Politics, Religion, and Cylinder Seals: A Study of Mesopotamian Symbolism in the Second Millennium B.C. 9780860549987, 9781407350974

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Politics, Religion, and Cylinder Seals: A Study of Mesopotamian Symbolism in the Second Millennium B.C.

Jeanne Nijhowne

BAR International Series 772 1999

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 772 Politics, Religion and Cylinder Seals © Jeanne Nijhowne and the Publisher 1999 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860549987 paperback ISBN 9781407350974 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860549987 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1999. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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ACKNO WLEDG MENTS

T h i s manu s c r ip t b egan l i f e a s m y d oc to ra l d i s ser ta t ion

Ou t s id et h eu n ive r s i ty , Ir e c e ived s uppor ta nd e ncou ragemen t

s ubm i t ted t o t he D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy a t t h e S t a te U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Yo rk a tB ingham ton . B u t , i ti st hank s t o t h e h e lp a nd u n f lagg ing s uppor t o fJ ohn H edg e s a tB r i t i sh

f r om aw ho le c ad re o fw onde r fu l p eop le w i thou t w hom t h is d i s ser ta t ion w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le . F i r s t a nd f o remo s t , Iw an t t ot hank my v e ry s pec ia l m en to r , D r . D av id

A r chaeo log ica l R epor t s t ha t i ti sn ow b e ing p ub l ished . I e sp ec ia l ly a pp rec ia ted h i s p a t ienc e wh i le h e g u ided m e t h rough t h i sp roce ss . I na dd i t ion , Iw ou ld l i k et oe xp re s s my g ra t i tud e t ot h e f o l low ing i n s t i tu t ion s f o r t he i r g ene ro s i ty i n

S t ronach o fU .C . B e rke ley . H e w a s a lway s t he re t oa n swe r my q ue s t ion s , p rov id e a s s i s tance , p rof f e r a dv ice , a nd

a l low ing m e t o r epub l i sh t h e i r d r aw ing s o f v a r iou s O ld B aby lon ian a nd Ka s s i te c yl inde r s e a l s : T he Y a le Un iver s i ty

who n eve r t o ld m e t h e re w a s n o th ing Ic ou ldn ' t d o , i f Ip u t my m ind t o i t . I n a dd i t ion , Ia m g ra tefu l t o my s i s te r s ,

P r e s s ; I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon ; B r i t i sh Mu seum P r e s s ;V and enhoeck & R up rech t ; a nd Undena P ub l ica t ion s .

G re tchen a nd Anne , f o r b e l iev ing i n m e . Ia l so e x tend my s i nce r e s tt hank s a nd max imum a pp re c ia t ion t om yv e ry d ea r f r iend , C a r l . C a r l , i n h i s s e lf -appo in ted r o le a s ' t echn ica l d e i ty ' , n eve r f a i led t o s ubdue t h e n ume rou s g rem l in s

C lose r t oh ome , many i nd iv idua l s h e lped s hap e t h i s w o rk . F i r s t . Iw ou ld l i ke t o t hank t h e m embe r s o f my d i s ser ta t ion c omm i t te e , D r . S usan P o l lock , c ha i rper son , D r . A rm S t ah l a nd D r . W i l l iam I s be l l . Ia pp r ec ia te t h e t ime a nd e f f o r t t hey p u t f o r th o n my b eha lf T h e i r c r i t ique o f my w o rk d rama t ica l ly i mp roved t h e f i na l p roduc t . A v e ry s p ec ia l ' t hank y ou ' g oe s t o D r . G e ra ld K ad i sh i n t h e H i s to ry D epa r tmen t . If ound h i s i n s igh t s a sw e l l a s h i s e ve r -p re sen t k indne s sa nd e n thu s ia sm p ar t icu la r ly g ra t i fy ing . Iw ou ld a l so s pec if ica l ly l i k e t o m en t ion t h e B ingham ton Un ive r s i ty I n te r l ib r a ry L oan S e rv ice . C a ro l C lemen te a nd h e rs t af fs pen t e nd le ss h ou r s s ea rch ing f o r o b scu re a r t ic le s i n f o re ign l a nguag e s , o f ten w i thou t t he a i d o f c omp le te r e f e rence s . T he i rh e lp w a si nva luab le .

g ene ra l ly p romo te my e nd eavo r s . Ic anno te xp re s sh ow much Ia pp r ec ia te h i sf r iend sh ip . " Thank s " a l so g oe s t om yp a ren t s

i nhab i t ing m y c ompu te r . I n av e ry r e a l s en se , t h i s p ro jec t c ou ld n o t h ave b e en c omp le ted w i thou t h i s a s s is tanc e . T hank s a l so g oe s t oL ynn , h i s w if e a nd m y b e s t f r iend , f o r n o tm ind ing when Ic r ied f o rh e lp . B u t t h e l i on ' s s ha re , o r i nt h i s c a se , t h e e l ephan t ' s s ha re o f t he c r ed i t f o r s e e ing m e t h rough t h i s p ro jec t g oe s t o my h u sband . H e h a s b e en w i th m e f r om t h e v e ry b eg inn ing a nd h a sa lway sg i ven m eh i sc omp le te a nd u ncond i t iona l s uppor t . A l l Ic an s a y i s ' t hank y ou ' f r om t h e b o t tom o f m y h ea r t . L a s t , b u tc e r ta in ly n o t l e a s t . Iw an tt ot hank my t wo b eau t i fu l d augh te r s , S uha sh in i a nd T a ra . I tw a s o n ly t h e i rd emand so n my t ime a nd e ne rgy t ha t k ep t l i f e i n p e r sp ec t iv e d u r ing g radua te s choo l . F o rt ha t , Iam p rof ound ly g ra tefu l .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNO WLEDGMENTS L IST O F TABLES

i v

L IST OF F IGURES L IST O F ABBREV IAT IONS U SED I NT HE T EXT

v i

CHAP TER 1 :I NTRODUCT ION

1

CHAPTER 2 : THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

4

CHAPTER 3 : THE POL IT ICAL H ISTORY O FT HE OLD BABYLON IAN AND KASS ITE P ER IODS

1 6

CHAPTER 4 : REL IG IOUS DEVELOPMENTS DUR ING THE S ECOND M ILLENN IUM B .0

3 0

CHAPTER 5 : DESCR IPT ION OF OLD BABYLON IAN AND KASS ITE CYL INDER S EALS : I CONOGRAPHY AND I NSCR IPT IONS

3 8

CHAPTER 6 : ANALYS IS OF OLD BABYLON IAN AND KASS ITE CYL INDER S EALS

5 3

CHAPTER 7 : CONCLUS IONS

7 1

APPEND IX A : S OURCES OF I N -TEXT I LLUSTRAT IONS

7 8

APPEND IX B : S OURCES OF S EALS

7 9

P LATES

9 5

B I KL IOGRAPHY

10

ü i

L IST OF TABLES

CHAPTER 3 : THE POL IT ICAL H ISTORY OF THE OLD BABYLON IAN AND KASSITE PER IODS T ab le 3 . 1 T h eK ing so ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty o fB aby lon

1 7

T ab le 3 . 2 C h rono log ica lC har tf o rt h eO ld B aby lon ian P e r iod .

2 0

T ab le 3 . 3 T he K a s s i te K ing L i s t

2 5

CHAPTER 5 : DESCRIPT ION OF OLD BABYLON IAN AND KASS ITE CYL INDER S EALS : I CONOGRAPHY AND I NSCRIPT IONS T ab le 5 . 1 C ompo s i t ion o ft h eD a ta B a s e

3 8

T ab le 5 . 2 S ou rc e so fO ld B aby lon ian S ea l s

3 8

T ab le 5 . 3 S ou rce so fK a s s i te S ea l s

4 0

T ab le 5 . 4 O ld B aby lon ian H eadwea r

4 2

T ab le 5 . 5 O ld B aby lon ian H a i r s ty le s

4 2

T ab le 5 . 6 Ma in B aby lon ian Mo t if s

4 2

T ab le 5 . 7 I n te r ced ing G odd e s s( IG )

4 4

T ab le 5 . 8 F igu r ew i th Mac e( FM )

4 4

T ab le 5 . 9 L a lunu ( T r ip le C u r l s )

4 4

T ab le 5 . 10 A scend ing G od ( AG )

4 5

T ab le 5 . 11 Wo r sh ipe rw i th Q uad ruped (WQ )

4 5

T ab le 5 . 12 B u l lman ( BM )

4 5

T ab le 5 . 13 S ea ted G od ( SG )

4 5

T ab le 5 . 14 Sm i t ing F igu r e( SF )

4 6

T ab le 5 . 15 Wa r r io rI s h ta r (W I )

4 6

T ab le 5 . 16 O ld B aby lon ian F il F igu re s

4 7

T ab le 5 . 17 O ld B aby lon ian S ea l sw i th On ly t h eI n sc r ip t ion sP r e se rv ed .

4 7

T ab le 5 . 18 K a s s i te H eadwea r

4 8

T ab le 5 . 19 Ma in F igu r e so nK a s s i te S ea l s

4 8

T ab le 5 . 20 K a s s i te F i l lF igu r e s

5 0

T ab le 5 . 21 Mo t if si nB and D e co ra t ion

5 1

i v

CHAPTER 6 : ANALYSIS OF OLD BABYLON IAN AND I CASSITE CYLINDER S EALS T ab le 6 . 1 S t r eng th o fA s soc ia t ion B e twe en Ma in F igu re s

5 3

T ab le 6 . 2 U s eo f Ma in F igu re so n OB S ea l s

5 4

T ab le 6 . 3 C h rono log ica lD i s t r ibu t ion o fS ea l sW i thou tS t anda rd F igu r e s

5 4

T ab le 6 . 4 S ubd iv i s ion o fO ld B aby lon ian S ea l s

5 5

T ab le 6 . 5 N umbe ro fO ccu r renc e so f Ma in F igu r e so nO ld B aby lon ian S ea l s

5 5

T ab le 6 . 6 C o r re la t ion o fH a t sa nd H a i r

5 6

T ab le 6 . 7 C o r r e la t ion o fG a rm en ta nd H a i r

5 7

T ab le 6 . 8 E a r ly O ld B aby lon ian F i l lF igu re s

5 8

T ab le 6 . 9 C h rono log ica lD i s t r ibu t ion o fS ea l sW i thou tS t anda rd F igu r e so r Sm i t ing F igu r e s

5 9

T ab le 6 . 10 P r e sence o fB ea rd so nt h eF igu r ew i th t h e Mac ea nd F igu r ew i th t h eS c im i ta r

6 0

T ab le 6 . 11 F igu re w i th t h eS c im i ta r

6 0

T ab le 6 . 12 C ompa r i son o f OB Ma in Mo t if so nO ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te S ea l s

6 1

T ab le 6 . 13 C ompa r i son o fG end e ro nO ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te S ea l s

6 1

T ab le 6 . 14 H ead v vea r

6 2

T ab le 6 . 15 O b jec t sH e ld .

6 2

T ab le 6 . 16 F il F igu r e s

6 2

T ab le 6 . 17 R a re O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i t e F i l lF igu r e s

6 4

T ab l e6 . 18 T ype o fI n sc r ip t ion

6 6

T ab le 6 . 19 O ld B ab y lon ian S ea lC onv en t ion sD i scon t inued i nt h eK a s s i te P e r iod .

6 7

T ab le 6 . 20 U se o fD iv ine N ame so nO ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te S ea l s

6 8

T ab le 6 . 21 S ou rce so fS ea l sw i th Ma rduk -D i nt h eI n sc r ip t ion

7 0

L IST OF F IGURES

F igu r e 1 .Map o f Me sopo tam ia

3

F igu r e2 . Map o fF ind spo t so fK a s s i te S ea l s

3 9

F igu r e3 .H eadwea ra nd H a i r s ty le s

4 1

F igu r e4 .O ld B aby lon ian Ma in F i gu r e s

4 3

F igu r e5 .O b jec t sH e ld b y Ma in F i gu r e s

6 3

F igu r e6 .F i l lF igu r e s

6 5

L IST OF ABBREV IAT IONS USED i nt h e TEXT

AG

A scend ing G od ( Sha rna sh )

A S

A p i l -S in

BM

B u l lman

DN o rD

D iv ine N am e

EOB

E ar ly O ld B aby lon ian ( Sumuabum -Hammu rab i )

FDB

F i r s tD yna s ty o fB aby lon

FK

F i r s t Ka s s i te

FM

F igu r ew i th t h e Mac e H ammur ab i

I G

I n te rced ing G odd es s

KAS

K a s s i te

KC o r FKC

F i rs t Ka s s i te -C en t ra l

KM

K ing w i th t h e Mace

KN o r FKN

F i r s tK a s s i te -Nor thern

KP

K a s s i te -Compo s i te

KV

K a s s i te -Va r iou s S ea ls

LOB

L a te O ld B aby lon ian ( Sam su i luna -Sam sud i tana )

OB

O ld B aby lon ian

PK

P seudo -Ka s s i t e

PN

P e r sona lN am e

S F

Sm i t ing F igu r e

S G

S ea ted G od

S K

S econd K a s s i t e

To rT

T heopho r ic N ame

TC

F igur ew i th t h eT r ip le C u r l s( Lahmu )

TK

T h i rd K a s s i te

W I

Wa rr io rI s h ta r

WQ

Wor sh ippe rw i th Quad ruped

v i

CHAPTER 1 I NTRODUCT ION

Mesopo tam ia , " t he l and b e tween t h er i ve r s " , a l ready e n joyed al ong a nd i lu s t r iou s h i s to ry a t t h e d awn o f t he s e cond

r e cogn ize t h a t p eop le man ipu la t e m a te r ia l c u l tu re f o r many r ea son s i n c lud ing a t temp t s t o l e g i t im ize a u tho r i ty a nd

m i l lenn ium B .C . T he e a r l ies t k nown e v idence f r om T e l l Oue i l i s ugg e s t s t ha t p eop le h ad s e t t led i n s ou the rn Me sopo t am ia b y t he s i x th m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Ca lve t , 1 993 ) ( s ee F igu r e 1 ,p . 3) . Two t hou sand y e a r sl a te r , t h r iv ing u rban

d i sgu i se u nequa l p owe r r e la t ion sh ip s . And s i nce p eop le d o n o tp roduc e a r t if ac t s i n av acuum , m a t e r ia l r ema in s mu s tb e i n te rp re ted a s much a sp o s s ib le i nr e f e rence t ot he i ro r ig ina l c u l tura ls e t t ing .

c en te r s d o t ted t he f i oodp la in . T h e s e S ume r ian c i ty s ta te s w e re c ha rac te r ized b y s t ra t if i ed s o c ie t ie s ,

h uge t emp le

c omp lexe s , a nd i r r iga ted a g r icu l tu r e . B u t p e rhap s t h e S ume r ian ' s mo s t s ign if ican t c on t r ibu t ion t oc i v i l iza t ion w a s t he u t i l iza t ion o ft he w r i t ten w o rd .

T he se p a ra l le l d eve lopmen t s i n N ea r E a s te rn s t ud ie s a nd a n th ropo logy i n sp i red m e t ou nd e r tak e as t udy o f ma te r ia l c u l tu r e s ymbo l s i n a h i s to r ica l s e t t ing . T ex t s a id s ign if ican t ly i n t he r e con s t ruc t ion o f c u l tu ra l c on tex t a s

T he a pp ea rance o f d ocumen t s , t h ough , h a s p roved t o b e

a dvoca ted b y H odde r a nd o the r s . Ii n i t ia l ly c ho se t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod b ecau se i th a st h er epu ta t ion o fb e ing o ne

s o mewha t o f a m ixed b le s s ing i n r e f e r enc e t o o u r u nd e r s tand ing o f Me sopo tam ian s o c ie ty . On o ne h and , t e x t s h ave m ad e e normou s c on t r ibu t ion s t o o u r k now ledge o f

o f t he mo s t w el -documen ted p ha se s o f Me sopo tam ian h i s to ry . T he O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod e ncompa s se s t he F i r s t Dyna s ty o f B aby lon wh ich d a te s b e tween 1 894 -1595 B .C . a cco rd ing t o t h e mo s t g en e ra l ly a ccep ted c h rono logy ( So l lbe rg e r a nd Kuppe r , 1 971 ) . T hou sands o f t ex t s e x i s t c once rn ing s uch s ub jec t s a s t h e e conomy , l ega l s y s tem , a dm in is t ra t ion , s c ienc e , a nd r e l ig ion ( Roux , 1 992 :208 ) . I nf orma t ion g l eaned f r om t h e se t a b le t s f u rn i shed t h e n ec e s sa ry b ackg round f o ri n te rp r e t ing t h e ma te r ia lc u l tu r e .

p o l i t ic s , r e l ig ion , t h e e conomy , l a nguag e , s oc ia l b ehav io r , a nd s of o r th . B u t o n t h e o the r , t h e v e ry e x i s tenc e o fs uch a r i ch s ou r ce o f d a ta h a s l ed mo s t r e sea rche r s t o d i srega rd ma t e r ia l r ema in s a s as i gn i f ican t s ou rce o f i n f o rma t ion a bou t h i s to r ica l p e r iod s . C on sequen t ly , mos t a r chaeo log i s t s h ave t a c i t ly a bandoned d ocumen ted e r a s t o t h e h i s tor ian s a nd e p ig rapher s a nd c oncen t ra ted t h e i r w o rk i np r eh i s to r ic p er iod s . J .N . P os tga te s ummed u p t h e s i tua t ion t h is w ay ,

T he n ex t s t ep i nvo lved c hoo s ing a s p ec if ic p rob lem t o i nve s t iga te . A s Ib ecame mo r ef am il ia rw i th t he l i t e ra tu re o n

" Th er e h a s b een a g ene ra l r e luc tance o n t h e p a r t o f a rcha eo log is t s t o e ngage w i th t h e w r i t ten e v id ence , a nd t ho se w ho r e ad t he t e x t sh ave b een e qua l ly r e luc tan tt oc ro s s t h is b a r r ie r " ( 1994 :176 ) .

t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod , If ound f r equen t r e f e rence s t o t he r i se o f Ma rduk . Ma rduk w a st h e c i ty g od o fB aby lon . A t s ome p o in t i n t ime , h e d i sp laced E n l i l , t he c i ty g od o f N ippu r , a s t h e h ead o f t h e Me sopo tam ian p an theon . E n l i l

Th i s s e lf imposed d iv is ion b e tween h i s tor ian s a nd p reh i s to r ian s h a s g radua l ly s t ar ted b reak ing d own i n r e cen t

h ad h e ld t h i s p o s i t ion f o ro ve r am ilenn ium . No o ne d oub t s t ha t Ma rduk 's p romo t ion w a s l i nk ed t o t he e ndu r ing p ol i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s s i gn if icanc e o fB aby lon wh ich b egan

y ea r s a s an umb e r o f s cho la r s h av e c on sc iou s ly b egun i n teg r a t ing t ex tua l i n f orma t ion w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( e .g . G ib son , 1 972b , 1 980 ; P o s tg a te , 1 993 ; W in te r , 1 986 , 1 987 ) . E l izabe th S t one ( 1981 ) p ub l i shed o ne o f t h e e a r l ie r s t ud ie s d one a long t he se l i ne s . E xcava t ion s a t N ippur

d u r ing t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod _ H oweve r , f ew s cho la r s s e em t o a g r ee o n when t h e t r an s i t ion o ccu r r ed o r h ow Ma rduk ' s s uppor ter s e ng inee r ed i t . Id ec id ed t o e xam ine wh e the r r e l ig iou s i c onog raphy w a s b e ing man ipu la ted w i th t he g oa l o f p romo t ing Ma rduk a nd l e g i t im iz ing h i s n ew

r evea led t h a t many r e s id enc e sh ad b e en mod if ied d u r ing t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod . S tone c o r re la ted t h ese a r ch i tec tura l c hang e s w i th s a le s ' c on t rac t s , d i s cove r ed i nt he h ou se s , t ha t r e co rd ed t h e b uy ing a nd s e l l ing o f i nd iv idua l r oom s . I n

s t a tu s . T h i s r e sea rch q ues t ion r equ i red d a ta t ha t f u L f i l led an umbe r o f d if e ren t r equ i remen t s . 1 ) I th ad t o c on ta in r e l ig iou s s ymbo l i sm ; 2 )I th ad t ob ed a tab le s o Ic ou ld a na lyze c hange

e ve ry c a se , s he f ound a n a s so c ia t ion b e tween a b locked d oorway a nd at r an sac t ion r e f e r r ed t oi nt he d ocumen t s . T he r e su l t s e nab led h e r t o f ormu la t e a n h ypo the s i s c once rn ing O ld B aby lon ian r e s idence p a t te rn s . S uch i n f e r ence s w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le i fa r chaeo log ica la nd t ex tua ld a ta h ad b een c on s idered s epa ra te ly .

t h rough t ime ; 3 ) A r e a sonab le q uan t i ty h ad t ob e a va i lab le

T he y ea r a f ter E l i zabe th S tone p ub l i shed h e r s t udy , s eve ra l

g enera l ly s ma l l , c arved , s t on e c y l ind e r s t ha t c r ea te a f r ieze when r o l led o u t o n to w e t c l ay . H und red s o f d a ted s ea l

s o t h e r e su l t s w ou ld n o t b e i nhe r en t ly b ia sed b y as ma l l s amp le s i ze ; A nd 4 )i th ad t ob ep ub l i shed s o Ih ad a cc e s st o i t .C y l ind e rs e a ls a nd i mp re s s ion sc omp r ised t h eo n ly t y pe o f a r t if ac t t ha t m e t a l l t he se r equ i r emen t s . C y l inde r s ea l s a r e

n ow f amou s v o lume s w er e i s sued b y ag roup o f s cho la r s f r om C ambr idge l e db yI an H odd e r( Hodd e r , 1 982a , 1 982b ) . H odd e r a nd h i s c o l league s c ha l lenged t h e t r ad i t iona l

i mp re s s ion s f r om c l ay t a b le t s h ave b e en p ub l i shed o ve r t h e l a s t c en tur y . T hey p rov ided a n e xce l len t s ou rce o f d a ta f o r t h i sp ro jec t .

a pp roach t o t he s t udy o f a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s , i . e . , t ha t a r t if ac t s d i rec t ly r e f lec t p a s t a c t ion . I n s tead , t hey a s ser ted t ha t m a te r ia l c u l tu r e p lay s a n a c t ive r o le i nt he c on s t ruc t ion

A s s o o f ten h app en s w hen d o ing r e sea rch , t h e g oa l s e xpand ed a s Ib ecame mo r ef am i l ia rw i th b o th t h e h i s to ry o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod a nd t h e s e a l st hem se lve s . Ab ook

o f s o c ia l r ea l i ty a nd mu s t b e c on s id e r ed a s t r an sf o rma t ion s o f h uman b ehav io r . R e sea rche r s , t h ey a rgued . n eed t o 1

b y S omme r f e ld ( 1982 ) d emon s t ra ted t ha t E n l i l ma in ta ined c on t ro l o ve r t h e p an theon t h roughou t t he O ld B aby lon ian a nd t h e f olow ing K as s i te p e r iod _ T h i s p e r suaded m e t o i n c lude K a s s i te s ea l s i n my s t udy a s w e l l . I na dd i t ion , o the r ma jo r e ven t s o ccu r red d u r ing t h i s t ime b e s id e s t h e g row ing i mpor tance o f Ma rduk _ H anunu rab i c onque r ed a n emp ire wh ich d i s so lved s ho r t ly a f te rwa rds i n t h e r e ign o fh i s s on . F o l low ing t h e c o l lap se o ft h e F i r s t Dyna s ty , ap u rpor ted ly ' n ew ' e thn ic g roup , t h e K a s s i te s , a s sumed c on t ro l o f B aby lon . P e r sona l r el ig ion i n c rea sed i n i mpo r tanc e . T he se c hange s u ndoub ted ly h ad a s i gn if ican t i mpac t o n t h e B aby lon ian s oc ia l s y s tem . My d i sser ta t ion i nve s t iga te s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c y l ind e r s ea l i c onog raphy a nd t he p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s d eve lopmen t s o ft h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s . T he r ema inde r o ft he w o rk e xp lo re s t h i s s ub jec t . I n c hap te r t wo . Id i scu s s t h e t h eor e t ica l f ounda t ion s o f t h e r e sea rch , p r esen t ag ene ra l d e sc r ip t ion o ft he d a ta b a se , a nd e xp la in t h e me thodo logy emp loyed i nt h e s t udy . C hap t er s 3a nd 4 a r e d evo ted t os e t t ing o u t t h e c u l tu ra l c on tex t i n wh ich t h e s ea l s w e re m ad e , u sed , a nd d i sca rded T h i s i n f o rma t ion r e l ie s a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly o n t e x tua l d a ta . C hap te r 3g ive s a d e ta i led p o l i t ica l h i s to ry o ft h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s a nd c hap te r 4 r e coun t s t h e r el ig iou s b e l ief s . I n c hap ter 5 , Ip resen t ad e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o fO ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te c y l ind e r s ea l i c onog raphy . C hap t e r 6c on ta in s t he a na ly se so ft h e s e a l d a ta . I nt he c onc lu s ion . Is e tf o r th a s e r ie s o f i n f e rence s o n h ow t h e B aby lon ian s a nd K a s s i te s u sed c y l inde r s e a l i c onog raphy t oc rea te , a sw el a sc on tend w i th , t h e i rc hang ing s oc ia lr e a l i ty .

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1

CHAPTER 2 THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

b ecome c ommon i n t he Amer ica s . Wh en i td id b ecome

I NTRODUCT ION

a ccep ted p r ac t ic e , a rchaeo log i s t s c ou ld s e e v e ry w e l l t h a t c u l tu re s d id c hange t h rough t ime . N o r d id t he se c hang e s a ppea r t o b e t h e r e su l t o f c hance . W i l ley a nd S ab lof f ( 1993 :220 ) s ugg e s t t ha t t h e n on randomne s s o f c hange t h rough t im e a sw e l l a s a n o vera l l c on c er nw i th c h rono logy

T he t h eo r e t ica l p er spec t iv e emp loyed b y a n a r chaeo log is t p rov ide s t h e f r amewo rk f o r h i s o r h e r r e sea rch . T heo ry c an b e t hough to fa s " an a t temp t t oe xp la in " ( Be l l , 1 994b :18 ) . I t i st h e b a s i sf o rt r y ing t ou nd er s tand wha t t h e a rchaeo log ica l

b ecame t h e m a in r e a son s why e vo lu t iona ry t heo ry w a s a ccep ted i na r chaeo logy .

r e co rd ' mean s ' . I t d e te rm ine s wha t q ue s t ion s a r e a sked , w ha t i st a k en f o r g ran ted . t he k ind o f d a ta n ece s sa ry t o a n swe r t h e q ues t ion s p ropo sed , a nd t h e r ange o f a n swe r s t h a t m igh t b e c on s id e red a cc ep tab le . B ecau se t heo ry i s i n sepa rab le f r om e ve ry a sp ec t o f t h e a rchaeo log ica l e ndeavo r , i t mu s t b e m ade a s e xp l ic i t a s p o s s ib le s o

T h e d i s sa t i sf ac t ion w i th t r ad i t iona l m e thod s a nd t h e a cc ep tance o fe vo lu t iona ry t h eo ry c omp r i sed t h eb ackbon eo f ' New A rcheo logy ' a s f o rmu la ted b y L ew i s B in f o rd i n t h e 1 960s ( e .g . , B in f o rd , 1 962 , 1 965 ) . O ve r t ime . N ew

c onc lu s ion s d rawn b y t h e r e sea rche r c an b e a ccu ra te ly e va lua ted .

A rcheo logy c ame t o b e d i s t ingu i shed b y f ou r m a in c ha rac ter is t ic s (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f , 1 993 :221) . T he se

T heo ry , t h en , a dd re s se s t h e p rob lem o f h ow t o d e r ive

c a tegor ie s a r e n o t t o b e v i ewed a s mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive b u t e ach e mpha s ize s a s omewha t d if e r en t a spec t o f t h e

m ean ing f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . A t p re sen t , n o g ene ra l c on s en su s e x i s t s w i th in t he d i sc ip l ine a s t oh ow t h i s s hou ld b e d one . I n t h i s d i s ser ta t ion , Ih ave c hosen t ou s e a c ogn i t ive -p ro ce s sua l a pp roach a s a dvoca ted b y C o l in R enf rew ( 1994a ) , J ame s B e l l ( 1994b ) , a nd o ther s . I n o rd e r

a pp roach . T hey a r eb r ief ly s umma r ized b e low . N eo -E vo lu t ion ism T he e vo lu t ionar y t heo ry a dop ted b y t h e N ew A rcheo log i s t s c an b e t r ac ed t o t h e w o rk o f L e s l ie Wh i t e ( 1949 , 1 959 ) . Wh i te b el i eved t ha t e vo lu t ion e n ta i led t h e c oncep t o f

t o e xp la in w hy Ic ho se t h i s p ar t icu la r t h eo re t ica l p o s i t ion t o ana lyze m y d a ta s e t , i t i s n ece s sa ry t o e xam ine t h e t h eo r e t ica l

d eba te

p o s t -p roce s sua l is t s l i t era tu re .

b e twe en c u r r en t ly

t he

p roc e s sua l i s t s

b e ing

c onduc ted

a nd

t h e

i n

t h e

p rog re s s , a ch ieved t h rough t h e c on s tan t i mp rovemen t o f s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s a nd t e chno logy . A s a s o c ie ty h ar ne s sed mo r e e ne rgy , i t s c u l ture e vo lv ed . Wh i te 's l aw c an b e s t a ted a s : C u l tu re = E ne rgy x T echno logy ( T r igg e r , 1 989 :291 ) . T h i s n o t ion o fp roce s sua l c hange t h rough t ime , o r c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion , w a s s oon c on s c iou s ly o r t a c i t ly

BACKGROUND : THE ' NE W ARCHEOLOGY ' ' New A rcheo logy ' e me rged i n t he 1 960 s i n p a r t a s a r e ac t ion t o p e rce ived p rob lem s w i th ' t rad i t iona l ' a r chaeo log ic a l m e thod s . G ibbon ( 1989 :64 -66 ) s ununa r ized

a ccep ted b ym o s ta r chaeo log i s t s .

t h e ma in s ou rce s o ft h i s d i s sa t i sf ac t ion . T he se i n c lud ed t h e g a the r ing a nd d e scr ip t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta a s a n e nd

c u l tu r e c ou ld b e u nde r s tood , i tw ou ld b e r e la t ive ly e a sy t o r e con s truc t t h e r ema in ing a sp ec t s o f t h a t s o c ie ty . I n t h i s v i ew , s ub sy s tem s c ou ld b e d iv ided i n to t h e t e chno log ica l ,

T he n eo -evo lu t ion is t s a l so t hough t t h a t i fo ne p a r t o f a

i n i t se lf ; t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e p a s t w ou ld b ecom e c l ea r a s t h e a rchaeo log ica l r e cord b ecam e m o r e c omp le te ; t h e i d e a t ha t c u l tu r e w a s a s y s tem o f i n te rna l ized n o rm s p a ss ed o n t h rough t h e p roce s se s o f

s oc ia l , a nd i d eo log ica l r e a lm s . T he se t h r ee f o rmed as i ng le f unc t ion ing s y s tem , i . e . , c u l tu re , a nd b y e xam in ing t h e c hang ing r e la t ion sh ip s among t he s ub sy s t em s , i tw ou ld b e p o s s ib le t ob eg in t o u nd e r s tand t he e vo lu t ion o fc u l tu r e . I n a dd i t ion , t h ey f e l tt ha t al im i ted n umbe ro fg ene ra lh i s to r ica l

s o c ia l iza t ion a nd d i f f u s ion ; a nd , t ha t ' c u l tu re s ' i d en t if i ed i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c ou ld b e a dequa te ly r ep re sen ted a s al i s to ft r a i t so ra r t if ac tt yp e s .

p roce s se s s hou ld b e a b le t o a c coun t f o r t h e a lmos t i nf in i te v ar ie ty o fc u l tu ra l man if e s ta t ion s a round t h ew o r ld ( T r igg e r , 1 989 :294 -5 ) . T h is p o s i t ion e mpha s ized t h e r egu la r i t ie s o f h uman b ehav io r a nd l e d r e sea rch e r s t o c oncen t ra te o n

C oncu r ren t w i th a g row ing u nea s ine s s w i th t h e ' Cu l tu re -H i s to ry ' a pp roach . s ome r e sea rche r s b egan t o r e exp lo re t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f e vo lu t iona ry t h eo ry t o t h e

s im i la r i t ie s b e tween c u l tu re s wh i le i g no r ing o r m in im iz ing

d i sc ip l ine ( W iley a nd S ab lof f , 1 993 :215-6 ) . E vo lu t ion h ad b een r e jec ted b y Amer ican a r chaeo log is t s e a r l ie r i n t h e

t he d if e renc e s .

t wen t ie th c en tu ry f o r av a r ie ty o fr ea son s . F i r s t , n o e v id ence

S y s tems T heo ry

i nd ica ted N a t ive Ame r ican s h ad b een o nt h i s c on t inen tf o ra l o ng p e r iod o ft ime . S econd , t h e a rchaeo log ica l r e co rd h ad

A rchaeo log i s t s b or rowed s y s tem s t h eo ry f r om a n a r r ay o f d i sc ip l ine s i n c lud ing b i o log y i n a n a t temp t t o c ha rac te r ize

n o t r e vea led p a t tern s o fl ong t e rm c u l tu ra l c hange i nr e ga rd

t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c u l tu re a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t . T h i s

t o N a t ive Amer ican s . T h i rd , n o c oncep t o f m ic rochang e e x i s ted i n t h e d i sc ip l ine ( W i l ley a nd S ab lof f , 1 993 :91 ) . I n

a pp roach a s sumed t ha t many d if e ren t e n t i t ie s c ou ld b e c once ived o fa s s y s tem s mad e u p o fi n te rac t ing s ub sy s t em s .

a dd i t ion , t h e s t ra t ig raph ic m e thod o fe xcava t ion h ad y e t t o 4

R u le s c ou ld b e f ound t ha t d e scr ibed t h e n a tu re o f t he se i n te rac t ion s . B ecau se s y s tem st ended t ob ec onc ep tua l ized a s

e xp lana t ion s o f t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . N ew A rcheo log is t s a s sumed t ha t a s mo r e w o rk w a s d one , s ome

h omeo s ta t ic ,

f a c to r s o u t s id e t he s y s tem . T h is l e d t o a n empha s i s o n

h ypo the se s w ou ld r e ce ive s uppor t wh i le o the r s b e came u n tenab le . I n t h i s w ay , t h ey h oped t o a ch ieve t h e ir o ve ra l l

e co log ica l e xp lana t ion s f o r c u l tu re c hang e . R esea rche r s c oncen t ra ted o n s t udy ing s uch i s sue s a s s ub s i s tence , t r ade ,

g oa l o ft he d i scove ry o fr egu la r i t ie s i nh uman b ehav io r t ha t c ou ld b ef o rmu la ted i n to g ene ra l o rc ove r ing l aw st ha tc ou ld

s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s , a nd o p t ima lf o rag ing s t ra teg ie s . I nt u rn , t hey i n te rp re ted c hange s i n c u l tu ra l s y s tem s a s a dap t ive r e spon se s t o a l te ra t ion s i n t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t o r i n

e xp la in t h ed ynam ic so fc u l tu re c hange .

n ea rby c ompe t ing c u l tu re s . D e sp i te t he f a c t t ha t c u l tu re h ad b een d ef ined a s h av ing b o th a s o c ia l a nd i d eo log ica l s ub sy s tem , i n r e a l i ty t h e se w e re l a rg e ly i gno red i nf avo r o f

POSTPROCESSUALIS M : REACT ION AGAINST ' NE W ARCHEOLOGY '

e nv i ronm en ta l techn ica l

C r i t ic isms o fN ew A rcheo logy

c hang e n ece s sa r i ly h ad t o o r ig ina te f r om

e xp lana t ion s .

Mo s t

s y s tem s

o r ien t ed a r chaeo log is t s d i sm i s sed r el ig ion a nd i d eo logy a s e p iph enomena l , m e re b yp roduc ts o f e co log ica l a dap ta t ion . B in f o rd ( 1 972 :198 ) s co rnfu l ly c aled a ny c on s id e ra t ion o f

D e sp i te t h e a dm i rab le g oa l s o f N ew A rcheo logy ,

t he

f olow ing d ec ade s b rough t a n i n c r ea s ing a wa rene s s i n t he m ind s o f s om e r e sea rche r s o f p rob lem s w i th t he p roce ssual i s t a pp roach . I n t he e a r ly 1 980 's , b ook s a nd a r t ic le s b egan a ppea r ing w i th i n c rea s ing f r equency c ha l leng ing n eo -evo lu t iona ry -po s i t iv i sm ( e .g . , H odde r , 1 982a -c ; K r is t ian sen , 1 984 ; L eone , 1 982 ; M i l le r , 1 982a -b ;

t h e se i s su e sa sa t temp t sa t` pa leop sycho logy ' . I n t roduc t ion o fS ta t is t ica lA na lys is T h e N ew A rcheo log i s t s i n t roduced a g r ea te r d eg re e o f m e thodo log ica l r i go r t h rough t he u se o f s t a t i s t ic s a nd

S hank s a nd T i l ley , 1 982 ) . T h i s r e ac t iona ry movemen t e ven tua l ly a cqu i red t he l a be l ` po s tp roc e s sual i sm ' . T h i s i s

p robab i l i ty s amp l ing . B ased o n a s y s tem s p e r spec t ive , a r cha eo log is t s n o l onge r a ccep ted t h e a s sump t ion t ha t a s ma l l p o r t ion o f o n e s i te a dequa te ly r ep re sen ted a who le

n o t ap a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia te t e rm b ecau se 1 ) i t d oe s n o t r ep re sen t a c o mmon v i ewpo in t (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f ,

c u l tu r e . R a the r , t he e n t i r e s ys tem o r s e t t lemen t n e two rk h ad t ob e s t ud ied i n o rde r t or econ s t ruc t s y s tem ic r e la t ion sh ip s .

w el i n t h e 1 990 s (W iley a nd S ab lof f , 1 993 :304 ) . S t i l l

O bv iou s ly i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t oe xcava t e a l l s i te s c omp le te ly i n a n e n t i re r eg ion s o a r chaeo log is t s t u rned t o me thod s o f p rob ab i l i ty s amp l ing i n a n e f or t t o e l im ina te s ub jec t ive ly

p o s tp roce ssua l i s t s a l l b eg in w i th t h e r e jec t ion o f a n e xp l ic i t ly s c ien t if ic a pp roach t o a r chaeo logy wh ich t hey e qua te w i th p o s i t iv i sm ( Bel , 1 994b :254 ) .

s e lec ted d a ta s e t s . S uch t e chn iques a l lowed r e sea rche r s t o c omp i le r ep re sen ta t iv e s amp le s t ha t c ou ld b e u sed w i th a c e r ta in d eg ree o fc onf id ence t o make p red ic t ion s a bou t t h e

One o f t h e mos t f undamen ta l c r i t ic i sm s t h i s g roup h a s l e veled a tp ro c ,e s sua l i sm i st ha t i td id n o t r e cogn ize h uman s

1 993 :298 ) a nd 2 )p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy r em a in s a l ive a nd

AG ene ra lS c ien t if ic A pproach

a s a c t ive p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e i r o wn c u l tu re . N ew A r cheo log i s t s g ene ra l ly s ough t f a c tor s o u t s ide t he c u l tu ra l s y s tem , u sua l ly e co log ica l p e r tu rba t ion s , a s a gen t s r e spon s ib le f o r i n i t ia t ing c hange w i th in a s y s tem . T h i s i n t u rn l e d t ot h e a s sump t ion t ha t c u l tu ra l s t ab i l i ty s hou ld b e v i ewed a s t h e n o rm a nd d id n o t n eed e xp lana t ion . P o s tp roc e s sua l i s t s r e jec ted t he i d ea o f s t ab i l i ty a s t he

N eo -evo lu t iona ry t h eo ry , s y s tem s t h eo ry , a nd t h e u se o f q uan t if i ca t ion a nd s t a t i s t ic s c an a l b e i n c luded i n t h e g en e ra l e f or t o f t h e N ew A rchaeo log i s t s t o mak e t h e

' no rma l ' s t a te o fs oc ie t ie s c l a im ing h omeo s ta s i s n eeded j u s t a s much e xp lana t ion a s f l uc tua t ion . T hey a l so f e l t t ha t t he e co sy s tem ic v i ew u ndu ly r e s t r ic ted p o ten t ia l s ou rce s o f i n f luenc e o n h uman c ommun i t ie s . C oncu r ren t ly , t hey

e n t i r e r eg ion t e s ted . P robab i l i ty s amp l ing a l so r evea led t h e o f t en u ncon sc iou s b ia se s o f i n tu i t ive i nve s t iga t ion s o f t h e p a s t . T h ei n t roduc t ion o fc ompu ter s mad e i tp o s s ib le t oc op e w i th t h e e normou s amoun t s o f i n f o rma t ion g ene ra ted b y s uch r e sea rch .

o b jec ted t o ad ef in i t ion o f c u l tu re w h ich e qua ted i tl a rge ly w i th a dap ta t ion . I n p a r t icu la r , p o s tp roc e s sua l i s t s c ou ld n o t a ccep t t h e t wo ma in p r inc ip le s a dop ted f r om H empe l , i . e . , t he s ea rch f o rc over ing l aw sa nd t h e n ece s s i ty o fe mp i r ica l ly

d i sc ip l ine mo re s c ien t if ic . T hey a rgued f o rt h en eed t om ake a r cha eo logy p rob lem -o r ien ted r a th e r t han j u s t ar andom s ea r ch t o ' s ee wha t 's o u t t he re ' . S c ien t if i c a r chaeo log y , a cco rd ing t o t he N ew A rcheo log i s t s , s hou ld i n c lud e h ypo the s i s t e s t ing , e xp l ic i t a ssump t ion s , a nd d e ta i led r e sea r ch s t ra teg ie s . T he p h i lo soph ica l u nd e rp inn ing s o ft h i s

v e r if iab le h ypo th ese s . T hey r e jec ted t h e f i r s t b ecau se t hey b el ieved amuch w ide r r ange o fd iver s i ty e x i s ted i nh uman s oc ie t ie s t han c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y af i n i te n umbe r o f

a pp ro ach c ame f r om t h e w o rk o f C a r l H emp e l ( 1966 ) a nd h i s i d ea sa bou t l og ico -deduc t ive p o s i t iv i sm a nd t h e c ove r ing

' l aw s ' a s d id many p roce s sual i s t s . T he a ccep tance o f o n ly v e r if iab le h ypo the se sw a st o or e s t r ic t ive t op roduc e a ny th ing

l aw m od e l . Mer i lee S a lmon d ef ined p o s i t iv i sm a s " t he v i ew t h a t k now ledge o f t h e w o r ld i s o b ta ined o n ly t h rough

o fi n te re s t . F ina l ly , t h ey c ha l lenged t h e N ew A rchaeo log is t s c l a im o f c u l tu ra l n eu t ra l i ty . N o o n e , t h ey i n s i s ted , c ou ld c omp le te ly e l im ina te t h e i nf luence s o ft h e i ro wn s o c ie ty a nd

a pp ly ing t he s c ien t if ic m e thod t o e xpe r ience o b ta ined t h rough o u r s en se s " ( 1992 :229 ) . F o r t h e a r chaeo log is t , t h i s m ean t t ha t r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween v a r iab le s h ad t ob e t e s ted a nd s hown t ob e s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can tb ef o r et h ey c ou ld b e

t r ea tp a s tc u l tu ra lr ema in si n at o ta l ly o b jec t ive w ay . C ommon T hemes i nP os tproces sua l ism

a cc ep t ed . P o s i t iv i s t s b e l ieved t ha t s u ch a m e thod w ou ld e l im ina te s ub jec t iv i ty i n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta b a se s a nd p rov id e a n o b jec t ive f ounda t ion f o r s c ien t if i c i n te rp re ta t ion . H yp o the s is t e s t ing b ecame t h e k ey e l emen t f o r a dvanc ing

C r i t ique s o f N ew A rcheo logy h ave b ecome e ve r mo re f r equen t f r om a v a r ie ty o f s ou rce s d u r ing t h e l a s t d ecade 5

( e .g . , H odd e r , 1 982a ; L eone , 1 982 ; P a t te r son . , 1 989 ; S hank s a nd T hey , 1 992 ) . T h i s d oe s n o t mean . , h owev e r , t ha t t h e v o ic e s o ppo s ing p roce ssua l i sm a l l a g ree w i th o ne a no the r .

o nt he b a se so fi t sp hy s ica lp roper t ie s o rt h ew ay i tw a su sed . I t mu s t b e i n te rp re ted i nr e la t ion t oa l l t h e o the r a sp ec t s o f i t s c u l tu ra l m i l ieu . H odde r p o in t s o u t t h e g rea t p o t en t ia l f o r

N ever the le s s c er ta in c ommon t h eme s c an b e f ound r unn ing t h rough t h e w o rk l a b e l led ` p o s tp roce s sua l isf . T he f i r s t i nvo lve s ah uman -cen te red v i ew o f h i s to ry . P eop le a r e

m i s in te rp re ta t ion i fa r t if ac t s a re a na lyzed w i thou t r e f e rence t o t h e i r c u l tu ra l c on tex t . I ti so n ly b y s t udy ing a r t if ac t s a s f u l ly a s p o s s ib le w i th in t h e i r o r ig ina l s e t t ing t ha t w e c an

r ega rded a s a c t ive p ar t ic ipan t s i n c u l tu ra l c hange , n o t

b eg in t oi nve s t iga te t h e i rr o le i n s oc ie ty a nd i nt h ep roce sse s o fl ong te rm c hang e .

p a ss ive r e sponden t s t o f o rce s b eyond t he i r c on t ro l . T he s e cond c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h i s w o rk i st he a t ten t ion p a id t ot h e r o le o fm a te r ia l s ymbo l s a st h ey r e la te t os hap ing i d eo logy ,

A t h i rd ma jo r p r em i se e mpha s ize s t h e f a c t t ha t m a te r ia l

p owe r , a nd r e l ig ion w i th in a s oc ie ty . T hey empha s ize t h e a c t ive r o le ma te r ia l c u l tu r e p lay s i n t h e c on s truc t ion o f

c u l tura l i sh i s tor ica l ly d e r ived . Hodd e r d r aw s a t t en t ion t o t h e f a c t t ha t t h e s hap e , c o lor , d eco ra t ion . e t c . o f a ny p a r t icu la r t ype o f ma t e r ia l c u l tu re i s n o t d ec id ed i n a

s oc ia l r e a l i ty . T h i rd i st h e i r i n s i s tence o n t h e p ropo s i t ion t ha tt he p a s ti sn o tk nowab le i na ny t r u ly o b jec t ive w ay . T h i s s t em s i n p ar t f r om t he f a c t t ha t much o f h uman b ehav io r

c u l tu ra l v acuum . R a the r t he se c ho ice s a r e i nf luenced b y p rev iou s k now ledg e . b e l ief s , p a t tern s , e t c . t ha t h a sp rec eded

w i th i t s i nhe ren t ly i d eo log ica l o ve r tone s i sn o tp rese rved i n

t hem w i th in a p a r t icu la r t r ad i t ion . O fe qua l i mpo r tanc e i s t ha t o nce a n a r t if ac t i sp roduced , i ti nt ur nb ecome s amod e l f o r w ha t f o l low s i t .B u t t h i s i n n o w ay i mp l ie s t ha t s ymbo l s a r e u n th ink ing ly r ep roduced a c co rd ing t o s ome

t he a rchaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he se r e la t iv i s t a t t i tude s h ave t he ir r oo t s i n t he w ork s o f C oR ingwood , H ege l , a nd K an t (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f , 1 993 :298 ) . F ina l ly t h ey a l l s e e t he p a s t a s ac on s truc tc rea ted b y mod e rn a r chaeo log i s t s . T hey a rgue t ha t s c ien t if i c r e sea rch i t se l f i s i nna te ly i n f luenced b y

p red e te rm ined m en ta l t emp la te . Ma te r ia l c u l tu r e i s a n e xp re s s ion o f t h e p a r t icu la r h i s tor ica l s i tua t ion i n w h ich i t w a s m ad ea nd i nt u rn c r ea te s ag u id ef o rt h ef u tu re .

i deo log y . Any i n te rp re ta t ion s t ha t a r chaeo log i s t s p roduc e s hou ld b e u nde rs tood i n l i gh t o f t he s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l , a nd h i s tor ica lc on tex ti n wh ich t h ey w e re f o rmu la ted .

F ina l ly , H odde r ( 1991a , 1 992 ) b el ieve s t h a t i n te rp re t ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s hou ld b e c on s id e red a na logou s t o r e ad ing at ex t . Ma te r ia l c u l ture i sp roduc ed o s ten s ib ly w i th a

D iver s i ty w i th in P os tp roces sua l App roaches

g iven m ean ing o r mean ing s i n t he m ind o ft h e mak e r . B u t o nc e c r ea ted , t h e m ak e r h a s n o c on t ro l o v er h ow p eop le

V a r iou s a u tho r s h ave made t h e p o in t t ha t p o s t -p roce s sua l i sm i s n o t au n if ied p rogram . I n ar e cen t a r t ic le , P a t te r son ( 1990 :192 3 ) i d en t if i ed t h ree d i s t inc t .

i n te rp re t h i s /he r p roduc t . I ti sq u i t e p robab le t ha t d if e ren t o b serve r s w il a sc r ib e v a r iou s mean ing s t ot h e s ame o b jec t .

a l though o ve r lapp ing , t yp e s o f p o s tp roce s sua l i s t t hough t . T he f i r s t i sc on tex tua l a r chaeo logy mos t c l o se ly i d en t if i ed w i th I an H odde r ( e .g . , H odd e r , 1 982a c , 1 986 , 1 987 , 1 992 ) .

T h i s i ss im i la r t o t h e r e ac t ion s o fa s sor t ed p eop le r e ad ing t he s ame b ook N o t e ve ryone w i l l d e r ive e xac t ly t h e s ame me s sag e s f r om i t . T he t e x tua l me tapho r u nder sco r es t h e n eed t or ega rd ma te r ia l c u l tu re a s a c t ive a nd i mbued w i th mu l t ip le m ean ing s . T he se m ean ing s c an v a ry a c ro s s s pace

H odde r ' s i d ea s h ave c hanged o ve rt he y ea r sb u t much o ft h e i n sp ira t ion f o r c on tex tua l a r chaeo logy c ame f r om t he w o rk o fP ie r r e B ou rd ieu , An thony G idden s , C l if f o rd G ee r tz , P au l

a nd t h rough t ime s oc on tex tua l a na ly s i s i sa b so lu te ly c r i t ica l i fw e h op e t o b eg in t o u nder s tand h ow m a te r ia l c u l tu r e

R icoeu r a nd o the r s . T h i s a pp roach s t re s se s t h e f olow ing p o in t s . T he f i r s t , a nd p e rhap s t h e mos t w e l l -known , i st ha t ma ter ia l c u l tu re p lay s a n a c t ive r o le i n t h e f o rma t ion a nd

o b jec t sf unc t ioned w i th in as oc ie ty a t ag iv en p l ac ea nd t ime .

r e f orma t ion o f s oc ie ta l r e la t ion sh ip s . T hu s o b jec t s , t h e ' t h ing s ' p eop le make , c anno t b e s t ud ied a sd i rec t r ef lec t ion s

As e cond ma jo r v a r ie ty o fp o s tp roce s sua l i sm f o cu se s o n t h e i s sue s o fp owe r a nd d om ina t ion i n s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s ( e .g . , McGu i r e a nd P ayn te r , 1 991 ; Mi l le r a nd T i l ley , 1 984 ;

o f

p a s t

a c t ion .

R a the r ,

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c on s id e red

t r an sf o rma t ion s o f h uman b ehav io r b ecau se i d eo logy s t ruc tu r e s t h e i r p roduc t ion . u se , a nd d i sca rd . T h is i sw ha t f odde r m ean s when h e s ay s "ma te r ia l c u l tu r e i s mean ing f u l ly c on s t i tu ted " ( 1992 :12 ) . T h i s v i ew s t and s i n

S hank sa nd T i l ley , 1 987 ) . Much o ft h i sw o rk i sb a sed o nt h e w r i t ing s o f M iche l F oucau l t , J acque s D e r r ida , a nd K a r l Ma rx among o the r s ( P reuce l , 1 991 :3) . T rad i t iona l

d i rec t o ppo s i t ion t o t h e g enera l p roce s sua l is t me thod o f

p ar t icu la r ly i nt h e p o l i t ica l a rena . B u t mo r e r e c en t ly , s oc ia l t heo r i s t s h ave e xpanded t h e n o t ion o fp ow e r t o i n c lud e a l l

c on s id e ra t ion s o f p owe r h ave e qua ted i tw i th c oe rc ion ,

t r ea t ing m a te r ia l c u l tu re a s t h e e nd p roduc t o fa dap t ion t o t he e nv i ronmen t . H odd e r( 1982a ) h a sd emon s t ra ted w i th h i s e thnog raph ic w o rk t ha t g roup s a c t ive ly man ipu la te ma t e r ia l

d if e ren t k ind s o f r e la t ion sh ip s ; p a r en t ch i ld , t e ache r s t ud en t , o wne r -wo rk e r , e t c . (McGu i re a nd P ayn te r , 1 991 :5 ) .

c u l tu r e f o r av a r ie ty o f r e a son s i n c lud ing a t temp t s t o l eg i t im ize a u thor i ty a nd d i sgu i se u nequa l p owe r

T hey a rgue t ha tp owe r s hou ld b e s e en a s as t ruc tura l f e a tu r e o fa l l s o c ia l s y s tem s . We a sa rchaeo log is t s n eed t ob e a wa re o f h ow p eop le m ay h ave u sed ma ter ia l c u l tu re i n t h e n ego t ia t ion o fp owe rr e la t ionsh ip s .

r e la t ion sh ip s . H odde r a s sume s t ha t p a s t p eop le s a l so u sed ma te r ia l c u l tu re a sp a r to fs ymbo l ic s t ra teg ie st os hap e t h e i r s oc ie ty .

M i l le r a nd T i l ley ( 1984 :5 -8 ) a nd S hank s a nd T i l ley ( 1992 :129 -30 ) d i scu s s t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tw een t wo d if e r en t

T he s e cond p o in t Hodd e rm ak e si st ha te ven t hough ma te r ia l c u l tu r e i s ' mean ing fu l ly c ons t i tu ted ' , s ome o f t ho se mean ing s a r e , a t l e as t i n p a r t , a rb i t ra ry . T ha t i s , s ome

k ind s o fp owe r . T he f i r s t t ype i s" powe r t o " o r p roduc t ive p owe r . I ta l low s i nd iv idua l s t o a c t i n a nd o n t h e w o r ld . I t s hou ld b e c once ived o f a s ap os i t ive f o r ce . " Powe r t o "

o b je c t s m ay h ave c u l tu ra l s i gn if icance t oo ne s egmen tw i th in as oc ie ty b u t n o t t oa no the r . T h i s i mp l ie s t ha t t he s ymbo l ic mean ing o f m a ter ia l c u l tu r e c anno t b e r e con s t ruc ted s o le ly

i nvo lve s p eop le 's a b i l i ty t o o b ta in , c r ea te . a nd t r an sf o rm r e sou rce s , b o th m a ter ia l a nd n onma ter ia l . I ti si n t ima te ly 6

i c onog raph ic r ep er to i re t o s e t t hem a pa r t i n a n e f or t t o l eg i t im i ze t he i r s pec ia l s t a tu s . E a r le a l so n o te s t ha t t he se s ymbo l s t yp ica l ly l i nk t he a r i s toc racy t ot he h ighe r g od s o f

c onnec t ed w i th t he p roduc t ion a nd r e p roduc t ion o f s oc ia l r e a l i ty . " Pow e ro ve r" r e f e r st os oc ia lc on t ro l , r ep re s s ion , a nd d om ina t ion . M i l le r a nd T iley ( 1984 ) c on tend t ha t " powe r o ve r " u l t ima t e ly r e s t s o n t h e t h r ea t o fp hy s ica l f o rce . T h e

t h e c u l tu re , i . e . , t ho se d iv in i t ie s w i thou t s pec if ic g eog raph ica l t i e s . I n c u l tu re s t ha t d epend h eav i ly o n t he i r

d if e rence b e come s i mpo r tan t i n a r chaeo logy when w e a t t emp t t o a t tach mean ing t o s ymbo l s . We n eed t o k now

o wn p a s t t o p rov id e ' t emp la te s ' f o r t he p r e s en t , t he g roup

whe the r ac e r ta in g roup o f s ymbo l s r ep resen ted c oe rc ive p owe r o rw he the rt hey w e r eb e ing u sed i n mo r e s ub t le w ay s

t ha t c on t ro l s p r eced ence may f i nd i te a s ie r t op ro tec t t he i r o wn i n te re s t s ( Leone , 1 984 :26 ) . T he f unc t ion o f i d eo logy

b ys pec if i ci nd iv idua l s .

t h en i st o ma sk t h e a rb i t ra r ine s s o ft h e s oc ia l h i e ra rchy b y mak ing i ts e em n a tu ra la nd i n ev i tab le . An e l i te i c onog raphy , e sp ec ia l ly i fi ti sr el ig iou s i n n a tu r e , s e rve s t o i d en t if y a n

T he t h i rd s t ra in o fp os tp roce s sua l i sm i d en t if ied b yP a t te r son ( 1990 :193 ) c oncerns t h e c oncep t o f i d eo logy . Ma rk L eone

a r i s toc ra t ic c l a s s a nd b o th empowe r s a nd s anc t if ie s i t s p ol i t ica ld om ina t ion ( Ea r le , 1 990 :75-6 ) .

( e .g . , L eon e , 1 982 , 1 984 ; L eone , e ta l . , 1 987 ) i so ne o ft h e r e sea rche r s m o s t c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th a t temp t s t o

A

i n co rpora t e i d eo logy i n to h i s a na ly s i s . L eone d e r ive s h i s d ef in i t ion o f i d eo logy f r om S hank s a nd T i l ley 's c r i t ique ( 1982 :129 -54 ) o ft he w o rk o f A l thu s s e r c o mb ined w i th h i s r e ad ing o fG eo rg L ukäc s ( Leon e , 1 984 :26 ) .

f ou r th

s t ra in

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p os tp roce s sua l i sm

i s k nown

a s

' I n te rp re t ive A rchaeo logy ' . I tc ame a bou t a s ac on sc iou s e f or t o n t he p a r t o f s ome p o s tp roce s sua l a r chaeo log i s t s t o a n swe r t h e f olow ing c r i t ic i sm s . F i r s t , t hey w e r e a ccu sed o f n o ta c tua l ly d o ing a r chaeo logy ( T i l ley , 1 993 :ix ) . T he s e cond

A d ef in i t ion o fi d eo logy b eg in s w i th wha t i ti sn o t , i . e . , a s ha red w o r ldv iew o r s ys tem o fb e l ief s . I n s tead i ts hou ld b e

c ha rg e l e ve l led a t t hem c once rned t h e i r e mpha s i s o n d econ s truc t ing t h e w o rk s o f o the r s r a the r t han o n mak ing

t hough t o fa si d eas a bou tn a tu re , c au s e , t ime a nd p e r son , t h e t h ing s s o c ie ty t akes a s ' g iven s ' ( L eone , 1 984 :26 ) . T he se ' g iven s ' c on s t i tu te a p ower fu l s oc ia l f o rce t ha t i mpac t c u l tu ra l c hang e . I deo logy p ervade sa l l a sp ec t so fc u l tu r e a nd

p o s i t ive c on t r ibu t ion s o ft he i r o wn ( Ch ippenda le , 1 993 :32 ) . Wh i le r e ly ing o n many o ft h e t heo re t ica l u nde rp inn ing s o f ` p os tp roce s sua l i sm ' men t ioned a bove , t ho se a dvoca t ing a n i n te rp re t ive a pp roach h ave t ended t o l e an mo re t owa rd s

i si n sepa rab le f r om i t . T he ref o re i tc anno t b e i gno red a s ' e p iphenomena l ' i n t he p u r su i t o fe xp la in ing t he p roc e s se s

r e la t iv i sm t han mo s t o ft he i r c o l le ague s . T he f o l low ing b r ief d i scu s s ion i sb a sed o n w o rk s b y S hank s a nd T i l ley ( 1992 ) ,

o fc hang e .

S hank s ( 1992 ) , a nd T i l ley ( 1993 ) . S hank s a nd T i l ley a s ser t ( 1992 :22 -23 ) t ha t t he r e c rea t ion o fa n o b jec t ive p a s t i sn o t p o s s ib le . T he a rgumen t r un s a s f o l low s . F i r s t , w ord s a r e

I d eo logy 's m a in f unc t ion , a cco rd ing t oL eone , " i st od i sgu i s e

n eeded t o d e sc r ibe a r t if ac t s b u t t e rm ino logy c an n eve r b e t o ta l ly c u l tura l ly n eu t ra l . A l l d e sc r ip t ion s t h e ref o re h ave c onno ta t ions e mbedded w i th in t h em t ha t may o r may n o tb e a pp rop r ia te t ot ha tp ar t icu la rs e to f ma te r ia lc u l tu re . S econd ,

t h e a rb i t ra r in e s s o f t he s oc ia l o rd e r , i n c lud ing t he u neven d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou rce s , a nd i t r e p roduce s r a the r t han t r ans f orm s s o c ie ty" ( 1984 :26 ) . T h i s p o s i t ion d e r ive s f r om t h e ' Dom inan t I deo logy T he s i s ' p u t f o rwa rd b y A l thu s se r ( 1971 :127 -86 ) . I ti mp l ie s t ha t a ny g i ven s oc ie ty s ha r e s a

s i nce h uman b e ing sh ave t he t a sk o fd ec id ing wha ta t t r ibu te s t or e co rd , w ec on sc iou s ly o ru ncon sc iou s ly mak ej udgemen t s

s i ng le , c on s i s ten t i d eo logy wh ich i s c on s t ruc ted a nd c on t ro l led b y t h e d om inan t g roup . T he e l i te i n t u rn i mpo se

a bou t w ha t i sa nd i sn o ti mpo r tan t . E ven t hough r e sea rche r s may b e l ieve t h ey a r e b e ing c omp le te ly o b jec t ive b y t a k ing

t he i ri d ea so nt hose i nl owe rs oc ia lp o s i t ion s .

t h i s o r t ha t m ea su remen t o n ag iven a r t if ac t , t h ey a re , b y T he ' Dom inan tI deo logy T he s i s ' h a sb een s eve re ly c r i t ic ized f o r av a r ie ty o f r ea son s ( e .g . , A b e rc romb ie a nd T u rne r ,

d ef in i t ion , i n te rp r e t ing i t .

1 980 ; B eaud ry , e t a l . , 1 991 ; H odd e r , 1 986 ) . T he se a u tho r s c l a im t ha t i td en ie s t h e a b i l i ty o fs ubg roup s w i th in as o c ie ty

T he p a s t , t hen , o n ly e x is t s i ni t s r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e p re sen t . T h e n a tu re o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip i s i n f luenc ed b y t h e e xper ience , c u l tu ra l b ackg round , a nd b i a se s o ft he p e r son s c a r ry ing o u ta r cheo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s . T h i si s wha tT i l ley

t o c rea t e t h e i r own i d eo log ie s . I tc r ed i t s t he e l i te w i th t o o much i n f lu ence a nd s oc ia l c on t ro l o ve r d iver se e l emen t s w i th in a c ommun i ty . H odd e r ( 1992 :13 ) p o in t s o u t t h e

m ean sw hen h e s ay s , " (we ) r ega rd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a s t h e e nd p roduc t o f t he w ay i n w h ich c on tempo ra ry i nd iv idua l s e xp e r ienc e i t " ( T i l ley , 1 993 :7 ) . E ven t hough a

p o ss ib i l i ty o f d i f f e ren t i d eo log ica l r e ac t ion s t o t h e s ame ma te r ia l c u l tu r e . F ina l ly , A b e rc romb ie a nd T u rne r h ave d emon s t ra t ed t ha t e ven w i th in t h e e l i te g roup , i d eo log ica l f a c t ion s c an e x is t . T hey s ugges t t ha t ' d om inan t i d eo log ie s ' s e ldom h ad much e f ec to ns ubo rd ina te c l a sse s .

' r ea l ' p a s t h app ened , t h is i sn o t wha t a r chaeo log i s t s s t udy . We c an n eve r k now wha t ' a c tua l ly t o ok p l ac e ' b ecau se w e c anno t a vo id v i ew ing t he p a s t t h rough t h e f i l te r o f o u r

D esp i te t h e p rob lem s w i th t he ' Dom inan t I deo log y T he s i s ' ,

mod e rn p e rcep t ion s . I n t he s ame v e in , a r t if ac t s s hou ld b e r e f e r red t o a s ' t heo re t ica l o b jec t s ' r a the r t han a s i nd ep end en t . r e a l ' o b jec t s ' t o e mpha s ize t he i n te rp r e t ive

i td id s e rv et of ocu s a t ten t ion o n t h e r o le o fi d eo logy i nt h e l eg i t im iz ing s t ra teg ie s o f r u l ing g roup s . B u t e ven t hough

q ua l i ty i nhe ren t i n t he i r d e sc r ip t ion s ( Shank s a nd T i l ley . , 1 992 :111 ) .

mos t a r cha eo log is t s a cknow ledg e t h e e x i s tenc e o f mu l t ip le i d eo log ie s w i th in a s oc ie ty , i ti ss t i l l p o s s ib le t o s t ud y t h e

I fo ne a ccep t st h ep o s i t ion t ha tt h e re i sn ow ay t od e scr ib ea n

w ay s i n w h ich p eop le u sed m a te r ia l s ymbo l s t o c on s t ruc t t he i r s o c ia l r e a l i ty . E a r le ( 1990 ) , who s t ud ie s c omp lex

o b jec t ive p a s t , t h e q ue s t ion a r i se s a st oh ow c an m ean ing b e d e r ived f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ? T he p o in t mad e b y

c h iefdom s . c on tend s t ha t a t t h e l o ca l l e ve l , t h er e m ay b e s ign if i can ta moun t so fs t y l i s t ic v ar ia t ion i nd i sp lay i t em s . A t a r eg iona l

l e ve l ,

e l i te s

w i l l

t e nd

t o u se

T iley ( 1993 :5 )i st ha tt he re i sn os i ng le m ean ing o ft h ep a s t . Mean ing i sc r ea ted b y a nd w i th in t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween

a l im i ted 7

t h e o b serve ra nd o b served . T he ref o r e mu l t ip le m ean ing s a r e

1 994b :17 ) . I n s tead , p roce s sua l i s t s r e qu i re t ha t a tl e a s t s ome h ypo the se s d e r ived f r om t he ir t heo r ie s t o b e t e s tab le . T h i s s imp ly m ean s t ha t a t heo ry c an b e e i the r v er if ied o r

i n ev i tab le , e ven d e s i rab le , a s e ach r e sea rche r b r ing s a u n ique o u t look t oh i s o r h e r w o rk . T h i s p r even t s a ny g iven i n te rp re ta t ion f r om b ecom ing e n trenched a nd i mmu tab le . A s n ew t heo r e t ica l p e r sp ec t ive s e me rg e i n t he f u tu r e ,

d i sp roved b y a tl e a s t s ome k ind s o fa dd i t iona l d a ta . T h i s i s c l ea r ly c on t ra ry t o t h e s t a temen t b y H odder who d o e s n o t p e rm i t i nd ep enden t t e s t ing b ecau se o f t he s ub jec t ive

p e rcep t ion s o f a nc ien t s o c ie t ie s w i l l i n ev i tab ly c hang e a s w el . T hu s m ean ing i sn eve r s t agnan t b u t c ons tan t ly s l id ing

c omponen to fa l l d a ta . P roce ssual i s t sa l so r ecogn ize t ha tt h e p re sen t h e lp s t o d ef ine t he p a s t , b u t t hey f e e l t h e

a nd s h if t ing t h rough t ime . T i l ley g oe s o nt os ay , "We a r en o l onge r o b se s sed w i th f i d e l i ty t o t he e v id ence o r t he f a c t s

i n te rp r e ta t iv e ' s choo l ' h a s g one t o o f a r b y d eny ing t ha t w e

e r roneou s ly r ega rded a s s ome k ind o f f a c tua l b ed rock b eyond d i spu ta t ion , b u tp u t mo re empha s i so nt he manne ri n wh ich t h e se f a c t s a nd t h i s e v id ence a r e ' r ead ' b y t h e

c anno t b e o b jec t ive a ta l l . Advanc e s i ns c ien t if ic t e chn ique s l i k e d a t ing , d a ta r e cove ry , i den ti f i ca t ion a nd q uan t if i ca t ion o fp lan t a nd a n ima l r ema in s a nd t r a ce e lemen t a na ly s is a l l p rov id e w ay s t o t e s t whe ther a t h eo ry i sp lau s ib le . S o t o o

a rchaeo log i s t o r a pp rop r ia ted i n h e r o r h i s d i scou r se " ( 1993 :7 ) . I nf a c t , h e s ugg e s t s t ha t t he w o rd ' mean ing ' may b e b e t te r o f b e ing d i sca rd ed a l toge the r . P e rhap s a r chaeo log is t s s hou ld j u s t t r y a nd make s ense o f t h e

d oe s t h e u se o f a pp rop r ia te e thnog raph ic a na log ie s a nd h i s to r ica ld a ta ( T r igge r , 1 989 :396 ) . B u tt r y ing t ou nd e r s tand t he i nd iv idua l i n ten t ions o fp e r son s i nt h e p a s t a s i d eal i s t s s uch a s H ege l , C o l l ingwood , G ee r t z , a nd R icoeu r w ou ld

a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T h i s a vo id s t h e t r oub le some p rob lem o f "Who se m ean ing? " ,t h ep er son / s who c r ea ted t he ma t e r ia l c u l tu r e o r t h e mod ern r e sea rche r t r y ing t o u nd er s tand i t .

h ave u s d o i s c l ea r ly c oun te rp roduc t ive b ecau se i t i s i mpo s s ib le ( R enf rew , 1 994a :4 ) . A r chaeo logy a s as c ience

Mak ing s en se o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta i mp l ie s t ha t i ti sa c r ea t ive p roce s s , s ub jec t t oc hang e , a nd t ha t t h e mean ing o f t he p a s ti su l t ima te ly u nknowab le .

c anno t a dvanc e i n a n a tmosphe r e o fu nbr id led r e la t iv i sm . T e s tab i l i ty mus t r ema in a t oo l i n t he a rchaeo log i s t s r eper to i r e t o h e lp d ec id e i fat heo ry i sv iab le . Y of f e e a nd S he r ra t ts um u pt he i rp o s i t ion t h is w ay . . .

REACT ION TO " POSTPROCESSUAL IS M"

. . i fa r chaeo log is t s a r e t o t h ink t h em se lve s i n to t h e p a s t a nd r ega rd t h ep ro ce s s o fi n f e r ence a s as pec ie s o f s t o ry tel ing , w e s ha l l n o t o n ly l o se a cad em ic c r ed ib i l i ty a s s i en t i s t s , b u t a l so w e s ha l l b o re t h e p ub l ic w ho c ana lway s f i nd m o r e e n ter ta in ing v e r s ion s o ft h e p a s t t han a rchaeo log i s t s a re l i k e ly t o p roduce .

C r i t ique o fP os tprocessua l ism L ike N ew A r cheo logy , p o s tp roce ssua l i sm h as p roduced i t s s hare o f c r i t ic s ( e .g . . B inf o rd , 1 987 ; E a r le a nd P r euce l , 1 987 ; Y of f ee a nd S her ra t t , 1 993a -b ) . T ha t d oe s n o t m ean , h oweve r , t h a tt h ey a s ag roup c omp le te ly r e jec ta l l t h et e n e t s o f p o s tp roc e ssual i sm . K oh l ( 1993 :13 ) , f o r i n s tance , n o te s t ha t ad ebunk ing o f t h e n a iv e p o s i t iv i sm a nd p e rva s ive e co log ica l e mpha s i s o fN ew A r cheo logy w a s l ong o ve rdue . R enf r ew a nd B ahn ( 1991 :431-2 ) a cknow ledge t h e

( Yof f ee a nd S he r ra t t , 1 993b :6 )

Ano the r i s sue t ha t d iv id e s t he t wo g roup s i nvo lv e s t h e d ef in i t ion o f ' c on tex t ' . N ea r ly a l l a r cha eo log is t s w o rk ing

i mpor tance o f i n co rpo ra t ing t he c oncep t s o f s ymbo l i sm , p owe r , i d eo logy a nd ' ma te r ia l c u l tu re a s a n a c t ive f o r ce i n s oc ie ty ' i n to t h e i r a na ly s i s . I n a dd i t ion , t h ey n o l ong e r d ef end t he p o s i t ion t ha t f a c t s c an e x is t i ndependen t ly o f t heo ry .

t oday a g re e o n t h e n ec e s s i ty o fa na lyz ing a r t if ac t sa nd o t he r r ema in s i n r e f e rence t o t he i r c u l tu ra l s e t t ing . Ma te r ia l c u l tur e d i vo rc ed f r om i t s s u r round ing s c an c on t r ibu te l i t t le t o e xp lana t ion s o f i t s p lac e i n t h a t s o c ie ty . B u t w ha t

E ven t hough many r e sea r che r s h ave n ow i nco rpo ra ted c er ta in a sp e c t s o f p os tp roce s sua l i sm i n to t he i r w o rk ,

c on s t i tu te s ' c on tex t ' i sc once ived s omewha t d if e r en t ly b y t he t wo ' s choo l s ' . B o th a g ree t ha t ' c on tex t ' i n c lud e s t h e a rchaeo log ica l m i l ieu i n wh ich t he d a ta w a s r e cove red a s

s i gn if ican td if e rence sr ema in . T he m a jo ro ne p er ta in st ot h e

w e l l a s o the r k ind s o f i n f orma t ion t h a t may h e lp t o

r e jec t ion o ft h es c ien t if i c m e thod b y mos tp o s tp roces sua l is t s . Th is s t em s , a s d i scu s sed a bove , w i th t h e ir d i s i l lu s ionmen t

i lu m ina t et h e a r t if ac t ( s )u se a nd /o rm e an ing i n t ha tc u l tu r e . O the r i n f o rma t ion may i n c lude s e t t lem en t p a t te rn s t ud ie s ,

w i th p o s i t iv i sm , h ypo the s i s t e s t ing , a nd t h e s ea rch f o r c over ing l aw s . H odde r s t a te s t h i sv e ry c l ea r ly i nh i s r ep ly t o

n a tu ra l p roce s se s wh ich h ave af ec ted t h e s i te , h i s to r ica l r e co rd s , a nd e t hnog raph ic a na log ies .

E a r le a nd P r euce l , " I d o r e jec t ar i g id p o s i t iv ism . . , t h e l i nk ing o f e xp lana t ion w i th p red ic t ion , a nd t h e b e l ie f t h a t

B u t t h e p o s tp roce s sua l i s t s b e l ieve t h a t ' c on tex t ' mu s t a l so i nc lud e t h e d ia lec t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en t he p as t a nd t h e a rchaeo log i s t i n te rp r e t ing t ha tp a s t . A nh i s tor ica l s ur v ey h a s

o b jec t ive d a ta c an i n s om ew ay b e s epa ra ted f r om s ub jec t ive t heo ry i n o rd e r t o a l low i ndepend en t t e s t ing " ( Hodd e r i n E a r le a nd P r euce l ,

1 987 :517 ) . P o s tp ro ce s sua l is t s i n s tead

s e ek t o i n te rp re t a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . I n d o ing s o , a rchaeo log i s t s a r e f r ee t oa l te r o r c hang e t h e i r a s sump t ion s

i nd ica ted t ha t r e sea rche r s c an s ub t ly i mpose mean ing o n d a ta w i thou t r e a l ly b e ing a wa re o fi t( T r igg er , 1 989 ) . S o c ia l s t a tu s , g end e r , r a ce , a nd p er sona l i ty a sw e l l a s c u l tu r e a nd

t o e xp la in t h e d a ta ( Be l l , 1 994a :17 ; E a r le a nd P r euce l , 1 987 :510 ) .

h is tor ica l p l ace a l l c an i nf luen c e wha t q u e s t ion s a rchaeo log i s ts a sk a nd wha ta n swer st h e ya r e p red i spo sed t o

P roce s sua l i s t s , t o o , i n te rp re t a rchaeo log ica l d a ta b u t t h ey r e jec t t he f l ex ib i l i ty t h e p o s tp ro ce s sua l is t s a l low i n t h e i r a s sump t ion s t o a ccommoda te t h e i r e xp lana t ion s ( Be l l .

a ccep t . T r igge rs t a te st ha t s oc ia l c ond i t ion s h ave p l ayed a nd w il c on t inue t op lay ama jo rr o le i n s hap ing a rcha eo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion ( 1989 :380 ) . S uch a p o s i t ion s ugge s t s t h a t t he r e i sn o w ay t or e l iab ly r e con s t ruc t t h e p as t b ecau se a ny 8

i n t e rp re ta t ion u l t ima te ly i nvo lve s s ub jec t ive m ean ing s f r om t h ep re sen t .

a nc ien t t hough t p roce s se s , t he c on s t ruc t ion o f s ymbo l s y s tem s a nd t he i r r e la t ion sh ip t o e ach o the r w i th in t h e c on tex t o f s pec if ic s o c ie t ie s . T he e mpha s i s l i e s o n h ow

T he p roce s sual i s t s r e jec t t h i s l i ne o fr e a son ing . T hey a rgue t h a t e ven t hough s ub jec t iv i ty c anno t b e e l im ina ted a l tog e the r , t h e p a s t a nd b y i mp l ica t ion , t h e a r chaeo log ica l

s ymbo l s y s tem s w e r e u sed b y a nc ien t p eop le s a s d i s t inc t f r om t r y ing t o r e con s t ruc t h ow a nc ien t i nd iv idua ls i n te rp r e ted o rt hough ta bou tt hem .

r e co rd , h a sa n e x is tence i nd ep end en to ft h e p r esen t . T hu s i t i sn o tc omp le t e ly o pen t oa ny k ind o fi n te rp re ta t ion s omeone m ay w i sh t op l ac e o n i t . T o l e s sen , a l though n o t e l im ina te ,

B el ( 1994b :301-2 ) i d en t if ie s t h re e r e a son s f o r s t udy ing a nc ien t c ogn i t ion . F i r s t , h e f e e l s t ha t t r y ing t o g a in s ome

t h e i mpac t o f o b server b ia se s , p roce s sua l is t s a dvoca te t h e c ons t ruc t ion a nd t e s t ing o ft wo o r mo re mu tualy e xc lu s ive h ypo the se s t oe xp la in t he s ame d a ta ( Tr igge r , 1 989 ) . T hey

i n s igh t s i n to h ow a nc ien t p eop le t hough t i s al eg i t ima te e nd i n i t se lf . S econd , w e k now t ha t t h e i d ea s o f s pec if ic i nd iv idua ls h ave s haped s oc ie t ie s i n h i s to r ic p e r iod s . P re sumab ly t h i s w a s a l so t r ue i np reh is to ry . T he t h i rd g oa l

a l so s ugg e s tu s ing a s many k ind s o fe v id enc e a s p o s s ib le t o b ea r o n ap a r t icu la r p rob lem . O the r t e chn ique s s uch a s u s e -wea r a nd t r ace e l emen t a na ly se s , n ew a r chaeo log ica l

i st r y ing t o u nde r s tand h ow t hough t p roce s se s i n f luenced l ong term c hang e . P roce ssua l a r chaeo log is t s s hou ld i n co rpo ra te c ogn i t ion a l ong w i th o the r v ar iab le s i n t he i r

d i scove r ie s , a nd n ew t heo r ie s o f h uman b ehav io r c an a l l h e lp t o b o l s t e r o r d i sp rove c u r r en t i n te rp r e ta t ion s . T he u t i l iza t ion o f mu l t ip le l i ne so fe v id ence mak e si t mo re l i k e ly

e xp lana t ion so fc u l tu ra lc hange . T h ese s t ud ie s , t hough , s hou ld s t i l l b e s t ruc tu red a l ong

t h a t a n a r chaeo log is t i sr e con s t ruc t ing ap or t ion o ft he p a s t t ha t may h av e h appened r a the r t han ac r ea t ing a s t o ry t ha t s p r ing s l a rg e ly f r om h i s /he r i mag ina t ion . T o s t reng then

t r ad i t iona l me thodo log ica l l i ne s o f e nqu i ry . T ha t i s , a s sump t ion s s hou ld b e a s e xp l ic i t a s p o s s ib le a nd t he b a s i s f o r mak ing i n f e rence s s hou ld b e c a r efu l ly l i nked t oe x i s t ing

t h e i r a rgumen t , p roce s sua l is t s p o in t o u t t ha t a r chaeo log is t s h av e b u i l tu p al a rge b ody o fd a ta t ha t h a s s t ood t he t e s t o f t ime . T h e b road o u t l ine s o f wha t h appened i n p reh is to ry h av e r ema in ed s ubs tan t ia l ly i n tac t a l though s pec if i c i n t e rp r e ta t ion s h ave b een c on s tan t ly r ev i sed . T he p a s t may n o tb e k now ab le i ni t s d e ta i l s , b u tt h e a s ser t ion t ha t w e c an

d a ta . B y p roceed ing i n t h i s manne r , w e c an b eg in t o u nde r s tand h ow c oncep t s w e r e f o rmed a nd u sed i n s pec if ic s i tua t ion s . R enf rew a rgue s t ha t t h i s i s p o s s ib le b ecau se h uman s h ave ac ogn i t ive map , mappa h e c a l l s i t( R enf r ew , 1 994a ) , wh ich w e s ha re t o a l a rg e d eg ree w i th o the r

n o tk now a ny th ing f o rs u r ei sc er ta in ly o ve rp e s s im is t ic .

m embe r s o fo u r c u l tu re . T he se c ommon c oncep t ion s o ft h e

C ogn i t ive -P roces sua l /Ho l is t ic A rchaeo logy

w o r ld h e ld b y m emb e r s o f ag iven s o c ie ty a l low u s , mod e rn r e s ea rche r s , t o i n f e r n o t o n ly p a t te rn s o f a c t ion b u t a l so p a t tern so ft hough tf r om ma te r ia lr ema in s .

A s

i nd ica ted a bove ,

many

a r chaeo log i s t s

r e jec ted t h e T he d i ff icu l ty a r i se s n o tw i th a cknow ledg ing t ha t w e s hou ld

r e la t iv is t ic t e ndenc ie s o f p os tp roce s sua l i sm b u t a cknow ledged t h e v a l id i ty o f many o fi t s c r i t ic i sm s o fN ew A r cheo logy . T h i s l e d t o a t temp t s t oi n teg ra t e t h e s ymbol ic , r e l ig iou s , a nd i d eo log ica l c once rn s o f p o s tp roc es sua l i sm

b e s t udy ing c ogn i t ion , b u t w i th c hoo s ing a pp rop r ia te m e thodo log ie s t oa pp ly t os pec if i c p rob lem s . I n t h e v o lume e d i ted b y R enf rew a nd Z ub row ( 1994 ) , an umbe r o fa u tho r s

w i th t h e t r ad i t iona l p u r su i t s a nd m e thodo log ica l r i go r o f p roce s sua l i sm . R enf rew ( 1982 ) w a s o ne o ft h e f i r s t t o c a l l

h ave s ugge s ted a v a r ie ty o f p o ten t ia l ly u sefu l a pp roache s . Ma rcu sa nd F lanne ry ( 1994 :55 ) m en t ion t h ree . T he f i r s t , t h e

t h i s f u s ion c ogn i t ive a r chaeo logy . L a te r h e r enamed i t

D i rec t H is to r ica l A pp roach i ss im i la r t oH i l l 's ' T igh t L oca l A na logy ' ( 1994 ) . I ne ach c a se , t h e r e sea rche rc ompa r e s d a ta

c ogn i t iv e -p roce ssua l a rchaeo logy ( R enf r ew , 1 994a :10 ) . Ma rcu s a nd F lanne ry ( 1994 :55 ) p r ef e r t h e t e rm ' h o l i s t ic

f r om a k nown h i s to r ic s i tua t ion t op r eh i s to r ic r ema in s . A s t h e n ame s s ugge s t , t h e r e mu s t b e s t rong r e a son s t ob e l ieve

a r cha eo logy 'b ecau se i ti mp l ie st ha tc ogn i t ion d e se rve se qua l s t a tu s w i th o the r e co log ica l , e conom ic , a nd s oc iopo l i t ica l v a r iab le s w h i le n o t s i ng l ing o u t c ogn i t ion a s t he o n ly

t h e re i sc u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty f r om t h e u nknown t ot h e k nown e xamp le . T he o the r t wo a pp roache s Marcu s a nd F lanne ry u se a re t h e a na ly s i s o f p ub l ic s pace a nd r el ig iou s

i mpor tan t v a r iab le . T hey a l so p o in t o u t t ha t c onc e rn w i th i d eo logy , s ymbo l s , a nd r e l ig ion i sn o t n ew i n a r chaeo logy . T hey a dvoca ted a h ol i s t ic a pp roach b ack i n 1 976 ( F lanne ry a nd Ma rcu s , 1 976 ) . N ea r E a s te rn a r chaeo log i s t s a r e

a r ch i tec tu re a nd t he c on tex tua l a na ly s i s o f r e l ig iou s p a raphe rna l ia . T hey a pp l ied t he se m e thod s t ot h e Z apo tec s w ho d id n o tl e ave b eh ind w r i t ten r e co rd s .

c e r ta in ly f am il ia rw i th t he r ema rkab le b ook , T he I n te l lec tua l Ad ven tu re o fA nc ien t Man b yF rank f or t , e ta l . ( 1946 ) w h ich

R e sea rche r s who w o rk i n h i s to r ic p e r iod s h ave t h i s a dd i t iona l , a nd o f ten , i nva luab le s ou rc e o f e v id ence w i th

d ea l t w i th t h e se t op ic s . C ogn i t ive o r h ol i s t ic a r chaeo logy s hou ld b ev i ewed mo r ea s ar ed i scove ry o fp rev iou sc onc e rn s

wh ich t o f o rmu la te a nd t e s t t h e i r t h eor ie s a bou t a nc ien t c ogn i t ion . T o d emon s t r a t e t h is , J .N . P o s tga te ( 1994 ) l o ok ed

r a the r t h an a s ac omp le te ly n ew f i e ld . ( I n t h e r ema inde r o f t h e p ap e r . Iw i l l u se t h e t e rm c ogn i t ive a r chaeo logy t oa vo id c onfu s ing t h e h ol i s t ic a pp roach s ugge s ted b y F lanne ry a nd h o l i sm a s d i scu s sed b y B e l l ( 1992 ) . T he l a t te r d oes n o t

a t c l ay f i gu r ine s f r om t wo s i te s i n Mesopo tam ia d a ted a m i l lenn ium a pa r t . H e c omb ined t h e a r t if ac tua l d a ta w i th t h e i r a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t a nd d ocumen ta ry e v id ence . B a sed o nh i sf i nd ing s , P o s tga te a rgued t ha ti tw a s l i ke ly t ha t

i n co rpo ra t e t h e i d ea t ha t i nd iv idua ls c an b e s i gn if ican t

C ogn i t ive a r chaeo logy , i n g ene ra l t e rm s , i st h e " s tudy o f

t h e s ame c ogn i t ive s y s tem h ad b een i no p e ra t ion f o ra tl e a s t 1 000 y ea r s . T he f i na l m e thod t o b e m en t ioned h e r e w a s d i scu s sed b y

p a s t w ay s o f t hough t a s i n f er red f r om ma te r ia l r ema in s" ( Renf rew . 1 994a :3 ) . C ogn i t ive a r chaeo log is t s s e ek t o s t udy

R enf rew ( 1994b ) . H e t h ink s t ha t o ne o ft h e mo s t p rof i tab le s ou rce s o fi n f o rma t ion a bou t b el ief s y s tem s , i fo ne e xc lud e s

f a c to r s i ni n f luenc ing l ong t e rm s oc ia l d eve lopmen t . )

9

w r i t ten d ocumen t s , i si c onog raphy . I c onog raphy , a cco rd ing t o R enf rew , i s am e thod o f n on -ve rba l c ommun ica t ion

a dd re s si s sue sc oncern ing c hang e si nt h es ymbo l ic r eper to i re t h rough t h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K as s i te p e r iod s . T he

b e tween p eop le w ho u nd e r s tand t h e c onven t ion s o f t h a t

i nc lu s ion o ft h e K as s i te ma ter ia l p o sed d if i cu l t ie s b ecau se t he v a s t m a jo r i ty o ft h e 2 83 s ea l s a nd s ea l ing s c ou ld n o t b e

c u l tu r e . I c onog raph ic r ep re sen ta t ion r e l ie s h eav i ly o n r epe t i t ion o f i nd iv idua l s ymbo ls a nd g roup s o f s ymbo l s t o

d a ted . T h e ref o re I h ad t o t r ea t t hem a s a s i ng le c h rono log ica l u n i t . T o c rea te c ompa rab le c a t egor ie s o f

c onvey i t s m e s sage . C ogn i t ive a rchaeo log i s t s a cknow ledge t ha t t h e m ean ing s o f a nc ien t s ymbo l ic s y s tem s a r e l a rge ly

a na ly s i si nt h eO ld B aby lon ian d a ta , Is ubd iv id ed t hos e s ea l s i n to t wo g roup s . Id e s igna ted t h e 2 95 s ea l s a nd s ea l ing s f r om S umuabum t h rough H ammur ab i ' Ea r ly O ld

i nacces s ib le t ou sg iven t he n a ture o fo u rd a ta . Mean ing h e re r e f er s t ot h e w ay s i n wh ich a nc ien t p eop le i n te rp r e ted t h e i r own ma te r ia l c u l tu r e . N ever the le s s , t h e v e ry c ohe r ency a nd r edundancy o f t en emp loyed i nt he p e rpe tua t ion o fs ymbo l ic

B aby lon ian ' ( EOB ) a nd t he 3 05 f r om S amsu i luna t h rough S am sud i tana ' La te O ld B aby lon ian ' ( LOB ) . T h i s d iv is ion p rov ided m e w i th t h ree s ubg roup s , r ough ly e qua l i n s i ze ,

s y s tem s m ay m ak e i tp o s s ib le f o r r e sea rcher s t od educe o ne o r s eve ra l m ean ing s o f ag iven s e t o fs ymbo l s . Wha t mu s t

t ha t c ou ld b e a na lyzed i nc h rono log ica l o rde r . E ven t hough t h i st y p e o fa gg rega t ion d oub t le s so b scu re s many v a r ia t ion s i n t h e u s e o f s ymbo l s t h rough t ime , i tc an n ev er the le s s

a lway s b e k ep t i n m ind i st ha t a rchaeo log is t s a t mo s t c an o n ly h op e t o g l imp se a f r ac t ion o f t he mean ing s t ha t o r ig ina l ly e x i s ted .

p rov id e a g ene ra l p i c tu re o f i c onog raph ic c hange o n c y l ind e rs e a l so ve rt h ec ou r se o ft h es e cond m i l lenn ium B .C .

THE RESEARCH PROBLE M

1 .C an a ny ' p r inc ip le so fc ompo s i t ion ' b ed e tec ted i nt he O ld B aby lon ian s ea ld e s ign s?

Mesopo tam ia , d u r ing t he s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . , p rov ide s

2 .C an a ny o ft h e OB i c onog raphy b eu sed a s c h rono log ica l i nd ica to r s?

a ne xce l len to ppo r tun i ty t oi nve s t iga te a nc ien tb e l ief s y s tem s u s ing a c ogn i t ive -p roce s sua l a pp roach b ecause o f t h e a bundance o fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta t h a tc an b e c omb ined w i th h i s to r ica l d o cumen t s . B u t a s P o s tga te n o ted , t h is k ind o f wo rk h a s n o t b een d one i n r ecen t y ea r s ( 1994 :176 ) . T he p resen t s t udy e ndeavo r s t o mak e ac on t r ibu t ion t owa rd s

3 .C an a ny c hang e s i nt h e f r equen c ie so f OB i c onog raphy b e r e la t ed t ot h er i se a nd f a l l o ft he O ld B aby lon ian emp ire? 4 .D id t h eK a s s i te s e a l c arv ing t r ad i t ion e vo lve f r om t he L a t eO ld B aby lon ian s t y le? 5 .C an OB a nd KAS i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion sb el i nked t ot h er i se o fp er sona lr el ig ion?

r e c t if y ing t h i ss i tua t ion .

6 .D o e s a ny OB a nd K a s s i te i c onog raphy a nd /o ri n sc r ip t ion s r e la te t ot h er i s ing p rom inence o f Ma rduk?

T he O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s t og e th e r c ov e r r ough ly t h ree -qua r te r s o ft he s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . T h i s t ime f r ame w i tne s sed s eve ra l ma jo r p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s t r an sf orma t ion s w h ich a f f ec ted Me sopo tam ian l i f e . I n t h e p o l i t ica l a r ena , t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty o f B aby lon e xpanded , c on t rac ted . , a nd e ven tua l ly f e l l . L a te r d ocumen ta ry e v id enc e

T he D a ta B a s e T he d a ta a va i lab le f o r t h e a na ly s i s e x i s t i n t h e f o rm o f h und r ed s o fO ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te c y l ind e r s e a ls a nd

r evea l s t h a t an ew e thn ic g roup , t h e K a s s i te s , a s sumed c on t ro lo fB aby lon ia ( G ray son , 1 975 , Moran . , 1 987 ) . D e sp i te t he f a c t t h ey w e re f o re igne r s , t he K a s s i te s a pp ea r t o h ave

s ea l i mp r e s s ion s . C y l ind er s e a ls a re g ene ra l ly c y l ind r ica l ly shaped p i ece s o f s t on e o r o the r m a te r ia l w i th

a dop ted a g rea t d ea l o f t he i nd igenou s Me sopo tam ian c u l tu r e ( Roux , 1 992 :248 ) . C oncu r r en t ly i n t he r el ig iou s

h e igh t s r ang ing o n a ve rage b e twe en 1 5 a nd 4 0 m i l l ime ter s . E ng rave r s c a rved d e s ign s , s ymbo l s , s c ene s , a nd /o r i n sc r ip t ion s o n t h e i r s u rf ace s uch t h a t ac on t inuou s f r ieze w ou ld b e c r ea ted when r o l led o u t o n to w e t c l ay . T he

s phe re , p e r sona l r e l ig ion g rew i n i mpo r tance a s d id t h e s t a tus o f Ma rduk , t he c i ty g od o fB aby lon . B y t h e e nd o ft h e Ka s s i te p e r iod , t he p r ie s t s o f Ma rduk s t ood p o i sed t o p romo te h im t ot h eh ead o ft he p an theon .

p r e se rved c l ay i mp re s s ion i sk nown a s a' s ea l ing ' . As ea l ing b yd ef in i t ion p re suppo se st he e x is tence o f as ea le v en t hough o r ig ina l s e a l s h ave r a re ly b een r e cove red . S inc e m y d a ta

Ic on tend t h a t t h e p ol i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s i c onog raphy s pann ing t h i s t ime p e r iod mu s t b e s en s i t ive t o t he se g rea t c hange s

i n

Me sopo tam ian

l i f e .

R e sea rcher s

c on s is t o f ac omb ina t ion o f s ea l s a nd s ea l ing s , b o th t e rm s w i l l b e u sed t o r e f e r t o t he i c onog raphy o n t h e s ea l r eg a rd le s s o f whe the r i td er ive s d i r ec t ly f r om a n e x tan t

h ave

d emon s t ra ted t h a t i n o the r c omp lex s o c ie t ies " s ymbo l s o f p o l i t ica l l e g i t ima t ion , i n c lud ing r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween p r esen tr u le r sa nd t he g od so ra nc e s to r s a nd o the ra spec t s o f

o b jec to ri nd i rec t ly f r om a ni mp re s s ion . C yl ind e r s e a l s c omp r ise a n e xc e l len t d a ta b a se f o r a c ogn i t ive -p roce s sua l s t udy f o r av a r ie ty o fr ea son s . F i r s t , t he

i d eo logy a ccoun tf o r much ' a r t is t ic ' a c t iv i ty i na nc ien t s t a te " t oe xp la in s om eo ft he p a t te rn so fc hange d e tec ted i nt h eu se o f i c onog r aphy i n r e la t ion t o t he p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s

( Haye s , 1 993 :82 -3 ) . T he ma in g oa l o ft h i s p ro jec t i st os e ek

s ymbo l ic r ep e r to i r e u sed o n OB a nd K a s s i te s e a l s c on s is t s ma in ly o fd e i t ie s , h yb r id c rea tu re s , a nd o the r mo t i f s ( B lack a nd G r een , 1 992 :63 ) . A l l OB s ea l s a pp ea r t o h av e b een

e ven t s o ft h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te P e r iod s , a nd t o c on s truc t i n f e r ence s o f h ow t hey m igh t h ave a f ec ted o ne

i n sc r ib ed w i th a t l e a s t s ome i c onog raphy . T he r e a r e n o i n s tan ce st ha t Iam a wa r eo f ac omp le te O ld B aby lon ian s ea l

a no the r .

w i th j u s t a n i n sc r ip t ion a nd n o s ymbo l s . On t he o t he rh and , t he r e a r e many s e a l s t ha t o n ly h ave i c onog raphy b u t d o n o t h av e a n i n sc r ip t ion . Af ew s ea ls f r om t h e Ka s s i te P e r iod d o

Th is o b jec t ive c an b e b rok en d own i n to s i x mo re s p ec if ic r e sea rch q u e s t ion s . T h e i n i t ia l t h ree p er ta in e xc lu s ive ly t o

h av ej u s t a n i n sc r ip t ion b u t t he v a s t m a jo r i ty h ave a tl e a s t s om e i c onog raphy . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t t h e Me sopo tam ian s

ma ter ia l f r om t h e F i r s t D yna s ty o fB aby lon . T he l a t te rt h re e 1 0

c on s ide red c y l ind e r s e a l s a s d i sp lay ing s ymbo l ic me ssage s .

a pp rop r ia te

o b jec t s

f o r

c ompo s i t ion sm ay h ave m ean t . On ly r e cen t ly h a s s om ew o rk b e en d on e c omb in ing i mage , t e x t , a nd c on tex t i n o rd e r t o b eg in " . . d ecod ing t he c u l tu ra l i n f o rma t ion c on ta ined i nt h e g l yp t ic a r t s " (W in te r , 1 987 :92 ) . F rom h e r s t udy o n s e a ls

S econd , t h e s e a l s a nd s e a l ing s a va i lab le s pan v i r tua l ly t he e n t ir e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s . T he e a r l ies t s ea l

b e long ing t ob u reauc ra t s o ft h e U r I I p e r iod , I r ene W in te r c onc luded t h a tt h et ex ta nd i mag ew o rked t og e the rt oc onvey

i n my d a ta b a se , s e a l 1 ,b ea r s t h e n am e o ft he f i r s t k ing o f t he F ir s t D ynas ty o fB aby lon . ( No te : S ea l n umbe r s i n b o ld t ype r e f e r t ot ho se i lu s t ra ted i n t h e p l a te s e c t ion . ) T he l a s t d a tab le K a ss i te s ea l Ii n c luded , s ea l 8 79 , c ome s f r om a t ab le t a s s igned t ot he e l even th y ea ro fS haga rak t i -Shu r ia sh . H e r e igned l e s s t han o ne c en tu ry b e f o re t h e f al o f t he Ka s s i te d yna s ty .

i n f o rma t ion r ega rd ing t h e o wne r 's p lace i n t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem . H e r w o rk d emon s t ra te s h ow s uch a n a pp roach c an y i e ld i n s igh t s t ha t w ou ld b e m is sed i fi mage a nd t e x tw e r ea na lyzed s epa ra te ly . B ef o r e b eg inn ing a c ogn i t ive -p roce s sua l a na ly s i s , s e ve ra l a dd i t iona l i s sue s mu s t b e e xp lo r ed . F i r s t , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o k now wha t s e a l d e s ign c onven t ion s w e re i n u se a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod t o e s tab l i sh a

T h i rd , i no rd e rt od o ac ogn i t ive s t udy , a na dequa te amoun t o f ma te r ia l mu s t b e a va i lab le . O f c ou r se , wha t c on s t i tu te s a dequa te i ss ub jec t ive . I n t h i s c a se , t h e r e a r e h und red s o f s ea l s i lu s t ra ted i n p ubl ica t ion s s t r e tch ing b ack o ve r a

b a sel ine a ga ins t wh ich l a te r s e a l s c an b e c ompa red . A t t h e o nse to ft h e OB p e r iod , t h ep rac t ice o fc a rv ing c y l ind e rs e a ls w a s a l ready f i f teen h und red y ea r s o ld . S ea l e ng rave r s d id n o t n eed t oc r ea te a s ymbol i c r epe r to i re f r om s c ra tch , a nd i nde ed t h ey b o r rowed h eav i ly f r om t he ir p red ece s so r s . I n f a c t , a l l o ft h e p r inc ip le mo t if s u sed o n OB s ea l s , w i th o ne

c en tu ry . B ecau se my r e search q ue s t ion s d epend o n d a tab le ma te r ia l , Is e lec ted o n ly t ho se O ld B aby lon ian s ea ls a nd i n sc r ip t ion sa s s ignab le t o as pec if ic k ing . Id id e xc lud e s ome e x tr eme ly f r agmen ta ry e xamp le s , a sw el a ss ome o the r st ha t mo s t l i k e ly o r ig ina ted o u t s id e Me sopo t am ia . T h e e nd r e su l t

e xc ep t ion , c an b e t r aced b ack t o e a rl ie r p e r iod s . T he h uman -f ac ed b u l l , f o r i n s tance , d a te s b ack t o t h e E ar ly D ynas t ic p e r iod F rom t h eA kkad ian st hey i nhe r i ted L ahmu ,

w a s s i x h und r ed s ea l s a nd s ea l ing s d a tab le t o t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod . Mo s to ft he se h av ea tl e a s t s ome p i ece o f t he i mp r e s s ion m i s s ing . I ti sd if i cu l t t op r ed ic t w ha t e f ec t t he u se o fp a r t ia l s eal ing s m igh t h av e o n t he r e su l t s . Id o

t h e man w i th t h e t r ip le c u r l s ( 568 ) a nd t he s un g od , S hama sh ( 2 90 ) . S hama sh s t and s w i th o ne f oo t r e s t ing o n a mound a nd w ea r s t he t yp ica l h o rned c rown a nd l o ng , f l ounced g a rmen t o f t h e d iv ine ( B lack a nd G re en , 1 992 :182 ) . U r I I s ea l s p rov id ed t he s un s ymbo l i n t he

b el iev e t hough , t ha tt h el a rge q uan t i ty a na lyzed w i l lp reven t a ny m a jo r s k ew ing o ft h e r e su l t s . C hoo s ing wh ich K a s s i te s ea l s t oi n c lud e w a s mo r e c omp lex b ecause o n ly af r ac t ion a re d a tab le t o as pec if i ck ing . E ven t h es ec anno tb e a s s igned

c r e scen t moon ( 141 ) a nd t h e i n te rced ing g odde s s ( 89 ) . T hough t h e mo t if s a re r e cogn izab le b y s uch a t tr ibu te s a s a h o rned c r own o r f l ounc ed r obe , t h e c omb ina t ion s a nd

ad ef in i t e o rd e rb ecau se , i n many i n s tance s , n o o ne h a s y e t b een a b le t o d e term ine i n wh ich o rd e r t he K a s s i te k ing s r e igned ( Br inkman , 1 976 ) . T he p rob lem i s c ompounded

c ompo s i t ions i n wh ich t h ey a ppea r a r e q u i te d if e r en t . S t i l l , t h e e x i s t ence o f i d en t i f iab le f i gu r e s o ve r many c en tu r ie s i nd ica te s t ha t t h e t r ad i t ion o fs ea l c ar v ing i n Me sopo tam ia , a tl e a s tu n t i lt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e OB p e r iod , d id n o tr e ad i ly c hang ei t si c onog raph ic r ep er to ir e .

b e cau se s e ve ra l k ing s o f t he d yna s ty b o re t he s ame n ame . F o r t h i s s t ud y , Is e lec ted 2 83 K a s s i te s ea l s . T he r a t iona le w i l lb e d i scu s s ed b e low . F ina l ly , c y l inde r s ea l s r ep re sen t ah ug e , v i r tua l ly u n tapped s ou r ce o fd a ta f o rs t udy ing s ymbo l ic b ehav io r . T ha td oe s n o t mean s e a l sh ave n o tr e c e ived s cho la s t ic a t ten t ion . B eg inn ing i nt h e 1 880 's , mo s tr e sea rche r sp ub l i shed c o l lec t ion so fs ea l s i nt h ef o rm o fc a ta log s ( c f . B uchanan , 1 966 , 1 981 ; D eC le rq , 1 888 ; D e lapor te , 1 909 , 1 910 , 1 920 , 1 923 ; Moo r tga t , 1 940 ; P o rada , 1 948 ; V on d e r O s ten , 1 934 , 1 936 ; Wa rd , 1 909 , 1 910 , 1 920 ) . T he se w o rk s t r ea ted s e a l s p r ima r i ly a s a r t

I tc anno t b e s a id f o r c e r ta in w ho s e lec ted s pec if ic mo t i f s o r w ho c ompo s ed t h e s ea l d e s ign sf r om t h e i nd iv idua le l emen t s i ne i the r t ime p e r iod T he r e d oe s s e em , t hough , t ob e s om e e v id ence f o r t h e e x is tence o fs ea l -carv ing s hop s d u r ing t h e OB p e r iod A f te r a na lyz ing OB s ea l i mp re s s ion s f r om S ippa r , a l -Ga i lan i We r r ( 1988 ) b e l ieve s t ha t s h e f ound e v id ence f o r t wo d if er en t s hop s . T he i r p roduc t s c an b e

o b jec t s . T h e g enera l c once rn o ft h e a u tho r s l a y w i th t r y ing t oi d en t if y s t yl i s t ic t r ad i t ion s i ns e a lc u t t ing . I na dd i t ion t he

d i s t ingu i shed b a sed o n t h e m e thod o fr end er ing t h e d e ta i l s o ft h e l o ng , f l ounced g a rmen t w o rn b y many o ft h e f i gure s .

p ubl ica t ion f o rma t mad e i t c l ea r t ha t mos t o f t he se r e sea rch e r s c once ived o f s ea l s a s b e ing c ompo sed o f t wo d i s t inc t p a r t s : i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion s . I n sc r ip t ion s

B u t m aybe mo re i mpo r tan t ly , t h e s hop s c anno t b e d i s t ingu i shed b y t he i c onog raphy c a rved o n t he s e a l s . T he mo t if s t h ey u sed o n t he s ea l s w e re i d en t ica l . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s ymbol ic r eper to i r e c on s i s ted o f as t anda rd ized s e t

s om e t im e s d id a ppea r w i th t he d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e s ea l ( De lapo r te , 1 909 , 1 910 , 1 920 , 1 923 ; Moo r tga t , 1 940 ) b u t

o ff i gu r e s , a nd t ha t s ea l d e s ig n w a s n o t i d iosync ra t ic . S ea l c a rv e r s m ay h av e k ep t c a ta log s o f mo t if s f r om wh ich t h e c u s tomer sc ou ld c hoo se t h ee l em en t st hey d es i red . H oweve r ,

w e re mo re o f t en l i s ted s epa ra te ly i n t h e b ack o ft he b ook ( Buchanan , 1 966 , 1 981 ; V on d e r O s ten , 1 934 , 1 936 ) o r om i t ted e n t i re ly ( F rank f or t , 1 939 ; Wa rd , 1 910 ) . A f ew s t ud ie s c oncen tra ted o nj u s t t he s e a l t e x t s a nd om i t ted t he

i no rd e r f o r t h e s ea l c u t te r s t os t ay i nb u s ine s s , t h ey c ou ld n o to f e rd e s ign st ha tr ad ica l ly v io la ted t he p reva i l ing n o t ion o f a pp rop r ia te s e a l i c onog raphy . I n f a c t , t he r ep e r to i re o f

i c onog r aphy a l toge the r( Langdon , 1 919 ; L ime t , 1 971) .

m a in f i gu r e s o n O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s w a s a c tua l ly q u i te l im i ted . On ly n ine f u l l s ize mo t if s a ppea r w i th a ny r e gu la r i ty . T heo re t ica l ly , t h e d e s ign r epe r to ire c ou ld h ave b een n ea r ly i nf in i te . S ince s ymbol i c c ommun ica t ion i s f a c i l i ta ted t h rough r ep e t i t ion , t h e e v id enc e c l ea r ly s ugge s t s

T he c oncep tua l d iv i s ion o fs ea l s i n to d i s t inc t p a r t s , s ymbo l a nd t e x t , c oup led w i th t h e i r r emova l f r om t h e c on tex t i n wh ich t h ey w e re m ad e a nd u sed , h a s l im i ted t h e k ind o f i n te rp re ta t ion t ha t h a s b een p o s s ib le c oncern ing w ha t s ea l 1

t ha t c y l inde r s e a l s o n ly c onveyed a l im i ted n umbe r o f m e s sag e su s ing as e to fs t anda rd ized f i gu re s .

a rgued t ha t t h i s p a r t icu la r s t y le w a s o n ly u sed b yp ar t icu la r i nd iv idua l s f o r s pec ia l _ of ic ia l b u s ine s s ( 1992 :55 -59 ) . T o d e term ine t h i s , h e c o r r e la ted t he t yp e o fd ocumen t w i th t he s t y le o fs e a l i mp r e s s ion f o r Kas s i te s e a l s f r om N ippu r . T he

I n o rde r t oa dd re s s t h e n ex t l og ica l q ues t ion , who u sed t h e s ea l s , o ne mu s t f i r s t u nd e r s tand h ow c y l ind e r s ea l s w e r e u t i l ized . T he ma in f unc t ion o f s ea l s d u r ing t h e O ld

o n ly i n s tanc e i n wh ich t he r e su l t s p re sen ted a d ef in i te p a t tern w a s t h e s e a l ing o fs o -ca l led " sa la ry " t ex t s w i th s ea l s

B aby lon ian P e r iod w a s t o p rov id e a m e thod f o r a u then t ica t ing d ocumen t s , i n p ar t icu la r , l e ga l c on t rac t s . I n Mesopo tam ia , c on t rac t s w e re e v id ence t ha t a l e ga l t r an sac t ion h ad t ak en p l ac e . T hey d id n o t r ep re sen t t h e a g reemen t i t se lf a s t h ey d o i n mod e rn s oc ie ty ( Reng e r , 1 977 ) . C on t rac t s w e re n o rma l ly w r i t ten i np a s t t en s e , a s i f

b ear ing a S econd K a s s i te d e s ign . T he s e t e x t s c once rn t he a u tho r iza t ion o f e xp end i tu re s b y p e r son s i n a n of i c ia l c apac i ty . T h i s c er ta in ly s ugges t s t ha t t h e i c onog raphy o n t he se s ea l s w ou ld b e c l o se ly c o r re la ted w i th t he p reva i l ing i d eo logy o ft h e r u l ing c l a s s i fn o t a c tua l ly d ic ta ted b y t he k ing .

t h e t r an sac t ion h ad a l ready t ak en p lace . T he l anguage u sed r e f lec ted t h e a r rang emen t f r om t h e v i ewpo in t o f t h e w i tn e s se s . T he t e x t e xp la ined t he t yp e o ft r an sac t ion . e . g . ,

T h i sb r ing s u sb ack t ot h e q ues t ion o fw ho a c tua l ly u sed t he s ea l s? Du r ing t he O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod _ mos t o ft h e s ea l s

t h e s a le o fp rope r ty , l o an o f ac ommod i ty , e t c . , a nd u sua l ly i n c luded a n a g reemen t b y t he p a r t ie s i nvo lved n o t t o s ue e a ch o the r i n t he f u tu r e ( Renge r , 1 977 ) . T he c omp le ted

a ppea r t o h ave b een o wned a nd u sed b y m en . T h i s c an b e d educed f r om s ea l i n sc r ip t ion s w h ich a lmo s t w i thou t e xcep t ion r e ad " PN ( p e r sona l n ame ) , S on o f PN . . ." w h ich i nd ica te s am a le o wne r . R enge r s t a te s t h a t i n av o lume o f

c on t rac t w ou ld t hen b e e nca sed i n ah o l low c l ay e nv e lop e . W i tne s se st ot he t r an sac t ion o rt he p e r son sd i rec t ly i nvo lved w ou ld r o l l o u t t he i r c y l ind e r s ea l s o n t h e l ef t ma rg in o ft h e

t ex t s p e r ta in ing t o t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f n ad i tu w omen f r om S ippa r , o n ly n ine s e a l sb o re women 's n ame s ( 1977 :84 ) . T he

o bve r se a nd r ever se o f t h e e nve lop e b ef o r e t h e e nve lop e i t se l f w a s i n scr ibed I f ad i spu te a ro se , t h e w i tne s se s who h ad s ea led t h ed ocumen tc ou ld b ec a l led t ot e s t if y .

c a se s whe re a s ea l c an b e d ef in i t e ly i d en t if ied a s h av ing b e en o wned b y af ema le i sa ga in b ased o n t he i n sc r ip t ion wh ich s ay s " PN , D augh te r o f PN . . ." . Mo the r c olec t ion o f

T he s e a l ing s p re served f r om t he O ld B aby lon ian P e r iod

o ve r f i ve h und red OB t e x t s d id n o t h av e as i ng le p e r sona l f ema le n ame o n as e a l ( F inke ls te in , 1 972 ) . T he r ea son f o r

a ppea r t o c ome l a rg e ly f r om t he se ' l eg a l ' d ocumen t s , i . e . ,

t h i s s e em st ob et ha t w omen d id n o t u sua l ly a c t a sw i tne s se s

c on t rac t s ( R enge r , 1 977 ) . On t he s u r f ac e , t h ese c on t rac t s s e em t o b e t r an sac t ion s c onduc ted b e twe en p r iva t e

t o l e ga l t r an sac t ion s d u r ing t he OB p e r iod . A t l e a s t t he re e x i s t s v e ry l i t t le e v id ence t o s ugg e s t t h ey d id ( R enge r , 1 977 ) . T h i s , i nt u rn , i sr e f lec ted i nt h e l a ck o fc yl inde rs ea l s

i nd iv idua l s .

P re sumab ly , t hen ,

i nd iv idua l s o rd e red a nd

o wned p e r sona l s e a l s t ob e u sed o nt h e n ece s sa ry o cca s ion s . H oweve r , t o c omp l ica t e m a t te r s , R eng e r m en t ion s i n a f o o tno te t h a ta ss cho la r sd e lve d eepe ri n to t h e ma ter ia l , w ha t

a sc r ibab le t of ema le s .

s e em t ob e p r iva te l e ga l d o cumen t s a r e a c tua l ly r e co rd s o f b u s ine s sd ea l ing sb e ing c onduc ted o nb eha lf o ft h et emp le o r p a lace ( R eng e r , 1 977 :81 ) . T ha t o fc our s er a ise st he q ue s t ion

b e longed t o t h e s ame s oc ia l c l a s s i s d i ff icu l t , i f n o t i mpos s ib le , t o a n swe r . T he i mpor tance o ft he i s sue l i e s i n

T h e q ue s t ion o f w he the r t hese m en f o r t he mo s t p ar t

t h e r ea l iza t ion t ha t d if e r en t c l a s se s c an h ave d if e ren t i d eo log ie s . A c ogn i t ive a na ly s is i s m o r e a p t t o y i e ld

o f whe the r o r n o t t h e i nd iv idua l s u sed p e r sona l s ea l s t o i mp re s s t h e se c on t rac t s o r d id t h e s e a l s b e long t o a

c on s i s ten t r e su l t s i f t h e d a ta c ome s f r om t h e mo s t h omog enou s s o c ia l g roup ing p os s ib le . T h e re i sn ow ay t ob e

b u reaucra t ic o ff ice? B ecau se _ a tp re sen t , i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t o m ak e t h i s d i s t inc t ion , n o a t temp t c an b e mad e t o d if e ren t ia t e b e tween t h e i c onog raphy o n p e r sona l v e r su s

a b so lu te ly s u r e t ha t s e a l o wner s /u se r s w e r e m embe r s o ft he s ame s oc ia l s t ra tum , b u t an umbe ro ff a c to r s p o in tt ot h ef a c t t ha t s ea l s w e r e u sed b y aw ea l th ie r s e t o fp eop le . N o s i ng le f a c to r c an b e c on s id e r ed p roof i n a nd o f i t se l f , b u t t a ken

b u reauc ra t ic s ea l sd u r ing t h eO ld B aby lon ian p e r iod i fs uch ad i s t inc t ion i ndeed e x i s ted .

t og e the r t h e r e i s as t rong i nd ica t ion t h a t t h is may i nd eed h ave b een t h ec a se .

T he s ea l ing s o n K a s s i te l e ga l t ex t s p robab ly f unc t ioned i na m anne r s im i la r t o t ho se o n O ld B aby lon ian d ocumen t s ( R eng e r , 1 977 ) . B u tt h re e -f ou r th so ft h eK a s s i te s ea ls i nt h i s

F i r s t o fa l l , m o s t OB c y l inde r s ea l s w e r e m ad e o fh ema t i te . H ema t i te , a l ong w i th v i r tua l ly e ve ry o the rk ind o fs t one u sed

d a ta b a se a r e a c tua l s e a l s , n o t s ea l ing sf ound o n c l ay t ab le ts o re nve lope s . T h i sp re sen t s t h e p o s s ib il i ty t ha tK a s s i te s e a l s c ou ld h ave b een u sed o n ly a s amu le t s ( Co l lon , 1 988 :119 ) o r v o t ive o f e r ing s i n c on t ra s t t ot he OB m a te r ia l . T he r e i sn o

f o r s e a l s , h ad t o b e i mpo r ted i n to Me sopo tam ia . T h is f a c t a l one m ay h ave mad e s ea l s l uxu ry i t em s . B e s ide s t h e r aw ma te r ia l , a n i nd iv idua l a l so h ad t o p ay a c r af t sp er son t o

w ay o fk now ing a tp r e sen t wh e the r o the rk ind s o ff unc t ion s

c a rve h i ss e a l ,t hu sa dd ing t oi t s c os t .

m ay h ave a f ec ted t he c ho ic eo fs ea ld e s ign s . B a sed o n t h e O ld B aby lon ian mode l , w e may h ypo the s ize

S econd t h e d a ted a nd s e a led d ocumen t s f r om t he OB p e r iod d ea la lmos te xc lu s ive ly w i th e conom ic t r an sac t ion s . Many o f

t h ee x is tence o fs ea l c u t t ing s hop sd u r ing t h eK a s s i te p er iod . I nd iv idua l so rd ered s e a l s f r om t he s ea l c u t te r s , a nd i d eo logy

t h e t ex t s c onc er n t h e s a le , p u rcha se , o r l e a se o f h ou se s o r f i e ld s . A s p r ev iou s ly n o ted i t i s o f t en d i ff icu l t t o t e l l

p rov ided t h e c u l tu ra l r e s t ra in t s t ha t d i c ta ted wha t w a s ' a pp rop r ia te ' o r ' d e s i rab le ' o n s ea ls a ta ny g iven p o in t i n t ime . T h is i st h e p ropo sed s c enar io f o r a l l t h e Ka s s i te s ea l s

whe the r t h e t r an sac t ion s w e r e p e r sona l o r u nder tak en o n b eha lf o ft h e c r own . E i the r w ay , t he se m en w ou ld e i the rb e w ea l thy e nough t ob uy , s e l l , o r l e a se p rop e r ty o n t he i r o wn

w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f S e cond K a s s i t e ( s ee d i scu s s ion o f s t y le s b e low ) . I n r ega rd t o t he se _ D ona ld Ma t thew s h a s

b eha lf o r b e g overnm en t of i c ia ls who p o s se s sed a c e r ta in l e ve l o fr e spon s ib i l i ty . 1 2

h ave b een f a vo r ed f o r S econd K a s s i te s e a l s . S Ki mp r e s s ion s f r equen t ly a ppea r o n e nve lop e s a nd r a r e ly o n b u l lae w h i le t h e o ppo s i t e d i s t r ibu t ion h o ld s t r ue f o r PK s e a l s . E nv e lop e s a r e a s so c ia ted w i th a c t iv i t ie s r equ i r ing l i t e racy s u ch a s r e ce ip t s a nd s a la ry p aymen t s w h i le b u l la e a r e l ump s o fc l ay u sed t op r even tt amp e r ing w i th t h ec on ten t so f ac on ta in e r .

T h i rd , t h ee v id en ce m ak e si tc l ea rt h a tn o te v e ryon eo wned a s e a l . T hu s s e a l s w e r e n o t e v en ly d i s tr ibu ted t h roughou t t h e e n t i r e s o c ie ty a su t i l i tar ian o b jec t sm igh tb e . I fa ni nd iv idua l n e eded a s e a l b u t d id n o t h av e o ne , s / h e c ou ld b o r row s omeon e e l s e 's s e a l . N o ta t ion s m ad e a bove t h e s e a l ing o n t h ed ocum en tw ou ld s a yt h a tp e r son A w a su s ing p e r son B 's s e a l ( R eng e r , 1 977 ) . I nd iv idua l s c ou ld a l so o p t t o p re s s a f i ng e rna i l o r g a rm en t h em i n to t h e c l ay . S ome t h e h em i mp re s s ion s a r e a c tua l ly l a b e l led " Sea l o f P N " ( R eng e r , 1 977 ) . T h e s e w ou ld c e r ta in ly s e em t o b e i n exp en s ive a l te rna t iv e st op u r cha s ing y ou ro wn s e a l .

A l l t h e s e l i ne s o fe v id ence s ugg e s t t h a t FKC a nd S K w e r e u sed b y p e r son s o f ah ighe r s o c ia l s t a tu s t h an t h o se p eop le p o s se s s ing PK a nd o th e rs t y le s . If e l tt h a tt h e s o c ia l s t ra ta o f t h e s e a l o wne r s s hou ld b e a s s im i la r a sp o s s ib le i na l l t im e p e r iod st om in im ize t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a to b se rved d if e r enc e s i n s e a l s w e re t h e r e su l t o f c l a s s d if e r enc e s r a the r t h an c hang e s i n t h e p o l i t ic a l a nd r e l ig iou s c l ima t e . A s w a s p o in ted o u t e a r l ie r i n t h i s c hap te r , t h e d om inan t i d eo logy t h e s i s h a s b een s hown t ob e u n t enab le . S o e ven t h ough t h e i d eo logy o ft h e u pp e r a nd l owe r c l a s se s i sn o t c omp le te ly u n r e la ted , t h e v a r ia t ion s i n b el i ef s b e tw een t h e se g roup s c ou ld h av e c e r ta in ly a f ec ted t h e c ho ice o f s ymbol i c m e ssag e s o n s e a l s . F o r t h i s r e a son , Ie l im ina ted t h e P seudo -Ka s s i t es e a l sf r om t h i ss t udy .

A no the r p o s s ib i l i ty w a s t h e u se o f ab u rgu l s e a l . B u rgu l s e a l s c ou ld b e f a b r ica ted q u ick ly o u t o f i n expen s iv e m a te r ia l sl i k e c l ay a nd m ay h av eb e en d e s igned f o r as i ng le r o l l ing ( R eng e r , 1 977 ) . T he s e m igh t b e t h ough t o f a s ' d i spo sab le ' s e a l s . R eng e r s a y s t h a t a f t e r s t ud y ing s e ve ra l h und r ed OB t a b le t s f r om S ippa r , h e f ound n o e v id ence f o r t h e u s e o fb u rgu l s e a l s ( R eng e r , 1 977 :77 ) . My d a ta b a se c on ta in s6 00 s e a l sa nd i mp r e s s ion sf r om t h e OB p e r iod , 4 20 o fw h ich c ome f r om S ippa ro ri t ss ubu rb , E d -D e r . T hu s Iam a s sum ing t h e m a jo r i ty o f m y OB s e al ing s w e re p roduced f r om c a rv ed s t one s e a l s a nd n o tt empo ra ry b u rgu l s e a l s . A l l t h i s e v id enc e t a k en t o g e the r , t h e p robab le c o s t o ft h e s e a l , t h e d ocum en t s o n w h ich t h ey w e r e u sed , a nd t h e c heape r a l te rn a t iv e s t o c y l ind e r s e a l s , s ugg e s t t ha t OB s e a l s w e r e u sed a nd o wn ed b y p eop le , m o s t ly m en , f r om t h e mo r e w e l l to -d o s e c to r s o f B aby lon ian s o c ie ty . Many w e r e p robab ly g ove rnm en t of i c ia l s w h ich s ugg e s t s t h ey w e r e i n c l o se rc on t ac t w i th t h e s t ruc tu re so fp owe rt h an p eop le w ho d id n o tn e ed t ou s es e a l so na ne v e ryday b a s i s . T h i sm ak e s i t l i k e ly t h a t m any o ft h e p e r son s w ho o wned s e a l s f ound i t e xped ien t t op romu lga t e t h e i d eo log ica l p e r sp ec t ive o f t h e r u l ing c l a s s ,w he th e rt h ey b el i eved i to rn o t .

T h e T h i rd K a s s i t e s t y le r ema in s p rob lema t ica l f o r av a r ie ty o f r e a son s . R e sea r che r s h ave y e t t o a g re e o n i t s o r ig in , d u ra t ion , a nd g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . Ma t th ew s ( 1 990 ) b e l iev e s TK o v e r lap s t h e e nd o ft h e K a s s i t e p e r iod a nd t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e I s in I d yna s ty . I ta l so a ppea r s t o d e r iv e m o re f r om A s sy r ian t r ad i t ion t h an f r om B aby lon ian a n teced en t s . G iven t h e s e u nc e r ta in t ie s , T h i rd K a s s i te s e a l s a l so w il n o tb ei n c lud ed i nt h i sd a ta b a se . F rom t h e p r eced ing d i scu s s ion , w e s u rm is e t h a t w ha teve r s ymbo l ic m e s sag e sw e r eb e ing c ommun ica ted i nt h ef o rm o f c y l ind e r s e a l i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion s , t h ey w e r e p robab ly l im i ted t o t h e u pp e r s t ra tum o f s o c ie ty . T h i s i s b o rne o u tb ya no the rf e a tu r eo fc yl ind e rs e a l s , t h e i rs i ze . O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s g en e ra l ly r anged f r om 1 5 -27 mm l ong . K a s s i t e s e a l s c ou ld b e u p t o 5 0 mm i n l e ng th b u t m o s t a ve rag ed a r ound 3 2 mm . O bv iou s ly , t h e i r s i ze c an b e u nd e r s tood p r inc ipa l ly i n t e rm s o f t h e i r f imc t ion . B u t t h e f a c tr ema in s , c y l ind e rs e a l s d id n o ta c t l i k eb i l lboa rd s . T he i r m e s sag e s w e r e n o t d e s igned f o r p ub l ic c on sump t ion . T h e i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion sw e r ep robab ly o n ly s e en b yt h e o wne r s , t h e s c r ib e s w ho w ro t e t h e d ocumen t s , a nd t h e p a r t ie s i n vo lved i n t h e t r an sac t ion s . I n m any c a se s , t h e e n t i re s e a lw a sn o tc omp le te ly r o l led o u to nt h et a b le t . Of t en much o ft h e s e a l i mp r e s s ion w a sd amag ed b yt h e c une if o rm w r i t ten o n t op o f i t . T h i s may i n d ica t e t h a t s e a l s w e r e c on s id e r ed p e r sona l o b jec t sa nd t h es ymbol i c m e s sage sw e r e s uppo sed t ob em ean ing fu l l a rg e ly t ot h eo wn e r . E ven i ft h i s p rov e s t o b e t h e c a s e , i nd iv idua l s a r e p roduc t s o f t h e i r c u l tu r e a nd w e c an s t i l l h ope t o u nd e r s tand h ow c u l tu ra l m e s sag e sc hang ed t h rough t im e .

K a s s i te s e a l s p r e sen t a mo r e c omp lex s i tua t ion . F ive i nd iv idua l s t y le s h ave b een i d en t if i ed ; F i r s t K a s s i te C en t ra l ( FKC ) , F i r s t K a s s i t eN o r the rn ( F I (N ) , S econd K a s s i t e ( SK ) , T h i rd K a s s i t e ( TK ) , a nd P seudo -Ka s s i te ( PK ) . ( Id id n o t i n c lud e F i r s t K a s s i te V a r iou s ( KV ) a s i d en t i f ied b y Ma t thew s( 1 990 ) i nt h i sg roup b ecau se i td oe sn o tc on s t i tu t e as t y le . I ti s ac a t cha l l c a tego ry f o r s e a l d e s ign s t h a t d id n o t s e em t of i tw el i n to o n e o ft h e o t h e r s t y le c a t ego r ie s . Id id i n c lud et h e se s e a l s i nm y s t udy . ) Many o ft h e FKN s e a l ing s c om ef r om N uz ia nd s e em t ob eo nt a b le t s s im i la ri nc on ten t t ot h e OB d o cum en t s ( Mo r r i son , e ta l . , 1 993 :7 ) . A t p r es en t , t hey a pp ea r t o b e c h rono log ica l ly e a r l ie r t h an t h e o th e r s t y le s ( Ma t th ew s , 1 992 ) . I n B aby lon ia p rop e r , Ma t thew s ( 1992 ) d i scov e red t h a t t h re e s t y le s w e r e i n u se s imu l tan eou s ly ; F KC . S K , a nd PK . T o e xp la in t h i s , h e c o r r e la t ed t h e s t y l e o f t h e s e a l w i th t h e t y p e o f d ocumen t s ea led a nd t h ep r e s en ce o ra b s enc eo f ag o ld c ap . H ec ame t o t h e f olow ing c on c lu s ion s . FKC a nd SK s e a l s s e em t o b e p r ef e r r ed b y r i ch p eop le a s i n d ica t ed b y t h e r e la t ive h igh e r f r eq uen cy o f g o ld c ap s a s soc ia ted w i th t h em . I n c on t ras t , o n ly o n e PK s e a l h ad a g o ld c ap . F rom h i s e a r l ie r w o rk ( Ma t th ew s , 1 990 :14 ) , w e a l so k now t h a t 8 6% o f F i r s t K a s s i t e s e a l s w e r e c a rved f r om h a rd s t on e s , w h ich i mpl i e s i mp or t ed m a te r ia l , w h i le o n ly 3% o f PK d e s ign s a r e f ound o n h a rd s t on e . ' Compo s i te ' m a t e r ia l s l i ke g l a s s , w h ich c an b e m ad e l o ca l ly , c omp r i se 8 5% o f PK s e a l s b u t i n c lud e n o F i r s tK a s s i te d e s ign s . L ap i sl a zu l i , al uxu ry i mpo r t , s e em st o

METHODOLOGY C ogn i t iv e -p roce s sua l a r chaeo log i s t s h av e s t r e s sed , a l ong w i th o t h e r s , t h e n ec e s s i ty o fs t udy ing m a t e r ia lc u l tu r e i nt h e c on tex t i n wh ich i tw a s m ad e a nd u s ed U n f o r tuna te ly f o r t h i s s t udy , mo s t o ft h e a va i lab le s e a l s a nd t a b le t s w i th s e a l i mp r e s s ion s c ome f r om u ndocumen ted a r chaeo log ica l 1 3

e xcava t ion s . V e ry o f t en t h ey c anno t e ven b e a s s igned t o a s pec if i c s i te . C on tex t , h e r e , i sr e s t r ic ted t ot he p o l i t ica l a nd r el ig iou s e ven t s t ha t c an b e r e con s truc ted f r om t he t hou sand s o f c une if o rm d ocumen t s d a ted t o t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . B ecau se p o l i t ic s a nd r el ig ion a r e c r uc ia l f o r i n te rp re t ing i d eo logy , a nd i nt u rn i c onog raphy , t h ey w i l l

n ex t

s t ep

i nvo lve s

a na lyz ing

c hange s

i n

a nd a r e a va i lab le f r om aw ide v a r ie ty o fs ou rce s . U n l ike t he OB s e a l ing s , t h e r ei sn ow ay a tp re sen tt oa ccu ra te ly a r range t h e K a s s i te ma te r ia l i nc h rono log ica l o rde r . F o rt h i s s t udy , I u sed t he t r ad i t iona l s t y l is t ic d iv i s ion s e s tab l ished b y B eran

b e e xam ined i n d e ta i l i n t he f o l low ing t wo c hap te r s . T h i s w i l l b e d one i no rd e r t op rov id e t he mo s t c omp le t e p o s s ib le b ackg round f o r i n f er r ing l i nk s b e tween s ea l i c onog raphy a nd c u r ren te ven t s . T he

F ew d a ted , s e a led d ocumen t s f r om t h e K a ss i te P e r iod h ave b een p ub l i shed . B u t many o ft he a c tua l s e a ls h ave s u rv ived

( 1 957 -8 ) , i . e . , F i r s t K a s s i t e a nd S e cond Ka s s i te a nd t he s ub sequen t s ubca tego r ie s e s tab l i shed b y Ma t thew s ( 1990 ) , i . e . , FKC , FKN a nd KV . Ia l so i n c luded a no th e r g roup w h ich In amed , ' Compo s i te ' o r KP ( f o rK a ss i te -comPo s i te ) . T h e se s ea l s e xh ib i t ac omb ina t ion o f e l emen t s n o rma l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h eO ld B aby lon ian a nd K a ss i te r ep e r to i r e . I

s ea l

i c onog raphy a nd i n scr ip t ion s t h rough t ime . T o d o t h is , c y l ind e r s e a l s o r i mp re s s ion s t ha t c an b e d a ted a r e a n ece s s i ty . Unf or tuna te ly , s ea ls f r om t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium

d e l ibera te ly a vo ided t h e t e rm ' t ran s i t iona l ' f o r t h i s c a tego ry b ecau se t he d a t ing r ema in sp rob lema t ic .

r a re ly b ea r t h e n ame o f ak ing . T yp ica l s ea l i n sc r ip t ion s f r om t h e OB p e r iod f o l low t he p a t te rn , ` 13N 1 . S on o f PN2 . S ervan to f DN ' ( Per sona lN ame 1 ,P e r sona l Name 2 ,D iv ine

Ic l a s s if ied t h eK a s s i te s ea l s u s ing t he i d en t if ica t ion sl a rge ly d one b y o the r s ( Be ran , 1 957 -8 ; Ma t thew s , 1 990 ; 1 992 ) .

N ame ) . Mo s tK a s s i te i n sc r ip t ion sa r ep rayer s . T he re s e em t o b e o n ly t wo s ho r t l ived e xcep t ion s t ot h e se g ene ra l p a t tern s . T he f i r s t c ame i n t h e m idd le o fH ammurab i 's r e ign . A s h e

b a s i so fs t yl i s t ic s im i la r i ty . F ina l ly Ip u tt h e ma in c a tegor ie s i nt h e f olow ing o rde r : KP -FKN -FKC -KV -SK . T h e r a t iona l i sa s f olow s . I n tu i t ion s ugge s t s t ha t t h e KP g roup mu s t c ome a tt he e nd o ft he OB p e r iod o rb ea mong t he e a r l ies to f

W i th in e ach m a in g roup , It h en a r rang ed t he s ea l s o n t he

g a ined mo re c on tro l o ve ra l l a spec t s o fl i f e i nB aby lon ia , h e g radua l ly e xe r ted h i s i n f luence o ve r t h e c our t s wh ich h ad a lway s b een u nde r t h e d oma in o f t h e t emp le s . T h e r e i s

t h e K a s s i te s e a l s . Un t i l s e a l s i n s t ra t if ied c on tex t s a re r e cove red , t h i s r ema in s s pecu la t ion . FKN c ome s s e cond

e v id ence t ha ta tt he b eg inn ing o fh i s r e ign t he S anga p r ie s t s c a l led t hem se lve ss e rvan t s o f DN ( Ha r r i s , 1 961) . B yt h e e nd o f h i s r e ign , t hey i n sc r ibed t he i r s ea ls , s e rvan t s o f

b ecau se Ma t th ew s ( 1992 ) a rgued t h a t FKN m ay b e s omewha t e a r l ie r t han e i the r FKC o r SK wh ich a re c on temporaneou s . T he N o r th er n s t y le d e r ive s f r om s e a l ing s

H ammu rab i . T h i sp rac t ic ec on t inued o n i n to h i s s on ' s r e ign . B u t a s S am su i l ima l o s t c on t ro l o ft he p rov ince s , t h e c our t s

f ound i n a n a r ch ive a t N uz i wh i ch l i e s i n n o r the rn Me sopo tam ia T he e a r l ies tt a b le t s w i th F KN s eal ing sb e long

a ga in r e tu rned t ot h ea eg i so ft h et emp le . T he o the re xcep t ion s e em st ob e ag roup o fs ea l sd a t ed t ot he

t ot h e s e cond o ff i ve g ene ra t ion s r ep r e s en t ed i nt h e a r ch ive s ( M . Mon-i s on , e ta l . , 1 993 ) . Wh i le n o p r ec is ed a te e x i s t sf o r t h e a r ch ive s , t h ey e nded w i th t he d e s t ru c t ion o f N uz i ,

m idd le o ft h e K as s i te P e r iod T hey b ea r t he n ame s o f wha t

c .1 350 -1330 B .C . ( S te in , 1 989 :58 ) . Ma t th ew sc onc lud e st h e

may p rove t ob e t h ree s ucce s s ive g ene ra t ion s o fk ing s . T h i s s ugge s t s t ha t t h e f a sh ion o fi n sc r ib ing t he mona r ch ' s n ame o n p e r sona l s ea l s w a s i nv ogue f o r a wh i le . T he u nc e r ta in ty

FKN s t y le s hou ld b e d a ted t o r ough ly 1 450 -1400 B .C . ( Ma t thew s , 1 990 :57 ) . T he f i r s ts ubs tan t ia t ed d a te f o r aFKC

s t em s f r om t h ef a c tt ha te s tab l i sh ing c h rono log ica l o rd e rf o r t he Ka s s i t e k ing s i s p a r t icu la r ly c onfu s ing s i nce many

h ave e x is ted e a r l ie r . I ti sc u r ren t ly n o t p o s s ib le t os a yw i th c e r ta in ty t ha t t h e N o r ther n s ea l ing s p reda te t h e o t he r K a s s i t e s t y le s .

s ea li s1 340 B .C . ( Ma t thew s , 1 992 :7 ) a l though t he s t y le may

n ame s w e r e r eu sed a nd t he s ea l s w e re n o t r ecov e r ed f r om s t ra t if i ed c on tex t s .

D ue t o t he i n ab i l i ty t o a s s ign s pec if ic d a t es t o t h e K a s s i te s ea l s a nd t h e s omewha t u neven d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e a l ing s

Many d a ted s ea l i mp re s s ion s d o e x is t t hough , p a r t icu lar ly f r om t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod . Du r ing t ha t t ime , s c r ibe s

w i th in t he O ld B aby lon ian P e r iod , Iw i l l i n i t ia l ly d iv id e t h e s ea l s i n to t h ree c h rono log ica l g roup s . T h e f i r s t c a t ego ry , E a r ly O ld B aby lon ian s ea l s ( EOB ) , i n c lude s t he m a te r ia l

r ou t ine ly d a ted c l ay d ocumen t s b y r e co rd ing t h e k ing 's n ame a l ong w i th h i sd ay , mon th , a nd y ea ri no ff i ce . S ea l ing s o n t he se t ab le t s a nd e nve lope s p rove t ha t , a l though t h e s ea l w a sn o tn ece ssa r i ly e ng raved i nt ha ty ea r , i tw a si nu s e . Iam a s sum ing t ha t t h i s i mp l ie s t ha t i t s s ymbol ic m e s sag e w a s

f r om t he f i r s t k ing . S umuabwn , t h rough t he r e ign o f H ammu rab i . L a t e O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s ( LOB ) c omp r i se t ho se o f H ammu rab i 's s ucc e s so r s . T he t h i rd g roup i st h e K a s s i te s ea l s .

s t i l l r e levan t . E xcep t f o r t he f ew c a se s when a k ing ' s n ame w a si n sc r ibed o nt he s ea li t se lf , a l lt h e s ea li mp r e s s ion sf r om t he O ld B aby lon ian P e r iod c ome f r om d a ted c une i f orm

Af t e r t he s ea l o rde r h ad b een d e term ined , t h e s ea l s w e r e s equen t ia l ly n umbe red . T he n ex t s t ep i n vo lved c od ing t h e

d ocumen t s . Ip l aced t he se s e a l s i n s equen t ia l o rd e r o n t he f olow ing b a s i s . F irs t , Ig rouped t hem b y k ing 's n ame . W i th in t h e s e ta s s igned t o ag i ven mona rch , It hen a r ranged t hem b y y ea r d a t e . When mu l t ip le i mp re s s ion s a pp ea red o n

i c onog raphy a nd d iv ine a nd t heopho r ic n ame s i n t h e i n sc r ip t ion s s o t h ey c ou ld b e q uan t if i ed . A t t h i s p o in t , I t r ea ted e ve ry s e a l a so ne c a se . E ach d i sc r e t e s ymbo l o ri c on

o n e t a b le t ( s ot h es ea l ing s a l l h ad t he s ame k ing a nd y ea r ) , I k ep t t h em i nt h e o rd e r l i s ted i nt h e o r ig ina l p ubl ica t ion f o r

o ne ve ry s ea lw a sr e co rded s epa ra te ly a se i the r ama in f i gu re o r af i l l f i gu r e . Ma in i c on s a r e t he f u l l o r med ium s ize

t he s ak e o f c onveWence . I ft h e y ea r d a te w a s m i s s ing o r u nknown , Ip l aced t ho se i mp r e s s ion s a f t e r t h e d a ted

f i gu r e s wh ich c omp r ise t he p r ima ry s c en e o r s c ene s i nt h e

ma ter ia lf o rt ha tp a r t icu la rk ing .

m on s ter s , q ua s i -human ( pa r ta n ima l /pa r t h uman ) , o ro b jec t s ( e .g . , 9 , 7 2 , 3 00 , 4 45 ) . D e c id ing whe the r t h e n um e rou s p a r t ia l f i gu r e s w e r e g od s , g odd e sse s , o r h uman s i nvo lved a

s e a ld e s ign . T h ey may b eg od s , g odde s se s , h uman s , a n ima l s ,

1 4

w o rd s , i tt e s t s t he s t reng th o fa s soc ia t ion b e tween v a r iab le s t ha ta r ep res en tb u ti sn o ta f ec ted b y ah igh n umbe ro fc ase s wh e re b o th v a r iab le s a r e a b sen t . ' S ' v a lue sv a r yb e tween ' 0 ' a nd ' 1 ' . A' 0 ' i nd ica te s ap e r f ec t n ega t ive c o r re la t ion wh ich

v a r ie ty o fi n d ica to r s . D iv in i t ie s i nt h e OB p er iod o f t en w o re ah orned c r own a nd f l ounced r ob e ( 89 , 1 39 ) . I fe i the r w a s p re sen t , Ic l a s s if ied t he f i gur e a sd iv ine . If ound h a i r s ty le t o b e a ne xce l len ti nd ica to ro fg end e r . G od sh ad s hor tp ony tai l s ( 452 ) a nd g odd e s se s h ad l ong p ony ta i l s ( 139 ) . G odde s se s

m ean s t h e v a r iab le s b e ing t e s ted n ever c o -occu r . A ' 1 ' i mp l ie s t h e o ppo s i te , t h e t wo v a r iab le s a lway s c o -occu r . A

c ou ld a l so h ave h a i r c u r led a bove t h e s hou lde r s ( 200 ) o r

v a lue i n t h e m idd le s ugg e s t s t h e re i ss ome a s soc ia t ion b u t

f l ow ing o v e r t h e s hou ld e r ( 185 ) . H uman ma le s , v i r tua l ly w i thou t e x c ep t ion , h ad n o h a i r v i s ib le a nd o f t en w o re

n o tn ec e s sa r i ly as t rong o ne .

t u rban s ( 4 97 ) . I n t he Ka s s i te p e r iod , d i s t inc t ive d re s s , h eadgea r , a nd h a ir s ty le s a lmo s t d i sapp ea r ed s o Ic ou ld n o t d if e ren t ia t e b e tween d i v ine a nd h uman i c on s . F o r ma in f i gure s , Ia l so t o ok d if e r en t p o s ture s i n to a ccoun t . S tand ing

CONCLUSION T he ma in g oa l o ft h i s p ro jec t i st o s e ek t oe xp la in s ome o f t h ep a t te rn s o fc hange d e tec ted i nc y l ind e r s e a l i c onog raphy a nd i n s c r ip t ion s b y r e la t ing t h em t o t h e p ol i t ica l a nd r el ig iou s e ven t s o ft he O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s .

g od s , f o r i n s tance , w e r e r e co rded s epa ra te ly f r om s ea ted g od s . A no th e r a t t r ibu t e n o ted f o r ma in f i gu re s w a s o b jec t s t hey h e ld i nt h e i r h and s . C ommon o ne s i n c luded a s mal q uadruped , s t af f , k n if e ( a l l f ound o n 2 3 ) , a nd f l ow ing v a se ( 396 ) .

I n t h e p a s t , c y l ind e r s e a l s h ave b een , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , r ega rded a s a r t o b jec t s . S cho lar s d i scu s sed c o l lec t ion s o f

T he s e cond c a tego ry o fs ymbo l s a nd i c on s o n s ea ls a r e t he ' f i l l ' f i gu r e s . F il f i gu r e s a r e s ma l l i nc ompa r i son t o ma in f i gu re s a nd , i no u rp e rc ep t ion , a ppea ri nt h e b ackg round o f

s ea l s b u t a ny a t temp t s a t i n te rp re t ing t h e s ymbo l ism a nd i c onog raphy w a s i n ev i tab ly f r u s t ra ted b e cau se t hey h ad b een d ivo rc ed f r om t he i r c u l tu ra l c on tex t . I th a s o n ly b een i n

s cenes . I n r e cen t l i te ra tu re ( Co l lon , 1 988 ) , t he re h a s b een o b jec t ion t o t h i s t e rm o n t he g round s t ha t ' f il ' i mp l ie s

r e cen t y ea r s t ha t af ew s t ud ie s h av e b egun t ot r ea t s ea l s a s

' ex t raneou s ' . Ia g ree t ha t t he se f i gu re s w e re i n c luded i nt he

ma te r ia l o b jec t s t ha t a c t iv e ly p a r t ic ipa t ed i n e ve ryday l i f e . A s P o s tga te ( 1994 ) h a s o b se rved , e ven n ow i n

d es ign s f o rs p ec if ic p u rpo se sb u t a tt h i s t ime t he ir m ean ing r ema in s u n c lea r . Iu se t he t e rm ' f il ' s imp ly t o a vo id

Me sopo tam ian a rchaeo logy , ac l ea r l i ne e x i s t s b e tween h i s to ry a nd p reh is to ry . An th ropo log ica l ly t r a ined

c onfu s ion w i th p rev iou s s t ud ie s . I th a s b een i nu se s i nce a t l e a s t 1 939 w hen F rank f or t emp loyed i ti nh i s c l a s s ic v o lume o n c y l ind e rs e a l s . F i l l f i gu re s a r e t yp ica l ly a n ima l s , o b jec t s ,

a r chaeo log is t s r a re ly v en tu r e i n to h i s to r ica l p er iod s a nd

g eome tr ic s h ape s , a nd o the rs ymbo l s( e .g . , 1 41 , 1 47 ) .

a r chaeo log is t st ob eg in w o rk ing i nt he h i s to r ica lp er iod s a nd f i na l ly b reak d own t h i s d i v i s ion . T h i s s t udy h ope st o mak ea

A f ter a l lt h ef i gu re sa nd n ame sh ad b een r e co rd ed , Id iv ided t he s i x h und r ed OB s e a l s i n to t we lve g roup s . E ach o ne

c on t r ibu t ion t ot h i se nd .

h i s to r ian s a nd e p ig raphe r s a r e ma in ly p r eoccup ied w i th t e x t s . T h e c ogn i t ive -p roce s sua l a pp roach o f er s aw ay f o r

c on s is ted o f 5 0 c on secu t ive ly n umbe red s ea l s . T he t wo e xcep t ion sw e re o ne EOB g roup w h ich h ad 4 5 s ea l s a nd o ne LOB g roup w h ich h ad 5 5 s ea l s . T h i so ccu r red b ecau se t he re w e re 2 95 EOB s ea l s a nd 3 05 LOB s e a l s . W i th in e ach b lock , Ic a lcu la ted t h e n umbe r o ft ime s e ach i nd iv idua l ma in a nd f i l l f i gu r e a nd d iv ine n ame a ppea r ed . E ven t hough e ach c a tego ry c ove r s ad if e ren t n umbe r o f a c tua l y ea r s , t he se f r equency t o ta l s p rov id e aw ay t o mon i to r t h e p opu la r i ty o f t he v a r iou si c on s , s ymbo l s , a nd d iv in en ame st h roughou tt he OB p er iod . T he p a t te rn s e s tab l i shed c an t h en b e c o r re la ted w i th t h e h i s to r ica l a nd r el ig iou s e ven t s a nd h ypo the se s s ugges ted a st o why c hange s i n i c onog raphy d id o r d id n o t o ccu r . L e s sf i ne -g ra in ed a na ly s i s c an b e d one b y c ompa r ing t r end sb e twe en t he EOB , LOB ,a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s . Ano the r m e thod o f a na ly s is t ha t m ay i nd ica te h ow p eop le t hough t a bou t s ea l c ompo s i t ion i st o t e s t f o r s t r eng th o f a ssoc ia t ion b e tween e l emen t s . Wh i le r e co rd ing t he s ea l i c onog r aphy , I f ound t ha t c er ta in i nd iv idua l f i gu re s , s ymbo l s , a nd n ame s s e emed t oa pp ea r t og e the r wh i le o the r c omb ina t ion s n eve r d id . Iw an ted t o k now whe the r t he se i n tu i t iv eo b se rva t ion sc ou ld b es t a t is t ica l ly v e r i f ied . T he d a ta p resen ted p rob lem s . S inc e mo s t o f t h e OB ma te r ia l c omp r i s e ss e a l ing f r agmen t s , i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t ok now wha t i sm i ss ing . T ha t l ef t as ma l l s amp le s i ze i n wh ich e ven t he mos t c ommon i c on s a nd s ymbo l s o ccu r r ed o n l e s s t han h a lf o f t h e s e a l ing s . I n t h is s i tua t ion , S he rman ( 1988 ) r ecomm end st h eu se o fJ acca rd 's C o ef f i c ien t . B a sed o n a2x 2c on t ing ency t ab le , t h e f o rmu la i s S =a /a+b+c . I n o the r 1 5

CHAPTER 3 THE POLIT ICAL H ISTORY OF THE OLD BABYLON IAN AND KASSITE P ER IODS ( c .1894 -1154 B .C . )

I NTRODUCT ION

t he 1 5 th c en tu ry t h rough t he b eg inn ing o f t he 8 th c en tu ry ( G ray son , 1 975 :51 ) . T h is ma te r ia l f o rm st he b u lk o fw r i t ten ma ter ia lr e levan tt ot h eK a s s i te P e r iod .

T he O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod r ep re sen t s o ne o f t h e b e s t d ocumen ted p ha se s o f p ol i t ica l h i s to ry i n Me sopo tam ia . Th is i nf orm a t ion c ome s t ou s n o t b ecau s et h ey i n ten t iona l ly w ro te i td own f o rp o s te r i ty ,b u tr a ther a s ab yp roduc to ft h e i r

A rchaeo log ica ld a ta h e lp f i l l o u tt he p i c ture f o rb o th t h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te e ra s . Un f o r tuna te ly , l i t t le i s a va i lab le f r om B aby lon i t se lf . Mo s t o ft h e o ccupa t ion l e ve ls p r io r t o N eo -Baby lon ian t ime s , c . 609 -539 B .C . , l i e b e low

e x ten s ive b u r eauc ra t ic s y s tem . G overnmen t of i c ia ls , a sw e l l a s p r iva te i nd iv idua l s , r e co rded b u s ine s s t r an sac t ion s , mar r iage a nd i nhe r i tance c on t rac ts , l aw s u i t s , a nd s o f o r th

t he

o n c l ay t a b le t s . T hen , a s n ow , s o me s o r t o f d a t ing s y s tem

mod e rn w a te r t a b le

( Roux ,

1 992 :208 ) .

T he mo s t

w a s n ece s sa ry t ok eep a lt h e se d ocumen t si no rd er .

i nf orma t iv e e xcava t ion sf o r t he O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod h ave b een a ta nc ien t S ippa r , U r , N ippu r , K i sh , a nd Ma r i . K a s s i te

T he B aby lon ian s u sed am e thod t ha t h ad b een d eve loped i n

ma ter ia l h a s b een r e cove red a t A ga r Quf , N ippu r , I s in , L ar sa , a nd U r .

Mesopo tam ia a round t h e m idd le o f t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . ( F inegan , 1 979 :33 ) . Y ea rd a te s , a sw e n ow k now t h em , c on ta ined t h e k ing ' s n ame f o l lowed b y h i s c u r ren t r eg na l

BACKGROUND

y ea r a nd t h e ' o ff ic ia l y ea r n ame ' . T h e l a t te r n o rma l ly c ons is ted o f as hor t d e sc r ip t ion o fa n i mpor tan t p o l i t ica l o r

T he k ing s o f t h e T h i rd D yna s ty o f U r r u led mo s t o f t he Me sopo tam ian f l oodp la in t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Oa te s , 1 986 :43 ) . D u r ing t he r e ign o f

r e l ig iou s e ven t t ha t h ad t ak en p lace i nt h e k ing 's p rev iou s y ea r i n o ff ic e . T hu s t h e d a te f o rmu la f o r H anunu rab i 1 0 a c tua l ly r e f e r s t oi n c id en t s t h a t t ook p l ac e i nh i s y ea r 9 .I n

S hu -S in , d o cumen t s b eg in t oc on ta in r e co rd s o fa t tack s a nd

a dd i t ion t o p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s e ven t s , y ea r d a te s a l so

i ncu r s ion s

men t ion t h eb u i ld ing a nd r epa i ro fc i ty w al so rc ana l s . O ve r t ime , s c r ib e s c omp i led d a t e f o rmu lae i n to l i s t s ( Ungnad ,

S hu -S in 's s u cce s so r , I bb i -S in , t h e emp i re " l i te ra l ly d i s in teg ra ted " ( Roux , 1 992 :176 ) . T he p rov inc e s o f E shmuma a nd E lam d ec la red t he ir i nd epend ence i nt h ee a s t .

1 938 ) . T h e se y ea r n ame s p rov ide a s ou rce o f s p ec if i c h i s to r ica l i n f o rma t ion w h ich i si nva luab le i nr e con s tr uc t ing t he p o l i t ica le ven t so ft h eO ld B aby lon ian p e r iod .

a l ong

t h e

f r on t ier s .

On

t h e

a sc en s ion

o f

Y ea r d a te s , t hough , n eve r a l lude t o e conom ic , s oc ia l , o r e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ion s . T h is i nev i tab ly p roduce s a n u neven p i c tu r e o f t h is t ime p er iod . We k now a g rea t d ea l

S imu l tan eou s ly , Amo r i te t r ibes f r om t h e w e s t i nf i l t ra ted S ume r , d e s t roy ing c rop s a nd c u t t ing o f l i nes o ft r ad e a nd c ommun ica t ion . T he E lam i te s , e v e r r eady t o e xp lo i t d iff icu l t ie si n Me sopo tam ia , a t tacked a nd b u rned U ri n2 004 B .C . ( So l lb e rge r a nd Kupp er , 1 971 ) . I bb i -S in b ecame a p r isone r o fw a r a nd e ven tua l ly d ied i nt h e E lam i te c ap i ta l

a bou ts ome a sp ec t so fl i f ea nd v i r tua l ly n o th ing a bou to the r s .

c i ty o fS u sa . T hu se nded t h el a s tg rea t S umer ian d yna s ty .

T o g a in i n s igh t s a bou t f a c e t s o f s oc ie ty n o t r e co rded i nt h e d a te f o rmu la e ,w e mu s tr e ly o no the rt y pe so fw r i t ten r e co rd s a nd a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . B u t e ven t hough y ea r d a te s o n ly p rov ide l im i ted t ype s o fi n f o rma t ion , t h e i rh i s to r ica lv a lue i s i nes t imab le .

T he d own f a l lo ft h eT h i rd Dyna s ty o fU rs e tt he s t ag ef o rt h e n ex tp ha se o f Me sopo tam ian h i s to ry . I s in a nd L ar sa b ecame t he t wo d om ina te c i ty s ta te s i n t h e s ou th . A t f i r s t , I s in managed t oh o ld s way b yc ap tu r ing N ippu r , U r i& E r idu a nd e ven tua l ly , U r . B u t i n 1 924 B .C . , G ungunum o f L a r sa l aunched a n a t tack a ga in s t I s in ( Edza rd , 1 957 ) . W i th in a

Unf or tuna t e ly , f r om o u rp o in t o fv iew , t h e K a s s i te s d ropped t h i s me thod o fr e co rd ing a nd a dop ted t h es imp le r s chem eo f ' k ing 's n am e ' c oup led w i th t h e ' numb e ro ft h e r egna l y ea r '

f ew y ea r s , L a r sa c on t ro l led h a lf o f S um e r b u t t he f e ud ing c on t inued . T h i sp e r iod o fs quabb l ing b e tw een I s in a nd L a r sa c rea ted a p owe r v acuum i n p ar t s o f S um e r a nd A kkad _

( F inegan , 1 979 :78 ) . T hu s t h e d a ta o n t h e K a s s i te p e r iod d er ive s f r om a much s c an t ie r g roup o f s ou rce s . O f t h e a pp rox ima te ly 1 2 ,000 t a b le t s d a t ing t o t h i s t ime , l e s s t h an t en p e rc en t h ave b e en p ub l i shed ( Roux ,

1 992 :247 ) .

H is to ry t e l l s u s an umbe r o f Amo r i te s h e ikh s managed t o e s tab l i sh t h e i r o wn d yna s t ie s i n p lace s s u ch a s K aza l lu , S ippa r , U ruk , K ish , Ma rad a nd B aby lon ( Edza rd , 1 957 ) .

I n

a dd i t ion t o t h e se , w e h av e l e t ter s f r om e l -Aman ia . E gyp t t ha t c ompo se p a r t o ft he c o r r e spondenc eb e tween an umbe r

E ven t h ough t h e se

o fp ha raoh s a nd K a s s i te k ing s ( Mo ran , 1 992 ) . T here i sa l so

r e spon s ib le f o r t h e d em i se o fI bb i -S in 's e mp i r e , t hey s hou ld

a n A s sy r ian c h ron ic le d a t ing t ot he 7 th c .B .C . k nown a st h e ' Synch ron i s t ic H is to ry ' ( G ray son , 1 975 ) . C h ron ic le 2 1 , a si t i sa l so k nown , c on ta in s ar e co rd o fe ven t s p e r ta in ing t ot h e

p robab ly n o tb e r ega rd ed a si nvader s i nt h e t r ad i t iona l s en se

n omad ic

p eop le s h ad b een p a r t ly

o ft he w o rd . Amo r i te s a r em en t ioned i nd o cumen ts d a t ing a s f a r b ack a s S ha r -ka l i shar ra o f Agad e ( Roux , 1 992 :176 ) . Undoub ted ly , t h e r ew a s al ong h i s to ry o fi n ter ac t ion b e tween

r e la t ion sb e tween A s sy r ia a nd B aby lon f r om t h e f i r s t h a lf o f 1 6

T he re a r e n o e x tan t r ecord s o f s pec if i c m i l i ta ry c ampa ig n s i n S umuabum 's m idd le y ea r s . I n h i s e igh th y ea r , h e c omp le ted t h ef o r t if ica t ion sa tD i lba t . T he f olow ing y ea r , h e

s eden ta ry p eop le s a nd n omad s wha t eve rt he i r e t hn ic o r ig in . S ome t ime s c on tac t sw e re p eacefu l , o the rt ime s n o t . T od a te , n o e v id ence e x i s t st ha t s uppor t s t h e p r es ence o fw id e sp read e thn ic c on f l ic t .

f i na l ly c l a im s s uzera in ty o ve r K i sh a f t e r e igh t y ea r s o f f i gh t ing ( K ing , 1 969 :144 ) . T he k ing o fK i sh , Yaw ium , who

THE F ERST DYNASTY OF BABYLON ( 1894 -1595 B .C . )

t he t h ron e . T h r ee y ea r s a f te r t he d ef ea t o fK i sh , S umuabum c onque red K aza l lu ( Ungnad , 1 938 :175 ) . Wh i le i t s e xac t l o ca t ion i su nknown , i ta ppea r s t o h ave b een s ou theas t o f

T he o r ig in s o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty o fB aby lon t ook r oo ti nt h e u n se t t led c ond i t ion s o f t h e I s in -La r sa p e r iod . A s he ikh b y t h e n ame o fS umuabum t ook t he o ppor tun i ty , l i k e an umbe r

B aby lon . T h i s m ay h av e ma rk ed t h e o n se t o f h os t i l i t ie s b e tween B aby lon a nd L a r sa s i nce L a r sa h ad c ap tu red Kaza l lu n ine y ea r s p r io r t o t he B aby lon ian v ic to ry . O the r

o f h i s c on tempo ra r ie s , t o a s sume p owe r i n ap re -ex i s t ing t own . S umuabum c ho se B aby lon . N o t much i sk nown a bou t t h e e a r ly h i s to ry o fB aby lon . T he o l d es t p o tshe rd s a ppea rt o

t own s s uch a sK isu r ru may h ave c ome u nde r S umuabum 's

d a te b ack t o t h e l a t te r p ar t o f t h e E a r ly Dyna s t ic p e r iod ( G ib son , 1 972 ) . T h e f i r s t w r i t ten r e f e rence t oi ti sf r om t h e A kkad ian P e r iod . S ha r -ka l i sha r ra m en t ion s at emp le h e

S umuabum p robab ly c ou ld n o t m a in ta in t i gh t p o l i t ica l c on t ro l o ve r a ny o f t he a r ea s h e c onquered . T h i s i s e v id enced b yt h e f a c t t ha t i nK ish , o a th s c ou ld b e s wo rn b y t he r egen t , Ma r iana , b u tw e re f olowed b y S umuabum 's y ea r d a te ( Donbaz a nd Yof f ee , 1 986 ) . I f S umuabum h ad h ad

w a s a l ready av a s sa l o f Mamma , w a s a l lowed t o r ema in o n

c on t ro lf o r ab r ief p er iod a sw e l l .

h ad b u i l tt he re . D u r ing t h eT h i rd D yna s ty o fU r , i tm e r i ted a l o ca lg ove rno r , a ne n s i ,u nde rb o th S hu lg ia nd Ama r -S in .

c omp le te j u r i sd ic t ion o ve r K i sh , p r esumab ly o a th s w ou ld F ew d e ta i l s a r e k nown a bou t S umuabum 's 1 4 y ea r r e ign . T he g ene ra l p i c tu r e t ha t eme rge s f r om t he w r i t ten s ou rc e s s ugges t s h e w a s o ne o f an umbe r o f r u le r s f i gh t ing f o r c on t ro l o ft he t e r r i tor y o f Akkad . I nh i sf i r s t y ea r , h eb egan

h ave b e en i s sued i nh i s n ame r a th e rt han i nt he n ame o ft h e r eg en t . S ome w r i ter s s p ecu la te t ha t h e may h ave a l so c on t ro l led S ippa r a nd a l lowed t he l o ca l k ing t or ema in a s a v a s sa l ( K ing , 1 969 :144 ) . H a r r i s , o n t h e o the r h and d oub t s

c on s truc t ion o f ad ef en s ive w a l l a r ound B aby lon . T h i s may h ave b een i nr e sp on se t oo ri na n t ic ipa t ion o ft he l ong p e r iod

t h i sa so n ly o ne d ocumen tw i th S umuabum 's y ea r n ame h a s b een f ound ( Ha r r i s , 1 975 :5 ) . U n l ik eK i sh , n od ocumen ta t ion e x i s t s f r om S ippa r wh ich c on ta in s t h e r egen t 's n ame

o f h o s t i l i t ie s t ha t w a s t o f o l low . S umuabum 's y ea r -name s i mp ly h e l o s t n o t ime i n e xpand ing h i s c on t ro l . B y h i s s e cond y ea r , h e w a s i n D i lba t ( Donbaz a nd Y of f ee , 1 986 )

c oup led w i th S umuabum 's y ea rd a te . G ood Me sopo tam ian k ing s ,b e s id e sb e ing s ucces sfu lm i l i ta ry

a nd m ay h ave d ef ea ted K i lba lba m i s i nce h e f o r t if ied t ha t t own a y ea r l a te r . I t s e xac t l o ca t ion i s u nknown b u t i t

l e ade r s , a l so n eeded t o l o ok a f te r t h e r e l ig iou s l i f e o f t he

p robab ly l i es i nt h ev i c in i ty o fB aby lon . K ish a l so b ecame a t a rge t o fB aby lon 's m i l i ta ry amb i t ion s a tt h i s t im e a l though

p eop le . S umuabum a ppa ren t ly t o ok t h e se d u t ie s s e r iou s ly . H e c on s t ruc ted at emp le d ed ica ted t oN in is im ia i n h i s t h i rd

i td id n o tf a l lf o r an umbe ro fy ea r s . S umuabum 's t h i rd y ea r n am ec ommemo ra te st h e ' t ak ing o ft h ew a l lo fl ip ' ( Donb az a nd Y of f ee , 1 986 :12 -13 ) . T h is i sa l so t h ey ea rt ha ti d en t if i e s

y ea r . H eb u i l t at emp le t oN a ima , t h e moon g od , ay ea rl a te r a nd t h r ee y ea r s l a te r h ad c eda r d oor s i n s taled o n i t

h im a s ac o regen tw i th ar u le rn amed Manana F o rt h i s a nd o the r r ea son s , C ha rp in h a s a rgued t ha t t he Manana 's

y ea r , h e d ed ica ted a c rown t o t h e s ky g od , Anu , i n K i sh . T h i si n f o rma t ion , t hough s can ty , s e tt h et one f o rt h ed ynas ty

h ome -c i ty s hou ld b ei d en t if ied w i th l ip ( Cha rp in , 1 978a ) .

t ha t w a s t of olow . S umuabum 's s ucc e s so r s a c ted l i k e g ood B aby lon ian k ing s b y t r y ing t o e n la rg e t he t e r r i to ry u nd e r

T ab le 3 . 1

t he i r c on t ro l a nd l o ok ing a f te r t h e r el ig iou s t r ad i t ion s t h ey i nhe r i ted

( Ungnad , 1 938 :175 ) . A f te r t he d ef ea t o f K i sh i n h i s n in th

T he K ing so ft he F ir s tD yna s ty o fB aby lon 1 . Sumuabum

1 894 188 1

1 4y r s

2 .S umu la i lum

1 880 -1845

3 6y r s

3 .S abl iun

1 844 -1831

1 4y r s

4 .A p i l - Si n

1 830 -1813

1 8y r s

5 .Si nmuba ll i t

1 812 -1793

2 0y r s

6 .Hammu rab i

1 792 -1750

4 3y r s

7 .S am su i luna

1 749 1712

3 8y r s

8 .A b ie shu

1 7111684

2 8y r s

9 .Amm id i tana

1 683 -1647

3 7y r s

1 0 . Amnü saduqa

1 646 -1626

2 1 y r s

1 .S am sud i tana

1 625 -1595

3 0y r s

S umu la i lum , S umuabum 's s uc ce s so r , m ay n o t h ave b een h i s s on , b u t r a th e r ac on tempo ra ry a nd p e rhap s h i s r i va l . S ome d ocumen t s r e vea l t ha t l a te rk ing s t r aced t he ir a nces t ry b ack t oh im a so ppo sed t oS umuabum ( Ed za rd , 1 957 :112 ) . O the r s ou rce s i n c lud e S umuabum i nt h e F i r s t Dynas ty o fB aby lon ( F ink e l s te in , 1 966 ) . E i the r w ay , S umu la i lwn mus t b e c on s ide r ed t h e r e a lf ound e ro ft h e F i r s tD yna s ty o fB aby lon . I tw a s h e w ho f o rged t h e c o re a r ea o fi n f luenc e t ha t w a s t o r ema in i n tac t u n t i l t h e l a s t k ing o f t h e r oya l f am i ly w a s d ef ea ted . T he f i r s t 1 2y ea r s o fS umu la i lum 's 3 6 y ea r r e ign , a cco rd ing t o h i s d a te f o rmu lae , w e r e l a rge ly s p en t o n b u i ld ing a nd r epa ir ing t h e c ana l s a nd w a terway s . Du r ing t h i s p e r iod h e a l so r ebu i l t , o r p e rhap s c omp le ted , t h e g rea t f o r t if ica t ion w a l l a round B aby lon i n i t ia ted b y S umuabum ( K ing , 1 969 :146 ) . T he . o n ly m i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty r e co rded w a s t h e s ucce s sfu l d ef en se o fD i lba t a ga in s t a n a t tack b y t h e c i ty o f

( Ch rono logy i sb a sed o n S o l lbe rge ra nd Kupp e r , 1 971) 1 7

Ma rad . A d a te f o rmu la f ound i n K i sh s ugge s t s t ha t S umu la i lum m igh t h ave a l so a c ted a s c o regen t t h e re w i th Y aw ium a s S umuabum h ad ( Donbaz a nd Yof f e e , 1 986 :14 ) . K aza l lu , o n t he o the r h and , f e l l b ack i n to t h e h and s o f

S umu la i la ( r e )bu i l t t h e w al o f S ippa r " ( Ha r r i s , 1 975 :5 ) . S ippa rl i e sr ough ly 5 5 k rn st ot he n or th o fB aby lon . T he f a c t t ha t S ippa r 's w a l l m ay h ave n eed ed r e bu i ld ing i nd ica te s t h e B aby lon ian a rmy may h ave t aken t h e c i ty b y f o rc e . A no ther p o s s ib i l i ty i st ha t t h e c i t izen s l e t t h e i r w a l l d e te r io ra te a nd

L a r sa .

c ou ld n o t moun t a n e f ec t ive r e s is tanc e t o t h e B aby lon ian B eg inn ing

i n

S umu la i lum 's

1 2 th

y ea r ,

t h e

s i tua t ion

f o rc e s . F rom t h i s p o in t o n , w i th a p o s s ib le b r ief e xcep t ion , S ippa r r ema ined f i rm ly u nde r B aby lon ian c on t ro l u n t i l t he e nd o ft h e d yna s ty . S ippa r p ro spe r ed u nd e r B aby lon 's r u le

c hanged . T he k ing o f K ish r ebe l led a ga in s t B ab y lon 's o ve r lo rd sh ip . F ive y ea r s l a te rw i th c ond i t ion s s t i l l u n se t t led , I akhz i r i lum ( J ahz ir e l ) o f K azalu j o ined K ish i n i t s f i gh t

a nd i n t u rn , S ippa r 's w ea l th a nd m anpower c on t r ibu ted t o t he s ucce s s o f B aby lon . S umu la i lum 's d augh te r j o in ed t h e

a ga in s t B aby lon ( K ing , 1 969 :146 ) . T he f o l low ing y ea r , c ommemo ra ted i n t h e d a t e f o rmu la f o r S umu la i lum 1 9 , t he

c l o is te r i n S ippa r b ecom ing a n ad i tu o f S hama sh , S ippa r 's c i ty -god

B aby lon ian f o rce s f i na l ly s ubdued K i sh a nd d e s t royed i t s w a l l . T h i s e ven t ma rked t h e e nd o f K i sh 's i ndependenc e . F rom t h i s p o in t o nwa rd s , K i sh 's d e s t iny w a s l i nked w i th B aby lon ( Donbaz a nd Y of f ee , 1 986 :15 ) .

L ik e S umuabum , S umu la i lum r e spe c ted t he r e l ig iou s t r ad i t ion s o ft h e t own s h e c onque red a nd i n co rpo ra ted t h em

I n h i s2 0 th y ea rd a te . S umu la i lum r e co rd s t he c onque s t a nd

i n to t h e c i ty s ta te o f B aby lon . B u t h e a l so p romo ted t he w o r sh ip o f B aby lon 's o wn c i ty -god , Ma rduk . I t w a s

d e s t ruc t ion o f K aza l lu . T h e v i c to ry r ema ined i n comp le te b ecau se i t s r u le r , I akhz i r i lum , e s caped . H e f ough t a g uer r i l la w a r a ga in s t B aby lon f o r f i ve y ea r s b ef o r e h e w a s

S umu la i lum who i n t roduced Ma rduk 's c u l t a t S ippa r . I n B aby lon , h e h ad at h rone mad e f o r Ma rduk c ove red i ng o ld a nd s i lve r . Two y ea r s l a te r h e o rd e red a s t a tue m ad e o f

f i na l ly c ap tu red a nd p u t t o d ea th ( K ing , 1 969 :146 ) . T ex t s i nd ica te t h a tt he ma jor i ty o ft h e m i l i ta ry a c t ion t o ok p l ace i n t h e a r ea o ft h e t r ad i t iona l d iv id ing l i n e b e tween n or th a nd

Ma rduk 's w if e , S a rpan i tum .

s ou th Me sopo tam ia , i . e . , t h e n e ighbo rhood o f Ma rad K aza l lu -Ap iak ( Donba z a nd Y of f e e , 1 986 :14 ) . I n h i s 2 7 th y ea r , S umu la i lum c ommemo ra te s t h e d es t ruc t ion a nd r ebu i ld ing o fC u tha . I n t h e s ame y ea r h e a l so n o t e s t ha t h e

o ccupa t ion o ft h et own o fB a rz i ( Ungnad 1 938 :176 ) . B yt h is

T he l a s t m i l i ta ry a c t ion a t tr ibu tab le t oS umu la i lum w a s t h e t ime , h i s o ld a dve r sa r ie s , t he k ing s o ft h e Mamma d yna s ty , h ad d i ed o u ta sw el . S umu la i lum c emen ted a na ll iance w i th U ruk b y m a r ry ing o n e o f h i s d augh te r s t o S inka sh id , t he k ing o f U ruk . B u t h i s r e a l l egacy w a s t he c r ea t ion o ft he B aby lon ian c o r e a r ea . T h i s t e r r i to ry , w h ich i n c lud ed K i sh

t r ea ted t h e w a l l o f t h e g od Z aka r i n as im i la r f a sh ion . Du r -Zaka r i s o ne o f t h e d ef en se s o f N ippu r ( K ing , 1 969 :146 ) . T h is a ppea r s t ob e t h e f i r s t a t temp t t o e xpand s ou thwa rd a nd c ap tu r e t ha t v ene rab le o ld c i ty . S umu la i lum p robab ly t o ok t he o ppo r tun i ty t o a t tack N ippu r w h i le t h e r e w a s at empo ra ry p owe r v acuum i n t h e s ou th . T he k ing o f I s in . U ra im i t t i , h ad d i ed w i th n o l eg i t ima te h e i r s a nd

a nd S ippa r , w a sd e s t ined t or ema in f i rm ly u nde rB aby lon ian c on t ro lu n t i lt h ee nd o ft he d ynas ty . A lmo s tn o th ing i sk nown a bou t t he r e ign o ft h et h i rd k ing o f t he d yna s ty , S ab ium . I t s e em s a s i f h e w a s p r ima r i ly o ccup ied d u r ing h i s 1 4 y ea r r e ig n w i th t h e i n te rna l

w ou ld -be c l a iman t s t ot h e t h rone w e re e mb ro i led i n af i e rce p owe rs t rugg le .

a dm in i s t ra t ion o f t h e t e r r i to ry c onque red b y h i s f a the r . Twen ty -n ine d ocumen t s w i th S ab ium 's d a te f o rmu lae a t tes t

S umu la i lum w an ted t op o s se s s N ippur f o r t he s am e r e a son a l l Me sopo tam ian l e ad e r s h ad f o r t h e p a s t t hou sand y ea r s . N ippu rw a st h e c i ty o fE n l i l , t h e h ead o ft he Me sopo tam ian

t oB aby lon 's c on t inu ing c on t ro l o fS ipp a r ( Ha r r is , 1 975 :6 ) . I n h i s s e ven th y ea r , h e h ad t he t emp le o f S hama sh r e bu i l t t he r e . O fh i s m i l i ta ry a c t iv i t ie s , w e o n ly k now t ha t a ts ome p o in th es en t 1 000 m en t oU ruk , p r e sumab ly a tt h e i rr eque s t .

p an theon . F rom e a r l ie s t t ime s , E n l i l h ad t he r e spon s ib i l i ty o f c onf e r r ing k ing sh ip o n t h e r u le r s o f S ume r ( K rame r , 1 963 ) . T hu s , whoeve rc on t ro l led t he c i ty c ou ld p roc la im t ha t E n l i l h ad c ho sen h im i nN ippu r . T he c i ty i t se l fn eve r s e em s t oh ave w ie lded a ny m i l i ta ry p owe r . I t s i mpo r tance l a y i ni t s

T h i si si nk e ep ing w i th t h ea l l iance e s tab l i shed b yh i sf a the r . T he c i ty o f K aza l lu r eb e l led d u r ing S ab ium 's r e ign , b u t

t r emendou s s ymbo l ic s i gn if icance t o t he Me sopo tam ian f r om

Ap i l -S in , S ab ium 's s on , s ucceeded h im a nd r u led f o r 1 8 y ea r s . A ga in , l i t t le i s k nown a bou t h i s r e ign . A p i l -S in

d e s truc t ion d e sp i te t h e f a c t i tf r equen t ly c hanged h and s i n t h ew ak eo fa rmed c onf l ic t .

f o l lowed h i s f a the r 's e xamp le a nd s p en t mo s t o f h i s t ime c on so l ida t ing a nd i mp rov ing t he a r ea a l ready u nd e r h i s

p eop le .

B ecause

o f t h i s .

N ippu r

r ema ined

s a f e

B aby lon ian t r oop ss ubdued i t .

c on t ro l . T h i s p au se a l lowed t he B aby lon ian s t o l a y t h e B aby lon a ppea r s t o h ave h e ld N ippu r b r ie f ly . Documen t s f r om S umu la i lum 's d e sc endan t s r evea l t ha t h e b u i l t a tl e a s t

f ounda t ion f o r a much g r ea te r e xpan s ion i ny ea r s t oc ome . T ex t s r e co rd h e s t reng thened t he w a l l s o f B aby lon a nd B a rz i , a sw e l l a sb u i l t mo r e c ana l s ( Ungnad , 1 938 :176 ) . H e

s i x f o r t re s se s t o s af egua rd t h e b ounda r ie s o f A kkad ( K ing , 1 969 :148 ) . T he o n ly o ne o ft he se f o r t s t ha t c an a c tualy b e i d en t if ied i s D ur -Zaka r a t N ippu r . T he r ema ind e r mo s t l i k e ly l a y a l ong t he s ou the rn a nd e a s te rn b o rd e r s o f

a l so r ebu i l t s ome g rea t t emp le s . I n S ippa r . h e h ad t h rone s mad e f o r S hama sh a nd h i s c on so r t . S her ida , wh ich i s a no the rn ame f o rt h eg odde s sA ya .

B aby lon 's t e r r i to ry . N ippu r , t hough , d id n o t f o rm p a r t o f B aby lon ' sc o re a r ea .

L i t t le i s h ea rd f r om B aby lon d u r ing t h i s p e r iod , i n p a r t b ecau se i t s n e ighbo r sw ie lded much mo r e i n f luence t h an t h e f l edg l ing B aby lon ian d yna s ty . T he c i ty s ta te o f E s lunuma s t a r ted e xpand ing i t s t e r r i to ry u nd e r I b iq -adad I . T h ey

I n S umu la i lum 's 2 9 th y ea r n ame , h e r e co rded wha t p roved t o b e a d ec is ive e ven t f o r t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty , " Yea r 1 8

c aled h im " En la rge r o f E shnunna " a nd " Shephe rd o f t h e b l ack -head ed p eop le " ( F rank f o r t , e t a l . , 1 940 :128 ) . E ven tua l ly h e w a s d e i f ied . H i s s on , N a ram -S in , m ay e ven

a nd f i na l ly c onque r ed I s in . D e sp i te t h e m il i ta ry d ef ea t , B aby lon 's f o rc e s d id p reven t a ny f u r the r n o r the rn e nc roachmen t b y R im S in . S inmuba l l i t a l so c on t inued t h e p o l icy o f f o r t if y ing h i s v a s sa l c i t ie s i n c lud ing N anga a nd B a su ( K ing , 1 969 :153 ) .

h ave c on tro l led S ippa rf o r ay ea ro rt wo . T he re i s as i xy ea r g ap i nB aby lon ian y ea rd a te f o rmu lae a tS ippa rl a s t ing f r om Ap i l -S in 1 4 t o S inmuba l l i t 1( F rank f o r t , e ta l . , 1 940 :128 ) . A t l e a s t o ne d a te f o rmu la o f N a ram -S in h a s b een f ound

Ay ea r o rs o a f t e rh i s d ef ea t b y L a r sa , S inmuba ll i t d i ed a nd w a s s ucceed ed b y h i s s on a nd t h e g rea te s t o f t he F i r s t Dyna s ty k ing s , H anunu rab i . H anunurab i c ame t op owe r i n 1 792 d u r ing a t ime o f g r ea t p o l i t ica l i n s tab i l i ty . R im S in n ow e f ec t ive ly c on t ro l led a l l o f s ou the rn Me sopo t2m ia . D adu sha o fE shnunna , i nl e ague w i th t h eE lam i te s , h e ld t h e

t h er e . H i so ccupa t ion o fS ippa r , i fi ti nd eed o ccu r red , d id n o t l a s tl ong . H ea l so d ropped t h et i t le su sed b yh i sf a the r . I n t h e s ou th , t o o , an ew a nd p owe r fu l k ingdom c ame i n to b e ing . P r io r t o S ab ium 's r e ign , a s d emon s t ra ted b y S umu la i lum 's i n cu r s ion i n to N ippu r , n e i the r I s in n o r L a r sa h ad as t rong k ing . And l i k e s o m any t ime s i nt he p a s t , t h e E lam i te s c ou ld n o t r e s i s t t a l c ing a dvan tag e o ft h e s i tua t ion .

t e r r i to ry t o t h e n o r th o f B aby lon a nd a s f a r w e s t a s t he E uph ra te s . T he p owe rfu l S ham sh i -Adad d om ina ted n o r the rn Me sopo tam ia a nd h ug e t r ac t s o fl and t ot h e w e s t i n c lud ing

T h is t ime t h ey c ho se t oi n te r f e r ew i th L a r sa 's a f a ir sb ecau se t h ey j udged i tt h e w eak e r o f t h e t wo s t a te s . I n S ab ium 's

Ma r i . S ham sh i -Adad w a s ac apab le a dm in i s t ra to r w i th a p owe rfu l p e r sona l i ty a nd u ndoub ted ly t h e g rea te s t f i gu re o f

n in th y ea r , S i ll i -Adad o f L a r sa l o s t h i s t h ron e . T he r e i s s om e d i sag reemen t i n t h e l i t e ra tu r e a s t o e xac t ly w ha t

h i sa ge .

h appen ed . R oux ( 1992 :184 ) s ay sh eg o tk iled i n aw a rw i th B aby lon a nd t h e E lam i te s moved i nt ot ak e o ve r a n emp ty

H anunu rab i i nhe r i ted ak ingdom o n ly 1 50 km l ong a nd 6 0 km w ide ( Roux , 1 992 :197 ) . I n mode r n g eog raph ica l t e rm s , i t e ncompa s sed t h e a r ea f r om F a l lu jah t o D iwan iyah . H a r runu rab i , l i k e a l h i s p red ece s so r s , w a s amb i t iou s . When h e a sc ended t h e t h rone , h oweve r , h e m ay h ave h ad t op ay t r ibu te t o R im S in o f L a r sa . T h i s w ou ld n o t b e

t h rone . J oan O a te s ( 1986 :61) c on tend s t ha t a n E lam i te s he ikh , K udu r - Mabu l c , d epo sed S i l l i -Adad . E i th e r w ay , Kudu r - Mabuk i n s ta l led h i s s on , Wa rad -S in , a s k ing o f L a r sa . H e r u led t here f r om 1 834 -1823 B .C . ( Ha l lo a nd S imp son , 1 971 :98 ) . E ven t hough h e w a s a n E lam i te , h e a c ted l i k e a ny o the r g ood Mesopo tam ian k ing . H e s e t a bou t s t r eng then ing L a r sa 's p o s i t ion a nd s i x y ea r s l a te r c ap tu red N ippu r , c l a im ing l e g i t ima te k ing sh ip o ft h e s ou th . When h e d i ed , h i sb ro the r , R im S in I ,a sc end ed t h e t h rone o fL a r sa . T h i s o ccur r ed i n Ap i l -S in 's n in th y ea r . R im S in I w a s d e s t ined t or u le f o r6 0y ea r s .

u np reced en ted s i nc e h i sf a the rh ad s uf e red am i l i ta ry d ef ea t a tt h e h and s o fL a r sa t h e y ea r b ef o r e . T he d ocumen t s a l so i nd ica te t ha t h e w a s p robab ly a v a s sa l o f S ham sh i A dad ( Gadd , 1 973 :177 ) . I nt h e e a r ly y ea r s o fh i s r e ign , h e s e em s t oh ave d evo ted h i s t ime t o e s tabl i sh ing a m i l i ta ry o rgan iza t ion a nd g ene ra l ly i mp rov ing t h e i n f ra s t ruc tu r e o f h i s k ingdom . H i s m il i ta ry

S inmuba l l i tt o ok o ve rt h e r e ign so fg ove r nmen ti n 1 812 a nd r e igned f o r2 0 y ea r s ( Ungnad , 1 938 :177 -8 ) . F o r t h ef i rs t 1 3 y ea r s o rs oh es e emed ma in ly o ccup ied w i th b u i ld ing c ana l s .

v en tu re s b egan i n h i s s i x th y ea r a nd w e r e d i rec ted t owa rd s t he s ou th . I n 1 787 , h e s e ized I s in a way f r om R im S in a nd a dvanced d own t he E uph ra te s a s f a r a s U ruk ( Ungnad . 1 938 :178 ) . T h ree y ea r s l a te r h e c ampa igned i n Emu tba l a nd

H e a l so r ebu i l t w a l l s a t R uba tum , Z aka r -dada . D u r -S inmubal i t ( mod em Khaf a jah ) , B i t -Ka rka ra a nd

c ap tu red t h e mos t i mpor tan t c i ty i n t h e d i s tr ic t , Ma lgum . T he f o l low ing y ea r , S ha l ib i a nd R ap iqum f el t o t h e B aby lon ian a rmy . R ap iqum l a y u p s t ream f r om S ippa r . T he l a t te rt h ree c ampa ign su ndoub ted ly i n f r inged o nt h et e r r i to ry

Ma rad ( K ing , 1 969 :153 ) . I t w a s d u r ing h i s t ime t ha t B aby lon s t a r ted e xe r c i s ing mo r e d i rec t c on t ro l o ve r t h e c i ty s ta te s w i th in i t s s phe r e o fi nf luenc e . E s l inunna 's p owe r a nd i n f luenc e h ad w aned u nde r t h e l e ad e r sh ip o fD adu sha ,

o f E s lu runna s t i l l l e ad b y D adu sha . T he r e ac t ion o f t h e E shnw in ian s r ema in s u nknown . T he n o r thern c ampa ign s may h ave b een u nd e r tak en o n h i s o wn i n i t ia t ive , i n c on junc t ion w i th A s sy r ia a sa na l ly , o re ven c onduc ted a tt h e

N a ram -S in 's s ucce s so r . R eco rd s i nd ica te t ha t D adu sha c on f ined h i sm i l i ta ry a c t iv i t ies t oa r ea sc l o se t oh ome . One e xc ep t ion t ot h is r e la t ive ly q u ie t e a r ly p er iod o ccu r red i nS in rnuba l l i t 's f ou r th y ea r . R im S in Io fL a r sa , n ow i nh i s 1 4 th y ea r , w a s c on t inu ing t o e xpand h i s k ingdom i n

c ommand o fS ham sh i A dad . A t t h i s t ime , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t od ec id e wh ich w a st he c as e .

s ou thern Me sopo tam ia t o t he g rea t c on s te rna t ion o f o the r l e ad e r s . I na n e f or t t oh a l t h i s a dvance , B aby lon f o rmed a m i l i ta ry c oa l i t ion w i th R ap iqum , I s in , S u tu , a nd U ruk

I f t h e d a te f o rmu lae a r e t o b e b e l ieved , H anunu rab i i n s t iga ted n om i l i ta ry a c t ion sf o rt h e n ex t 1 8y ea r s ( Ungnad , 1 938 :179 -80 ) . I ns tead , h e c oncen t ra ted o n t h e i n terna l

( Edza rd , 1 957 :177 ) . T he r e su l t s mu s t h ave b e en i nd ec i s ive s i nce L a r sa 's p owe r c on t inued t og row . R ough ly n ine y ea r s w en t b y b ef o r e t h e r e i s a ny i nd ica t ion t ha t S inmuba l l i t

a dm in is t ra t ion o f h i s r e a lm i n c lud ing l e ga l a nd j ud ic ia l r e f orm s . F o r n ea r ly h i s f i r s t 3 0 y ea r s , h i s d a te f o rmu lae

a ga in t r ied t ot ak e ah and i ns ou th er na f a ir s . A tt h i sp o in t , a t h ree s id ed b a t t le e n sued b e tween I s in , L a r sa , a nd B aby lon . S inmuba l l i t 's d a te f o rmu la f o r y ea r 1 4 c o mmemo ra te s t h e

d ed ica t ing s t a tue s a nd o the r p a raphe rna l ia t o t h e g od s , c on s truc t ing w a l l s , a nd d igg ing c ana l s . H e p robab ly r ebu i l t t h ew a l l so fK i sh d u r ing t h is p e r iod .

d ef ea t o fa na rmy f r om U r wh ich a tt h i s t ime w a s c on t ro l led b yL a rs a( Ungnad , 1 938 :177 ) . T h re ey ea r sl a te r , S inmuba l l i t

E ven t hough H ammurab i d id n o t i n i t ia te a ny c ampa ign s

c l a im s t o h ave d es t royed I s in . T he r e su l t s a ppea r t o h ave b een i n con c lu s ive s i nce t h e f o l low ing y ea r , B aby lon f o rmed a no the ra l l iance a ga in s t L a r sa . T h i st ime R im S in p r eva i led

d u r ing t h i st ime , B aby lon w a s i nvo lved i nm i l i ta ry a c t iv i t ie s . T he s i tua t ion mu s t h ave b een u navo idab le g i ven t h e p er sona l i t ie s s u r round ing h im . S eve ra l y ea r s a f te r o f

c ommemo ra te ma in ly s uch a c t iv i t ie s a s b u i ld ing t emp le s ,

1 9

T ab le 3 . 2 C hrono log ica l Char tf o rt he O ld B aby lon ian P er iod

BABYLON

I SIN

LARSA

E SHNUNNA

MA W

ASSYR IA

S umuabum ( 1 894 1881 ) S umu la i lum

U ra im i t t i

( 1880 1845 )

( 1 868 1861 )

I ba l -p ie lI I b iq -adad I

S ab ium

S i I l i - Mad

( 1 844 1831 )

Na ram -S in

( 1842 -1835 ) Wa rad -S in

A p i l -S in

( 1 834 -1823 )

( 1830 18 13 ) S inmubal i t

R im - S in I

Dadu sha

( 1812 1793 )

( 1 822 1763 )

( c .1805 1780 )

Y a smah -Adad

H ammu r ab i

I ba l -p ie lI

( 1796 1776 )

( 1792 1750 )

H . c onqu e r sE sh .

Z im r i -L im

I s hm e -Dagan

---- -

( 1776 1761 )

( 1 780 174 1)

H . c onqu e r s L a r sa ( 1763 ) - -

- --

S ham sh i -Adad I ( 1 809 1776 )

H . d e s t roy s Mar i ( 1761 ) ---

S am su i luna

S econd S ea land

( 1749 17 12 )

D yna s ty

R im -S in I

I l uma I lum

( 17411736 )

I l un i

( c .1732 )

A da s i

S am su i luna d e s t roy sE sh .

A b ie shu ( 17 11 1684 )

------

Anun id tana ( 1683 1647 ) Anun i saduqa ( 1646 1626 ) S am su c l i tana ( 1625 1595 ) ( Th i s c h rono log ica l c ha r t i sb a sed o n C ha rp in a nd D u r and , 1 985 ; P o rada , e ta l . , 1 992 ; R oux , 1 992 ; a nd S olb e rg e r a nd K upp e r , 1 97 1 )

E shnunna . T h en i n 1 776 , ( a cco rd ing t o t h e mos t r e c en t e s t ima te s b y C ha rp in a nd D u rand , ( 1 985 ) ) , S ham sh i -Adad w a s k i l led i n b a t t le a l ong w i th h i s i n compe ten t s o n Y a s inah -Adad w ho h ad b e en r u le ro f Mar i . T h i sl ef tt h ew ay o p en f o rZ im r i -L im , as on o rc l o se r e la t iv e o ft h ep r ev iou s ly d epo sed k ing o f Mar i , t or e tu rn f r om e x i le a nd r e c la im t h e

t h ron e . I s hm e -Dagan , S ham sh i -Adad 's c on t inued t or u le A s sy r ia a nd E l ca l la tum .

r ema in ing

s on ,

N o o n e c i ty s ta te p r edom ina ted i nt h e p o l i t ica l o r m i l i ta ry a r ena d u r ing t h i s t ime . D o cumen ta ry e v id ence c o r robo ra te s t h e i mp r e s s ion t h a t t h i s p e r iod w a s o n e o fo ve ra l l p o l i t ica l 2 0

w eakne s s . A f amou s l e t te r i nd ica te s t h a t e ach o f s evera l l e ader s , i n c lud ing H ammurab i , c ou ld o n ly c oun t o n t he s uppor t o f 1 0 15 o the r r u le r s ( P r i tcha rd . , 1 975 :190 ) . T he

Me sopo tam ia . T he c i ty , h oweve r , d id c on t inue t o p lague B aby lon f o rs eve ra lm o r ed ecad e s .

o n ly w ay a ny o ne k ing c ou ld moun t as ucce s sfu l a t tack a ga in s t an e ighbor ing s t a t ew a st of o rm a l l iance s .

H anunu rab i 's 3 2nd y ea r , 1 761 , w a s t op rove ab u sy o ne . I n t h e d omes t ic s phe r e , h e f o cu sed h i s e n e rgy o n S ume r a nd

W i th in t h ef i r s tf ew y ea r s o fZ im r i -L im 's r e tu rn t op owe r i n Mar i , h e e n l i s ted t he a i d o f t he E lam i te s a nd B aby lon

a bundance f o rt h ep eop le ' . I nt he d a te f o rmu la f r om h i s 3 3rd y ea r( r ef e rr ing t oa c t iv i t ie st ha tt ook p lace i nh i s 3 2nd y ea r ) , h eb oa s t s t ha t i tp rov ided a" pe rmanen t w a te r o fp len ty " f o r

A kkad . H e o rde r ed a c ana l d ug c a l led ` Hammur ab i i s

a ga in s t t h e g row ing t h rea t o f E shnunna . T oge the r t h ey

N ippu r , E r idu , U r , L a r sa , U ruk , a nd I s in ( Ungnad , 1 938 :180 ) . H ammu rab i a l so r eo rgan ized g overnmen t b u reauc rac ie sa nd m ad eL a r sa h i ss ou the rn c ap i ta l .

managed t o c onque r t h e c i ty . T h i s v i c to ry a ppa r en t ly t r igge red a d e s ire f o r mo r e t e r r i to ry o n t he p ar t o f t h e E lam i te s b ecau se s oon a f t e rwa rd s , t h ey s en t o ne a rmy a ga ins tB aby lon a nd a no the ra ga in s tE ka l la tum . H ammurab i w on h i s e ncoun ter w i th t h e i nvad er s b u t I s h rne D agan d id n o t f a re a sw el . The E lam i te s managed t oo ccupy an umbe r

On t h em i l i ta ry s i d e , H ammu rab if e l t s e cu re e nough t ob eg in e xpand ing h i s emp i re t o t h e n o r th a nd w e s t . H e t u rned a ga in s t h i s l ong t im e a l ly , Z im r i -L im a nd c onque red Mar i a s w e l l a s s ome o the r c i t ie s i n S uba r tu i nc lud ing Ma lg i .

o ft own s i nn o r the r n Me sopo tam ia i n c lud ing E kala twn a nd S huba t -En l i l . T he l a t te r i sn ow p o s i t iv e ly i d en t if ied a s T e l l L e i lan ( Ha l lo , 1 964 ) .

E v id ence s ugge s t s t h a t h e f o rced t h e l e ad er s t o b ecome v a s sa l s o r a s H ammu rab i p ref e r red t o p h ra se i t , " by a f r iend ly a g reemen t [ h e m ad e t hem ] ( l i s ten ) t o h i s o rd e r s " ( Roux , 1 992 :200 ) . Z l in r i -L im a ppa r en t ly r e ta ined h i st h rone a l though c l ay l a b e l s o r ig ina l ly a t tached t o b a ske t s w e re

Ay ea r o rt wo l a ter l ba l -p ie l Ia ga in s u rf aced a s af o rc e t o b e r e ckoned w i th d e sp i t e t he f a c t E shnunna h ad b een c ap tu r ed r e cen t ly b y Z inu i L im a nd t h e E lam i te s . I n 1 771 , wh ich w a s H anunu rab i 's 2 2nd y ear i n of i ce , I ba l -p ie l I

f ound a t Ma r i b ea r ing t h e y ea r d a te H ammu rab i 3 2 ( Oa te s , 1 986 :65 ) T h is s ugg e s t s t ha t c i v i l s e rvan t s f r om B aby lon

a dop ted t h eE lam i te s t r a t egy o fs end ing t wo a rm ie s i n to t h e

w e re c a ta log ing t h e of i c ia l Mar i a r ch ive s . Z imr i -L im d id n o t p rove t ob e ad o c i le v a ssa l f o r t wo y ea r s l a te r i n 1 759 B .C . , H ammu rab i r e tu rned a nd d e s t royed t he w a l l s o fb o th

f i e ld s imu l taneou s ly , o n e a l ong t he E uph ra t e sv a l ley a nd t h e o the r a l ong t he T ig r i s ( Roux , 1 992 :198 ) . E ka l la tum , n orma l ly p ar t o f A s sy r ia , a ga in f el i n to f o re ign h and s b u t

Mar i a nd Ma lg i . Mar i w a s t o ta l ly d es troyed a nd Z inu i -L im 's b eau t i fu lp a lac e w a sb u rned t ot he g round . T he

t he b a t t le f o r Mar i w a s i n conc lu s ive . l ba l -p ie l a nd Z im r i -L im n ego t ia ted at r ea ty f o rc ing t h e l a t te rt or e cogn ize E shnunna a s o ver lo rd . B u t a s s oon a s t h e i nvader s w en t h ome , Z im r i -L im 's v a s sa l s a ga in s wo r e t h e i r a l leg iance t o h im . A t t h i s p o in t i n t ime , H ammu rab i , who w a s n o t i nvo lved i n t he l a te s t r ound o f f i gh t ing , a nd Z im r i -L im

c i ty n eve rr e cove r ed .

i n wha t w a s t o b ecome t he

T he p ro logue t ot h eL aw C od e o fH ammu rab i men t ion sb o th A s su ra nd N ineveh b u tt h e n a tu r eo ft h e i r r e la t ion sh ip w i th B aby lon i sn o t k nown . T he y ea r d a te s i nd ica te t ha t n e i the r A s sy r ia n o r E shnunna w e re e ve r c omp le te ly s ubdued . Du r ing t he y ea r s 1 757 a nd 1 755 , i . e . , h i s 3 6 th a nd 3 8 th

s hor t l iv ed O ld B aby lon ian emp i re , c am ei nt he 2 9 th y ea ro f H ammu rab i , 1 764 B .C . Ac oa l i t ion , w h ich i n c luded E lam ,

y ea r s , H ammurab i w a s a ga in f i gh t ing t h e a rmy o f S uba r tu ( A s sy r ia ) a nd e ach t ime c l a imed v i c to ry ( Ungnad ,

A s sy r ia u nde r I shme -Dagan . Gu t ium , E shnunna , a nd Ma lgum a s a l l ie s , a t tack ed B aby lon ( Ungnad , 1 938 :180 ) . H ammu rab i ' s t r oop s d ef ea ted t hem a nd t h en ma rched n or th a nd t o l a y s i ege t o R azama w i th t he a id o f Z im r i -L im .

1 938 :181 ) . I sh ine D agan s e em s t oh ave r e ta ined h i s t h rone t h roughou t t he h os t il i t ie s a l be i t a s av a ssa l . A s sy r ia 's t o ta l

t oge the rc ommand ed t h ee n t i re l eng th o ft h eE uphra te s . T he

r e a l t u rn ing p o in t ,

d om ina t ion o f n o r the rn Me sopo tam ia w a s a t a n e nd f o r n ea r ly t he n ex t 4 00 y ea r s . Meanwh i le , i n y ea r 3 7 , H ammurab i e ng inee r ed a f l ood t o d ep res s t h e r i s ing p r e ten s ion so fE shnunna .

R azama a t t h is t im e w a s i n t he h and s o f E lam a nd E shnunna . F ina l ly i n 1 763 , H ammu rab i t u rned h i s a t ten t ion t o t he s ou th ( Oa tes , 1 986 :65 ) . W i th t h e a s s i s tance o f Ma r i a nd E shnunna , h e c onqu e r ed R im -S in o fL a r sa b r ing ing t o a n e nd t h e l onge s t r e ign k nown f r om a nc ien t Mesopo tam ia . H anunu rab i d id n o t d e s t roy L a r sa . H e n eed ed i ta l ong w i th t he o th e r c i t ie s o f S um e r t o a c t a s ab uf f e r a ga in s t t h e

T h roughou t t h i s p e r iod o fB aby lon ian e xpan s ion , E lam a nd S yr ia r ema ined i nd ep end en t . I n a dd i t ion , t he re w e re o the r g roup s g a ther ing o nt h eb o rd e r s o f Me sopo tam ia t ha t w ou ld s oon p lay a r o le i n B aby lon ian h i s to ry . T he H i t t i te s w e re

E lam i te s a nd o the r p o ten t ia l e nem ie s . I n a dd i t ion , l e av ing t hese c i t ie si n tac ta l lowed h im t ol a yc l a im t ot he t r ad i t iona l

e s tab l i sh ing t hem se lve s i n Ana to l ia a l though t hey h ad n o t y e ts e ized p owe r . H u r r ian p eop le s f i l te red i n to S y r ia a nd t he

k ing sh ip o fS ume r a nd A kkad , at i t le o f wh ich h e w a sv e ry p roud .

J az ir a f r om t h e n or th . F ina l ly , t h e K a s s i te s , who e ven tua l ly i nher i ted t he k ing sh ip o f B aby lon ia , w e r e p robab ly o n t he o u t sk i r t s o f Me sopo tam ia a s w e l l . Whe the r t he i r h ome land

T he y ea r a f ter R im -S in 's d ef ea t , t h e T ig r i s c oal i t ion r eas semb led a nd a t tacked t h e B aby lon ian f o r ce s . E shnunna

w a s b eh ind t he Z ag ro s Moun ta in s o r i n t he w e s t i ss t i l l a ma t te ro fd eba te ( C layd en , 1 989 :53-55 ) .

wa s p a r t o f t h is g roup e ven t hough H ammu rab i h ad b een a b le t oc omp e l t hem t os end r e inf o rcemen t s s ou th t he y ea r b ef o re . T h i s t ime t he B aby lon ian t r oop s n o t o n ly o ver th rew t he c omb ined a rm ie so ft h ee nemy b u t m a rched n or th u pt h e

H ammurab i c l a imed s u zera in ty o ve ra l l o f Me sopo tam ia . H e r ega rd ed h imse lf a s t h e t r ad i t iona l h e i r t o t he k ing sh ip o f S ume r a nd Akkad . H e a s sumed t h e t i t le s ' m igh ty K ing ,

T ig r is t o t h e f r on t ie r o f S uba r tu . T h i s e f ec t ive ly e nd ed E shmuma 's r o le a s a m a jo r p l aye r i n t he p o l i t ic s o f

K ing o f B aby lon , K ing o f t h e who le c oun t ry o f Amu r ru , K ing o fS ume ra nd A kkad , K ing o ft h eF ou r Qua r te r so ft h e 2 1

Wor ld ' ( So l lbe rge r a nd Kuppe r , 1 97 1) b u t s t opped s hor t o f d e sc r ib ing h im se lf a sK ing o ft he Un ive r se . H i sd oma in n ow e ncompa s sed f i ve p rev iou s ly a u tonomou s s t a te s ; B aby lon ,

o f U r a nd U ruk i n y ea r n ame 1 , w h ich r ef e r s t o e ven t s o ccu r r ing i ny ea r 1 0 ( Ungnad , 1 938 :183 ) . I ti sp robab le t ha t S am su i luna s pen tt h eb eg inn ing o fh i s 1t hy ea re l im ina t ing

L a r sa , E shnunna , S uba r tu ( A s sy r ia ) a nd Ma r i . E ach o ft he l a t te rf ou rh ad al ong h i s to ry o fi ndep endence . T ob r ing t h i s

t he l a s t p ocke t s o f r e s i s tance t o B aby lon ian r u le . T h is i nc lud ed t h ed e s t ruc t ion o fU r c . 1739 . H is a rmy t h r ew d own

v a s t a rea u nde r c on t ro l , H ammu rab i c oncen t ra ted a l l t h e

t he c i ty w a l l , p lund e red a nd b u rned t emp le s a nd p ub l ic

ma in f unc t ion so ft he s t a te i nB aby lon . T h i sc r ea ted ad eg re e o fc en t ra l iza t ion u nknown i nt he p a s t a nd e f ec t ive ly s e rved t oe n r ich t h ec ap i ta la nd b ank rup tt h ep rov ince s . T he l a ck o f

b u i ld ing s , a nd p a r t ia l ly d e s t royed t h e c i ty . U ruk f a ced t he s ame f a t e a s U r . T h i s a l lowed t he E lam i tes t o i n te rvene . T he ir k ing , Ku tu rnahhun te I . ma rched i na nd w i th h i s men

i n teg ra t ion f o s te red b y H anunu rab i 's s y s tem o fg ove rnmen t

l oo ted U ruk . H e t ook , a mong o the r t h ing s , as t a tue o f t he

w a s t o h ave g rave c on sequence s f o r h i s d e scendan t s . S oon a f te r h i s d ea th , t h e n ew t e r r i to r ie s r eb e l led a ga in s t

g odde s s I nanna b ack t oS u sa wh ich A shu rban ipa l r e cove red 1 000 y ea r sl a te r .

B aby lon ian h egemony a nd t h e e mp i r e c rumb led H oweve r . H ammu rab i d id s u cceed i n mak ing B aby lon t h e s e a t o f

T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s uppor t s t h e t ex tua l c l a im s o f d eva s ta t ion . A l l p ub l ic b u i ld ing s a tU r s how s ign s o fv i o len t

k ing sh ip i n Me sopo tam ia f o r t h e n ex t t wo m i l lenn ia . I t r e igned s up r eme u n t i l t h e G reek sb u i l t S e leu c ia .

o ve r th row . D a ted e conom ic a nd l ega l t e x t s c ea se a ta bou t t h i s t ime i n a l l t he c i t ie s s ou th o f N ippu r . R eng e r ( 1 970 )

H anunu rab i w a s s ucceed ed b y h i s s on , S am su i luna . F o r t h e

s ugge s t s S amsu i luna m ay h ave d iver ted c ana l s t o c u t t he

f i r s t e igh ty ea r s S am su i luna s e em s t oh ave r u led i nr e la t ive p eace . H i s y ea r n ame s c ommemo ra te t h e b u i ld ing o f t wo c ana ls a nd t h e a dornmen to ft emp le s i nS ippa r a nd B aby lon

s ou th o f f r om t he i r w a t e r s upp ly . I tw a s ap a r t icu la r ly e f ec t ive m e thod o f s ubdu ing a n e n emy . A rchaeo log ica l s urvey e v id ence i nd ica te s aw idesp read d i srup t ion i ns e t t led

( Hor sne l l , 1 984 ) . B u t t h e r e sen tmen t r i f e i n t h e a nnexed t e r r i to r ie s s oon b o i led o ve r . I t s s ou rce l a y i n t h e f a c t t ha t H ammu rab i a nd h i s of i c ia l s e i th e r a pp rop r ia ted o r p u rchased v a s tt r ac t so fl and f r om t h e i rr i gh t fu lo wne r s . T he

l i f e ( Adam s , 1 981 :165 ) . N ippu r i t se l fw a s h a lf a b andoned b e tween t h e y ea r s 1 739 -1730 w h ich c or r e spond t o S am su i luna y ea r s 1-20 ( S tone , 1 977 ) .

s y s tem a tf i r s tw a sq u i te ef i c ien ta nd i n come f l owed i n to t h e c ap i ta l . Ov e rt ime , h oweve r , i tp roved t ob e t o o i n f lex ib le t o r e spond t o c hang ing e conom ic a nd s o c ia l c ond i t ion s a nd

D is tu rbance s c on t inued d e sp i te t h e t e r r ib le h avoc S amsu i luna w reaked o nt h e s ou thern c i t ie s . Y ea rf o rmu la 1 4 c omm emo ra te s t he " ov e r th row o f t h e u su rp ing lag [ r ef er r ing t o I l uma i lum ] whom t he A kk ad ian s h ad c au sed

s oon t he s ub jec t p opu lace w a s d e s t i tu te ( Yof f ee , 1 977a ) . T he se c ond i t ion s f o s te r r eb e l l ion a ga in s t t h e o f end ing g ove rnmen t . T he s ou th i np ar t icu la r s uf e red a nd i ti sf r om

u n t i l t h e f o l low ing y ea r t of i na l ly c ap tu r e a nd k i l l R im S in

h e re w e h ave t he mo s t w e l l -documen ted c ha l lenge t o B aby lon 's r u le .

I . T he b a t t le t ook p lace a tK ish i n c . 17 36 , h i s 1 4 th y ea r a s k ing ( Moo rey , 1 978 ) . T he w a l l o fI s in w a s d es t royed d u r ing

t o l e ad a r e be l l ion " ( K ing , 1 969 :199 ) . I tt ook S am su i luna

t he s ame c ampa ign . S amsu i luna 's h o ld o n t he emp i re h i s f a th e r c r ea ted o n ly l a s ted e igh t y ea r s . D ocumen t s s ugg e s t t ha t a l though h e i nhe r i ted many o f h i s f a the r 's m i l i ta ry a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive c apab i l i t ie s , t h e p rob lem s i nhe ren t i n t h e b u reauc ra t ic

S am su i luna

d id

a t temp t

t o

s t reng th en

h i s

r e cap tured

s ys tem w e r e b eyond t h e c apac i ty o fo ne p e r son t o c on t ro l . T he i n i t ia l r evo l t b egan i n t h e 6 th mon th o f S am su i luna 's

t e r r i to ry e ven t hough t h e u n re s t c on t inu ed . A f ter R im S in 's d ef ea t , r epa i r s w e r e u nd er taken a t K i sh . Y ea r f o rmu la 1 7 i n f o rm s u s t ha t t he k ing r e con s truc ted t h e g rea t w a l l s o f Emu tba lum wh ich h ad b een d e s t roy ed . S to l ( 1976 ) h as

e igh th y ea r l e ad b y aman c a l l ing h im s e lf R im S in I ( S to l , 1 976 ) . T he r e i sn o e v idence t o s ugg e s t t ha t h e w a s i n a ny

d emon s t ra ted t he t e rm r e f e r s t o t he t e r r i to ry a round L a r sa . H e a l so u nd er took t h e r e s to ra t ion o ft h e E babba r T emp le o f

w ay r e la ted t o t h e f amou s R im S in Io f L a r sa . H e mo re

S hama sh i nS ippa r .

l i k e ly a dop ted t h ep r es t ig iou s n ame t ob o ls te rh i sc red ib i l i ty . R im S in I managed t oc ap tu r e t h e s ou th , i n c lud ing N ippu r ,

T he v i c to ry o ve r R im -S in I p roved h o l low _ B y 1 732 ,

b y t he e nd o ft h e y ea r . I n d o ing s o , h e t r igge red aw a r t ha t l a s ted f i ve y ea r s .

S am su i luna 's 1 8 th y ea r , I l uma -Hum t o ok c on t ro l o f S umer s ou th o fN ippu r a nd f ounded t he s o ca l led Dyna s ty o ft he S ea land . S inc e S ume r h ad n eve r b een w e l l i n teg ra ted i n to

B y h i s n in th y ea r . S am su i luna w a s f i gh t ing o n t wo f r on t s . T he Ka s s i te s , a pp ea r ing a s w ar r io r s f o r t h e f i r s t t ime i n r e co rded h i s to ry , a t tacked f r om t h e e a s t b u t w e re s ucce ssf u l ly r ep e l led . Meanwh i le E shnunna . n o f r iend o f

B aby lon ' s s ph e re o f i n f luenc e , c ap tu r ing i td id n o t p rove d if i cu l t . One y ea r l a t e r c . 1731 , t he n o r th -ea s tern d i s t r ic t s , i nc lud ing A s sy r ia a nd E shnunna , manag ed t o b r eak a way f r om B aby lon ian r u le . A da s i , p resumab ly a d e sc endan t o f

B aby lon , h ad j o ined f o rce s w i th R im S in I . A t t h e e nd o f

S ham sh i A dad , l e ad t h e r e be ll ion . H e r ema ined f amou s i n

y ea r 9a nd t h eb eg inn ing o fy ea r 1 0 . S am su i luna moun ted a

t he A s sy r ian a nna l s f o r " end ing t he s e rv i tude o f A s su r " ( G ray son , 1 972 :31) . Ano the rw a rw i th E shnunna e n sued I t s

v igo rou s c oun te ra t tack t o r ega in h i s t e r r i to r ie s . S ta r t ing i n t he n or thea s t , h eo ccup ied E shnunna ,b ef o re ma r ch ing s ou th t os oon r e c la im N ippu r ,L ar sa , U r , a nd U ruk

l e ad e r , B unt o nce a ga in c a l led h im se lf K ing o fE shnunna . I t t ook B aby lon f ou ry ea r s t od ef ea t E shnunna . I l un i , h im se lf , g o tc augh tb yt h eB aby lon ian s o ld ier sa nd e ven tua l ly h ad h i s t h roa t c u t ( So l lbe rg e r , 1 969 ) . S hor t ly a f te r I l un i w a s k i l led c . 1727 , S am su i luna b u i l t Du r -Sam su i luna a t Khaf a jah a nd r ebu i l to the rf o r tre sse sd e s t royed i nt he w a r .

T he e v id ence f o r t h i s c ampa ign c ome s f r om b o th t ex t s a nd a rchaeo logy . A t e x t d a ted t o S am su i luna 1 0 c ame f r om L a r sa wh ich i mp l ie s h e w a s a ga in i n c on t ro l o f t h e c i ty ( Leeman s , 1 950 :79 ) . H is y ea r f o rmu lae r e co rd t h e c onque s t 2 2

Meanwh i le , b eg inn ing a round 1 730 , l i f e i nN ippu r r e tu rned t o n orma l . P e rhap s , a s S ton e s ugge s t s ( 1977 , 1 987 ) , S am su i luna m anaged t o r e s to r e t h e w a te r s upp ly . B u t

K a sh t i l ia sh I ,aman w i th ag ood K a s s i te n am e , b ecame k ing o fH ana a round t he y ea r 1 700 .

N ippu r 's c om eback wa s s hor t l ived . I n 1 722 , wh ich w a s S am su i luna 's 2 8 th y ea r , I l uma I lum managed t o c ap tu re N ippu r . T he l o s s o f N ippur a l ong w i th t h e r e s t o f c en t ra l

A b ie shu 's b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s r ema in c onf ined t o t he n e ighbo rhood o fB aby lon . S ince m i l i ta ry g rea tne s sn ol onge r s e emed p o s s ib le , h e a nd t h e l a te r k ing s b ecame mo r e a nd

B aby lon ia w a s mo r e i nd ica t ive o fB aby lon 's w eakne s s t han t he m i l i ta ry s t r eng th o ft h e S ea land D yna s ty . I n r e ta l ia t ion ,

mo re e ng ro ssed i n c u l t -ob servances . D a te f o rmu lae s ugge s t t ha te no rmou s q uan t i t ie s o ft emp le f u rn i tu r e w e re m ade a nd g iven t ot he t emp le s . T o c i rcumven t t h e l o s s o fN ippu ra nd

S am su i luna c u t o fN ippu r 's w a te r s upp ly a nd t h i s t ime t h e c i ty c ou ld n o tr e cove r . I tw a s a bandoned ay ea r o rt wo l a te r n o tt ob ef u l ly r e occup ied f o rs om e3 00 y ea r s .

w i th i t , a cce s s t o t he ma in s h r ine o f E n l i l , e i the r an ew t emp le t oE n l i l w a s c on s t ruc ted i nB aby lon o r a n o ld e r o ne w a se n la rg ed a nd r e fu rb i shed .

On ly t he n o r thwe s t s t i l l l a y o pen t oB aby lon . I n h i s 3rd y ea r , S am su i luna c ou ld s t i l l b u i ld 6 0 m i le s u p st ream f r om Mar i o n t h e K habu r . N ever the le s s , t h e f i gh t ing c on t inued .

Anun id i tana f o l lowed A b ie shu a nd r e igned c . 1683 t o 1 647 o r 3 7 y ea r s . H e a l one o f t h e l a s t f ou r F i r s t Dyna s ty k ing s may h ave made s ome i n road s a t l e a s t t empo ra r i ly i n to

S am su i luna d ef ea ted a n Amor i te a rmy i n h i s 3 5 th y ea r . R a id s w e re a l so a p rob lem . S u taean s w ou ld c ap tu re Me sopo tam ian s a nd s el t hem b a ck a s s l ave s t o t h e Me sopo tam ian st h em se lve s ( Roux , 1 992 ) . B yt he e nd o fh i s r e ign , t h e e mp i r e n o l onge r e x i s ted . T he S ea land Dyna s ty o ccup ied t h e s ou th a nd t he K a s s i te s w er e e s tab l i sh ing

S ea land t e r r i to ry . T he o n ly d ef in i te r e f e rence i si nt h e d a te f o rmu la f o r y ea r 3 7 wh ich s ay s , " Yea r k ing Amm id it ana d es t royed t he w a l l o f D urwn wh ich t h e p eop le o f D am iq i l ishu b u i l t " ( Yof f ee , 1 978 ) . D am iq i l i shu w a s a c on tempo ra ry o fb o th A b ie shu a nd A nun id i tana . D urum l a y n ea r U ruk s ot he B aby lon ian a rmy s e em s t oh ave b een a b le t o p ene t ra te t ha t f a r s ou th . I ta l so r e cal s t he c l o se t i e s b e tween U ruk a nd B aby lon . B u t i ti sh igh ly u n l ik e ly t ha t B aby lon c ou ld e xe rc i se a ny r e a l c on t ro l t ha t f a r a way f r om i t sc o r ea rea a tt h i sp o in ti nt ime .

t hem se lve s o n t h e m idd le E uph ra te s i n t he k ingdom o f H ana . On ly t h e c o re a r ea f o rg ed b y H ammu rab i 's p r ed eces so r s ,w h ich i nc luded K i sh a nd S ippa r , r ema ined T he c on t rac t ion o f i t s t e r r i to ry h ad g r ave c on sequenc e s f o r t he c rown . T he s y s tem o f g ove rnm en t s e t i n p l ace b y H a rnmu rab i d epended o n af l ow o ft a xe s a nd t r ibu te f r om t he h in te r land i n to t he c ap i ta l ( s ee H a r r i s , 1 968 ; Y of f e e , 1 977a , 1 979 ) . T he se r e sou rce si nt u rn s uppor ted h uge p ub l ic

Amm i saduqa s ucceeded Anun id i tana . H e i sf amou s f o r t wo t h ing s , h i s E d ic t o f J u s t ic e a nd f o r t h e s o -ca l led V enu s t a b le t s o f Amm isaduqa . T he l a t t e r g ive a c l ue , a l be i t

w o rk p ro je c t s s uch a s r ebu i ld ing c i ty w a l l s , c ana l s , a nd t emp le s . A s p i ece s o f t h e e mp i r e b rok e a way f r om B aby lon ian d om ina t ion , i n com ing r e v enue s t ead i ly d ec l ined .

amb iguou s , t o t h e r ea l a s o ppo sed t o r e la t ive d a te o f t h i s p e r iod . F rom t he e d ic t w e c an i n f e r i nd i rec t ly t h e e conom ic c ond i t ion s o ft he t ime . A inm isaduqa c l a imed h e w a s t r y ing t ol e s sen t h eb u rd en o nh i s s ub jec t s .

T he k ing a nd h i s a dv i so r s c oped w i th t h i s p rob lem i n t wo w ay s . F i rs t t h ey r e cru i ted mo re b u reauc ra t s f r om m id - t o u pp e r leve l e l i te s who h ad a cce s s t or e sou rce st he c r own d id

A lmo s tn o th ing i sk nown a bou tt h e3 0y ea rr e ign o ft h ef i na l k ing o ft he F i r s t Dyna s ty , S amsud i tana . A l l t ha t i sl ef t a r e s ome d a te f o rmu lae . Many o f t he se c ommemo ra te t h e d ed ica t ion o f as t a tue o fh im se lf t ov a r iou s t emp le s ( Fe ig in ,

n o t . S econd ly , t h ey r equ i red t h e s e n ew p eop le t o mo r e c l o se ly a dm in i s te r c rown l and s , i . e . , i n ten s if y a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion t om ake u pf o r t he l o s s o fr e sou rce s t ha t u sed t o

1 955 ) . I ft he q uan t i ty o ft ex t s i sa ny i nd ica t ion , t h en w e c an

c ome f r om t h e p rov ince s . T he i n c reased p re s su r e o n a dw ind l ing a moun t o f l and l e ad t o t h e i n ev i tab le r e su l t , e nv i ronmen ta l d eg rada t ion i n t h e f o rm o f s a l in iza t ion a nd d e c rea sed y i e ld s . A s of i c ia l s d e sp e ra te ly t r ied t o i n c r ea se

s u rm i se

t ha t

e conom ic

a c t iv i ty

c on t inued

u naba ted

( F ink e ls te in , 1 959 ) . T he F i r s t D yna s ty o f B aby lon r ep re sen t s o ne o f t h e mo s t

p rodu c t ion , t h ey o n ly s ucceed ed i na gg rava t ing t h ep rob lem . T h i s s i tua t ion p reva i led t h roughou tt h er ema ind e ro ft h e OB

s t ab le r oya l l i ne s i n Me sopo tam ian h i s to ry . W i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o f S umuabum , k ing sh ip p as sed f r om

p e r iod

f a the r t o s on i n as moo th t r ans i t ion o f p owe r f o r r ough ly t h re e c en tu r ie s . T he l a s t s i x r u le r s b eg inn ing w i th

Ab ie shu , S am su i luna 's s on , r u led f o r 2 8 y ea r s , c . 1711 t o 1 684 B .C . V e ry l i t t le i sk nown a bou t h i s r e ign . Y ea r d a te s

H ammurab i , o n a verage , r e igned 3 3 y ea r s e ach . On ly f o r a s ma l l f r ac t ion o f t h i s t ime d id B aby lon g ove rn a n e mp i r e . F o r t he mos t p ar t , i t s k ing s c on t roled B aby lon a nd i t s

h ave b een f ound s pann ing h i s e n t i re t ime i n o ff ic e b u t t h e e xac t o rde r c anno t b e d e te rm ined . H e d id make a n a t temp t t o c ap tu re t h e S ea land k ing , I huna i lum , g o ing s o f a r a s

s u r round ing c o re a r ea . T he se l ong p er iod s o f u nchang ing l e ade r sh ip mu s t h ave g i ven p eop le a s en se o ft ime le s sne s s

d amm ing t h e T ig r is . T he d am w o rked b u t I l uma i lum e scaped E v en tua l ly h e s e em s t o h ave a dop ted h i s f a the r 's

c once rn ing t h e i rg ove rnmen t .

p o l icy o fl e av ing t h e S ea land d yna s ty a l one . B u t t h e F ir s t D yna s ty o fB aby lon d id c ome t o a n e nd B y t ha t

L ik e h i s f a the r , h e t o o h ad t o f i gh t t h e Ka s s i te s . E ven t hough t h eK a s s i te sw e r eu nab le t oc onque rB aby lon , n e i the r

t ime ,

l o s s

o f

t e r r i to ry ,

l a ck

o f

i n come ,

a nd

e nv i ronmen ta l d eg rada t ion h ad r educed i tt o am e re s hadow o fi t s f o rme r g rea tne s s . N o r w a s i tf i na l ly t e rm ina ted b y i t s t r ad i t iona l e nem ie s , t h e S ea land k ing s o r t h e E lam i te s . I n s tead a r e la t ive ly n ew g roup , t h e H i t t i te s , s t ruck t h e f i na l

c ou ld A b ie shu d e s t roy t hem . R ef e r ence s h ave a l so b een f ound i n t h e d ocumen t s i nd ica t ing t ha t Ka s s i te s w e r e w o rk ing i n B aby lon ia a s a g r icu l tu ra l l a bo re r s ( Br in lanan , 1 976 -80 :466 ) . I tw a s p robab ly d u r ing A b ie shu 's r e ign t h a t

b low . T he H i t t i te s , a nx iou s t oe xpand o u t o f Ana to l ia , w e re 2 3

b oxed i n o n t h ree s i d e s . S ou th w a s t h e o n ly r oad o pen t o

n o r d id t h ey r e co rd t h e i r m i l i ta ry v en tu re s e ven when t hey w er ev i c to r iou s .

t h em . T he i rk ing , H a t tu s i l i s , r e co rd s a tl e as t t wo c ampa ign s i nt ha t d i rec t ion a s w e l l a s t h e d e s t ruc t ion o fA la lah . Wh i le t r y ing t o c onque r A leppo , H a t tu s i l i s g o t k i l led . H i s h e ir , Mu r s i l i s I , s ucceeded i n t ak ing A leppo , f o l lowed b y

Ka s s i te c h rono log y s t i l l r ema in s q u i t e p rob lema t ic . K ing l is t Ah a s p rov ided ag ene ra l ly a ccep t ed f r amewo rk o f3 6 k ing s r e ign ing f o r ac omb ined t o ta l o f 5 76 y ea r s ( B r inkman ,

C a rchem i sh . H e a nd h i s a rmy t hen ma rched d own t h e E uph ra te s s t ra igh t i n to B aby lon c . 1595 B .C . B aby lon d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een a b le t o moun t much r e s is tance . T he i r l a t te r a nna ls r e co rd t he d ef ea t i n t e r se l a nguage ,

1 974 :402 ) . T h i s i n c lude s r u ler s p r ior t ot he o ccupa t ion o f B aby lon . B u t i n h i s v o lume o n K a s s i te s ou rc e ma ter ia l , B r inkman ( 1976 ) e mpha s ize s a ga in a nd a ga in t ha t h i s c h rono log ica l r e con s truc t ion s hou ld b e c on s ide red t en ta t ive a t b e s t b a sed a s i t i s o n f r agmen ted , s c an ty , a nd

" Aga in s t S am sud i tana t h e m en o f t h e l a nd o f Kha t t i m arched " a ga in s t t he l and o f A l ckad " ( K ing , 1 907 :Vo l .2 , p . 22 ) . T he H i t t i te s r e co rd , " The reaf te r h e ( Mu r s i l i s ) w en t t o B aby lon a nd o ccup ied B aby lon ; h e a l so a t tacked t h e

c on t rad ic to ry d a ta . H e p o in ts o u t t h a t t he o n ly r e a son s c e r ta in s equenc e s h ave r ema ined u ncha l lenged a r e b ecau se t he r e i sn o e v id ence t ha t d i rec t ly c on t rad ic t s t h em a nd n o

H u man s a nd k ep t t he p r i sone r s a nd p o s se s s ion s f r om B aby lon a t H a t tu sa s " ( quo ted i n R oux , 1 992 :246 ) . T he

a l te rna t iv e h ypo the s i s w ou ld b e a ny m o re c onv inc ing t han

H i t t i te s p lund e red B aby lon a nd t he t ook s t a tue s o f Ma rduk a nd h i sc on sor t S a rpan i tum a sb oo ty . F o rs ome r e a son w e d o

t he p re sen t o ne . S o l i t t le i nf o rma t ion e x i s t s c onc e rn ing t he f i r s t 1 4 k ing s t ha t n o t e ven t he i r n ame s a nd o rd e r c an b e d e te rm in ed w i th c onf idence . I ti sn o tu n t i lw e c ome t ok ing s 2 2 -25 t h a tt h eo rd e rs e em sr ea sonab ly c e r ta in .

n o tu nde r s tand , t h es t a tue sa ppea rt oh ave b een l ef ta tH ana . I tr ema in s u nc lea r whe the r t h e H i t t i te s a c tua l ly p lanned o n e xpand ing a sf a rs ou th a sB aby lon . I ts e em s mo r e l i k e ly t ha t

T o a dd t o t h e c h rono log ica l mo r a s s , C layd en ( 1989 ) h as r ec en t ly s ugge s ted d ecoup l ing t wo e v en t st ha th ave s e rved a s

t h ey t o ok a dvan tage o f a n o ppor tun i ty t o p lunde r t h e c i ty , b u rn i t , a nd t hu s d emon s t ra te t he i r m i l i ta ry s up e r io r i ty t o n o r thea s te rn Me sopo tam ia . B u t Mu r s i l i s w a s u nab le t o e xp lo i t h i s v i c to ry . C ou r t i n t r igue s m ad e i t manda tory f o r h im t or e tu rn i mmed ia te ly t oA na to l ia . H ew a s s ub sequen t ly

v a r ie ty o f r e a son s t ha t t h e H i t t i te r a id o n B aby lon wh ich e nded S am sud i tana 's r e ign a nd t h e r emova l o ft h e Ma rduk s t a tue t o S y r ia ( e i the r H a t t i o r H ana see B o rge r , 1 971 )

mu rd e red i n ap a lace c oup c . 1590 , f i ve y ea r s a f te r s a ck ing B aby lon ( Roux , 1 992 :254 ) .

s hou ld n o tb ec on s id e red c o inc id en t s . I fh i s c onc lu s ion sa r e a ccep ted , t h e r e i sn o l ong e r a ny w ay t od i rec t ly l i nk t h e e nd

a n a ncho ri nK a s s i te h i s to ry f o r m any y ea r s . H e a rgue sf o ra

o f t he O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod w i th t h e b eg inn ing o f t he K a s s i te d ynas ty . H i s l i ne o f r ea son ing i sa t p r e sen t b e ing

T h is l ef t ap owe r v acuum i n B aby lon i t s e lf . H is to r ica l s ou rce sp rov id eo n ly t he s k e tch ie s to fi n f o rma t ion a bou tt h i s

d eba ted

i n

t he

l i t e ra tu re .

Wh i l e

r ecogn iz ing

t he

p e r iod . I td oe s r ema in w i th in t he r e a lm o fp o s s ib i l i ty t ha t t h e S ea land k ing s may h ave o ccup ied t h e t h rone o fB aby lon

p rob lema t ica l n a tu re o f t he e v id en ce , Id o n o t f i nd t he a rgumen t s i n f avo r o f ' s epa ra t ing ' t he se t wo e ven t s

a t l e a s t t empo ra r i ly . B o th B aby lon ian K ing l i s t s A a nd B i n c lud et h e S ea land Dyna s ty i nt he s ucce s s ion . T h e n ame o f

c omp e l l ing

e nough

t o

i nco rpo r a t e

t hem

i n to

t h i s

d i s se r ta t ion . Ic hoo se t or e ly o nt h et r ad i t iona l i n t e rp re ta t ion ( Goe tze , 1 964 )p end ing f u r ther i nv e s t iga t ion .

G u lk i sha ra ppea r s o n at ab le t s uppo sed ly w r i t ten i nt h ey ea r h e b ecame k ing ( Oa te s , 1 986 ) . H oweve r s i nce o n ly as i ng le r e f e rence t o h im h as b een f ound , t h e i n f o rma t ion i s c on s id e red p o ten t ia l ly u n re l iab le u n t i l a dd i t iona l

T he f i na l p rob lema t ic a r ea t ha t mu s tb e m en t ioned i s at ex t

i n sc r ip t ion sa ppea r .

K ada shman -Tu rgu , n o t a f te r a s h a sb een g enera l ly a cc ep ted

t ha t a ppea r s t o s how t ha t Kada shm an -En l i l Ir u led b ef o re ( Donbaz ,

1 982 ) .

B r inkman

( 1 983 )

f i nd s

t h e

t e x t

i d io sync ra t ic i n av a r ie ty o f w ay s . H e f e e l s t he w e igh t o f e v id ence s t il f avo r s t h e o r ig ina l o rd e ra l though t h e r e ver sa l o ft h et wo n ame s i sn o t i mpo ss ib le . Iw il u se t he t r ad i t iona l o rde r ing o ft h ese t wo k ing s .

THE KASSITE PER IOD ( c .1570 -1154 B .C . ) T he r ea l r e c ip ien t s o f t h e B aby lon ian l e gacy w e re n o t t he S ea lande r s , b u t n one o th e r t han t h e K as s i te s who h ad b een w a r r ing w i th B aby lon ian k ing s s i nc e t h e r e ign o f S amsu i luna . T he K a ss i te sr u led B aby lon ia f o ra pp rox ima te ly

K ing s 1 8c .1 792 -1570

4 00 y ea r s , l ong e r t han a ny o the r s i ng le d yna s ty i n Me sopo tam ia . Y e t l i t t le i sk nown a bou t t h em . T he re a r e s e ve ra l r e a son s f o r t h i s u nf or tuna te s t a te o f a f a i r s . F i r s t ,

e igh t mona r ch s o ft h e K a s s i te d yna s t y . I ndeed i ti sd oub t f u l

o n ly a r e la t ive ly s ma l l p e rcen tag e o f t h e a va i lab le d ocumen t s h av e b een t r an s la ted a nd p ub l i shed . Wha t h a s

1 989 ) . T h i s a nd o the r c i rcum s tan t ia l e v id ence s ugg e s t s t ha t t he K a s s i te ' sh ome land may h ave b e en l o ca ted o nt h em idd le E uph ra te s r a the r t han i nt he Z ag ro s Moun ta in s a sh ad b een

N o d ef in i t ive c on tempo ra ry t ex t sc an b ea s s igned t ot h ef i r s t t hey w e r e e ven k ing s . T he mos t s ugg e s t ive n ame i so ne K a sh t i l ia sh c i ted a s K ing o f H ana c . 1681-1660 ( C layden .

b een p ub l i shed i ss of r agmen ted t ha tt he re s e em s t ob e l i t t le c ohe rence i n t h e l i t e ra tu re ( s ee c ommen t s b y B r inkman ,

p rev iou s ly t hough t ( s ee d i scu s s ion i nC layden , 1 989 :50 -53 ) . H oweve r , d ue t o t h e p auc i ty o f m a te r ia l , a dd i t iona l

1 970 :301 :Foo tno te 2 ; a l so C layd en , 1 989 :8 ) . S econd , o n ly f o ur s i te s h ave y i e lded s i gn if ican t amo tu t t s o f M idd le B aby lon ian t a b le t s ; N ippu r , Du r -Ku r iga lzu ( mod e rn ' Aga r QuO , U r , a nd B aby lon ( Br inkman , 1 976 ) . T h i rd , p o l i t ica l h i s tor y h a sb een p a r t icu la r ly d if i cu l t t or e con s truc t b ecau se

i n f o rma t ion i sn e ed ed b ef o re e i th e rp o s i t ion c an b ea c cep ted . 9 . Agum I i( Agum -kakr ime ) c . 1570 H ow a nd w h en t h e K a s s i te s a c tua l ly t o ok o ve r B aby lon

t h e se k ing s d id n o t c ommemo ra te e ven t s i n y ea r f o rmu lae

r ema in s am y s te ry . T he r e a r e n o r e co rd st oi nd ica te w he the r t hey p eacefu l ly a s sumed p owe ro rw e r ef i r s t o b l ig ed t oe xpe l 2 4

t h e S ea lande r sb y f o rce . T he f i r s t k ing t or u le t h e c i ty may h ave b e en t h e n in th k ing o ft he d yna s ty , Agum I ( Aga in , n o te B r inkman 's q ua l if ica t ion s , 1 976 :13 ) . H e i s u sua l ly ,

k a lu ime . R ec en t ly M . A s tou r ( 1986 ) h a s a rgued i n f avo r o f t h e i d en t if ica t ion . A d o cumen t k nown a s t he ` Agu rn K ak r ime T ex t ' r e co rd st h er e t r ieva l o ft h e s t a tue s o f Ma rduk

a l though n o ta lway s , a ssumed t ob ei d en t ica lw i th Agum -

a nd h i s c on so r t S a rpan i tum f r om H ana a f te r t hey h ad b een l i v ing a way f r om B aby lon f o r 2 4 y ea r s . Agum -ka la ime r e in s ta l led t h em w i th g rea t p omp a nd c e remony i n t he ir

T ab le 3 . 3 T he Ka s s i te K ing L is t 1 .Ganda sh

c . 1729 -1704

2 .Agum I

c . 1703-1682

3 .Ka sh t i l ia sh I( K ing o fH ana )

c . 1681-1660

t emp le s i n B aby lon . T h e t e x t p rov id e s t wo

i mpo r tan t

p i ece sof i n f orma t ion . F i r s t , i f i t i s c o r rec t , i t g ive s a n a b so lu te s pan o ft ime b e tween t h ef a l lo ft h eF i r s t Dyna s ty o f B aby lon a nd t h e a s sump t ion o f p owe r b y t he Ka s s i te s . S econd , i td emon s t ra te s t h a t l i ke a l l t h e i r p redece ssor s , t h i s n on -na t ive d yna s ty w a s a t temp t ing t oe s tab l ish i t se lf a s t h e l e g i t ima te h e ir t oB aby lon ian k ing sh ip . I ts hou ld b e n o ted ,

4 . (Ab i r a t ta sh )

h oweve r , t ha t e xc ep t f o r t h i s d ocumen t , t h e re i sn o o the r e v idenc e f o r a n Agu rn r e s to r ing t h e s t a tue o f Ma rduk t o B aby lon ( Br inkman , 1 976 ) .

5 . (Ka sh t i l ia sh I ) 6 .Urz iguruma sh 7 .Ha rba sh ihu

1 0 . B urna -Bur za sh Ic . 1510

8 . ?

T he r e con s truc t ion o ft h e n ame s a nd s equence o ft he n ex t f o u r mona rch s i sp a r t icu la r ly t e nuou s . I ti sk nown t ha t a

9 .Agu rn I ( kak r ime? )

c . 1570

1 0 .Bu rna -Bu r ia sh I

c .1 510

1 .(Ka sh t i l ia sh I I )

c . 1490

1 2 .(U lambur ia sh )

c . 1455

B uma -Bu r ia sh , p r e sumab ly t h e F i r s t , s i gned a t r ea ty w i th h i sc oun te rpar t P uzu r -A s su rI I o fA s sy r ia t ha te s tab l i shed a b o rd e r b e tween t h e t wo c oun t r ie s . T h i s d iv i s ion l a s ted f o r r ough ly 1 000 y ea r s . 1 -13 .K ash t ihash

1 3 .(Agum I I )

-U lambur iash . Agum I I

A f te r s e t t l ing t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip w i th A s sy r ia , t he n ex t s e ve ra l mona rch s t u rned t h e ir a t ten t ion t o t he S ea land

1 4 .? 1 5 .Ka ra inda sh

c . 1413

1 6 .Kada shman -Ha rb eI

c . 1400

1 7 .Ku r iga lzu I ?

c . 1390 -1375

1 8 .Kada s lunan -En l i l I

1 374 -1360

1 9 .Bu rna -Bu r ia sh I

1 359 -1333

2 0 .Ka raha rda sh

c . 1333

2 1 .Naz i -Buga sh

c . 1333

d yna s ty i n s ou the rn B aby lon ia . I ti sn o t c er ta in who s t a r ted t h e w a r b u t U lambu r ia sh , K a sh t i l ia sh I I 's b ro the r , c l ea r ly f ough t E a -gam i l o f t h e S ea land D yna s ty ( Gray son , 1 975 :156 ) . S ome t ime b e tween 1 460 a nd 1 450 , h e s ucce s sfu l ly d rove E a -gam i l i n to E lam a nd d ec la red h im se lf k ing o ft h e S ea land s . S ome p ock e t s o fr e s i s tance may h ave r ema ined b ecau se A g iun I I , K a sh t i l ia sh I I 's s on , a l so h ad t of i gh t t h e S ea land e r s . T he c onque s tp roved t ob e at u rn ing p o in t i n Me sopo tam ian h i s to ry . T he K a s s i te k ing s f i na l ly managed t on eu t ra l ize t h e o l d c i ty s ta te s t ruc ture a nd f o rge B aby lon ia i n to a f unc t ion ing g eopol i t ica l u n i t ( Br inkman , 1 972 ) . T he k ing h encef or th w a s K ing o f B aby lon ia . E ven

2 2 .Ku r iga lzu I

1 332 -1308

2 3. Naz i -Maru t ta sh

1 307 -1282

2 4 .Kada shman -Tu rgu

1 281-1264

2 5 .Kada shman -En l i l I

1 263-1255

2 6 .Kudu r -En l i l

1 254 -1246

2 7 .Shaga rak t i -Shu r ia sh

1 245 -1233

2 8 .Ka sh t i l ia sh I V

1 232 -1225

2 8a .Tuku l t i -N inu r ta

1 225

2 9 .En l i l -nad in sh iun i

1 224

3 0 .Kada shman -Ha rbe I

1 223-1222

3 1 .Adad shuma idd ina

1 221-1216

3 2 .Adad shuma -u su r

1 2t 5 -1186

1 5 .K ara inda sh c . 1413

3 3 . Me l i -Sh ipak

185 -117 1

3 4 . Ma rduk -ap la idd ina

170 -1158

F rom t h e 1 5 th t ot h e 1 3 th c en tu ry , t h e N ear E a s tern w o r ld w a s c o smopo l i tan a nd B aby lon ia e n joyed a p rom inen t

3 5 .Zababa shuma idd ina

157

3 6 .En l i l -nad in -ah i

156 -1154

( Th i s l i s t i s b a sed o n B r inkman ( 1976 ) w i th a d ju s tmen t si n co rpora ted b y C layden ( 1989 :49 ) ) .

wh en t he g ove rnmen t w a s w eak , t h e c oun t ry n o l ong e r d i s so lved i n to c omponen tc i ty s ta te s . V e ry l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t h e n a tur e o r e x ten t o f t h e i r a s soc ia t ion w i th o the r f o r e ign c oun t r ie s i nt h e l a t te r h a lf o f t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry . T ex t s f r om N uz i a r ch ive s s ugges t t he t wo a r ea s ma in ta ined c on tac t a nd p o s s ib ly s ome K a s s i te c i t izen s r e s ided t he r e ( B r inkman , 1 976 -80 ) . L e t ter s e xchanged w i th E gyp t i nd ica te t h a t i tw a s p robab ly d ur ing t h i s t ime t ha t t h e K a s s i te k ing s a nd E gyp t ian p ha raoh s w e r e e s tab l ish ing c onnec t ion s t ha t w ou ld s oon b lo s som i n to a f u l l f ledged d ip loma t ic r e la t ion sh ip .

p o s i t ion i ni n te rna t iona l a f a i r s . T h i s w a s , i np a r t , b a sed o n t h e v ene ra t ion o f h e r c u l tu r e a s w i tne s sed b y t he f a c t t h a t B aby lon ian b ecame t h e l a nguag e o f d ip lomacy . B aby lon c ou ld n o t b oa s t o f b e ing a g rea t m i l i ta ry p owe r v e t u ndoub ted ly B ab y lon ian k ing s w e r e c on s ide red o ne o f t h e

s ome

f ew " G rea t K ing s " o ft h e t ime . B u t w ha t t h i s t e rm a c tua l ly 2 5

mean ti su nknown (Mo ran , 1 992 :3 ) . I ti si n te res t ing t on o te

i n sc r ip t ion s . O ld f ounda t ion s mu s t h ave b een u sed whe re

t ha tt h i st i t le w a sr e served f o ri n te rna t iona lc o r re spondence .

p o s s ib le b e cau se t h e n ew N inga l t emp le w a sa lmo s ti d en t ica l t o t h e o ne f r om t h e U r I I p e r iod Ku r iga l7u 's w orke r s

I ta ppea r s t h a t b y t he e nd o f t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry , B aby lon 's r e la t ion sh ip s w i th o the r c oun t r ie s w e r e f i rm ly e s tabl i shed . T o t he n o r th . K a ra inda sh s i gned at r ea ty w i th t he A s sy r ian

c on t inued t h e r e con s truc t ion o f t h e N anna c ou r tyard t ha t h ad b e en r epa i red a nd r ebu i l t i n t h e L a rsa p er iod . Why h e s i ng led o u t U r r ema in s a my s te ry . A cco rd ing t ot h e s u rvey

k ing , A shu r -b e l -n ishe shu , s im i la r t o t h e o ne s ig ned o ne h und red y ea r s b ef o r e b y B u rna -Bu r ia sh I ( G ray son , 1 975 :158 ) . I n t h e w e s t , t h e K a s s i te k ing s ma in ta ined c l o se

d a ta , U r w a s p ar t o f o n ly a m ino r p rov ince a nd n o o the r Ka s s i t e k ing s u nder took a ny m a jo r c ons truc t ion t he re

c on tac t s

b yt h eg o ld f l ow ing i n to B aby lon ia f r om E gyp t .

w i th M a t t i

a nd E gyp t .

Me s senge r s

( Br inkman , 1 969 ) . U ndoub ted ly , h i s p ro jec t s w e r e f i nanced

f a c i l i ta ted

c ommun ica t ion , c on s tan t ly t r ave l l ing b ack a nd f o r th b e tween t h ev a r iou sp a r t ie s . T hey w e re o n ly p reven ted f r om

S ome r e sea r che r s c r ed i t h im w i th f o und ing t h e n ew a nd

d o ing s ob yb ad r oad s , d e ten t ion , o rb ecau se o the rc ond i t ion s made i tt o o d ange rou s t og e t t h rough . I fm e s sage s s t opped , s e r iou sm i sund e r s tand ing sc ou ld a r i se .

i mpor tan tt own , Du r -Ku r i l7u ( mod em ' Aga r Q uO , 3 3 km d ue w e s t o fB aghdad ( Moor tga t , 1 969 ; O a te s , 1 986 ) . Oa te s b a se s h e r i d en t if ica t ion o n t he f a c t ar e f er ence t ot h e t own e x i s t si nd ocumen t sd a ted t o Burna -Bu r ia sh . C layden ( 1989 )

T he a s soc ia t ion b e tween B aby lon a nd E gyp t s e em s t oh ave b een p a r t icu la r ly c l ose . S o e ven t hough E gyp th ad b ecome a f orm idab le m i l i ta ry p owe r r egu la r ly c amp a ign ing i n S y r ia , B aby lon ian c a ravan s c ou ld t r ave l t o A na to l ia . S y r ia , a nd Egyp t . A B aby lon ian amba s sado r r e s ided i n t he E gyp t ian c ou r t t o s up erv ise d ip loma t ic a f a ir s . A n i mpor tan t a sp ec t t h i s i nvo lved t h e e xchange o f ' g if t s ' b e tween t h e t wo

d oe s n o t a ccep t t h i s a nd a s s ign s t he f ound ing o f Du r -Ku r ig a lzu t ot he s e cond k ing o ft h i s n ame . E i the rw ay , i t s t emp les w e re d ed ica ted t o E n l i l . N in l i l a nd t h e i r s on N inur ta . P a r t s o f ah ug e p a lace c omp lex w e re a l so f ound . One o ft h e t wo e ar l ie s t l e ve ls c an b e d a ted t o " Ku r ig A1 7 u " D e sp i te t h i s m a jo r n ew t own , t he c i ty o fB aby lon r ema ined t he c ap i ta l , t h e s e a t o f k ing sh ip , a nd t he mo s t i mpor tan t p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou sc en te ri nt he c oun t ry .

c oun t r ie s . I n f a c t , much i n te rna t iona l t r ade w a s c a r r ied o u t i n t h i s g u ise . E gyp t w an ted l a p i s l a zu l i , c ha r io t s , a nd e spec ia l ly , h o r se s f r om t h e K a s s i te s . T he K a s s i te s w e re

S o r t ing o u t t h e many t e x t s ,

f amed i n t h e a nc ien t w o r ld f o r b o th t h e i r h o r se s a nd t h e i r h o r seman sh ip . I n r e tu rn , E gyp ts upp l ied B aby lon w i th g o ld ,

i n sc r ip t ion s , a nd b u i ld ing

p ro jec t s a t t r ibu ted t o " Kur i lzu " h a s p roved v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le . Ku r ip l7u i n sc r ip t ion sh av eb een f ound a t Adab , B o r s ippa , D e r , Du r -Ku r igA l7u , I s in , K i sh , N ippu r , S ippa r , U r , a nd U ruk . S u rp r is ing ly n one o f h i s i n sc r ip t ion s h ave

s i lve r , b ronze , i v o ry , f u rn i tur e o fe bony a nd o the r p rec iou s wood s , g a rmen t s ,a nd o i l( Br inkman , 1 972 ) .

b een f ound a tB aby lon o r L ar sa . Br inkman s ay s t h a t af u l l r ev iew o ft h e e v idenc e i sd es irab le b u t a dd s t ha t t h e r e su l t s

Kara inda sh s p en t s ome o ft h i s w ea l th o n r e fu rb i sh ing t h e o ld t emp le s o f S ume r . H e b u i l t an ew t emp le t o I nanna a t U ruk . T h i sb u i ld ing r ema in sp ar t icu la r ly s i gn i f ican tb ecau se i ti st he f i r s tb u i ld ing t ha td a te su nequ ivoca l ly t ot h eK a s s i te P er iod . I ta l so d i sp lay st h e d i s t inc t ive " Ka s s i te " f e a tu r e o fa

w ou ld p robab ly b e i n conc lu s ive ( 1976 :205 ) . T he i mpor tan t p o in ti st ha tb yr ebu i ld ing t h e a nc ien tt emp le c omp lexe s , t he K a s s i te d yna s ty p layed a c r i t ica l r o le i n t r an sm i t t ing B aby lon ian t r ad i t ion si n to t he n ex t mi l lenn ium .

mo lded b r ick f a cade ( C layden , 1 989 ) . T he f i gu re s i n t h e r e l ief sa ppa r en t ly w e re n o t me an tt or ep r e sen t s pec if i c g od s , b u t r a the rl ama s su 's o rg ua rd ian g od s .

T he Amarna P er iod : c . 1374 -1333 T he d ip loma t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween B aby lon a nd E gyp t b egan s ome t ime a round 1 450 B .C . A s e a r ly a s 1 431 ,

1 6 . Kadashman -Harbe Ic . 1400 L i t t le i s k nown a bou t t h e r e ign o f K ada s lunan -Ha rb e I . Ch ron ic le P r e f er st o ac on f l ic tb e tween t h eB aby lon ian sa nd

P ha raoh Am enoph i s Ir e co rds g if t sf r om B aby lon ia . B u tt he ma jo r i ty o fe x tan tc o r r espondence b e tween t h et wo c oun t r ie s d a te s t ot h e r e ign s o fp ha raohs Am enoph i s I I ( 1 390 -1352 ) ,

t he S u taean s f o l lowed b ya n o rd e rt os e t u pf o r t re s se s i nt h e r eg ion o f Moun t H ih i i n S y r ia ( Br inkman , 1 976 :146 ) . T he

Amenoph i sI V( Akhena ten ) ( 1352 -1336 ) , a nd T u tankhamen

e ar l ie s t k nown K a s s i te e conom ic a nd l e ga l t e x t s f r om N ippu rd a t et oh i sr e ign . T h i sp robab ly ma rk st he b eg inn ing

( 1332 -1323 ) ( Mo ran , 1 992 :xxx ix ) a nd k ing s K ada shman E n l i l I ( 1 374 -1360 ) a nd h i s s on , B u rna -Bu r ia sh I

o f t he r e tu rn o f ap e rmanen t u rban p opu la t ion t o N ippu r s i nce i t s a bandonmen t c . 1720 . I ft h e d ocumen t s c an b eu sed

P e r iod ' a f te r mod e rn E l -Ama rna w h e r e t h e t a b le t s w e re

( 1359 1333) . T h i s p e r iod h a s b een d e s igna ted ' The Ama rna

a s ar e l iab le g u ide , i tt o ok s eve ra l mo r e g ene ra t ion s b ef o r e t he c i ty f u l ly r e cove red .

d i scov e red Ama rna w a s t h e a nc ien t c i ty o f Akhena ten b u i l t b y Akhena ten a s h i s c ap i ta l . I n t h e e a r l ie r l e t te r s , t h e t wo c oun t r ie s s e em t ob e o n g ood t e rn ' s . R ich g i f t s f l owed b ack

1 7 . K ur iga l zu Ic . 1390 -1375 Kur iga lzu Ie n joy s t he r epu ta t ion o fb e ing o ne o ft h e g r ea t

a nd f o r th . B aby lon r e ce ived s o much g o ld f r om E gyp t t ha t t he K a s s i te s a dop ted t h e g o ld s t anda rd d u r ing t h e 1 3 th a nd

b u i lde r s among t he K a s s i te k ing s . D e sp i te t h e p auc i ty o f e v id enc e , m os t r e sea rche r s a s sume h e w a s t h e Ku r iga lzu who emba rk ed o n a n e x ten s ive r ebu i ld ing p rog r am a tt h e

1 2 th c en tu r ie s . P e r sonne l a nd s e rv ic e s w e r e a l so e xchanged s uch a s p hy s ic ian s a nd c r af tsmen . Ma r r iage c onnec t ion s r e inf o rced t h e b ond s . A s i s te r o f K ada shman -En l i l Ia nd

a nc ien tc i ty o fU r . T he c i ty , a tt h i sp o in t , h ad b een n eg le c ted

p o s s ib ly ad augh te r b ecame w ive s o f Amenoph i s I l . L a te r , B u rna -Bu r ia sh I m en t ion s t ha t ar o ya l p r inc es s h ad b een

f o r r ough ly 3 50 y ea r s a f te r b e ing b ad ly d amag ed d ur ing S am su i luna 's w a rw i th R im S in I c . 1740 . H i s o b jec t ive w a s t o r e s to re t h e p a s t , n o t c r ea te ac on tempo ra ry c i ty . H e e ven c hose S ume r ian r a the r t han B aby lon ian f o r h i s b u i ld ing

s en tt oE gyp tf o rA khena ten .

2 6

I n t he A mn ia l e t ter s , B u rna -Bu r ia sh i s r e cogn ized a s a G rea t K ing a l ong w i th t he r u ler s o f E gyp t , M i tann i , a nd H a t t i

( Mo r an ,

1 992 ) .

I n i t ia l ly

t h e

A s sy r ian

Br inkman ( 1970 ) p o in t s o u t t h e f l ex ib i l i ty w h i le r e ta in ing t he s ynch ron ism sw i th A s sy r ian c h rono log ie s .

k ing ,

A shu ruba ll i t I( 1 365 -1330 ) , d id n o t w a r ran t t h i s s t a tu s .

2 2 .K ur iga l zu I ( 1 332 -1308 ) Ku r iga lzu H o wed h i s t h rone t ot h e A s sy r ian s . D e sp i t e t h i s , t he re i s at r ad i t ion o fm i l i ta ry c onf l ic tb e tween B aby lon a nd

M i tann i p robab ly c on t roled A s sy r ia a tt h is t ime . B u t w i th t h e c olap s e o fM i tann ian h eg emony a nd t he d e s t ruc t ion o f Nuz i s om e t ime b e tween 1 350 a nd 1 330 , A ssy r ian p owe r g rew . A shuruba l l i te ven tua l ly t ook t h et i t le ' G rea tK ing ' a nd

A s sy r ia a round t h i s t ime . A t l e a s t t wo b a t t le s t ook p l ac e i n A s sy r ian t e r r i to ry b e tween K ur iga lzu l a nd E n l i l iü ra r i , A shuruba l l i t ' s s ucce s so r ( Br inkman , 1 972 ) . One p a r t icu la r

b egan c o r r e spond ing d i rec t ly w i th E gyp t ( Mo ran , 1 992 :38 ) . B u rna -Bu r ia sh H c omp la ined t o E gyp t t ha t t h e A s sy r ian

b a t t le ,t ha to fS ugagu , w a sr e co rd ed e v en t hough t h es pec if i c A s sy r ian k ing i nvo lved i s n o t k nown f o r c e r ta in . T he

k ing w a s t h e re w i thou t h i s p e rm i s s ion p o s s ib ly i mp ly ing t ha t A s sy r ia h ad r ec en t ly b een u nd e r B aby lon ian c on t ro l ( Br inkman , 1 972 ) . E ven tua l ly , o n e o f A shu ruba l l ies d augh ter sm a r r ied ap r ince o fB aby lon .

l o ca t ion a l so r ema in s i nd oub t a l though a cco rd ing t oa n O ld B aby lon ian i t inera ry , i tl a y " one d ay 's j ou rney s ou th " f r om A ssu r ( Br inkman , 1 970 ) . Ku r iga lzu c l a imed v i c to ry a nd t he re a pp ea rs t oh ave b e en s ome r e ad ju s tmen t o ft h eb o rde r .

D e sp i te t h e r egu la r c on tac t , B aby lon 's r e la t ion sh ip w i th E gyp t d e t e r io ra ted d u r ing t he Aman ia p e r iod T h i s c ou ld h ave b een d u et oi n terna lt r oub le si nE gyp ti t se lf . A khena ten s howed l i t t le i n te res t i n i n te rna t iona l a f a ir s . T he l e t te r s r evea l d i s tu rbed c ond i t ion s i nt he A s ia t ic t e r r i to r ie so fE gyp t

S ince i tw a s s o c l o se t o A shu r , t h e B aby lon ian s m ay h ave b een o nt h eo f f en s ive . Ku r iga lzu s ucc e s sfu l ly f ough t t h e E lam i te k ing , Hu rb a t i la , a nd d ef ea ted h im a t Du r -Shu lg i . E ven tua l ly , a cco rd ing t o Ch ron ic le 2 2 ( G ray son , 1 975 ) , a l o f E lam f e l l . Ku r iga lzu

e spec ia l ly a l ong t he Med i te r ranean c oas t a round B yb lo s .

s e t u p as t a tue r e co rd ing h i s v i c to ry a nd b rough t h ome ,

T he p ha r aoh , h oweve r , d id n o th ing t o i n t e rvene . B u rna -Bu r ia sh H c omp la in s t o A khena ten t ha t B aby lon ian m e rchant h ave b een r obbed a nd mu rd ered i n t h e l a nd o f

among o the rt h ing s , at ab le t o fS hu lg i 's c ompo sed i nt h eU r I Ip e r iod

C anaan . H e c a l l s u pon t he E g yp t ian k ing t om ake amend s f o rh e s ay s , " I ny ou rc oun t ry Ih ave b e en d e spo i led " ( Mo ran , 1 992 :16 ) . B o th K ada shman -En l i l Ia nd B u rna -Bur ia sh I

2 3 . N az i -mar u t tash ( 1 307 -1282 ) Ku r igA l7u H h ad c l ea r ly g iv en B aby lon t he m i l i ta ry e dge o ve r A s sy r ia d u r ing h i s r e ign . An A s sy r ian t ex t w r i t ten b y Adad -n i ra r i s ay s "My f a the r ( i . e . , A r ik -den il i ) c ou ld n o t r e c t if yt h ec a lam i t ie si n f l ic ted b yt h e a rmy o ft he k ing o ft he K a s s i te l a nd " ( Br inkman , 1 970 :309 ) . Ku r iga lzu 's s on , Naz i rna ru t ta sh d id n o t f a r e a s w el . A f te r a s e r ie s o f

c o mp la in o fi l t rea tm en t o ft h e i rm e s senge r s a nd s t ing ine s s o nt he p a r to ft h ep ha raoh h ea rken ing b ack t ob e t te rd ay s . 1 8 . Kada shman -En l i l I( 1 374 -1360 ) T he v a s t m a jo r i ty o f d a ted ma te r ia l f r om Me sopo tam ia

c on f l ic t s w i th t he A ssy r ian s , A dad -n i ra r i I a t tacked Naz i - Maru t ta sh 's e ncampmen t a nd c ap tu red h i s s t anda rd s . E ven tua l ly t h eb o rde r w a s r e a l igned i nA s sy r ia 's f a vo r . B u t

b eg in s i n t h e r e ign o f K ada shman -En l i l Ia nd c on t inue s u n t i l t he f a l lo fK a sh t i l ia sh I V . Mo s t o ft he N ippu ra r ch ive s b e long t ot h i s e ra . T h i s may n o t b e ad i r ec t r e f le c t ion o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty . A r ch ive s t ha t a r e w el p r e served h ave

d e sp i te t h e r i s ing m i l i ta ry p owe r o f A s sy r ia , t h e K a s s i te k ing s s t i l l managed t o h o ld t h em i n c heck T h i s s ugge s t s t ha t e ven t hough l i t t le h a s b een f ound d e ta i l ing K a s s i te m i l i ta ry s t reng th , i t mu s t h ave b een f a ir ly s ubs tan t ia l s i nce

t ex t s t h a t c l u s ter t og e the r i n t ime . F rom t h i s p e r iod t o o c ome s t h e o l de s t e conom ic t e x t s f r om U r , Du r -Ku r ig a lzu , a nd B ab y lon .

t he h o s t i le c oun tr ie s s u r round ing B aby lon ia c ou ld n o t e a s i ly d ef ea ti t .

1 9 . B urna -Bur iash I ( 1 359 -1333 ) L i t t le e v id en ce h as b een f ound o fh i sb u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s . T he mos t s i gn if ican t s o f a r h ave b een a t L a r sa w he r e h e u nde r took t h er e s to ra t ion o ft h eE .BARBAR t emp le . I t mu s t

2 4 -25 .Kada shman -T urgu ( 1281 -1264 ) a nd K adashman -En l i l I( 1263 -1255 )

h ave b e en i n a c on s iderab le

A s sy r ia c e r ta in ly c au sed i t s n e ighbor s a nx ie ty . I t w a s p robab ly t h e mo t iva t ing f o rc eb eh ind t h e H i t t i te s r enewa l o f

s t a t e

o f d i s r epa i r

s i nce

e xcava t ion s r e vea led i th ad n o t r e c e ived a ny a t ten t ion s i nc e

t i e sw i th B aby lon . H a t tu s i l is I Ie n te red i n to a n a l l ianc ew i th t he Ka s s i te s a round t he t ime o fK ada shman -Tu rgu . T he t wo h ou se s m ay h ave b een l i nked b y m a rr iage t i e s a s w e l l ( Oa te s , 1 986 ) . Unf or tuna te ly , K ada shman -Tu rgu d i ed wh i le h i s s on a nd s ucce s so r , K ada shman -En l i l I , w a s o n ly a c h i ld .

t he d ay so fR im -S in o rS am su i luna . T h e o n ly o the re v id enc e w e h av eo f ac ons t ruc t ion p ro jec t c ome s i nt h e f o rm o ft wo b r ick sf r om N ippu r . 2 0 -21 . K a raha rdash a nd Na z i -Buga sh c . 1333 Wha t h app ened i mmed ia te ly a f te r B u rna -Bu r ia sh I d i ed r ema in s u nce r ta in . One p o s s ib le s c ena r io i s a s f o l low s . Ka raha rda sh a scend ed t h e t h rone o nt h e d ea th o fh i s f a the r .

R ea l

p lace

( G ray son ,

1 975 :159 ) .

A shuruba l l i t

p owe r

f e l l

i n to

t h e

h and s

o f

t h e

v i z ie r ,

I t t i - Ma rduk -ba la tu . H e r e sen ted t h eH i t t i te sp o s s ib ly b ecau se t he i r k ing a t temp ted t o medd le i n B aby lon 's a f a i r s . F i r s t H a t tu s i l i s I I t r ied t o e n su r e K ada shman -En l irs s ucc e s s ion a nd l a te r o n , u rged h im t o a t ta ck A s sy r ian t e r r i to ry

H ow eve r , t h e B aby lon ian s f ound t h i s s i tua t ion i n to le rab le b ecau se h i s g randf a the r w a s A shu ruba l l i t , k ing o fA s sy r ia . T hey d epo sed h im a nd i n s ta l led o ne N az i -Buga sh i n h i s i n te rvened

( Oppenh e im , 1 968 ) . N ever th e le s s , B aby lon r ema ined p eacefu l . N e i the r A s sy r ia o r E lam i nvaded d u r ing t h is p er iod o f t ime . A f te r K ada shman -En l irs d ea th , t h e H i t t i te

s upp re s s ed t h e r evo l t , a nd i n s ta ted a d if e r en t s on o f Bu rna -Bu r ia sh H a s k ing . P re sumab ly K a raha rda sh w a s k i l led i nt h e r e vo l t . I ts hou ld b e r e i te ra ted a tt h i s p o in t t ha t t her e a r e n o u nequ ivoca l f i x ed d a te s i nK a s s i te c h rono logy . 2 7

c onnec t ion f ad ed i np a r td ue t ot he d i ff icu l ty o fe xchang ing m e s sag e sc au sed b yt r iba lu n re s t .

K a sh t i l ia sh I V wh ich s ugges t s t he p r ev iou s t h ree m ona rch s w e re n o tf r om t he r u l ing f am i ly . F rom t h is p o in to nv e ry f ew

2 6 -27 . K udur -En l i l( 1254 -1246 ) a nd S hagarak t i -S hur iash ( 1245 -1233 )

a s s igned t o t h e l a s t 6 2 y ear s o f t h e d ynas ty ( B r inkman , 1 976 :39 ) . A ga in i ti sd i ff icu l tt ok now w he the rt h i sr e f lec t sa

L i t t le i s k nown o f t h e f o l low ing t wo k ing s .

d ec l ine i ne conom ic a c t iv i ty o r whe the rt h et ex t se i the rh ave

e conom ic t e x t s h ave b een f ound . O n ly 3 5 t ex t s c an b e

t r ad i t ion s ,

I n l a te r

t h ey w e r e t r ea ted a s p ar t o f a c on t inu ing

n o tb een f ound o rp re se rved .

s ucc e s s ion o f f a the r t o s on b u t t he re i s n o c on tempora ry e v id ence t ov e r if yt h i s . T he i rs ho r t r e ign s m ake t h i su n l ik e ly i n g enea log ica l t e rm s s o t hey may v e ry w e l l h av e b een

T he r e ign o f A dad shuma -u su r u she r ed i n ap e r iod o f r e la t ive p eace a nd p ro spe r i ty f o r B ab y lon ia . H e w a s e ven

u n re la ted . E ven s o , t h ey s e em t o h ave a c ted l i ke a l l o the r g ood B aby lon ian k ing s . Kudu r -En l i l e x ten s ive ly r e fu rb i shed

s t rong e nough t oi n te rf e re i nA s sy r ian p o l i t ics . A f te r ac l a sh w i th E n l i l -kudu r -u su r , h e a c t ive ly a s s is ted N inu r ta -ap i l -

t h e E n l i l T emp le i nN ippu r . S haga rak t i -Shu r ia sh i sc r ed i ted b yN abon idu sw i th b u i ld ing at emp le i nS ippa ro ri t s s ubu rb . H e d oe s a pp ea r t o h ave b een t h e f a t he r o f t h e f o l low ing

E kur t o b ecome k ing o f A s sy r ia ( Br inkman , 1 972 ) . N inu r ta -ap i l -Eku rh ad b e en l i v ing i ne x i le i nB aby lon b ef o re t h ef i gh t ing e rup ted ( B r inkman , 1 970 ) .

k ing , K a sh t i l ia sh I V . 3 3-34 . Me l i -Sh ipak ( 1 185 -1171 ) a nd Ma rduk -apa l idd ina I ( 1 170 -1158 )

2 8 . K ash t i l ia sh I V( 1232 -1225 ) When K a sh t i l ia sh I Va s cend ed t he t h rone , h ef ound h im se lf

V ir tua l ly n o th ing i sk nown a bou t t h e p o l i t ica l s i tua t ion i n B aby lon a tt h i s t ime . T he af luenc e o fb o th t he se m ona rch s c an b e s e en i nt h e i r d ed ica t ion o fg o ld b a sk e t s t ot h et emp le a t e i the r U r o r N ippu r ( Br inkman , 1 969 ) . T he r e s e em s t o

c augh t b e twe en t wo h o s t i le c oun t r ie s , A s sy r ia a nd E lam . T he E lam i t ek ing , Un ta sh -nap i r isha , may h ave s t ag ed ar a id o n B aby lon ia a round t h is t ime a l though t he e v idenc e i s amb iguou s ( B r inkman , 1 970 :f oo tno te 11 ) . B u t t h e r e i sn o d oub ta bou tt h ew a rt ha tt h eA s sy r ian k ing , T uku l t i -N inu r ta ,

h ave b een r enewed i n te re s t i n b u i ld ing a s w e l l . Me l i -Sh ipak 's n ame a ppea r s o n s t amp ed b r ick s f ound i na n

w aged a ga in s t K a sh t i l ia sh . Whe the r B aby lon p rovoked t h e a t tack o r w he the r t h e A s sy r ian s d e c ided t o emba rk o n a

a l ta r f l oo r o f t h e Em i l T emp le a t N ippu r . Ma rduk -apa l i dd ina ' s n ame h a s b een f ound o n t a b le t s i n t he u pp e rmo s t

m i s s ion o fc onques tr ema in su nc lea r . T he f i r s tc ampa ign d id n o t s ucceed f r om t h e A s sy r ian p o in to fv i ew . B u t d ur ing t h e

l e ve ls o f Du r -Ku r iga lzu . T hey c o r r e spond t o t h e p e r iod o f t he P a in ted P a lace , s o -ca l led b ecaus e o fi t s w e l l -p r e served w a l l p a in t ing s . Ma rduk -apa l idd ina a l so r e co rd s t he c on s t ruc t ion o ft h eE z ida T emp le i nB o r s ippa f o r Ma rduk

s e cond o f f en s ive . K a sh t i l ia sh f e l l i n to t h e h and s o f t h e e nemy . T uku l t i -N inur ta I t e l l s h ow h e b rough t t h e B aby lon ian k ing t oh i s c ap i ta l , a nd p resen ted h im s t r ipped a nd b ound b e f o r e A shu r ( G ray son . , 1 972 :108 ) . C h ron ic le P r e coun t s t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft he w a l l o fB aby lon , t h e mu rd e r

3 5 -36 . Z ababa shum idd ina ( 1 157 ) a nd E n l i l -nad in -ahhe ( 1 156 -1154 )

o f c i t izen s . a nd t h e s a ck o f t he c i ty a nd i t s ma in t emp le , E sag i la ( G ray son , 1 975 :176 ) . T he A s sy r ian 's mo s t

On t h e a scen s ion o f Z ababa shum idd ina , t he k ingdom q u ick ly f el a pa r t . No d ocumen t s a t te s t t oh i s p a ren tag e o r whe th e r t h e l a s t mona rch w a s h i s s on . A shu r -dan I o f

h um i l ia t ing a c t w a s t h e r emova l o ft h e s t a tue o f Ma rduk t o t h ec i ty o fA s su r . 2 8a . T uku l t i -N inur ta ( 1 225 ) T u la i l t i -N inu r ta e x tended A s sy r ian c on t ro l o ve r a l l

A s sy r ia a t tack ed B aby lon ia a nd c ap t u red t he t e r r i to ry b e twe en t he L owe r Z ab a nd t he Adha im R ive r s ( G ray son , 1 975 :162 ) . T h i s w a s f olowed s ho r t ly b y a n E lam i te

o f

of en s ive . S hu truk -Nahhun te , t he E lam i t ek ing , d epo sed t h e k ing a nd l o o ted B aby lon ia . Many o f t h e se o b jec t s w e re

B aby lon ia f o rt h ef i r s t t ime . H e a dded ' K ing o fK a rdun ia sh , K ing o f S ume r a nd A kka l , K ing o f S ippa r a nd B aby lon , K ing o fD i lmun a nd Me luhha ,K ing o ft h e Uppe ra nd L owe r

f ound a t S u sa . H e a ppo in ted h i s s o n Ku t i r -Nahhun te g overno r o f B aby lon b u t t h e B aby lon ian s d id n o t g i v e i n

S e as ' t o h i s t i t le s ( G ray son , 1 972 ) . W i th in a y ea r o f h i s c onque s t , h e a ppo in ted g ove rnor s t o o ve r se e B aby lon . T h e

b u t w a s e v en tualy c ap tu red a nd d epo r ted ( Ca r t e r a nd

n ex t t h ree k ing s a r e u sua l ly c on s ide red t o h ave s e rved a s v a ssa l s b u t B r inkman ( 1976 ) t h ink s t h e e v id enc e i s t o o s c an ty t ob ec e r ta in o ft h e i rr e la t ion sh ip w i th A ssy r ia .

S to lpe r , 1 983 ) . B aby lon ian s r e ca l led t h i sp er iod a s at ime o f e x t rao rd ina ry v io lenc e ( Oa te s , 1 986 ) . When h e f i na l ly v anqu i shed t h e o ppo s i t ion . Ku t ir -Nahhun te c omm i t t ed t h e

2 9 -31 . E n l i l -nad in -shum i ( 1224 ) , Kadashman -Harbe I

a c t f o r wh ich h e w ou ld f o reve r r ema in i nf amou s , t he r emova lo ft h e Ma rduk s t a tue t oS u sa .

e a s i ly E n l i l -nad in -ahhe f ough t o n f o r a no ther t h r e e y ea r s

( 1223 -1222 ) , a nd Adad -shuma idd ina ( 1221 -1216 ) T he E lam i te k ing , K id in -Hud rud ish , t r ied t ot ak e a dvan tag e o f B aby lon ian w eakne s s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod a nd i nvaded

CONCLUSION

Me sopo tam ia t w ice . A cco rd ing t o C h ron ic le P ( G ray son , 1 975 ) , h e a t tacked N ippu r , D e r , a nd E d imga lka la r runa a nd d eposed

E n l i l -nad in shum i .

S eve ra l

y ea r s

l a te r

T h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te P e r iod s s pan mo s t o ft h e s e cond m ilenn ium B .C . T h e F ir s t D ynas ty o f B aby lon b egan mode s t ly when a s he ikh b y t h e n ame o f S umuabum

when

A dad shuma idd ina w a s k ing , h e c ro s sed t h e T ig r i s a nd d e s t royed I s in . 3 2 . Adad -shuma -usur ( 1 215 -1186 )

e s tab l i shed h im se lf a s r u le r o ft ha t p rov in c ia l t own . H e a nd h i s s ucce s so r s f o rged a c o re a rea o f i n f luen ce t h a t H anunu rab i , t h e s i x th k ing o ft he d yna s ty , u sed a s ab a se t o

T he B aby lon ian s s oon r e vo l ted a ga in s t A s sy r ian r u le a nd p l aced A dad shuma -u su r o n t he t h ron e . H e w a s t h e s on o f

c r ea te a n e mp i re . H a r runu rab i d id n o t h ave t im e t o e f ec t ive ly i n t eg ra te t h e c onque red t e r r i to r ie s i n to a s t a te 2 8

b e f o re h ed i ed . T hey r ega ined t he i ri ndep end ence d u r ing t h e r e ign o f h i s s on , S amsu i luna . H i s d e sc endan t s a ga in r u led o v e rj u s t t h e c o re a rea . AH i t t i te r a id d epo sed t h e l a s t k ing a nd l oo ted t h ec i ty . N o o ne c an b e s u re e xac t ly when t h e K a s s i t e s a s sumed p owe r i n B aby lon o r e ven t h e n ame s a nd o rd e r o ft h e e a r ly k i ng s . Un l ik e t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty , mo s t o ft h e K a s s i te k ing s d i d n o t s e em t ob e i n te re s ted i nt e r r i to r ia l e xpan s ion . Onc e t h ey r ega ined p o sse s s ion o f S ume r i n t h e m id -f if teen th c en tu ry , t h e r ew a sl i t t le movemen to ft h eo ve ra l lb ounda r ie s . T he n o r th er nb o rder s e em s t o h ave b een w el n o r th o ft h e A dh a im R ive ra nd maybe e ven n ea r e rt h eL owe rZ ab . L ubdu a nd A rrapha w e re p a r t o f B aby lon ia . T he b ounda ry r e ad ju s tm en t s w i th A s sy r ia n eve r g ave B aby lon t e r r i to ry t o t h e n or th o ft h eL ower Z ab o rA s sy r ia s ou th o ft h e A dha im T he Ka s s i t e s c on t ro l led mo re l and t o t h e n or thea s t o f t he T ig r is t han l a te r d yna s t ie s . B aby lon ian s s t a t ioned o n t h e m idd le E uph ra te s r epor ted o nt h e a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e A s sy r ian s a nd t he H i t t i te s . E ven t hough K a s s i te B aby lon d oe s n o t s e em t o h ave e ngaged i nw a r s o fe xpan s ion , i t s n e ighbo r s r ega rded i ta s a n i mpor tan tr eg iona lp owe r . T hey h ad d ip loma t ic a nd t r ade r e la t ion s w i th D i lmun , E gyp t , H a i t i , a nd M i tann i . B aby lon ian p r inces se s ma r r ied i n to a n umbe r o f f o re ign r o ya l f am i l ie s . A s sy r ia e ng inee r ed o ne d ec i s ive m i l i ta ry v i c to ry o v e rt h eK a ss i te s ,b u ti nt h ee nd , o n ly h e ld p owe rf o r a mere s e ven y ea r s . T he o ve ra l l p i c tu r e o f B aby lon t ha t e me rge si so f ar e a l ,b u tg ene ra l ly n onagg r e s s ive ,p owe r . C u l tu ra l d ev e lopmen t d u r ing t he s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . c an o n ly b eu nder s tood a ga ins tt h eb ackd rop o ft h ec hang ing p o l i t ica l l a nd scape b ecau se i ta f ec ted a l l a sp ec t s o f l i f e . Unf or tuna te ly , t he e ven t s o ft h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iods i n Me sopo tam ia r ang e f r om t h e ' v e ry -we l l d ocumen ted ' t ot he ' c omp le te ly u nknown ' . T he mo s t c r i t ica l g ap i n t h e h i s tor ica l s equence l i e s b e twe en t h e c o l lap se o f t he O ld B ab y lon ian emp i re c . 1712 B .C . a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft he A tna rna P e r iod , c . 1374 . I tc omp r ise s as pan o fo v e r 3 30 y ea r s t h a t m igh t b e l onge r i ft h e ' l ong c h rono logy ' p rove s c or rec t ( Hube r , 1 982 ) . T h i s i n terva l i s c ruc ia l b ecau se i te ncompa s se s t he t r an s i t ion f r om O ld B aby lon ian t o Ka s s i te c u l tu re . T he p ol i t ica l h i s to ry o f t he O ld B aby lon ian a nd Ka s s i te p e r iod s c on s t i tu te s a ma jo r p o r t ion o f t h e c u l tu ra l c on tex t n ece ssa ry f o r i n terp re t ing t he c y l ind e r s e a l d a ta . T h e o the r e qua l ly i mpo r tan t p a r t , wh ich c once r n s r e l ig ion , a pp ea r s i n t h e n ex t c hap te r . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t , u n l ik e o u r s oc ie ty , t he Me sopo tam ian s mad e n oa t temp tt os epa ra te c hu rch a nd s t a te . T h ey p robab ly w ou ld h ave c on s id e red t h e i d ea l ud ic rou s . E ven t hough t he p a lace a nd t h e t emp le r ep r esen ted d i s t inc t i n s t i tu t ion s , t h ey r ema ined c omp le te ly i n te rd epend en t . T he f a c t t ha t Ih ave d iv id ed p o l i t ic s a nd r e l ig ion i n to t wo c hap te r s h a s mo re t o d o w i th o u r p e rcep t ion o fr ea l i ty r a the rt han t h e i r s .

2 9

CHAPTER 4 RELIG IOUS DEVELOP MENTS DUR ING THE S ECOND MILLENNIU M B .C .

I NTRODUCT ION

c our t p e r sonn e l s u r round ing t he c i ty -god . Th i s m ay h ave b een aw ay t o l i nk l o ca l g od s t o t h e l a rg e r Me sopo tam ian

T he o r ig in s o f Me sopo tam ian r e l ig ion e x tend w e l l b ack i n to

p an theon .

t h e m i s t s o f t h e p reh is tor ic p e r iod . B y t h e t ime t he f i r s t l i t e ra ry t e x t s a ppea ri nt he t h i rd m i l lenn ium . t he S ume r ian s THE MESOPOTAM IAN PANTHEON

a l ready h ad a c oncep t ion o f t h e u n ive r se a nd t he p ow e r s c on t ro ll ing i t( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . T hey e nv is ioned t he e a r th a s af l a t -d i sk s u r rounded b y ah ug e s o l id s he l l . E ncompa s s ing

T he h ighe s t r ank ing g od s c an b e d iv id ed i n to t wo t r iad s .

t h i s o na l l s i de s , a sw e l la s t op a nd b o t tom , l a yt he p r imeva l

T he f i r s t c on s is t s o f An . E n l i l , a nd E nk i . N inhu r saga , t he mo the rg odd e s s , o r ig ina l ly b e longed i nt h is g roup . H owever , s he h ad n o p o l i t ica l p owe r a nd E nk i s upp lan ted h e r i nt he

s ea ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :60f f ) . W ind o r a i r s epa ra ted h eav en f r om e a r th . T hey l i k ened t he o rd e r ing o ft he c o smo st ol a rg e s t a te run i n s t i tu t ion s t hey k new o n e ar th . S uch

r u l ing t r iad d u r ing t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium ( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . H e r n ame r a re ly a pp ea r s o n s ea ls s o s he i sn o t i n c lud ed i n t h ef o l low ing l i s t .

o rgan iza t ion s r equ ired s i zab le n umber s o fp eop le t oo ve r se e t hem o rt h ey c rumb led . L ikew i se , t h e c o smo s n eeded d iv in e manage r s t o k eep i tg o ing . T he S ume r ian s b e l ieved t h a t h und r ed s o f g od s a nd g odd e s se s e x is ted t o t end t o e ve ry a spec to fl i f eo ne ar th ( K rame r , 1 963 ) .

T he s e cond t r io c omp r i se s a s tra l d e i t ie s w ho t he S ume r ian s c oncep tua l ized a sg rand ch i ld ren a nd g rea t g rand ch i ld r en o f

Ov er t h e c ou r se o f t ime , t heo log ian s o rgan ized t he m a jo r g od s a nd g odde s se s i n to ah i e ra r ch ica l o rde r b a sed o n t h e i r i mpor tance . T he e s sen t ia l s t ruc tu r e o ft he p an theon a ppea r s

f i r s tt r iad b u tw e re n eve r the le s sv e ry p opu la r . Of t en af ou r th g od . A dad , ag od o fs t o rm s , w a s i n c lud ed i n t h i s g r oup a s

An . T hey d i d n o t h ave t he a u thor i ty o ft h e memb e r s o ft he

w e l l ( J acob s en , 1 976 ) . T he moon g od , N anna , r ank ed f i r s t i nt h i s s e t a sU tu a nd I nanna w e re h i s c h i ld ren . T h e se t wo

t oh ave b een w o rked o u t b y a tl e a s t t he m idd le o ft he t h i rd mi l lenn ium i fn o t e arl ier ( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . A t t he t op c am e t he f ou r d e i t ie s r e spon s ib le f o rt h e b a s ic c omponen t s o ft h e

t r iad s c omb ined g od s a nd g oddesse s o f s im i lar a sp ec t a nd r ank b u tn oo t he ri mp l ica t ion s hou ld b ea t tached t ot h em .

c o smo s , A n /Anu ( heaven ) , E n . l i l ( a i r ) , N inhu r saga ( e a r th ) , a nd E nk i /Ea ( s ea ) . T he n ex t mos t i n f luen t ia l g roup c on s i s ted o f a s t ra l d iv in i t ie s , N anna /S in ( moon ) ,

T he f o l low ing l i s t c on ta in s a s hor t d e sc r ip t ion o f t he d iv in i t ie s w h ich mos t o f t en a pp ea r i n s e a l l egend s a nd /o r

U tu /Shama sh ( s un ) , a nd I nanna / Ish ta r ( mo rn ing a nd e ven ing s t a r ) . T he se may h ave b een t he " s even d e i t ies w ho ' d ec ree t h e f a te s" ( K rame r , 1 963 :122 -3 ) . I n a dd i t ion , a lu s ion s t o f i f ty " g rea t g od s " a ppea r i n t he t ex ts b u t a r e n eve r i d en t if ied ( J acob sen . 1 970 :404 -5 , No te 5 0 ) . T hey m ay

i c onog raphy . T he f i r s t n ame l i s ted i st h e S ume r ian v e r s ion , t he s e cond i st he A kkad ian f o rm . I n t h e r ema ind e r o ft h is s t udy , Iw i l l n o rma l ly u se t h e Akkad ian v e r s ion s i n c e t h e F i r s t D yna s ty o f B aby lon s poke a S em i t ic l anguag e a nd t h e se w e r et h ev e r s ion su sed b yt hem .

h ave b een t h e c h i ld ren o ft h e s ky g od An b u t t h i s r ema in s u ncer ta in .

T he F ir s tT r iad

Me sopo tam ian d e i t ie s , d e sp i te b e ing i mmor ta l , a c ted v e ry

An /Anu : A nu , t he s ky g od a nd c i ty -god o f U ruk _ r anked

much l i ke h uman b e ing s . T he S ume r ian s e nv isaged t hem a s l i v ing i n h ou seho ld s w i th s pou se s , c h i ld ren , a nd s e rvan t s .

f i r s t i nt h e Me sopo tam ian p an theon . H e w a s c on s id e r ed t h e f a the ro fa l l t h e o the rg od sa sw el a s m any d emon sa nd e v i l s p i r i t s( J acob s en , 1 976 ) . T he d om inan tp o s i t ion o ft h es ky i n

T hey n eeded f ood t ol i ve , g o t i n to f i gh t s , a nd c ou ld e ven g e t s i ck a nd d i e . T he mo re i mpo r tan t d iv in i t ie s h ad t h e r e spon s ib i l i t y o f a c t ing a s p a t ron d e i t ie s t o t he v a r iou s c i ty s ta te s ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :43 ) . E ach g od /de ss c hamp ioned ad if e ren t c i ty . T he mo s t p rom inen t c i t ie s , i n g ene ra l , b oas ted t h e mo s t i mpor tan t g o c l /de s se s a s t he ir p ro tec to r s . T he o n ly a ppa ren t e xcep t ion t o t h i s s e em s t o h ave b een

as pa t ia l s en se a nd i t s a s soc ia t ion w i th r a inf a l l , a nd b y e x ten s ion l i f e , n a tu ra l ly l e ad Anu t o b e i d en t if i ed w i th a u tho r i ty . H i sp owe re x tended t ob o th h uman s oc ie ty a nd t h e u n ive r se a s a who le . On e a r th , h e w a s c l o se ly a s soc ia t ed w i th r oya l ty . D e sp i te h i s i mpor tance , h i s n a tu re r em a in ed i l -def ined . H e i s r a re ly ( i f e ve r ) r ep r e sen ted i n a r t . T h is

N ippu r . I t s c i ty -god w a s E n id , o ne o ft he h ighe s t r ank ing g od s i n Me sopo tam ia . Y e t N ippu r n eve r a ppea r s t o h av e

m ak e s i td if i cu l t t ol i nk a ny s pec if ic i c onog raphy w i th h im ( B lack a nd G reen , 1 992 ) .

w ie ld ed a ny m i l i ta ry p owe r o ve r i t s n e ighbo r s . H ow N ippu r c ame t ob ei d en t if ied a st he c i ty o fE n l i lr ema in su nknown .

T he f i gu r e o f Anu s e em s t o h ave b ecome i nc r ea s ing ly

E ven t hough e ach c i ty s ta te c l a imed a s pec if ic g od o r

h i s d ep ic t ion i nt wo f amou s s t o r ie s c an b e c ompa red . I nt h e

g odde s s a si t sp a t ron , t h i s d oe s n o t m ean t ha t o n ly o ne d e i ty

G i lgame sh E p ic , wh ich d a te s t ot he t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . ,

w a s w o r sh ipp ed i ne ach p lace . R a the r amu l t ip l ic i ty o fc u l t s e x is ted i ne ve ry c i ty ( Lamb er t , 1 975a ) . O f ten l e s se r k nown d iv in i t ie s b ecame i n corpora ted i n to t h e e x tended f am i ly o r

Anu a pp ea r s i nc omp le te c ommand ( J acob sen , 1 976 :208f I ) . H i s d augh te r , I s h ta r d emand s t ha t h e g i ve h e r t he B u l l o f H eaven s o s he c an u se i tt ok i l l G i lgame sh . An t i e ven tua l ly

r emo te t h rough t ime ( K rame r , 1 964 ) . B yw ay o fi lu s t ra t ion ,

3 0

c omp l ie s ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :84 ) . B yt h e t ime t h eE nüma E l i sh w a s w r i t ten d own a round t h e b eg inn ing o f t he f i r s t m i l lenn ium , w ef i nd Anu s l ink ing b ack t oh i s f a the r u nab le

p oo r . B e s id e sp ro tec t ing g ood a nd r oo t ing o u te v i l . S hama sh a l so p rov id ed t h e l i gh t a nd h ea t n ece s sa ry f o r s ucce s sfu l a g r icu l tu re . H is s ymbo l s i n c luded t h e s un d i sk , t h e p run ing

t of a c e T iama t( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 ) . Mos t o fh i s p owe r s b y t h i s t ime h ad b een a s sumed b yo the rg od s .

s aw wh ich w a s ac u rved b lad e w i th j agg ed t e e th , ak n if e , a nd t h e r od a nd r i ng o fd iv ine j u s t ice ( R ingg r en , 1 973 ) . H e h ad t wo p r inc ipa lc i t ie s , L a r sa i nt h es ou th a nd S ippa ri nt he n or th .

E n id : E n l i l , ' Lo rd Wind ' , c on t ro l led t h e f r ee s pac e b e tween h eaven a nd e a r th . H e embod ied t h e p owe r i n t h e mo is t s p r ing w ind s w h ich mad e t h e s o i l w o rkab le ( J acob sen ,

I nanna / I sh tar : I s h ta r embod ied t h re e ma in a sp ec t s i n h e r p er sona l i ty . F i r s t , s h e r ep re sen ted l o ve a nd s exua l b ehav io r . S he n eve r h ad c h i ld r en s o s he c anno t b e a s soc ia ted w i th a mo the rg odd e s s f i gu r e . R a the r s he s e rv ed a st h e p ro te c to r o f

1 976 ) . Bu ti na dd i t ion t og en t le w ind s , Me sopo tam ia i sa l so s ub jec t t of i e r c e s t orm s . T hu s t he S ume r ian s d e sc r ibed E n l i l a s a ' r ag ing s t o rm ' a nd ' w i ld b u l l ' ( B lack a nd G reen , 1 992 :76 ) . I n t h i s g u ise , h e p e r son i f ied f o rc e a nd b ecame e xecu to r o f t h e v e rd ic t s o f t he g od s . T h i s i n c luded t he d es t ruc t ion o f t emp le s a nd c i t ie s a nd a ny o the r p un i t ive

p ro s t i tu te s a nd t he m en I s h ta r g o t i nvo lved w i th n orma l ly c ame t o g r ief . S econd ly , I s h ta r r el i shed b a t t le s o s he w a s s e en a s ag odde s so fw a r . A r t i s t s d ep ic ted h e rw i th h e rb eas t , t h el i on , a nd a r row sr ad ia t ing f r om h e rs hou ld er s( B lack a nd G reen , 1 992 :108 ) . S he o f t en h o ld s a s c im i ta r a nd a d oub le -headed l i on c l ub a s w e l l . I n h e r t h i rd a spec t , s he

d ec r ee s manda t ed b yt he d iv ine a s semb ly . E a r ly i n t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium , E n l i l c ame t os ha r e t he t a sk o fh ead ing t h ep an theon w i th Anu ( K rame r , 1 963 :118 ) . Anu w a s s o r emo t e t ha t i n t ime t he l e ad e r sh ip i n t he d iv ine a s s emb ly v i r tua l ly b e longed t oE n l i l . H i s ma in s h r ine w a s i n N ippu r , b u t h i s i mpo r tance e x tended f a r b eyond t ha t c i ty . T he Mesopo tam ian s r ega rded E n l i l a s " K ing o ft he E a r th " a nd r eve red h im a s t he n a t iona l g od o f S ume r ( R ingg ren , 1 973 :6 ) . L ik e Anu , n o s p ec if ic i c onog raphy c an b e

b ecam e V enu s , t h e m o rn ing a nd e ven ing s t a r . H e r a s t ra l s ymbo lw a sa ne i gh tp o in ted s t a r . O ve rt ime , I s h ta ra b so rbed t he c ha rac te r is t ic s o f m any o the r g odd e s se s s o s he h e r se lf b ecame av e ry c omp lex a nd o f t en c on t r ad ic to ry p e r sona l i ty ( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . B yt h eK a s s i te p e r iod , s he h ad a s s im i la ted v i r tua l ly e ve ry o the r f ema le d e i ty . T he Me sopo tam ian s w o r sh ipped h e r i n m any d if e ren t l o ca t ion s , b u t h e r t wo ma jo r c u l t c en te r s w e re i nt h e i mpor tan t c i t ie s o fU ruk a nd K i sh .

a s soc ia ted w i th h im d ur ing t he s econd m i l lenn ium . E nk i /Ea : E a embod ied t he p owe r i n f r e sh w a te r . H i s d oma in c omp r ised wha tt he S ume r ian si mag ined t ob e av as t s ub ter ranean f r e shwa te r s e a a nd t h e s u r f ace w a te r i n p oo l s a nd ma r she s ( J acob sen , 1 987 :16 ) . I n a r t , h e i sr ep re sen ted w i th s t re am s o fw a te r f l ow ing f r om h i s a rm s o r s hou lde r s .

I shkur /Adad : T he c u l t o f A dad , aw ea the r g od , p robab ly o r ig ina ted w i th t h e We s ter n S em i te s _ H e p e r son if ied t he p owe r i n s p r ing r a in s to rm s . H e c ommanded g r ea te r r e spec t i n t h e n o r th , b ecau se f a rme r s t h e r e d ep end ed mo re o n p rec ip i ta t ion t han o n i r r iga t ion t o w a te r t h e i r c rop s . T he

T he g oa t f i sh b ecame h i s s ymbo l i nt h e K a s s i te p er iod _ E a 's ma in c ha rac t e r is t ic w a s w isdom wh ich h e u sed o nb eha lf o f mank ind . I tw a s h e who i n s t ruc ted m ank ind i n t he a l l t h e a r t s a nd c r af t s o f c i v i l iza t ion . H e p o s se s sed a l l s e c re t m ag ica l k now ledge a nd g a ined h i s e nd s t h rough c l everne s s a nd man ipu la t ion r a the rt han o u t r igh tp owe r . H i sc u l tc en te r w a s E r idu w h ich t he S umer ian s c on s id e red t ob e t h e o lde s t

l i gh tn ing f o rk n a tu ra l ly b ecame h i s s ymbo l a nd t h e b u l l h i s a n ima l ( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . D ep end ing o n t r ad i t ion , h e w a s c on s ide r ed e i the rt h e s on o fS in a nd b ro the ro fS hama sh a nd

c i ty i nS ume r( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :43 ) .

O ther D iv ine F igur es

T he S econd T r iad

Marduk : Ma rduk w a s a lway s c on s ide red t h e p a t ron g od o f B aby lon a l though i n f orma t ion c once rn ing h i s o r ig in s r ema in s e x t r eme ly s c an ty . On ly t wo ' p o s s ib le ' r e f e renc e s t o h im e x is tp r io rt ot h e s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Somme r f e ld .

I sh ta r o rt h e s on o fA nu a nd t w in b ro the r o fE nk i . K a rka ra w a sh i sc u l tc en te r .

Nanna /S in : S in , t he moon g od , w a st h es on o fe i the r Anu o r E n l i l a cco rd ing t o v a r ian t t r ad i t ion s . H i s d if e ren t n ame s s e em t o a pp ly t o s pec if ic p ha se s o f t h e moon . N anna

1 982 :19 ) .

i nd ica ted t h e f u l l moon a nd S in r e f er r ed t o h im a s t h e c r escen t m oon . S in c on t ro l led t h e n igh t , t h e l una r c a lenda r ,

T he e t ymo logy o f h i s n ame a pp ear s t o b e

S ume r ian b u t , a ga in , i t sp rec i se h i s to ry i su nce r ta in . Ma rduk may m ean " Bu l l -ca l f o f U tu " , i t s o r ig ina l f o rm b e ing ` Man i tuk ' ( Lamb e r t , 1 975a ) . B y t h e t ime o f H ammu rab i . Ma rduk h ad a b so rb ed t h e p e r sona l i ty o f A sa l luh i , al o ca l

a nd p rov id ed f e r t i l i ty . A cco rd ing t oJ a cob sen ( 1976 ) , l una r f e s t iva l sa pp ea rt oh ave b een c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h ek ing a nd h i s h ou seho ld T he h igh p r ies te s s o fN anna a tU r , h i s

d e i ty i nt h eE r idu r eg ion . A sa l luh i , p robab ly a n i ndependen t

ma in c u l t c en ter , c ame f r om t h e r o ya l f am i ly . T he re s he b ecame t h eh uman s pou se o ft h e g od . S in w a s q u i te p opu la r

g od o f Kua r /K iuna r , h ad b een i n co rpor a ted i n to t h e Me sopo tam ian p an theon b y mak ing h im E nk i 's s on ( J acob sen , 1 987 :18 ) . B ym e rg ing w i th h im . Ma rduk a t ta ined

w i th t h e p eop le a s w e l l e ven t hough h e a lway s r ema ined s ubo rd ina te t ot he c h ief g od so ft h ep an theon .

ah ighe r p o s i t ion i nt h e d iv ine h i e ra rchy b ecau se E a r anked h ighe r t han S hama sh . H i s i n i t ia l a t t r ibu te s a r e n o t k nown a l though h i s s ymbo l , t h e ma r ru ( s pade ) , s ugge s t s h e may h ave b een a n a g r icu l tu ra l d e i ty ( B lack a nd G reen , 1 992 ) . F rom A sa l luh i , h e a cqu i red h i s a s soc ia t ion w i th

U tu /Shama sh : S hama sh , t h e s un g od , b ecame a s soc ia ted w i th t r u th a nd j u s t ic e b ecau se t h e p owe r o ft h e s un a l lowed h im t oo b s e rve e ve ry th ing . T he Me sopo tam ian s c on s id e red h im a b en evo len t g od who t o ok a d i rec t i n te re s t i n t h e ir a f a ir s . A sg od o fj u s t ice , h e p a r t icu la r ly w a tched o u tf o rt h e

t hunde r s to rm s a nd r a in . A s E a 's s on , Ma rduk l e arned w i sdom a nd mag ic . H e i se ven c onnec ted w i th j udgmen t , i mp ly ing al i nk w i th S hama sh . 3 1

Nabu : N ab ' ' , t h eg od o fs c r ibe s , b egan a s Ma rduk 's m in i s te r

d iv in i t ie s d id n o t a lway s a c t w i th t h e ir b e s t i n te re s t s i n m ind . T h i s a spec t o f ` Lamas su ' i nd ica te s s he m ay s ha re a

b u t l a te r b ecame h i s s on . Due t o h i s a s soc ia t ion w i th w r i t ing , h e w a s a l so c on s ide red ag od o fw isdom . H i s m a in c u l tc ame t ob ec en te red i nB o r s ippa .

c ommon b ackg round w i th t he d ang e rou s f ema le d emon ` Lama sh tu ' ( Opp enhe im , 1 977 :20 1 ) .

N erga l /Erra : N e rga l ( wh ich may b e ag ene r ic n am e f o rt h e

B u l l - Man : T he f i gu re o ft he b u l l -man i n co rpo ra te s t he f a ce

L o rd o ft h e Und e rwo r ld ) b ecame L o rd o ft h e Und erwo r ld b y

a nd t o r so o f aman b u t w i th t he h o rn s , e ar s , a nd l owe rb ody

ma r ry ing i t s f o rm idab le r u le r , t h e g odde s s E re shk iga l ( J acob sen _ 1 987 :27 ) . I nh i s own r i gh t , h ew a s amuch -f ea red

o f ab u l l . H e f i r s t a ppea r s i n t he E a r ly Dyna s t ic I p e r iod _ T he s i gn if i cance o ft h eb u l l -man r ema in su nknown .

g od o f p e s t i lenc e , f e ve r s , a nd f o re s t f i r e s . T he Mesopo tam ian s e ven tualy me lded h im c omp le te ly w i th t h e g od E r ra . E r ra 's a t t r ibu te s i n c luded p l ague s l i ke N e rga l b u t

OFF ICIAL OR S TATE RELIGION

a dded t h e a spec t s o f v io lence a nd w a r . I n a r t , h e s har e s much i n c ommon w i th d ep ic t ion s o f I s h ta r d r e s sed i n w a r r io r g a rb . T hey o f ten h ave o ne l e g r e s t ing o n as uppo r t a nd c a r ry as c im i ta ra nd ad oub le -headed l i on scep te r( B lack

O ff ic ia l o r s t a te r e l ig ion i n Me sopo tam ia c en te r ed a round t he c u l t so ft h e g od s a nd g odde sse s . A c co rd ing t ot h e my th s , t he g od s c r ea ted h uman sf o rt he e xp r e s sp u rpo se o fr e l iev ing t hem o fh av ing t od o m en ia l work ( J acob sen , 1 976 :117 -8 ) . T hu s p eop le e x i s ted t o s e rve a nd c a r e f o r t h e g od s . T he S ume r ian s t o ok t he se d u t ies v e ry s e r iou s ly . T h ey t hough t t ha tw i thou td iv ine managemen t , t h e c o smo s w ou ld c ea se t o f unc t ion ( R ingg ren , 1 973 ) .

a nd G reen , 1 992 ) . H i s ma in c u l tw a si nt h ec i ty o fC u tha . Mar tu /Amurru : Amu rru p robab ly o r ig ina ted i nt h e w e s t a s g od o ft h e n omad ic p eop le s ( R ingg r en , 1 973 ) . H e a pp ea r s i n S ume r b y t h e e nd o f t h e t h ird m i l lenn ium n o d oub t i n t roduced b y t h e Amo r i te s f i l te r ing i n f r om t h e d e ser t . Maybe b ecau se h e w a s ag od o fn omad s . Amu rru d e s t royed c i t ie s a nd r ampaged " ove r t h e l and l i k e as t o rm " ( B lack a nd

T he t emp le s e rved l i t e ra l ly a st he h ou se o f ag od /de s s . I tw a s i n t h e t emp le t ha t p rof e s s iona l s t af f s c a red f o r t h e t i tu la r

G reen , 1 992 :129 ) . H i s c u l t f l ou r i shed f o r a w h i le i n B aby lon ia . Amu rru c an b e i d en t if ied b y h i s s ymbo l , t h e c rook .

d e i ty . D iv in i t ie s n eeded t o b e f ed , b a th ed , d re s sed , a nd s o f or th . I ne ve ry w ay , t hey l e d t he l i f e o f ak ing ( Opp enhe im , 1 977 ) . T he f o ca l p o in t o f t h is a t t en t ion c en te r ed o n t he

N in shubur : B o th a ma le a nd f ema le N in shubu r e x i s ted .

s t a tue o ft h e d e i ty . T he Me sopo tam ian s b e l ieved t h a t ag od o r g odd e s s t o ok u p r e s idence i n h i s /h e r i mage a f te r as er ie s

T hey w e r e m ino r d e i t ie s t ha t f unc t ioned a s m in i s t e r s . T he ma le N in shubu r s e rved M u a nd t h e f ema le N in shubu r a ss is ted manna .

o fe l abo ra te a nd v e ry s e c re t r i tua ls ( R ingg ren , 1 973 ) . E ve ry d ay s p ec if i c r i te s a nd c e remon ie s h ad t ob e p e r f o rmed t o k e ep t h e g od /d e s s c on ten t . I ft h is w a s n o t d one , h e o r s he w ou ld n o t l o ok f avorab ly o n h umank ind ( K rame r , 1 963 ) . T he c l o se a s soc ia t ion o ft he d iv in i ty w i th i t s i mag e c an b e i lus t ra ted b y t h e f a c t t ha t when a n i n vad er r emoved ac u l t

Gu la : G u la 's p opu la r i ty a ro se f r om h e r p o s i t ion a s t h e g odde s s o f h ea l ing a nd t he p a t rone s s o f d oc to r s . T h e Mesopo tam ian s c a l l ed h e r t h e " G rea t L ady P hy s ic ian " ( Oppenhe im , 1 977 :304 ) . H e r p r inc ip le s h r ine w a s a t I s in

s t a tue , t h e Me sopo tam ian s t hough t t h eg od o r g odde s s w en t w i th i t ( Opp enhe im , 1 977 ) . B u t t h i s s hou ld n o t b e

a l though s he w a s e ven tua l ly i d en t i f ied w i th N in -n ib ru , mean ing L ady o fN ippu r . Gu la i so f t en r ep re sen ted b y h e r

i n te rp re ted t om ean t ha t t h e g od s o n ly e x is ted w i th in t he i r i mag e s . T he Me sopo tam ian s h ad m any w ay s t o e vok e t he p re sence o ft h e d i v ine i n c lud ing c u l td r ama s , p oe t ry , h ymn s ,

s ac red a n ima l ,t he d og .

my th s , a nd e p ic s( J acob sen , 1 976 :15 ) . Lahmu : F o r m any y ea r s , r e sea rche r s r e f e r red t ot h i s f i gu r e a s t he ' nud e h ero ' . R ecen t ly , B lack a nd G reen ( 1992 ) a rgued t h a t h e s hou ld b e c a l led L a lunu wh ich m ean s

I n a dd i t ion t o t h e t emp le p er sonne l , t h e k ing p l ayed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n of i c ia l r e l ig ion . T heo re t ica l ly , h e w a s h ead o f t h e c u l t o f t h e c i ty -god /de s s ( R ingg ren , 1 973 ) . H e

' Ha i ry ' . H i s d i s t inc t ive i c onog raph ic f ea tu re i st h e t wo o r t h ree l a rg e c u r l s o n e i the r s i d e o f h i s h ead . D ep ic t ion s o f

r egu la r ly of i c ia ted a t c e remon ie s a nd f e s t iva l s . K ing s l av i shed e xp en s ive g if t s o n t he g od s a nd i n s ta l led s t a tue s o f

L ahmu o f t en , b u t n o t a lway s , p a i r h im w i th t he b u l l -man .

t hem se lve si nt h et emp le st or em ind t h ed e i ty o fh i sc on s tan t

H e s hou ld b e r ega rd ed a s ap ro tec t ive d e i ty h e lp f u l t o mank ind . B lack a nd G reen ( 1992 ) s ugge s t t ha t h e w a s o r ig ina l ly a s soc ia ted w i th E nk ia nd l a te ro nw i th Ma rduk .

d evo t ion . B u t t h e s i ng le g rea te s t s e rv ic e a ny k ing c ou ld p e rf o rm w a s t h e b u i ld ing o r r e s to ra t ion o f a t emp le ( F rank f o r t , 1 978 :267 ) . A l e ad er d id n o t u nd er tak e s u ch a n e ndeavo r l i gh t ly . T h e g od s t h em se lve s n eeded t o s end t he a pp rop r ia te s i gn st ha tt he t im ew a sp rop i t iou s .

L ama /Lama s su : L ama r e f er s t o ag odde s s whose m a in d u ty s eem s t oh ave b een t oa t tend o r i n t roduce w o r sh ipp e r s i n to t he p re senc e o f mo re i mpor tan t g od s . One o r b o th o f h e r h and s a r e s hown r a ised i nw or sh ip . T hes e g odd e s se s d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave s pec if ic n ame s . I n t h e p a s t , s he h a s o f ten b een c a l led a ' s upp l ian t g odd e s s ' ( s ee B uchanan , 1 981 ) .

T h e Me sopo tam ian s b e l ieved t ha t t h e a s semb ly o f g od s s e lec ted t h e k ing ( F rank f o r t , 1 978 ) . H e i nt u rn a c ted a st he s t ewa rd o f t h e g od s o n e a r th . T he k ing ' s p r inc ipa l d u t ie s

L ike

c on s i s ted o f u pho ld ing j u s t ice a nd p rov id ing l e ad e r sh ip i n t ime o f w a r ( F rank f or t , e t a l . , 1 946 :209 ) . H i s c a refu l

L ahmu ,

h e r

f unc t ion

w a s

t o

p ro tec t

h uman s .

Oppenhe im t h ink st ha tt h eu se o ft h et e rm ` Lamas su ' i nO ld B aby lon ian f ema le n am e s a c tua l ly s ugge s ts t he m ean ing o f " ange l" ( 1977 :200 ) . H oweve r , t h e Me sopo tam ian sk n ew t h a t

o b se rvance o f r e l ig iou s t r ad i t ion s w a s an ece ss i ty b ecau se t he w e lf a r e o ft h e c oun tr y d ep ended o n h ow w e l l h e p l ea sed t he d e i t ie s . 3 2

T he p reced ing s e c t ion g i ve s a n i d ea l ized p i c tu r e o fk ing 's i nvo lvemen t w i th t he r e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s o f h i s d ay . I n a c tua l f a c t , t h e t emp le a nd t h e p a lace r ep re sen t t wo

( 1977 :105 a nd 1 87 ) . T he r oya l p a la ce , o n t he o the r h and , e n joyed a s t eady i n c rea se i n i t s i n f lu enc e i n s oc ie ty . T he

t ha t h ad t o n ego t ia te a n

g row th i n p owe r o f t he k ing a t t h e e xpen se o f r el ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s c an b e i lu s t ra ted b y s e ve ra l e xamp le s f r om

o ngo ing b u t c omp lex r e la t ion sh ip t h rough t ime . One o fi t s f undam en ta l a spec t s mu s t c er ta in ly h ave b een t h e s t rugg le

S ippa r d u r ing t h e r e ign o f H ammu rab i . F i r s t , d ocumen t s i nd ica te t ha t c on t ro l o ft he j ud ic ia ry s h if ted f r om t he t emp le

o v er p ol i t ica l p owe r ( Opp enhe im , 1 977 :109 ) . K ing s c ou ld r egu la te t emp le e s ta te s t o s ome d eg ree t h rough l aw s a nd t axe s . T h i s h ad t ob e d on e w i th c a r e s i nce t he p r ie s t s c ou ld

a nd t o t he k ing d u r ing t h i s t im e ( Har r is , 1 961 a nd 1 975 :116 -7 ) . B y S amsu i luna 's d ay , t emp le s n o l onge r

e a s i ly r e ta l ia te b y i n te rp re t ing omen s a s b e ing u nf avo rab le

t he of i ce o ft h e c h ief p r ies t o f S hama sh w a s c on t roled b y t he t emp le . B y t h e e nd o f h i s r u le , t h e s anga p r ie s t h ad b ecome ar oya ls e rvan t( Ha r r i s , 1 961 ) .

i n terdep end en t o rgan iza t ion s

s e rved a sp lace st oh o ld c ou r t . S econd , p r io rt oH ammu rab i ,

t ot he k ing ( Sagg s , 1 988 :147 ) . A mona r ch c ou ld a l so d ec la r e h im se lf d i v in e i n p a r t t o g a in c on t ro l o ve r r e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s . B u td iv ine k ing sh ip c l ea r ly v io la te s t h e s p i r i t o f Mesopo tam ian t heo logy wh ich a s se r t s t ha t p eop le w e r e c r ea ted t os e rve t he g od s .

T he P ro logue t ot h e L aw C ode o fH a rmnu rab i a l so s ugge s t s ac hang e i nt h e p e rcep t ion o ft he k ing ' s r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e g od s ( J acob sen , 1 976 :188 -9 ) . I n S ume r ian t r ad i t ion , Ant i a nd E n l i l g ran ted k ing sh ip t o c i t ie s o n at empo ra ry b a s i s . B u t H a r runu rab i s t a te s t ha t B aby lon r e ce ived " an e ndu r ing k ing sh ip " ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :164 ) . T he P ro logu e u se s p rec i se ly t h e s ame w o rd f o r ' e ndu r ing ' t h a t E nl i l d id when

T he mo s tf amou s e xamp le o f ak ing c l a im ing d iv ine h ono r s w a s Na ram -S in , a n A kkad ian r u le r i nt h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Krame r , 1 963 ) . F rom t he r e l ig iou s p o in t o fv i ew , h e c omm i t ted a f u r the r a f f ron t t o t h e g od s b y a l low ing h i s s o ld ier s t os a ck N ippu r a nd d e s t roy t h e s anc tua ry o f E n l i l ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :646f f ) . F o r t h i s s a c r i leg e , t h e g od s s en t t h e

h e s p ec if ica l ly d en ied g iv ing a ' l a s t ing ' k ing sh ip t o U r ( J acob sen , 1 976 :189 ) . Aga in , t h i s i nd ica te s ac on sc iou s a t temp t t ol e s sen t he r e l ig iou s c on t ro l o ve r t h e d i spen sa t ion o f p o l i t ica l p owe r . I t s hou ld a l so b e m en t ioned t ha t

Gu t ian s t oo b l i te ra te t h e c oun t ry o f A gad e . L a te r r e l ig iou s l e ader s u s ed t h i s s t o ry a s aw a rn ing t a le t o o the r k ing s i n c a se t h ey c on s ide red f l ou t ing t h e w i l l o f t h e d iv ine ( J acob sen , 1 976 :79 ) . We d o n o tk now i ft h i s t r ad i t ion r e aly a f ec ted t h e a c t ion s o fl a te r mona rch s , b u t d iv ine k ing sh ip

H anunu rab i c i te s many d if e ren t g od s a nd g odde s se s i nt he P ro logue . T h i s c onf e r s al eg i t imacy o n h i s k ing sh ip b eyond t he b o rd e r so fB aby lon i t se lf .

n eve r b ecam e a n e s tabl i shed p rac t ice i n Me sopo tam ia . T he t emp le sn eve rl o s tt he i rd om inance i nr e l ig iou s ma t te r s .

T he K a s s i te s a s sumed l e ad er sh ip o f B aby lon ia a t l e a s t s eve ra l d ecade s a f te r t he d own f a l l o f S am sud i tana . T ex t s c r ed i t t h e n ew r u le r , p e rhap s Agu rn I . w i th r e t r iev ing a nd i n s ta l l ing t h e s t a tue s o f Ma rduk a nd h i s w if e , S a rpan i twn , i n t he i r r e f u rb i shed t emp le s i n B aby lon ( G ray son , 1 975 ) .

T he t emp le a nd t h e p a lac e b o th c on s t i tu ted " g r ea t o rgan iza t ion s " a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h e s e cond m ilenn ium B .C . ( Opp enhe im , 1 977 ) . T he t emp le s a nd t h e ir c u l t s n o t o n ly p rov id ed awor ld v i ew a nd r a i son d 'e t r ef o rt h ec i t izen s

B ecau se g od s t r ave l led w i th t h e i r i mage s . Ag iun h ad l i t e ra l ly b rough t Ma rduk a nd S a rpan i tum b ack t ot he p eop le . T h i s a c t o n t h e p a r t o f af o re igne r e s tab l i shed h im i n t h e

b u t r ep r e sen ted ma jo r c en te r s o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty ( Oppenh e im , 1 977 ) . I nt h eo ry , t h ec i ty 's p a t ron d e i ty o wned t he c i ty s ta te , a l though i np rac t ice ac e r ta in amoun t o fl a nd a lway s r ema ined i n t h e h and s o fp r iva te i nd iv idua l s . E ven s o , ma jo r t emp le s h e ld l a rge a moun t s o f p rop er ty a nd c on t ro l led ag rea t d ea l o fw ea l th . T h ey r equ i red l a rg e s t af f s i n a dd i t ion t o t he p r ie s t /e s se s t o m a in ta in a nd a dm in i s te r t emp le a s s e t s . T he p roduce f r om t h e i r f i e ld s a nd a n ima l s f r om t h e i r f l ock s s uppor ted t h e c u l t a nd f ed t emp le

e ye s o f t h e p ubl ic a s t he l e g i t ima te h e i r o f H am rnu rab i 's d yna s ty . I ta l so r e inf o rced o n e o ft h e mo s ts a l ien tf e a tu re s o f Me sopo tam ian r el ig ion , t h e e no rmou s r e spec t i tc ommanded f r om n on ind ig enou s e thn ic g roup s t ha t a s sumed p owe r i n B aby lon ia f r om t ime t ot ime ( Br inkman , 1 976 -80 ) . T he K a s s i te s n o t o n ly s e emed t o h ave t o le ra ted Me sopo tam ian g od s b u t a c tua l ly p romo ted t he i r w or sh ip . When t h ey r e s to red t emp le s , t h ey p r ided t hem se lve s o n u s ing t he mo s t a nc ien t g roundp lan s t h ey c ou ld f i nd ( Br inkman , 1 969 ) . S cr ibe s w ro te b u i ld ing i n sc r ip t ion s i n S ume r ian e ven t hough B aby lon ian w a s t h e s poken l a nguage ( Br inkman , 1 976 :63 ) . T he d e s igne r s o f Du r -Ku r iga lzu ,

p er sonn e l ( F rank f o r t , e ta l . , 1 946 ) . S u rp lu s c ou ld b e u sed a s l oan s o r a s c ola tera l f o r b u s ine s s v en tu re s . S ome t emp le s a c ted a sm anuf ac tu r ing c en ter sa sw e l l . Th is w a s t h e e x i s t ing s i tua t ion w hen S umuabum t o ok c on t ro l o fB aby lon i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry B .C . I ti sn o td if i cu l t t o u nd e r s tand why e i ther o u t o f r e spec t f o r a nc ien t t r ad i t ion s , e conom ic e xped iency , o r b o th , S umuabum a nd h i s s ucc e s so r sb ehaved l i ke g ood S umer ian mona rch s . T hey

moder n Aga r Q uf , e r ec ted a z iggu ra t wh ich s t i l l s t and s n ea r ly 6 0 m e te r s h igh d esp i te b e ing s ev er e ly e roded ( Baq i r , 1 945 a nd 1 946a ) . T he k ing d ed ica ted i t s t emp le s t o t h e ma jo r S ume r ian g od s : E n l i l . S in , a nd N inu r ta . Howeve r , w e

r ebu i l t t emp les , d ed ica ted s t a tue s , a nd s uppor ted t h e r e l ig iou sl i f eo f Me sopo tam ia ( Ungnad , 1 938 ) . I tw ou ld h ave

d o n o t k now h ow much p o l i t ica l i n f lu ence t he t emp le s w ie ld ed . Opp enhe im a rgue s t ha t d e sp i te t h e r e sou rce s s p en t o n t hem , t h e t emp le a s a n i n s t i tu t ion b ecame c on t inuou s ly

b een v e ry d if i cu l t t od i srup tt h e r e l ig iou st r ad i t ion s w i thou t s e r iou s ly a f ec t ing t h e w e l l -b e ing o ft he c i ty .

p sycho log ica l

a nd

e conom ic

a nd p rog re s s ive ly i s o la ted a f t e r t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod ( 1977 :187 ) .

T he r e ign o f H anunu rab i ma rk s ad ef in i te c hang e i n t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h et emp le a nd t h ep a lace . B yt h i s t ime Opp enh e im s u rm i se s , t h e d ec l ine i n t h e i mpor tance o f t h e t emp le a s a n e conom ic i n s t i tu t ion h ad a l r eady b egun

O ve ra l l , t h e e v idence s uppor t s t h e c onc lu s ion t ha t t h e K a s s i te s o b served a nd p romo ted t h e r e l ig iou s t r ad i t ion s o f Me sopo tam ia i n amanne r s im i la r t ot h e ir p redeces so r s . B u t 3

i nd ica t ion sd oe x is tt ha t s ome c hange st o ok p lace d ur ing t h e

T he c oncep to f ap e r sona l g od g oe sb ack a tl e as t a sf a ra st he t h i rd m ilenn ium B .C . ( Frank f or t , e t a l . , 1 946 ) . T he

4 00 y ea r r e ign o f t h e d yna s ty . T he f i r s t p o in t c onc e rn s K a s s i te d e i t ie s . D e sp i te t h e f a c t t h ey p romo ted t h e B aby lon ian p an theon , K a s s i te k ing s u sed t h e i r own g od s i n

Me sopo tam ian sb el ieved ad e i ty d w e l tw i th in t he i rb ody a nd w a s p a s sed d own f r om f a the r t o s on , g ene ra t ion a f te r

t h e ir p e r sona l n ame s f o r many g ene ra t ion s . T h e f i r s t mona rch w i th ap u re B aby lon ian n ame d id n o t a ppea r u n t i l

g ene ra t ion . O r ig ina l ly , t h e p er sona l g od may h ave b een t he p e r son if ica t ion o f aman 's l u ck a nd s u c ce s s . O ve r t ime , t he

K udu r -En l i l , t h e 2 6 th k ing o f h i s l i ne . S huqamuna a nd

i mpo r tanc e o fp e r sona l g od s g rew t ot h e p o in t t h e i n te re s t s

S hu t= l ia . t wo K a s s i te d iv in i t ie s , may h ave b een p a t ron s o f t h e r o ya l f am i ly a nd t h ey p robab ly h ad s h r ine s i n B aby lon

o f t h e i nd iv idua l r i va led t he w e l f a r e o f t he c ommun i ty ( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . T he r i se o f t h i s s o -ca l led ' p e r sona l r el ig ion ' c an b e t r aced b ack t o t h e e a r l ie s t e xamp le s o f

( Lambe r t , 1 964 ) . H oweve r , w e d o n o t k now o fa ny s p ec ia l b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty i n r e la t ion t o K a s s i te g od s . I n r e tu rn f o r

" Pen i ten t ia l P sa lm s "

t o le rance o f t he n a t ive c u s tom s , t h e Me sopo tam ian s a ccep ted K a s s i te g od s a nd c on t inued t ow o r sh ip t hem e ven

a nd

" Le t te r s t o G od s "

c ompo sed

t owa rd s t h e b eg inn ing o f t he s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . ( J acob sen . , 1 976 ) .

a f te rt h ee nd o ft h ed yna s ty ( Br inkman , 1 976 -80 ) . T h e p e rc ep t ion o f a' p e r sona l g od ' i n c luded a v a r ie ty o f T he s e cond i s sue h a st od ow i th as ub t le s h i f ti nt h e a t t i tud e s t owa rd s t h e g od s d u r ing t h e s e cond m ilenn ium . A s t h e g ove rnmen t b ecame mo r e c en t ra l ized a nd ef i c ien t , t h e

e l emen t s . T he f i r s t o ft h e se a sn o ted a bove w a s t h e a sp ec t o f s ucc e s s a nd g ood f o r tune . I n f ac t , t h e p h ra se d eno t ing l u ck

m e t ing

( J acob sen , 1 976 :155 ) . I nd iv idua ls d ep ended o n t h e i r g od s f o rp e r sona l a ch ievemen t a nd h e ld t h em mo ra l ly r e spon s ib le

o u t

o f j u s t ice

b ecame

mo re

r egu la r

a s

i n b o th S ume r ian a nd A kkad ian m ean t " t o a cqu i r e ag od "

w e l l

( F rank f o r t , e ta l . , 1 946 ) . G radua l ly t h e n o t ion t o ok h o ld t h a t j u s t ic e s hou ld b e e xp ec ted a s ar i gh t r a the r t han a s af a vo r . J u s t ice , o fc ou r se , c ame d i rec t ly f r om t he g od s . I nt h i sv i ew , i f ap e r son f u lf i l led h i s /he rr e l ig iou s o b l iga t ion s , s / he w ou ld p ro sp e r . L if e s hou ld t r ea t ap e r son f a ir ly u n le ss s / he h ad

f o r b o th p ro spe r i ty o r f a i lu re . A no th e r f e a tu r e o f t h i s r e la t ion sh ip w a s s pe c if iab i l i ty . P e r son s a lway s k new t he ir g od o r g odd e s s b y n ame a nd a ppl i ed e x c lu s ive ly t ob im o r

b e en d i sob ed ien t t ot h e g od s . H oweve r , i tw a s e qua l ly c l ea r t ha t e ven a g ood i nd iv idua l c ou ld g e t s i ck , h ave f i nanc ia l d if i cu l t ie s , a nd s o f o r th . T h i s f o rced t h e Me sopo tam ian s t o

h e r . T he o n ly e xc ep t ion t ot h i s a pp ea r st oh ave b een p r aye r s d i r ec ted t o t h e g odd e s s o f h ea l ing . I n t he b eg inn ing , p er sona lg od sw e re u sua l ly m inor m emb e r s o ft he p an theon . Ove r t ime , t e x t s r evea l t ha t a ny g od e v en ma jo r g od s l i ke

c onf ron t t h e p rob lem o ft h e ' r igh teou s s uf e re r ' ( F rank f o r t , e ta l . , 1 946 ) . H ow c ou ld t h e d i v ine p owe r s u n ju s t ly p un i sh

E a , S in , S hama sh . a nd A dad , ( J acob sen , 1 976 :157 ) .

s omeone w ho w a s b ehav ing a cco rd ing t ot h e i r d ec r ee s? A t t h e e nd o ft h e mo s t f amou s p i ece o fl i t e ra tu r e d ea l ing w i th t h i s p rob lem , " Lud lu l B e l N emeq i " ( Iw i l l p ra i se t he l o rd o f

F ina l ly , t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a p er son a l g od a nd

c ou ld a s sume t h i s r o le

w i sdom ) ( P r i tcha rd , 1 975 :148f t ) , t he s uf e re r i s r e scued f r om h i s p red icamen t . B u t t h e m e re f a c t t ha t r i gh teou sne s s

w o /man c an m e tapho r ica l ly b e c ha r a c t e r ized a s t h a t o f p a r en t a nd c h i ld . T he p e r sona l g od i nt h e r o le o f ' f a the r ' b ecame t h e p rov ide r a nd p ro tec tor o ft h e f am i ly . P ro t ec t ion

d oe s n o tn eces sa r i ly p rev en th a rd sh ip i nt h e f i r s tp lac e , g ave t h ep eop le as en se t ha t t h e g od s c ou ld b e u nf a i r . R oux s um s

o n e a r th o f t en r equ i red ' f r iend s i n h igh p l ace s ' ( J acobs en , 1 976 ) . I n t h e s ame m anne r , a n i nd iv idua l w ou ld a sk a

u pt h eK a s s i te s ' r e la t ion sh ip w i th t he d iv ine t h i sw ay , " . . the s t r e s s w a s p u t o n r e s igna t ion r a the r t han c onf idenc e , s upe r s t i t ion r a th e rt han f a i th " ( 1992 :251) .

p e r sona l g od t o a pp roach t h e g rea t g od s t o i n ter ced e o n h i s /he rb eha l f . I ti si nt h i s r e la t ion sh ip t h a t a l l t he a we a nd ma je s ty o f t h e d iv ine s e em s t o d i sapp ea r . S om e o f t he

THE R ISE OF PERSONAL RELIG ION

" Le t ter s t o G od s " s how t h a t s o me p e r son s t r ea ted t h e i r p e r sona l g od s l i k e d emand ing c h i ldr en t r y ing t o man ipu la te t h e i rp a r en t s( F rank f or t , e ta l . , 1 946 ) .

T he p r ev iou s d i scu s s ion r e f e r s l a rge ly t ot h e c i ty c u l t s , t h e

K ing s , l i k e a l l o the r p eop le , h ad p e r sona l g od s w ho w e re

p re serv e o f t h e t emp le w o rk e r s , k ing s , a nd u pp er c l a s se s . T he d eg re e o f i n te rac t ion b e tween o rd ina ry p eop le a nd

mo re a cce s s ib le t han t h e g rea t g od s a nd who c ou ld b e a pp roached w hen n ec e s sa ry . When t h e g r ea t g od s c ho se a

r e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s r ema in s u nknown . Mo s t s cho la r s t a k e t h ep o s i t ion t ha tj u s ta ss e r f sh ad l i t t le t od ow i th t he l o rd so f

o ft h e c and ida te o ft h e i r d ec i s ion . T he p e r sona l g od h ad t he

t h e c a s t le , s o t oo d id t h e a ve rage Me sopo tam ian h av e l im i ted c on tac t w i th t h e g rea t g od s ( J acob sen , 1 946 :218 ;

r e spon s ib i l i ty t oe n su r e t h e k ing c on sc ien t iou s ly p e r f o rmed h i sd u t ie st h roughou th i sr e ign .

man t ob e k ing , t h e c i ty -god w ou ld i n f o rm t h e p e r sona l g od

O a te s , 1 986 :171 ; R ingg ren , 1 973 :77 ) . T ex t sd o i nd ica te t ha t t h e p opu lac e d id p a r t ic ipa t e i nt h e ma jo r r el ig iou s f e s t iva l s

P e r sona l r el ig ion s t and s i ns t a rk c on t ra s t t o of i c ia l r el ig ion i ns of a r a st h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween h uman s a nd t h e d i v ine

o f t h e y ea r ( Oppenhe im , 1 977 :108 ) . Whe the r i nd iv idua l s c ou ld a pp roach t he t emp le u nde r s pec ia l c i rcums tance s . s u ch a s i lne s s o r t o a sk f o r t he p ac i f ica t ion o f d emon s ,

i se s sen t ia l ly r e ve r sed . I n of i c ia l r e l ig ion , h umank ind e x i s t s

r ema in s d eba tab le . Oppenhe im t h ink s i ti s mo re l i k e ly t h a t t h ey s ough t h e lp f r om d iv ine r s a nd e xo rc i s t s who w e re n o t

p e r sona l r e l ig ion l i e s w i th t h e a lmos t l im i t le s s p re sump t ion

o n ly t os e rve t h e g od sa nd t h ey mus tb eo b eyed . T he b a s i so f o f s e l f impo r tanc e o n t h e p ar t o f t h e h uman b e ing s ( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . T he p er sona l g od /de s s d e scended i n to t h e

s anc t ion ed b yt he t emp le ( 1977 ) . F o rt h e mo s tp a r t , r e l ig iou s o b se rvance f o r t he p opu lace t o ok p lace i n as t ree t c or n e r s h r ine o r ap r iva te c hap e l i n t h e i r h ome . T he re t hey h ad d i rec tc on tac tw i th t h e i rp e r sona l g od .

w o r ld o ft h e i nd iv idua l t ot a k e c are o fh im /he r a nd h i s /he r n eeds . I ff o r s ome r e a son , t h e g od /d e s s w a s p e rce iv ed a s f a i l ing i n h i s /he r d u ty , s / he c ou ld b e c a jo led o r e ven t h rea tened w i th l a ck o f a do ra t ion ( F rank f o r t , e ta l . , 1 946 ) . 3 4

P e r sona l g od /de s se s s e emed t o h ave b ecom e n o th ing mo re t han a gen t s f o r g ra t if y ing w ishe s . T h i s a t t i tude g radua l ly p e rmea ted a l l p e r sona l r e l ig ion . H oweve r , a cco rd ing t o

g od s o f l e s s i mpor tan t t own s a s y oung e r r e la t ion s o f mo re i mpor tan t d e i t ie s . E ven tua l ly S umuabum t o ok o ve rB aby lon a nd h e a nd h i s s ucce s so r s c r ea ted a c o re a r ea o f i n f luenc e wh ich i n c luded S ippa r .

J a cob sen ( 1 976 ) , i t a ppa ren t ly n ev e r p ene t ra t ed p ubl ic r e l ig ion o rs hap ed t h e n a t ion 's a t t i tud e a s awho le t owa rd s t h e n a t iona l d iv in i t ie s . I n s tead a p a radox ica l s i tua t ion

Under H ammu rab i , B aby lon h oweve r t empo ra r i ly , b ecame

d eve loped o ve r t h e c ou r se o f t he s e cond m ilenn ium . T he d e i t ie so ft h et emp le c u l t s r ema ined d i s tan t a nd a we some , t o b e c a r ed f o r a nd o beyed a s i n c en tu r ie s p a s t . B u t t h e

t he c en te r o f a n emp i re . I t c an b e g ue s sed t ha t t he g overnmen t o fB aby lon f e l t t ha t i tw a s n o l ong e ra cc ep tab le t oh av e t h e i r c i ty -god , Ma rduk , b ej u s t am ino r m embe r o f t he p an theon . B e ing t h e s on o f S hama sh m ad e Ma rduk t he g rand son o fS in , who h im se lf w a s o n ly i nt h e s e cond t i e r o f t he h i e ra rchy . T o g e t a r ound t h i s r ank ing p rob lem , L amb er t

p opu lac e d emanded h ea l th , w ea l th , a nd h app ine s s f r om t h e i rp e r sona l g od /d e s se s . T hey w e re o n s uch f am i l ia rt e rm s w i th t h em t ha tt h ey f r ee ly e xp re s sed t h e i rd i sapp rova l when l i f ed id n o tg oa st h ey w i shed .

( 1975a ) s ugges t s t ha t t h e s c r ibe s may h ave d e l ib e ra te ly e qua ted Ma rduk w i th A saluh i , E nk i 's s on . T he P ro logue t ot he C od eo fH ammu rab ic onf i rm s Ma rduk 's i n i t ia l r i se i n s t a tu s . I t s ay s t ha t Mu a nd E n l i l h ave " . .d e te rm ined f o r Ma rduk , t he f i r s t -bo rn o fE n id . t h e &t i l l

THE PRO MOT ION OF MARDUK T he s i ng le mo s t d rama t ic c hange i n Me sopo tam ian r e l ig ion

f unc t ion s o ve r a l l mank ind , m ad e h im g r ea t a mong t he I g ig i , . . ." ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :164 1 f ) . ' B ah lf unc t ion s ' c on s t i tu te

d u r ing t h e s e cond m ilenn ium B .C . i nvo lved t h e p romo t ion o f Ma rduk t o t h e h ead o f t he p an theon . V a r iou s t h eor ie s h ave b een p u t f o rwa rd o ve r t he y ea r s c once rn ing Ma rduk 's

t h e e x ecu t ive p ower s o f t h e d iv ine a s s emb ly . I n t h e p a s t , t he se h ad a lway sb een a s so c ia ted w i th E n l i l , h enc et h en ame ( F rank f o r t , e t a l . , 1 946 :207f f ) . E n l i l h a s n ow t u rned t hem o ve r t o Ma rduk . T he I g ig i g od s s e rve E n l i l a nd m ake u p

r i se t o p rom inenc e b u t s eve ra l p o in t s r ema in i nd i spu tab le . Du r ing t h et h i rd m i l lenn ium a nd w el i n to t h es e cond ,E n l i l , t h ep a t ron g od o fN ippu r , f unc t ioned a st he e f ec t ive h ead o f t h e Me sopo tam ian p an theon ( K rame r , 1 963 ) . B y t h e r e ign o fN ebuchad rezza r Hi n t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium , Ma rduk h ad i nd ispu tab ly a s sumed t h i s r o le ( Lamb e r t , 1 964 ) . Two o ft h e

p a r t o f t h e 5 0 g rea t g od s ( P r i tchard , 1 969 :164 ) . T he P ro logue mak e s Ma rduk o ne o ft h em . I ti sc l ea r t ha t d u r ing t h er e ign o fH anunu rab i , Ma rduk a ch ieved am a jo re l eva t ion i nh i s s t a tu s . B u t a l though h e h ad b ecome a ni mpo r tan t g od ,

q ue s t ion s c onf ron t ing s cho lar s o ve r t h e y ea r s h ave b e en , ' When d id Ma rduk a s sume l e ad e r sh ip o ft he p an theon? ' a nd ' How d id h i ss uppo r te r sl eg i t ima te h i sc l a ims? ' .

h ec er ta in ly d id n o ty e th ead t he p an theon . T he n ex t p er iod s ugge s ted a s ap o s s ib i l i ty f o rt h e p romo t ion o f Ma rduk w a s s ome t ime d u r ing t h e 4 00 y ea r r e ign o ft he K a s s i t e k ing s . S omm e r f e ld ( 1982 ) e xam ined t h i sv e ry i s su e _ A f te r a n e x ten s ive a na ly s i s o f w r i t ten m a te r ia l s , h e

T he p rob lem o f when Ma rduk a c tua l ly d i sp lac ed E n l i l a s h ead o f t h e p an theon h a s b een d eba ted f o r many y ea r s . A b r ief s u rvey o ft h e l i t e ra tu re s how s t h e r e i ss t i l l n o g ene ra l

c onc luded t ha te ven t hough Ma rduk w a sp opu la r i np e r sona l n ame s , of i c ia l r e co rd s i nd ica te E n l i l r e ta ined f i rm c on t ro l

c on sen su s . F inegan ( 1979 :66 ) s a id h i s e l eva t ion mo s t l i ke ly t ook p l ac e d u r ing t h e r e ign o fH ammu rab i . L amb e r t ( 1964 ) a rgued f o r ad a te s pec if ica l ly i nt h er e ign o fN ebuchad r ezza r

o ft he p an theon t h roughou tt h eK a s s i te p e r iod .

Ia nd r e i te ra ted h i s p o s i t ion i n 1 984 . J acob sen _ o ne o f t h e f o remo s t s cho la r s o n Me sopo tam ian r e l ig ion , h a s c hanged h i s p ub l i sh ed o p in ion t h rough t h ey ea r s . I n 1 946 , h e d a ted

T he K a s s i te d yna s ty e nd ed w i th t h e s a ck ing o fB aby lon b y t h e E lam i te s a nd t he r emova l o ft h e Ma rduk s t a tu e t o S u sa ( Oa te s , 1 986 ) . F o r t h e Me sopo tam ian s , t h i s e ven t w a s c a ta s t roph ic b ecause t h e g od h ad l i t e raly d e se r ted h i s c i ty . Ma rduk r ema ined i n S usa u n t i l N ebuchad rezza r Io f t he S econd D yna s ty o f I s in r e t r ieved h im a nd r e turned h im t o B aby lon i n t he l a te t w e l f th c en tu ry B .C . L amber t ( 1964 )

t h e s h if t t o t h e m idd le s e cond m ilenn ium . T h i r ty y ea r s l a te r , h e s ugg es ted i tt o ok p lace i nt h e m idd le o ft h e l a t te r h a lf o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium . I n r e f e r en ce t o t h e s ame i s sue , h e w ro te i n 1 987 , "W i th t h e a dven t o f t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium , h oweve r , b egan h i s [ i . e . , Ma rduk 's ] r i se t o s up rem e g od o ft h e u n iver se a nd h i s r i va l ry f o r t ha t h ono r

a rgue s t ha t t he j ub i la t ion s u r round ing t h e r e turn o f Ma rduk c r ea ted t h e p sycho log ica l ly c or rec t momen tt h a t a l lowed t he

w i th A shu ro fA s syr ia " ( J acob sen , 1 987 :19 ; e mpha s i sm ine ) . J oan O a t e s e x emp l if i e s t h e g ene ra l u nc e r ta in ty s u r round ing

N ebuchad r ezza r I( c .1125 -1104 ) ( Oa t e s , 1 986 :172 ) .

f i na l e l eva t ion t ot ak e p l ac e . A s c o r robo ra t ing e v idence , w e f i nd t h e f i r s t of i c ia l s t a temen t a s se r t ing Ma rduk 's s up r emacy i nt he p an theon d a te s t oN ebuchad r ezza r 's r e ign ( Lamber t , 1 964 ) .

Ib e l iev et h ea va i lab le e v id ence s uppo r t sL amber t 's p o s i t ion , i . e . , t ha t Ma rduk w a s of i c ia l ly p romo ted t ot h e h ead o ft h e

Much o f t he c on t rov er sy s u r round ing t h e d a t ing o f Ma rduk 's r i se h a s a lway s h inged o n w hen v a r iou s a u tho r s

p an th eon i n t h e r e ign o fN ebuchad r ezza r I .T he a rgumen t

t hough t t h e E numa E l i sh , i . e . , t h e E p ic o f C rea t ion , w a s c ompo sed ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 :60 11 ) . I n t h e s t o ry , T iama t d ec la r ed w a r o n t h e g od s . T hey a sked Ma rduk t o d ef end t hem a ga in s t h e r . H e a g reed o n t h e c ond i t ion t h a t h e b e g iven s up reme p owe r i nr e tu rn f o rv i c to ry . Ma rduk o ccup ie s t h er o le o fh ero i nt h e s t o ry f r om b eg inn ing t oe nd . T h ef i na l t a b le t l i s t s t he 5 0 n ame s o f Ma rduk , a d e l ib e ra te a s s im i la t ion o f many o the r g od s i n to h im . T he n umbe r 5 0

t h ei s su e . S he w ro te t ha tt h e e ven tt o ok p l ace n o e a rl i e rt han t h e K a s s i t e p e r iod a nd p e rhap s a s l a te a s t he r e ign o f

r un s a sf o l low s . Du r ing t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium , Ma rduk m ay h ave v e ry w e l l b een c on s ide red t h e s on o f t h e s un g od S hama sh , l i t e ra l ly " Bu l l -ca lf o f U tu " . B aby lon l a y i n t h e v i c in i ty o f S ippa r ( Lamber t , 1 975a ) . T he Me sopo tam ian s h e ld S ippa r i n p a r t icu la r ly h igh e s teem b ecau se , a cco rd ing t ot r ad i t ion , i th ad e x is ted b ef o r et h e f l ood ( Sagg s , 1 988 :40 ) . I tw a s c ommon p rac t ice among t h e S umer ian s t o p e r ce ive 3 5

i t se lf i ss ymbo l ic i ns of a ra s 5 0 w a s a lway s E n l i l 's n umbe r . B y c l a im ing t h e n umbe r 5 0 . Ma rduk a b so rbed E n l i l a sw e l l ( Bö ll , 1 936 / 37 ) .

" S t i l l c l ea r e r i s t h e s t a temen t t ha t t h e k ing h ea rk en s t o S hama sh ( p robab ly i d en t if ied w i th t h eK a s s i te s un g od ) , a nd Anu , E n l i l , a nd E nk i a l so h ea rk en t oh im ( i . e . , S hama sh ) . T he l e ad ing t r in i ty o f t h e o ld p an theon i sn ow s ub jec t t o o th e rg od s " ( 1964 :8 ) .

T he e x tan tc op ie so ft h eE numa E l ish c ome mo s t ly f r om t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e f i r s tm i l lenn ium . T he s t y le o ft h e A kkad ian , h oweve r , s ugg e s t s i tw a s c ompo sed i n a n e a r l ie r p e r iod

I t i s u n c lea r j u s t wha t r o le t he K a s s i te g od s p l ayed i n

( J acob sen , 1 976 ) . V on S oden ( 1955 ) a nd S omme rf e ld ( 1982 ) b o th a g ree a K a s s i te d a te i s l i k e ly . B u t L amb e r t

s oc ie ty . T o d a te , t h is r ema in s t he o n ly e x amp le s ugg e st ing t h e e n t i r e r u l ing t r iad w a s s ub jec t t o f o re ign d e i t ie s . T he

( 1984 ) p o in t s o u t t ha t i n t he p oem . B aby lon b ecome s t h e m ee t ing p l ac e f o r t h e g od s when t h ey g a the r t o ' d ec re e d e s t in ie s ' e xp l ic i t ly r ep lac ing N ippu r . H e f e e l s t ha t i ft h i s

of i c ia l d ocumen t s f r om S onune rf e ld 's s t udy ( 1982 ) a ppea r t ou nequ ivoca l ly a t t r ibu t e t h e h ead o ft h e p an theon t oE n l i l . B u t i fs u ch c e r emon ie s d id t ak e p l ac e , t h a t may h ave g i ven t he Ma rduk p r ies t s t he i d ea o f e l eva t ing Ma rduk s i n ce h e h ad m o r e o f ac l a im t o b e h ead o f t h e p an theon t h an t h e K a s s i te g od s .

s i tua t ion d id n o t e x is t i nt h e p as t a nd w a s n o t l i ke ly t oe x i s t i n t he f u tu re , s uch a s t a temen t i n t h e p oem w ou ld a pp ea r l ud ic rou s . T h i s , i n c on junc t ion w i th t he E p i logue 's d ec la ra t ion t h a t i t s hou ld b e u sed t o t e ach t he w ho le p opu lace , l e ad s L amb er t t oc onc lude t h a t t he E numa E l i sh w a s w r i t ten a f te r Marduk 's a scen s ion h ad a l ready b een c omp le ted . T he

Me sopo tam ian s

a lway s

s howed t h em se lve s

T he of i c ia l p o s i t ion o f Ma rduk t owa rd s t he e nd o f t h e K a s s i te p e r iod s e em s amb iguou s . A l a te c opy o f a n i n sc r ip t ion s ay s t ha t Anu a nd E n l i l l o ok ed o n A dad sh inna -u su r w i th f avo r b u t Ma rduk n amed h im t o k ing sh ip ( Somme rf e ld , 1 982 :171 ) . Two r e ign s l a te r ,

t o b e

e x t reme ly c on serva t iv e w hen i tc ame t o r e l ig iou s ma t te r s . T he g roundwo rk mu s t h ave b een l a id o ve r t h e c ou r se o f

Ma rduk -ap la idd ina I c r ed i ted E n l i l w i th r a i s ing h im t o k ing sh ip d e sp i te t h ef a c tt h e who le i n sc r ip t ion w a sd ed ica ted t o Ma rduk . I t a ppea r s t ha t t he K a s s i te k ing s c a r e fu l ly a vo id ed i n te rf e r ing w i th t h e s t a tu s q uo when i tc ame t o

s eve ra l c en tu r ie s i n o rd e r t o mak e t h e f i na l s h if t s e em n a tu ra l . T he f i r s t s t ep a s p r ev iou s ly m en t ioned , a ppea r s t o h ave b een t h ea s s im i la t ion o f Marduk w i th A saluh i i no rd e r

r e l ig iou s m a t te r s ( Somme rf e ld , 1 982 :174 ) . T hey h ad t oa c t a s k ing s o f B aby lon ia , n o t k ing s o f B aby lon . E v en t he p r ie s t s o f Ma rduk c ou ld n o t s e t h im u p a s h ead o f t he

t o b r ing h im u p i n to t h e r ank s o f t h e g rea t g od s . Ma rduk b ecame a n i mpo r tan t g od d ur ing t h e O ld B aby lon ian p er iod b u tn o tt h eh ead o ft he p an theon .

p an theon w i thou tt h e s uppo r t o ft he k ing . T h is r e luc tance t o s t ray f r om t r ad i t ion w a s p robab ly t h e r e a son t h a t t h e

S ever a l i mpor tan t c hang e s t ook p l ace d u r ing t he K a s s i te p e r iod t h a t m ad e t h e p romo t ion o f Ma rduk p o s s ib le

K a s s i te s w e r e a ccep ted a s al eg i t ima te d yn as ty a nd n o t n ox iou su su rper s f o r4 00 y ear s . S od e sp i te t he i mpo r tan ce o f B aby lon . Ma rduk c ou ld o n ly s e cu r e t h e h ighe s t r ank i nt h e p an th eon a f te rt h eK a s s i te sh ad l o s tp owe r .

( Lambe r t , 1 964 ) . F ir s ta nd f o remo s t , t h e c en te ro fp owe rd id n o t s h if t a way f r om B aby lon a s i th ad f r om s o many o t he r c i ty -s ta te s i n t h e p a s t . B aby lon ma in ta ined i t s s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l i mpo r tance f r om t h e t ime o f H a rnmu rab i o nwa rd

T he s ub s t i tu t ion o f Ma rduk f o r E n l i l may h av e b een

d e sp i te t h ec hang ing f o r tune s o fi t s i nd iv idua l l e ade r s . O ve r t ime , t h ea u ra o fb e ing t h ec ap i ta lb yd i v ine r i gh t t ook h o ld . One o ft h e Ku r ig at zu sc a l l sB aby lon " t he e t e rna l c i ty " wh ich

e ng ine e r ed b y t h e Ma rduk p r ie s t s b u t i ta l so h ad t o b e a ccep ted b y t h e p eop le . E ven t hough t h e o rd ina ry c i t izen p robab ly h ad l i t t le t o d o w i th of i c ia l r e l ig ion o n ad a i ly b a s i s , t h ey d id p a r t ic ipa te i n many ma jo r f e s t iva l s

u sed t ob et h ed e s igna t ion o fS ippa r ( Lamb er t , 1 964 :7 ) . T he We idne r C h ron ic le ( G ray son , 1 975 ) a nd t he E numa E l i sh ( P r i tcha rd , 1 969 ) c a l l B aby lon t he f i r s t c i ty r a the r t h an

( Opp enh e im , 1 977 ) . T he t emp le c ou ld n o t j u s t c hang e t h e

E r idu . T h es e e xamp le s i lu s t ra te t ha t t h e c i ty o f B aby lon i t se lf e xpe r ienced a n e l eva t ion o f i t s s t a tu s . T he q ues t ion t ha t mu s t h ave a r isen w a s , "Why s hou ld t he c i ty -god o f

f o ca l p o in t o ft h e N ew Y ea r 's F e s t iva l , f o ri n s tance , w i thou t t h e s uppo r t o ft h e p opu lac e . A s m en t ioned p rev iou s ly , p a r t o f t h e w il ingne s s t o a dop t t he c hang e mu s t h av e b een p red ica ted o nt h e c on t inu ing i mpor tanc e o fB aby lon . B y t h e

B aby lon b e i n f er io r t ot h e g od s o fl e s s i mpor tan t c i t ie s l i k e N ippu r a nd Un ik? " . A nd , o f c ou r se , t h e p o l i t ica l l e ad e r s

e nd o ft h eK a s s i te p e r iod . i th ad b een t h e p reem inen t c i ty i n t h el a nd f o r6 00 y ea r s .

k new t ha t t h e p romo t ion o f Ma rduk t o t h e h ead o f t h e p an theon w ou ld b o ls te r a s w e l l a s p ermanen t ly s o l id if y B aby lon 's p o s i t ion Mesopo tam ia .

a s

t he

u nd i spu ted

c ap i ta l

T h e s e cond f a c to r i n i n f luenc ing t h e a t t i tud e o f t h e p opu la t ion c an b e t i ed t o t h e r i se o f p e r sona l r el ig ion a nd t h e d epend enc e o n Ma rduk a s ap e r sona l g od . A s p e r sona l

o f

r e l ig ion g r ew i n i mpor tance t h roughou t t h e c ou r se o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium , t he p e rcep t ion o f Ma rduk 's c on sequence d eve loped a s w e l l . T h i s c an b e s e en i n t h e n umb e r o fs e a l

T he s e cond f a c to r t ha t c on t r ibu ted t oa ccep tance o f Ma rduk a s a r ep lac emen t f o r E n l i l c am e f r om t he K a s s i te s t h em se lve s . T h i si nvo lved t h e q u ie tb u tp e r s is ten tw o r sh ip o f t h e i r o wn g od s , i n p ar t icu la r S huqamuna a nd S h ima l iya . L amber t ( 1964 ) d i scu s se s at ex t i n wh ich t h e l a s t Ku r iga lzu

i n sc r ip t ion s d evo ted t o Ma rduk a nd t h e e xp lo s ion o f p er sona l n ame s w h ich i n co rpo ra te h i s e p i the t . Ad ocumen t d a ted t o t h e r e ign o f Kudu r -En l i l c on ta ined t h e n ame Ma rduk sha r lan i , i . e . , "Ma rduk i s -k ing -of the -god s " ( Som m e rf e ld , 1 982 ) . L amber t ( 1984 ) p o in ted o u tt ha t m any o the r

( I I? , m id 1 4 th c . ) i s i nve s ted w i th t h e i n s ign ia s o f r o ya l o ff ic e b y S huqam ima a nd S h ima l iya . A l l t h e g rea t g od s c ong rega ted i n t he ir s h r ine i n c lud ing t h e Me sopo tam ian g od s . T he c l ea r i mp l ica t ion i s t h a t t h e i n f e r io r g od s a s semb led i nt h e h ou se o ft h e s uper io r g od s . L amber t a dd s ,

g od s

a r e

m en t ioned

a s

' k ing -of the -god s '

i n K a s s i te

p e r sona l n am e s . E ven s o , i td oe s i lu s t ra t e t h e i d ea w a s i n 3 6

c i r cu la t ion b y t h e m idd le o ft h e 1 3 th c en tu ry . l tt o ok o ve r a no the rh und r ed y ea r sf o ri tt oc ome t of r u i t ion .

CONCLUSION I t i s n o t p o s s ib le t o u nd e r s tand Me sopo tam ian s oc ie ty w i thou tf u l ly a pp rec ia t ing t h ei n teg ra lr o le r el ig ion p l ayed i n i t . Me sopo tam ian r e l ig iou s i d ea sw e re s oh igh ly r e spec ted i n t h e a nc ien t w o r ld t ha t f o re ign e t hn ic g roup s t h a t a s sumed l e ad e r sh ip i n B aby lon ia , s uch a s t he Amor i te s a nd t h e K a s s i te s , a dop ted t he p reva i l ing c us tom s r a the r t han i mpo s ing t h e i r o wn . T he f ounda t ion o f t h e i r b e l ief s r e s ted o n t h e c onc ep t ion t ha t n a tu ra l f o rce s w e re d iv ine b e ing s . T he se c ou ld b ee i the r ma le o rf ema le . P eop le e x is ted t os e rve t h eg od ss ot h ey i nt u rn c ou ld manage t h ec o smo s . T h i sv i ew o ft h ep an theon n eve rc hang ed . O ve r t h e c ou r se o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium , t h e i d ea o f p e r sona l r e l ig ion t ook r oo t a l ong s ide of i c ia l r e l ig ion . E ach p er son h ad h i s /he r o wn p e r sona l g od /d e s s w i th w hom s / he e n joyed a c l o se a nd f am il ia r r e la t ion sh ip . Ab ond s uch a s t ha t b e tween p a ren t a nd c h i ld d eve loped a nd i tw a s t o t h e p e r sona l g od /de s s t ha t a n i nd iv idua l b rough t h i s /he r p rob lem s a nd c oncern s . I n i t ia l ly p e r sona l g od s w e re u sua l ly m ino r m embe r s o f t h e p an theon b u t e ven tua l ly e ven g rea t g od s a s sumed t h i s r o le . Ma rduk s e em s t o h ave b ecome e spec ia l ly p opu la rd u r ing t h eK a s s i te p er iod . T h i s may h ave h e lp ed h i s f i na l p romo t ion t o t h e h ead o ft h e p an theon b e a ccep t ed b y t he p eop le . I ti sd if icu l t f o r u s t o u nde r s tand h ow t wo s uch o ppo s ing v i ew s o f d e i t ie s c ou ld e x is t h a rmon iou s ly s i d e b y s i de . P e rhap s t he a pp roa chab i l i ty o f t he p e r sona l g od /de s s p rov ided c omf or t i n w ha t s e emed t o b ea nu nc er ta in a nd h o s t i le w o r ld T h e p r ev iou s t wo c hap ter s h ave d rawn t oge the r t h e b u lk o f t h e i n f o rma t ion a va i lab le o n O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p o l i t ic s a nd r e l ig ion . T oge the r t h ey c ons t i tu te t h e c u l tu ra l c on t ex tt ha t w i l l a c ta s af r ame o fr e f e rence f o rt h e a na ly se s o ft h e s e a l i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion s . T h i s w i l l n ow b e s e t a s id e , t empo ra r i ly , s o ad e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o ft he s e a l i c onog raphy c an b ep r e sen ted .

3 7

CHAPTER 5 DESCR IPT ION OF OLD BABYLON IAN AND KASSITE CYLINDER S EALS : I CONOGRAPHY AND I NSCR IPT IONS

I NTRODUCT ION

A no th e rp rob lem w i th t h i s d a ta t ha t c anno tb ec on t ro l led f o r

T he p r ev iou s c hap ter s o n Me sopo tam ian h i s to ry a nd r e l ig ion p rov id et he c on tex tf o ri n te rp re t ing t h ec y l inde rs ea l

l i e s i n t h e s ou rce o f t h e o r ig ina l s e a l s . S ince o ne o f t h e p r ima ry p u rpose s o f ac ogn i t ive s t udy i st ot r y t ou nde r s tand h ow a nc ien t p eop le u sed s ymbo l s , t h em a ter ia lb e ing s t ud ied

i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion s o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s . T h i s c hap te rp rov id e s ad e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion

mus t r ep re sen t p eop le who s ha red t h e s ame mappa . Mappa r e f e r st oc ommon c oncep t ion s o ft h e w o r ld h e ld b ym embe r s

o f n ume rou s a sp ec t s o f t h e d a ta b a se . I t i n c lud e s a d i scu s s ion o ft h e ma in f i gu re s f ound o n t h e c y l inde r s e a l s ,

o f a g i ven s oc ie ty ( R enf rew , 1 994a :10 -11 : a l so s e e d i scu s s ion i n C hap te r 2 ) . Unf or tuna te ly , Ic anno t k now f o r

s ome o f t h e i r a t t r ibu te s , t he f i l f i gu re s , a nd t h e s e a l i n sc r ip t ion s . I t r ea ted t h e OB a nd K a s s i te m a ter ia l s epa ra te ly f o rt h e mo s t p a r t d ue t ot h e d if e rence s o b served i nt h e ir i c onog raph ic r eper to i re .

c er ta in t h a t my d a ta m ee t st h i sc r i te r ion . I nt h e c a se o ft he OB t a b le t s , r ough ly t wo th i rd s o ft h e s ea l i mp re s s ion s c an b e a s s igned t o S ippa r o ri t s s ubu rb , e d -De r ( s ee T ab le 5 . 2 ) . T h i s b r ing s u p s eve ra l i s sue s . F i r s t i st ha t t h e se s e a l i mp re s s ion s f r om S ipp a r may n o t b e

CO MPOS IT ION o ft he DATA BASE

r ep re sen ta t ive o ft he s e a l s b e ing u sed i no the r c i t ie s d u r ing

T he g ene ra l c harac te r i s t ic s o f t he d a ta b a se f o r t h i s s t udy c an b e f o und i n C hap te r 2 .T o r e i te ra te , i tc on s i s t s o f 8 83

t h e F i r s t D yna s ty o fB aby lon . Ia l ready a rgued t ha t c y l inde r s e a l s w e re p robab ly c onf ined t o t h e w ea l th ie r l e ve l s o f s o c ie ty . U n t i l a dd i t iona l m a te r ia l i sf ound a t B aby lon a nd o the r p l ace s , t h is q ue s t ion w i l l r ema in o p en . H oweve r , t h e

s e a ls a nd s e a l ing s d a ted t ot h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p er iod s . T he E a r ly O ld B aby lon ian g roup ( EOB ) i n c lud e s t h e ma te r ia l f r om S umuabum t h rough t h e r e ign o f

h i s to r ica l r e co rd s i nd ica t e t ha t S ippa r h ad c l o se t i e s w i th B aby lon f o r v i r tua l ly t h e e n t i re p e r iod . G iven t he B aby lon ian k ing s ' p rop en s i ty f o r b e ing c l o s e ly i nvo lved i n

H ammu rab i . L a te O ld B aby lon ian ( LOB ) s ea l s b eg in w i th S am su i luna a nd e nd w i th S amsud i tana . T h is d iv i s ion b e tween t h e EOB a nd LOB c or re spond s r ough ly t o t h e e xpan s ion a nd t h en c on t rac t ion o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian

t h e m anag emen t o ft h e i rt e r r i to ry , i ti sh a rd ly l i k e ly t ha t t he c i t izen s

o f S ippa r

c ou ld

h ave

p roduced

s ea l

d e s ign s

u naccep tab le i n B aby lon . T h i s s uppo s i t ion i sb o ls te red b y t h ef a c tt ha t many o ft h e i nd iv idua l s w ho u sed c y l ind e r s e a ls c ondu c ted b u s ine s so nb eha lf o ft he c r own .

e mp i r e . T h e K a s s i te m a ter ia l c anno t b e a r ranged c h rono log ica l ly s oi ti sa s s igned t og roup sb a sed o ns t y le .

T h e s e cond p o in t c once rn s c on t inu i ty . B ecau se s o many o f t h e s e a l s c ome f r om o ne c i ty , ac er ta in c on s i s tency e x is t s w i th in t h e d a ta . We c an s e e h ow t he s ymbo l s e vo lved i na t

T h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e OB m a te r ia l c ome s f r om s e a l ing s o n d a ted t a b le t s . T he o ppo s i te s i tua t ion e x is t s f o r t h e K a s s i te p e r iod whe r em o s t o ft h e d a ta c on s i s t s o fe x tan t s e a l s . T ab le 5 . 1 i lu s t ra te s t h e n umb e r o f a c tua l s ea l s a s o ppo sed t o

l e a s t o n e p lace t h rough t ime . W i th t h e p o ten t ia l e f ec t s o f g eog raph ica l d ive r s i ty h e ld t o am in imum , o t he rf a c to r s c an b e s ough t t oe xp la in a ny o b served v a r ia t ion . I t mu s tb e a l so

s e a l ing s f o r e ach p er iod a nd t he n umb e r o f c omp le te a nd i n comp le te d e s ign s . ' Comp le te ' r e f e r st o as e a l w ho se e n t ire s u r f ace c ou ld b e r e cons truc ted . I tw i l l b e n o t iced t ha t t h e re a r e mo r e K a s s i te s ea l s t han c omp le te d e s ign s . Il i s ted 2 4 b roken o re r od ed s ea ls a si n comp le te a nd 1 2 f u l ly p re served

n o ted t h a t o ne -f ou r th o ft h e OB ma te r ia l c anno tb e a s s igned t oa ny s pec i f ic s i te .

s e a l ing s a s c omp le te . T he re i s n o w ay a t p re sen t t o c ompen sa te f o r t h e l a rg e p e rcen tage o f i n comp le te OB s c ene s o r t h e p o s s ib le b i a s t ha t may b e i n t roduced b y

T ab le 5 . 2 S ource so fO ld B aby lon ian S ea l s

c ompar ing s e a l ing st os ea l s .

e d -De r

i sh B aby lon U r Ma r i Unknown L a r sa K

S ippa r

T ab le 5 . 1 C ompo s i t ion o ft he D a ta B a se S ea l

S ea l ing

C omp le te

I ncomp

T o ta l

EOB

6

2 89

9 0

2 05

2 95

LOB

4

3 01

9 3

2 11

3 05

KAS

2 10

7 3

1 98

8 5

2 83

( EOS— Ea r ly O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod : B aby lon ian p er iod : KAS=Ka s s i te p e r iod )

LOB—La te

EOB

2 44

8

0

0

0

1

4 2

LOB

1 69

2 2

3

1

2

0

1 08

T he K a s s i te s e a ls c on s t i tu te a much mu rk ie r s i tua t ion t han t h e OB m a ter ia l . Mo s t o ft h e s ea ls c ome f r om mus eum s o r p r iva t e c o l lec t ion s a nd n o r e co rd s e x i s t t h a t i nd ica te whe re t h ey w e r e f ound . H e re R enf rew 's w a rn ing ( 1994b :53-4 ) a bou tc omb in ing d a ta f r om n ume rou s t ime p e r iod sa nd s i te s

O ld

mu s t b e c on s id e red . Iam t n ix ing , l i ke o the r s h ave b ef o re m e , K a s s i te s ea l s t ha t m ay s pan a4 00 y ea r t ime p e r iod a nd c ome f r om o ve r ad ozen s i te s ( Tab le 5 . 3 a nd F ig . 2 ,p . 39 ) . 3 8

F igure 2 MAP O F F INDSPOTS O F K ASS ITE S EALS

3 9

T he l a rg e s t c a tego ry i n t h e s ou rce l i s t i st h e e ve r -popu la r

t he m a in g roup s . . ." ( F rank f or t , 1 939 :25 ) . T he p h ra se ' f i l l ing

' Unknown ' . I tc anno t b e d educed , a t t h i s p o in t i n t ime , whe the r t h e v a r ie ty o f s t y le s a nd mo t if s e v iden t i n t h e

mo t i f ' i sg ene ra l ly a ccep ted i nt h e l i t era tu re a nd h a s i t s o wn e n t ry i n ar e cen t d i c t iona ry o f Me sopo tam ian s ymbo l s

K a s s i t e s e a l s r e su l t s f r om d if e r ence s b e tween p l ac e s , c h rono log ica l d i spa r i t ie s , o r whe the rt h e se s ea l s w e r ej u s t a

( B lack a nd G reen , 1 992 :82 ) . ' La rg e ' o r ' ma in ' f i gu re s a r e t e rm so fm yo wn t od i s t ingu ish t h em f r om f i l lf i gu re s .

l o t l e s s s t anda rd ized t han OB s e a l s . P e rhap s s om e c omb ina t ion o fa l l t he se f a c to r s a ccoun t f o rt he d ive r s i ty i n

Ma in f i gu r e s a r e u sua l ly t he l a rge s t mo t if s o n t h e s ea l s .

t he K a s s i te s e a l s . Un t i l ag roup o f c y l ind e r s o r i mp r e s sed t ab le t sc an b ee xcava ted i ns t ra t ig raph ica l p o s i t ion f r om o ne

Howeve r , t h ey w e re n o t a lway s c a rv ed i np ropor t ion t o o ne

o r mo re s i t e s i nI r aq t os e rve a s ac ompa r a t ive c o rpu s , i ti s

b eh ind , i nf r on t o f , o r i nb e tween l a rg er o ne s . Many t ime s , t he e ng r ave rp l aced t h e s male r i c on s ( i con w i l lb e u sed a sa s ynonym f o r mo t i f ) o n t h e s ame g round l ine a st h e f u l l s i ze f i gu re s . O the r t ime s s ma l le r mo t i f s a ppea red a bove t h e

a no the r . Of t en t h e s e a l c u t te r e ng raved s ma l le r f i gure s

i mpo s s ib le t op red ic t wha te f ec tt h i s m ix tu r e o fs ou rce sw i l l h ave o n my r e su l t s . T ab le 5 . 3

g round l in e , m ak ing i td if i cu l t t o d e term in e w he the r a n e l emen t s hou ld b e c l a s s if ied a s am a in o r af i l l f i gu re . I u l t ima te ly b a sed t h e d ec i s ion o n w he the rt he i c on s e emed t o

S ource so f Ka s s i te S ea l s A ga rQ uf

1

N im rud

A s su r

4

N ippu r

4 8

B aby lon

4

N uz i

1 7

F a i laka

1

T e l l S ub e id i

H ama

1

T h ebe s ,

I s in

1

U r

Meg iddo

1

Unknown

b e p ar t o f t h e s c ene a nd t he t yp e o f mo t if i n vo lved . I n g ene ra l , d if e r en t s e t so fs ymbo ls w e r eu sed f o rm a in f i gu re s

1

a nd f i l l f i gu re s . O cca s iona l ly t he s e a l c u t ter d iv id ed t h e s ea l i n to h o r izon ta l r eg i s ter s s o a l l t h e f i gu r e s b ecame n ece s sa r i ly s mal . B ecau se o f t h i s a nd t h e f a c t t h a t many s ma l l f i gu r e s c l ea r ly a ppea r t o b e p a r t o f ma in s c ene s , I

2

c a tego r ized t h e s ma l le r f i gu res a s m a in f i gu r e s d e sp i te

1 2

d if e renc e s i n a c tua l s i ze s . Whe the r s i ze r educ t ion s o f c er ta in m o t i f s , o the r t han t h e d iv is ion i n to r eg i s te r s , w ere d ue t os pace c on s id e ra t ion s , r e la ted t ot h es i gn if icanc eo ft he i nd iv idua l e l em en t s , o r d one f o r s ome o t he r r e a son i sn o t k nown .

5

T o ta l

8 5 2 83

T he n ex t s t ep f o l low ing t he c l a s s if ica t ion o ft he m o t if s i n to

N ever the le s s , Ib e l ieve t ha t i ti sa ccep tab le t o c on s ide r t h e

ma in o r f i l l f i gur e s , i nvo lved c od ing t h em f o r e n t ry i n to a

Ka ss i te s ea l s a s r ep re sen t ing o ne c u l tu ra l g roup . Once t h e K a ss i te s a s sumed p owe r i n B aby lon ia , t h ey r u led v i r tua l ly w i thou t i n te r rup t ion f o r a pp rox ima te ly 4 00 y ear s . E v en t hough t h e i rc u l tu re u ndoub ted ly c hang ed t h rough t ime , t h e r emarkab le s t ab i l i ty o f t h e K a s s i te d yna s ty a rgue s f o r a c on t inu i ty i n c u l tura l t r ad i t ion . We c an s u rm ise t ha t e ven t hough t he s e a l s c ame f r om a v a r ie ty o fp lace s , t h ey s t i l l

c ompu te r d a taba s e p rog ram . T he f r agmen ta ry c ond i t ion o f mo s to ft h e OB m a te r ia ll e dm et od eve lop as y s tem w he r eby Ic ou ld r e co rd t h e ma in i c on s b o th a s c omp le te f i gu re s a nd a s as e r ie s o fi nd iv idua l a t t r ibu te s . T he l a t te r i nc lud ed s uch t h ing s a sp o s tu r e , t yp e o fg armen t , h eadwea r , h a ir s ty le , a nd o b jec th e ld i nt h e h and (s ) . Id id t h is i na ne f or tt om ax im ize t he amoun to fi n f o rma t ion a va i lab le f o ra na ly s is .

r ep resen tp eop le w i th t he s ame mappa . S ome a spec ts o ft h i s mappa e ven s e em t op reda te t he OB p e r iod . P o s tga te ( 1 994 ) h a s s hown t h a t i n t he c a se o f c e r ta in ef ig ie s , t h e s ame c ogn i t ive s y s tem a ppea r s t oh ave b een o pe ra t ing a tK a s s i te

S eve ra l a t t r ibu t e s p roved p ar t icu la r ly u sefu l f o r m ak ing t h e f undamen ta l d i s t inc t ion b e tween h uman a nd d iv ine f i gu r e s . I n r e f e r enc e t o g a rmen t s , o n ly g od s a nd g odde s se s w o re f l ounced r ob e s ( Co l lon , 1 988 ) . I ts e em s t ob e t h e o n ly k ind

Aga r Quf a sa tE a r ly Dynas t ic A bu S a lab i ld i . It h ink , t h en , t ha t t he K a s s i te s e a ls r ep re sen t as i ng le c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion d e sp i te t h e o bv ious p rob lem s w i th t h e d a ta b a se . A t t h i s

o f c l o th ing t ha t w a s u nequ ivoca l ly r e se rved f o r d e i t ie s . F lounced r obe s p rov ided a n u nm i s takab le i nd ica tor o fs t a tu s

p o in t i n t h e a na ly s i s _ t h e OB a nd K a s s i te ma te r ia l w i l l b e d e scr ibed s epa ra te ly d ue t o t he i r f undamen ta l ly d if e r en t i c onog raph ic r ep er to i re .

e sp ec ia l ly wh en o n ly t he b o t tom h a l f o f t h e s ea l w a s p re served . H eadwea r , wh ich i n c lud ed h o rn c r own s , h a t s , a nd t u rban s ,

THE OLD BABYLONIAN S EALS

a l so i nd ica ted t h es t a tu so fi t sw ea r e r . Horn c r own so f v a r iou st yp e sa lway sb e longed t od e i t ie s ( P r i tcha rd .

I d en t if ica t ion o ft h e Ma in F igures

1 969 :114 ; V an B u r en , 1 945 :108f f ) . Human sw o r et u rban so r h a lf -c i rc le h a t s . D u r ing t h e LOB p e r iod , b r immed h a t s

Ma in

f i gu re s

c omp r ise

t h e

s c ene

o r

s c ene s

o n

g a ined i np opu la r i ty . Many o ft h em w ere w o rn b yf i gu re s

O ld

whose o t he ra t t r ibu te sp roc la imed t h e ir d iv ine s t a tu s . Of t en , t hough , i tw a sd if i cu l tt ot e l lo nt h eb a s is o f ab r immed h a t

B aby lon ian s e a l s . T h is d if e ren t ia te st h em f r om t he s o ca l led ' f i l l f i gu re s ' wh ich s e em t ob e s e t i n t h e b ackg round . T he

a l one w he the ra ni c on s hou ld b ec on s ide red ad e i ty o rn o t .

t e rm ' f i l l ing mo t ive ' w a s u sed a s l ong a go a s 1 939 b yH en r i F rank f or t i nh i sc l a s s ic b ook o n c y l ind e r s e a l s . E ven t h ough h e d oe s n o t d ef ine ' f i l l ing mo t ive ' p e r s e , h i s m ean ing i s o bv ious i n t h i s s en tence . " Thes e v e s se ls . . ,h ave a c omp rehen s ib le f unc t ion a s s pace -f i l l ing mo t ive s b e tween 4 0

T ab le 5 . 4 s how st h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft yp es o fh eadwea r r e co rd ed o nt h e OB c y l inde rs e a l s . ( S ee F igu re 3f o r i lu s t ra t ion s , p . 41)

F igu re 3

HEAD WEAR

a )H o rn C rown

b )S i ng le H o rn C rown

d )T u rban s ty le 1

e )T u rban s ty le 2

g )B r immed H a t w i th H igh C rown

h )B r immed H a t w i th L ow C rown

c )H igh T r iangu la r H a t

f )H a lf -c i rc le H a t

i )B r immed H a t w i th C i rcu la r C rown

HA IRSTYLES

k )S ho r tP ony ta i l

j )L ong P ony ta i l

1 )S hou ld e rL eng th

m ) B e low S hou lde r L eng th 4 1

T ab le 5 . 4

n ine f i gu re s f o r mo s t o ft he ir s e a l s . T he se i c on s w e re t hen O ld B aby lon ian Headwear

c omb ined w i th aw id ev a r ie ty o fo t h e r l a rge mo t i f st of o rm a d iver s i ty o fs c ene s . T he l a t ter a pp ea r o n ly r a r e ly i nt he d a ta

EOB

LOB

2 42

1 44

1 9

1

1 06

7 2

2 6

4 7

H o rn C rown S ing le H o rn C rown T u rban -S ty le 1 B r immed H a tw i th H igh C rown B r immed H a tw i th L ow C rown

5

5

B r immed H a tC ircu la rC rown

0

2 0

1 7

H a l f -C i rc le H a t

7

O the r

2 1

Un id en t i f ied

b a se a s aw ho le . S ea l e ng raver s d ep ic ted mo s t o ft h e ma jo r i c on s s o c on s is ten t ly t ha t i t wa s p o s s ib le i n m any c a se s t o i n f e r t h e i d en t i ty o f t h e c omp le t e f i gu re f r om a s i ng le a t t r ibu te . T ab le 5 . 6l i s t s t he n ine p redom inan t m o t if s i nt h i s d a ta b a se ( s ee F igu r e 4 . p .43 . f o r i lu s t ra t ion s ) . T he f i r s t c o lumn i nd ica te st h et o ta l n umb e ro ft ime s e a ch s ymbo l a ppea red i n t h e e n t i r e c o l lec t ion o f s ea ls d u r ing t he OB p e r iod . S ome t ime s t h e s ame i c on a ppea red m o r e t han o nc e o n t he s ame s e a l . F o rt h i s r ea son , Il i s ted t h ea c tua l n umb e ro fs ea ls

1 8

o n w h ich t h e i c on w a s i n scr ibed i n t h e s e cond c o lumn . I t s hou ld a l so b e n o ted h e r e t ha t t he se n umb e r s o n ly r e p resen t 5 23 OB s e a l ing s . T he r ema in ing 7 7 h ad n o i c onog raphy

1 4 2 8

p re served . H a ir s ty le sa l so s e rved t od i s t ingu i sh d e i t ie s f r om n on -de i t ie s T ab le 5 . 6

a s w el a s i d en t if y i nd iv idua l d iv in i t ie s f r om e ach o the r . Th is d oe s n o t i n c lude b ea rd s h oweve r wh ich s e em t o b e

Ma in B aby lon ian Mo t i f s

c ommon t ob o th g od s a nd m en . H uman ma le s d id n o t h ave a ny h a i r s ty le i nd ica ted b e low t h e ir t u rban s o r o the r h a t s .

N o . o f

G od s , o n t h e o the r h and h ad s hor t p ony ta i l s , v i s ib le i n p rof i le .

. S ymbo l

T o ta l

S ea l s

1 .Th e I n te r ced ing G odd e s s

( IG )

2 04

1 92

S eve ra l d if e r en t h a i r s ty le s c an b e d i s t ingu ished among t h e

2 .F igu r ew i th t h e Mac e

( FM )

1 38

1 38

g odde s se s . O ne s s hown i np rof i le o f ten h ad al ong p ony ta i l .

3 .Lahmu :F ig . w iT r ip le C u r l s

( TC )

9 7

8 8

4 .A scend ing G od

( AG )

8 5

8 5

5 . Wo r sh ip e rw i th Quad ruped (WQ )

8 0

8 0

6 .Bulman

( BM )

5 2

4 7

7 .S ea ted G od

( SG )

4 7

4 7

8 .Sm i t ing F igur e

( SF )

4 6

4 3

9 . Wa r r io rI s h ta r

(W I )

3 9

3 9

S ea l c u t te r s d ep ic ted a p r e sumab ly d if e ren t g odd es s f a c ing t he f r on t . H e rh a i rc ame d own i ns t ra igh tl i ne so ne i the rs i d e o f h e r h ead a nd e nded i n l i t t le c i rc les j us t a bove h e r s hou lde r s . A no the r s t y le u sed f o r af r on t -f ac ing g odde s s s howed h e r h a i r c a scad ing o ve r h e r s hou ld e r s a nd e nd ing h a lf w ay d own t oh e r e l bow s ( s e e F igu re 3 ,p .41) . Id id n o t i nc lude r a r e r s t y le s i nt h i s i lu s t ra t ion s uch a s b a ld m en o r o ne s w i th t h e i rh ead s s haved , f ema le sw i th h a i ri n al o op , o r w omen w i th t h e i r h a i r f l ipp ed o u t wh ich w a s t yp ica l o ft h e n ude f ema le . N o r d id Ic oun t h a i r e xecu ted b y ad r i l l t ha t

E ven t hough t h e s ea l c u t te r s d ep ic ted m o s t l a rge f i gu re s w i th a r ema rkab le d eg ree o f c on s is tency , s om e v ar iab i l i ty

b ecame c ommon d ur ing t h e LOB p e r iod . I tw a s i mpo s s ib le t o g ues s w he the r t h es e c i r c le s r ep res en ted a n ew s t y le o r a

d oe s e x i s t . T o i lu s t ra te t h i s , e ach ma in f i gu r e i sd e sc r ibed b e low a l ong w i th t he c r i te r ia u sed f o r i n c lu s ion i n t h a t

s imp le r w ay o fe xp re s s ing t h e o ld o ne . T he s t y le s l i s ted i n T ab le 5 . 5 a r e t h e mo s t c ommon d i s t ingu i shab le o ne s f r om t he O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod .

c a tego ry . I nd iv idua l t a b le s f o l low wh ich s how t he t o ta l n umb e r o fo ccu r r ence s i nt h e EOB a nd LOB p e r iod s a l ong

T ab le 5 . 5

w i th t h e v a r ia t ion s In o ted i n h eadwea r , h a i r s ty le , o b jec t s h e ld , a nd a ny o th e rf e a tu re p er t inen t t ot ha tf i gu r e . T he t o ta l n umb e r o fd ep ic t ion s i su sua l ly l e s s t han t h e a t t r ibu te t o ta l s

O ld B aby lon ian Ha ir s ty le s EOB

LOB

1 20

8 6

L ong P ony ta i l( Fema le )

7 8

4 3

S hou ld e rL eng th

1

B e low S hou lde rL eng th

3 8

S ho r tP ony ta i l( Ma le )

c omb ined b ecau s e mos t i c on s p o s se ss s ev e ra l t r a i t s l i s ted . An u n id en t if ied c a tego ry a ppea r s u nde r s om e s ubhead ing s . T h i s r e f e r s t o t h e f a c t t ha t s ome a rea o f t h e f i gu re w a s m i s s ing o r t o o f r agm en ta ry t o i d en t if y w i th a ny d eg ree o f c onf idence .

6 D e scr ip t ion o ft he N ine Ma in O ld B aby lon ian Mo t if s

1

Af te r t he m a in f i gu re s a nd t h e i rv a r iou s a t t r ibu tes h ad b een i d en t if ied r e co rded . a nd e n te red i n to ad a taba se p rog ram , I c a lcu la ted t h et o ta lf o re ach c a tegor y . T he t a bu la t ion sc l ea r ly e l uc ida ted t h e B aby lon ian a pp roach t od e s ign c ompo s i t ion .

1 .The I n terced ing G odde s s ( IG ) : T he I n te r ced ing G odd e s s a ppea r s mo r e f r equen t ly t han a ny o the r s i ng le m o t if o n t h e B aby lon ian s e a l s . T he c r i ter ion u sed t o i d en t i f y t h i s f i gu re w a s a s t and ing f ema le w i th b o th h and s r a i sed i n s upp l ica t ion . F ema le s c an b e d i s t ingu ished f r om m a le s b y t h e ir l ong p ony ta i l a nd l a ck o f ab ea rd . T h rough m o s t o ft h e

On ly n ine mo t if s a pp ea red w i th a ny r e a l f r equency o n t h e s ea ls . S ea l c u t te r s s e lec ted b e tween o ne a nd t h ree o f t h e se

OB p er iod , t h e I n te rced ing G odde s se s w o re af l ounced s k ir t 4 2

F igure 4 MA IN OLD BABYLON IAN F IGURES

b )F i gu re w i th

a )I n t e r c ed ing G odd e s s

d )A scend ing God

t h e Ma ce

e ) Wor sh ippe rw i th

t he T r ip le C u r l s( Lahmu )

t )B u l lman

Quad ruped

( Sha rna sh )

N a ir g )S ea ted God

c )F igu re w i th

(

2'

h ) Sm i t ing F igu re 4 3

i )War r io rI s h ta r

a nd ah o rn c rown . S he o f ten , b u t n o t a lway s , h ad a r i bbon

T ab le 5 . 8

d own h e r b ack . T owa rd s t he e nd o f t h e OB p e r iod , g odde sse s a ppea red i np l a in g own s w i th o the r s t y le s o fh a t s

F igure w i th Mace ( FM )

i na dd i t ion t ot he h orn c r own . N ever the le s s , t hey s t i l l r a ised t he i r h and s i n t he t yp ica l p o s i t ion a nd t h e r i bbon r ema ined s o Ic l a s s if ied t hem a s I n te rced ing G odd e s se s a s w e l l . T he

EOB

LOB

8 3

5 5

5 0

2 5

T o ta l

l i f t ed h and s w ere s o c ha r ac ter is t ic o ft he I G t ha t Ic oun ted h e r p re sen t when o n ly t h e h and s w e r e p re served . R ecen t ly . B lack a nd G reen ( 1992 ) h ave s ugge s ted t h e I G b e i d en t i f ied

H eadw ear T u rban

a sl ama . L ama s eem s t oh ave b een ag ener ic t e rm a pp l ied t o

B r immed H a tw i th H igh C rown

ab enevo len t g odde s s . T he se g odde s se s d o n o t h ave s pec if ic n ame s .

H or nC rown

1 5 1

U n iden t if ied

4

P r e sen t

1 8

8

A b sen t

3 3

1 8

U n iden t if ied

1 8

1 0

N one I nd ica ted

4 9

2 5

S ho r tP ony ta i l

1 6

B ea rd

I n ter ced ing Godde s s( IG ) EOB 9 9

LOB 1 05

H a ir

H eadw ear H or nC rown

2

4

T ab le 5 . 7

T o ta l

5

5 9

B r immed H a tw it h aL ow C rown

1

B r immed H a tw i th aH igh C rown

1

3 4 1 5

Un id en t if ied

4

N oH a t

0

2

H a t -O the rT ype

0

6

6

H ead M i s s ing

1 3

S t and son P la tf o rm 2 2

3 0

L ong P ony ta i l

5 9

3 7

On ly H and sV i s ib le

3 3

3 7

3 1 9

O ther F ea tures

O ther F ea tur es R ibbon Down B ack

8

6

0

3 .Lahmu -F igure w i th T r ip le C ur l s ( TC ) : I n t he p a s t , t h e F igu r e w i th T r ip le C u r l s h a s u sua l ly b een t e rmed ' t he N ud e H e ro ' . B lack a nd G reen ( 1992 ) a rgue t ha tt h i s d e s igna t ion i s n o l o nge r a pp rop r ia te . I n s tead , h e s hou ld b e c a l led L ahmu wh ich m ean s ' Ha i ry ' . H e i s ap ro tec t ive a nd b enevo len t d e i ty w ho w a s o r ig ina l ly a s soc ia ted w i th E a . H i s ma in i d en t if iab le f e a tu r e i st h e s e r ie so ft h ree l a rge c u r ls o ne i the r

2 .F igure w i th t he Mace ( FM ) : T he B aby lon ian s a l so f avo red t h e F igu re w i th t h e Mace o n t h e ir s ea l s . Un l ike t h e o the r m a in i c on s , t h e FM s e em s t o h ave h ad h i s o r ig in i n

s i d eo fh i sh ead . Un l ik et h ep rev iou st wo i c on s , t he TC d oe s T ab le 5 . 9

t he s e cond m i l lenn ium . T he s t anda rd i zed r ep re sen ta t ion o f

L ahmu ( Tr ip le Cur ls )

h i s p os tu re a nd d r e s s m ade h im e a sy t o i d en t if y . T he s e a l c u t te r s a lway s d ep ic ted h im w i th h i s l ef t l e g f o rwa rd , h i s r i gh t a rm h ang ing s t ra igh t d own b eh ind h i s b ack , a nd h i s l ef t h and p re s sed a ga in s t h i s c he s t . I n t h e l a t te r h and , h e

T o ta l

u sua l ly h o ld s a mac e a l though f o r t h e mos t p a r t i n t h e

EOB

LOB

6 1

3 6

C on t es tw i th :

i mp re s s ion s o n ly t he b o t tom o ft he m ace i sv i s ib le . H ew ea r s as hor t t un ic t ha tf o rm s a' V ' s hape b e tween h i s k nee s . T he FM g ene ra l ly f a ce st ot h er i gh t , w ea r s at u rban , a nd d oe s n o t h ave a ny h a ir s ty le s hown . T he s e d e ta i ls c an v ar y . S ome t ime sh ei sd ep ic ted i n at a l l h a ta nd t h r ice w i th ah or n c rown . B ea rd s a ppea r o cca s ionaly a s d o p ony ta i l s . S eve ra l

B u l lman

1

4

L ion

1 6

3

P ar tne rU n id en t if ied

4

4

H o ld s :

t ime s , h e s t and s o n p l a t f o rm s o fv a r iou s t ype s . T h e FM w a s s o c on s i s ten t ly d rawn t h a t e ven i fo n ly a s t ra igh t r i gh t a rm

F low ing V a se

7

5

a nd t h e b ack o f at u rban w a s p re se rved , Ic oun ted i ti nt h is

V e s se l

3

2

Q uadrup ed

5

2

S t af f

2

3

H and s C la sp ed a t Wa i s t

8

9

A c t ion Un id en t i f ied

5

g roup . N o o the r mo t i f h ad t h i s p ar t icu la r c omb ina t ion o f c ha rac ter i s t ic s .

O ther F ea tures

4 4

4

n o t a s sume a s t anda rd ized p o se . R ough ly h a lf t h e t ime , h e s t rugg le s w i th a p a r tne r i n w ha t h ave b ecome k nown a s c on te s t s cene s ( Co l lon , 1 988 :27 ) . O the r t ime s h e h o ld s a n

6 .Bu l lman ( BM ) : T h eb u l lman s hou ld n o tb e c onfu sed w i th

o b jec t o r c l a sp s h i s h and s t og e the r a th i s w a i s t . D e sp i te a v a r ie ty o f a c t ion s , h is n ud i ty a nd h a i rs ty le make h im

b e long s t o ab ov ine b u t f r om t he w a is t u p , h e i s h uman a l though h e d oe s h ave b u l l s ' e a r s . H e i so f t en p a i red i n a

i d en t if iab le a st h es ame f i gu re .

c on te s t s c ene w i th L a lunu o r al i on . L ik e L a lunu , h e c an a l so b e s e en h o ld ing aq uad ruped o rs t af fo rw i th h i s h and s c l a sped a th i sw a i s t .

o the rp a r t h uman -pa r t a n ima l f i gu re s o n OB c y l inde r s ea l s . T he Bu L l rnan s t and s u p r igh t . T he l ower h a lf o f h i s b ody

4 .A scend ing G od h o ld ing a Kn if e , S aw , o r R ing ( AG ) : T he A scend ing G od , who i si d en t if ied a sS hama sh , d e r ived h i s n ame f r om h i s p o s tu re . H i s l ef t f o o t r ema in s o n t he g round wh i le h i sr i gh t f oo tr e s t so n ab lo ck o rs t one o fs ome k ind . No rma l ly h ef ace s l ef t . T he AG d r e s se s i n al ong r ob e

T ab le 5 . 12 B u l lman ( BM )

a nd h orn c rown a l though a d if e ren t h a t i ss hown t w ice i n t h e LOB s e a l ing s . H e u sua l ly c a r r ie s ak n if e o r s aw . T he T o ta l

k n if e i sh e ld o u ta ta rm 's l e ng th a nd i ss oc l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t he AG , t ha t i f af i gu re 's b ody w a s m i s s ing b u t t h e

EOB

LOB

2 8

2 4

C on t es tw i th :

k n i f e wa s e x tend ing o u t i nt h e t yp ica l p o s i t ion , Ic oun ted i t a s af i gu re i nt h i sc a tego ry . B e s ide st h ek n if e ,t he A scend ing

L ahmu

G od c an a l so h o ld t he r i ng o fj u s t ice , as t y lu s , a nd p e rhap s a

L ion

7

1

' O the r '

0

3

P ar tne r Un id en t .

2

2

Q uadrup ed

3

6

S t af f

3

2

H and s C la sped a t Wa i s t

1

3

A c t ion Un iden t if i ed

1

1

m ace o rs t af f On ly t he b o t tom o ft h el a t te ri sp re se rved . T ab le 5 . 10

1

A scend ing G od ( AG )

4

H o ld s : EOB

LOB

4 6

3 9

H or nC rown Ho ld ing Kn if e /Saw

1 6

1 4

H orn C rown Ho ld ing Un id O b jec t

1 2

1 3

T o ta l

O ther F ea tures

H eadwea r

0

2

Kn if eb u t No B ody V i s ib le

8

7

R ing

4

0

O th e rO b jec t

6

5

H a tw i th B r im H o ld ing ak n if e

7 .Sea ted God ( SG ) : T he s e a ted g od c anno t b e i d en t if ied a s a ny s p ec i f ic d e i ty . T h e m a in c r i ter ia f o r t h is c a tego ry i n c luded a s e a ted f i gu r e w ear ing a h orn c r own a nd /o r f l ounced r ob e . I ft h e h ead o f t h e i c on w a s m i s s ing b u t h e

Ho ld s

w o r e af l ounc ed r ob e Ia s sumed i tw a s ad iv ine f i gu re . I f ound n o i n s tanc e s o f as e a ted g odd e s s . Id id n o t c oun t p e r son sw ea r ing p l a in r ob e sa nd t u rban s i nt h i sg roup . T ab le 5 . 13

5 . Wor sh iper w i th Quadruped ( V VQ ) : T he ma in c r i ter ion f o r i n c lu s ion i n t h i s c a tego ry w a s , o bv iou s ly , t ha t af i gu re

S ea ted God ( SG )

h ad t ob e h o ld ing a s ma l l a n ima l i n h i s a rm s . Wo r sh ip er s u sua l ly w o re l ong r obe s a nd t u rban s . T hey a l l a ppea r t ob e ma le s b ecau se n o h a i r s ty le i ss hown n o r d o f ema le s w ea r

T o ta l

EOB

LOB

2 7

2 0

2 5

1 3

t u rban s . Id id n o t i n c lud e d e i t ie s i d en t if iab le b y t h e i r h or n c rown s o r o the r f i gu re s c oun t ed e l sewhe r e , s uch a s TC , i n t h i s g roup . T he t e rm q uad rup ed i n c lude s b o th s heep a nd

H o rn C rown

g oa t ss i nce t he t wo c anno tb ed i s t ingu i shed .

B r immed H a tw i th L ow C rown

0

1

T ab le 5 . 11

Un id en t if i ed

2

6

S t y lu s

5

9

S t y lu sa nd R ing

7

3

V e s se l

3

1

O the rO b jec t

0

2

Un id en t if ied O b jec t

8

4

H and s Emp ty

4

1

H eadwea r

H o ld s :

Wor sh iper w i th Quadruped (WQ ) EOB

LOB

T o ta l

3 7

4 3

L ong P la in R obe w i th aT u rban

2 5

2 4

F lounced R ob ew i th aT u rb an

1

4

H a t -O the r

1

8

H ead M is s ing

1 0

7 4 5

8 .Sm i t ing F igure ( SF ) : T he Sm i t ing F igur e c anno t b e

9 . Warr ior I sh tar (W I ) : I s h ta r , d r e s sed i nh e rb a t t le g a rb . i s o ne o ft h e f ew f i gu re s t h a t c an b e p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied . S he

r ega rded a s a s pec if ic i nd iv idua l a s f o r e xamp le t h e A scend ing G od c an . R a the r t h e S F r ep r e sen t s ad iv in i ty o r

c an b e e a s i ly r e cogn ized b ecau se o ft h e c on s is ten t w ay t h e

h uman w i th h i s h and r a i sed u pb eh ind h im r e ady t os t r ik e a b low . Ii n c luded i th e re b ecau se o f t h e h ug e j ump i n t h e n umb e r o f t h e se f i gu re s d u r ing t h e L a te O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod . B ecau se t h e S F d oe s n o t r ep re sen t o ne p ar t icu la r i nd iv idua l o r t yp e o f i nd iv idua l , i ti st h e l e a s t c on s is ten t ly d ep ic ted o ft h en in e m a in i c on s . I nt h e ma jo r i ty o fc a se s , t h e

s ea lc arv e r sp o r t rayed h e r . S he f a c e st he f r on tw i th l ong h a i r f l ow ing o ve rh e rs hou ld e r s w i th o ne f oo t r e s t ing o nt h eh ead o fh e r a n ima l , t h e l i on . S he u sua l ly c ar r ie s as c im i ta r i nh e r l e f t h and a nd ad oub le l i on c lub i nh e r r i gh t . Of t en a r row s s e em t os p rou tf r om h e rs hou lde r s . T ab le 5 . 15

w eapon h eb rand i she s a bove h i s h ead c anno t b e d e term ined b ecau se t he t op p o r t ion o ft h e s e a l ing w a sn o tp re served _

Warr ior I sh tar (W I )

T ab le 5 . 14

EOB

Sm i t ing F igur e( SF ) T o ta l EOB 7

T o ta l

A sc end ing -Foo to n One L ion

3 9

S t and ing o n Two L ion s

H eadwear 3

4

T u rban

3

7

B r immed H a t

1

H ead M i s s ing

0

3 1

8

1 7

5

P os i t ion

LOB

H orn C rown

LOB

5

1

W eapons

2 7

A r row s S p rou t ing f r om S hou lde r s

1 7

3

L ion C lub i nR igh tH and

2 0

6

L ion C lub M i s s ing i nI mp re s s ion

5

S c im i ta ri nL ef tH and

W ea r s :

2

1

1 4

4

2 6

5

O ther F ea tur es

L ong R ob e

1

9

S ho r tT im ic

5

1 3

L ong H a i r

N aked

1

1

S hown i nP rof i le

2

1

B rand ishes a : Kn i f e

0

1

S c im i ta r

3

8

C lub

0

5

O the r

0

2

Un id en t if ied

4

2 3

T he O ld B aby lon ian F i l l F igure s T he B aby lon ian s e a l c arve r s u sed aw ide v a r ie ty o fs o -ca l led ' f i l l mo t if s ' i n t h e i r s ea l d e s ign s ( s ee T ab le 5 . 16 ) . S ome s cho la r s n ow t h ink t ha t t h et e rm s hou ld b e c hanged b ecau se t he se s ymbo l s u ndoub ted ly s e rved s ome s p ec if ic p u rpo se ( B lack a nd G r een , 1 992 :82 ) . T he w o rd ' f i l l ' i mp l ies s ome th ing e x t raneou s o r u n impo r tan t . T he s i ng le mo s t c ommon f i l l f i gu re o n O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s wa s t h e s un i n s ide t he c r e scen t moon . , p o s s ib ly r ep re sen t ing b o th S i na nd S hama sh . T he o n ly o the r i nd iv idua l mo t i ft ha t a ppea r s w i th a ny d eg r ee o ff r equency i nb o th t h e EOB a nd LOB p e r iod s i s t he h ead . Wha t i t s ymbo l ize s r ema in s u nknown . C une if orm s i gn s , a l so c oun ted h e re , may n o t b e a c tua l f i l l f i gu re s . S ea le ng r ave r s s ome t ime s s ca t te red t h em i nt h ef i e ld b ecau se t h e r e s to ft h e s u r f ace w a sf u l l .

4 6

s ea l a s Ik now o fn o c omp le te OB s e a l t ha t d oe s n o t h ave a t l e a s t o ne f i gu re o n i t . Ii n c luded t h e se d e sp i te t h e l o s s o f i c onog raphy b ecau se t h ey c ou ld b ed a ted a nd t h e i n scr ip t ion

T ab le 5 . 16 O ld B aby lon ian F i l lF igure s EOB LOB

EOB LOB

c on ta ined a tl e as t o ne d iv in e o r t heophor ic n ame . Mo s t O ld B aby lon ian s ea l i n sc r ip t ion s c onf o rmed t o t h e f o rmu la , ` 13N 1 ( P e r sona l N ame 1 ) , S on o f PN2 ( P er sona l N ame 2 ) , S ervan t o f DN ( D iv ine N ame ) ' . T ab le 5 . 17 l i s t s a l l t h e s ea l n umbe r s i nt h is d a ta b a se t ha t c on s i s t o fj u s t a n i n scr ip t ion

C une if orm S ign s

3 4

3 0

T u r t le

3

0

S unMoon

5 2

4 3

B u l lman

6

1

S un On ly

6

1 Me rma id

1

2

C re scen t Moon

6

1 0

F i shman

2

1

S t a r

2

1

Nude Ma le

7

5

R os e t te

0

8

Nud eF ema le

6

2

R ec l in ing Q uad ruped F ac ing F orwa rd

5

4

Human F igu re

3

4

Human L if t ing

1

0

R ec l in ing Q uad -

4

1

0

T ab le 5 . 17 O ld B aby lon ian S ea l s w i th On ly t he I nscr ip t ion sP re served

An ima l

r uped w . H ead

ragon A t tack s 1 D Human

T u rned B ack R ec l in ing Quadruped -No

( s ee A pp end ix B ) .

2 2

H ead 8

3

H ead

1

L ahmu

4

2

Humbaba Ma sk

7

0 1 4

8 5

2 25

2 77

3 26

3 67

4 59

4 81

9 7

2 27

2 79

3 27

3 90

4 61

4 82

1 01

2 42

2 81

3 31

3 91

4 62

4 83

1 48

2 50

2 83

3 32

3 92

4 63

4 84

1 64

2 51

2 84

3 33

3 93

4 64

4 85

1 65

2 54

3 03

3 37

3 94

4 65

4 94

1 66

2 55

3 14

3 45

3 95

4 71

5 12

1 68

2 56

3 16

3 47

4 02

4 77

5 36

1 97

2 57

3 18

3 49

4 04

4 78

5 41

2 01

2 59

3 50

4 56

4 79

5 42

2 24

2 68

3 66

4 57

4 80

5 51

U p r igh t Q uad rup ed

7

2

B a l ls ta f f

9

C ro ssed

1

3

C rook

5

0

5

3

V e s se l

8

9

Un id . Q uad ruped

3

2

F ly ing ' I F

0

1

An ima l -Un id .

0

4

1

0

I den t i f ica t ion o ft he Ma in F igure s T h e ma in f i gu re s o n t h e K a s s i te s e a l s , a s o n t h e OB s e a l s , w e r e t ho s et ha t c omp r i sed t h e p r inc ipa l s c ene o rs c ene s . B u t

Q uad rup ed s Q uad rup ed w i th

3 24 3 25

Y oung

' W ig

o n

a

THE KASSITE S EALS

S t and ' B i rd -Shap ed l i ke

9

4

C re scen t S t af f

1

0

B ird -O the r

1

0

D iamond S taf f

1

0

B u l l

8

2

L igh tn ing S t af f

2

2

D og

0

1 L y re S taf f

2

2

Dog w i th C rook

5

0

Ma m i

0

1

F i sh

4

3

S t a rS t af f

0

1

F ly

3

2

O the rS taf f

1

0

G oatf i sh

1 0

4

S ing le D o t

0

20

H edgehog

3

0

D o t si n G roup

3

4

J e l lyf i sh

3

0

D o t si n aL ine

1

1

L ion

3

4

G u i l loche

0

1

B ecau se o f t h i s d if i cu l ty , Ie ven tua l ly g roup ed h eadwea r

L ionf i sh

7

8

C ro s s

0

1

Mongoo se

5

3

Un iden t if ied

7

8

i n to t wo m a in c a tego r ie s : h igh h a t s a nd l ow h a t s ( s ee T ab le 5 . 18 ) . H igh h a t s i n c lud ed t h e h o rn c r own , at al t r iangu la r c ap , a nd b r immed h a t s w i th h igh c rown s ( s ee F igu re 3 ,

S co rp ion

3

1

u n l ik et h e OB s i tua t ion , n o s ma l l g roup o fi c on s eme rg ed a s r ep re sen ta t ive o f t h e d a ta a s aw ho le . T he s t anda rd ized d ep ic t ion o f mo s t mo t i f s l a rge ly d i sappea red . T o c on tend w i th t h i s s i tua t ion , Ig rouped mo s t i c on s a cco rd ing t o s pec if i c c ha rac ter i s t ic s w h i le i gno r ing o ther s . T he c r i ter ia f o ri n c lu s ion i ne ach c a tego ry i sd e sc r ibed b e low . I d en t i f y ing i nd iv idua l f i gu re s p roved a l b u t i mpo s s ib le i n t h e K a s s i te i c onog raph ic r eper to i re . H eadwea r , wh ich c ro s scu t m any c a tego r ie s , d id n o t a c t a s a d i s t inc t ive a t t r ibu te a s i to f t en d id i n t he OB p e r iod . I n f a c t , t he r ende r ing o fh a t s o n K a s s i te s ea l s o f t en m ade i td if i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh e ven b e tween t u rban s a nd l ow b r immed h a t s .

p . 41 ) . L ow h a t s c on s is ted m a in ly o ft u rban s a nd t ho se w i th l ow c rown s a nd b r im s . T he t u rban s d ep ic ted o n K a s s i te s e a l s , w ha t Ic a l led s t y le 2 ,f i t ted r i gh t o n t he h ead w i thou t t h ed ef in i te b o t tom b and s e en o nt h e OB t u rban s t y le 1 .

O ld B aby lon ian S ea l I nscr ip t ion s

H eadwea r c anno t b e u sed t o i d en t i f y f i gure s a s h uman o r d iv ine e i the r . Ic oun ted r ough ly t w ice a s many l ow h a t s a s h igh h a t s o n t h e K a s s i te s e a ls . I tr ema in s u nc lea r h ow t h is

S even ty seven OB s e a l ing s o n ly h ad t h e i r i n scr ip t ion s p re se rved . Ia s sume t h a t i c onog raphy e x is ted o nt h e o r ig ina l 4 7

f i gu r e s hou ld b e i n te rp r e ted . I n t h e OB p e r iod , d i v in i t ie s t y p ica l ly w o r e h o rn c r own s a nd l a te r o n , h a t s w i th b r im s . O n ly t h e F igu r e w i th t h e Mac e u sua l ly h ad at u rban a nd I w i l la rgue b e low t ha th ei sh uman . I nt h eK a s s i te p e r iod , t h e h a lf man /ha l f moun ta in f i gu r e s o n S K s e a l s s e em t o b e i nd i spu tab ly g od sy e tt h ey w ea rt u rban s . T he F igu r ew i th t h e S c im i ta r a l so w ea r s at u rban a nd h e m ay o r may n o t b e a d e i ty . T h e s e s e em ing ly c on f l ic t ing i nd ica t ion s s ugge s t t h a t amo r e s p e c if i c i n te rp r e ta t ion o fh eadw ea rw i l l h ave t ow a i t f o rt h ef u tu r e . T ab le 5 . 18 Ka s s i te H eadwear T o ta l H igh H a t s H o rn C rown

1 2

H igh T r iangu la rH a t

6 6

B r imm ed H a tw i th H igh C rown

6

T u rb an s ty le 2 B r imm ed H a tw i th L ow C rown

5 1 93 2 1

1

O th e r

8

U n id en t if i ed

8

S t y le G roup KP KN KC KV S K T o ta l Numb e ro fS ea l s

1 3

5 6 1 26

2 1

6 7

4 o f

S ea l s

2 83

S tand ing F igur e s F ig . F ace sL e f t , H igh H a t

7

5 1

1

2

2 6

2 3

F ig .F ac e sR igh t , H igh H a t

5

3 1 6

0

0

2 4

2 4

F ig .F ace sL ef t , L ow H a t

0 2 7

2 4

7 2

7 0

F ig . F ac e sR igh t , L ow H a t

3 1 7

3 2

9

0

6 1

4 7

E i the rD i r e c t ion ,H a t Un id .

2

9 1 4

6

9

4 0

3 6

F igu r ew . H igh H a t

0

0 2 1

0

3

2 4

2 4

F igu r ew i th L ow H a t

0

0 1 9

1

1

2 1

2 1

H a tU n id en t if i ed

0

0 1 3

2

0

1 5

1 5

1

5

4 6

1 0

1

O the rF igur e s

O ther T ypes B r immed H a tw . C i r cu la rC rown

Ma in F igure so n Ka s s i te S ea l s

S ea t ed F igu r e s

L ow H a t s T u rb an s ty le 1

T ab le 5 . 19

F igu r ew i th S c im i ta r

0 5 1

0

3

F i shman

0

0

1

0 1 3

1 4

Kneel ing f i gu r e

0

0 1

0

1 2

1 2

B i rd -F ly ing

0

0

0

1 3 9

4 0

1 9

B i rd -on B u sh

0

0

0

0 2 2

2 2

1 5

B i rd -on G round

0

1

0

0 1

1 2

D og

0

1 8

0

2

2 0

I n sec t s

0

0 1 4

0

0

1 4

3

Q uad ruped -No H o rn s

1

0

1

0

8

1 0

8

Q uad ruped -Shor t H o rn s

0

0

1

1 1 0

1 2

9

Q uad ruped -Lg C u rved H o rn s

0

0

1

1 2 2

2 4

Q uadr uped - Wavy H or n s

0

0

0 1 8

1 8

Q uad ruped -w i th W ing s

0

0

0

0 2 0

2 0

1 2

B u sh

0

0

0 0 27

2 7

2 0

G ra in

0

0

1 0 11

1 2

8

F low e r

0

0

0

0 1 2

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A n ima l s

I tw i l lb en o t iced t ha tt h eh a tt o ta l sd on o tc o inc id ep rec i se ly w i th t h es t and ing a nd s e a ted f i gu r et o ta l s . T h i si si np a r td u e t h e f r agm en ta ry c ond i t ion o fs om e s e a l s . I n a dd i t ion , s om e i c on s t h a t d i d n o t s t and o r s i t , s u ch a s f i s lun en , w o r e t u rban s . T he d i s t in c t iv e h a i r s ty le s e xh ib i ted o n t h e OB s e a l ing s d i sappea r ed o n t h e K a s s i t e s e a l s . T h i s m ad e i tp a r t icu la r ly d i ff icu l t t od i s t ingu i sh m a le s w i thou t b ea rd s f r om f ema le s w i th a ny c e r ta in ty . Many K a s s i t ef i gu r e sh ave h a i rt h a te nd s j us ta bov et h e i rs hou ld e r si n at e a rd rop s hap e . P e r sonag e si n p rof i le a r e a l so s hown w i th h a i ri nt h e s hap e o f ac i r c le j u s t a bove t h e i rs hou lde r s . S om e t im e st h ec i r c le h a s al i t t le e x t r a p i ece c om ing o u t f r om i t . I n t r y ing t o i d en t i f y s pec if i c h a i r s ty le s a sw a s p o s s ib le o n t h e OB s e a l s , Iw a s f o r ced t o c onc lud e t h a t m o s t o f t h e h a i r o n Ka s s i t e f i gu r e s w a s r ende red i ns e v e ra lg en e r ic w ay s . T ab le 5 . 19 l i s t st h e ma in f i gu r e so nK a s s i t e s e a l s . T h en am e o ft he m o t i fi sf o l lowed b yt h e n umb e ro ft ime s i to c cu r s i n e ach o ft h ef i v e s t y le s ubg roup s , t h et o ta l n umbe ro ft im e si t a ppea r s , a nd f i na l ly , t h e t o ta l n umbe r o fs ea l s o n w h ich i t a ppea rs . Ii n c lud ed t h i s l a s t f i gu r e t o i lu s t ra te t h e c as e s w he re a g i v en i c on i sr e p ea t ed s e ve ra l t ime s o n t h e s am e s e a l . T h i st a b le o n ly i n co rpo r a te st ho se m o t if st ha t o ccu r red 1 0 o r m o r e t ime s . T h i s e l im ina t ed f i gu r e s t ha t w e r e u sed v e ry i n f requ en t ly o nt h e2 83 s e a l s . Twen ty -f iv eg roup sm e t

0

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P lan t s

( KP=Compo s i t e ; KN=No r th ern K a s s i t e ; KC=Cen tr a l K a s s i t e ; KV=Va r iou s ; S K=Se cond K a s s i t e ) 4 8

2 8

t h i s c r i te r ion . S ince mo s t o ft h e K a s s i te s e a l s a r ec omp le te , I d on o tt h ink a ny o ne c a tego ry i ss e r iou s ly u nder rep re sen ted .

l o ok u p a t as t and ing o r s ea ted f i gu re . T h e se may r ep r e sen t Ga la , t h e g odd e s s o fh ea l ing . T he a s soc ia t ion o fd og s w i th Ga la b egan i nt h eO ld B aby lon ian p er iod a nd l a s ted t h rough

D e scr ipt ion o ft he Ma in Ka s s i te Mo t if s

t h e N eo -Baby lon ian p er iod ( B lack a nd G re en , 1 992 ) . One s e a l , 6 81 , s how sf ou rd og s , e ach w i th al o zenge b eh ind i t ,i n

1 . S tand ing a nd S ea ted F igure s : K a s s i te a r t i s t s d id n o t u se

a v er t ica l c o lumn a s t h e s o le d ecora t ion o f a l ong i n sc r ip t ion . T h ree o the r s ea l s o f t h is t yp e d ep ic t i n sec t s . T hey c anno t b e i d en t i f ied w i th a ny d eg re e o f c er ta in ty

s t anda rd ized r ep re sen ta t ion s t o d ep ic t s t and ing a nd s ea ted f i gu re s . T he ma jo r i ty a r e ma le h oweve r , b a sed o n t h e p re sence o f ab ea rd . Whe ther t h ey s hou ld b ec ons id e r ed g od s

a l though t h e i n sec t s o n 6 79 l o ok l i ke f l ie s . Wh i le d og s a nd

o r n o t r ema in s a n o p en q ue s t ion . A l l w ea r l ong r obe s a l though a t l e a s t t h ree d if e ren t s t y le s a r e a ppa ren t .

i n sec t s a ppea r o n FKC s e a l s , q uad ruped s a ppea r mo s t ly o n S econd K a s s i te s e a l s . Aga in , a r t is t s d id n o t r ep re sen t t h em

S t and ing i nd iv idua ls f a ce e i the r r i gh t o r l e f t i n r ough ly e qua l p ropor t ion s . I f a p e r son /d iv in i ty i s s e a ted , h e

i n as t anda rd ized f o rm . T he i r mos t d i s t inc t ive a t t r ibu te s s e emed t ob e t h e s hape o ft h e i r h or n ( s ) a nd t h e p re sence o r a b senc e o f w ing s . Ig rouped a l l t hose w i th w ing s t og e the r r ega rd le s so fh or ns hape . Quad ruped s , l i ke b i rd s , a ppea ri na

i n ev i tab ly f a ce s l e f t a s w a s t r ad i t iona l o n OB s ea l s . T he p o s i t ion o ft h e a rm s s e em t ob e mo re c on s i s ten t ly d ep ic ted

v a r ie ty o f s c ene s b u t t h e mo s t f r equen t p o s tu re s how s t wo

t han a ny o t he r a spec t o f t h e f i g ur e . S t and ing a nd s e a ted i nd iv idua l s f a c ing l ef t h o ld t h e i r l ef t a rm c rooked a tt he i r s i de a nd r a i se t h e i r r i gh th and i nf r on to ft hem . I ft he f i gu re

a n ima l s l e ap ing t owa rd s o ne a no the r o f ten o ve r ab u sh o r t r ee .

f a ce sr i gh t ,g ene ra l ly t h e l ef ta rm e nc i r c le st h e w a i s ta nd t h e r i gh ta rm a ga in i sl i f ted u pi nf r on to fh im /he r . O cca s iona l ly t he a rm sa r e s w i tched o rb o th h and sa r e r a i sed t oge the r i na

6 .P lan t s : V eg e ta t ion l a rge ly a ppea r s o n S econd K a s s i te s ea l s . B u she s , t r ee s , a nd f l owe r s a l a s sume a d ive r s i ty o f

g e s tu re r em in i scen to ft h eI n te rced ing G odd es s .

f o rm s e v en t hough t hey r ema in r e cogn izab le . On ly g ra in i s d ep ic ted i n ac on s i s ten t manne r .

2 .F igure w i th S c im i tar : T h e s e a l st ha td ep ic t aF igu re w i th t he S c im i ta r c ame t o b e c a tego r ized a s N or the rn l a rg e ly Ka s s i te F i l l F igure s

b ecau s et h i s mo t if a pp ea r sf r equen t ly o ns ea l ing sf r om N uz i . A l toge the r h e i ss hown 5 5 t ime s o n 4 6 s ea l s . T he se f i gu re s

S ea l c a rve r s p l aced s o -ca l led f i l l f i gu re s i n t h e b ackg round

a l lf a c et ot h er i gh ta nd h o ld as c im i ta rb eh ind t hem i nt h e i r r i gh t h and . B u t l i ke t h e s t and ing a nd s e a ted i nd iv idua l s , s p ec if ic a t t r ibu te s v a ry f r om o ne i c on t oa no the r . One d oe s

o f K a s s i te s e a l s j u s t a s t he i r B aby lon ian p redece s so r s h ad d one . A w id e v a r ie ty a ppea r o n t h e s e a l s a l though many w e r e o n ly u sed o nce o r t w ic e i n t he e n t i r e c o l lec t ion ( s ee

n o t g e t t h ei mp re s s ion t ha tt h i s i st h es ame p e r sonag eb e ing r ep re sen ted o ve r a nd o ve r a s o ne d oe s w i th t he F igu re w i th t he Ma ce . T he F igure w i th t h e S c im i ta rc an s t and , s t r id e , o r e ven h ave h i s f oo t o n ab i rd i n t h e a scend ing p o s i t ion .

T ab le 5 . 20 ) . T h e f ou r mo s t n umerou s t y pe s a re c une if o rm s i gn s , r o se t te , l o zenge , a nd K a s s i te c r o s s . E ng rave r s c ommon ly p u t c une if o rm s i gn s i n b e tween o the r i c on s i n b o th t he OB a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s . T h i s m ay h ave b een d ue t o s pace c on s id e ra t ion so rt ex t a dded a f te rt h eo r ig ina l s ea lw a s

G a rm en t s v a ry a s w e l l . L ong g own s c an b e p la in , h ave a l add e r p a t te rn , o r e ven b e f l oun ced . S ome l ong g own s a r e

p roduced . T h e r ema in ing t h ree , t h e r o se t te , l o zeng e , a nd K a s s i te c ro s s , a l h ave b een u sed t oc l a s s if y s ea l s a s K a s s i te s o o ne c anno t m ak e a ny i n f e renc e s a bou t t h e f r equ ency o f t h e ir a ppea ranc e . T he s i gn if icance o ft h e se s ymbo l s r ema in s u nc lea r a l though t h e re i ss ome e v iden ce t os ugg es t t ha t t h e l o zeng e s hou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th I s h ta r ( B lack a nd G reen ,

w o rn p u l led a s ide i nf r on tt or e vea l ak nee leng th t un ic . Two o ft h e se i c on s e ven w ea r ad if e r en t s t y le o fg a rmen t o n t h e s am e s e a l . H eadwea r u sua l ly c omp r i se s at u rban b u t t h e r e a r e i n s tance s o f ap eaked , t r iangu la rc ap a nd al ow c r owned b r immed h a t .

1 992 :153 ) .

3 .F i shman : AF i shman 's b ody f r om t h e w a i s t u p l o ok s l i k e at yp ica l ma le . H e h a s ab ea rd a nd w ea r s at u rban . T he l ow e rh a l fo fh i sb ody i s ,h oweve r , af i sh . On S econd K a s s i te s ea l s , f i shmen w i th o ne e xcep t ion a ppea r i n p a ir s a nd a r e a lway ss hown h o ld ing af l ow ing v a se . 4 .B ird s : T he S econd K a s s i te s e a l s e xh ib i ted aw id e v a r ie ty o f b i rd s . S ome may h ave b een e ag le s b u t mos t r ema in u n id en t if iab le i n r ega rd t o s pec ie s . S ea l c arve r s s howed t hem f l y ing , h o ld ing f i sh i nt h e i rt a lon s , a nd e a t ing c a r r ion . S om e d ip t he ir b eak s i n t h e s t r eam o f w a te r f r om t h e f l ow ing v a se . T hey l o ok f o rwa rd , b ackwa rd , a nd s ome e ven h ave t wo h ead s . T h e re w a s s o l i t t le u n if o rm i ty i n t h e d ep ic t ion o fb i rd s t ha t Id ec ided t oc a tego r ize t h em b y t h e i r a c t ion s . T he d iv i s ion s o ff l y ing , p e rched o n ab u sh , a nd o n t h e g round c o r re spond r ough ly t o t h e i r p o s i t ion i n t h e s c en e s . 5 .0 ther An ima l s : O the r a n ima l s i n c lude d og s , i n sec t s , a nd v a r iou s k ind s o fq uad rup ed s . Mo s t d og s s i t f a c ing r i gh t a nd 4 9

T ab le 5 . 20 Ka s s i te F i l l F igure s

S t y le G roup KP KN KC KV

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Ka s s i te F igure si nB and D ecora t ion B and d eco ra t ion , a s Id ef ined i t , d oe s n o t o ccu r o n O ld

o ft he s ymbo l s u sed i nb and d ecora t ion c ame f r om t he f i l l

B aby lon ian s e a ls . B yt h is Im ean mo t if st ha ta ppea ri nb and s a bove a nd /o rb e low t he ma in s c en e . T h eb and i sc r ea ted b y a l i ne r unn ing f r om o ne e dge o ft h e i n sc r ip t ion t ot h e o the r .

f i gu re r ep e r to i re . T ab le 5 . 21 l i s t st he mo t if s a nd t h e n umb e r p re sen t i n e ach s t y le g roup . T he f i na l c o lumn s how s t h e a c tua l n umbe ro fs ea l s r ep r e sen t ed i nr ega rd t oe a ch s ymbo l .

Twen ty th ree K a s s i te s e a l s w e re d eco ra ted i n t h i s f a sh ion . T he se d e s ign ss e emed s e conda ry t ot h e ma in s c ene b u t c ou ld n o tb ec on s id e red i nt h e s ame c a tego ry a sf i l lf i gu re s . Mo s t

T h i s i s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t f o r l o zeng e s b ecau se s ome t im e s t h ey f o rmed a f r ieze . D e sp i te t h e i r f r equenc y , t hey o n ly a ppea red o nn ine s e a ls . 5 0

T ab le 5 . 21

l e g end s , L amber t ( 1 975b ) l i s t s 9s ea l s c i ted b y L i me t a s p robab ly b e long ing t o t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod . P o rada

Mo t if si nB and D ecora t ion

( 1948 ) t e rmed t he se " t ran s i t iona l e xamp le s" ( h e r w o rd s ) , E a r ly K a s s i te . B r igg sB u chanan ( 1966 ) s ay s aP ro to -Ka ss i te s t y le e x i s ted t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e OB p er iod . Un f or tuna te ly n one o ft h e se e xamp le s c an b e d a ted wh ich i s

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why Id e l ibera te ly a vo id ed t h e t e rm ' T ran s i t iona l ' f o r t h i s c a tego ry . A t p resen t , t h e r e i sn o w ay t o k now when t he se

r t -

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t os o lv et h i sc h rono log ica lp rob lem . F ir s t Ka s s i te N or thern : F i r s t K a s s i te N or the rn i s a r e la t ive ly n ew t e rm i n t h e f i e ld o f K a s s i t e g l yp t ic a r t . D ona ld Ma t thew s p ropo sed t h e d iv is ion o f F i r s t K a ss i te s ea l s , a s d ef ined b y B e ran ( 1957 -8 ) , i n to t wo s t y l is t ic c a tego r ie s i n 1 990 . H e c a l led o ne s t y le ' Nor the rn ' b ecau se many o ft h e s ea ls i nt h a t g roup c ame f r om N uz i . T he mos t p reva len t mo t if o n N o r the rn s e a l s i su ndoub ted ly t h e F igu re w i th t h e S c im i tar . I nt h e 5 6 s e a l s Ii n c luded i nt h e N o r thern g roup , 1 5 c ame f r om t h e N uz i e xcava t ion s . O f t he se , 1 d ep ic ted t he F igu r e w i th t h e S c im i ta r . Ma t thew s ( 1990 , 1 992 ) c l a s s if ied v i r tua l ly e ve ry s e a l w i th t h i s i c on a s N or the rn e ven i ft h e f i nd spo t w a s u nknown . T he ref o re , KN c an b e u sed t or e f e r t o ag l yp t ic s t y le , b u t n o t ag eog raph ic

w i th W ing s

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F ir s t Ka s s i te C en tra l : Ma t thew s ( 1990 ) l a b e l led t h e o the r s t y l is t ic c a tego ry ' Cen t ra l ' b ecau se m any o ft h e se s e a l sc a me f r om N ippu r . H e c on s id e r s t h i s t h e e a s ie s t K a s s i te s t y le t o r e cogn ize . F o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h e i n scr ip t ion d om ina te s t he s e a l w h i le t he i c onog raphy i sc onf ined t o l e s s t han h a lf o f t h e s u r f ace a rea . T h em a in mo t if sc on s i s tl a rge ly o fs t and ing o r s e a ted f i gu re s o f t en w i th f i l l f i gu re s i nt h e b ackg round . I

*

i n co rpo ra ted 1 56 F i r s tK a s s i te C en t ra l s e a l si n to t h is s t udy . Ka s s i te S ea lI nscr ip t ion s Var iou s : Ma t thew s a l so d e s igna ted s ome F i r s t Ka s s i te d es ign s a s ' v a r iou s ' i n h i s 1 990 w o rk . T he t e rm ' v a r iou s ' r e f e r s t os ea ls t ha t d id n o t s e em t of i t w e l l i n to o ne o ft he

T he K a s s i te i n scr ip t ion s n o l o ng e r u sed t h e t yp ica l OB f o rmu la . T hey ma in ly c on s i s ted o fp raye r st ov ar iou s d e i t ie s a nd r a r e ly m en t ioned t he o wn e r 's n ame ( Lamber t , 1 975b ) . T heref o r e , mo s t s ea l i n sc r ip t ion s d id n o t h ave t o b e

t e x t c ou ld b e r ead d i rec t ly o ft h e s e a l r a the rt han i nr eve r se

o the r c a tego r ie s . T hu s ' v a r iou s ' s hou ld n o t b e c on s id e red a c l a s s a t a l l b u t a c olec t ion o f s ea l s w i th a s sor ted c ha rac te r is t ic s . Ia s s igned 2 1 s e a l s t ot h i s g roup . S evera l o f t hem b e long t ot he s qua t -f igur e d e s ign s d i scu ss ed b y Do lce ( 1986 ) . S he p o in t s o u t t h a t m any K a s s i te s ea l s a nd i mp re s s ion s c anno t e a s i ly b e f i t i n to o ne o f t he ma jo r c a tegor ie s . S he d oe s n o t g i v e t h e se p ar t icu la r s ea ls a l ab e l

( Lamb e r t , 1 975b ) . T ex t s c arved i n r eve r se o n ly a ppea red c o r rec t a f t e r t hey h ad b een r oled o u t o n to p repa red c l ay .

b u t d oe s a l lude t o t h em a s a" . .d i s t inc t ive g roup w i th in K a s s i te g lyp t ic p roduc t ion . . ." ( Do lc e , 1 986 :72 ) . W i thou t

S ix teen o ft h e se s ea l s h ave h o r izon ta l r ow s o f c une if o rm . Mos t h av e al ong e r v e r t ica l i n s c r ip t ion a s w e l l . F ou r teen

a dd i t iona l d a ted o r a t l e a s t s t ra t if ied e xamp le s , i t i s i mpo s s ib le t oa scer ta in t h e i rf unc t ion , s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion , o r t he i r r e la t ion sh ip t oo t h e rK a s s i te s t y le s . I n s ome c a se s , o ne

s pec if ica l ly c ompo sed f o rp a r t icu la ri nd iv idua l s . T he K a s s i te p e r iod a l so w i tnes sed t he b eg inn ing o f t h e t r end t owa rd s c a rv ing i n sc r ip t ion sh or izon ta l ly a sw el a s v e r t ica l ly o nt h e s e a l . H o r izon ta l i n sc r ip t ion s w e r e g ene ra l ly i n sc r ibed s ot h e

b e long t ot h e S econd Ka s s i te g roup wh i le t h e o the rt wo a r e F i r s tK a s s i te C en t ra l .

c an q ue s t ion whe the r t h ey s hou ld e ven b e c l a s s if ied a s K a s s i te a ta l l . B e s id e s t h e se , s ome s e a l s h ad ma jo r p or t ion s o f t h e i r i c onog raphy b roken a way . Ip u t t hem i n t he

D e scr ip t ion o fS ty l is t ic Group s

' v a r iou s ' g roup r e con s truc ted .

C ompo s i te : Ig ave t he l a be l ' Compo s i te ' t ot h ef i r s t 1 3 s ea l s b ecau se t h ey a l l c omb ine t y p ica l O ld B aby lon ian

b ecau se

t h e

s c en e

c ou ld

n o t

b e

S econd Ka s s i te : B e ran ( 1 957 -8 ) a l so d ef ined t h e ' Second K a s s i te ' s t y le . R ecen t ly Ma t thew s ( 1990 :60 -63 ) d e sc r ib ed i t i n d e ta i l s o Iw i l l o n ly g i ve ab r ief s umma r y h e re . S econd

i c onog raphy w i th i n scr ip t ion st h a ta r e mo re c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h e K a s s i te p er iod . O the r a u tho r s h ave n o ted t h i s p henomenon b u t n on ame h a sb e en a cc ep ted i nt he l i t e ra tu r e t oi d en t i f y t h em . T h is h a s l e dt os ome d i sag reemen t s . I nh i s r ev iew o f L ime t 's w o rk ( 1971 ) o n K a s s i te c y l inde r s e a l

K a s s i te d e s ign s a r e q u i te d i s t inc t ive f r om o the r K a s s i te s t y le s b ecau se S K d id n o t h ave i t s r oo t s i n t h e B aby lon ian 5 1

t r ad i t ion . I ti si n s tead r e la ted t ot he a r t i s t ic r e vo lu t ion t h a t p roduced t h eM idd le A s sy r ian s t y le . R a the r t han i nd iv idua l f i gure s who s t and o r s i t i n f r on t o f al ong i n sc r ip t ion , S K s e a ls f e a tu r e t r ee s , b u she s , l e ap ing q uad rup ed s , q uad rup ed s w i th w ing s , amu l t i tude o fb i rd s , f i s lunen , m en w i th w ing s , a nd a ' c h thon ic g od ' o rg od s . Ma t thew s c on s ider s t h e l a t te r t he mo s t i mpor tan t o f t h e mo t if s . O f t h e 6 7 SK s e a l s i n c luded h e r e , o n ly n ine d ep ic t t h i s f i gu r e . H i s u ppe r b ody a ppear s h uman b u t t h e l owe r h a lf m ay t ake t he f o rm o f s t ream s , am oun ta in , o r p o s s ib ly a t r e e . H e e i the r h o ld s a f l ow ing v a se o r f end s o f ap a i r o f r e a r ing q uad rup ed s . B ecau se

K a s s i te

e ng rave r s

d id

n o t

r ende r

h im

i n a

c on s i s ten t f a sh ion a nd m any o f h i s a t t r ibu te s s uch a s t h e a s soc ia t ion w i th w a te r o r a moun ta in c ou ld a pp ly t o a ny n umber o fg od s . Ma t thew s t h ink s h e d id n o t r ep re sen t o ne p a r t icu la r d e i ty . I n s tead h e s hou ld b e v i ewed a s embod y ing t he g ene ra lc oncep to f' d iv in i ty ' .

CONCLUS ION T he d a ta b a se f o r t h is s t udy c omp r ise s 8 83 c y l inde r s e a l s a nd s ea l ing s f r om t he O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s . A l l b u t 7 7 h ave e x tan t i c onog raphy . If ound i tn ece s sa ry t o d e scr ib e t h e m a te r ia l f r om t he t wo p er iod s s epa r a te ly b ecau se t h e B aby lon ian s a nd K a s s i te s u t i l ized v e ry d if e ren t i c onog raph ic r e per to i re s . T he O ld B aby lon ian s ea l c a rve r s d epended o n ar e la t ive ly s ma l l g roup o fs t anda rd ized i c on s t o c ompo s e t h e i r d es ign s . T hey d ep ic ted t h e s ymbo l s s o c on s i s ten t ly t h a t i nd iv idua l a t t r ibu te s s u ch a s h eadwea r , h a ir s ty le s , a nd o b jec t s h e ld p roved u sef u l i n i d en t i f y ing p ar t ia l ly p r e served mo t if s . K a s s i te s e a l s a r e l e s s amenab le t o a na ly s i s t han O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s f o r t wo r e a son s . F i r s t , t hey l a ck t h e s t anda rd ized r ep er to i re s o e v iden t o n t h e O ld B aby lon ian s ea ls . S econd , mo s t o ft h e K a s s i te ma te r ia l c anno t b e d a ted s o i ti si mpo s s ib le t o s t udy h ow t he i c onog raphy c hanged t h rough t im e . A s a r e su l t , r e sea r che r s u sua l ly a na lyze Ka ss i te s ea l s a ccord ing t os t yl i s t ic g roup s . B e ran s ugg e s ted t he o r ig ina l c l a s s if ica t ion s i n 1 957 -8 . R ecen t ly , Ma t thew s ( 1990 )p ropo sed s ome a dd i t ion s . Ih ave u sed t he se g roup s i n my s t udy a s w e l l b ecau se , a tp re sen t , t h e r e i sn o o the r w ay b es ide ss t y le t oc a tegor ize t h e se s ea l s .

5 2

CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS OF OLD BABYLONIAN AND KASSITE CYLINDER S EALS

' 1 ' m ean s t wo m o t if s a lway s a pp ea r t og e the r wh i le a ' 0 ' m ean st hey n eve rd o . A' . 5 ' i nd ica te s ar andom a s so c ia t ion .

I NTRODUCT ION T h e p rev iou s c hap te r d e sc r ibed i n d e ta i l v a r iou s a sp ec t s o f

T he f i r s t s t ep i nvo lved s e lec t ing f r om t h e d a ta b a se t ho se s e a l ing s t ha t h ad t wo o r mo re m a in i c on s p rese rved . T h i s

t h e 8 83 s e a l s i n t h i s d a ta b a se . Wh i l e n ece s sa ry t oa c t a s a f ounda t ion f o rf u r the r i n f e rence , t h i s k ind o fn a r ra t ive d oe s n o th ing i na nd o fi t se lf t oe xp la in s e a l d e s ign o rc hang e s i n

p roce s s b rough t t h e a va i lab le n umb e r o f OB s ea l s d own f r om 6 00 t o3 98 . N ex t , Ih ad t od ec id e wh ich p a i r so fm o t if s t o t e s t b ecau se t h e n umbe r o f p o s s ib le c omb ina t ion s w a s

t ho se d e s ign s t h rough t ime . I n t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion , Iw i l l e xam ine h ow s ymbo ls w e re u s ed o n t h e s e a l s . A sce r ta in ing u se m ay n o t r evea l mean ing , b u t i tc an g iv e u s i n s igh t s i n to

e no rmou s . Ib a sed t he i n i t ia l c ho ice s o n t he i c on s t h a t a ppea red mo s t f r equen t ly o n t h e se s ea l s , t h e mo t if s u sua l ly

h ow t he m ind s o f s ome p eop le i n a nc ien t Me sopo tam ia w o rked ( R enf rew , 1 994a :6 ) . B y mon i to r ing wha t s ymbo ls t h ey s e lec ted , c omb ined , a nd e ven tua l ly e l im ina ted , w e c an

c i ted i nt he l i t e ra tu re a sb e ing r e la ted , a nd m y own i n tu i t ion . I fa ny s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t a s soc ia t ion s e x is ted b e tween e l emen t s , i t s e emed l i ke ly t h ey s hou ld b e f ound among t h e se .

g a in s ome k now ledge c oncern ing s h if t s i np opu la r i ty o ft he v ar iou s mo t if s t h rough t ime . T h e s e c hang e s i n ma ter ia l s ymbo l f r equ enc ie s c an t h en b e r e la ted t o t h e o ngo ing p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s s i tua t ion i n o rde r t o a s c er ta in h ow e ach m igh th ave i n f luenced t he o the r .

T he c omb ina t ion s It e s ted w e re t h e I n te rc ed ing G odd e s s w i th t h e F igu r e w i th t h e Mace , t h e I n te rced ing G odd e s s w i th t he Wo r sh ip e r w i th t h e Q uad ruped , t h e I G w i th t h e

Iw i l l b eg in w i th a c on s ide ra t ion o f " comp le te " O ld B aby lon ian s ea l s . " Comp le te" , h e r e , m ean s s e a l s t h a t h ave a tl e a s t t wo ma in i c on s p re served . Iw an t t os e e i fa ny r u le s

A scend ing G od , t h e AG w i th t h e Wo r sh ipe r w i th t h e Q uad rup ed , t h e A scend ing G od w i th t h e F igu re w i th t h e Mace , t he A scend ing G od w i th t h e S ea ted G od , t h e A scend ing G od w i th t h e Sm i t ing F igu r e , a nd l a s t ly , t h e F igu re w i th t h e T r ip le C u r ls w i th t h e B u l lman . T he r e su l t s a r el i s ted i nT ab le 6 . 1 .

c an b e d i sce rned i n r e f e r ence t od e s ign c ompo s i t ion . R u le s c an s ugges t wha t t he B aby lon ian s c on s id e red a ccep tab le v e r su s wha tt h ey f e l tw a su naccep tab le . N ex t , c hang e s i nt h e f r equenc ie s o f t he ma in a nd f i l l f i gu re s d ur ing t h e e n t i re

T ab le 6 . 1

F i r s t D yna s ty o fB aby lon w i l l b e e xam ined . Ar e la t ion sh ip m ay b e d i sce rn ib le b e tween t h e u s e o f a mo t if a nd t h e c oncu r ren t p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s s i tua t ion . F ina l ly . Iw i l l

S treng th o fA s soc ia t ion B e tween Ma in F igure s

c ompa re t h ed if e rence se v id en tb e twe en t h e OB a nd K a s s i te s e a ls a nd of e r s ome s ugge s t ion s a s t o w hy K a s s i te s ea l

( a )

( b )

( c )

V IV2

B o th

V 1

V 2

S =

I G -FM

6 1

9 4

3 6

0 . 32

ANALYS IS OF " CO MPLETE" OLD BABYLON IAN

I G - WQ

4 0

15

3 9

0 . 21

S EALS

I G -AG

2 8

1 27

5 4

0 . 13

AG - WQ

3 7

4 5

4 2

0 . 3

AG -FM

1 2

7 0

8 5

0 . 07

i c onog raphy a nd i n scr ip t ion sc hanged a st h ey d id .

S cho la r s w ho s t udy Me sopo tam ian c y l inde r s e a l s h ave b een f r u s t ra ted i n t h e i r a t temp t s t o c a tego r ize s p ec if ic t ype s o f O ld B aby lon ian s c ene s . I nh i sc l a s s ic w o rk o nc y l inde rs e a l s , F rank f or t r e f e r s t o at yp ica l OB s e a l d e s ign a s a "me r e c ong lome ra t ion o ff i gu r e s" a nd " a h aphaza rd c o l lec t ion o f

AG -SG

1

8 1

4 4

0 . 01

AG -SF

5

7 7

3 5

0 . 04

6 2

2 4

0 . 21

TC -B M

m o t ive s , a s semb led m e re ly t o b e d i s t inc t ive i n i t s v ar ie ty" ( F rank f o r t , 1 939 :156 ) . A l -Ga i lan i Wen c ame t o as im i la r

2 3

c onc lu s ion i n h e r s t udy o f OB s e a ls . S h e s a y s i n h e r c onc lu s ion , " The re i sn o u n if o rm i ty o fs t y le among t h e s e a ls o ft h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod " ( A l -Ga i lan i Wen . 1 988 :58 ) . My i mp re s s ion f r om w o rk ing o nt h e s e a l s c o inc id e sw i th t h e

T he se n umbe r s l a rge ly c onf i rm wha t h a s b een k nown i n tu i t ive ly f o r m any y ea r s . T h e B aby lon ian s d id n o t u se a s t anda rd ized f o rmu la f o rc r ea t ing s e a l d e s ign s . E ven t h et wo

p r ev iou s t wo a u tho r s ' c onc lu s ion s . T h e B aby lon ian s s e emed t oh ave r e l ied o n al im i ted n umbe r o f ma in i c on s t ha t t h ey c omb ined i n v a r iou s w ays . B u t n o g roup o f t wo o r mo r e

mo s t f r equen t ly p a i r ed mo t if s , t h e I n te rced ing G odd e s s a nd t h e F igure w i th t h e Mace , o n ly a ppea r t oge th e r r ough ly o ne th ird o f t h e t ime . Mo s t o f t h e ' S ' ( s t reng th o f

m o t if s a ppea red t o b e i n ex tr icab ly l i nk ed t og e the r i n a n a r che typ ica l s c ene . I mp r e s s ion s , h oweve r , a r e n o t a lway s r e l iab le . F o r t h i s r e a son , Iu sed J a cca rd 's c oef f i c ien t t o m ea su re t h e s t reng th o fa s soc ia t ion b e tween v a r iab le s a s a n i ndepend en t c heck o n w he the r c e r ta in m o t if s c ou ld b e s hown t oc o -occu r( She rman . 1 988 ) . AJ a cca rd c oef f i c ien t o f

a s so c ia t ion ) c o ef i c ien t s f a l l w i th in t h e r ang e o f wha t o ne w ou ld e xpec t i f al im i ted n umb e r o fm a in i c on s w e re b e ing r andom ly s e lec ted f o ri n c lu s ion o na ny g i ven s e a l .

5 3

T ab le 6 . 1 c l ea r ly s how st h a tn o m a in mo t if sc o -occu r i na ny k ind o f s y s t ema t ic f a sh ion . H oweve r , t h e n umbe r s d o i nd ica te t wo s e t s o f i c on s t h e B aby lon ian s s e em t o h av e d e l ib e r a te ly a vo id ed u s ing o nt h e s ame s e a l . T he A sc end ing G od i . e . , S ha rna sh , a nd t h es e a ted g od a pp ea rt o g e the ro n ly o nce i nt h e e n t i r e d a ta b a se . T h i s may i np a r tb e d ue t ot h e f a c t t h ey b o th r e p re sen t ma jo r g od s . Mo s t s e a l i n sc r ip t ion s o ft h e OB p e r iod r e f e r t ot h e s e a l o wne r a s ' S ervan t o f [ a p a r t icu la r g od ] ' r a the r t h an a g odde s s . If o und o n ly e i gh t c a se s w h e r e t h e o wne r c a l led h im se lf ' S e rvan t o fI s h ta r ' . I t may h ave b een c on s id e red i n app rop r ia te t od ep ic tt wo m a jo r ma le d e i t ie s w h i le d e c la r ing y ou r se lf s e rvan t o f o n ly o n e . T he p rob lem w i th t h i s p a r t icu la r e xp lana t ion i st ha t t h e d iv ine n ame m en t ioned i n t h e i n sc r ip t ion c an r a r e ly b e m a tched w i th t h e i c onog raphy o n t h e s e a l . T h i s r a i se s t h e q u e s t ion , "Why w ou ld i tb ea ccep tab le t on am e as e cond g od i nt h e l e g end b u t n o t p i c tu r e a no the r o n e o n t h e s e a l? " . A t p re sen t , Ih av en oa n swe rt os ugg e s t . T h e A sc end ing G od a l so r a re ly o ccu r s w i th t h e Sm i t ing F igu r e . A g a in , t h i s a ppea r s t ob e t h e r e su l t o f ac on sc iou s d ec i s ion f o rt h e f olow ing r e a son s . O ft h e 4 0 s e a l s w i th t h e S F u sed t oc a lcu la t e t h e c oef f i c ien t , 2 0 o ft h em c am e f r om S ippa r o r e d -D e r . T he s ou rc e o f t h e o t h e r 2 0 r ema in s u nknown . S hama sh w a s t h e c i ty -god o f S i ppa r a nd h i s p opu la r i ty o n c y l ind e r s e a l s c on t inued u nab a ted t h roughou t t h e e n t i r e OB p e r iod ( s ee T ab le 6 . 5 ) . S ince b o th f i gu r e s c an b ea s so c ia ted w i th S ippa ro ri t s s ubu rb , i tw ou ld s e em l i k e ly t ha t t h ey w ou ld o cca s iona l ly c o -occu r o n t h e s am e s e a l s t r ic t ly b y c hanc e . T h i s i sc l ea r ly n o t t h e c a s e . T h ey a pp ea r t oge th e r o n ly f i v e t ime s . N o r c an t h is b e e xp la ined b y t h e r ep lac em en t o f t h e AG b y t h e S F t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e p e r iod . Ap l au s ib le e xp lana t ion m igh t b e t h a t t h e s ymbo l ic m e s sag e ( s ) a s soc ia ted w i th S ha rna sh w e r e r e dundan t o r i n comp a t ib le w i th t h o se c onv eyed b yt he Sm i t ing F igu r e .

T ab le 6 . 2 U se o f Ma in F igure so n OB S ea l s

Ma in S ymbo l

N o . o f

C um N o .

P e r c en t

S ea l s

o fS ea l s

o fT o ta l

1 . In tGod ( IG )

1 92

1 92

3 7%

2 . FMac e( FM )

1 38

2 69

5 1%

3 .TpCu r l ( TC )

8 8

3 29

6 3%

4 .A scdG ( AG )

8 5

3 68

7 0%

5 .Wo rQd (WQ )

8 0

3 79

7 2%

6 . Sea tG ( SG )

4 7

4 01

7 7%

7 .Bu l lM ( BM )

4 7

4 10

7 8%

8 . Sm i tF ( SF )

4 3

4 32

8 3%

9 .Wa r I sh (W I )

3 9

4 40

8 4%

1 0 .L ion

3 3

4 47

8 5%

1 .Nud e Woman

3 1

4 55

8 7%

1 2 .Ba ld P r ie s t

2 4

4 60

8 8%

1 3 .Nud e Man

1 9

4 64

8 9%

1 4 .L ion -D ragon

1 7

4 65

8 9%

1 5 .Goa t

1 3

4 66

8 9%

8 3 d i d n o t . Ig roup ed t h e r ema in ing s e a l s a cco rd ing t ot he s ubp e r iod s d ef ined f o rt h e FDB . T ab le 6 . 3 s how s t h a tt hey w e r e r a ndom ly d i s t r ibu t ed t h roughou t t h e OB p e r iod T h i s s e em s t o s ugge s t t h a t n o s h if t i n t h e ma in r e p e r to i re o ccu r r ed d u r ing t h i s t im ef r ame . I n a dd i t ion , 4 3 o ft h e se 8 3 s ea l ing s h ad o n ly o n e o r t wo s ymbo l s p r e s er v ed . T he i r f r agm en ta ry c ond i t ion m ay i n p a r t b e r e spon s ib le f o r t he l a ck o f as t anda rd f i gu r e i n t h i s g roup . T h e r ema in ing 4 0 s e a l s , o r7 . 6% o ft h e 5 23 s e a l s w i th i c onog raphy , h ad mo re t han t wo f i gu re sp r e sen tb u t d id n o t i n c lude o ne o ft h e n ine b a s ic m o t if s .

T he B aby lon ian a pp roach t o s e a l d e s ign c ompo s i t ion a ppa r en t ly d id n o t i n vo lv e u s ing c on s is ten tc omb ina t ion s o f ma in f i gu r e s . Y e t o n t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o ft h e i r s e a l s , t h ey i n c luded a tl e a s to ne mo t if f r om av e ry l im i ted i c onog raph ic r epe r to i r e . T o i lu s t ra t e t h i s , Ir anked t h e 1 5 m o s t c ommon i c on s i no rd e rf r om t h e mo s tt ot h el e a s tf r equen t ( s ee T ab le 6 . 2 ) . I n t h i s c a s e , Ii n c luded t h e s ymbo l s o n a l l 5 23 s e a l s t ha t h ad e x tan t i c onog raphy . E ach mo t if i sf o l lowed b y t h e a c tua l n umb e r o f s e a l s o n w h ich i ta pp ea r s , ac umu la t iv e t o ta l , a nd t h ep e r cen t t h a t c umu la t ive t o ta l c omp r i se s o ft h e 5 23 s e a l s . F o re xamp le , t h e I G a ppea r s o n 1 92 s e a l s w h ich t r an s la t e si n to 3 7% o ft h et o ta l s e a l ing s . S h ea nd /o rt h e FM c an b e f o und o n 2 69 s e a l s . T ha t m ean s t og e th e r o r s epa ra t e ly , s e a l c a r ve r s p o r t rayed t h em o n 5 1% o ft h e OB ma te r ia l . N ex t , t h e s e a l sw i th L ahmu ( TC )c an b e a dd ed i n . . A r t i s t sd ep ic ted a tl e a s to n eo ft h eI G , FM ,o rT Co n6 3% o f t h e s e a l s . C on t inu ing o n i nt h e s am e w ay , t h e f i gu re s s how t ha t s i x m o t if s a ppea r o n o ve r t h re e -qua r te r s o f t h e t o ta l s e a l s . T h e n i ne m a in i c on s Id e sc r ibed i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap te rr e p r e sen t8 4% o ft h es e a l si nt h ed a ta b a se . T h en ex t s i x m o s t c ommon i c on s c omb ined a r e o n ly d ep ic ted o n 2 6 s e a l s t h a t d o n o t i n c lud e o ne o ft h e p rev iou s n ine f i gu r e s . T h i s l im i t ed n umbe r o f m o t if s f o rmed t h e b ackbon e o f c y l ind e rs e a ld e s ign sd ur ing t h eO ld B ab y lon ian p e r iod O n e c an a l so v i ew T ab le 6 . 2 f r om a no the r p e r sp ec t ive . I f4 40 s e a ls c on ta ined o n eo ft h en i ne s t anda rd f i gu r e s ,t h a tm ean s

T ab le 6 . 3 C hrono log ica l D i s tr ibu t ion o fS ea l s Wi thou tS tandard F igure s E0B1 -9

LOB1 -3

E0B2 10

LOB2 -6

E0B3 -7

LOB3 12

E0B4 -7

LOB4 -6

E0B5 -5

LOBS -5

E0B6 -6

LOB6 -7

TOT-44

TOT39

T h e c omb ined r e su l t s o f t h e l a s t t wo t a b le s p o in t t o t h e d if i cu l t ie s w h ich a r i se i n t r y ing t o i n te rp re t O B s ea l d e s ign s . We a s sume t h a t s e a l i c onog raphy , a t s om e l e ve l , c onv eyed m e s sag e s i n s ymbo l ic f o rm . T o e f e c t ive ly c ommun ica t e i n t h i s m anne r , o n e o f t h e p r in c ip le s t ha t p eop le m o s t o f ten a dh e r e t o i s t h e r u le o f r e dundancy . 5 4

c an mo re e a s i ly c onvey a n i n te rp re tab le m e s sage t han t ho se

e f or t t o mon i to r g ene ra l t r end s o fc on s i s tency o rc hange o f ag iven mo t if t h rough t ime .

t ha t c on s tan t ly c hange i n a pp ea ranc e a nd c on tex t . T he s e a l c a rver s o ft h eF DB c l ea r ly d id emp loy al im i ted s e t o fi c on s

T ab le 6 . 5 l i s t s t h e n umbe r o f t ime s e ach o f t h e n ine ma in

I d en t if iab le s ymbo l s p u t t oge the r i n s t anda rd ized f o rma t s

f i gu re s a pp ea r s i n e ach s ubg roup . T he c o lumn s g ive a g enera l i mp re s s ion o ft he v ar ia t ion s i nt h e f r equency o fu se

w i th s pec if i c , i d en t if iab le a t tr ibu te s . T he se w ou ld h ave f a c il i ta ted s ymbo l ic c ommun ica t ion . H oweve r , a r t is t sd id n o t c omb ine t h e s em o t if si n to r e cogn izab le p a t te rn s . B u tt h e u se

o ft he i nd iv idua l i c on s t h roughou t t h e OB p e r iod . Aga in i t s hou ld b e empha s ized t ha t a l l t h e se c oun t s a r e u ndoub ted ly t o o l ow b ecau se o ft h e f r agmen ta ry n a tu re o ft h e d a ta b a se .

o f d e l ibe ra te c ho ice s c an b e s e en i np a i r s o f i c on s t ha t d o n o t a ppea r t o ge ther . T h is d emon s t ra t e s t ha t d e sp i te t h e

T h ef o l low ing d i scu s s ion i sb a sed o nt h es er e su l t s .

e v id ence , t h e i c on s w e re n o t b e ing c ho sen i n ac omp le te ly r andom f a sh ion .

T ab le 6 . 5 N umber o fO ccurrence so f Ma in F igure so n OB S ea l s CHANGES o r I CONOGRAPHY DUR ING THE OLD

I G FM TC AG WQ BM

BABYLON IAN PER IOD

5

7

4 5

6

6

8

5

0

6

5 0

1 3

6

3

5

2

0

7

5 0

1 6

9

8

4

4

1

3

5 0

8

6

8

3

0

6

5 0

1 5

6

4

3

3

3

1

2

5 0

1 6

1 3

5

4

6

7

2

2

3

5 5

LOB2

1 5

2 3

5

7

3

1

3

1

2

5 0

LOB3

2 1

6

5

6

8

5

3

1

5 0

LOB4

1 5

6

5

5

7

1

4

3

1

5 0

LOBS

1 8

4

9

8

7

2

5

1

1

5 0

LOB6

2 0

3

7

9

7

5

1 1 9

0

5 0

TOT

2 04

E0B2

1

h a s b e en t h e i n ab i l i ty o f r e sea rche r s t o i d en t if y s p ec if ic mo t if s a s c h rono log ica l i nd ica to r s . T hou sand s o f OB s e a l s e x is t a nd a r e , f o r t he mo s t p ar t , u nda tab le . When a na ly zed t oge the r , n o i c on c an b e i s o la ted a nd s t ud ied i nt e rm s o fi t s f r equency t h rough t ime . T h i sa pp roach m a sk sa ny v a r ia t ion s i n i c onog raphy t ha t may h ave e x i s t ed . I t a l so make s i t i mpo s s ib le t or e la te c hange s i n i c onog raphy t ot he i rb roade r

E0B3

2 1

2 2

E0B4

1 9

1 5

E0B5

1 8

1 2

E0B6

1 0

LOB1

c u l tu ra lc on t ex t .

w i th t h e e x cep t ion o f E0B1 wh ich h a s 4 5 s e a ls a nd LOB1 w i th 5 5 . Il i s ted t he 1 2 s ubg roup s i nT ab le 6 .4 a l ong w i th

t ime d ue t ot h e u neven d i s tr ibu t ion o ft h e s ea ls w i th in t h e OB p e r iod .H oweve r ,t h i sp rob lem d o e sn o ti mpede t h e

8

1 38

1 7

9 7

1 5

8 5

1 3

8 0

5 2

1 2

4 7

4 6

3 9 _ 6 00

d ue t o s amp l ing e r ro r , i t s e em s t h e i r p opu lar i ty n e i the r s u rged n o r w aned . T he A scend ing G od , Wo r sh ipe r w i th Quad rup ed , a nd S ea ted G od a l so a pp ea r r e a sonab ly

T ab le 6 . 4 S ubd iv is ion o fO ld Baby lon ian S ea ls S ea l# s

1

T he t ab le r evea l s t ha t t he p r e sence o f t h e I n te rced ing G odde s s a nd t h e B u l lman r ema ined r ema rkab ly s t eady o ve r t h ec ou r se o ft h e F i r s t D yna s ty o fB aby lon . G iven v a r ia t ion s

t he n am e o f t h e k ing s a nd t he i r r e gna l y ea r s , i fk nown . T he se c a t ego r ie s n ece ssa r i ly e ncomp a s s d if eren t s pan s o f

G roup

N=

1'

A s econd p rob lem i n i n te rp re t ing O ld B aby lon ian g lyp t ic

O ld B aby lon ian s ea l s a nd 3 05 L a te O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s i n to s i xs ubg roup se ach . E ve ry s ubd iv i s ion c on ta in s 5 0 s ea l s

WI

5

2 0

r e l ig iou s s i tua t ion? T o d e tec t t h i s , Id i v ided t he 2 95 E a r ly

S F

9

E0B1

T h i s d a ta b a se p rov id e s amean s t ot e s t w he ther c hange s i n s ymbo l i sm c an b e d e tec ted w i th in t h e OB p e r iod . I fs o , c an t hese b e e xp la ined i nr e la t ion t ot h ec oncu r ren tp o l i t ica l a nd

S G

c on s is ten t b u tw i th o ne b r ief s u rg e e ach . T he re i sn o w ay t o k now whe the rt h ey e n joyed as ho r tb u r s t o ff a vo ro r whe the r t h e se n umb er s r e f lec t as kewed s amp le . L ahmu w i th t h e T r ip le C u r l s m ay h ave b een s l igh t ly m o r e p opu la r d u r ing

K ing a nd Y ea ro fR e ign

t h e EOB p er iod , b u t f r om E0B5 o nwa rd s , h e a pp ea r s q u i te r egu la r ly o n t h e s e a ls . T he r ema in ing t h ree mo t if s , t he

E0B1

1 -4 5

S umuabum -A S /S inmuba l .

E0B2

4 6 -9 5

AS /S inmuba l . -S inmuba l l i t

E0B3

9 5 -145

S inmuba l l i t -H ammurab i

E0B4

1 46 195

H ammu rab i 4-H ammu rab i 1 8

E0B5

1 96 -245

H ammurab i 2 5 -H ammu rab i 3 8

E0B6

2 46 -295

H ammurab i 3 8 -H ammu rab i

LOB!

2 96 -350

S am su i luna 1-S am su i luna 5

LOB2

3 51-400

S am su i luna 5-S am su i luna 9

LOB3

4 01-450

S am su i luna 9-S amsu i luna 3 0

LOB4

4 51-500

S am su i luna 3 -Amm id i tana 1

LOBS

5 01-550

Amm id i tan a 1 5 -Amm isaduqa 9

LOB6

5 51-600

Amnüsaduq a 9-S am sud i tana

F igu re w i th t h e Mace , Sm i t ing F igu r e , a nd Wa r r io r I s h ta r h ave mo r e s ugg e s t ive d i s tr ibu t ion s . Iw i l l d i scu s s t hem

3

i nd iv idua l ly b e low . T he F igure w i th t he Mace ( FM ) T he F igu re w i th t h e Mac e h a s b een as ou rce o fc on t rove r sy among s cho la r s f o r many y ea r s . H e h a s a l terna t ive ly b e en r e f er r ed t o a s t h e G od w i th t h e Mace ( Van B u r en , 1 954 :8 ; V on d e rO s ten , 1 934 :6 ) o rt h e K ing w i th t h e Mace ( Co l ion , 1 988 :45 ) . F rank f o r t ( 1939 :168 ) t hough t t h a t e i the r m igh tb e p o s s ib le . R ec en t ly , B lack a nd G reen ( 1992 :124 ) u sed t h e mo r e n eu t ra l t e rm . F igu re w i th t h e Mace . Who t h is p e r sonag e r ep r e sen ted i s i mpo r tan t b ecau se t h e c or r ec t i d en t if ica t ion o fa n i c on mu s t n ece s sa r i ly b e t h e f i r s t s t ep i n t r y ing t o r e con s t ruc t t he m ean ing o f a s ymbo l . A n 5 5

e xam ina t ion o f t he v a r ia t ion s i n h i s a t t r ibu te s a nd h i s d i s t r ibu t ion t h rough t h e OB p e r iod may o f e r s ome n ew i n s igh t sc once rn ing t h eF igu re w i th t he Mace .

ap l a t f o rm o rp i le o fr ock s ; 9 , 1 9 , 1 07 , 1 26 , 1 28 , a nd 1 32 . Numbe r 1 9 mu s tb e c on s idered u nc e r ta in . On 1 9 , t h e FM i s s ma l l i nc ompa r i son t ot he o the r f i gu re s a nd l o ok s a s i fh e c ou ld b eo n ap l a tf orm . b u tt he b o t tom p a r to ft he i mp re s s ion i sm is s ing . T he se p a r t icu la r i con s m ay r ep re sen tc u l t s t a tue s o f t h e k ing . F rank f o r t ( 1939 :159 ) s ugge s ted t h i s

T he f i r s tq ue s t ion t ob ea dd r e s sed p er ta in s t oh i s s t a tu s . Wa s t he FM h uman o r d iv ine? Du r ing t h e OB p er iod , s e a l c arver s u sed s evera l a t t r ibu te s , i n c lud ing h eadwea r a nd d ep ic t ion o f h a i r , t o d e s igna te p e r sonage s a s h um an s o r

i n te rp r e ta t ion . I n Me sopo tam ia , k ing so f t en p laced s t a tue so f

d e i t ie s . D iv in i t ie s w o re h or n c rown s a nd h ad i d en t if iab le

t hem se lve si nt emp le st oc on s tan t ly r em ind t he d e i ty o ft he ir p re sence ( F rank f o r t , 1 978 :303) . I na l s i xd ep ic t ion s ,t h e FM

h a ir s ty le sw h i le h uman m a le s w o r e t u rban s a nd h ad n o h a i r

w ea r s at u rban , n o t ah igh b r immed h a to rh orn c r own .

s hown . T he i n termed ia t e s t y le o f t al h a t s w i th b r im s p robab ly b e longed t om ino rd e i t ie s .

T he l a s t a nd p e rhap s mo s t u nexp ec t ed p i ece o f e v idenc e

T he FM u sua l ly w ea r s at u rban b u to c ca s iona l ly a pp ea r si na t a l l b r immed h a t . On ly t w ice i s h e d ep ic ted w i th a h or n c rown . A s e xpec ted , i f h e w ea r s at u rban , n o h a i r i s i nd ica ted w i th o ne o rt wo p o s s ib le e xcep t ion s . On s e a l 1 4 1 , t he FM h a s ap ony ta i l o f s o r t s . H oweve r , t h e o r ig ina l

wh ich s uppor t s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e FM w i th t h e k ing p roved t o b e t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h i s m o t if w i th in t h e OB p er iod . L ook ing b ack a t T ab le 6 . 5 , t h e FM s t a r t s a t a r e la t ive ly h i gh l e ve l o fp opu lar i ty i n E0B1 . T h i s c on t inue s t h roughou t t h e e n t i re EOB a nd b eg inn ing o f t h e LOB p er iod . I nf a c t , i n LOB2 , t he FM a pp ea r s o nj us t u nd e rh a lf t he t o ta l s e a l s i nt ha t g roup . T ha t i st h e s i ng le h ighe s t s um

p ub l ica t ion ( Buchanan , 1 981 :294 . N o .790d ) d id n o t i n c lude ap ho to o ft h i s s e c t ion o ft h e s ea l ing s oi tw a s i mpo s s ib le t o v er if y . T he o the r s ea l w h ich s how s aFM w i th at u rban p l u s

i nt he e n t i r et a b le . T he f o l low ing s ubg roup LOB3 r e vea l s a d rama t ic d rop i nh i s r ep re sen ta t ion s w h ich c on t inue t ot r a i l o ft h rough t h ee nd o ft he LOB .

ap ony ta i l i s3 78 . On t h e o cca s ion s w hen h e w ea r s ah igh h a to rh o rn c r own , t he FM v i r tua l ly a lway sh a s ap ony ta i l .

T he s udd en d rop i n t he d ep ic t ion o f t h e FM c anno t b e Ii den t if ied 1 38 s ea l s a s h av ing a FM b u t i n 4 5 i n s tance s , t he h ead w a s m i s s ing f r om t h e i mp re s s ion . T ha t l ef t at o ta l

u nde r s tood w i thou t r e f erenc e t ot he p o l i t ica l s i tua t ion o ft h e m id 18t hc en tu ry B .C . T he e ar ly k ing so ft h e FDB g radua l ly

o f 9 3 i c on s w i th wh ich t o c a lcu la te t h e s t r eng th o f t h e c or re la t ion b e tween h a t t yp e a nd h a i r s ty le ( s ee T ab le 6 . 6 ) . I d id n o t i n c lud e t he FM o n s e a l 1 41 a s h av ing h a i r i nt h i s

e x tended a nd t h en c on so l ida ted B ab y lon 's r u le o ve r i t s

c a lcu la t ion b ecau se t he a r t i s t who s k e tched t h e s ea l ing , a l so s how st he I Gw i th at u rban . E ven i nt h ep ub l ished p ho to o ne c an s e e t h a t s he h a s ah o rn c rown ( Buchanan , 1 981 :294 , No .790d ) . T he ref o re . If ound i td if i cu l t t o a ccep t t h a t t h e

n e ighbo r s . T h i s a r ea c omp r i sed t h e c o r e o f t he OB s t a te . H a imnu rab i d id n o t o r c ou ld n o t e xpand b eyond t ha t t e rr i to ry u n t i l h i s 2 9 th r egna l y ea r . I nt h e e n su ing y ea r s , h e f i r s tc ap tu r ed S ume ra nd t hen t u rned h i sa t ten t ion n o r th a nd

FM h ad ap ony ta i lo nt h eb a s i so ft h is d raw ing a l one .

w e s t t owa rd s K a rana a nd Mar i . H ow eve r , h e d id n o t l i v e t o i nco rpo ra te t h e se n ew l and s e f ec t ive ly i n to t he B aby lon ian a dm in i s t ra t iv e s y s tem . B y t h e m idd le o f h i s s on 's e i gh th

T ab le 6 . 6

y ea r , r e b e l l ion s b roke o u t a s p rev iou s ly c onque red c i t ie s t r ied t o r e c la im t he i r i nd epend en ce . E ven t h ough C orre la t ion o f Ha t s a nd Ha ir T urban N oH a i r H a i r

6 9 1

H igh H a t /HC

S am su i luna s t rugg led t o ma in ta in c on t ro l , b y t he e nd o fh i s r e ign . o n ly t h e c o re a rea r ema in ed u nde r B aby lon 's d om ina t ion .

S =

2 2 1

T he e nd o ft h e LOB2 s ea l g roup c o inc id e s w i th S am su i luna y ea r 9 . T he LOB3 a nd l a te r s ea l s r e p r e sen t t he y ea r s o f

0 . 912

d ec l in e a nd s t agna t ion f o r B aby lon . Is ugge s t t h a t t h e d rama t ic d rop o ft h e FM o n LOB c y l ind e r d i rec t ly r e f lec t s t he d e te r iora t ing p ol i t ica l s i tua t ion a nd t he s ub sequ en t w eaken ing o ft h ek ing 's p res t ige . T he F igu re w i th t h e Mac e

Ic hose t h e p h i c oe f i c ien t t o d e te rm ine t h e s t reng th o f a ssoc ia t ion b e tween t h e se t wo v a r iab le s ( Shennan . 1 988 ) . P h i c an r ang e f r om m inu s o ne t o p lu s o ne . A p lu s o ne mean s t h e t wo v a r iab le s h ave ap e r f ec t p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion .

p o r tray s a n i nd iv idua l s t r id ing f o r th w i th c onf idence o f t en f a c ing ab enevo len t g odde s s . T h i s i mag eo ft h e mona r ch f i t s i n w el w i th t h e p e r iod o f B aby lon 's r i se t o p owe r . T he

E ve ry t ime o ne i sp re sen t , s o i s t h e o the r . A m inu s o ne i mp l ies t ha t i ft h e f i r s t v a r iab le i s p r e sen t t h e s e cond i s a b sen t . Az e ro i nd ica te s t h e v a r iab le s h ave n o a s soc ia t ion a t

h e igh t o f t h e FDB 's c on t ro l

e ncompa s se s t he e nd o f

H ammu r ab i 's a nd t he b eg inn ing o f S am su ihma 's r e ign s . T he ma x imum n umber o f r ep re sen ta t ion s o f t h e FM c o inc id e s w ith S am su i luna 's y ea r s f i ve t o n ine . W i th t h e

a l l . T h e p h i c oe f i c ien t f o r t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een h a ir s ty le sa nd t ype o fh a tc ame o u tt ob e . 9 12 . T h i s c onf i rm s t ha t a r t is t s c on s i s ten t ly u sed t h e a t t r ibu te s o fh eadwea r a nd

d i s in teg ra t ion o ft h e emp ir e , t h e i mag e o ft h e s e lf -a s su r ed

h a i rt oge th e rt oi nd ica te d i v in i ty . V er yf ew i c on sd i sp layed a ' m ixed m e s sag e ' . Ov e ra l l , t h e FM a pp ea r s a s ah uman

mona rch d ropp ed p rec ip i tou s ly f r om t h e p eak o f i t s p opu la r i ty . I t mu s tb e r ememb e red t ha tt h e s ucce s so f ak ing

r ough ly 7 5% o ft h et ime v e r su s b e ing s hown a s am ino r g od t he o the r2 5% o ft he t ime .

t ot ak ec a r eo fh i sp eop le c ame d i r ec t ly f r om g od s . I fd i sa s t e r s t ruck , i tm ean tt h a tt he g od s h ad w i thd rawn t h e i rf avo r . T o aB aby lon ian m ona rch , t o b e a bandoned b y y ou r g od w a s n o th ing l e s s t h an a c a ta s t rophe . T h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e

T he h eadwea r a nd h a i r s ty le s ugge s t t h a t t h e FM s hou ld b e r ega rded a s ah uman , b u t s hou ld h e n ece s sa r i ly b e i d en t if i ed a s t he k ing ? O the r e v id ence p rov ide s s uppo r t f o r t h i s s uppo s i t ion . S i x s ea l sf r om t h e EOB p e r iod s how t h e FM o n

F igu r e w i th t h e Mace o n OB c y l inde r s e a l s m ir ro r s t h e f a te o ft he F i r s t D yn a s ty k ing s . T h i s c omb ined w i th t h e p rev iou s 5 6

e v idenc e s t rong ly s ugge s t s t ha t t h i sf i gu re s hou ld i ndeed b e i d en t if ied a st he K ing w i th t he Mac e .

p re sence o n OB c y l ind e r s ea l s may b e l i nked d i r ec t ly t ot h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween B aby lon a nd U ruk .

F ina l ly , t h e o ne -qua r t e r o ft he F igu re s w i th t h e Mace t ha t w ea r at a l l b r immed h a t a nd h ave a p ony ta i l mu s t b e

I tw i l l b e r e ca l led t ha t I s h ta r w a s t h e c i ty -godde s s o fU ruk . T h e e a r ly k ing s o f B aby lon f o rged a nd ma in ta ined a n

c ons ide r ed . I nt h is d a ta b a se , h eh a st h es ame d i s t r ibu t ion a s

e sp ec ia l ly c l o se l i nk w i th t ha t s ou the rn c i ty . S umu la i lum ,

t he mo r ta l f i gu re . A ga in , t h i s s ugge s t s t ha t t h i s s pec if ic

t h e s e cond k ing o ft h e d yna s ty , m a r r ied h i s d augh te r t ot h e k ing o fU ruk _ H i s s on , S ab ium , s en t 1 000 men t oa id U ruk ,

f i gu r e s hou ld a l so b e r ega rd ed a s ak ing r a the r t h an j us t a m ino r d e i ty . S ome a u tho r s ( B lack a nd G reen , 1 992 ) h ave

p re sumab ly a tt he i r r eques t . U ruk a nd B aby lon f o rmed p a r t o f a n a ll iance a ga in s t R im -S in I i n S am su i l tma 's f ou r th y ea r . I ti sn o t s u rp r i s ing B aby lon ian a r t i s t s d ep ic ted h e r o n t h e i rs ea l s .

s ugg e s ted t ha t h e r ep re sen t s a d e if ied f o rme r k ing . Me sopo tam ian s n orma l ly d id n o t d e if yt h e i rk ing sb u tk ing s c er ta in ly d id h ave mo r e c on tac t w i th t h e d iv ine t han me r e mo r ta l s . T hu s t he p o s s ib i l i ty e x i s t s t ha t s om e a r t is t s d e l ibe ra te ly b lur red t h el i ne b e tween h uman a nd g od .

Ad ip i nt he n umbe ro fh e r d ep ic t ion so ccu r s i n E0B4 . T h i s c o inc ide s w i th t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e r e ign o f Hammu rab i .

Sm i t ing F igure ( SF )

Du r ing t h i s t ime , R im S in I c on t ro l led a l l o f s ou the rn

T he m o s t s a l ien t f e a tu re o ft he Sm i t ing F igu re c once rn s h i s

Me sopo tam ia i n c lud ing U ruk . H ammu rab i f i naly c ap tu red U ruk i n h i s 3 0 th r egna l y ea r a nd i n co rpo ra ted i ti n to h i s

a b rup t i n c rea se o n s e a l st owa rd st h e e nd o ft h e LOB p e r iod . I n t h e e n t i re EOB p e r iod , h e a pp ea red o n at o ta l o f s even s ea l s . I n LOB1 t h rough LOB4 , Ic oun ted h im n ine t ime s .

e mp ir e . B u t t h e s ou the r n c i t ie s d id n o t f a re w e l l u nde r B aby lon ian r u le . When t h e emp i r eb eg an t ob reak u p i nt he e i gh th y ea r o f S amsu i luna , U ruk w a s o ne o ft he c i t ie s t ha t r eb e l led . S am su i luna d es t royed U ruk e i the r l a te i n h i s 1 0 th o r e a r ly i n h i s 1l t h y ea r . T h i s c o r r e spond s r ough ly t o t he b eg inn ing o ft h e LOB3 s e a l s . F rom S am su i luna y ea r 9t ot h e e nd o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian p er iod , Wa r r io r I s h ta r o n ly a pp ea r s t h ree t ime s . P o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s c on s id e ra t ion s c onve rged t o make t h e p o r t raya l o ft h e p a t ron -godd e s s o fa r ebe l l iou sc i ty n o l onge ra ccep tab le .

T hen , t h en umbe ro f Sm i t ing F igu r e sj ump ed t o1 i n LOBS a nd 1 9 i n LOB6 . P e r sonage s i nt h e s m i t ing p o s i t ion c anno t b e i d en t if ied a s s pec if i ci nd iv idua l s . N o ra r et h ey n ece s sar i ly d iv in e o rh uman . N ea r ly a l l t h e S F o ft h e LOB p e r iod w ea r b r imm ed h a t s wh ich c anno t b e u sed a s u nequ ivoca l i nd ica to r s o f s t a tu s . N o r d oe s t y p e o f g a rmen t o r t he d ep ic t ion o fh a ir s hed much l i gh t o nt h e p rob lem . T ab le 6 .7 s how s ar andom d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se t wo a t t r ibu te si nt he 3 0 S Fo ft h el a s tt wo s ubp e r iod s . T ab le 6 . 7

N oHa i r

2

1

2

S hor t

3

4

4

N aked

3

6

1

U n iden t .

3

1

when

t h e

p r ev iou s

e xp lana t ion

g a in s

p lau s ib i l i ty

i d en t if ied a s S hama sh , t h e c i ty -god o fS ippa r . S ippa r c ame d i rec t ly u nde r B aby lon ian c on t ro l d u r ing t h e r e ign o f S umu la i lum . I tr ema ined u nde r t h e i r i nf luence r i gh t t ot he

Un id .

L ong

E ven

s o ,

c ompa red t o t he f r equency o f r ep r e sen ta t ion s o f t he A scend ing G od . T he AG , a s m en t ioned e a r l ier , c an b e

C orre la t ion o f Garmen ta nd Ha ir H a i r

T he n umbe r o fd ep ic t ion s o f Wa r r io r I s h ta r i ss ma l l .

e nd o ft h e d yna s ty . I ft h e d ep ic t ion so ft h ec i ty -god c or r e la te p o s i t ive ly w i th t ha t c i ty 's r e la t ion s w i th B aby lon , t h en t he d ep ic t ion s o f S hama sh s hou ld r ema in r e la t ive ly c on s tan t t h roughou t t h e e n t i r e p er iod . T h i s i s i n f a c t wha t t he e v idence s how s .

T he S Fg i ves o ne t h ei mp re s s ion o fa c t ion . H e i ss t r ik ing o u t a t s omeone o r s ome th ing . LOBS b eg in s i n t h e 1 5 th y ea r o f Amm i c l i tana . H e a l on e o ft he l a s t f ou rk ing s s e em s t oh ave

F i l l F igure s E xc lu s ive t o t he E ar ly O ld B aby lon ian P er iod

h ad s om e m i l i ta ry s u cc e s s a ga in s t t h e S ea land d yna s ty . I n h i s3 6 th r egna ly ea r , h e ma rched a sf a rs ou th a s Durum n ea r U r uk . T h is c ampa ign a ppa ren t ly h ad f ew l ong t e rm e f ec t s . Anun id i tana 's i mm ed ia te s u cce s so r . Amm i saduqa , i nadv e r t en t ly r evea l s t h e s i tua t ion i nh i s E d ic t i n wh ich h e

T he b reakdown o ft h e OB p er iod m a t er ia l i n to c h rono log ica l s ubg roup s h a s r evea led t ha t t he f r equ ency o f s eve ra l ma in

a t temp t s t o a l lev ia te t h e s uf er ing o f t h e p eop le . Maybe

f i gu re s v a r ied t h rough t ime . I ta l so s howed t ha t s i x f i l l f i gu re s w e re c onf ined e xc lu s ive ly t ot h e EOB p er iod . T ab le 6 . 8 l i s t st h e n ame o ft h e mo t if , t h et o ta l n umber f ound i nt h e

Sm i t ing F igu res r ev ea l t h e w i sh t h a t s omeon e , e i the r g od o r man , c ou ld i mp rove t h e d if i cu l t e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l c i r cum s tance sa tt h ee nd o ft he O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod .

d a ta b a se , t h e d a te o fi t s l a s t a ppearanc e , a nd t he i nd iv idua l s e a l n umbe r s o n w h ich I i d en t if i ed t h em . I t h a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t f i l l f i gu r e s r ep re sen ted m ag ica l s ymbo l s o n

I s h ta r i n h e r wa r r io r g a rb o n ly a ppea r s 3 9 t ime s i n t he

s e a l s ( B lack a nd G reen , 1 992 ) . T he i rd i sappea rance o n LOB s e a ls c an p robab ly b e t i ed t oc hang e s i nr e l ig iou s i d ea s , b u t why t h e se p ar t icu la r m o t if s d ropp ed o u t a f te r H ammu rab i r ema in s e n igma t ic . D e sp i te t h i s , t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion s ugge s t s

who l e d a ta b ase . D e sp i te t h i s mod e s t t o ta l , h e r d i s t r ibu t ion t h roughou t t he OB p e r iod s ugg e s t s s h e w a s mo r e p opu la r i n

t h ey m igh t p rove u sefu l a s c h rono log ica l i nd exe s f o r a c o l lec t ion o fs e a ls .

Warr ior I sh tar (W I )

t he e a r l ie r p ar t o f t h e F i r s t D yna s ty o f B aby lon .

H e r

5 7

T ab le 6 . 8

F ina l ly , Is ough t t oe xp la in c hange i n s e a l i c onog raphy b y r e la t ing i tt ot h e p ol i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou sc l ima te o ft h et ime s .

E ar ly O ld B aby lon ian F i l l F igure s Mo t if

N

T ur t le

amm . 1 0 3 H

7 7 , 1 41 , 1 7 1

H edg ehog

amm . 2 5 3 H

1 46 , 1 84 , 2 09

Humbaba Ma sk

7 H amm , 3 9

3 3 , 4 0 , 6 4 , 9 9 ,

L a s t App ea r s :

E a r ly i n t h e i nves t iga t ion , i t b ecam e a ppa ren t t h a t t he n umb e r o fl a rge f i gu r e s wh ich a ppea r ed f r equen t ly o n OB

S ea l Numbe r s

s ea l s w a s q u i te l im i ted . T he i c onog raph ic r ep er to ir e o v e ra l l g av e t h e i mp re s s ion o fs t anda rd iza t ion . T h i s w a s c onf i rmed b y t h e w o rk o f L am ia A l -Ga i lan i Wen ( 1 988 ) . S h e f ound t ha t t wo w ork shop s o p e ra t ing i n S ippa r d u r ing t h e OB p e r iod c ou ld o n ly b e d i s t ingu ished b y t h e ir m e thod o f

1 61 ,174 , 2 52 C rook

5 H amm . 4 3

e ng rav ing s e a l s , n o t b y t h e i r c ho ic e o fm o t if s . It h ink t h is

4 8 , 1 41 , 1 47 ,

d eg r ee o f c on s i s tency i n OB i c onog raphy c an o n ly b e e xp la ined b y h ypo the s iz ing t ha t t he g ove rnmen t e x e r c i sed s ome c on t ro l o ve r t h e c ho ice o f s ymbo l s . T he n umb e r o f

1 77 , 2 65 J e l lyf i sh

3 H amm . n od a te 2 3 , 8 2 , 2 90

An ima lw /C rook

5 H amm . n od a te 4 3 , 4 8 , 9 3 , 1 24 ,2 72

ma in f i gu r e s i s t o o s ma l l t o h ave h app ened s t r ic t ly b y c hance . T he c on ten t ion t ha tt h e p a lac e t o s ome e x ten t c on t ro l led t he s ymbo l s u sed o n c yl inde r s ea ls i s s uppo r ted b y t he d i s t r ibu t ion s o f t h e K ing w i th t he Mace ( KM ) a nd t h e Sm i t ing F igu r e t h roughou t t he OB p e r iod . T he r e la t ive a bundance o ft h e KM o n OB c y l inde r s e a l sc l o se ly p a r a l le l s t h e f o r tune s o f B aby lon d u r ing t h e F i r s t D yna s ty . H anunu rab i , t h es i x th k ing , e x tended B aby lon ian s uze ra in ty ,

D ISCUSS ION OF OLD BABYLON IAN I CONOGRAPHY T h is s t udy o f d a ted O ld B aby lon ian s ea l i c onog raphy i nve s t iga ted s ome l ong -he ld b e l ief s a bou t c y l ind e r s e a l s b e long ing t ot h i st ime p e r iod . T he f i nd ing s c on f i rmed much

a l be i tb r ie f ly , t ot h e s ou th , n or th , a nd w e s t . D ocumen t ss how t ha t h e e xe r c i sed a f i rm c on t ro l o ve r m an y a spec t s o f t h e g ov e rn ing o fh i s k ingdom ( Ha r r is , 1 968 ; Y of f ee , 1 977a a nd 1 978 ) . N o d e ta i l s e emed t o o s ma l l f o rH anunu rab i t oi g no re .

o f wha t h a s b een k nown i n tu i t ive ly f o r many y ea r s . I n a dd i t ion , Id i scove red s ome p rev iou s ly u nde tec ted t r end s i n s ea l i c onog raphy . T he se c an n ow b ee x am ined i nr e la t ion t o

T h i s p r e sumab ly i n c lud ed d ec id ing wha t m o t if s s hou ld b e u sed o n c y l ind e r s ea l s . A t t h i s p o in t i n t ime , n o t

t h e p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s e ven t s o f t h e F i r s t Dyna s ty o f B aby lon . T he

f i r s t

q ue s t ion

I i n ve s t iga ted

c oncerned

s u rp r i s ing ly , t he KM mo t if r i va l led t he I n te r ced ing G odde s s i np opu la r i ty .

d e s ign

T h i s s i tua t ion l a s ted t h rough t he e igh th y ea r o f h i s s on ,

c ompo s i t ion . S cho la r s h ave l ong h e ld t ha t O ld B aby lon ian s e a l c u t te r s d id n o t c omb ine mo t if s s y s tema t ica l ly t oc r ea te

S am su i luna .

i d en t if iab le s c ene s ( A l -Ga i lan i Wen , 1 988 ; F rank f o r t , 1 939 ) . My s t udy c o rrobo ra ted t h i s . If ound t ha tn ot wo m a in mo t if s

c ou ld b e

s hown t o c o -occu r

a t a s t a t i s t ica l ly

Anmü saduqa , u n in ten t iona l ly p e rhap s , a cknow ledg e s t h e h a rd sh ip s b e ing f a ced b y t h e B aby lon ian p eop le ( P r i t cha rd . ,

t h e A scend ing G od , S hama sh , w i th e i the r aS ea ted G od o r t he Sm i t ing F igu re . T h i s p robab ly r ef lec ted s ubcon sc iou s

1 969 ) . I n Me sopo tam ia " s uch c ond i t ion ss i gna l led t h e l o s so f d iv ine f avo r t owa rd s t h e k ing . T hu s t h e L a te O ld

r e l ig iou s i d ea sc once rn ing wha tf i gure sc ou ld , o ri nt h i sc a se c ou ld n o t ,b eg rouped t og e the r .

B aby lon ian r u ler s c ou ld n o l onger c l a im t h e u nequ ivoca l e ndo r semen t o f t h e g od s . W i th t he b r eakdown o f t h e c en t ra l ized p ol i t ica l s y s tem " t r ad i t iona l f o rm s o fl e ad e r sh ip

T he s e cond q ues t ion Ie xam ined w a s t h e ef i cacy o f u s ing i c onog raphy t o d a te s ea l s w i th in t h e OB p e r iod . On ly o ne s t udy p er ta in ing t o t h i s i s sue h a s b een d one .

r e a s se r ted t hem se lve si nt h ec oun t ry s id e ( Yof f ee . 1 988a ) .

I t w a s

p ub l i shed b y N age l ( 1957 -8 ) a nd i nvo lved j u s t 2 0 OB s e a l s . My s t udy u sed 5 23 s e a l s a nd s e a l ing s w i th e x tan t i c onog raphy . If ound t ha t t h e f r equenc ie s o f s ome o f t h e ma in i c on s d id v a ry s i gn if ican t ly t h rough t ime . S evera l f i l l

A s t h e B aby lon ian k ing s ' a u thor i ty o v e r t h e p rov ince s l o o sened " s o d id t h e i r a ppa ren t a b i l i ty t oo ve r see t h e c ho ice o f s e a l i c onog raphy . T h i s i s man if e s ted i nt wo w ay s . F i r s t t he K ing w i th t h e Mace mo t if s uf e red ap r ec ip i tou s d ec l ine

f i gu re s h ad c h rono log ica l i mp l ica t ion s a s w e l l . B a sed o n i t m igh t

b e p o s s ib le

e f or t s , t he t e r r i to ry

i nf r om t he p rov ince s ( Yof f ee . 1 977a ) . Mo r e f ood h ad t ob e g rown o n t h e l a nd a va i lab le . B u t a dd i t iona l i r r iga t ion a gg rava ted t h e s a l in iza t ion p rob lem wh ich i n t u rn m ean t e ven l owe r y i e ld s ( G ib son , 1 974 ) . T he E d ic t o f

H oweve r , t h e a na ly s is a l so r evea led t wo c omb ina t ion s t h a t v i r tua l ly n eve ra ppea red t og e the r . S ea l c a rve r s r a re ly p a i red

d a ta ,

S am su i luna 's

c o r e a r ea r ema ined . T he e conom ic s i tua t ion d e ter io ra ted a s w e l l . T axe s , o f t en i nt h ef o rm o ff ood s tuf f s , n ol onge rf l owed

s i gn i f ican t l e ve l . T h is s ugg e s t s t ha t a r t is an s o rb uye r s c ou ld u se t h e i c onog raphy o f t h e i r c ho ice f o r t h e s ea l d e s ign s .

t h i s

D e sp i te

u nd e r B aby lon 's h egemony s t ead i ly s h rank u n t i l o n ly t h e

t o i n f e r

a f t e r S am su i luna y ea r 9 .U nd e rt he c i rcum s tance s " t he s ha rp

a pp rox ima te

r educ t ion o f a s ymbo l t ha t r ep resen t s as e lf -conf id en t , s ucce s sfu l mona r ch d oe s n o t s e em t o r equ i r e e xp lana t ion .

c h rono log ica l p arame te r s f o r a g roup o f u nda ted b u t af i l ia ted OB s e a ls . Upp e r a nd l owe r t ime l im i t s c ou ld b e

B u t i t h a s b een d emon s t ra ted i n o the r s i tua t ion s t h a t s ymbo l s o fp owe r a nd p re s t ige c an f a r o u t la s t t h e r e a l i ty o f t ha t p owe r . Why d idn ' t i th appen i n t h i s c a se? A s j u s t

d e te rm ined b yt h e r e la t ive a bundance o f av ar ie ty o fs ymbo l s a nd i c on s i n c lud ing t he K ing w i th t h e Mac e , Wa r r io rI s h ta r , a nd t h e Sm i t ing F igu re . D ue t ot h e p auc i ty o f ma ter ia l f r om b o th t h e b eg inn ing a nd t h e e nd o ft h e p e r iod . i tw ou ld b e i n app rop r ia te t ou se i tt od a te i s o la ted s e a l s .

s t a ted , t h e k ing w a s p robab ly n o l ong e r i n ap o s i t ion t o d i c ta te o r a tl e a s t s i gn if ican t ly i n f luence w ha t s ymbo l s w e r e u sed o n s e a l s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e a na ly s i s o f s e a l d e s ign s 5 8

s howed t h a t s c en e c ompo s i t ion h ad n eve r b een c l o se ly r egu la t ed b y t h e c rown . T h i s m ean t t ha t s e a l e ng rave r s o r b uyer s h ad a lway s e xe rc ised s ome f r eedom i nc hoo s ing s ea l

s t anda rd iza t ion o ft he s ymbo l i sm . T he i n f luenc e o fr e l ig iou s i d eo logy , h oweve r , p robab ly r ema ined s t rong . Un f or tun a t e ly , t h e i n c r ea sed d iver s i ty o ft h e LOB f i gu re sm ake st h em v e ry d i ff icu l tt oi n te rp re t .

i c onog raphy . T he u pp e rc l a s se s who u sed t h e s ea l sk new t h e i mage o ft h e s e lf -a s su red mona r ch s t r id ing f o r th t om ee t o r p e rhap s r e ce ive b l e s s ing s f r om a b enevo len t g odde s s n o l onge r f i t t h e emp ir ica l s i tua t ion . S upposed ly t h ey c ou ld

TRANSIT ION FRO M THE OLD BABYLON IAN TO

h ave c on t inued t o u se t h e KM mo t if a s af o rm o ff l a t te ry . B u t i n Me sopo tam ia , p ol i t ic s a nd r el ig iou sb el ief s c anno tb e

THE KASSITE PER IOD

s epa ra ted . I nB aby lon ian i d eo log y , b ad t ime s mean tt h e g od s h ad r emoved t h e i r s uppor t f r om t he k ing . N o p er son w ou ld w an t t ob ep e rc e ived a s a c t ing c on t ra ry t ot h e w i she s o ft h e g od s . A s ar e su l t , t he u se o ft h i s p a r t icu la r d ep ic t ion o ft h e k ing b ec am er a re .

T he n a tu r e o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te c y l inde r s e a ls p ose s p rob lem s f o r av a r ie ty o f

T he o th e r i nd ica t ion t ha t p o in t s t o t h e l o s s o f g overnmen t c on t ro l o ve r s e a l i c onog raphy c an b e s e en i n t h e i n c rea sed v ar ie ty o ff i gu r e so nL a te O ld B aby lon ian s e a ls . T he Sm i t ing F igu r e ( SF ) a l ong w i th t h e I n te rced ing G odde s s w e re t he t wo mo s tp rom inen t ma in mo t if se spec ia l ly b yt he e nd o ft h e p e r iod . A s p rev ious ly men t ioned , s ea l c u t te r s d id n o t d ep ic t t he S F i n as t anda rd ized f a sh ion . T he r i g id c on t ro l o ve r i c onog r aphy h ad b roken d own . T o i lu s t ra te t h i s , Ir emoved t he Sm i t ing F igu re f r om t h e g roup o fm a in f i gu re s . T hen I r eca lcu la ted t he f i gu r e s i n T ab le 6 . 3 wh ich s howed t h e n umbe r o f s ea l s w i thou t s t anda rd ized mo t if s d u r ing t h e e n t i r e OB p e r iod ( s ee T ab le 6 . 9 ) . T he t a b le r ev ea l s t h a t i f t he S F i sn o l onge r c on s ide red a s t anda rd mo t i f , o n ly o ne

r e a son s . F i r s t a nd f o remo s t i st h e l a ck o f d a ted ma te r ia l b e tween t h e r e ign o f S am sud i tana a nd s ea l s t h a t c an d ef in i te ly b e a sc r ibed t o t he Ka s s i te p e r iod E ven s ea l s t ha t b ear t he n ame s o f Ka s s i te mona rch s c an r a re ly b e a s s igned t o as pec if i c k ing . R u ler s o f t en s ha r ed t h e s ame n ame . I n a dd i t ion , t h e c h rono log ica l o rd e r o f t h e e n t ire d yna s ty r ema in s u ncer ta in ( Br inkman , 1 976 ) . T hu s mo s t K a s s i te s ea l sh ave b e en a t t r ibu ted t ot he p e r iod o nt h eb a s i so fs t y le . D e sp i te t he se d if i cu l t ies , r e sea rche r s h ave p os tu la ted l i nk s b e tween OB a nd K a s s i te i c onog raphy . T he F i r s t K a s s i te s t y le s h ave g ene ra l ly b een c on s ide red d i rec t d e scendan t s o f t he LOB s e a l s ( Co l lon , 1 988 ; Ma t thew s , 1 990 ; P o rada , 1 948 ; V an B u ren , 1 954 ) . V an B u ren s ay s t ha t a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e Ka s s i te p e r iod o n ly t h e i n sc r ip t ion s d i s t ingu ished K a s s i te s ea ls f r om t h e i r B aby lon ian mod e l s

s e a l b e long ing t o t he EOB p er iod w ou ld b e a dd ed t o t h e t o ta l t h a t d id n o t c on ta in a tl e a s to ne m a in i c on . B u t d u r ing t he LOB p e r iod , t he n umbe r o f s e a l s w i thou t ma in mo t if s j ump s d rama t ica l ly i f t h e S F i s n o l ong e r i n c lud ed I n LOBS , f o r i n s tance , t he n umbe r o fs e a l s r i se s f r om 5t o 1 3 .

( 1954 :4 ) . Ma t thew s t a lk s a bou t t h e F i rs t K a s s i te s t y le ' g radua l ly e me rg ing ' f r om i t s B aby lon ian p redece s so r s ( 1990 :57 ) . Mo s to ft he se c onc lu s ion s r e s to n t h e c ompa r i son o f i nd iv idua l K a s s i te s ea l s t o s e a l s f r om t h e OB p e r iod G iven t h e c h rono log ica l amb igu i ty o ft h eK a s s i te m a te r ia l , I b el i eve a s y s tema t ic a na ly s i s b e tween a b ody o f OB a nd

T h e o v e ra l l LOB t o ta l c l imb s f r om 3 9 t o6 0 . T h i s e v id en t d ec rea s e i n t h e s t anda rd iza t ion o f i c onog raphy c an b e a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e l o s s o f g overnmen t c on t ro l o ve r t h e

K a s s i te s ea l s n eed s t ob e d one b ef o r e a ny h ypo the se s c an b e s ugge s ted . I n t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion . Iw i l l e xam ine c hang e s i n i c onog raphy t h rough t ime b a sed o n t h ree m a jo r

i c onog r aph ic r epe r to i r eu sed o nc y l ind e rs ea l s .

c h rono log ica l g roup ing s : E a r ly O ld B aby lon ian ( EOB ) , L a te O ld B aby lon ian ( LOB ) , a nd K a s s i te ( KAS ) . B y l o ok ing a t t h e f r equenc ie s o fv a r ious s ymbo l s i ne ach c a tego ry , i tm ay b e p o s s ib le t oe l uc ida te wha t r e la t ion sh ip , i fa ny , m ay h ave e x is ted b e tween t h et wo p e r iod s .

T ab le 6 . 9 C hrono log ica lD i s tr ibu t ion o fS ea l s Wi thou t S tandard F igure so r Sm i t ing F igure s

E0B1 E0B2

9

1 0 ( +1)

1 0

Ma in F igure sa nd T he ir A t tr ibu te s

W/SF W i thou t S F

W/SF W i thou t S F LOB1

3

LOB2

6

T he O ld B aby lon ian f i gu re mos t o f t en c i ted a s h av ing p e r s is ted i n to t h e Ka ss i te p e r iod i st h e F igu re w i th t h e Mac e ( o r a s Ih av e a rgued , t he K ing w i th t h e Mac e ) . B lack a nd G re en c on tend t ha t a b ea rded ma le f i gu r e s t r ik ing a

1 4 ( +2 )

E0B3

7

LOB3

E0B4

7

LOB4

6

7( +1)

E0B5

5

LOBS

5

1 3 ( +8 )

E0B6

6

LOB6

7

1 6 ( +9 )

d i s t inc t ive p o se w ho u sua l ly c a r r ie s amac e o f ten a pp ea r so n b o th OB a nd K a s s i te s ea l s ( 1992 :124 ) . I n my c olec t ion o f K a s s i te s e a l s , If ound t he KM o n ly o nc e . T h i s p a r t ia l ly p res erved s e a l ing l o ok s i d en t ica l t o many o the r OB s c ene s .

6 0 ( +21)

T he o n ly r e a son Ic a tegor ized t h i so ne a sK a s s i te w a sd ue t o

TOT

4 4

4 5 ( + 1)

TOT

1 2

4( +1)

3 9

t h e i n sc r ip t ion . A s hor t p raye r t o ok t h e p l ac e o f t h e u sua l TN , s on o f PN , s e rvan t o f DN ' f o rmu la . F rom t h i s s i ng le

T he c ho ice o fi c onog raphy o nO ld B aby lon ian c y l ind e r s e a l s

e xamp le , t h e K ing w ith t he Mace i nh i s OB f o rm c anno t b e

r e su l ted f r om t h e i n te rac t ion o f a t l e a s t t h ree d if e ren t

t e rmed ap opu la rf i gu re i nt h eK a s s i te p e r iod .

f o rc e s : t h e g ove r men t , r e l ig iou s i d eo logy , a nd p e r sona l p re f e r ence s . Wh i le t h eg ove r nmen t m a in ta ined s om ec on t ro l o ve r w ha t mo t if s c ou ld b e u sed r e l ig iou s b e l ief s a nd p e r sona l p ref e renc e s d e te rm ined h ow t he se i c on s w e r e a c tu a l ly c omb ined o n t he c e L Wh en t h e k ing 's p o l i t ica l c on t ro l

d ec l ined ,

w e

f i nd

a c oncom i tan t

d ec rea se

V an B u ren ( 1954 :8 ) , o n t he o the r h and b e l ieved t h e KM p rov ided t h e p ro to typ e f o r t h e F igu re w i th t h e S c im i ta r f ound o n N o r the r n K a s s i te s ea l s ( e .g . , 6 16 , 6 35 , 6 46 , 6 65 ) . S h e a cknow ledged t ha t h i s g a rmen t a nd h eadwea rc hang ed . t h e m ace d i sappea red f r om h i s l ef t h and , a nd t ha t h e n ow

i n 5 9

h e ld a s c im i ta r i n h i s r i gh t h and . N ever the le s s , h i s p o se

s c ru t iny . T ab le 6 . 11 s how s t he b reakdown o ft he 4 8 K a s s i te s e a l s t ha t d ep ic ted t h e F igu r e w i th t h e S c im it a r . On ly f i ve s how t h e t h ree f i gu re s g rouped t oge the r i n t he p red ic ted

r ema ined s im i la r t ot he KM . On s ome K a s s i te s e a ls , a r t i s t s d up l ica ted t h eF igu re w i th t he S c im i ta rb u t t h ey b o th f ac e i n t h e s ame d i rec t ion ( Sea l 6 65 ) . V an B u ren ( 1954 :10 ) c i te s

c onf igu ra t ion . On a n a dd i t iona l f i ve , h e l o ok s a t af ema le b u tw i thou tt h e n ud e f ema le i nb e tween . T he ma jo r i ty o ft he

t wo u nda ted OB s ea ls a s mod e l sf o rt h i sl a t te rc onf igu ra t ion . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted h e re t ha t s he i d en t if ied t h e KM a s

t ime t h e F igu re w i th t h e S c im i ta r a pp roa che s a no th e r ma le o r f a ce s a n i n sc r ip t ion . A t t he p r e sen t t ime , t he re d o e s n o t

t h e" god w i th am ace" .

s e em t ob e a dequa te e v id ence t os ugg e s t t h a t t he K ing w i th t h e Mac e p rov ided t h e i n sp ira t ion f o r t h e F igu re w i th t h e

C an w e s ay , b a sed o n t h e a va i lab le e v idence , t ha t t h e KM mo s t l i k e ly s e rved a s t h e p a t te rn f o r t h e F igu re w i th t h e S c im i ta r ? An e xam ina t ion o ft h ed a ta r evea l s s e ve ra l t h ing s .

S c im i ta r . T ab le 6 . 11

F i r s t , i tmu s tb er e ca l led t ha tt he n umbe ro fd ep ic t ion so ft h e KM d ropped o f s ha rp ly a f t e r S am su i luna y ea r 9 . T h i s c o in c id e s r ough ly w i th

1 740 B .C .

F igure w i th t he S c im i tar

T he e a r l ie s t k nown

e xamp le s o ft he F igur e w i th t h e S c int i ta r c om e f r om N uz i .

N o . o fS ea l s

T he N uz i a r ch ive s d a te f r om t h e l a te 1 5 th t o m id -14 th

Two i n aL ine F ac ing S ame D i rec t ion

c en tu ry B .C . (Ma t thew s , 1 992 :7 ) . T ha t m ean s a bou t 2 50 y ea r s e l ap sed b e tween t h e p eak o ft he l ev l 's p opu la r i ty i n

7

F aces :

t h e OB p e r iod a nd h i s h ypo the t ica l r e inca rna t ion o n t h e N uz i s e a l s . T he s im i la r i ty o f t he i r p o se s p rov ide s t h e ma in r e a son r e sea r che r s a s sume t he F igu r e w i th t h e S c im i ta r d er ived

I n sc r ip t ion

1 0

Ma le

1 6

F ema le On ly

5

f r om t h e KM . A no the r a t tr ibu te t hey b o th s uppo sed ly s ha r e

F ema le a nd Nud eF ema le

5

i st h e s p layed b ea rd a s n o ted b y B lack a nd G re en ( 1992 ) . B u t m any o ft h e KM mo t if si nt he OB p e r iod d id n o tw ea r a

N ud eF ema le o n ly

2

Un id en t i f ied

3

b eard ( e .g . , 1 47 , 1 93 , 2 73 ) . T ab le 6 . 10 i lu s tra te s t h e n umb e r o ff i gu re s w i th a nd w i thou t b ea rd s i n e ach g roup a nd t h e p e rcen tage t hey c omp r i se o f t he t o ta l n umbe r o f

A no the r c onnec t ion o f t en n o ted b e tw een t h e LOB a nd K a s s i t ep e r iod sf o cu se s o nt h e l one f i gu r e s t and ing o rs e a ted b ef o re a n i n scr ip t ion . T h i s s t y le b ecame c ommon i n t h e l a t te r p ar t o ft h e FDB a nd i st he h a l lma rk o f FKC s e a l s . I n

f i gu re s . I nt h i s d a ta b a se , t w ice a s many OB mo t if s d id n o t h ave b ea rd s a s t ho se t ha t d id . On t he o the r h and , b ea rd s p redom ina te o nt h eK a s s i te i c on s .

t h i s d a ta b a se , f r om t h e t ime o f Amm id i tana o nwa rd s , 2 6 s e a l ing s ( i . e . , 4 91-600 ) f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry . T hey c omp r i se 2 4% o f t h e ma te r ia l a s s igned t o t h e l a s t t h ree k ing s . T he n ex t s e a ls o ft h i s t ype t ha t c an b e d a ted d o n o t

T ab le 6 . 10 P re sence o fB eards o n KM a nd F igSc im i tar

KM

V an

igSc im % F

° A 8 0

B ea rd

2 6

1 9

N oBea rd

5 1

3 7

5

Un id

6 1

4 4

6

T o ta l

1 38

1 00

B u ren

( 1954 :8 )

a dvanc ed

a pp ea r u n t i l t h e 1 4 th c en tu ry B .C . ( Ma t th ew s , 1 992 ) . T he o n ly t r an s i t iona l s ea ls s e em t o b e t h e 1 3 a s s igned t o t h e

K a s s i te

O ld B aby lon ian

a no the r

4 4

5

C ompo s i te g roup wh ich c omb ine t yp ica l B aby lon ian i c onog raphy w i th K a s s i te p rayer s . T he q ue s t ion i s , d oe s t h e e v idence s uppo r t ag radua l t r an s i t ion , o r a tl e a s t c l o se t i e s , b e tween OB a nd K a s s i te s ea l s d e sp i te t h e a ppa r en t 2 00 y ea r

9 1

h i a tu si nt he e x is t ing ma te r ia l?

1 00

a rgumen t

T he f i r s t s t ep i n i nves t iga t ing t h i s p rob lem c on s is t s o f c ompa r ing t h e m a in f i gu re s o n EOB , LOB , a nd KAS s e a l s .

f o r

T ab le 6 . 12

i d en t if y ing t h e KM a s t h e mod e l f o r t h e F igu re w i th t h e S c im i ta r . I t c onc er n s h i s a t tendan t s . A cco rd ing t o V an B u ren . t h e E a r ly O ld B aby lon ian t r io o f KM ( r ep laced b y

t h e n ine mo t if s n o l ong e r a pp ea r o n K a s s i te s e a l s . On ly t wo o ft h e mo s t c ommon OB f i gu re s c on t inued o n i ns ome f o rm i n to t h e f o l low ing p e r iod . I i d en t if ied a t o ta l o f 4 0

t h e F igu re w i th t h e S c im i ta r ) , I n te rced ing G odde s s , a nd n ude f ema le r ema ined e s sen t ia l ly u nchanged i n t he e a r ly p ar t o f t h e K a s s i te p e r iod . G radua l ly K a s s i te a r t i s t s

I n te rc ed ing G odd e s se s o nK a s s i te s ea ls . T he o n ly c r i te r ion I u sed w a s af ema le w i th b o th h and s r a i sed i nf r on t o f h e r

e l im ina t ed a l l e x t raneou s e l emen t s u n t i l o n ly t he g od r ema ined ( Van B u ren , 1 954 :9 ) . T h i s s uppo s i t ion i s p rob lema t ic

f o r

t wo

r e a son s .

F ir s t ,

a ny

l i s t s t h e n in e ma in OB mo t if s a nd t h e i r

f r equency o fu se i ne ach g roup . A s t he t ab le s how s , s even o f

f a ce . E ven t hough t h e I G d id n o t c omp le te ly d rop o u t o ft h e K a s s i te r epe r to i r e , If ound 1 2 ( o r 3 0% ) i n t h e C ompo s i te

d i scu s s ion

K a s s i te g roup . A s Is a id e a r l ie r , t hese may v e ry w e l l b e long

c once rn ing c hang e i n K a s s i te mo t if s t h rough t im e mu s t b e r ega rded a s p rema tu re d ue t ot he p auc i ty o fd a ted ma ter ia l .

t ot h e LOB p e r iod . Ano th e r 8( o r2 0% )a ppea r ed t og e ther o n as i ng le s ea l , i . e . , 7 42 . T hu s , o n ly 2 0 I n te rced ing G odd e s s

N o o ne k now s wh ich d e s ign s c ame f i r s t o r b y h ow many y ea r s .

mo t if s c an b e f ound i n t h e K a ss i te ma te r ia l t h a t l o ok s omewha ts im i la rt ot ho se f r om t he OB p er iod .

S econd , e ven t h e c on ten t ion t ha t t h e K a s s i te s u t i l ized a f am i l ia r OB g roup ing d oe s n o t s e em t o w i th s tand c l o se r

T he t o ta l f o r t h e ' S ea ted G od ' o n K a s s i te s e a l s c ame f r om t h e c oun t o f S ea ted F igu r e ( s ) w i th H igh H a t ( s ) f ound i n 6 0

T ab le 5 . 19 . I fi c on s w i th l ow h a t s s hou ld a l so b e c l a s s if ied a s g ods , t h en t h is n umbe r w ou ld r ough ly d oub le . U n f or tuna te ly n o t e nough i s k nown a bou t K a s s i te i c onog raphy t od ef in i te ly i d en t i f yf i gu r e sa se i the rh uman o r d i v ine b a sed o nt h e ir v ar iou sa t t r ibu te s .

b ea rd s t od i s t ingu i sh g end e r . Ia l so a ccep ted t h e d e scr ip t ion o ft h e f i gu re s g iven i nt h e c a ta log s b ecau se t h e a u tho r h ad a cc e s s t ot h e o r ig ina l s ea l s . D e ta i l s a r e n o to r iou s ly d if i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh i n p ho tog raph s ( Co l lon , 1 988 :6 -7 ) . I f n o i n f o rma t ion w a s a va i lab le , I c l a s s if ied t h e f i gu re a s

T ab le 6 . 12

u nk nown . O ve ra l l , 8 8% o ft h e f i gu r e s Ii d en t if i ed a s ma le i n t h eK a s s i te p e r iod h ad b ea rd s . C ompar ison o f OB Ma in Mo t if s T ab le 6 . 13 g ive s t h e n umb er a nd p e r cen tage o f m a le s a nd f ema le s i n t h e EOB , LOB , a nd KAS p er iod s a s w e l l a s a

o nO ld B aby lon ian a nd Ka s s i te S ea l s EOB

LOB

KAS

I n te rced ing G oddes s

9 9

1 05

4 0

F igu re /K ing w i th Mace

8 3

5 5

1

L ahmu : F ig . w /Tr ip le C u r l s

6 1

3 6

0

A scend ing G od

4 6

3 9

0

Wo rsh ipp e rw i th Quad rup ed

3 7

4 3

0

B u l l Man

2 8

2 4

0

S ea ted G od

2 7

2 0

7

Sm i t ing F igu re

3 1

Wa r r io rI s h ta r

3 9 8

b reakdown b y s t y le o f t h e K a s s i te s e a l s . A c ompa r ison s how s t ha t t he r ep re sen ta t ion o ff ema le s d ec l ined s omewha t b e tween t h e EOB a nd LOB g roup s b u t d ropp ed s ha rp ly b e tween LOB a nd K a s s i te . I ti st r ue t ha t a tt h e s ame t ime , t h e p e rc en tage o f ' Un id en t if ied ' f i gu re s i n c rea sed a s w el . H oweve r ,f o rt he p e rc en tag eo ff ema le st oh av er ema ined t he s ame b e tween LOB a nd KAS , t h e e n t ire r i se i n t h e ' Un id en t if ied ' c a tego ry w ou ld h ave t o b e a t t r ibu ted t o f i gu r e st ha tw e r ei nr e a l i ty f ema le . T h i s s e em su n l ik e ly s i nce t h e r a t io o f ma le s t of ema le s o n KAS s e a l s s t and s a tf i ve t o o ne .

2 4 1

F i r s t K a s s i te C en t ra l a nd N o r the rn s ea l s , a s p r ev iou s ly

0

m en t ioned , h ave b een i n te rp re ted a s t he d i rec t d e scendan t s o ft he LOB c aw ing t r ad i t ion . T he r a t io s o ff ema le s t o ma le s i n FKC a nd FKN a r e q u i te s im i la r . B u t b o th s t y les f avo r m a le s s i x t oo ne v e r su s LOB s ea l s wh ich d ep ic t ma le s l e s s

A c ompa r i son o f i den t if iab le f i gu re s t h rough t ime s how s l i t t le o bv iou s c onnec t ion b e tween t h e OB a nd Ka s s i te p er iod s . B u t Ia l so w an ted t oe xam ine s p ec if ic a spec t s o ft h e

t h an

t h ree

t o

o n e .

A ga in ,

t he

ma in f i gu r e s i n c a se t he K a s s i te c a rver s w e r e c hoo s ing t o a dop t s ome , b u t n o t a l l , c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e B aby lon ian r epe r to i r e . Ib egan w i th ac on s id e ra t ion o fg end e r . I fK a s s i te

c on s tan tr e ga rd le s so fo ther t r end s . I d en t i fy ing t h e g end er o f a f i gu r e p roved d if i cu l t o n o cca s ion . I n t h e OB p er iod , i tw a s r e a sonab ly s imp le a s ma le s a nd f ema le s wo re d if e r en t h a i r s ty le s . B u tt he K a s s i t e c on t end w i th t h i s , Id ep ended ma in ly o n t h e p re sence o f T ab le 6 . 13

C ompar ison o fG ender o n O ld B aby lon ian a nd Ka s s i te S ea l s

EOB

LOB

KAS

KAS -P

KP

KN

KC

KV

SK

6 88

6 43

3 99

3 79

2 0

1 23

1 64

3 4

5 8

F ema le

2 27

1 68

5 5

4 3

Ma les

3 90

4 02

2 60

2 55

Ma leNB

o f

r anged f r om Amnüd i tana t o S am sud i tana . T he r e su l t s s howed 5 8% o ft h e i c on s a s f ema le wh ich c o r r e spond s w e l l t ot h e 6 0% s e en i nt h e KP g roup . T he K a s s i te C en t ra l a nd

a r t is t s d ep ic ted t he h a i r o fb o th s exe s i n as im i la r s t y le . T o

B ea rd s

p e r cen tage

C o lumn KAS -P s t and s f o r t h e K a s s i te n umbe r s r e ca lcu la ted w i thou t t h e C ompo s i te s ubg roup . T he KP s e a l s h ad a n u nu sua l ly h igh n umb e ro ff ema le s d ep ic ted o n t h em e ven i n c ompa r i son t o OB i c onog raphy . S ince t h ey a r eu nda ted , t hey may i n r e a l i ty b e long t o t h e e nd o f t he LOB p er iod . T o c heck t h i s p o s s ib i l i ty , Ic a lcu la ted t h e f r equency o f ma le s a nd f ema le s o n t h e 2 6 s i ng le f i gu r e LOB s e a l ing s wh ich

s ea l mak e r s c a r r ied o n OB s e a l c aw ing t r ad i t ion s , t hen t h e r a t io o fm a le t of ema le p er sonag e s s hou ld r ema in r e la t ive ly

Hum /D iv

h igh

' Un id en t if i ed ' i nt h eK a s s i te ma ter ia l r ema in sp rob lema t ic .

7

1 6

1 9

5

8 6

1 09

1 6

4 4

2 29

3

7 4

1 00

1 3

3 9

3 1

2

1 2

3

2 1

3 6

1

1 2

9

3

1

5 1 3

Un id

7 1

7 3

8 4

8 1

%Fema le

3 3

2 6 .1

1 3 .8

1 .3

6 0

1 3

1

2 1

% Ma le

5 6 .7

6 2 .5

6 5 .2

6 7 .3

2 5

7 0

6 6

4 7

7 6

%Un id

1 0 .3

1 .4

2 1

2 1 .4

1 5

1 7

2 2

3 2

2 2

6 1

2

K a s s i te N or the rn s e a ls e xh ib i ted ar a t io o f ma les t of ema le s a pp rox ima te ly t h e r ever se o f t ha t f ound o n KP ( Ka s s i te C ompo s i te )s e a l s .

T ab le 6 . 15 Ob jec t s He ld EOB

LOB

KAS

3 10

2 93

1 20

Q uad rup ed

5 8

5 7

F low ing V a se

1 2

Kn if e /Saw

2 5

2 3

0

D oub le L ion Mace

2 2

1

0

Mace ( b o t tom )

5 9

3 0

2

S c im i ta r sma l lb l ade

2 3

1 3

Ano the r a t t r ibu t e c onunon t ol a rge f i gu re s o n OB a nd KAS

T o ta l

s ea ls i sh eadwea r . O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te s ea l c a rve r s u sed d i s t inc t iv e h a t s t o h e lp d if e ren t ia t e i nd iv idua l i c on s . T ab le 6 . 14 s how s ac ompa r i son b e tween t h e v a r ie t ie s o f h eadwea r f a vo red i n e ach p er iod . T he h or n c rown , a l ready i nd ecl in eb yt h e LOB p e r iod , v i r tua l ly d rop s o u t o nK a s s i te s ea ls . Ah igh t r iangu la r h a t may h ave r ep laced i tb u t w a s n o t u sed n ea r ly a so f t en a s t h e h o rn c r own . T urban s , o n t h e o the rh and , b ecam et h ep r edom ina te t ype o fh eadwea ri nt h e K a ss i te p e r iod _ T he re i sl i t t le e v id enc e o fc on t inu i ty i nt h i s p a r t icu la ra t t r ibu te b e tween t h e OB a nd K a s s i te p er iod s .

S c im i ta r la rge b lade

T ab le 6 . 14 l eadwear

H orn C rown S ing le H o rn C rown H igh T r iangu la rH a t T u rban s ty le 1 T u rban s ty le 2 B r immed H a tw i th

EOB

LOB

KAS

T o ta l

2 42

1 44

1 2

3 98

1 9

1

0 1 06 0 2 6

2 7 2 1 4 7

0 6 6 5 1 93 6

3 0

0

1 8

1 2

6

0

P a i l

1 5

8

0

R ing

1 4

8

0

G lob e S t af f

0

1 2

0

L igh tn ing S taf f

5

2 3

1

1 4

2

2 0

e ng raver s . T ab le 6 . 16 l i s t s t he f r equ en c ie s o f t h e mo s t

1 94

c ommon ly u sed f i l l f i gu re s i n t he EOB , LOB , a nd KAS p er iod s ( s ee F igu re 6 ,p . 65 f o r i lu s t ra t ion s ) . T ob ei n c luded ,

7 9

5 5

B r immed H a tw . C i rcu la rC rown

0

2 0

1

2 1

1 8

0

3 5

1 4

8

2 9

2 8

8

5 7

Un id en t if i ed

2 6

1 83

5

O the r

0

1 4

6 8

B r immed H a tw i th L ow C rown

H a l f -C i r c le H a t

9

C up /Sp r ink le r

S t y lu s

mo t if s h ad t ob e i d en t if iab le a nd a ppe a r am in imum o f 1 0 t ime si na tl e a s to ne p ha se . Ic omp i led a l t h e l e s sf r equen t ly

H igh C rown 2 1

0

u sed a nd u n iden t if ied f i l l f i gu re s i n T ab le 6 . 17 t o i lu s t ra te t h e v a r ie ty o f s ymbo l s f ound o n c y l ind e r s e a l s i n a l l t ime p er iod s .

8 1

T ab le 6 . 16 1 7 7 2 1

F i l l F igure s EOB

LOB

KAS

3 02

2 54

4 38

C une if o rm s i gn s

3 4

3 0

3 8

S unMoon

5 2

4 3

0

T o ta l ( i n c l . R a re F F ) T he l a s t f e a tu r e o f t he ma in mo t if s Ic ompared w a s t h e o b jec t st h ey h e ld i nt h e ir h and s . T oe l im ina te r a r e e xamp le s . Ie xc luded o ne s t h a t a ppea red f ewe r t han 1 0 t ime s i ne ve ry t ime p e r iod g roup . T ab le 6 . 15 l i s t s t h e r e su l t s ( s ee F igu r e 5 , p .63 , f o r i lu s t ra t ion s ) . T he t o ta l s r e vea l t ha t t he n umb e r o f o b jec t s ma in f i gu re s h e ld d ec l ined s ha rp ly i n t h e K a s s i te p e r iod . A r t i s t sd i sca rded v i r tua l ly t h e e n t i r e O ld B aby lon ian r eper to i r e w i th t h e e xc ep t ion o f t he s ma l l b laded s c im i ta r a nd t he f l ow ing v a se . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly u nexpec ted s i nce

C re scen t Moon

6

1 0

4

S t a r

2

1

5

R o se t te

0

8

3 9

R ec l in ing Q uad ruped w .

4

1

1 3

B i rd

1

0

2 4

F i sh

4

3

1 6

F ly

3

2

1 5

H ead T u rned B ack

o b jec t s l i k e t h e q uad ruped a nd k n if e s howed n o d ec rea se i n p opu la r i ty d u r ing t h e OB p e r iod . I n f a c t , t h e l i gh tn ing a nd g lobe s t af f s b o th g a ined i np rom inence d ur ing t he L a te O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod .

G oa tf i sh G ra s shopp e r

F i l l F igure s

H ead A c ompa r i son o f t h e ma in f i gu re s a nd t he ir i nd iv idua l a t t r ibu te s i nd ica te a l a ck o f c on t inu i ty i n t h e s ea l c arv ing t r ad i t ion b e tween t h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a ss i te p er iod s . B u t f i l l f i gu r e s a l so c omp r i se p ar t o f t h e i c onog raph ic r eper to i r ea nd m ay h ave b een a dop ted b yt h eK as s i te

6 2

1 0 0 2 2

4 0

3 1 3

1

0

B a l ls taf f

9

1 4

3

S ing le D o t

0

2 0

2

L ozenge

0

0

9 9

K a s s i te C ro s s

0

0

5 3

F igu re 5 OBJECTS HELD

c ) Kn ife /Saw

a ) Quad ruped

b )F low ing V ase

d ) Doub le L ion Mace

g )S c im i ta r -l a rge b l ade

j )G lobe S taf f

e ) Mace ( bo t tom )

f )S c im i ta r -s ma l lb lade

h )C up /Spr ink le r

i )P a i l

k )L igh tn ing S taf f

1 )S ty lu s

6 3

T ab le 6 . 17 Rare O ld Baby lon ian a nd Ka s s i te F i l lF iv ire s

E B

LB

EB

K

LB

K

S un On ly

6

1

1

N ud e Ma le

7

5

0

Whee l

0

0

4

N ud eF ema le

6

2

0

R ec l in ing Q uad ruped -Fac ing F o rwa rd

5

4

7

H uman F igu r e

3

4

2

R ec l in ing Q uadruped -No H ead

8

3

2

H uman L if t ing An ima l

1

0

0

U p r igh tQ uadrup ed

7

2

3

D ragon A t tack s Human

1

0

0

D oub le H o rn Quad ruped -Fac ing B ackwa rd s

0

0

6

H and

0

0

1

L ong H o rned Quad ruped

0

0

6

L ahmu

4

2

0

L ong H or n ed H ead

0

0

4

H umbaba Ma sk

7

0

0

Wa lk ing Q uadrup ed

0

0

3

C rook

5

0

0

C ro s sed Q uad ruped s

1

3

0

V e s se l

8

9

3

Quad rup ed w i th Y oung

5

3

1

G ra in

0

0

3

Un id en t i f ied Quad ruped

3

2

0

F ly ing ‘ U '

0

1

0

An ima l -Un iden t if ied

0

4

T ree

0

0

2

B u l l

8

2

0

' W ig o n aS t and '

1

0

0

Dog

0

1

5

C re scen t S t af f

1

0

0

D og w i th C rook

5

0

0

D iamond S t af f

1

0

0

F rog

0

0

1

L igh tn ing S t af f

2

2

0

H edg ehog

3

0

0

L y re S t af f

2

2

0

J e l lyf i sh

3

0

0

Mar ru

0

1

0

L ion

3

4

1

S t a rS t af f

0

1

0

L ionf i sh

7

8

0

O the rS taf f

1

0

2

Mongoo s e

5

3

1

D o t si n aG roup

3

4

1

Monk ey

0

0

2

D o t si n aL ine

1

1

1

S co rp ion

3

1

0

' Toma to '

0

0

5

T ur t le

3

0

0

G u i l lo che

0

1

2

B u l lman

6

1

0

C ro s s

0

1

9

Merma id

1

2

0

Un iden t if ied

7

8 2 4

F i shman

2

1

1

1 0

Ka s s i te p er iod . As i ng le d r i l l ing , p opu la ro n LOB s e a l s , a l so

T ab le 6 . 16 c on ta in s 1 6 mo t if s . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t h e p re senc e o f a l o zeng e o r K a s s i te c ro s s o n a s e a l

d rop s o u t f o r t h e mo s t p a r t . I n s tead , t he K a s s i te s f a vo red a v a r ie ty o f mo t i f s t ha t w e r e u nknown o r r a re ly u sed i nt h e

a u toma t ica l ly p l aced i ti n t he K a s s i te c a tego ry . T he ref o r e ,

OB

t h e se s ymbo l sc anno tb e u sed a se v idence f o rc hange s i nf i l l s c a t te red among s t t he i c onog raphy . Whe the r t hey s hou ld b e

p e r iod .

T he se

i n c lud ed

t he

g ra s shopp e r ,

r o se t te ,

r e c l in ing q uad rup ed w i th h ead t u rned b ack , b i rd , f i sh , a nd f l y . T h i s t a b le s how s v i r tua l ly n o c on t inua t ion o ft h e m o s t

c on s ide red t r u e f i l l f i gu r e s r ema in s q ue s t ionab le . O f ten t e x t s e ems p lac ed w i th in t h e s c ene b ecau se t h e a r t i s t d id n o t

p opu la r f i l l f i gu re s f r om t h e OB i n to t h e Ka s s i te p e r iod . Aga in , i tp o in t s t o ah i a tu s i n s ea l c a rv ing t r ad i t ion r a the r t han ag radua l t r an s i t ion b e tween t he t wo . Is hou ld a l so l i k e t om en t ion t ha t t h e K a s s i te s a r e u sua l ly c r ed i ted w i th u s ing

l e ave e nough r o om i n t h e r u led c o lumn s . S ome a ppea r s t o h ave b e en a dd ed a f ter t he o r ig ina ls ea lw a s manuf ac tu red

l e s sf i l l f i gu re st han t h e OB ( Van Bu ren , 1 954 ) . My d a ta d id

T he r ema in ing m o t if s r e vea l ap a t tern c ompa rab le t ot h a t o f t h e l a rg e f i gu r e s . T he t wo mo s t n ume rou s OB f i l l f i gu re s ,

n o ts uppo r tt h i sf i nd ing .

t h e s un /moon a nd t he h ead d i sappea r c omp le te ly i n t h e 6 4

F igu r e6

F ILL F IGURES

e f b )C r e sc en tm oon

a )S unMoon

a

c )S t a r

d )R o se t t e

g )F i sh

h )F l y

a

e )R ec l in ing Q uad ruped

f )B i rd

J k )H ead

j )G ra s shoppe r

i )G oa tf i sh

o m ) S i ng le D o t

• n )L ozenge

6 5

o )K a s s i te C ro s s

1 )B a l l s taf f

I nscr ip t ion s F ina l ly , t h e i n sc r ip t ion s , wh ich c omp r ise a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f

t h e i r d e s ign s ( 1954 :2 ) . F i r s t Ka s s i te s e a l s i n p ar t icu la r h ave b een c ha rac ter ized a s a s imp l if i ca t ion o f t he OB s t y le ( Ma t thew s , 1 990 :56 ) . As y s tema t ic e xam ina t ion o f OB a nd

s ea l d e s ign , mu s t a l so b e c on s idered . T he q ue s t ion i s . d id t h e K a s s i te s mod e l t he i r i n sc r ip t ion s a f te r OB p ro to type s?

K a s s i te s e a l s h a s s ugg e s ted t h is p u rpo r ted c onnec t ion n eed s t ob e r e con s ide red .

T ab le 6 . 18 s how s ac ompa r i son o ft h e t y pe s o fi n sc r ip t ion s f ound i nt h e t h re e t im e p e r iod s a s w el a s ab reakdown b y s t y le g roup f o r t he K a s s i te s ea ls . I t r e f lec t s o n ly t ho se i n sc r ip t ion s w h ich a ppea r i n r u led c ohunn s a nd h av e

T he p r inc ipa l r e ason mos t OB a nd F i r s t K as s i te i c on s h ave b een c o r r e la ted r e s t s o n p o s tu re . T he F igure w i th t h e S c im i ta r r e semb le s t h e K ing w i th t h e Mace . B u t ac l o se r

t r an s la t ion sa va i lab le . T he OB s ea lo wne r sa lmos t i nva r iab ly u sed t h ef o rmu la ' PN1 . S on o f PN2 , S ervan to f DN ' o nt h e i r

l o ok a tt h ed a ta d id n o t s how a ny c onnec t ion o the rt han p o se ( and g end e r ) . S t and ing a nd s ea ted d i v in i t ie s /pe r son s a ppea r

c y l inde r s . Ia bb rev ia ted t h i s f o rmu la a s N SS ( Name , S on

o n b o th OB a nd F i r s t K a s s i te s ea l s o f a l l t yp e s . H owev e r ,

o f . . . S ervan to f . . ) . NSS -Va rr e f er st ov a r ia t ion s o ft h i sb a s ic p a t te rn f o und ma in ly o n K a s s i te s ea l s . T h i s c ove r s ar ange o fa l te ra t ion si n c lud ing c a l l ing y ou r se lf s e rvan to f mo r et han

Ka s s i te a r t is t s d id n o t d ep ic tt hem i n ac on s is ten t manne ro r w i th r e cogn izab le a t t r ibu te s . D if f e renc e s i n h e ,adwea r , h a i r , a nd d r e s s m ay p o s s ib ly b e a sc r ibed t o c hange s i n p opu la r s t y le s . B u t t h e p ercen tag e o ff ema le p e r sonage s d ep ic ted o n s ea l s d ec l ined p rec ip i tou s ly d u r ing t h e K as s i te p e r iod a s

o ne d iv in i ty , a dd ing y ou r p rof e s s ion , a nd r ep lac ing t h e d iv ine n am ew i th t h e n ame o f ak ing . L ime tp ub l i shed m any o ft h e se v a r ian t s t oge the r i nh i s c a tego ry t wo ( 197 1 :57 -63 ) . T he s i ng le EOB e xamp le d e le te s t he l i ne c on ta in ing ' Son

w e l l . T h i s s h if t , a l though l e s s o bv iou s t han h eadwea r , c anno tb ed i sm is sed a st h e r e su l to f af a sh ion t r end .

o f . . ' ( s ea l 4 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h e NSS t y p e , t h e re a r e p raye r s T ab le 6 . 19 l i s t s O ld B aby lon ian s ymbo l s a nd i n sc r ip t ion

a dd re s sed t o d e i t ie s . ' O the r ' d eno te s t ho se t ha t d o n o t f i t i n to a ny o ft h ep rev iou sg roup ing s .

t yp e s t h a t n o l onge r a ppea r o n K a s s i t e s e a ls . S even o ft h e n ine m o s t p opu la r OB ma in f i gu re s d ropp ed o u t c omp le te ly . T h i s i si ns p i te o ft h e f a c t t ha t t h ree o ft h em , t he AG , WQ ,

T ab le 6 . 18

a nd BM , r ema ined p opu la r i nb o th t h e EOB a nd LOB . T he S F s howed as ha rp i n c rea se i n d ep ic t ion s i n t he LOB . T he

T ype o fI nscr ip t ion

' Ob jec t s H e ld ' c a tego ry g ene ra l ly r ef lec t s t he ma in f i gu r e s t ha t w e r e d i scon t inued T he mos t c ommon t ype s o f h eadwea ra nd t he i d en t if iab le h a ir s ty le sd i sappea red a sw e l l .

B reakdown f o r KAS EOB LOB NSS

05 6 2 '1

KAS

KP KN KC KV

5*

0-

3

1 1

NSS -Va r

1

0

1 9 *

2

P raye r

1

2

1 47 *

9

1 2 *

1

O the r

1 2

1 0

T o ta l

7 6

17

2 3 1

2

8 1

0

0'

1

4

1

4

SK ,

3

N o r d o t h e K a s s i te s u se t h e t wo m o s t c ommon OB f i l l f i gu re so rt h eu b iqu i tou s NSS i n sc r ip t ion f o rmu la .

2 3

T he s uppo s i t ion t ha tt he Ka s s i te a r t i s t s d e r ived t he i r s t y le o f s ea l c a rv ing d i rec t ly f r om t he B aby lon ian s i sn o t s uppo r ted b y t h e a va i lab le e v id ence . A l ook a t t h e p ol i t ica l a nd e conom ic s i tua t ion a tt h e e nd o f t he L a te O ld B aby lon ian p er iod s ugge s t s t ha t ab r eak i ns ea l c a rv ing t r ad i t ion s hou ld b e e xp ec ted _ L iv ing c ond i t ion s h ad u ndoub ted ly b ecom e v e ry d i ff icu l t . Io n ly f ound 1 4 s ea l ing s a t t r ibu tab le t o S am sud i tana . O f t he se , t h e l a s t d a tab le i mp re s s ion s c am e

3

1 83

( NSS=Name , S on o f . . . S ervan to f . . ) T ab le 6 . 18 i lu s t ra te s t h a t t h e s t anda rd B aby lon ian f o rmu la , NSS , a c tua l ly b ecame mo r e p r eva len t d ur ing t h e LOB p er iod t h an i th ad b een e a r l ie r . N o r w e re v a r ian t s o f i ti n u se . T he i n sc r ip t ion s o f t h e OB p er iod c onf i rm t h e i mp re s s ion o fa no ngo ing s e a l c arv ing t r ad i t ion . T he K a s s i te

f r om y ea r 1 4 . N o s e a l s a t p re sen t c an b e a s s igned t o h i s r ema in ing 1 6 y ea r s . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e p oo r ly d ocumen ted c onc lu s ion o ft h e OB p e r iod w e d o n o ty e t k now f o rc e r ta in h ow much t ime e l ap sed b ef o r e t he K a s s i te s a s sumed p ow e r i nB aby lon . N o r i st h e re a ny i nd ica t ion w hen t he e conom ic

s ea l s , h oweve r _ d i sp lay a n a b rup t s h if t i n t h e t yp e s o f i n sc r ip t ion sc ommon ly c a rved o n s ea l s . P raye r sp r edom ina te o ve r a ny o th e rv a r ie ty . I n c ompar i son , o n ly t h ree d a ted OB s e a l s c on ta in p raye r s . T he NSS f o rmu la w h ich c omp r i se s r ough ly 9 0% o ft he LOB i n sc r ip t ion s d rop s t ou nde r 3% i n t he K a s s i te p e r iod . T he se f i nd ing s c o inc id e w i th t ha t o ft h e l a rge a nd f i l l f i gu re s . E ve ry a spec t o f t h e c y l inde r s e a l

s i tua t ion b egan t oi mp rove . T he a r t o fs e a l c a rv ing d i ed o u t i n Me sopo tam ia a tt h e e nd o f t h e F i r s t D yna s ty o f B aby lon . H oweve r , i n a r e a s p e r iphe ra l t o B aby lon ia , i t c on t inued o n u n in te r rup ted _

e xam ined t hu s f a r h a s u nde rgone a s ub s tan t ia l c hange b e twe en t h e LOB a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s .

Unde r t h e K a s s i te s , t h e Me sopo tam ian e conomy e ven tua l ly r ev ived a nd t h e ir m e rchan t s b egan t r ad ing w i th o t he r r eg ion s . T he se t r ad e speop le n a tu ra l ly e ncoun te red c y l ind e r s e a l sb e ing u sed i no the ra r ea s . K as s i te s l i v ing i np lace s l i k e Nuz i n eed ed t h e i r o wn s ea ls t o c onduc t b u s ine s s w i th t h e

CO MPAR ISON

OF

OLD

BABYLONIAN

AND

l o ca l p opu la t ion . T hey may h ave b een t h e f i r s t t od eve lop a r e cogn izab le K a s s i te s t y le . T he se m e rchan t s , i n t u rn ,

KASSITE I CONOGRAPHY AND I NSCRIPT IONS

r e in t roduc ed s e a l s b ack i n to B aby lon ia . T h i s h ypo th e s i s T he t r an s i t ion f r om t h e O ld B aby lon ian t o t h e K a s s i te

a ccoun t sf o rt h ea b sence o fs e a ls o r s ea l ing s i n Mesopo tam ia d a tab le t o t h e 1 6 th a nd 1 5 th c en tu r ie s , t he e a r l ie s t i d en t if iab le K a s s i te s e a l s a pp ea r ing i n a r ea s p e r iphe ra l t o B aby lon ia r a the r t han i n B aby lon ia i t se l f _ a nd t h e a lmo s t c omp le te l a ck o fc on t inu i ty i n t h e i c onog r aph ic r ep er to i r e

p e r iod h a s b e en p or t rayed a s at ime o f g radua l t r an s i t ion f r om o ne t r ad i t ion t oa no the r ( Ma t thew s , 1 990 ) . V an B u ren s ugge s t s t h e K a s s i te s d r ew i n sp i ra t ion f r om t h e e a r ly O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod a l though t h ey d id n o t s l av i sh ly r ep roduce 6 6

a nd i n sc r ip t ion s u sed b e tween t h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd t h e

O ld B aby lon ian S ea lC onven t ion sD iscon t inued

g od o r g odde s s wh i le a ` T ' i mp l ie s i tf o rmed p a r t o f a t h eophor ic n ame . B ecau se mo s t d e i t ie s w e re a l luded t ob y many d if e ren tn ame s . Ig rouped a l lt h ev a r ia t ion su nd e ro ne a ppe l la t ion . F o r i n s tance , Ic oun ted I nanna , N in s ianna , N in -Ea rma , I r ma , N in -ana , I nn in , E sh ta r , a nd E -anna

i nt he Ka s s i te P er iod

u nd e r ' I sh ta r ' . N ea r ly 1 00 i nd iv idua l d iv in i t ie s a ppea red i n

K a s s i te p er iod s . T ab le 6 . 19

t h i s d a ta b a se , b u t mos t w e r e m en t ioned f ewe r t han f i ve t ime s .

EOB LOB KAS Ma in F igure s

T he u pp e rp or t ion o ft ab le 6 . 20 c on ta in st h e o n ly f i ve d e i t ie s c i ted mo re t han 2 5 t ime s i n t h e t h ree t ime p e r iod s

F igu r e /K ing w i th Mac e

8 3

5 5

1

L ahmu : F ig . w /T r ip le C u r ls

6 1

3 6

0

c omb ined . B y w ay o fc ompa r i son , t h e l owe r p a r t g ive s t h e c oun t s f o r t he g od s wh ich f o rmed t h e h ighes t r ank ing t r iad

A s cend ing G od

4 6

3 9

0

i nt h e Me sopo tam ian p an theon .

Wo r sh ipp e rw i th Q uad rup ed

3 7

4 3

0

B ul Man

2 8

2 4

0

3 9

1

T he o r ig in s o fp e r sona l r el ig ion d a te b ack a tl e a s t i n to t h e

0

t h i rd m ilenn ium B .C . B u t d u r ing t h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd s ub sequen t K a s s i te p e r iod s , i t b ecame i nc rea s ing ly

Sm i t ing F igu re War r io rI s h ta r

7 3 1

8

T he R ise o fP er sona l R e l ig ion

Ob jec t s He ld Quad r uped

5 8

5 7

0

Kn if e /Saw

2 5

2 3

0

Doub le L ion Mac e

2 2

1

0

Mac e( b o t tom )

5 9

3 0

2

S ty lu s

2 0

1 4

2

H o rn C rown

2 42

1 44

T u rban s ty le 1

1 06

7 2

5

L ong P ony ta i l

7 8

4 3

1

F em a le w /Shou ld e rL eng th

1 7

G odd e s sw i th L ong H a i r

3 8

1

0

S un Moon

5 2

4 3

0

H ead

2 2

1

0

i mpo r tan t i n p eop le 's l i ve s ( J acob sen , 1 976 :161 ) . T h i s mean t t ha t i nd iv idua l s r e l ied o n , o r i nd eed d emand ed , t ha t t h e i rp e r sona l d e i t ie st ak e c a re o ft h em a nd t h e i rn eed s . T he s h if t t owa rd s p e r sona l r el ig ion r ema in s d if i cu l t t o t r ac e b e tween t h e OB a nd K a s s i te p e r iod s d ue t o t h e l a ck o f d ocumen ta t ion . B u t e ven tua l ly , a ny d e i ty , i n c lud ing g rea t g od s l i ke S in , S hama sh , a nd Ma rduk , c ou ld t ake o n t h e r o le o f p e r sona l g od P eop le c ou ld a pp roach t h em d i rec t ly v ia p raye r . Ih ypo the s ized t ha t s uch a ma jo r r e l ig iou s c hange

H ead Wear

s hou ld b ee v iden ti ns ea li c onog raphy a nd i n scr ip t ion s .

1 2

T h e s e a l d e s ign s o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian p er iod l a rg e ly r e f lec ted of i c ia l r e l ig ion . T h i s i nvo lved t h e o rgan ized w o r sh ip o f t h e m a jo r g od s a nd g odd e s se s b y t he k ing ,

Ha ir s ty le s

6

p r ie s t s , a nd p r ie s te s se s . T hu s w e f i nd t h e K ing w i th t h e Mac e a pp roach ing t he I n te r ced ing G odd e s s , a s w e l l a s S hama sh , I s h ta r , a nd s ea ted g od s among t h e mo s t p opu la r i c on s o n OB s e a l s . T he w o r sh ippe r w i th t h e q uad rup ed

0

F i l lF igure s

w h ich m ay a l so b e t he k ing , d ep ic t st h e f o rma l p r e sen ta t ion o f a n o f e r ing t o ad iv in i ty ( Sagg s , 1 988 :305 ) . OB s e a l i n sc r ip t ion sf o l lowed t he i n ev i tab le f o rmu la , ` 13N , s on o f PN , s e rvan to f DN ' .

I n scr ipt ion T ype N ame , S on o f . , S ervan to f . .

6 2

1 05

5

E ven t hough OB s ea l s r ep r e sen ted of i c ia l r e l ig ion , t hey s e ldom m en t ioned t he t wo mos t i mpor tan t g od s i n t h e p an theon . Mu a nd E n l i l . T hey w e r e n o t i nco rpo ra ted i n to

THE

S ECOND M ILLENNIU M B .C .

p e r sona l n ame s n o r d id t h e i r s ymbo l s a pp ea r . T h i sb ecome s e xp l icab le w hen o ne c on s id e r s t h e a u ra o f a we a nd r emo tene s s t ha t s u r rounded t h e se d e i t ie s . E ven k ing s h ad

T he s e cond m i l lenn ium w i tne s sed s eve ra l s i gn if ican t c hange s i n t h e r ea lm o f r e l ig ion . T he se c on s is ted o f t he

p e r sona l g od st oa c t a si n te rmed ia r ie s w i th t h e g rea tg od s . I t w a s t h e s e cond r ank ing t i e r o fd iv in i t ie s t ha t c omp r ised t h e m a jo r i ty o fi d en t if iab le i c on s a nd n ame s o n O ld B aby lon ian

REL IG IOUS

DEVELOP MENTS

DURING

g row ing i mpor tance o f p e r sona l r e l ig ion a nd t h e r i se o f Ma rduk t o ap o s i t ion o f p rom inenc e i n t he Me sopo tam ian p an theon . B o th d eve lopmen t s c an b e i nve s t iga ted b y

s ea l s . T he f i r s t n o t iceab le c hange s i n OB c y l ind e r s e a l i c onog raphy c o inc ided w i th t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o ft h e emp i re a f te rS am su i luna y ea rn ine . T he s udden d ecl ine i nt he u s e o f

e xam in ing t h e i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion s o f c y l inde r s ea ls . S ea l i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion t ype s h ave b een e nume r a ted i nt he p r ev iou s s e c t ion s . A na dd i t iona l a spec t o f t he i n sc r ip t ion s t ha tn eed s t ob e i n c luded a tt h i s p o in t i st h e f r equen cy o fd iv ine a nd t heopho r ic n ame so nt h es ea l s .

t h eK ing w i th t h e Mac e mo t i fs ugge s t s ac r i s i so fc onf idenc e i nt h ek ing 's a b i l i ty t om ed ia t eb e tween s oc ie ty a nd t h eg od s . T h e l o s s o f N ippu r mu s t h av e b een a n a dd i t iona l b low t o p eop le 's f a i th i n t h e i n s t i tu t ion o f k ing sh ip . T he se e ven t s m ay h ave p e r suaded t he B aby lon ian s t or e ly mo re o n t h e i r o wn p e r sona l g od s f o r t h e i r n eed s . T he f i r s t h in t o f t h i s

T ab le 6 . 20 l i s t s d iv in i t ie s f ound o n OB a nd K a s s i te s e a ls . A ` D ' e x t en s ion mean s t h e n ame a pp ea red i nr e f e rence t ot h e 6 7

T ab le 6 . 20 U se o fD iv ine Name so n OB a nd Ka s s i te sS ea l s

B reakdown f o r KAS EOB

LOB

KAS

T o ta l

S hama sh -D

1 8

1 6

2 0

5 4

1

9

8

0

2

S hama sh -T

1 3

2 2

4 2

1

2

3

0

1

1 3

2 9

1

4

6

2

0

1

7 8

2

6

0

0

S in -D S in -T

8 3 0

8 3 7

7

KP

KN

KC

KV

S K

A dad -D

4

6

9

1 9

1

1

5

2

0

A dad -T

2

4

8

1 4

0

0

5

2

1

Ma rduk -D

2

1

5 6

5 9

1

9

Ma rduk -T

4

1 9

3 9

0

I s h ta r -D

1

7

2 8

3 6

1

6

I s h ta r -T

3

4

0

0

T o ta l

8 5

1 6

1 21

1 1 72

8 3 78

Anu -D

8

6

Anu -T

0

1

1

E n l i l -D

0

2

8

E n l i l -T

1

2

2

E a -D

5

2

6

E a -T

1

2

4

T o ta l

8

1 0

2 1 0 5 1 3 7

2 5

4 3

c hang e c ome s t owa rd s t he e nd o f t h e LOB p e r iod . S om e s ea l s s how as i ng le f i gu r e , who may o r m ay n o t b e h uman , s t and ing n ex t t o a n i n scr ip t ion . U nf o r tuna te ly , many o f

3 5

2 3

7

1 3

1

4

1 8

2

1

1 8 8

1 6

0 1 6

2 5

0

2

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

4

2

1

0

0

2

0

0

0

1

4

1

0

0

1

3

0

0

4

1

3

1 6

a pp ea led t o mo s t o f t en i n t h e p raye r s s hou ld i nd ica te t h e mo s t p opu la r p e r sona l g od /de sse s o f t he s ea l o wne r s .

t he se i n sc r ip t ion s r ema in u n t ran s la ted . B u t t hey b ea r a s im i la r i ty t o t h e K a s s i te C ompo s i te g roup wh ich d ep ic t s t yp ica l OB i c onog raphy i n c on junc t ion w i th K a s s i te type p rayer s . F i r s t K a s s i te s e a l s , i n p a r t icu la r , e x emp l if y t he r i se o f p e r sona l r e l ig ion . U n l ike OB s e a l s , i n sc r ip t ion s u sua l ly i n t he f o rm o f p raye r s p r edom ina te . T he i c onog raphy o f t en c on s is t s o fj u s t al o ne f i gu re s t and ing b ef o re t he p raye r .

Ma rduk a pp ear s mo s t o f ten o n F ir s t K a s s i te s ea l s f olowed c l o se ly b yI s h ta r( s ee T ab le 6 . 20 ) . D e sp i te t h e p opu la r i ty o f Ma rduk a nd I s h ta r , n o r ecogn izab le i mage s o ft hem a ppea r i nt h e FK i c onog raph ic r ep e r to i r e . Is ugg e s t t ha t t h is c an b e a t t r ibu ted t ot h e n a tu re o fp e r sona l r e l ig ion . A s J acobs en a rgue s , d esp i te i t so u twa rd a ppea rance , p e r sona l r e l ig ion i s " . .ba sed o n a n a lmos t l im i t le s s p r e sump t ion o f s e lf impor tance , i t s d raw ing t h e g rea te s t c o sm ic p owe r s i n to t h e l i t t le p e r sona l w o r ld o ft h e

O ccas iona l ly t h e s e a l c a rve r e l im ina ted t h e i c onog raphy

i nd iv idua l . . ." ( 1976 :161) . P e r sona l r el ig ion empha s ize s t h e n eed sa nd w an t s o ft h e i nd iv idua l . F i r s tK a s s i te s ea l sa r et h e ma te r ia l m an i f es ta t ion s o ft he s ame a t t i tud e . T he d emand i n

a l toge the r o r r e duc ed i tt o ac o lumn o f s mal i n sec t s o r a n ima l s If ound i td if i cu l tt ot e l l whe th e rt h e se f i gu re sw e r e s uppo sed t ob e h uman o r d iv ine . C lea r ly t h e K a s s i te a r t is t s h ad s w i tched t h e e mpha s i s t o t h e i n scr ip t ion , i . e . , t h e

t he f o rm o f ap ray e r a s sume s p r io r i ty wh i le t he p owe r a nd a we b e long ing t ot h ed iv ine a l lb u td i sappea r s .

p ray e r , a nd a way f r om t h e i c onog raphy o f of i c ia l r e l ig ion . T h is may a l so e xp la in why v i r tua l ly a l l t he p opu la r O ld B aby lon ian c y l ind e rs e a l mo t if sr ep re sen t ing of i c ia l r e l ig ion

T he P romo t ion o f Marduk

w e r en eve rr e in t roduced i n to t h eK a s s i te r e pe r to i re . T he s e cond m a jo rc hang e i n Me sopo tam ian r el ig ion p er ta in s T he s h i f t a way f r om t h e N S Si n sc r ip t ion f o rmu la i nt he OB p e r iod t o p raye r s o n K a ss i te s e a l s p a ra l le ls t he eme rg ing i mpor tanc e o f p e r sona l r e l ig ion . C oncur r en t ly , t he d e i t ie s

t ot h e r i s ing i mpor tance o f Ma rduk , t h e c i ty g od o fB aby lon d u r ing t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium . B y t h e e nd o f t h e K a s s i te p e r iod , h e s t ood p o ised t o d epo se E n l i l a s t he h ead o ft h e 6 8

Me sopo tam ian p an theon . Ia n t ic ipa ted a n i n c rea se i n t h e n umbe r o fh i s i mag e , s ymbo l s , a nd n ame t h rough t ime o n

c hang e a n e x is t ing p owe r s t ruc tu re . I n t h i s c a se , t hey w e r e n o t . I ti sd if i cu l t t o s u rm ise why t he Ka s s i te s d id n o t u se

c y l ind e rs ea l s . S ymbo l s o f ag od c an a c t ive ly b eu sed t oh e lp

t h i s a venue t o p romo te Ma rduk . Ih ave a rgued a bove t h a t t h et r ad i t ion o fs e a lc a rv ing d i ed o u ti nB aby lon ia f o rs eve ra l c en tu r ie s p r io r t o i t s r e eme rg ence u nde r t h e K a s s i te s . T he ref o re i ts e em s u n l ik e ly t ha t a ny l ong s tand ing t a boo c ou ld b et h er e a son f o rt h is om i s s ion .

e s tab l i sh a n ew r e l ig iou s o rde r . T h i s i n t u rn r e f lec t s t he g row ing i mpor tance o ft h a t p a r t icu la r d e i ty . I n t h i s c a se , I a s sumed t ha t t h e K a s s i te s w ou ld d ep ic t Ma rduk f r equen t ly t o v i sua l ly r e inf o rce a nd h e lp l eg i t im ize h i s g row ing i mpor tance d e sp i te h i s of i c ia l s ubo rd ina t ion t oE n l i l .

Wha teve rk ep t Ma rduk 's i mage a nd s ymbo l sf r om a ppea r ing o n s e a l s , i td id n o t a pp ly t o h i s n ame . T he i nc rea se i n t h eophor ic n ame s i n co rpora t ing Ma rduk b eg in s i nt he r e ign o fA b ie shu ( par tway t h rough LOB4 ) . O vera l l , t h e n umbe ro f Ma rduk p e r sona l n ame s q uadrup le s f r om 4 i n EOB t o 1 6 i n LOB . T h i sp robab ly h a s mo re t od ow i th t h ef a c t t ha th ew a s

N o i c onog raphy a t t r ibu tab le t o Ma rduk a pp ea r s o n FOB s e a ls a ta l l . Io n ly f ound o ne m a rn i . Ma rduk 's s ymbo l , i nt he LOB p e r iod ( s ee T ab le 6 . 17 ) . I tw a s t h e o n ly o ne If ound i n t h e e n t i r e d a ta b a se . N o i d en t if iab le d ep ic t ion s o f Ma rduk c an b e f ound o n F i r s t K a s s i te s ea l s e i th e r . H oweve r , E d i th P o rada ( 1981) b el ieved t h a t Ma rduk w a s p or t rayed o n a s pec ia l g roup o fS econd K a s s i te s e a l s . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s umma r ize sh e rr e a son s( Po rada , 1 981 :68 -70 ) .

af avo r i te p e r sona l g od r a the r t han a ny r e la t ion t o h i s of i c ia ls t a tu s .

Ac ache o fK a s s i te s ea l st u rned u p i ne xcava t ion s a tT hebe s

u n t i l t h e K a s s i te p e r iod P raye r s a dd re s sed t o h im p redom ina te i nb o th F i r s t a nd S econd K a s s i te i n sc r ip t ion s .

Ma rduk 's n ame , i ni t s d iv ine f o rm , d id n o tb ecome c ommon i n B o e t ia , G reece . T hey w e r e mad e o f l a p i s l a zu l i a nd e ng raved i n t he S K s t y le . Due t o t h e i r s i ze a nd ma te r ia l , r e sea r cher s i mmed ia te ly s u sp ec ted t h ey c ou ld h ave

A s Ia rgued a bove , Ma rduk 's of i c ia l p o s i t ion c anno t b e a dd re s sed b y e xam in ing FK s e a l s b ecau se t h e se s ea ls w e r e

o r ig ina l ly b een d e s igned a s v o t ive o f er ing s f o r at emp le ( Po r ada , 1 981 :70 r e f e rr ing t o t he f i r s t a r t ic le a bou t t he se

a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d i c ta te s o f p e r sona l r e l ig ion . S econd K a s s i te s e a ls , o n t h e o the r h and a ppea r t ob e r e served f o r u se o n d ocumen t s r e la ted t o a dm in ist ra t ive a c t iv i t ie s

s ea l sw r i t ten b yN . P la ton f o rt he I l lus t ra t ed L ondon N ew s ) . P o rada s u spec ted t h ey c ame f r om aMa rduk t emp le s i nce s o many o ft he i n sc r ip t ion s w e r e d ed ica ted t oh im . I ft ha t w a s

( Ma t thew s , 1 992 ) .

t r u e , h ow d id t h ey c ome t ob ei nG reece?

H i s n ame c omp r i se s 8 4% o ft he t o ta l d iv in i t ie s men t ioned . T h i s c ompa re s t o h i s 4 0% o n FKC s ea l s ( s e e T ab le 6 . 20 ) .

We k now f r om h i s to r ica l r e co rd s t h a t T uku l t i N inu r ta s a ck ed t he Ma rduk t emp le i nB aby lon w hen h e d ef ea ted t h e c i ty c . 1225 B .C . ( Br inkman . , 1 983 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e

T he i mpor tan t p o in t t o n o te h e r e i st ha t S K s e a ls b e longed t o g ove rnmen t of i c ia l s . T h i s s ugge s t s t ha t Ma rduk 's s uppo r te r sh ad t h et a c i ta pp rova lo ft he k ing t op romo te h im i n t h i s w ay . I tr ema in s u nc lea r why p raye r s a dd re s sed t o Ma rduk w e re a cc ep tab le wh i le h i s s ymbo ls w e r e n o t .

H i t t i te s r e fu sed t ot r ad e w i th A s sy r ia s i nce T uku l t i N inu r ta h ad c au sed t r oub le f o r t hem i n C ommagene . T he c i r cum s tance s s ugge s t t h a t T uku l t i N inu r ta s en t l ap is l a zu l i i nt h e f o rm o ft h e l o o ted c y l ind e r s e a l s t ot h e G reek k ing a s

H oweve r , t h e p reva lence o fp raye r s t o Ma rduk i nd ica te t h a t b y t h e m idd le o ft h e K a s s i te p e r iod ( b a sed o n t he d a t ing o f t h e S K s ea l s ) , h e h ad b ecome t he p r ef e r red g od o f t h e

ag i f t . H e d id t h i s i na n e f o r t t oe s tab l i sh f r iend ly r e la t ion s f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f t r ad e . T he e v idenc e f r om G reece

b u reauc racy . T h i s s e em s t o c ha l lenge t h e n o t ion , e ven i f c over t ly ,

i nd ica te s t ha t T heb e s i t se lf w a s s a ck ed a nd b urned c . 1220 B .C . T he s hor tp e r iod o ft ime e l ap sed b e tween t he a r r iva l o f t h e c y l ind e r s a t T hebe s a nd i t s d e s t ruc t ion s h e lp s e xp la in w hy t h e s e a l s h ad n o t b e en a b raded a nd r e eng raved wh ich

t ha t E n l i l

r ema ined u nd i spu ted

h ead o f t h e

p an theon . I d o n o t b e l ieve t h is c onc lu s ion i s s kewed b y a d i sp ropo r t iona te n umbe r o f s e a l s f r om B aby lon whe r e t h e

w a s ac o mmon p rac t ic e .

g overnmen t of i c ia l s p robab ly h ad a v e s ted i n ter e s t i n p romo t ing Ma rduk T ab le 6 . 21 c omp r ise s at a bu la t ion o ft h e f i n c i spo t s o f s e a l s w i th Ma rduk -D i n t h e i n scr ip t ion . ( I

I fE d i th P o rada i sc o r rec t i nh e r a s se s smen t t ha t t he se s ea l s c am e f r om t h e Ma rduk t emp le i n B aby lon , c an t he g od p i c tu red o n t h em b e i d en t if ied a s Ma rduk ? S he t h ink s s o . O the r s cho la r s d i sag r ee o n t h e b a s is t ha t Ma rduk w a s n o t

a ccep ted t he P o rada 's h ypo the s i s t ha t t h e s e a ls f r om T heb e s w e r e l o o ted f r om t he Ma rduk t emp le i n B aby lon ) . T he

y e t h e ad o f t h e p an theon d u r ing t h i s p e r iod ( Po rada , 1 981 :50 -51 , f oo tno te 1 51 ) . Aa na ly s i s o fd iv ine ( exc lud ing

f i n c i spo t s o f t h e v a s t ma jo r i ty o f s e a l s r ema in s u nknown . And s i nc e mo s t o ft he s e cond m i l lenn ium l e ve l s o fB aby lon

t heopho r ic ) n ame s b y s t y le r e vea l s t ha t Ma rduk c o mp r ise s 4 0% o ft h et o ta lo n FKC s e a l s . I nf a c t , I s h ta ra ppear sa lmos t a s o f t en a s Ma rduk . B u t h i s n ame p redom ina te s i n S K i n sc r ip t ion s , i . e . , i tr ep r e sen t s 8 4% o ft h et o ta l . On t he o the r h and . Ic ou ld f i nd n o d i s t inc t ive i c onog raphy o n SK s ea l s

l i eb e low t he mode rn w a ter tab le , i tr ema in s h igh ly u n l ik e ly t ha t a ma jo r i ty o f t he ' unknown ' s e a l s c ome f r om t h e r e ( Roux , 1 992 :208 ) . A s i t i s , a n e qua l n umbe r o f s e a l s o r ig ina ted i n B aby lon a nd N ippu r , t h e c i ty o f E n l i l . E ven t hough Ma rduk r anked l owe rt han E n l i l , t h e i n sc r ip t ion s o n of i c ia l s ea l s p roc la imed d ependence o n t h e c i ty -god o f B aby lon . T h i s s e em s t o s ugge s t t ha t p rayer s d ed ica ted t o Ma rduk w e re a n a ccep tab le w ay o f p os i t ion ing Ma rduk s o h ec ou ld e ven tua l ly a s sume c on t ro l o ft he p an theon .

t h a t c or re sponded t o t h e u se o f Ma rduk 's n ame i n t h e i n sc r ip t ion . It h ink t h e ma in i c on s d i sp lay t oo much v a r ia t ion t oc on f iden t ly a s sume t hey r ep re sen t as i ng le g od . T h e d ocumen ta ry e v idence s how s t ha t Ma rduk d id t ake o v e r t h e Me sopo tam ian p an theon . H i s r i s ing s t a tu s , h oweve r , c anno t b e d e tec ted i nt h e i c onog raphy d ep ic ted o n c y l ind e r s e a l s . S ymbo ls c an c e r ta in ly b e u sed t oc ove r t ly d i srup t a nd 6 9

T ab le 6 . 21

s t y le s e vo lved f r om L a te O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s . My r e sea r ch S our ce so fS ea l s

d id n o t s uppor t t h i s c onc lu s ion . A c ompa r i son o f ma in f i gu re s , t h e i r a t t r ibu te s i n c lud ing g end e r , h eadwea r , h a i r s ty le s , a nd o b jec t s h e ld , s howed s ub s tan t ia l d if e renc e s

w i th Marduk -D i nt he I n scr ip t ion KP

b e twe en t h e t wo g roup s . S even o u t o ft he n in e mo s t p opu la r O ld B aby lon ian i c on s d i sappea red c omp le te ly . A d e ta i led c ompa r i son o ft h e F igu r e w i th t h e S c im i ta r w i th t he F igu re

KN KC KV SK T o ta l 0

1

N ippu r

0

1

4

S ube id i

0

0

0

H ama

0

0

1

Unknown

1

6

1 6

o c, s l

0

C o

T hebe s( Baby lon )

4

5

0

5

1

1

0

1

1

w i th t h e Mace , wh ich h a sb een o ne o ft he m a in j u s t if ica t ion s f o r l i nk ing t he t wo p er iod s . r evea led mo r e d if e rence s t han s im i la r i t ie s . T he K a s s i te s ea l s d i sp layed a c omp le te ly d if e r en t r ep e r to i r e o ff i l l f i gu re s a s w e l l . E ven t he t ype o f i n sc r ip t ion s f ound o n t h e s ea l s c hanged . B a sed o n t h e a va i lab le e v id ence . It h ink t h e p u rpor ted r e la t ion sh ip

4 1

b e tween O ld B aby lon ian a nd K as s i te s ea l s n eed s t o b e r e cons id e red . F if th . Il o ok ed f o r c onnec t ion s b e tween O ld B aby lon ian a nd

CONCLUSION

K a s s i te s e a l s a nd t h e r i se o f p e r sona l r e l ig ion . Ic ou ld n o t i d en t i f y a ny c hang e s o n O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s t ha t m igh t

T he a na ly s i so ft he c y l ind e r s e a l d a ta w a s s t ruc tu r ed a round s i x s pec if i c r e sea rch q ue s t ion s e nume ra ted i n c hap te r t wo .

c or re la te w i th t h i sp a r t icu la r s h if t i nr e l ig iou s a t t i tude s . B u t , t he i n c r ea s ing i mpor tanc e o f p e r sona l r e l ig ion may h ave e xe r ted i nf luence o nt h e d e s ig no fF i r s tK a s s i te C en t ra l s ea l s

S ome a n swe r s c an n ow b e s ugg es ted b a sed o n t h er e su l t s o f t he i nve s t iga t ion . T he f i r s t q ues t ion c once rned w he the r a ny

w i th t h e i rl ong p r aye r sa nd o f ten m in ima l i c onog raphy .

' p r inc ip le s o f c ompo s i t ion ' c ou ld b e d e tec ted i n O ld B aby lon ian s e a l d e s ign s . T he s t a t is t ica l c ompa r i son o f

T he l a s t r e sea r ch q ue s t ion i st he o ne t ha t i n sp i red t h i s p ro jec ti nt h ef i r s tp l ace . C an t h e r i s ing i n f luence o f Ma rduk

mo t if s s howed t ha t n o p a i r c o -occu r red a ny mo r e t han c hanc e w ou ld d i c ta te . H oweve r , i ta l so r evea led t h a t s ome i c on s r a r e ly i fe ve r a pp ea red t og e the r . T h i s i nd ica te s t ha t

b ed e tec ted i nO ld B aby lon ian a nd /o r Ka ss i te c y l inde r s ea l s? I r on ica l ly , t h e s hor t a n swe r s e em s t o b e ' n o ' . N e i the r Ma rduk n o r h i s s ymbo l s a ppea r u nequ ivoca l ly o n O ld

s ome g u id e l ine s , i n r e f e rence t o c ompo s i t ion , mu s t h ave e x is ted .

B aby lon ian o r K a s s i te c y l ind e r s e a l s . B u t , t h e u se o f h i s n ame , i n b o th i t s d i v ine a nd t heophor ic f o rm s , i nc rea se s d rama t ica l ly . U nf o r tuna te ly t h e se c hang es c anno t b e t r aced w i th in t h e K a s s i te p er iod d ue t ot h e l a ck o fd a ted ma ter ia l . I n t h e e nd , m y g oa l o f d i sce rn ing t h e r i se o f Ma rduk

S econd , Iw an ted t od e te rm ine i fa ny O ld B aby lon ian i c on s c ou ld b eu t i l ized a sp rec i s e c h rono log ica l i nd ica to r s . If ound n o mo t if st ha t c or re la ted , f o ri n s tance , w i th as p ec if ic r e ign , b u t an umb e ro fs ymbo l sd ob ea rc h rono log ica l i mp l ica t ion s .

t h rough t h e m ed ium o f c y l inde r s e a l i mage ry c ou ld n o t b e r e a l ized b ecau se t h e B aby lon ian s a nd K a s s i te s a ppa ren t ly

T he K ing w i th t he Mac e a nd Wa r r io r I s h ta r b o th b ecame much l e s sf r equen ta f te rS am su i lw ia y ea r 9 . Sm i t ing F igu r e s g a ined i n p opu lar i ty b eg inn ing a pp rox ima te ly i n t h e 1 5 th

d id n o t d ep ic t h im o n t h e i r s e a l s . Wh i le t h i s w a s c er ta in ly d i sappo in t ing , i ta l so r a i sed a n ew s e t o f q ues t ion s . Why

y ea r o f A nun id i tana . S ix f i l l f i gu re s , i . e . , t h e t u r t le , h edgehog . H umbaba ma sk , c rook , j e l lyf i sh , a nd a n a n ima l b a lanc ing ac r ook o ni t sh ead , d id n o ta ppea ro na ny o ft h e se O ld B aby lon ian s ea ls a f te r t he r e ign o f H amr nu rab i . T he a f o remen t ioned mo t if s c an p rov id e g enera l c hrono log ica l

d idn ' t t h e B aby lon ian s o r K a s s i te s p o r t ray Ma rduk o n c y l ind e r s e a l s? D id t h ey u se s ome o the r t yp e o f ma te r ia l c u l tu r e t o h e lp l e g i t im ize h i s s t a tu s? My a na ly s i s d id n o t p roduce t h e a n t ic ipa ted r e su l t s b u t i t d id s ugges t n ew a venue so fr e sea rch .

p a rame ter s f o r ag roup o f a s soc ia ted s ea l s a nd s e a l ing s . I nd iv idua l c y l inde r s e a l s , h oweve r , c anno t b e d a ted a ccura te ly b yi c onog raphy a l one . T h ird Iw ond e red i fa ny c hange s i nt h e f r equenc ie s o fO ld B aby lon ian s e a l i c onog raphy c ou ld b er e la ted t ot h e r i se a nd f a l l o fH ammu rab i 's emp i r e . T h i s i nqu i ry p roduced t h e mo s t u nexpec ted f i nd ing o ft h e r e sea rch p ro jec t . T he u se o f t he K ing w i th t h e Mace m o t if d ropped of d rama t icaly a nd p e rmanen t ly c o inc iden t w i th t he o n se t o f t h e r e be l l ion a ga in s t B aby lon 's r u le b y t h e c onque red t e r r i to r ie s . E a r l ie r i n S am su i luna 's r e ign , t h e f r equency o f t he K ing w i th t h e Mace h ad a c tua l ly b een i n c rea s ing . Wa r r io r I s h ta r a l so d ecl ined d ur ing t he L a te O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod T h i sc an b e e xp la ined i nt e rm s o fh e r s t a tu s a s t h e r ep re sen ta t ive o fa n e nemy c i ty . F our th , Ii n ve s t iga ted t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e O ld B aby lon ian a nd K as s i te s e a l c arv ing t r ad i t ion s . I n t he l i t era tu re , t h e r e e x is t s aw ide sp read a s sump t ion t h a t K a s s i te 7 0

C hap te r7 CONCLUSIONS

T h is d i s ser ta t ion i nves t iga ted p a t tern s o fc hang e i n t h e u se o f i c onog raphy o n O ld B aby lon ian a nd K a s s i te c y l inde r s ea ls . T he se p a t tern s c an n ow b e r e la ted t o t h e ma jo r p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s d eve lopmen t s o f t he s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . T he l a t te r i n c lud e t h e r i se a nd f a l l o ft he

f r equen t ly c r ea te t h is d i s t inc t ion b y i d en t if y ing t hem se lve s w i th r el ig iou s s ymbo l s a nd i c onog raphy . T h i sp rov ide st he i r p o l i t ica lp o s i t ion w i th t h ea u ra o fd iv ine s anc t if ica t ion . J oyc e Ma rcu s ( 1 974 ) i nve s t iga ted t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c on t ro l o f i c onog raphy a nd t h e e s tab l ishmen t , p re serva t ion , a nd ma in tenance o fp o l i t ica l l e g i t imacy d u r ing

F ir s t Dyna s ty o fB aby lon , t he t akeove r o fB aby lon ia b y t he K a ss i te s , t h e g row ing i mpor tance o fp e r sona l r e l ig ion , a nd t he r i s ing s t a tu s o f Ma rduk . I n t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion , Iw i l l p re sen t as e r ie s o fi n f e rence s t ha t s e ek t o e xp la in h ow t h e B aby lon ian s i n teg ra ted c y l inde r s e a l i c onog raphy i n to t he

t h e C la s s ic Maya p e r iod . S he f ound t ha t t h e Maya u sed c onven t iona l ized s ymbo l s a nd i c onog raphy o ns t e lae , l i n te l s , s t a i rca se s , a l ta r s , a nd p ane l s t oc onvey m e s sage s c once rn ing r ank a nd s t a tu s . A s e xpec ted , r u le r s o f ten a pp ea red i n t h e c a rv ing s . H oweve r , t h ey c anno t b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om e ach

c ons truc t ion o ft he i rs oc ia lr ea l i ty . T he f i r s t m a jo r p o l i t ica l e ven t i n t h i s s t udy i nvo lved t h e f ound ing o ft h eF i r s tD yna s ty o fB aby lon b y S umuabum . H e

o the r o n t h e b a s i s o f i nd iv idua l c ha rac te r i s t ic s . I ns tead , a r t is t s a dop ted a s t anda rd ized , a nd p robab ly i d ea l ized , d ep ic t ion o f ar u le r . H e w a s s hown a s w e l l -d re ssed w i th a r i g id b u t s e r ene c oun tenance . T h i s p o r t raya l c on t ras ted

w a s a n Amo r i te s he ikh a nd a n omad who r o se t o p owe r e a r ly i n t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry B .C . C onque s t made S umuabum t he d e f a c to r u le r o fB aby lon , b u t i td id n o t a u toma t ica l ly mak e h im t h e l e g i t ima te k ing o fB aby lon . T h i s h ad t o b e a ccomp l i sh ed b yo the rm ean s . I ta l so h ad t ob e d one q u ick ly b ecaus e c l a im ing p owe r a nd r e ta in ing i ta r e t wo d if e ren t ma t ter s .

s ha rp ly w i th t h e g r imac ing , c on tor ted , h a lf -naked p r i soner s who o f t en a ppea red i n t h e s ame s c ene . C ap t ive s , h oweve r , w e re p l aced i n t h e l owe r r eg is te r s o f s t e lae whe re t h ey l i t e ra l ly a s w e l l a s s ymbo l ica l ly s uppor ted t h e k ing . T he o ve ra l l c ompo s i t ion v i sualy r ep re sen ted t he Mayan h i e ra r ch ica l s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e .

S u muabum a nd h i s f o l lower s f a ced t he s ame p rob lem c onf ron ted b y e ve ry o the r g roup t r y ing t o e s tab l i sh c on t ro l w i th in a h i e ra rch ica l p o l i t ica l s y s tem . H ow c an a n e l i te c rea te a nd m a in ta in t h e l e g i t ima te r i gh t t or u le? A cco rd ing t o C ohen ( 1 988 ) , p o l i t ica l l eg i t imacy i mp l ie s ad eg ree o f

Maya a r t i san sa l so c a rved i mag e s o fp r i sone r s i n to t he r i se r s o r s t ep s o f g rea t s t a i rca se s . I n t h is w ay , p eop le c ou ld p hy s ica l ly t r e ad o n t h e i r e nem ie s . T he s ha rp c on t ra s t s d ep ic ted b e tween r u le ra nd c onque red i lu s t ra te j u s t o ne w ay t h e Mayan e l i te u t i l ized i c onog raphy t o c ommun ica te a nd v a l ida te t h e i r p owe r a nd s t a tu s . A cco rd ing t o Ma rcu s , t h ese p rom inen t d i sp lay s o f p owe r a c tua l ly h e lped c rea te t h e

c onsen su s c once rn ing t h e r u le s w h ich g ove rn a s oc ie ty . I t a low s t h e i nequa l i ty o f p owe r i nhe r en t i n ah i era rch ica l p o l i t ica l s y s tem t ob e a cc ep tab le t ot h e p eop le s ub jec t t oi t s l aws . U sua l ly s uch i n equ i ty i sj u s t if ied t o t h e p ub l ic b y p rom i s ing t hem p eace a nd p ro sp er i ty . I n a dd i t ion , l eg i t imacy a l so i mp l ie s t ha t p er son s w i th a cce s s t oc oe rc ive p owe r w i l l r e f ra in f r om , o r a tl e a s t a ppea r t or e f ra in f r om , mak ing a rb i t ra ry u s eo ft ha tp owe r .

r e a l i ty o ft h a t p owe r . S he c on tend s t ha t t h ey w e re n ece s sa ry p rec ise ly b ecau se t h e Maya h ad y e t t o e f ec t ive ly i n s t i tu t iona l ize t h e i rp o l i t ica l c on t ro l . T imo thy E a r le s t ud ied s im i la r i s sue si nr e f e rence t oc omp lex c h iefdom si nH awa i i ( 1990 ) . E ach ma jo ri s land w a s r u led b y i t s o wn c h ie f ly l i ne . T he se l i ne s e ngag ed i n i n ten se

T he m e thod s b y w h ich e l i te s e s tab l i sh a nd ma in ta in t h e i r l eg i t imacy i n c lude b o th c oe rc iv e p owe r a nd t he u se o f p roduc t ive p owe r o r t h e " powe r t o " ( M i l le r a nd T i l ley , 1 984 :5 -8 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley , 1 992 :129 -30 ) . " Powe r t o "

c ompe t i t ion f o r c on t ro l o ve r a l l t h e i s land s w ie lded b y t he p a ramoun t c h ief A s s u ch , t h ey s ha red , a s E ar le p u t i t , " a s i ng le i d eo logy o f l e g i t im iza t ion" ( 1990 :76 ) . T he r eg iona l

i nvo lve s p eop le 's a b il i ty t o o b ta in a nd t r an sf orm r e sou rce s , b o th ma te r ia l a nd n onma te r ia l . I ti si n t ima te ly c onnec ted w i th t h e p roduc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion o f s oc ia l r e a l i ty .

e l i te s u sed a n a r ray o fs pec ia l o b jec t s t oc ommun ica te t h e i r c h ief ly s t a tu s t o b o th t h e g ene ra l p ub l ic a nd o the r r u l ing g roup s . T he f e a the red c ape a nd h eadd re s s c omp r ised t wo o f

S tud ie s h ave s hown t ha t r u l ing g roup s a c t ive ly u t i l ize ma ter ia l c u l tu r e t o c r ea te , m a in ta in , a nd j u s t if y t h e i r u nequa l a cce s s t o p owe r a nd r e sou r ce s , i n s ho r t , t h e i r l eg i t imacy .

t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t d i sp lay i t em s . T h e H awa i ian s b e l ieved t ha t f e a the r s w e re t h e c l o the s o f t h e g od s . B y w ea r ing f e a ther s , t h e c h ief s p ro c la imed t h e i r d iv ine s t a tu s a nd t h e i r l e g i t ima te r i gh t t or u le . V a r ia t ion s e x i s ted i nt he c l oak s a nd

P e r son s w ho e xe r c i se p roduc t ive p owe rh ave t h e o ppor tun i ty t o c on t ro l wha t k ind s o f s ymbo l ic m e s sag e s a r e d i r ec ted t owa rd s p a r t icu la r a ud ience s . T h is a l low s t h em t o

h e lme t s w h ich c onveyed a c h iefs p l ace w i th in t he o ve ra l l e l i te h ie ra r chy . F o ri n s tance , o n ly t h ep a ramoun t c h ief c ou ld w ea r t h e l a rg e s t c ape s m ad e o ft h e v e ry r a re y e l low mama . T he r u l ing l i ne s manu f ac tu red a nd d i s t r ibu ted t hese i t em s .

d e l ibe ra te ly s hape a nd r e inf o rc e p e r cep t ion s o fs oc ia l r e a l i ty t o t h e i r own a dvan tage . F o r i n s tance , m a ter ia l c u l tu re i n tended f o r p ub l ic c on sump t ion o f t en empha s ize s d if e rence s b e tween ' nob le ' a nd ' c ommone r ' . E l i te s

I n s o d o ing , t h ey ma in ta ined c on t ro l o ve r who c ou ld c l a im d iv in i ty a nd ,b ye x ten s ion ,p ol i t ica lp owe r .

7 1

T h e Mayan a nd H awa i ian c a s e s t ud ie s i lu s t ra te h ow i c onog raphy h a s b een u sed t o c ommun ica te u nequa l

S ea l s o ft h i st yp eb e longed t o as pec ia lc l ass o fh igh r ank ing p ubl ic of i c ia l . T h e s e a l i mage ry c onveyed t he g ene ra lp l ace o ft he s ea l o wne r w i th in t he b ureauc ra t ic s y s tem . T h e mos t

r e la t ion sh ip s o fp owe r a nd s t a tu st ot h e p opu lace i ng ene ra l . B u t o the rt yp e s o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re r ema in a cce s s ib le o n ly t o e l i te g roup s . I n t he se s i tua t ion s , s ymbo l ic me ssag e s c an b e

h igh ly p l aced i nd iv idua l s d i spen sed w i th t he i n te r ced ing g odde s s o nt h e i rs e a l s . T he j ux tapo s i t ion o ft he k ing a nd t he

e xpec ted t o d if e r f r om t ho se d i scu s sed a bove . I n s tead o f empha s iz ing b road t heme s c once rn ing r u le r a nd r u led ,

s o l i ta ry i nd iv idua l v i sualy p roc la imed h i s d i rec t a c c e s s t o t he k ing . T he l e g end s p rov ided i nf o rma t ion c omp lem en ta ry

i c onog raphy w i th a l im i ted d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in s o c ie ty c an a dd re s s i s sue s s pec if ic t ot h e u ppe r c l a s se s . S ome e xamp le s

t ot he s ymbol i sm o nt h es ea l .

m igh t i n c lude l eg i t im iz ing a n i nd iv idua l ' s p lace w i th in t h e

T he i mag e a nd t e x t w o rked t oge the r t o f o rm a c omp le te s ymbo l ic m e s sag e . I t , i nt u rn , s e rved ad ua l p u rpo se . F i r s t ,

e x i s t ing s oc ia l o rde r , n ego t ia t ing a n i n terna l h i e ra rchy w i th in t h e e l i te , a nd w o rk ing o u t p rob lem s b e tween

t he v e ry p o s se s s ion o f s uch a s ea l v a l ida t ed t he p o s i t ion o f t he b u reauc ra t i nt h e s y s tem . T he s ea l a c ted a s h i s m a rk o f

c ompe t ing e l i te g roup s .

l eg i t imacy a nd a u tho r i ty b e s towed o n h im b y t he k ing . T he v ar ia t ion s i n t h e l e gend s a nd i c onog raphy , i . e . w i th o r

S eve ra l s t ud ie s h ave f o cu sed o n h ow ma te r ia l c u l tu r e h e lp s c on s truc t s o c ia l r e al i ty w i th in t h e r u l ing c l a s s . P e rhap s t h e

w i thou t i n te rced ing g odde s s , w en t f u r th e r t o e s tab l i sh a h ie ra rchy w i th in t h e h ighe s t r ank s o f t h e b u reau c racy . S econd , t h ek ing 's i mage a nd n ame i nl e g end c onf i rm ed h i s r i gh t t o i s sue t h e s ea l . I tl e g i t im ized h i s p ower , a nd b y

mo s t w id e ly k nown i s Ma rk L eone ' s a na ly s i s o ft h e W i l l iam P aca g a rd en wh ich w a s b u i l t i n t h e 1 760s i n Ma ry land ( Leone , 1 984 :29 ) . L eone c on tend s t ha t t h e d e s ign s o f p r iva te , f o rma l g a rd en s f r om t h i s p e r iod c an b e r e la ted t o t h e i d eo log ica l b e l ief s o f t h e u ppe r c l a s s d ocumen ted i n w r i t ten r e co rd s . T he se i n c luded t h e s anc t ion a nd p ro tec t ion

e x ten s ion , h i sd iv ine r i gh tt oe xerc ise t h a tp owe r . T hu st h e s e s ea l s a c ted t ov al ida te b o th t h e p o s i t ion o ft he k ing a nd t h e b u reauc ra tw i th in t h es oc ia l s y s tem .

o f t h e e x i s t ing s oc ia l h i e ra r chy wh ich i n co rpo ra ted s l ave ry a s w e l l a s v oc if e rou s d emand s f o r p e r sona l f r eedom a nd l i ber ty . T he c on t rad ic t ion b e twe en t he se p o s i t ion s s oon

T he se l a s t t wo e xamp le s s how h ow ma t e r ia l c u l tu re c an b e u sed t o f a c i l i ta t e s ymbol ic c ommun ica t ion b e twe en i nd iv idua l s o f s im i la r s oc ia l s t a tu s . N e i the r t he W i l l iam P aca G a rd en n o r t h e s pec ia l b ureauc ra t ic s ea ls o f U r I I c onveyed i d eo log ica l m e s sag e s e ncoded f o r t he g en e ra l

b ecame a ppa r en t . T he u ppe r c l a s s a t temp ted t o ma sk a nd t hu s d eny t h e p rob lem b y m ak ing t h e s oc ia l h i era rchy a ppea r e mbedded i n n a tu re . T hey a c t ive ly c onveyed t h i s m e ssage t ot h em se lve s a nd o the r s o fs im i la r s oc ia l p o s i t ion i nt h ed e s ign o ft h e ir g a rd en s .

p ub l ic . C on sequen t ly n e i the r o ver t ly s t r e s sed t he d if e r en ce s b e tween t h ee l i te a nd c ommone r a s t he Mayan g lyph s o rt h e f ea the red g a rmen t s o f t h e H awa i ian s d id I ns tead t h e g a rd en sa nd s e a l sc r ea ted a nd v al ida ted t h ee l i te i nd iv idua l 's p lace w i th in t h eh i e ra r chy . T he s ymbol i cm e s sage s s e rv ed t o

E igh teen th -c en tu ry s ou rce s a s ser ted t ha t t wo e l emen t s i n p a r t icu la r w e r e n ece s sa ry f o r b u i ld ing a s ucce s sf u l g a rd en . F i r s t , t h e d e s igne r mu s t h ave at ho rough k now ledg e o fl o ca l s o i l , p l an t s , a nd w ea the r c ond i t ion s . T h i s a l lowed o rd e r t o

ma in ta in t h es t a tu sq uo a nd r ep roduce s o c ia lr ea l i ty .

b e a pp l ied t o n a tu re a s p r eceden t s p rov ided i n f orma t ion c onc e rn ing t h eb ehav io ro ft h ev a r iou s f a c tor s i mp ing ing o n a g a rd en . S econd , t h e p l anne r n eeded t o u nd e r s tand g eome t ry s o p r inc ip le s o fp e r spec t ive c ou ld b e man ipu la ted

Wi th t h e p reced ing d i scu s s ion a s b ackg round , t he q ue s t ion o fh ow S umuabum a nd h i s s u cce ssor s h and led t he i s sue o f l eg i t im iz ing t h e i r d ynas ty c an n ow b e e xam ined R ough ly a c en tu ry s epa ra ted t h e e nd o f t he U r I n p e r iod f r om t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod . S ince s o l i t t le t ime

i nt h e d e s ign . E ven ly s pa ced d e scend ing t e r race s c omp r ised

h ad e l ap sed w hen t h e Amo r i te s t o ok o ve r B aby lon , S umuabum f ound t h e l o ca l c u l tu re l a rg e ly i n tac t . P a r t o fh i s

a ma in f e a ture o f mo s t f o rma l g a rd en s a t t h i s t ime . T hey p roduced t h e e f ec t o f an ea t ly s egmen ted n a tu ra l w o r ld e x tend ing b ack i n to t h e p a s t . T h i s a r t if ic ia l ly c r ea ted

u l t ima te ly s ucce s sfu l s t ra teg y f o r a ch iev ing l eg i t im iza t ion i nc luded t he a dop t ion o f t h e s oc ia l p rac t ic e s a nd ma te r ia l

' n a tu ra l o rd e r ' , i nt u rn , w a s i d en t if ied w i th t he s o c ia l o rd e r mak ing t h e l a t te r a ppea r a s i fi tt o o w a s n a tu ra l . T he

c u l tu r e o f t he i nd igenou s p eop le i n o rd e r t oi n ser t h im s e lf

s ymbo l ic m e s sage s o f t h e g a rd en f o s te r ed t he i lu s ion t h a t t he s oc ia l h i e ra rchy , w i th t h e o wne r , h i s f am i ly , a nd f r iend s o ccupy ing p o s i t ion s o fp owe r , d e r ived f r om n a tu r e a nd h ad

i n to o ngo ing Me sopo tam ian t r ad i t ion s .

a lway se x is ted .

a pp rop r ia t ing l o ca l s ymbo l s . F i r s t , t h ey e s tab l ished a s ymbol ic l i nk t o t h e p a s t t ha t d id n o t i n f a c t e x is t . T h i s

I r ene W in te r( 1987 ) a l so s t ud ied ma te r ia l c u l tu r ew h ich h ad

c r ea ted t h e i mp r e s s ion t ha t t h ey w e re t h e l e g i t ima te h e i r st o p o l i t ica l p owe r i nB aby lon . I n c u l ture s t h a t d epend h eav i ly

T he

a l im i ted d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in s o c ie ty . S he a na lyzed p re sen ta t ion s c ene s o n c y l inde r s e a l s f r om t h e T h i rd

e a r ly

k ing s

a ccomp l i shed

s ev e ra l

t h ing s

b y

o n t he i r o wn p a s t t op rov ide ' t emp la te s ' f o rt h e p re sen t , t h e

Dyna s ty o f U r I I . T hey d a te t o t h e e nd o f t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . i n Me sopo tam ia . T he s c ene s d ep ic ted a

p er son s t ha t c on t ro l p reced ence may f i nd i te a s ie rt op ro te c t

s ea ted k ing w i th a n i nd iv idua l s t and ing i n f r on t o f h im . U sua l ly a n i n te rced ing g odd e s s p reced ed o r f olowed t h e

w ay t o v i sua l ly d i sp lay t he i r a ccep tanc e b y t he d iv in e p an theon . S econd , b y r e ta in ing f am il ia r i c onog raphy , t h e

w o r sh ipp e r . T he l eg end s a ccompany ing t he i c onog raphy

n ew k ing s i n ten t iona l ly c ommun ica ted a n u namb iguou s

i n c luded t h en ame o ft h ek ing , h i st i t le s , a nd t he n ame o ft h e s e a l o wne r .

s ymbo l ic m e s sag e t o t he p opu lace . T hey e mb raced t h e i nd igenou s r e l ig iou s t r ad i t ion s o ft he s o c ie ty . S ince r e l ig ion

t he i r o wn i n te r e s t s ( Leone , 1 984 :26 ) . I ta l so g ave t hem a

p ermea ted a l l a sp e c t s o f l i f e , s uch a n a f f i rma t ion w a s e x t reme ly i mpo r tan t . 7 2

k ep t t o am in imum . B y s upp re s s ing amu l t ip l ic i ty o fi c on s , t h e g ove rnmen t c ou ld e f ec t ive ly c on t ro l t h e s ymbo l ic m e s sag e s o n s e a l s . As ma l l n umb e r o f s t anda rd ized i c on s f a c i l i ta te s c ommun ica t ion b y o n ly a l low ing a l im i ted n umb e ro fi d en t if iab le m e s sag e s .

One o ft h e p rac t ice s a dop t ed b y t h e n ew r u le r s w a s t h e u s e o fc y l ind e r s e a ls . H ow eve r , t h ey d i d n o t s i gn if ican t ly r ev i s e t h e e x tan t s e a l c a rv ing t r ad i t ion . T he i c onog raphy o f t h e e a r ly O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s d i sp lay s v i r t ua l ly t h e s am e s ymbo l ic r e p e r to i r e t h a t h ad b e en i ne x i s t en ce f o r n ea r ly a t hou sand y ea r s . T h i s d eg r e e o fc on t inu i ty s ugg e s t s s e v e ra l t h ing s . F i r s t , t h e p eop le w i th a c c e s st os e a l s s t i l l u nd e r s tood t h e ir s ymbo l ic m e ss ag e s a nd f o und t h em m ean ing f u l . S econd , t h e r e ten t ion o f f am i l ia r s e a l i c onog raphy c l ea r ly a s se r ted t o t h e u ppe r c l a s s t h a t t h e n ew k ing s h ad e ve ry i n ten t ion o fm a in ta in ing t h es t a tu sq uo .

F ina l ly , t h e O ld B aby lon ian k ing s i n t rodu ced a nd p romo ted t h e K ing w i th t h e Mace mo t if . S ea l e ng rav e r s u sua l ly d ep ic ted h im s t r id ing c on f id en t ly f o r th t o r e que s t f a vo r s f r om ab en evo len tg odde s s . T he s ymbol i sm p o r t ray st h ek ing a s as t rong l e ad e rw ho se r u le t h eg od s a c t ive ly s uppo r t . T he g ov e rnmen t t o ok s t ep s t o mak e c e r ta in t h i s m e s sag e a pp ea r ed o nc y l ind e rs e a l s . Of f i c ia l se n cou rag ed , o rp o s s ib ly i n s i s ted , t h a t s e a l c u t te r s u se t h e KM i nt h e i r s e a l d e s ign s . T h i s w ou ld e xp la in w hy f r om h i s i n i t ia l a pp ea ranc e , t h e

E a r le h a s s ugg e s ted t h a t as t rong c on t inu i ty i ni c onog raphy c an i mp ly a s im i la r c on t inu i ty i n s ymbo l ic m ean ing ( 1990 :74 ) . I r ene W in t e r 's w o rk ( 1 987 ) d emon s t ra ted t h a t t he s ymbo l ic m e s sage sa s so c ia ted w i th as p ec if i cg roup o fU r I I s e a l s f unc t ioned t oe s tab l i sh a n i nd iv idua l 's p l ac e i nt h e b u reauc ra t i c h i e ra r chy , w h i le c onv e r s e ly v a l ida t ing t h e k ing ' s l e g i t ima te r i gh t t or u le . N o c ompa rab le s ubg roup o f s ea l s h a s y e tb een i d en t if i ed f o rt h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod . N o r d i d If i nd a ny i mag e s t h a t c ou ld r e a sonab ly b e i n t e rp r e ted a s i nd iv idua l o wne r s . B u t b a sed o n t h e p r edom inanc eo fd e i t ie sa sw e l la sd ep ic t ion s o ft h ek ing o n OB s e a l s , It h ink t h a t a tl e a s tp a r to ft h e m e s sag e r ema ined i n tac t . S p ec i f ica l ly , Is ugg e s t t h a t t h e p a la ce e xe r t ed s ome c on t ro l o v e r t h e i c onog r aph ic c on ten t o n O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s i n o rde r t o l e g i t im i ze t h e k ing ' s p o s i t ion a s r u le r b y v i r tu eo fd i v ine s anc t ion .

K ing w i th t h e Mace a ch ieved a n ume r ic r e p r e sen ta t ion c ompa rab le t o t wo f i gu r e s w i th l ong h i s to r ie s o f u se o n s ea l s , L ahmu a nd S hama sh . B y t h e t im e o f S inmuba l l i t -ea r ly H anunu rab i , h i s p opu la r i ty o n s e a l s r i va l led t h eI n te rc ed ing G odd e s s . R edundancy a l so f o rmed p a r t o ft h e p a lac e 's s t ra t egy . S ea l c u t t e r s d ep ic ted t h e K ing w i th t h e Mac e i n ac on s i s t en t f a sh ion f r om t h e t im e o fh i s i n t roduc t ion s ot h e r e c ou ld b e n o c on f u s ion a s t o h i s i d en t i ty . T h i s p a ra l le l s t h e Mayan p or t raya l s o f t h e i r k ing s . N o r d id t h e O ld B aby lon ian m ona r ch s a l low a ny o t h e r n ew s ymbo l t oc omp e te w i th t h e KM m o t if I tw a s t h e o n ly n ew s e a l i c on t h a t g a ined a ny p rom in ence d u r ing t h eO ld B aby lon ian p e r iod T he s ef a c to r s i mp ly t h a t t h e p a lac e e x e r ted p r e s sur e o n t h e a r t i n s t o i n c lud et h i s i mag e o nt h e i rs e a l s . T h i s s i tua t ion m ay w e l lb e a na logou s t ot h e o ne J oyc e Ma rcu s ( 1974 ) d e sc r ib ed f o r t h e Maya . T h e k ing s p romo ted a n i c onog raphy o f p ow e r s anc t if ied b y t h e g od s p r e c i se ly b e cau s e i th ad y e t t o b e f i rm ly e s tab l i sh ed T he s ymbol i c m e s sag e i n i t i a l ly d id n o t r e f lec ta ne x i s t ing s i tua t ion , b u t r a the rw a s d e s igned t oh e lp c r ea te i t .

U nf o r tuna te ly , n o k nown s o u r c e s t a te s t h i s f a c t o u t r i gh t . B u t s e v e ra l l i ne s o f e v id en ce t a k en t og e th e r s uppo r t t h i s c on t en t ion . F i r s t , o n ly al im i ted n umb e r o fs ymbo l s a ppea r i na ny q uan t i ty o n O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s . L am ia a l -Ga i lan i Wen ( 1 988 ) s t ud ied t h e O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s f r om S ippa r . T h ey d i sp layed a n umb e r o f s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion s w h ich l e d h e r t o c onc lude t h a t a t l e a s t t wo d i s t inc t s e a l c a rv ing w o rk shop se x i s ted i nt h a tc i ty . H ow eve r , s h ec ou ld d e tec tn o d if e r en c e i nt h e s ymbo l ic r e p e r to i r e su t i l ized b y e a ch s hop . S u ch c on s i s tency w ou ld b e m o r e l i ke ly t o o ccu r i fs om e o u t s id ea g ency d e te rm ined w ha ti c onog raphy w a sa cc ep tab le o ns e a l s .

C y l ind e r s e a l i c onog raphy c onveyed t h e l e g i t ima t e s t a tu s o f t h e k ing p r ima r i ly t ot h e e l i te s . I n t h i s c a s e , e l i te s r e f e r t o p e r son s w ho c am e i nc on tac t w i th t h e s e a l s , i . e . . t h e s c r ib e s w ho w ro te t h e t a b le t s , m e r chan t s i n vo lved i n b u s ine s s t r an sa c t ion s , g ov e rnmen t of i c ia l s , e t c . S ea l s ymbo l i sm e mpha s ized t h e k ing 's a c c ep tance b y t h e d i v ine p an theon b ecau s e i n Me sopo tam ia , t r ad e , c omme r ce , a nd g ov e rnm en t c anno t b e d i vo rced f r om r e l ig ion . F o r i n s tanc e , H a r r i s ( 1 975 :262 ) s a y st h a t b u s ine s s p a r tne r sh ip sb egan a nd e nd ed i nt h e S ha tna sh t emp le . R e ckon ing s o fp rof i t a nd l o s s t o ok p l ace t h e r e a sw e l l . T yp ica lO ld B aby lon ian c on t rac t s wh ich r ep r e sen tt h et r an sac t ion so ft h ep a lac e ,t emp le s , a nd p r iva te i nd iv idua l s i n c lud e o a th s s wo rn t oo ne o rm o r ed e i t ie s . A nd i tw a s i n t h e e l i te s ' i n te r e s t s t o s uppo r t t h e k ing . On ly a s t rong k ing c ou ld c r ea te s t ab le p ol i t ica l c ond i t ion s w h ich i n t u rn a lowed t r ad ea nd c omme rce t of l ou r i sh .

S e cond , t h e a na ly s i s s howed t h a t n o m a in O ld B aby lon ian m o t if s w e r e p o s i t iv e ly a s so c ia ted a ts t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t l e ve l s . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t s e a l c a rv e r s c omb ined t h e m a in i c on si n ar andom f a sh ion . Y e t Id emon s t ra ted t h a tt wo p a i r s o f m o t i f s , A scend ing G od -Sm i t ing F igu r e a nd A sc end ing G od -Sea ted G od , r a r e ly o ccu r r ed t o g e th e r . I fs e a l d e s ign e r s c ompo s ed s c en e s e n t i r e ly b y s e lec t ing s ymbo l s i n a n a r b i t ra ry m ann e r , t h i s w ou ld n o t h app en . T h i s s e em s p a r t icu la r ly t r ue i f t h e r e w a s m o r e t h an o n e w o rk shop m ak ing s e a l s . O n ec ou ld a rgue t h a tt h ep rop r ie to ro f as i ng le w o rk shop m igh t u ncon sc iou s ly a vo id p u t t ing c e r ta in i c on s t o g e th e r . B u t t h e i d en t ic a l d e c i s ion mad e b y a l l t h e o t he r s hop so n ac omp le te ly i nd ep end en tb a s i si su n t enab le . S om e g en e ra l g u id e l in e s mu s t h av e e x i s ted t h a t s p ec if i ed w ha t s ymbo l sc ou ld a nd c ou ld n o tb ec omb in ed o ns e a l s .

O nc e al e g i t ima t e g ove rnmen t h a s b e en e s tab l i shed , t h e i s sue c anno tb e s e t a s id e a nd f o rgo t ten . L eg i t imacy mu s tb e a c t ive ly ma in ta ined b y c on t inuou s ly p rodu c ing s ymbo l ic m e s sage s t h a t r e c rea t e a nd r e in f o r ce s o c ia l r e a l i ty . T he B aby lon ian r u le r s d emon s t ra ted t h e i r a wa r en e s s o ft h i s f a c t b y a dop t ing t h e i n d ig enou s l o ca l c u l tu r e a nd i n t roduc ing

T h i rd , t h e r e r ema in s ag en e ra l l a ck o fa r t i s t i c i nnova t ion o r e xp e r imen ta t ion o n s e a l s u pu n t i l t h e r e ign o fS a rn su i luna . T h i s s ugg e s t s t h a t s om e a g en cy w i th p owe r o ve ra l l t h e s e a l c u t te r s d e l ib e ra te ly i n s i s ted t h a t c e r ta in k ind so fv a r ia t ion b e 7 3

n ew i c onog r aphy t ha t c onv eyed t h i s m e s sag e . o bv iou se xamp le d a te st ot h er e ign o fH anunur ab i .

A no th e r

T he y ea r s f o l low ing t h e b r eak u p o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian e mp i r ew i tne s sed ad evo lu t ion o ft h e c en t ra l g ove rnmen t a s p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p ow e r r e ve r t ed b ack t o m o r e t r ad i t iona l s ou r ce s o f a u tho r i ty . Ib el ieve t ha t t h e k ing s uf e red a c ompa r ab le d ec l in e i n p owe r a nd p r es t ig e . I n Me sopo tam ian t h eo logy _ ak ing 's r e ign o n ly p ro spe red i ft h e d i v in e p an theon s uppo r ted h im . C onve r se ly , h a rd t ime s m ean t t h a t t h e g od s h ad w i thd r awn t h e i r s anc t ion o f h i s l e ad e r sh ip . A s ar e su l t , t h e k ing w ou ld h av e a much m o r e d if i cu l tt im ep o r t ray ing h im s e lf a st h el eg i t ima te r u le r . T h i s d id n o ta u toma t ica l ly m ean h ew ou ld l o s et h et h rone . B u th e c ou ld n o l o nge r e f ec t iv e ly p e r suad e t h e p eop le t o b el i ev e t h a th ec ou ld e s tabl i sh p eace a nd p ro sp e r i ty .

H ammu rab i c onque r ed v a s t q uan t i t ie s o f t e r r i to ry t owa rd s t h e e nd o f h i s l i f e . T he s e a r ea s c on s i s ted p r ima r i ly o f p r ev iou s ly i n d epend en t s t a te s . L ik e S umuabum . v i c to ry h ad m ad e h im t h e d e f a c to r u le r b u t n o t t h e l eg i t ima te r u le r o f t h e n ew p rov in ce s . Y of f ee ( 1 988b ) h a s a rgued t h a t H ammu rab i m ad e ac a lcu la ted a t temp t t op or t r ay h im se l fa s al e g i t ima t ek ing i nt h en ew ly a cqu i red a r ea sb yt h ei s suanc e o f al aw c od e . L aw c od e s c on s t i tu ted a t r ad i t iona l d ev ice u sed b y Me sopo tam ian k ing s t oc ha rac t e r ize t h em se lve s a s j us tr u le r s . T h e C od e o fH anunu rab i c on s i s ted o f al i s t o fc r ime s w i th t h e i r r equ i s i te p un i shmen t s . E v en t h ough f ew p eop le c ou ld a c tua l ly r e ad t h e l aw s , t h e i rv e ry e x is tence c h i s e led i ns t on e s ymbo l i zed j u s t ic e . I na dd i t ion , H anunu rab i h ad a ni mag eo f h im se lf c a rved o n t op o f t h e s t e la p ay ing h omag e t o S hama sh , t h e s un g od a nd g od o fj u s t ice . T h i sr e in f o r ced t h e s ymbol i c m e s sag e t h a t H anunu r ab i r e p r e sen t ed t h e d i v ine ly s anc t ioned l aw o ft h e l a nd . A s Y of f e e ( 1 988b ) h a s s hown , t h el aw c od eh ad l i t t le t od ow i th j u r i sp rud enc e , l e ga l i s su e s , e t c . R a the r i ts e rv ed a s ap i ece o f p ol i t ica l p ropaganda i n t end ed t ol e g i t im ize t h er u le o f af o r e ign o v e r lo rd .

T he d ec l in e i n t h e s t anda rd o f l i v ing c omb ined w i th t h e d ecl in ing p owe r o f t h e k i ng , b o th r e a l a nd p e rc e ived , f a c i l i ta t ed t h e r i se o f p e r sona l r el ig ion . P e r sona l r el ig ion w a sn o t an ew i n ven t ion . I td a ted b ack a tl e a s t i n to t h et h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . Wha t d i d c hang e w a s t h e r o le i tp l ayed i n p eop le 's l i v e s . I t s i mpo r tanc e g r ew d u r ing t h e L a te O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod b e cau s ep eop le h ad n oo t he rp l ace t ot u rn t of o ra s s i s tanc e . T h e g ov e rnmen t c l ea r ly c ou ld n o t p rov id e t h e s e rv ice s i to n ce h ad . B u t i n d iv idua l s c ou ld a ppea l t o t h e i r p e r sona l g od o rg odd e s s f o r l u ck , s u cc e s s , h ea l th , a nd w ea l th . T h ey b e l ieved i ft h ey h ad b een d evou t w o r sh ipp e r s , t h ed e i t yw ou ld a n sw e rt h e i rp r aye r s . T h i st r end t owa rd st h e r e l ian c e o n p e r sona l g od s t o f u lf i l l i n d iv idua l n e ed s c on t inu ed t h roughou tt h eK a s s i te p e r iod .

T h en ex tm a jo rp o l i t ica l d ev e lopmen ti nt h eO ld B aby lon ian p e r iod p rov id e s s t r ik ing t e s t imony t h a t H ammu rab i ' s a t temp t s t ol eg i t im ize h i s r u le i n t h e c onqu e red t e r r i to r ie s u l t ima t e ly f a i led W i th in n in e y ea r s o fH anunur ab i 's d ea th , t h e p eop le i n t h e n ew ly w on p rov inc e s r e b e l led a g a in s t B aby lon ian r u le . B y t h e e nd o fS am su i luna ' s r e ign , h e o n ly c on t ro l led B aby lon 's o r ig ina l c o r e a r ea w h ich i n c lud ed t h e c i t ie so fS ippa ra nd K i sh .

T he p o l i t ica l , e conom ic , a nd r el ig iou s t r an sf o rma t ion s t ha t o ccu r r ed i nt h e l a t te rh a l fo ft h e OB p e r iod u ndoub ted ly h ad am a jo r e f ec t o np eop le ' s l i v e s . A s c i rcum s tance s c hanged , p eop le i n ev i tab ly a l te red t h e i r m a te r ia l c u l tu r e w i th i t s e mb edd ed s ymbol i c m e ss age s t o h e lp t h em s t ruc tu re t h e i r n ew s o c ia l r e al i ty . A t p r e s en t . t h e r e h av e b e en f ew s t ud ie s d on e o nh ow t h i s m igh tb e r e cogn ized i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .

T h e l o s so ft h ep rov inc e sd ea l t as e v e r eb l ow t ot h e p a lac e 's s ou r ce s o f r e venu e . B u t t h e C rown d id n o t d ec rea s e i t s s p end ing a c co rd ing ly ( Yof f ee . 1 988a ) . T hey c on t inu ed t o u nd er tak e l a rg e s c a le i r r iga t ion a nd b u i ld ing p ro je c t s . F i sca l i n s tab il i ty w a s t h e i n ev i tab le r e su l t . T o s ave m on ey , t h e C rown s t a r ted t or e ly o n as e a sona l w o rk f o rc e r e c ru i ted b y l o ca l l e ad e r s . T h i s g ave t h e v i l lag e h e admen t h e c han ce t o r e a s ser t t h e i r a u tho r i ty t h a t h ad p r ev iou s ly b e en u su rp ed b y t h e c en t ra l g ov er nmen t . T he t emp le s a l so r ega ined much o f t h e i rf o rm e re conom ic p owe ra st h ey r e a s sumed t h e i rr o le a s l e nd ing i n s t i tu t ion s .

It h ink p eop le m igh t b e e xp ec t ed t o a dop t an umber o f d if e r en t s t r a teg ie s i nt h e p roduc t ion o f ma te r ia l s ymbo ls i n t h e c a s e o fc u l tu ra l d ec l in e . F i r s t , t h e e x i s t ing i c onog raph ic r e pe r to i r e w ou ld b e mod if i ed a s p eop le c oped w i th t he n ec e s s i ty o f c r ea t ing n ew s ymbo l i c m e s sag e s . T h i s m igh t i n c lud e t h e i n t rodu c t ion o fn ew i c on s a nd t h e m od if i ca t ion o r r e comb ina t ion o f e x i s t ing o ne s . S ome m o t if s m igh t b e d i scon t inued a l tog e th e r i f t h e i r s ymbol i c a s soc ia t ion s b e cam e i r r e levan t o r s omehow u nacc ep tab le . F o r i n s tance , s ymbo l s o f l e g i t ima t ion p r ev iou s ly r e se rved f o r u s e b y t he g ov e rnm en tc ou ld b e c oop ted b y o t he rg roup s o ra bandoned a sr e p r e s en ta t ion so fp owe rt h a tn ol o ng e rw o rk ed .

T he p a lac e 's f i nanc ia l d i ff i cu l t ie s e xac e rba t ed t h e p rob lem o f e nv i ronmen ta l d eg r ada t ion . Y of f ee ( 1 988a ) t h ink s t h e l a te rk ing s m ay h ave t r ied t og row m o r ef ood i na n e f o r tt o i n c r ea se r e v enue . S in ce t h ey d id n o t h ave a cce s s t o a ny a dd i t iona l l a nd , t h e o n ly w ay t oa ccompl i sh t h i s w ou ld h av e b e en b y a bandon ing t h e s y s tem o f f a l low . S uch a n a c t ion w ou ld p rov id e s ome s ho r t te rm r el i ef b u t i n t h e l o ng r un w ou ld d amag e f i e ld s a nd l owe r p roduc t iv i ty b ecau s e o f s a l in iza t ion . E ven t hough t h e r e i s n o d i r ec t e v id en c e t o p rove t h i s , d o cumen t s a t t e s tt oi n f la t ed f o od p r ic e s a nd n ew a t t emp t s a t i n ten s ive l a nd m anag emen t i n t h e l a te r O ld

S econd , ag r ea te r d i v e r s i ty i n i c onog raphy m ay r e su l t i fa c en t ra l ized g ove rnm en t l o s e s i t s c on t ro l o ve r s ymbo l ic a c t iv i ty . A s W in t e r ( 1 987 ) a nd E a r le ( 1 990 ) d emon s t ra ted , e l i t e so f t en c hoo s et oc onv ey al im i ted n umbe ro fi d en t if iab le m e s sag e s t h rough t h e u s e o f a r e s t r ic ted n umbe r o f s t anda rd ized s ymbo l s . W i th a b r eakdown o f c oe rc ive a u thor i ty , t h e o ppo s i te s i tua t ion c ou ld o c cu r . I nd iv idua ls w ou ld a s sum e t h e " pow e r t o " e xp r e s s t h em se lv e s u s ing a w id e v a r i e ty o f s ymb o l s . H oweve r , i f t h e g ove rnmen t r e ta ined i t s h o ld o n c o e r c iv e p owe r d e sp i t e p o l i t ica l

B aby lon ian p e r iod . T h e E d ic t o f Amm i saduqa „ w r i t t en i n t h e r e ign o ft h e s e cond t o l a s t k ing o ft h e d yna s ty , m ak e s r e f e r en ce t ot h ed eb tl o ad o nt h ep eop le ( P r i tcha rd , 1 975 ) . 7 4

s e tback s , t hen s ymbo l s o f l eg i t ima t ion c ou ld r ema in l o ng a f te rt h er ea l i ty o ft ha tp owe rh ad d i sappea red

Is ugge s ted p rev iou s ly t ha t t he d i scon t inuance o f t h e KM mo t if i nd ica ted t ha t t h e p a lac e c ou ld n o l onge r d i c ta te s e a l

F ina l ly , t he c o l lap se o f as oc ie ty may t r igge r a n o ve ral

i c onog raphy . F u r the r s uppor t f o r t h i s h ypo the s i s c an b e f ound i n t h e i n c rea s ing amoun t o f v a r ia t ion u sed i n t h e

d ec l ine i n s ymbo l ic a c t iv i ty . K e l ley Ann H aye s ( 1993 ) s ugg e s t s t ha t s ymbo l s o f p o l i t ica l l eg i t ima t ion s hou ld b e

d ep ic t ion o f i c on s . Sm i t ing F igu re s , f o r i n s tance , w h ich b ecam e p rom inen t t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e d yna s ty e xh ib i t

c ons id e red a s i nves tmen t s o f t ime , l a bo r , a nd ma ter ia l s . T hey c an f u lf i l l a v a r ie ty o f f unc t ion s i n c lud ing t h e

l e s s s t anda rd iza t ion t han a ny o the r ma in OB f i gu r e . I nf a c t , i tr ema in s d oub tfu l w he the r t he se a l l r ep resen t t h e s am e p e r sonag e . P os tu re i st h e o n ly f e a tu re t ha t t hey a l l h ave i n c ommon . H eadwea r , t o o , c on s is t s o f aw ide r r ange o ft yp e s t han i n t h e EOB p er iod . T h e h or n c r own a nd t h e t u rban p redom ina ted p r io r t o S am su i luna . L a te r o n , a tl e a s t t h re e

c ommun ica t ion o f s t a tu s w i th in a s oc ia l h i e ra r chy . I ft h e s oc ie ty u l t ima te ly c o l lap se s , t h e n eed f o r n ego t ia t ing s oc ia l p o s i t ion s ub s tan t ia l ly l e ssen s . T hu s , i nve s tmen t i n s ymbo l ic c ommun ica t ion w ou ld n o l ong e r b e a s i mpor tan t a s i to nc e w a s . T he q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o f a r t i s t ic a c t iv i ty w ou ld d im in i sh a s ar e su l t .

s t y le s o fb r immed h a t s b ecame p opu la r i n a dd i t ion t o t h e o the rt wo t ype s . F ina l ly ,

T he c y l inde r s e a l i c onog raphy u t i l ized d u r ing t h e L a te O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod d i sp lay s e v id ence o f a l l t h r ee o f t h e s e r e spon se s t o c u l tu ra l c o l lap se . S ome s ymbo l s w e re l a rg e ly a bandoned wh i le o the r s g a ined i ni mpo r tance . D ive r s i ty i n t h ei c onog raph ic r eper to i r e i n c r ea sed , b u tt he o ve ra l l q ua l i ty o ft h e s ea l s d ec rea sed . T he mo t if t ha t a ppea red t ob e mo s t d i r ec t ly a f ec ted b yt he o n se t o ft h ep o l i t ica l t u rmo i lw a s t h e

L a te O ld B aby lon ian

s e a l

i mp re s s ion s c l ea r ly

d i sp lay a d ec rea sed i nve s tmen t i n t h e manuf ac tu re o f t h e s ea ls . B uchanan ( 1970 ) t hough t t h e c hange w a s s od rama t ic h ec a l led i ta' r evo lu t ion i na r t ' . H ed a ted t he s h if tt o as hor t p e r iod o f t ime d u r ing t h e r e ign o f A b ie shu . T he ma in f e a tu re s o ft h i s n ew s t y le c on s i s ted o ft h e o bv iou s u se o ft h e d r i l la nd c u t t ing whee l . T hey a l lowed s e a l make r st oq u ick ly e t ch o u t s chema t ic f i gu re s r a the r t h an c a refu l ly d ep ic t t h em b y h and a s t hey h ad i nt h e p a s t . F rank f or t c a l led t h e e f f ec t

K ing w i th t he Mace . T h i s i c on s uf e red as udd en , s ha rp f a l l i ni t sd ep ic t ion o ns e a l s wh ich c o inc id ed a lmo s te xac t ly w i th

' c oa rs e ' ( 1939 :154 ) . C o l lon s ay s t h e n ew c u t t ing t e chn ique s r e su l ted i nt h e p roduc t ion o fp oo rq ua l i ty s ea l sf r om t hen o n ( 1988 :52 ) . N one o ft he se a u tho r s h a s s ugge s ted ar e a son f o r

S am su i lw ia 's n in th y ea r . Ia rgued e a rl ie rt ha t t h e OB k ing s i n t roduced a nd p romo ted t h e K ing w i th t h e Mac e a s a m ean s o f p or t ray ing t hemse lve s a s l eg i t ima te k ing s . I t s p rec ip i tou s d ec l ine i nd ica te s t h a t t h e p a lace n o l onge r h ad t h ep ow e rt oi n s i s to ni t si n c lu s ion o ns e a l s .

t he d ec l ine i n t h e o ve ra l l q ua l i ty o f LOB c y l ind e r s e a l s . F o l low ing H aye s ( 1993 ) , Ib e l ieve t h a t i tc an b e r e la ted t oa

T h e q ues t ion r ema in st hough , w hy d idn ' tt h e e l i te s c on t inu e t o u se t h e K ing w i th t he Mac e mo t if i n a t temp t t o c u r ry f avo r w i th t h e r u le r? I b el i ev e t h e u n s tab le p o l i t ica l

c hang e i n t h e f unc t ion o f s e a l s a s c onveyo r s o f s ymbo l ic me ssage s . I ta l ready a ppea r sa si fLOB s ea ls p layed l e s so fa r o le i n e s tab l i sh ing t h e l e g i t imacy o f t h e k ing . O ve r t ime , e l i te s e xe rc i sed l e s s e conom ic p owe r a s i ts h if t ed b ack i n to

c ond i t ion s t r igge red a c r i s is o f c onf id ence i n t h e d yna s t ic l i ne . I n Me sopo tam ia , ak ing o n ly r u led e f ec t ive ly a tt h e p l ea su re o ft he g od s . T he p eop le mu s t h ave c on s ide red t h e

t h e h and s o f t h e t emp le s a nd l o ca l l e ade r s . I ft h e s o c ia l h i e ra r chy g radua l ly b rok e d own u nd e r t he w e igh t o f

p e rce ived w i thd rawa l o f d iv ine s anc t ion f o r t h e k ing a s a v e ry s e r iou s ma t te r . S inc e t h e KM s howed t h e mona rch

i nve s t i n t op q ua l i ty s ea l s i n o rd e r t o c ommun ica te a nd n ego t ia te t he i r s oc ia l p o s i t ion . T h i s s i tua t ion r ema ined

b a sk ing i n t h e a pp rova l o f ab enevo len t g odde s s , i t s c on t inued u se mu s t h ave b een t hough t t ob e o f en s ive t ot h e g ods . T hu s , t h e e l i te c ho se t od rop t h is s ymbo l i nd ef e r enc e t ot h e w i she s o ft h e d iv ine p an th eon . T h i s h ypo the s i s t a ke s

u nchanged f o rt h er e s to ft h ed yna s ty .

i n to a ccoun t an umb e r o f f a c to r s c once rn ing t h e s udd en v i r tua l a bandonmen t o ft he KM m o t if I te xp la in s why t h i s

s ucc e s so r s , t he e a r ly Ka s s i t e k ing s d id n o t a pp rop r ia te t h e s ymbo ls o ft he p a s t f o r t h e i r s e a l s . I n f a c t , v i r tua l ly a l l t h e mo s t p opu la r a nd i d en t if iab le f i gu r e s f r om t h e O ld

e conom ic h a rd sh ip , t hen t h eu pp e rc l a s sn o l ong e rn eeded t o

T he K a s s i te t ak eove ro fB aby lon ia p robab ly o ccu r red d u r ing t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry B .C . B u t u n l ike S umuabum a nd h i s

p a r t icu la r i c on l o s t f avo r , t h e t im ing a nd e x ten t o f i t s d ec l ine , a nd why i tn eve r r ega in ed i t s f o rme r p opu la r i ty . I f t h e k ing h ad g radua l ly l o s t h i s a b i l i ty t o r e c rea te h i s

B aby lon ian p er iod d i sappea r ed f r om t h e i r r eper to i re . T he e v id ence s ugg e s t s t ha t t h e K a s s i te s d id n o t u se s e a l i c onog raphy t o e s tab l i sh a s ymbo l ic l i nk t o t he p r ev iou s

l eg i t ima te s t a tu s a s p owe r d evo lved a way f r om t h e c en t ra l g ove rnmen t , t h en t h e KM s ymbo l w ou ld h ave d ec l ined o ve r

d ynas ty .

t ime , n o ts uf e red ap rec ip i tou sa nd p ermanen td rop . T he q ues t ion i s , why? I n m any w ay s , t h e s i tua t ion s a tt h e Wa r r io r I s h ta r i s a no the r m o t if who se u se d im in i shed d u r ing a nd a f te r t h e r e ign o f S am su i luna . S h e a l so

b eg inn ing o f t he O ld B aby lon ian a nd t h e K a s s i te p e r iod s a ppea r t o b e q u i te s im i la r . I n b o th i n s tance s , n ew g roup s

r ep r e sen ted a n i c on t ha t n o l o ng e r c ar r ied a n a pp rop r ia te m e ssag e . S he w a s t he p a tron g odd e s s o fU ruk , ac i ty t h a t h ad o nc e e n joyed ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th B aby lon . B u t t h e c i t izen s o f U ruk r e be l led a ga in s t t h e r u le o f S am su i luna

c ame i n to Me sopo tam ia a nd t o ok o ver t h e r e ign s o f g ove rnmen t d u r ing a p e r iod o f g ene ra l p o l i t ica l w eakne s s . Un se t t led c ond i t ion s o f t h e I s in -La r sa p e r iod a l lowed S umuabum t o e s tab l i sh a p owe r b a se i n B aby lon . T he

a l ong w i th t h e r e s to ft h e s ou th . U ruk e ven tua l ly f e l li n to t h e h and s o f t he S ea land Dyna s ty . C on sequen t ly , d u r ing t h e L a te O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod , I s h ta r s ymbo l ized a n e nemy c it y . H e r i mage o n n or the rn c y l ind e r s ea l s b ecame c o r re spond ing ly r a re .

K a s s i te s moved i n to B aby lon s ome t ime a f t e r t h e H i t t i te s c rea ted a p owe r v acuum b y d epo s ing S a in sud i tana . T he K a s s i te s , l i ke t he B aby lon ian s , h ono red o the r i nd igenou s t r ad i t ion s . T he Ka s s i te s e ven w en t s o f a r a s d igg ing u p o ld b u i ld ing f ounda t ion s s o t h e n ew s t ruc tu re s c ou ld b e r ebu i l t 7 5

A d og a ppea r s o n 1 8 o f t h e F i r s t K a s s i t e s e a l s . D og s s ymbo l ize Ga la , t h eg odd e s so fh ea l ing . T h e Me sopo tam ian s d id n o t k now wha t c au sed d i sea s e , b u t t h ough t mu ch o fi t w a s t h e w o rk o f d emon s o r p un i shm en t f o r s i n s . P r ie s t s a s sum ed t h e r o le o f m ed ica l p rac t i t ione r s a s t h ey t r ied t o e xo rc i s e t h e e v i l . Ga la w a s t h e p a t ron g odd e s s o fd oc to r s . T h e p r e s enc e o f h e r s ymbo l , t h e d og , o n s e a l s s hou ld b e i n t e rp r e ted e i the r a s ap raye r f o r t h e g ood h ea l th o f t h e o wne r o r p o s s ib ly a s as i gn o f t h ank s f o r h ea l th r e s to r ed E i th e r w ay , t h e i c onog raphy i nd ica te s as ymbo l ic m e s sag e c on cer n ed w i th p e r sona l i s sue s . T h i s i n d iv idua l a pp roach t o s e a l c omp o s i t ion s t and s i n m a rked c on t ra s t t o t h e O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s w h ich e xh ib i ted a l im i ted n umb e r o f w id e ly r e cogn ized i c on s l i k e S hama sh , I s h ta r , L a lunu , t h e k ing , e t c . I ts ugg e s t s t h a tt h e F i r s tK a s s i te c yl ind e rs e a l s , a s v eh ic le s f o r s ymbo l ic c ommun ica t ion , c a r r ied s ub s tan t ia l ly d if e ren tm e ss age st h an O ld B aby lon ian s e a l s .

a sc l o s e ly a sp o s s ib le o nt h e o r ig ina l p l an s . T h ey mu s t h av e f ound c y l ind e r s e a l s a s w el s o i ti su n l ik e ly t h ey w e r e e n t i r e ly u n f am i l ia r w i th t h e i c onog raphy . S o w hy d i d t h e t wo s e t so fn ew k ing sa dop ts u ch d if e r en ts t ra t eg ie s? Is ugg e s tt h a tt h eK a s s i te sd i dn o ta dop tO ld B aby lon ian s e a l i c onog raphy b ecau se t h e r e w a s n o c omp e l l ing r e a son f o r t h em t o d o s o . When S umuabum t o ok o ve r B aby lon , s e a l m ak e r ss t i l lw o rk ed i nm any p a r t so fs ou th e rn Me sopo tam ia . T h e p eop le i n vo lved i nt r ad ing a c t iv i t ie s w e r e u ndoub t ed ly f am i l ia r w i th s e a l i c onog raphy f r om s u r round ing a r ea s . T hes e s ymbo l s p rov id ed S umuabum a nd h i s s uc c e s so r s a c onven ien t w ay t o i n s er t t h em se lve s i n to Mesopo tam ian t r ad i t ion , a nd t h e reby e s tabl i sh a c l a im a s t h e l e g i t ima te g ove rnmen t . H oweve r , w h en t h eK a s s i te st o ok o v e rB aby lon , t h e s e a l c a rv ing t r ad i t ion h ad d i ed o u t i n c en t ra l Me sopo tam ia . N od a ted s e a l sc an b ep l aced t h e r ei nt h et im e p e r iod e x tend ing f r om y ea r 1 4 o fS am sud i tana , c . 1611 B .C . , t o r ough ly 1 400 B .C . F o r at ime s pan l a s t ing a bou t 2 00 y ea r s , n o e v id ence e x i s t s t o d a te o f c y l ind e r s e a l s b e ing e i the r m ad e o ru s ed i nB aby lon ia . T h i s m ean s t h e r e w a s n o o ngo ing s e a l c a rv ing t r ad i t ion f o r t h e K a s s i t e s t o a pp rop r ia t e . N o th ing c ou ld b e g a ined b y r e su r r ec t ing s ymbo l so ft h ep a s tt h a tn oo ne r ememb e r ed .

S econd K a s s i te s e a l sp r e sen t as t y l i s t i c a sw e l l a sf unc t iona l c on t ra s t t o F i r s t K a s s i t e -Cen t ra l s e a l s . Ma t th ew s ( 1 992 ) d emon s t ra t ed t h a t t h e g ove rnmen t r e s e rved t h e S e cond K a s s i t es t y le l a rge ly f o ri t so wn u s e . B u t w h e r e a nd h ow t h e s t y le o r ig ina ted i sn o t w e l l u nd e r s tood . T h e l a te s t e v id en ce i n d ica t e s t h a t i te vo lv ed i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e M idd le A s sy r ian s t y le i n t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e 1 4 th c en tur y B .C . ( Ma t th ew s , 1 992 :48 ) . B u t w ho i n i t ia t ed t h e s t y le , w ho b o r row ed i t ,a nd h ow t h ea r ea si nf luenced e a ch o the rc anno t b ed e t e rm ined a tp re s en t .

T h e K a s s i t e s e a l s , b ecau se t h ey d id n o t d e r iv e f r om a n o ngo ing t r ad i t ion , p r e sen t a ma rked c on t ra s t t o t h e i r p red ece s so r s . K a s s i te m a in mo t if s l a ck t h e r e dundan cy o f O ld B aby lon ian i c on s . When c ompa r ing m any OB s e a l ing s , o n e o f t en h a s t ol o ok c a r ef u l ly t od e tec t w h e the r t h ey c ame f r om t h e s ame o r d if e r en t s e a l s . O ld B aby lon ian s e a l c arv e r s e v en r e so r ted t oi n sc r ib ing l i t t le e mb lem sw i th in t h e l e g end t o h e lp i nd iv idua l s d if e ren t ia t e b e twe en s im i la r s e a l ing s . K a s s i t e s e a l s , o n t h e o the r h and , c an b e d i v id ed i n to a tl e a s tt wo m a jo rs t y l i s t ic g roup s , F i r s tK a s s i te -Cen t r a l a nd S e cond K a s s i te . E v en w i th in t h e s e , s im i la r t y p e s o f m o t if s w e r e n o t c a rved i nv i r tua l ly i d en t ica l f a sh ion o n t h e m a jo r i ty o fs e a l s .

T he c omp le t e ly n ew i c onog raph ic r e p er to i r e o ft h e S econd K a s s i t e s e a l s c omb ined w i th i t s r e s t r ic t ed u s e s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e K a s s i t e k ing s m a in ta in ed s om e c on t ro l o ve r t h e c ho ic e o f t h e se d e s ign s . A s e al ing i n t h i s s t y le , w h ich d i f f e r s m a rk ed ly f r om F i rs t K a s s i t e s e a l s , w ou ld q u ick ly i d en t if y a t a b le t a s ag ove rnm en t d ocumen t . R egu la t ion o f t h e s e d e s ign s mu s t h av e b een n ec e s sa ry t o a vo id c onf u s ion o r m i s rep r e s en ta t ion . A ga in , i ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a t w hen t h e K a s s i t e k ing s d id d ec id e t o a dop t as t y le f o r b u reauc ra t ic u s e , t h ey s e lec ted t o ta l ly n ew i c onog raphy . T hey d id n o t c hoo se t o l i nk t h em se lve s t o t h e i r O ld B aby lon ian p r ed ec e s so r s .

Ma t th ew s ( 1 992 ) a rgued t h a t d i s t in c t K a s s i te s t y le s e x i s ted b ecau se t h ey s e rved d i f f e r en t f unc t ion s w i th in s o c ie ty . H e t h ink s t h a t F i r s t K a s s i te -Cen t ra l s e a l s b e long ed t o i nd iv idua l s a nd w e r e u s ed f o r p e r sona l b u s ine s s . Ib el i ev e t h e i n sc r ip t ion s a nd i c onog raphy s uppo r t Ma t th ew s a s se r t ion . T he i n sc r ip t ion s , a so ther s h ave n o t ed ( F rank f or t , 1 939 : Ma t th ew s , 1 990 ) a s sumed a p rom inen t p o s i t ion o n FKC s e a l s . T he se w e re a lmo s t a lway s p r aye r s t o s p e c i f ic d e i t ie s . T h i s p a ra l le l s t h e g row th i n i mpo r tanc e o fp e r sona l r e l ig ion w h ich b egan i nt h e OB p e r iod B y K a s s i t e t ime s , FKC s e a l s h ad b ecom e a no the r m ean s f o r i nd iv idua l s t o p e t i t ion t h e i rp e r sona lg od s .

S econd K a s s i te i c onog raphy a nd i n sc r ip t ion s , u n l ike t h a t o f F i r s t K a s s i te s e a l s , p o se s i gn if i can t d i ff i cu l t ie s i n i n te rp r e ta t ion . T h e s ymbo l s a nd m o t i f s v a ry s o much , n o c ohe ren t p a t te rn c an b e d i sc er n ed . I f , a s Ma t th ew s ( 1 992 ) s ugge s t s , S econd K a s s i te s e a l s b e longed t o g ove rnm en t of i c ia l s , t h en o n e w ou ld p r ed ic t t h a t S K s e a l s w ou ld b e a l i k e ly m ed ium f o rc ommun ica t ing s ymbol i cm e s sag e sw i th in t h eb u re au c racy . T he l a ck o fr edundancy i nS econd K a s s i te i c onog raphy a rgue s a ga in s t t h i s . Ap o s s ib le a n swe r t ot h i s p rob lem l i e si na nh ypo the s i sp u tf o r th b yH aye s ( 1 993 ) . S he c on tend s t h a t i f as t ab le m anag e r ia l e l i t e e x i s t s s uch t h a t l i t t le s t r e s s d eve lop s w i th in t h e s y s tem , t h en t h e n eed t o n ego t ia t e p rob lems t h rough s ymbo l i c a c t iv i ty m igh t n o t a r i se . T h e K a s s i t e k i ng s m ay n o t h av e s t anda rd ized t h e i c onog raphy o nb u r eau c ra t ic s e a l s s imp ly b ecau se i tw a s n o t n e ce s sa ry .

T he i c onog r aphy , t o o , s ugg e s t st h a tt h e se s e a l sf unc t ion ed a s v eh ic le s f o r p e r sona l e xp r e s s ion r a th e r t h an a s w ay s t o c ommun ica t e s ymbol i c m e s sage s t o o t h e r p eop le . I n o t he r w o rd s , i nd iv idua l s r e ta in ed t h e p owe r t o c hoo s e w ha t w a s i n sc r ib ed o n t h e i r s e a l s . S i ng le f i gu r e s o f ten j u s t f l ank t h e i n sc r ip t ion . T he l a ck o f s t anda rd ized r e nd e r ing s o f t h e se p e r sonag e s m ay m ean t h a t t h e se w e r e d ep ic t ion s o f t h e a c tua ls e a lo wne r ss t and ing b e s id et h ep r aye r .

S econd K a s s i te s e a l i n sc r ip t ion s , o n t h e o t he r h and , s how a r ema rkab le c on s i s t en cy e s pec ia l ly w hen c ompa r ed t o t h e i c onog raphy . T hey a r e m a in ly p r aye r s , t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f 7 6

wh ich a r ed ed ica ted t o Ma rduk . On t h e s u r f ace ,t h i s r equ i re s l i t t le e xp lana t ion . T he a pp ea rance o f S e cond K a s s i te s e a l s

' ma tch ' .

T he

i c onog raphy

s e em s t o h ave c onveyed a

s ymbo l ic me s sag e t h a t d if e red f r om t h e i n sc r ip t ion . T he w ide sp read u se o f Ma rduk a nd Ma rduk n ame s i n t he s e a l l eg end s c o inc id e w i th h i s g row ing i mpo r tance i n K as s i te s oc ie ty . F o r u nknown r e a son s , t h i s m e s sage w a s n o t r e in f o rced w i th h i si mag eo rs ymbo l s .

c o inc id e s w i th t h e p e r iod when t h e p r ie s t s o f Ma rduk w e r e p os i t ion ing h im t o t akeove r t h e Me sop o tam ian p an theon . S inc e t h e t emp le a nd t he c rown d id n o t c omp r i se s epa ra te a nd i nd ep end en t i n s t i tu t ion s , i ts e em s l og ica l t ha t mo s t o f t he p raye r sw ou ld b ea dd r e s sed t oh im . T h i s i nt u rn s ugge s t s t ha t S Ks ea l sw e r eb e ing u sed t oh e lp p romo te Ma rduk . B u t ,

T h i s d i s se r ta t ion h a s i lu s t ra ted h ow i c onog raphy c an i n s ome c a se s b e t i ed d i re c t ly t o p o l i t ica l o r r e l ig iou s e ven t s a nd i no the r c a se s i tc an n o t . I ts how s t ha t s ymbo l s , t hen a s n ow , a c t ive ly p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e c r ea t ion a nd r e c rea t ion o f

i f t ha t w e r e i ndeed t h e c a se , o ne mu s t a sk why n o u nequ ivoca l i mag e o f Ma rduk a nd /o rh i ss ymbo l a ppea r s o n a ny S K s ea l . Why s hou ld Ma rduk b e s o p rom inen t i n t he i n scr ip t ion sa nd r ema in i nv is ib le i nt h ei c onog raphy?

s oc ia l r ea l i ty . S ub s tan t ia l amoun t so fd ocumen ta t ion a l lowed t h e r e cons truc t ion o f t h e c u l tu ra l c on tex t i n wh ich t h e s ymbo l s w e re mad e a nd u sed . T h is a l lowed s ome o f t h e mean ing s embedd ed i nt h e i c onog raphy t ob e d educed . B u t e ven t hough h i s to r ica l r e co rd s c an b e i nva luab le a s s ou rce s o f i n f o rma t ion , t h ey u l t ima te ly s e rve a d if e ren t c u l tu ra l f unc t ion t han i c onog raphy . T hey d o n o t , f o r i n s tance ,

Ih av et wo a n swe r st os ugge s t . One , t h eK a s s i te k ing sw ou ld n o t a l low Ma rduk 's i mag e o n of i c ia l s e a l s . T he K a s s i te k ing s t o ok g r ea t c a re t ok eep B aby lon ian c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s i n tac t . I ft h ey w ou ld h ave c on sen ted t op romo te Ma rduk t o t he h ead o ft h e p an theon , i tw ou ld h ave b een d one a t t he e xpen se o f E n l i l . Undoub ted ly , t h e t emp le p e r sonne l

a dd re s s q ue s t ion s o fp o l i t ica l l eg i t im iza t ion o r r e co rd h ow p eop le n ego t ia te t h e i r p os i t ion w i th in t h e s oc ia l h i era rchy . No r i s t he w r i t ten w o rd a n e f ec t ive me thod f o r c ommun ica t ing i n l a rge ly i l i te ra te s o c ie t ie s . On ly t h e

r ep re sen t ing E n l i l h ad n o d e s i re t ol o se t h e i r s p ec ia l s t a tu s . T o c hang e t h ing s c ou ld h ave l e d t o av e ry p ub l ic a nd u np leasan tf i gh tf o rp owe rb e twe en t wo c omp e t ing g roup so f t emp le r ep r e sen ta t ive s . T he K a s s i te k ing s d ec ided n o t t o d i srup tt h es t a tu sq uo .

a na ly se s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re s ymbo l s i n c on junc t ion w i th d ocumen t s c an p rov id e mo re i n -dep th k now ledge i n to t h e c on f l ic t s a nd i s sue sa f ec t ing p eop le 's l i ve s . My s t udy m ake s

S econd , t h e S econd K a s s i te i n sc r ip t ion s i nd ica te t ha t who eve r c ho se t hem , p o s s ib ly t h e b u reau c ra t s t h em se lve s ,

ac on t r ibu t ion t o t h e g row ing b ody o f l i t era tu re wh ich d emon s t ra te st h e ef i cacy o ft h i sa pp roach .

a l r eady f avo red Ma rduk . T he i c onog raphy c ou ld b e u sed t o c ommun ica te o the r t ype s o f m e ss ag e s . T he g roup who n eed ed t ob ep er suad ed t oa ccep t Ma rduk a st h e h ead o ft h e p an theon w a st h e g ene ra l p ub l ic . T he se p eop le p robab ly h ad l i t t le c on tac t w i th s t a te r e l ig ion e xcep t d u r ing t he c e leb ra t ion o f ma jo rf e s t iva ls . Y e tt h ey w ou ld h ave h ad t ob e p repa red f o rt h ec hang ef o ri tt ob ea c cep ted . S e cond Ka s s i te c y l inde r s e a l s c ou ld n o t b e u sed e f ec t ive ly f o r t h i s p u rpo se b ecause o rd ina ry c i t izen sp robab ly n eve rs aw t h em . T h i sb e ing s a id , t he p rob lem s t i l l r ema in sa st o why Ma rduk s ymbo l s d o n o t a ppea r o n a ny K a s s i te s ea l s . When Ib egan t h i s s t udy , If u l ly e xp ec ted t o f i nd a n i n c rea sed u se o f i mage s r e la t ing t o Ma rduk a s h i s s t a tu s r o se . T h i sj u s t d id n o t h appen . I n t he c a se o fF i r s t K a s s i te -Cen tra l s ea l s , t he i n sc r ip t ion s c er ta in ly c onf i rm Ma rduk 's p opu la r i ty . B u t t he g od s a nd g odd e s se s d ep ic ted a r e n o t i d en t i f iab le a s s p ec if ic d e i t ie s . S ome o ft h e f i gu re s m ay r e p re sen t s e a l o wner s b u t c e r ta in ly n o t a l l o ft h em c an b e e xp la ined i n t h i s w ay . A t p r es en t , Ih ave n o r e a son t o s ugg es t w hy t h e g od s a nd g odde s se s m en t ioned i nt h e i n scr ip t ion s , i n c lud ing Ma rduk , d on o ts e em t ob ei n sc r ibed o nt h es e a l s . T he S econd K a s s i te s i tua t ion r ema in se ven mo re p e rp lex ing . I ft h ec r own d id n o ta l low Ma rduk 's i mage o nt h e s e a l s , why d id t h ey l e t mo s t o ft h e i n sc r ip t ion s b e a dd re s sed t o h im? O r , s i nc e t h ey p e rm i t ted t h e u s e o f h i s n ame , why w ou ld t h ey f o rb id t he s ymbol i sm? I t i s t r ue t h a t i n al a rge ly i l i te ra te s oc ie ty , i c onog raphy c an p rov id e a mo re e f ec t ive m e thod o fc ommun ica t ion t han t e x tb ecau se s ymbo ls w ou ld b e mo r e r e cogn izab le b y t h e m a jor i ty o f t h e p eop le . T ex t w ou ld h ave p rov ided a l e s s c on sp icuou s w ay o f s uppo r t ing Ma rduk B u t i ft h e k ing s d id n o t w an t Ma rduk p romo ted , why t o le ra te a ny r e f e rence t o h im a t a l? I n s hor t , t h e s ymbo ls a nd t ex t o n S econd K a s s i te s e a l s d on ' t r e ad i ly 7 7

APPEND IX A I lu s t ra t ion C red i t sf o rF igu r e s

A bb r ev ia t ion s : GW A l -Ga i lan i We r r ,L am ia MATT Ma t th ew s ,D ona ld

F igur e5 :O b je c t sH e ld S ou r c e

P la te

S ea lN o .

a ) GW :1988

) 00 (

7 (206 . f )

F igure 1 : Map o f Me sopo tam ia -Red rawn f r om J .O a te s , 1 986 :8

b ) GW :1988

XXV I

5 (235 .b )

c ) GW :1988

V

4 (69 .0

F igure 2 : Map o ft h e F ind S po t s o fK a s s i te S ea l s -R ed rawn

d ) GW :1988

XXX I

8 (247 .e )

f r om G . R oux , 1 992 "Map o f N ea r a nd M idd le E a s t i n E a r ly A n t iqu i ty " i nt h e map s e c t ion i nt h eb ack o ft h eb ook

e ) GW :1988

XL I

9 (293 )

f ) GW :1988

xxxv il

2 (27 1 .c )

g ) MATT :1990 F igure 3 :H ead Wea ra nd H a i r s ty le s S ou rc e

P la te

S ea lN o .

a ) GW :1 988

) (XXV I I I

9 ( 269 .c )

b ) GW :1 988

XXVI

1 ( 190 . i ) 7 8

c ) MATT :1990 d ) GW :1988

XL

I

1 2 (30 )

g ) GW :1988

XXV I I

4 ( 208 .b )

h ) GW :1988

3 00 (V I I

7 ( 180 )

i )GW :1988

)XXV I I

1 ( 253 )

j ) GW :1988

XXX I

4 (222 .0

k ) GW :1988

XXX

4 ( 198 .b )

1 ) GW :1988

XXV I I

7 ( 210 .b a nd c )

m ) GW :1988

) 0 (V I I

5 ( 190 .e )

7 ( 117 )

i )GW :1988

XV I I

7 ( 117 )

j ) GW :1988

) 00 CV I I

1 ( 253 )

k ) GW :1988

XXX IV

8 (224 .a )

1 ) GW :1988

3 0 CV I I I

6 (612 .e )

S ou rc e

F igure 4 :L a rg eF igu re s P la te

XV I I

F igure 6 :F i l lF igu r e s

f ) GW :1988

S ou rc e

h ) GW :1988

2 ( 280 ) 7 3

e ) MATT :1990

7 3

I V

4 (76 .a )

b ) GW :1988

V

2 (27 .b )

c ) GW :1988

I V

4 (76 .a )

d ) MATT :1992

1 6

e ) MATT :1990

1 22

f ) MATT :1990

1 20

g ) MATT :1990

1 41

h ) MATT :1990

7 3

X I

7 ( 89 )

b ) GW :1988

X I

7 ( 89 )

c ) GW :1988

XXV I

5 ( 235 .b )

d ) GW :1988

V

9 ( 134 .a )

e ) GW :1988

› O CV I I I

5 ( 216 .b )

0 GW :1988

XXX I I

6 ( 197 .c )

g ) GW :1988

XV II I

7 ( 129 . f )

h ) GW :1988

> 00 CV I I

9 ( 260 .a )

i ) GW :1988

XV M

8 ( 123 .b )

XXV I

j ) MATT :1992

S ea lN o .

7 8

S ea lN o .

a ) GW :1988

i ) GW :1988

a ) GW :1988

P l a te

2 ( 216 .b ) 1 6

k ) GW :1988

3 0CV

2 ( 189 .d )

1 ) GW :1988

V I I

8 ( 135 .b )

m ) GW :1988

l

4 (4 .b )

n ) MATT :1992

3 0

o ) MATT :1992

5 5

_

APPEND IX B S ou rc e so fS ea l sa nd I lu s t ra t ion s T he s e a ls a nd i mp r e s s ion s u sed i n t h i s d i s se r ta t ion w e r e c omp i led f r om p ub l i shed s ou r ce s . T he f o l low ing c a ta log

S ea l n umbe r sd ep ic ted i nb o ld t y pe m ean t ha ta ni lu s t ra t ion o f t h e s e a l i s i n c luded i n t h e p l a te s . T he s ou rce o f t h e

l i s t s r e f e r ence s a nd o the r p e r t inen t i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing e ach s e a l . T he f i r s t l i ne g i ve s t h e mu seum n umbe r , t h e n ame o ft h ec olec t ion , o rt h e s i t e n am eo ft h es ea lo rt a b le t . I n s om e c a se s , n one o ft h i s i n f o rma t ion w a s a va i lab le . N ex t

e nd o f t he c i ta t ion d eno te s a dd i t iona l e xp lana t ion c onc ern ing t h es ea l .

d raw ing i sa l so s hown i nb o ld t yp e . An a s ter i sk ( * ) a tt h e i n f o rma t ion o r

Ic i ted b e tween o ne a nd t h ree p ub l ica t ion s f o r e ach s e a l . T h i s i nd ex i sn o t m ean t t ob e e xhau s t ive . S ome s e a l s h ave b een p ub l ished o nc e wh i le o t he r s h ave a pp ea red m any t im e s . Id e l ibe ra te ly k ep t a bb r ev ia t ion s i n t h i s s e c t ion t o a m in imum f o r t h e c onven ienc e o ft h e r e ade r . F u l l c i ta t ion s

F ina l ly , as pec ia l s y s tem h ad t ob e d ev ised t o r e f e r t o t h e d r aw ing s f r om L am ia a l -Ga i lan i Wen 's a r t ic le o f 1 980 .

c an b ef ound i nt h eb ib l iog raphy .

r e f e r s t ot he r ow . F o r i n s tanc e , a n ' R4 ' mean s t h e s k e t ch i s i n t h e f ou r th r ow o n t ha t p age . T he n ex t l e t te r g i ve s i t s p lacemen t w i th in t he r ow . Ia bb r ev ia ted t he se p o s i t ion s a s :

B e low t h er e f e rence s , t h e d a te o ft h e s e a l i si nd ica ted b y t h e n ame o ft h ek ing a nd h i s r egna ly ea r , i fk nown . A l l t h e OB s ea l s a r e d a ted w h i le o n ly c omp ara t ive ly f ew K a s s i te s ea ls a r e . L as t c ome s t h e n ame s o ft h e g od s a nd g odde sse s i nt h e o rd e r t h ey a ppea red i n t h e i n sc r ip t ion . A ' D ' e x ten s ion m ean s t h en ame w a s u sed i ni t s d iv ine f o rm . A' T ' r e f e r s t o

T he se i lu s t ra t ion sw e re n o tn umb e red i nd iv idua l ly s o Iu sed t he f olow ing m e thod f o r d esc r ib ing t he i r p o s i t ion o n t h e p age . T hes e a ppea r i n p a ren the se s . T he ' R ' w i th a n umb e r

F L=Fa rL ef t , L =Lef t , CL=Cen te r L ef t , C =Cen te r , CR=Cen t e rR igh t , R =R igh t , a nd FR=Fa rR igh t . I ft he p lac emen t l e t t e r i s om i t ted , i ts i gn if ie s t ha t t h e i lu s t ra t ion w as t h e o n ly o ne i nt ha tp a r t icu la rr ow . L a s t , Ig ave t he p age n umbe r . Abb rev ia t ion su sed i nA pp end ix B

i t s i n co rpo ra t ion i n to at h eopho r ic n ame . K ing s c ou ld a l so b e m en t ioned i ns e a l l e g end s . I nt h e se s i tua t ion s , t he k ing 's n ame a ppea r st w ice : f i r s t i nr e f e r ence t ot h e d a te o ft h e s ea l a nd t h es e cond t ime a s an ame i nt h ei n sc r ip t ion .

DEL

-D e lapor te , L ou i s

GW - A l -Ga i lan i Wen , L am ia OSTEN - V on d e rO s ten , H an s

THE S EALS

1 . CBS1111 L EGRA IN :326 ( 1925 ) GW :12 ( RS ,p . 39 )( 1980 ) S umu abum D ag an -T S umu abum L eg r a in s ay s AG h a s al i gh tn ing f o rk i nh i sh and . 2 . MLC 1218 BUCHANAN :754 ( 1981) S umu la i lum 6 3 . A0 1766 DEL :A477 :A ( 1923 ) GW :183 ( 1988 ) GW :14 ( R4 ,p .40 )( 1980 ) S umu la i lum 4 . BN 138 DEL :138 ( 1910 ) GW :13 ( R3 ,p . 40 )( 1980 ) S umu la i lum S umu la i lum 5 .I M51024 GW :154A ( 1988 ) S ab ium 1 3 6 .I M 51024 GW :154B ( 1988 ) S ab ium 1 3

7 .I M 51024 GW :154C ( 1988 ) S ab ium 1 3

1 4 . F IGULLA :P 113 ( 1914 ) GW :24 ( R1 , FR ,p .46 )( 1980 ) A p i l -S in 9

8 .I M49301 GW :155 ( 1988 ) S ab ium 1 3

1 5 . F IGULLA :P 1 . 1 :3 ( 1914 ) GW :24 ( R 1 , CL ,p .46 )( 1980 ) A p i l -S in 9

9 . BM2189A WA 'TERMA .N :p .202 ( 1913) GW :18a ( R3 ,p . 43 )( 1980 ) S ab ium

1 6 . F IGULLA :PL I :3 ( 1914 ) GW :24 ( R 1 ,F L ,p .46 )( 1980 ) A p i l -S in 9 1 7 . F I GULLA :PL I :3 ( 1914 ) GW :24 ( R2 ,p .46 )( 1980 ) A p i l -S in 1 8

1 0 . BU2189A WATER MAN :p .203 ( 1913 ) GW :18a ( R4 , Lp .43 )( 1980 ) S ab ium

1 8 . BM 17099A F IGULLA :2A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :184A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in

1 . BU2189A WATERMAN :p .203 ( 1913) GW :18a ( R4 , R .p .43 )( 1980 ) S ab ium

1 9 . BM 17099A F IGULLA :2A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :184B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in

1 2 . CBS8978 L EGRA IN :327 ( 1925 ) GW :18 ( R2 .p .43 )( 1980 ) S ab ium S i n -T S ab ium

2 0 . BM 16826A F IGULLA :3A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :185A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in

2 1 . BM 16826A F IGULLA :3A z2 ( 1967 ) GW :185B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in 2 2 . BM 16826A F IGULLA :3A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :185C ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in 2 3 . BM 16826A F IGULLA :3A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :185D ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in 2 4 . BM 17060A F IGULLA :7A :? ( 1967 ) GW :186A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in 2 5 . BM17060A F IGULLA :7A :? ( 1967 ) GW :186B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in 2 6 . BM 1 7060A F IGULLA :7A :? ( 1967 ) GW :186C ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in 2 7 . PORADA :F ig .1 ( 1950 ) GW :24 ( R5 .p .45 )( 1980 ) A p i l -S in

1 3 . F IGULLA :P 1 . 1 :3 ( 1914 ) GW :24 ( R 1 , CR .p .46 )(1980 ) A p i l -SM 9

7 9

6 3 . BM 16823A F IGULLA :12A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :188D ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,R ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S imnuba l l i t9

7 6 . BM 16819A F IGULLA :11A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :190 :8 ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R 1 ,R ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

6 4 . BM 16823A F IGULLA :12A :7 ( 1967 ) GW :188E ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,C ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t9

7 7 . BM 16819A F IGULLA :11A :9 ( 1967 ) GW :190 :9 ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,L ,p .53 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

6 5 . CUA86 :A GOETZE :P 114 ( 1957a ) GW :33 ( R I ,L ,p . 54 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t 1 2

7 8 . BM 16819A F IGULLA :11A :12 ( 1967 ) GW :190 :12 ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,C ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmubal i t

2 8 . MLC 113 BUCHANAN :764A ( 1981) A p i l -S in

4 8 .I M 50426 GW :166A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t

2 9 . MLC113 BUCHANAN :764B ( 1981) A p i l -S in

4 9 .I M50426 GW :166B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S imnuba l l i t

3 0 . IM48822 GW :158A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmubal i t

5 0 .I M 50426 GW :166C ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmubal i t

3 1 . IM48822 GW :158B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t

5 1 .I M50426 GW :166D ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t

3 2 . IM48822 GW :158C ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t

5 2 .I M49347 GW :167 ( 1988 ) A pi l -S in /S inmubal i t

3 3 . IM48822 GW :158E ( 1988 ) A pi l -S in /S inmuba ll i t

5 3 . I M 50437 GW :168 ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmub a l l i t

3 4 . IM504 13 GW :159A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmubal i t

5 4 . NBC7687 BUCHANAN :789 ( 198 1) S i nmuba l l i t8

6 7 . A0 1646 DEL :A 517 :B ( 1923 ) GW :189B ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,R ,p . 55 ) ( 1980 ) S imnub a L l i t 1 4

3 5 . IM50413 GW :159B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmub al i t

5 5 . BM 17070A F IGULLA :10A :1 & 7 ( 1967 ) GW :18 ' 7D & E ( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t8

6 8 . A0 1646 DEL :A 517 :C ( 1923 ) GW :189C ( 1988 ) S i nmuba l l i t 1 4

5 6 . BM I7070A F IGULLA :10A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :187A ( 1988 ) S imnuba l l i t8

6 9 . A0 1646 DEL :A 517 :D ( 1923 ) GW :189D ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,L ,p . 55 ) ( 1980 ) S imnub a l l i t 1 4

3 6 . IM50413 GW :159C ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t 3 7 . IM504 13 GW :159D ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t 3 8 . IM48826 GW :160A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmubal i t 3 9 . IM48826 GW :160B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t 4 0 . IM49320 GW :161 ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t 4 1 . I M49265 GW :162 ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t 4 2 . IM50427 GW :163 ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmubal i t 4 3 . I M49541 GW :164 ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t 4 4 IM50898 GW :165A ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t 4 5 . IM50898 GW :165B ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmub al i t 4 6 . IM50898 GW :165C ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S i nmuba l l i t 4 7 . I M50898 GW :165D ( 1988 ) A p i l -S in /S inmuba l l i t

6 6 . CUA86 :B GOETZE :PL I :5 -6 ( 1957a ) GW :33 ( R I ,R ,p . 54 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t 1 2

5 7 . BM 17070A F IGULLA :10A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :187B ( 1988 ) S i nmuba l l i t8 Amu r ru -T

7 0 . A0 1646 DEL :A 517 :E ( 1923 ) GW :189E ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,p . 55 )( 1980 ) S i nmubal i t 1 4

5 8 . BM 17070A F IGULLA :10A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :187C ( 1988 ) S i nmub a l l i t8 S ham a sh -T

7 1 . A0 1646 DEL :A 517 :G ( 1923 ) GW :189G ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R5 ,L ,p . 55 ) ( 1980 ) S i runuba l l i t 1 4

5 9 . BM 17070A F IGULLA :10A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :187F ( 1988 ) S i nmub a l l i t8

7 2 . BM 16819A M ULL& 1A1 ( 1967 ) GW :190 :1 & 1 97C ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R 1 ,L ,p .55 )( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

6 0 . BM 16823A F IGULLA :12A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :188A ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,L ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmubal i t9 N in shubu r -T S ham a sh -D

7 3 . BM 16819A F IGULLA :11A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :190 :2 ( 1988 ) S inmuba l l i t Mad -T D amu -T

6 1 . BM 16823A F IGULLA :12A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :188B ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,C ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S inmubal i t9 Mad -T

7 4 . BM 16819A F IGULLA :11A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :190 :6 ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R I ,L ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t 7 5 . BM 168 19A F IGULLA : 1A :7 ( 1967 ) OW :190 :7 ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R 1 ,C ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S inmub a l l i t S in -D L am a -G

6 2 . BM 16823A F IGULLA :12A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :188C ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,L ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S imnuba l l i t9 S i n -T S ham a sh -T S i n -D

8 0

7 9 . BM 16819A F IGULLA :11A :13 ( 1967 ) GW :190 :13 ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R . . 2 ,R ,p . 53 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t 8 0 . BM 16833A F IGULLA : 13A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :19 1 :A( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t 8 1 . BM 16833A F IGULLA :13A :2 o r 3( 1967 ) GW :19 1 :B ( 1988 ) S i nmub al i t S i n -T 8 2 . BM 16836A F IGULLA :1 5A1 ( 1967 ) GW :192 : 1 ( 1988 ) S i zunub a l l i t 8 3 . BM 16836A F IGULLA :15A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :192 :2 ; 1 90 :3 ;&1 96B ( 1988 ) S i nmub a l l i t S ha rn a sh -T S hama sh -T 8 4 . BM 16836A F IGULLA :15A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :192 :3 & 1 96A ( 1988 ) S imnubal i t 8 5 . BM 16836A F IGULLA :15A :4 ( 1967 ) S i nmub al i t S hama sh -T 8 6 . BM 16836A F IGULLA :15A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :192 :5 ( 1988 ) S i nmub a l l i t 8 7 . BM 16836A F IGULLA :15A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :192 :6 ( 1988 ) S i nmuba l l i t E a -D D amg a lnu rma -D 8 8 . BM 16836A F IGULLA :15A :7 ( 1967 ) GW :192 :7 ( 1988 ) S i nmuba l l i t 8 9 . BM 16858A F IGULLA :17A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :193 :1 ( 1988 ) S i nmuba l l i t

9 0 . BM 16858A F IGULLA :17A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :193 :2 ( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t 9 1 . BM 16858A F IGULLA :17A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :193 :3 ( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t 9 2 . BM 17052A F IGULLA :19A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :194 :1 ( 1988 ) S inmuba l l i t Amu r ru -D G e s l i t in ar a ta -D 9 3 . BM 17052A F IGULLA :19A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :194 :2 ( 1988 ) S i nmub al i t 9 4 . BM 17052A F IGULLA :19A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :194 :3 ( 1988 ) S imnuba l l i t 9 5 . BM 17052A F lGULLA :19A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :194 :4 ( 1988 ) S i nmub al i t

1 02 . A0 1647 DEL :A518 :E ( 1923 ) GW :195E ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,C ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t 1 03 . A0 1647 DEL :A 518 :F ( 1923 ) GW :195F ( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t 1 04 . A0 1647 DEL :A 518 :G ( 1923 ) GW :195G ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R 1 ,R ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t

15 . A0 1649 DEL :A522 :B ( 1923 ) GW :198B ( 1988 ) S inmubal i t

1 30 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :11 ( 1986 ) S i nmubal i t

16 . A01649 DEL :A522 :C ( 1923 ) GW :198C ( 1988 ) S inmubal i t

1 31 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :12 ( 1986 ) S i nmuba l l i t

17 . A0 1649 DEL :A522 :D ( 1923 ) GW :198D ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,C ,p . 54 )( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

1 32 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :13 ( 1986 ) S i nmuba l l i t

18 . A0 1649 DEL :A522 :E ( 1923 ) GW :198E ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,R ,p . 54 ) ( 1980 ) S inmuba l l i t

1 05 . A0 1647 DEL :A518 :H ( 1923) GW :195H ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R I ,L ,p .56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t Amu r ru -D A nu -D

19 . A0 1649 DEL :A522 :F ( 1923 ) GW :198F ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,L ,p .54 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

1 06 . A0 1647 DEL :A 518 :X ( 1923 ) GW :195X ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,R ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub al i t

1 20 . A0 1649 DEL :A522 :G ( 1923 ) GW :198G ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 ,R ,p . 54 ) ( 1980 ) S inmuba l l i t

9 6 . BM 17052A F IGULLA :19A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :194 :5 ( 1988 ) S i nmub a l l i t S ham a sh -T T kun tun -T AN . MARTU -D

1 07 . A0 1763 DEL :A519 :A ( 1923 ) GW :196C ( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t Ma rduk -T S i n -T S hama sh -D Ma rduk -D

9 7 . BM 17052A F IGULLA :19A :6 ( 1967 ) S i nmubal i t S hama sh -D A ya -D

1 08 . A0 1763 DEL :A 519 :B ( 1923 ) GW :196E ( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t N in shubu r -T

1 22 . A0 1649 DEL :A 522 : I( 1923 ) GW :198 1( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,L ,p . 54 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

9 8 . A01647 DEL :A 518 :A ( 1923 ) GW :195A ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 , L& R ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmubal i t * The d e s ig n so nt he l e f ta nd r i gh t i nR 2i n GW 1 980 a r ec omb ined i n to o ne i n GW 1 988 .

1 09 . A0 1763 DEL :A519 :C ( 1923 ) S i nmubal i t A y a -T N i n shubu r -T S ham a sh -D S ham a sh -D A y a -D

1 23 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :1 ( 1986 ) S inmuba l l i t

9 9 . A0 1647 DEL :A 518 :B ( 1923 ) GW :195B ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R 3 ,C ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t S ' ham a sh -D 1 00 . A0 1647 DEL :A 518 :C ( 1923 ) GW :195C ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R3 , 4p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S inmub a l l i t 1 01 . A0 1647 DEL :A 518 :D ( 1923 ) S inmub a l l i t S ham a sh -D A ya -D Amu r ru -D Mad -D S ha la -D

1 21 . A0 1649 DEL :A 522 :H ( 1923 ) GW :198H ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,R ,p . 54 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

1 24 . VAT7 12 I C LENGEL -BRANDT :2 ( 1986 ) S i nmuba l l i t

10 . A0 1763 DEL :A 519 :X ( 1923 ) GW :196D ( 1988 ) S i nmubal i t

1 25 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :4 ( 1986 ) S inmubal i t

11 . A0 1650 DEL :A 520 :A ( 1923 ) GW :197A ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,C ,p . 55 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmubal i t

1 26 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :6 ( 1986 ) S inmuba l l i t 1 27 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :7 ( 1986 ) S i nmubal i t

12 . A0 1650 DEL :A520 :D ( 1923 ) GW :19 ' 7D ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,L ,p . 55 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

1 28 . VAT712 KLENGEL -BRANDT :9 ( 1986 ) S inmubal i t

13 . A0 1650 DEL :A 520 :E ( 1923 ) GW :197E ( 1988 ) S i nmub a l l i t

1 29 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :10 ( 1986 ) S i nmuba l l i t

14 . A0 1650 DEL :A 520 :F ( 1923 ) GW :197F ( 1988 ) GW :33 ( R2 ,R ,p . 55 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t

8 1

1 33 . VAT7 12 KLENGEL -BRANDT :14 ( 1986 ) S i nmuba l l i t 1 34 . VAT 7 12 I CLENGEL -BRANDT :15 ( 1986 ) S i nmuba l l i t 1 35 . F IGUI ,LA :PL I :10 ( 1914 ) GW :33 ( R 5 ,R ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmubal i t 1 36 .F IGULLA :PL I :10 ( 1914 ) GW :33 ( R5 ,L ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmuba l l i t 1 37 . MCC BALLER IN I :P 1 . I I :4 ( 1908 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,L ,p .56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t 1 38 . MCC BALLER IN I :P 1 . 1 1 :4 ( 1908 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,C ,p . 56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t 1 39 . MCC BALLER IN I :F 1 .1 1 :4 ( 1908 ) GW :33 ( R4 ,R ,p .56 ) ( 1980 ) S i nmub a l l i t 1 40 . CARNEG IE CARNEG 1E :QB43 ( 1906 ) S i nmub a l l i t S ham a sh -T S i nmuba l l i t E a -D S ham a sh -D 1 41 . NBC8898 BUCHANAN :790 ( 1981 ) H ammu rab i 1 1 42 . A0 1672 DEL :A 523 :A ( 1923 ) GW :199A ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,p .60 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i2 1 43 . A0 1672 DEL :A523 :B ( 1923 ) GW :199B ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R3 ,p .60 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i2 1 44 . BM 1684 1A F IGULLA :25A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :200 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R I ,T h ree f i g s .o nL , p . 66 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i3 9s p l i tR 1 i n to t wo d e s ig n s . R ig h tp a r tr e co rded a ss e a l 1 45 .

1 45 . BM 1684 14 F IGULLA :25A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :200 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R 1 ,F ou rf i g s .o nR , p .66 )( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i3 * Is p l i tR 1 i n to t wo d s ign s . L e f t p a r tr e co rd ed a ss e a l 1 44 .

1 58 . BM 16824A F 1GULLA :29A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :203 :4 ( 1988 ) Hammu r ab i7 1 59 . BM 16824A F IGL TLLA :29A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :203 :6 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i7

1 46 . BM 17056A F IGULLA :27A :1 ,4 ,&7 ( 1967 ) GW :201 :1 ,7 , & 4( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i4

1 60 . BM16824A F IGULLA :29A :7 ( 1967 ) GW :203 :7 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i7

1 47 . BM 17056A F 1GULLA :27A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :201 :2 & 5( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i4

1 61 . BM78280 P 1NCHES :20 ( 1964 ) GW :204 :1 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i9

1 48 . BM 17056A F IGULLA :27A :3 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i4 A bu -T S in -D

1 62 . BM78280 P INCHES :20 ( 1964 ) GW :204 :2 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i9

1 49 . BM 17056A F 1GULLA :27A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :20 1 :6 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i4 1 50 . BM 17056A F IGULLA :27A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :201 :8 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i4 N in shubu r -T S in -T 1 51 . BM 17056A F IGULLA :27A :10 ( 1967 ) GW :20 1 :10 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i4 1 52 . BM 17056A F IGULLA :27A :X ( 1967 ) GW :201 :X ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i4 1 53 . BM 16827A F 1GULLA :28A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :202 :1 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 ,R ,p .66 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i7 S in -T Amu r ru -T I ku rnun -D 1 54 . BM 16827A F IGULLA :28A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :202 :2 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 ,L ,p .66 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i7 1 55 . BM 16827A F 1GULLA :28A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :202 :3 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R3 ,p . 66 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i7 1 56 , BM 16824A F 1GULLA :29A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :203 :1 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i7 S in -T A p i l -S in 1 57 . BM 16824A F IGULLA :29A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :203 :3 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i7

1 72 . A0 1651 DEL :A 524 :D ( 1923 ) GW :206D ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R 1 ,R ,p .61) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0

1 87 . BM 16815A F IGULLA :22A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :209 :4 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,R ,p .65 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 4

1 73 . A0 1651 DEL :A524 :E ( 1923 ) GW :206E ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0

1 88 . BM 16815A F IGULLA :22A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :209 :5 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,L ,p .65 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 4

1 74 . A0 1651 DEL :A524 :F ( 1923) GW :206F ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 ,L ,p .61) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0 S in -D S hama sh -D

1 63 . BM 17045A F IGULLA :30 A1 ( 1967 ) GW :205 :1 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0 S in -T S in -T N in shubu r -D 1 64 . BM 17045A F lGULLA :30A :2 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0 S hama sh -T

1 75 . BM 17046A F IGULLA :31A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :207 :1 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i 1

1 90 . BM 1707 1A F IGULLA :34A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :211 :2 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 1 4 S ha r na sh -T S i n -f l

1 76 . BM 17046A F 1GULLA :31A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :207 :2 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 1

1 91 . BM 1707 1A F 1GULLA :34A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :211 :3 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i 1 4

1 77 . BM 16835A F IGULLA :32A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :208 :2 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i 1 Wedum -T

1 92 . BM 17071A F 1GULLA :34A :4 & 1 0 ( 1967 ) GW :211 :4 & 1 0( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 1 4

1 78 . BM 16835A F 1GULLA :32A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :208 :3 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 1

1 65 . BM 17045A F IGULLA :30A :3 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0

1 79 . BM 16835A F IGULLA :32A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :208 :4 ( 1988 ) H ammur ab i 1

1 66 . BM 17045A F IGULLA :30A :4 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0 S in -T

1 80 . BM 16835A F IGULLA :32A :5 & 6 ( 1967 ) GW :208 :5 & 6( 1988 ) H ammu rab i 1

1 67 . BM 17045A F IGULLA :30A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :205 :5 ( 1988 ) H ammur ab i 1 0

1 81 .F IGULLA :P 1 . 1 1 :18 ( 1914 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,L ,p .61) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 3

1 68 . BM 17045A F IGULLA :30A :6 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0

1 82 .F IGULLA :P 1 . I I :18 ( 19 14 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,R ,p .61) ( 1980 ) H ammur ab i 1 3

1 69 . A0 1651 DEL :A 524 :A ( 1923 ) GW :206A ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 ,R ,p .61) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0 S in -T S in -T A dad -D S hama sh -D

1 83 .F IGULLA :P 1 .1 1 :18 ( 19 14 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,L ,p .61) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 3

1 70 . A01651 DEL :A 524 :B ( 1923 ) GW :206B ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R3 ,p . 61) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0 S in -T I s h ta r -D 1 71 . A0 1651 DEL :A 524 :C ( 1923 ) GW :206C ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R 1 ,L ,p .61 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 0 E a -T E a -D D amg a lnumm -D

8 2

1 89 . BM 1707 1A F IGULLA :34A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :211 :1 ( 1988 ) H a rnmu r ab i 1 4

1 93 . BM 17071 A F 1GULLA :34A :5 & 6 ( 1967 ) GW :211 :5 & 6( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 1 4 1 94 . MLC1220 BUCHANAN :791 :1 ( 1981) H ammur ab i 1 8 Z am a r n a -D H ammu r ab i 1 95 . MLC1220 BUCHANAN :791 :2 ( 1981) H ammu r ab i 1 8 Z a r nam a -D B ab a -D 1 96 . BM 17069A F IGULLA :39A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :212 :3 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,R ,T h r ee f i g s . o n R ,p . 66 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i2 5 * GW 1 988 s p l i th e r1 980 d r aw ing i n to t wo s e a l s .T he l ep a r ti sr e co rded u nd e r1 99 .

1 84 .F IGULLA : 131 . 1 :18 ( 1914 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,R ,p .61) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 3

1 97 . BM 17069A F IGULLA :39A :4 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i2 5 N in shubu r -T N in shubu r -D

1 85 . BM 16815A F 1GULLA :22A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :209 :1 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,R ,p .65 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 4

1 98 . BM 17069A F IGULLA :39A :6 ( 1967 ) H ammu rab i2 5

1 86 . BM 16815A F IGULLA :22A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :209 :2 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R3 ,L ,p .65 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 1 4 S i n -T S ham a sh -T S hama sh -D

1 99 . BM 17069A F lGULLA :39A :7 ( 1967 ) GW :212 :7 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,R ,O ne l g a nd t wo s m a l lf i g so n p .66 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i2 5 * GW 1 988 s p l i th e r 1 980 d r aw ing i n to t wo s e a l s .T he r i g h tp a r ti sr e co rded u nde r 1 96 .

2 00 . BM17069A F IGULLA :39A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :212 :8 ( 1988 ) Hammu r ab i2 5 S in -T 2 01 . BM17069A F IGULLA :39A :9 ( 1967 ) Hanunu r ab i2 5 N inshubu r -T N in shubu r -D 2 02 . BM17069A F IGULLA :39A :10 ( 1967 ) GW :212 :10 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,L ,p .66 ) ( 1980 ) Ha rmnu r ab i2 5 2 03 . BM 17069A F IGULLA :39A :11 ( 1967 ) GW :212 :11 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,R ,p .66 ) ( 1980 ) Hammu r ab i2 5 2 04 . BM17069A F IGULLA :39A :12 ( 1967 ) GW :212 :12 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,L ,p .66 ) ( 1980 ) Ha r runu r ab i2 5 2 05 . BM 16821A F IGULLA :47A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :213 :1 ( 1 988 ) Hammu r ab i2 5 S in -T S hama sh -D Aya -D 2 06 . BM16821A F IGULLA :47A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :213 :3 ( 1988 ) Hammu r ab i2 5 S in -D S ham a sh -D I s h tar -T Ay a -D 2 07 . BM16821A F IGULLA :47A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :2 I3 :4 ( 1988 ) H a mmu r ab i2 5 S in -T S ha rna sh -D 2 08 . BM1682 1A F IGULLA :47A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :7 ( 1988 ) F IGULLA :67A :7 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i2 5 Ma rduk -T S in -T S ha rnash -D H ammu r ab i 2 09 . CBM 1283 PORADA :F ig .3 ( 1957 ) GW :39 ( R I , Lp .65) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i2 5 2 10 . CBM 1283 PORADA :F ig .4 ( 1957 ) GW :39 ( RI , R .p .65) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i2 5 2 11 . A0 1928 DEL :A525 :A ( 1923) GW :214A ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i2 6

2 12 . A01928 DEL :A 525 :B ( 1923) GW :214B ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i2 6

2 26 . BM17064A F IGULLA :42A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :215 :8 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i3 2 S i n -T

2 13 . YBC7 153 BUCHANAN :792A ( 1981) H ammurab i2 8

2 27 . A0 1767 DEL :A 526 :A ( 1923 ) H ammu r ab i3 3 N abu -D

2 14 . YBC7153 BUCHANAN :792B ( 1981) H ammu rab i2 8

2 28 . F IGULLA :P 1 . 1 1 :23 ( 1914 ) GW :39 ( R5 , L ,p .62 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i3 4

2 15 . CBM 1273 RANKE :PL IV :7 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R I . F ou rf i g s . o nL c omb ined w i th R 2 ,L ,p .62 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i2 9 * Row 1s p l i ti n to t wo s e a l ing s . T he m an i n t he t u rban i nR I i s t he s ame f i g .t h a t a ppea r si n t he d e s ig n i nR 2 , L .R igh tp a r t o fR 1 i sr e co rded a s2 16 .

2 29 . F IGULLA :P 1 .1 1 :23 ( 1914 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,R ,p .62 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i3 4 2 30 . A01648 DELA527 :B ( 1923 ) GW :216B ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R 1 , L ,p .63 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i3 5 2 31 . A01648 DEL :A 527 :C ( 1923 ) GW :216C ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i3 5

2 16 . CBM1273 RANKE :PL IV :7 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R1 ,S ix f i gs .o nR , p .62 )( 1980 ) H ammu rab i 2 9 * Le f tp a r to fs e a l ing i s r e co rded a s2 15 .

2 32 . A0 1648 DEL :A527 :D ( 1923) GW :216D ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 , L ,p .63 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i3 5

2 17 . CBM 1273 RANKE :PL IV :7 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R2 , C ,p .62 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i2 9

2 33 . A0 1648 DEL :A 527 :E ( 1923 ) GW :216E ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 , R .p .63) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i 3 5 A dad -D N inu r ta -D

2 18 . CB M 1273 RANKE :PL IV :7 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R3 ,p . 62 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i2 9 2 19 . CB M 1273 RANKE :PLIV :7 ( 1906 ) H ammu r ab i2 9 E a -D D amg a lnunna -D * Th i ss e a li sn o t r e co rded i n GW 1 980 . D iv ine n ame sa r e f r om T ex t2 8 :e ,T ran s la t ion 1 4 .

2 34 . A0 1648 DEL :A527 :F ( 1923) GW :216F ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R3 , R ,p .63 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i 3 5 2 35 . A0 1648 DEL :A 527 :G ( 1923) GW :216G ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R3 , L ,p .63) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i3 5

2 20 . CB M1273 RANKE :PL IV :7 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R2 , R ,p . 62 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i2 9

2 36 . A0 1648 DEL :A527 :H ( 1923) GW :216H ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,p .63 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i3 5

2 21 . F IGULLA :P 1 .1 1 :20 ( 1914 ) GW :39 ( R4 , F a rL ,. 6 2 )( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i3 0 2 22 . F IGULLA :PL I I :20 ( 1914 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,F a rR ,p .62 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i3 0

2 37 . A01648 DEL :A 527 : I( 1923) GW :216 I( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 , L ,p .63 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i3 5

2 23 . BM 17064A F IGULLA :42A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :215 :2 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i3 2 S i n -D

2 38 . A0 1648 DEL :A 527 :J ( 1923) GW :216J ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R4 , R ,p . 63 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i3 5

2 24 . BM 17064A F IGULLA :42A :3 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i3 2 S i n -T AN . MARTU -D

2 39 . A0 1648 DEL :A527 :K ( 1923) GW :216K ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R I , R ,p .63 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i 3 5 I s hum -D

2 25 . BM 17064A F IGULLA :42A :7 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i3 2 S i n -T

8 3

2 40 . A0 1648 DEL :A527 :X ( 1923) GW :216X ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i3 5 2 41 . A0 1648 DEL :A 528 ( 1923 ) GW :217 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i3 5 2 42 . BM 16843A F IGULLA :45A :1 ( 1967 ) H ammu rab i 3 7 Ma rduk -T B unene -D N i s isa -D 2 43 . YBC4435 BUC I1ANAN :796 ( 1981) GW :39 ( R1 ,p .68 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :9 ( 1970) H ammur ab i3 7 2 44 . CB M 1262 RAN ICE :PLV ILII ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R2 ,p .64 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i3 8 2 45 . CB M 1262 RANKE :P l .V 1 1 :11 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R3 ,L ,p .64 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 3 8 2 46 . CB M 1262 RANKT . :P I .V 1 1 :11 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R3 ,R ,p .64 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 3 8 2 47 . YBC 1 0486 BUCHANAN :793 ( 1981) H ammu rab i3 8 S hama sh -T 2 48 . YBC4348 BUCHANAN :794 :1 ( 1981) H ammu rab i3 8 L a -q ipum -D A hua -D 2 49 . YBC4348 BUCHANAN :794 :2 ( 1981) H ammu rab i 3 8 N abu -D Ma rduk -D 2 50 . BM 16939 F IGULLA :46 :1 ( 1967 ) H ammu rab i3 9 AN . MARTU -D 2 51 . BM 16939 F IGULLA :46 :2 ( 1967 ) H ammu rab i 3 9 S in -T 2 52 . YBC7758 BUCHANAN :795 ( 1981) H ammu r ab i3 9 2 53 . A06407 DEL :A529 ( 1923 ) GW :288 ( 1988 ) ( a lso ) DEL :A535 ( 1923 ) H ammu rab i 4 0 Amu r ru -T I s h ta r -T Amu r ru -D 2 54 . A06401 DEL :A530 :A ( 1923 ) H ammur ab i4 0 I s h ta r -T

2 55 . A06401 DEL :A 530 :B ( 1923 ) H ammu rab i4 0 S in -T Mad -D 2 56 . A06401 DEL :A 530 :C ( 1923 ) H ammu rab i4 0 S in -T N in shubu r -D 2 57 . A06401 DEL :A530 :D ( 1923 ) H a rnmu r ab i4 0 S in -T 2 58 . A06401 DEL :A530 :E ( 1923 ) H ammu rab i4 0 S ham a sh -T S in -T N e rg a l -D 2 59 . A06401 DEL :A 530 :F ( 1923 ) H ammu rab i4 0 S in -T 2 60 . A06401 DEL :A530 :G ( 1923 ) H ammu rab i4 0 S in -T 2 61 . YBC7 150 BUCHANAN :797A ( 1981 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,p . 64 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :8 ( 1970 ) H ammu r ab i4 1 2 62 . YBC7 150 BUCHANAN :797B ( 1981) H ammu rab i4 1 2 63 . YBC4474 BUCHANAN :798 ( 198 1) H ammu r ab i4 1 2 64 . 1M43487 GW :218A ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i4 3 2 65 . IM43487 GW :218B ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i4 3 2 66 . BM 17062A F IGULLA :23A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :210 :2 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R5 ,L ,p . 65 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 2 67 . BM 17062A F IGULLA :23A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :210 :3 & 4( 1988 ) H ammu rab i 2 68 . BM 17062A F IGULLA :23A :7 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i S i n -D A rnu r ru -D 2 69 . BM 17062A F IGULLA :23A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :2 10 :8 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i

2 7 1 . BM 17062A F IGULLA :23A :10 ( 1967 ) GW :210 :10 ( 1988 ) H ammur ab i

2 85 . BM 17072A F IGULLA :50A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :222 :1 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i

3 00 . BM 17054A F IGULLA :52A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :224 :2 ( 1988 ) S a r n su i l tma 1

2 72 . BM 17 194A F IGULLA :35A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :219 :1 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i E n l i l -T

2 86 . BM 17072A F IGULLA :50A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :222 :2 ( 1988 ) H ammur ab i

3 01 . BM 17054A F IG 1 JLLA :52A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :224 :3 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1

2 73 . BM 17 194A F IGULLA :35A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :219 :2 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i

2 87 . BM 17072A F IGULLA :50A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :222 :3 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i N in shubu r -D

3 02 . BM 17054A F IGULLA :52A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :224 :4 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1

2 74 . BM 17093A F IGULLA :37A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :220 ( 1988 ) H ammu rab i

2 88 . BM 17072A F IGULLA :50A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :222 :4 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i

2 75 . BM 17063A F IGULLA :40A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :221 :1 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R 1 ,L . ,p .67 )( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i S ham a sh -T

2 89 . BM 17072A F IGL TLLA :50A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :222 :5 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i 2 90 . BM 17072A F IGULLA :50A :7 ( 1967 ) GW :222 :7 ( 1988 ) H ammur ab i

2 76 . BM 17063A F IGULLA :40A :2 & 3( 1967 ) GW :22I : 2 & 3( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R I ,C ,p .67 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i

2 91 . BM 17072A F IGULLA :50A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :222 :8 ( 1988 ) H ammur ab i

2 77 . BM 17063A F IGULLA :40A :4 ( 1967 ) H ammur ab i S ham a sh -D

2 92 . CBM 1165 RANKE :PIV :8 ( 1906 ) GW :39 ( R4 ,p .64 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i

2 78 . BM 17063A F IGULLA :40A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :221 :5 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R 1 ,R ,p .67 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i

2 93 . PARROT :193 ( 1959 ) GW :38 ( R2 ,R ,p . 60 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i Ma rdu l c -T H ammu r ab i

2 79 . BM 17063A F IGL TLLA :40A :6 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i S ham a sh -D A y a -D

2 94 . BN200 DEL :200 ( 19 10 ) GW :38 ( R2 ,L ,p . 60 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu rab i H ammu r ab i

2 80 . BM 17063A F IGULLk .40A :7 ( 1967 ) GW :22 1 :7 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 ,R ,p .67 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i E a -D

2 95 . ÖZG T3Q :32 ( 1955 ) GW :37 ( R I ,p .60 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i 2 96 . BM 16834A F IGULLA :51A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :223 :1 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1 Mad -T N in . shubu r -D

2 81 . BM 17063A F IGULLA :40A :8 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i S hama sh -D 2 82 . BM 17063A F IGULLA :40A :10 ( 1967 ) GW :221 :10 ( 1988 ) GW :39 ( R2 , 4p .67 ) ( 1980 ) H ammu r ab i

2 97 . BM 16834A F IGULLA :51A :2 & 3 ( 1967 ) GW :223 :2 & 3( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1

2 83 . BM 16829A F IGULLA :44A :1 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i S in -T

2 98 . BM 16834A F IGULLA :51A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :223 :5 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1

2 84 . BM I6829A F IG 'ULLA :44A :2 ( 1967 ) H ammu r ab i S i n -T

2 99 . BM 17054A F IGULLA :52A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :224 :1 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1 S i n -T A d ad -D

2 70 . BM17062A F IGULLA :23A :9 ( 1967 ) GW :2 10 :9 ( 1988 ) H ammu r ab i

8 4

3 03 . BM 17054A F IGULLA :52A :5 ( 1967 ) F IGULLA :54A :1 a nd 5 6A5 ( 1 967 ) S am su i luna 1 L ug a Iban c l a -D 3 04 . A064 14 D EL :A 532 :A ( 1923 ) GW :4 3( R3 ,C ,p .7 1) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 S i n -T N i n shubu r -D 3 05 . A064 14 D EL :A 532 :B ( 1923 ) GW :4 3( R3 ,L ,p .7 1) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 S h am a sh -D 1 3 a l t i l -D E n l i l -D 3 06 . A0 1682 DEL :A 531 :A ( 1923 ) GW :225B ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 2 S i n -T S ham a sh -T 3 07 . A0 1682 DEL :A 53I :B ( 1923 ) GW :225A ( 1988 ) GW :4 3( R3 ,R ,p .7 1) ( 1980 ) S am su i l una 2 3 08 . A06427 DEL :A 533 :A ( 1923 ) GW :293 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 2 S ham a sh -D 3 09 . YBC6972 BUCHANAN :803A ( 1981) S am sui luna 2 3 10 . YBC6972 BUCHANAN :803B ( 1981) S am su i lun a2 3 11 . YBC6972 BUCHANAN :803X ( 198 1) S am su i luna 2 3 12 . CBM 1277 P ORADA :F ig .5 ( 1957 ) GW :4 3( R4 , R ,p .7 1) ( 1980 ) S am su i lun a3 3 13 . A0 6396 DEL :A 534 :A ( 1923 ) GW :294A ( 1988 ) S am su i lun a3

3 14 . A06396 DEL :A 534 :B ( 1923 ) S amsu i luna 3 S i n -T S i n -T N in shubu r -D

3 27 . A0 4649 DEL :A 536 :C IV ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 4 S i n -T S i n -T S i n -D

3 15 . A06396 DEL :A534 :C ( 1923 ) GW :294B ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 3 S h e rum -T I s h ta r -D

3 28 . A0 1656 DEL :A 537 :B ( 1923 ) GW :228A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R I ,L ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am sui luna 4

3 16 . A06396 DEL :A 534 :D ( 1923 ) DEL :A 54 1 :B ( 1923 ) S am sui luna 3 S ham a sh -T N in shubu r -D 3 17 . A06396 DEL :A 534 :E ( 1923 ) DEL :A 54 1 :A ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 3 S i n -T I s h ta r -D 3 18 . A06396 DEL :A 534 :F ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 3 S hama sh -T S i n -D N in shubu r -D 3 19 . YBC6744 BUCHANAN :804A ( 198 1) S am su i lun a3 3 20 . YBC6744 BUCHANAN :804B ( 1981) S am sui luna 3 I s h t a r -T N in shubu r -D 3 21 . A04649 DEL :A 536 :A ( 1923 ) GW :248A ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4 N abu -T S i n -T E a -D

3 43 . BM 17085A F IGULLA :67A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :6 ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 4 3 44 . BM 17085A F IGULLA :67A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :8 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4

3 31 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :3 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 4 S i n -T S i n -T S am su i luna

3 45 . A06399 DEL :A538 ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 4 I s h ta r -T 3 46 . A06410 DEL :A540 :A ( 1923 ) GW :43 ( R2 ,R ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 5 S hama sh -D

3 32 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :5 ( 1967 ) S am sui luna 4 Amu r ru -D 3 33 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :6 ( 1967 ) S am su i lun a4 S ha rna sh -T S i n -T

3 47 . A064 10 DEL :A 540 :B ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 5 S ham a sh -T S hama sh -T S hama sh -D

3 34 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :7 ( 1968 ) GW :226A ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4

3 48 . A064 10 DEL :A540 :C ( 1923 ) GW :43 ( R3 ,R ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 5

3 35 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :226C ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 4

3 23 . A04649 DEL :A 536 :C ( 1923 ) GW :248C ( 1988 ) S am su i lu na 4

3 37 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :11 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 4 S hama sh -T S i n -D AN . MARTU -D

3 26 . A04649 DEL :A536 :CL I I( 1923 ) S am su i luna 4 N abu -T Ma rduk -T N abu -D

3 42 . BM 17085A F IGULLA :67A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :5 ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 4

3 30 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :226B ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4

3 36 . BM 17055A F IGULLA :56A :9 ( 1967 ) GW :226D ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4

3 25 . A04649 DEL :A 536 :C I I( 1923 ) S am su i lu na 4 I s h ta r -T I s h ta r -D

3 41 . BM 17085A F IGULLA :67A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :4 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4 S hama sh -T

3 29 . A0 1658 DEL :A537 :A ( 1923) GW :228B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R I ,R ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 4

3 22 . A04649 DEL :A 536 :B ( 1923 ) GW :248B ( 1 988 ) S am sui luna 4

3 24 . A04649 DEL :A536 :C I( 1923 ) S am su i luna 4 Amu r ru -T Ma rduk -T N abu -D

3 40 . BM 17085A F IGULLA :67A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :3 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4

3 49 . A06381 DEL :A 541 :C ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 5 S in -T 3 50 . A06381 DEL :A541 :D ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 5 3 51 . A02720 DEL :A539 ( 1923 ) GW :43 ( R2 ,L ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 5 3 52 . YBC6232 BUCHANAN :806A ( 1981) S am su i luna 5

3 38 . BM 17085A F 1GULLA :67A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :1 ( 1988 ) F IGULLA :56A :4 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 4 S hama sh -T E n l i l -T

3 53 . YBC6232 BUCHANAN :806B ( 1981) S am su i luna 5 3 54 . YBC6232 BUCHANAN :806C ( 198 1) S am sui luna 5

3 39 . BM 17085A F IGULLA :67A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :227 :2 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4 S i n -T L ug a lbanda -D

3 55 . YBC6232 BUCHANAN :806D ( 1981) S am su i luna 5 3 56 . YBC6232 BUCHANAN :806E ( 1981) S am su i luna 5

8 5

3 57 . A0 1677 DEL :A 543 :A ( 1923 ) GW :230A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R3 ,L ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 6 3 58 . A0 1677 DEL :A 543 :B ( 1923 ) S am sui luna 6 S i n -T B un ene -D 3 59 . A0 1656 DEL :A 544 :A ( 1923 ) GW :231A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 , FL ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 6 3 60 . A0 1656 DEL :A544 : 1 3( 1923 ) GW :231B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 ,F R ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 6 3 61 . A0 1656 DEL :A 544 :C ( 1923 ) GW :231C ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 , CR ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am sui luna 6 3 62 . A0 1656 DEL :A 544 :E ( 1923 ) GW :231D ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 , CL ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 6 3 63 . BM I6862A F IGULLA :57A ( 1967 ) GW :229 ( 1988 ) S a tn . su i luna 6 3 64 . A06405 DEL :A 542 ( 1923 ) GW :289 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 6 S i n -T N e rg a l -D 3 65 . A064 12 DEL :A 545 ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 7 3 66 . A06409 DEL :A546 :A ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 7 AN . MARTU -D 3 67 . A06409 DEL :A 546 :B ( 1923 ) S am su i luna 7 N e rg a l -D 3 68 . A06409 DEL :A546 :C ( 1923 ) GW :290 ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 7 L ug a l . rn a rd a -D 3 69 . A06422 DEL :A 547 ( 1923 ) GW :291 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 7 Amu r ru -T Amu r ru -T A rnu r ru -D 3 70 . A06440 DEL :A 548 ( 1923 ) GW :292 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 7 S ham a sh -T E rd i l -D

3 71 . YBC4313 BUCHANAN :807A ( 1981 ) GW :43 ( R I ,L ,p .73 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :10a ( 1970 ) S am su i luna

3 87 . YBC6083 BUCHANAN :813B ( 1981) S am su i luna 8 S i n -T 1 s h ta r -D

3 72 . YBC4313 BUCHANAN :807B ( 1981) GW :43 ( RI ,C ,p .73 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :10b ( 1970 ) S am su i luna 7

3 88 . YBC6174 BUCHANAN :814 ( 1981) S am su i luna 8 N in shubu r -T

3 73 . YBC4313 BUCHANAN :807C ( 1981) GW :43 ( R 1 ,R ,p .72 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :10c ( 1970 ) S am sui luna 7 3 74 . YBC4313 BUCHANAN :807X ( 1981) S am su i luna 7 N erg a l -T 3 75 . YBC6039 BUCHANAN :808 ( 1981) S am su i luna 7 3 76 . YBC4246 BUCHANAN :809A ( 1981) S am su i luna 7 S hama sh -D A y a -D 3 77 . YBC4246 BUCHANAN :809B ( 198 1) S am su i luna 7 3 78 . YBC5910 BUCHANAN : 1 310 ( 198 1 ) S am su i luna 7 3 79 . A0 1750 DEL :A549 :A ( 1923 ) GW :232A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R . 5 ,L ,p .73 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 8 3 80 . A0 1750 DEL :A549 :A ( 1923 ) GW :232B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 ,L ,p .73 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 8 3 81 . A0 1657 DEL :A551 ( 1923 ) GW :233 ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 ,R ,p .73 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 8 3 82 . A0 1684 DEL :A 552 :A ( 1923 ) GW :234 ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R5 ,R ,p .73 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 8 3 83 . NBC6799 BUCHANAN :811 ( 1981) S am su i luna 8 3 84 . YBC7 160 BUCHANAN :812A ( 1981) S am su i luna 8 3 85 . YBC7 160 BUCHANAN :812B ( 1981) S am su i luna 8 3 86 . YBC6083 BUCHANAN :813A ( 1981) S am su i luna 8

4 01 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :236 :6 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 9 4 02 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :8 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 9 A y a -T E a -T E a -D

3 89 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :235 :1 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 9 S i n -D

4 03 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :9 ( 1967 ) GW :236 :9 ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 9

3 90 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :2 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 9 S h am a sh -T K ab ta -T I s h ta r -D

4 04 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :10 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 9 Mad -D 4 05 . A04 139 DEL :A 553 :A ( 1923 ) GW :237A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R 1 ,R ,T hree f i g s . o nL ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 0 * R igh ts ea ls p l i t _ R igh tp a r ti s r e co rded a s4 06 .

3 91 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :3 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 9 1 s hum -D 3 92 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :4 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 9 S i n -D

4 06 . A04139 DEL :A 553 :B ( 1923 ) GW :237B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R 1 ,R , Two f i l l f i g s . p lu st wo r eg i s te r so nR ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 0 S i n -T S i n -T I s hu rn -D * R i ge ts e a ls p l it L e f tp a r ti s r e co rded a s4 05 .

3 93 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :5 ( 1967 ) S am sui luna 9 BAR -D 3 94 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :6 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 9 S hama sh -D A y a -D

4 07 . A04 139 DEL :A553 :C ( 1923 ) GW :237C ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R2 ,L ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 0

3 95 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :7 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna 9 BAR -D 3 96 . BM 17051A F IGULLA :58A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :235 :8 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 9 N 1N .UG -D S ham a sh -D

4 08 . A04 139 DEL :A553 :D ( 1923 ) GW :237D ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R 1 ,L ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 0 4 09 . A04 139 DEL :A553 :E ( 1923 ) GW :237E ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R2 ,R ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am sui luna 1 0 Mad -T S hama sh -T

3 97 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :236 :1 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 9 3 98 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :236 :2 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 9

4 10 . A02708 DEL :A554 :A ( 1923 ) GW :238A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R3 ,L ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am sui luna 1 0 S i n -T Mad -D

3 99 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :236 :3 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 9 S i n -T A znu r ru -D

4 11 . A02708 DEL :A 554 :B ( 1923 ) GW :238B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R3 ,R ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 0

4 00 . BM 17439A F IGULLA :62A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :236 :4 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 9

8 6

4 12 . A02708 DEL :A554 :C ( 1923 ) GW :238C ( 1 988 ) GW :43 ( R3 ,C ,p . 74 ) ( 1980 ) S am sui luna 1 0 S hama sh -T S hama sh -T N e rg a l -D 4 13 . YBC5998 BUCHANAN :815 ( 1981) S am su i luna 1 0 4 14 . YBC4214 BUCHANAN :816A ( 1981) S am sui luna 1 0 S ham a sh -D 4 15 . A027 13 DEL :A555 :A ( 1 923 ) GW :239A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 ,R ,p . 74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 4 16 . A027 13 DEL :A 555 :B ( 1923 ) GW :239B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 ,C ,p . ' 74 ) ( 1980 ) S am sui lun a 1 4 17 . A0 1726 DEL :A 556 :A l( 1923 ) GW :24 1A ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R5 ,R ,p . 74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 4 4 18 . A0 1726 DEL :A 556 :A I I( 1923 ) GW :24 1B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R5 ,L ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S a r n su i luna 1 4 Mad -T S i n -T 4 19 . BM 16851A F IGULLA :63A :3 & 9 ( 1967 ) GW :240 :3 & 9( 1988 ) S am sui luna 1 4 4 20 . BM 16851A F IGULLA :63A :4 & 1 0 ( 1967 ) GW :240 :4 & 1 0( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1 4 4 21 . BM 16851A F IGUL ,LA :63A :6 ( 1967 ) GW :240 :6e ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1 4 4 22 . BM 16851A F IGULLA :63A :7 ( 1967 ) GW :240 :7f ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1 4 4 23 . BM 16851A F IGULLA :63A :8 ( 1967 ) GW :240 :8 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1 4 4 24 . MLC 158 1 BUCHANAN :8 17 ( 198 1) S am su i luna 1 4 4 25 . IM 50498 GW :17 1 ( F ive f i g s . o n R ig h t ) ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 1 8 * La p a r ti sr e co rded a s4 26 .

4 26 . IM 50498 GW :17 1 ( Th r ee f i g s . o n l ef t ) ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 1 8 * R ig h tp a r ti sr e co rded a s4 25 . 4 27 . A0 1678 DEL :A557 :1 ( 1923) GW :242 :9b ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R6 ,L ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 8 4 28 . A0 1678 DEL :A557 :2 ( 1923 ) GW :242 :9a ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R6 ,R ,p .74 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 1 8 4 29 . MLC202 BUCHANAN :983 ( 1981) GW :43 ( R 1 ,p .75 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :11 ( 1970 ) S amsu i luna 1 8 S in -T 4 30 . NBC8570 BUCHANAN :984 ( 198 1) S am su i luna 1 9 N in shubu r -D

4 42 .H SM109 LYON :PL . I :1 ( 1906 ) GW :43 ( R 1 ,R .p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 3 0

4 37 . IM 57304 F IGULLA & MART IN :256 ( 1953 ) GW :326B ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R .2 ,R ,p .75 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 2 3 4 38 . YBC7665 BUCHANAN :987 ( 1981) GW :4 3( R3 ,p .75 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :12 ( 1970 ) S am su i lun a2 7 4 39 . NBC9264 BUCHANAN :988 ( 198 1) S am su i luna 2 7

4 61 . BM 16812A F IGULLA :65A :1 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna S ham a sh -T S am su i luna

4 46 . H SM 109 LYON : Mi l :6 ( 1906 ) GW :43 ( R2 ,R ,p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 3 0

4 48 . YBC4981 BUCHANAN :991B ( 1981) S am sui luna 3 0

4 36 . I M57304 F IGULLA & MART 1N :256 ( 1953 ) GW :326A ( 1988 1 GW :43 ( R2 ,L ,p .75 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 2 3

4 60 . BM 16818A F IGULLA :61A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :236 :7 ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R4 ,p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna

4 45 .H SM109 LYON :PL . I I :5 ( 1906 ) GW :43 ( R2 ,L ,p . 76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 3 0

4 32 . YBC7743 BUCHANAN :986A ( 1981 ) S am su i luna 2 1 Ma r c luk -T S am su i luna

4 35 . A01924 DEL :A558 :B ( 1923 ) GW :243 :2 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 2 2

4 59 . BM 16818A F IGULLA :61A :1 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna I s h ta r -D

4 44 .H SM109 LYON :PL . I :3 ( 1906 ) GW :43 ( R I ,L ,p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 3 0

4 47 . YBC4981 BUCHANAN :991A ( 1981) S am su i luna 3 0 A y a -T S hama sh -T

4 34 . A01924 DEL :A 558 :A ( 1923 ) GW :243 :1 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 2 2

4 58 . BM 16861A F IGULLA :60A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :246 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna

4 43 . H SM109 LYON :PL . I :2 ( 1906 ) GW :43 ( R3 ,p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 3 0

4 31 .N 13C8885 BUCHANAN :985 ( 1981) S am su i luna 2 1

4 33 . YBC7743 BUCHANAN :986B ( 198 1) S am su i luna 2 1

4 57 . BM 17043 F IGULLA :59 :1 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna S hamaü i -D

4 4 1 . YBC5986 BUCHANAN :990 ( 1981) S am su i luna 2 8

4 62 . BM 16812A F IGULLA :65A :2 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna S in -D S ha rna sh -D S am su i luna 4 63 . BM 16812A F IGULLA :65A :3 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna I s h ta r -T S in -T S in -D AN . MARTU -D

4 49 . YBC4981 BUCHANAN :991C ( 1981) S am su i luna 3 0

4 64 . BM 16812A F IGULLA :65A :4 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna S in -T N in shubu r -D

4 50 . YBC4981 BUCHANAN :991D ( 1981) S am su i luna 3 0 4 51 . A04498 D EL :A 559 :A ( 1923 ) GW :244A ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 3 3

4 65 . BM 16812A F IGULLA :65A :5 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna Ma rduk -T S h ama sh -D Ma rduk -T S am sui luna

4 52 . A04498 D EL :A 559 :B ( 1923 ) GW :244B ( 1988 ) S amsu i luna 3 3

4 66 . BM 17059A F IGULLA :68A :1 ( 1967 ) GW :247 :1 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna

4 53 . A04498 D EL :A559 :X ( 1923 ) GW :244X ( 1988 ) S am sui luna 3 3

4 67 . BM 17049A F IGULLA :68A :2 ( 1967 ) GW :247 :2 ( 1988 ) S am su i luna S in -T S am su i luna

4 54 . BM78258 P 1NCHES :33 ( 1964 ) GW :245A ( 1988 ) S am su i luna 4 55 . BM78258 P INCHES :33 ( 1964 ) GW :245B ( 1988 ) S am sui luna

4 68 . BM 17049A F IGULLA :68A :3 ( 1967 ) GW :247 :3 ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R5 ,C ,p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna

4 56 . BM 169 16A F IGULLA :54 :2 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna S i n -T N in shubu r -T N in shubu r -D

4 69 . BM 17049A F IGULLA :68A :4 ( 1967 ) GW :247 :4 ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R5 ,L ,p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna

4 40 . YBC .4407 BUCHANAN :989 ( 1981) S am su i luna 2 7

8 7

4 70 . BM 17049A F IGULLA :68A :5 ( 1967 ) GW :247 :5 ( 1988 ) GW :43 ( R5 ,R ,p .76 ) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna 4 7 1 . BM 17049A F IGULLA :68A :8 ( 1967 ) S am su i luna S i n -T AN . MARTU -D 4 72 .I CALEBD J IAN S CHE IL :PL I I :13 ( 1916 ) GW :4 1 ( R 1 ,p .7 1) ( 1980 ) S am su i lun a S am su i lun a 4 73 . CUA 57 GOETZE :PL I :7 -9 ( 1957a ) GW :42 ( R2 ,p .7 1) ( 1980 ) S am su i luna S am su i lun a 4 74 . MLC222 BUCHANAN :996 ( 1981) GW :44 ( R5 ,p .77 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :15 ( 1970 ) A b ie shu 2 8 N abu -T 4 75 . A0 1727 DEL :A 560 :A ( 1923 ) GW :249A ( 1988 ) GW :44 ( R2 ,R ,p .77 ) ( 1980 ) A b ie shu 4 76 . A0 1727 DEL :A 560 :B ( 1923 ) GW :249B ( 1988 ) GW :44 ( R2 ,L ,p .77 ) ( 1980 ) A b ie shu 4 77 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :2 ( 1967 ) A b i e shu S in -T N in shubu r -D 4 78 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :4 ( 1967 ) A b ie shu A ya -T S ham a sh -D S in -T A b i e shu 4 79 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :5 ( 1967 ) A b ie shu S har na sh -T 4 80 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :6 ( 1967 ) A b ie shu Ma rduk -D 4 81 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :7 ( 1967 ) A b i e shu B ILG I .x -T S ha r na sh -D S ha rn a sh -T 4 82 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :8 ( 1967 ) A b ie shu S hama sh -T S in -D N ing a l -D

4 83 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :9 ( 1967 ) A b ie shu S ham a sh -D 4 84 . BM 17067A F IGULLA :69A :10 ( 1967 ) A b ie shu S in -T S hama sh -T 4 85 . BM 17328A F IGULLA :70 ( 1967 ) A b i e shu Ma rduk -T S hama sh -T N abu -D 4 86 . VA3242 MOORTGAT :494 ( 1940 ) GW :44 ( R I ,p . 77 ) ( 1980 ) A b ie shu Ma rduk -T A b i e shu 4 87 . YBC5665 BUCHANAN :992 ( 198 1) GW :44 ( R3 ,p .77 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :13 ( 1970 ) A b ie shu 4 88 . YBC5939 BUCHANAN :993 ( 1981) GW :44 ( R4 ,p .77 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :14 ( 1970 ) A b ie shu 4 89 . YBC 1190 BUCHANAN :994A ( 1981) A b ie shu 4 90 . M1 ,C1287 BUCHANAN :995 ( 198 1) A b ie shu 4 91 . A01689 DEL :A 56 1 ( 1923 ) GW :46 ( R3 , Two f i g s . o n L ef t , p .79 )( 1980 ) Amm id i tana 3 4 92 . YBC12983 BUCHANAN :997 ( 1981) Amm id i t ana 3 4 93 . A02502 DEL :A 562 :A ( 1923 ) GW :250B ( 1988 ) Amm id i tana 5 N abu -T A ya -D Ma rduk -T Amm id i t ana 4 94 . A02502 DEL :A 562 :B ( 1923 ) GW :250A ( 1988 ) A rnm id i t ana 5 S hama sh -D S ham a sh -D A ya -D 4 95 . BM8016 1 P INCHES :46 :1 ( 1964 ) GW :251 :1 ( 1988 ) GW :45 ( R3 ,p .78 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i t ana 6

4 96 . BM80161 P 1NCHES :46 :2 ( 1964 ) GW :251 :2 ( 1988 ) GW :45 ( R2 ,R ,p .78 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i tana 6

5 11 . A02503 DEL :A 565 :C ( 1923 ) GW :254C ( 1988 ) Amm id i tan a3 4 5 12 . A02503 DEL :A 565 :E ( 1923 ) Amm id i tan a3 4 N in shubu r -T N in shubu r -D

4 97 . BM80161 P 1NCHES :46 :3 ( 1964 ) GW :251 :3 ( 1988 ) GW :45 ( R2 ,L ,p . 78 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i tana 6

5 13 . MI ,C425 BUCHANAN :1002 ( 198 1 ) Amm id i tan a3 6

4 98 . YBC5477 BUCHANAN :998A ( 1981) Amm id i tana 8

5 14 . NBC1273 BUCHANAN :1003 ( 1981) Amm id i tan a3 6

4 99 . YBC5477 BUCHANAN :998B ( 198 1) Amm id i tana 8

5 15 . A04499 DEL :A 566 :A ( 1923 ) GW :255A ( 1988 ) GW :46 ( R I ,L ,p .80 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i tan a3 7

5 00 . YBC5920 BUCHANAN :999 ( 198 1 ) GW :45 ( R I ,p .78 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :16 ( 1970 ) Amm id i tana 1

5 16 . A04499 DEL :A566 :B ( 1923 ) GW :255B ( 1988 ) GW :46 ( R 1 ,R ,p .80 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i t an a3 7

5 01 . A0 167 1 DEL :A563 :A ( 1923 ) GW :252A ( 1988 ) GW :45 ( R5 ,R ,p .78 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i tana 1 5

5 17 . CB M I512 RANKE :P l .V M :13 ( 1906 ) GW :46 ( R2 ,L ,p .79 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i t an a

5 02 . A0 167 1 DEL :A 563 :B ( 1923 ) GW :252B ( 1988 ) GW :45 ( R5 ,L ,p .78 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i tana 1 5 N e rg a l -T Amm id i t ana

5 18 . CB M 1512 RANKE :P I .V I I I :13 ( 1906 ) GW :46 ( R2 ,R ,p .79 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i tan a

5 03 . A0 167 1 DEL :A 563 :C ( 1923 ) GW :252C ( 1988 ) GW :45 ( R4 ,R ,p .78 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i t ana 1 5

5 19 . A04657 DEL :A 567 :A ( 1923 ) Amm id i tana E a -T Mad -D S ha la -D

5 04 . A0 167 1 DEL :A 563 :X ( 1923 ) GW :252 :X ( 1988 ) GW :45 ( R4 ,L ,p .78 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i t ana 1 5

5 20 . A04657 DEL :A567 :B ( 1923 ) GW :46 ( R I ,p .79 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i tana S i n -T Amm id i tana

5 05 . YBC 1 2259 BUCHANAN :1000A ( 1981) Amm id i tana 2 0

5 21 . A04657 DEL :A 567 :C ( 1923 ) Amm id i t ana A nu -T Amm id i tana

5 06 . YBC 1 2259 BUCHANAN :1000B ( 1981 ) Amm id i tana 2 0 5 07 . A02709 DEL :A564 ( 1923 ) GW :253 ( 1988 ) GW :46 ( R4 ,p .79 ) ( 1980 ) Amm id i t ana 2 4

5 22 . BM80217 P INCHES :55 ( 1964 ) GW :256 :1 ( 1988 ) Amm id i tana 5 23 . BM80217 P INCHES :55 ( 1964 ) GW :256 :2 ( 1988 ) Amm id i t ana

5 08 . YBC5501 BUCHANAN :100 1 ( 1981) Amm id i t ana 3 1 5 09 . A02503 DEL :A 565 :A ( 1923 ) GW :254A ( 1988 ) Amm id i t ana 3 4 5 10 . A02503 DEL :A 565 :B ( 1923 ) GW :254B ( 1988 ) Amm id i tana 3 4 Ma rduk -T Amu r ru -D

8 8

5 26 . YBC427 1 BUCHANAN :1004B ( 1981) Amm i saduqa 1 5 27 .I M 50868 GW :172A ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R I ,L ,p .83 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduqa 2 5 28 .I M50868 GW :I 72B ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R I ,C ,p .83 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduqa 2 5 29 . A0 17 34 DEL :A568 ( 1923 ) GW :257 ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R5 ,p .81 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduqa 2 A d ad -T Ma rd z zk -T 5 30 . MLC2656 P ORADA :P 1 .13 :A ( 1976 ) GW :46 ( R3 ,L ,p .80 ) ( 1980 ) A rnm i s aduqa 3 5 31 . MLC2656 P ORADA :P 1 .13 :C ( 1976 ) GW :46 ( R3 ,R ,p , 80 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduqa 3 5 32 . MLC2656 P ORADA :P 1 .13 :B ( 1976 ) GW :46 ( R4 ,p .80 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i s aduqa 3 5 33 .I M . 50894 GW :173 ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R I ,R ,p .83 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i s aduqa 4 5 34 .I M50893 GW :174 ( 1988 ) Amm i s aduq a4 5 35 . MLC606 BUCHANAN :1005A ( 1981) Amm i saduq a6 M a rduk -T 5 36 .M I X606 BUCHANAN :1005B ( 1981) Amm i saduqa 6 S i n -T Amu r zu -T Amu r ru -D 5 37 .A SH :BOD :B12 BUCHANAN :551A ( 1966 ) GW :50 ( R5 ,p .82 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :1005X ( 1988 ) Amm i s aduq a6 M a rduk -T 5 38 .A SH :BOD :B12 BUCHANAN :551B ( 1966 ) GW :50 ( R6 ,R ,p .82 ) ( 1 980 ) Amm i s aduqa 6 S h am a s h -T Amm i saduqa

5 24 . BM80217 P INCHES :55 ( 1964 ) GW :256 :3 ( 1988 ) Amm id i tana

5 39 .A SH :BOD :B12 BUCHANAN :551C ( 1966 ) Amm i s aduq a6

5 25 . YBC427 1 BUCHANAN :1004A ( 1981) GW :49 ( R4 ,p . 81) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :17 ( 1970 ) Amm i s aduqa 1

5 40 .A SH :BOD :B12 BUCHANAN :551D ( 1966 ) GW :50 ( R6 ,L ,p .82 ) ( 1 980 ) Amm i s aduq a6 S i n -T

5 41 .A SH :BOD :B 12 BUCHANAN :551Y ( 1966 ) Amm i s aduq a6 A dad -D N in .SHAGUR ( ? ) -D 5 42 .A SH :BOD :B 12 BUCHANAN :551X ( 1966 ) Amm isaduq a6 S i n -T N abu -D 5 43 . I M504 18 GW :176 ( 1988 ) Amm i saduqa 7 5 44 .I M50421 GW :178 ( 1988 ) Amm i saduqa 7 5 45 . I M50418 GW :177 ( 1988 ) Amm i saduq a7 5 46 . A07 595 DEL :A 569 ( 1923 ) GW :258 ( 1988 ) Amm i s aduq a8 Amu m i -D A nu -D 5 47 . MLC 1388 BUCHANAN :1006 ( 198 1 ) Ammi s aduq a8 5 48 , A02500 DEL :A 570 :A ( 1923 ) GW :259A ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R2 ,L ,T h re e f i g s .o n p . 83 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i s aduqa 9 * Le f ts e a ls p l i t . R ig h tp a r t r e co r d ed a s5 49 . 5 49 . A02500 DEL :A 570 :B ( 1923 ) GW :259A ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R2 ,L ,T h re e f i g s .o n R ,p . 83 ) ( 1980 ) A nnn i s aduqa 9 * Lef ts e a ls p l i t . L ef tp a r t r e co rd ed a s5 48 . 5 50 . A02500 DEL :A 570 :C ( 1923 ) GW :259B ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R .2 ,R ,p .83 ) ( 1980 ) A nun i s aduqa 9 5 51 . A02500 DEL :A 570 :E ( 1923 ) Amm i s aduqa 9 I s h t a r -D 5 52 . YBC4329 BUCHANAN :1007 ( 1981) Amm i s aduqa 9 5 53 . MLC 1394 BUCHANAN :1008 ( 198 1) Amm i s aduqa 9 5 54 .Y l 3C6769 BUCHANAN :1009 ( 1981) Amm i s aduqa 9 5 55 . I M 50869 GW :179A ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R3 ,L ,p .83 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i s aduqa 1

5 73 . MLC210 BUCHANAN :1019A ( 1981) GW :50 ( R3 ,L ,p .82 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :20a ( 1970 ) Amm i saduqa 1 7

5 56 .I M50869 GW :179B ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R3 ,R ,p .83 ) ( 1980 ) Am rn i s aduqa 1 5 57 . I M50869 GW :179C ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R3 ,C ,p .83 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduq a 1

5 74 . MIC223 BUCHANAN :10 19B ( 1981) GW :50 ( R3 ,R ,p .82 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :20b ( 1970 ) Amm i saduqa 1 7

5 58 . YBC9118 BUCHANAN :1010 ( 1981 ) Am r n i s aduq a 1

5 75 . MLC2212 BUCHANAN :1020 ( 1981) GW :50 ( R4 ,R ,p . 82 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :21 ( 1970 ) Amm i saduqa 1 7

5 59 . MLC828 BUCHANAN :1011A ( 1981) Amm isaduq a 1 3

5 76 . CB M9478 RANKE :PLX :15 ( 1906 ) GW :48 ( R3 ,p .81 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i s aduq a

5 60 . MLC828 BUCHANAN :1011B ( 1981) A nun is aduqa 1 3 5 61 . YBC5987 BUCHANAN :1012 ( 1981) Amm i s aduqa 1 3 5 62 .I M50419 GW :180 ( 1988 ) A nun i saduq a 1 4 5 63 . NBC5355 BUCHANAN :1013 ( 1981) Amm i saduqa 1 5 5 64 . A0 1931 DEL :A57 1 :A ( 1923 ) GW :260A ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R I ,R ,p . 82 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduq a 1 6

5 95 . MLC 1654 BUCHANAN :1027 ( 1981 ) S am sud i tana 1 4

5 79 . CBM9478 RAN ICE :PLX :15 ( 1906 ) GW :48 ( R2 ,L ,p .81) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduqa

5 96 . YBC8308 BUCHANAN :1028 ( 1981) S am sud i t ana 1 4

5 83 .I M50432 GW :181B ( 1988 ) Amm i s aduqa

5 68 . MLC807 BUCHANAN :1016 ( 198 1) GW :50 ( R2 ,p .82 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :18 ( 1970 ) Amm i s aduqa 1 6

5 84 . IM 50432 GW :181C ( 1988 ) A rnm i s aduqa 5 85 . MLC 1331 BUCHANAN :1021 ( 1981) S am sud i t ana 2 S i n -T Ma rduk -T

5 69 . BM80160 P INCHES :60 ( 1964 ) GW :261 :1 ( 1988 ) Amm is aduq a 1 7 5 70 . BM80160 P INCHES :60 ( 1964 ) GW :261 :2 ( 1988 ) Amm i saduq a 1 7

5 86 . MLC 1742 BUCHANAN :1022 ( 1981) S am sud i tana 5

5 7 1 . MLC2228 BUCHANAN :1017 ( 1981) Amm i saduq a 1 7

5 87 . MLC644 BUCHANAN :1023A ( 1981) S am sud i t ana 1 2

5 72 . MLC811 BUCHANAN :1018 ( 1981) GW :50 ( R4 ,L ,p .82 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :19 ( 1970 ) Amm i saduq a 1 7

5 88 . MLC644 BUCHANAN :1023B ( 1981) S am sud i tana 1 2 5 89 . MLC644 BUCHANAN :1023C ( 1981) S am sud i t ana 1 2

8 9

5 93 . YBC3285 BUCHANAN :1026A ( 198 1) GW :52 ( R5 ,L ,p .84 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :23a ( 1970 ) S an t sud i tana 1 4

5 78 . CB M9478 RANKE :PLX :15 ( 1906 ) Amm i saduq a

5 82 . IM 50432 GW :181A ( 1988 ) Amm i saduqa

5 67 . YBC7813 BUCHANAN :1015 ( 1981) Amm i saduqa 1 6

5 92 . MI ,C1604 BUCHANAN :1025B ( 1981) GW :52 ( R4 ,R ,p . 84 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :22b ( 1970 ) S a rn sud i t ana 1 3

5 94 . YBC3285 BUCHANAN :1026B ( 1981) GW :52 ( R5 ,R ,p .84 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :23b ( 1970 ) S am sud i t ana 1 4

5 81 . VA6940 MOORTGAT :495 ( 1940 ) GW :47 ( R I ,p .81) ( 1980 ) Amm i s aduq a Ma rduk -T Amm i saduqa

5 66 . YBC4962 BUCHANAN :1014 ( 1981) Amm i saduqa 1 6

5 91 . MLC1604 BUCHANAN :1025A ( 1981) GW :52 ( R4 ,L ,p . 84 ) ( 1980 ) BUCHANAN :22a ( 1970 ) S am sud i tana 1 3

5 77 . CB M9478 RANKE :PLX :15 ( 1906 ) GW :48 ( R2 ,R ,p .8 1) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduqa

5 80 . CB M9478 RANKE :PLX :15 ( 1906 ) A rnm i saduqa

5 65 . A0 1931 DEL :A 57 1 :B ( 1923 ) GW :260B ( 1988 ) GW :50 ( R I ,L . ,p .82 ) ( 1980 ) Amm i saduq a 1 6

5 90 . MLC 1656 BUCHANAN :1024 ( 1981) S am sud i tana 1 2

5 97 . A04651 DEL :A 573 :A ( 1923 ) GW :52 ( R3 ,R .p . 84 ) ( 1980 ) S am sud i tana N abu -D Ma rduk -T 5 98 . A04651 DEL :A573 :B ( 1923 ) GW :52 ( R3 ,L ,p . 84 ) ( 1980 ) S am sud i tana A dad -D S ha la -D 5 99 . WAG :C20 GORDON :26 ( 1939 ) GW :51 ( R 1 ,p .84 ) ( 1980 ) S am sud i t ana Ma rdu l c -T S in -T S am sud i tana 6 00 . MLC 1515 BUCHANAN :1029A ( 1981) S am sud i t ana 6 0 1 . CBS11035 11049 L EGRA IN :536 ( 1925 ) 6 02 . NUZ I PORAD A680 ( 1947 ) 6 03 .E 30 .1946 MUNN -RANK IN :21 ( 1959 ) S i n -T N abu -D 6 04 . CBS11626 MATTHE WS :13 ( 1992 ) S hama sh -D 6 05 .A SH1921 .946 BUCHANAN :558 ( 1966 ) MATTRE WS :114 ( 1990 ) S in -T

6 06 . YBC2582 N IES & I C E ISER :P 1 .74B ( 1920 ) Mad -D A nu -D

6 24 . BM 138139 MATTHE WS :90 ( 1990 )

6 07 . CBS7292 L EGRA IN :538 ( 1925 ) L ug a lbanda -D

6 25 .N 2257 MATTHE WS :6 ( 1992 ) K ada shm an -En l i l

6 08 .C INQ596 S PELE ,ERS :596 ( 1917 ) S hunug i -D L am a -T

6 26 . NUZ I PORADA :690 ( 1947 )

6 09 . CBS5060 L EGRA 1N :537 ( 1925 ) S ham a sh -T Ma rduk -D 6 10 .A 3703 WILL IAMS :54 ( 1927 -28 ) 6 11 .C INQ60 1 S PELE ,ERS :601 ( 1917 ) N in .SHA .GUR (? ) -D 6 12 . MLC PORADA :568 ( 1948 ) I s h ta r -D 6 13 . NE WELL O STEN :273 ( 1934 ) S i n -D 6 14 . MLC PORADA :572 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :75 ( 1990 ) WARD :522 ( 1910 ) I s h ta r -D E a -T 6 15 . NUZ I PORADA :681 ( 1947 ) 6 16 . MLC PORADA :57 1 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :73 ( 1990 ) WARD :523 ( 1910 ) N e rg a l -D 6 17 . N2342 LAMBERT :60 ( 1979 ) 6 18 . MA .ZDA L I MET :4 ( 1978 -79 ) S in -D E a -D 6 19 . METMUS PORADA :570 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :76 ( 1990 ) WARD :538 ( 1910 ) S in -T S in -D N inm ah -D 6 20 . BN294 DEL :294 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :74 ( 1990 ) S ham a sh -D 6 21 . NUZ I PORADA :706 ( 1947 ) 6 22 . BM8900 1 WARD :526 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :78 ( 1990 ) COLLON :462 ( 1988 ) Ma rduk -D

6 23 . NUZ I PORADA :698 ( 1947 )

6 4 1 .A SH 1953 .113 BUCHANAN :560 ( 1966 ) M .ATTHE WS :96 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 6 42 . NUZ I P ORADA :694 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :72 ( 1990 ) 6 43 . A0D 105 DEL :D56 ( 1920 ) MATTHE WS :122 ( 1990 ) COLLON :674 ( 1988 ) K u r ig a lzu I S h idad a -T 1 s h ta r -D K u r ig a lzu

6 27 . CBS 1 4442 L EGRA IN :566 ( 1925 ) MATTHE WS :9 ( 1992 ) 6 28 . NUZ I PORADA :688 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :95 ( 1990 )

6 44 . DEC266 WARD :534 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :84 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D S hama sh -T

6 29 . NUZ I PORADA :689 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :98 ( 1990 )

6 45 . NUZ I PORADA :697 ( 1947 )

6 30 . NUZ I P ORADA :686 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :91 ( 1990 )

6 46 . PM : I3488 PAR ICER :3 ( 1949 ) MATTHE WS :82 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

6 31 . NUZ I P ORADA :687 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :92 ( 1990 )

6 47 . BM89 182 VANBUREN :PL I :5 ( 1954 ) MATTHE WS :88 ( 1990 ) S h ama sh -D Ma rduk -D I s h ta r -D

6 32 . NUZ I PORADA :683 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :123 ( 1990 ) 6 33 . BN293 DEL :293 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :119 ( 1990 ) S hama sh -D

6 48 . MOORE 110 E ISEN :69 ( 1940 ) MATTHE WS :85 ( 1990 )

6 34 . 1 2N691d ,e G IBSON :F ig , .92 :2 ( 1978 ) MATTHE WS :10 ( 1992 ) S hama sh -D Ma rduk -D I s h ta r -D

6 49 . ND5374 PAR ICER :P 1 .13 :1 ( 1962 ) MATTHE WS :80 ( 1990 )

6 35 .A SH 1969 .352 MOOREY & GURNEY :78 ( 1978 ) MATTHE WS :101 ( 1990 ) 6 36 . NUZ I P ORADA :691 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :105 ( 1990 ) 6 37 . NUZ I PORADA :699 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :106 ( 1990 ) 6 38 . MLC P ORADA :574 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :97 ( 1990 ) WARD :528 ( 19 10 ) S hama sh -T Ma rduk -T Mad -D I s h ta r -D

6 60 .A SH 1892 .1421 BUCHANAN :56 1 ( 1966 ) S ha rna sh -D 6 61 . DEC228 MATTHE WS :86 ( 1990 ) S ham a sh -D 6 62 . BM89215 MATTHE WS :108 ( 1990 ) 6 63 . C FM88263 WARD :531 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :100 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D 6 64 . DNM768 RAVN :77 ( 1960 ) MATTHE WS :120 ( 1990 ) S ' ham a sh -D 6 65 . BM89258 VANBUREN :P 1 . 1 :6 ( 1954 ) MATTHE WS :93 ( 1990 ) 6 66 . CBS 1 4240 MATTHE WS :4 ( 1992 ) 6 67 .N 2429 LA MBERT :57 ( 1979 ) DOLCE :6 ( 1986 )

6 51 . NUZ I PORADA :695 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :83 ( 1990 )

6 69 . KW7 14 COLLON :57 1 ( 1988 ) MATTHE WS :124 ( 1990 )

6 52 . BM89 173 WARD :529 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :87 ( 1990 ) S i n -D S i n -T S i n -T

6 70 . NE WELL OSTEN :665 ( 1934 ) K ur ig a lz uH Mad -D K u r ig a lz u B u rnabu r ia sh

6 53 . M119 ZADOKS & J ITTA :109 ( 1952 )

6 71 . BRETT OSTEN :82 ( 1936 ) L luxu .gu -D Mad -T Mad -T

6 56 . HUS M293 LACHEMAN :293 ( 1950 ) MATTHE WS :I 04 ( 1990 )

9 0

6 59 .N 2340 LAMBERT :61 ( 1979 ) MATTHE WS :121 ( 1990 ) DOLCE :8 ( 1986 )

6 68 . MLC PORADA :585 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :103 ( 1990 ) S ham a sh -D

6 55 . BM89849 W ISEMAN :44 ( 1959 ) MATTHE WS :7 1 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

6 40 . KALEBDJ IAN S CHE IL :27 ( 1916 ) MATTHE WS :107 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

6 58 . BM89175 M .ATTHE WS :118 ( 1990 )

6 50 . NUZ I PORADA :696 ( 1947 ) MATTHE WS :81 ( 1990 )

6 54 . CBS14237 L EGRA IN :542 ( 1925 ) MATTHE WS :94 ( 1990 ) S i n -D E n l i l -D

6 39 . MLC PORADA :573 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :102 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

6 57 .B IRM :551 '65 LAMBERT :56 ( 1966 ) MATTHE WS :89 ( 1990 ) DOLCE :5 ( 1986 ) S ham a sh -D

6 72 . BN302 DEL :302 ( 1 910 ) Amu r ru -D 6 73 . BN303 DEL :303 ( 1910 ) Gu la -D 6 74 . GMOA :N2398 LAMBERT :62 ( 1979 ) E a -D E a -T

6 75 . FN201 PORADA :35 ( 1981) 6 76 . FN205 PORAD A36 ( 1981) Ma rduk -D 6 77 . BM114704 COLLON :929 ( 1988 ) M ATTHE WS :68 ( 1990 ) Ku r ig a lzu I N insun -D E n l i l -D Ma rduk -T E a -T K ur ig a lzu 6 78 . BM129099 SMITH :p .3 ( 1938 ) I s h ta r -D E a -D

6 80 . FH -6 F ERRARA :p .69 ( 1977 )

6 96 . MOORE 165 E ISEN :68 ( 1940 )

6 97 . DEC267 MATTHE WS :56 ( 1990 ) S hama sh -D

6 82 . DEC253 WARD :540 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :70 ( 1990 )

6 98 . ZURICH BO ISSTER :1 ( 1912 ) Ma iduk -D

6 83 . NOUGAYROL :1 ( 1966 ) Ma rduk -D

6 99 . DEC260TER LANGDON :20 ( 1919 ) L ug a lbanda -D

6 87 . DNM :DFA660 RAVN :86 ( 1960 ) A d ad -D A nu -D 6 88 . BM28799 VANBUREN :PL I :7 ( 1954 ) 6 89 . ND 1681 PARKER :P 1 .10 :2 ( 1955 ) 6 90 . NEWELL O STEN :276 ( 1934 ) MATTHE WS :58 ( 1990 ) K u r ig a lz u H E n l i l -T E n l i l -D K u r ig a lzu 6 91 . DEC260 LANGDON :29 ( 1919 ) S i n -D

7 09 . I B .SA48 VANBUREN :61 ( 1940 ) 7 10 . WAG42 .428 GORDON :31 ( 1939 ) 7 11 . A0D106 DEL :D55 ( 1920 ) S in -T N in l i l -D 7 12 . I B961 HROUDA :50 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :12 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D S in -T S i n -D

I s h ta r -D S hama sh -T

6 81 . VA697 1 MOORTGAT :558 ( 1940 ) S in -D S hug ab -T A dad -D

6 86 . FN186 PORADA :34 ( 1981) A bu -D Ma rduk -T

Ku r ig a lzu K u r ig a lzu

6 94 . MLC PORADA :576 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :59 ( 1990 ) WARD :518 ( 1910 ) Ma rduk -D Ma rduk -T

6 79 . MOORE 159 E ISEN :70 ( 1940 ) Gu la -D

6 85 . CBS 13321 MATTHE WS :53 ( 1992 )

7 08 . BOS :98 .698 WARD :513 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :11 ( 1990 )

6 93 . M M73 .51 .4301 WARD :516 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :54 ( 1990 ) Marduk -D

6 95 . DEC262 WARD :520 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :61 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -T

6 84 . NE WELL OSTEN :662 ( 1934 ) MATTHE WS :63 ( 1990 ) K u r ig a lzu H I s h ta r -D S har n a sh -T K ur ig a lzu

7 07 . BN295 DEL :295 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :10 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D

6 92 . MLC PORADA :577 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :60 ( 1990 ) WARD :40 & 5 12 ( 1910 ) B u rnabu r iash H A dad -D S hudu -T B umabu r ia sh

7 13 . CBS1077 L EGRA IN :544 ( 1925) 7 14 . MOORE I82 E ISEN :67 ( 1940 ) MATTHE WS :13 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -T N abu -T N in i rnma -D N ing a l -D 7 15 . MLC PORADA :583 ( 1948 ) MA-V I-HE WS :65 ( 1990 )

7 00 . MLC P ORADA :579 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :4 ( 1990 ) WARD :122 ( 1909 )

7 16 . CBS1062 L EGRATN :531 ( 1925 ) MATTHE WS :66 ( 1990 ) K u r ig a lzu Ku r ig a lzu

S i n -D 7 01 . DEC261 WARD :527 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :5 ( 1990 ) N e rg a l -D

7 17 . BN296 DEL :296 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :7 ( 1990 ) WARD :514 ( 1910 ) K u r ig a lzu Ma rduk -D E a -D K ur ig a lzu

7 02 . VA :BAB1377 MOORTGAT :557 ( 1940 ) MATTHE WS :6 ( 1990 ) A dad -T N in sun -T L uga lbanda -D I s h ta r -D

7 23 . CBS6646 MATTHE WS :55 ( 1992 ) Naz i - Maru t ta sh 1 4 7 24 . DEC260B IS LANGDON :21 ( 1919 ) A dad -T S in -T 7 25 . W ARD :521 ( 1910 ) 7 26 . UM29 -15 -719 MATTHE WS :56 ( 1992 ) Ku r iga lzu 2 1 7 27 . A01509 DEL :A598 ( 1923 ) MATTHE WS :51 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 7 28 . A04457 DEL :A 599 ( 1923) MATTHE WS :52 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 7 29 . DN M :5B :176 RAVN :87 ( 1960 ) MATTHE WS :50 ( 1990 ) S hama sh -D Ma rduk -D I s h ta r -D 7 30 . BN297 DEL :297 ( 1910 ) MATT I TE WS :49 ( 1990 ) WARD :525 ( 1910 ) Ma rduk -D 7 31 . NE WELL OSTEN :663 ( 1934 ) MATTHE WS :53 ( 1990 ) 7 32 . DEC264 WARD :524 ( 1910 ) M ATTHE WS :14 ( 1990 ) S in -T Marduk -T Ma rduk -D S in -D 1 s h ta r -D 7 33 . MNB1947 DEL :A600 ( 1923 ) Ma rduk -D 7 34 . S PELEERS :422 ( 1917 ) MATTHE WS :15 ( 1990 ) 7 35 . CBS3350

7 18 . N 1069 MATTHE WS :66 ( 1992 ) Ma rduk -D

7 03 . MARCOPOL I T E ISS IER :134 ( 1984 )

7 19 . BRETT OSTEN :81 ( 1936 ) MATTHE WS :8 ( 1990 )

7 04 . NE WELL O STEN :274 ( 1934 ) I s h ta r -D G u la -D

N inu r ta -D L ama -T

MATTHE WS :58 ( 1992 ) 7 36 . MARCOPOL I TE ISSIER :135 ( 1984 ) 7 37 . CBS8276 L EGRA IN :543 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :111 ( 1990 ) MATTHE WS :12 ( 1992 ) Ma rduk -D

7 20 . MN 131927 DEL :A601 ( 1923 ) MATTHE WS :64 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

7 05 . MAZDA L I MET :1 ( 1978 -79 ) D amu -T I s h ta r -D I s h ta r -D G u la -D

7 21 . GU I MET95 DEL :95 ( 1909 ) S hama sh -D Ma rduk -D

G u la -T G u la -D U ng a l -D

7 22 . NOUGAYROL :F ig , .2 ( 1971) Ma rduk -D Ma rduk -T

7 06 . DEC259 DOLCE :3 ( 1986 )

9 1

7 38 . N2343 LAMBERT :59 ( 1979 ) MATTHE WS :2 ( 1990 ) S in -T 7 39 . BM89853 COLLON :236 ( 1988 ) MATTHE WS :3 ( 1990 ) WARD :654 ( 1910 ) Dünk i raBADna -D E n l i l -D

7 40 . BN292 DEL :292 ( 1910 ) 7 41 . BM122696 COLLON :237 ( 1988 ) MATTIIE WS :9 ( 1990 ) Ku r ig a lzu I Ma rduk -T E a -T K u r ig a lzu 7 42 . CBS1108 LEGRA IN :530 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :1 ( 1990 ) COLLON :235 ( 1988 ) K a ra in c iash N e rg a l -D Ma rduk -T K ara inda sh 7 43 . UM51-6 -344 MATTHE WS :36 ( 1992 ) Bumabu r ia sh I s h ta r -D B umabu r ia sh

7 56 . CBS3233 MATTHE WS :34 ( 1992 ) A nu -T

7 71 . VA3869 MOORTGAT :554 ( 1940 ) MATTHE WS :28 ( 1990 ) COLLON :239 ( 1988 ) B umabu r ia sh I Ma rduk -T B umabu r ia sh

7 57 . DEC254 WARD :537 ( 1910 ) M .ATTHE WS :37 ( 1990 ) S hama sh -D

7 72 . CBS3045 MATTHE WS :60 ( 1992 ) K ur ig a lzu 5

7 58 . NOVECK :31 ( 1975) MATTHE WS :42 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D

7 73 . WG85 BLE IBTRAU :85 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :29 ( 1990 )

7 59 . CBS6743 MATTHE WS :29 ( 1992 ) L EGRAIN :565 ( 1925) G u la -D G u la -T Ma rduk -T

7 74 . CBS3127 M .ATTHE WS :59 ( 1992 ) 7 75 . DNM8603 RAVN :85 ( 1960 ) MATTHE WS :125 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D S in -T

7 60 . C INQ425 S PELEERS :425 ( 1917 ) MATTHE WS :46 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D N inu r ta -T

7 44 . ASH1969 .353 MOOREY & GURNEY :36 ( 1978 ) MATTHE WS :44 ( 1990 ) N in shubu r -D

7 61 . BM89128 VANBUREN :P I .L2 ( 1954 ) MATTHE WS :34 ( 1990 ) COLLON :238 ( 1988 ) S har na sh -D

7 45 . UM29 -15 -3 MATTHE WS :35 ( 1992 ) E n l i l -T

7 76 . W ARD :542 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :25 ( 1990 ) Amu r ru -D N ineg a l -D

7 86 . CBS6747 L EGRA IN :556 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :32 ( 1990 ) M a rduk -D 7 87 . CBS8973 L EGRA IN :547 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :31 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 7 88 . MLC P ORADA :575 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :22 ( 1990 ) WARD :537A ( 1910 ) Ma rduk -T Ma rduk -T Ma rduk -D G u la -D 7 89 . CBS9098 L EGRA IN :546 ( 1925 ) MATTHE WS :24 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D 7 90 . A SH 1889 .364 BUCHANAN :559 ( 1966 ) MATTHE WS :16 ( 1990 ) N ing iz z id a -D

7 62 . NE WELL OSTEN :270 ( 1934 ) Ma rduk -D

7 77 . CARNEGIE CARNEG IE :QE i41 ( 1908 ) MATTHE WS :33 ( 1990 ) N az i -Maru t ta sh N az i - Maru t tash

7 91 . COLLON :653 ( 1988 ) MATTHE WS :126 ( 1990 ) WARD :536 ( 1910 ) N abu -T S ham a sh -D Amu r ru -D

7 46 . VA723 MOORTGAT :553 ( 1940 )

7 63 . MAZDA L I MET :3 ( 1978 -79 )

7 78 . CBS 1455 MATTHE WS :62 ( 1992 )

7 92 . WARD :515 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :23 ( 1990 )

7 47 . BUCHANAN :819 ( 1981) E a -D

7 64 . BM89240 WARD :535 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :35 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D

7 79 . BM89015 VANBUREN :P 11 :3 ( 1954 ) MATTHE WS :17 ( 1990 )

7 48 . CUGN IN55 LEGRA IN :55 ( 1911) I s h ta ran -D 7 49 . MAZDA L I MET :2 ( 1978 -79 ) Ma rduk -D S hamash -T 7 50 . CARNEGIE CARNEGIE :QB38 ( 1908 ) S hamash -D 7 51 . S CHE IL :26 ( 1916 ) U ra sh -D S ha rnash -D 7 52 . A04456 DEL :A606 ( 1923) MATTHE WS :38 ( 1990 ) COLLON :550 ( 1988 ) Ku r ig a lzu I Ku r iga lzu 7 53 . DEC255 LANGDON :14 ( 1919 ) N in shubu r -D N inshubu r -T S ukka l -T 7 54 . CBS3098 MATTHE WS :32 ( 1992 ) Gu la -D A nu -D 7 55 . CBS3126 MATTHE WS :33 ( 1992 )

K ur ig , a lm I S umugan -D Mad -T 7 93 . CBS3116

7 80 . 2D213 MATTHE WS :17 ( 1992 ) MATTHE WS :48 ( 1990 ) Mad -D S ha la -D

7 65 . CBS8972 L EGRA IN :545 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :39 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D S i n -D N inshubu r -T

7 81 . BN298 DEL :298 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :18 ( 1990 ) S u rnugan -D

7 66 . LAMBERT :F ig .2 ( 1970 ) MATTHE WS :45 ( 1990 ) K u r ig a lzu N inu r ta -D K u r ig a lzu

7 82 . CBS8250 LEGRA IN :554 ( 1925 ) MATTHE WS :19 ( 1990 ) MATTHE WS :63 ( 1992 )

7 67 . N 1702 MATTHE WS :38 ( 1992 )

7 83 . CBS3015 MATTHE WS :61 ( 1992 )

7 68 . A0 14028 AMIET :456 ( 1973 ) MATTHE WS :41 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -T N u ska -D S adamunna -D

MATTHE WS :20 ( 1990 ) N az i - Ma ru t ta sh 4 K ada shman -En l i l Ku r ig a lzu Nu ska -D S ha r r a t -N ippu r -D

7 69 . CBS6740 L EGRA IN :563 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :40 ( 1990 ) MATTHE WS :31 ( 1992 ) N inu r ta -D

7 84 . CBS 1 4247 L EGRA IN :552 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :47 ( 1990 )

G u la -D

MATTHE WS :16 ( 1992 ) K u r ig a lzu

7 70 . HER M6516 L IMET :5 .11 ( 1971) MATTHE WS :27 ( 1990 ) C r u la -D

7 85 . CBS6729 L EGRA IN :557 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :21 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

9 2

MATTHE WS :18 ( 1992 ) K ad a s lunan lEnl i l l K ada shman [ ] 7 94 . MLC PORADA :569 ( 1948 ) N e rg a l -D 7 95 . CBS7242 MATTHE WS :48 ( 1992 ) N az i -M a ru t t ash 1 0 K u r ig a lzu 7 96 . I NV1928 / 12687 VOLLEN WE IDER :53 ( 1967 ) A dad -T Ma rduk -D Ma rduk -T Mad -D I s h ta r -D 7 97 . WOODBROOKE LAMBERT :F ig .1 ( 1970 ) MATTHE WS :113 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D Ad ad -T 7 98 . GU IMET 94 DEL :94 ( 1 909 ) Ma rduk -D 7 99 . NE WELL OSTEN :275 ( 1934 ) E n l i l -D 8 00 . W ARD :533 ( 1910 )

8 01 . F R IB99 COLLON :245 ( 1 988 ) MATTHE WS :112 ( 1990 ) S i n -D 8 02 . DEC265 LANGDON :25 ( 1919 ) N inmah -D 8 03 . BM89252 MATTHE WS :109 ( 1990 ) 8 04 . NUZ I PORADA :684 ( 1947 ) MA TTHE WS :116 ( 1990 ) 8 05 . DEC251 DOLCE :1 ( 1986 ) 8 06 . DEC252 DOLCE :2 ( 1986 ) 8 07 . N235I DOLCE :7 ( 1 986 ) M ATTHE WS :115 ( 1990 ) 8 08 . BN300 DEL :300 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :110 ( 1990 ) W ARD :530 ( 1910 ) Ma rduk -D L am a -T 8 09 . VA4879 MOORTGAT :552 ( 1940 ) M ATTHE WS :117 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 10 . A01167 DEL :A602 ( 1923) Mu -D E n l i l -D E a -D 8 11 . DEC256 MATTHE WS :127 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 12 . SCHE IL :V ,p . 149 ( 1925) S a rpan i t -D 8 13 . CBS14262 LEGRA IN :541 ( 1925 ) Gu la -D 8 14 . MLC PORADA :580 ( 1948 ) Ma rduk -D S in -D 8 15 . NOUGAYROL :2 ( 1966 ) Mad -D 8 16 . WILCKE ,p .71 ( 1977 ) Ma rdu l c -D 8 17 . MLC PORADA :581 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :143 ( 1990 ) 8 18 . LBAF428

8 21 . P R INCETON W ARD :517 ( 1910 ) Marduk -T Ma rduk -T L ug a lbanda -D N in s tm -D 8 22 . MAH19356 VOLLEN WE IDER :55 ( 1967 ) MATTHE WS :180 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D N abu -D N in tut a -D Gu la -D B aba -D N inu r ta -D N ing e sh t in -D 8 23 . VAT14465 MOORTGAT :2 ( 1944 ) MATTHE WS :184 ( 1990 ) 8 24 . UM29 -13 -971 MATTHE WS :174 ( 1992 ) N az i - Ma ru t t a sh 1

8 20 . BM 102505 MATTHE WS :185 ( 1990 )

8 55 . ASH1969 .1196 MOOREY & GURNEY :39 ( 1978 ) MATTHE WS :154 ( 1990 )

8 36 . I M21089 GORDON :28 ( 1941) MATTHE WS :155 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

8 56 . CBS3135

8 37 . CBS3657 L EGRA IN :569 ( 1925 ) MATTHE WS :156 ( 1990 ) N az i - Mar teash 4 N in sa r -D

8 57 . CBS3053 MATTHE WS :150 ( 1990 ) MATTHE WS :155 ( 1992 ) Naz i - Ma ru t t a sh 1

8 25 . CBS3058 MATTHE WS :173 ( 1992 ) K ada shman -Tu rgu 1 4

8 39 . J BLM430 COLLON :241 ( 1988 ) MATTHE WS :164 ( 1990 )

8 59 . CBS7294 LEGRA IN :539 ( 1925) MATTHE WS :141 ( 1990 )

8 4 1 . VA 531 MOORTGAT :559 ( 1940 ) MATTHE WS :166 ( 1990 )

8 27 . VA6935 MOORTGAT :556 ( 1940 ) MATTHE WS :193 ( 1990 ) COLLON :244 ( 1988 ) T a shme tum -D N abu -D

8 42 . I M51927 MATTHE WS :157 ( 1990 ) 8 43 . I NV1948 / 18734 VOLLEN WE IDER :66 ( 1967 ) MATTHE WS :170 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

8 28 . BN299 DEL :299 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :192 ( 1990 ) WARD :541 ( 1910 ) Ma rduk -D

8 44 . AMIET :3 ( 1957 ) 8 45 . MLC PORADA :587 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :168 ( 1990 )

8 29 . U 16127 L EGRA 1N :578 ( 1951) MATTHE WS :191 ( 1990 )

8 46 . DNM 10023-46 RAVN :109 ( 1960 ) MATTHE WS :173 ( 1990 )

8 30 . FN194 PORADA :32 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :188 ( 1990 ) COLLON :243 ( 1988 ) N in l i l -D E n l i l -D N i tunah -D

8 47 . CARNEGTE CARNEG IE :QC10 ( 1908 ) MATTHE WS :171 ( 1990 ) 8 48 . A01159 DEL :A695 ( 1923 ) MATTHE WS :172 ( 1990 )

8 31 . FN193 PORADA :33 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :189 ( 1990 ) I s h ta r -D

8 49 . VAT 15475 MOORTGAT :3 ( 1944 ) MATTHE WS :174 ( 1990 ) 8 50 . 1 4N 117 G IBSON :F ig .21 ( 1983) MATTHE WS :175 ( 1990 ) MATTHE WS :172 ( 1992 )

8 32 . FN 187 P ORADA :29 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :186 ( 1990 )

PORADA :3 ( 1952 ) MATTHE WS :163 ( 1990 ) MATTHE WS :161 ( 1992 )

8 58 . GURNEY :9 ( 1974 ) MATTHE WS :134 ( 1990 ) N ing a l -D

8 40 . BERAN :F ig .12 ( 1957 -58 ) MATTHE WS :162 ( 1990 )

8 26 . P IER6388 ME I JER :37 ( 1978 ) MATTHE WS :187 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

Ma rduk -D

8 38 . GURNEY :69 ( 1974 ) MATTH _E WS :165 ( 1990 )

B umabu r ia sh H A dad -T Ma rduk -T B umabu r ia sh

N in l i l -D 8 60 . FN198 PORADA :26 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :130 ( 1990 ) COLLON :240 ( 1988 ) B u rnabu r ia sh I Ma rduk -T B umabu r ia sh 8 61 . BERAN :F ig .21 ( 1957 -58 ) MATTHE WS :136 ( 1990 ) 8 62 . ASH1949 .899 BUCHA .NAN :562 ( 1966 ) MATTHE WS :135 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 63 . FN215 PORADA :28 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :137 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 64 . FN 19 1 PORADA :27 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :129 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 65 . IM87846 M ATTHE WS :145 ( 1992 ) 8 66 . MLC PORADA :586 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :140 ( 1990 ) 8 67 . T S80 /253 BOEHMER :19 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :152 ( 1990 ) COLLON :960 ( 1988 ) Ma rduk -D 8 68 . BN301 DEL :301 ( 1910 ) MATTHE WS :139 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 69 . COLLON :242 ( 1988 )

8 33 . WAG42 .490 GORDON :32 ( 1939 )

8 51 . BM89091 MATTHE WS :176 ( 1990 )

M ATTHE WS :144 ( 1990 ) 8 19 . BM122553 WOOLLEY :U12688 ( 1965) MATTHE WS :190 ( 1990 ) Ku r ig a lzu S hama sh -D

8 35 . VAT15466 MOORTGAT :1 ( 1944 ) MATTHE WS :182 ( 1990 ) K ad ashman -Tu rgu K ada shm an -Tu rgu

8 34 . CBS3033 BERAN :F ig .11 ( 1957 -58 ) MATTHE WS :195 ( 1990 ) MATTHE WS :188 ( 1992 )

8 52 . BM89214 MA TTHE WS :177 ( 1990 ) 8 53 . BORO WSK I :3 ( 1952 ) M .ATTHE WS :178 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D

K u r ig a lzu I 1 8 S hama sh -T Nu ska -D K ur ig a lzu

8 54 . I M 13839 MATTHE WS :179 ( 1990 )

9 3

MATTHE WS :138 ( 1990 ) PORADA :31 ( 1981) Ma rduk -D 8 70 . T S705 BOEHMER :2 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :132 ( 1990 ) 8 71 . VAT 1 6390 MOORTGAT :33 ( 1944 ) MATTHE WS :149 ( 1990 )

8 72 . FN 197 PORADA :30 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :142 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 73 . BM22433 MATTHE WS :146 ( 1990 ) 8 74 . U 12691 LEGRA IN :607 ( 1951) MATTHE WS :147 ( 1990 ) Ku r ig a lzu 8 75 . MLC PORADA :593 ( 1948 ) MATTHE WS :148 ( 1990 ) 8 76 . D WF 1386 VOLLEN WE IDER :56 ( 1967 ) MATTHE WS :145 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D 8 77 . IM22450 VANBUREN :P 1 . 1 1 :10 ( 1954 ) MATTHE WS :133 ( 1990 ) 8 78 . CBS3349 COLLON :842 ( 1988 ) MATTHE WS :131 ( 1990 ) PORADA :P 1 .24 :5 ( 1952 ) Naz i - Maru tt a sh 2 3 8 79 . CBS 1105 MATTI IE WS :149 ( 1992 ) S hag a rak t i -Shur ia sh 1 N in l i l -D 8 80 . BM120949 COLLON :961 ( 1988 ) MATTHE WS :153 ( 1990 ) Ne rg a l -D 8 81 . MNB1907 DEL :A620 ( 1923 ) MATTHE WS :151 ( 1990 ) Ma rduk -D S hama sh -D 8 82 . FN208 PORADA :37 ( 1981) MATTHE WS :159 ( 1990 ) 8 83 . CBS3176 MATTHE WS :158 ( 1992 ) M ATTHE WS :161 ( 1990 )

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B IBL IOGRAPHY

A ndr a e , W . a nd J .J o rdan 1 934 " Abu H abbah -S ippa r " ,I raq 1 : 59 .

A bdu l lah , A .K . 1 967 " Th e P a ramoun t G od a nd t h e O ld N ame o f A l Dh ibai " . . S umer 2 3 :189 -92 .

A sad ,T a la l 1 979 " An th ropo logy a nd t h e Ana ly s i s o f I d eo logy " , Man 1 4 :4 :607 -627 .

A be rc romb ie ,N .S . a nd B .T u rn e r 1 980 T he D om inan t I d eo logy T hes is , G eo rg e Alen a nd U nw in ,L ondon .

A s tou r ,M ichae lC . 1 986 " Th e N am e o ft h e N in th K a s s i t e R u le r " , J ourna l o f t h e Amer ican O r ien ta lS oc ie ty 1 0 6 :327 -331 .

A dam s ,R obe r t McC . 1 965 L and B eh ind B aghdad :A H is tory o fS e t t l emen to ft h e D iya la P la ins , Un iv . o fC h icago P r e s s , C h icago .

B a che lo t ,L . 1 983 /84 " La r sa . L e s I r avaux d e l am i s s ion a r cheo log ique F ran ca i se ( 1 933 -1981 )" ,A rch iv f i r O r ien er schung 2 9 / 30 :167 171 .

1 972 " Se t t lemen t a nd I r r iga t ion P a t t e rn s i n An c ien t A k k ad " , i n McGu i r eG ib son , T he C i ty a nd A r ea o fK ish , A pp end ix 5 ,F i e ld R e sea rch P ro je c t s , C oconu t G rove , F lo r ida .

B a lk an ,K ema l 1 954 " Ka s s i t ens tud ien : D ie S p rach ed e rK a s s i ten " , Ame r i c an O r ien ta lS er ies 3 7( t ran s la t ed b yF .R . K rau s ) , N ew H av en .

1 981 H ea r t land o fC i t ies : S urvey s o fA nc ien t S e t t l emen t a nd L and U s e o n t h e C en t ra l F loodp la in o f t h e E uphra t es ,U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s , C h icago .

1 986 S tud ies i n B aby lon ian F eud a l ism o f t h e K a s s i t e P er iod , ( t ran s la t ion b y B . F o s t e r a nd D . G u ta s ) Monog raph s o n t h e Anc ien t N ea r E a s t , V o l . 2 , F a sc ic le 3 ,U nd ena P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu .

A dam s ,R ob e r t McC . a nd H an sN i s s en 1 972 T he U r uk C oun t ry s id e : T he N a tu ra lS e t t ing o fU r ban S oc ie t ies ,U n ive r s i ty o fC h icagoP r e s s , C h icago . A l 'Ada in i , KH . 1 967 " O ld B aby lon ian L e t te r s f r om e d -De r " , S ume r 2 3 : 1 51165 .

B a l le r in i ,F . 1 908 " An t ich i ta A s s i ro -Bab i lone s i n e l Mu seo C i r ico d i C omo " ,R ev i s ta D e lg i S tud iO r i en ta l i2 : 535 -57 1 .

A l -Ga i lan i We r r ,L am ia 1 965 " Te l le dh -Dh iba 'i " ,S umer 2 1 :33-40 .

B aq i r ,T aha 1 945 " I raq G ov er nm en t E xcava t ion s a tA ga r Q uf , S econd I n te r im R epor t 1 9431944" ,I r aq s upp lemen t .

1 978 " AN o te o n t h e S ea l I mp r e s s ion I M 5 2599 f r om T el H a r ing " ,J ourna lo fC une if o rm S t ud ies 3 0 :62 -4 .

1 946a " I r aq G ove rnmen t E xcava t ion s a tA ga r Q uf , T h i rd I n te r im R epo r t 1 944 1945" ,I r aq 8 : 73 -93 .

1 980 " Ch rono log ica lT ab le o fO ld B ab y lon ian S ea l I mp r e s s i on s " ,I n s t i tu t eo fArchaeo logy B u l l e t in 1 7 : 3-84 .

1 946b " Te l lH anna ' : AP r e l im ina ry R epor t " ,S ume r2 : 25 . 1 988 S t ud ie si nt h e C hrono logy a nd R eg iona lS t y l e o fO ld B aby lon ian C y l ind er S ea l s , B ib l io th eca Me sopo tam i c a , V o l .23 ,U nd ena P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu .

1 959 T e l l Ha rma l , D i re c to ra te G en e ra l o f An t iqu i t ie s , B aghdad ,I r aq .

A l -Ga i lan i We r r ,L .a nd W . a l Jad i r 1 981 " Sea lI mp r e s s ion sF rom S ippa r " ,S umer 3 7 : 1 29 144 .

B aq i r ,T aha a nd Mohammed A l i Mu s ta f a 1 945 " I raq G ov e rnmen tS ound ing sa tD e r " ,S umer 1 : 37 -54 .

A l thu s se r ,L ou i s 1 971 " Id eo logy a nd I d eo log ica l S t a t e A ppa ra tu se s " , i nL . A l thu s s e r , e d . , L en in a nd P h i losophy a nd O t he r E s say s , Mon th ly R ev iew P r e s s , NY ,p p .127 -86 .

B a r r e le t , Ma r ie T h e r e se ,e d . 1 980 L 'Arch d 'o log ie d e L' I raq : P er sp ec t iv e s e tL im i t e s d e L' I n t erp r e ta t ion A n thropo log ique d es D ocumen t s , C en t r eN a t iona ld el aR eche r ch eS c ien t if iqu e ,P a r i s .

Am ie t ,P i e r r e 1 957 " No t e sd e G lyp t ique O r ien ta le " , i nC ah ier sd eB y r sa , I mp r im e r ie N a t iona le ,P a r i s ,p p .23 -27 .

B a r r e t t , J . C . 1 987 " Con tex tua lA r chaeo logy " ,A n t iqu i ty 6 1 :468 -73 . B a tau l t ,H d lene 1 958 " Un S ceau -Cy l ind r e C a s s i te d u Mu sd ed 'A r te td 'H i s t o i r ed eG eneve " . G ena va 6 : 217 -221 .

1 973 B a sR e l ief s I mag ina ir es d e I' A nc ien O r ien t d ' ap ri s l e sC ache t se tl e sS ceaux -Cy l ind r e s ,P a r i s . 1 980 L a G lyp t ique M sopo tam ienne A r ch ique , 2 nd e d i t ion , P a r i s . 10

B eaud ry , Ma ry ,L au ren C ook , a nd S t ephen Mrozow sk i 1 991 " A r t if a c t s a nd A c t ive V o ic e s : Ma te r ia l C u l tu re a s

B oehme r ,R .M . , c on t . 1 981 " G lyp t ik d e r S pä ten K a s s i ten -Ze i t a u s d em N o rdö s t l i chen B aby lon ien " , B aghdad er M i t t e i lung en 1 2 :7 18 1 .

S o c ia l D i scou r se" , i n R . McGu i r e a nd R . P ayn te r , e d s . , T he A rchaeo logy o fI nequa l i ty , B a s i l B lackwe l l I n c . . Ox f o rd , p p .150 -191 .

B o is s ie r , A lf red B el , J ame sA . 1 992 " On C ap tu r ing Agency i nT heo r ie sA bou tP reh is to ry " , i n J -C . G a rd in a nd C . P eeb le s , e d s . , R ep resen ta t ions

1 912 N o t ice s ur O ue lques Monumen ts A s sy r iens a L 'U n i v er s iM d eZ ur ich , I mp r ime r ie A ta r , G eneve .

i n A rchaeo logy , I nd iana U n iv . P r e s s , B loom ing ton , p p .30 -55 .

1 932 " Documen t C a s s i te" ,R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e td ' Arc H o log ie O r ien ta le 2 9 :93 -104 .

1 994a " I n te rp re ta t ion a nd T e s tab il i ty i n T heo r ie s A bou t

B o rge r ,R yk le 1 958 " E in ig e a l tbaby lon i sch e K ön ig s in sch r i f ten a u s K ish " , O r ien ta l ia N .S . 2 7 :407 -408 .

P r eh i s to r ic T h ink ing " , i n C . R enf rew a nd E zra Z ub row , e d s . , T he Anc ien t M ind : E lemen t s o f C ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy , C amb r idge U n iv . P re s s , C amb r idge , p p .3-12 .

1 971 " Go t t Ma rduk u nd G o t t -Kön ig S hu lg i a l s P rophe ten " , B ib l io theca O r ien ta l is 2 8 :3 -24 .

1 994b R econs truc t ing P reh is to ry : S c ien t if ic Me thod i n A rchaeo logy , T emp le Un ive r s i ty P r e s s , P h i lad e lph ia .

B o row sk i , E . 1 952 " S iege l d e r S amm lung L aya rd " , O r ien ta l ia 2 1 :168 1 83 .

B e ran , T homa s 1 957 " A s sy r i sche G lyp t ik d e s 1 4 J ah rhund er t s" , Z e i t schr if t f ür A s sy r io log ie 1 8 :141-215 .

B one r° , J e an 1 952 L aR e l ig ion B aby lon ienne ,P a r i s .

1 957 -58 " D ie B aby lon i sche G lyp t ik d e r K a s s i tenze i t" , A rch iv f ür O r ien tf or schung 1 8 :255 -278 .

1 961 " De so rd re e cononüque e ta nnu l la t ion d e s d e t te s e n Me sopo tam ie a l ' epoque p a leo -baby lon ienne " , J our n a lo fE conom ic a nd S oc ia lH is to ry 4 : 113-64 .

B e rnha rd t , I . 1 976 S oz ia lokonom ische t e x t e u nd R ech t s -urkund e a us N ippur z ur Kas s i tenze i t ,B e r l in .

1 977 " L e sN oms d e Ma rduk , L 'Ec r i tu r e e tl a` Log ique ' e n Me sopo tam ie Anc ienne " , i n M . d e J ong E l l i s , e d . , E s say s o n t h e A nc ien t N ea r E as t i n Memory o fJ .J . F ink e l s te in , Memo i r s o ft h e C onnec t icu t A cademy o f A r t s a nd S c ience s 1 9 , A rchon B ook s , H amd en , C onn . , p p .5 -28 .

B inf o rd , L ew i s 1 962 -A r chaeo logy a s An th ropo logy " , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 8 :2 :217 -225 . 1 965 " A r cha eo log ica l S y s tema t ic sa nd t h e S tudy o fC u l tu ra l P ro c e s s " , Amer ican An t iqu i ty 3 1 :2 :203 -210 .

1 992 Mesopo tam ia : W r i t ing , R eason ing , a nd t h e G od s , t r an s la ted b yZ . B ah ran i a nd Ma rc V an D e M ie roop , Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s , C h icago .

1 972 A nA r chaeo log ica lP er spec t ive , S em ina rP r e s s , N .Y .

B o t te ro , J e an , E lena C as s in ,a nd J e an V e rcou t te r ,e d s . 1 967 T he N ear E a s t : T he E a r ly C iv i l iza t ions , D e lacor te

B lack , J e r emy a nd An thony G reen 1 992 G od s , D emons a nd S ymbo l so fA n c ien t Mesopo tam ia :

P re s s , N ew Y o rk .

A n I l lus t ra ted D ic t iona ry , B r i t i sh Mu seum P re s s , L ondon .

B r inkman , J ohn A . 1 967 -69 " The N ame so ft h e L a s tE igh tK ing s o ft he K a s s i te D yna s ty " , Z e i t schr if t f ür A s sy r io log ie 5 9 ( NF25 ) :

B le ib t rau ,E r ika , e d . 1 981 R o l l s iege l a us d em V ord er en O r ien t : Z ur S t e in s chne id ekuns t z w ischen e twa 3 200 u nd 4 00 v or C hr is tus n ach B es tänd en i n W ien a nd G ra z ,

2 31-246 . 1 969 " R ev iew o fL . Wooley ( 1965 ) U r : T he Kas s i t eP er iod a nd t h e P er iod o ft h e A s sy r ian K ing s " , O r ien ta l ia

E xh ib i t ion C a ta log , V ienna .

3 8 :310 -348 .

B öh l , F r anz M . T h . 1 936 /37 " D ie f inf z ig N amen d e s Ma rduk " , A rch iv f ir

1 970 " No te s o n Me sopo tam ian H is to ry i n t he T h ir te en th

O r ien or schung 1 :191-218 .

C en tu ry B .C ." ,B ib l io theca O r ien ta l is 2 7 :301-314 . B oehme r ,R a ine r Michae l 1 972 " Fo re ign R e la t ion s o fB aby lon ia 1 600 B .C .-625 B .C . . t h e D ocumen ta ry E v id ence " , Amer ican J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 7 6 :27 1-281 .

1 975 " G lyp t ik v on d e r A l t - b i s Z u r S pä tbaby lon ischen Z e i t " , i n W . O r thmann , e d . , D er A l t e O r ien t , P ropy läen Kun s tge sch ich te 1 4 , B e r l in .

11

B r inkman , J . ,c on t .

C a lve t , Y ve s 1 983 " L e S ondag e P rof ond e n Y2 7 ( 1 981)" , i nJ e an L ou is H uo t , e d . , L ar sa e t ' Oue i l i : T ra vaux d e 1 978 -1981 ,

1 974 " The Mona rchy i nt h e T ime o ft h e Ka s s i te D yna s ty " , i n P . G a r e l l i , e d . , L e P a la is e t l a R oyau t e , a rche o log ie e t c i v i l isa t ion , X IXdme r encon t re a s sy r i -

E d i t ion s R eche rche s u r l e s C iv i l isa t ion s , Mdmo i re N o .26 . P a r i s , p p .15 -69 .

o l og ique .P a r i s , p p .395-408 . 1 976 Ma t er ia l s a nd S tud ies f or K as s i t e H is tory , A C a ta l ogue o f C une if o rm S ource s P e r ta in ing t o S p ec if i c Mona r ch s o f t h e K a s s i te D yna s ty , V o l .1 , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o ft h e Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago . C h icago .

C a rneg ie , L ady H e lena , e d . 1 908 C a ta logue o ft h e C o l lec t ion o fA n t ique G ems f ormed

1 976 -80 " Ka s s i ten " , R ea l lex icon d er A s sy r io log ie 5 : 464 4 73 .

C ar te r , E l izab e th a nd M . S to lper 1 984 E lam :S ur vey so fP o l i t ica lH is tor ya nd A rchaeo logy ,

b y J ames N in th E ar l o f S ou thesk KT . , B e rna rd Q ua r i tch , L ondon .

P ub l ica t ion si nN ea rE a s te rn S t ud ie s , Un iv er s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia P re s s , B e rke ley .

1 981 " Th e Wes te rn A s ia t ic S ea l sf ound a tT hebe si n G reec e : AP re l im ina ry E d i t ion o ft h e I n sc r ip t ion s " . A rch iv f ir O r ien tf or schung 2 8 :73 -77 .

C a s s in , E lena 1 962 %In f luence B aby lon ienne äN u z i" . J ourna l o ft h e

1 983 " I s tanbu l A . 1 998 , M idd le B aby lon ian C h rono logy a nd t h e S t a t is t ic s o ft h e N ippu r A rch ive" . Z e i t schr if t f ür A s sy r io log ie 7 3 :64 -67 .

E conom ic a nd S oc ia l H is to ry o ft h e O r ien t 5 : 131 38 . 1 966 " Baby lon ien u n te r d en Ka s s i ten u nd d a s m i t t le re a s sy r i sche R e ich" ,F ischer W e l tg e sch ich te I I :9 -101 .

1 984 " Se t t lemen t S u rv ey s a nd D ocumen ta ry E v id enc e : R eg iona l V ar ia t ion a nd S ecu la r T rend i n Me sopo tam ian D emog raphy" , J ourna l o f N ear E as t ern S tud ies 4 3 :169 -180 .

C ha rp in , D om in ique 1 978a " R eche r che s s u r l a ` dyna s t ie d e Manana ' : e s sa i d e l o ca l i sa t ion e td e c h rono log i e " . R e vue d 'As sy r io log ie e td ' Archeo log ie O r ien ta le 7 2 :13-40 .

B ucce l la t i , G io rg io 1 984 " In t roduc t ion" , i n O l iv ie r R ouau l t , T erqa F ina l R epor t s N o .1 L 'Arch ive d e P uzurum , B ib l io theca Me sopo tam ica , V o l . Ma l ibu ,p p .v i i -xv i i i .

1 6 ,

U nd ena

1 978b " Nouveaux t ex te s d e l a ` d yna s t ie d e Manana ' R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e t d ' Archeo log ie O r ien ta le

P ub l ica t ion s ,

7 2 :139 - 1 50 . 1 979 " R ev iew o fS .S immon s , ( 1978 )E a r ly O ld B aby lon ian

1 988 " The K ingdom a nd P e r iod o f Khana" , B u l le t in o ft h e Amer ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR esearch 2 70 :43-61 .

D ocumen t s " , B ib l io theca O r ien ta l is 3 6 :188 -200 .

B uchanan , B r igg s

C ha rp in , D om in ique a nd J ean - Ma r ie D u rand

1 957a " On t h e S ea l I mp re s s ion s o n S ome O ld B aby lon ian T ab le t s " ,J ourna lo fC une if orm S tud ies 1 :45 -52 .

1 985 " La p r i se d u p ouvo i rp a r Z i rn r i -L im" , Mar i : A nna les d eR echerches I n t erd isc ip l ina ir es 4 : 293-343 .

1 957b " Fur the r Ob serva t ion o n t h e S y r ian G lyp t ic S t y le " , J ourna lo fC une if orm S tud ies 1 :74 -76 .

C h ipp enda le , C h r is tophe r 1 993 " Amb i t ion , D ef e r ence , D i sc r epancy , C on sump t ion : T he I n te l lec tua l B ackg round t o a P o s t -p roce s sua l A r chaeo logy " , i n N . Yof f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , e ds . , A rchaeo log ica l T heory : W ho S e t s t h e A g enda? , C amb r idg e Un iv . P r e s s , C amb r idg e ,p p .27 -36 .

1 960 " The C y l inde r S ea l s o ft he Y a le B aby lon ian C olec t i on " , T he Y a le U n iver s i ty L ibrary G aze t t e 3 5 : 2 3 -34 . 1 966 C a ta logue o fA nc ien t N ear E a s t ern S ea l s i n t h e A shmo l ean Museum , V o l . I : C y l inde r S ea ls , Ox f o rd .

C lay , A lbe r tT . 1 906 D ocumen t s f rom t h e T emp l e A rch ives o f N ippur Da t ed i n t h e R e igns o f C a s s i t e R u lers , T h e B aby -

1 970 " Cy l ind e r S ea l I mp re s s ion s i n t h e Y a le B aby lon ian C o l lec t ion I lus t ra t ing a R evo lu t ion i n A r t , c . 1700 B .C ." , T he Y a le U n iver s i ty L ibra ry G aze t t e4 5 :53 -65 .

l on ian E xped i t ion o f t he Un iv . o f P enn . , S e r ie s A . C une if o rm T ex t sX IV ,P h i lad e lph ia . 1 912 P er sona l N ames f rom C une if orm I nscr ip t ions o ft h e

1 981 E ar ly N ea r E as t ern S ea l s i n t h e Y a le B aby lon ian

C as s i te P er iod , Y a le O r ien ta l S e r ie s I .N ew H aven .

C o l lec t ion , Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s , N ew H aven . C a ldwe l l , J o seph R .

C lay c l en , T im 1 989 A spec t s o ft h e E a r ly H is to ry o ft h e K as s i t es a nd t h e

1 959 " The N ew Ame r ican A rchaeo logy" , S c ience 1 29 : 3 03-307 .

12

A rchaeo log y

o f

( c .1 600 -1150 M ic rof i lm s ) .

B .C . ) ,

t h e

Ka s s i t e P h .D .

P er iod

T he s i s ,

i n

I raq

Ox f o rd

( BU

C oh en , R ona ld 1 988 " In troduc t ion " , i nR . C ohen a nd J .T o land , e d s . , S ta t e F orma t ion a nd P o l i t ica l L eg i t imacy , P o l i t ica l An -

D e lapo r te , L ou i s 1 909 C y l ind res O r ien taux , Am ia le s d u Mu see G u ime t 3 , P a r is .

t h ropo logy , V o l . V I , T r an sac t ion B ook s , Ox f o rd , p p .1-21 .

1 910 C a ta logue d es c y l ind res o r ien taux e t d es c ache t s a s sy ro -baby lon iens , p er ses e ts y ro -cappad oc iens d e

C ohen . R ona ld a nd J ud i th T o land , e d s . 1 988 S ta te F orma t ion a nd P o l i t ica l L eg i t imacy , P o l i t ica l An th ropo logy , V o l . V I , T ran sac t ion B ook s , Ox f o rd .

l aB ib l io theque N a t iona le ,P a r i s . 1 920 C a ta logue d es c y l ind res , c ache t se tp ier res g ra-v ees d es t y le o r ien ta le , Musee d uL ouv re . V oLLFou i l le se t

C o l lon , Dom in ique 1 975 T he S ea l I mp ress ions f rom T e l l A tchana/A la lakh ,

m is s ion s ,P a r i s . 1 923 C a ta logue d es c y l ind res , c ache t s e tp ier r es g ravees d e s t y l e o r ien ta le , Musee d u L ouvr e , V o lume I , A cqu is i t ion s , P ar i s .

A l te r O r ien t a nd A l te s T e s tam en t 2 7 , N euk i rchen V luyn . 1 981 " R ev iew o fE . P orada ( 1980 ) A nc ien tA r t i nS ea l s " , B ib l io theca O r ien ta l is 3 8 :690 -696 .

D e s ro che s , J . 1 979 A spec t s o ft h e S t ruc tur e o fD i lba t D ur ing t h e O ld B aby lon ian P er iod , Ann A rbo r , UM M ic rof i lm s .

1 982 C a ta logue o ft h e W es tern A s ia t ic S ea l s i nt h e B r i t ish Museum -Cy l ind er S ea l sI L A kkad ian -Pos tA kkad ian U rI IP er iod s , L ondon .

Dhorme , E . 1 949 L es R e l ig ions d eB aby lon ie e td ' As . sy r ie , P a r i s .

1 986 C a ta logue o ft h e W es tern A s ia t ic S ea l s i nt h e B r i t ish Museum -Cy l ind er S ea l s I I , I s in/Lar sa a nd O ld

D iakonof f , I .M . 1 969 " The R i se o ft h e D e spo t ic S t a te i nA nc ien t Me sopo t am ia" , i n I .M . D iakono f f , e d . , A nc ien t Mesopo -

B aby lon ian P er iod s ,L ondon .

t am ia , N auka P ub . H ou se , Mo scow , p p .173-203 .

1 988 F ir s t I mp res s ions : C y l ind er S ea l s i n t h e A nc ien t N earEa s t ,U n iv . o fC h icago P r e s s , C h icago .

1 971 " On t h e S t ruc tu re o f O ld B aby lon ian S oc ie ty " , i n H or s t K lenge l , e d . , B e i t räge z u r s oz ia len S t ruk tur

C olon , D . ,e ta l . 1 983 " Rev iew o fB . B uchanan ( 1981) E a r ly N ea r E as t ern

d es a l ten V ord eras ien , A kadem ie V e r lag , B e r l in , p p .15 -3 1 .

S ea l s i n t h e Y a le B aby lon ian C o l l ec t ion" , B ib l io t h eca O r ien ta l is 4 0 : 2 04 -210 .

D o lc e , R i ta 1 986 " Some R ema rk s Abou t aD is t inc t ive G roup o fK a s s i te

C onkey „ Ma rga re ta nd C h r i s t ine A H a s to rf , e d s . 1 990 T he U ses o fS ty l e i nA rchaeo logy , C amb r idg e Un iv .

G lyp t ic A r t" , i n M . K e l ly -Bu cc ela t i , e t a l . , e d s . , I ns igh t T hrough I mages , U nd ena P ub . , Ma l ibu , p p .7 1-78 .

P re s s , C amb r idg e . C on tenau , G eo rg e s 1 931 " Tex te s e t Monumen t s " , R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e t d 'Arch o log ie O r ien ta le 2 8 :27 -46 .

D onbaz , V ey se l 1 982 " AM idd le B aby lon ian L ega l D ocumen t R a i s ing P rob l em s i nK a s s i te C h rono logy " , J ourna l o fN ear E as t e rn S tud ies 4 1 :207 -12 .

1 954 E ver yday L if ei nB aby lon a nd A s sy r ia , L ondon .

D onbaz , V ey se la nd N orman Y of f e e 1 986 O ld B aby lon ian T ex t s F rom K ish C onserved i n t h e I s tanbu lA rchaeo log ica l Mus eums , B ib l io theca Me so -

C u r t is , J ohn , e d . 1 983 F if ty Y ear s o f Mesopo tam ian D iscovery , B r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nI r aq ,L ondon .

p o ta rn ica V o l .17 , Und ena P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu . D a l ley , S t ephan ie 1 984 Mar i a nd K a rana : T wo O ld B aby lon ian C i t ies ,

D o s s in , G eo rge s 1 938 " The m a r re d e Nabu" . R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e t d 'Arc Ho log ie o r ien ta le 3 5 :132 -135 .

L ongman .L ondon . D ai ley , S t ephan ie , J .H awk in s , a nd C . Wa lk e r 1 976 T he O ld B aby lon ian T ab le t sf rom T e l lR imah , B r i t i sh

1 958

S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nI r aq ,L ondon .

" L 'In sc r ip t ion d u S ceau -Cy l ind re C a s s i te MAH 1 9356" . G enava 6 : 223 -228 .

E a r le , T imo thy

D eC lercq . L ou i sa nd J . Menan t 1 888 C o l lec t ion D e C lercq -Ca ta logue m e thod ique r a i s onne , a n t iqu i tes a s sy r iennes I ,C y l ind res o r ien taux ,

1 990 " S ty le a nd I c onog raphy a s L eg i t ima t ion i n C omp lex C h iefdom s" . i n M . C onk ey a nd C .A . H a s to rf . e d s . . , T he U ses o fS ty le i nA rchaeo logy , C amb r idge Un iv . P res s , C amb r idg e . p p .73-81 .

P ar i s .

13

E a r le ,T .a nd R M . P r euc e l 1 987 " P ro ce s sua l A r chaeo logy a nd t h e R ad ica l C r i t iqu e" , C u r r en tA n th ropo logy 2 8 :501-38 .

F inegan ,J a ck 1 979 A rchaeo log ica l H is tory o ft h eA nc ien tM idd l e E a s t , We s tv iew P r e s s ,B ou ld e r , C o lo rad o .

E d za rd ,D .O . 1 957 D ie " Zw e i t eZ w ischenz e i t" B aby lon iens , H a r ra s sow i t z , W ie sbaden .

F ink e l s t e in ,J a cob J o e l 1 959 " The Y ea rD a te s o fS am sud i tana " ,J ourna lo fC une i f orm S t ud ies 1 3 :39 -49 .

1 960 " D ie B ez iehungen B aby lon ien s u nd Ä gyp ten s i nd e r m i t t e lbaby lon i s chen Z e i t i m d a s G o ld " , J ourna l o f t h e E conom ic a nd S oc ia l H is to ry o ft h e O r ien t 3 : 3 8 55 .

1 961 " Amm i saduqa 's E d ic t a nd t h e B aby lon ian ' Law

1 970 A l t baby lon ischen R ech t s - u nd V erwa l tungs urkund en a u s T e l l e d -De r i m I r aq Mus eum , B aghdad , V e r lag d e r B ay e r i s ch e A kad em ie d e r W i s sen s chaf ten , Mun ich .

C od e s ' " ,J ourna lo fC une if orm S t ud ies 1 5 :91106 . 1 966 " Th eG eneao logy o ft h eH anunu rab iD yna s ty " , J our n a lo fC une if orm S t ud ies 2 0 :95 118 . 1 972 L a t e O ld B aby lon ian Doc umen t s a nd L e t t e r s , Y a le O r ien ta lS e r ie s ME , Ya le U n iv . P r e s s ,N ew H aven . F lanne ry ,K en ta nd J oyc e Ma rcu s 1 976 " Fo rma t iv e O axaca a nd t h e Z apo t ec C o smo s" , Am e r ican S c ien t is t6 4 :4 :374 -83 .

E i le r s , W . 1 957 -58 " R ev iew o fK . B a lkan ( 1954 ) ` Ka s s i t en s tud ien ' " , A r ch iv f ür O r ien er s chung 1 8 :135 138 . E i s en ,G us tavu s 1 940 A nc ien t O r ien ta l C y l ind er s a nd O ther S ea l s w i th a D e s c r ip t ion o f t h e C o l l ec t ion o f Mr s . W i l l iam H . Moo r e ,O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion 4 7 , C h icago .

F oucau l t ,M iche l 1 972 T he A rchaeo lo gy o fK now l edg e , P an theon B ook s , N ew Y o rk

E h r ich ,R ob e r tW . ,e d . 1 992 C h rono log ie s i nO ld W or ld A rchaeo logy , V o l . I , 3 rd e d i t ion , Un iv . o fC h icago P re s s , C h icago .

F rank e ,J ud i th A . 1 977 " P r e sen ta t ion S c en e so ft h eU rI I / I s in -La r sa P e r iod " , i n McG . G ib son a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , S ea l s a nd S ea l ing , B ib l io the ca Me sopo tam ic a 6 ,U nd ena P ub . , Ma l ibu ,p p .61-66 .

F a rka s ,A .E . ,e ta l . ,e d s . 1 987 Mon s t er s a nd D emons i n t h e A nc ien t a nd Med ieva l W o r ld s , P aper sP r es en t ed i n Honor o f Ed i th P orada , P h i l ipp v on Z abe m , Ma inz .

F rank f o r t ,H en r i 1 936 P rog r es so ft h e W ork o ft h e O r ien ta lI ns t i tu t e i nI r aq 1 934 / 35 , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu t e C ommun ica t ion N o . 2 0 , U n iv .o fC h icago P re s s , C h icago .

F e ig in , S amu e l 1 955 " Th e D a t e L is t o f t h e B aby lon ian K ing S am su d i tana " , J ourna l o fN ea r E as t ern S t ud ie s 1 4 :3 :137 1 60 .

1 939 C y l ind er S ea l s : AD ocumen ta ry E s say o nt h eA r ta nd R e l ig ion o ft h eA nc ien tN ea rE a s t ,L ondon . 1 978 K ing sh ip a nd t h e G od s : A S t ud y o fA nc ien t N ea r E a s t e rn R e l ig ion a s t h e I n t eg ra t ion o fS oc ie ty a nd N a tur e , P ho en ix E d i t ion ( F i r s t e d 1 948 ) , U n iv . o f C h icago P re s s , C h icago .

1 979 L ega l a nd Adm in is t ra t ive T ex t s o f t h e R e ign o f S amsu i luna , Y a le O r ien ta l S e r ie s , B aby lon ian T ex t s , V o l .12 ,Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew H aven .

F rank f o r t ,H en r i ,T .J a cob sen , a nd C .P r eu s s e r 1 932 T e l lA sma ra nd K haf a jah : T he F i r s tS ea son ' s W o rk i n E shnunna 1 930 / 31 , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te C ommun i c a t ion s 1 3 , C h icago .

F e r ra ra , Ai . 1 977 " A K a s s i t e C y l ind e r S ea l f r om t h e A rab ian G u lf ' , Ame r ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R es ea rch , B u l l e t in 2 25 :69 . F igu l la ,H ugo H e in r ich 1 914 V o rd e ras ia t ische S chnf id enk rna l er , T ab le t s i n t h e C o l lec t ion so ft h eS t aa t l ich e Mu seen ,B e r l in .

F rank f o r t ,H en r i , S e ton L loyd , a nd T ho rk i ld J acob s en 1 940 T he G im i l s in T emp l e a nd t h eP a lac e o ft h eR u l e r sa t T e l lA sma r , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu t e P ub l ica t ion 4 3 , U n iv . o fC h icago P r e s s , C h icago .

1 967 O ld B aby lon ian Wad i tu ' R ecord s , C une if o rm T ex t s f r om B aby lon ian T ab le t s i nt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum 4 7 , L ondon .

F rank f o r t ,H .a nd HA . ,J ohn W i l son ,a nd T .J a cob sen 1 946 B ef o r e P h i lo sophy : T he I n t e l l ec t ua l Ad v en tu r e o f A nc ien t Man ,P engu in B ook s ,B a l t imo re , Ma ry land .

F igula ,H .H . a nd W .J . Ma r t in 1 953 L e t t e r sa nd D ocumen t so ft h e O ld B aby lon ian P e r iod ,

F r iedman ,J .a nd M .J .R ow land s ,e d s . 1 978 T he E vo lu t ion o fS oc ia lS y s t em s , U n iv . o fP i t t sbu rgh P r e s s ,P i t t sbu rgh .

U rE xcava t ion T ex t sV ,B r i t i sh Mu seum ,L ondon a nd U n ive r s i ty Mu seum ,P h i lad e lph ia . 14

G ib son , M . , c on t . 1 978 " N ippu r 1 975 : A S umma ry R epo r t" , S umer 3 4 :114 1 21 .

G add , C .J . 1 973 " Hammu rab i a nd t he E nd o f H i s D yna s ty " , C am b r idge A nc ien tH is to ry , V o l .2 , P t .1 , 3 rd E d . , p p .176 2 27 .

1 980 " Cu r r en t R e sea rch a tN ippu r : E co log ica l . A n th ropo 1 975 " A s sy r ia a nd B aby lon c . 1370 1300 B .C ." , C ambr idge

l og ica l a nd D ocumen ta ry I n te rp lay " , i n M .T . B a r r e le t , e d . , L 'Archiv log ie d e L ' I raq : P er spec t ives e t L im i t es d e L ' In t erpre taf ion A n thropo log ique d es

A nc ien tH is tory , V o l .2 , P t .2 , 3 rd E d i t ion , p p .21-48 . C .J . a nd L .L eg ra in

Documen t s , C en t re N a t iona l S c ien t if ique , P a r i s , p p .193 -205 .

1 928 T he R oya lI nscr ip t ions , U rE xcava t ion T ex t sI .B r i t ish Mu seum , L ondon a nd Un ive r s i ty Mu seum , P h i lade lph ia .

d e

l a

R eche rche

1 983 " The S ou the r nC or n e r o fN ippu r : E xcava t ion s D u r ing t h e 1 4 th a nd 1 5 th S ea son s " ,S umer 3 9 :170 -190 .

G a rd in , J e an -C laud ea nd C hr is tophe rP eeb le s ,e d s . 1 992 R epr e sen ta t ions i nA rchaeo logy , I nd iana Un ive r s i ty

G ib son , McG . a nd R ober tD . B igg s , e d s . 1 977 S ea l s a nd S ea l ing i n t h e A nc ien t N ear E a s t , B ib l io -

P r e s s ,B loom ing ton .

t h eca Me sopo tam ica , V o l .6 , U ndena P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu .

G e lb , I . 1 954 " Two A s sy r ian K ing L i s t s" , J ourna l o fN ea rE as tern S tud ies 1 3 :209 -30 .

1 987 T he O rgan iza t ion o fP ower : A spec t s o fB ureaucracy i nt h eA nc ien tN ear E as t , S tud ie s i nA nc ien tO r ien ta l

1 955 " The N ame o fB aby lon " , J ou rna l o ft h e I ns t i tu te o f A s ian S tud ies 1 : 1-4 .

C iv i l iza t ion N o .46 , T he O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o f t h e Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago , C h icago .

1 969 " On t h e A l leged T emp le a nd S t a te E conom ie s i n Anc ien t Me sopo tam ia" , i nS tud i i nO nore d iE d oardo V o l t er ra ,V 0 1 .6 :137 -54 .

G ib son , McGu i r e , J .F rank e , e ta l . 1 978 E xcava t ions a tN ippur : T we lf th S ea son , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te C ommun ica t ion s N o .23 , U n iv . o f P re s s , C h icago .

G enou i l lac , H en r id e 1 924 -25 P rem i iwes R echerches A rc Uo log iques ä K ich : M iss ion d 'H enr i d e G enou i l lac 1 911 -1912 , V o l . 1 : R appo r t s u r l e s t r avaux e t i nven ta i re s , f a c s inü ld s ,

C h icago

G oed ick e , H an sa nd J . J . R ob er t s , e d s . 1 975 U n i ty a nd D iver s i ty : E s say si nt h eH is tory , L i tera tur e , a nd R e l ig ion o ft h eA nc ien tN ea rE a s t , J ohn H opk in s Un ive r s i ty P re s s , B a l t imo re .

d e s s in , p ho tog raph ie s e t p lan s . V o l .2 : N o te s a r chdo log ique s e ti nven ta i re s , f a c s inü lds , d e s s in s e t p ho tog raph ie s . L ib ra ir ie a nc ienne E doua rd

G o e tze , A lb r ech t 1 950 " Sumu -yamu tba l , aL oca lR u le ro ft h eO ld B aby lon ian P e r iod " ,J ourna lo fC une if orm S tud ies 4 : 65 -72 .

C hamp ion , P ar i s . G eo rg e , A . 1 985 -86 " Th e T opog raphy o f B aby lon R econ s ide red " , S umer 4 4 :7 -24 .

1 951 " The Y ea r N ame s o f A b ieshuh " . J ourna l o fC une i f orm S tud ies 5 : 98 -103 . 1 952 " The D a te o ft h eH i t t i t e R a id o nB aby lon " . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o fO r ien ta l R esea rch 1 27 :212 6 .

G ibbon . G uy 1 989 E xp lana t ion i n A rchaeo logy , B a s i l B lackwe l l L td . , Ox f o rd .

1 957a " O ld B aby lon ian D ocumen t s f r om S ippa ri nt h e C o l l e c t ion o f t h e C a tho l ic Un ive r s i ty o f Ame r ica" , J ourna lo fC une if orm S tud ies 1 :15-42 .

G ib son , McGu i r e 1 972a T he C i ty a nd A r ea o fK ish , F ie ld R e sea rch P ro jec t s , C oconu tG rove ,M iam i .

1 957b " On t h eC h rono logy o ft h e S econd M i l lenn ium BC" , J ourna lo fC une if orm S tud ies 1 :63-73 .

1 972b " The A r chaeo log ica lU se s o fC une if o rm D ocumen t s : P a t ter n s o f O ccupa t ion a t t h e C i ty o f K ish " . I raq 3 4 :113 -123 . 1 974 " V io la t ion o f F a l low a nd E ng inee red D i sa s te r i n

1 957c " Tex t s a nd F ragmen t s " . J ourna lo fC une if orm S tud i e s 1 :77 -8 .

Me sopo tam ian C iv i l iza t ion " , i n T .E . D own ing a nd M . G ib son , e d . , I r r iga t ion ' sI mpac t o n S oc ie ty . Un iv . o fA r izon aP re s s , T uc son , pp . 7 19 .

1 964 " The K a s s i te sa nd N ea rE a s tern C h rono logy " ,J ourna l o fC une if orm S tud ies 1 8 :97 -101 . G of f . B ea t r ice L . 1 963 S ymbo l so fP reh is tor ic Mesopo tam ia , Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s . N ew H a ven .

1 977 " Summa t ion" , i n McG . G ib son a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , S ea l s a nd S ea l ing , B ib l io theca Me sopo ta in ica 6 , U ndena P ub l ica t ion s . Ma l ibu , p p .147 -153 .

15

H a r r i s ,R . ,c on t . 1 963 " The O rgan iza t ion a nd Adm in is t ra t ion o ft h eC lo i s te r i n Anc ien t B aby lon ia" , J our na l o fE conom ic a nd S oc ia lH is to ty 6 : 121-57 .

G o rdon , C y ru sH . 1 939 "W e s t e rn A s ia t ic S ea l s i n t h e Wa l t e r s A r t G a l le ry " , I r aq 6 : 3 -34 . 1 941 T he L iv ing P as t ,T h eJ ohn D ay , C o . ,N ew Y o rk

1 968 " Som e A sp e c t s o f t h e C en t r a l iza t ion o f t h e R ea lm U nd e r H ammu rap i a nd H i s S u cc e s so r s " , J ourna l o f t h e Amer ican O r ien ta lS oc ie ty 8 :727 -732 .

1 953 " Nea r E a s te rn S ea l s i n P r in ce ton a nd P h i lade lph ia " , O r ien ta l ia NS 2 2 :242 -250 .

1 975 A nc ien t S ippa r : A D emog raph ic S tud y o fa n O ld B aby lon ian C i ty 1 894 -1595 B .C . , N ed e r land sH i s to r i s ch -a r cha eo log i sch I n s t i tuu t ,I s tanbu l .

1 986 " Fu r the r I nve s t iga t ion o ft h e Me thod o f Manuf a c tu r e o fa nA nc ien tN ea rE a s te rn A r t i f ac t " ,I raq 4 8 :15 18 . G ray son ,A lbe r tK i rk 1 972 A s sy r ian R oya lI n sc r ip t ion s , w i t z , W ie sbad en .

V o l . ! ,

O t to H a r r a s so -

H ay s ,K eley A nn 1 993 "When i s aS ymbo l A rcha eo log ica l ly Mean ing f u l? ' Mean ing , F unc t ion , a nd P r eh i s to r i c V i sua l A r t s " , i n N . Y of f e e a nd A . S he r r a t t , e d s . , A rchaeo log ica l T heo ry : W ho S e t s t h e Ag end a? , C amb r idg e U n iv . P r e s s , C amb r idg e ,p p .81-92 .

1 975 A s sy r ian a nd B aby lon ian C hron ic l es , T ex t s f r om C un e if o rm S ou r ce s ,L ocu s tV a l ley , NY . 1 987 A s sy r ian R u l er so ft h e T h ird a nd S econd M i l l enn ium B .C . ( l b 115 B .C . ) ,T he R oya lI n s c r ip t ion so f Me so p o tam ia , A s sy r ian P e r iods , V o l . 1 , Un iv . o fT o ron to P r e s s ,T o ron to .

H emp e l , C a r l 1 966 P h i losophy o fN a tura lS c ience , P r en t ic e -H i l l , E ng le w ood C l if f s ,N J . H e rzf e ld ,E rn s t 1 937 " D ie K un s td e s Zwe i ten J ah r tau send si nV o rd e ra s ien , IT e i l " , A rchaeo log ische M i t t e i lung en a u s I ran 8 : 103 170 .

G u rney ,O l ive rR . 1 949 " Tex t sf r om D u r -Ku r ig p l7u " ,I r aq 1 :133 -5 . 1 955 " Baby lon ian P rophy lac t ic F igu r e sa nd T he i rR i tua l s " , A nna l so fA r chaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy 2 2 :31-96 .

1 938 " D ie K un s td e s Zw e i ten J ah r tau send si nV o rd e ra s ien , I T e i l " , A r chaeo log ische M i t t e i lung en a us I ran 9 : 1-79 .

1 962 " Tammuz R econ s id e red " , J ourna lo fS em i t ic S t ud ie s 7 : 147 -60 . 1 974 M idd l e B aby lon ian L ega l D oc umen t s a nd O the r T ex t s , U r E xcava t ion T ex t s V I I , B r i t i sh Mu s eum , L ondon .

Hi l l ,J ame s 1 994 " P r eh i s to r ic C ogn i t ion a nd t h e S c ienc e o f A r chae o l ogy " , i n C . R enf r ew a nd E z ra Z ub row , e d s . , T he A nc ien t M ind : E l emen t s o fC ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy , C amb r idg e Un iv .P re s s , C amb r idg e ,p p .83 -92 .

1 977 " I n sc r ibed C y l ind e r s a nd C yl ind e r F ragmen t s i nt h e A s luno lean Mus eum , Ox f o rd " , i nM . d e J ong E l l i s , e d . , E s say s o n t h eA nc ien tN ea r E a s t i n Memo ry o f J .J . F ink e l s t e in , Memo i r s o f t h e C onn ec t icu t A cad emy o f A r t s a nd S c ienc e s 1 9 , A r chon B ook s , H amd en , C onn . ,p p .93 -96 .

H odd e r , I a n 1 979 " Econom ic a nd S oc ia l S t r e s s a nd Ma t e r ia l C u l tu r e P a t te rn ing " , Amer ican An t iqu i ty 4 4 :446 -54 . 1 982a S ymbo l s i n A c t ion , C amb r idg e Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idg e .

H a l lo ,W i l l iam 1 959 " R ev iew o fD . E dza rd , ( 1957 ) D ie ' Zw e i t e Z w ischen z e i t 'B aby lon iens " ,B ib l io theca O r ien ta l is 1 6 :234 -38 .

1 982b ( e d . ) , S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc t ura lA rchaeo log y , C am b r idg eU n iv e r s i ty P r e s s , C amb r idg e .

1 964 " Th e R oad t o Ema r " , J ourna l o fC une if o rm S t ud ie s 1 8 :57 -88 .

1 982c " Theo r et i ca lA r chaeo logy : AR eac t iona ry V iew " , i n I a nH odd e r ,e d . ,S ymbo l ic a nd S t r uc tura lA r chae o l ogy ,C amb . U n iv . P r e s s , C amb r idg e ,p p .1 16 .

H a l lo ,W i ll iam W . a nd W i l l iam K . S imp son 1 971 T he A nc ien t N ea r E a s t , H a r cou r t B r ac e J ovanov ich , I n c . ,N ew Y o rk .

1 985 " Po s tp roce s sua l A r chaeo logy " , Ad vance s i nA rchae o l og ica l Me thod a nd T heor y8 : 1 -26 .

H a r r i s , R ivkah 1 960 " O ld B aby lon ian T emp le L oan s " , J ourna l o fC une i f orm S t ud ies 1 4 :126 132 .

1 987 ( e d . ) , T he A rchaeo logy o fC on t ex tua l Mean ing s , C amb r idge U n iv . P r e s s , C amb r idg e . 1 989 ( e d . ) , T he Mean ing s o fT h ing s : Ma te r ia l C u l tur e a nd S ymbo l ic E xp r es s ion , Unw in H yman L td . ,L ondon .

1 961 " On t h eP roce s so fS ecu la r iza t ion u nd e rH anunu r ap i" , J ou rna lo fC une if o rm S tud ies 1 5 :117 120 .

16

H odder , I . ,c on t . 1 990 " Po s t -P roces sua l A rchaeo logy : T he C u r ren t D eba te" , i nR .P reuce l , e d . , B e tween P a s t a nd P resen t : I s sues i n C on t emporary A rchaeo log ica l D iscour se , S ou th -

J a s t row , Mo r r i s , J r . 1 911 A spec t so fR e l ig ious B e l ief a nd P rac t ice i nB aby lon ia a nd A s sy r ia , B en jam in B lom , I n c . , N ew Y o rk . J ohn s , C .H .W . 1 910 " Baby lon " , P roceed ing s o f t h e S oc ie ty o fB ib l ica l

e rn I l ino i s Un iv . P r e s s , C a rbonda le .

A rchaeo logy 3 2 :272 -282 .

1 991a R ead ing t h e P a s t , 2 nd e d . , C amb r idg e U n iv . P re s s , C amb r idge .

1 911 " The Manana Iap ium D yna s ty a tK ish " , P roceed ing s o f t h eS oc ie ty o fB ib l ica lA rchaeo logy 3 3 :98 -103 .

1 991 1 2 " In te rp r e t ive A rchaeo logy a nd I t s R o le" , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 6 :7 -18 .

1 914 " Some B aby lon ian T ab le t s i nt h e Manche s te r Mu se um" , J ourna l o f t h e Manches ter E gyp t ian a nd

1 992 T heo ry a nd P rac t ice i n A rchaeo logy , R ou t ledg e ,

O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 3 :67 -72 .

L ondon . H ooke , S amue lH en ry 1 958 My t h , R i tua la nd K ing sh ip , C la r endon P r e s s , Ox f o rd _

J u s leson , J ohn S .a nd L au rence D . S t ephen s 1 994 " Va r ia t ion a nd C hang e i n S ymbo l S y s tem s : C a se S tud ie s i n E lam i te C une if o rm " , i n C . R enf rew a nd E z ra Z ub row , e d s . , T he A nc ien t M ind : E lemen ts o f

H o r sne l l , Ma lco lm 1 977 " Th e G ramma ra nd S yn tax o ft h e Y ea rN ame s o ft h e F i r s t D ynas ty o fB aby lon " , J ourna l o fN ear E a s t ern

C ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy ,

C amb r idge

Un iv .

P re s s ,

C amb r idge , p p .167 -175 .

S t ud ies 3 6 :277 -285 . 1 984 " Two N ew D a te -L is t s o ft h e F i rs t D yna s ty o fB aby l o n " , O r ien ta l ia 5 3 :19 -33 .

K ely -Bucce l la t i , Ma r i lyn 1 977 " Towa rd s t h e U se o fQ uan t i ta t ive Ana ly s i s i n Me so p o tam ian S ph rag i s t ic s" , Mesopo tam ia 1 2 :41-51 .

d e r

K e l ly -Bucce l la t i , M . a nd E .E ls te r 1 973 " S ta t i s t ic s i n A rchaeo logy a nd I t s App l ica t ion t o Anc ien t N ea r E as te rn D a ta " , i n G . B ucce l la t i , e d . ,

W i s sen schaf ten , P h i lo soph i sch -H i s to r i sch e K la s se , A bhand lungen ,N eue F o lge , H ef t8 7 , Mun ich .

G e lb V o lume : Approaches t ot h eS tudy o ft h eA nc ien t N ear E a s t , p p .195 -211 .

H ube r , P . J . , e ta l . 1 982 " A s t ronom ica l D a t ing o f B aby lon I a nd U r I I " ,

K e l ly -Bucce l la t i , M . , P . Ma t th iae , a nd M . v an L oon , e d s . 1 986 I ns igh t T hrough I mages : S tud ies i n Honor o f Ed i th

H rouda , B . 1 981 l s in I shan B ahr iya t I : D ie E rgebn is s e d er A usg ra b ungen

1 975 -1978 ,

B aye r is chen

A kad em ie

P orada , B ibl io theca Me sopo tnm ica , V o l .21 , Und ena

O ccas iona lP aper so nt h eN ea rE as t 1 / 4 , Ma l ibu .

P ubl ica t ion s , Ma l ibu . H uo t , J e an L ou i s , e d . 1 983 L a r sa e t ' Oue i l i : T ra vaux d e 1 978 -1981 , E d i t ion s R e che rche s u r l e s C iv i l isa t ion s , Mdmo i re N o .26 ,

K iena s t , B u rkha r t 1 978 D ie A l tbaby lon ischen B r ief e u nd U rkund en a us K is u r ra , F ranz S t e ine rV e r lag , W ie sbad en .

P a r i s .

K ing , L eona rd W i l l iam 1 907 C hron ic les C oncern ing E a r ly B aby lon ian K ing s , I n c l ud ing R ecord s o ft h e E ar ly H is tory o ft h e K ass i tes a nd t h e C oun t ry o ft h e S ea , V o l s . 1a nd 2 .L uzac a nd

J acob sen ,T ho rk i ld 1 960 " Th e Wa ter so fU r " ,I raq 2 2 :174 185 . 1 970 T oward s t h e I mage o fT ammuz a nd O ther E s say s o n Mesopo tam ian H is to ry a nd C u l tur e , e d . b y Wi l l iam Mo ran , H a rva rd S em i t ic S e r ie s , V o l .21 , H a rva rd

C o . , L ondon . 1 969 A H is tory o fB aby lon , 2 nd e d i t ion , AMS P re s s , N ew

U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idg e , Ma s s .

Y o rk ( O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished i n1 915 ) 1 976 T he T r easures o f Darknes s , Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re s s , 1 976 T he L e t ter s a nd I nscr ip t ions o f Hammurab i , K ing o f

N ew H aven .

B aby lon , a bou tB .C . 2 200 , V o l . I I I , AN IS P re s s , N ew Y o rk ( Rep r in ted f r om t h ee d i t ion o f1 900 )

1 987 " Me sopo tam ian R e l ig ion s " , i n R . S e l tze r , e d . , R e l i g ions o f An t iqu i ty , Macm ilan P ub l i sh ing C o . , N ew

K jaerum , F . 1 983 T he S tamp a nd C y l ind er S ea l s , F a i laka/D i lmun . T he S econd M i l l enn ium S e t t lemen t s , V o 1 . 1 / 1 , Moe sga rd .

Y o rk ,p p .3-33 . J a r i tz . K . 1 958 " Que l len z u r G esch ich t e d e r K a sh shu -Dynas t ie " , M i t t e i lungen d es I ns t i tu t s f ir O r ien tf or schung

K leng e l , H o r s t 1 978 Hammurap i v on B aby lon u nd s e ine Z e i t , A l tbaby -

6 : 187 -265 .

l on i sche R ech t sund Wir t sch af tkund en , B e r l in . 1 960 " D ie Ku l tu r r e s te d e rK a s s i ten " ,A n thropos 5 5 :17 -64 . 17

K leng e l -B r and t ,E ve lyn

L amb e r t ,W .G . ,c on t . 1 964 " Th eR e ign o fN ebu chadnezza rI :A T u rn ing P o in ti n t h e H is to ry o f An c ien t Me sopo tam ian R e l ig ion " , i n W .S . McCu l lough , e d . , T he S eed o fW isdom ,U n iv . o f T o ron to ,T o ron to ,p p .3 -13 .

1 986 " S ieg e lab rolung en a uf d e r A l tbaby lon i sch en T af e l VAT 7 12" , i n M . K e l ly -Buc cela t i , e t a l . , e d s . , I n s i gh tT hrough I mag es , Und ena P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu , p p .143 -148 . K oh l ,P h i l ip 1 993 " L im i t s t o aP o s t -P roc e s sua l A r chaeo logy ( o r , T h e D ang e r s o f aN ew S cho la s t ic i sm )" , i nN . Y of f e ea nd A . S h e r ra t t , e d s . , A rchaeo log ica l T heory : W ho S e t s t h e A g enda? , C amb r idg e U n iv . P re s s , C amb r idg e , p p .13 19 .

1 966 " Anc ien t N ea rE a s t e rn S ea l s i nB i rm ingham C o l lec t i on s " ,I r aq 2 8 :64 -81 . 1 970 " Ob jec t s I n sc r ibed a nd Un in s c r ib ed " , A rch iv f ü r O r i e n tf o r schung 2 3 :46 -51 . 1 97 3 " S tud ie s i n N e rgar , B ib l io theca O r ien ta l is 3 0 :5 -6 : 3 55 -363 .

K o ld ew ey ,R . 1 914 T he E x ca va t ions a tB aby lon ,L ondon .

1 974 " The H ome o ft h eF i r s t S ea land D yn a s ty" ,J ou rna lo f C une if orm S t ud ie s2 6 :208 -210 .

K r am e r , S amu e lN oah 1 960 " Sume ro -Akkad ian I n te r connec t ion s :R el ig iou sI d ea s " , G enava 8 : 272 -83 .

1 975a " Th e H is to r ica l D eve lopmen t o ft h e Me sopo tam ian P an th eon : AS tudy i n S oph is t ica t ed P o ly th e i sm " , i n H . G oed ick e a nd J . J . R ob e r t s , e d s . , U n i ty a nd D iver s i ty , J ohn H opk in s U n iv . P re s s , B a l t imo r e , p p .191-200 .

1 963 T he S umer ians ,U n ive r . o fC h icago P r e s s , C h icago . K rau s ,F .R . 1 951 " I s in a nd N ippu rn ach a l tbaby lon i sch en R e ch t su rkun d en " ,J ourna lo fC une if o rm S t ud ies 3 : 4 -45 .

1 975b " R ev iew o fH . L im e t( 1971 )L e sl e gend es d e ss c eaux c a s s i t es " ,B ib l io theca O r ien ta l is 3 2 :219 -223 .

1 952 -53 " I Cazalu u nd a nd e r e n o rdbaby lon i sch e K le in s t aa ten v o r d e r Z e i t d e s H anunu rab i" , A rch iv f ür O r ienq ör schung 1 6 :319 -322 .

1 976 " An O ld B aby lon ian L e t te r a nd T wo Amu le t s " , I r aq 3 8 :57 -64 .

1 954 " Le R o le d e s t emp le s d epu i s l a t r o i s ieme D ynas t ie d 'U r j u squ ' al a p r em ie r e d yna s t ie d e B aby lon e " , J ou rna lo fW or ld H is to ry 1 : 518 -45 ,

1 979 " Nea r E a s te rn S ea l s i n t he G u lb enk ian Mu seum o f O r ien ta lA r t , Un ive r s i ty o f Du rh am " ,I r aq 4 1 :1 -45 . 1 983 " No te s o n t h e C a s s i te -Pe r iod S ea l I n sc r ip t ion s f r om T heb e sa nd E l sewhe r e " ,O r ien ta l ia 5 2 :241-245 .

K r is t ian sen ,K r i s t ian 1 984 " I d eo logy a nd Ma te r ia l C u l tu re : An A rchaeo log ica l P e r sp ec t iv e" , i n M . S p r igg s , e d . , Ma rx is t P er spec t i v e s i nA rcha eo logy , C amb r idg e Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge ,p p .72 100 .

1 984 " S tud ie s i n Ma rduk " , B u l le t in o ft h e S choo l o fO r i e n ta la nd A f r ican S t ud ies 4 7 :1 :1-9 . L angdon , S t ephen 1 9 11 " Tab le t s f r om K i sh " , P roceed ing s o ft h e S oc ie ty o f B ib l ica lA rchaeo logy 3 :185 -196 ;2 32 -242 .

Kupp e r ,J e an -Robe r t 1 961 " L ' Iconog raph ie d ud i eu Amu r ru d an s l ag l yp t ique d e l a rd ynas t ie b aby lon ienne " , Memo ir es LV , n o .1 , A cad em ie r o ya le d eB e lg iqu e ,B ru ss e l s .

1 919 " I n sc r ip t ion s o n C a s s i te S ea l s " ,R e vue d 'As sy r io log ie e td ' Ar cheo log ie O r ien ta l e 1 6 :69 -95 .

1 963 " No r the rn Mesopo tam ia a nd S y r ia " , C ambr idge A n c i en tH is tory , r e v . e d . , V oL I I , C h . I I , C amb r idg e .

1 924 E xca va t ions a t K ish , V o l . 1 ,L ib ra i r ie O r ien ta l i s te P au lG eu t lu i e r ,P a r i s .

L a ch eman ,E .R . 1 950 E xcava t ions a t N u z i 5 : M isce l laneous T ex t s f rom N uz i , P a r t I : T he P a lace a nd T emp l e A rch ives , H a rva rd S em i t ic S e r ie s 1 4 , C amb r idg e , Ma s s .

1 927 " Tab le t s f ound i n Mound Z a tH u rugka lamma ( K i sh ) b yt h e H e rb e r t We ld ( f o r Ox f o rd ) a nd F ie ld Mu s eum E xped i t ion " , R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e td 'Archeo log ie O r ien ta le 2 4 :89 -98 .

L amb e r t ,W i lf r ed G . 1 957 " An ce s to r s , A u tho r s , a nd C anon ic i ty " , J ourna l o f C une if orm S tud ie s 1 :114 , 12 . 1 957 -58a " Th ree U npub l i shed F ragmen t s o f t h e T uku l t i N inu r ta E p ic " ,A rch iv f ür O r ien tf or schung 1 8 :38 -51 .

L a r sen , Mogen T role 1 977 " Sea l U s ei nt h eO ld A s sy r ian P e r iod " , i n McG . G ib s on a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , S ea l s a nd S ea l ing , B ib l i o theca Me sopo tam ica 6 , U nd en a P ub . , Ma l ibu , p p .89 105 .

1 957 -58b " R ev iew o fF .G ö s smann ( 1 956 ) Da sE raEpos " , A r ch iv f ü rO r ie r e r schung 1 8 :395 -401 .

L eeman s ,W .F . 1 950 T he O ld B aby lon ian Merchan t ,E . J .B r i l l , L e id en . 18

L eemans , W .F . ,c on t . 1 960a F or e ign T rad e i n t h e O ld B aby lon ian P er iod , L e id en .

L loyd , S e ton 1 940 " I raq G overnmen t S ound ing s a t S in ja r " , I r aq 7 : 13 2 1 . 1 984 T he A rchaeo logy o f Mesopo tam ia , R ev i sed E d i t ion ,

1 960b " The T r ade R e la t ion s o fB aby lon ia a nd t h e Que s t ion

T hame sa nd Hud son ,L ondon .

o fR e la t ion s w i th E g yp t i n t h e O ld B aby lon ian P e r i od " , J ourna l o ft h e E conom ic a nd S oc ia l H is tory o f t h eO r ien t3 : 21-37 . L eg ra in , L eon 1 911 C a ta logue d es C y l ind res O r ien taux d e l a C o l lec t ion L ou is C ugn in , L ib ra ir ie Anc ienne H ono ré C hamp ion

L yon , D av id G . 1 906 " The S ea l I mp r e s s ion s o n a n E a r ly B aby lon ian C on t r ac t ( Ha rva rd S em i t ic Mu seum , N o . 1 09 )" , J ourna l o ft h e Amer ican O r ien ta lS oc ie ty 2 7 : 1 35 -141 . Ma idman , M .P . 1 984 " Ka s s i te s Among t h e Hu r r ian s : A C a se S tudy f r om

P a r i s .

Nuz i" , B u l le t in o f t h e S oc ie ty f or Mesopo tam ian S tud ies O c t . 8 ,p p .15 -21 .

1 925 T he C u l ture o ft h eB aby lon ians f rom t h e ir S ea l si nt h e C o l l ec t ion o ft h e Museum , P ubl ica t ion s o ft h e B aby l on ian S ec t ion 1 4 , Un iv . o fP enn . ,P h i lade lph ia . 1 936 A rcha ic S ea lI mpres s ions , U r E xcava t ion s I I , P ub l i c a t ion so ft h eJ o in tE xped i t ion o ft h eB r i t i sh Mu seum a nd o f t he Un ive r s i ty Mu seum , Un ive r s i ty P enn sy lvan ia ,L ondon a nd P h i lade lph ia .

Ma lecka ,B a rba ra 1 978 " Two N o te s o n K a s s i te G lyp t ic A r t " , B e ly tus 2 6 : 2 7 3 5 .

o f

1 951 S ea lC y l ind er s , U rE xcava t ion sX . P ub l ica t ion so f t h e J o in t E xped i t ion o f t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum a nd o f t h e

Ma rcu s , J oyce 1 974 " The I c onog raphy o f P owe r Among t h e C la s s ic Maya " , W or ld A rchaeo logy 6 : 83 -94 . 1 976 Emb lem a nd S ta t e i nt h e C la ss ic Maya L ow land s :A n E p ig raph ic Approach t o T er r i tor ia l O rgan iza t ion ,

Un ive r s i ty Mu seum , Un iv . o fP enn sy lvan ia , L ondon a nd P h i lad e lph ia .

D umba r ton O ak s , Wa sh ing ton D .C . L eone , Ma rk 1 982 " Some O p in ion s A bou t R ecove r ing M ind " , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 7 :742 -60 .

1 978 " A rchaeo logy a nd R e l ig ion : A C ompa r i son o f t h e Z , apo tec a nd Maya " , W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 0 :2 : 1 72 1 91 .

1 984 " In te rp r e t ing I d eo logy i nH i s to r ica l A rchaeo logy : T he Ma rcu s , J oyc ea nd K en tF lanne ry 1 994 " Anc ien t Z apo tec R i tua l a nd R e l ig ion : A n A pp l ica t i on o f t he D i rec t H is to r ica l A pp roach " , i n C . R en f r ew a nd E zra Z ub row , e d s . , T he A nc ien t M ind :

W i l l iam P aca G a rden i nA nnapo l i s , Ma ry land " , i nD . M i l le r a nd C . T i l ley , e d s . , I d eo logy , P ower , a nd P r eh is tor y , C amb r idg e Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idg e , p p .25 -36 .

E lemen t s o f C ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy , Un iv . P re s s , C amb r idg e , p p .55 -74 .

L eone , M . ,P .P o t te r , a nd P .S hack e l 1 987 " Towa rd a C r i t ica l A r chaeo logy " , C ur r en t An thro -

C amb r idg e

Ma t thew s , D ona ld M . 1 990 P r inc ip les o fC ompos i t ion i nN ear E a s tern G lyp t ic o f t h e L a ter S econd M i l l enn ium B .C . , O rb i s B ib l icu s e t

p o logy 2 8 :283-302 . L iebe rman , S t ephen 1 982 " Th e Y ear s o fD am iq il i shu " , R evue d 'As syr io log ie e t

O r ien ta l i s , S e r ie s A rchaeo log ica 8 , V andenhoeck & R up r ech tG oe t t ing en , F r ibou rg , Sw i tze r land .

d ' Arc Ho log ie O r ien ta le 7 6 :2 :7 -117 . L ime t , H en r i 1 969 " Un S ceau C a s s i te d u Mu s& d e T ehe ran" , R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e td 'Arc Ho log ie O r ien ta l e 6 3 :75 -78 .

1 992 T he K as s i t e G lyp t ic o fN ippur , O rb i s B ib l icu s e tO r -

1 971 L es l e g end es d es s ceaux c as s i t es . A cad e rn ie r oya le d e

Ma tou sh ,L ubo r 1 961 " Zu rD a t ierung v on E n tuna E l i sh " ,A rch iv O r ien ta ln i 2 9 :30 -34 .

i e n ta l i s 16 , V and enhoeck & R up rech t G oe t t ing en , F r ibou rg , Sw i tze r land .

B e lg iqu e , c l a s se d e sl e t t re se td e s s c ience s mo ra l t e se t p o l i t ique s . Memo i re s 5 0 ,B ru s se l s .

McCown , D ona ld E . a nd R icha rd C . H a ine s 1 967 N ippur I : T emp l e o f E n l i l , S c r iba l Q uar t er , a nd S ound ing s , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion N o .78 ,

1 978 -79 " Qua t re s c eaux -cy l ind re s ` c a s s i te s ' " ,A rch iv f ür O r ien tf or schung 2 6 :96 -98 .

Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago , Ch icago .

L ip in sk i ,E . ,e d . 1 979 S ta t e a nd T emp le E conomy i nt h eA nc ien tN ear E as t ,

McGu i re , R anda l l 1 992 A Marx is t A rchaeo logy , A cadem ic P re s s I n c . , N ew

I ,L euven .

Y o rk . 19

Moo r ey ,P .R .S . ,c on t . 1 986 " Th e Eme rg enc e o ft h e L igh t , H o r se -D rawn C ha r io t i nt h e N ea r E a s t c . 2000 1500 B .C ." , Wor ld A r chae o l o gy 1 8 :2 :196 -215 .

McGu i r e ,R .a nd R ob e r tP ayn te r , e d s . 1 991 T he A r chaeo logy o fI nequa l i ty , B a s i lB lackwe l l , I n c . , Ox f o rd . Me i je r , D .J .W . 1 978 "M e sopo tam ian C y l ind e r S ea l s i nt h e A l la rd P i e r son Mu s eum , Ams t e rdam " , J aa rber ich t v an h e t V oo r a z ia t is ch -Egypf i sch G enoo t schap E x O r ien t e L ux 1 977 1978 ,N o .25 :7 -34 .

Moo r ey ,P .R .S . a nd O .R . G u rney 1 975 " An c ien t N ea r E a s t er n S ea l s a tC ha r te rhou se " , I raq 3 5 :7 1 -81 . 1 978 " Anc ien tN ea rE as te rn C y l ind e rS ea ls A cqu i red b yt h e A shmo lean Mu s eum , ox f o rd , 1 963-73" , I raq 4 0 :416 0 .

Me l tze r ,D . ,D .D .F ow le r ,a nd J .S ab lo f f ,e d s . 1 986 Ame r ican A rchaeo log yP as t a nd F u tur e : AC e l ebra t i on o f t h e S oc ie ty f or Amer ican A r chaeo logy 1 935 -1985 , Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P r e s s , Wa sh i ng ton .

Moo r tga t ,A n ton 1 940 V o rd e ras ia t ische R o l l s iege l ,B e r l in . ( 1966 ,2 nd e d . )

Menan t ,M . J o a ch im 1 883 -86 R echerches s u r l a G lyp t ique o r ien ta le , 2v o l s . , P a r i s .

1 942 " A s sy r i s ch e G lyp t ik d e s 1 3 J ah rhund r e t s" , Z e i t schr if t f l irAs s y r io log ie 4 7( NF13 ) :50 -88 . 1 944 " A s sy r i s ch e G l yp t ik d e s 1 2 J ah rhund re t s" , Z e i t schr if t f ü rA s sy r io log ie 4 8( NF 14 ) :24 -44 .

1 887 C a ta logue d es C y l ind res O r ien taus d u C ab ine tR oya l d es Med a i l les d eL a Haye ,L aH ay e .

Mo ran W i ll i am L . ,e d . 1 987 T he Ama rna L e t t er s , J ohn H opk in s Un ive r s i ty P re s s , B a l t imo r e .

d e Meye r ,L eon ,e d . 1 978 T e l l e d -Der I : P rog r es s R epor t s , E d i t ion s P e e te r s , L euv en .

Mo rgan ,B .E . 1 952 " Da ted T ex t sa nd S t a te -Fo rmu la eo ft h eR e ign o f Am m izaduga " , Manches t er C une if orm S t ud ies 2 : 31-53 .

1 980 T e l l e d -Der I I : S ound ing a tA bu H abbah ( S ippa r ) , E d i t ion sP ee te r s ,L euven . d e Mey e r ,L eon ,H . G a s ch e ,a nd R . P a ep e ,e d s . 1 971 T e l le d -Der I ,E d i t ion sP ee te r s ,L euven .

Mo r r i son ,M . ,E .L a ch eman ,M . Mo r r i son ,a nd D . Ow en 1 993 T he E a s t ern A rch ives o fN uz i a nd E xca va t ions a tN u z i 9 / 2 , S t ud ie s o n t h e C iv i l i sa t ion a nd C u l tu r e o fN uz i a nd t h e H u r r ian . s , V o l .4 , D av id Owen a nd M . Mo r r i son e d s . , W inona L ak e , I nd iana .

M icha low sk i ,P i o t r 1 983 " H i s to ry a s C ha r t e r : S ome Ob s er va t ion s o n t h e S u m e r ian K ing L i s t " ,J ourna lo ft h e Amer ican O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 1 03 :237 -48 .

Munn -Rank in ,J .M . 1 959 " Anc i en t N ea r E a s te rn S ea l s i nt h e F i tzw il iam Mu s e um , C amb r idg e " ,I r aq 2 1 :20 37 .

M i l le r , D an ie l 1 982a " Ar t e f ac t s a s P roduc t s o f H uman C a tego r iza t ion P roc e s se s " , i n I . H odd e r , e d . , S ymbo l ic a nd S t r uc tu ra l A rchaeo logy , C amb r idg e Un iv . P re s s , C amb r idg e ,p p .17 -25 .

Mu s ta f a , MA . 1 949 " Sound ing sa tT el A l Dh iba ' " ,S umer 5 : 174 -5 . N ag e l , Wo l f r am 1 957 -58 " G lyp t i sch e P rob leme d e r L a r sa -Z e i t " ,A rch iv f ür O r ien tf o r schung 1 8 :319 -27 .

1 982b " S t ru c tu re s a nd S t ra teg ie s : A n A sp ec t o f t h e R e la t ion sh ip b e tween S oc ia l H ie ra r chy a nd C u l tu ra l C hang e " , i nI .H odd e r , c d , S ymbo l ic a nd S t r uc tura l A r cha eo logy , C amb r idge Un iv . P r e s s , C amb r idg e , p p .89 -98 .

1 963 " Da t ie r t e G l yp t ik a u s A l tvo rd e r a s ien" ,A rch iv f ir O r i e no r schung 2 0 :125 -40 .

M i l le r ,D .a nd C .T i l ley ,e d s . 1 984 I d eo logy , P ow e r , a nd P reh is to ty , C amb r idg e U n iv . P r e s s , C amb r idg e .

N ie s , J am e sa nd C la r ence K e i se r 1 920 H is to r ica l , R e l ig ious a nd E conom ic T ex t s a nd A n t i qu i t ie s ,B aby lon ian I n sc r ip t ion si nt h e C o l lec t ion o f J ame sB .N ie s ,V o l .2 ,Y a le U n iv . P r es s , N ew H aven .

Moo r ey ,P .R .S . 1 966 " A R e con s id e ra t ion o f t he E xcava t ion s o n T el I n g ha r r a( Ea s tK i sh ) , 1 9231933" ,I r aq 2 8 :18 -51 .

N i s s en ,H an s 1 977 " A sp ec t s o f t h e D eve lopm en t o f E a r ly C y l ind e r S ea l s " ,i n McG . G ib son a nd R .B igg s , e d s . ,S ea l sa nd S ea l ing , B ib l io th eca Me sopo tam ic a 6 , Und ena P ub . , Ma l ibu ,p p .15 -23 .

1 978 K ish E xca va t ions 1 923 -33 , C la r endon P r e s s , Ox f o rd

1 20

N i ssen , H . ,c on t . 1 980 " The Mob i l i ty B e tween S e t t led a nd N on -Se t t led i n

Ow en , D . I . a nd M .A . Mo r r i son , e d s . 1 987 S t ud ies o n t h e C iv i l iza t ion a nd C u l ture o fN uz i a nd t h e H ur r ians 2 : G enera l S tud ies a nd E xca va t ions a t

E a r ly B aby lo iüa :Theo ry a nd E v idence" , i n Ma r ie T h d re se B a r re le t , e d . , L 'Archeo log ie d e L ' I raq : P e r spec t ives e t L im i t es d e L ' In terpre ta t ion A n thro -

N u z i 9 / 1 ,E isenb raun s , Winona L ak e , I nd iana

p o log ique d es D ocumen t s , C en t re N a t iona l d e l a

Ö zgüQ , N .

R e ch e r che S c ien t if ique , P a r i s , p p .285 -290 .

1 955 " Turk T a r ih K urumu " ,B e l l e t in ) C W75 .

N ougayro l .J e an 1 966 " B rev e s C ommun ica t ion s" , i n R evue d ' As syr io log ie e td ' Archeo log ie O r ien ta le 6 0 :171 .

P ad e r , E l len Jane 1 982 S ymbo l i sm , S oc ia lR e la t ions a nd t h eI n terpre ta t ion o f Mor tuary R ema ins , Ox f o rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t sI n te rna t iona l S e r ie s , 1 30 .

1 971 " D eux T ype s d eL dg end e s d e S ceaux ` Ca s s i te s ' " ,R e v ue d ' As sy r io log ie e td ' Archeo log ie O r ien ta l e 6 5 :87 9 0 .

P a rk e r , B a rba ra 1 949 " Cy l inde r S ea l sf r om P a le s t in e" .I r aq 1 :1 :1 43 .

N oveck , Mad e l ine 1 975 T he Mark o fA nc ien t Man : A nc ien t N ea r E as tern S tamp S ea l s a nd C y l ind er S ea l s the G or e l ick C o l l e c t ion , T he B rook lyn Mu seum , N ew Y o rk

1 955 " Excava t ion s a tN im rud , 1 949 -1953 : S ea l s a nd S ea l I mp re s s ion s" ,I raq 1 7 :93-125 . 1 962 " Sea l s a nd S ea l I mp re s s ion s f r om t he N im rud E x c ava t ion s , 1 955 -58" ,I raq 2 4 :2640 .

O a te s , D av id 1 968 S t ud ies i nt h eA nc ien tH is tory o fN or thern I raq , B r i -

1 975 " Cy l inde r S ea l sf r om T el a lR imah" ,I raq 3 7 :21-38 .

t i sh A cademy ,L ondon . P a r ro t , A nd r e 1 954 G lyp t ique m esopo tam ienne . F ou i l l es d e l aga sh ( T e l lo ) e td e L ar sa ( S enk er eh ) ( 1931 -1933 ) , P . G eu thne r ,

O a te s , J oan 1 978 "M e sopo tam ian S oc ia l O rgan iza t ion : A rchaeo log ica l a nd P h i lo log ica l E v id ence" , i nJ .F r iedman a nd M .J . R ow land s , e d s . , T he E vo lu t ion o f S oc ia l S y s tems ,

P a r i s . 1 959 M is s ion A rcheo log ique d e Mar i , I : L e P a la is , T ome

U n ive r . o fP i t t sbu rgh P re s s , P i t t sbu rgh , p p .457 -485 .

3 , D ocumen t s a nd Monum en t s , h i s to r ique LXX , P a r i s .

1 986 B aby lon , r ev . e d i t ion , T hame sa nd H ud son , L ondon .

B ibl io theque

e t

P a t te r son , T om

O a te s , J oan , e ta l .

1 989 " H is to ry a nd t h eP o s t -P roce s sua l A rchaeo log ie s " , Man 2 4 :555-66 .

1 977 " Seaf a r ing Me rchan t so fU r? " ,A n t iqu i ty 5 1 :221-34 . Ö l sne r , J . 1 982a " Landve rgabe i m K a s s i t i sch en B aby lon ien " , i nM .A .

1 990 " Some T heo re t ica l T en s ion s w i th in a nd b e twe en t h e P roce s sua l a nd P o s tp roc e s sua l A rchaeo log ie s " , J our n a lo fAn thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 9 : 189 -200 .

D andamayev , e ta l . , e d s . . S oc ie t ies a nd L ang uages o f t h e A nc ien t N ea r E as t : S tud ies i n H onour o f LM . D iakonof f , Wa rm in s te r ,p p .279 -284 .

P ea r son , M ichae lP a rk e r 1 982 "Mo r tua ry P rac t ic e s , S oc ie ty , a nd I deo logy : A n E th n oa rchaeo log ica l S tudy " , i n I an Hodd e r , e d . , S ym b o l ic a nd S t r uc tura lA rchaeo logy , C amb r idge U n iv . P re s s , C amb r idge , p p .99 -113 .

1 982b " Zu r O rgan isa t ion d e s g e s e l l schaf tl ichen L eben s i n k a s s i t i schen u nd n achka s s i t i schen B aby lon ien : V e r w a l tung s s t ruk tu r u nd G eme in schaf ten " . A rch iv f ir O r ien tf orschung 1 9 :403410 .

1 984 " Soc ia l C hang e , I d eo logy a nd t h e A r chaeo log ica l R e c o rd " , i n M . S p r igg s , e d . , Ma rx is t P er spec t ives i n

Opp enh e im , A _ L eo 1 954 " Th e S eaf a r ing Me r chan t s o f U r " . J ourna l o f t h e Amer ican O r ien ta lS oc ie ty 7 4 :6 -17 .

A rchaeo logy , C amb r idge Un iv . P re s s , C amb r idg e , p p .59 -71 .

1 967 L e t t er s F rom Mesopo tam ia , Un ive r s i ty o f C h icago P in che s , T h . G . 1 917 " The L anguag e o ft h e K a s s i te s " ,J ourna lo ft h eR oya l A s ia t ic S oc ie ty ,p p .101-104 .

P r e s s , C h icago . 1 977 A nc ien t Mesopo tam ia , r e v . e d . Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago , C h icago .

1 964 O ld B aby lon ian B us ines s D oc umen t s , C un e i f o rm T ex t s f r om B aby lon ian T ab le t s i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , P a r t4 5 , L ondon .

O r thmann , W inf r ied , e ta l . 1 975 D er A l t e O r ien t , P ropy läen V e r lag , B e r l in .

1 2 1

P log , S t eph en 1 978 " Soc ia l I n te rac t ion a nd S t y l i s t ic S im i la r i ty " , i nM . B . S ch if f e r , e d . , Ad vance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , V o l .2 , A cad em ic P r e s s , N ew Y o rk , p p . 1 43 182 . P o rada ,E d i th 1 947 S ea l I mp r es s ions o fN uz i , T h e Annua l o ft h e Am e r ic an S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R e s ea r ch , V o l .24 f o r 1 944 1945 ,N ew H av en .

P o rada ,E .a nd P .L amp l 1 962 " Th e S ea l I mp r e s s ion s" , i n M . We i tem ey e r , S ome A sp ec t s o f t h e H ir ing o f W o rk er s i n t h e S ippar R eg ion a t t h e T ime o f Hammu rab i , C openhag en , p p .99 -131 . P o rada ,E . ,C h .R y skamp ,B .L . S cho s sman , a nd W .W .H a l lo 1 976 A nc ien t Mesopo tam ian A r t a nd S e l ec t ed T ex t s -T he P ierpon t Morgan L ibra ry ,N ew Y o rk P o s tga t e ,N i cho la s 1 977 T he F i r s t Emp ir e s , Ox f o rd .

1 948 C o rpus o fA nc ien t N ea r E a s t e rn S ea l s i n N or th Amer ican C o l l ec t ions I , t h e P ierpon t Morgan L ibra ry C o l l ec t ion , T he B ol ing en S e r ie s 1 4 , Wa sh ing ton .

1 994 " T ex ta nd F igu r ei n Anc ien t Me sopo tam ia : Ma tch a nd M i sma tch" , i n C . R enf rew a nd E z r a Z ub row , e d s . , T he A nc ien t M ind : E lemen t s o f C ogn i t ive A rch a eo logy , C am .U n iv .P re s s , C amb r idg e ,p p .176 184 .

1 950 " R ev iew " ,J ourna lo fC une if orm S t ud ies 4 : 155 -62 . 1 952 " On t h e P rob lem o fK a s s i t e A r t " , i n G eo rg e M i le s , e d . , A rchaeo log ica O r ien ta l ia i n Memor iam E rns t H er zf e ld ,L ocu s tV a l ley , NY ,p p .179 187 .

P r euc e l ,i t ,e d . 1 990 B e tw een P a s t a nd P r es en t : I s sue s i n C on t empora ry A rchaeo log ica l D iscour s e , S ou th e rn I l ino i s U n iv . P r e s s ,C a rbonda le .

1 957 " Sy r ian S ea l I mp r e s s ion s o n T ab le t s d a ted i n t h e T im e o f H ammu rab i a nd S am su i luna " , J ou rna l o f N ea rE a s t ern S t ud ie s 1 6 :192 -7 . 1 967 " Ba t t lem en t s i nt h e M i l i ta ry A r ch i t ec tu r e a nd i nt h e S ymbol i sm o ft h e A n c ien t N ea r E a s t " , i nD . F ra se r , e t a l . , e d s . , E s say s i n t h e H is to ry o fA r ch i t ec tur e P r e sen t ed t oR ud o lf W i t tkower ,L ondon .

1 991 P roce s sua la nd P os t -P roces sua lA r chaeo log ie s : Mu l t i p l e W ay s o fK now ing t h e P a s t , S ou th e rn I l ino i s U n iv e r s i ty P r e s s , C a rbonda le . P r i t cha rd ,J ame sB . , e d . 1 958 T he A nc ien tN ea rE a s t , V oLl :A nA n tho log yo fT ex t s a nd P ic tures ,P r in ce ton Un iv e r s i ty P r e s s ,P r inc e ton .

1 976 " Sum e r ian A r t i nM in ia tu r e " , i nD . S chmand t -Be s s e ra t , e d . , T he L egacy o fS ume r , B ib l io the ca Me so p o tam ica , V o l . 4 ,p p .107 -118 .

1 969 A nc ien tN ea rE a s t ern T ex t sR e la t ing t ot h e O ld T es t amen t( 3 rd e d .w i th s upp lemen t ) ,P r inc e ton . 1 975 T he A nc ien tN ea rE as t , V oLI I : AN ew A n t ho lo gy o f T ex t s a nd P ic tur e s , P r inc e ton U n iv e r s i ty P r e s s , P r inc e ton .

1 977 " O fP rof e s s iona l S ea l C u t te r s a nd N onp ro f e s s iona l ly Mad e S ea l s " , i n McG . G ib son a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , S ea l s a nd S ea l ing , B ib l io theca Me sopo tam ica 6 , U nd ena P ub . , Ma l ibu ,p p .7 14 .

R ank e ,H e rmann 1 906 B aby lon ian L ega l a nd B us ines sD ocumen t sf r om t h e T ime o fT he F ir s tD yna s ty o fB aby lon C h ief l yF rom S i ppa r , T he B aby lon ian E xp ed i t ion o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia , S e r ie s A : C un e if o rm T ex t s , e d . b y H .V .H i lp r ech t , V o lV I ,P t . 1 ,P h i lade lph ia .

1 979 " R ema rk so nM i tann ian ( Hu r r ian ) a nd M idd l eA s sy r i a nG lyp t ic A r t " ,A kkad ica 1 3 :2 15 . 1 980a ( e d . )A nc ien tA r ti nS ea l s ,P r inc e ton . 1 980b " Th e I c onog raphy o fD ea th i n Me sopo tam ia i nt h e E a r ly S econd M i l lenn ium B .C ." , i n B . A l s t e r , e d . , D ea th i n Mesopo tam ia , Me sopo tam ia N o . 8 , A ka d em i sh F o r lag C op enhag en ,p p .259 -67 .

R a th je , W i l l iam 1 977 " N ew T r ick s f o r O ld S ea l s : AP rog r e s s R epo r t " , i n McG . G ib son a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , S ea l sa nd S ea l ing , B ib l io theca Me sopo tam ica 6 , U nd ena P ub . , Ma l ibu , p p .25 -32 .

1 981 " Th e C y l ind e r S ea l s F ound a t T h ebe s i n B oeo t ia" , A r ch iv f ir O r ien tf o r schung 2 8 :1-78 .

R avn ,O .E . 1 929 " Th eR i se o f Ma rduk " ,A c ta O r ien ta l ia 7 : 81 -90 .

P o rada ,E d i th a nd F .B a smach i 1 951 " N e rga l i nt h e O ld B aby lon ian P e r iod " , S umer V I I : 6 6 -68 .

1 960 A C a ta logue o fO r ien ta l C y l ind e rS ea l s a nd I mp res s i on s i n t h e D an ish N a t iona l Mus eum , N a t iona l mu se e t , C op enhag en .

P o rada ,E . ,D . H an sen , S .D unham , a nd S .B abco ck 1 992 " The C h rono logy o f Me sopo tam ia c a . 7 000 1600 B .C ." , i nR . E h r ich , e d . , C hrono log ies i nO ld W or ld A rchaeo log y , V o l . ! , 3 rd e d i t ion , U n iv . o f C h icago P r e s s , C h icago ,p p .77 121 .

R ead ,D . a nd S .L eB lanc 1 978 " D e sc r ip t ive S t a temen t s , C ov e r ing l aw s , a nd T h eo r ie s i nA r cha eo logy " , C ur r en tA n th ropo logy 1 9 :307 -335 .

1 22

R enf rew , C o l in 1 994a " Towa rd s aC ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy " i n C . R enf rew

S a lmon , Me r r i le , e 1 992 " Ph i lo soph ica l Mode ls f o r P o s tp roce s sua l A rchaeo l o gy " , i n L e s te r Emb re e , e d . , Me taarchaeo logy : R e f l ec t ions b yA rchaeo log is t sa nd P h i losopher s , B o s ton

a nd E z ra Z ub row , e ds . , T he A nc ien tM ind : E lemen t s o f C ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy , C amb r idge Un iv . P re ss , C amb r idg e ,p p .3 -12 .

S tud ie s i n t h e P h i lo sophy o f S c ience , V o l .147 , K luwe rA cadem ic P ub l i she r s , B o s ton , p p .227 -241 .

1 994b " The A r chaeo logy o fR el ig ion" i n C . R enf rew a nd E z ra Z ub row , e d s . , T he A nc ien t M ind : E lemen t s o f C ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy , C amb r idg e Un iv . P re s s ,

S a r ian id i , V . 1 986 "Me sopo tam ia a nd B ac t r ia i n t h e 2 nd M i l lenn ium

C amb r idg e , p p .47 -54 .

B .C ." ,S ov ie tA rchaeo logy 2 : 34 -46 .

R enf rew , C .a nd P au lB ahn 1 991 A rchaeo logy : T heor ies , Me thod s , T hame sa nd Hud son , L ondon .

S chel , V incen t 1 898 U ne S a ison d eF ou i l les aS ippa r ,P ar i s .

a nd P rac t ice ,

1 916 " Cy l ind re se tL dgende sI nid i t s " ,R evue d 'As sy r io log ie e td ' Arch g .o log ie O r ien ta le 1 3 :5 -25 .

R enf rew , C . , M .J .R ow land s , a nd B .A . S eg rave s , e d s . 1 982 T heory a nd E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy , A cad em ic

1 925 " Pa s s im " , R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e td ' Archiv log ie O r -

P r e s s , NY .

i e n ta l e2 2 :4 :141-162 . R enf rew , C o l in a nd E z ra Z ub row , e d s . 1 994 T he A nc ien t M ind : E lemen t s o f C ogn i t ive A rch -

S che le , L inda a nd Ma ry E len M i l le r 1 986 B lood o fK ing s : Dynas ty a nd R i tua l i n Maya A r t , K imba l l A r t Mu seum , F o r t Wor th .

a eo logy , C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C ambr idge . R enge r , J ohanne s 1 967 " Go t temamen i n d e r a l tbaby lon i sch en Z e i t" , H e id e l b erger S t ud ien z um A l ten O r ien t ,H e id e lbe rg , p p .137 -

S chmoek e l ,H . 1 959 " Hammu rab i u nd Ma rduk " , R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e t d ' Arch o log ie O r ien ta le 5 3 :183-204 .

1 7 1 . 1 970 " Zur L oka l iz ie rung v on K a rka r " , A rch iv f ir O r ien t -

1 975 H ammurab i v on B aby lon : D ie E r r ich tung e i nes

f or schung 2 3 :73 -78 .

R e iches , W i s sen schaf t l iche B uchge se l lschaf t , D a rm s t ad t .

1 977 " Lega l A spec t s o fS ea l ing i n Anc ien t Me sopo tam ia" , i n McG . G ib son a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , S ea l s a nd S ea l ing , B ib l io theca Me sopo tam ica , V o l . 6 , Und ena

S e l tze r ,R ob er tM . , e d . 1 987 R e l ig ions o fA n t iqu i ty , Macm i l lan P ub l i sh ing C o . , N ew Y o rk .

P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu , p p .75 -88 . R ingg ren .H e lm e r 1 973 R e l ig ions o ft h e A nc ien t N ea r E as t , S .P .C .K . , L on -

S hank s , M ichae l 1 992 E xper ienc ing t h e P as t : O n t h e C harac ter o fA rchae o logy ,R ou t ledge ,L ondon .

d on . ( T ran s la ted b yJ ohn S tu rdy )

S hank s , M ichae l a nd C h r is tophe rT i l ley 1 982 " Id eo logy , S ymbo l ic P owe r a nd R i tua l C ommun ica -

R ober t s , J immy J a ck 1 972 T he E ar l ies tS em i t ic P an theon ,B a l t imo r e .

t i on : AR e in te rp r e ta t ion o fN eo l i th ic Mor tua ry P rac t i ce s " , i n I an H odd e r , e d . , S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc tura l A rchaeo logy , C amb r idg e Un iv . P re s s , C amb r idg e , p p .129 -154 .

R oux , G eo rge s 1 992 Anc ien tI r aq , 3 rd e d i t ion ,P engu in B ook s , L ondon . R ow land s ,M ichae l ,M . L a r sen , a nd K . K r i s t ian sen , e d s . 1 987 C en t r e a nd P er iphery i n t h e A nc ien t W or ld , C am -

1 987 S oc ia l T heo ry a nd A rchaeo logy , C amb r idge Un iv . P re s s , C amb r idge .

b r idg e Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge .

1 992 R e -Cons truc t ing A rchaeo logy : T heory a nd P rac t ice ,

S agg s , H .W .F . 1 984 T he M igh t T ha t W as A s sy r ia , S idgw ick & J ack son ,

S econd E d i t ion ,R ou t ledge , L ondon .

L ondon . 1 988

S h e rman , S t ephen 1 988 Q uan t if y ing A rchaeo logy , A cadem ic P r . , S an D iego .

T he G r ea tnes s T ha t W a s B aby lon , S idgw ick & J ack son , r ev ised e d i t ion , L ondon .

S immon s , S t ephen 1 959 -61 " Ea r ly O ld B aby lon ian T ab le t s f r om H a rma l a nd E l sewhe re " , J ourna l o fC une if orm S tud ies 1 3 :71-93 ; 1 4 :23-32 : 1 5 :49 -58 .

1 23

S immon s , S . ,c on t . 1 978 E a r ly O ld B aby lon ian Documen t s , Y a le O r ien ta l S e r i e s ,B aby lon ian T ex t s ,V o l . 1 4 , Y a le Un ive r s i ty P r e s s , N ew H av en .

S t o l ,M . 1 97 3 " R ev iew o fJ . J . F ink e l s te in ( 1 972 )L a t e O ld B aby lon i a n D ocumen t s a nd L e t ter s " , J ourna l o fC une if orm S t ud ie s2 5 :215 -233 . 1 976 S t ud ie si nO ld B aby lon ian H is t ory ,L e id en .

Sm i th , S idn ey 1 924 " Th eF a ce o fH umb ab a " , Anna l so fA rchaeo lo gy a nd A n th ropo logy 1 :3 . 1 938 " Cy l ind e r S ea l s a nd S ca rab s " , B r i t ish Mus eum Q ua r t e r ly 1 2 :3-4 . S olbe rg e r ,E dmond 1 954 " I ns c r ip t ion s V o t iv e sB aby lon ienn e s C on se rvie s d am s d e sC olec t ion s S u i s s e s" , G ena va 2 : 237 -44 .

S t on e ,E l izab e th 1 977 " Econom ic C r i s i s a nd S oc ia l U ph eava l i nO ld B aby l o n ian N ippu r " , i nL . L ev in e a nd T .C . Y oung , J r . , e d s . , Moun ta ins a nd L ow land s , B ib l io th eca Me so p o tam i ca , V o l .7 , U nd ena P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu , p p .267 -289 . 1 979 " Th e S oc ia lR o le o ft h e Nad i th Women i nO ld B aby l o n ian N ippu r " ,J ourna lo ft h eS oc ia la nd E con o m ic H is tor yo ft h eO r ien t2 5 :50 -70 .

1 969 " Sam su i l ima 's B i l ingua l I n sc r ip t ion s Ca nd D " , R e v ue d ' As sy r io log ie e td ' Archd .o log ie O r ien ta l e 6 3 :29 4 3 .

1 981 " Tex t s ,A r ch i t ec tu r e , a nd E thnog raph ic A na logy : P a t t e rn s o fR e s id en c e i nO ld B aby lon ian N ippu r " , I r aq 4 3 :19 33 .

S olbe rg e r ,E dmond a nd J e an -Rob e r t Kupp e r 1 971 I nsc r ip t ions R oya l e sS umer iennes e tA kkad ienne s , L e s E d i t ion sd uC e rf ,P a r i s .

1 987 N ippu r N e ighborhood s , S tud ie s i n Anc ien t O r ien ta l C iv i l iza t ion , N o .44 , T he O r i en ta l I n s t i tu t e o f t h e U n iv . o fC h icago , C h icago ,I l .

S omm e rf e ld , Wa l te r 1 982 D er A uf s t e ig Ma rd uk s : D ie S t e l lung Ma rd uk si nd e r b aby lon ischen R e l ig ion d e s z we i t en J ahr taus end s v . C hr . , A l te r O r ien t u nd A l te s T e s tamen t , B d . 2 13 , V e r lag B u tzon & B e r ck e rK eve lae r .

T e i s s ie r ,B ea t r ic e 1 984 A nc ien tN ea rE a s t ern C y l ind e rS ea l sf rom t h e Ma rco p o l i C o l l ec t ion ,B e rk e ley .

S pe i se r ,E .A . 1 957 " Su l tan tep e T ab le t 3 873 a nd E numa E l i sh I I 6 9" , J ourna lo fC une if o rm S t ud ies 1 :43 -4 .

T hu r eau -Dang in ,F ranco i s 1 910 L e t t r e s e t c on t ra t s d e l ' epoque d e l a I r e d yna s t ie b aby lon ienne ,P a r i s . ( Rep r in t ed i n1 973 )

S p e lee r s ,L ou i s 1 917 C a ta logue d es I n ta i l l es e t Emp r e in t es O r ien ta l es d es Muses R oyaux d u C inquan t ena ir e , V roman t &C o . , B rux ele s . S upp lem en tB ruxele s , 1 941

1 927 "Ma r ra " , R evue d ' As sy r io log ie e td ' Arc Ho log ie O r i e n ta l e2 4 :147 .

S p r igg s , Ma t thew , e d . 1 984 Ma rx is t P er spec t iv e s i n A rchaeo logy , C amb r idg e U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idg e .

T i l ley ,C h r is toph e r 1 982 " Soc ia l F o rma t ion , S oc ia l S t ru c tu re s a nd S oc ia l C hang e " , i n I a n H odd e r , e d . , S ymbo l ic a nd S t r uc t u ra l A rcha eo logy , C amb . , C amb r idg e U n iv . P r e s s , p p .26 38 .

S pyck e t ,A . 1 960 " La d i e s se L ama " , i nR evue d ' As sy r io log ie e td ' Arch o l og ie o r ien ta le 5 4 :73 -84 .

1 984 " I d eo logy a nd t h eL eg i t ima t ion o fP owe ri nt h e M id d l e N eo l i th ic o fS ou the rn S wed en " , i nD . M i l le ra nd C . T hey , e d s . , I d eo logy , P ow e r a nd P r eh is to ly , C amb r idg eU n iv .P r e s s , C amb r idg e ,p p .111 146 .

S t a r r , R .F .S . 1 937 N uz i , R epo r to nt h eE xcava t ion sa tY o rgan T epa n ea r K i rkuk , I r aq c onduc ted b y H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty i n c on jun c t ion w i th t h e Ame r ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R e s ea r ch a nd t h e U n ive r s i ty Mu seum o f P h i la d e lph ia , 1 927 1931 . V o l . I ( P la t e s ) . H ar va rd U n i v e r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idg e , Ma s s .

1 990 T he A r t o f Amb igu i ty : Ma t er ia l C u l tur e a nd T ex t , R ou tkdg e ,L ondon . 1 993 ( e d . ) I n t e rp r e ta t ive A rchaeo log y , B e rg P ubl i sh e r s , Ox f o rd . T own s end ,R i cha rd F ra s e r 1 979 S ta t e a nd C osmos i nt h eA r to fT enoch t i t lan , S tud ie s i n P r e -Co lumb ian A r t a nd A r chaeo logy N o .20 , D umb a r ton O ak s , Wa sh ing ton D .C .

S t e in ,D iana L . 1 989 " AR eapp ra i sa lo ft h e S au sh ta ta rL e t te r ' f r om N uz i " , i nZ e i t schr if tf ür A s sy r io log ie 7 9 :36 -60 .

T r igg e r ,B ru c e 1 989 A H is to ry o fA r chaeo log ica lT hough t , C amb r idg eU n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , C amb r idge .

S t e ink e l le r ,P io t r 1 977 " Sea l P r ac t ic e i nt h e U r I I P e r iod " , i n McG . G ib son a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , S ea l s a nd S ea l ing , B ib l io the ca Me sopo tam ica 6 ,U nd ena P ub . , Ma l ibu ,p p .41-53 . 1 24

T rokay , Made le ine

Wa lker , C . 1 983 " Ep isode s i n t he H is to ry o fB aby lon ian A s t ronomy" ,

1 981 " G lyp t ique C a s s i te T a rd ive o uP o s tca ss i te?" ,. A kkad ica

B u l le t in o f t h e S oc ie ty f or Mesopo tam ian S tud ies

2 1 :14-48 .

5 : 14 . 1 985 "Mon tu re s d e s ceaux -cy l ind re s c ass i te s e to rnemen t a t ion s d e p end ien t if s c hyp r io te s" , S tud ia P hoen ic ia

Wa l ter s , S .D . 1 973 " The Y ea r -Name s o fS umu 'e l" , R evue d 'As syr io log ie

3 :21-44 .

e td 'Archeo log ie O r ien ta le 6 7 :21-40 . Ungnad , A . Wa rd , Wi l l iam A .

1 938 " Da ten l is ten" , i n E r ich E be l ing a nd B runo Me issner ,

1 992 " The P r es en t S t a tu s o fE gyp t ian Ch rono logy" , B u l le

e ds . , R ea l lex icon d er A ssyr io log ie , Zwe i ter B and , B e r -Ezu r , Wa l ter d e G ruy te r & C o . , B e r l in , p p .131-

t i n o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch

1 94 .

2 88 :53-66 . Wa rd , Wi l l iam H ayes

V an B uren . , E l izabe th Doug la s

1 909 C y l ind ers a nd O ther Anc ien t O r ien ta l S ea ls i n t h e

1 940 " The C y l inder S ea ls o ft he P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I n s t i -

C o l lec t ion o fJ . P ierpon t Morgan , P r iva te ly P r in ted ,

t u te" ,A na lec ta O r ien ta l ia 2 1 , R ome .

NY . 1 945 S ymbo l s o ft h e G od si n Mesopo tam ian A r t , Ana lec ta O r ien tal ia

2 3 ,

P on t if ic ium

1 910 S ea lC y l ind er so fW es tern A s ia , Wa sh ing ton D .C .

I n s t i tu tum

R ome . Wa terman , L eroy 1 913 " Bu s ine s s Documen t s o f t he H ammu rab i P er iod " ,

1 954 " The E so ter ic S ign if icance o f K ass i te G lyp t ic A r t" ,

Amer ican J ourna l o fS em i t ic L anguages a nd L i ter -

O r ien ta l ia 2 3 :1-39 .

a tures 2 9 :145 -204 . 1 959 C a ta logue o ft h e U go S i ssa C o l lec t ion o fS tamps a nd C y l ind er S ea l so fM esopo tam ia , R ome .

Weber , O t to 1 920 A l tor ien ta l ische S i ege lb i ld er , D er A l te O r ien t 1 7 /18 , Bd .1-2 , L e ipz ig .

V an D i jk , J . J . 1 966 /7 " L 'hymne a Ma rduk a vec i n tercess ion p our l e r o i Ab ie suh" . M it te i lungen

We ihe r , E . v on

d es I ns t i tu t s f ur O r ien t -

1 971 Der b aby lon ische G o t tN erga l , A l te rO r ien t a nd A l tes

f or schung 1 2 :57 -74 .

T es tamen t 1 , N euk i rchen -V luyn . 1 967 " VAT 8 382 : e in z we ispa rch ige s Koen ig s r i tua l" , i nD . E dza rd , e d . , H e id e lberger S tud ien z um a l ten O r ien t ,

Wen s inck „ A .J . 1 921 T ree a nd B ird a s C osmo log ica l S ymbo l s i n W es tern

O t to H ar ra ssow i tz , W ie sbaden , p p .233-268 .

A s ia , J ohanne s Mu l le r , Am s te rdam . 1 986 " D ie Dyna s t ischen H iera ten Zw ischen K a s s i ten u nd Wh i te , L es l ie

E lamern : E ine V e rhangn isvo l le P o l i t ik " , O r ien ta l ia 5 5 :159 -170 .

1 949 T he S c ience o fC u l ture , F a r ra r , S t rau s , NY . 1 959 T he E vo lu t ion o fC u l ture , McGraw -H i l l , NY .

V o l lenwe ide r , Mahe -Lou i se 1 967 & 8 3 C a ta logue R a isonne d es S ceaux C y l ind res e t

Wi lcke , C lau s

I n ta i l les , V o l s . 1a nd 3 , Mu see d 'A r t e td 'H is to i re d e

1 974 /77 " E ine

G eneve , G eneve .

S i egel in sch r if t a u s d er K a s s i ten -Ze i t" ,

A rch iv f ir O r ien tf or schung 2 5 :71 . V on d e rO s ten , H an sH enn ing 1 934 Anc ien t O r ien ta l S ea l s i n t h e C o l lec t ion o f Mr . Ed -

W i l ley , G ordon a nd J e remy S ab lof f 1 993 A H is tory o f Amer ican A rchaeo logy , T h ird E d i t ion ,

w ard T . N ewe l l , O r ien ta l I ns t i tu te P ub l ica t ion 2 2 ,

W .H . F reeman a nd C o . , N ew York

Ch icago . 1 936 Anc ien t O r ien ta l S ea ls i n t h e C o l lec t ion o f Mr s .

W i l l iam s , Ma r ion 1 927 -28 " The C o l lec t ion o f Wes tern A s ia t ic S ea ls i n t he

Agnes B a ldw in B re t t , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion

H a ske l l O r ien ta l Mu seum" , Amer ican J ourna l o f

3 7 , Ch icago .

S em i t ic L anguages 4 4 :232 -253 . V on S oden , W . Wi l l iam s -Fo r te , E l izabe th

1 955 " G ib t e se i nZ eugn is d af i i r , d as s d i e B aby lon ier a nd i e

1 976 Anc ien tN ear E as tern S ea ls : AS e lec t ion o fS tamp a nd

W ied erauf e r s tehung Ma rduk sg eg laub th aben?" , Z e i t -

C y l ind er S ea l s f rom t h e C o l lec t ion o f Mr s . W . H .

s chr if tj i ir A ssy r io log ie 5 1 :130 -66 .

Moore , Me t ropo l i tan Museum o fA r t , N ew York .

1 25

W in te r , I r ene

Y of f ee , N . , c on t . 1 977b " The O ld B aby lon ian T ex t s f r om K i sh : af i r s t r epor t " , i nM . E l l i s , e d . , E s say si nA nc ien tN ear E as t i n Memory o f J .J . F inke l s t e in , Memo i r s o f t he

1 986 " The K ing a nd t h e C up : I c onog raphy o f t h e R oya l P re sen ta t ion S cene o n U r I I S ea ls" , i n M . K e l ly -Bucc ela t i , P . Ma t th iae , a nd M . v an L oon , e d s . , I ns igh t T hrough I mages , B ib l io theca Me sopo tam ica , V o l .21 , Ma l ibu , p p .253-68 .

C onnec t icu t A cademy o f A r t s a nd S c ience s A rchon B ook s , H amd en , C onn . ,p p .219 -223 .

1 9 ,

1 978 " On S tudy ing O ld B aby lon ian H is to ry : A R ev iew A r t ic le" ,J ourna lo fC une if orm S tud ie s3 0 :18 -32 .

1 987 " L eg i t ima t ion o f Au tho r i ty T h rough I mage a nd L e g end : S ea l s B e long ing t o Of f i c ia l s i n t h e Adm in i s t ra t iv e B u reauc racy o ft h e U rI I S t a te" , i nM . G ib s on a nd R . B igg s , e d s . , T he O rgan iza t ion o fP ower : A spec t s o fB ureaucracy i n t h e A nc ien t N ear E a s t ,

1 979 " The D ec l ine a nd R i se o f Mesopo tam ian C iv i l iza t ion : An E thnoa rchaeo log ica l P er spec t iv e o nt h eE vo lu t ion o fS oc ia l C omp lex i ty " , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 4 :5 - 3 5 .

S tud ie s i n Anc ien t O r ien ta l C iv i l iza t ion N o . 4 6 , T he O r ien ta l I n s t . o f t h e Un iv . o f C h icago , C h icago ,

1 988a " The C o l lap se o f Anc ien t Me sopo tam ian S t a te s a nd

p p .69 -93 .

C iv i l iza t ion" , i nN . Y of f ee a nd G . C owg i l l , e d s . , T he C o l lap se o fA n c ien tS ta t es a nd C iv i l iza t ions , Un ive r -

W i seman , D .J . 1 959 C y l ind er S ea l so fW es t ern A s ia ,L ondon .

s i ty o fA r izona P re s s , T uc son , p p .44 -68 . 1 988b " Con tex t a nd A u thor i ty i n E a r ly Me sopo tam ian L aw " , i n R . C ohen a nd J .T o land , e d s . , S ta te F or ma t ion a nd P o l i t ica l L eg it imacy , P o l i t ica l An th ro -

1 975 " A s sy r ia a nd B aby lon ia c . 1200 -1000 B .C ." , C am b r idge A nc ien tH is to ry , V o l . I I , P a r t 2 ,T h i rd e d i t ion , C amb r idg e Un ive r s i ty P re s s , p p .443-481 .

p o logy , V . 6 ,T ransac t ion B ook s , Ox f o rd , p p .95-113 . Wob s t . Ma r t in 1 977 " S ty l i s t ic B ehav io ra nd I n f orma t ion E xchange" , U n iv . o f M ich igan Museum o f A n thropo log y , A n thro -

Y of f e e . N o rman a nd G eo rg e C owg i l l , e d s . 1 988 T he C o l lap se o fA nc ien t S ta tes a nd C iv i l iza t ions , U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P r e s s , T uc son .

p o log ica lP aper 6 1 :317 -42 .

Y of f e e , N o rman a nd And rew S her ra t t 1 993a ( ed s . ) A rchaeo log ica l T heory :

Woo l ley ,L eona rd 1 965 T he K a s s i t e P er iod a nd t h e P er iod o ft h e A s sy r ian

Z accagn in i . C a r lo 1 983 " Pa t te rn s o f Mob i l i ty Among N ea r E a s te rn C raf t s m en " , J ourna lo fN ear E as tern S tud ie s4 2 :245 -264 .

Wy l ie , A l ison 1 985 " The R eac t ion A ga in s t A na logy " , i nM . S ch if f e r , e d . , Ad vances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry , V o l .18 ,A cad em ic P re s s , NY , p p .63-111 .

1 987 " A spe c t s o f C e remon ia l E xchang e i nt h e N ea r E a s t Du r ing t h e L a te S econd M ilenn ium B .C ." , i n M . R ow land s , e t . a l . , e d s . . C en t re a nd P er iphe ry i n t h e A nc ien t W or ld , C amb r idge Un iv . P r e s s , C amb r idge ,

1 992 " On ' Heav i ly D ecompo s ing R ed H e r r ing s ' : S c ien t if ic Me thod i n A rchaeo logy a nd t h e L aden ing o f E v i d ence w i th T heo ry " , i n L . Emb ree , e d . , Me ta a rchaeo logy :Ref l ec t ions b yA rchaeo log is t s a nd P h i l S tud ie s

t h e

l og ica l T heory : W ho S e t s t h e Ag enda? , C amb r idg e Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge , p p .1-9 .

Wooley , S i rL eona rd a nd S i r Max Malowan 1 976 T he O ld B aby lon ian P er iod , U r E xcava t ion s V I I , B r i t i sh Mu seum P ub l ica t ion s ,L td , L ondon .

B os ton

S e t s

1 993b " In t roduc t ion : T he S ou rces o f A r chaeo log ica l T heo ry " , i nN . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , e d s . ,A rchaeo -

L ondon a nd P h i lade lph ia .

o sophe r s ,

W ho

Agen -da? , C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idg e .

K ing s , U r E xcava t ion s V I I I , B r i t i sh Mu seum a nd Un iv . Mu seum o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f P enn sy lvan ia .

i n t h e

P h i lo sophy

p p .57 -65 . Z adok s . A .N . a nd J o sephu sJ i t ta

o f

1 952 C a ta logue s omma ire d es c y l ind res o r ien taux a u c ab i n e tr oya ld es m eda i l les aL a Have . L aH aye .

S c ience , V o l .147 , K luwe r A cad em ic P ub . , B o s ton , p p .269 -288 .

Z e t t le r , R icha rd L . , e ta l .

Wy l ie , A . a nd V . P in sky , e d s . 1 989 C r i t ica l T rad i t ions i n C on temporary A rchaeo logy ,

1 993 N ippur I I : K a s s i te B u i ld ing si nA r ea WC -1 , O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion s , V o l .111 , T h eO r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o ft he Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago , C h icago .

C amb r idg e Un iver s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . Y of f e e ,N o rman

Z ub row , E zra 1 994 " Cogn i t ive A r chaeo logy R econ s id er ed " , i n C . R en f r ew a nd E . Z ub row , e d s . , T he A nc ien t M ind : E le -

1 977a T he E conom ic R o l e o f t h e C rown i n t h e O ld B aby lon ian P er iod . B ib l io theca Me sopo tam ica , V o l . 5 , Und ena P ub l ica t ion s , Ma l ibu .

m en t s o f C ogn i t ive A rchaeo logy , C amb r idge Un i v e r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idg e , p p .187 190 .

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