a b uda i .e . a s imple h ut o f b oards o r d ry t wigs, o ften w ith a s traw r oof, a lso a s econd , b etter b uilt , c alled t he s karbowka ( "lordly" ) , w hich h ad a ccommodation f or t he w riter a nd a f ood s tore . M eals w ere c ooked i n t he ' kitchen" , w hich w as , i n f act , a h earth b uilt o f b ricks a nd c lay a nd w hich w as s heltered b y a p ortable p laited

f ence

( Fig .

1 5 .3) .

T he " big r afts" d rifted d own r iver w ith t he c urrent , s pecial p ropulsion - e ither o ars o r s ails. 1 68

w ithout a ny

I n v iew o f t he n umerous s hallows , s hoals a nd u nderwater o bstacles i n t he r iver , a lso t he l ength o f t he r aft , i ts w eight a nd p oor m anoeuvrability , a f ast-moving " big r aft" c ould e asily s trike a n o bstacle . S o-called o p/awas , i gielniks , z astrza/as a nd z agratowniks w ere u sed t o p rotect t he r afts a gainst i mpacts a long t he s ide . T hese w ere m assive b eams l oosely t ied t o t he " head" a nd o ther u nits o f t he r afts b y m eans o f r opes . T he b eams a lso f acilitated t he m ovement o f t he r afts, s topping w ater f rom e ntering a t 1 5.3).

t he s ide b etween ,

e .g .

t he f irst a nd

s econd u nits

e tc"

( Fig .

D rygawkas s erved t o m aintain t he " big r afts" i n t he m ain s tream o f t he r iver . T he d rygawkas w ere h efty p oles 1 .50 - 1 4 .50 m . l ong , s imilar t o h uge o ars w ith r elatively n arrow b lades , s et a t t he h ead a nd a fter p art o f t he r aft ( Fig . 1 5 .3), o ne o n e ach " belt" , t hus t wo f orward a nd t wo a ft . T hey r ested o n s iod/o ( "saddle") a nd m oved b etween w ooden p ins . T he s iod/o w as a n aturally b ent s em icircular c urve , a ttached t o t he f irst a nd l ast o f t he c ross-timber , c onvex p art u pwards, i nto w hich t he p ins w ere d riven , i n t urn . I f t he

s tream w as t oo s low, o r t he r iver w as s hallow , l ong p oles

c alled l aski ( " sticks" ) t erminating i n f errules w ere u sed t o p ole t he r afts ; w here i t w as n ecessary t o s top t he r afts t his c ould b e c arried o ut i n t wo w ays : b y m eans o f ag rot o r s ryk . T he " big r afts" u sually s et o ut i n t he s pring o r a utumn , w hen t he w ater i n t he r ivers w as a t i ts h ighest . f orming a s o-called k olej ( "train").

T hey u sually t ravelled " en m asse" ,

A t t he h ead o f s uch a g roup o f r afts ( kolej) w as a p ilot ( retman ) i n a d ugout , w ith a p ilot-mate ( retmanczyk) . T hey w ere v ery w ell a cquainted w ith t he r iver , b ut t he V istula , u nregulated, f requently c hanged i ts m ainstream . I t w as t hus t he t ask o f t he p ilot t o f ind t he m ost c onvenient c hannel i n t he p articular y ear a nd m onth . H is e xperience e nabled h im t o " feel" t he r iver , h e w as a ble t o e stimate t he d epth f rom s ome d istance , f rom t he c ourse a nd c olour o f t he w ater , d eftly m arking t he s tream w ith p oles . As pecific s ignal s ystem t hus c ame i nto b eing i ncidentally . F or e xample : a k o/biegany , i .e . s traight p ole i ndicated t he d eep w ater , a k o/ / amany o r p artly f ractured p ole , w arned a gainst d anger . I f t he p ilot r aised h is p addle i n h is l eft h and , f or e xample , t his m eant t hat t he l eft s ide o f t he r iver w as u nsafe , w hereas s triking t he w ater w ith t he p addle a t t he r ight s ide o f t he d ugout i ndicated t hat t he w ater w as d eep o n t hat s ide . T he r emoval o f t he p ilot 's h at a nd r aising i t a bove h is h ead m eant t hat t he r aft w as o n as afe c ourse a nd t hat f ollowing c raft c ould c arry o n t heir w ay. R afts c ould b e f loated d own t o G dansk w ithout c argo , t hey e tc .

f requently

c arried

T he " big r afts" ,

f orest p roducts

s uch a s p itch ,

a s

w ax ,

t imber , t ar ,

b ut

p otash ,

" belts" a nd s ingle p lenicas c arring c argo t o G dansk ,

t hus a cted n ot s o m uch a s r afts i n t he s ense o f f loated l umber , a s a lso - o r r ather - t ransport c raft . S ingle r afts w ere f loated a long P olish r ivers i n s uch a c haracter - a s am eans o f t ransport - i n p rehistoric t imes. L ater , w ith t he d evelopment o f i nland s hipping t rade, t hey f ound i ncreasing a pplication i n t he c arriage o f g oods d own r iver . I n t he M iddle A ges , w hen t imber a nd f orest p roducts w ere e xported i n p articular , t he u se 1 69

o f t he r aft a lso a s a m eans o f t ransport c ould b e s aid t o b e an atural p henomenon . L iterary s ources m ention t hat H ungarian c opper w hich h ad b een f orwarded i n t ransit t hrough P oland s ince t he M iddle A ges , w as a lso c arried f rom t he c ountry 's s outhern b oundary t o t he B altic , a long t he D unajec a nd V istula o n r afts. I n t ime w ider c arriage o f g oods

a pplication o f s imple i mprovements w hich e nabled t he w hich c ould n ot t olerate m oisture , o n r afts, was

i ntroduced . O ne s uch i mprovement w as t he p lacing o n t he r afts, o f p latforms o r f loors o f p lanks , o n j oists . V ertical p osts w ere s et u p i n t he c orners o f t his r ectangular f loor . T hese e nabled t he s tretching - f rom p ost t o p ost - o f ap lanking h ousing , p rotecting t he f loor o n a ll f our s ides . T his w as c alled a k okoszka . T he a dditional l ining o f t he f loor w ith s traw m atting e nabled t he c arriage , i n t his c hest-like c ontainer , o f s uch c argoes a s e .g . g rain . Ar aft w ith s imilar c onstruction c an b e s een i n I ssak v an d en B locke 's p ainting f rom 1 609 ( Fig . 1 5 .4) .

T his w as o ne o f

t he

w ays w hich l ed t o t he t ransformation o f t he r aft i nto a c raft w ith b uilt-up s ides . A nother f actor f avouring s uch e volution , w as t he f orming o f r afts o f d eal p lanks , r einforced n ot o nly w ith c ross-timbers , b ut - a mong o ther t hings - w ith a n a dditional c ouple o f c ross-pieces ( progi) . T here w ere a lso , o f c ourse , o ther p aths w hich l ed t o t he t ransformation o f t he r aft i nto a s hip , b ut w e s hall n ot d iscuss t hese i n t his a rticle .

T he k omiega. O ne o f t he t ypes w hich d eveloped f rom t he r aft , w as t he k omiega . w ould s eem t o h ave a ppeared , o r g ained p opularity d uring t he p eriod o f g reat i ntensification o f e xports o f a gricultural p roducts f rom P oland . t he

1 6th c entury ,

w ritten s ources s till c ontained

t he

e xpressions :

I t t he I n

s trues

a lias c omiegi o r r ates v ulgo c omiegi. T he k omiega r esembled t he r aft - t o t he e nd o f i ts d ays - i n many r espects : c onstruction , n ames o f p articular p arts, o peration e tc . O ne c ould s ay t hat i t w as , a s i t w ere , ar aft , t he f our s ides o f which h ad b een b uilt u p w ith p lanks . O r t hat t he k omiega g ave t he i mpression o f ag reat f loating c hest o r c ontainer f or t he c arriage o f g rain . T he l ocation o f t he c entres i n w hich t he k omiegas w ere b uilt w ould s uggest t hat i t m ight h ave o riginated f rom t he r iver B ug b asin ;

i t w as ,

a t a ny r ate ,

p opular i n t his

r egion . C ompletely

f lat-bottomed ,

i t w as

t rapezoid i n h orizontal p rojection ,

s imilar t o t he p lenica ( "single r aft") : i t w as s lightly n arrower a t t he " head" t han t he c al ( " stern" ) . I n t he 1 8th c entury , t he k omiegas b uilt o n t he B ug w ere a bout 1 6 -1 9 .50 m . i n l ength , w ide a t t he " head" ( Figs . 1 5 .5 a nd 1 5 .8) .

7-9m .

w ide a ft a nd 5 - 7 m .

T heir l oading c apacity w as s ubstantial, b eing a bout 1 5 t o 3 5 l asts. T he c rew o f ak omiega b uilt o n t he r iver B ug c onsisted o f 6- 9m en a nd a " foreman" . D uring i ts t rip , a k omiega d rifted w ith t he c urrent . T he c rew w as d istributed s imilarly t o t hat o n t he r aft : s ome o f t he m en w ere p ositioned i n t he r ear a nd s ome f orward . T hey o perated t he m assive d rygawkas m entioned i n t he d escription o f t he r aft . T he m ain d rygawka ( located i n t he f ore p art) w as a bout 9 m . l ong , t he d rygawka c alowa ( located i n t he a fter p art) - a bout 7 m .

( Fig .

1 5 .5) .

T he p rimary t ask o f t he c rew

w as t o m aintain t he k omiega o n i ts p roper c ourse - i n o ther w ords t o s teer 1 70

t he c raft . I f i t b ecame n ecessary t o p ole t he v essel , s o-called l aski i . e . l ong , s trong s ticks t erminating i n f errules, w ere u sed. S imilar a gain t o t he r afts , t he k omiega w as b uilt f or a s ingle r un d own r iver t o G dansk w ith g rain . O n a rrival , t he c raft w ere s old a s b uilding m aterial o r f irewood . O ccasionally t he l ocal m erchants o r c arriers p urchased t hem , f or t heir o wn t ransport r equirements o r a s p ort l ighters. A fter t he p artitioning o f P oland, t his t ype d isappeared .

A nother

c raft w hich c ompeted w ith t he k omiega t o ac ertain e xtent , h ad , i n a ny c ase , a lready a ppeared o n t he h orizon . T his w as t he g alar .

T he g alar . T his t ype w as p articularly p opular i n s outhern P oland , i n t he r egion o f t he u ppper V istula a nd i ts t ributaries . B eing o f v ery o ld o rigin , i t w ould , h owever , h ave s eemed t o h ave b een o f l ocal o r r egional u se . L ater , w hen t he V istula s p/aw-shipping f irst f lourished , i t o ccasionally o perated a s a l ighter, a ccompanying t he f lotilla o f m erchant s hips. I ts i mportance i n t he s plaw g radually i ncreased, c entury , u ntil a bout 1 780 , t he V istula c ustoms r ecords

b ut i n t he 1 8th i ncluded e ntries

c oncerning a s mall n umber o f g alars a rriving a t G dansk a s i ndependent m erchant o r t rading v essels . W ith t he e xception o f t he y ears 1 748 , 1 763 a nd

1 764 t he n umber o f g alars n oted a s t rading c raft i n t he M ot/awa p ort

r ose f rom a f ew i n n umber t o s everal s core ( fewer t han 1 00 a nnually ) . F rom t he 1 780 's, h owever , t he n umber o f g alars a rriving a t G dansk i ncreased d istinctly a nd r apidly ; i n t he 1 9th c entury , t his t ype o f v essel b ecame t he m ost c ommon r iver v essel i n P oland . O ne s triking f act i s t hat a lmost s imultaneous w ith t he c ommencement o f t he s uccessful c areer o f t he g alars , t he k omiega s uddenly b egan t o d isappear , a s h as b een m entioned a bove. W hat w ere t hese c rafts l ike , w hat w ere t heir a dvantages a nd f aults , w hat c an t heir w idespread p opularity b e a scribed?

t o

F irst , i t s hould b e m entioned t hat t he g alars w ere d ifferent b oth a s r egards c onstruction a nd s ize . T hey d id , h owever , b oast s pecific c ommon f eatures which d istinguished t hem f rom o ther t ypes . T he n ames o f t he p articular p arts o f t he g alar a re s imilar t o t hose o f t he k omiega a nd r aft , e .g . " head" ,

c al e tc .) .

T hey w ere f lat , b road a nd l ow a nd - s imilar t o t he r aft a nd k omiegas t rapezoid i n h orizontal p rojection . A s c ompared w ith t he k omiega t hey w ere l onger , n arrower a nd l ower . T here w as a lso a d istinct d ifference i n t he " head" a nd c al, t he w aist b eing c urved o utward ( Fig. 1 5 .8). A t t he c lose o f t he 1 8th c entury, i .e . when i t b egan i ts c areer i n V istula s hipping ,

t he g alar w as

1 9-21

m .

l ong ,

5 . 70 m , w ide

a ft ,

4 . 40

m .

w ide i n t he f ore p art a nd h ad s ides a bout 0 .80 m . h igh .

m ore

T he b ottom w as r aised a t b oth e nds , t he r ise i n t he b ow b eing s lightly p rominent . M assive p lanks o f s oft-wood w ere u sed f or t he b ottom .

E lements c alled p rogi ( " balks" ) f ormed t he t ransverse f raming . T hey w ere m ade , w herever p ossible , f rom n aturally-grown b ends , t he l onger h orizontal p ieces c onstituting t he f loor-timbers , w hereas t he s horter , m ade u p t he u pright

s ide-frame .

T hese

s ide-frames 1 71

s upported

a lternatively

t he

s tarboard o r p ort s ide . A n a dditional s ide-frame o r k nee w as u sed t o s trengthen t he o pposite s ide o f t he v essel.

s ometimes

T he p lanking g enerally c onsisted o f t wo b road s trakes , p erpendicular t o t he b ottom , l aid e dge t o e dge , o ccasionally o verlapping . T he s tern p art w as c losed b y a f lat , u pright t ransom ; t he b ow c ould a lso b e t erminated i n t he s ame m anner .

A s ar ule , h owever , t he l ine o f t he b ottom w as s loping t o

t he h eight o f t he u pper s heer . c losed a nd j oined t he t wo s ides.

A t t his h eight ,

a s trong ,

t ransverse b eam

T he f raming w as a ttached t o t he b ottom a nd s ides b y w ooden p egs d riven i n f rom t he o utside a nd w edged f rom t he i nside. A k eelson c onstituting

t he m ain l ongitudinal b inding w as

f loor t imbers a nd r ay a long t he s hip 's a xis o f s ymmetry ; t he f loors b y i ron p ins .

s et o n t he

t his w as j oined t o

T he b ottom a nd s ide s eams w ere c aulked w ith m oss . A fter f itting i n t he s trips o f m oss , t he s eams w ere c overed w ith t hin s lats t hen h eld b y m eans o f e abki - s pecial n ails w ith t wo p oints . T he w hole s hip w as t hen c oated w ith t ar o r p itch . T he g alar w as o perated b y a f oreman ( przednik ) a nd 4 - 9 m en .

T he

n ame o f t he t ypes o f g alars d epended u pon t he n umber o f c rew m embers , e .g . a " six" ( szostkowy) o r a " a line" ( dziewiatkowy) . T he m ethod o f o perating a g alar w as a n e xtension o f t he s ystem a pplied o n t he r aft a nd s imilar t o t hat o n t he k omiega . T his i s i llustrated i n F ig . 1 5 .6 , s howing a " nine" . T he d rygawka's f it i nto t holes. T he d raught o f a g alar w ithout c argo w as b arely 0 . 10 m . ( ! ) . I t c ould c arry b etween 9 a nd 1 3 l asts ( this w as, b y t he w ay, t he s mallest l oad c apacity o f a ll t he P olish c argo v essels o perated i n 1 8th c entury V istula s p/aw s hipping) . W ith s uch a l oad , t he d raught o f t he g alar w as a bout 0 . 74 m . T hus , a t m aximum l oad, t he b ow o f t he c raft r ose o nly a f ew c entimetres, a bove t he s urface o f t he w ater . ( So e ven i n l ight w inds, t hese c raft c ould b e f airly r isky t o t ravel i n). T he l ow d raught o f t he c raft a nd i ts c onstruction i ndicate t hat i t w as d esigned f or s pecific w ater a nd o perational c onditions . I n f ulfilling i ts f unctions o n t he u pper V istula , i n s hallow w aters , i t w as a m anifestation o f t he c oncrete e conomic-social s ituation w hich a rose i n t he P olish C ommonwealth a t t he t ime o f t he p artitions a nd l ater , u nder f oreign a nnexation , i n t he 1 9th c entury . I t b ecame, n amely, a c heap m eans o f t ransport , a dopted b y t he p rovincial, i ndigenous t raders, who b egan t o c ompete w ith t he n obles o n t he o ne h and a nd p rofessional r iver c arriers o n t he o ther , a long t he V istula r oute .

T he b yk . I n t he f ormal s ense, t he s o-called b yk/"bull"/constituted t he c onsecutive l ink i n t he e volutional c hain o f t he g roup o f c raft d iscussed . I n t his s ense , i t c ould b e d efined a s a t ransitional s tage b etween t he r afts haped c raft a nd t he r iver-ships s ensu s trictiore . I n t he s econd h alf o f 2 1

- 2 4 .50

m .

B eing

t he 1 8th c entury ,

l onger

t han

t he

t he b yk h ad a l ength o f a bout k omiega

1 72

a nd

g alar ,

i t

w as

s imultaneously n arrower a nd h igher , w ith a n a ft w idth o f a bout 4 .40 m " h ead w idth o f a bout 2 .50 m ., a s ide h eight o f a bout 1 .28 m . T he l oad c apacity o f t he b yk w as f rom 1 3 t o 2 0 l asts , t he d raught a t f ull l oad b eing c alculated a s 0 .86 t o 0 .96 i n . , t hat o f a n e mpty s hip b eing 0 .13 - 0 .16 m . T he t wo e nds o f t he f lat b ottom o f t he s hip h ave m ore d istinct r ockers t han i n t he g alar - p articularly f orward . T he a fter p art c ontinues t o b e s quare c ut , b ut t he " head" a lthough t erminating i n a b lunt b ow - w hat o ne m ight c all " bull 's f orehead" , - t ends t owards n arrowing o f t his p art o f t he h ull a s c an b e s een . A t t he s ame t ime , t he s ides a re c urved d istinctly o utward . I t c an b e s een f rom t he i llustration ( Fig . 1 5 .7) , t hat t he h igh f ore c onstituted s uccessful p rotection a gainst s pray o r f looding . I t w as e ven t opped - s imilar t o t he s tem o f a t rue s hip - b y t he t op o f t he " head"f rame. A n u pperwork f or s tores , t ools a nd s leeping q uarters a ppeared i n t he a fter p art . S imilar t o t he r aft , t his b ore t he n ame b uda rhut"/ t he n ames f or t he b ow a nd s tern w ere a lso t he s ame a s t hose u sed o n t he r aft . c argo o ccupied t he m iddle a nd f orward p art o f t he c raft . T he

more

e longated

s hape

o f

t he

h ull,

b etter

l ines

a nd

T he

s tern

u pperworks , f avoured t he a doption o f ad ifferent m ethod o f o perating t han o n t he r aft , k omiega a nd e g alar. T here was a c rew o f 6- 1 2 m en , t hese c onsisting o f o ars-men a nd a s teerman , t he f ormer b eing s ituated o nly i n t he f ore-part o f t he s h ip . A s o pposed t o t he m en o perating t he k omiega a nd g alar , t heir t ask c onsisted m ainly i n s etting t he s hip i n m otion . T hey r owed i n a s itting p osition , f acing a way f rom t he d irection o f t ravel . T he s teerman a cted a s t he o perator-navigator p roper , o bserving t he w ater c hannel f rom t he ' bridge" / pochoda/ , r aised i n t he a fter-part , a thwart t he l ongitudinal a xis o f t he v essel , a bove t he u pperworks . T he d esign o f t he " bridge" e nabled t he s teerman t o o perate t he r udder , w hich c ontinued t o b e ad tygawka . I t w as n o l onger s et l oose , b etween p ins , b ut o n a s trong b olt , d riven i nto t he b lock s ecured t o t he a ft e dge o f t he u pperworks . T he b yk c ould , o n o ccasion , t ake a dvantage o f t he w ind a s a m eans o f p ropulsion a nd e ven r eturn t o i ts h ome l anding s tage f rom G dansk . A s econd g roup c onstituted r iver v essels s ensu s trictiore . i ncluded p rimarily t he s zkuta , d ubas a nd k oza ( Fig . 1 19) .

T hese

H aving p assed t hrough a l ong t erm o f e volution , d uring t he p eriod d iscussed h ere , t hese s hips g radually f ormed c ertain " classes" , w ith c haracteristic m easurements , c arriage c apacities a nd n umber o f c rew r equired t o o perate t hem . T he t able p resented h ere , g ives t he c haracteristics o f t hese " classes". A s c an b e s een ,

t he s mallest - t he k oza - w as b uilt i n t wo " classes" ;

t he i nitial c raft w as t he " eight" a nd t he s econd l arger - t he " ten". T he n ext t ype ,

t he d ubas, w as a lso b uilt i n t wo c lasses c alled t he

" twelve" a nd t he " fourteen".

1 73

T he l argest t ype , t he s zkuta , w as d ivided i nto t hree c lasses: " sixteen", t he " eighteen" a nd t he " twenty" .

t he

A s i s n ot d ifficult t o s urmise , t he n ames o riginated f rom t he n umber o f m en c onstituting t he c rew o f o arsmen . S imultaneously , h owever , t he n ames i ndicated , a s i t w ere a utomatically , g iven v essel.

t he s ize a nd c arriage c apacity o f t he

O n a nalyzing t he T able i n g reater d etail, a c ertain s ystem a nd c orrelation c an b e p erceived i n t he g radual i ncrease i n s ize a nd l oad c apacity o f t he i ndividual t ypes a nd c lasses . L et u s t hen j ust p oint o ut t hat t he s mallest t ype i ncluded i n t he T able - t he k oza-eight , h ad a l ength o f a bout 1 7 m " a nd c ould c arry f rom 1 0 t o 1 3 l asts o f c argo . T he l argest t ype , o n t he o ther h and , t he s zkuta-twenty , w as a bout 3 8 m . l ong a nd h ad a c argo c apacity o f 3 6 -3 8 l asts . M ention s hould , h owever , b e m ade o f t he f act t hat t he T able r efers p rimarily t o s hips b uilt o n t he R iver S an , w hich i s a f airly s hallow t ributary o f t he u pper V istula . I n o ther r egions o f t he c ountry , p articularly o n t he c entral a nd l ower V istula , v essels w ith a l oad c apacity e xceeding 4 0 l asts w ere b uilt . u nits a lso d iffered s lightly .

T he m easurements

o f

t hese

F rom t he t echnical p oint o f v iew, t he s zkuta, d ubas a nd k oza h ad c ertain m utual f eatures . T hey w ere t hus f lat-bottomed , b eamy f or t heir l ength a nd f airly l ow . ( The w idening o f t he h ull w as p robably o ne o f t he f eatures d istinguishing t he s hips b uilt i n t he g rain-exporting e ra f rom t he e arlier v ersions o f t he s zkuta o r d ubas) . T he s tern w as c losed b y a n u pright t ransom , t he b ow , o n t he o ther h and , b eing r elatively p ointed . T he m aximum w idth w as a ttained m ore o r l ess a midships . T hey w ere o ar-sail p ropelled a nd s teered b y m eans o f ap arakowy r udder , e tc . T hanks t o t heir s hapes , f eatures a nd p ropulsion , t hese c raft c ould b e o perated b oth u p a nd d own r iver. H aving t hese a nd o ther m utual f eatures , t hese t ypes a lso d iffered . D ue t o s hortage o f s pace f or a d etailed d escription o f a nd d iscussion o n a ll t he t ypes a nd c lasses m entioned , w e s hall r estrict o urselves t o a c oncise p resentation o f o nly o ne t ype - t he s zkuta .

T he S zkuta. T he s hip k nown i n t he 1 6th t o 1 8th c enturies a s t he s zkuta ,

o riginated

f rom a n a ncient p rototype u sed o n P oland 's i nland w aterways a nd w hich , g radually t aking s hape w ith t he e volution o f t he V istula s hipping , p assed t hrough s uccessive s tages o f d evelopment . N ot o nly d id i ts s hape a nd c onstruction d evelop, t he n ames o f t he c raft a lso u nderwent c ertain m utations . T he o ldest s ource r ecords r efer t o i t u nder t he g eneral n ame o f t he " Vistula s hip" . T he L atin t exts a ssumed t he n ame s capha , w hich f inally t urned i nto s zkuta i n P olish . A ccording t o w ritten a nd i conographic s ources f rom t he 1 7th t o 1 8th c enturies, t he s zkuta w as f lat-bottomed, f airly s lim a nd l ow . I n h orizontal p rojection i t w as s pindle-shaped w ith a t runcated s tern a nd p ointed b ow . L ongitudinally, t he l ines o f t he b ottom a nd s heer r an p arallel .

T he

b ottom

w as

g reater t han t he l atter . s traight ,

f lared s ides

( Fig .

r aised

b oth f orward a nd a ft ,

t he f ormer b eing

T he c ross-section w as c lassic i n f orm w ith 1 5 .10) .

1 74

0 C O V D r • I

1 . f ) C Y ) 0 0 O N • • • r — I 0

C , 1r " ) • • • 0 0 0

t r l C 1 0 1 C r • • • 0 0 0

1 75

T he f lat b ottom w as a rranged f rom a bout 5 0 m assive , b road p ine p lanks e ach a bout 1 1 -1 5 m . i n l ength a nd 5 - 1 0 .5 c m . t hick , l aid e dge t o e dge . T he s eams w ere c aulked w ith s o-called z uja , i .e . s trips m ade f rom a nimal h air , c overed w ith l aths a nd h eld p ointed n ails).

i n p lace b y m eans

o f

s kobliczki ( twin-

F loor-timbers 2 0 -3 1 c m . w ide , f itted f airly t ightly , f astened t o t he b ottom b y m eans o f w edged w ooden p egs , l ater i ron n ails , c onstituted t he t ransverse

s tructures .

T hese

f loor-timbers

u sually o ak : t he s horter a rm o f s ide , c onstituted t he s ide-frame .

w ere

m ade

o f

n atural

b ends ,

t he b end , e xtending t he t imber o n o ne T he e xtension o f t he f loor-timber o nto

t he o pposite s ide w as a s o-called k warek , c urved o ak .

i . e . k nee , a lso m ade o f n aturally

T he s ides o f t he s zkuta w ere b uilt o f o verlapping p lanks , 9 .50 - 1 3 m . , i n l ength a nd a bout 5 - 8 c m . t hick . T he f irst , s tronger s trake , c alled t he p odwalinka ( " foundation" ) , w as m ade o f o ak , L -shaped i n s ection . I ts h orizontal p art , c onstituted t he o uter b ottom p lank , w hereas t he u pright p art c onstituted t he f irst s trake o f t he p lanking . T he u pper s trakes w ere u sually o f p ine . T he t op s trake w as t hicker a t i ts u pper e dge o r s trengthened f rom t he o utside b y a n o ak w ale . T he s ide w as c ompleted b y a p lank s ecured f lat t o t he t op s trake a nd w ale . T he p lanking w as f astened t o t he f rames o riginally w ith w ooden p egs , t hen f orged i ron n ails T he s trakes w ere n ailed t ogether w ith r ivets a bout 1 5 c m . l ong , w ith w ashers o n t he i nside . T he s eams w ere c aulked w ith m oss f rom t he o utside a nd t argan f rom t he i nside . T he s tern p art t erminated , a s m entioned , i n a t ransom c onsisting o f s everal , e .g . 4 , w ide p lanks 5 - 1 3 c m . t hick . T he b ow , m arkedly r aised , w as b ound b y a n o ak s tem b ent u pwards a nd b ackwards a nd s tylized. T he m ain l ongitudinal b racing o f t he b ottom w as a k eelson , l ong a nd 2 6 -5 2 c m . t hick .

1 5 -2 3 m .

A nother , s imilar m ember , w ith a s pecial c asing

f or t he m ast-step u sually r ested o n t his. A midships ,

b eams c onnecting t he s ides , r unning i mmediately a t t he m ast

a nd s imultaneously c onstituting a s upport f or t his , p layed t he f unction o f t he m ain t ransverse b racing . S imilar c ross-beams w ere u sed t o j oin t he s ides i n t he b ow . T he f ore d eck w as s et o n s uch a b eam; t he c rew's q uarters w ere s ituated b elow t his d eck. A s uperstructure ( buda) , w ith t he s kipper 's c abin , a ccommodation f or p ossible p assengers, f ood s tores a nd g alley, w as s et u p i n t he s tern . A s t he w hole o f t he m idship p art w as d esigned f or c argo , t he o ars-men w ere s ituated i n t he f ore p art o f t he c raft . I n t he s zkuta-twenty , t here w ere t en o n e ach s ide . T hey s at o n b enches w ith t heir b acks t o t he s hip 's c ourse a nd w orked l ong o ars c alled p ojazdy , w hich w ere s et i n w ooden t holep ins . O ars w ere u sually u sed o n t he r uns d own r iver , t he d riving f orce o f t he w ind b eing u sed o n t he r eturn t rip u p r iver . T he 1 - 2 3-metre p ine o r f ir m ast , s et i n t he m aststep a nd h eld b y a c lamp o r p artner , w as r igged b y a f ore-stay ( 7 .8 c m . t hick) r unning f rom t he t op

t o t he b ow a nd a s o-called o bce'e ( 52 c m . 176

t hick) ,

a s w ell a s t hinner ,

o ne-inch k arnaty , v essel .

r unning f rom t he t op o f t he m ast t o t he s ides o f t he

T he m ast c arried a y ard 9 .5 - 1 9 m .

l ong ,

r aised a nd l owered b y m eans

o f al ine c alled a t rarew . A l inen s ail , l eeched a t t he e dges , w as t ied t o t he y ard b y m eans o f r obands . T he s ail w as m anoeuvred b y m eans o f b races a nd s heets. T he h elmsman s teered t he s hip f rom t he " bridge" r aised i mmediately i n f ront o f t he s uperstructure o r b uda . T he s teering g ear w as a c ombination o f t he s tout d rygawka a nd a s tern-rudder . A v ertical s tock, c alled a s /upiec w as a ttached b y h ooks i n t he c entre l ine o n t he t ransom . I ts l ower e nd r eached t he e dge o f t he h ull b ottom . A t t his l evel , a 1 5 -2 3-metre b lade , d irected b ackwards a nd s ubmerged i n t he w ater , w as s et h orizontally i n a s tock . A n e lement c onsisting o f t wo p arts ( the s o-called p a/ak a nd h amulec) w as f ixed a t ad istance f rom t he e nd o f t he b lade . T his e lement w as g ently b ent i n t he d irection o f t he s hip , t owards t he h elmsman o n t he " bridge" , i ts t wo p arts b eing f astened b y a r ope ( Fig . 1 5 .1 0 . B elow t he f astening , t he e lement w as s et o n t he h ead o f t he s tock , w hich a lso g ave i t t he n ecessary s upport . I t i s n ot d ifficult t o r ecognize t he d rygawka i n t his e lement . I n t he s zkutatype c raft , t he d rygawka w as u nable t o f ulfil i ts r ole . I n v iew o f t he n umerous s hallows i n t he V istula a nd i ts t ributaries , t he c lassical s tern-rudder w ith i ts b lade r eaching i nto t he w ater b elow t he h ull , o r w ith a s horter b lade , b ut n ot r eaching s ufficiently f ar b ack , w ould a lso h ave b een u nsuitable . p a/ak rudder .

H ence t he s ymbiosis o f t hese t ypes , w hich I h ave c alled a

D uring a v oyage w hen t he s hip was u nder s ail, t he c loth m ight h ave o bscured t he h elmsman 's v ision a s h e m oved a bout t he h igh " bridge" . o rder t o r emedy t his , h e w as a ble t o r aise t he l ower , m iddle p art o f

I n t he

s ail w ith a r ope c alled a t ryska . O n r eturning f rom G dansk , u p r iver , t he w ind w as n ot a lways f avourable ; a nd c urrents c ould p revent o ared-propulsion . I t w as t hen n ecessary t o s imply t ow t he v essel a gainst t he c urrent . A t hick l ine c alled a p olka s erved f or t his p urpose . N ormally s towed o n t he f ore d eck , a longside t he c apstan a nd a nchor , i f r equired , i t w as r aised b y m eans o f a n a uxiliary l ine t o a bout h alf t he h eight o f t he m ast . T he o ars-men , w earing s pecial b races , w alking i n f ile a long t he r iver b ank , t owed t he v essel.

L ighters. W hen s peaking o f r afts ,

I m entioned n umerous n avigation o bstacles o n

t he V istula a nd i ts t ributaries. I f as hip g rounded , a ttempts w ere f irst m ade t o p ush i t o ff b y m eans o f p oles . I f t his d id n ot h elp, t he m en p roceeded t o %lamowac% i .e . p ositioning o f a nother v essel i n t he c urrent , s o t hat t he c urrent w ould w ash a way t he s and f rom b eneath t he g rounded v essel . T here w ere

s uch s ituations

i n w hich t he s implest m ethod w as t o p art

d ischarge t he c argo . F or t his p urpose , s uitable c raft u sually a ccompanied t he f lotillas p roceeding d own r iver w ere u sed . T his c ould b e a s pecial t ype o f a uxiliary v essel , a s mall k ozka , g alar , o r l arger p lank-built b oat .

1 77

I n t he 1 8th c entury , l ighters , i .e . s pecial a uxi liary c raft , w ere b uilt w ith o verlapping p lanks . T hey w ere s mall u nits , a bout 5 . 40 - 1 0 .8 1 ) i n . l ong , w ith a c rew o f 2 -4 m en . S ome o f t hem w ere s imply s maller v ersions o f c argo v essels, w hile o thers b rought t o m ind t he l arge t ypes o f f ishing b oats.

T he c zo/no. A part f rom t he l ighters , t he i ncluded t he h ollowed-out c zo/no . p ilotage f unctions . d iscussing t he r aft .

f lotillas s ailing d own t o G dansk a lso T hese f ulfilled v arious a uxiliary a nd

A s r egards t he l atter , t hey w ere d escribed when L et u s t hen j ust m ention h ere t hat t he m anner o f

p iloting c argo v essels, a lthough - g enerally s peaking - f airly s imilar , d iffered s lightly f rom t hat o f t he r afts . T his r esulted, a mong o ther t hings , f rom t he f act t hat r afts a nd e asier t o c ontrol .

t he

c argo v essels w ere f aster

t han t he

l arge

T he a uxiliary f unctions c onsisted , a mong o ther t hings , o f m aintaining , w ith t he h elp o f t he c zo/no , c ommunications , d uring t he t rip , b etween t he i ndividual s hips o f w hich t he f lotilla c onsisted , b y s ailing u p t o t he r iver b ank o r g oing a shore t o s ettle v arious m atters , w ithout h aving t o h old u p a ll t he s hips, o r d irecting t hem t o t he s hore . I n c ase o f a ccident o r e mergency , t he c zo/no w as u sed t o b ring a ssistance f rom n earby v illages , e tc. S uch s ometimes s ometimes G enerally t hey w ere

c zo/nos o r l og-boats w ere u sually m ade o f p ine , p oplar a nd b ut r arely , b eech o r o ak . T hey w ere m ade b y h ollowing-out , o r h ollowing-out a nd s corching t runks . T he s hapes d iffered l ocally . s peaking , t hey r esembled t he l og f rom w hich t hey h ad b een m ade t hus l ong , n arrow a nd l ow , n arrower t o t he f ore .

T hey w ere m ore o r l ess f lat i n c ross-section , i n s ome c ases s lightly r ounded . T he s ides w ere u sually s traight , p erpendicular t o t he l ine o f t he b ottom . T he s tern w as r ounded , b lunt o r s traight c ut , b ut r aked b ackwards . T he b ow s loping o utward f rom t he b ottom w as u sually m ore p ointed. W hen h ewing o ut t he i nside o f t he h ull ,

t he e nds w ere n ot h ollowed o ut

a nd a b ulkhead o r s trengthening r idges w ere l eft a cross t he b ottom . T he b ulkhead c ould b e s ituated t o t he f ore o f t he d ugout , i n t he c entral p art , o r

t o t he r ear .

T he s ides o f

t he b oat w ere r elatively t hin ,

w hereas

t he

b ottom w as t hick a nd h eavy . T he c zo/no ( dugout) h ad n o r udder .

I t w as p ropelled b y p addle ,

w hich

s imultaneously s erved t o s teer t he c raft. T he d ugout , d ated t o t he l ate 1 6th o r e arly 1 7th c entury , r ecently r aised f rom L ake G lebokie s outh o f G dansk , h ad s imilar f eatures ( Fig . 1 5 .12). A s w e r emember ,

t he d ugouts ,

t ogether w ith t he r afts ,

b elonged t o t he

o ldest p rototypes i n t he n orthwest t erritories o ccupied b y t he S lays . I n t he P olish i nterior , t hey p layed a h ighly e ssential r ole : a s r iver f erries , f ishing v essels i n l ocal s hipping , f or t he t ransport o f g oods o ver g reater d istances a nd c ommunications. I t

m ight b e w orth m entioning h ere ,

t hat i n t he 1 8th c entury , d ugouts

1 78

w ere s till u sed i n t rade o n t he R iver D zwina a nd t he s hipping o f g oods t o R iga , i n t he n orth-eastern o f t he P olish C ommonwealth . I n t he 1 9th c entury , v arious s izes o f d ugouts a nd t hose e nlarged b y e xtending t he s ides w ith p lanks, w ere o perated i n t he e astern r egions. T o c ome b ack t o t he V istula a nd i ts t ributaries , i t s hould b e n oted t hat o ne c an e asily p erceive f eatures i ndicating t hat i n t heir s hape a nd c onstruction , v arious , n ative P olish t ypes o f p lank-built b oats a nd s hips o riginate f rom t he d ugout , i .e. s ingle o r p aired l ogboats.

T he D ecline o f t he S praw S hipping . I n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 8th c entury , t he " Royal R epublic" e ntered a p eriod o f s ocial a nd e conomic r eforms . M atters r elated t o t he d evelopment o f s hipping a nd r iver t rade w ere a mong t hose w hich o ccupied a p rominent p lace i n p ublicism a nd t he w ork o f t he S ejm ( parliament). T he a im o f t he r eformers w as t o b ring a bout s ignificant c hanges i n t he c haracter o f t rade a nd t he o rganization o f r iver s hipping i n P oland . T he e ra o f t he " gentry s hipping" w as a pproaching i ts c lose a nd w ith i t, t he t ypes o f t rading c raft w hich s erved i t . T he g eneral t endency w as f or s hipping t o b e t aken o ver b y p rofessional m erchants a nd c arriers . T hey w ould b e i nterested i n o ther t ypes o f s hips , u se o n v arious w aterways ( including c anals) , b esides, n ot r equiring l arge c rews.

m ore e conomical ,

d esigned f or

t o c arry v arious c argoes a nd

T he t aking u p o f a g reat e nterprise a imed a t c onnecting t he V istula w ith t he N iemen , D nieper a nd O dra , t hus c reating a n e xtensive s ystem o f w aterways c onnecting t he B altic a nd B lack S eas, b ecame o ne o f t he m anifestations o f t hese a ims i n P oland, i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 8th c entury . T he c learing o f r ivers , t heir d redging , r egulation a nd p rimarily , t he b uilding o f c anals , w as t o s erve t his p urpose . T hese a ims r esulted i n t he b uilding , i n t he y ears 1 7651784 , o f t he O ginski C anal c onnecting t he N iemen a nd D nieper ; i n 1 784 , a s econd c anal - t he R oyal C anal - c onnecting t he V istula a nd D jnepr w as o pened . T he c ourse o f p olitical e vents p ut a s top t o t he m aterialization o f t he t hird p roject - t he b uilding o f t he V istula-Odra c anal . T his p lan w as f ulfilled b y t he P russians a fter t he i st p artitioning o f P oland . N ow ,

P olish s hips w ere a ble t o c ross t o n eighbouring r ivers a long t hese

c anals , a nd v essels c haracteristic f or t he R iver O dra a nd t he e astern r ivers w ere a ble t o s ail i nto t he V istula a nd i ts t ributaries. O f t hose s hips w hich s ailed i nto t he V istula i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 8th c entury , t he o drzanka ( German : O derkahn ) w as t o p lay t he m ost i mportant r ole . B eing u nable t o d escribe a ll t he n ew t ypes, l et u s d evote s ome a ttention t o t his o ne .

T he o drzanka w as a lready o perated o n t he V istula i n

t he 1 770 's . H aving u ndergone c ertain a daptations i n l ocal y ards , i t b ecame c ommon u nder t he n ame o f t he b erlinka . T he d rawing f rom 1 796 ( Fig . 1 5 .13ac ) p resents a s hip w hich d iffers d istinctly f rom t he i ndigenous V istula t ypes . t ype .

A s o pposed t o t he l atter , t he b erlinka r epresents a d ouble-ended I n i ts p roportions , i t w as t hen l ong a nd n arrow, a lso d ecidedly

h igher t han t he s zkuta , d ubas o r k oza . p rojection , w ith a n e longated , w as s imilar i n f orm t c\ I . t he r aised s tern a nd b ow .

I t w as s pindle-shaped i n h orizontal

p ointed b ow a nd s tern ; i n c ross-section , i t A f eature o f t he l ongitudinal p rojection w as

I ts m easurements w ere : c lear l ength o f a bout 3 2 1 79

t o 3 8 m" w idth 3 . 20 - 3 .80 m" i nside h eight - a bout 1 . 30 m„ d raught e mpty -a bout 0 .20 m " l oaded - a bout 0 .85 - 1 . 05 m . A s c ompared w ith t he P olish v essels , t he l oad c apacity o f t he b erlinka w as n ot v ery g reat , b eing o nly f rom a bout 6 t o 1 0 l asts . I t w as o ar-sail p ropelled, w ith a 4 - 6 m an c rew. A t t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th c entury , t he V istula s aw t he i ntroduction o f t he f irst s team-ships - s ymbolizing t he b irth o f ac ompletely n ew e ra. C oncluding o ur c omments , i t s hould b e s tated t hat t he P oles w ere n ot a ble t o f ulfil t heir p rogramme o f r eforms i n r iver s hipping , d evelop a s ystem o f w aterways , i mprove t he t ypes o f s hips a nd a dapt t hem t o t he n ew r equirements - a nd g ain t he a dvantages e xpected f rom t hese u ndertakings. T he r eforms i n t rade a nd s hipping w ere o nly o ne f ragment o f a h uge r econstruction p rogramme o f t he w hole s tate , u ndertaken b y P oland i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 8th c entury . D isquieted b y t he p rogressive c haracter o f t his p rogramme a nd t he s pirit o f t he n ew C onstitution p assed o n 3 rd M ay 1 791 i n W arsaw , R ussia , P russia a nd A ustria n egotiated a n a lliance , t he p urpose o f w hich w as t o d estroy t he P olish s tate a nd s eize i ts t erritory b y f orce . T his c riminal p lan w as c arried o ut i n t he t hree c onsecutive p artitions o f P oland . I n c onsequence , w hen E urope s tepped i nto t he 1 9th c entury, w ith i ts t remendous t ransformations i n e conomy , i ndustry a nd t ransport - P oland d isappeared f rom t he m ap o f t he w orld a nd o n h er e xtensive t erritories a rose p owers w hich w ere t o c hange t he f ate o f o ur c ontinent . P olish t oil w as d ivided b y t he b oundaries o f t he a nnexing s tates , t he g overnments o f w hich d elibrately b locked t he n atural a nd p roper e conomic a nd s ocial d evelopment o f t he o ccupied t erritories . C ustoms h ouses d efending t he i ncompatible t rade i nterests o f B erlin , P etersburg a nd V ienna , w ere s et u p o n t he r ivers , c ut a cross b y a rtificial f rontiers . O ne o f t he r esults o f s uch r elations a nd t he g eneral b ackwardness o f t he c ountry which f ollowed,

w as t he d ecline o f s hipping o f

r egression i n b oatbuilding s erving t his s hipping .

1 80

t he P olish r ivers a nd

F ig .

1 5 .1 :

T he K ingdom o f P oland a nd t he n etwork o f i ts g reat

w aterways i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 7th c entury .

1 81

R AFT

A ND

p len ica o r

p as

o r „ be lt"

(s evera l

I _ " E _

• •• • L ea _

IT S

F OR MS

s ing le r a ft"

p len icas o r „ s ing le r afts" o ne b eh ind t he o the r, b ound

t ogethe r)

I t

p fta o r

„ b ig

r aft" (two „ be lts" j o int

t ogether) P •1

r

I I r

-1 .1 _ 1 L __ _1 I

‚Ti

1 5 . 2 :

r L

g len o r two a d jacent

F ig .

(

t -

p len icas

R aft a nd i ts f orms .

1 82

' ''''' •

Te r .

b ound

1 i

I

1 _ 7_ A

t ogether

P.1

......

a i l.n.k

e on

1 83

F ig . 1 5 .4 : D etail o f p ainting b y I ssak v an d en B locke ( from 1 609) s howing a p lanking h ousing e rected o n v ertical p oles o n a r aft ( a k okoszka) i n w hich g oods w hich c ould n ot t olerate m oisture c ould b e c arried .

1 84

•

E t tor ti Vn i fe e l ih in l ig :r i f i eK tb , t , ' -

'

. : •'.

• , .

-

.

F ig . 1 5 .5 : E ngraving f rom 1 770 s howing t he s tructure a nd t he m anoeuvering b y t he c rew o f ak omiega .

F ig . 1 5 .6 : ( 1770).

A g alar ,

s o -c alled " nine" .

1 85

D rawing b y F .A . L ohrmann

F ig. 1 5.7 :

A b yk ‚ f rom a d rawing b y F .A . L ohrmann ( 1770).

1 86

R AFT AN D R AFT-SHAPED C RAFT

P LENIGA

KO M IV GA

GA LAB

BY K

0

1 0

F ig . 1 5 .8 : T he s hape i n h orizontal a nd v ertical p rojection o f r afts a nd r aft-shaped c raft i n P oland .

1 87

PO INTED-BO W SH IPS

T

SZKUTA

DU B AS

KOZ A

0

F ig .

1 5 .9 :

p rojection

1 0

T he s hape i n h orizontal a nd v ertical o f

d ifferent

t ypes

r iver c raft i n P oland .

1 88

o f

p ointed

-b ow

• \t i t i t b •. v u

4B 1 1 1 1 1 1R

F ig .

1 5 .10 ,

1 5 .11 :

E ngravings

s zkuta , a f lat-bottomed , p ointed b ow .

a n i ma

mu «

s howing

AB M I •

t he

s tructure a nd

t he m anoevering o f a

f airly s lim a nd l ow v essel w ith a t runcated s tern a nd

1 89

v a L l IP

,

P 1

a r e le0 1 , 01 .

r .. .00 • 10

F ig . 1 5 .12 : Ad ugout , d ated t o t he l ate 1 6th o r e arly 1 7th c entury r aised f rom t he L ake G rebokie s outh o f G dansk .

d l er t r t

'

1 0 ,11 111 11 1 1 11 1 1 , 1 en te rei. . . . MAW P ä it i lili e d ti ,; 1 , 1; je te; e 1ZU : t medra Pi li , d r 42 2 , . . , P Men t i gil. 98 111 18 181 11 # 1. i . .f i g le

s tir e i l l h

4

3

2

A

M

PV

i t t A S . . t e

A

i $

At

I

W i ll

e

d

i

r . 2. 2 0 f t

A t

A A

a

g

e -

g

d i si f l iA mmiR '

C 7 4r re 4 0

I

F ig. 1 5 .13a : 1 90

A t .

s

1

F ig . 1 5 .13 : a -c . D rawings f rom 1 796 s howing t he s tructure a nd s hape o f a b erlinka ( German - O derkahn) i n h orizontal p lan , l ongitudinal s ection a nd c rosss ection.

1 91

1 6 .

T HE " BOOK O F A LL T AGUS B OATS,

I NCLUDING C ARGO A ND P ASSENGER ,

A S W ELL A S F ISHING C RAFT" O ctavio L ixa F ilgueiras

T he " Book o f a ll T agus b oats ,

i ncluding c argo a nd p assenger a s w ell a s

f ishing c raft" i s a s mall a lbum o f 2 0 e ngraved p lates m easuring 2 00 b y 1 52 mm , e ach o f t hem n umbered a nd d epicting a d ifferent t ype o f c raft , p lus a t itle p age , n umberless , a nd s lightly b igger : 2 00 b y 1 6 1 mm . T he b ook d oes n ot i nclude a ny t ext o ther t han t he l egends t o t he i llustrations. The

t itle

p age

s hows,

i nside

a p lain f rame,

t he

t itle ,

b oth i n

P ortuguese a nd i n F rench , t he a uthor 's n ame a nd s tatus -Joäo d e S ouza , p rofessor o f N aval A rchitecture a nd o f D esign a t t he M idshipmen 's C ompany ( Academy) - a nd o ther b ibliographical r eferences: n a l oie d e J osé d a F on . 1 1 2 ' ( at J osé d a F oncesca 's s hop) , " o A rsenal ( at t he A rsenal) , ( Lisbon) , l eft

o f

" Silva d irex"

p late

o ne ,

( direxit) .

h owever ,

N o d ate i s g iven .

t he f ollowing i s

s hown :

O n t he b ottom

" Ramalho f .

( fecit ;

m ade) i n 1 785" 0 . T his e ngraver 's d ating h as o ccasionally b een t aken f or t hat o f t he p ublishing i tself, b ut t here i s n o e vidence t o s upport t his c laim2) . T he n umber o f k nown c opies ,

t ells u s o f t he r arity o f t he f irst

s ix : )) ,

e dition w hich t he C ämara M unicipal d e L isboa ( Lisbon C ity C ouncil) h as n ow p rinted a nd p ublished i n f acsimile 4 ) . I ts r arity i s f urther i ncreased b y t he f act t hat t here i s n o n otice o f o ther c ontemporary P ortuguese w orks o n t he s ame s ubject . A dmittedly , t he e arthquake o f 1 755 a nd t he e xile o f t he R oyal C ourt i n B razil , f rom 1 806 t o 1 821 l ed t o i rreperable l osses o f b ooks a nd o ther d ocuments , w hich p revent u s f rom a chieving a b etter , p recise , k nowledge o f d evelopments o f t he d ay i n t erms o f r iver a ctivities . E ven i f i t p ossesses n either t he c omprehensiveness n or t he t echnical q uality o f s uch w orks a s 11 21 usieurs s ortes d e B ätiments H ollandoises" , b y G roenewegen ( 1789) , o r D iffgrents s ujets d e M arine" b y t he O zanne b rothers ( 1770?), t he b ook h as g reat c ultural s ignificance a nd m ay p ossibly b e r elated t o t he p eriod o f d rastic c hanges t hat t he t raining o f n aval o fficers i n P ortugal w as t hen u ndergoing . J oao

d e

S ouza

( Pather) ,

" a m aster d raughtsman" ,

was a ppointed

P rofessor o f D esign a nd N aval A rchitecture ( two s eparate c hairs) o n t he 1 9th o f M arch , 1 783, s ix d ays b efore t he o pening o f t he s tudies a t t he R oyal M idshipmen 's A cademy y ears, a s p rofessor 9 s ince t he P ortuguese

( Royal A rsenal)" .

c hartered o n t he 5 th A ugust 1 779 , i nstalled C ollege) ,

H e

h eld

t hese

c hairs

f or

m any

c ertain d ocuments, d ated 1 802 , s till b ear h is s ignature a s . A nd t he f irst p rofessor o f t hose c hairs h e c ertainly w as , A cademy , whose " creation was a v ery i mportant s tep t o t he m idshipmen 's A cademic a nd p rofessional e ducation" , t hough b y t he Q ueen D . Maria I , a nd a lready

i n 1 780 a t t he C olggio R eal d os N obres ( The N oblesmen 's R oyal w as n ot e stablished a t t he C asa d es F ormas o f t he R oyal N aval

A rsenal u ntil

1 783 6 ) .

1 93

I n s uch a c ontext , t his c ollection o f e ngravings , w ith t heir P ortuguese a nd F rench l egends , s eems t o h ave b een i ntended f or a w ide a udience i n s pite o f i ts s hort e xplanatory n otes. P aradoxically , b eing

t he

" falua"

D ictionary ' ' ,

b y

t he p lates a re a lmost w holly r eproduced ( the e xception p late 8 ) ) i n

J ohan H einrich

a G erman R öding

w ork,

t he

( 17941798) 7 )

" Marine

where ,

G eneral

h oyever ,

t he

l egends a re r estricted t o t he P ortuguese n ames o f t he b oats . 4 0 . U p t o n ow, n o e xplanation h as b een a dvanced a s t o t heir a ppearance i n t his " classic" . Two i mportant p oints h ave b een b rought t o my a ttention , r egarding

t his m atter : i n s pite o f h is r ecognized, p unctillious c haracter ,9 ) R oding d oes n ot a cknowledge t he b ook n or i ts a uthor 10) , p robably m eaning t hat h e w as n ot a ware o f t hem 9 ) ; o n t he o ther h and , a nd c onsidering t hat m any o f R öding 's s ources r emain u nknown ,

t he

o mission o f

t he " falua" p late s uggests t hat h e m ight h ave h ad a ccess t o a d isperse s et o f e ngravings a nd n ot t he c omplete , o riginal 9 ) w ork . T his h ypothesis i s s omehow c onfirmed w hen w e c ompare t he o riginal p lates a nd t heir G erman c opies : t he a lready m entioned a bsence o f t he e xplanatory n otes o n t he G erman c opies i s s trange , a lso

c arry

p articularly i f w e k eep i n m ind t hat t he o riginal p lates

a F rench

v ers i on ' ' ;

a gain ,

a nd

n otwithstanding

t heir

c onsiderable a ccuracy a nd n eat d etailing , t he c opies e ngraved b y A . S töttrup a re n ot a lways a s f aithful t o t he o riginal a s c ould b e e xpected - a s a m atter o f f act , t he s pecimens d rawn b y J oao d e S ouza a nd e ngraved b y R amalho m ay b e r egarded a s e xceptionally e xpressive , i f n ot a lways t echnically p erfect . I ndeed , S ouza 's s ketches p rovide t he m eans t o i dentify n umerous v essels a nd t o i nfer t he t ypological c haracterisation o f o thers , e ven i f t he l ive w orks a re n ever s hown . T his a ctually i s o ne o f t heir m ost p ositive f eatures . I t i s o nly r egrettable t hat o ur a uthor h as n ot l eft a s imilar w ork o n a ll P ortuguese v essels o f h is t ime . E ven s o , a nd a ssuming t hat h e h as n ot f ailed t o r ecord a ny o ther s ignificant s pecimen o f

t he T agus b 0ats 1 2 ) (a s afe g uess,

a s h e a lso

i ncludes s ome m odels t hat , a lthough n ot n ative t o t his r iver , w ere f requently f ound o n i ts w aters - c f . P lates 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 a nd 2 0) , S ouza p uts w ithin o ur r each s ome i ndispensable m aterial t o a ppraise , w ith r easonable a ccuracy , t he d eep a lterations t hat w ould f ollow s oon a fterwards, p articularly t hose i ssuing f rom t he e conomical d evelopment p olicies u ndertaken i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury 1 3 ) . Ia m s ure t hat t here i s n o n eed t o e mphasize t he e conomical r elevance t raditionally h eld b y f luvial n avigation a nd f ishing , a s t his h as b een e xtensively d ealt w ith i n s ome r emarkable e ssays , b ut a llow m e t o b ring f orward t he g reat v ariety a nd s peciousness d eployed, a s p ointed o ut i n t he l egends, n autical t ypes r ecorded . B oth a re e nough s uch a ctivities a s s upporters o f t he l ife i n t he w ide b asin o f t he T agus r iver . T o

o f f unctions t hat t hese c rafts a nd t he l arge n umber o f t he t o r ealize t he s ignificance o f t he c apital o f t he k ingdom a nd i llustrate t his, I p ropose a

s election o f e xtremely e lucidative m aps ( Fig. 1 6 .116 .4). P roceeding n ow t o t he a nalytical s tudy o f t he b ook , t he f irst t hing t o d o i s t o c lassify t he m odels , a ccording t o t heir u ses a nd t he c onditions u nder w hich h arbours

t hey o perated a nd d istinguish t hose m odels b elonging t o T agus

f rom

t hose

t hat ,

a lthough

m oored

t here ,

c ame

f rom

o utside

( Cf .

T able I ) . A nother a pproach w ould b e t o s eparate t hem i nto g roups a ccording t o t he c haracteristics o f t he h ull a nd t heir n autical a rchaeological c onnotations ,

a s a ttempted i n T able I I .

1 94

C omparing b oth m aps ,

i t b ecomes

N 9

B OAT

NAME

S EA

& R IVER

S PECIFIC

1

IATE

2

BARCO

CACILHEIRO

3

BARCA

D ' ALDEIA

4

FRAGATA

5

BARCO

D OS

6

BARCO

D E

7

BATE! .

D ' ÄGUA

8

BATEI RA

9

BARCO

OF

BOATS

S PECIFIC

EXTERIOR

E STUARY

HARBOURS

HARBOURS

PORTUGUES

R IVER

OF

FRAGATA

1 1-A

FALUA

1 1-8

CATRAIO

1 2

ESCALER

S AILING

* *

MOTNHOS R IBA

*

TEJO

*

ACIMA

*

P ORTO B RANDÄO

1 0

I NTERIOR

SAILING

*

D ' ALCOCHETE

D E

E STUARY

*

GALEGA

D E

B OATS

*

*

MOYOS

* * •

DO

•

0

A R EMOS

1 3

LANCHA

1 4

CAiQUE

ALTO

1 5

BARCO

D E

S ESIMBRA

*

1 6

BARCO

DA

ERICEIRA

*

*

1 7

BARCO

D E

CASCAIS

*

*

1 8

MULETA

1 9

BATEL

2 0-A

SAVEIRO

DA

C OSTA

*

2 0-B

SAVEIRO

D O

T EJO

*

* *

* *

* *

*

CARGO

B OATS

. 1 0

CARGO

/ PASSENGER

*

F ISHING

B OATS

BOATS

T ab le

1 95

I

I :

PLANKED

CANOES

MESOPOTAMIAN

/

TYPE

KEEL

BOATS

.

/ MEDITERRANEAN

TYPES

. I I:

OLD

TYPE

. , I II:

VERNACULAR

BOATS

DOUBLE

WITH

TRANSOM

ENDED

FILLING

AFT

CHOCKS ,

7 2 0-A

6 18

20-B

2

2

4

3

3

1 0

5

5

1 1-A

8

8

1 1-B

9

9

1 4

1 3

1 3 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 9 _

T ab le I

1 96

c lear t hat t he a doption o f s o m any d ifferent h ulls c annot o nly b e d ue t o t he u ses t hat awaited t he v essels o r t o t he c onditions u nder which t hey o perated : o n t he c ontrary , a s w e s hall s ee i t i s m ainly f rom a c ultural p oint o f v iew t hat w e m ust e xplain t he r easons f or s uch a doptions ( Fig . 1 6.5). L et u s

b egin w ith t he p lanked c anoes o f M esopotamian t ype 1 5) .

T hey

b elong t o a n a ge-old n autical f amily o f w hich a g reat n umber o f s pecimens m ay s till b e f ound i n I raq a nd P ortugal . I n m y c ountry , m ost o f t hese a re l ocated i n t he c entral z one o f t he W estern c oast, n amely i n t he O var A veiro - I lhavo a rea . T his a ncient h ome o f t he ' eurduli V eteri" , w here S outh I berian p eople m oved t o a fter t he d estruction o f T artessus b y C arthage, was t he m eeting p oint o f b oats b elonging t o t hese m igrating p eoples . T he i ntercourse b etween T artessus e xplain t he o rigin o f t his h eritage o f o urs

C rete a nd U garit m ay p ossibly

T he w ell k nown m igrating d isposition o f v arinos a veiros a nd i lhavos i .e., O var , Aveiro a nd I lhavo n atives) was s trongly a ttracted b y t he o pportunities t o w ork t hat t hey f ound a long t he T agus , b oth a s f ishermen a nd a s b oat -b uilders . A fter s ome p eriodical s tays , t hese h ard w orkers s ettled i n c olonies , a s t hey d id , i n o ur o wn d ays , a t V ila F ranca d e X ira o r , i n t he 1 8th c entury , a t t he C aparica C oast , w hose s pecific b oat w as s ketched b y S ouza : t he s aveiro d a c osta ( litt . C oast s aveiro , i .e . , t he C aparica C oast s had b oat) s hown i n p late 2 0-B ( Fig . 1 6 .6) . T he n ame t hat i t n ow c arries i n t hat a rea , m eia - l ua ( half - m oon) ( Fig . 1 6 .7) c orresponds t o a v ariation o f t he b arco d o m ar ( sea b oat) o r o f t he x avega b oat , p redominant f urther N orth o n t he c oast , f rom L avos t o V ieira d e L eiria . T his e ngraving ( Fig . 1 6 .6) , e ven i f i t i s o ne o f t he l east a ccomplished , l eaves n o d oubt a s t o t he i dentification o f t he m odel . I a dd t he p lans s howing i ts p resent d esign ( Fig . 1 6 .8) : t he d ifferences b etween t hem a re m inimal ( e .g . , t he d isappearance o f t he e arlier p row c overing a nd o f t he r igging a nd t he r eplacement o f t he r udder b y a l ateral o ar) . T here i s s ome e vidence, h owever , t hat a s l ate a s 1 893 t he o ars w ere n ot t he s ole m eans o f p ropuls' n a nd t hat e ither a r udder o r a s teering o ar w ere t hen i ndifferently u sed T he s ame s ource e lucidates t hat ' t at h igh t ide t hey ( the m eias - 1 )u sed t o c arry t heir c atch u p t he r iver , t o T rafaria o r e ven t o L isbon" m ay b e t he r eason w hy t hey a ppear i n S ouza 's b ook . A s

t o t he s aveiro d o T ejo

( Tagus s had b oat) 18)

w hich

v ery d efectively

d epicted i n P late 2 0-a ( Fig . 1 6 .9) , i t p robably c orresponds t o t he e nviada ( tender) , a l arger c raft o f a t ype c lose t o t he A veiro m ercanteis ( merchantmen) ( F ig . 1 6 . 10 ) t hat , b enefiting f rom c alm w eather a nd t he S pring m onsoon , " used t o s ail a long t he s ea c oast f rom A veiro t o L isbon , l oaded w ith w ood , s alt a nd o ak o r w illow b ark e mployed i n t he t reatment o f t he n ets ; w ith a c rew o f n ot m ore t han 2 o r 3m en a nd M ing o n b oard , a s s ole n autical i nstrument , a r ude a nd i mperfect c ompass" o A fter s elling t he 7j

c argo , a nd o ften a lso t he b oat , t he o wner w ould g o b ai% %h ome , c arrying w ith h im " the s ails a nd t he p roduct o f t his c urious t rade" ) . K nown a long t he T agus a s v arinos ( Figs . 1 6 .11 a nd 1 6 .13) , t hey w ere u sed f or s ardine f ishA w o ff-shore a nd f or l oading a nd u nloading v essels c alling i n t he e stuary l Y) , T his m odel i s a n a ncestor o f t he m odern v arino ( Figs . 1 6 .15 a nd 1 6 .16) 20) o f w hich w e h ave t he e xcellent p lans p repared b y R afael M onleon ( 1890) ( Fig . 1 6 .11) . C omparing t he f ormer v arino t o P late 2 0-A , s mall d ifferences a re n oticeable :

o n t he l atter t he s hape o f t he p row i s l ess c urved a nd g raceful ,

a nd t he r ig i s s till t he o riginal , ah igh _b ig - s ail , a ft r ig c haracteristic o f t he S outh t ype 2 1) . 1 97

i nstead o f t he f ore-and-

T he o mission o f t he f ishing b ateira 22 ) ( Figs. 1 6 .13 a nd 1 6 .28) i n S ouza 's b ook s trikes a s u nexpected: t hese b oats , w hich w ere v ery o ften c arried , t qgether w ith t heir c rews, o n t he e nviadas , w ent f orward b y t heir o wn m eans 1 9 ) , e ither u pstream o r d own t he c oast a s f ar a s t he S ado , A lgarve o r e ven S outh S pain 2 3 ) ,

f or g reat w as t he m obility o f t hese f ishg men ,

s o

g reat t hat t hey a re o ccasionally n amed , a fter i t , a s " sea g ypsies" .4 4) F inally , w e s hall d eal w ith t he b atel d 'agoa a ' ssima ( upstream b oat) 25 ) o f P late 7 -A , 7 -B ( Fig . 1 6 .12) . T heir r aked b ow , e nding i n a n a gressive p eak a nd r evealing t heir f lat b ottom 26) ( 7-A ) m ake t hem l ittle d ifferent f rom t he b arco d 'agua a cima, a lias monaio, a lias c ul6, 27, t heir c orresponding m odel i n t he f ollowing c entury ( Figs . 1 6 .14 a nd 1 6 .1 9 . C ould t hey b e t he r emotest e xample o f t his t ype o f c raft? T hey w ere b uilt t o s ail t o t he h arbours u p t he r iver T agus , e ven t o t hose t hat w ere away f rom t he r iver b ank a nd c ould o nly b e r eached t hrough d itches o r m inor r iver s hunts .

F rom s uch p orts t hey w ould c arry c ork , f ruit a nd o ther g oods d own

t o L isbon , e ither t o t he c ity o r t o t he s hips o n t he e stuar . y 28)A s f or t he r ig , w hile t he b atel h as e ither a l ateen s ail w ith a s trongly f ore-raked m ast o r as prit s ail a nd f ore s ail . T o u nderstand t he i mportance o f t he p lanked c anoes o f M esopotamian t ype a long t he T agus , w e o nly h ave t o c onsider t hat , a s l ate a s 1 860 , t hey s till a ccounted f 54) 2 9 .8% o f a ll r iver c raft : 4 31 u nits o ut o f a t otal 143 ! ( Cf . T able I II). A lthoueh s ailing a long t he T agus ,

j ust a s t he b atel d id ,

t he b arco d e

R iba T ej030 ) ( Upper T agus B oat) o f P late 6 ( Fig . 1 6 .17) b elongs , t ogether w ith t he m uleta 3 1) ( Figs . 1 6.18-19), t o aq uiet d ifferent n autical f amily . T heir b asic s tructure i s b ased o n an ormal s keleton f rame w ith a k eel . I n o rder t o m ake g ood u se o f s hallow d raught , i t h as a c oncave b ottom a nd t he k eel i s l evel w ith t he b ottom ( Fig . 1 6.20) .Hence t heir n eed f or l ateral s tablizers - t he p as d e b orda - f or s ailing . AM editerranean o rigin , d atin b ack t o t he c lassical a ge, h as b een s uggested f or t his p eculiar hu l l. ) N otice m ust b e

t aken t hat b oth f ishing a nd c argo b oats

h ave s imilar

g eneral c haracteristics . E ven t he n ormal r ig d oes n ot d iffer e xcept f or t he s ingle f act t hat t he m uleta h as a s mall f ore s ail . O nly f or t rawling d o t hey u se s ome c omplementary s ails t o m ove t o 1 eeward 33) ( Figs . 1 6 .19 a nd 1 6 .20) . T he d isplay o f t his f ull r ig w as i n t he o rigin o f a n u nderstandable p opularity t hat s urvived a fter

t hey h ad

f aded

a way a t

t he

b eginning o f o ur c entury . T he b arco d e R ibatejo c arried b ulky c argo - b ales o f h ay , c ork , e tc . a nd t he m uleta u sed t o f ish o utside t he e stuary , t he c atch b eing t hen r emoved t o o ther s mall c raft t hat w ould b e a waiting a t t he m outh o f t he r iver t o c arry i t t o L isbon3 3) . P roceeding t o t he k eeled b oats o f

t he t raditional M editerranean t ype ,

w e s hall d istinguish t he d ouble e nded f rom t he a ft t ransom o nes a nd , among t he f ormer , t hose w ith f illing-chocks f rom t hose w ithout t hem . T he d ouble e nded b oats a re p redominant 1 5 ,

3 4)

( Plates 2 ,

3 ,

5 , 8 , 9 ,

1 3 ,

1 6 , 1 7 a nd 1 9) , t he a ft t ransom o nes b eing l ess t han a h alf o f t heir

n umber

3 5)

( Plates 4 , 1 0 , 1 1A a nd 1 18) .

I n t he 1 9th c entury t he f ormer

h ave f aded a way a lmost c ompletely e xcept f or o ne s pecimen - t he c angueiro.

1 98

B OAT

NAME

•

c J 0 =

0

ABRANTES ALCOCHETE ALHOS

B A R C O S D E

B A T E I R A S

1 90

1 90 8

6

3

3

ALDEA-GALLEGA

F R A G A T A S

HARBOURS

A V E I R O S

R IVER

V EDROS

1

1

1

5

2 0

3 5 1

9 1

5 1 3 4

AMORA

4

ARRENTELLA

2

2

2

6

ALCANTARA

4

ALFAMA

3

1 9

1

2 3

8

3 7 2 8

2 8

BELEM BARQUINHA

7 5

7 5 5 1

CONSTAN A CAES NOVO CHAMUSCA

5 1

1

1 5

CAES

DO

S ODR2

5 1 3

3

CAES

DO

TOJO

3 0

1

CAES

DA

PEDRA

2 2

1

3 3

8 5

2 0

1 21

1 2

2 8

1 04

3 8

1 50

8 8

1

3

1

CASCAES

4

CAC I LHAS

3 0

FUND UÄO

1 3 1

JUNQUE I RA

3 0

4

D ' ARCOS

PORTO

BRANDÄO

4

8 2 6 3

1 1

1

1

TRAFARIA

5

2

5 3 1

1 1

7 3

1

NOVA

1 4 1

2

SANTOS

TERCENAS RIBEIRA

1 9

2 1

SAMOCO D E

9

1

2

PAMPULHA

PRAIA

1 6

1

3 1

LAVRADIO

3

1

4

MOITA PA O

2

4

1

2 4

BOA-VISTA

1 9

1 6 1

BARREIRO

7 4

5

TERREIRO

5

4 3

S EIXAL

SOMMA

* I NCLUDING

ALL

4 31

THE

4

D IFFERENT

2 7

BOATS

1 99

3 4

OF

8

THIS

5 10

BREED

4 3

1 8

1 11

1 143

T able in

T R A N S P O R T / W O D

B A R C A D ' A L D E I A G A L E G A

B O K

T R A N S P O R T / S A N D

B A R C O D O S M O Y O S

I

T R A N S P O R T / S T O N E

B A T E I R A D E P O R T O B R A N D Ä O

C • I

C O

c r

c n

M A R I T I M E F I S H I N G & P I L O T S M A R I T I M E F I S H I N G & P I L O T S R I V E R F I S H I N G

B A R C O D A E R I C E I R A

B A R C O D E S E S I M B R A

B A R C O D E C A S C A I S

B A T E L

o

c • 1 Z E 4 . 1

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N OTA T he d otted l ines c orrespond t o r econstitution a t t he M arsala M useum: t he l ines o f t hat r econstitution a re s houn i h t he f irst p age.

B .3.2

T he m odifications d o n ot a lter t he e xcavated r e-assembled w ood.

K =.05 ,

K =. 1

F ig . 1 7 .13 . 0155

‘K , - 0039

2 48

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2 49

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N

F ig . 1 7 .15

7 e M ataro La Mao d

6

3

( Model Of t he a c : ual s hip) 7.60 m . ( L : 1 1 : 8 m .

F ig .17 .1517 .17 : T he m odel o f t he n ao f rom M ataro a t t he C atalonian c oast i s d ated t o t he l ate 1 5th c entury A D ( Winter 1 956) . T he l ength o f t he o riginal s hip c an b e e stimated t o c . 1 7 .6 i n . t he b readth t o 8i n . T he l ines o f t he " Nao t he M ataro" a re , i n m y o pinion , v ery i nelegant. I w as t herefore h appy t o f ind t hat m y m ethod d id n ot f ollow s uch l ines w ithout " humps" . I f t he ' humps" a re e liminated f rom t he l ine f or p arameter B , t hey a utomatically r eappear o n t he l ine f or p arameter K . F urthermore , s ection 8 , w hich i s t he o nly o ne d escribing a n oticeable S -shape , c an o nly b e c omputed w ith a m odification o f p arameter K a t a nd a round t his s ection. w hich h elps t o a ccentuate t he i nelegant c haracter o f t he d esign . T he l ines w hich h ave b een t aken o f t he m odel s how i n o ther w ords a r ather a wkward s et o f l ines , i . e . a s hip w hose s ailing c apabilities m ight h ave b een f ar f rom e xceptional . F urthermore t he " abnormal" S -shape o f t he s ection 8 m ust h ave b een c aused b y a n e rror m ade b y t he m odel m aker . T he w ooden p lanks o f t he o riginal f ull s ize s hip s hould h ave o bliged t he s hipbuilder t o a void s uch a d iscrepancy . I t m ust b e a dded t hat t he p rofile o f t he m odel i s d esigned a t an on-distorted s cale . A ll o ther d esigns i n t his p aper l ook s omewhat c lumsy b ecause o f a n e xaggerated w idth a nd h eight c ompared t o l ength , a d esign t rick w hich a llows t o d raw f airer l ines .

2 50

_ _ h : 4

111 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1111 1

1 1 1 1 11 11 1h

; i z

N

,

/ / / / / / / / /

c a

2 51

2 52

The Roman C argoship o f l a Madrague d e G iens

F ig .17 .18

F ig . 1 7 .18 : A s ketch o f t he R oman c argoship e xcavated a t M adrague d e G iens b y P . P omey i s s ufficient t o s how h ow d ifferent c ould b e ag ood d esign . B ut s uch s tatement w ould n eed j ustifications r equiring m any m ore p ages t han c an b e u sed f or t his p resentation .

2 53

1 8 . E VOLVING S HIP D ESIGN T ECHNOLOGY R EVEALED I N W RECKS O F P OST M EDIEVAL S HIPS T homas G illmer

T his p aper h as r elatively l ittle t o s ay a bout e xamples o f s hip d esign t echnology a ctually e xposed i n w recks o f p ost-medieval s hips . I t i s r ather p ointed t oward m aking a c ase f or a rchaeological a wareness o f s uch e xamples . I n c onsidering t he e volution o f s hip t echnology t here i s m uch c onvincing e vidence a s w ell a s s imple d ialectic t hat t here i s a s tream , c ontinuous i n t he t ime o f m an , w here p rogress p revailed .

A t t he c enter o f

t he s tream i s t he t ide o f p rogress h owever s luggishly i t w as m oved b y i ngenious h ands , a nd t oward t he o uter e dges t here w as a nd a re t he b ackwaters w here c an s till b e s een s ome o f t he e fforts o f t he p ast . T his p rogress i n t he m ainstream c enter , I b elieve , h as d ealt w ith t he c oncept o f b ettering p erformance o f s hips , f irst i n p ropulsive t echniques ( whether s ails , o ars o r m echanical s ystems) ; a s w ell a s p erformance which i ncludes s afety a nd r easonable h abitability a cross o ceans o f u npredictable n ature. I t i s o nly i n t he l atter c ourse o f t his s tream o f s hipbuilding p rogress w here i t h as w idened t o ab road a nd p owerful f low t o p rovide t he t ransport o f m ankind , w ith h is w ealth a nd d isputes , t hat r ational s hip d esign h as a ssisted . V ery b roadly ,

s hip d esign i s

t he a rt o f

t he s hipwright w ith h is

i nstincts , c raftsmanship a nd k nowledge t hat e nable h im t o f ashion a b oat ( or s hip) c apable o f p erforming a nd k eeping t he s ea . T his c oncept o f s hip d esign i s m ost a bstract a nd i ts e ssence i s s killed c raftsmanship w ith a pplied k nowledge .

I t i s i nteresting t hat n early t he w hole o f s hipbuilding

h istory w as l ed b y t his b road c oncept o f s hip d esign a nd t hat o nly f or a pproximately t he p ast 3 50 y ears h as t here b een a ny o ther k ind. I n t he m ore n arrow , d efinitive s ense , s hip d esign i s t he p redetermined f ormulation o f t he s hip 's s tructure a nd c onfiguration . T he p rocess h as i ts b eginnings a nd , p roperly , i ts s ummation b efore s hip c onstruction b egins . B y i ts n ature i t i s c onceptual a nd i ts k ey i s p redetermination . T he p rocess m ust b e a r ational o ne a nd o ne w hereby i ts p ractitioner i s h eld a ccountable f or h is p roduct . I t i s o nly i n t his w ay t hat t hrough p ractice a nd r ecord c an g enuine t echnical p rogress b e e stablished ; w here t he r ight p rocedures i lluminate t he w rong ; w here s uccesses a s w ell a s f ailures b ecome r ecorded a nd where a cquired k nowledge c orrectly i dentifies t he b est a pproach . W e c annot l eave t his d efinition s o s imply w ithout a lso p roperly s aying t hat t he w hole p rocess o f m odern s hip d esign i s r eplete w ith t heory . T he

r ecognition

o f

s hip d esign

a s

a p rocess

a part

f rom

s hipwright ,

u ltimately t o b e c alled n aval a rchitecture , o ccurred i n E urope s omewhere a nd v ery g radually d uring t he e nd o f t he 1 7th c entury a nd t he b eginnings o f t he 1 8th .

H owever i ts p ractice i s f requently a ccomplished s till i n s hipyards

i n c lose p roximity w ith t he w orking s hipwrights .

2 55

W e m ust r eturn t o t he e arlier a nd m ore g eneral s ort o f s hip d esign t hat p revailed f or s o m any c enturies a nd m arched s o s lowly a long w ith h umankind m arking h is p rogress w ith o ther t echnology . B eing c oncerned h ere e volving s hip t echnology I h ope I m ay b e e xcused f or s uggesting n autical a rchaeology d oes n ot e xist a s a n e nd b asic s ource i n t he p rocess o f

i n i tself .

w ith t hat

I s ee i t a s a

i dentifying t he e volutionary s tages o f

s hip

t echnology . H istorians m ust l eave i t t o o thers t o s tudy t he t reatment a nd p reservation o f s hip t imbers , t echniques o f s alvage , a nd o ther t echnology . W hen t he s hip i tself i s r evealed f rom i ts r emains a nd s hown w ith i ts p roper p lace , p eak.

m y

c uriosity

c oncerning

i ts

s tructure

a nd

s hape

t hen

r eaches

i ts

I t i s t he s hape o f t he h ull t hat i s o f f irst c oncern i n r evealing t he a ncient s hipwright 's a bility t o c reate a c apable s ailing v essel a nd i n t his a n i nsight t o s ailing q ualities c an b e h elpful . I f i t m ight b e a llowable , f or s ake o f e xample , t o r each b ack b eyond t he c onfines o f p ost-medieval t ime i t i s m ost i nteresting t o l ook a t t he s hape o f t he s hip 's b ottom i n s ome b oats o f s hell-first c onstruction .

T he

c haracteristic i s

f ound i n

t he

s tructure o f t he w reck o f t he o ldest s hip f ound , a s w ell a s i n t he w recks o f t he s hips i n t he m useum a t R oskilde a nd e ven i n t he b ottoms o f s hips s till b uilt i n t he P ersian G ulf a nd o thers. O riginating i n t he e arliest o f e xternal k eel-built s hips a f ortuitous b ottom s hape , s ometimes c alled a " hollow g arboard" , p rovides a s uperior q uality o f s ailing t hat i s n ot p resent i n m ore r ecent a nd p lainer " round s hips" .

O r i s

i t i n t hose w ith f lat o r n ear-flat b ottomed h ulls .

T he

c haracteristic i s c learly p resent a nd e asily i dentifiable i n t he s emir estored w reck c alled t he K yrenia s hip o f t he 4 th c entury B .C . f ound c lose t o t he n orth s hore o f C yprus . T he w ooden r emains o f t his s hip p rovide a n e xceptional o pportunity t o s tudy a nd a ppreciate t he q uality o f e arly c lassical s hipbuilding . I t m ore i mportantly p rovides o ur b est i ndex a nd b ench m ark f rom w hich t o m easure h istoric d evelopment o f s hip c onstruction . T he q uality o f c onstruction i n t his e xample i s v ery h igh a nd i t i s t ypical i n t he a ncient m ethod . T he m ethod i s g enerally k nown a s s hell-first c ontruction . M ost s ignificantly h owever t his e legantly b uilt s hip s hows t he f irst e xisting e xample o f a n e xternal k eel , h owever o ld i ts u se m ay h ave b een a t t he t ime ( Fig . 1 8 .0 . T he k eel o f

t he K yrenia s hip i s s haped a nd i nstalled

i n t he b est

p ractice o f w ooden s tructured s hips, a ncient o r m odern . I ts s ection p roportion o f h eight t o b readth i s a pproximately 2 :1 w ith a g enerous r abbet a t t he t op f or t he g arboard s trake . T he r abbet i s c learly a nd s killfully c ut w ith a s light o utboard a ngle . T he f loor t imber a bove t he k eel w ith i ts l imber c hock p rovides t he e xact s lope a nd f lare o f t he g arboards a nd f irst b ottom p lanks . T he K yrenia s hip t hus h as a n e xcellent " built -d own" k eel w ith a h ollow-like r un i n t he b est t radition o f f ast s ailing v essels e ven o f t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c entury . T he s ame c haracteristic p revails i n f ast s ailing y achts t oday , i n t he m ost e xaggerated f orm r ecognized a s t he " keelf in" . T his i s , n o d oubt , ah ull s hape o r f orm c haracteristic t hat h as b een " discovered" a nd " rediscovered" o n u ntold n umber o f o ccasions b y s hipwrights i n m any p laces a nd

t imes s ince

t he K yrenia s hip a nd q uite

l ikely b efore .

S o w e k now i t h as b een a f eature a mong s ome s ailing v essels f or a t l east 2 4 c enturies . M ore r ecent e xamples t han t he 4 th c entury B .C . K yrenia s hip a re t he m ajority o f l ap p lank s hips o f t he N orse . T he K yrenia s hip , a t l east p rovides t he e arliest b ench m ark f or t his h ull s tyle f eature ( Katzev 1 980 a nd 1 981) .

2 56

T o

d escribe

t he

a dvantageous

c ontribution

t o

t he

q uality

a nd

p erformance o f s ailing p rovided b y t his h ollow , b uilt-down a rea a djacent t o t he k eel , I w ill o nly b riefly p oint o ut t he p hysical p henomena . A s w e a ll k now , as ailing v essel m oves t hrough t he w ater m ost u sually a t s ome a ngle r elative t o t he w ind d irection . ( We w ill i gnore t he s ingle a nd m ost u ncomfortable s ituation o f s ailing d irectly b efore t he w ind) . O n a ll o ther c ourses t he w ind w ill p roduce a l eeward c omponent , t ending t o m ove t he v essel t o t he s ide w hile a t t he s ame t ime i t i s g oing f orward .

T his

s ideward d rift o r " leeway" i s d ependent o n m any f actors q uantitatively . T he s trength a nd a ngle o f t he w ind c ontributes m ost s iginificantly ; t he s ails ' s hape a nd e ffectiveness , e tc . ,

t he a mount o f h eeling a ngle t he s hip t akes ,

a re a ll p arts o f t he e quation .

T he f inal r esult i s

t hat

t he c ourse

s ailed i s n ot t he s ame a s t he c ourse s teered a nd, o n o ur a companying d iagram , t he d ifference i n t hese c ourses o r a ngles i s t he " drift a ngle" . O bviously t he s maller t he d rift a ngle , t he b etter t he p rogress i n t he i ntended d irection o f s ailing . B ut a lso i f w e t ry t o n arrow t he d rift a nlge t oo m uch a s w e s teer w e w ill r each t he n o h eadway c ondition ; t he s ails w ill n ot r emain a irfoils , t he h ull d rag w ill b ecome l arger t han t he u seful d rive o f t he s ail a nd t he v essel w ill " fall o ff" a b it . W ithout g oing f urther i nto t he p hysical p henomena i t m ay b e s imply c oncluded t hat t o c ontinue s ailing w ith t he o ptimum s peed a nd p rogress a long t he s hip 's t rack , t here i s s ome d rift a ngle a lways e xisting . T o a chieve o ptimum p rogress , p articularly w ith a r elative w ind f orward o f t he b eam , i s t o m easure t he s hip 's s ailing p erformance a nd w indward a bility . S o w ith t he d rift a ngle i n m ind l et u s c onsider t he e xtended k eel a rea i n t he s hip 's b ottom . T his c enterline p rotrusion ,

w ith g ently r ising h ollow s urfaces a djacent ,

m oving

t hrough t he w ater a t a s mall " drift" a ngle i s m uch l ike a n a ircraft w ing moving a t a n a ngle o f a ttack i n a n a irstream . T here i s p roduced a " lifting" c omponent o f f orce .

I n t he c ase o f t he s hip ,

t his c omponent i s

l ateral , t oward t he u p-wind d irection . T he o bvious c onclusion w e a re p resented w ith i s t hat , a t l east s ince t he 4 th c entury B .C . , i t h as b een p ossible f or s hips s ailing , " on" o r " off" t he w ind , q uality o f w indward s ailing d ue k eel o r h ollow g arboards .

S hip

t o

t o e xperience a s uperior

t he e xceptional

f eature o f

I d o n ot b elieve t hat t he a ncient s hipwrights w ho b uilt o r s imilar s hips o f t hat t ime o r e arlier h ad a ny

b uilt-down

t he K yrenia p articular

u nderstanding o f t he c ontribution o f t his f eature t o s ailing q uality . I f urther t hink t hat a g reat n umber o f t he c lassic s ailing s hips h ad t his v ery s ame f aeture i n b ottom s tructure . p lanning i n s culpting o f h ull s hape

I t w as n ot t he r esult o f d eliberate t o p roduce a b etter a ble b oat . T he

h ollow g arboards w ere t he r esult o f t he m ethod o f c onstruction , t he s equence o f p lanking a nd f raming t he h ull . C onsequently w e c annot a ttribute a n e arly s ense

o f

" design"

p lanning ,

a t

l east

i n

t his

v ery

s ignificant

a nd

c ontributive h ull s hape f eature . T he h ollow g arboards i n e arly v essels , b uilt i n t he w ell-identified s hell-first , e dge-fastened m anner , r esulted q uite n aturally i n s uch s hape b ecause o f

t he d ifficulty i n t wisting p lanks u nsupported b y f rames f rom a

n ear-horizontal b ottom s urface t o t he v ertical s urface o f t he s tem o r s tern p ost s urfaces . T his s ame d ifficulty q uite l ikely c ontributed t o t he p rofile o f t he b ow a nd f orm o f t he s tem i n m any a ncient s hips . T he p lanks a djacent t o t he k eel t hat b egan f lat i n t he b ottom m ust c ontinue w ith l ittle t wist a nd r un o ut f arther f orward p roducing a f ull a nd e xtended b ow f orm . A f iner e ntrance , o r s harp w aterline r equires a n u p-curving s tempost a nd a g radual

t urn i n p lanking ,

h ence

t he

b uilt-down k eel

s hips .

2 57

i n

s hell-first

b uilt

I n t he l ong p rogression o f e xternal k eel-built v essels , a nd t he g radual e xchange o f s hell-first c onstruction f or f rame-first o r s keletal c onstruction t here w as m uch v ariation i n t he o verall h ull f orm . T here a lso w as v ery l ittle i mprovement i n t he q uality o f s ailing p erformance . D uring t his

e xchange ,

t here

w as

a g radual

h eavily t imbered s tructure,

t rend

t o l arger c apacity h ulls ,

m ore c omplex s ailing r ig a nd

m ore

m ulti-mast

a rrangement , b ut t here s eems t o b e n o e vidence o ver t hese l ong a ges t oward r ational i mprovement o f h ull d esign . H ere w e m ust p ause t o r ecall t he n otions o f " design" a s m entioned a t t he o utset o f t his p aper . T hus f ar t he c hange i n s hape a nd s tyle a nd c omplexity o f s hips h as b een r egarded o nly i n t he b road s ense o f s hip d esign . E ither f rom h istorical o r a rchaeological e vidence t here i s n othing t hat c an b e i dentified a s " ship d esign" i n t he d efinitive s ense which a ssumes a r ational d etermination . W e c annot d o b etter a t t his p oint w hen c onsidering s hipbuilding o f t he p ost-medieval p eriod t han c onsider t he d efinitions a nd l imitations o f n aval a rchitecture p roposed b y F redrik H enrik C hapman i n 1 775 . H is t hinking c learly i s a pplicable n ot o nly i n h is o wn t ime b ut g enerally h istorically a nd c urrently t oday . As hip c an h ave n o l ess a ttention t o i ts p lanning a nd d esign a nd b asically n eeds l ittle m ore . I w ould l ike t o c ategorically r epeat C hapman 's f ive r equirements f or k nowledge i n s hipbuilding a nd a s I u nderstand t hem ( Chapman 1 775) . 1 .

H e w rote :

T hat a s hip w ith a c ertain d raught o f w ater s hould b e a ble t o c ontain a nd c arry a d eterminate l ading . d isplacement i n t he d esign p rocess).

2 .

( Determination

o f

T hat i t s hould h ave a s ufficient a nd a lso d eterminate s tability . ( Determination o f a s hip 's s afe a nd i ntact s tability) .

3 .

T hat i t s hould b e e asy a t s ea , o r i ts r olling a nd p itching b e n ot t oo q uick . ( Design t o p rovide a s hip w ith a cceptable m otion i n a s eaway).

4 .

T hat i t s hould s ail w ell b efore t he w ind , a nd c lose t o t he w ind , a nd w ork w ell t o w indward . ( Design t o p rovide a s hip o f a cceptable s ailing o r p ropulsive p erformance).

5 .

T hat i t s hould n ot b e t oo a rdent , ( Sailing v essel e asily t acked . s ailing c raft).

a nd y et c ome e asily a bout .

d esign t o p rovide t hat i t b e w ell-balanced a nd T his l ater p rovision i s o bviously a pplied o nly t o

T hese w ords o f C hapman , w hich w ere p robably t he e arliest d efinition o f n aval a rchitecture m ay s erve a s m ost u seful g uide f or e xamining t he s hipbuilding

o f

p rior

c enturies

a nd

c an b e

v ery

l ittle

i mproved u pon i n

e xecuting t he d esign o f a s ailing v essel o f a ny a ge i ncluding t he p resent . O nly a m oment 's r eflection o n t he f ive r equirements m akes i t a pparent t hat f our o f t he f ive d eal w ith p roviding s afety a nd s ailing p erformance .

A ll

o f t hem i nfer t hat t he r equirements b e p redetermined i n t he d esign p rocess . I t s hould b e e mphasized t hat t hey a ll p redominantly d eal w ith t he s hip 's h ull c onfiguration .

B y r emote i nference w e m ust a ssume t hat t he s tructural

s trength b e a dequate a s w ell.

2 58

I t i s r ealized t hat i t i s m ost d ifficult i n e xamining t he r emains o f s hips f rom a rchaeological s hip f inds t o a scertain a ny o f t hese r equisite c haracteristics o r w hether t hey a re r evealed a t a ll . where t he h ull i s t o a c onsiderabled d egree i ntact , w ill

S ome f inds , r eveal t he

p erforming q ualities o f t he s hip a nd p erhaps s peak p lainly a bout s tability a nd p ossibly e ven t he w indward a bility a nd b alance . T ests h ave b een m ade i n t his d iretcion f or s ome s hip r emains i n t he f orm o f c onstruction o f m odels , r eplications , e tc . T he a ccuracy o f c onclusions r est o n t he d epth a nd q uality o f t he e xperiments a nd t he r esults s hould b e s tudied w ith t hese r estraints i n m ind . H owever , t here w ould s eem t o b e v ery l ittle i n a w reck o f a n a ntique v essel t hat would r eveal whether t he h ull c onfiguration , i ncluding i ts s tructure whole o r i n p art h ad b een p redetermined b y ar ational d esign p rocess . N or i s i t t he i ntention h ere t o a ttempt t o i dentify a ny s uch i nstances . I t i s i mportant h owever t o o bserve , a nd i dentify where p ossible , w hen s uch c haracteristic p roperties m ay e xist a nd t o w hat d egree . M arking t he w recks , f or q uantity o f b allast s tones r elative t o i ts s ize ; n oting r eference m arks f or d raft a nd s igns o f w aterline e rosion m arks; i dentifying l ocations o f m ast s teps a nd a lignments w ith m ast p artners i n d eck ; a nd r ecording a ll o f t he i ndicators o f s hip e mployment . A ll t hese m ake f or m ore r evealing r econstructions . T hese o ccasions w ill b e t he s mall m ilestones t hat m ark t he e volvement o f s hip d esign . W hether o r n ot t he s hip " design" w as d rawn i n g raphic p rojection , l ifted f rom m odel o r o therwise p redetermined , i s n ot i n i tself o f g reat i mportance . S hip d esign i n i ts s trictest , m ost d isciplined s ense r equires t hat t he m ethodology u sed b e e volved f rom a cceptable p hysical t heory . I t s trongly s uggests t hat t he d isplacement b e c alculated b y s ome f orm o f m athematical p rocedure , m ost p ractically t hat a dvanced b y N ewton a nd L eibnitz i n t he e arly 1 8th c entury . I t r equires t hat t he s tability b e d etermined a nd d escribed i n t erms o f m etacentric t heory , l ikewise i nvolving t he c alculus . S hips s o d esigned a re n ot e asily i dentifiable w ith a ny p robability . T he d etermination o f d esign s ource o f a m odern s hip w ould b e d oubtful w ithout t he m ost e xtensive e xamination a nd w ith t he h elp o f m any d etailed b lueprints o f t he v essel . S o w hen w e l ook f or e volving s hip d esign t echnology w e m ust b e r elaxed i n o ur d efinition o f d esign . W e m ust r egard d esign i n t he b roader a bstract s ense a nd a t t he s ame t ime b e a ware o f e vidence o f r efinement a nd i mprovement

c ontributing

t o

g rowth

a nd

c apability .

T his

i s

f unctional

h istory. A gain , Im ust a sk t o b e p ermitted t o s tep b ack a b it t o m edieval E urope t o p ick u p a t hread o r t wo t hat I s ee a s c ritical t o t he s hipwright 's t ask . I n e arly m edieval y ears , 1 025 m ore p recisely t o d ate a w reck , w as a t ime when s hipwrights o f t he s outh o f E urope w ere a pparently u sing a n ewer t echnology . T he e arliest r emains o f a s hip i ndicating a s equence o f f rames-first a ssembly o r s keletal c onstruction r aised 1 977-78 , S rece L iman , T urkey, r evealed t he n ew t rend t hat , t o s ay t he l east , w as a s low a nd g radual o ne ( Steffy 1 982) . H owever t his a pproach t o b uilding f rom t he i nside o ut i nstead o f f rom t he o utside i n c an o nly b e v iewed a s av ery l arge m ilestone

i n

t he

s hip

c onstruction

p rogress .

A ll

o f

t he

a rchaeological

e vidence o f t he p receding t hree m illennia i ndicates f irm d edication o f s hipwrights t o t he i dea o f b uilding a s culpture o f p lanked s kin , w ith f astened e dges b y l aborious s ystems .

2 59

W ith n o f rame e rected f irst o n a c enterline b ackbone t here a re f ew i f a ny a rrangements t o c ontrol t he c oncept o f h ull s hape . U sing p lanks f astened b y e dge w ould s eem a m ethod w ith m aterial c ontrolling t he b uilder w ho w as m uch c onstrained i n h is c hoices o f h ull f orm . H e w as a ble t o b uild o nly t o i mprecise d imension a nd, t o a d egree , s trive f or p roportion , s ignificantly l ength a nd b eam . A s hipwright i n t he w orld o f A lexander o r i n t he e mpire o f C aesar d id n ot k now w ith a ny d egree o f a ccuracy a t w hat d raft h is s hip w ould f loat w hen l aunched .

H is c onfidence i n h ow i t w ould p erform u nder s ail , o r h ow f ar i t

w ould h eel t o a w ind w as b ased s olely o n p revious e xperience w ith a l ike v essel . T his s ort o f c raft d oes n ot h ave m uch r oom f or p rogressive g rowth . S o w e m ust r egard t he m ovement t oward f rame-first c onstruction a s a n e volutionary d evelopment u ltimately t o p rovide t he m eans o f r ational d esign . I t w ould b e e vident e arly i n u se o f f rame-first c onstruction t hat t he m ethod p rovided a s hip w ith i nherent s ymmetry . Ia m t old b y t he r estorer a nd r econstructor o f s ome o f t he s ignificant e arly M editerranean w recks t hat ac ommon f eature a mong t hem i s l ack o f s ymmetry a bout t he l ongitudinal a xis , n ot a s a r esult o f a ge o r e rosion , b ut b ecause o f d issimilar a ssembly o f p lanks p ort a nd s tarboard . W ith t he e asy e stablishment o f s ymmetrical f rame-first t he s urface o f t he h ull m ust b e h eld t o s ymmetry . T he p red etrerinate a nd s ymmetrical f orm o f t he s hip 's h ull m ade p ossible b y t he f rame-first e mplacement i s t he c ornerstone f or d evelopment o f s hip d esign , t hrough t he p ost-medieval a ge t o t he t wentieth c entury . T his s ystem u ltimately e mbraced d esign i n i ts b roadest a s w ell a s i ts m ost p recise s ense . T here w ere , a nd a re , m any f actors c ontrolling t he d esign o f s hips t hat h ave l ittle t o d o w ith C hapman 's t hinking o n t he a rchitecture o f a s eagoing v essel . Most s ignificantly t hese t hings a re ( perhaps i n o rder o f s ignificance) t he h ull s hape i mposed b y e conomic r equirements , a nd p olitical f ulfillments . T he e conomic r equirements n eed l ittle e xplanation . T he u nderstanding i s u niversal t hat w ide f ull s hips d eliver m uch b ulk c argo a nd t he g reater t he v olumes t he g reater r esult t he p rofits . T here i s l ittle h ere t hat g ives p riority t o s peed a nd m anoeuverability . T he u ltimate i n t his c oncept o f e conomy a re s ailing b arges , w ith m any d egres o f c ompromise t o p reserve a n ecessary m inimum o f s eaworthiness . T here i s p recious l ittle t o b e d iscovered i n t he b ulk c argo t ransport r elating t o g rowth o f t he t echnology o f s hip d esign . T here i s m uch r elating r ules o f m easurement f or t onnage a nd t axation . T he

s hips

c reated

f or

p ublic

o r

g overnmental

t o

t ransport l aw a nd

p urpose

a re

o f

c ourse

p redominantly w ar v essels a nd t heir e valuation i s a m ore c omplex a nd p erplexing s tudy t han c an b e u ndertaken i n as hort p aper s uch a s t his . W arship d esign i s i n

as pecial c ategory a nd s ingleness o f p urpose.

I t w as p ointed o ut p reviously t hat t he h ollowed o r c oncave c urvature o f t he b ottom s urface o f t he s hip 's h ull i s a n a dvantageous c haracteristic i n s ailing , p articularly o n t he w ind . A lso t hat t he p re-medieval a nd a ncient b oats o f t he M editerranean h ad s uch s hape b ecause i t w as t he r esult o f t he s hell-first p lanking t echnique . I n p ost-medieval s hips w e a re a ware t hat t he b asic s hipbuilding m ethodology h as t urned t o t he f rame-first s ystem o f a ssembly p articularly i n

2 60

t he l arger s hips . A nd a lso i t i s a m atter o f h istory t hat i n t hese p ostm edieval c enturies t he m arked t rend w as t oward l arger a nd f uller a nd m ore c omplexly r igged v essels . T he s imple l ogic t hat b igger w as b etter s eemed t o b e p roved i n t hat l arger s hips w ere a ble t o g o t o s ea f or e xtended p eriods , c arry m ore p rofitable c argoes a nd e ven s ail f aster ( though l ess e fficiently) t han t heir s maller a ncient p redecessors . A s t he f rame-first s ystem o f b uilding b ecame r efined t he s hape o f t he f rames w ere " designed" b y e laborate g eometric p rocedures t hat r esulted i n h ull f orms t hat w ere o nly r emotely r elated t o g ood s ailing p erformance . T he h ollow g arboards o f e arlier s hell-first s tructures s eem t o h ave b een l ost . T he b ottoms n ear t he k eel w ere f lat o r n early s o . T he r ise i n t he b ilges w as g radual a nd f ull, s welling t o t he f ullest n ear t he w aterline . I t i s t empting t o b e c onvinced t hat t he d ominant , p rosperous s hipwrights o f t he 1 6th a nd 1 7th c enturies w ere s o p reoccupied w ith r ules o f g eometry,

i n t he f ullness o f h old ,

masting a nd r igging t hat t hey w ere

b linded t o t he r eal r equirements o f s ailing v essels . I t i s n ot u ntil t he 1 8th c entury t hat t here i s e vidence o f b asic i mprovement . I t i s t he " age o f e nlightenment" t hat t he m ore e legant a rchitectural d rawings s how r efinement i n g eometrically d rawn s ections . T hey a lso , a t l ast a re s howing c ontrolled c onfiguration . I t c an b e s een i n e xamples o f e arly 1 8th c entury s hip 's s ections , t he e xperimentation o f v arious d eadrise a ngles , a nd i n m any t he r edevelopment o f a h ollow i n g arboard p lanking . T his c an b e i nterpreted a s c ontrolled a nd p redeterminate h ull s hape i n t he p lanned s hip 's f rame s hape . S olid e xamples o f r ational d esign . W here t his h ollow g arboard f orm i s f ound i n aw reck o f ap ost-medieval s hip o r b oat o ne c an b e s ure t hat i t w as p ut t here i ntentionally b y a r easoning s hipwright . W e c an r easonably h ope t hat h e w as a lso p roudly a ware o f h is s hip's s uperior w eatherly p erformance . I t i s n otable t hat e legant d raughts o f C hapman i dentify t hemselves b y t his h ollow g arboard c haracteristic . H is h andsome d esigns o f f rigates , p rivateers a nd y achts , a ll v essels r equiring s peed a nd w eatherly p erformance s how b ody p lans w hose s ections a re h ollow f or t he w hole l ength o f t he k eel . T his m an w as a d esigner o f v ision a nd i t w as s hip 's h ulls l ike t hese t hat w ere i n t he m ainstreamn o f e volving a nd a dvancing s hip d esign . I a m

m uch p ersuaded

t o l ook f or e valuation o f

s hip d esign a mong

t he

s maller " working c lasses ' ' ' . T he e volving s hip w hich h as s urvived t hrough a ll t he y ears h as d one s o i n ap rocess s omehow a kin t o D arwin 's T heory : o ne o f n atural s election . " The s urvival o f t he f ittest" , t o o verwork a p hrase , i s m ost a ppropriate . T he s elective p rocess i s a t w ork c ontinually i n t he e volution o f w orking s hips , a nd i s p articularly e vident a mong s hipwrights c reating t he s maller , l ess o stentatious c raft . T hose p eople w ere c loser t o t he e nvironment o f t heir p roduct , a nd w orked e mpirically w ith m ore e conomy a nd e fficiency ( Fig . 1 8 .2) . S o u ltimately t he t hread o f g ood d esign p revailed a mong t he c arriers o f s mall c ommerce , p rivateers a nd s mugglers p erhaps , w hose b oats c ompeted n ot o nly w ith t heir s isters b ut w ith t he s ea d irectly . I n t urn i t f ollows f rom t his s ort o f " la b orato r y" d evelopment t hat t he l osses a nd f ailures a re r elatively s mall f inancially a nd a re e ither s uccessfully r eproduced o r a bandoned f or s omething b etter .The s uccesses a nd a dvancements a re f urther d eveloped a nd u ltimately o bserved a nd a cquired b y t he b uilders o f b igger s hips , " filtering u p" a s i t w ere . T his i s p erhaps c ontrary t o a c ommon a ssumption o f t he s chool b elieving i n m oving o nly w ith t he e stablishment .

2 61

I n t he u ltimate a nalysis , Ib elieve t hat t hose f eatures which most l ikely i mproved s hip p erformance a nd s hip s afety a re m ore n aturally p redominant a nd p revailing a mong t he c haracteristics o f e volving c ommercial a nd p rivate s hip d esign . T here a re a gain t hose t hat C hapman , h ere i n S tockholm , s aid m ust g uide a ll n aval a rchitects . A n e xample o f e volving s hip t echnology i s n oted i n a n e xcavation r ecently i n t he U nited S tates o f a s mall American a rmed b rig . T he v essel i dentified a s t he D efence, 1 70 t ons, w as s unk i n 1 779 b y aB ritish N avy S quadron t ogether w ith s ome o ther c ontinental N avy v essels i n P enobscot B ay , n ow i n t he S tate o f M aine, U .S .A . I n 1 975 a n a rchaeological p roject u nder t he M aine S tate M useum p roceeded t o u ncover t he r emains o f o ne o f t his i ll-fated P enobscot e xpedition . T hey s oon d iscovered t he D efence t o b e a n 8 0-ft . v essel , a bout 4 0 t o 4 5 p ercent i ntact i n t he h ull . S he w as f ound t o b e i n a n u pright p osition w ith a p ort l ist o f a bout 1 5 °. T he o verburden w as r emoved r evealing a v essel o f f inely m odeled h ull .

H er c onstruction i s t raditional w ith r ather more

c losely p laced f rames t han c ustomary i n t his t ype o f s hip . H er d eck w as g one b ut t he s ilt-filled h ull w as w ell-preserved f rom b elow t he p ort c hain p lates t o j ust b elow t he s tarboard w aterline ( Symonds 1 979) . T he h ull s hape i s e asily i dentified f rom t he m idsection s hape a nd t he f orward b ow f orm . T his h ull w as c learly a n e arly e xample o f a n American t ype c alled a " Virginia

b uilt" h ull .

" Virginia b uilt" w as a t erm s ynonymous w ith " Chesapeake b uilt" a nd d escribed a s o ften l ightly s tructured b ut s harp-ended h ull o f e xtremely s harp d eadrise . T hey w ere n oted a s v essels o f e xceptional p erformance a nd s peed ( Fig.

1 8 .3).

E xisting

r ecords

s how

t hat

t his

v essel

w as

b uilt

i n

B everly ,

M assachusetts i n 1 778 a s o ne o f t welve p rivateers , n ever a pparently t o h ave b een c lose t o V irginia o r t he C hesapeake . T his a rchaeological e vidence o f t he s hipbuilder 's r ecognition o f t he s ailing q ualities o f C hesapeake v essels o f t his s tyle a nd b ottom f orm r einforces t he q uest f or h istorical d esign t echnology . I t a lso r einforces c olloquial p oints o f v iew a mong A merican h istorians o n t he p ossibility o f t he m igration N orthward f rom t he C hesapeake o f s hipbuilding t echniques a nd s tyle , w hich h as l ong b een a rguable a mong t he e thnically i nclined h istorians . T he e mphasis o n s hip p erformance i s e vident i n t he P enobscot s hip ,

a nd

i t i s a n e xample i n a n a ge o f a wakening s hip t echnology . S ailing p erformance a nd w indward a bility , e ssential g oals i n p rogressive d esign t echnology , d epend l argely o n s hip 's b ottom s hapes , w ith s urfaces g enerating p ressure d ifferential o n o pposing s ides . T here a re o ther f actors o f e volving s hip d esign r ather l ess r elated t o s ailing p erformance a nd m ore t o t he p ractical s ide o f s hip o peration . S tability i s m easured i n a s hip b y b oth i ts g eometry a nd g ravitational f orce ; m ore s trictly , b y t he s eparation o f t he b uoyant a nd g ravitational f orces . B uoyant f orce i s t he r esult o f t he s hip 's i mmersed g eometry o r h ull f orm b elow t he w ater, g ravitational f orce a s af unction o f i ts w eight d istribution . A s hip 's s tability c an o nly b e a ffected o r m anipulated b y t he s hipboard s ailors t o t he e xtent t hat t hey c an c hange t he w eight o r l oading . T he l oading i s o ften e vident i n t he w reck o f as unken s hip w here i t c omes t o

2 62

r est . I ts d istribution i s o ften c onfused b ut i t i s w orth a c onsiderable a mount o f s tudy a nd c are i f d etermination o f t he c ause o f t he s hip 's l oss i s o f i nterest . O f t he s hip 's w eight , i ts b allast i s t he m ost s ignificant b ut p robably i ts m ost u ninteresting p art . I t i s t here e xclusively t o p rovide a dequate s tability a nd i t s hould b e l ocated i n t he l owest p art o f t he s hip . T he t ype o f b allast i s q uite a s i mportant a s i ts l ocation , i n t hat , i n i ts g reater d ensity , l ess v olume w ill b e r equired f or i ts p lacement . T he ' adequate" a mount o f b allast i n a s hip i s n ot a n e asy o r f requently p ossible d etermination . M erchant s hips a s w ell a s w arships h ad s towage p lans t hat u tilized t heir r egular c argoes , s hip 's s tores , a nd e quippage a s f unctional b allast . B eyond t his a nd w hen m erchant v essels w ere w ith l ight o r m inimum c argo s ome c onsiderable a ttention a nd p rovision r equired r eal b allast T his h istorically h as b een , w ith f ew e xceptions , i n t he f orm o f s tones . S uch b allast i s o bviously e conomical a nd v ery a vailable . I t w as b etter t han s and o r g ravel i n i ts a daptability . I ts w eight , g enerally g reater , t han t hat o f c ustomary c argoes o r t he v ariety o f s hip 's s tores , m ade i t m ore e ffective . T here w as i n m ost s hips e ven f rom a ntiquity s ome s tone b allast .

T his , o bviously i ndicates a n a wareness o f t he n eed t o o ffset

t he f orce o f w ind i n t he s ails a nd o f h igh s uper-structure . S uch a wareness a pparently w as n ot a lways i ntuitive . T he f indings o f b allast a mong w recks o r i ndeed i ts i dentification i n t he w reck 's s ite i s d ifficult . I t h as b een m ore o ften i n w recks o f l ater c enturies o f t he p ost-medieval p eriod s uggesting r ational e volutionary t rend i n s hips . H owever , i t c annot b e c redited a s s uch a p ositive p redeterminate , t herefore , d esign f actor w ith o verwhelming c onfidence . I t w ould b e h elpful t o h ave m ore a nalytic s tudy o f w reck s ites w ith t he b allast f actor i n m ind , s hip's d isplacement .

w ith a c omparison t o t he

A n a wareness o f c omparative b allast e ffectiveness i s m ost h elpful i n a n a nalytic s tudy . A s i ndicated i n t he f oregoing s tone a nd b each r ock a re m ost f requently f ound i n w reck s ites a nd o bviously w as f or b allast p urpose . S tone c ompared t o c ommon m etal s uch a s i ron i s o nly a bout 2 5% a s e ffective o n t he b asis o f w eight . I ron i n t he f orm o f e xcess o r o ld c annon o n w arships w as n ot u ncommon a s b allast . I ron b illets o r p igs w ere b eing g radually a dopted i n s ome o f t he s maller , f aster s ailing v essels b y t he l ate 1 8th c entury . d esign

S uch u sages a s t his i s p rime e vidence o f e volving s hip

t echnology .

T he

s torage

o f

w ater a nd w ine

c asks

i n t he l owest h olds

i s e vident

b allasting , s uch l iquids b eing o nly a l ittle l ess i n d ensity t han s tone. T he a mount o f b allast i n as ailing v essel b eyond t he w eight o f o rdinary o r n eutral c argoes o f d ensities s imilar t o t he s hip 's s tructural w oods c an b e r oughly s tated i n l imits r elating t o t he s hip 's d isplacement . T he c enter o f g ravity o f a n u nballasted s ailing s hip w ithout c argo o r n eutral w eighted c argo i s l ocated n ormally a l ittle a bove t he l evel o f f lotation . S uch l ocation i s t oo h igh f or t he c onventional f orm o f s hips t o i nsure a dequate s tability . I ndeed a t s uch c ondition t he s hip m ight e asily b e l ost . B allasting t o l ower t he c enter o f g ravity , a s w ell a s r aising t he w aterline i n s ailing v essels o f 1 7th a nd 1 8th c entury t o t he p oint o f a dequate s tability a mounted t o a dded w eight n ear 2 5% o f t he f inal w eight ( displacement) o f t he s hip . T his q uantity o f r equired s tone o r b each r ock i s s ubstantial a nd i n t he e vidence e xisting a mong m ost w recks o f l ate p ostm edieval s hips i t i s n ot p resent i n a ny s uch q uantity i n p hotographs o f , o r

2 63

r eports o f t he c ontents o f t he f inds . I t i s o f c ourse d ifficult , f or l ack o f k nowledge o f i ts p recise s hape t o d etermine t he s hip 's t otal w eight . I f t he s hip c an b e i dentified a s i t o ften c an t hrough d ocumentation t he w eight c an m ore r eadily b e a pproximated . B allast i n s mall, f ast b rigs a nd s chooners i n t he s muggling t rade o r p rivateering i n l ate 1 8th c entury o ften e qualed o r s ometimes e xceeded t he a bove f igure o f 2 5% . I t

h as

b een

s uggested

w ith i ntended

e mphasis

t hat

t he h istoric

s equences o f s hell a nd f rame a ssembly i n s hipbuilding h ave h ad s ome s ignificant b earing o n e volving s hip d esign t echnology. I t i s w orth s ummarizing t his i nvolvement .

I t s eems e vident f rom t he s eries o f w recks

f ound i n t he M editerranean a s w ell a s N orthern E urope t hat t he s hell-first s ystem w as t he e arliest o f t he t wo s ystems . T he s ystem w as u sed a t l east a s l ong a s t he O ld K ingdom o f E gypt o r a bout 2 700 B .C . I t was u sed a nd d eveloped i n r efinement t hroughout t he m illennia . T he c hange t o s keletal c onstruction t ook p lace g radually a pparently w ith t he e arliest k nown e xample d ating e arly 1th c entury A .D . T he e stablishment o f t his s ystem a s t he m ore c onventional t o p redominant u sage t ook p lace o ver t he y ears o f e arly m edieval a nd i nto p ost-medieval . C ertainly i t w as i nto t he m id t o l ate p ostmedieval y ears , t he 1 8th c entury w hen t he f ull a dvantages o f f ramef irst b uilding s equence w as f ully e xploited . I t w as t his e nlightened a ge w ith i ts r esolutions o f n aval p ower a nd w orld c olonization t hat b rought e mphasis t o s erious a nd r esponsible s hipbuilding u tilizing t he b est s cientific f oundation . S hip d esign s eparated f rom s hipwrightry a s t he d ominant a nd c ontrolling d irection . T he s hape o f a s hip , i ts n onlinear d imensional c riteria , a nd i ts c apacities c ould b y t hat t ime b e l argely p redetermined ( Fig . 1 8 .4) . T he d etermined a mount o f a s hip 's d isplacement , a nd t hus i ts p recise m ark o f f lotation ; i ts s tability a nd p ower t o c arry s ail , a s w ell a s k nowledge o f i ts p erformance u nder s ail w ere i n t he h ands o f t he s hipwright b efore a n a xe w as s wung o r a s aw l ifted d uring t he l ast t wo a nd a h alf d ecades o f t he 1 8th c entury. S o ,

I b elieve t hat i t c an b e s afely a greed u pon t hat t he p ost-medieval

p eriod i n E urope e mbraced a t ime o f d esign s hipbuilding t echnology.

e volvement

a nd

r efinement

i n

I n t he a rchaeology o f s hipwrecks i t i s s uggested w ith s ome r esolution t hat t here s hould b e a n i ncreased a wareness t oward r ecognition o f f actors w ith t heir e ffects s ome o f w hich h ave b een d escribed i n t his d iscussion . T hey a re n ot a s v isible a s t he a rtifacts o f m ore c ommon h istoric d isposition b ut t hey a re f ar m ore u seful i n o ur d iscovery o f t he e volution o f t he s hip ( Gillmer 1 981).

R EFERENCES C hapman ,

F . 1 1 .,

J ames I nman 1 794) ,

1 775 .

T ractat o m S kepps B yggeriet ;

( Translation b y R ev .

S tockholm .

V ial d u C lairbois , 1 776 . E ssai G eometric e t P ratique s ur L 'Architecture N avale , M alassis , I mprimeur d u R oi & d e l a M arine , P aris . Katzev,

M .,

1 980.

AR eplica o f t he K yrenia

I NA

Newsletter,

Vol.

7 ,

No.

S hip .

I bid., V ol. 8 , N o. 2 , 1 981. A S ailing M odel o f t he K yrenia S hip.

2 64

1 .

Sy monds, C .L., 1 979. Ne w Aspects o f Naval History. N autical A rchaeology i n P enobscot B ay . D avid C . S witzer . 4 th N aval H istory S ymposium , A nnapolis . C h imer , T .C" 1 981. S ignposts T oward t he O rigins o f S hip D esign . F ifth N aval H istory S ymposium , A nnapolis . S teffy , J .R ., 1 982 . UNA , V ol . 1 1, N o . 1 , T he R econstruction o f t he 1th C entury S erce L iman V essel . L ondon

2 65

4 -n 4 1 12A b l NG

S 1 _ 1 1P

1 A , ,CY72 1 19 c o-T

F ig . 1 8 .1 : M idsection o f t he 4 th c entury , B .C . , K yrenia S hip w hich s hows a v ery h andsome a nd c apable s ection o f a f ine s ailing v essel . P articularly n otable a re t he h ollow g arboard a reas a djacent t o t he k eel . T his c onfiguration i s an atural r esult o f t he d eep e xternal k eel a nd t he m orticed s hell c onstruction .

D if feren t ia l Pressure R eg ion ( Dark S had ing )

—

t

L

-

F ig . 1 8 .2 : T he h ull p rofile o f t his B ermuda s loop i s t ypical o f t he m any s maller n ew w orld v essels b eing d eveloped i n t he e arly 1 8th c entury . T hey w ere o f d eep-keel w ith a m arked d rag h igh d eadrise a nd h ollow g arboards p articularly i n t he a fter s ections . T he d arker s haded p ortions a bove t he k eel i ndicate t he a dvantageous p ressure d ifferential a rea g enerated w hile s ailing . 2 66

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1 8 .3 :

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D C -f L -N

A n a rchaeological e xample o f d esign t echnology i s i ndicated i n

t he s ection o f t his e xcavated p rivateer o f t he American R evolution . N ote t he h igh d eadrise a ngle o f h er n icely m olded b ottom w ith a s light h ollow c arrying t hrough t he m iddle b ody g arboards .

0

q

A

A

F ig . 1 8 .4: T his p late o f d rawings f rom t he V ial d u C lairbois b ook , A rchitecture N avale , P aris 1 775 i ndicates a d eveloping c oncern i n t he g eometry o f a l arge s hip's m idsection t o c reate a h ollow g arboard u nderbody.

2 67

. 1 111

1 9.

M ODERN S HIP S TRENGTH C ALCULATION - A M EAN F OR T HE R ECONSTRUCTION O F W OODEN S HIPS J ürgen H ausen

H ardly i s t here a n i ssue o f t he I nternational J ournal o f N autical A rchaeology t hat c omes o ut o r c onference o r e ven m eeting o f s cholars i n t he f ield o f u nderwater r esearch h eld w ithout t he a nnouncement o f n ewly r ecovered wrecks o f b oats o r s hips. The s ites a re s pread a ll o ver t he w orld, b ut v ery s eldom h ave c omplete s hips b een f ound, l ike t he WASA , w hich c an b e v iewed a t t he WASAVARVET i n S tockholm. N ormally, o nly s ections o r merely p arts o f a b oat o r a s hip h ave s urvived s uch a s b eams o r p lanks, b elonging t o a s hip's b ottom o r s ide. E nvironmental c onditions, t he p osition o f t he s unken s hip a nd t he l ength o f t ime t hat i t h as s pent o n t he b ottom

o f

s ea ,

l ake

o r r iver a re o f g reat

s tate o f p reservation o f r emains a t a ll . O ne

m eans o f

t he

d iscovering

t hrough o ld p lans ,

r emains

o f

i mportance f or a s hipwreck,

t he m issing p arts

t he e arliest o f

t he e xtension a nd i f

o f a s hip 's

t here

a re

a ny

c onstruction i s

t hese d ating f rom t he l ate

1 7th c entury ,

a lthough most a re f rom t he 1 9th c entury . B ut f inding t he p lans b elonging t o a s hip under i nvestigation i s n early a s d ifficult a s s earching f or t he wrecks t hemselves , a s w e a t A achen U niversity h ave l earned i n o ur d aily work which n ow a nd t hen c onsists o f m aking a n e xpert 's o pinion o n i nland s hips o f more t han t wenty y ears o f a ge . I n o rder

t o b e a ble

t o r estore

r ecovered s hips ,

which a s o riginals a re

o f i nestimable w orth f or t he h istory o f s hipping a nd t he h istory o f m ankind, i ncluding t he m issing p arts f urther s ources o f i nformation a re r equired: w ritten s ources - d escriptions o f s hips a nd s hipbuilding, r eports o f v oyages a nd n aval b attles, p rints a nd p aintings, a nd - f rom t he l ast h undred y ears p hotographs a nd f ilms, m odels a nd s culptures, t he t echnical k nowledge a nd w orkmanship o f o ld s hipbuilders, the

a ges,

methods

o f

c onstruction i n s ome s o c alled u nderdeveloped p arts o f t he w orld.

A ll t hese s ources a re c onsidered i n r econstructing a s hip o f e arlier b ut t here a re c ases when a ll t hese r eferences a re e ither a bsent o r

l ead t o c ontradictory s tatements . I n t hese c ases - a nd i n s ome o thers t oo a s trength c alculation m ay h elp t o a rrive a t a r eliable s olution . T he f ield o f i nvestigating and c alculating a s hip's s trength i s a r elatively r ecent o ne i n s hip t echnology , c ompared w ith t he s ubjects o f t his

2 69

meeting. F ollowing a s uggestion made b y E dward J . R eed, t he c hief c onstructor o f t he B ritish A dmiralty i n 1 870 ( Reed 1 871), a s hip i s t o b e c onsidered a s a n i rregular l oaded b ox-girder , w hich i s c arried i tself b y t he b uoyancy a ccording i ts d istribution . L et a s hip f loating i n s till w ater b e s ubdivided i nto s everal p arts b y v ertical c uts ( Fig. 1 9.1a) a nd l et f urther t hese p arts b e f ree i n t he v ertical d irection, t hen i t i s e asy t o s ee t hat e very p art will b e i n s eparate e quilibrium f ollowing A rchimedes' p rinciple . F ig . 1 9 .1b s hows t his s chematically : t he f ore a nd a ft p arts d isplay a t endency t o s ink l ower t han t he middle o nes, a s t here i s l ess b uoyancy a t t he s hip's e nds. T he weight o f f ittings, p rovisions a nd c argo i s u sually f ound c oncentrated a t s ome p art o f a s hip . W herever t his c oncentration i s t he d ownward m otion o f t hat p art o f t he v essel i s o bviously c onsiderably e xaggerated ( Fig. 1 9.1c). I n s ome c ases t his c auses o r a ccentuates a n e xcess o f w eight o ver b uoyancy, while i n o thers t his b rings

t he w eight u p t o a l evel a lmost e qual w ith t he b uoyancy .

F or a s hip a t s ea s imilar c onclusions c an b e d rawn, a s a t s ea t he d istribution o f b uoyancy c hanges c ontinually . F or t his r eason, two more s ituations b esides t hat o f a s hip f loating i n s till w ater must b e c onsidered: i .e. t he t wo e xtreme p ositions o f s upport: t he s hip on a wave c rest a nd t he s hip i n a wave-hollow, whereas a ssumed a s t o b e a s g reat a s t he s hip 's l ength .

t he l ength o f

t he

wave i s

T he d ownward motion o f s eparated p arts u nder e xcess o f weight o ver b uoyancy i s n ot d ue ( the s hip l ies i n water a s i s s hown i n F ig. 1 9.1a), b ecause o f t he r igid c onstruction o f t he s hip . N evertheless, t he p revention o f v ertical d isplacement c auses s trains a nd s tresses in t he s hip's b ody, which c an b e b uoyancies a nd

c alculated

p rovided

t heir p ositions

t hat

a ll

d etails

o f

t he

weights

a nd

t hrough s hip's l ength a re g iven .

F ig . 1 9.2a a nd 2 b s how t he d istribution o f weight a nd b uoyancy r espectively o ver t he s hip's l ength . T he s uperposition o f t he c urves i n F ig . 1 9.2a a nd 2 b g ives t he l oad d istribution s hown i n F ig . 1 9.2c . T he c urve i n F ig . 1 9 .2c - t he c urve o f t he i rregular d istribution o f l oads - h as t o b e i ntegrated t wice a ccording t o u sual m athematical m ethods . T he f irst i ntegration p roduces t he d istribution o f s hearing f orces ( F1g .19 .2d) a nd t he s econd o ne t he d istribution o f b ending moments ( Fig. 1 9.2e), b oth t hrough t he l ength o f

t he s hip .

T he i nvestigation o f

t ransverse s trength a lso r equires k nowledge o f t he

l oad d istribution, b ut f or t he s hip's s ection . O bviously, i n t he r adial d irection t he p ressure o f t he s urrounding w ater a cts u pon t he s hip's b ody , t rying t o c ompress t he empty h ull. T he d raught o f a s hip b eing l oaded i ncreases and a s a r esult water p ressure i ncreases t oo. I nside t he h ull ' , t he w eight o f t he c argo c ounteracts t his p ressure . T he l oad d istribution a s w ell a s c onsequential s hearing f orces a nd b ending m oments t oo d epend o n t he s uperposition o f e xternal water p ressure a nd t he w eight o f t he c argo . A ssuming t hat t he l oad d istribution i s g iven , t he t ransverse s trength p arameters c an b e c alculated i n t he s ame m anner a s t he p arameters f or t he l ongitudinal shearing

s trength

f orces

s ophisticated

and

m ethods

i nvestigation b ending

a re

i n

( double

moments

i ntegration

r espectively),

t o o btain e ven

i f

t he

more

u se .

A measure f or t he overall s trength o f a s hip can b e found i f l ongitudinal a nd t ransversal s trength a re t aken i nto a ccount a s well a nd i f " open" s hips l ike V iking b oats a re t o b e c onsidered, t orsional s trength .

2 70

U sing

t hese

c alculations

m uch

b etter

u tilization

o f

t he

b uilding

m aterial

c an b e a chieved w hich i s o ne r eason f or i ts i ntroduction j ust a bout t he t ime t hat i ron, which was r elatively expensive, b ecame important f or s hipbuilding. O n t he o ther h and t he methods d escribed a bove a re o nly s uitable f or m aterial a s h omogeneous a s i ron o r s teel, s o a pplying t hem t o w ooden s hips c an e ntail s ome p roblems . B ending moments and s hearing f orces ( longitudinal a nd t ransversal) c ause s trains a nd s tresses i n d ifferent d irections, w hich h ave t o b e t aken u p b y b eams and g irders, b y s truts, p lates and p lanks, o ut o f which t he s hip's b ody i s b uilt u p. How f ar t hese members a re c apable o f d oing s o d epends o n t heir d imensions, a s well a s t he s pecies o f wood u sed a nd i ts m aterial p roperties .

A ccordingly,

m athematical f ormulae f or c alculating t he

s tresses i n t he ship's s tructure o r i n a s ingle b eam, o nly c ontain q uantities which d epend o n t he d imensions o f t he s tructural m embers ( section modulus f or i nstance) a nd v alues c haracteristic f or t he m aterial u sed . A s l ong a s m aterials a re u sed f or which a l inear r elation b etween s train a nd s tress e xists, t he s o-called H ooke's L aw, u pon which a ll m ethods o f s trength c alculation a re b ased, - i ron a nd s teel f or i nstance - t hese c haracteristic v alues ( Poisson 's r atio a nd Y oung 's modulus) a re c onstant f or a ll t ypes a nd d irections o f l oad a nd a ll l evels o f s tress, b eneath t he y ield p oint a t l east. I n c ontrast t o i ron o r s teel, wood i s an on-homogeneous a nisotropic material, as a r esult o f which Hooke's L aw l oses i ts v alidity . T he m echanical p roperties o f s teel a re a lways t he s ame whereas t he m echanical p roperties o f w ood a re d ifferent c orresponding t o d ifferent t ypes o f l oad t ension , p ressure , b ending - a nd a ccording t o t he a ngle b etween f ibre f low and t he d irection o f l oad. F or e xample, when t his a ngle i s z ero i .e. when g rain a nd load a re undirectional t he t ensile s trength o f o ak o r b eech, i s a bout t wenty t imes g reater t han when t hey meet a t r ight angles ( Kollmann 1 951 a nd 1 955). Thus, s pecial a ttention must b e p aid n ot o nly t o t he t ype o f

wood,

b ut a lso t o h ow

p lanks a re a ssembled

t he

t imber i s

c ut o r s awn a nd

t o h ow b eams o r

w ithin t he s hip 's s tructure .

A nother d ifficulty t hat a rises a s a r esult o f t he b uilding material u sed, i s t he n atural l imitation imposed b y t he h eight o f t rees. T oday's w elding t echniques a llow t he c onstruction o f l arge s teel p anels o r e xtremely l ong g irders w ithout a ny w eakness a t t he w elded j oint . T he w idth o r l ength o f wooden c onstructions h owever w ere l imited b y t he l ength a nd w idth o f t he t ree u nless s trong g ussets were f itted b etween t wo o r more wooden b eams. C oncerning e valuations o f t hese c onnections i n w ooden s tructures, y ou c an s tudy s uggestions made i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury e specially i n E ngland

( White

N amely

1 877) .

a b eam

c onsisting

o f

t wo

c onnected

p arts,

b ehaves,

when

l ongitudinal p ressure i s a pplied, l ike a n u ndivided b eam o f t he s ame l ength a nd a rea . H owever , i f t ensile f orces a re a pplied t he j oint w ill n ot h old a t a ll u nless i t i s s trengthened b y e mploying m ore s ophisticated l ap j oints . A s b e

t his i rregularity m ight p rove d eficient , d iminished a ccording t o t he s tability o f

t he m echanical p roperties w ill s uch a c onnection a nd t he t ype

o f l oad . T he u sed

a rgument

t hat

s uggestions

f or b uilding m ethods

i n which e xamples o f k eel

f ound l ap

m ade

b y

m odern-day

i n o ld s hipwrecks

j oints o ut o f a m anual

t his c entury a re s hown ( Brix 1 921).

b uilders

m ay

n ot

i s d isproved b y F ig . f rom

b e

1 9 .3

t he b eginning o f

F ig. 1 9.4 s hows a k eel l ap o f aR oman

2 71

s hip. S unken i n t he 3 rd c entury A .D . i t w as r ecovered - o r a t l east t he r emains o f i t - f rom t he h arbour o f M onaco ( Benoit 1 961) . E veryone who knows a l ittle a bout s tress a nd s train w ill understand t hat t he R oman m ethod o f l engthening t he k eel i s b etter t han t he m odern m ethods a nd i ts d iminution f actors w ill b e b etter , t oo . T he s olution s hown h ere i s t he m ost e xpensive a nd t herefore y ou w ill n ot f ind t his l ap j oint i n m odern c onstructions . F rom what h as b een s aid

s o f ar i t i s c lear t hat a s trength c alculation

o f a s hip m ade o f i ron o r s teel i s a n e xtensive t ask, b ut a t ask w ithout a ny p roblems . T he i nvestigation o f a w ooden s hip r emains a c omplicated p roject , i nvolving a n umber o f p roblems, more t han a re mentioned u p t o now. T he i nvestigation o f a r ecovered wreck o r as hip f ound i n a b urial chamber on t he o ther h and n ormally p resents f ewer d ifficulties t han a n a ttempt t o c alculate t he s trength o f a s hip, which i s o nly r epresented a s a model, s culpture o r i n a p ainting . A r ecovered s hip e nables

t he measurement o f

t he o uter f orm

o f

t he

v essel f or t he p urposes o f m aking a b ody-plan . When a s hip i s r ecovered i t i s p ossible t o m easure t he d imensions o f t he s tructural members , which a re t o b e u sed f or t he d etermination o f t he s ection modulus. t here i s a nother a dvantage i n i nvestigating a r ecovered s hip:

B esides t his, i t i s p ossible

t o d etermine t he b uilding m aterial u sed e ven i f t he w ooden p arts a re h idden b eneath t he s and o f a d esert, t he water o f a l ake, a r iver o r t he ocean o r u nder a l ayer o f

mud

i n m arshy

c ountry

f or h undreds

o r

t housands

o f

y ears.

S uch a d etermination o f t he b uilding m aterial m ight a lso b e p ossible e ven i f t here a re n o r ecovered i tems o f t he s hip's s tructure t o be f ound. The b uilding material u sed i s n ormally s tated i n o ld s pecifications l aid d own b y t he a dmiralty o r p rivate o wners . T he r egion i n which a s hip u nder s tudy i s b uilt may a lso h elp t o d etermine t he t ype o f wood, a s there a re r egional

s tandards

t o b e

f ound

f or

t he u se o f

o nly

a f ew

d ifferent

s pecies

o f w ood f or s hipbuilding p urposes . O nce

t he

b uilding

m aterial

i s

s pecified,

t he

m aterial p roperties

a nd

t he c haracteristic v alues s hould a lso b e e stablished. B ut t here a re s pecified t ypes o f wood a bout which n othing i s t o b e f ound i n b ooks a bout w ood t echnology, e specially i f t he w recks w ere d iscovered i n o r a round t he Mediterranean S ea . T here , a cacia , c ypress , f ig o r c edar a re t he most c ommon t ypes o f w ood f ound a s b uilding m aterial f or s hips o r p arts o f t hem. D endrological

i nvestigation

a nd

material

t esting

t o

d iscern

t he

m echanical p roperties a nd c haracteristic v alues a re v ery e xpensive a nd n ot o f g eneral i nterest , a s t oday t hese t ypes o f w ood a re n ot u sed f or b uilding o r s hipbuilding purposes. I t would b e n early impossible, e ven t o g et a s pecimen f or t esting. B ut t here a re s everal i mponderables in s uch an i nvestigation . S o o ne m ore m ight n ot b e d etrimental a t a ll, a nd f or t hese t echnically " unknown" s pecies o f w ood t he k nown m echanical p roperties a nd c haracteristic v alues o f wood t oday i n u se c an b e employed, i f only t he l atter i s r elated t o t he u nusual t ype o f w ood . I n p lace o f t he p roperties o f a cacia N ilotica t he k nown v alues o f t he f alse a cacia will b e used, American

c edar

may

r eplace

t he

c edar f rom L ebanon,

t he

a lthough different

c limates m ay c ause d ifferences . T hese r eplacements may b e a ccepted,

a s e ven i f t he material u sed i s

w ell k nown t imber w ith w ell k nown m echanical p roperties,

2 72

t he r esults r emain

d oubtful . D ifferences i n t he r ange o f 1 00% o r s ometimes e ven m ore a re n ot u nusual i n t esting t imber w ith m odern m achinery . T he m echanical p roperties o f t he t imber a re s ubject t o a c onsiderable n umber o f i nfluences s uch a s t he a ge o f t he t ree, environmental c onditions ( climate, n ature o f g round), m oisture c ontent , n umber o f l imbs o r b ranches , a ppearance o f p est a ttack a nd o thers, l ike t he c urious i nfluence w hich i s a ttributed t o t he s eason , which t he t ree i s c ut ( Kollmann 1 951 a nd 1 955) .

d uring

K nowing t he s ort o f m aterial, i ts m echanical p roperties - w ith c ertain r eservations - t he k ind o f l apping b eam a nd p lanks, a ll i tems n eeded f or a s trength c alculation a re g iven b esides t he d istribution o f weight a nd b uoyancy.

F or d etermining t he d istribution o f weight,

t he weight o f t he

s hip's b ody, f ittings, b allast and a rmament, a long w ith t he weight o f t he p rovisions a nd c argo a nd t he w eight o f t he p eople o n b oard must a ll b e t aken i nto c onsideration . A ssuming t hat t he s hip i s r ecovered c ompletely, t he weight o f t he s hip's b ody c an b e c alculated f rom t he d imensions o f t he t imbers a nd t he s pecific w eight o f t he w ood u sed . I n s ome c ases f ittings, a rmament a nd c argo c an s till b e f ound i n t he w reck o r n earby , p rovided t hey h ave n ot d ecayed i n w ater , s and o r m ud . T iles a nd o ther e arthernware w ere f ound i n R oman s hips, f or i nstance, while c annons a nd ammunition were d iscovered i n t he WASA .

H owever ,

o nly t he d istribution o f

t hese i tems

o ver

t he s hip 's l ength i s t o b e d etermined . B ut n ormally m ost o f t he e quipment a nd c argo h as d isappeared, o ften t he a rmament t oo, a nd weight a nd weight d istribution h ave t o b e e stimated a ccording t o t he s ize o f t he w reck . S hips which s ank more r ecently c an o ften b e i dentified b y n ame a nd o rigin , s o t hat i t may b e p ossible t o f ind s ome d ocumentary r eferences f rom which t he w eight o f t he c argo c an b e e stablished . A s t o t he d istribution o f t he c argo a nd p rovisions c ontemporary d escriptions a nd p rimarily k nowledge o f t he e xistence o f " logical" l oading c onditions are t he most r eliable g uidelines. T hese l atter a re c alled " logical" a s t here i s o nly a small r ange o f p ossibilities a vailable f or l oading a s hip s afely , l imited b y s tability a nd m anoeuvrability , ( errors a nd f aults o f t he c aptain a nd c rew n ot

i ncluded) .

F rom t he e stimation o f t he w eights o f t he s hip, e quipment , a rmament a nd c argo t he a ggregate weight i s d etermined a nd c onsequently t he n ecessary b uoyancy c an b e w orked o ut . T ogether w ith t he m easured o r e stimated f orm o f t he o uter h ull, b e c alculated .

t he d raught o f t he s hip a nd t he d istribution o f b uoyancy c an T he l oad d istribution f ollows a s i s d escribed e arlier .

A ll t hose who c riticize t he p roposed p rocedure o f c alculating t he s hip's s trength b ecause o f an umber o f i nstability f actors s hould r ealize t hat t here a re s ome f actors which m ay n eutralize e ach o ther . O n t he o ther h and, s everal c alculations w ith d ifferent a ssumptions c an a nd m ust b e m ade • t o i ncrease

t he

t he v alue o f

t he r esults

o btained .

The p racticability o f s uch a c alculation s hall b e d emonstrated u sing b oat f ound b eneath t he pyramid o f C heops n ear G iza, E gypt, a s a n

e xample, a ship 4 3.4 m i n l ength a nd with a b readth o f 5 .9 m . A s t hese c alculations w ere m ade i n 1 976 t hey m ight d iffer s lightly w ith t he d etails g iven i n Nancy J enkins' f amous b ook which w as p ublished i n 1 980 ( Jenkins 1 980). B ecause o f i ts f ineness - t he s hip h as a l ength-beam-ratio o f 7 .35 t here i s n o d oubt, t hat o nly t he l ongitudinal s trength m ight b e c ritical a nd t hus i ts c alculation i s b y f ar o f g reater i nterest t han t he c alculation o f

2 73

t he

t ransverse

s trength .

A lthough t his s hip, b eyond a ll d oubt , w as u sed f or r eligious purposes, i n c onstruction a nd b uilding t echnique i t s eems n ot t o b e d ifferent f rom s hips u sed f or e conomical r easons. S hips l ike t he r ecovered boat f rom C heops ' p yramid m ight b e u sed f or t he v oyages t o B yblos, which a re v erified a t l east f or t he t ime o f K ing S ahure a bout 1 00 y ears l ater t han C heops . F or t he i ntended c alculation i t i s s upposed t hat t he s hip was a ppointed a nd f itted o ut f or t he t ransport o f g oods . A l ines-plan o f ( Landström d isplacement

1 970) .

t he s hip was published b y B jörn F ig .

1 7.3

c urve b elonging

t o

s hows

t he

b ody-plan

Landström and

F ig .

in 1 970 1 9.5

t he

t his p lan ( Hausen 1 979) .

O ut o f t he c ross-section a nd o ther s ectional v iews g iven a lso b y L andström t he a pproximate q uantity o f w ood u sed c ould a lso b e d etermined . B y s ubstituting t he s pecific weight o f American c edar t he w eight o f t he s hip's b ody c ould b e e stablished . T he e quipment e stimated t o b e n ecessary i n E gypt's o ld k ingdom was a dded a ccording t o i ts s upposed mass a nd p osition . F or b urial o r o ther r eligious p urposes t he s hip m ight h ave b een t owed b y o ther v essels a nd t he o ars - f ive p airs w ere f ound i n t he b oat-pit - m ight h ave b een t here f or s ymbolic r easons a s N ancy J enkins s upposes . A s a m erchant s hip m ore t han t en o arsmen , f ive o n e ach s ide, were r equired, l et u s s ay, 2 0 t o 2 5 o n e ach s ide. A fter e stimating t he w eight o f o arsmen a nd c rew a l oad d istribution a s i s s hown i n F ig . 1 9 .6 c an b e w orked o ut f or t he e mpty, f ully e quipped s hip ( Hausen 1 979). A dditionally, F ig. 1 9.6 s hows t he l oad d istribution f or t he s hip c arrying a c argo o f a bout 3 0 t ons s towed away i n t he s hip's h old. H ere, t he c urves o f t he l oad d istribution h ave b een prepared f or t he i ntegration , i .e . t he d istribution o f m ean v alues r eal d istribution s hown i n F ig . 1 9 .2c .

i s

s hown

c ompared

t o

F ig. 1 9.7 g ives t he b ending moments f or t he empty and t he l oaded a s well r esulting f rom t he d ouble i ntegration o f t he c urves i n Fig. The maximum b ending moment f or t he s hip with c argo i s b y f ar h igher t hat f or t he e mpty s hip . N aturally, t he w orst p ossible l oad c ondition

t he

s hip 1 9 .6 . t han m ust

b e c onsidered when c alculating t he s tress f rom t hese b ending m oments . T he maximum l ongitudinal b ending moment i s t o b e w ithstood b y t he s hip's l ongitudinal s tructure, a s t here a re t he k eel-planks , f ive s ide-planks o n e very s ide a nd t hree l ongitudinal g irders, t he c entral a nd s ide s helves a s Nancy J enkins c alled t hem. F ig. 1 9.8 p ublished i n L andström 1 970 a nd J enkins 1 980 a s well - g ives more d etailed i nformation about t he b oat's midship s tructure. A s t here i s, h owever, a l ack o f i nformation about t he d egree t o w hich t hese g irders h ave b een l apped - w hether t he b eams o f 2 6 m i n l ength w ere c ut o ut o f a c edar t ree i n a whole o r w ere made u p o ut o f t wo o r m ore p ieces b y l apping t hem t ogether - t he l atter a nd more c ritical w as s upposed. C onsequently 1 0% o f t he a rea o f t he members under c ompression s tress a nd 3 7 .5% o f t he a rea o f t he o nes u nder t ensile s tress w as d educted . T he m aximum b ending m oment c auses c ompressive s tress i n t he k eel-planks a nd t he l ower s ide-planks a nd t ensile s tress i n t he l ongitudinal g irders a nd t he u ppermost s ide-planks a s w ell . B oth c ompressive a nd t ensile s tress a re v ery l ow c ompared w ith t he u ltimate s trength o f c edar , b ut t he s afety l oad f actors h ave t o b e much h igher f or wooden s tructures t han f or s teel s tructures b ecause o f

t he

f rom material t esting.

i nstability o f

t he m echanical p roperties

o btained

Moreover, u ltimate s trength e stimations must b e

2 74

r educed b y a bout 3 0% , i f t he t imber u nder c onsideration i s a lways i n a w et e nvironment a s i s t he c ase h ere w ith t he p lanks u nder c ompressive s tress. In

e valuating

t he

s tresses,

i t

must

b e

r emembered

t hat

o nly

t he

l ongitudinal s tresses r esulting f rom t he l ongitudinal b ending moments o f t he s hip f loating i n s till w ater h ave b een c alculated . F or s hips r emaining o n r ivers a nd l akes - t his c ondition c orresponds t o t he s till-water-condition l ongitudinal s tresses r esulting f rom t he t ransverse b ending m oments , f rom t orsional moments a nd f rom l ocal l oads must b e a dded. U nder u sual c ircumstances t he l ongitudinal s tresses c aused b y t he l ongitudinal b ending movements

are

a ssumed

l ongitudinal s tresses a nd g enerally o nly e stimated .

t he

t o

c onstitute

t herefore

t he

t he

major

m agnitude

o f

p ortion t he

o f

t he

t otal

o ther s tresses

i s

Had t his s hip b een u sed f or v oyages t o B yblos o r a nother p lace a long c oast o f t he Mediterranean S ea, two o ther c onditions m ust a lso b e

c alculated a s was mentioned e arlier i .e. t he s hip o n a wave-crest and t he s hip i n a wave-hollow . T he b ending m oments i n t hese c onditions a re r oughly a bout t wice a s g reat a s t hose c alculated f or t he s hip f loating i n s till w ater . T his m eans t hat t he s tresses r esulting f rom t he b ending m oments a re i n t urn t wice a s g reat , b ut s till f ar l ower t han t he u ltimate s trength f or c ompression a nd t ension r espectively . N evertheless , t he s hips w ere s trengthened, when t hey w ere u sed f or l ong d istance a nd s eagoing v oyages, a s c an b e s een f or i nstance, o n t he w alls o f t he famous t omb o f Queen Hatshepsut i n D eir-el-Bahari. F ig. 1 9.9 ( reproduced f rom B usley 1 919) s hows o ne o f t hese s hips, w hich a re t hought t o h ave p lied t he l egendary c oast o f P unt s omewhere a long t he s outh c oast o f t he Arabian p eninsula . T o s trengthen t he s hip f or t he o pen s ea a s trong r ope r uns t he l ength o f t he s hip s upported o n s everal p osts, a s was t he m anner which was u sed a bout 5 ,000 y ears l ater, when i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury American r iver s teamers were s trengthened b y means o f a " hogbeam" , F ig.19.10 ( Busley 1 919) .

w as

A lthough, a s h as b een p roven h ere, t his t ype o f s trengthening d evice u nnecessary , a c alculation w as m ade f or a s hip f loating i n c alm w ater

f itted w ith s uch a r ope, t o f ind o ut whether i t was a ble t o withstand t he s tresses o ccuring a nd i f i t l ed t o a s ubstantial r eduction i n t he t ensile s tresses i n t he l ongitudinal g irders o f t he s hip 's s tructure . T o d etermine t his t he arrangement o f r ope and p osts a s shown i n F ig. 1 9.9 i s t heoretically a pplied t o t he s hip u nder c onsideration , t he s hip f ound n ear t he pyramid o f C heops . W hile t he n umber o f p osts i s o f m inor i nterest f or t he intended c alculation , t he h eight o f t he p osts a nd a ccordingly t he p osition o f t he r ope , i s v ery i mportant . A s c an be s een f rom F ig. 1 9.9 t he p osts a re a s h igh a bove d eck a s t he m en s tanding u pright, whereas t he r ope r uns c onsiderably l ower o n a s hip f rom a s culpture f rom t he t omb o f K ing S ahure ( 5th d ynasty) . E stimating a h eight o f 1 .7 m a bove d eck, a r ope d iameter o f 5 c m a nd a l ongitudinal d istance b etween t he e nd p osts o f 4 0% o f t he s hip's l ength , t he t ensile s tress o f t he r ope c an b e c omputed u sing m aterial p roperties o f h emp ( as g iven in e ngineering h andbooks p ublished i n t he m iddle o f t he l ast c entury , a s n owadays t he f abrication o f h emp-rope i s m ore s ophisticated a nd i mparts m uch b etter m echanical p roperties) . While t he t ensile s tress i n t he r ope amounts t he

t ensile

t o a bout 1 5% o f s tress

i n

t he u ltimate t ensile s trength ,

t he l ongitudinal g irders ,

2 75

t he r eduction o f

t he s helves ,

w ill b e a bout

2 5% c ompared t o t he s tress c aused b y t he b ending m oments o f t he l oaded s hip w ithout s uch a r ope . N aturally,

a r ope r unning a bove t he d eck c an o nly b e o f any v alue i n

c ases where t he d eck s tructure o f t he s hip i s t ension - l oaded , a s i s a lways t he c ase i n s hips , where f ore a nd a ft b ody a re f alling o ut s o e xtremely . A r ope m ight a lso b e o f i nterest i n a s hip-bottom , i f k eel a nd k eel-planks a re l apped s everal t imes , which , a s i s s aid e arlier , c onsiderably weakens t he members, when t hey a re u nder t ensile l oad. When t he w recks o f G rand C ongloue were r ecovered f loor t imbers were f ound e ach with a h ole o f n early 4 cm i n d iameter s ituated o n t he s ame p osition . r econstruction o f t he b ottom-part b y B enoit c ompressive s trength t he b ottom s tructure s eems

F ig. 1 9 .11 s hows t he ( Benoit 1 961). Under t o b e

s trong

e nough a s

l apping c auses n o r eduction i n s trength . T hus, a r ope which c an t ransmit t ensile f orces t urns o ut t o b e a v ery g ood , l ight a nd c heap s olution , a s t he t ensile s tress i n t he k eel i s r educed c onsiderably . T he e xtent o f d ecrease i n s train a nd s tress d epends o n t he a rrangement o f t he r ope within t he b ottom s tructure a nd o n t he m aterial u sed . T he p erformance o f a s trength c alculation has proved t hat, f rom t he c onstructor's p oint o f v iew, t he s hip f ound b eneath t he p yramid o f K ing C heops was a s g ood a nd s eaworthy a s any s hip b uilt more t han 4 ,000 y ears l ater . I n f act, r egarding t he p oor q uality o f t he wood u sed in a ncient E gypt t he a bove s hip was p robably e ven o f b etter q uality t han wooden s hips o f t he 1 7th o r e arly 1 8th c entury, when t he B ritish A dmiralty s earched f or t imber a ll o ver G reat B ritain f or months s imply t o b uild o ne s hip. More t han t hat, t he Egyptian s hipbuilders k new t hat f or t he p urpose o f s ea t ransport t hey h ad t o s trengthen t heir s hips. T his was d one b y r unning a s trong r ope t he l ength o f t he s hip f rom s tem t o s tern, t hus r elieving t he d eck s tructure o f l oad a s i t was r egarded a s t oo w eak f or i ts i ntended t ask . I n c alculating t he s trength o f a s hip c ompletely r ecovered, i .e. t he Royal s hip o f K ing C heops, t here a re s ome u ncertainty f actors, and i f t he s hip h as p artially d isintegrated t he d egree o f u ncertainty g rows . N ormally, t he p ossibilities o f r econstructing t he m issing p arts are g reater t he m ore p arts a re m issing . H owever , e ven i n t he e xtreme c ases, i n which n o p arts a re r ecovered o r n o p arts c ould b e r ecovered owing t o t he o ther a ppliances m entioned i n t he b eginning , s ome q uestions r elating t o a r econstruction c an b e a nswered b y m aking a s trength c alculation . T herewith a t l east c an b e e liminated r econstructions l ike t hose m ade f or Q ueen H atshepsut 's " Great O belisk L ighter" c arved o n t he walls o f t he Q ueen 's t omb i n D eir-el - B ahari a s w ell . I t d epicts t he t ransport o f t wo m ighty o belisks l ying o n ab arge, which i s b eing t owed b y t hirty r owing b oats. F ig . 1 9.12 s hows

t he

l ines

( Landström

b arge

a s p ortrayed b y L andström w ith h is

r estoration i n s tippled

1 970) .

I n t he o pinion o f s everal a uthors , t his s hip which was o riginally b uilt f or t he t ransport o f t wo o belisks f rom t he q uarries n ear A ssuan t o T hebes, s hould

h ave

h ad

a d isplacement

o f

a bout

2 ,650

t ons

b ased

u pon

t he

s upposition t hat t wo o belisks , 3 0 m i n h eight e ach w eighing a t otal o f a bout 7 50 t ons were t o b e t ransported. This s hip measuring more t han 6 0 m i n l ength a nd a bout

2 5

f rames a s H erodot

m i n b readth s hould h ave

b een

b uilt

w ithout

t ransverse

m entioned i n d escribing E gypt t hat i n t his c ountry,

s hips

w ere b uilt w ithout a ny f rames . Meanwhile

i t

i s k nown

t hat

t he 2 76

s culptures

i n D eir-el -B ahari

s how

t he

t ransport o f

t wo o ther o belisks o f 5 7 i n i n h eight ( Habachi 1 957) , w eighing a

t otal o f a bout 4 ,800 t ons p rovided t hat t hey p ossess t he s ame p roportions t hat t hose o f 3 0 i n i n h eight h ave which w ere f ound i n b etween t wo p ylons a t K arnak, t he p lace o f t he main s anctuary o f Amun, Mut a nd C hons. A s hip h aving s uch c apacity h as t o h ave a d isplacement o f a bout 7 ,300 t ons , which m eans a l ength o f t ransverse f rames .

a bout 1 00 m a nd c ould n ot h ave b een b uilt without E ven t he s horter o ne o f o nly a bout 6 0 m i n l ength must

h ave h ad t ransverse t ransversal s trength .

f rames

a s

c an

b e

s hown

b y

a c alculation

o f

t he

R EFERENCES B enoit, F" 1 961. L 'epave S upplement ä " Gallia", P aris. B rix, A .,

1 921.

d u

G rand

C ongloue

ä Marseille.

P raktischer S chiffbau - B ootsbau.

B usley, C" 1 919. S chiffe des A ltertums. S chiffbautechnischen G esellschaft, 2 0, 1 87-279.

6 .

In:

e d.,

B erlin.

Jahrbuch

H abachi, L ., 1 957. Two G raffiti a t S ehel f rom t he R eign o f H atshepsut . I n : J ournal o f N ear E astern S tudies , 1 6 , 8 8-104 . H ausen,

J .,

J enkins,

1 979.,

N .,

K ollman, H olzwerkstoffe. L andström ,

S chiffbau i n d er A ntike,

1 980.

F" V ol. B .,

1 970.

der

Queen

H erford.

T he B oat b eneath t he P yramid.

1 951 & 1 955. I &I I, B erlin.

X IVe

T echnologie

L ondon.

des

D ie S chiffe d er P haraonen.

Holzes

und

der

G ütersloh.

R eed, E .J., 1 871. O n t he U nequal D istribution o f Weight a nd S upport i n S hips, and i ts E ffects i n S till Water, i n Waves, a nd i n E xceptional P ositions o n S hore . I n : P hilosophical T ransactions o f t he R oyal S ociety, 2 ,

4 13-465. W hite,

W .H.,

1 877.

AM anual o f N aval A rchitecture.

2 77

L ondon.

a . .. '

. ---

-- .

F ig .19 .1a-c

2 78

=7 '

a

/ . ,-

.

r 4 -

e F ig .19 . 2a -e 2 79

I

F ig .19 . 3

F ig . 1 9 .4

2 80

1 ,2 1 ,0 0 ,8 0 ,6 0, 4 0 ,2 • 2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

' 1 00 V ( t‚ r e

F ig . 1 9 .5

N im 1 60 00 -

1 2 000 r-, rj

L _,

8 000

_

l r r i r j

40 00 -

L _

^ 2 5

5 0

7 5

1 00 % L

4000-

-8 000

F ig . 1 9 . 6 12000-

2 81

Nm

6 00000

4 00000

20 0000

F ig. 1 9 .7

F ig . 1 9 . 8

2 82

F ig . 1 9 .9

1.8.

: 8 18 1 1 1 1 1 0i 1 1 1 , x wigte ydn i0 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 9 1 1 I i iii m i e r u ,"m e in F ig . 1 9 .10

2 83

1 1. 11 113 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 . 1 1 1 1 1% ._ I • L I .311 1 1 1. 1 1 13 1 11 1 18 1 1 0 "tb ; . — —

—

—

-

—

= -

m e

. 44 ert

F ig . 1 9 .12

2 84

2 0.

F ROM L OGBOAT T O P LANKBOAT - S OME T RADITIONAL C RAFT O F S WITZERLAND B eat A rnold

A t t he b eginning o f t his c entury, t he t raditional i nland w ater t ransport s ystem o n t he S wiss P lateau w as v ery m uch i n u se a nd l ogboats c ould s till b e s een o n l akes Z ug a nd A egeri

( Fig. 2 0 .1).

E ighty y ears l ater , a ll t hat r emains a re a f ew w recks a ground o n t he s hore . S ince 1 974, w e h ave b een t rying t o s et u p t he p lan o f t he l ast s urviving e vidence o f t his s ystem a nd , w hen p ossible , t o s ave t hem ( Fig . 2 0.8). I n c entral S witzerland , t he l ogboat t radition w as s till v ery m uch a live i n t he 1 9th c entury o n l akes S empach , H allwil , L uzern , Z ug a nd A egeri ( Fig . 2 0 .6 a a nd b ) . U nfortunately t hough , t he f ishermen , who w ere t he m ain u sers o f l ogboats , w ere f orced t o r eplace t hem w ith p lankboats b ecause o f l ack o f r aw m aterial a nd i ts h igh c ost . T his t ransition w as a t f irst m ade e ither b y a dding a s trake o n a t ree-trunk o f a s maller d imension ( lakes Z ug a nd L uzern ) , o r b y a ssembling a f ew p lanks t ogether ( the B retter-Gransen o f l ake A egeri - F ig . 2 0 .6b ) , s ome o f w hich a re c arved o ut o f l arge b eams i n o rder t o o btain c urves a s c lose a s p ossible t o t he l ogboat m odel ( called G ransen - F ig . 2 0 .6a a nd b ) . A t p resent , t hese P lanken-Gransen a re i n u se i n t hose a reas w here p reviously l ogboats w ere u sed i n t he m iddle o f t he 1 8th c entury .

T his b oat t ype h as i ts p lanks s awed a nd t he s ides ,

w hich h ave a n

a lmost v ertical i nclination , a re m uch a ppreciated b y f ishermen , a s i t m akes i t e asier f or t hem t o p ull u p t heir n ets . T hese b oats a re s teeped i n t radition f irst a ppearing i n S witzerland i n t he m iddle N eolithic ( a f latbottomed l ogboat m ade o ut o f l inden t ree , f rom A uvernier N E 1 973 - F ig . 2 0 .3) . O ther c raft o f t his t ype d ate f rom B ronze a ge ( Auvernier N E 1 975 , B evaix N E 1 879, D ouanne/Twann B E 1 975) a nd f rom I ron A ge ( Bevaix N E 1 917). T he t ransition f rom l ogboat t o t he p lankboat i n t he a rea s tudied, p robably t ook p lace

f irst d uring

t he

l atter

a ge

o r

m aybe

s ince

t he

l ate

B ronze a ge . T he c onstraint i mposed b y t he r aw m aterial ( the d imension o f t he t rees) g reatly d iminished w ith t he i ntroduction o f p lankboats s uch a s t he G alleRoman b oats o f c eltic t radition , a s t hose o f B evaix N E 1 970 a nd Y verdon V D 1 971 . T hese c raft a re a lso c haracterised b y t heir f lat b ottom t hat r ises a nd n arrows a t e ach e xtremity . S uch c raft , w ith a p unt e nd , a re p resent t hroughout t he M iddle A ges a nd s till b ob n owadays o n t he w aters o f t he R hine a nd t he A ar , a nd a lso o n n umerous b odies o f w ater i n e astern S witzerland . T hey a re c alled W eidling ( or W aidling ; F ig . 2 0 .1 a nd 9 ) . T heir s ides a re n o l onger v ertical a nd c an r each a n a ngle c lose t o 6 o °, t he b ilgestrake ( no l onger m ade o f h alf a l ogboat) are f ormed b y t wo p lanks . P lanking a nd f raming w ere f irst s ecured w ith i ron n ails , w hich w ere r eplaced i n t he b ottom b y t reenails , o n

t ransport-craft . 2 85

e specially

T he f ollowing b oats a re a ttached t o t he W eidling g roup: -

t he n eyeu o f l ake N euchätel ;

-

t he G rosse N auen , 2 0 .4 a nd 1 0);

-

t he L edin ( or L ädine) o f l ake Z ürich ( and W alenstadt);

L edi-Nauen ,

J asse o f

l akes L uzern a nd Z ug

( Fig .

- O n l ake B oden t he s mall E isboot s hould b e m entioned w ith t wo s kates t hat e nable i t t o m ove o n i ce . T he f ollowing b oats v ertical p lank :

h ave

t heir s tern e nding w ith a more o r l ess

- T he n äcon ( or b oc) o f l ake N euchätel ; -

t he a rlequin o n t he D oubs r iver ;

-

t he B ocke o f l ake T hun ( and B rienz) ,

w here t he p lank i s s o l ow t hat

i t n early f orms a p unt-end . O n t he B oden l ake b oth t he b ow

a nd t he s tern e nd a s ap yramid :

t he

b ottom r ises a nd e nds i n a p oint . I n t his g roup w e f ind t he L ädine ( or L edin , L ödi , L eede) , H alblädine , S egner ( or S eggner , S eegner , S egmer ) , h albe S egner, Z uggarnschiff . T hese t ransport a nd f ishing c raft a re a lso c haracterized b y t heir t rapezoidal s ail ,

t he l ong s ide b eing a t t he t op o f

t he m ast a nd b y r udder o r T ür w hich i s f ixed a t l arboard , a rrangement b eing u nique o n t he S wiss l akes .

t his a symetric

O n l ake B rienz , t he s mall f ishing b oats a lso h ave a p yramid p row b ut i t i s d ropped, a nd t he s tern e nds w ith a p lank ( Fig. 2 0 .7a-b a nd 1 1). B efore e xamining t he c raft o f l ake N euchätel ( as w ell a s t hose o f l akes B ienne/Biel a nd Morat/Murten) i t i s n ecessary t o d raw a ttention t o t he p resence o f c arpenters w ho h ad c ome f rom t he M editerranean , s pecially t o b uild w ar g alleys o n t he L gman ( lake G eneva) d uring t he 1 3th , 1 4th a nd 1 6th c enturies . T hese g alleys , a dopted a nd a dapted b y t he i ndigenous p eople , a ttained t heir a pogee b y t he c onstruction o f t he b rigantin a nd t he b arque d u L gman a t t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury . T hese c raft , b uilt o n ak eel , a nd h aving t wo l ateen s ails , w ill h ave i nfluenced t he e volution o f t he s mall n ative b oats ( Fig . 2 0 .5a) . T hey h ave i nfluenced t he s hape m ost p robably o f t he s tem o n t he b arque p our l a p eche a u g rand f ilet d u L gman a nd o f g ar 6re o f l ake N euchätel ( Fig. 2 0 .8).

t he

S everal d ocuments o f t he 1 6th a nd 1 7th c enturies s how d rawings o f a n au , a n i ndigenous b oat h aving a f lat b ottom t hat r ises r apidly t o e nd i n a s ort o f s mall s lanting s tem . L ittle b y l ittle t his b oat h as c hanged a nd h as b een r eplaced b y t he c oc Hre .

I ts s tem e xtended t o t he m ore o r l ess

f lat b ottom . Most o f t he c raft o f l ake N euchätel a re a ttached t o t his g roup: g rande b arque , b arque d es m armets ( or b arquettes) , g a Ure ( mentioned a bove) , l oquette o r l iquette ,

c anardi k.e .

T he c raft o n t he S wiss P lateau u nderwent v ery l ittle d evelopment f or t wo t housand y ears a nd t he b rigantin a nd t he b arque d u L gman a re e xceptional 2 86

c ases . T hus , t he b uilding o f w arships o n t he L gman d uring t he 1 8th c entury b y c arpenters f rom l ake B oden l eft v ery f ew v estiges. T he

n äcon

o f

l ake N euchätel was

b uilt

b y

c arpenters

h aving c ome

e specially f rom t he s hores o f l ake T hun . T he s tudy o f a n äcon , s unk o ffshore n ear C udrefin V D , h as o n t he o ther h and , s hed l ight o n t he c lose t ies t hat e xist b etween t he n äcon a nd t he b ig l ighters o f t he S äone . T he s tudy o f n ew w recks o f t he 1 9th a nd 2 0th c enturies w ill s urely b ring t o l ight o ther e lements o f av ast n etwork o f i nfluences ( shown o nly b y d etails o f c onstruction ) w hich , n o d oubt , o riginated f rom t he e migration o f c arpenters f rom o ther w aterways.

R EFERENCES

( limited t o t he b oats o f S witzerland)

A SSP . C AS. H A .

A nnuaire d e l a S ocietg s uisse d e P rghistorie e t d 'Archgologie. C ahiers d 'archgologie s ubaquatique. H elvetia a rchaeologia.

I JNA .

I nternational J ournal

o f

N autical

A rchaeology

a nd

U nderwater

E xploration .

L ogboats 1 977 .

D er

b ronzezeitliche E inbaum u nd d ie n achneolithischen S edimente.

Amman ,

B"

F urgler , A"

J oos . M . &L eise -K leiber ,

H"

D ie

n eolithischen U fersiedlungen v on T wann 3 , B ern. ( Bronze

f inal) ,

c ontribution ä l a t echnologie d es p irogues m onoxyles p rghistoriques . 7 5-84.

A rnold ,

C AS 5 ,

A rnold ,

B "

B "

1 976a .

1 980a .

L a p irogue

d 'Auvernier N ord

B evaix N E 1 917 :

1 975

u n m onoxyle c elte e t d es c ourbes

h ydrostatiques. A SSP 6 3 , 1 85199. A rnold , B " 1 983 . H A 1 4 , 5 5-56 , 2 71-286 . K eller ,

F "

1 869 .

L es d ernigres p irogues m onoxyles d e S uisse c entrale

U eber d en E inbaum .

I ndicateur d 'antiquitgs s uisses

2 , 3 3-35 , p l. 4 . M essikommer , H ., 1 902 . I . D ie E inbaum - f lottille i n O ber -A egeri am A egerisee , C anton Z ug ; I I . D ie H erstellung d es E inbaumes , s peciell v on O berA egeri; I II . D ie F ischerflotte v on Walchwyl a m Z ugersee . C orr .B latt d . d eutsch. G esell. f . A nthropologie, E thnologie u nd U rgeschichte 2 3/5 ,

3 6-38 .

G allo -r oman b oats A rnold ,

B "

1 974 .

d e N euchätel, S uisse).

L a b arque g allo - r omaine d e l a b aie d e B evaix ( lac C AS 3 , 1 33150.

2 87

A rnold , B " 1 975 . N euchätel, S witzerland. A rnold,

B"

T he G allo-Roman b oat f rom t he B ay o f I JNA 4 , 1 23126 .

1 977 .

S ome

r emarks

c onstruction a nd i ts e volution i n a reas I JNA 6 , 2 93-297.

o n

c aulking

i n

l ying n orthwest o f

B evaix ,

C eltic

l ake

b oat

t he A lpin a rc .

A rnold , B" 1 978 . L es b arques c eltiques d 'Abbeville, d e B evaix e t d erdon . A rchgologia 18 , 5 2-60 . B onnet , 5 , 1 27131.

F "

1 982 .

L es p orts r omains d Aventicum

E gloff , M . , 1 974 . L a b arque d e B evaix , N euchätel. H A 5 , 1 9/20 , 8 2-91. W eidmann , 1 9/30 , 6 6-81.

D . & K aenel ,

G "

1 974 .

A rchgologie s uisse

g pave g allo-romaine d u l ac d e

L a b arque r omain d ' Y verdon .

H A 5 ,

L ake L gman C ornaz, G .,

1 976 .

L es b arques d u L eman .

G renoble ,

( 4 S eigneurs).

L ake N euchätel A rnold ,

B "

1 976b .

L e n äcon d e C udrefin ( " ,a S apine) ,barque d u X IXe

s iècle ( lac d e N euchätel, S uisse) e t q uelques r emarques c oncernant l es b ateaux c eltes . C AS 5 , 1 05120 . A rnold ,

B "

t ravers l e t emps.

1 980b .

N avigation s ur l e l ac d e N euchätel : u ne e squisse ä

H A 1, 4 3/44 , 1 78195.

E astern S witzerland C lerc, J .-L.,

1 942 .

L a m arine s uisse .

F ormes e t C ouleurs 4 /3.

H aerry, A ., 1 918 . Z ur G eschichte B innenschiffahrt . S chweizerland 4 /10 , 5 19-526 .

d er

s chweizerischen

M itzka, W ., 1 933. D eutsche B auern- u nd F ischerboote.Grundfragen a us e inem S achkreise d er V olkskunde. W örter u nd S achen 6 , H eidelberg.

L ake B oden B loesch ,

P .,

1 979 .

D ie v om " Schiffmacher" J ohannes

S trasser a us

G ottlieben f ür d ie R epublik B ern 1 665/66 e rbauten K riegsschiffe . E in B eitrag z ur K enntnis d es B odensee-Schiffbaus i m s iebzehnten J ahrhundert. S chriften d es V ereins f ür G eschichte d es B odensees u nd s einer 1mgebung97, 2 9-52. L eidenfrost, J ., 1 975 . D ie Lastsegelschiffe d es B odensees . E in B eitrag z ur S chiffahrtsgeschichte . S igmaringen ( Thorbecke) .

2 88

. ee m

F ig . 2 0 .1 : C raft , s een f rom b ehind , f rom t he S wiss P lateau a t t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury . I n t he w estern p art o f S witzerland , t he f lat b ottomed c raft w ith a s tem a re p redominant . T here a re a lso k eelboats o n t he L gman . I n C entral a nd E astern S witzerland , a rchaic f latbottomed c raft w ith a p unt e nd a t b oth e xtremities a re s till f ound ( Weidling t ype ) . I n t he w est , t he c raft a re s ometimes f itted w ith a p lank a t t he s tern . I n t he e ast , o n t he l ake B oden , t he t wo e xtremities e nd i n ap yramid . L astly , i n C entral S witzerland , t he l ogboat t radition l asted r ight u p u ntil t he m iddle o f t he 2 0th c entury .

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F ig . 2 0 .5a a nd b : T he b arque d u L gman b uilt o n ak eel ( begin . o f t he 2 0th c entury) . F ig . 2 0 .5b : t he N eptune , i n 1 974 , d uring i ts r econstruction .

F ig . 2 0 .6a : A ugust 1 976 : t he l ast l ogboat o f S witzerland ( type G ransen ) o n t he s hore o f l ake A egeri Z G.

2 93

2 94

B r e t e r G r a n s e n

A e g e r i s e Z G

F ig . 2 0 .7a a nd b : F ig .7a : i ts c arved p row ( see f ig .

f ishing b oat o f l ake B rienz B E , 2 0 .11) .

F ig . 2 0 .8 : F lat b ottom c raft w ith a s tem : ( foreground) o f l ake N euchätel .

2 95

a nd a d etail o f

t he g ar ere a nd t he c anardf ere

F ig. 2 0 .9 :

F ig . 2 0 .10 :

W eidling , o n t he r iver A ar ( Aarau , 1 976).

J ass o f l ake A egeri Z G , w ith i ts e laborate r udder ( see f ig .

2 0 .11).

2 96

2 97 B E h a s a p y r a m i d p r o w b u t

2 1 . " SANDSKUDER" - V ESSELS F OR T RADE B ETWEEN N ORWAY A ND D ENMARK I N T HE 1 8TH A ND 1 9TH C ENTURIES M orten G Sthche

T he m ap o f D enmark s hows t he c ountry a s ak ingdom o f m any i slands o f v arious s izes , g rouped t o t he e ast o f t he m ainland J ylland , w hich i s t he o nly p art c onnected t o t he c ontinent .

B etween t he

i slands a re b elts a nd

s ounds , a nd m any n arrow f jords p enetrating d eep i nto t he l and . T odays D enmark i s a h ighly d eveloped t echnological s ociety b ased o n a n e fficient l and-based s ystem , c onnecting t he m any i slands b y b ridges a nd a g reat n umber o f f erries. I n f ormer d ays a ll t hese s ounds, b elts a nd f jords h eld t he k ingdom t ogether , a s i t w as m uch e asier t o g o b y b oat o r s hip t han t o t ravel o n b ad r oads . I t w as a lso m uch e asier t o t ake a h eavy l oad f rom o ne t own t o a nother b y s hip t han t aking i t o ver l and b y h orsedrawn c arrier . T herefore m ost o f t he t owns w ere l ocated n ear t he s ea w ith a s mall j etty o r p ier , w here s hips a nd b oats c ould l oad a nd u nload t heir c argoes. I n t he s hipping b etween t he p rovinces a nd t he c apital a s w ell a s b etween t he p rovincial t owns , d ifferent k inds o f s mall v essels , s uch a s j agt, g alease a nd g aliot w ere i n u se . T he c argoes c onsisted o f m eat , f ruit , f irewood a nd d ifferent k inds o f g roceries. A nother t rade o f c onsiderable i mportance w as t he t rade b etween D enmark and N orway, t he s o c alled " skudehandel" . P art o f t his t rade c onnected t owns n ear t he b elts , a nd t he i slands S ams$ a nd L aes g S i n K attegat w ith t he a rea a round t he O slo F jord i n N orway . T he c argoes h ere m ainly c onsisted o f g rain t o N orway a nd t imber b ack t o D enmark ( Fig. 2 1.1). A v ery s pecial p art o f t he " skudehandel" b etween t he t wo c ountries i n t he d ual m onarchy D enmark-Norway w as t he t rade b etween t he o pen n orthwestern c oast o f J ylland a nd t he s outhwestern p art o f N orway . H ere , l ocal f armers b rought t he s urplus o f g rain a nd a nimal p roduction t o N orway a nd r eturned w ith t imber t o t his p art o f J ylland , w hich w as v ery p oor i n w ood . T his t rade d iffered f rom t he p rovincial t rade e lsewhere , b ecause i t t ook p lace o utside t he t owns w ith t heir p rivileges - a nd w ithout a p ier o r j etty , a s t he v essels w ere l anded d irectly o n t he s hore .

T his a ctually g ave n ame t o

t he v essels i n t his p articular t rade " sandskude" - ( sand v essel). F ollowing t he , mercantilistic i deas , t he c entral p ower t ried t o c oncentrate t rade t o t he t owns b y g iving p rivileges t o t he m erchants . F or m any y ears f armers w ere n ot a llowed t o d o a ny c ommercial t rading w ith t heir o wn g oods o r v essels . I t w as , h owever , v ery d ifficult f or t he c entral g overnment t o c ontrol t he t rade b etween t hese t wo p arts o f t he k ingdom , a nd i t o ften e nded i n c onflict b etween t he i nhabitants o f t he t owns a nd t hose o f t he c oast l and . T hus , t he c oastal p eople s ent t heir c omplaints , v ery w ell f ormulated ,

t o K ing F rederik t he T hird ,

w ho i n 1 666 g ranted t hem t he r ights

t o c arry o n t his t rade . I n 1 670 t his w as c onfirmed b y K ing C hristian t he F ifth . N ow t he s horemen c ould d o t heir t rading l egally a nd w ithout p aying 2 99

t he n ormal c onsumption t axes .

I nstead,

t hey h ad t o p ay t he s o-called

" skudeskat" o n t he s and v essels . O f c ourse t hey s till h ad t o p ay t he n ormal c ustoms d uties f or t heir v essels l ike e veryone e lse i n t he p rovincial t rade. P rimarily

t hey

t raded

t heir s urpluses o f

g rains s uch a s b arley ,

r ye ,

o at a nd p eas f rom t he l and b ehind t he s anddunes , b ut a lso m eat , s alted o r d ried b eef , b utter , e ggs , c heese , w ool e tc" w ere t raded i n e xchange f or w ood o r t imber f or h ousebuilding . A lso , i ron b ars , i ron s toves, s toveplates a nd i ronpots w ere p art o f t he c argo r eturning t o D enmark .

T he

v alue o f t he e xport o f a gricultural p roducts w as c onsiderably m ore t han t he v alue o f t he i mport o f t imber a nd i ron . T he

s and

v essels

d eparted

f rom

v arious

p laces

o n

t he

n orth-western

c oast o f J ylland ; f rom R ingk Aing i n t he S outh t o S kagen i n t he N orth . T he m ost i mportant p laces w ere K litm i dller a nd V igsS , s econdly S tensbjerg , T horup S trand , S lettestrand a nd T ranumstrand . T he p laces i n N orway w ere K ristiansand , A rendal a nd M andal , b ut a lso O ster R isor , L angesund , F arsund , F lekkefjord a nd S tavanger . M any s and v essels w ent a s f ar a s B ergen o n t he w est c oast o f N orway . T he s ailing s eason w as f rom t he b eginning o f March t o t he e nd o f J uly w ith 4 -5 t rips d uring t he s eason . W e d o n ot k now e xactly h ow o ld t his t rade w as , b ut i t h as b een c laimed t hat b efore 1 600 i t w as m ainly t he N orwegians i n p articular f rom t he L indesnes a rea , w ho t ook p art i n t he t rade ( Vigeland 1 936 , 2 0) . F rom t he m iddle o f t he 1 7th t o t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th c entury , w e k now f or s ure t hat t he t rade w as m ainly c arried o ut f rom D enmark . 2 /3 o f a ll s and v essels w ere b uilt i n N orway a nd 1 /3 i n D enmark , o f N orwegian w ood o f c ourse. I n t he c omplaints f rom t he m iddle o f t he 1 7th c entury t he s kippers o f t he s and v essels t ried t o g ive t he i mpression o f b eing p oor p eople , w ho h ad t o c arry t his t rade d ue t o p oor f ishing a nd f armland i n o rder t o s urvive . B ut d uring t his p eriod t hey b ecame w ealthy m erchants w ith l arge f arms , p recious c lothes a nd f ine f urniture . T his w ealth c ulminated a t t he e nd o f t he 1 8th c entury , a nd u p t o t he w ar b etween E ngland a nd D enmark-Norway i t d eclined . K litm Aler, o ne o f t he l argest p laces d uring t he p eriod, h ad e leven s and v essels a nd o ne g alease i n 1 772 , f ive s and v essels a nd t hree g aleases i n 1 799, a nd i n 1 805 o ne s and v essel, f our g aleases a nd o ne s chooner . t han e ver ,

B ecause o f t he b lockade f rom 1 80714 , N orway n eeded g rain m ore a nd t he K ing a sked t he s kippers o f s and v essels t o t ransport t he

n ecessary g rain t o N orway . A fter t he w ar , t he t erm " sandskude" d isappeared c ompletely a nd a p resumably n ew f leet o f w ell k nown t ypes s uch a s " jagt" , " galease" a nd " slup" b egan t aking o ver. A nother i mportant e vent c hanged t he h istorical p atter ns . A fter t he o pening o f t he L imfjord t o t he N orth S ea d ue t o a s torm i n 1 824 , t he c oncentration o f t he " skudebandel" s hifted o ver t o t he L imfjord , w here t he t owns t ook o ver a l arge p art o f t he t rade - b ut t he o ld t rade g oing d irectly f rom t he s hore n ever d ied o ut c ompletely . I n t he N orthern p art o f t he N orth-West c oast a t L Aken , an ew t rade a rose a nd c ontinued u p t o t he b eginning o f t his c entury. F rom w ritten s ources w e k now a g ood d eal a bout t his p articular t rade , a nd a n atural q uestion a rises : W hat d id t hese s and v essels l ook l ike? T he q uestion i s d ifficult t o a nswer ,

b ecause n obody s eems t o h ave g iven a

d etailed g raphic p resentation o f t his s hip t ype a t t he t ime i t w as i n u se . 3 00

I n p ublications o n t he s and v essels t rade ,

a c rude s hip p ortrait p ainted o n

t he f ace o f a g randfather-clock , l ocated i n V ester V andet c hurch , k eeps s howing u p ( Krogh-Jensen 1 967 , 4 9) . T he c lock w as g iven t o t he c hurch b y t he s kippers o f s and v essels f rom K lit m iller i n 1 754 . T he 4 f m h igh c lock s hows t hat t he d onators w ere o f h igh s ocial s tatus i n t his s mall c ommunity . T he l ittle p ainting g ives t he i mpression o f a l arger m erchantman o f t hat t ime . I t i s r igged w ith t hree m asts - t he f ore a nd m ain m ast w ith s quare s ails a nd t he m izzen w ith a l ateen s ail ( Fig . 2 1 .2) . F rom t he s ame t ime w e k now o f s ome s ketches o f d ifferent s hip t ypes ( 4 ( 611er 1 981, 6 0) , a nd a mong t hese t here i s a t ype m entioned a s a " skude" , r igged s imilarly . I f w e c an t rust t he a rtist , w e c an b e s ure t hat t he p ainting i s o f a" skude" , b ut m aybe n ot a " sandskude" . I n t he a rchives,

i n t he c ustom r ecords,

w e f ind

a s tatement

f rom

1 754 a bout t hese v essels: " Skudernes t akkelage e re a f 3s laette s taenger m ed r äsejl o g k linkbygning o g f ahrer a lle p ä N orge." T his m eans t hat t he r igging o f t hese v essels i ncorporated t hree p olemasts w ith s quare s ails , c linker-built a nd a ll o f t hem s ail i n t he N orwegian t rade . F rom t hat p eriod w e k now o f a s hip t ype w ith t hree m asts a nd s quare s ails, t he sk rejer C . F rom t he c ustoms r ecords w e a lso k now t hat a k rejert t he " Sankt J ( 6rgen" w as o nce r egistered a s a s kude . A nother v essel , t he " Christiane E lisabeth " w as c alled v arious t erms s uch a s s kude , g alease , b rig a nd f inally s lup d uring t he p eriod 1 798-1818 . T his i s a r eminder o f t he p roblems d efining t he c orrect t erminology o f t hese t ypes o f s hips. I n 1 750 t he w hole f leet o f s and v essels h ad t o b e r emeasured . t he d ocuments ,

w e c an g et v arious k inds o f m easurements ;

F rom

t he l ength , w idth

a nd d epth , a nd w e g et a n i dea o f t he c apacity o f t he s and v essels . T he d ocument s hown i n F ig . 2 13 i ndicates t he t onnage i n " kommercelaest" o f e very s and v essel b efore t he r emeasuring. T he t hird c olumn i s v ery p eculiar : m oderation" .

h ere

t he

t onnage

i s

r educed

b y

t he

s o

F rom 1 672 a ll D anish-Norwegian v essels

c alled

" one

s ixth

s hould h ave t heir

o fficial t onnage f ixed a t o nly 5 /6 o f t heir a ctual t onnage i n o rder t o s trengthen t heir p osition a gainst t he f oreign t onnage . T his w as o f c ourse k ept s ecret , a nd w as o nly k nown b y t he o fficial m easurer i n C openhagen . T he i dea w as t hat t he v essels s ailing i n t he p rovincial t rade a t t hat t ime w ere t o f ixed 1 /6 l ess t han t he t rue t onnage b y t he a uthorities a t t heir f irst c all a t C openhagen , a nd t herefore n ever g ot t he b enefit o f t he a lteration, b ut i n t he c ase o f r emeasuring i n 1 750-54, t he a uthorit ies u sed t he o pportunity t o a djust t he t onnage o f a ll s and v essels. T he n umbers i n t he f ourth c olumn s how t he d ifference b etween t he o riginal t onnage a nd t he a djusted o ne. I n c onnection w ith t he r emeasuring t here w ere m any c omplaints f rom t he s kippers o f s and v essels .

H ere a gain w e g et s ome i nformation a bout t he

s hape a nd c onstruction o f t he s and v essels .

T he n early i dentical c omplaints

s tate t hat t he s tem a nd s tern c urved u nderneath t he v essel , w hich m ade t hem v ery s harp i n t he f ore- a nd a ft-ends . T his m eant t hat t hey c ould n ot l oad v ery m uch o f t he c argo u nder t he c abin a nd t he g alley . O ne o f t he c omplaints t ell u s e ven m ore a bout t he s hape ;

t hat t hey w ere a ll b uilt o n

( a) k eel a nd v ery m uch l ike t he D utch f lute ( Dutch c argo s hip t ype o f p eriod w ith a v ery n arrow d ec k ) .

t hat

F inally t here i s ad escription o f t he a rea T hy f rom 1 802 ( Aagaard 1 802 , 3 1) .

H ere t he a uthor g ives a d escription o f t he t rade f rom t he s hore .

A bout t he c onstruction o f t he s hips h e t ells u s , t hat t hey w ere b uilt w ith a s pecial c onstruction t o b e a ble t o r esist t he h ardship o f r unning d irectly 3 01

o nto t he s hore .

T he s ecret i s t hat t he s and v essels w ere b uilt w ith

t reenails ( especially o f w ood f rom t he j uniper t ree) i nstead o f i ron f astenings, which m ade t hem v ery f lexible . T he v essels were n ot , a s n ormally a ssumed , f lat b ottomed , b ut b uilt o n a k eel . F urther m ore t he a uthor t ells t hat t hese v essels w ere a ble t o c arry 3 00-400 " tinder" ( barrels) o f o at . T he d escription a lso g ives u s a n i dea o f t he c onditions f or t he s and v essel t rade ; i t w as n ot w ithout r isk , e specially w hen t he s and v essels l anded d irectly o n t he s hore , i t h ad t o b e f ine w eather . C oming f rom N orway , t hey d id n ot d are t o l and o n t he s hore f ully l oaded , s o t hey u nloaded h alf o f t he t imber c argo a t s ea b efore t hey s at o n t he s and . A fter l anding o n t he s hore t hey h ad t o u nload t he r est o f t he t imber i n a h urry a nd q uickly g et r eady t o t ake i n t he n ew l oad o f g rain . S ometimes , i f as torm w as a pproaching , t hey h ad t o l eave w ith o nly h alf o f t he c argo o n b oard , s ometimes w ithout a ny c argo a t a ll. O ut o f s eason t he s and v essels w ere p ulled u p h igh b etween t he s anddunes , w here t hey c ould n ot b e r eached b y t he s ea . I n s pring t he v essels w ere l aunched a nd l oaded o n t he v ery s ame d ay . A fter t he h ard w ork o f t aking t he v essel t o s ea , t hey c ould b e c aught i n a s torm a gain . W hen t aking u p o r s etting o ut t here h ad t o b e 3 0-40 m en t o d o t he w ork - w ith r ollers a nd r opes a s t he o nly t ackle f or t he j ob . I f w e t ry t o s um u p t he f acts a bout s and v essels , w e n ow k now t hat t hey w ere c linker b uilt o n ak eel a nd d id n ot p ossess v ery s harp l ines . I nstead o f i ron f astenings , t hey h ad t reenails , w hich g ave t hem t heir f lexibility . T hey h ad a c abin a ft a nd a g alley i n t he f ore o r v isa v ersa , a nd b etween h ere t he h old . T he s tem a nd s tern c urved i n u nder t he v essels i n aw ay , w hich l eft n o r oom f or c argo b eneath t he c abin a nd g alley . W e h ave a lso b een t old t hat t he s hape o f t he s and v essel w as s imilar t o t hat o f t he D utch f lute . T he l ength o f t he s and v essels w ere 4 0-45 f eet ( 12 .214 .7m ) . T hey w ere c . 1 2-14 f eet ( 3 .6-4 .2m) w ide a nd c . 4 -6 f eet d eep ( 1 .2-1.8n0 . F or c alculations o f t he t onnage , t he m easurer u sed t he %nsterdamfod" , w hich i s a bout 1 D anish i nches , o r m ore e xact : 2 8 ,3133 c m . T he l ength o f t he h old w as 2 0-30 f eet ( 6 .1-9 .1m) . T he c apacity w as 6 -8 k onnnercelaest ( after r educing t he t rue t onnage b y 1 /6 ) . A k omnercelaest e quals 2 r egistered t ons o f t he s ystem u sed t oday . I n a nother w ay , t hey c ould c arry 3 00-400 b arrels o f o at . A bout t he r igging w e k now , a ccording t o t he c lock-painting a nd w ritten s ources t hat s ome s and v essels c arried t hree m asts a nd a s quare s ailrig . W e a lso k now t hat s ome s and v essels w ere c alled v arious n ames b esides " skude" s uch a s k rejert , g alease , b rig a nd s lup . A s s ome o f t hese s hip t ypes h ad t wo m asts , v essels.

t his m ay a lso h ave b een t he c ase w ith s ome o f t he s and

T HE W RECKS W henever w e w ere n otified a bout a w reck f ind o n t he N orth-West c oast o f J ylland , w e h oped f or a s and v essel . I n 1 976 a n i nteresting w reck t urned u p, a nd t he p resent a uthor w as s ent t o r ecord t he f ind. A fter a s torm i n e arly J anuary 1 976 , s everal p arts o f t he w reck h ad b een w ashed a shore a t K lim S trand , o ne o f t he o ld c entres o f t his t rade . T hese p ieces w ere p resumably f rom a w reck , f irst n oticed d uring t he s ummer o f 1 973 , a nd k nown b y t he l ocal f ishermen a s " rjaereskibet" ( the t arvessel) . A t t he s ame s pot a f isherman f rom T horup S trand h ad c aught s hip 's t imbers i n 3 02

h is t rawl. o ak p lanking .

T hese o riginated f rom a s mall c linker b uilt v essel w ith T he p lanking w as h eld t ogether w ith t reenails m ade o f w ood

f rom a j uniper t ree . T he f rames a nd p lanking w ere h eld t ogether w ith t reenails o f o ak . T he t ransverse j oints o f t he p lanking w ere s carfed . T he v essel h ad b een b uilt o n a k eel , a nd w as d ecked . S he m ust h ave b een 3 0-40 f eet l ong . A bout 6 5% o f t he v essel h ad b een p reserved , b ut u nfortunately n ot t he k eel n or t he s tem - o r s ternposts ( Fig. 2 1.4). I t

w as d ecided

t o

r ecord

t he

v arious

p arts

o f

t he

w reck a ccurately

e nough f or a m odel o f e ach s ection t o b e m ade . I n t his w ay i t w ould b e p ossible t o f it t he m odels o f t he v arious p ieces t ogether j ust l ike t he a rchaeologist a ssembling t he b roken p ieces o f a j ar . T he m ost i mportant t ool f or r ecording w as t he " measuring-table" .

I t

c onsisted o f f our p oles d riven i nto t he g round . S traight b oards w ere t hen n ailed h orizontally t o t he p oles , s o t hat i t f ormed a r ectangle . T hen , e ach s eparate p art i n t urn w as p laced u nderneath t he " table" w ith t he i nside u pwards . T he r ecording w as m ade b y m easuring s everal s ections a cross t he p lanks a nd n ormally a longside a f rame . E ven t he p osition o f t he b roken o r d ressed e nds o f p lanks a nd r ibs , a s w ell a s j oints , t reenails , s pikes , m arks e tc ., w ere r ecorded , a nd m any b lack/white p hotos w ere t aken ( Fig. 2 1.5). A fterwards a d rawing o f e ach p iece w as m ade i n t he o ffice , s howing t he p ieces i n p lan a nd w ith s everal c ross-sections i n 1 :10 s cale a nd w ith d etails i n 1 :1 o f t reenails , s pikes e tc" . T hen a m ontage o f a ll p lans a nd s ections o f t he w reckpieces w as m ade i n o rder t o f ind t he p roper p lace f or e ach p art i n t he o riginal v essel . I n t his w ay i t w as p ossible t o o btain a g ood i mpression o f t he s ize , s hape a nd s tructural l ay-out o f t he v essel . S he h ad b een 1 012 .5 m l ong , d ouble-ended a nd v ery b eamy f ore a nd a ft , b ut w ith s harp l ines b elow t he w aterline , a nd p rominently c urved s heerline ( Fig . 2 1.6). A s a lready m entioned ,

t he v essel h ad b een d ecked , w hich c an b e s een o n

t he n otches i n t he d eck-shelves f or d eckbeams .

O ne o f t he d eckbeams

h ad

g one t hrough t he p lanking . T his m ay h ave b een a h ollow d eckbeam l eading t he w atier o verboard f rom a p ump , p laced n ext t o i t. W e c an a lso s ee s mall r ectangular h oles j ust a bove t he d eck-shelf - s cuppers t o l ead t he w ater a way f rom t he d eck . a midships , m aybe u sed w ith a s quare s ail. T he

F inally t wo i ronbolts w ere l ocated j ust a ft o f f or f astening

t he s hrouds

p reliminary r econstruction o f

t he

s upporting a s ingle m ast

m idship

s ection

s how

a b eamy

v essel, b uilt o n ak eel w ith v ery l ittle r ise o f t he b ottom ( Fig . 2 1.7) . T he c linker b uilt v essel h ad 1 6 s trakes f rom k eel t o g unwale a midships a nd o ne m ore a ft . B ut h ere a p eculiar f eature a ppears: t he l ower s trakes a re a n ormal c linker b uilt c onstruction , b ut t he 1 3th a nd 1 5th a re p laced i nside t he u pper e dge o f t he p revious s trakes . F rom t he S kagerak-area o f N orway a nd S weden , w e k now o f b oat t ypes w ith t he u ppermost s trake f itted i n t he s ame w ay , s o t hat t he s trake u nderneath f orms a p rojecting f ender . B ut t his - u sing a c arpenter 's t erm - " one o n t wo" - c onstruction h as n ot b een r ecorded b efore h ere. A p ainting

f rom 1 886 o f " Familiens L ykke" o f L Snstrup ,

g ives u s

t he

i mpression o f a h ull , v ery s imilar t o t hat o f t he " tarvessel" f rom K lim ( Fig . 2 1 .8) . I t i s d ouble-ended t oo , a nd w ith a n early v ertical s tempost . T he f inal r econstruction , b ased o n t he w reckpieces a ssembled w ill g ive u s a m ore c ertain a nswer , t ho ugh .

T he " Familiens L ykke" o f L Snstup h as a c ommon 3 03

" jagt rigging" , o f f ore n ' a ft r igging w ith t he m ast p laced w ell f orward o f a midships , w hile t he " tarvessel" s hows t races o f am ast s tep a midships a nd p robably a s quare s ail . T here w ere n o a ssociated f inds t o d ate t he K limw reck , a nd n o o ther d ates f or t he v essel a re a vailable b y n ow .

O THER W RECKS O ver t he y ears s everal w recks h ave t urned u p a long t he n orth a nd w est c oast o f J utland . S ome o f t hem a re s aid t o b e s and v essels , a nd s ome o f t hem m ay w ell h ave b een s o . F rom L e ikken , w e h ave a r eport o f ar ow o f f rames o n t he s horeline o riginating f rom a s mall c arvel b uilt v essel . T his m ay b e t he r emains o f a n o ld " jagt" , as hip t ype , w hich t ook o ver f rom t he s and v essels a nd w as u sed i n t his a rea i nto t he b eginning o f t his c entury ( Fig . 2 1.9a) . F rom t he s ame p lace a nother w reck w as o b served , w here o nly s tem a nd s ternpost w ere v isible , i ncluding a r abbet f or a c linker-planking . T he p lanking h ad b een c ut i nto s tem- o r s ternpost i n s teps , n ot a s i n n ormal p ractice w ith a s traight r abbet l ine ( Fig . 2 1 .9b ) . T his c ould b e a s and v essel t oo , b ut t he s ame c onstruction a ppears i n t he " slup" , w hich i s a nother s hip t ype u sed i n t he a rea d uring t he e nd o f t he p eriod. A wreck f ound j ust o ver a y ear a go a t N ors X - n ot v ery f ar f rom K litm aler , a n i mportant v illage i n t he b eginning o f t he p eriod , g ave u s a nother h ope o f f inding a s and v essel . J ust l ike t he " tarvessel" f rom K lim S trand , s he w as c linker b uilt w ith t reenails o f j uniper , h ere b oth i n t he p lanks a nd i n t he f rames . U nlike t he " tarvessel" , s he h ad b utted j oints i n t he p lanking i nstead o f s carfs . T his v essel h ad o ak p lanking , b ut f rames o f f ir ( Fig . 2 1.9c) . T he p resence o f t he s o c alled N orwegian s pikes , f actory m ade , c onnects t he w reck t o t he p eriod j ust a bout t he t urn o f t he t his c entury , b ut s he c ould b e m uch o lder . T he s pikes o riginate f rom a n ewer c arvel p lanking , n ailed d irectly o n t he o utside o f t he c linker p lanking . A t ypical e xample o f g iving a n o ld v essel a n ew l ife b y p utting i t i nto a n e nvelope . T he w recks f rom L oken a nd N ors X c ould b oth b e o f t he " sandskude" o r t he " slup" t ype . I n b oth c ases t he b uilding-tradition i s s imilar t o t hat k nown f rom t he s outheast c oast o f N orway i n t he 1 9th c entury.

C ONCLUSION A ll t hese d ifferent k inds o f t estimony l ead t o t he c onclusion t hat t he s and v essel w as a s imple , l ocal c raft , e specially b uilt f or t his p articular " farmertrade" , r ather t han b eing a l arge m erchantship w ith a l ofty r igging , a s i ndicated o n t he p ainting o f t he G randfather-clock f rom K litmiller . T he K lim S trand w reck s hows t races o f a m ast p osition a midships , p robably t o c arry a s ingle s quare s ail . T hese s imple t ypes o f v essels w ith o ne m ast s tepped a midships a nd w ith o ne s ingle s quare s ail c an b e s een o n s everal t own p rospects f rom t he 1 7th c entury . P erhaps t his t ype h ad a l onger l ife i n t his f ar a way c orner o f t he c ountry t han e lsewhere , j ust a s t he c atholic n ames f or t he v essels , s uch a s " Jomfru M aria" ( the V irgin Mary) , " Sankt P eter" e tc . w ere u sed r ight u p t o t he w ar 1 80714 . I n d ocuments f rom t he a rchives , t he s and v essels w ere d escribed b y s uch a v ariety o f t ype n ames a s " galease" , " brig" , " slup" , " krejert" a nd " skonn ert" .

B ut t his d oes n ot n ecessarily m eans t hat t hese s and v essels i n

s ize o f h ull a nd r ig e qualled t he w ell k nown , b ut m uch b igger t ypes f rom t he 3 04

p rovincial t rade i n t he r est o f t he c ountry .

I t c ould s till h ave b een t he

o ne m asted v essel , s upplied w ith o ne o r t wo e xtra m asts , e .g . w ith a s maller m ast a ft c arrying a l ateen s ail ( galease) o r i n t he b ow c arrying a s quare s ail ( brig) , o r b oth w ith a s mall m ast a ft f or a l ateen s ail a nd a s imilar m ast c arrying a s quare s ail i n t he b ow ( krejert) . T his t ype o f r igging i s k nown f rom S weden i n t he m iddle o f t he 1 7th c entury , t he " roslagskute" . A s mall 1 9th c entury f ishing b oat f rom S kagen w ith t wo m asts c arrying s pritsails w as c alled a " skawbrig" . T he t erm " slup" ( sloop) a nd " skonnert" ( schooner) s how u p l ater i n t he p eriod . T he s lup a ppeared j ust a fter t he w ar 1 80714 , a nd w as a s pecial N orwegian p henomenon . T hese v essels , c alled " Danmarksslup" b y t he D anes a nd "Ugneslup" b y t he N orwegians , w ere m ainly b uilt i n t he a rea o f S itne i n t he t owns R isSr , A rendal e tc . , a nd i n t he s ame t radition a s t he s and v essels . T hey w ere s mall , c linker b uilt v essels w ith o ak p lanking , h eld t ogether b y t reenails o f j uniper , f rames o f o ak a nd f ir . T hey w ere b uilt w ith a n o verhang a ft a nd w ere " sluprigged" ( Fig. 2 1.10a). I n D enmark , t his t erm m eant a f ore 'n a ft r ig w ith o ne m ast i n t wo p arts .

I t u sed t o h ave a g aff - o r m ainsail ,

f orestaysail ,

y ard t opsail ,

2 -3 d ifferent k inds o f j ibs a nd f inally s ometimes a f lying j ib o r j ib t opsail. O ne s uch v essel i s p reserved t o t his d ay , a s t he D anish N ational M useum i s t he o wner o f a " Danmarksslu l p" . e specially f or t he " skudehandle" ,

S he w as b uilt 1 854 i n S vinir , N orway , t he t rade b etween t he t wo c ountries , a nd

n amed " Familien" ( the F amily) . T he m ain d imensions w ere : 4 0 f eet l ong , 1 8 f eet w ide a nd 6 f eet d eep . S he h ad a t t hat t ime a t onnage o f 41 /2 k ommercelaest . A ll t hese s hips w ere b uilt a t o r b elow t his t onnage , i n o rder n ot t o h ave t o t ake a p ilot u pon a rriving i n t he N orwegian p orts . T oday , t he t onnage i s r egistered a s 1 9 .99 t ons , a s 2 0 t ons i s a n i mportant l imit f or a n umber o f r ules, i ncluding t he r equired q ualifications f or s kipper a nd c rew . I n

1 888 s he w as s old t o D enmark a nd w ent i nto t he c ommon p rovincial

t rade . I n 1 898 s he h ad a m ajor r efit a t R udk f ibing , L angeland , a nd t he o ld c linker p lanking w as r eplaced b y a n ew c arvel p lanking , b ut s he s till k ept h er o ld s lup-rig . T he v essel h ad h er f irst e ngine i nstalled i n 1 918 . A fter t hat s he h ad s everal o ther e ngines - e ach b igger o nes - a nd a p roportional r eduction o f t he s ail a rea.

t han

t he p revious

O ver t he p ast 4 5 y ears s he w as u sed i n t he p acket-trade o n L imfjorden . T hrough a ll t hese 4 5 y ears s he h ad o nly o ne s kipper - a nd h er n ame was " RUTH". T oday " RUTH" i s u nder r estoration i n a s hipyard i n t he W estern p art o f L imfjorden t o s erve i n t he f uture a s am useum s hip a long w ith t he o ther o ld s hips i n t he c ollection o f t he N ational Museum, i llustrating d ifferent a spects o f D anish c oastal t rade i n t he 1 9th a nd e arly 2 0th c entury ( Fig . 2 1.10b).

R EFERENCES

A agaard , K" 1 802 . P hysisk , o economisk o g topographisk B eskrivelse o ver T hye b eliggende i T histed A mt , A alborg S tift. V iborg .

3 05

C arlsen , D .H . , u ndated . S kudehandel T hy-Sydnorge . K litmiller 1 7501 800 . E t e ksempelstudie i e ntrepreniraktivitet . S pecialeafhandling , K ibenhavns u niversitet . G ithche , M .,

1 980 .

S luppen " Ruth" - r apport o m r estaureringen a f

N ationalmuseets s lup . M aritim K ontakt I . m aritim h istorie - o g s amfundsforskning. H vitfeldt ,

J . ,

1 935-36 .

K ontaktudvalget f or d ansk

S kudehandelen i d et 1 7 .

a arhundrede .

J yske

s amlinger 5 . r k. I I b ind, K ibenhavn. K litgaard , C " 1 943 . N ogle s elvejer - o g s kudehandlerslaegter f ra H an h errederne. H istorisk A arbog f or T histed a mt . K rogh-Jensen , G ., 1 956 . S andskuden " Jomfru Maria" a f K litmiller . H istorisk A arbog f or T histed a mt . K rogh-Jensen , G " 1 967 . D en t hylandske s kudefart . a nledning a f i ndvielsen a f f irste d el a f H anstholm h avn .

E t t ilbageblik i T histed .

Miller , A .M ., 1 974 , S kibsmälingen i D anmark 1 632-1867, H andels- o g S g Sfartsmuseets A arbog. Miller ,

A .M .,

1 981.

F ra

g aleoth

t u lg alease .

k ongerigske p rovinsers s ifard i d et 1 8. ä rhundrede. R asmussen , AJL, 1 974 .

S tudier

i d e

E sbjerg .

S kudefart o g L imfjordshandel .

E sbjerg o g

T histed. S kjidsholm , AL . , 1 971 . S kudehandelen T hy o g d et n orske S irland. L ikken . V igeland , N .P.,

1 936 .

m ellem V endsyssel ,

D anmarksfarten f ra S irlandet . O slo .

3 06

H an h erred ,

F ig . 2 1.1: f oreground

" Skuder u ( jagt) o n t he s hore a t L ikken . b oats

w ith a f lat

b ottom ,

I n t he

u sed f or l oading a nd

u nloading t he v essels , w hich w ere a nchoring n ear t he s hore . H orsedrawn c arriers b rought t he l oads u p o n d ry l and . W oodcarving a fter d rawing b y C arl N eumann . I llustreret T idende , 1 866) .

F ig . 2 1.2: T he p resumed " sandskude" ( sand v essel) , p ainted o n aG randfather-clock , l ocated i n V ester V andet c hurch . T he c lock w as d onated b y t he s kippers i n K litm Aler 1 754 . P hoto : T he D anish N ational M useum .

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F ig .

2 1 .3 :

7 " • , - .1 • • • 7"

A d ocument

f rom t he c ase o f r emeasuring

i n 1 750-54 .

T he

f irst c olumn s hows t he " kommercelaest" o f t he s andvessels b efore r emaesuring . T he s econd c olumn a fter m easuring a nd t he t hird c olumn s hows t he a djusted t onnage . T he f ourth c olumn s hows t he d ifference b etween t he f ormer a nd t he a djusted t onnage. 3 08

F ig .

2 1 .4 :

P arts

o f

t he w reck o f a v essel w ashed a shore i n 1 976 o n K lim

S trand . A bout 6 5% o f t he v essel i s p reserved a nd t he o ak w as i n v ery g ood c ondition , w ithout a ny d ecay . P hoto : T he L imfjordsmuseum .

F ig . 2 1.5 :

T he m easuring — t able ,

r ecording o f t he w recks.

a v ery

i mportant

P hotos b y t he a uthor.

i nstrument

f or t he

/ 5

/ 3

rAcT IA . 9(4 " c 'm rt`

4

mr 3 . 4«,

e r/Or

e qr A

0

M D? " Cf . ,

F ig . 2 1.7 : P reliminary r econstruction o f m idship s ection . T he s ketch s hows t he p rinciple o f t he c onstruction w ith t he f irst t welve p lanks i n c linker a nd t he l ast f our i n ap eculiar " one o n t wo" c onstruction . T he o riginal v essel h ad a l ess p ronounced r ise o f t he b ottom t han s hown h ere . S ketch b y t he a uthor .

3 11

5f

,r

F ig .

2 1.8 :

C opy

o f p ainting b y C hr . W lsted , 1 886 ,

" Familiens

a d ouble -e nded , r igging ,

F ig . 2 1 .9a-c :

L ykke" o f

L instrup . s howing

c linker- b uilt h ull w ith a j agt -

s tanding o n t he b each .

W reck o f ac arvel b uilt v essel a t t he s hore o f

Ukken . P hoto : T he D anish N ational M useum . b : S tem - o r s ternpost o f aw reck f rom t he s ame p lace .

P hoto :

T he D anish

N ational M useum . c :

P arts o f aw reck f ound i n 1 981 a t N ors A ,

K litm Aler .

A c linker -b uilt

t he o utside s urface.

P hoto :

j ust N orth o f

v essel w ith a n ewer c arvelplanking n ailed t o H enrik B ygholm .

F ig .

2 1.10a :

D rawing b y

T he

m useum , N orge .

F ig . 2 1.10b :

" Danmarksslup"

I . K lysner ,

1 852 .

" Raketten"

( Andorsengärden ,

o f

S vindr .

Mandal B y—

B essesens s amlinger) .

T he s lup " RUTH" , o wned b y t he D anish N ational

M useum , u nder r estoration 1 982 i n a s hipyard a t V est V ildsund i n t he W estern p art o f L imfjorden . P hoto : D anish N ational M useum .

2 2. R ECENT B OATS I N T HE R HINELAND H ans W alter K eweloh

O n t he o ccasion o f t he d iscovery o f t hree o ld s hips i n e astern P russia a nd P ommerania i n 1 894,

1 895 a nd

1 897,

which a ttracted g reat

p ublic

i nterest , e thnologist A lbert V ob , t hen c urator a t t he M useum o f E thnology i n B erlin , w rote a n e ssay o n t he f inds . T he e ssay d iscussed t he i mportance o f a d ocumentation o f l ocal f ishing b oats a nd o ther s mall w orking c raft f or t he h istory o f s hip b uilding a nd s hip a rchaeology ( Voss 1 899 , 4 5-47) . T he i dea p rompted t he G erman S ociety f or A nthropology , E thnology a nd P rehistory , t ogether w ith t he m useum t o s tart a n i nquiry e ntitled " On t he i nvestigation o f o ld b oat t ypes o n t he inland waters a nd c oasts o f G ermany a nd i t 's n eighbouring c ountries" .1 F or t his r eason t hey h ad d eveloped a q uestionnaire t o d etect a nd d escribe t hose c raft o f am ost e ple s tructure a nd e quipment , w hich a re s till c ustomary o r h ave b een i n u se . ) A sking f or a d escription o f o uter a ppearance , e quipment , e mployment o f t he b oats e tc" i t w as s ent t o p ersons i n t he G erman R eich , b ut a lso t o t hose i n G erman s peaking n eighbouring c ountries s uch a s , f or i nstance , S witzerland . T his i nquiry w as q uite s uccessful . I t h ad t he u sual d ifficulties o f t his k ind o f i nvestigation : o n t he o ne h and i t w as n ot e asy t o r ecruit e nough r espondents f or e ach r egion , o n t he o ther h and t he s pecialized k nowledge o f t he v olunteers v aries w idely . S o t he i nformation r ecieved i s d iverse i n q uantity a nd q uality . N evertheless ,

i t

t ook e xtensive

e fforts

t o o btain i nformation o n t he

l ocal b oats a nd s hips i n t he G erman-speaking c ountries .3 ) D uring t he p eriod 1 9281933 G ermanist W alther M itzka m ade a n ew a ttempt t o r ecord t hose c raft i n t he s ame a rea . H e w as i nterested i n f ind t he c onnection b etween words a nd t he o bjects t hey d escribe .

D oing h is o wn f ield w ork h e t ried t o

c ollect t he r ecent t ypes o f l ocal p easant - a nd f ishing b oats ( Mitzka 1 932) . Mitzka n ever i ntended n or d id h e a chieve a c omplete d ocumentation i ncluding e xact p lans o f t he b oats a s w as d one f or e xample b y H ans S zymanski o n t he s maller t raditional s ailing b oats . E xcept f or K urt S chwarz , w ho t ried i n 1 926 t o d epict t he d evelopment o f t he t ypes o f v essels o n t he R hine u p t o t he n ineteenth c entury b y p ictorial a nd w ritten s ource m aterial , ( Schwartz , u ndated) t hese r epresent t he o nly e xtensive r esearch d one o n d ifferent b oat t ypes o n t he i nland w aters i n t he t erritory o f t he F ederal R epublic o f G ermany . I n F ebruary 1 979 , t he D eutsches S chiffahrtsmuseum i n B remerhaven , s ponsored b y

t he D eutsche F orschungsgemeinschaft ,

s tarted i ts r esearch

p roject , t he p urpose o f which w as t o d ocument a ll r ecent p reindustrial wooden b oats i n t he r iver b asin o f t he R hine . E ach y ear f rom A pril t o O ctober I h ave s ystematically l ooked f or r elevant o bjects a ll o ver t he w aters o f o ur r esearch a rea . I n a ddition w e r eceive a l arge n umber o f t ips f rom t he g eneral p ublic w ho h ave b een i nformed a bout o ur p roject t hrough a rticles i n r egional n ewspapers o r h ave h eard a bout i t o n t he r adio .

3 15

I n 1 979 w e d ocumented

t he b oats o f

t he L ower R hine b etween t he D utch

f rontier a nd B onn ; i n 1 980 o f t he M iddle R hine f rom B onn t o M ayence a nd i n 1 981 a nd 1 982 o f t he U pper R hine u p t o L ake C onstance . W e a re s till w orking i n t his r egion t oday .

O f c ourse w e e xamined a ll

t ributaries

t oo .

T here a re f or i nstance R uhr , M osel, M ain a nd N eckar . T o d ocument t he b oats

w e

t ake

m easurements ,

a nd

f rom

t hese w e

d raw

p lans s howing t op-view , s ide-view , c ross-sections a nd s pecial c onstructions i n d etail.

W e d o t he s ame f or t he b oat e quipment .

B esides

t hat I h ave w orked

a ge , p lace o f o rigin , e tc .,.

o ut a n e xtensive q uestionnaire a sking f or

k ind o f w ood ,

d ialectal t erms o f p arts o f t he b oats

I f t here a re s everal c raft o f o ne t ype ,

w e f ully d ocument o ne e xample

o nly . F or t he o thers w e n eed a s hort q uestionnaire w hich n otes l ength , b eam a nd h eight a t f ixed p laces a s w ell a s t he m easurements o f t he f ittings . B esides t his d ocumentation , f errymen ,

w e i nterview b oat-builders,

p easants a nd b oatsmen ,

a ll

t hose who

f ishermen ,

c an g ive u s d etailed

i nformation o n t he u se o f t he b oats a nd e quipment , o n t heir o perating r anges , d urability a nd t he c rew . W e a lso a sk f or t he s equence o f o peration w hen b uilding a b oat a nd f or t he v ocabulary o f f isher- a nd b oatsmen . F or t hese i nterviews w e u se o ur e xtensive q uestionnaire a s a k ind o f g uide . T his a llows o ur i nterlocutors t o g ive a f ree a ccount w ithout b eing c ontinuously i nterrupted b y q uestions . A nd w e c an k eep h im f rom s traying f rom t he p oint . L ater o n i t a llows a b etter a nd m ore s ystematic a nalysis o f t he c onversations . W e r arely u sed t ape r ecorders , a s t ape r ecording i s q uite d istracting f or t he i nterviewer w hen s peaking o n a b oat o r i n a b oatb uilder 's w orkshop .

W e o nly u sed a r ecorder f or i nterviews a t h ome w ith

a lready w ell-known i nformants , w ho w ere n ot b othered b y i t . W e d ecided n ot t o a nalyse t he w ritten s ource m aterial i n t he a rchives a t t his t ime , b ecause t ime w as t oo s hort t o w ork o n s ource m aterial a nd o riginal o bjects s imultaneously . W e p referred r ecording b oats f rom t he e ntire f ield b ecause o f t he d anger o f b oats a nd i nformants g radually v anishing. T he s ources c an s till b e u sed a t al ater t ime. S pot-checks a t s ome a rchives 4 )

s howed, h owever , t hat a c omparison

b etween t he m aterial c ollected b y f ield-work a nd t he w ritten s ources h ighly i mproves o ur k nowledge o f b oats a nd t heir u se (4 . R udolph 1 966 ) . W hen w e a rrive a t L ake C onstance i n O ctober , w e w ill h ave f inished w ork o n t he l ast p art o f t he G erman R hine b asin . S o I c an s trike a f irst b alance : a ltogether w e h ave c atalogued a bout 1 000 b oats , " volkstümliche K leinboote" a s W . R udolph h as c alled t hem ( Rudolph 1 966 ,9) . G reater s hips a s " Aaken" ,

" Bönder" ,

" Samoreusen" e tc .

( Schwarz,

u ndated) c u eomary o n t he

R hine i n f ormer t imes , n o l onger e xist t hroughout t he r egion . T he 1 000 o r s o b oats a re d istributed a s f ollows: L ower R hine

-2 40

M iddle R hine

- 1 40

U pper R hine

- 6 00 t o 6 50 b oats.

3 16

U p t o n ow ,

1 62 o f t hem h ave b een m easured i n d etail .

T hey h ave b een ,

o r w ill b e d rawn a t as cale o f 1 :20 . I ndividual d etails o f c onstruction a s w ell a s s ome e quipment w ill b e d rawn a t a s cale o f 1 :10 , 1 :5 o r 1 :2. Ill n ow s how s ome e xamples o f

t his

m aterial ,

a nd h ow

t he d ifferent

t ypes a nd t heir m ost d istinctive f eatures h ave b een d etermined b y t he c onditions o f b uilding , u se , p ropulsion s ystem a nd t he w aters. T he c onditions o f b uilding o f t he l ocal b oats o n t he R hine c onstitutes o ne o f t he m ost i mportant d ifferences : w hile n orth o f K arlsruhe t he c raft a re o nly b uilt o f o ak , s outh o f t his t own u p t o t he L ake C onstance t hey a re u sually m ade o f s oftwood - p ine , f ir o r s pruce . T oday o ak i s t oo e xpensive f or b oat-builders ,

s ince o ak f urniture h as

b ecome f ashionable . T hat 's t he r eason w hy b oatbuilding n orth o f K arlsruhe h as d ied o ut . S o t he b oats d ocumented a t t he L ower a nd M iddle R hine a re t he l ast e xamples o f a n o ld t radition . S outh

o f

K arlsruhe

b oatbuilding

s till

c ontinues ,

a lthough o n a m uch

s maller s cale . T here a re s till a f ew f ull-time b oat b uilders , o ften c ombined w ith a j oiner 's w orkshop . B ut m ost o f t hem b uild b oats i n t heir s pare t ime t o e arn e xtra m oney . u ncertain , I 'm c onvinced t hat i t

A lthough t he f uture o f b oatbuilding i s w ill s urvive . R ecreational f ishing i s

b ecoming m ore a nd m ore p opular a nd m any o f t he " dead-end" R hine c hannels a nd o ther a reas u nder i nvestigation a re i deal f ishing w aters . T he " dead-end c hannels" a re, a t t he s ame t ime, g ood f ishing g rounds f or p rofessional f ishermen , a ll o f whom a re u sers o f wooden b oats . T he a nglers i n p articular s eem t o p refer w ooden b oats t o t hose o f m etal o r f ibreglass , p robably f or r easons o f n ostalgia . T he t ype o f wood u sed p artly d etermines t he s equence a nd k ind o f o perations employed w hen b uilding a b oat . I f p lanks o f o ak a re u sed t he b ottom o f t he b oat i s m ounted o n as pecial h arness, t he " Gelege" . T he b ottom o f

t he

b oat

i s

p ierced

a nd

s crewed

o nto

g irders

( Fig .

2 2 .1) .

A nother b eam f astened o n t he i nside p rotects t he b ottom f rom d amage . O nly a fter i t i s c ompleted i s t he c raft t aken f rom t he g irder . T he h oles i n t he b ottom a re n ow s ealed u sing w ooden p lugs . I f s oftwood i s u sed , s awhorses.

t oo .

D uring t he w ork ,

t he b ottom o f

t he b oat i s s imply p laced o n

t he c raft c an a lways b e m oved.

A part f rom t his , t he m ethods o f h ogging a re d ifferent i n t hese r egions , I f y ou b uild a b oat o ut o f o ak , t he p lanks a nd t he b ottom c an o nly b e

h ogged b y m eans o f f ire

( Fig .

2 2 .2) .

O ften t he f ire i s l it o n am etal p late w hich i s p ushed u nder t hose p arts t o b e h eated . T o p revent t he w ood f rom c atching f ire i t i s a lways k ept w et . F or t his p urpose a b irch-broom , a r ope 's e nd o r a r ag i s u sed . T he b ottom a nd s trakes a re u sually h ogged w ith a w inch i nto t he d esired f orm T immermann 1 957) . F or h ogging t he s trakes s ome b oatbuilders a lso u se aw eight , t o p ull t hem d own . W hen h ogging s oftwood , a w inch i s a lso u sed b ut n o f ire . I t i s n ot n ecessary t o e nhance t he f lexibility o f t he w ood . B oatbuilders c all t his t echnique

' cold h ogging ' ( ' Kalt b iegen ') .

3 17

A b ottom

o f a b oat c onsisting o f m ore t han t wo b oards

f inished a t f irst . t imbers ,

r ibs ,

O ften t he

t hwarts ,

c entre-piece i s k ept

i s n ot a lways

o pen u ntil a ll

b ulkheads a nd o ther f ittings a re f astened .

f loor R ight

a t t he e nd , t he b oat i s s et u p a nd t he c entre-piece i s c losed f rom t he d own s ide . T he a dvantage o f t his m ethod i s t hat g reater p ressure c an b e e xerted o n t he o uter p lanks ,

s o t hat t he b oat b ecomes m ore w ater t ight

( Fig .

2 2 .3) .

A t t he M ain r iver a n e xtreme v ersion o f t his m ethod w as e mployed . A ccording

t o a s hipbuilder o f

t hat

s hips w ere l eft u ncompleted u ntil o uter b ottom-planks T he

s ide p lanks

s pecial s upports . w ere i nserted .

w ere

w ere

l aid ,

a lready

r egion t he

e ntire

t he v ery e nd .

c onnected a ttached

t o

b y t he

A fter t he w ood h ad d ried ,

b ottom

o f

t he

M ain

U ntil t hen o nly t he

t he

r ibs

r ibs ,

a nd

f loor

t wo

t imbers .

a dditionally h eld b y

t he r emaining b ottom p lanks

A n i mportant f actor i n d etermining t he c onstruction a nd a ppearance o f t he b oats i s t he p ropulsion s ystem . L ower a nd M iddle R hine c raft a re p ropelled b y t wo o ars ;

t he o arsman

s its w ith h is b ack t o t he d irection o f t ravel . T oday t he o ars a re u sually a ttached t o t he g unwale b y m eans o f ap in . I n f ormer t imes t hey w ere l oosely p laced b etween t wo t hole p ins . E xcept o n L ake C onstance , l ittle f ishing b oats o n t he R hine a bove M ayence a nd o n M osel , M ain a nd N eckar a re n ot p ropelled i n t his w ay . T he o arsman i n t he b oats o n t hese l ast-named r ivers s its a t t he s tern f acing t he d irection o f t ravel . T he s horter h and r udder i s l oosely d irected o ver t he s hip 's s ide w ith b oth h ands w ithout a ny a ttachment t o t he b oat . I f t he w ater a llows i t , t he b oat i s p oled . T he p oling m an s tands a t t he s tern , u sing t he p ole t o o ne s ide . I n c ontrast o n t he N eckar R iver i n T übingen , t he p oling m an s tands o n a p latform i n t he s tern o f t he b oat p ropelling i t b y p ushing t he p ole i nto t he r iverbed. A bove K arlsruhe t hese c raft a re p owered b y m eans o f ap oling-rudder , a c ombination o f p ole a nd r udder , b y o ne m an s tanding a t t he s tern .

T he

b lade o f t his s pecial r udder i s m uch t he s ame a s an ormal b lade , b ut a t i t 's e nds a re t wo s pikes o f a bout 3 c m l ength o n t he e dges(Ellmers 1 969,92,Fig. 8 B a nd R udolph 1 966 , 4 9 , F igs . 4 1 , 4 2) . O n t he n arrow " dead-end c hannels" o f t he R hine t his c an b e u sed f or p oling a nd p ulling . T he t wo s pikes p revent t he b lade f rom s lipping . T hey a re a lso u tilized t o p ush o ff f rom t rees i n c onfined l ocations . I n c ontrast t o b oats w hich a re p ropelled b y h and r udder o r p ole , w hich a re p ropelled b y o ars a lso i ncorporate d eck e dges .

t hose

h ave g unwales , a nd o n t he L ower R hine , t hey T he p osition o f t he t hwarts i s d ifferent t oo .

O n p ulled b oats t he t hwarts a re s paced c loser t ogether . i s t o b e f ound a t t he f irst t hird o f t he t otal l ength . t he t hwarts h andicaps f ishing b y n ets ,

T he r udder b ench T he n arrowness o f

s o c asting-nets n ever h ave b een u sed

i n t hose b oats. W here b oats a re d riven b y p oles o r h and r udders ,

y ou f ind t he t hwarts

a t b oth e nds o f t he b oat . T he m iddle p art i s f ree f or w orking w ith n ets a nd w eirs . O n t he r iver M ain t he t hwarts i n t he b ow a re s upporting a c over p late o n which t he f isherman s tands when h urling h is c asting-net ( Fig . 2 2.4). O n t he U pper R hine , t he f ishing-boats h ave n o o ther f ittings a part f rom r ibs a nd f loor t imbers .

T he f isherman c an m ove a nd w ork w ith h is f ishing

g ear w ithout h indrance ( Fig. 2 2.5). 3 18

S ome f urther e xamples s hall s how d ifferent c onstructions o f b oat b ottoms , e nds a nd b oards , a ll d etermined b y l ocation a nd u se . A lmost a ll m easured b oats a re f lat b ottomed e xcept t he s loops u sed b y t he p ilots a t t he B inger-Loch i n f ormer t imes . A l ocal f erryman t old u s t hat t hey h ad s pecially b een c onstructed a s p ilot-boats b y a n ative b oat-builder o f S t . G oarshausen . A pparently h e w as i nspired b y t he w aves p roduced b y t he f ormer p addle-steamers , b ut I t hink t hat h e w as i nspired b y b oat d esign s een e lsewhere. T hese s loops h ave b een b uilt u p o n as ole 2 0 c m w ide .

T his s ole h as

n o r abbet a nd i s a ttached b y s ix c linker-laid s trakes o n e ither s ide . T hese a re r iveted . A t t he f ront t he p lanks e nd i n aw ooden b lock , i n w hich t hey a re l ashed . C linker-built b oats a re a s u nusual i n t he R hine b asin a s r ound-bottomed b oats , e xcept f or L ake C onstance . T here , e specially o n t he i sle o f R eichenau , f ishing-boats a re f lat-bottomed a nd c linker-built . F astened t o a c urved s tem a t t he b ow , t he p lanks a re n ailed t o a l ittle t ransom a t t he s tern . T he t hree p lanks a re r iveted . T he r ibs , w hich w ere f ormerly m ade o ut o f n aturally b ent w ood , a re s teamed a nd b ent i nto s hape . M eanwhile i ron r ibs h ave a lso b een u sed , b ut u nsuccessfully b ecause t hey h ave b een t oo s tiff c ompared t o w ooden o nes , a s t he b oat-builder t old u s . A part f rom R hine-basin a re B ecause o f n ew n ow , s ome b oats b oard '.

t he L ower R hine , f ishing-boats i n t he o ther p arts o f t he f lat-bottomed c raft w ith o nly o ne s ide-plank ( Fig . 2 2 .6) . l egal p rovisions , w hich o ften p rescribe a h igher f reeboard a re f itted w ith a s econd p lank s erving a s as o c alled ' wind-

F ormerly t he b ottom a s w ell c onsisted o f o nly o ne p lank ,

b ut t oday y ou

d on 't f ind w ood o f s ufficient w idth .6 ) T herefore , t he b ottom i s n ow c onstructed o f t wo o r m ore b oards . T he b oat-builder i s e xtremely c areful t o u se w ood f rom t he s ame t ree . I f h e c an h e t akes o ne b oard f rom t he o ne s ide a nd o ne f rom t he o pposite s ide , e ach t he s ame d istance f rom t he a xis o f t he t runk . B oth p lanks a re n ow s aid t o w arp i n t he s ame w ay , b ecause t hey h ave g rown u nder e qual c onditions . T he s tern a nd b ow o f t hese b oats a re o gged . T he d esign o f t he e nds s hows r egional d ifferences . O n t he U pper R hine t hey a re q uite b road w ith a b ow o f a bout 8 0 c m , a nd s tern a bout 6 0 c m o n b oats 7 o r 9m i n l ength . T he c losings a re f ormed b y b locks o f o ak , 3 t o 6c m t hick a nd a bout 2 0 c m l ong . T he s ide p lanks a re f astened t o t hese b locks . T he f urther n orth y ou t ravel t he s maller t he b oat e nds a re . O n t he M iddle R hine , t he M ain a nd t he M osel , s tern a nd b ow a re n early e qual i n b readth . T he b lock , f astened t o t he b ottom , e quals i n h eight a nd l ength t hat o f t he U pper R hine , b ut h ere h igher o nes - 1 5 t o 1 6 c m h igh a re n ot u ncommon . A nother m ethod o f c losing t he e nds i s t o n ail a s mall b oard , a s o-called ' h ead-board ' ( Ko pfbrett) , t o t he s tern a nd b ow . T hese b oards , 3 o r 4 c m t hick ,

c an e asily b e r eplaced ,

i f t hey s hould r ot .

O n t he L ower R hine t his t ype i s u nknown , b ecause i t i sn 't s uitable f or t his r egion .7 H ere t he N achen ' h as b een u sed f or f ishing , a b oat-type which i s u sed i n o ther r egions a s t ransport o r w orking c raft o nly ( E .g . E llers 1 976 , 3 9f a nd 4 3) . T he s ide c haracteristic o utwards , t he

b oards o f t he ' N achen ' c onsist o f t wo p lanks w ith a j oint c oupling . W hereas t he l ower b oard s lopes u pper o ne i s s traighter , b oth f orming a n a ngle . T he 3 19

n ails a re d riven t hrough t he u pper p lank s traight i nto t he l ower o ne . Y ou c an e asily d ifferentiate b etween t he

N achen ' o f

t he M iddle R hine b y t he a ngle o f t he s ide p lanks . v essels t he u pper b oard e ven r uns i nwards ,

t he L ower a nd

o f

O n t he L ower R hine

s o t hat t he w idest p art o f

t he

b oat i s n ot t o b e m easured o ver t he e dges o f t he b oard b ut a t t he a ngle b etween t he t wo s ide-planks ( Fig . 2 2 .7a) . T he u pper-board o n ' Nachen ' b oats o f t he M iddle R hine a ngle s lightly o utwards o r s ometimes s traight u p , s o t hat t he g reatest w idth i s a t t he e dges o f

t he b oard ( Fig . 2 2 .7b ) .

B esides t he b oats d escribed h ere , m any o ther t ypes h ave b een f ound , Ih ave

m entioned i n t he b eginning ,

s ome o f

a s

t hem v ery l ocal i n d esign a nd

n ot w ide-spread . T he

f irst s tage o f

o ur w ork w ill

b e c ompleted

i n O ctober

1 983

w ith

r eports a nd d rawings o f a ll t he b oat-types w e f ound . T his w ork i s t o b e p ublished a s a h andbook , i n t he s ame m anner a s t hat o f W olfgang R udolph , w hich d eals w ith t he p opular b oats i n e astern L ower G ermany ( Rudolph 1 966) .

N OTES . 1 ) .

T he

G erman

t itle

o f

t he

i nquiry

i s:

" Zur

F orschung ü ber

a lte

S chiffstypen a uf d en B innengewässern u nd v on d en K üsten D eutschlands u nd d er a ngrenzenden L änder". 2 ) .

G erman

t itle

o f

t he

q uestionnaire :

" Fragebogen

z ur

E rmittlung

u nd

B eschreibung d er n och i m G ebrauch b efindlichen o der e hemals g ebräuchlichen S chiffsfahrzeuge e infachster B auart u nd E inrichtung" . 3 ) .

T his m aterial i s t o b e f ound n ow i n t he a rchives o f t he M useum o f

E thnology i n B erlin-Dahlem . O nly a l ittle e ssay h as b een p ublished o ut o f t his m aterial ( See B runner 1 917). 4 ) .

I n t he S taatsarchiv W ertheim I h ave,

s occage ,

f or e xample r ead l ists

o f

w hich n otes a ll t ypes o f s hips a nd b oats b eing . u sed i n c ompulsory

w ork . I n a ddition w e c ould c ollect a rchive m aterial o f s ome f isher g uilds. 5 ) .

U p t o n ow w e o nly h ave o ne d rawing o f ab oat o f 2 4 m l ength , w hich h ad

b een b uilt f or t he W SA F reiburg a t t he b eginning o f t his c entury. 6 ) .

O n M iddle a nd U pper R hine t hese b oats a re t herefore c alled ' D reibord '

( Three p lank). 7 ) .

O ne b oat ,

b uilt o n t he M iddle R hine ,

c hance , w as c alled

w hich c ame t o t he L ower R hine b y

' cockle s hell' b y t he n ew o wner .

3 20

R EFERENCES B runner ,

K"

1 917 .

D ie v olkstümlichen d eutschen S chiffsfahrzeuge .

F estschrift E duard H ahn z um 6 0 .

G eburtstage : 2 92 - 3 07 .

E llmers, D ., 1 969 . K eltischer S chiffbau . G ermanischen Z entralmuseums M ainz 1 6 : 7 3 -1 22. E llmers, D ., 1 976 . B oote i n D eutschland . B remerhaven . M itzka ,

W . ,

1 932 .

K ogge , K ahn u nd K unststoffboot . 1 0000 J ahre F ührer d es D eutschen S chiffahrtsmuseums N r 7 .

D eutsche

a us e inem S achkreis d er V olkskunde. R udolph , W" N iederdeutschland . S chwarz, 1 9.

K . ,

J ahrbuch d es R ömisch-

1 966 .

u ndated .

B auern - u nd F ischerboote .

G rundfragen

H eidelberg.

H andbuch d er v olkstümlichen B oote

i m

ö stlichen

D ie T ypenentwicklung d es R heinschiffs b is z um

J ahrhundert. K öln. S zymanski ,

H . ,

1 929 .

D ie S egelschiffe d er d eutschen K leinschiffahrt .

P fingstblätter d es H ansischen G eschichtsvereins 2 0. T immerman , N iedersachsen .

G"

1 957 .

K ahnbau

L übeck.

i n H itzacker .

N eues A rchiv f ür

V ol. 9 .1: 6 7 -7 1.

V oss, A ., 1 899 .

Z u d en S chiffsfunden .

N achrichten ü ber d eutsche

A ltertumsfunde 1 0 ( 13): 4 5 -4 7. Z immermann , W ., 1 976 . H istorischer V erein H eilbronn .

S chiffsbau u nd S chiffsbauer i n H eilbronn . J ahrbuch 2 8 : 2 43 - 2 55.

3 21

F ig . 2 2 .1 : B oat - b uilding a t t he M ain r iven ab oat s crewed o n .

F ig .

2 2 .2 :

T he s o-called ' Gelege" w ith

A n o ak b oard i s b eing h ogged b y f ire . 3 22

4 . 7

4 4 c o • S e 4j O f ) 4 1 4 4 4 4 C O

M a i n r i v e r w i t h a

4 4 0 0

a ) 4 . )

4 . 4 4 4 °

C O

L O

0 C N I • ö l )

b u i l t f e r y b o a t w i t h o p e n c e n t r e -

rI

3 23

4 4

F ig. 2 2.5 :

F ishing- b oat f rom t he U pper R hine.

F ig . 2 2 .6 :

F lat b ottomed f ishing-b oats w ith o ne s ide -p lank o n

t he r iver M ain »

F ig . 2 2.7a :

N achen o f t he L ower R hine w ith t he u pper b oard

r unning i nwards .

F ig . 2 2 .7b : s traight

u p .

N achen o f t he M iddle R hine .

T he u pper b oard g oes

2 3.

T HE D EVELOPMENT O F F OLK B OATS I N P OLAND F ROM T HE E XAMPLE O F S TRUCTURES U SED O N T HE S AN A ND T HE B UG R IVERS J erzy L itwin

P oland h as a r elatively d ense r iver n etwork ,

o f w hich t he t wo l argest

r ivers - t he V istula a nd t he O dra - a re b asins f or n umerous t ributaries f lowing i nto t he B altic . A f ew s maller r ivers whose s ources a re i n P omerania a lso f low i nto t his s ea . A part f rom t he r ivers , q uite a l arge a rea o f P oland i s c overed b y n umerous l akes. T he a bundance o f i nland w aters h as p layed a s ignificant r ole i n t he h istory o f w ater t ransport i n P oland . T he d evelopment o f w ater t ransport was a lso f avoured b y r ich f orests, g entle s lope o f t he r ivers a nd a ccessible b anks a long w hich r iver p orts , s ettlements a nd t owns w ere l ocated ( Fig. 2 3 .1). T he

l argest

r ivers ,

a nd

e specially

t he V istula a nd

i ts

t ributaries ,

p layed a k ey r ole i n t he t ransporting o f P olish m erchandise t hrough G dansk , m ainly a gricultural a nd w ood p roducts , w hich w ere e xported t o m any c ountries i n E urope . B oth a long t he l arger r ivers a s w ell a s a long t he s eacoast , a s e arly a s t he e arly Middle A ges a n o rganized a nd h ighly t echnical p roduction o f f loating c raft t ook p lace . T his i s p roved b y m any w ritten s ources , w orks o f a rt a nd a rchaeological f indings . A n umber o f p apers d iscussed t hese p roblems , b ut n ot a ll t he p roblems h ave b een t horoughly i nvestigated a nd p ublished. S tudies o n t he h istory o f b oatbuilding i n P oland h ave b een f or s ome t ime n ow c arried o ut b y s taff o f t he P olish M aritime M useum i n G dansk . A fter c ompleting s tudies o n e arly m edieval s hipbuilding , i nvestigations h ave f or s everal y ears b een c entred o n t wo m ain p roblems - t he h istory o f i nland b oatbuilding i n o ld t imes ( this p roblem i s i nvestigated b y t he d irector o f t he m useum d oc . d r . h ab . P rzemysiaw S molarek) , a nd t he c ataloguing o f r elics o f t raditional b oatbuilding w hich i s t he s ubject o f t he p resent w ork . T his w ork i s n early f inished a nd h as p rogressed t o t he p oint w here s ynthetizing t he c ollected m aterial i s p ossible . A n a ttempt a t s uch a s ynthesis i s p resented b elow . I t c oncerns t raditional b oatbuilding a long t wo r ivers t he S an a nd t he B ug - t he l argest t ributaries o f t he V istula . O nly l ater i t w as f ound t hat t he B ug f lows i nto t he N arew a nd t he l atter o ne i nto t he V istula , a nd n ot a s i t w as t hought b efore t hat t he N arew f lows i nto t he B ug . T here a re q uite a n umber o f r iverside c ommunities i n P oland i n w hich i nteresting t ypes o f w ater-borne c raft a re s till b uilt . V ery o ften P olish f olk b oats r esemble t he d ug-outs a nd r afts w hich f orm t heir p rototypes . J udging b y n umerous f indings o f d ugouts t his t ype o f b oat w as f ormerly t he m ain m eans o f c ommunication . I t m ay b e s upposed t hat a t t he s ame t ime r afts were b uilt, b ut u p t o t his t ime n one h ave b een f ound b y a rchaeologists . R afts p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he h istory o f i nland t ransport o n P olish r ivers ,

t hey w ere a lso t he o rigin o f a w hole f amily o f

3 27

s hips

f rom

w hich t hey e volved .

R afts

f or

t ransporting m erchandise

u sed i n P oland a s l ate a s t he b eginning o f t he X Xth c entury ,

w ere

a nd e ven t oday

o n s ome P olish r ivers o ne m ay s ee t imber f loated i n r afts. I nteresting a nd v ery r epresentative f or t he g eneral d evelopment o f P olish s hipbuilding a re b oats b uilt i n c ommunities a long t he S an a nd t he B ug r ivers . A t t he b eginning t hese r ivers f low n early p arallel t o e ach o ther a nd t he d istance b etween t hem i s a bout 1 30 k m . F urther o n , t he d istance g rows r eaching a bout 2 70 km a t t heir o utlets . T he S an a nd t he B ug a re d ecidedly d ifferent i n c haracter . T he S an f lowes f orm i ts s ource i n t he B ieszczady M ountains a nd o ver m uch o f i ts l ength b ears t he c haracter o f a p iedmont r iver . I t h as a q uick c urrent a nd a s hallow a nd h ard b ottom . T he B ug h as i ts s ources i n t he P odolian P lateau i n U SSR a nd o n i ts 1 89th k ilometer e nters P oland . T he r iver f lows t hrough f lat c ountry a nd i s a t ypical l owland r iver w ith s oft r iver b ottom .

T raditional b oatbuilding a long t he S an r iver T he o ldest i nformation a bout n avigation o n t he S an i ndicate t hat b asic t ype o f f loating c raft w as t he d ugout .

A lso r afts ,

t he

f erries a nd more

a dvanced , l arger w ooden s hips w ere u sed o n t his r iver . T oday , b esides b oats , n o o ther f orms a re u sed a nd t he l ast d ugouts w ere m ade b efore 1 939 . S imultaneously w ith t he d isappearance o f d ugouts w as t he a rrival o f p lank b oats , w hose t echnical c haracteristics a nd s hape a re r eminiscent o f t heir o riginal f orms - t he d ugout a nd t he r aft. I t hink t hat t he d eveloping t rend o f b oats which m any y ears a go p redominated a long t he S an b e r eflected b y a n i nteresting r elic - a f isherman 's d ugout m ade i n 1 933 b y T adeusz K owalik f rom M ajdan Z bidniowski n ear S talowa W ola . D uring t he S eptember c ampaign i n 1 939 t his b oat w as u sed b y r etreating P olish s oldiers f or c rossing t he S an . T hen i n o rder t o t hwart e nemy p ursuit , t he d ugout w as c ut i n h alf . D uring r epairs , t he o wner c ut t he d ugout a long i ts a xis o f s ymmetry a nd i nserted a 1 4 c m w ide p lank t o w iden t he b ottom .

N ext h e s trengthened t he s hell o f t he b oat w ith

t wo b ulkheads a nd a f ew f rames

( Fig. 2 3.2).

T he m ost c ommon m ethod o f e xpanding t he d ugout d uring t he r epair m ay r eflect t he i dea o f e nlarging t he d ugout i nherent i n t he f isherman 's m ind i n t he h orizontal p lane . I t c ould h ave b een s imilar c enturies a go , when d ugouts , w hich w ere t he m ain m eans o f l ocomotion b y w ater , w ere s upplanted b y p lank s tructures w ith t echnical c haracteristics t aken o ver f rom t he d ugout b ut a lso t ransferred f rom r afts . C haracteristics o f r afts s eem t o d ominate t odays b oats f rom t he S an . F irst o f a ll t hese a re s uch c haracteristics a s: f lat b ow a nd s tern , a lternation o f i nserted s trengthening p ieces o r t he u se o f f loors o nly , m oving t he w idest p arts o f t he b oats t owards t heir s tern ( or e ven t o t he s tern i tself) a nd t he u se o f m oss a s s ealant w hich w as p ressed d own w ith s pecial l aths . at s hould b e m entioned t hat m oss w as t raditionally u sed h ere f or p iedmont c ottages m ade o f t ree t runks a nd t his m ethod w as p robably t ransferred f rom s uch l and s tructures I n

t o f loating c raft) .

t oday 's

f olk

b oatbuilding

o n

t he

S an

o ne

m eets e xclusively b oats

w hich a re a n e xample o f t he " horizontal" t rend o f b oat f orms .

H owever ,

I

k now o f n o c ases o f c onnecting t ogether a f ew d ugouts t o m ake a r aft , t hough s uch a m ethod h as b een u sed o n o ther p iedmont r ivers - t he D unajec a nd t he P oprad.

3 28

T here a re m any a nd d ifferentiated e xamples o f t he " horizontal" t rend o f b uilding b oats a long s eparate p arts o f t he r iver , f our v ersions .

w hich m ay b e g rouped i nto

V ersion I - b oats f rom t he U pper S an N avigation o n t he S an b ecomes p ossible b elow t he S olina d am w here i t r eaches 4 0 a nd m ore m etres w idth . b oat f orms a re u sed .

A nd t here ,

i n S rednia W ieg

i nteresting

T hese b oats h ave a n early r ectangular b ottom , s ingle-

s trake s ides a nd f lat e ndings o f b ow a nd s tern . L ooking a t t he b ottoms o f t hese b oats o ne m ay s ee a n a nalogy w ith a r aft b uilt o f t ree t runks , t he b ow e nd o f w hich w as t he n arrower a s o ne u sed t o p lace t he t op e nds o f t he t rees t here w hile t he o ther e nd w as f ormed b y t he r oot e nds , w hich m ade i t w ider . A lso t ransverse s tiffeners - f loors w hich d o n ot r each t o t he s ide p lanks a re r eminiscent o f ar aft . T he s ides o f t hese b oats a re s ingle-straked a nd p erpendicular t o t he b ottom . T hese s imple b oats a re s ealed w ith t arred s tring i nstead o f m oss t hat w as p reviously u sed , p ressed i nside t he g aps . T hese c raft a re u sed f or c rossing t he r iver t o t he f ields l ying o n t he o ther s ide o f t he r iver . T he b oats a re p ropelled b y p oling ( Fig . 2 3 .3 a nd 2 3 .12) .

V ersion I I - t he f ishing b oats f rom t he m iddle S an A long a l arge p art o f

t he S an t here a re m any b oats u sed f or f ishing ,

r ecreation a nd c ommunication . T hese c onstructions h ave a l ot i n c ommon , d iffering s lightly b y t heir t echnical c haracteristics . C alled s ome y ears b efore n ear S anok t he " squat b oats" , t hese b oats w ere p resented i n e thnographic l iterature i n 1 932 , a nd t hough n ear S anok i n 1 979 I s aw n o s uch c raft . O ne o f t he p easants i n Z as/awie s howed m e af ew r oots c ollected b y h im

t o b uild a b oat .

T he n ame

o f

t he b oat - " squat b oat" - m ay s uggest

t hat a t t he t ime l ighter - s maller b oats , p ossibly d ugouts w ere u sed? F rom d escriptions i n

t he a bove m entioned e thnographic l iterature a nd

f rom t he a ccompanying p hotographs i t m ight a ppear t hat t he c raft o f t oday d o n ot d iffer f rom t he o nes u sed i n t hose d ays. F ishing b oats f rom t he m iddle S an m ay b e r epresented b y a s pecimen r ecorded i n t he v illage S /onne n ear D ubiecko . T his b oat w as m ade f rom f our p ine b oards, o f w hich t wo f ormed a c urved b ottom , a nd t he r emaining o nes t he b oat s ides . A c haracteristic f eature o f t he b oat w as t hat t he s ide p lanks e xtended f ar o utside t he b ottom p lane, i n o rder t o p rotect t he b ottom a gainst d amage i n c ase o f s triking a n u nderwater o bstacle . T he b ow a nd t he s tern w ere m ade o f t hick p lanks a nd o ften w ere a dditionally s trengthened b y p lanks c overing " from o utside" t he m ain b onds . T he b oats w ere s tiffened t ransversely w ith a lternately a rranged r oots ,

a nd t heir " congestion" m ay b e

o bserved i n t he m iddle p art o f t he b oat . T he b oats a re a t p resent s ealed w ith o akum o r i mpregnated c ord p ressed d own b y s teel w ire f ixed w ith w ire s taples .

F ormerly ,

m oss w as u sed p ressed d own b y j uniper s trips , f astened

w ith t in s taples . T hese b oats a re p ropelled b y p oling , o ar ( Fig . 2 3 .4 a nd 2 3 .13) .

u sing a p ole o r a n

V ersion I II - s and d redgers I n v ery s mall n umbers , a nd o nly i n J aros/aw , o ne m ay s ee b oats w hich f ormerly w ere c ommonly u sed f or e xcavating g ravel f rom t he r iver b ottom .

3 29

N ow t hey a re b ecoming e xtinct , b ecause g ravel m ethods , u sing s pecial e xcavators .

o nly ,

i s e xcavated

b y i ndustrial

N ow , t he l ast s and d redgers ' b oats a re u sed i n J aros/aw f or r ecreation m ainly a ngling . T echnically , t hey a re c haracterized b y a b ottom

b uilt o f t wo w ide p lanks a nd s ide p lanks , s lightly d eflected o utwards . T he e nds o f t hese b oats a re f lat a nd r elatively t hick . B ecause o f t heir a pplication , r ather s trong t ransverse s tiffeners a re u sed . T he m iddle p art -t he " hold" - i s d elimited b y t wo b ulkheads . O n t hese b ulkheads b enches a re f astened a nd b etween t hem a re a ffixed t wo t o t hree p airs o f L -shaped f rames m ade o f n aturally g rown r oots .

I n s ome b oats p ositioning o f

t he

f rames c ontinues i nto b ow a nd s tern . T he g ravel b oats , s imilar t o f ishing b oats o n t he m iddle S an , h ave s ide p lanks e xtending a l ittle o utside t he b ottom c ontour . T he m ethod o f c onnecting t he p lanks w ith t he s tem , u sed o n m ost o f t he b oats , i s a lso i nteresting . T he j oint h as t he c haracter o f a t wo-stage k ey . A s t he b oats m entioned e arlier , t he s and-dredger b oats a re s ealed w ith i mpregnated c ord h eld d own b y s teel w ire a nd s taples . O ne o f t he b oats p reserved i n J aros/aw s till c arries a c haracteristic b lock i n t he p lace o n t he s ide w here t he s and-dredger 's s hovel w as s upported w hile g ravel w as b eing e xcavated f rom t he r iver b ottom . T he b oats w ere p ropelled b y p oles o r e legant p ole-cars ( Figs . 2 3 .5 a nd 2 3 .14) .

V ersion I V -f ishing b oat f rom U lanow

i ts

O n t he l ower S an , a nd i n p articular n ear U lanow , as mall t own k nown f or r aftsman t raditions, t he d eveloped p lank b oat d ominates . T his

s tructure h as s everal f eatures s imilar t o t he b oats u sed o n t he u pper S an . I t i s a lso t he l ast b oat f orm, s ince d own t o t he r iver 's o utlet t o t he V istula n o o ther n ative v ersion a ppears , w hile o n t he V istula d ecidedly d ifferent t ypes o f c raft d ominate. T he b oats f rom U lanow h ave a b ottom m ade o f

t wo o r t hree p lanks a nd

f airly h igh , d ouble strake s ides . A t echnical d etail o f s ome i nterest i s t he " packet" m ethod o f m aking b ottom a nd s ide p lanking c urvatures . T he m ethod c onsists o f p utting t ogether f our p lanks w hich a re g iven i dentical c urvatures b y s having . T his i s q uite i mportant d uring c onnecting t he l ower s ide p lanks w ith t he b ottom . T he r esult i s a n a ttractive b oat . F or c onnecting t he b ottom p lanks s taples a re u sed ; t hen t he f rame r oots a re f ixed . T he e xternal s hape o f t he f rames i s c orrected e arly o n u sing f rame moulds a nd a s pecial d evice c alled " smiga" . A fter f astening t he s ide p lanks , t he s tem i s s lightly s harpened . T he s tern p lank i s h igher a nd , o n i ts s ides , a bove t he b oat 's s ides i t h as t wo s emi-circular n otches r owlocks . T hese h oles , u sed a t p resent a s s tern r owlocks , f ormerly c ould h ave b een u sed f or s upporting t he r ods o f a f ishing n et c alled " suwata" . S uch a s olution , a s I w as i nformed b y o ne o f t he t he m iddle S an , w as o ften u sed o n f ishing b oats . t he U lanow b oats i s t he d oublestrake s ide w ith s trakes a re c arvel-laid c onnected t o a void t he w hich i s u navoidable i n c ase o f c linker j oints .

o lder f ishermen l iving o n T he t ypical f eature o f d ouble b evel . T he s ide n oise o f w ave s plashing , T his m ethod o f c onnecting

t he s ide s trakes i s p opular a ll a long t he w hole S an , a nd i ts o rigin a lso c an b e t raced t o r aftlike s tructures , w hich a s a r ule h ad s quare j ointed s ides . B oats u sed o n t he l ower S an e ven t oday a re s ealed w ith m arsh m oss , w hich i s d ried b efore p ressing b etween t he s trakes .

T he s ealing i s h eld d own w ith

j uniper s trips w hich a re f ixed f rom t he o utside w ith s teel s taples - c leats . A f inished b oat i s

i mpregnated w ith c arbolineum ,

T he b oats a re p ropelled b y o ar-poles .

s ometimes w ith w ood

t ar .

I t m ay b e a dded t hat a s imilar b oat

3 30

t o t hat d escribed h ere w as u sed l ater b y f isherman T . K owalik i nstead o f t he e arlier m entioned m odified d ugout ( Figs . 2 3 .6 a nd 2 3 .15) .

C onclusions C ontemporary b oats f rom t he S an s eem t o b e q uite d ifferent i n s hape , t hough t hey h ave a n umber o f c ommon f eatures. T hese a re t he f ollowing: 1 .

f lat b ottom ,

c urved t o d iffering d egrees ( along t he u pper S an n early

s traight - a s i n a r aft b ottom , a long t he m iddle a nd l ower S an t he b ottom i s c urved - a s i n d ugouts) , 2 .

f lat a nd n early p erpendicular t o t he w aterline a t t he b ow a nd s tern ,

3 .

s ingle strake s ides, p lanks,

4 .

s tiffenings o f n aturally-grown r oots , a lternately a rranged,

5 .

b ottom p lanks c onnected w ith s taples,

6 .

n o o arlocks - t he b oats a re p ropelled b y p addling o r b y p oling,

7 .

s ealing - f ormerly m oss, a t p resent modifications a re a dapted t o m aintain t he t raditional m ethod o f h olding d own t he s ealing.

o r d ouble strake s ides m ade o f c arvel-laid

F olk B oat B uilding o n t he B ug A s

t he

S an ,

t he B ug a lso p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he h istory o f

P olish i nland n avigation a nd b oats o f d iverse t ypes w ere b uilt a long

t his

r iver . T he p roblems o f n avigation a nd f ishing o n t he B ug w ere i nvestigated b y m any r esearchers , h ence s cientific l iterature c oncerning w ater-transport p roblems i s b y f ar r icher t han i n t he c ase o f t he S an . F rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t raditional b oatbuilding , a nd p articularly t he c onstruction o f s mall f orms , p ublications c oncerning t he B ug a re m ore c o m prehensive a nd v aluable . F rom t hese p apers, p ublished a lso i n t he b eginning o f t his c entury , e merges t hat t he m ost p opular t ype o f c raft w as t he d ugout . E ven t oday q uite a n umber o f d ugouts a re u sed o n t he B ug a nd , i f n eed a rises t hey a re s till b uilt . I n e ffect , t he P olish p art o f t he B ug , r epresents a u nique r eview o f b oat s tructures w hich a re c onsecutive e volution s tages o f d ugouts , i llustrating t he " vertical" d evelopment o f t he d ugout . T he " vertical" d irection i n w hich t hey w ere e nlarged , i s c learly v isible i n d eveloped p lank b oats u sed o n t he m iddle a nd l ower B ug.

h ere .

T here a re s everal t ypes o f T hese s tructures a re

l ocal b oats w hich w ill n ot b e p resented s imply a daptations o f c raft u sed o n

n eighbouring l akes o r t hey h ave b een b uilt b y p eople " maritime" t raditions.

3 31

w ith n o s pecial

V ersion I - F ishing D ugout f rom t he U pper B ug U nique c raft a re u sed o n t he B ug b elow W /odawa i n K uzawka a nd H anna t wo v illages where a f ew f ishermen m ake a l iving s ystematically c atching f ish i n t he B ug ( Fig . 2 3 .16) . T he b oats t hey u se a re t he t rue o ne-man d ugouts , t ested

t hrough y ears o f u se a nd s till b uilt

t oday .

T hese b oats a re m ost

o ften h ollowed o ut o f w illow t runks , s ometimes f rom p oplar o r p ine t runks . T hey h ave a l ight , s lim f ore p art a nd a f uller a fter p art i n w hich i s l ocated t he f isherman 's s eat . I nside e ach o f t hese d ugouts t wo n atural b ulkheads a re m ade - o ne n early a t m id-length , t he o ther s lightly a ft . T hese b ulkheads f orm a f ish b in w ithout t he a uger h oles o ften u sed i n p lank f ishing b oats, p artly c overed b y l oosely p laced p lanks . O n t he a fter b ulkhead i s p laced a p lank e xtending a ft - a s ort o f a pron t o p revent w ater f rom e ntering t he b oat . T he a pron p lank i s c urved o n t he a fter s ide s o t hat i t f its t he f isherman 's b ody w hen h e i s k neeling o r s itting , p addles w ith o ne h and s teering t he d rifting b oat . I n t his p osition , w ith t he o ther h and , t he f isherman o perates a t rawl t ype n et , i n c o-operation w ith a nother f isherman . T he c haracteristic p osition e nsures r elative s tability o f t he b oat a nd a t t he s ame t ime e nables a ll n ecessary a ctivities t o b e c arried o ut . T o k eep f rom g rowing t ired w hile f ishing i n t he k neeling-sitting p osition , ab ench i s u sed a nd s ome d ry h ay i s p ut u nder t he k nees t o c ushion t hem ( Fig . 2 3 .17) . D ugouts f rom a round W /odawa h ave n early i dentical h ull p roportions a nd i nterior a rrangements ( Fig . 2 3 .7) . T heir e quipment i s a lso i dentical . A n i nteresting d etail i s t he s hackle-ring f ixed i n t he a fter p art a nd u sed f or h olding t his h eavy o val p art o f t he b oat . I f a sked why t hey u se t his t ype o f b oat i nstead o f p lank t ypes ,

t he

u sers o f d ugouts a nswered t hat o nly d ugouts c an b e s afely t ransported t o t he f ishing s ites . O n t he B ug t he f ish a re c aught b y a p air o f f ishermen d rifting d ownriver o perating o ne n et b etween t hem . B ecause o f t he f ishing t echnique u sed - d rifting d ownriver - t he b oats m ust b e t ransported u priver . U sually t he f ishermen t ransport t heir d ugouts i n t he e vening b y h orse-drawn w aggon , s ome 2 0 k m u priver a nd d uring t he n ight d rift t o t he s elected p lace . A s t he b oats d rift a nd t he f ishermen w ork t ogether c learing t he n et , t he b oats l ie s ide t o s ide , c onnected w ith t he s hackle . T his d evice i s u sed a lso d uring d rifting t hrough f ishless p arts o f t he r iver . C onnecting t he b oats i n t his m anner a llows o ne o f t he f ishermen a s hort r est , w hile t he o ther o ne d oes t he s teering. U sing t raditional m ethods , i t t akes a bout 7 d ays t o m ake a d ugout , t wo d ays o f which a re t aken u p b y f inishing w ork - s moothing t he s urfaces . L ately , n ewer m ethods o f h ollowing h ave b een u sed i n K uzawka a nd H anna . T he d ugouts a re m ade o f w illow t runks , o n w hich i nitially m echanical s aws a re u sed w ith l inearly w orking k nives ( chain s aws) a nd w ith r otating d isks ( circular s aws) . W ith t he c hain s aw t he b oat 's p rofile i s r oughly m ade , a nd t hen w ith a h and c ircular s aw t he s o c alled " air h oles" a re c ut o ut , which a re n ext r emoved m anually f rom t he i nterior o f t he f iture b oat . A fter t his i s d one , h and t ools a re u sed , i .e . a xes , a dzes a nd c hisels . A f inished b oat i s s ealed w ith c arbolineum a nd e ven p ainted w ith o il c olours . A w ell m aintained d ugout w hich h as b een k ept o n l and m ay b e u sed f or u p t o 2 0 y ears, a n ot s o w ell m aintained o ne, o nly 6 t o 8 y ears.

3 32

V ersion I I -P lank B oat M odeled o n aD ugout I t m ay b e s upposed t hat t he d ugouts f rom t he B ug d escribed a bove w ill b ecome e xtinct i n t he n ear f uture , a nd t hat i n t heir p lace n ewer c onstructions w ill a ppear . D ugout u sers a sked m e i f t here a re a ny w orkshops i n w hich p lastic b oats s imilar t o t he d ugouts c ould b e m ade . A s ymtom o f t he c oming c hanges a re t he a ttempts t o p attern p lank b oats i n K uzawka o n t he d ugout . I r ecorded o ne o f t hese b oats . I t w as m ade o f f our p lanks. I n s hape a nd s tructural d etail i t i s r eminiscent o f t he t raditional d ugout . H owever t his b oat i sn 't v ery p opular a mong t he f ishermen a nd i s r arely u sed. Ac haracteristic f eature o f t his b oat i s t hat t ransverse s trengthenings - f loors - a ppear i n t he s tructure, a nd t hat t here a re n o s ide f rames. T he o nly t ransverse s tiffenings a re t he t wo f ish b in b ulkheads . L ike t he d ugouts , t his b oat i s p ropelled b y p oling w ith a n o ar o r b y s culling w ith t he o ar i nserted v ertically i nto t he w ater ( Figs. 2 3.8 a nd 2 3.18).

V ersion I II - P lank B oat M odeled o n t he D ugout F ishermen f rom K uzawka

t ravelling f ar d own t he r iver s aid

t hat t heir

n earest n eighbours u se e xclusively b oats m ade o f n ailed p lanks . H owever , t hey s till r emembered t he t imes w hen t here w as m ore d ugouts o n t he B ug . A l arge n umber o f s uch b oats a re u sed b y f ishermen f rom K rzyczew a nd P ratulin . T he s hape o f t hese b oats i s o riginal, u nique t o e ach o ne . T hey a re e xamples o f a dopting a f orm d erived f rom t he d ugout . I n t hese b oats n ames o f t he s tructural e lements a re i dentical w ith t hose i n d ugouts .

t he

T he b oats f rom K rzyczew a nd P ratulin a re n ailed t ogether f rom t hree w ide p ine p lanks . T he s ingle s trake b ottom i s s trongly c urved a nd e xtended a t t he b ow w ith a m assive , w ide b lock i nto t he s ide c ut-outs o f w hich t he s ide s trakes a re i nserted . t ransom l eaning b ackwards .

T he a fter p art i s c losed b y a w ide f ive-sided T he o nly t ransverse s tiffenings , a nd a t t he

s ame t ime s tructural e lements g iving r equired f lare m idships , a re f ormed b y t wo b ulkheads s ituated i n t he s ame p arts o f t he b oat a s i n n atural d ugouts . A lso h ere t he f ish b in i s f illed w ith w ater p oured i n f rom a bove . T he a fter b ulkhead i s h igher a nd f orms t he b ase o f a m odified a pron o f t he d ugout .

T he a pron w hich p revents w ater f rom d ripping i nto t he b oat f rom

t he n et i s m ade o f n arrow p lanks , f ixed t o t he u pper s ides o f t he h exagonal a fter b ulkhead . I n s tructures o f t his t ype t here a re n o c hannels l eading w ater t o t he f ish b in , t he w ater f lowing o ver t he b oat 's s ide . T he p osition o f t he f isherman a nd t he p ropelling t echnique a re i dentical t o t hose i n t he d ugouts ( Figs . 2 3 .9 , 2 3 .19 a nd 2 3 .20) .

V ersion I V - D eveloped P lank B oat S tarting f rom t he p oint a t which t he B ug e nters P oland a lso o n i ts r ight b ank , m any m ore t ypes o f w ater c ommunication m eans a re s een , a nd f ishing b oats f orm o nly a v ery s mall p ercentage o f t hem . T he m ost d ominant c raft b y f ar a re t hose u sed b y p easants f or c rossing t o t he o ther b ank t o t heir f ields .

A l arge g roup i s f ormed b y r ecreation b oats , s pecially m ade

f or a ngling. C raft

c atalogued

d ownriver

f rom N iemirow ,

3 33

t he

f irst

v illage

o n

t he

r ight b ank h ave a w ide b ottom , m ost o ften m ade o f t wo p lanks . A lso , b oats w ith t he b ottom m ade o f o ne o r t hree p lanks a ppear . T he s ides o f t hese b oats a re o f c linker t ype a nd d eflected i n t wo s tages f rom t he b ottom p lane . T he b ottom a nd t he s ides a re c onnected a t t he b ow b y a c haracteristic o ak s tem . T his e lement i s m uch s maller - l ighter t han i n t he b oats f rom K rzyczew a nd P ratulin , a nd i n i ts u pper p art i s o ften o bliquely u ndercut o r c ircularly g rooved . T his s tem f ocus i s a r eminder o f t he o lder m ethod o f b uilding h ollowed-out b oats , a lthough t oday b uilders o f t he b oat c annot e xplain t he s ense o f t hese d ecorations ( Figs. 2 3 .10 , 2 3.21 a nd 2 3 .22). T he

t ransom o f

t he p lank b oat

i s

r elatively w ide a nd

i n m ost

c ases

l eans s lightly b ackwards. A c haracteristic f eature o f t he b oats w ith d oublestrake s ides i s t he d eveloped s ystem o f t ransverse s tiffenings . T hese s tiffenings a re f rames m ade o f n aturally g rown o ak c rooks p laced i n p airs .

B ulkhead p lanks a re

u sed o nly i n f ishing a n a ngling b oats, a s f ish b in w alls ( Fig. 2 3 .23). P lank b oats f rom t he m iddle a nd l ower B ug h ave i n m ost c ases s lightly h igher s ides o btained b y a dding a n arrow c uppen t o t he s econd s ide s trake . T hese c uppens p rotect t he s ide s trakes a gainst d amaging d uring p addling o r h auling i n t he n ets. A f ew b oatbuilders o perate a long t he l ower p art o f t his r iver , b ecause o f l arger d emand f or b oats , w hile o n t he u pper B ug t he f ishermen t hemselves b uild b oats. T he " workshops" o f b oth a re s ituated i n o pen a ir. B uilding o f ab oat b egins f rom m arking o ut s traight l ines o n p ine p lanks t ransported f rom t he s awmill ( if p lanks o f e ven w idth a re n ot c ut o ut a t t he m ill) . F or t he m arking o ut , ar ope c overed w ith s oot i s u sed . T he r ope i s s tretched b etween t wo s elected p oints . A fter m aking t he r ope t aut a nd l ifting i t u p w ith a f inger, i t i s r eleased, s triking t he p lank 's s urface

a nd

l eaving

a m ark

-a s traight

l ine .

T wo

p arallel p lanks

a re

p repared f or t he b ottom , a nd a re p laced o n t restles a nd w edged . N ext , t he s pecial m oulds , t he c urves o f t he a fter a nd f ore p art a re d rawn . E xcess m aterial i s c ut o ff w ith a s aw o r a xe a nd e vened o ff with a p lane . S carfing o f s ide e dges i s m ade w ith a p lane w ith a g uide a nd s loping r unner . D uring t he s carfing , t he p lanks a re f ixed i n w ooden p incers , o f w hich a re d riven i nto t he g round.

t he l ower e nds

A fter t he b ottom s trakes h ave b een p repared f or a ssembly , t hey a re a gain p laced o n t he t restles , w edged , a nd t he s trips c onnecting s eparate e lements a re n ailed . N ext t he f ore a nd a fter p arts a re c urved u pwards . T o i mmobilize t he b ottom , b efore b ending i t h oles a re m ade i n a f ew p laces t hrough w hich a re p assed s crews f ixing t he b ottom t o t he f oundation , i .e . t o t he a ssembly b ench . S hort , s pecially m atched p egs p ressed i n b etween t he b ottom p lanks a nd t he b ench s urface a re u sed f or b ending t he b ottom . T he s ide p lank r ake i s d etermined w ith f rame m oulds a nd w ith a " smiga" ( two s trips f ixed a t o ne e nd , w hich c an r otate a round a c ommon a xle ) . A fter n ailing d own t he f irst ,

i .e . t he l ower s ide s trakes ,

t he b oatbuilder i nserts

i nto t he s hell s ome o f t he f rames p repared f or m ounting i n t he b oat . T hese f rames a re m ade o f n aturally g rown c rooks . N ext , t he s trakes o f t he u pper s ide

s trip

a re

m ounted

i n s uch a w ay

t hat

t hey o verlap

t he l ower

s trip .

W hen t he s trakes a re n ailed d own , t he s tem b lock a nd t he t ransom b oard a re f itted i n . T he s tem b lock a nd t he t ransom a re m ost o ften o ak . W hen a ll t hese p rocedures h ave b een f inished t he b oat i s u nfastened f rom t he a ssembly b ench , t he s trips c onnecting t he b ottom s trakes a re r emoved, a nd t he

3 34

r emaining p airs

o f

f rames a re p ut

i nto

t he b oat .

M ost o ften ,

t hey a re

s ituated i n t he p laces i n w hich t he s crews f ixing t he b oat 's b ottom t o t he a ssembly b ench w ere p laced . T he h oles l eft b y t he s crews a re s topped w ith p egs . S ometimes t hese p egs a re u sed f or f astening t he f rames . F inally , t he c uppens a re n ailed a nd t he b oat i s s ealed b y p ressing i mpregnated s tring i nto t he s lits.

C onclusions A nalyzing t he a bove t ypes o f b oats u sed o n t he B ug ,

i t m ay b e s tated

t hat h ere , a s p erhaps n owhere e lse i n E urope , a n a mazing , e xceptional s tate o f t echnical d ifferentiation o f f loating c raft h ave s urvived u ntil t oday . O n o ne r iver a s w e m ove d ownriver f rom i ts s ources w e m ay o bserve d ifferent s tages o f d evelopment o f b oats , s tarting f rom a d ugout , t hrough i ntermediary f orms , t o a p lank b oat . A t t he r iver m outh , f eatures o f o ther s chools o f b oatbuilding a re o bserved , w hich s lowly p enetrating u priver c ould i nfluence t he b oatbuilding o n t he m iddle a nd l ower B ug t o s uch a n e xtent t hat t echnically d eveloped s tructures v ery m uch r ecall t he b oats f rom t he l ower N arew - t he r iver i nto w hich t he B ug f lows - a nd b oats f rom t he m iddle V istula . I n t he l ight o f s uch e vident d evelopment s tages o f t he B ug b oats , t heir d ugout o rigin a nd ' vertical" d evelopment t rend a re c learly v isible . I t i s v ery d ifficult t o f ind t he " horizontal" t rend i n b oats f rom t he B ug , i n o pposition t o t he e arlier p resented b oats f rom t he S an . S imilar a s f or t he S an b oats , s everal c ommon f eatures m ay b e s ingled o ut i n c ase o f t he b oats f rom t he B ug . T he m ore i mportant a re t he f ollowing : 1 .

f lat b ottom, i n p rofile s howing a n a nalogy w ith t he s hape o f t he d ugout's b ottom ,

2 .

b lock e nding o f

t he b ow ,

o ften g rooved o n t he i nside ,

r eminiscent o f

t he d ugout's b ow , 3 .

w ide a fter p art c losed w ith a t ransom b oard,

4 .

s ingle- o r d ouble strake s ides m ade o f c linker p lanks,

5 .

s tiffenings m ade o f b ulkheads o r o f p airs o f f rame c rooks,

6 .

n o o arlocks

-t he b oats a re p ropelled b y p addling o r p oling ,

( Figs .

2 3.24a a nd b ), 7 .

c aulking m ade o f o akum o r s trings.

F INAL R EMARKS C omparing t he c ommon f eatures o f b oats f rom t he S an a nd t he B ug i t m ay b e s uggested t hat o n P olish t erritory t he p roto-type o f f loating c raft w as t he d ugout , w hich d epending o n t he t ype o f e nvironment w as d eveloped i n a " horizontal" o r " vertical" d irection . I n c ase o f d evelopment i n t he h orizontal p lane , w hich t ook p lace a long p iedmont r ivers , t he t echnical f eature o f r afts w ere b orrowed a nd a dapted . A long l owland r ivers t he d ugout w as d eveloped i n t he " vertical" d irection .

3 35

B asing o n t he e xamples o f t he S an a nd t he B ug b oatbuilding , ad ivision i nto t wo b oatbuilding e nvironments m ay b e c arried o ut ( Fig . 2 3 .11) . T he b oundary b etween t hese e nvironments l ies a t t he f oot o f t he mountains . A long n early t he e ntire l ength o f t he V istula , w hich h as t he c haracter o f a l owland r iver , u p t o t his d ay b oats o f u niform t ype a ppear , d iffering i n s mall s tructural d etail o nly . B oats f rom t he B ug a re v ery m uch l ike t he V istula b oats , w hile b oats f rom t he S an a re d ecidedly d ifferent . T his p roves t hat t he d irection o f b oat d evelopment w as d ecided m ainly b y t he c onditions i n w hich t he b oats w ere t o b e u sed.

3 36

F ig . 2 3 .1:

M ap s howing t he m ain P olish r ivers.

_

B - B

'S e t h .6 , 111 1 M

F ig . 2 3 .2 :

T he r epaired a nd e xpanded d ugout u sed u ntil 1 940 b y T . K owalik

f rom M ajdan Z bidniowski o n t he S an r iver . 3 37

1 m

A

i A—A

F ig . 2 3.3 :

T he t ypical u pper S an b oat - b oat p lan .

l e

C

A— A

i n ,

F ig. 2 3.4 :

T he f ishing b oat f rom S /onne - b oat p lan .

3 38

0/ c

p ,

8

CI

A-A -D

-

1 m

F ig. 2 3.5 :

T he s and -d redger's b oat f rom J aros/aw - b oat p lan .

A a l

\ A

A-A

-

C -C

F ig. 2 3.6 :

T he f ishing b oat f rom U lanow - b oat p lan .

3 39

A . o w s5 4 . 1 ‚ 5004fs "45 .010 "

B -B

0

F ig . 2 3.7 :

F ig . 2 3 .8 :

T he f ishing d ugout f rom K uzawka - b oat p lan .

T he p lank b oat m odeled o n ad ugout f rom K uzawka - b oat p lan .

3 40

l m

CI

A

AA

IP awqi

£

B -B

) ‚

IC -C

4(C

0

F ig .

2 3 .9 :

T he p lank b oat m odeled o n t he d ugout f rom t he v illage o f

K rzyczew - b oat p lan .

F ig. 2 3.10 :

T he p lank b oat f rom B rok - b oat p lan .

3 41

F ig . 2 3 .11 : M aps s howing t he d evelopment o f f olk b oats i n P oland - e xamples o f c rafts a nd a reas w here t hey a re s till i n u se .

3 42

F ig. 2 3.12 :

F ig . 2 3 .13 : S ionne.

S imple b oats o n t he u pper S an i n S rednia W ies.

F ishing b oat f rom t he m iddle S an ,

3 43

v illage o f

F ig .

2 3 .14 :

T hree d redger b oats o n t he m iddle S an ,

J aros/aw .

"

,

I t. F ig . 2 3 .15 :

F ishing b oat f rom l ower S an , U lanow . 3 44

t own o f

F ig .

2 3 .16 :

O ne-man d ugouts

o n t he u pper B ug i n K uzawk

v illage.

F ig . 2 3 .17 : F ishing d ugout i n K uzawka - d ry h ay w as p laced u nder t he k nees d uring f ishing i n t he k neeling- s itting p osition .

F ig. 2 3.18 :

F lank b oat a nd I ts d ugout p rototypes - K uzawka .

F ig . 2 3 .19 : P opular p lank b oat m odeled o n t he d ugout - v illage o f P ratulin . 3 46

F ig .

2 3.20 :

P lank

b oats

m odeled

o n

t he

f isherman 's f armhouse - K rzyczw .

F ig . 2 3 .21:

D eveloped p lank b oat f rom t he

l ower B ug - v illage B rok . 3 47

d ugout

i n

F ig . 2 3 .22 :

T he s tems i n m any b oats o n t he

l ower B ug a re o bliquely u ndercut o r c ircularly g rooved.

F ig . 2 3 .23 : T ypical c ommunication b oats u sed o n t he l ower B ug , v illage o f N ur .

F ig . 2 3 .24 a a nd b : F ishing d ugouts a re a lso u sed o n t he l ower B ug , v illage K amienczyk - a f isherman d emonstrates t wo m ethods o f p ropelling A l p oling , B / s culling . 3 49

2 4 .

B OATS O F T HE S OUTHERN B ALTIC W olfgang R udolph

I n 1 958 , a n e thnological i nventory o f b oats , i mplements a nd a ll o ther o bjects c oncerning m aritime c ulture o n t he b each b etween t he B ay o f W ismar a nd t he mouth o f t he r iver O der w as s tarted i n t he G erman D emocratic R epublic . I nventory l eader w as R einhard P eesch f rom t he I nstitute o f E thnology a t t he G erman A cademy o f S cience a t B erlin . T he i nitiator o f m aritime r esearch w as t he i nstitute 's c hairman , p rofessor W olfgang S teinitz , w ell k nown a s al inguist a nd e thnographer . F rom h is f ormer f ieldwork a mong t he c oastal L apps a nd o ther a rctic f enno-ugristic p eoples i n N orthern S iberia h e a cquired a v ery g ood k nowledge o f t he w ater c raft 's i mportance f or b each dwellers i n l itoral c ultures . I n a ddition , S teinitz w as c onnected i n f riendship w ith t hree o f t he i llustrous i nitiators o f e thnological b oat-research i n S candinavia : w ith E rnst K lein f rom S tockholms N ordiska Museet , a nd w ith t he g reat F innish s cientists I lmari M anninen a nd T oivo I tkonen . T he s ubject o f o ur s ystematic s urvey w ork w ere a ll t ypes o f w orking w ater c raft , i ncluding l anding s ites , a nd a ll t he b oatyards a nd v arious k inds o f o ther m aritime w orkshops : t hose o f s ailmakers , o f a nchor s miths a nd o f l ocksmiths f or b oat-engines , a nd s o o n , a long o ur c oastline a nd i n i ts a djoining c ountry d istricts b etween t he r iver E lbe a nd t he O der-river , n orthward f rom B erlin . I n t his t errain w e e xplored , d uring a t en y ear p eriod , v illage a fter v illage , s hipyard a fter s hipyard , a nd e ach a nd e very b oat . L iterally . T he i nvestigators w ere R einhard P eesch a nd W olfgang R udolph , b oth e thnologists , a nd t he s hipwright , e ngineer K urt K ühn . F or o ur f ieldwork w e m ade u se o f a s mall f ormer D anish f ishing b oat . S ailing a long t he c oast w e w orked o nboard e very y ear f rom A pril u ntil t he e nd o f N ovember . O f g reat i mportance f or o ur e thnological f ield i nvestigation w as t he f act t hat o f t he i nvestigators e ach w as f amiliar w ith a ll t he d ifferent l ocalities, a nd a ble t o s peak t he L ower G erman d ialects o f t he c oastal r egion , a nd l ikewise f amiliar w ith t he m aritime w orld o f w ork . R udolph w as f ormerly a m aster m ariner i n t he c oastal t rade , a nd K ühn w as e mployed b efore t he w ar a nd d uring t he w ar a s e ngineer a t t he f amous S chichau-shipyard a t D anzig a nd Unigsberg . I n t his w ay w e h ad a t a ll t imes e xcellent c ontacts w ith t he f ishermen a nd s ailors , a nd w e e njoyed t he c ooperation o f c oastal d wellers. T he f inal s tage i n o ur e thnological f ield i nventory w as t he a nalysis o f a ll k inds

o f

l iterature f rom

t he

s outhern B altic c oasts ,

a s

w ell

a s

t he

a nalysis o f a ll k inds o f o ld p ictures w ith v alue f or m aritime h istory . D uring a ll t he y ears o f o ur i nvestigation w e h ad c lose c ooperation w ith l inguistic

e xperts

i n

B alto-Slaw

l anguages

s everal l ower G erman c oastal d ialects a s

a nd

w ith s pecialists

w ell .

f or

I n m any c ases

t he t his

c ooperation h as g iven u s t he p recise e vidence f or t he S lavonic o rigins o f s ome b aatbuilding m ethods o f t he d ark a ges. T en y ears o f r esearch w ork p roduced a g reat c orpus o f m aterial c overing e qually a ll t he c oastal r egions f rom w est t o e ast . I t w as a c ollection o f 3 51

p hotographs a nd t echnical d rawings, o f d escriptions a nd r ecords f rom i nformants , af undus o f h istorical p ictures , b ibliograhies , a rchive e xcerpts a nd , l ast n ot l east , ac ollection o f o riginal o bjects , b oats a nd s o o n , d estined f or t he f uture u se i n t he m useums a t S traslund a nd a t B erlin . O ur i ntention w as t o p ublish t he r esults o f t his i nventory a s s oon a s p ossible . I ndeed , w e d id p roduce , b etween 1 966 a nd 1 969 , t wo m onographs a bout t he i nshore f ishing c raft o f o ur r egion , b esides s everal p apers i n s cientific p eriodicals . M ore c atalogued m aterial i s o pen t o s cholars i n t he a rchive o f Z entralinstitut f ür G jeschichte , Wissenschaftsbereich K ulturgeschichte/Volkskunde , o n t he A cademy o f S cience o f t he G DR , w hich c ontains t he b ulk o f t he p hotogaphs i n b lack a nd w hite a nd i n c olour ,

a nd

more t echnical d rawings t oo . S umming u p , o ne c an r eflect t hat t his e thnological i nventory o f b oats a nd b oatbuilding o n t he S outhern B altic s hould b e s een a s al ast m inute p iece o f s alvage w ork . T oday , a fter l ittle m ore t han t en y ears , t he b ulk o f o bjects t hen r egistered , p articularly a ll t he small c argo c oasters, a re l ost f or e ver, b ecause o f t he i ndustrialization o f o ur p orts a nd t he c hange i n t he l iving c onditions i n o ur v illages . T he i nventory 's r esults r evealed a b road s pectrum o f v ariety o f r egional a nd l ocal b oat c onstructions . T herefore i t w as a s tringent n ecessity t o c lassify t his v ariegated m aterial . W e w orked o ut a t f irst a p reliminary " home s pun" t ypology o f b oats , w ith r egard t o t he e ssential c haracteristics o f t heir o f t he b oat b ottom , a nd o f t he s tem a nd s tern c onstructions . I n t his way w e g radually d rew u p a n omenclature o f s cientific t echnical t erms o f b oatbuilding e lements , t he u se o f w hich i s m andatory i n o ur i nstitute . W e p ublished b oth i n t he H andbuch d er B oote , i n t he y ear 1 966 . I n 1 974 t he N ational M aritime M useum a t G reenwich p ublished o ur t ypology i n m onograph n o . S outhern B altic .

1 4 ,

a bout

t he I nshore F ishing C raft o f

t he

B ut b ecause t he c haracteristics o f ab oat t ype a re n ot i n a ny c ase u nique a nd w ell d efined , a nd w ill b e u sed b y s cholars v ery o ften c ontroversially i n i nternational d iscussion , w e a re o f t he o pinion t hat i t c ould b e m ore u seful f or a g eneral s urvey o f t he r egional s tock o f b oats t o e mploy t he w idely p ublished s ystem o f b oatbuilding m ethods , v ery o ften p ublished b y O lof H asslöf ,

t he g rand O ld M an o f b oat r esearch .

H asslöf 's

t echnology s hould s erve a s a g ood s ource f or a ttempting t o s olve t he u rgent h istorical a nd g enetic p roblems i nherent i n t racing b oat e volution i n t he S outhern B altic . A t t he c ommencement o f t he 2 0th c entury t he p osition a s r egards t he p roduction o f i ndigenous v essels a long t he s outhern c oasts o f t he B altic w as c haracterised b y t he c oexistence o f d ecidedly d ifferent t echniques o f p roduction . F or e xample a round t he y ear 1 900 , i t w as c ommon , i n l arge p ort t owns o f t he r egion , s uch a s R ostock , S tettin a nd D anzig , f or c arpenters t o b e b uilding w ooden s hips a t w harves a nd y ards t hat l ay a djacent t o s ome o f t he m ost

m odern a nd f amous s teel s hip -b uilding y ards

i n t he w orld a t

t he

t ime l ike N eptun , V ulcan a nd S chichau . A nd e ven m ore s tartling t hat t hese c arpenters , working i n s ight o f t he g igantic f our f unnel s teamers a nd c andidates f or t he b lue r ibbon r ace , w ere m asters o f f our d ifferent t echniques f or t he p roduction o f v essels ,

o f w hich n o l ess t han t wo o f t he

p rocedures c learly s howed t hemselves t o b e r elics o f t he p rehistoric d evelopment o f l coal c raft i n t he r egion b etween B elt a nd C uronian l agoon . T he o ldest t echnique ( I) o n ar elative t ime - s cale a nd i n r egard t o 3 52

g enetics , n amely t he b inding u p o f r ushes t o m ake r afts , h ad b y t hen b een wholly r educed t o t he r ealm o f c hildren 's g ames, a uthenticated b y c arpenters' o ral t raditions s ince t he m iddle o f t he 1 9th c entury ( Fig . 2 4 .0 . I n t his g uise h owever i t h as i n s ome p laces , f or e xample o n t he l agoon o f t he m outh o f t he r iver O der , b een a ctively p reserved e ven t oday . I t i s w ell k nown t hat c hildren 's t raditional u se o f o ld-time t ools , w hich a re d escended f rom t he w orld o f a dults i n t he p ast , i s v ery c ommon , p articularly i n t he s phere o f f ishing a nd h unting . H istoric o r a rchaeologic e vidence o f r afts o f r ushes n o l onger e xists , b ut w e h ave c lear e vidence o f t he u se o f p rehistoric l og r afts a s m anifested b y a f ind m ade r ecently i n t he a rea o f t he r iver W arnow , w hich f lows i nto t he B altic a t R ostock . T his f ind i s d ated t o t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifth c entury . T wo f urther b oatbuilding t echniques ( I a nd I I) r ely o n t he p rinciple o f h ollow-shell c onstruction . A s a c onsequence o f t echnology ( II) v essels e volved i ncorporating a k eel a nd s tem t imbers a nd w ith s ide p lanks m eeting a t a p ointed s tern . B ut i t i s n oteworthy t hat i n d ifferent p arts o f o ur r egion t he l aying o f s ide p lanks w as h andled i n t wo w ays . A long t he c oast b etween J utland i n t he W est a nd t he F innish B ay b etween F inland a nd E stonia i n t he N orth-East , a nd f rom t he B altic c oasts a djoining t o t he r iver H avel , f lowing t hrough B erlin , b oats w ere b uilt w ith c linker l aid s trakes . S outh a nd e ast o f t his a rea v essels w ere b eing b uilt w ith f lush-laid s ide p lanks , b ut i n at rue s hell c onstruction , f itting t he r ibs a fter t he s hell w as b uilt o r p artly b uilt u p. T he a rea i n d iscussion h ere i s o ne o f

t he o ldest c ultural b orders i n

E urope - t he b order b etween t he a rea o f t he n ordic c linker b oatbuilding t radition a nd t he a rea o f t he p ontic-mediterranean t radition . S trictly s peaking w e c annot o bserve a c lear a nd c ontinuous f rontier l ine , b ut o nly a b road b elt o f c ultural c ontact . T he m ain i mpact o f t he f lush-laying m ethod w as f elt a long t he g reat r ivers , O der , W eichsel , M emel a nd D ün , f rom t he i nland t o t he B altic . T he l agoons a nd b ays o n t he m ouths o f t hese r ivers e ither w ere f lush-laying a reas o r a reas i n which b oth t echniques w ere i ntermixed . E verywhere a long t he B altic c oasts c lear e vidence o f c linker b uilding c an b e s een . I n g eneral, a ll t hese b oats w ere b uilt " by e ye" w ithout t he u se o f a ny a ids . I n t he e xperience o f t echnology ( III) ,

t he c haracteristic o f w hich i s a

c ombination o f h ollowing-out a nd c onstructional m ethods, t here a rose t ransitional f orms b etween t he s ingle-part l ogboat a nd t he m ultiple-part p lank-constructed b oat o f c linker o r c arvel c onstruction , w ith f lat b ottom o ften g ouged o ut o f o ne l ongitudinal h alf o f a t ree t runk , a nd w ith s everal l ocal v ariants o f s tem a nd s tern-post f orms, o ften w ith b lock s tems h ollowed o ut f rom l og s ections c ut i n h alf a nd f itted h orizontally o r v ertically o n t op o f t he b ottom s hell o r o f t he b ottom p lank ( Fig . 2 4 .22 4 .4 ) . E ven t oday , w e c an f ind n o l ess t han s ix v ariations o f s uch l ocal s tem a nd s tern f orms , i n t his r egion ( Fig . 2 4 .5-24 .13 a nd 2 4 .15-24 .16) . F or

v essels

b uilt

a ccording

t o

t echnique

( II)

t he

g eneral,

a nd

c ustomary p opular t erm i n t he G erman l anguage i s ' B oot ' . B ut f or t he c raft b uilt a ccording t o t echnique ( III) a p rofusion o f l ocal d esignations i ncludes i n a ddition t o G erman t erms , m any v estigial w ords d eriving f rom t he B altic-Slav , o r B altic , l anguages o f t he c oastal d wellers h ere , w ho s ince a round 1 300 h ave u ndergone a p rocess o f G ermanisation . B eside t he i ndigenous t erminology t here w as o nce a nother d istinction b etween t echniques ( II) a nd C haracteristics o f c onstruction s uch a s k eels , s tems a nd s ternposts ,

a nd a d ifferentiated s ystem o f f rames a nd s tringers b elonged t o

3 53

t he

w orking w orld o f u rban s hipyards ,

h and ,

o rganized i n g uilds .

O n t he o ther

t he o ld-fashioned c haracteristics i n h ollowing a nd g ouging t echniques ,

t ogether w ith t he p referred u se o f s imple , t ree b ranches ,

w as

c ommon

t o

t he

r ealm

o f

n atural-grown k nees a nd f orked r ural

a nd

l ocal

c onstruction ,

p ractised b y p eople w ho h ad n ot u ndergone e ither p rofessional a pprenticeship o r a ny p articular t raining , b ut w ho h ad b uilt b oats a nd s mall c argo v essels o nly p eriodically , d ividing t heir t ime w ith o ther s easonal a ctivities s uch a s s eafaring , f ishing o r l umbering w ork . T his t radition w as c haracterised b y a s trictly r egional t erminology . S umming u p ,

t echnique ( III) m ust b e r egarded a s a r elic o f t he ' true '

l ogboat p roduction w hich c ame t o a n e nd h ere i n t he l ate h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury . P rehistoric o r m edieval l ogboats a re f ound i n g rowing n umbers e ach y ear , w ith 6 0 f inds r egistered i n o ur w reck r egister . T he r ecent u se o f l ogboats i n f ishing h as b een d ocumented t o d ate a s l ate a s t he y ears a round 1 920 . T he f ourth t echnique ( IV) , b ased o n t he p rinciple o f f rame o r s keleton c onstruction , w ith a ' s kin ' o r f lush-laid s trakes c lothing t he f ramework c onsisting o f k eel, s tems a nd r ibs, h ad b een p ractised h ere a s a n u rban s hipbuilding c raft e ver s ince t he 1 5th c entury, w ith c entres i n t he H anseatic p ort t owns L übeck a nd D anzig . I n t he y ear 1 962 a s hipwreck w as f ound o f s keleton c onstruction i n s hallow w ater o ff t he i sle o f H iddensee . W ood f rom t his w reck w as d ated b y r adiocarbon t echniques t o a bout t he y ear 1 590 ± 1 00 y ears . T raditional r ural b oatbuilding i n t he S outhern B altic r egion w as f or a l ong while

i nfluenced

b y

t he n ew s keleton b uilding

p rinciple i n af ew p laces , n amely a round t he p ort o f S tralsund i n P omerania , f ormerly a S wedish p rotectorate a nd

s ince

t he

1 7th c entury

i t h ad b een a

c entre o f s hipbuilding f or t he S wedish n avy a nd f or Swedish p ostal c ommunication b y s ea , b etween t he S candinavian h omeland a nd t he S wedish p ossessions o n t he c ontinent . W e k now t hat t he f amous S wedish s hipwright , F redrik H enrik

a f C hapman ,

w orked a t S tralsund 's y ard c . 1 750 .

R esulting

f rom t he p rofessional t raining o f c arpenters i n t he R oyal S tralsund d ockyard i t m ay w ell h ave b een t hat t he p ractice o f b uilding b oats a nd s mall c oastal t rade v essels f ollowing t he s keleton t echnique e xtended i nto s ome y ards i n t he v illages o f t he f ormer i sles o f D arss a nd Z ingst, n orthwest o f S tralsund . W e h ave a rchival e vidence t hat a fter 1 760 t he v illage c arpenters b uilt s hips , c alled Y achts , i n t he c arvel m anner . M oreover , w e f ind i n t he n eighbourhood a round t he p ort o f S tralsund a l ocal f orm o f s pecial s tern c onstruction f or s mall f ishing b oats , s trictly l imited s till t oday , n amely d ouble-ended k eel b oats w ith c linker-laid s trakes b ut w ith a t ransom o n t he s ternpost ( Fig . 2 4 .14) . T he s ame c onstruction c an b e f ound a long t he c oast o f t he S wedish c ounty o f B lekinge ,

o n S wedish f ishing b oats

a round t he f ormer n avy d ockyard o f K arlskrona . H owever, t he s keleton t echnique i n g eneral w as o nly a dapted f or r ural b oatbuilding i n t he S outhern B altic

f rom

1 850

o nwards,

a s

a r esult

o f

t he

s tructural

c hange

i n

b oatbuilding . F rom t hat p oint , w e s ee a g radual t ransition f rom d iscontinuous , s easonal w orking t o y ear-round , s pecialised a rtisanship a long u rban l ines , h enceforth i ncluding t heoretical t raining b y w ay o f s chool a nd l iterature . F or t he b ulding o f c argo v essels , f or d eep s ea f ishing b oats t oo , t hen a n ovelty i n t he B altic , a nd f or r ecreational s ailing y achts b uilt i n c arvel m anner , v illage c arpenters b egan t o u se m oulds, b ut n ot d rawn p lans . I t i s n oteworthy t hat a n i ntermediate m ethod o f b uilding w as o ften p ractised h ere b y m erging s hell a nd s keleton p rinciples . W e h ave c ertain e vidence

t hat c arpenters

b uilt

b oats

w ith

f lush-laid

s trakes ,

t he

p lanks

b eing f astened w ith i ron r ivets , a nd t hen a bove t he w ater l ine c hanged t o l aying p lanks i n t he c linker m anner . M oreover , w e h ave r ecords t hat p eople 3 54

w ere b uilding t he u nderwater p art c linker-laid , w hile t he s trakes a bove t he w aterline w ere c arvel n ailed . L et m e c ome t o s ome f inal o bservations . I w ill p oint o ut t hree m ain p articulars o f t he S outhern B altic c oasts . F irstly , t he c lear c ontinuity i n s hell c onstruction 's c linker

t echnique

f or

t he b uilding o f c argo s hips .

W e c an t race a l ine o f r egional c ontinuity f rom t he p rehistoric w recks o f N ydam , H aithabu , R alswiek , S tettin a nd D anzig , a ll f rom t he 4 th t o 1th c entury , t o t he w re c ks o f W arnemünde a nd o f P rora , d uring t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies , u p t o t he p resent t imes a nd c linker-built c oastal c raft . s ame w ay I c ontend t hat o ne c an t race t his s ame c ontinuity f rom

I n t he t he o ld

p ontic-mediterranean m anner o f s hell c onstruction w ith s ides o f f lush-laid s trakes , f astened b y m eans o f s pikes o r b y m eans o f t reenails a nd c ramps . T he c oastal r egion o f t he S outhern B altic i s t he j uncture w here b oth t hese m ethods o f b oatbuilding m et a nd o verlapped . S econdly ,

w e h ave e vidence o f ad efinite r egional d evelopment o f r ural

b oatbuilding m ethods b ased o n t he s imple l og b oat o r d ugout

m ade o f o ak o r

o f p ine , f requently s till e ncouraged h ere i n t he 2 0th c entury . W e c annot s ee a ny c lear e vidence o f a nother t radition o f e xtending s oft-wooden l og h ulls b y m eans o f p hysical o r c hemical p rocesses , a p ractice w hich b egan E astward o f t he B ay o f R iga, a nd f rom t here s preading o ver t he n orthern E urasiatic z one o f f orests t o t he S iberian c oasts o f t he P acific . H ere o n t he S outhern B altic t he p rogressive e volution t hat l ed t o c raft o f h igher q uality f or t he v illagers w ater t ransport f ollowed t wo d ifferent l ines o f d evelopment f rom t he s imple l og b oat : 1 ) b y w ay o f b ottom s hell b oats w ith o ne , t wo o r t hree s ide p lanks , a nd 2 ) b y w ay o f t hree o r m ore p art b ottom p lank b oats w ere s haped s o a s t o r esemble c losely t he f orm o f t he

p roto-type

o ak-tree d ugout .

S pecimens

o f

o ld-fashioned

t ransitional

t ypes d isplaying b oth b uilding m ethods s till e xist i n m any d ifferent A s o ne o f t he f inest r elic-types s till w e c an s ee t he b ottom s hell b oat o f R ostock . R ural b oatbuilding p rocesses o f t his k ind e volved l argely a utonomously , r emaining u ninfluenced b y a dvanced m erchant c argo s hip c onstructional m ethods , e ven a s l ate a s h igh m edieval t imes , w hen t he S lav o r B altic c oastal d wellers h ad b egun t o f use w ith t he G erman i mmigrants a nd w hen t heir a utochthonous d esignations e ntered t he l inguistic f ield . T his i s a ttested b y m any S lavic B altic r elic w ords i n G erman c oastal i dioms , m ostly t echnical t erms o f t he p rimary c haracteristics o f b oat c onstruction , n amely b oat e nds, b oat b ottom a nd s ides. B ecause t he r ural d evelopment w as a utonomous a nd w idely u ninfluenced b y t he a dvanced s hipbuilding m ethods o f t he h igher s ocial c lasses o f t he i nhabitants o f g reat s hipping p orts , t he g reat p rofusion o f l ocal b oat f orms a nd t ypes o f r ural w ater c raft i s a pparent t oday . T his i s e vidence t hat t he c oastal r egion o f t he S outhern B altic i n m edieval t imes f ormed p art o f t he z one o f c ultural c ontact b etween t he t ribes o f D anes a nd o f G ermans , t he B altic S lays a nd t he B aits . A nother d etermining f actor i n t he s ituation w as t he c onstant a nd l ively m aritime c ultural i nterchange w ith t he S wedes a nd w ith t he B altic F inns . I t w as t hus t hat l ong t erm a nd f ar-reaching c ontacts a rose b etween

s ocieties

o f

d ifferent

n ational

b ackground

a nd

o f

d ifferent s ocio-economic s tructure . C onditions o f t his k ind f avoured t he g eneral p rocess o f e volution o f t he B altic c oastal c ivilization a s w e s ee i t t oday , p resenting e ssential t raits o f au nified n ature , y et r etaining r elics o f t he s ingularly v aried a nd multiform a rray o f b oat t ypes w hich c haracterise t he t raditional f olklife .

3 55

F ig . 2 4 .1 : R ush-bundle r aft f rom t he O der L agoon ( Oderhaff) . f ig . 2 4.1-24.6 h ave b een e xposed b y t he a uthor .

F ig. 2 4.2-24.4 :

B ottom s hell b oat ( Kahn) f rom R ostock. 3 56

T he p hotos i n

3 57

F ig . 2 4.5 :

F ig. 2 4 .6 :

B lock s tem f rom t he R iver T rave.

B lock s tem f rom D arss. 3 58

F ig. 2 4.7 :

B lock s tem f rom t he O der V alley .

F ig. 2 4.8 :

F lat b ottom b oat f rom t he B ay o f W ismar .

3 59

F ig . 2 4.910 : " Heuer" ( a f latner) f rom t he O der L agoon ( Oderhaff).

3 60

F ig . 2 4 .11:

B oat ( Kahn) w ith p lank s tem a nd s ternpost,

f rom t he R iver

H avel.

F ig . 2 4 .12 :

B oat w ith e nds c losed w ithout s tem b y j oining t he e nds o f t he

v ertically f itted s trakes , f rom t he L eba L ake. 3 61

F ig . 2 4 .13 :.

B oat w ith k eel a nd c onventional s tem a nd

s ternpost , f rom t he W ismar B ay .

F ig. 2 4.14 :

K eel b oat w ith t ransom-stern , f rom t he I sle o f R ugia . ( 10) 3 62

F ig . 2 4 .15 : F lat b ottom b oat ( Kahn) w ith t hwartships-laid b ottom p lanks , f rom t he I sle o f R ugia.

F ig . 2 4 .16a : s ternpost ,

D etail o f t he s tern o f a b oat ( Waltelle) w ith i nside s tem a nd f rom t he C uronian L agoon ( Kurisches H aff) . 3 63

F ig .

2 4 .16b :

P erspective

s tern a s s hown i n F ig .

d rawing o f

2 4 .16a .

3 64

t he c onstruction o f

a n i nside

2 5.

N EW F INDS O F B OAT-GRAFFITI P eter v on B usch

Ih ave b een a sked t o m ake a b rief p resentation o n t he e arliest f orm o f b oat g raffiti - i n f act i t 's s o f resh t hat t he i nk o f m y s ketches h as n ot d ried y et a nd t he s tereometrical p hotos h ave n ot y et b een d eveloped. W e h ave t o c ollect a nd r ecord i nformation a bout o lder s hips w herever w e c an f ind i t . Iw ill p resent i nformation a bout t he r ecording o f g raffiti o n t he c hurch w alls o f t he i sland o f G otland , a bout w hich v ery f ew p eople h ave k nown . T his k nowledge h as p assed i nto d ifferent h ands t hroughout t he l ast d ecades a nd o nly n ow h as i t b een b rought t o l ight . T he p icture o f a m edieval

uk aupship"

o n t he n orthern w all o f t he m ain

a isle o f t he c hurch o f F ide w as d escribed a nd e xamined i n t he 5 0s b y e xperts f rom t he Swedish N ational Maritime Museum a nd t he r esults h ave b een p ublished ( Jonsson 1 941). G raffiti o f s igns , a nimals , f igures , l abyrinths a nd r unes , c onstruction o f d etails o f t he c hurch a nd e ven o f s ome s hips h ave a lso b een d iscovered i n t his c hurch a nd u ntil a m onth a go w e k new a bout 3 0 s hips . U nder t he s upervision o f D r . L agerlöf,

f rom t he C entral O ffice o f

N ational A ntiquities i n S tockholm , w ho i s i n c harge o f t he d ocumentation o f t he c hurches o f G otland , ag roup i ncluding S ibylla H aasum a nd a p hotographer a nd a c onservator , s tarted a s ystematic i nvestigation a nd d ocumentation o f 2 0 c hurches i n o rder t o f ind t he b est w ay t o d ocument t he b oat-graffiti f ound t here . T he p hotographer w orked w ith s tereometrical r ecording w herever i t w as p ossible f or h im t o d o s o w hile t he c onservator m ade m oulds o f p lasticine w hich w ere a fterwards s tabilized i n p laster . T he r est o f u s r ecorded t he g raffiti w ith t he a id o f d rawn t racings o n t ransparent s heets o f p lastic p laced o ver t he g raffiti ( Fig . 2 5 .1 a nd 2 5 .2) . W ith o f l ight w e t ried t o f ind a nd p ick u p t he d etails o f t he s hips . t he g raffiti w ere v ague a nd d ifferent i nterpretations h ad t o b e u sed d ifferent c olours t o m ark o ut t he p ossible v ariations . O ver

t he h elp W henever m ade , w e a p eriod

o f f ive d ays w e i nvestigated 2 0 c hurches , m ost o f t hem i n t he m iddle p art o f G otland . We m ade d escriptions o f m ore t han 6 0 b oat-graffiti-pictures o f v arious s hapes i n 1 0 c hurches . I n t otal t here a re n early o ne h undred c hurches on G otland, m any o f t hem m edieval, s o t here i s s till a l ot o f s earch ,

s urvey a nd r ecording w ork t o b e d one i n t his a rea .

A lmost a ll o f t he p ictures a re l ocated i n t he w est p art o f t he c hurches - i n t he b ellroom o n t he w hitewashed w alls a t e yelevel . I t w ill p robably b e p ossible t o d ate t hem t o d ifferent p eriods b etween t he 1 4th a nd 1 7th c enturies . T he d ating i s b ased o n t he d etails o f d epicted s hip c onstructions , a nd m asting a nd r igging . white w ash c an b e d ated,

A lso ,

t he d ifferent l ayers o f t he

which w ill b e o f f urther h elp i n d ating t he

g raffiti ( Fig. 2 5.2-25 .4) .

3 65

o f

W e a ll k now t hat d uring t he p eriod j ust m entioned t he s eafaring f armers t he i sland o f G otland, e ither a s o wners o r p art-owners o f s hips,

t ravelled e xtensively c arrying t rade g oods o f t ar , f urs , h ides , l ime f unts . M aybe t he b oat-graffiti a re s ymbolic . T he s ea-faring f armers h ave b een t rying t o p ut t he f ate o f o ne 's s hip , c rew a nd c argo i nto h ands o f o ur L ord w hen o ne m ade a p icture o f i t o n t he h oly walls o f c hurch .

i n

a nd m ay t he t he

I n S weden a lthough b oat-graffiti a re f ound e specially i n t he c hurches t he i sland o f G otland t hey a lso o ccur e lsewhere . B oat-graffiti h ave

a lso b een f ound i n o ther S candinavian c ountries a s w ell a s i n E ngland, F rance ,

I taly a nd G ermany .

I h ope

t hat

t hese d rawings m ade b y h and o n t he w alls o f

c hurches b y

p eople w ho k new s hips a nd s hipping , c an a dd s ome f urther i nformation a bout t he s hape a nd s tructure o f t he s hips , a s w ell a s o f t he r igging i n e arlier p eriods.

R EFERENCES J onsson , G unnar ,

1 941.

K aupskip i F ide.

3 66

G otländskt A rkiv: 4 5-50 .

F ig .

2 5 .1 :

T he p erforming o f a t racing o n a s heet o f p lastic o f o ne b oat

g raffiti.

F ig . 2 5 .2 :

E xample o f o ne t racing o f t wo s hip p ictures o n t he w all o f t he

b ellroom i n L ye c hurch , G otland .

K u r r i E

1 2 4 R M I Z UM

V

3

1

( i )

F ig . 2 5 .3 :

G raffiti i n t he b ellroom o f K linte c hurch ,

G otland ,

s howing a

o nenasted , s quare-rigged v essel. u mc,E T v I S

'

2

F ig . 2 5 .4 : G raffiti i n t he b ellroom o f B unge c hurch , b igger s hips w ith t wo o r m ore m asts .

G otland ,

s howing t wo

2 6 .

T HE W RECK O F A S MALL B OAT F ROM P ORTOR A rne E mil C hristensen

D uring s mall-scale d redging w ork f or a p leasure h arbour a t P ort f irenga n ear K ragerS i n S outhern N orway , f ragments o f ab oat w ere f ound . T he o wner n otified t he l ocal m useum, which i n t urn s ent t he m essage o n t o t he Norwegian Maritime M useum ( Norsk S j9 Sfartsmuseum) a nd t he U niversity C ollection o f N ational A ntiquities ( Universitets O ldsaksamling) . U nder t he N orwegian A ncient M onuments A ct , S jifartsmuseum ,

t he w reck i s t he r esponsibility o f N orsk

b ut a s Ih ad o ther f ieldwork n earby ,

t he f irst v isit t o t he

s ite w as m ade b y m yself . T he f ragments s alvaged w ere f rom a s mall c linkerb uilt b oat , m ainly o f o ak . A s t he w reck l ay b eneath 1 m . o f m ud , i t c ould have b een o f c onsiderable a ge, s o Is trongly r ecommended t hat t he N SM e xcavated i t. D irector S vein M olaug l ater v isited t he s ite , a nd a greed t hat i t w as w ell w orth a n e xcavation . A s a n a cademic e xperiment w e d ecided t o d ocument t he f inds i ndependently , a nd w ork o ut s eparate r econstructions . T he b oat w as e xcavated d uring t he p eriod 9 - 1 2/10 - 1 981 b y T rygve S kaug a nd B jarne I ms H enriksen f rom N SM a nd A .E .

C hristensen f rom U .O . a s a j oint

e nterprise . W e h ad h oped t o l ift t he b oat i ntact , b ut t his p roved i mpossible , s o i t w as d ismantled c arefully u nder w ater . E ach f ragment w as d rawn a s i t c ame a shore , a nd s tored w et ( Fig . 2 6 .1) . L ater , t he f ragments w ere m oved t o N SM f or c onservation . S vein M olaug h as p ublished a r eport o n t he f ind i n N SM Ä rbok 1 981, w ith a p reliminary r econstruction b ased o n h is r ecording o f t he f ragments . I a m s till a t w ork o n a r econstruction m odel a nd d rawing , b ut i t i s c lear , e ven a t a n e arly s tage o f t he w ork , r econstruction w ill d iffer f rom t hat p ublished b y M olaug .

t hat m y

T he b oat h as b een d ated b y t he l aboratory f or R adiocarbon d ates ,

N TH ,

T rondheim . T he d ate g iven w as A D 1 575 + 6 5 . T his w as l ater c hanged t o A D 1 465 ± 4 5 y ears, a fter a r evision o f t he s tandard v alues i n o ne o f t he c ounters i n t he l aboratory . A s t he s träkes o f t he b oat b ear s awmarks , a nd t he m ast t warth i s p laced r ather f ar f orward i n t he b oat , i ndicating a f ore a nd a ft r ig , t he r evised d ate s eems h istorically t oo e arly . T he b oat i s e ast-Norwegian i n c haracter , b ut s hows f eatures t hat r esemble W est- a nd N orth-Norwegian p ractice , a nd w hich m ust b e c haracterized a s a rchaic i n a b oat f ound e ast o f L indesnes . I t i s o f c ourse i mpossible t o p inpoint t he b uilding-place o f a s mall e mpty w reck , a nd i t m ay b e f ar f rom t he p lace where t he v essel w as f ound . H owever , t he g eneral s hape o f t he b oat i ndicates a n E ast N orwegian b uilding s ite , a s d o t he m aterials u sed : o ak , s ome s pruce i n t he r ibs , a nd j uniper t reenails . T he b oat h as f ive s trakes , s ternpost .

a ll o f o ak , l ike t he

T he k eel h as a T -shaped c ross

s ection ,

k eel a nd s tem a nd a nd

t he s tem a nd

s ternpost a re u nrabbeted ( Fig . 2 6 .2) . T he p lanks a re s carfed. I n more r ecent b oatbuilding i n e astern N orway , o ne w ould e xpect a r abbet i n t he k eel a nd s tem a nd s ternpost , a nd b utt j oints w ith b utt-blocks i n t he p lanking . W est-Norwegian b oats a re g enerally b uilt l ike t heir V iking a ge a ncestors , w ith a c rossbeam a bove t he f loor-timber a s t ransversal s tiffening , a nd l oose t warths a bove t he b eam , w hile t he b oats o f E ast N orway g enerally h ave n o b eams , b ut t warths p ermanently f astened w ith k nees . O ur b oat h as n o c ross3 69

b eams , a s s hould b e t he c ase i n a n E ast N orwegian b oat , b ut t he o nly t warth f ound r ests l oose o n t he r ib , w ith n o k nees , e ven t hough i t h as a h ole f or t he m ast , a nd s hould s upposedly b e s ecurely f astened . T his c urious m ixture o f d etails m akes t he b oat s omewhat o f a m issing l ink i n t he e volution o f E ast N orwegian b oats , f rom a c ommon t ype u sed a ll a long t he N orwegian c oast i n t he V iking a ge,

t o b oats m ore l ike t hose u sed i n D enmark a nd

W estern S weden , w hile W estern a nd N orthern N orway s till l ittle r emoved f rom t he V iking a ge t ypes ( Fig . 2 6 .3) .

u se b oats

v ery

A t t his e arly s tage , t he f ind c reates m ore q uestions t han i t a nswers , b ut i t i s n o d oubt t hat i t d eserves a t horough s tudy, i ncluding r econstruction a s a m odel a nd o n t he d rawing b oard , a nd p ossibly a f ulls cale r econstruction o f t he b oat i tself a fter c onservation .

R EFERENCES Molaug , S" 1 981. Ä rsberetning: 8 9-94.

B äten

f ra

P ort r .

3 70

N orsk

S jöfartsmuseum .

F ig. 2 6 .1:

F ig . 2 6 .2 :

F ragments o f t he p ort s ide a ft t emporarily r eassembled .

S tem ( uppermost) a nd s ternpost w ith s mall f ragments o f t he k eel.

F ig . 2 6 .3 : D etail o f t hole w ith a lternative h ole f or o ne t holepin . T he i llustrations o f t his p aper h ave b een p hotographed b y B jarne I ms H enriksen , N orsk S j ieartsmuseum . ( 10)

2 7.

S HIP-ARCHAEOLOGY I N D ENMARK 1 979-1982 O le C rumlin-Pedersen

A t t he I SBSA - S ymposium i n B remerhaven 1 979 I r eported o n t he a rchaeological i nvestigations c arried o ut i n D enmark u p t o t hat t ime o n m edieval c og f inds . H ere a b rief s urvey o f e xcavations , i nvestigations a nd e xperiments r elated t o s hip a rchaeology i n D enmark o ver t he l ast t hree y ears w ill b e g iven ( Crumlin Pedersen 1 980 a nd 1 981) . O n l ogboats t he f ollowing n ews c an b e r eported : a t T ybrind v ig o n t he i sland o f F yn a 1 0 m l ong M esolithic l ogboat w as e xcavated a nd r aised b y d ivers i n 1 980 d uring e xcavation o f a s unken s ettlement w hich y ielded m any w ell p reserved w ooden o bjects , i ncluding a n o rnamented p addle ( Andersen 1 980 a nd 1 982 ; D al 1 981) . A t t he i sland o f B ars$ i n L illebaelt a 3 .65 m l ong l ogboat w as r aised f or t he m useum i n H aderslev i n 1 982 . T he b oat i s o f b eech a nd w as d ated b y C -14 t o A D 9 40 ± 6 5 , O K 1 040 , c orrected) ( Andersen 1 983) . T he b oatgraves a t S lusegärd , B ornholm , e xcavated 2 0-25 y ears a go , a re n ow b eing p repared f or p ublication i n 1 984 . T he 4 4 g raves w ith t races o f

w hole b oats o r p arts o f b oats ,

a ll e xpanded l ogboats ,

a re d ated t o t he

R oman I ron A ge ( AD 1 00 t o 2 50) ( Klint-Jensen 1 978) . T he a rea w here t he 7 th c entury G resetedbro s hip w as f ound i n 1 945 w as s earched i n 1 982 w ith s eismic e quipment ( Crumlin-Pedersen 1 968) . A d istinct a nomaly i n t he l ayers i n t he r iver b ank h as b een l ocated , b ut a t rial e xcavation i s n eeded t o s how i f t his r epresents t he r emains o f t he s hip . A nother r iver b ank i nvestigation i s t hat a t Maglebraende o n t he F ri Wdre r iver a t t he i sland o f F alster . H ere r emains f rom s hipbuilding a ctivities a round A D 100 h ave b een f ound i n c onsiderable q uantity ( Fig . 2 7 .2) . E vidently s hips h ave b een b roken u p h ere t o s upply t he s hipbuilders w ith p lanks a nd b eams f or n ew s hips , w hereas t he f rames a nd k nees h ave b een t hrown i nto t he s hallow w ater b y t he b uilding s ite ( Skamby M adsen 1 983) . T he F otevik-wreck i n S cania , S weden , r eported o n b y C atharina I ngelmann-Sundberg o f M almö , w as f ound i n 1 981 b y D anish d ivers t aking a c ourse i n u nderwater a rchaeology c onducted b y t he a uthor i n c ooperation w ith r epresentatives o f t he D anish S port D ivers U nion . T he e xcavation o f t his w reck i n 1 982 a nd t he m apping o f t he b lockage ( with p arts o f f our o ther w recks) w as c arried o ut a s aj oint p roject b y S wedish a nd D anish m useums a nd amateur d ivers . T his i s p art o f a l arger f ieldwork p roject o n t his a rchaeological c omplex , c ombining e lements o f l and- a nd u nderwater a rchaeology

( Härdh 1 983 a nd I ngelman-Sundberg & S öderhielm 1 982).

T he V iking S hip M useum a lso a ssisted a t t he h arbour e xcavation a t H edeby

( Haithabu)

a t

S chleswig

i n N orth G ermany

i n 1 979 .

T he p arts

r ecovered o f t he H aithabu s hip a nd o ther s hips ' p arts f rom t he h arbour a rea w ill b e

r ecorded

a nd p ublished

i nc onjunction w ith t he b uilding o f a n ew

museum f or t he H aithabu f inds, p lanned t o b e o pened i n 1 985 ( CrumlinP edersen 1 969 a nd S chitzel & C rumlin-Pedersen 1 980) .

3 73

L eif

A 1 6 mm f ilm ( 20 m in .) " Historien o m e t v rag" ( Story o f a W reck) b y S tubkjaer s howing t he r aising o f t he V ejby-ship i n 1 977 i s n ow

a vailable ( Crumlin-Pedersen e t . a l . t his w reck ,

a c og,

1 979) .

I t i s e xpected

t hat p arts o f

b uilt a round 1 350 a nd w recked i n 1 375-80 ,

w ill

b e

e xhibited i n t he f uture a t t he V iking S hip M useum i n R oskilde t ogether w ith t he 1 10 g old c oins a nd t he f ragments o f t he c argo f ound w ith t he s hip . T he s ame m ay b e t he c ase w ith t he K ollerup-cog o f t he 1 3th c entury , e xcavated i n 1 978 a nd r ecorded i n d etailed p lans o f a ll p arts i n 1 980-81 i n t he m useum i n T histed,

N orth J ylland

( Jeppesen

1 978 ,

1 979a

a nd

b ) .

A fter h aving

i nvestigated t he p ossibilities o f c onserving a nd e xhibiting t his s hip l ocally , t he T his t ed m useum h as a sked t he N ational M useum t o t ake o ver f ull r esponsibility f or t his w reck . E xcept f or t he f orward s ection a nd s ternpost , t he s hip w ill b e t ransferred t o a l ong-term u nderground s torage ( in s and u nder t he g round w ater l evel) n ear C openhagen . T he t wo a forementioned p arts w ill b e , i t i s h oped, c onserved a nd e xhibited i n R oskilde i n t he f uture . E ven s ome p ost m edieval w recks h ave b een i nvestigated i n r ecent y ears . A t V ejle t he b ottom-part o f as hip , p robably o f D utch t radition o f a b . 1 580 , w as e xcavated i n a r escue o peration i n 1 980 ( Fig . 2 7 .3a a nd b ; 2 7 .4a a nd b ) . A ll p arts o f t he s hip h ave b een c arefully r ecorded b y t he l ocal m useum . A 1 7th c entury b rickloaded w reck h as b een i nvestigated a t L undeborg ( Skaarup 1 979-80) a nd a n umber o f s imilar w recks h ave b een l ocated e lsewhere i n D anish w aters , i ncluding t he 1 9th c entury L yngsä-wreck o f a s mall j agt l oaded w ith a m ain c argo o f t iles a nd a s mall e xtra c argo o f w hat s eems t o b e t he p ersonal b elongings o f an obleman , w ealthy m erchant o r r oyal o fficial ( pewter p lates, p arts o f ac hariot e tc .) ( Teisen 1 982 a nd 1 983) . L arger w recks o f 1 8th c entury c argo s hips h ave b een i nvestigated a t B alka , B ornholm ( Vensild 1 981) ,

a nd a t L aesS .

E ven

a l ate 1 9th c entury s chooner

it ivlig" ,

w recked i n t he S ound i n 1 898 , h as b een i nvestigated b y a mateur d ivers , t heir f inds h ave b een r ecorded a nd p ublished ( Teisen 1 980) .

a nd

I n D enmark a n umber o f r eplicas o f V iking s hip f inds h ave b een b uilt o ver t he l ast 2 0 y ears b y i nterested a mateurs . N ew s hips w ere a lso a dded t o

t he f leet i n 1 981

a nd

1 982

b y

t his " grass-roots m ovement" o f r eplica-

b uilders a nd v eteran s hip r estorers i n D enmark . T aking a dvantage o f t he e xperience i n w ood t echnology , s hip h andling e tc . g ained b y t hese g roups , t he V iking S hip M useum i n R oskilde i n 1 982 i nitiated t he R OAR-project . T he a im i s t o b uild a f ull s cale r eplica o f t he 1 4 i n l ong S kuldelev 3 -coaster , u sing t he o riginal t ypes o f m aterials a nd t ools , a nd t o c onduct i ntensive t rials w ith t he s hip i n o rder t o e stablish i ts c apacity , s peed, s eaworthiness , f lexibility e tc . C onstruction w ill b e c arried o ut f rom 1 982 t o 1 984 a t t he b oatyard a t t he V iking S hip M useum , a nd l aunching i s s cheduled f or t he s ummer o f 1 984 ( Olsen & C rumlin-Pedersen 1 968 a nd 1 978) .

R EFERENCES A ndersen , M änedsskrift

S"

1 983 .

S .H .,

1 980 .

E n

v ikingebäd

f ra

B ars .

Snderjysk

6 .

A ndersen ,

T ybrind V ig .

u ndersSisk s tenalderboplads v ed L illebaelt. A ndersen , S .H ., C rumlin-Pedersen ,

1 982. 0 "

F orelibig m eddelelse

S unket i h avet . 1 968 .

om e n

A ntikvariske S tudier : 7f . S kalk 4 :

T he G restedbro S hip .

3 74

1 0 f . A cta A rchaeologica ,

V ol. 3 9 ,

C openhagen : 2 62-267.

C rumlin-Pedersen , 0 " 1 969 . D as H aithabuschiff . A usgrabungen i n H aithabu. B ericht 3 , N eumünster . C rumlin-Pedersen ,

O . e t . a l . ,

1 979 .

B erichte ü ber d ie

K oggen m ed G uldskatten .

S kalk 6 :

9 f . C rumlin-Pedersen , O . , 1 980 . D anish C og F inds . T he A rchaeology o f M edieval S hips a nd H arbours i n N orthern E urope. R AR I nt. S eries 6 6 : 1 7-34 . C rumlinPedersen ,

0 "

1 98 1 .

f arvande f ra p erioden 6 001400 . A rbog : 2 8-65. D al, H ., H ardh ,

1 981. B"

S kibe p a h avbunden .

V ragfund

i d anske

H andels- o g S ifartsmuseet p a K ronborg ,

T ybrind V ig. S portsdykkeren n r . 5 : 1 9 f .

1 983 .

F oteviken

- h andelsplats

e ller

l edingshamm?

U niversity o f L und, I nst. o f A rchaeology. R eport s eries N o. 1 6 . I ngelman-Sundberg , C . &S öderhielm , P " 1 982 . V ikingaskepp F oteviken . M ärinarkeologisk u ndersökning 1 982 ( preliminary r eport , M alm ). J eppesen , H .,

1 978 .

N ordenfjords.

S kalk 5 : 2 7.

J eppesen , H ., 1 979a . K ollerupkoggen , e t v ragfund H andels o g Seartsmuseet p a K ronborg , A rbog : 6 5 f . J eppesen , H .,

1 979b .

U mmelandsfarer .

i e n r algrav .

S kalk 4 : 3 .

K lint Jensen , 0 " 1 978 . S lusegärd-gravpladsen I a nd I I , A rhus b oat-graves w ill b e p ublished i n v ol. I II o r I V o f t he s ame s eries). O lsen , O . &C rumlin-Pedersen , 0" A cta A rchaeologica , O lsen ,

O .

V ol . X XXVIII ,

1 967 ,

1 968 .

( The

T he S kuldelev S hips ( II) .

C openhagen .

& C rumlin-Pedersen ,

0"

1 978 .

F ive

V iking

S hips .

C openhagen . S chietzel , K . &C rumlin-Pedersen ,

0 "

1 980 .

H avnen i H edeby .

S kalk 3 :

4 f . S kaarup , M inder :

J"

1 979-1980 .

E t 1 600-talsvrag v ed L undeborg .

F ynske

6 3 f .

S kamby M adsen , J " 1 983 . E t s kibsvaerft f ra s en v ikingetid/tidlig m iddelalder v ed F ribr f2re a p a F alster . H ikuin , A rhus . T eisen , M ., 1 980 . 2H andelsskibe p a I resunds b und . Seartsmuseet p a K ronborg , A rbog : 1 02 f . T eisen ,

M .

1 982 .

D et b ette v rag v ed L yngsä .

H andels- o g

V endyssel N u o g D a :

f. T eisen , M ., V ensild, H .,

1 983 . 1 981.

D et b ette v rag.

M aritim K ontakt n r .

F ra B ornholms M useum , 8 .

3 75

6 .

6 0

F ig . 2 7 .1: A n o rnamented p addle f ound d uring e xcavation o f a c . 6 000 y ear o ld s ettlement s ite a t T ybrind V ig , F yn , D enmark . F orhistorisk M useum , M oseggrd.

D rawing b y F l. B au.

3 76

F ig . 2 7 .2 :

P arts o f b roken-up s hips o f t he m id 1th c entury f ound 1 982 i n

t he b ank o f t he r iver F ribridre ä a t M aglebraende , F alster , D enmark . P lanks a nd b eams h ave b een r eused f or t he c onstruction o r r epair o f o ther s hips , b ut k nees a nd f rames w ere s o s pecialized i n s hape t hat m ost o f t hese were j ust t hrown a way i nto t he r iver a longside t he s hipbuilding s ite . P hoto : T he V iking S hip M useum , R ostilde .

7

7

F ig .

2 7 .3

a a nd

b a nd

F ig .

2 7 .4

a a nd

b :

P lans

a nd

s ections o f t he V ejle w reck o f c . 1 580 , b ased o n d etailed 1 :10 m easured d rawings o f t he w reck : F ig . 2 7 .3a : P lanking s een f rom t he i nside ; F ig . 2 7 .3b : P lanking w ith f rames ; F ig . 2 7 .4a : C omplete w reck w ith p lanking , f rames a nd c eiling ;

F ig .

2 7 .4b :

S ections .

D rawings

V ejle M useum .

3 78

b y A .

W iggers ,

3 79

2 8.

S HIP A ND B OAT A RCHAEOLOGY I N B RITAIN 1 979-1982 M artin D ean

S ince

t he l ast I SBSA i n 1 979

t he n umber o f

w recks

o f a rchaeological

i nterest k nown i n B ritain h as i ncreased c onsiderably b ut o nly f ive a dditional s ites h ave b een d esignated u nder t he P rotection o f W recks A ct , 1 973 . T his d ifference i s p robably d ue t o a mateur a nd s emi-professional d ivers f inding s ites w hich t hey e ither d o n ot w ant s cheduling , o ften f or r easons w hich o ne s uspects a re f inancial a nd o n t he l imits o f l egality , b ecause t hey a re u naware o f t he s ite 's a rchaeological i mportance .

o r

T he majority o f k nown w recks a re o f p ost-medieval d ate a nd w ere d iscovered b ecause o f t he p resence o f c annon , w hich a re o bvious i ndicators o f m any w recks , p articularly w here b iological a ctivity h as r emoved a ll s urface t races o f t he w ooden s tructure . W ith t he i ncreased u se o f e lectronic d etection e quipment , i t i s t o b e e xpected t hat w ell-preserved v essels w ill b e d iscovered i n t he s ediments w hich c over m uch o f t he s eabed a round B ritain . S ome h ave a lready b een f ound , t he b est-known e xamples a re t he M ary R ose a nd t he A msterdam , b ut o thers h ave b een r ecently i nvestigated , p articularly HMS I nvincible ,

s unk i n t he S olent 2 k ms f rom t he M ary R ose i n

1 758 , a nd HMS S tirling C astle l ost o n t he G oodwin S ands i n 1 703 . T he A dmiralty c hart o f t he a rea i ndicates a d epth o f f our m etres o n t he s ite o f t he S tirling C astle b ut c ommercial e xtraction o f m assive a mounts o f s and s ome f ive k ilometres t o t he s outh h as p robably b een t he c ause o f l arge-scale s and m ovement i n r ecent y ears w hich a t o ne t ime l eft t he S tirling C astle e xposed i n e ighteen m etres o f w ater .

A t t he p resent t ime i t i s n ot

p ossible t o b e s ure whether t he s hip i s u ncovered o r n ot a s t he s and i s c ontinually o n t he m ow . I nterestingly , t he s ite w as f ound a t t he s tart o f a s ystematic s urvey o f t he a rea o rganised b y l ocal d ivers , t he l ocal a rchaeological s ociety , a nd a n e nthusiastic l ocal f isherman w ho h ad c areful n otes o n m ore t han t wo h undred n et ' f astenings ' . T he f irst n ine o f t hese o bstructions o n t he b ottom r evealed , s urprisingly , t hree o f t he f our n aval v essels l ost i n t he G reat G ale o f

1 703 ,

t he o ther s ix b eing c omparatively

r ecent i ron w recks . O nly t wo o f

t hose s ites ,

p rotected b y t he H istoric W reck l egislation ,

p redate t he 1 5th c entury a nd t hey a re t he B ronze-Age s ites a t D over ,

K ent

a nd a t S alcombe , D evon . A s y et t here h as b een n o e vidence f or b oat s tructure o n e ither o f t hese s ites , b ut e xtensive B ronze-Age b oat r emains were e xcavated b y S ean M cGrail a t B rigg i n L incolnshire a nd t his h as r ecently b een p ublished b y t he N ational M aritime M useum . A t l east f ive p robable R oman w reck s ites a re k nown t o e xist i n B ritish w aters , f our o f t hem a re s uggested b y p ottery d redged u p i n f ishermen 's n ets t he f ifth ,

l ocated b y d ivers a t S t . P eter P ort i n G uernsey , h as n ot y et b een

s urveyed b ut w ork i s e xpected t o s tart i n t he n ear f uture. T he e arliest k nown s hip w hose s tructural r emains s urvive i n B ritish W aters i s t he G race D ieu , b urnt a t i ts m oorings o n t he R iver H amble , n ear S outhampton i n 1 439 , a nd n ow p reserved i n t he e stuarine m uds . N o l arges cale i nvestigation h as t aken p lace i n r ecent y ears b ut t he A rchaeological

3 81

R esearch C entre o f t he N ational M aritime M useum i s p lanning t o r ecord t he r emains i n d etail i n t he f uture . A n a erial p hotograph o f t he s hip t aken a t v ery l ow t ide i ndicated t he p resence o f a nother v essel f ifty m etres d ownstream a nd t he M useum r ecently i nvestigated t his w ith p robes , a nd t he p resence o f s olid t imbers s ome 1 .7m b elow t he s urface o f t he m ud w ere d etected. 1 6th c entury v essels a re r epresented b y t he Mary R ose a nd t he C attewater W reck b oth o f w hich a re f eatured e lsewhere i n t he S ymposium , a nd a h andful o f o ther w recks , n one o f w hich h ave b een e xcavated o n a ny s cale , a lthough o n s ome s ites n umerous f inds s eem t o h ave b een c ollected d uring s oc alled ' p re-disturbance s urveys ' . 1 v essels o f t he 1 7th c entury h ave b een p rotected b y l egislation a nd t hey i nclude H MS D artmouth , s unk n ear t he I sle o f M ull i n 1 690 , w here c oherent s tructural r emains w ere r ecorded b y t he I nstitute o f M arine A rchaeology a t t he U niversity o f S t . A ndrews . A part f rom t he D artmouth a nd t he Amsterdam , f ew o f t he o ther 1 7th c entury s ites h ave r eported e vidence o f h ull r emains,

s o r ecording h as

l argely b een l imited t o p lotting t he d istribution o f f inds a nd s eabed m apping . T he s tandard o f t his r ecording i s n ot a lways a dequate , a lthough a s f ar a s o ne c an j udge f rom t he d rawings p roduced , s ome o f t he g roups s eem t o b e o perating t o ar esponsible a rchaeological s tandard w ithout t he b enefit o f p rofessional a rchaeological a dvice . 1 8th a nd 1 9th c entury w recks h ave b een f ound i n t he l ast d ecade w ith c onsiderable s tructural r emains s urviving b ut , u nfortunately , t he a ttraction o f t he f inds w hich i nevitably a bound o n t hese w ell-preserved s hips p rove t oo s trong f or m any o f t he d ivers w ithout a rchaeological t raining , a nd r ecording o f t he i mportant h ull r emains h as n ot t aken p lace . Ag ood e xample o f t his i s t he S tirling C astle w here m inimal d iving t ime w as s pent o n m easuring t he a pproximate o verall l ength a nd b eam o f t he v essel , t he b ulk o f t he e ffort u nderwater b eing u sed t o f ind a nd r aise a rtifacts . O ther c omparable e xamples a re t he S outh E dinburgh C hannel W reck o f c . 1 790 , t he R estoration a nd t he N orthumberland, s ister s hips t o t he S tirling C astle , a nd t he C atharina v on F lensburgh , l ost i n P lymouth S ound i n 1 786 w ith a c argo o f r eindeer h ides, m any o f w hich h ave b een r ecovered f rom h er h old. I t i s p ossible t o s ee t hen t hat , a part f rom t he M ary R ose , t he p attern o f w ork o n w recks i n B ritain d uring t he l ast f ew y ears h as b een f or a ll t ypes o f d iving g roups , w hether a mateur , i nstitutional o r s emi-professional , t o s pread t heir e fforts o ver a w ide v ariety o f s ites u sing c omparatively r estricted r esources . T he r easons f or t his a re t hreefold ; t he n ation a s a w hole c annot a dequately f und m ore t han o ne m ajor e xcavation a t a t ime , s o l arge-scale u nderwater i nvestigations w ill p robably h ave t o w ait u ntil t he Mary R ose i s r aised a nd c onserved; s econdly , n o s ingle g roup h as t he r esources t o d o a nything o ther t han c omparatively l imited i nvestigations , a nd t his a pplies e qually t o a mateur g roups , p rivate

o rganisations

a rchaeological

whose

p roject

n ational i nstitutions a nd t hose

f unding

c omes

f rom

t he

s ale o f

f inds f rom t he s ites t hey w ork o n ; a nd l astly , t here i s t he

f ascination d ivers s eem t o h ave f or o bjects r ather t han i nformation , a nd w hich t hey f ind t hey c an r etrieve f rom s cattered w reck s ites w ith t he m inimum

a mount

a rchaeological

o f

t ime

b eing s pent o n r ecording y et s till

s atisfy

t heir

p eers .

T hinly s pread r esources a nd l ack o f a rchaeological d iscipline h as r esulted i n v ariable q uality o f t he u nderwater w ork i n s hip a nd b oat a rchaeology i n B ritain i n t he p ast . I t i s t o b e h oped t hat t here w ill b e a

3 82

c hange i n e mphasis i n t he f uture w ith f ewer p iecemeal i nvestigations a nd m ore s ystematic s urveys o f t he s eabed a round t he B ritish c oast. I t i s t herefore p leasing t o h ear t hat p lans a re i n h and t o c ontinue t he s urvey o f f ishermen 's n et f astenings o n t he G oodwin S ands , p articularly a s t he a rea h as a lready i ndicated w hat p otential t here c an b e i n s uch w ork . A lso w elcome i s t he n ewly-formed N autical A rchaeology S ociety w hich r ecently c o-operated w ith t he N ational M aritime M useum i n s upplying m anpower f or a n u nderwater s urvey c lose t o t he i mportant I ron-Age t rading c entre a t H engistbury H ead , D orset . H opefully t his t ype o f w ork w ill s et t he p attern f or t he f uture , p articularly where b oth s ports d ivers a nd p rofessional a rchaeologists c an c o-operate i n s ystematic a nd d etailed s tudy o f t he s eabed . I t i s o nly i n t his w ay t hat t he e xtent o f B ritain 's s ubmerged m aritime h eritage c an b e f ully a ssessed b efore e mbarking o n f urther m ajor p rojects o f M ary R ose p roportions.

3 83

2 9. C ANADIAN S HIP A ND B OAT A RCHAEOLOGY D an G . H arris

B efore p resenting t his r eport,I w ould l ike t o t hank M r A nders F ranzen f or h is d iscovery o f ' Wasa ' w hich h as g iven g reat i mpetus t o t he i nterest i n m arine a rchaeology - w ithout h is d iscovery i n t he s ubsequent w ork o f t he R oyal S wedish N avy a nd o f D r . P er L undström a nd h is a ssociates , w e w ould p robably n ot b e m eeting h ere t oday . I t i s ag reat p leasure t o p resent t his r eport o n b ehalf o f C anada i n D r . L undström 's m useum which h as b een a p rototype f or m any o f o ur n aval a nd m arine m useums . B y w ay o f ap ersonal n ote , Ih ave b een a cquainted w ith t he S tockholm m useum f or s ome f orty-four y ears. Ib egin a t o ur W est C oast - B ritish C olumbia , a nd w ill w ork e astwards c overing a t erritory i n af ew m inutes o ver w hich a ' 7 47 ' u sually t akes s even h ours t o f ly. T he M aritime M useum o f V ancouver a cquired i n 1 978 , t he f ormer A merican s ailing c utter ' Bayard ' which s erved f rom 1 913 a s al ight v essel o n t he B ritish C olumbia c oast . ' B ayard ' t he l ast o f h er t ype i n e xistence , w as b ui 2t i n 1 880 w ithout d rawings a s ap ilot c utter . S he i s b eing r estored t o h er o riginal c ondition b y v olunteer l abour a s f unds a llow . T he t hree p hotographs a ttached s how ' B ayard ' : 1 .

I n s tate w hen a cquired ( Fig. 2 9.1).

2 .

U ndergoing r estoration ( Fig. 2 9 .2).

3 .

T he p lanned a ppearance a fter r estoration ( Fig. 2 9:3).

T he V ancouver M useum h as a rranged b uilder t o d emonstrate h is s kills

f or a s eventy-three y ear o ld

b oat

b y b uilding s mall p ulling b oats o n t he

m useum p remises . H e i s a ssisted b y i nterested m embers o f g eneration a nd w e h ope t hat h is s kills w ill t hus b e p assed o n .

t he

y ounger

I n W innipeg , t he P rovincial M useum h as b een r estoring a Y ork b oat , t he t ype o f c raft u sed f or m oving g oods a nd p ersons o n t he C anadian w aterways i n t he 1 8th a nd e arly 1 9th c enturies. O n o ur w ay E ast , w e d iverge t o t he N orth W est t erritories . N o a ctivity h as t aken p lace a t t he Marble I sland , t he s ite o f t he K night e xpedition s hips o f 1 720 . T he l ocation i s t oo r emote f or a ny d isplay c entre t o b e a rranged . A n A merican p roposal t o r aise a w haler o f 1 9th c entury v intage , l ying i n t he s ame l ocation , h as b een d ropped . A b roader s urvey i s p lanned o f H .M .S . B readalbane , l ying i n t he E astern A rctic , b y t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment - P arks C anada B ranch - t he h ull w as s urveyed i n t he w inter o f 1 981/82 b y aj oint A nglo-Canadian t eam , f inanced i n p art b y A lberta G as T runk L ines L imited. M ay I r efer y ou t o t he J uly i ssue o f t he R oyal C anadian G eographical J ournal f or t he f ull r eport?

3 85

H ere a re p articulars o f t he a ctivities w ithin t he P rovince o f O ntario . O n L ake H uron , r estoration o f t he o ld 1 9th c entury B ritish N avy b ase h as b een c ompleted b y t he P rovincial G overnment . T he s tore h ouse a nd o ther b uildings h ave b een r ebuilt . C onservation w ork i s v ery n ecessary o n t he h ulks o f H .M .S . T ecumseth a nd t he e x-U .S .S . S corpion , t he s urface b y t he R oyal C anadian N avy i n 1 953 . O n L ake O ntario ,

w hich w ere p ulled

t o

t he m ain e vent h as b een t he t ransfer b y t he U .S . N avy

D epartment o f t he t itle t o t he s unken a rmed s chooners U .S .S . H amilton a nd S courge o f t he 1 812 w ar p eriod t o t he P rovincial C rown . T he t wo s hips w ere s urveyed b y C ommander C ousteau o f F rance d uring t he S pring o f 1 982 . D iscussions c ontinue w ith t he O ntario G overnment a bout r aising o ne o f t he t wo v essels, b ut n o d ecision i s e xpected f or s ome t ime. T here a re m any t echnical a nd f inancial p roblems s till t o b e s olved . A t t he e astern e nd o f t he L ake , t he M arine M useum o f t he G reat L akes a t K ingston r eopened i n J une 1 982 b y H er M ajesty 's r epresentative, t he L ieutenant G overnor o f O ntario . T he b uildings a re n ow a lmost c omplete b ut t he r estoration o f t he 1 9th c entury e ngine r oom o f t he o ld d ry d ock h as y et t o b egin . T he I nstitute o f P rofessional E ngineers h ave o ffered t o c arry o ut t his w ork . T he M useum h as e stablished a c ollection o f a ll t ypes o f b oats u sed o n t he G reat L akes . S ome s urveys h ave b een m ade o f a 1 9th c entury L ake s chooner , a v ery d istinctive t ype o f v essel , l ost o ff K ingston i n t he 1 870 's . I t i s t he o nly e xample d iscovered s o f ar o n t he C anadian s ide o f t he G reat L akes . S he i s i n a n u pright p osition a nd h er c argo h as b een f ound t o b e c oal . O ne p roject p roposed , i s t o m ove t his w reck i nto t he K ingston d ry d ock a nd u se i t a s a s chool f or d ivers . t he h ulls o f H .M .S . S t . L awrence, o f a bout 3 ,000 t onns, f rigates o f

t he R oyal N avy l ying o ff K ingston ,

I n a ddition t o a nd t he o ther

t here i s a v ery i nteresting

s ite c ontaining t he h ull o f a v essel w hich w as p ropelled b y a B oulton a nd W att t ype b eam e ngine-driving p addle w heels . F urther i nvestigation o f t his s ite w ill b e c arried o ut b ecause t he d iscovery o f t he e xistence o f a b eam e ngine f or m arine u se m ay b e u nique . S ailmakers t ools a nd s hipbuilders t ools f rom t he e arly 1 9th c entury G arden I sland s hipyard h ave b een r ecovered f or t he K ingston M useum . T he D epartment o f t he E nvironment o f t he F ederal G overnment h as d ecided t hat t he d isplay c entre f or t he R estigouche f inds w ill b e l ocated o n t he Q uebec s ide o f t he C ampbell R iver , b ut t he d esign o f t he c entre h as n ot b een c ompleted o wing t o p resent f inanical r estrictions . T here a re a lso s ome c onservation p roblems t o b e s olved . S ome o f y ou m ay r ecall , t hat a p resentation o f t wo f ilms p ertinent t o t he s alvage w as m ade a t t his m useum t he n aval museum K arlskrona ( Sweden) ,in H elsinki(Finland), C openhagen ( Denmark) a nd i n L ondon ( England) s ome t en y ears a go . T here i s p articular i nterest i n t he 1 8th c entury f rigate w hich w as o riginally b uilt i n Q uebec a nd c onverted t o aw arship i n F rance i n 1 759 . I n H alifax, N ova S cotia , t he Maritime M useum h as a t l ast o btained s uitable p remises . I t h as t aken o ver t he s urvey s hip A rcadia w hich s erved o n t he E ast C oast f rom 1 913 t o 1 969 .

A s hip 's f igure h ead i s b eing c arved

b y as taff m ember i n t he d isplay a rea o f t he m useum . I n N ewfoundland, a s ite a t P ort a ux B asques w as f ound t o c ontain a w reck i n w hich c oins o f 1 683 w ere f ound a nd a 3 50 y ear o ld a strolabe . T he c urator o f t he B ritish N ational M aritime M useum g ave g reat a ssistance i n t he i dentification o f t he a strolabe . W ork o n t he s ite c ontinues . T he B ay o f B ulls p roject h as b een c ompleted b y t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment . A s

3 86

r egards t he B asque w haling v essel d iscovered a t R ed B ay , R obert G renier h as b een a ble t o c ome h ere a fter a ll a nd w ill l ater g ive y ou a s eparate d etailed r eport .

3 87

F ig . 2 9 .1 : T he f ormer A merican s ailing c utter B ayard u nder t ow b y t he 6 6 y ears o ld C harles H . C ates I II . P hoto V ancouver M aritime M useum .

F ig .

2 9 .2 :

i n 1 981 .

T he B ayard u nder r estoration i n V ancouver P hoto V ancouver M aritime M useum .

3 6 9 .

3 0. T HE F OTEVIKEN I NVESTIGATION, S CANIA , S WEDEN C atharina I ngelman-Sundberg

F oteviken s outh o f Malmö, n atural

h arbours

a long

t he

i s a n arrow b ay a nd o ne o f t he v ery f ew

w estern c oast

o f ö resund

( Fig .

3 0 .1) .

F inds

f rom s uch d ifferent p eriods a s t he s tone , b ronze , a nd i ron a ge a s w ell a s t he v iking a nd e arly m edieval p eriods, s how t he i mportance o f t he a rea t hroughout

h istory .

I n t he l ate v iking p eriod a nd e arly m edieval t imes , F oteviken w as u nder D anish r ule , a nd w as a t rading c entre f or s hips f rom t he n orth , s outh , e ast a nd w est . A m arket p lace n ear F oteviken i s m entioned i n t he D anish C hronicle " Saxo G rammaticus" f rom a bout 1 200 , a nd i t i s b elieved t hat i t c ould h ave

b een t he f orerunner

t o S kanör-Falsterbo ,

o ne o f

t he most

I mportant t rading m arkets i n N orthern E urope i n m edieval t imes . A h uge b arricade o f p oles a nd s tones i n t he m outh o f t he b ay , s hows F otevikens i mportance i n t he l ate v iking p eriod a nd e arly m edieval t imes . I t i s a bout 3 50 m l ong , 2 -7 m w ide a nd r ises a bout 1 m a bove t he s eabottom . I t w ould n ot h ave b een b uilt h ad t here n ot b een a s trong p ower t o d emand i t a nd e nough p eople t o b uild i t . R emnants o f t wo r ing w alls o n l and n earby t he b ay g ive f urther i nterest t o t he a rea. I n t he 1th a nd 1 2th c enturies t he D anish k ing a ssembled h is f leet i n c ertain s heltered h arbours i n D enmark .

T his o rganization w as c alled

t he

" ledung" a nd s erved a s a s ystem o f d efence a long t he D anish c oast w hich a t t he t ime i ncluded t he s outhern p arts o f t odays S weden . I n t hese h arbours , t he k ing c ould e asily g ather h is f leet i n c ase o f t hreats o r i f h e h imself p lanned a n a ttack . O ne

o f

t hese

h arbours

i s V ordingborg o n t he w est c oast

o f

S jälland ,

D enmark . H ere , a rchaeologists h ave f ound a w atch t ower , a m arket p lace , a 9 00 y ear o ld b lockade a nd a w reck f rom t he e arly m edieval p eriod . B ecause o f i ts s imilarities t o F oteviken , t he q uestion a rose a s t o w hether F oteviken w as p art o f t he D anish d efence s ystem a nd i f s o , w hether t he b lockade i n t he m outh o f t he b ay c ould i n f act b e f rom t he s ame p eriod a s t he d efence s ystem o f V ordingborg . I n A ugust 1 981 a D anish t eam o f m arine a rchaeologists f rom t he V ikingaskibshallen a t R oskilde, m ade a p reliminary i nvestigation o f F oteviken . T he d iscovery o f a 9 00 y ear o ld s hip n ear t he s tone w all , l ead t o ac ombined l and a nd m arine a rchaeology i nvestigation o f t he b ay a nd s urrounding a rea i n t he s ummer o f 1 982 . T he a im o f t he p roject w as t o e xcavate a nd s alvage t he s hip a s w ell a s d etermine t he p erimeter , w idth a nd c onstruction o f t he s tone w all . T he m arine a rchaeological w ork w as c arried o ut b y t he M aritime M useum o f M almö a nd t he V ikingaskibshallen a t R oskilde.

3 91

T HE F OTEVIKEN W RECK A t a d epth o f 2m a8 .4 i n l ong a nd 2 .5 m w ide h eap o f s tones w as f ound . U nderneath t here w ere f ound p lanks, r ibs a nd t wo k nees ( Fig . 3 0 .2) . c arbon-14 s ample d ated t he s hip t o 1 060 ± 6 5 y ears .

A

I t was t he o ldest

p lank-built s hip e ver h aving b een f ound o ff t he S wedish c oast . I t w as d ecided t o h ave i t s alvaged a nd p ut o n d isplay a t t he M aritime M useum i n M almö , S weden .

E XCAVATION T ECHNIQUES A s i t i s p lanned t o d isplay t he w reck a nd i ts s urroundings a s i t w as f ound a fter 9 00 y ears u nderwater , t he w hole s ite w as c arefully d ocumented o n p hotographs a nd d rawings b efore a nything w as u nearthed . P hotomosaics w ere m ade o f t he w reck b oth h orizontally a nd v ertically i n s tereo a nd t he s tone a ssemblage w as m easured i n t hree d imensions b efore i t w as r aised . T he s tones w ere s alvaged w ith t he h elp o f a m obile r aft w ith a n u nderwater p latform a ttached t o i t . T hey w ere r egistered a ccording t o t heir l ocation o n t he w reck , p ut o n t he p latform a nd l ifted o n b oard t he d iving v essel b y c rane . T he s ite w as t hen c leaned w ith a w ater d redge a nd t he w reck m easured . T he

p recise p osition o f

t he

w reck

w as e stablished u sing a K ern

t heodolite ( De i 2 -AE) f rom l and , a nd f our f ix p oints A - D w ere p laced u nder water .

M easuring t apes w ere f astened t o t hese p oints and e ach p oint

m easured o n t he w reck w as l ocated w ith t hree o f t he f our m easuring t apes . T wo m easurements g ave t he t wo d imensional l ocation o f a n o bject , t he t hird w as a c ontrol m easurement . T hree d imensional m easurements w ere t aken w ith ad epth g auge.

T HE R AISING O F T HE S HIP T he w reck w as s o f ragile t hat i t c ould I nstead, e ach p lank w as r aised s eparately . l oosened f rom e ach o ther b y h and a nd b rought c onstructed s lates o f m asonite ( Fig . 3 0 .3 a a nd w reck w as s alvaged i n ad ay a nd a h alf.

n ot b e r aised i n o ne p iece . T he p lanks w ere c arefully t o t he s urface o n s pecially b ) . I n t his w ay t he w hole

T HE O RGINAL S HIP T he F oteviken s hip h ad b een b uilt o f o ak a nd b y t he t ime i t s ank i t w as o ld a nd w orn o ut . S igns o f r epairs t o s top t he s hip f rom l eaking c an b e s een n ear t he k eel . T he g arboard s trakes h ave b een s trengthened a nd a n e xtra p iece o f t imber p ut o n t he k eel a t t he s tern . A bout 3 5% o f t he w reck i s l eft . T he p ort s ide o f t he s hip , p art o f t he k eel a nd o ne s tarboard s trake a re p reserved , w hereas t he r est o f t he s tarboard s ide , m issing ( Fig .

t he s tems ,

3 0 .4 a a nd

t he m aststep a nd a 1 . 5m 2 a rea i n t he m iddle i s

b ) .

O riginally t he s hip w as a bout 1 2 m l ong a nd t he l ightweight , l ow h ull w ith a d istance o f 8 0 c m b etween t he r ibs s uggests t hat t he s hip o nce w as a s mall w arship .

I ts c onstruction i s s imilar t o t hat o f S kuldelev s hip n o 5

3 92

a t t he V ikingeskibshallen a t R oskilde , d ated t o 9 60 ± 1 00 y ears. N o a rtefacts h ave b een f ound i nside t he s hip . I ts w orn-out s tate , t he n umber o f s tones i nside t he s hip , i ts c loseness t o t he b lockade a s w ell a s a h uge c ut t hrough o ne o f t he s trakes n ear t he k eel , i ndicate t hat t he s hip w as s cuttled t o b e u sed a s p art o f t he d efence s ystem .

T HE I NVESTIGATION O F T HE B LOCKADE F oteviken i s a s hallow n atural h arbour b etween H ammarsngs a nd t he S canian m ainland . I ts a bout 2 km l ong a nd c arries f rom 2 00 t o 1 000 m i n width . T he b lockade i s s ituated i n t he mouth o f t he b ay . T he e ntire s tructure i s 3 70 m l ong a nd 2 -7 m w ide . T oday i t l ies i n 0 .5 t o 1 . 7 m o f water . T he p osition o f t he s tone w all w as e stablished u sing t he K ern t heodolite a nd c ross s ections w ere t aken e very 2 5 m .

T est e xcavations w ere

c arried o ut w ith t he h elp o f aw ater d redge i n f our d ifferent p laces . t he u ppermost p arts o f t he s tone w all w ere i nvestigated i n t his w ay .

O nly

O THER W RECKS I N T HE B LOCKADE A s a r esult o f t he w ork o n t he b lockade , f our m ore w re c ks w ere f ound . T hree o f t he w re c ks w ere i n ab ad s tate o f p reservation , a nd n o s alvage o f t hese s hips i s p lanned . T he s hips w ere s unk a s p art o f t he b lockade a nd l ike t he F oteviken w reck , t hey w ere m ost p robably w arships. T he f ifth w reck h ad b een s unk i n t he m iddle o f t he b lockade w here t here w as a p assage a bout 7 m w ide . I t w as f ound a t ad epth o f 1 . 4 m u nder 1 . 5 m o f s and . F rom t he t ypology p oint o f v iew t his s hip , a w arship , h as b een d ated t o t he f irst p art o f t he 1th c entury .

A s tringer f rom t he s ide o f

t he s hip w as f ound a nd a s t he m ain p art o f t he w reck h as s unk i n s and , i t i s h oped t hat a g ood d eal o f t he s hip 's s tructure m ight s till b e p reserved .

S UMMARY T he p reliminary i nvestigation a t F oteviken h as s hown t hat t he a rea i s n ot o nly o f l ocal i nterest b ut a lso o f i nterest f rom a g eneral archaeological a nd h istorical p oint o f v iew i n S candinavia . T he h uge b lockade d ated t o l ate v iking/early m edieval t ime a nd b uilt t o p revent e nemies f rom e ntering t he b ay , a ttests t o F oteviken gi mportance i n t hose d ays . I t w as m ost l ikely t he s ite o f am arket p lace w hich c ould h ave b een a f orerunner t o t he i mportant t rading m arket a t t he " twin" t owns o f S kanör a nd F alsterbo i n t he m edieval d ays . T he b lockade c ould h ave s erved t o s helter t he i nhabitants f rom a ttacks , a s w ell a s t he K ing 's f leet w hich m ight h ave h ad a b ase t here . S o f ar w e

h ave

f ound

s trong

i ndications a s

t o t he i mportant r ole o f

F oteviken i n t he 1 1th a nd 1 2th c enturies . H owever , f urther e xcavation o n l and a nd u nderwater i s n eeded t o d etermine w hether F oteviken c ould h ave b een a p lace o f

i mportance e qual t o t hat o f B irka i n S weden a nd H edeby i n

D enmark .

3 93

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HALS I N GB O l tG HE L SI NGÖR

DSKI IONA

c i r 4 L UND

m Ahm ö

F OTEV IK

4aK , N ' Ö i FALSTE I

N F ig . 3 0 .1 :

5-

I ALF , i i R C

F otebv iken i s o ne o f t he f ew n atural h arbours a long t he w estern

c oast o f ö resund .

F ive w recks f rom t he l ate v iking/early m edieval p eriod

w ere f ound a s p art o f ab lockade i n t he m outh o f t he b ay .

3 94

G

F ig . 3 0 .2 : W hen f irst f ound t he w reck c ould b e s een a s ah eap o f s tones o n as andy b ottom . W hen s ome o f t he s tones w ere r emoved , t he s tructure o f a9 00 y ear o ld w reck w as d iscovered . M aritime M useum i nM alm&

3 95

P hoto T he

F ig . 3 0 .3a a nd b :

T he r aising o f t he h ullplanks f rom t he w recksite .

t he f oamrubber t ied o ver t he p lank i n o rder t o k eep i t i n p osition . T he M aritime M useum i n M a 3 96

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F ig . 3 3 .5 : P lan o f t he s ite o f w reck W -6 , t he S wedish w arship S olen , s unk i n b attle i n 1 627 .

4 32

Ws

s o ma tow eso r oaö r . 9 R2 5

F ig . 3 3 .6 :

K night s alvaged f rom t he w reck o f t he S olen ( W-6) .

4 33

F ig . 3 3 .7 :

T he w reck T olmicko I .

T he p hoto s hows

t he f ore p art

T he w reck T olmicko I II .

T he p hoto s hows t he f ore p art o f

o f

t he h ull .

F ig . 3 3 .8 :

h ull w ith a h ole i n o ne o f t he f rames . 4 34

t he

F ig . 3 3 .9 :

F ig .

3 3 .10 :

T he w reck T olmicko I I .

T he

T he

F ishery Museum a t H ei .

f rom t he W is/a B ay .

a ft p art o f t he h ull .

I n t he b ackground " barkas"

3 4.

M EDIEVAL S HIPS F ROM T HE C ENTRE O F S TOCKHOLM B jörn V arenius

O ne

o f

S weden 's

l argest a rchaeological

e xcavations

e ver ,

t he

H elgeandsholmen e xcavation i n f ront o f t he P arliament b uilding i n S tockholm , w as f airly r ecently b rought t o a n e nd . T he f ieldwork l asted f rom J une 1 978 u ntil O ctober 1 980 . M any i mportant c ontributions t o t he k nowledge o f e arly S tockholm w ere m ade , n otably t o t he m aritime s ector a s t he r emains o f e leven b oats a nd s hips w ere f ound . T he v essels a re d ated, m ainly o n a s tratigraphical b asis , f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 4th c entury t o t he 1 7th c entury . T reatment h as b een c oncentrated o n t he o lder s hips a nd t herefore I h ave c hosen t o t alk a bout t hem . T ime d oes n ot p ermit b ut a b rief s ummary o f t he s hips .

A mong t he m ore

s pectacular f inds w as b oat V , al ong , n arrow a nd l ow c linker-built s hip w ith a p reserved l ength o f 1 8 .2 m ( Fig . 3 4 .1) . S he i s n ow r econstructed a nd m easures 2 2 .5 m i n l ength w ith a b eam o f 3 .4 m . T he s hip w as p ropelled b y 1 6 r owers a nd s he a lso b ore t races o f a r ig - o ne m ast w ith a s quare s ail . O bviously s he w as a n e xponent o f t he v iking s hip-building t radition . O ne c ould s ee i t i n t he g eneral s hape o f t he h ull a s w ell a s i n d etails . W orthwhile n oting a re t he d ouble d ecoration-grooves o n t he k eel ,

t he h ull

p lanking a nd t he f rames . T he m ain b uilding m aterial w as p ine . most l ikely t he m iddle o f p resently b eing b uilt. A nother ,

i t .

S he b elongs t o t he 1 4th c entury ,

A f ull-scale r eplica o f

t he s hip

i s

c ontemporary , b ut t otally d ifferent s hip , w as e ncountered n ot

v ery f ar f rom t he a bove d escribed . I ts m ain f eatures w ere s turdiness a nd s trength , a nd i t w as e ntirely b uilt o f o ak . T he f rames w ere c losely f itted , d istance b etween c entres a pproximately 5 0 c m . T he h ull p lanks w ere h eavy , t oo , e specially i n t he b ottom w here t he f irst t hree s trakes w ere l aid e dge t o e dge , n ot o verlapping . U nfortunately , o ne c ould n ot d etermine t he s hape o f t he s tems , b ut w ith g reat p robability t his w as t he r emains o f ac og ( Fig . 3 4 .2) . C ertainly , t hat i s a v ery r are f ind i n t his r egion . A s I m entioned i n t he b eginning , t he e xcavation .

e leven b oats w ere e ncountered d uring

T en o f t hem w ere o f p ure c linker t echnique,

e xception t he c og w ith i ts o verlapping s trakes.

s trange

c ombination o f

e dge

t o

t he o nly e dge a nd

B oat I II o f H elgeandsholmen w as a pparently a 1 5 m c linker-built v essel , q uite t ightly f ramed b ut o f al ighter d imension t han t he c og . T he m ast h as b een s tepped i n a t hree-piece k eelson . T wo l oose o arlocks w ere f ound , a nd I n t he a ft p art o f t he s hip a w ooden b ox , ( 1 x 1m ) f illed w ith f ine c lay w as r esting o n t he f rames , p robably n ot i n i ts o riginal p osition ( Fig . 3 4 .3) . t o h ave

I ts f unction m ust b e a ssumed , b een t hat o f a h earth .

s ince t here w ere n o t races o f f ire ,

F ires c ould b e l it w ithout g oing a shore .

L ike t he o ther t wo s hips d escribed h ere , s he i s s tratigraphically d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury . T his k ind o f s hip h as , w ithout d oubt , b een o f g reat

4 37

i mportance t o t he e conomic s tructure a nd m iddle a nd l atter p art o f t he m iddle a ges .

t ransporting

4 38

s ystem

d uring

t he

F ig .

3 4 .1 :

T he a ft s tarboard s ide

o f

b oat V w as f airly w ell p reserved .

S he w as p robably a g uardian s hip i n S tockholm h arbour i n t he 1 4th c entury . ( The p hotos i n t he f igures h ave b een p roduced b y t he C entral O ffice o f N ational A ntiquities , S tockholm) .

F ig .

3 4 .2 :

b uilding .

A m edieval c og ,

b oat I I ,

i n f ront o f

t he P arliament

T he a ft p art i s c overed b y t he c ity—wall o f 1 530 . 4 39

F ig .

3 4 .3 :

A w ooden b ox f illed w ith c lay w as f ound i n t he a ft

p art o f b oat I II .

I t m ay h ave b een a h earth .

4 40