Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies: Research Experiences and Outcomes in Enhanced Learning and Teaching at Cadi Ayyad University (Lecture Notes in Educational Technology) 9811951365, 9789811951367

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Lecture Notes in Educational Technology

Khalid Berrada Daniel Burgos   Editors

Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies Research Experiences and Outcomes in Enhanced Learning and Teaching at Cadi Ayyad University

Lecture Notes in Educational Technology Series Editors Ronghuai Huang, Smart Learning Institute, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China Kinshuk, College of Information, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA Mohamed Jemni, University of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia Nian-Shing Chen, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu, Taiwan J. Michael Spector, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

The series Lecture Notes in Educational Technology (LNET), has established itself as a medium for the publication of new developments in the research and practice of educational policy, pedagogy, learning science, learning environment, learning resources etc. in information and knowledge age, – quickly, informally, and at a high level. Abstracted/Indexed in: Scopus, Web of Science Book Citation Index

Khalid Berrada · Daniel Burgos Editors

Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies Research Experiences and Outcomes in Enhanced Learning and Teaching at Cadi Ayyad University

Editors Khalid Berrada Mohammed V University in Rabat Rabat, Morocco

Daniel Burgos Universidad Internacional De La Rioja Logroño, Spain

ISSN 2196-4963 ISSN 2196-4971 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Educational Technology ISBN 978-981-19-5136-7 ISBN 978-981-19-5137-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Contents

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10 Years of Research at Cadi Ayyad University: Pedagogical Innovation to Cross Borders in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Khalid Berrada, Khadija El Kharki, and Daniel Burgos

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Active Learning—A Pedagogy Towards Rational Thinking . . . . . . . . Hana Ait Si Ahmad, Minella Alarcon, and Khalid Berrada

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Promoting Experimental Education with Microcomputer-Based Laboratory: The Case of MicroLab ExAO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sofia Margoum, Faouzi Bensamka, Amane Oueriagli, Abdelaziz El Boujlaidi, and Khalid Berrada

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Open Educational Resources as a Global Solution for Wider Class Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sara Ouahib, Khadija El Kharki, Rachid Bendaoud, Daniel Burgos, and Khalid Berrada Blended Learning as the Best Scenario for Institutions Affected by Massification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sana Boutarti, Khalid Berrada, and Daniel Burgos The University Strategic Plan to Face Disruptive Classes During the Covid-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hana Ait Si Ahmad, Khadija El Kharki, Daniel Burgos, and Khalid Berrada From MOOCs to OER: A Case Study of the “Maroc Université Numérique” Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sofia Margoum, Said Machwate, Ismail Mekkaoui Alaoui, Rachid Bendaoud, Marc Landry, Karine Masse, Mohammed Bennis, and Khalid Berrada

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Motives to Attend Entrepreneurship MOOC: Lessons Drawn from the Experience of Ph.D. Students at University Cadi Ayyad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moulay Othman Idrissi Fakhreddine and Khalid Berrada

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Personalised Learning Paths for Smart Education: Case Studies from Cadi Ayyad University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Essaid El Bachari, Outmane Bourkoukou, El Hassan Abdelwahed, and Mohamed El Adnani

10 Towards Adaptive Teaching Through Continuous Monitoring of Students’ Learning Using Artificial Intelligence and the Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Aimad Karkouch and Hajar Mousannif 11 Impact of Using Smart Learning Platforms in E-learning on Student Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Abdelali El Gourari, Mustapha Raoufi, and Mohammed Skouri 12 Dynamic Collaborative Learning Based on Recommender Systems and Emergent Collective Intelligence in Online Learning Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Sara Qassimi, Meriem Hafidi, El Hassan Abdelwahed, and Aimad Qazdar 13 Impact of Choices Made at the Summative Evaluation on the Teacher’s Practice: Case of Teaching Mathematics at the Last Year of High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Mustapha Ourahay, Youssef Ezzahraouy, Somaya E. L. Gharras, and Abdelaziz Razouki 14 The Impact of Ict on Teaching by Procedural Simulation . . . . . . . . . . 173 Soumia Merrou, Khalid Berrada, Khadija El Kharki, Moulay El Mehdi Bouhamidi, and Daniel Burgos

Chapter 1

10 Years of Research at Cadi Ayyad University: Pedagogical Innovation to Cross Borders in Education Khalid Berrada, Khadija El Kharki, and Daniel Burgos

Abstract This introductory chapter presents an overview of all contributions that summarize a decade of scientific research around science education at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). Several practical cases have been presented and discussed in real situations in our classes, and the results have been taken into consideration. All studies have been quantified with data and reflect various issues that Moroccan universities were facing, as well as massification, digital transformation, COVID-19 pandemic, development of AI, traditional and active learning and teaching, new tools for assessment, introduction of educational technology in teaching and development of ICT in classes and technological progress, among others. These scientific contributions are a field of pedagogical innovation in which PhD students at UCA are conducting research. This work aims to inspire educators, PhD students and all stakeholders with the models we developed at the university, putting various research ideas together to promote the quality of higher education. Keywords Active learning · Science education · Pedagogical engineering · UNESCO Chair · Educational technology · Didactics of science · Pedagogical innovation · Enhanced learning and teaching

K. Berrada Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No. 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B. P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] K. El Kharki Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, B. P. 2390, Marrakech, Morocco D. Burgos (B) Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED), Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR), Avenida de la Paz, 137, La Rioja, 26006 Logroño, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_1

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1 Introduction We are living in a world that is constantly changing; now, the pace of change is much faster due to technological progress. This exponential change has an impact on all aspects and structures of our life. Today, objects that had been omnipresent and frequently used in different domains of our daily life are being replaced by modern, mobile and smart emerging technologies. This technological revolution prevents educators from continuing to teach in the same traditional way that they were taught. However, the learners of the Z generation (born when digital technology was already well established in society) who form the majority of today’s university learners and the learners of the Alpha generation (born with the iPad and the iPhone) who will form the university learners of tomorrow need to acquire competencies for this new information age. For this reason, policymakers, curriculum developers and educators were required to take the way to the transformation of the whole education system associated with the digitalization of society. Universities around the world are continuously transforming to respond to these new challenges because higher education is a major human and economic development issue in all countries. Indeed, it will determine nations’ competitiveness and their future. Higher education also plays a key role in achieving the goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Technological innovation is effective in many areas, and it is also the case for education. These innovations have the potential to renew and upgrade the tools and equipment used in education. Therefore, to meet the needs and expectations of the new era, education has to benefit from technological opportunities. It is essential to bring a techno-pedagogical dimension to education. In this context, pedagogical innovation contributes to levelling up learning and teaching practices to achieve the global competencies required for the twenty-first century. It is becoming a priority in many higher education institutions. It allows learners to be empowered with greater competencies that are more appropriate for a challenging labour market. These include innovation, collaboration, problemsolving, critical thinking, autonomy, creativity and digital literacy. This leads all stakeholders to work on and set new innovative approaches and competency-oriented pedagogies for teaching and learning, in order to facilitate the development of such competencies and promote pedagogical innovation and digital learning.

2 How Has UCA Faced the Challenges? To join this new stage and be one of the distinguished higher education institutions in the world, Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) has embraced the digital transformation. UCA has systematically included these new orientations into their strategic plan and development project. This aims to make UCA a notable modern university, a

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socially responsible citizen involved in regional and national social and economic development and responding to the challenges facing the development of the country. Many research groups and initiatives have been created at UCA from 2006 to 2021 to reinforce the potential of science education at all levels. One such initiative is the UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics workshops, which were launched at UCA in 2006. A local team of facilitators largely contributed to training trainers in many Moroccan and African universities. In 2010, a UNESCO Chair for Teaching Physics by Doing was created at UCA (Berrada et al., 2014, 2010; Ben Lakhdar et al., 2007). The actions developed concerned more than 1,000 teachers from both high schools and higher education institutions (Alarcon et al., 2010; Berrada & Fertat, 2010). In 2013, UCA created the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation (CIP), a couple of years after the establishment of the Transdisciplinary Group of Research on Educative Innovation (Trans ERIE). Trans ERIE works in close collaboration with the CIP to measure the effectiveness of the innovative pedagogical solutions launched at the university; it is leading science education research, which we will describe later. The application of modern technologies in the educational process requires a scientific justification; at UCA, 15 years of scientific research have confirmed the effectiveness and efficiency of using modern pedagogies and digital technologies in the educational system. In addition, the ongoing crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the intensive use of technologies for learning and teaching, which has highlighted the value of pedagogical innovation. It has also demonstrated that the digitalization of higher educational systems offers opportunities in terms of online and blended learning. This book, Pedagogy, Didactics, and Educational Technologies—Research Experiences and Outcomes in Enhanced Learning and Teaching at Cadi Ayyad University, presents an overview of the rich experiences and innovative development of scientific research around pedagogy, didactics, e-learning, MOOCs, OERs, active learning, hybrid learning, LMS platforms, simulation, IA, IoT and other educational technologies that were carried out at UCA between 2006 and 2021.

3 Development of Research in Educational Innovation at UCA This book describes the most important scientific research developed around pedagogical innovation at UCA. It addresses various aspects that affect the practices and challenges that our university is currently facing. Trans ERIE is one of the research teams leading our pedagogical innovation and science education in collaboration with other departments and research groups at UCA, which has coordinated and contributed to this book. The book contains thirteen chapters, as follows: • Chapter 2 presents a model for the implementation of active learning strategies in physics teaching that promote innovation in the classroom in terms of hands-on

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activities and teaching methods. We will discover how active learning methods improve learners’ understanding of basic physics concepts. Active learning also changes the role of the teacher from an authoritarian dispenser of knowledge to a guide and facilitator who helps and guides the learners. Chapter 3 describes the development of an interactive learning environment for experiments using the microcomputer-based laboratory that promotes the experimental teaching of science by applying active/participatory teaching methods to improve knowledge assimilation and increase learner success. The chapter presents the case of the MicroLab ExAO project, which is a powerful pedagogical instrument for promoting the implementation of interdisciplinary activities to teach practical work at the university. Chapter 4 discusses the potential of open educational resources (OER) as a comprehensive solution for widening access to education and their use in overcoming the problems of massification within UCA. It presents the OER initiatives that have been launched and developed by the university. These initiatives can be considered as an efficient model that can be generalized to other universities. They also serve as a starting point for discovering more innovative and digitally compatible alternatives that contribute to broadening access to education by reaching different types of learners, including those with special needs, thus ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning. Chapter 5 focuses on the blended learning or hybrid learning approach as a solution for classification issues in UCA faculties. It sheds light on studies and projects that were carried out based on this approach, showing the effectiveness of blended learning in improving learners’ engagement and learning in large classes. We will discuss how the hybridization of courses was one of the strategies adopted by the university to manage the increasing number of students enrolled, especially under the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Chapter 6 discusses the strategic plan carried out by UCA in light of disruptions to classes during the COVID-19 pandemic to guarantee the continuity of education. We present and discuss all the initiatives and measures implemented in times of crisis to provide answers to the challenges we have been facing and maintain the quality of higher education during the closures of the university. Chapter 7 shows the experience of UCA in the openness movement by discussing the three MOOCs that were produced as open educational resources for the Moroccan platform MUN. It describes the content of the three MOOCs and presents their structure and some of the main results in terms of delivery. Chapter 8 presents a contribution to the nascent literature on MOOCs in Morocco by providing practical insights for UCA managers and professors when designing entrepreneurship MOOCs, as well as for policymakers to profit from classes’ advantages. This entrepreneurship education would in turn overcome unemployment problems among young graduate learners. Chapter 9 reports the experience of UCA in personalized online learning paths for smart education. It focuses on this issue to design and implement a smart education framework using machine learning and learning styles tools. The result

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reveals the suitability of using artificial intelligence in order to support online learning activities to enhance learning. Chapter 10 shows the feedback regarding methods from the traditional ‘show of hands’ to the more advanced AI-driven emotion-based learners’ response system. It explores various applications of AI in the educational field and presents a novel approach to using embedded smart objects to monitor learners’ states. It concludes that AI and IoT are shaping up to be significant enablers of an evolution—if not a revolution—in the educational sector. Chapter 11 illustrates the positive impact of using intelligent learning platforms and their multiple media on the quality of learning achievement. It helps teachers solve the problems facing them by putting the students at the centre of the educational process, providing an opportunity for them to benefit from the technological explosion and harnessing it to achieve meaningful education, through the use of this type of platform. Chapter 12 explores dynamic collaborative learning based on recommender systems and emergent collective intelligence in online learning communities at UCA. The chapter presents a multi-layer graph-based recommender system that enables pedagogical resources to be recommended by relying on the connections between individuals in collaborative online learning communities. Chapter 13 focuses on the impact of some choices made at the summative evaluation in the teachers’ practices. The team discussed the methodological aspects and the choices made at the institutional level to better identify the sustained issues and the quality of pedagogical practices that frame the teaching of mathematics. Finally, a summative assessment was reviewed and standardized to increase the success rate and ensure equity and equality of opportunity. Chapter 14 proposes a new approach to teaching by simulations based on reverse pedagogical principles that stress the contribution of digital technologies and ICT in teaching/learning for better time management and the active involvement of learners in their learning. In addition to its positive impact on the running of the simulation sessions, the hybrid teaching model was clearly appreciated by the students; moreover, 95% of them expressed a preference for mixed education over the current (face-to-face) model.

4 Conclusion The chapters presented in this book have been carefully chosen based on their results and how they were developed on a timeline consistent with the need to teach and learn locally. We developed and discussed the concepts and results of these chapters. In particular, Chap. 5 is devoted to the university’s strategy for the COVID-19 pandemic and how the research findings and the results of other mentioned projects have helped us to deal with this situation. The approach adopted by the university was first based on developing research in science education, targeting and focusing on topics, then on experimenting and sharing and, finally, on evaluating and publishing results. By

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leading this area of science education, the university would like to reinforce the potential for developing research in pedagogy and contribute to the modernization of higher education in Morocco. Acknowledgements The authors would especially like to thank all members of the UNESCO Chair project Teaching Physics by Doing who have largely contributed to the success of all actions since its creation at UCA: Prof. Amane Oueriagli, Prof. Rafik Channa, Prof. Abdelkader Outzourhit, Prof. Faouzi Bensamka, Prof. Rachid Bendaoud, Prof. Mustapha Azizan, M. Said Machwate, Prof. Abdelaziz El Boujlaidi, Prof. Lahcen El Hassani Ameziane, Prof. Mohammed Elomari, Ms. Hana Ait Si Ahmad, Ms. Sofia Margoum, Prof. Hassan Hamdi, Prof. Aziz Fouari, Prof. Fouad Debbagh and Prof. Said El Hasri. We are also very grateful to all the partners who have helped to sustain the model developed at UCA by transforming the potential of science education research into real practical actions where the learners are at the heart of the learning process. We thank Prof. Minella Alarcon (Philippines), Prof. Zohra Ben Lakhdar (Tunisia), Prof. David Sokoloff (USA), Prof. Alex Mazzolini (Australia), Prof. Tijania Fertat (Morocco) and Prof. Abdellatif Miraoui (Morocco) for their trust and support. More than the members and partners, we have been undoubtedly supported by national and international organizations, as well as UNESCO, IUPAP, AFOP, OSA, SPIE, ICTP, STO, SMPA, IGPD-EPS, ICO, AAPT, Moroccan universities and the Moroccan National Commission for Science, Education, and Culture. We are very grateful to all cited organizations and institutions; without their support, nothing would have been done.

References Alarcon, M., Ben Lakhdar, Z., Lahmar, S., Berrada, K., & Sokoloff, D. (2010). Active learning in optics and photonics (ALOP): A model for teacher training and professional development. In International Educational Meeting in Optics & Photonics (Vol. 7783, pp. 1–8). San Diego, USA. Ben Lakhdar, Z., Derbel, N., Dhaouadi, Z., Ghalila, H., Miled, R., Lahmar, S., Berrada, K., Channa, R., & Outzourhit, A. (2007). Active learning in physics a way for rational thinking—A way for development. In M. Nantel (Ed.), Education and training in optics and photonics (pp. 1–6). https://doi.org/10.1364/ETOP.2007.ESA1 Berrada, K., & Fertat, T. (2010). Sense of achievement in optics and photonics in Morocco: The case study of Regional Academy of Education and Training for Rabat and its region. In International Educational Meeting in Optics and Photonics. San Diego, USA. Berrada, K., Lahmar, S., & UNESCO Working Group. (2010). ALOP training manual on active learning on optics and photonics (French edition). UNESCO. Berrada, K., Channa, R., Outzourhit, A., Azizan, M., & Oueriagli, A. (2014). UNESCO active learning approach in optics and photonics leads to significant change in Morocco. In M. Costa & M. Zghal (Eds.), 12th education and training in optics and photonics conference (Vol. 9289, pp. 196–202). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2070289

Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chair of Teaching Physics by Doing. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books and special issues in indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French program of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016.

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Khadija El Kharki is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is a holder of a master’s degree in Engineering and Technology of Education and Training. She is developing research on virtual laboratories based on digital simulation with the JavaScript programming language with Trans ERIE research group at UCA. Daniel Burgos works as Vice-Rector for International Research (https://research.unir.net) and Director of the Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED, https://ited.unir.net), at Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR). He is also the UNESCO Chair on eLearning. His work is focused on adaptive, personalized and informal eLearning, learning analytics, open education and open science, eGames and eLearning specifications. He has published over 200 scientific papers, 30 books and 15 special issues in indexed journals. He has developed over 70 European and worldwide R&D public projects with a practical implementation approach. He holds 10 doctorates, including Computer Science and Education.

Chapter 2

Active Learning—A Pedagogy Towards Rational Thinking Hana Ait Si Ahmad, Minella Alarcon, and Khalid Berrada

Abstract Innovation in science and technology education is important for national development. The challenge is particularly acute in developing countries, which often lack trained teachers and basic scientific equipment. Teaching and learning physics, as well as other STEM disciplines, is challenging for teachers and learners, respectively; hence, integrating active learning methods to improve the understanding of basic concepts in physics is warranted. For the stakeholders, namely teachers and learners, the transition from traditional teaching practice to active learning is fraught with challenges and risks, which are represented by the nature of the knowledge, programs and learning activities. In 2010, the UNESCO Chair “Teaching Physics by Doing” was installed at Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco, among UNESCO’s structural actions to promote and innovate physics education. The project focuses on active learning, which involves learners in the learning process. The objective of this project is to promote effective learning to enable students of physics to actively participate in practical and conceptual activities. Many teachers at Cadi Ayyad University have been working on this project following the positive changes that have occurred during these years. Keywords Active learning · Inquiry-based learning · Learning · Traditional teaching · Pedagogy · Active learning in optics and photonics · Interactive lecture demonstration

H. Ait Si Ahmad Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, B. P. 2390, Marrakech, Morocco M. Alarcon Ateneo de Manila University, 30 Canisius, Ateneo Housing, Barangka, 1803 Marikina City, Metro Manila, Philippines K. Berrada (B) Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No. 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B. P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_2

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1 Introduction Competent teachers trained in subject knowledge and in the art of teaching, which aims at applying innovative teaching and learning techniques, are lacking in the fields of science and technology. According to Kipnis, although it is recognised that without science education there would be no science, this fundamental reality is often overlooked (Kipnis, 1996). The teaching process aims to change the way learners understand, experience or conceptualise the world around them through the learning experience and uses teachers’ reflections on their work to influence learners’ learning (Ramsden, 2003). The traditional lecture format of most science and technology subjects presents a challenge for both teachers and learners, as each science subject has its own characteristics (nature, materials and classroom). Science and technology education worldwide is seen as an important element in the development of skills and promotion of science, technology and innovation, particularly with respect to the application, adaptation and use of technologies in the workplace. The need to improve science education has attracted considerable attention worldwide. In developed countries, the challenge is great; in developing countries, the challenge is particularly true, where there is often a lack of trained teachers, effective materials and the most basic supplies and equipment (Cambaliza et al., 2004; Niemela, 2006). In their efforts to develop science and technology education in developing countries, the World Bank and UNESCO have funded and adopted projects and activities to address the need for upgrading teachers and introducing innovative approaches to learning methods (The World Bank, 2020) (Science Education | UNESCO, 2017). There is a remarkable difference in the field of science and technology education in terms of the methodological approaches adopted. When talking about science education, it is essential to adopt an investigative approach based on the simulation of real-life problems. Investigative approach is a technique used by teachers to develop scientific thinking and reasoning in learners. The ultimate value of this approach is reflected, on the one hand, in the ability of teachers to innovate new teaching techniques, and on the other hand, to give learners an environment where they can build knowledge and develop thinking and creative skills. In particular, the investigative approach calls for experimentation based on learning by doing (learner-centred learning). Learning by doing can make a difference and is much more effective than traditional teaching methods, especially when the objective is to enable learners to use the knowledge they have acquired to solve a complex, structurally incomplete and new problem (Lesgold, 2001). The objective of this chapter is to describe UNESCO’s active learning in optics and photonics (ALOP) project, implemented at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) in 2010, with the aim of ensuring quality physics teaching and student learning through the integration of the student in the learning process by his involvement in practical and conceptual activities. This chapter also emphasises the importance of implementing active learning strategies that promote innovation in the classroom in terms of hands-on activities and teaching methods.

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2 Active Learning: Towards a More Interactive Pedagogy Cognitive and reflective engagement of the learner in a task of a learning activity promotes a good understanding of the activity and its purpose. Active learning is characterised by the compilation of learner-centred pedagogical approaches aimed at involving students effectively in the learning process and knowledge building through the teacher–learner interaction (Pitterson et al., 2016). This interaction is different from that in passive learning, which uses teacher-centred pedagogical approaches aimed at promoting a one-way, deductive and partial mode of teaching. Over the past decade, interest has been growing in developing new models of teaching based on constructivist models, such as interactive engagement, problembased reasoning and collaborative problem-solving strategies (Pirker et al., 2014). When we talk about interactive engagement, we challenge learners to solve a set of problems, for example, through face-to-face lectures. A study of 6,000 students shows that interactive engagement strategies are ideal for supporting problem-solving skills and conceptual understanding in learners (Hake, 1998).

2.1 Traditional Teaching Versus Active Learning The concept of teaching is based on the transmission of knowledge and skills to receivers and requires integrating a set of teaching methods and techniques (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2018). In recent years, educational sciences and teaching methods and approaches have received a great deal of attention and innovation. How can these knowledge and skills be transmitted to learners? To answer this question, two types of teaching or learning processes can be distinguished: traditional and active. Lectures based on the passive approach of knowledge transmission (behaviourism model) are probably the oldest known teaching techniques used (Omelicheva & Avdeyeva, 2008). Its one-way transmission character—in which the teacher is the transmitter and the learner is the receiver who records—shows that it does not promote cognitive objectives and skills. By contrast, the active teaching method is based on active pedagogies and models of constructivism and socio-constructivism. Active learning involves learners in the learning process using classroom activities. The fundamental elements of active learning include learner’s activities and engagement in the learning process (Prince, 2004; Hyun et al., 2017). According to Armbruster et al., the evaluation of biology students at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., of the biology lecture course indicated that students were not satisfied with the course and did not recognise the importance of the course content. In course evaluations, students often indicated that the lectures and course materials were “boring”. This automatically implied poor performance and a lack of learner participation in the course (Armbruster et al., 2009). However, integrating

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active learning techniques into the pedagogical design of courses improved student attitudes and increased student performance and participation (Weimer, 2002).

2.2 Are We Ready for Active Learning? Teaching with pedagogical approaches based on active learning is more worrying for students, regardless of their level, who are not accustomed to this type of teaching methods. Learning through more innovative and interactive methods requires pedagogical and methodological skills that the teacher must apply, or else, the learner will lose motivation and surrender quickly. Consequently, the teacher must mobilise didactic, pedagogical and techno-pedagogical skills and often innovate to transform traditional teaching into a more active and interactive one.

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Challenges of Active Learning

In some cases, teachers claim to perform active pedagogy, when in fact, they include active learning activities incorrectly (Normand, 2017). To truly realise the full potential of active learning, some settings need to be considered. For both stakeholders, and teachers and learners, the process of moving from traditional teaching practices to an active learning mode is full of challenges and risks. These challenges are represented, first and foremost, in the nature of the knowledge, curriculum and learning activities to be formulated: the manner in which teachers plan, organise and promote active learning methods, and the conditions under which learners appreciate these methods. Implementing active learning requires discussion among students and their colleagues, which decreases the amount of course material to be transmitted in the classroom and increases the quality of learning. Moreover, the implementation of active learning methods does not promote straight lecturing but requires the provision of innovative and reliable materials and teaching resources to ensure and promote interaction among students and the smooth running of the course. The main role of teachers, which was limited to transmissive pedagogy, now changes to that of being a guide and facilitator of knowledge. The transformation from a traditional to an active course occurs progressively, complete with a followup and evaluation of those changes. Making only a few modifications to the course the first time is recommended, followed by evaluating what works and needs to be corrected to assess the understanding of the students, before making further changes (Holbert & Karady, 2008).

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Inquiry-Based Learning Science

Generally, science teachers focus more on knowledge and less on the methodology of transmitting that knowledge. Learning physical sciences is done through experiments and learning by doing. The understanding of learners should be built through the investigative approach and inquiry-based learning. The latter is to involve learners in an active learning environment by stimulating their curiosity and willingness to understand the laws of physics and scientific phenomena. Inquiry-based learning is essential for providing the skills and understanding individuals need in a rapidly changing world, as well as for societies that increasingly depend on the applications of these subjects in the fields of technology and engineering (Harlen, 2013). Teaching through inquiry-based learning has shown positive results in terms of understanding. A significant difference in achievement levels exists between learners who have received inquiry-based teaching and learners who have received traditional teaching. Learners who have followed inquiry-based learning have a better understanding of scientific concepts (Abdi, 2014; Anderson, 2002).

3 Active Learning Laboratories and Interactive Lecture Demonstrations Innovation in science involves the development of new concepts and tools for experimentation. The development of science leads to the development of a society—based on knowledge, rational thinking and scientific behaviour—with a new Truth. This Truth has its origin in the experimental approach introduced by Ibn Al Haythem in optics in the tenth century (Ben Lakhdar et al., 2007). Active learning techniques in physics involve extensive use of technology, including computers and modelling software. With such tools and curricula, significant changes have been possible in laboratory learning. Examples of active learning techniques in the developed world are among the techniques from Physics Suite (Redish & Burciaga, 2004). These include practical laboratory techniques, such as real-time physics (Sokoloff et al., 2007).

3.1 New Form of Lecture-Based Learning Most physics courses globally are taught in traditional lecture mode, often in lecture halls with more than 100 students, whereas active learning in physics has been developed over the last decade to improve students’ understanding of basic physics concepts. With such active learning techniques, it is possible to make significant changes in the learning environment in lecture halls, without changing the structure of the lecture or practical work and the traditional way of lecturing (Thornton &

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Sokoloff, 1998). Transforming teaching from a passive to active mode without significantly changing the structure of the initial lecture requires implementing a strategy to make the lecture more active. This strategy must be based on conceptual approaches integrated with experimental activities while letting the learners build knowledge.

3.2 Interactive Lecture Demonstrations Interactive lecture demonstrations (ILDs) are well-structured and scenarised course activities that can be a simulation, classroom experiment, survey, etc. These ILDs have been proposed to enhance the conceptual learning of physics. They promote student engagement through the implementation of activities according to their initial or previous understanding of basic concepts. In other words, ILDs aim to stimulate students’ thinking and guide them to modify their ideas by discussing them with their peers and observing real demonstrations (Interactive Lecture Demonstrations | DB-SERC, 2018). Thus, the usually passive lecture is converted to a more active occasion for learning. Research in physics education, mainly at the University of Oregon and Tufts University (in the United States), has led to the development of ILDs to enhance conceptual learning in the classroom (Sokoloff & Thornton, 2004, 1997). Eight steps are prescribed: 1. The teacher describes the demonstration and—if appropriate—performs it for the class, without taking measurements. 2. Students are asked to write their individual predictions on a prediction sheet, which will be collected (Students are assured that these predictions will not be scored. However, they may be rewarded for their attendance and participation in these ILD sessions.). 3. Students engage in small group discussions with 1 or 2 nearest neighbours. 4. The teacher solicits predictions from all groups. 5. Students write the final predictions on the prediction sheet. 6. The teacher demonstrates with results clearly presented. 7. A few students describe and discuss the results in relation to the demonstration. Students can fill out a results sheet identical to the prediction sheet that they can take with them for further study. 8. Students (or the teacher) discuss physical situations in the classroom, similar, but different in appearance, based on the same concepts. The eight steps of ILD are designed to involve students in the learning process, encourage students to make predictions based on their beliefs and observe each demonstration based on models commonly used by them. Then they have students discuss their predictions with their classmates. After these steps are done, most students will be attentive to what happens during the demonstration. They become interested in what is going on. Because the results are often different from their predictions, their attitudes are likely to change in subsequent discussions.

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4 UNESCO’S ALOP Within the framework of innovations in university physics education, UNESCO has promoted projects in various developing countries to improve the skills of teachers on the one hand, and pedagogical approaches and learning methods on the other (Niemela, 2006). The objective of these UNESCO initiatives on active learning is to build a conceptual learning environment where students of physics are fully involved in the construction of knowledge through practical class activities. The ALOP project, designed by UNESCO, was started in 2004. UNESCO is coordinating and financing this project, with the support of Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) and the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE) (Niemela, 2006). In this project, the focus has been on training workshops for teacher trainers on the active learning approach to teaching and subject matter development. These ALOP workshops contain six modules in optics and photonics as well as active and practical applications using low-cost and locally available materials. The materials used in the activities are generally simple and available in most countries. Equipment may be locally fabricated. Light and optics conceptual evaluation (LOCE) has been developed as part of the program to assess the learning gains of the participants in optics. The five-day workshop follows a training manual, which provides inquiry materials, teacher guides and apparatus plans that can be translated into local languages and adapted to meet local needs. The training manual has been translated from its original English version into French, Spanish and Arabic (Alarcon et al., 2010). Since the inception of the ALOP project in 2004, the workshops have brought together more than 1,000 teachers from 15 developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. These ALOP workshops offer participants an instructive update in the fields of optics and photonics. Moreover, they provide active teaching strategies based on ILDs that have proven to be more effective than traditional methods and that UNESCO-published statistics demonstrate the effectiveness of the ALOP project (Active Learning in Optics and Photonics (ALOP) | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2017).

4.1 PODS Learning Cycle In this teaching strategy adopted by UNESCO, the ALOP project allows learners to become directly involved in the construction of knowledge around physics concepts through direct and real observations of the physical world and the integration of experiments based on active learning methods into the structure of the lectures. With the full involvement of all stakeholders (teachers and learners), ALOP allows learners to become aware of the differences between their beliefs and the laws of physics that govern the physical world, using a professional learning process that includes

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prediction, discussion, observation and comparison of observed results with predictions (PODS: Prediction, Observation, Discussion, and Synthesis) (Niemela, 2006). This cycle is a structured approach that allows teachers to plan their lessons with the goal of improving professional practice. Initially, learners in small groups are asked to make predictions about what they believe will be the outcome of an experiment, which is then performed. The learners make observations and the teacher initiates small group discussions among them about remarkable differences between their predictions and observations. Finally, the teacher guides them to synthesise their own thoughts and build their own understanding of physics concepts based on their observations. This blended learning strategy was more effective than traditional lectures alone in overcoming students’ conceptual difficulties (Mazzolini et al., 2012). By using this PODS learning cycle, learners clearly identify their misconceptions (difference between their predictions and observations), and therefore, foster an environment of cognitive stimulation to ensure understanding.

4.2 UNESCO Active Learning Projects Science education is an important part of all UNESCO programs in science, education and communication (Science Education Programme | UNESCO, 2017). After its installation in Morocco, and specifically at Cadi Ayyad University, the UNESCO Chair on Teaching Physics by Doing has set up a project on ALOP. Morocco is one of the countries where ALOP has been widely disseminated in national and higher education, based on the objectives of improving best practices in teaching optics and photonics in the classroom (Berrada et al., 2014). The UNESCO Chair project was established at Cadi Ayyad University with the aim of promoting physics education by encouraging the use of active methods based on educational technologies in laboratory activities using appropriate and inexpensive teaching techniques and equipment. In addition, it aimed to develop new physics curricula and enhance the role of conceptual assessment in the classroom. Initially, the program focused on optics and photonics, then the active learning approach was extended to mechanics and electricity. Before the implementation of the ALOP project, the activities in the Geometric Optics course seemed to be more challenging for students, and rarely did the results obtained with classical teaching exceed 18% of good results (for example, in 2012, only 15% passed the course). Then, in active learning mode and with the help of the ILD structured activities, where experiments are performed in class in front of the students with guided instruction, the results showed significant progress, at 78% in 2016. In Morocco, the timing of establishing the UNESCO Chair project coincided with a period of innovation in the education sector through the launching of several reforms in the framework of the development of the quality of teaching and teacher training. Simultaneously, the project was formalised by the Minister of National Education, Technical Education, and Vocational Training as a model for teacher

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training; training workshops were led by the National Center for Pedagogical Innovations and Experimentation (CNIPE) (Berrada et al., 2014), to disseminate this training approach in science education among teachers and national education inspectors through Morocco’s regional academies.

5 Conclusion It is clear that science education has an impact on the development of technologies, attitudes and scientific potential globally. Therefore, science education requires innovations, especially in the pedagogical practices of teachers. The ALOP project has implemented active learning methods whose objective is to give learners the opportunity to understand and build their knowledge of physics and apply them in real life. ALOP has radically changed the role of the teacher at UCA from an authoritarian, knowledge dispenser to a guide and facilitator of learning. Through the ALOP project, UNESCO has been able to promote the development of pedagogical practices at UCA, implementing training programs and projects to keep up with the global evolution of these active learning approaches. Acknowledgements This work was realised within the framework of the UNESCO Chair “Teaching Physics by Doing” at Cadi Ayyad University. The authors would like to give special thanks to the UNESCO ALOP team for their encouragement and valuable advice.

References Abdi, A. (2014). The effect of inquiry-based learning method on students’ academic achievement in science course. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 2(1), 37–41. https://doi.org/10. 13189/ujer.2014.020104 Active Learning in Optics and Photonics (ALOP) | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2017). Retrieved January 26, 2021, from http://www.unesco.org/new/ en/natural-sciences/special-themes/science-education/basic-sciences/physics/active-learningin-optics-and-photonics-alop/ Ait Si Ahmad, H., Berrada, K., Oueriagli, A., & El Boujlaidi, A. (2018). Impact de l ’ apprentissage actif sur l ’ enseignement de la physique à l ’ université. International Journal of Applied Research and Technology, 2018, 19–22. Retrieved from http://www.ijartech.com/detailsJIP.php Alarcon, M., Lakhdar, Z. B., Culaba, I., Lahmar, S., Lakshminarayanan, V., Mazzolini, A. P., Maquiling, J., & Niemela, J. (2010). Active learning in optics and photonics (ALOP): a model for teacher training and professional development. Proc. SPIE Optics Education and Outreach, 7783, 778303 (20 August 2010) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.860708

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Anderson, R. D. (2002). Reforming science teaching: What research says about inquiry. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 13(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015171124982 Armbruster, P., Patel, M., Johnson, E., & Weiss, M. (2009). Active learning and student-centered pedagogy improve student attitudes and performance in introductory biology. CBE Life Sciences Education, 8(3), 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.09-03-0025 Ben Lakhdar, Z., Derbel, N., Dhaouadi, Z., Ghalila, H., Miled, R., Lahmar, S., et al. (2007). Active learning in physics a way for rational thinking—A way for development. Education and Training in Optics and Photonics, ESA1. https://doi.org/10.1364/ETOP.2007.ESA1 Berrada, K., Channa, R., Outzourhit, A., Azizan, M., & Oueriagli, A. (2014). UNESCO active learning approach in optics and photonics leads to significant change in Morocco. In 12th Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference, 9289, 92890W. https://doi.org/10.1117/ 12.2070289 Cambaliza, O. L., Mazzolini, A. P., & Alarcon, M. C. (2004, January). Adapting active learning approaches in physics education to local Asian environments. 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1142/978 9812702890_0009 Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.18809 Harlen, W. (2013). Inquiry-based learning in science and mathematics mots-clÉs. Review of Science, Mathematics and ICT Education, 7(2), 9–33. https://doi.org/10.26220/REV.2042 Holbert, K. E., & Karady, G. G. (2008). Strategies, challenges and prospects for active learning in the computer-based classroom. IEEE Transactions on Education, 52(1), 31–38. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/tl.20086 Hyun, J., Ediger, R., & Lee, D. (2017). Students’ satisfaction on their learning process in active learning and traditional classrooms. International Journal of Teaching, 29(1), 108–118. Retrieved from http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ Interactive Lecture Demonstrations | dB-SERC. (2018). Retrieved January 24, 2021, from http:// dbserc.pitt.edu/Resources/Interactive-Lecture-Demonstrations Kipnis, N. (1996). The “historical-investigative” approach to teaching science. Science and Education, 5(3), 277–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00414317 Lesgold, A. M. (2001). The nature and methods of learning by doing. American Psychologist, 56(11), 964–973. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.11.964 Mazzolini, A. P., Daniel, S., & Edwards, T. (2012). Using interactive lecture demonstrations to improve conceptual understanding of resonance in an electronics course. Australasian Journal of Engineering Education, 18(1), 69–88. https://doi.org/10.7158/D12-004.2012.18.1 Niemela, 2006Niemela, J. J. (2006). Active learning in optics and photonics. Optics Education and Outreach IV. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2239579 Normand, L. (2017). L’apprentissage actif : UNE question de risques… calculés. Retrieved January 14, 2021, from https://eduq.info/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11515/37485/normand-31-1-2017.pdf? sequence=2&isAllowed=y Omelicheva, M. Y., & Avdeyeva, O. (2008). Teaching with lecture or debate? Testing the effectiveness of traditional versus active learning methods of instruction. PS—Political Science and Politics, 41(3), 603–607. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096508080815 Pirker, J., Riffnaller-Schiefer, M., & Gütl, C. (2014). Motivational active learning—Engaging university students in computer science education. In ITICSE 2014—Proceedings of the 2014 Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education Conference (pp. 297–302). https:// doi.org/10.1145/2591708.2591750 Pitterson, N. P., Brown, S., Pascoe, J., & Fisher, K. Q. (2016). Measuring cognitive engagement through interactive, constructive, active and passive learning activities. In Proceedings—Frontiers in Education Conference, FIE, 2016-Novem. https://doi.org/10.1109/FIE.2016.7757733 Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00809.x Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to teach in higher education. Routledge.

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Redish, E. F., & Burciaga, J. R. (2004). Teaching physics with the physics suite. American Journal of Physics, 72(3), 414–414. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1691552 Science Education Programme | UNESCO. (2017). Retrieved February 3, 2021, from http://www. unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/special-themes/science-education/about-the-programme/ Science Education | UNESCO. (2017). Retrieved February 4, 2021, from http://www.unesco.org/ new/en/natural-sciences/special-themes/science-education/ Sokoloff, D. R., & Thornton, R. K. (2004). Interactive lecture demonstrations. Sokoloff, D. R., Laws, P. W., & Thornton, R. K. (2007). RealTime physics: Active learning labs transforming the introductory laboratory. European Journal of Physics, 28(3). https://doi.org/10. 1088/0143-0807/28/3/S08 Sokoloff, D. R., & Thornton, R. K. (1997). Using interactive lecture demonstrations to create an active learning environment. The Physics Teacher, 35(6), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.234 4715 The World Bank. (2020). Education Overview. Retrieved February 4, 2021, from https://www.wor ldbank.org/en/topic/education/overview Thornton, R. K., & Sokoloff, D. R. (1998). Assessing student learning of Newton’s laws: The force and motion conceptual evaluation and the evaluation of active learning laboratory and lecture curricula. American Journal of Physics, 66(4), 338–352. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.18863 Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. Wiley.

Hana Ait Si Ahmad is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is a holder of a Master’s Degree in Multimedia and Pedagogical Engineering from High Normal School in the UAE. She is developing research on active learning and teaching methods and tools at the Trans ERIE research group at UCA. Minella Alarcon has retired from UNESCO and the Ateneo de Manila University and now teaches part-time as Professorial Lecturer in Physics at the Ateneo de Manila University. Dr. Alarcon was appointed as one of the Commissioners (Deputy Minister) of the Commission on Higher Education of the Republic of the Philippines from 2013 to 2017. In 2010, she retired from UNESCO, where she started as Programme Specialist for the Basic Sciences in UNESCO Jakarta in 1998. From 1998 to 2002, she introduced active learning pedagogy to the Asian Physics Education Network (ASPEN), a UNESCO regional network which she coordinated. In 2002, she moved to the UNESCO Headquarters in Paris, France, as UNESCO Programme Specialist in Physics and Mathematics, the position through which she founded and led from 2004 the Active Learning in Optics and Photonics (ALOP) project. The ALOP project is an advocacy for renewing the way physics is taught and improving conceptual understanding of fundamental optics principles. During 2004–2010, more than 400 trainers of physics teachers in introductory university physics and secondary schools in developing countries have benefited from 13 ALOP workshops organised under the supervision of UNESCO International Basic Sciences Programme, in close cooperation with SPIE and the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP). In 2007, Dr Alarcon was appointed UNESCO Senior Programme Specialist for Science and Technology Education and Technical Capacity-Building, a position she held until her retirement in August 2010. At SPIE Optics and Photonics 2010 in San Diego, USA, the SPIE President gave her a token of recognition for promoting science education as project leader and founder of the UNESCO project “Active Learning in Optics and Photonics (ALOP)”. In 2011, together with the entire ALOP Team, she received the SPIE 2011 Educator Award, in recognition of the team’s efforts under the auspices of UNESCO, to bring optics and photonics training to teachers in the developing world. She was Associate Professor (1990–2002) and Chairperson (1992–1995, 1996–1998) at the Department of Physics, Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines.

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Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder in “Teaching Physics by Doing”. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books and special issues in indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French program of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016.

Chapter 3

Promoting Experimental Education with Microcomputer-Based Laboratory: The Case of MicroLab ExAO Sofia Margoum, Faouzi Bensamka, Amane Oueriagli, Abdelaziz El Boujlaidi, and Khalid Berrada Abstract Efforts toward achieving a quality education system are ongoing. Learning in a laboratory has specific didactic requirements. Not only must learners’ questions be answered at the theoretical level but also learners must be assisted, if necessary, in executing their experiments. In Morocco, some of our universities are witnessing a new era of enhanced learning with the MicroLab ExAO project, which aims to provide an interactive learning environment for experiments using computeraided experimentation technology. It promotes experimental teaching of science by applying active or participatory teaching methods to improve knowledge assimilation and increase learner success. In this chapter, we describe the development of the microcomputer-based laboratory in Morocco through the MicroLab ExAO project. Keywords Experimental education · Microcomputer-based laboratory · Active learning · MicroLab ExAO

S. Margoum · F. Bensamka · A. Oueriagli · A. El Boujlaidi Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, BP 2390, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] F. Bensamka e-mail: [email protected] A. Oueriagli e-mail: [email protected] A. El Boujlaidi e-mail: [email protected] K. Berrada (B) Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, N 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B.P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_3

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1 Teaching Science and Technology Science education aims to improve students’ scientific knowledge by creating an environment in which educators and students work together as active learners. However, science education is not all about learning facts (Sidawi, 2009). An active learning curriculum is about designing and executing investigations in a replicable way, analyzing and developing an argument and providing explanation using scientific principles, such as formulating a hypothesis, designing an experiment to test an assumption and collecting and interpreting data (Kolodner, 2002). Teaching effectiveness is based on the relation between the implementation of instructional approaches and student achievement. For example, inquiry-based teaching plays an important role in improving student learning (Cairns & Areepattamannil, 2019).

2 Inquiry-Based Practical Work Inquiry-based learning is a form of active learning that emphasizes the student’s role in the learning process. It is manifested by the learner by formulating hypotheses and testing them, collecting information and drawing conclusions. Inquiry-based learning was developed during the discovery learning movement of the 1960s; the inquirybased learning environment has been successfully applied since (Herman & Pinard, 2015; Kuhn et al., 2000; Shute & Glaser, 1990). The procedure of acquiring inquiry skills focuses on three steps: inquiry, analysis and interference. During the inquiry stage, students formulate precise questions or predictions based on hypotheses to be tested experimentally. The analysis stage requires designing an experiment based on the layout of experimental conditions. Finally, in the interference stage, students test the hypothesis and modify their theories based on experimental evidence (Keselman, 2003; Pedaste et al., 2015). The learning process shifted from teacher- to student-centered to develop students’ conceptual understanding. Moreover, the student is no longer a consumer of education but an active participant in the learning process; they follow a clear process structure to find information and apply it to inquiry tasks. Educators play the role of a moderator and coach; they provide active support and regular feedback resulting in more effective teaching (McKinney, 2021; Mieg, 2019). Inquiry-based learning is divided into smaller units called inquiry phases. The inquiry-based learning cycle (Pedaste et al., 2015) lists five inquiry phases: orientation, conceptualization, investigation, conclusion and discussion. • Orientation is an intervention made by the teacher to introduce the learning challenge. • Conceptualization is based on the generation of questions and hypotheses. • Investigation is a process that stands on exploration, experimentation and data interpretation.

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• Conclusion summarizes how the results support or contradict the original hypothesis. • The discussion explains the significance of the results, that is, explain, analyze and compare them. This process is about discussing the whole learning cycle. Practical work is a crucial aspect of science education; it includes handling and manipulating absolute objects and materials. Laboratory sessions are conducted to engage students in converting theory into practice. Moreover, it helps to associate two domains: the domain of real objects and observable things and the domain of ideas (Millar et al., 2002). This principle is similar to the cognitive glass proposed by Nonnon in 1998—the benefit associated with the cognitive glass is to stimulate short-term memory by visualizing the experiment and its abstraction simultaneously.

3 Experimental Education Experimental education is a philosophy that defines methodologies during which educators engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection to increase the assimilation of knowledge, creative thinking skills and communication skills. Experimental education allows the learners to experience the pleasure of discovery, by teaching how scientific knowledge may be used in daily life. In experimental sciences, teaching and learning support theoretical knowledge and bring many benefits and improvements to the scientific understanding of learners. She’s the key to a better balance between passive and active learning (Conrad & Hedin, 1982). Experimental education may take the form of an open-ended approach, developing independent thinking, communication skills, problem-solving and application of theory to practice (Ottander & Grelsson, 2006). The major challenge for experimental education in Morocco is the increase in student number during the past two decades. Not only are there more students in Morocco’s higher education than ever, but there is also an increase in class size, which drains resources (Berrada et al., 2017). As a result, the quantity and quality of practical work offered in courses have decreased; experimental education is becoming neglected in favor of theoretical one. These challenges beg the question—How can universities effectively tackle ways of supporting the learning of students by providing well-planned laboratory sessions into the curriculum?

4 Microcomputer-Based Laboratory The term microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) has been in use since 1980, and was coined by Tinker et al.; “By 1980, the idea of real-time data acquisition for educational purposes needed a name. I wanted the name to capture not only the technique but also an open-ended educational approach that would distinguish it

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….I decided to name our approach Microcomputer based Labs or MBL for short” (Mokros & Tinker, 1987; Tinker, 2000; Tinker, 1981). MBL offers the possibility to perform real scientific experiments with the help of a computer, visualization and data processing software, connected to an electronic interface with sensors to acquire data. MBL in computerized labs allows students to run physical experiments in various subjects (physics, chemistry and biology) smoothly and swiftly. The sensors collect the physical analog parameters under study, and convert them into electrical signals, to transmit them to the electronic interface that turns them into numeric signals that the computer can encrypt and process. Moreover, the software can handle and present converted data by the interface under many forms (spreadsheet and graphical, etc.) and model them in mathematical equations. MBL provides immediate feedback; it displays graphs concurrently with the observed phenomenon. It makes the abstract concrete (Barclay, 1985; Linn et al., 1987; Mokros & Tinker, 1987; Thornton & Sokoloff, 1990). There are several pedagogical advantages suggested in the literature. Studies have reported positive results in improving the graph interpretation skills of students (Lapp & Moenk, 1999; Lapp & Cyrus, 2000; Rogers, 1995) in kinematics (Brasell, 1987; Mokros, 1985; Mokros & Tinker, 1987; Thornton, 1996), heat energy and temperature (Linn et al., 1987) and chemistry (Nakhleh & Krajcik, 1991). MBL eliminates the drudgery of data collection and display (Lapp & Cyrus, 2000; Mokros & Tinker, 1987) and frees more time for experiments compared with time collecting and plotting data for analysis (Fernandes et al., 2010).

5 Microlab ExAO Project A project partnership between three universities, the University of Montreal, Cadi Ayyad University in Marrakech and Mohammed V University in Rabat, called MicroLab ExAO, is developing acquisition interfaces and sensors for the large-scale deployment of computer-assisted practical work. The goal is to master the MBL concept; each partner team proposes accessible and replicable laboratory activities in science and technology. The equipment will be identical and available at the cost of its production. The targeted technology integrates experimental sciences in the same learning activity and allows learners to design and build their measuring instruments. The MicroLab ExAO system was developed by Pierre Nonnon (Nonnon, 1998); licensing agreements are available to use and produce interfaces and sensors. This project has the following tasks: • First, to produce a sufficient number of interfaces (around 1000) to introduce this approach and technology progressively in university laboratories. • Second, to associate other Moroccan universities with this technology.

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The Moroccan partners must; • adapt to and improve features of this interface in future manipulations; • mobilize human and technical resources necessary for realizing the research project; • put the infrastructure, equipment and competent personnel at its disposal for the service of subsidized research; • take inventory of the equipment acquired; • perform research planned in the framework of the project with diligence and continuity to completion; • respect the tasks and deliverables as described in the proposal submitted in the call for proposals; • respect the initial scientific program and the timetable for its realization. The objective of this project is to improve branches of experimental sciences and field quality. The interest focuses on experimentations performed as part of the practical work that represents a crucial element in the learning process, significantly facilitating the assimilation of fundamental and theoretical concepts. Moreover, it aims to counter the negative effects of the overcrowding of students registered in experimental sciences and limited infrastructure (practical work laboratory, equipment and human resources) and improve the quality and consistency of learning. The MicroLab ExAO aims to promote pedagogical and technological innovation in practical work. Thus, the fundamental objectives of the project are • • • • • •

Promote learning in the long term in scientific teaching. Stimulate reform and modernization of higher education. Improve the quality and significance of higher education. Strengthen the capacities of higher education facilities in Moroccan universities. Foster mutual development of human resources. Increase the effectiveness of practical work realization and improve their content and quality, thereby improving the quality of training profiles. • Reduce the cost and time to conduct them.

6 Measuring System of Microlab MBL Measuring systems are measuring devices that transform the physical output into measurement. The microcomputer-based laboratory contains the elements mentioned in Fig. 1 (Perdijon, 2004). At the sensor level, a transducer translates any physical phenomenon into an electrical signal. This electrical signal will be transformed by an electronic interface (a microcontroller), with the help of an analog or digital converter into a number. The software then transforms this numerical value using an algebraic equation to animate the virtual devices that will display the quantities measured by the sensor on the computer screen (Lalancette, 2015). The role of experimental technologies in

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Fig. 1 The measuring system of an automated and computerized laboratory with microcomputerbased laboratory (MBL)

student learning in the lab should not be neglected. Students need tools to develop problem-solving skills. The selected technology should be chosen or designated with care because it influences their experience in a laboratory (Bernhard, 2018). The MicroLab ExAO software helps to engage students as they study motion graphs (Pellerin, 2016). Students must choose some of the conditions for the experiment as well as the scales for both axes of the graph. The homepage is the first window that the learner sees when they start the program. It allows access to the main functions of the software. Students can annotate data, compare runs, apply curve fits and create calculations (Fig. 2). The data collection and analysis software provides more advanced statistics and calculations (Fig. 3).

Strip icons of the main functions Display of the sensors connected to the interface

Fig. 2 The homepage window

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The vertical bar displays different theoretical curves for algebraic modelling.

The algebraic equation of the theoretical curve

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The distribution of standard deviations of the experimental data is in red.

The theoretical distribution of standard deviations is in green.

Fig. 3 The modelling and uncertainty tool window

7 Designing Inquiry-Based Experiments The design of any laboratory session is critical, and the real challenge is conducting practical work and transforming it into inquiry-based learning. The laboratory experiments in the universities are based on recipe-based experiences; students follow specific steps to complete the practical session. By contrast, an inquiry-based experience engages students in the experimental design process (Siddiqui et al., 2013). We have introduced inquiry-based experiments using the MicroLab ExAO interface. We designed experiments in three fields: chemistry (acid-base titration), biology (yeast respiration, CO2 cycle: photosynthesis and respiration) and physics (Boyle–Mariotte law). In these experiments, the learning objectives were: • The student can design the experiment and the plan to collect data. • The student can analyze phenomena, make predictions and communicate ideas. Following the development of the preliminary version of the interfaces, a formative evaluation of the prototypes was considered. Workshops were organized to test the prototypes in three different cities. This phase allowed us to estimate the effects of

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the development on learners and professors and led to modifications in the design of the lab sheets and improvements based on data collected during experimentation with learners. We are in the long-term implementation phase.

8 Conclusion Globally, interest in improving science teaching has increased. Experiences in developed countries have revealed that using microcomputer-based laboratory technology provides a better illustration of scientific concepts and leads to a better appropriation of scientific reasoning by the learners. In Morocco, significant efforts are being made to improve this situation; the MicroLab ExAO project is one of them. The learning environment of the MicroLab ExAO system is a powerful pedagogical instrument to promote the implementation of interdisciplinary activities in teaching practice. The implementation of microcomputer-based laboratory technology allows learners to understand and build their knowledge in scientific fields. The teacher and instruction environment play a vital role in formatting a constructivist learning environment.

References Barclay, W. L. (1985). Graphing Misconceptions and Possible Remedies Using MicrocomputerBased Labs. ERIC, ED264129, 10. Bernhard, J. (2018). What matters for students’ learning in the laboratory? Do not neglect the role of experimental equipment! Instructional Science, 46(6), 819–846. Berrada, K., Bendaoud, R., Machwate, S., Idrissi, A., & Miraoui, A. (2017). UC@ MOOC: Pedagogical innovation to challenges of massification at university level in Africa. Latin-American Journal of Physics Education, 11(1), 8. Brasell, H. (1987). The effect of real-time laboratory graphing on learning graphic representations of distance and velocity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24(4), 385–395. Cairns, D., & Areepattamannil, S. (2019). Exploring the relations of inquiry-based teaching to science achievement and dispositions in 54 countries. Research in Science Education, 49(1), 1–23. Conrad, D., & Hedin, D. (1982). The impact of experimental education on adolescent development. Child and Youth Services, 4(3–4), 57–76. Fernandes, J. C., Ferraz, A., & Rogalski, M. S. (2010). Computer-assisted experiments with oscillatory circuits. European Journal of Physics, 31(2), 299. Herman, W. E., & Pinard, M. R. (2015). Critically examining inquiry-based learning: John Dewey in theory, history, and practice. In Inquiry-Based Learning for Multidisciplinary Programs: A Conceptual and Practical Resource for Educators (pp. 43–62). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Keselman, A. (2003). Supporting inquiry learning by promoting normative understanding of multivariable causality. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(9), 898–921. Kolodner, J. L. (2002). Facilitating the learning of design practices: Lessons learned from an inquiry into science education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 39(3), 9–40.

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Kuhn, D., Black, J., Keselman, A., & Kaplan, D. (2000). The development of cognitive skills to support inquiry learning. Cognition and Instruction, 18(4), 495–523. Lalancette, P. (2015). Conception et développement d’un environnement informatisé d’expérimentations contrôlées et assistées à distance par ordinateur (Ex@ O). Lapp, D. A., & Moenk, J. (1999a). Calculator-based laboratory technology: What does research suggest. In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Technology in Collegiate Mathematics (pp. 215–219). San Francisco, CA. Lapp, D. A., & Cyrus, V. F. (2000). Connecting research to teaching: Using data-collection devices to enhance students’ understanding. The Mathematics Teacher, 93(6), 504–510. Linn, M. C., Layman, J. W., & Nachmias, R. (1987). Cognitive consequences of microcomputerbased laboratories: Graphing skills development. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 12(3), 244–253. McKinney, P. (2021). Inquiry-based learning in Higher Education (pp. 301–325). Innovative Libraries Press. Mieg, H. A. (2019). Inquiry-based learning-undergraduate research: The german multidisciplinary experience. Springer Nature. Millar, R., Tiberghien, A., & Le Maréchal, J. -F. (2002). Varieties of labwork: A way of profiling labwork tasks. In Teaching and Learning in the Science Laboratory (pp. 9–20). Springer. Mokros, J. R. (1985). The impact of microcomputer-based science labs on children’s graphing skills. ERIC, ED264128, 7. Mokros, J. R., & Tinker, R. F. (1987). The impact of microcomputer-based labs on children’s ability to interpret graphs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24(4), 369–383. Nakhleh, M. B., & Krajcik, J. S. (1991). The use of videotape to analyze the correspondence between the verbal commentary of students and their actions when using different levels of instrumentation during laboratory activities. ERIC, ED347064, 28. Nonnon, P. (1998). Intégration du réel et du virtuel en science expérimentale. F.-M. Ottander, C., & Grelsson, G. (2006). Laboratory work: The teachers’ perspective. Journal of Biological Education, 40(3), 113–118. Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L. A., De Jong, T., Van Riesen, S. A. N., Kamp, E. T., Manoli, C. C., Zacharia, Z. C., & Tsourlidaki, E. (2015). Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle. Educational Research Review, 14, 47–61. Pellerin, D. (2016). La réalisation d’instruments de mesure électroniques: une intervention didactique pour l’apprentissage interdisciplinaire en science expérimentale, en mathématique et en technologie. Perdijon, J. (2004). La mesure: Histoire, science et philosophie. Dunod. Rogers, L. T. (1995). The computer as an aid for exploring graphs. School Science Review, 76, 31. Shute, V. J., & Glaser, R. (1990). A large-scale evaluation of an intelligent discovery world: Smithtown. Interactive Learning Environments, 1(1), 51–77. Sidawi, M. M. (2009). Teaching science through designing technology. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 19(3), 269–287. Siddiqui, S., Zadnik, M., Shapter, J., Schmidt, L., & et al. (2013). An inquiry-based approach to laboratory experiences: Investigating students’ ways of active learning. International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, 21(5). Thornton, R. K. (1996). Using large-scale classroom research to study student conceptual learning in mechanics and to develop new approaches to learning. In Microcomputer--based labs: educational research and standards (pp. 89–114). Springer. Thornton, R. K., & Sokoloff, D. R. (1990). Learning motion concepts using real-time microcomputer-based laboratory tools. American Journal of Physics, 58(9), 858–867. Tinker, R. (2000). A history of probeware. The Concord Consortium.[Online] https://Concord.Org/ Sites/Default/Files/Pdf/Probeware History.Pdf. Tinker, R. F. (1981). Microcomputers in the teaching lab. The Physics Teacher, 19(2), 94–105.

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Sofia Margoum is a Ph.D. student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is a holder of a Master’s Degree in physics, chemistry and analysis of materials. She is developing research on the implementation of Micro-computer-Based Laboratory and OER at Trans ERIE group of research of UCA. She is also contributing to the joint MOOC on Societal Implication on Neurosciences between UCA and Bordeaux University in France. Faouzi Bensamka is a professor of physics at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). He is a member of Trans ERIE and was the Director of Material Sciences Laboratory at UCA. He is involved in many aspects of research on pedagogy and training trainers. He was responsible for the Mathematics and Physics Sciences Curricula at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia. He has participated in many programs and projects around pedagogy and has been a member of many scientific committees. He is developing research on assessment using LMS platforms, JavaScript simulations and a microcomputer-based laboratory. Amane Oueriagli is full professor of physics at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). He is a member of Trans ERIE and was the Director of Solid State and Nanostructures Laboratory at UCA. He is involved in many aspects of research on pedagogy and training trainers. He was President of the Moroccan Society of Applied Physics and has published over 100 scientific papers in indexed journals. He has participated in many programs and projects around pedagogy and has been a member of many scientific committees. Abdelaziz El Boujlaidi is an Associate professor of physics at faculty of sciences Semlalia of Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech. He obtained his PhD in material sciences in SIAM research team. He is involved in fundamental physics and engaging his research on surface analysis using optical spectroscopy. He is teaching physics for the first year at the university and developing practical work using Microcomputer-based laboratory in the same faculty. Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder in “Teaching Physics by Doing”. He has been a member of many national and international conferences and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books and special issues in indexed journals, is also one of the developers of the successful French program of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016.

Chapter 4

Open Educational Resources as a Global Solution for Wider Class Courses Sara Ouahib, Khadija El Kharki, Rachid Bendaoud, Daniel Burgos, and Khalid Berrada

Abstract Since their appearance about two decades ago, open educational resources (OER) have become a part of a rapidly growing movement as more nations and institutions adopt the view that educational research and content belong to all people, regardless of their location or financial situation, and that content should be open and accessible to all. This movement can profoundly impact educational practices and practitioners, not only by making educational resources available and accessible but also by ensuring continuous improvement of the quality of these resources by providing a legal framework for preserving users’ rights, thus enabling users to become creators, rather than mere consumers of content. To reach this goal, it is necessary to establish creative and innovative pedagogical thinking and practices. Although OER are not a panacea for all educational problems, they can play an important, even essential role, in improving access and quality in higher education. Since 2016, the Cadi Ayyad University (UCA), Morocco, has been utilizing OER and adopting open educational practices (OEP) in the educational system. In this chapter, we discuss the concept of OER as a comprehensive solution to widening access to education and use of OER to overcome problems of massification within S. Ouahib · K. El Kharki · R. Bendaoud Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, B. P. 2390, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] K. El Kharki e-mail: [email protected] R. Bendaoud e-mail: [email protected] D. Burgos Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED), Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR), Avenida de la Paz, 137, La Rioja, 26006 Logroño, Spain e-mail: [email protected] K. Berrada (B) Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No. 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B. P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_4

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UCA. Then, we present OER-based initiatives launched and developed by UCA in this context. Keywords Open educational resources · Open education · Pedagogical innovation · Open educational resources adoption · Higher education · Cadi Ayyad University

1 Introduction Considerable interest has been expressed in open educational resources (OERs) since the term was first adopted in 2002 at a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) forum on the implications of open courseware for higher education in developing countries. OER was first defined by the forum participants as “teaching, learning and research materials in any medium, digital or otherwise, that reside in the public domain or have been released under an open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution by others with no or limited restrictions” (UNESCO, 2002). OERs are typically made freely available over the Web; their principal use is by teachers and educational institutions to support course development as they can also be used directly by learners. They include learning objects, such as lecture materials, references and readings, simulations, experiments and demonstrations, syllabi, curricula, and teachers’ guides (UNESCO, 2002). Since this landmark event, several new developments have taken place in this context, including the OER World Congress, led by the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) and UNESCO in Paris 2012 (UNESCO, 2012), which led to a further declaration in other countries. Thereafter, 2017 was marked as the opening year. COL, in collaboration with UNESCO and with funding from the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, organized six regional consultations between 2016 and 2017 in preparation for the Second World Congress of OER in which UNESCO continued to support OER and their descendant, massive online open courses (MOOC), which have become important contributors to the achievement of Goal 4 of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development (UNESCO, 2017). This goal can be summarized as ensuring quality, inclusive and equitable education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all. Pursuit of this goal has led to a discussion of ways of integrating OER and identifying concrete strategies for moving OER from commitment to action (COL, 2017). The idea behind OER is simple but powerful; these digital materials have the potential to give people everywhere equal access to knowledge and high-quality education by making lectures, books, and curricula widely available on the Internet at no cost. Virtually anyone can tap into, translate and tailor educational materials previously reserved only for learners at elite universities. Consequently, if OER is going to democratize learning and transform the classroom and teaching, then it must move from the periphery of educational practice to centre stage (Hewlett, 2013).

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Furthermore, to support the adoption of OER worldwide, UNESCO highlighted five objectives at its General Conference by all Member States to be prioritized, namely: (1) building capacity of stakeholders to create access, use, adapt, and redistribute OER; (2) developing supportive policy; (3) encouraging inclusive and equitable quality OER; (4) nurturing the creation of sustainability models for OER; and (5) facilitating international cooperation (UNESCO, 2019). According to the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO), which represents the Arab world’s version of UNESCO and covers 22 Arab countries to create and coordinate projects and activities in fields of education, culture and science, the adoption and use of OER is in its infancy and there is no explicit vision or policy to support the adoption of OER in the Arab region. In addition, there is a real gap in terms of the development and use of OER in Arab countries, especially in Arabic language (Tlili et al., 2020). On the national level, Morocco is among countries that are on their way to adopting a more open orientation based on OER and OEP and reinforces this with Morocco’s OER declaration (OER Morocco Declaration, 2017). The idea of having a national declaration about open education in Morocco arose during the Morocco open education day at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) in December 2016 within the frame of the OpenMed project (www.openmedproject.eu). This declaration calls on Moroccan authorities and university and government leaders to support the strengthening and development of open education in higher education in Morocco. Since this landmark event, the UCA has been experiencing a great deal of dynamism regarding OER, taking its first steps towards openness. The objective of this chapter is to shed light on UCA’s involvement in OER by presenting initiatives launched by the university to support OER use and adoption. This chapter is organized as follows: the second section discusses OER as a global solution for wider class courses, the third section describes OER in Morocco, the fourth section focuses on the initiatives launched by the UCA to support the adoption of OER, the fifth section is devoted to the discussion, and the last section is dedicated to the conclusion.

2 OER as a Solution for Wider Class Courses One of the main objectives of OER is to support education by increasing access to learning; OER can be used effectively to reach large numbers of learners as they can be reproduced at virtually no cost while supporting quality and equity enhancements. Since these materials are licensed for reuse, revision, remixing, retention, and redistribution (5Rs) (Wiley, 2014) (Fig. 1), they can be adapted to different learning environments. Organizations such as Creative Commons preserve the rights of authors by providing them with a wide range of licenses that allow them to decide on the terms and conditions for sharing their work (creativecommons.org/about).

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Free

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Unlike commercial content, which must remain static and intact, OER can be localized and tailored to the specific environment and different learning approaches. They can also be formatted for dissemination in various formats, including the printed one. For instance, open textbooks are a type of OER that have gained the attention of several governments, which have invested significant funds in the development of these resources. The adoption of OER in the educational system is considered a bold step that can reduce financial barriers to education for many. A study conducted by McKerlich et al. (2013) showed that the use of open textbooks could reduce learner costs by up to 80%. A study on faculty perceptions of open textbook adoption by Jung et al. (2017) showed that about 80% of teachers believed that the use of open textbooks was at least as good as or better than the use of traditional textbooks, whereas 62% thought that open textbooks are of similar quality as traditional textbooks used in courses and 19% thought that open textbooks were better. Apart from financial barriers, the flexibility and openness of OER give them the potential to remove other obstacles to learning, such as massification, especially in open access institutions, by offering innovative solutions, allowing educators to employ best teaching practices and increasing the level of achievement of learners in terms of both knowledge and skills. Educational processes need to open and scale up to not only reduce costs but also become more sustainable so they can involve and reach more learners (Teixeira et al., 2019), including nontraditional groups of learners and those from disadvantaged backgrounds, thereby increasing participation in higher education. OER can efficiently promote lifelong learning, bridging the differences between informal and formal learning (Harsasi, 2015).

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Education has always been a high priority for governments—the COVID-19 pandemic has brought this into sharp focus—both as a sector that should not experience discontinuity due to this emergency and as a means to combat the virus itself (Huang et al., 2020). OER have emerged as a powerful alternative and have been at the heart of worldwide initiatives to provide open and flexible online education to all. However, despite strategies and guidelines being provided for better use of OER, the pandemic situation has revealed that there are several areas related to OER that need to be further explored and improved to use these resources more effectively.

3 OER in Morocco Located in northwest Africa, Morocco has a population of 36,140,708 (HCP Morocco, 2021), including 921,944 learners, distributed among public higher education institutions (MNEVTHESR, 2020). The official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. By the beginning of 2020, 69% of Moroccans had access to the Internet, i.e., 2.9 million more people than a year earlier (Digital Report, 2020). Morocco is one of the Southern Mediterranean countries most active in producing, developing, and implementing OER. The Ministry of National Education, Vocational Training, Higher Education and Scientific Research (MNEVTHESR) was the first to set up a National Laboratory of Digital Resources, which produces and assembles digital educational resources. There are also many other projects in this field, particularly in the Moroccan university system, which has been involved in distance learning projects for more than a decade (Berrada et al., 2017a). In 2005, the Moroccan government adopted a strategy to make information and communication technologies (ICT) accessible in all public institutions to improve the quality of education. The first step in this new approach is the Generalization of Information and Communication Technologies in Education (GENIE) program, launched in 2005, which represents a long-term initiative developed and implemented by MNEVTHESR, Morocco. It aims to integrate ICT to improve access to and quality of education in primary and secondary schools; it sets out the key elements of an effective national policy on ICT in education, such as infrastructure, teacher training, developing digital resources and transforming teaching and learning practices. This program has been awarded the UNESCO King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa 2017 Prize for its work in the innovative use of ICT in education. In 2009, Morocco launched a national strategy for the information society and the digital economy, called the “Maroc Numeric 2013”, led by the Minister of Commerce, Industry and New Technologies. It aims to build Morocco into a technological hub and can be divided into four main areas: broadband Internet, e-government, local information technology sector, and digitalization of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

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Morocco has since adopted a new digital development plan called “Maroc Digital, 2020”. The core subjects of this program include digitalization of the administration and SMEs, creation of a dedicated agency, and generalization of outdoor wi-fi (Morocco Digital, 2020). This strategy is based on three pillars and is composed of nine targeted initiatives. The third pillar, and in particular the seventh initiative, aims to develop skills and training in the field of ICT and create an adequate legal and regulatory framework with the adaptation of public information procurement and technological services (Morocco Digital, 2020). In fact, Morocco’s orientation towards digitizing and introducing technologies in all sectors, including education, dates back a long time. In the education sector, this orientation was materialized by the integration of ICT in education. However, at the institutional level, the term OER was officially introduced in Morocco only after the OpenMed project. This represents an inflection point in the education sector, constituting a solid ground for building the notions of openness, OER and OEP and was concretized by the “OER Morocco declaration” during the Forum of the Strategy of Open Educational Resources in Morocco organized by UCA in collaboration with Ibn Zohr University in the framework of the OpenMed project. This declaration was guided by two considerations. First, open education can broaden access to education, knowledge transfer, social inclusion and create a culture of collaboration and sharing. Second, open education makes a sound economic case: producing publicly-funded educational resources under open licenses represents a return on investment of public spending (OER Morocco Declaration, 2017). This policy states Morocco’s vision for open education, which is built on seven pillars considered the cornerstones of open education, including content, access, technology, research data, research outputs, licensing, and policy (Burgos, 2017). The declaration also proposes several recommendations for combining initiatives and developing strategic support and guidance to facilitate the required culture shift to integrate open education into all sectors of Moroccan education.

4 Initiatives Launched by the Cadi Ayyad University to Support the Adoption of OER UCA is one of Morocco’s public universities. Created in 1979, it comprises 14 institutions covering 4 cities (Marrakech, Safi, Essaouira and Kelaa des Sraghna). UCA boasts >92,227 learners and >1,650 professors distributed in 171 departments. Annually, it produces more than 500 research papers, which are published in highquality journals, and reviews and delivers more than 9,735 diplomas (Berrada et al., 2017b). UCA stood first among Moroccan, Maghreb, and Francophone African universities in the “Times Higher Education 2019” world ranking of universities. UCA ranked 15th among universities in the Arab world and 12th in Africa. According to

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the same ranking system, by discipline, UCA has been a leader in physical sciences, standing first in Morocco, the Maghreb, and Francophone Africa. Since 2011, UCA’s open access institutions have witnessed an increase in the number of learners, whose numbers have exceeded the number of physical places (Fig. 2). Each year a substantial number of learners are unable to participate in faceto-face learning due to insufficient classroom space. This problem has become a major challenge for all Moroccan universities and requires urgent attention. Furthermore, those who manage to get a place at the university, face difficulties due to massification, such as • Lack of guidance: according to the MNEVTHESR statistics, the total number of enrolled learners at UCA in 2019–2020 academic year were 92,227, with only 14% (12,553) of the learners who excelled in their baccalaureate programs and passed the country’s entrance exams have the right to choose among eight higher educational institutions with limited access to UCA. The remaining 86% (97,526) of the learner population choose among six higher educational institutions with open admission (MNEVTHESR, 2020). • Absence of a preparatory year: when starting university, learners switch to a completely different system in terms of content, learning language, which was previously Arabic, and assessment without additional training, which adds to the complexity of the integration process of new learners. • Difficulties in keeping track of lessons: overcrowded amphitheaters and classrooms. • The elimination of physics practical work in the first year of the bachelor’s degree cycle due to the massification and lack of laboratory equipment (El Kharki et al., 2018, 2020, 2021).

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• The difficulties in communication: university educators are not as available as high school educators according to MNEVTHESR (2020). In 2019–2020, UCA registered 189 learners for every 100 physical places, with a ratio of 55.89 learners per educator, which also causes problems of pedagogical supervision and puts into question the quality of education. These constraints, in addition to massification, lead to a failure rate of 70% in the first year (semester 1–2) and a dropout rate between 25 and 30% (Berrada et al., 2017b). To overcome or at least reduce the constraints presented above, UCA was among the first universities to adopt new strategies focusing on the use of digital technologies and open and distance learning tools, offering an opportunity to improve and broaden access to higher education. In the following section, some initiatives launched by UCA for this purpose will be presented.

4.1 UC@MOOC Initiative UC@MOOC is a pedagogical innovation that reflects UCA’s orientation towards adopting digital resources even before the term OER was officially adopted in Morocco. It was developed in 2013 at UCA to cope with the effects of massification that had been created in the previous decade and to overcome the difficulties that learners face in the first years. The main goal of this project is to reduce failure and dropout rates among learners and to offer new and improved training courses by providing free access to quality learning resources (Idrissi et al., 2021). UC@MOOC is a pedagogical platform designed by UCA’s professors to provide learners with resources adapted for the Moroccan context by emphasizing learner support and facilitating the integration of learners into higher education. The main contents of UC@MOOC are provided as OER and are mainly podcasts, tutorials, and videos. This way of presenting content allows the learner to study independently and follow the course more comfortably than in a crowded conference room. This means that during the course, the teacher can spend more time explaining and answering questions from learners who have previously consulted the course material through the web or on DVD (i.e., flipped classrooms). The idea of UC@MOOC is not about eliminating face-to-face courses but offering hybrid teaching formats, as well as keeping teachers and learners at the centre of this educational innovation, while keeping production costs as low as possible. Currently, after 6 years since it launched, the platform includes more than 400 video scripts divided between lectures, tutorials, and laboratory experiments, covering several educational disciplines in French, Arabic, and English (Idrissi et al., 2020). Furthermore, the number of users connecting to the platform continues to grow, and it now exceeds 8 million visitors and more than 79,000 followers, as well as reading time that is estimated over several decades (>80 years of observation)

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(Zaatri et al., 2020). In parallel with a large number of viewing rates and times, there has been an intensive presence of learners in the classrooms (Guàrdia et al., 2013). Being part of the digital strategy implemented by the UCA, UC@MOOC has proved its effectiveness in terms of minimizing the effects of massification by offering more adapted and effective pedagogical approaches. This openness has attracted students from other universities and has offered new learning opportunities to a large audience, even from abroad (Idrissi et al., 2020).

4.2 OpenMed Project OpenMed is an international cooperation project cofinanced by the Erasmus+ Capacity Building in Higher Education program of the European Union in 2015– 2018. The project includes five partners from Europe and nine from Southern Mediterranean countries (Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Palestine). Morocco was represented by UCA and Ibn Zohr University. The main objective of OpenMed is to raise awareness and promote the adoption of open educational practices (OEP) and OER, which are poorly exploited in Southern Mediterranean countries, mainly in higher education. The project agenda includes three key actions: • The evaluation of needs and identification of good practices in open education in universities in the Southern Mediterranean region; • The promotion of national strategic forums with the participation of leaders and pioneers of open education in the region; • The development and pilot implementation of a university course for participating universities (openmedproject.eu). The participants initiated their work by collecting and examining good practices in open education that could be a starting point for Southern Mediterranean universities, encouraging them to open up their educational programs. To achieve this goal, the online course, Open Education: Fundamentals and Approaches, was produced as part of the project. The course aims to build capacity in open education and OER and to motivate educational staff in universities to integrate these new approaches in their teaching (openmedproject.eu). The course content is composed of five modules, covering different aspects of openness in higher education and is available in a wide range of platforms and formats so that anyone, anywhere can adapt them to their own needs. Moreover, to link the theoretical with the practical, the partner universities were provided with a mobile studio containing a wide range of equipment for course recording (cameras, green screens, etc.). The project has generated a compendium of relevant initiatives providing a roadmap to achieve the planned objectives by building a reliable and evidence-based body of knowledge. Based on this analysis, the Southern Mediterranean regional

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agenda for open education was launched with four events in 2016, to be implemented in 2017 and 2018, both in national and regional development strategy and in universities, within and beyond the project framework that will launch an institutional strategy for open education (Nascimbeni & Stefanelli, 2017).

4.3 FormaREL Project Digital resources are important for teachers; however, their creation, reuse, and sharing in the context of a classroom are more important. It is in this context that the FormaREL project was realized within the framework of an agreement between UCA’s Transdisciplinary Research Group on Educational Innovation (Trans ERIE) team and the Francophone University Agency (AUF). FormaREL supports the strategy adopted by the government to make ICT accessible in all public schools to improve teaching quality and infrastructure, and most importantly, training teachers not only in developing pedagogical content but also producing and sharing OER. The FormaREL platform is an online solution to enable secondary high school teachers in the Marrakech-Safi region to understand the benefits of adopting, producing, and sharing OER. During the first 10 weeks of training, learners will study five modules that explore different aspects of openness in higher education (one module every two weeks), where they will read the content and perform learning activities (tests, forum discussion, etc.). At the end of each module, learners will focus on project work, planning how they will transform teaching practice by adopting open approaches. Weeks 11 and 12 will be devoted to project work, which will be defined through the “stages” that learners will define at the end of each module, and will represent the main outcomes of the course for each learner and on which competencies acquired will be assessed. The project starts with the distribution of a questionnaire outlining an overview of OER use, the analysis of the results allows the choice and implementation of platform content. The project is now in the phase of putting content online. Thereafter, teachers will be registered to start teaching courses at the beginning of February 2021.

4.4 Dirassati Project School support is one of the priorities of the 2015–2030 Vision of the Ministry of National Education and Professional Training. Nevertheless, few steps are being taken in this direction. To overcome this challenge, “Dirassati”, a project of the Moroccan Foundation for School Support, held its constitutive assembly in January 2017, to improve the scientific and linguistic skills of high- and middle-school students in public education. Dirassati aims to contribute to reducing school failure

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through free tutoring courses for 4 h per week. Dirassati was carried out in partnership with the Ministry of National Education, the Millennium Challenge Corporation and UNICEF (Le MATIN, 2017). The training was provided by volunteer trainers (teachers and learners in master’s programs, third year of bachelor’s study, or from engineering and business schools) trained in tutoring. The training was performed face-to-face, remotely through 480 MOOCs. Courses started at the beginning of the 2017–2018 school year. The Foundation’s objective was to offer tutoring courses to 100,000 learners in 5 years, starting with a pilot project in urban and rural areas under the authority of the Academy of Tangier-Tetouan-Al Hoceïma, before gradually extending the project to other regions of Morocco, starting with the regions of Marrakech-Safi and Fés-Meknes (Dirassati News, 2017). Within the framework of its partnership with the Foundation, UCA, through its Centre for Pedagogical Innovation (CIP), was responsible for the transformation of educational content into digital formats. The techno-pedagogical team was able to produce 480 courses in the form of OER, covering several subjects for the first year of high school and the core curriculum, which are put online on the learning management system platform and the Foundation’s YouTube channel, with all the necessary support to bring face-to-face teaching online (Dirassati News, 2018).

4.5 EXPERES Project Laboratory experiments are essential in science and engineering education. However, due to massification and a small number of laboratories at UCA as well as all Moroccan universities, practical teaching in laboratories was eliminated from the first-year curriculum. To overcome this challenge, adopting alternative solutions were deemed necessary in the form of OEP and OER. In general, the development of virtual laboratories is considered OEP. It was in this context that the initiative to build a repertory of virtual practical activities was conducted under an Erasmus+ project named EXPERES (Information and Communication Technologies for Education applied to scientific experiments). The main objectives of the EXPERES project are development and implementation of a virtual laboratory for practical lessons in physics for first-year students at the science faculties. Twelve virtual practical activities were created and integrated into a Moodle platform (http://www.tpexperes. uca.ma/). Students can access the virtual laboratory and engage in virtual activities any time, any place (El Kharki et al., 2018, 2020, 2021).

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4.6 UCA Digital Campus To adjust to the pandemic situation, which caused learners to abruptly switch from classrooms to screens, educators were in a position of innovators rather than inventors, having to innovate and renew the content of their courses instead of changing it completely. This process was made possible and easy thanks to the flexible characteristics of OER. To make use of the latter, UCA launched initiative gathering resources from 14 institutions belonging to the university within one rich and multifunctional platform called UCA Digital Campus, enabling more than 92,000 learners registered for the 2019–2020 academic year to pursue their study programs remotely. This platform allows UCA’s learners to access its resources through a login and password or anonymously to reach a wider audience (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2020). The e-Campus platform (https://www.uca.ma//fr/page/Cours_en_ligne) allows educators to access, create and modify content, as well as technical support to assist them if necessary, and to learners, apart from courses and exercises (provided in the text and video formats), it offers a space for communication and sharing between through an integrated forum, as well as several additional services, namely scheduling of courses and exams, consultation of results and reservation of the reading room (as a measure to limit access during the period of crisis COVID-19). By contrast, to guarantee free and equitable access to these resources, Morocco’s MNEVTHESR, in collaboration with the National Agency for Telecommunications Regulation and local mobile telecommunication network operators, has provided access to distance learning platforms free of charge, so that learners can access and download digital resources freely.

5 Analysis A major challenge of higher education, especially in developing countries, is to provide free and open access to high-quality educational content. The open education movement is increasingly being recognized as one of the most significant educational trends of the twenty-first century that seeks to democratize teaching and learning. Today, the focus on OER extends beyond access to engagement in innovative OEP. Basically, the use of OER and the adoption of OEP can improve the quality of and expand access to courses and other forms of learning content, to catalyze the innovative use of content and foster knowledge creation for ensuring effective education. This chapter examines the nature of OER benefits and initiatives launched by the UCA. It provides an overview of the potential of OER to address challenges facing the higher educational system in Morocco, both at the level of institutions (policymakers, stakeholders, and educators) and learners.

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At the institutional level, the OpenMed project is the cornerstone that has put in place the first formal framework for the concepts of OER and OEP in Morocco and which was crowned by the Moroccan declaration on OER at 2017. Similar to other educational resources, the integration of OER into teaching and learning requires careful reflection and support for the teaching staff. In this context, the faculty of education at UCA has taken up this challenge by benefiting within the framework of the same project from an OER-based professional development course, covering different aspects of openness in higher education and accessible in a wide range of platforms and formats so that it can be reused and adapted flexibly. Similarly, to pass on the torch of openness to secondary high school educators, the FormaREL project, which is the offshoot of the OpenMed project, comes to fill the gap and connect secondary education to the openness network by training educational staff to develop pedagogical content and produce and share OER to improve the quality of teaching and learning. At the learner level, to cope with the challenges arising from the massive access to higher education, the UC@MOOC and EXPERES projects represent efficient solutions to overcome the massification phenomenon in higher education at UCA. They are also considered innovative pedagogies that have significantly ensured wider, open and ubiquitous access to high-quality course material. For example, the UC@MOOC project aimed to provide a pedagogical open access platform that includes courses and resource materials and directly works in the OER format. For laboratory activities, the EXPERES project offers a virtual laboratory for practical activities in OER format to overcome the lack of laboratory equipment. Furthermore, to improve the scientific and linguistic skills of high school and middle school learners in public education, the Dirassati project was set up to reduce school failure, in addition to promoting learners’ preparation for accessing higher education through free tutoring courses. Overall, the OER initiatives presented in this chapter, where UCA is either a holder or a partner, which represent various projects, digital platforms and courseware to meet several decisions, such as closing the equity gap, supporting and improving learning and course completion to foster inclusive and equitable, quality education.

6 Discussion Higher education has been marked by a massive transition during the past two decades. Policies on education have prioritized the accessibility of quality higher education. Learners have created a demand for more innovative pedagogies (Cachia et al., 2020). Open education is argued to be one of the enablers that could lead towards improving higher education, providing a space for collaborative learning and knowledge co-creation among learners from different cultural backgrounds (Gervedink Nijhuis et al., 2013). Moreover, open education is argued to be a bridge to temporal and spatial obstacles (Jones et al., 2014). Open education relies on two fundamental ideas: free and open access to knowledge; adapting and reusing existent knowledge

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in the public domain or released under an intellectual property license that allows free reuse or adaptation (Abeywardena, 2012). The opportunities offered by OER to support innovation in teaching and learning are seen by many as being of great importance. Because of their flexibility and openness, OER can enable best teaching practices and increase the level of participation and achievement of learners, both in terms of knowledge and skills (McGreal, 2017). Owing to the open licenses used by OER, they allow users to access and adapt content to respond to the different needs of learners and educators, institutions, and nations. OER can be used to improve access to learning and also to address issues of cost, quality, and equity. Because they are freely accessible, OER can facilitate both internal and external collaborations between instructors and institutions, both locally and internationally, as well as ensure equitable access to knowledge and learning (McGreal, 2017). A deeper understanding of OER by policymakers, educational administrators, educators, learners, and the general public would create an environment that would foster the use of OER through national policies, which would strengthen commitment and funding for sustained projects and initiatives to build capacity for the integration of OER into teaching and learning. The transformation of the educational landscape and the improvement of the quality of learning will be visible not through OER as such, but through educators’ engagements with OER (Karunanayaka & Naidu, 2017; Mishra, 2017). Such an approach requires a change in the mindset of educators, who are at the heart of this process, from thinking about teaching to thinking about content to design rich and relevant learning experiences that can be a radical solution to many of the challenges facing the university in developing countries such as Morocco (e.g., massification, lack of laboratories and equipment, dropout rate, etc.). To reach this goal, it is necessary to establish a close working relationship and partnership between researchers and practitioners in the field, centred on the collaborative and participatory concept of sharing. In the case of UCA, the university’s educators have chosen to commit themselves to and adopt this new strategy based on OER and MOOC by launching several initiatives, of which this chapter presents a sample, even before the official recognition of the notions of OER and OEP in Morocco (as in the case of the UC@MOOC project in 2013). This recognition took place only after Morocco’s declaration on OER in 2017. This landmark event gave an institutional framework to these initiatives and constituted an inflection point in the use of OER and OEP in the UCA, which since then has been witnessing a great dynamic in terms of creation, participation, and contribution to several collaborations at national and international levels. Today the UCA is focusing on new objectives by moving towards the research area by launching CIP in 2015, which is a crosscutting structure for all UCA institutions, working on the resource production area and research area through the Trans ERIE team. The creation of such open and flexible learning opportunities offers increased efficiency and quality of learning resources, cost-effectiveness and potential for innovation, which leads to systemic transformation affecting all parts of the educational systems (e.g., creating local OER, teacher training, and school support).

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7 Conclusion The most important opportunity for OER is in the global free exchange of knowledge. OER render this knowledge not only accessible but also reusable by learners and teachers in various formats, providing equal and democratic access to knowledge. UCA is one of the universities where massification is a major every year; however, this challenge is an opportunity for educators to adopt more creative and innovative approaches based on collaborative work. In this chapter, we presented the main initiatives related to the adoption of OER and OEP at UCA, which is today one of the leaders in the production, development and use of digital resources, not only for learners, by covering courses, tutorials and practical work, but also as a powerful tool for teacher training. The initiatives launched by UCA constitute innovative, practical and above all cost-effective solutions to several problems faced by UCA and Moroccan universities, reflecting on the one hand, the commitment and willingness of educators to adopt new teaching strategies and to develop more research based on OER by exploiting their open character, and on the other hand, covering all components of higher education by putting the educator and the learner at the heart of the educational process. These initiatives provide an efficient model that can be generalized to other universities and also serve as a starting point for finding more innovative and digitally compatible alternatives that contribute to broadening access to education and reaching different types of learners, including those with special needs, and thus ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning.

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McKerlich, R. C., Ives, C., & McGreal, R. (2013). Measuring use and creation of open educational resources in higher education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 14(4). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v14i4.1573 Mishra, S. (2017). Open educational resources: Removing barriers from within. Distance Education, 38(3), 369–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2017.1369350 MNEVTHESR. (2020). L’enseignement supérieur en chiffres 2019–2020 | Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur de la Recherche Scientifique et de la Formation des Cadres, Standard, ENSSUP. Retrieved from https://www.enssup.gov.ma/sites/default/files/STATISTIQUES/ 5656/Brochure%20des%20statistiqus%202019-2020%20%20VF_16092020.pdf Morocco Digital. (2020). Maroc Digital 2020: Les points clés. Blog Visiativ. Retrieved from https:// blog.visiativ.com/maroc-digital-2020/ Nascimbeni, F., & Stefanelli, C. (2017). The OpenMed project: Tackling the social dimension of higher education through Europe Mediterranean cooperation in open education. Italian Journal of Educational Technology. https://doi.org/10.17471/2499-4324/859 OER Morocco Declaration. (2017). Retrieved from https://openmedproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/ OER-Morocco-Declaration.pdf Teixeira, A. M., Bates, T., & Mota, J. (2019). What future(s) for distance education universities? Towards an open network-based approach. RIED. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 22(1), 107. https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.22.1.22288 Tlili, A., Jemni, M., Khribi, K., Huang, R., Chang, T.-W., & Liu, D. (2020). Current state of open educational resources in the Arab region: An investigation in 22 countries. Smart Learning Environments, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-020-00120-z UNESCO. (2002). UNESCO Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for (HE) in Developing. Retrieved from https://openedreader.org/chapter/unesco-forum-on-the-impact-of-opencourseware-for-higher-education-in-developing/ UNESCO. (2012). UNESCO World open educational ressources (OER) congress. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246687 UNESCO. (2017). Education for sustainable development goals: Learning objectives. UNESCO. (2019). Recommendation on Open Educational Resources (OER). Retrieved from https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373755/PDF/373755eng.pdf.multi.page=3 Wiley, D. (2014). David Wiley, “The Access Compromise and the 5th R”. In An Open Education Reader. Retrieved from https://openedreader.org/chapter/the-access-compromise-and-the-5th-r/ Zaatri, I., Margoum, S., Bendaoud, R., Laaziz, I. E. M., Burgos, D., & Berrada, K. (2020). Open educational resources in Morocco. In Current State of Open Educational Resources in the “Belt and Road” Countries. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3040-1_7

Sara Ouahib Sara Ouahib is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is a holder of a master’s degree in control, industrial informatics, signals and systems. She is developing research on the conception, elaboration and implementation of (OER) within the Moroccan University. Khadija El Kharki Khadija El Kharki is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is a holder of a master’s degree in Engineering and Technology of Education and Training. She is developing research on virtual laboratories based on digital simulation using JavaScript programming language with Trans ERIE research group at UCA. Rachid Bendaoud Rachid Bendaoud is professor of physics in charge of e-Learning at Cadi Ayyad University. He holds a PhD in physics from Toulouse University (France) and the International Master in e-Learning from Kurt Bush Institute (Switzerland). He is working on MOOCs, blended learning, open education, educational technology and innovation. He is one of developers of UC@MOOC initiative at Cadi Ayyad University. He works as an instructor for professorsresearchers in e-Learning and is also a consultant in educational techniques and teaching methods

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with university institutions. He has coordinated about fifteen projects funded by IRD, OIF, CNRST and currently is a working on a project with AUF that deals with the training of trainers in open education. Daniel Burgos Daniel Burgos works as Vice-rector for International Research (https://research. unir.net), UNESCO Chair on eLearning and ICDE Chair in Open Educational Resources, at Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR, https://www.unir.net). He is also Director of the Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED, https://ited.unir.net). His work is focused on Adaptive, Personalized and Informal eLearning, Learning Analytics, Open Education and Open Science, eGames, and eLearning Specifications. He has published over 150 scientific papers, 20 books and 15 special issues on indexed journals. He has developed + 55 European and Worldwide R&D projects, with a practical implementation approach. He holds degrees in Communication (PhD), Computer Science (Dr. Ing), Education (PhD), Anthropology (PhD), Business Administration (DBA) and Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning (postgraduate, at MIT). Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder on “Teaching physics by doing”. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books and special issues in indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French program of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016.

Chapter 5

Blended Learning as the Best Scenario for Institutions Affected by Massification Sana Boutarti, Khalid Berrada, and Daniel Burgos

Abstract Massification is a problem affecting universities around the world, given the increase in student enrolments. Teaching in a large classroom containing a huge number of students is a great challenge for teachers. Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) is no exception; like all universities in Morocco, especially open-access institutions, it deals with the phenomenon of overcrowding in amphitheatres. Faced with this problem, UCA needs solutions to ensure adequate learning to improve student engagement in this process. In this chapter, we will focus on the blended learning or hybrid learning approach as a solution to massification in UCA’s faculties. We will shed light on some studies and projects carried out based on this approach while showing the effectiveness of blended learning for improving student engagement and learning in the context of large classes. Keywords Blended learning · Large classes · Massification · Student engagement · Instructional technology · Platform · Universal design for learning

1 Introduction Massification (overcrowded classrooms) is used to describe the rapid increase in student enrolment that has been observed since the end of the twentieth century. ‘A classroom is said to be overcrowded in which the number of students exceeds S. Boutarti Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, UCA, BP, 2390 Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] K. Berrada (B) Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B.P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] D. Burgos Research Institute for Innovation and Technology in Education (UNIR iTED), Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR), Avenida de la Paz, 137, La Rioja, 26006 Logroño, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_5

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the optimum level such that it causes hindrance in the teaching–learning process’ (Khan & Iqbal, 2012). According to the report presented on 18th July 2018 by the National Evaluation Authority (INE) and published in the general news-magazine Perspectives Med on 20th July 2018. Rahma Bourqia, director of the INE and reporting to the Higher Council for Education, Training, and Scientific Research (CSEFRS), is concerned about the state of Moroccan higher education. The INE raised the alarm about the state of Moroccan universities, particularly open-access institutions (faculties of juridical, economic, and social sciences; faculties of letters and human sciences; faculties of sciences and polydisciplinary faculties), reporting massification coupled with poor supervision. In its sectoral report, entitled Higher Education in Morocco, Effectiveness, Efficiency, and Challenges of the Open-Access University System, the CSEFRS emphasises the causes and effects of massification in the Moroccan university system. According to the report, the reason for massification is a lack of anticipation and the constant increase in the number of baccalaureate holders arriving at university. Carlson (2000) notes that learning efficacy cannot be maintained when large numbers of students are packed into small classrooms. The number of students in a class can affect the quality of learning in many ways (Ehrenberg et al., 2001). The report of the CSEFRS indicates disengagement among students, as reflected in marked absenteeism, especially in open-access universities. Students justify this disengagement based on the material conditions of education, including overcrowded classrooms and lack of chairs. They are unanimous in saying that learning is limited to lectures devoid of tutorials and practical work with elimination of regular and continuous reviews. According to the same report, this is due to massification, which challenges the success of students and the attractiveness of the university. Massification also hinders the implementation of reforms aimed at improving the quality of education and disadvantages their extension, which makes it a structural phenomenon, with a negative impact on higher education at all levels.

2 Massification at UCA A large number of students enrol in UCA’s faculties each year. The four open-access ones represent 75% of total university enrolments, whereas the other nine institutions, with regulated access, have represented 15% of enrolments for the last 7 years (Idrissi Jouicha et al., 2020). The number of students enrolled remains higher than available places (Fig. 1). UCA currently has more than 95,000 students, which is an increase of 9.95% compared to the 2018/2019 academic year (Fig. 1). We are also presenting below in Fig. 2 the “e-campus university portal” where all courses are delivered online and in distance.

5 Blended Learning as the Best Scenario for Institutions … Fig. 1 Students enrolled at UCA versus places available at the University from 2016 to 2020: statistics from the Ministry of Higher Education

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100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 2019/2020 Places Students

Fig. 2 E-campus platforms devoted to each of the 14 faculties of the UCA: from https://www.uca. ma//fr/page/Cours_en_ligne

This gap between the number of enrolled students and the number of places available poses a problem for the university, that of overcrowding of classes or amphitheatres. This hinders the smooth running of courses due to • Difficulty hearing the teacher because of the disturbing noise generated by the students.

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• Blurred and imprecise vision of the projection of the lecture on the wall and explanation table. • Interruption of the teacher during the lesson by students asking questions (Idrissi Jouicha et al., 2020).

2.1 Initiatives Launched by UCA to Face Massification Like every Moroccan university, UCA faces many challenges, including massification. To cope with it and help its students to better take their courses, UCA has launched several initiatives in this area: • UCA LEARN Platform: a Moodle platform used by UCA for 15 years. It has a large popular base in Morocco so far. • UC@MOOC Website: UC@MOOC courses are open to all free of charge and without requiring registration. This makes the project conform to the massive open online course (MOOC) nomenclature, even if it is not put online through the MOOC platform (Idrissi Jouicha et al., 2020). The limitation of this MOOC is that most courses produced by UC@MOOC include videos only, and there is a need to diversify resources in MOOC. • UC@MOOC Edx platform: an open online platform created in 2013 for all students (Idrissi et al., 2021; Idrissi Jouicha et al., 2020). The project is an xMOOC-based format, which stands for extended MOOCs, based on the traditional instruction-driven principle (Khalil et al., 2015). This MOOC was set up to meet the challenges of massification in open-access HEIs and the language difficulties encountered by students. It offers UC@MOOC courses via a platform that provides a more personalised learning experience through online analysis, which is used for research purposes (Idrissi Jouicha et al., 2020). • EXPERES: a project that is part of the Erasmus + programme involving all Moroccan universities, the supervisory ministry, and five European universities. It aims to provide students with remote access to practical work in physics. Five faculties of UCA use 12 physics experiments, in the first university cycle. The project has unfortunately been interrupted in recent years because of the massification of students. • E-campus: a platform that has been operational since its launch on 19th March 2020. E-campus has allowed more than 95,000 students to complete their distance learning programme by providing access to resources (courses/TD) for all sectors, semesters, and subjects taught at the university (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021). The two platforms, UC@MOOC and E-campus, were offering students from the 14 UCA faculties more than 15,852 courses until June 2020 (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021). The resources were delivered in different formats (PPT, PDF, video, audio, etc.), and the platforms allow students to post in forums, participate in chats, answer knowledge tests, and send assignments.

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Many initiatives have been launched by UCA, but they are insufficient in facing this problem, given the increasing number of students enrolled in the university, especially in institutions with open access. Therefore, it was necessary to find other ways to solve this problem, especially during the pandemic where gatherings are prohibited. This presents an opportunity for UCA to begin the new experience of hybridisation. The purpose of this chapter is to focus on UCA’s hybridisation strategy and its effectiveness in improving learning and to identify challenges with this experience.

3 Blended Learning as the Best Solution to Deal with Massification in Universities Finding a solution for overcoming massification, which is worsening the hosting capacity of universities, including UCA, is an urgent need. CSEFRS offers pedagogical solutions to deal with massification in universities, by making digital technology a lever that could reconcile the democratisation of higher education, which ‘refers to a process where access to higher education is viewed as an integral element in resolving social and economic inequalities present in societies’ (Hornsby & Osman, 2014), as well as its massification, with quality. The use of technology for education is a real asset to strengthen learning and promote student autonomy. Graham and West (2005) found five powerful ways technology can enhance teaching and improve learning in higher education: (1) Visualisation—Helping students to visualise content, which is important in scientific fields. (2) Interactions—Promoting student–teacher and student–student interactions. This makes the learning experience more inclusive by providing different ways for students with different needs and teachers to express themselves in the learning process, as well as different ways to represent knowledge (Navarro et al., 2015), based on the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework, that addresses the challenge of diversity in the classroom through advances on neuroscience on individual learning differences and the versatility of technology tools. UDL introduces the following three components to overcome specific barriers to learning: • Representation: refers to the design of learning materials that make content accessible to as many different learners as possible. UDL can be integrated into content design through the integration of text, videos, audios, and diagrams, allowing teachers to support student access and engagement with curriculum content. • Expression: alternative communication methods for students to communicate or demonstrate learning. The variety of participation options and forms of assessment is beneficial to both students and teachers.

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• Engagement: stimulate student interest and motivation to learn through creative and hands-on meaningful instruction, while providing options that encourage collaboration and communication (Courey et al., 2013). (3) Reflection—Supporting meaningful student reflection. (4) Authenticity and Engagement—Providing opportunities for involving students in authentic, real-life learning activities. (5) Practice—Improving the quality and quantity of students’ practice. The CSEFRS has offered many pedagogical solutions to face massification in higher education, namely. • • • •

Designing MOOCs. Tutoring students. Designing distance learning (initial and continuing). Offering hybrid courses (blended online and face-to-face learning) as part of an educational innovation.

3.1 Definition of Blended Learning The term blended learning (BL), also called hybrid instruction, has various meanings. Very few references of the term predate 2000 (Bliuc et al., 2007). Driscoll (2002) gives the following definitions of BL: • To mix modes of web-based technology, such as live virtual classrooms, self-paced instruction, collaborative learning, and streaming video. • To combine various pedagogical approaches (e.g., constructivism, behaviourism, cognitivism). • To combine any form of instructional technology, such as CD-ROM and webbased training, with face-to-face instructor-led training. According to most definitions, BL environments combine traditional face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated or online instruction (Bernard et al., 2014; Driscoll, 2002). The real test of BL is the effective integration of the two main components, face-to-face and Internet technology (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). A blended or hybrid course is a course that combines online and face-to-face delivery, with 30–79% of the content delivered online. It typically uses online chats and includes face-to-face meetings (Allen et al. 2007).

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3.2 UCA’s Course Hybridisation Strategy Given the health situation linked to the COVID-19 pandemic, and with the objective of ensuring the health security of all components of the faculty, students, teachers, and administrative and technical staff, UCA has decided to ensure the continuation of distance learning alternating with face-to-face teaching, while complying with an appropriate health protocol. Many pedagogical and didactical methods have been used to guide the hybrid learning process. • Pedagogical choices: learning theories have been taken into account when moving to hybrid learning, which consider the type of learners, their individual needs and pace, and learning styles to ensure an inclusive education that values diversity (Elias, 2010). – Constructivism: According to this approach, students should be oriented to solving a problem and should lead the process of solving the problem themselves. The goal-directed learner uses resources, such as concepts or theories, to solve a problem. Thus, knowledge is constructed in this goal-directed activity (Dalsgaard & Godsk, 2007). Learning is an individual process and each learner has their own way of learning. – Cognitivism: values not factual knowledge but a comprehensive problemsolving ability (Moriz, 2013). When designing a blended course, it must be considered that the learner is not only asked to memorise facts, but is encouraged to develop solution strategies (Ojstersek, 2007). – Collaborative: focuses on the interaction and social dimension of learning through webinars and chat. It is more useful for audio learners who tend to learn more by listening than reading course materials by themselves (Selvi & Perumal, 2012). Networked collaborative learning is considered the educational approach that can meet the most important sustainability parameters of online learning (Renzi, 2009). – Differential pedagogy: Students in an online course may have individual differences, such as physical, psychological, visual, and auditory, as well as different learning styles and intelligence types (Gardner, 2002). These differences, as well as their learning pace, which depends on their own work or family life, were considered when designing the online content by offering students various resources that can meet their needs, learning styles, and pace. • Didactical choices: the delivery of online content requires a real transformation in didactics. Teachers have adopted a learner-centred perspective in designing content, based on various didactic methods. – Expository presentations: using mainly slides and video recordings of lectures given by professors. – Discovery learning (DL): learning from experience and trying out what they have learned (experience) by testing the implications of the concepts in new

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situations. DL is learning through supervision and problem-solving; in accordance with the inquiry method so that students are encouraged to learn concepts and principles from their own explanations (Moore, 2005). It is best suited to tactile learners as they tend to understand concepts by practising them rather than by listening or reading (Selvi & Perumal, 2012). – Active learning: students are allowed to actively participate in various activities, such as concept mapping and discussion threads. Active learning is most suited to visual learners, as most activities provide a clear view of the overall course content. Distance learning started on November 2, 2020, and the majority of the courses are now provided remotely. The courses are available on the E-campus platform. The 14 faculties of UCA, each with its own E-campus platform, include the following: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Faculty of Sciences (FSSM). Faculty of Juridical, Economic, and Social Sciences (FSJES). Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy (FMPM). Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences (FLSHM). Faculty of Sciences and Techniques (FSTG). Faculty of Arabic Language (FLAM). SAFI Polydisciplinary Faculty (FPS). National School of Applied Sciences Marrakech (ENSA-M). National School of Commerce and Management: (ENCG). National School of Applied Sciences (ENSA SAFI). Higher Normal School (ENS). SAFI Higher School of Technology (EST SAFI.) ESSAOUIRA Higher School of Technology (ESTE). KELAA DES SRAGHNA University Center (CUKS).

The start of face-to-face lessons took place on 9th November 2020. Students consult the calendar for the entire year, which is posted on the platform, download the timetables, and download, sign, and scan the health protocol. Students take a large number of the courses remotely via their faculty’s E-campus platform. They can consult the courses in video, PPT, or PDF format. They can also perform tutorial work on the platform. Students can maintain synchronous communication with their professors through videoconferencing or virtual classroom tools, such as Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, Webex, Jitsi Meet, or through the BigBlueButton plugin integrated into the Moodle platform. This synchronous communication allows students to ask professors questions and interact with them. Each group of students attends face-to-face classes once a month. The students of the faculty of sciences (Semlalia), for example, must request a permission to attend face-to-face classes. These permissions are to be requested and downloaded from the E-campus platform of the faculty (https://ecampus-fssm.uca.ma/). Students will take face-to-face exams. A week of review has been scheduled before the semester exams, which will begin at the end of February or the beginning of March 2020 for the majority of the UCA faculties.

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Students are asked to download their permissions from their faculty’s platform to take the exams.

4 Discussion Many studies have endorsed the effectiveness of BL (Bele & Rugelj, 2007; Dalsgaard & Godsk, 2007). Snowball (2014) cites the advantages of BL, particularly in large classes, as follows: • Improving communication between students and lecturers. • Enabling the use of self-marking online exercises and giving students an incentive to learn continuously, without increasing administrative or assessment load. • Offering learning activities that can accommodate a range of learning styles and speeds, where this would not be possible in traditional large class lectures. BL instructional strategies have emerged as an important tool in large classroom instruction, by making large classrooms feel smaller through active student engagement and improving student performance (Francis, 2012). According to Marsh et al. (2003), BL is a solution to reduce costs in higher education, as well as to improve the teaching of large groups. This experience, imposed by the pandemic to limit its spread, is an opportunity to set up a hybrid education and evaluate its effectiveness as a solution for UCA institutions affected by massification, particularly those with open access. UCA has been able to take advantage of hybridisation to deal with this problem of massification, especially in current conditions, where gatherings are not allowed. The use of technology will certainly enhance learning by ensuring an abundance of resources, self-directed learning opportunities, and a better quality of education. BL allows learners to take advantage of both modes of delivery traditional and elearning and enables the development of new learning strategies (Bele & Rugelj, 2007). By adopting BL, UCA offers its students various resources in different formats. Using technology provides students with a range of resources that meet their needs, pace, and learning styles. This is difficult, if not impossible, when courses are provided only in lectures based on the ‘one-size-fits-all approach’ (DiPiro, 2009). It gets worse with large classes. BL instructional strategies emerge as an important tool in large classroom instruction (Francis, 2012). One of their advantages is their ability to meet a wide range of needs in terms of quality of communication and human interaction (Bliuc et al., 2007). By holding videoconferences and virtual classes animated by the teachers, UCA students can have direct and efficient communication with their teachers. This allows them to ask questions and share their ideas, which is not easy in overcrowded amphitheatres.

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Rovai and Jordan (2004) find that the sense of community is stronger in the BL context than in both traditional and fully online learning. It is because the ‘combination of face-to-face and online learning environments provides a greater range of opportunities for students to interact with each other and with their teachers’. The forums on UCA’s E-campus platform allow students to strengthen this sense of community by posting and discussing with their peers. The size of a traditional class might hinder some students from speaking, expressing themselves, and participating. By adopting a blended format, UCA has helped them overcome their intimidation by reducing the number of students present in face-to-face lectures. In a study conducted by Kenney and Newcombe (2011), students reported, ‘the blended approach worked well, especially in a class so large. Smaller class size made it less intimidating to speak/share’. Certainly, the adoption of this new teaching and learning format has its strengths and weaknesses. Turning a traditional course into a blended one is not easy (Holton et al., 2006). A study conducted by UCA during distance education at the beginning of the pandemic showed that students do not have access to computer tools and Internet connections, especially in rural areas: 20% of students could not access their courses on the platforms, and 70% could not benefit from the interactive LIVE courses (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021). Thus, measuring the effectiveness of BL is necessary. Two indicators could be used to determine the effectiveness of BL, namely. • Reaction: (or student satisfaction) measuring student reactions to the BL experience through simple surveys. These surveys provide a window into how learners are reacting to this new format, how well they are adjusting to it, and what suggestions they have to make this experience better. We can also survey their opinions about the quality of the resources and reliability and availability of the system used in their virtual learning environment. • Outcome: to assess student learning, we can give pre- and post-course quizzes, practice exercises, and knowledge checks to evaluate whether knowledge on a specific topic has increased. Well-designed learning usually includes ways for learners to demonstrate improvement in their skills. Because blended technology largely integrates the technological aspect, this requires institutional support for teachers and students. The lack of institutional support is a major obstacle to the adoption of distance education and the use of technology for education (Galusha, 1997). Adopting BL requires UCA to take a different perspective on the delivery of teaching and introduces the challenge of developing a competent staff in the field of blended and e-learning (Folley, 2009).

5 Conclusion UCA has shown its efforts to cope with massification, by taking initiatives including the implementation of pedagogical platforms (Moodle E-campus, Edx UC@MOOC, and EXPERES). The hybridisation of courses is one of the strategies adopted by

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UCA to manage the increasing number of students enrolled, especially in the sanitary conditions due to COVID-19. BL has been able to solve this problem of overcrowding in the amphitheatres, but also represents challenges in terms of technological support and preparation of managers in this area. UCA should take advantage of this experience to better carry out this passage from complete face-to-face learning to BL.

References Ait Si Ahmad, H., El Kharki, K., & Berrada, K. (2021). Agility of the Post COVID-19 Strategic Plan on Distance Learning at Cadi Ayyad University. An Opportunity Towards a Total Digital Transformation of the University. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-030-67435-9_1. Allen, I. E., Seaman, J., & Garrett, R. (2007). Blending in: The extent and promise of blended education in the United States. The Sloan Consortium, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170005-0274-8. Bele, J. L., & Rugelj, J. (2007). Blended learning—An opportunity to take the best of both worlds. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 2(3), 1–5. Retrieved from http:// www.doaj.org/doaj?func=abstract&id=223237. Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Schmid, R. F., Tamim, R. M., & Abrami, P. C. (2014). A metaanalysis of blended learning and technology use in higher education: From the general to the applied. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 26(1), 87–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12 528-013-9077-3. Bliuc, A. M., Goodyear, P., & Ellis, R. A. (2007). Research focus and methodological choices in studies into students’ experiences of blended learning in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 10(4), 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2007.08.001. Carlson, B. A. (2000). Achieving educational quality: what schools teach. In United Nations Publication. Retrieved from http://archivo.cepal.org/pdfs/1999/S9912962.pdf. Courey, S. J., Tappe, P., Siker, J., & LePage, P. (2013). Improved lesson planning with universal design for learning (UDL). Teacher education and special education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 36(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0888406412446178. Dalsgaard, C., & Godsk, M. (2007). Transforming traditional lectures into problem-based blended learning: Challenges and experiences. Open Learning, 22(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/026 80510601100143. DiPiro, J. T. (2009). Why do we still lecture? American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 73(8), 2009. https://doi.org/10.5688/aj7308137. Driscoll, M. (2002). Blended learning: Let’s get beyond the hype. E-Learning, 54. Retrieved from http://www-07.ibm.com/services/pdf/blended_learning.pdf. Ehrenberg, R. G., Brewer, D. J., Gamoran, A., & Willms, J. D. (2001). Class size and student achievement. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/ 1529-1006.003. Elias, T. (2010). Universal instructional design principles for Moodle. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 11(2), 110–124. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v11 i2.869. Folley, D. (2009). The lecture is dead long live the e-lecture. In 8th European Conference on ELearning ECEL, 8(2), 204–211. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2018.1.2.9. Francis, R. W. (2012). Engaged: Making large classes. College Teaching, 9(2), 147–152.

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Galusha, J. (1997). Barriers to learning in distance education. Interpersonal Computing and Technology Journal, 5(3), 6–14. Gardner, H. (2002). Formae mentis: Saggio sulla pluralità dell’ intelligenza (13th ed.). Feltrinelli. Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ihe duc.2004.02.001. Graham, C., & West, R. (2005). Five powerful ways technology can enhance teaching and learning in higher education. Educational Technology, 45(3), 20–27. Holton, E. F., Coco, M. L., Lowe, J. L., & Dutsch, J. V. (2006). Blended delivery strategies for competency-based training. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 8(2), 210–228. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1523422305286153. Hornsby, D. J., & Osman, R. (2014). Massification in higher education: Large classes and student learning. Higher Education, 67(6), 711–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9733-1. Idrissi, A. J., Berrada, K., Bendaoud, R., Kharki, K. El, & Miraoui, A. (2021). Cost Effective Open Educational Platform to Face the Challenge of Massification in Cadi Ayyad University (pp. 7–16). https://doi.org/10.24996/ijs.2021.SI.1.2. Idrissi Jouicha, A., Berrada, K., Bendaoud, R., Machwate, S., Miraoui, A., & Burgos, D. (2020). Starting MOOCs in African University: The Experience of Cadi Ayyad University, process, review, recommendations, and prospects. IEEE Access, 8, 17477–17488. https://doi.org/10.1109/ access.2020.2966762. Kenney, J., & Newcombe, E. (2011). Adopting a blended learning approach: Challenges encountered and lessons learned in an action research study, 15(1), 45–57. Khalil, M., Brunner, H., & Ebner, M. (2015). Evaluation grid for xMOOCs. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 10(4), 40–45. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v10i4.4653. Khan, P., & Iqbal, M. (2012). Over-crowded classrooms: A serious problem for teachers. Educational Technology, 49, 10162–10165. Marsh, G. E., McFadden, A.C., & Price, B. J. (2003). Blended instruction: Adapting conventional instruction for large classes. www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter64/marsh64.htm. Moore, K. D. (2005). Effective instructional strategies Kenneth D. Moore from Theory to practice (3rd ed., p. 9). Sage Publications. Retrieved from https://www.corwin.com/sites/default/files/ upm-binaries/11705_Moore.pdf. Moriz, W. (2013). Blended-Learning: Entwicklung, Gestaltung, Betreuung und Evaluation von E-Learningunterstütztem Unterricht. BoD–Books on Demand. Navarro, S. M. B., Zervas, P., Fabregat, R., & Sampson, D. G. (2015). A teacher professional development program for designing inclusive learning experiences. In Proceedings of the IEEE 15th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies: Advanced Technologies for Supporting Open Access to Formal and Informal Learning, ICALT 2015 (pp. 434–435). https:// doi.org/10.1109/ICALT.2015.51. Ojstersek, N. (2007). Betreuungskonzepte beim blended learning. Waxmann Verlag. Renzi, S. (2009). La sostenibilità didattico-formativa dell’e-learning Social Networking a apprendimento attivo. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society-Italian Version (until 2012), 4(1). Rovai, A. P., & Jordan, H. M. (2004). Blended learning and sense of community: A comparative analysis with traditional and fully online graduate courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v5i2.192. Snowball, J. D. (2014). Using interactive content and online activities to accommodate diversity in a large first year class. Higher Education, 67(6), 823–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-0139708-7. Selvi, S. T., & Perumal, P. (2012). Blended learning for programming in cloud based e-learning system. In International Conference on Recent Trends in Information Technology (pp. 197–201). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICRTIT.2012.6206811. The report presented on July 18 by the National Evaluation Authority (NEA). Retrieved from https:// www.perspectivesmed.com/enseignement-superieur-massification-dramatique-et-decrochage/.

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The sectoral report of the Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research. Retrieved from https://www.csefrs.ma/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Rapport-Enseignement-sup--rieur-Fr03-10.pdf. UCA E-campus. https://www.uca.ma//fr/page/uca-campus-numerique UCA@MOOC platform. https://www.uca.ma/fr/mooc Faculty of science E-campus. ecampus-fssm.uca.ma UCALEARN platform. learn.uca.ma. EXPERES project. http://www.tpexperes.uca.ma/.

Sana Boutarti is a PhD student at UCA (UCA). She is a holder of a Master’s Degree in Engineering and Technology for Education and Training from HASSAN II Casablanca University (Morocco). She is focusing her scientific research on the blended/hybrid learning approach as a solution for universities and institutions affected by massification. Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder on ‘Teaching physics by doing’. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books and special issues in indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French programme of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016. Daniel Burgos works as Vice-rector for International Research (https://research.unir.net), UNESCO Chair on eLearning, and ICDE Chair in Open Educational Resources, at Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR, https://www.unir.net). He is also the Director of the Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED, https://ited.unir.net). His work is focused on Adaptive, Personalised and Informal eLearning, Learning Analytics, Open Education and Open Science, eGames, and eLearning Specifications. He has published over 150 scientific papers, 20 books, and 15 special issues in indexed journals. He has developed + 55 European and Worldwide R&D projects, with a practical implementation approach. He holds degrees in Communication (Ph.D.), Computer Science (Dr. Ing), Education (Ph.D.), Anthropology (Ph.D.), Business Administration (DBA), and Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning (postgraduate, at MIT).

Chapter 6

The University Strategic Plan to Face Disruptive Classes During the Covid-19 Pandemic Hana Ait Si Ahmad, Khadija El Kharki, Daniel Burgos, and Khalid Berrada

Abstract During the spread of COVID-19, education was interrupted in universities worldwide. This new situation created a challenge in the higher education landscape, where universities were obliged to switch to online teaching for completing the syllabus. Moroccan universities have taken the steps needed to change from faceto-face teaching to distance and online teaching, to ensure pedagogical continuity. This chapter discusses strategic plans carried out by Cadi Ayyad University during this time of crisis. The results, which are related to learners’ results, reveal the effectiveness of the solutions taken to guarantee the continuity of education. Keywords COVID-19 pandemic · Higher education · Distance learning · Pedagogical continuity · Time of crisis

1 Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic severely damaged the education sector globally. According to UNESCO, many students were forced to stay at home and follow their lessons remotely due to the closure of educational institutions to limit the spread of the H. Ait Si Ahmad · K. El Kharki Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, B. P. 2390, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] K. El Kharki e-mail: [email protected] D. Burgos Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED), Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR), Avenida de la Paz, 137, La Rioja, 26006 Logroño, Spain e-mail: [email protected] K. Berrada (B) Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No. 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B. P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_6

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SARS-CoV-2 virus (UNESCO Covid-19, 2021). The infected countries were forced to rapidly adapt their educational systems from one based on the physical presence of teachers and students to that on distance and online learning. On the whole, the coronavirus outbreak has radically changed the way that teachers and learners work around the world. In times of crisis, distance and online learning was the only way to ensure the continuity of courses. Online learning allows students to continue studying online at home, with courses either conducted in real time or recorded and made available online using technological equipment (Bokayev et al., 2021). The transition to distance learning in the Moroccan university system, following the COVID-19 pandemic, has been marked by disparities between universities in terms of choice of educational technology and distance learning platforms, etc. Distance or online learning is not a new concept for Moroccan universities, particularly Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the main concern of the administrative, pedagogical, and technical staff of UCA was to ensure the organisation of distance learning while maintaining a better quality of teaching. In this regard, UCA has been ready to offer alternative learning modes to students who were forced to leave the classrooms due to the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, through a rich bank of online teaching materials and platforms and digital devices that the university has been able to achieve over 15 years to provide learning any time, anywhere. This has enabled the transition from face-to-face teaching to fully digital distance learning in record time (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021). While focusing on the last few years, Moroccan universities have followed the evolution and development of technologies in the field of pedagogical innovation, including massive open online courses (MOOC), learning analytics, adaptive learning, and augmented reality. UCA on its part, and as part of its policy of reform and transformation of its educational system, moved from purely traditional teaching to teaching based on active learning methods. UCA adopted the use of digital strategies and information and communication technologies (ICT), years before the COVID-19 pandemic, including digital course materials, MOOC, SPOOC, and other online teaching platforms, with the aim of fostering active pedagogy among students and overcoming the problems of massification in the classroom and democratisation of access to higher education. In addition, UCA has launched several projects and programs that are part of the process of digitisation of university education. Among the most important is the creation and construction of Innovation City, which is a technological infrastructure set up in the context of the development of scientific research at the university in several areas, namely the development of digital education, scientific production, and the high-tech sector (Innovation City, 2015). Moreover, UCA has given considerable importance to the field of research in educational innovation through the creation of the Transdisciplinary Group of Research in Educational Innovation (Trans ERIE), whose mission is to highlight the importance of innovation in the educational sector, action research, development of digital media, and distance learning platforms. Trans ERIE has proposed a series of educational products, audio, and video materials, as well as technical support services to the

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university and encouraged all entities involved to establish a collaborative framework for effective e-learning, especially under the supervision of a highly qualified team of professors, engineers, and PhD students (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021). Notably, the Trans ERIE research group has enabled the university to obtain a doctoral training track in Science Didactics and Educational Engineering with the aim of advancing research in all aspects of pedagogy and educational technology. The period of crisis has been an opportunity for the UCA and its 14 faculties and institutions of higher education to bring together efforts and projects carried out in recent years in E-Learning and create new projects to ensure uninterrupted learning.

2 E-Learning Initiatives at UCA The year 2020 was marked by the COVID-19 pandemic, which impacted university education. Morocco responded to the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO) and imposed restrictions to limit the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. All schools and universities, including UCA, were closed, forcing students into distance learning courses. At the moment, UCA has put in place a well-defined strategy to ensure courses continue either face-to-face or through distance learning. Students and professors were reluctant to use online platforms earlier; however, the situation has forced everyone to experiment with these strategies (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021). All higher education institutions submitted to UCA participated in the development of digital and online educational resources covering all UCA programs, even before the pandemic to overcome the problem of massification. During the pandemic, the institutions followed new methodologies and approaches to learning to overcome university closure and ensure that learning never stops.

2.1 Video Conferencing and Audiovisual Broadcasting Typically, the pedagogical approaches adopted by UCA involve students in the teaching and learning process, which require the physical presence of students in classrooms. Although the school is no longer there, the classes have continued (Zhou et al., 2020); despite the closure of schools in times of crisis, UCA’s faculties and institutions of higher education have rapidly transformed their curricula from face-to-face teaching to 100% distance education to ensure that education is not disrupted.

2.1.1

Synchronous Online Learning

The development of technology in education has led to the creation of a synchronous online mode of teaching, which enables real-time communication and discussion between teachers and learners (Kuo et al., 2014), creates synchronous two-way

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interactivity, and provides the possibility to check the presence of each student (Jena, 2020). The synchronous learning mode has been taken into account by UCA; different formats of live courses (initial courses, revision sessions, and remedial sessions), assignments, interactive classes, round tables, etc., have been implemented and broadcast through the use of several live course platforms, which more or less simulate face-to-face interaction by activating hearing and vision, leading to greater student participation (Marhefka et al., 2020). UCA’s strategic plan through the use of virtual courses has been put in place to follow and accompany students in this transitional phase of teaching and to push teachers in developing technological skills and rethink teaching practices. Moreover, teachers must reorganise teaching practices and adapt to these changes in record time (Tzifopoulos, 2020). To this end, UCA has offered teachers of all 14 institutions (Faculties, Engineering Schools, Business Schools) easy access with subscriptions to teleconferencing platforms or virtual classrooms, including ZOOM, Google Meet, Webex, and Jitsi Meet. Students are invited to connect online to scheduled, virtual classrooms, announced by their teachers on a Moodle course platform (UCA E-Campus) (UCA Digital CAMPUS, 2020).

2.1.2

Arryadia TV Channel

Countries without adequate infrastructure are turning to technology, such as radio and television, to overcome the suspension of classes in institutions (Dawadi et al., 2020). It is important to highlight the organisation of an alternative television system to online education as an emergency distance education approach (Bozkurt et al., 2020). In parallel with courses on real-time broadcast and interaction platforms, the Ministry of Higher Education, in cooperation with the High Authority of Audiovisual Communication and the National Broadcasting and Television Company, has developed alternative means of broadcasting and engaged the Arryadia television channel to broadcast courses for university students, covering programs and subjects taught in Moroccan universities, specifically for the benefit of students in rural areas where mobile and Internet coverage is poor (Draissi & ZhanYong, 2020). The Arryadia channel also broadcasts among its training programs, content developed by UCA that targets several disciplines for 6 h per day (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021).

2.2 LMS Platforms Innovation in the field of educational sciences at UCA aims at developing and improving tools to enrich the teaching experience. To this end, it has been essential to integrate ICT, including the provision of videos for educational purposes. The university provides these to students with a wide range of open and free educational resources.

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From the outset, UCA had a solid infrastructure and extensive digital educational resources at its disposal, which allowed it to act quickly and decisively. Indeed, the existing resources were in place several years before the COVID-19 pandemic, paving the way for a new active learning strategy (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021). Moreover, UCA has set up online education projects as part of the resolution of difficulties related to failure rates and student crowding, the causes of which vary regardless of cultural, economic, and social factors, including language difficulties, the growing demand for student enrolment, and massification in classes. This massification can be seen as a factor of human development and an opportunity to achieve the goal of accessible and available education (Machwate et al., 2020). In response to these challenges, UCA launched the UC@MOOC initiative in 2013. Students have free and open access to follow courses on an online platform covering all disciplines. UC@MOOC is a process of mediatisation and dissemination of educational resources in the audiovisual format. It involves recording, pedagogically scripting, editing, and distributing courses free of charge to students and the general public on an online platform (http://mooc.uca.ma/). This initiative has enabled students to benefit from free teaching materials open to a wide audience (Idrissi et al., 2020). From its first year, UC@MOOC could respond to massification (Berrada et al., 2017) and achieved encouraging results in improving learning conditions as well as reducing dropouts (Idrissi et al., 2018; Machwate et al., 2020). In addition, UCA’s existing online distance learning platforms offer courses and educational resources in various digital formats (PDF, video, ppt, quiz, directed work or tutorials, virtual practical work, etc.): • • • •

http://www.learn.uca.ma/ http://www.mooc.uca.ma/ http://www.ucamooc.uca.ma/ http://www.tpexperes.uca.ma/

The availability of these platforms has facilitated the transition from faceto-face to online education in record time, ensuring uninterrupted continuity of courses in times of health crisis. In addition to these platforms, UCA has set up a rich global platform called UCA E-Campus (https://www.uca.ma/fr/page/Cours_ en_ligne) (https://ecampus-fssm.uca.ma/), bringing together the content of the 14 institutions (Faculty of Arts, Law and Sciences, Engineering and Business Schools, etc.), thereby enabling >95,186 students registered for the academic year 2019–2020 to successfully complete their online courses.

3 E-TP Scientific Research Development and ICT in Science Educational Pedagogy Laboratory experiments play an essential role in science and engineering education. They offer learners the possibility to illustrate scientific phenomena through

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practical activities as well as to verify theoretical principles. However, at UCA and other Moroccan universities, practical activities in real laboratories were eliminated from the first-year curriculum, because of massification and the small number of laboratories. To overcome this situation, it was necessary to think about adopting an alternative solution, for example, using computer-based simulations for creating and developing virtual practical activities. Furthermore, the use of educational technology can afford virtual practical experiences that challenge the notion of teaching in the laboratory for undergraduate science learners. It was in this context that the initiative to build a repertory of virtual practical activities was conducted under an Erasmus+ project named Information and Communication Technologies for Education applied to scientific experiments (EXPERES). The main objective of the EXPERES project was the development and implementation of a virtual laboratory for virtual practical activities of physics taught in the first year at science faculties. A set of 12 virtual practical activities were created and integrated into the Moodle platform (http://www. tpexperes.uca.ma/). The learners can access the virtual laboratory and handle virtual activities at any time and any place (El Kharki et al., 2018, 2020, 2021). The virtual laboratory setup was used by other learners from other institutions either as a pry laboratory or as an alternative to real activities during the COVID-19 pandemic (Ait Si Ahmad et al., 2021).

4 Cadi Ayyad’s Strategy to Face Disruptive Classes 4.1 UCA E-Campus Following the decision of the Ministry of National Education on the suspension of courses due to the spread of COVID-19, UCA announced the creation of the online platform to ensure the continuity of education. The UCA E-Campus is a modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment (Moodle) platform under an open-source license for e-learning. Moodle is widely used in countries worldwide, including Morocco, where more than 680 platforms are used throughout the kingdom (Moodle Statistics, 2020). The platform has been hosted on the official website of the university as well as on the websites of its 14 institutions as seen in Fig. 1 below. Every student has an account with a login and password, allowing them free access through their smartphones or computers to download digital learning resources and benefit from the features of the e-learning platform, and those through collaboration between the Ministry of National Education, the National Telecommunications Regulatory Agency (ANRT), and operators of local mobile telecommunications networks. The UCA E-Campus platform is a multifunctional digital environment that offers several services to both students and teachers. The teachers have access to editing and creation of content and course materials, such as video course capsules, courses

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Fig. 1 Link to the platform of each of the 14 institutions on the UCA official website

in PDF and PPT format, knowledge checks, tutorials with corrected exercises, practical work activities, and simulations. The teachers can schedule, display, and hide activities and courses based on date and time and communicate with students through forums, announcement spaces, chats, and calendars to inform students about course dates, assignments, and tests in real time. User guides are available to help students learn how to use the platform and consult educational success resources and activities. Moreover, technical support to help teachers create teaching materials and manipulate their spaces if necessary is available. Regarding the monitoring of student work and homework, the UCA has made available to teachers the possibility of supervising and grading homework in the form of questions to choose from using the software auto-multiple-choice (AMC)—a free software distributed under the General Public License (GPLv2+) (AMC—Multiple Choice Questionnaires Management, 2019) that runs on Linux platforms and is based on LaTeX to facilitate the integration of mathematical equations and formulas (Dos Santos et al., 2019; Hamada et al., 2020). The software enables UCA teachers to automatically and randomly change the order of answers for each question and order of questions to discourage cheating. Homework is corrected automatically by the AMC in a simple scan. In the next section, we present how a physics model has been structured in the E-Campus platform.

4.2 Example of a Physics Model (Geometrical Optics) Geometrical optics, a primary module of the Physical Science curriculum taught in the first years of university, was among the first modules set online through the

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Fig. 2 Interface of the geometrical optics module courses

UC@MOOC platform, since 2013, in a hybrid format at the Faculty of Science Semlalia, UCA. During COVID-19, the course was adapted, modified, and scripted to formulate each concept in a specific way with its own activities (homework, practicals, and tutorials) and put in the new platform E-Campus. This course is the main module taught to first-year students majoring in Physical and Chemical Sciences Subject (SMPC), Mathematical Computer Science and Applications (SMIA), and Life and Earth Sciences and the Universe (SVTU). The E-Campus platform gives the students of these fields of study the opportunity to promote good practices, sharing, and pooling of educational resources, as in the case of the Geometrical Optics course, which is composed of 12 chapters taught over 4 months (Fig. 2). After the implementation of the E-Campus platform, all students of the three fields of study were registered in their courses through their institutional e-mail delivered by UCA. Each student could access the platform through their profile login for free and follow courses easily due to the well-defined structure of the course. The Geometrical Optics course taught for the three fields is unique to the characteristics and needs of each field—SPMC, SVTU, and SMIA. The course comprises a set of chapters spread more or less over 16 weeks, with each chapter containing a PDF document describing the entire chapter, video capsules on each concept of the course, PowerPoint presentations, assignments, and quizzes as well as directed work. In addition, UCA has implemented a powerful computing infrastructure that allows teachers dedicated access to a cloud storage space. Each teacher has 10 gigabytes of storage. These storage spaces allow, on the one hand, to record all course sessions, revisions, and tutorials conducted through video conferencing tools (MS Teams, Zoom); on the other hand, to enable students who could not follow these

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Table 1 The number of students enrolled in each field of study SMPC SVTU SMAI Total number of students registered in the E-Campus platform (module 2,868 of geometrical optics)

2,614

344

Number of registrants who attended the course

2,591

1,861

287

Number of registrants who did not attend the course

277

753

57

sessions online or do not have the Internet to visualise and download these sessions free of charge, through direct access via the E-Campus platform. Most students enrolled in the three fields of study completed the course—90.34%, 71.2%, and 83.43% for SMPC, SVTU, and SMIA, respectively (Table 1). By contrast, the number of students who did not complete the course remained low compared with the total number of students enrolled—9.65%, 28.8%, and 16.56% for SMPC, SVTU, and SMIA, respectively. These percentages are related to several factors, including the socio-economic conditions of students, academic failure, and changes in the field of study by some students. Student results and success rates for the three fields during the period of COVID19 are similar to, or even better than, the results of previous years, which shows, on the one hand, the effectiveness and efficiency of the actions taken by UCA to overcome the closure of these institutions, and on the other, that learners greatly appreciated this mode of distance learning because of its flexibility, allowing students to learn at their own pace.

5 Conclusion On the whole, UCA’s higher education institutions were accustomed to distance education and had a rich infrastructure of online digital educational resources before the COVID-19 pandemic. Administrative, pedagogical, and technical staff joined efforts to create an environment of sharing and mutualisation of educational resources. These efforts have been crowned by the establishment of the UCA ECampus platform, which brings together all 14 higher education institutions. With the development of UCA’s E-Campus, distance learning has become an essential ritual for teachers and students. Earlier, students and professors were reluctant to use online education, but the closure of educational institutions due to the spread of COVID-19 has forced everyone to experience this strategy. UCA responded to the health crisis in record time with the online educational resources already installed. Today, all the initiatives and measures that UCA has to implement in times of pandemic crisis should provide answers to the challenges of education as well as maintain the quality of higher education during university closure.

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References Ait Si Ahmad, H., El Kharki, K., & Berrada, K. (2021). Agility of the post COVID-19 strategic plan on distance learning at Cadi Ayyad University. An opportunity towards a total digital transformation of the university. Bridges and Mediation in Higher Distance Education, 199–213. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67435-9_16 AMC. (2019). AMC—Multiple choice questionnaires management. Retrieved from https://www. auto-multiple-choice.net/index.en Berrada, K., Bendaoud, R., Machwate, S., Idrissi, A., & Miraoui, A. (2017). UC@MOOC: Pedagogical innovation to challenges of massification at university level in Africa. Latin-American Journal of Physics Education, 11(1). Retrieved from http://www.lajpe.org Bokayev, B., Torebekova, Z., Davletbayeva, Z., & Zhakypova, F. (2021). Distance learning in Kazakhstan: estimating parents’ satisfaction of educational quality during the coronavirus. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2020.1865192 Bozkurt, A., Jung, I., Xiao, J., Vladimirschi, V., Schuwer, R., Egorov, G., Lambert, S. R., Al-Freih, M., Pete, J., Olcott, D., Rodes, V., Aranciaga, I., Bali, M., Alvarez, A. V, Roberts, J., Pazurek, A., Raffaghelli, J. E., Panagiotou, N., De Coëtlogon, P., et al. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 2020. Retrieved from http://www.asianjde. org/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/462 Dawadi, S., Giri, R., & Simkhada, P. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on the education sector in Nepal— Challenges and coping strategies. Advance Sage Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31124/ADVANCE. 12344336.V1 Dos Santos, M. L., Schmidt, H. P., Manassero, G., & Pellini, E. L. (2019, March 1). Automated design for engineering student examinations using Matlab/Octave scripts and the auto multiple choice package. In EDUNINE 2019—3rd IEEE World Engineering Education Conference: Modern Educational Paradigms for Computer and Engineering Career, Proceedings. https://doi.org/10. 1109/EDUNINE.2019.8875783 Draissi, Z., & ZhanYong, Q. (2020). COVID-19 outbreak response plan: Implementing distance education in Moroccan Universities. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.358 6783 El Kharki, K., Bensamka, F., Berrada, K., El Hajjaji, K., El Kbiach, M. L., & Bounab, L. (2018). Vers un laboratoire virtuel des TP en Sciences physiques: Cas du projet EXPERES. International Journal of Applied Research and Technology, 1. Retrieved from http://www.ijartech.com/lirePD F2.php El Kharki, K., Bensamka, F., & Berrada, K. (2020). Enhancing practical work in physics using virtual Javascript simulation and LMS platform. In Lecture Notes in Educational Technology (pp. 131–146). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4952-6_9 El Kharki, K., Berrada, K., & Burgos, D. (2021). Design and implementation of a virtual laboratory for physics subjects in Moroccan Universities. Sustainability, 13(7), 3711. https://doi.org/10. 3390/su13073711 Hamada, T., Nakagawa, Y., & Tamura, M. (2020). Method to create multiple choice exercises for computer algebra system. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 12097 LNCS, 419–425. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52200-1_41 Idrissi, A., Berrada, K., Bendaoud, R., Machwate, S., Miraoui, A., & Burgos, D. (2020). Starting MOOCs in African University: The experience of Cadi Ayyad University, process, review, recommendations, and prospects. IEEE Access, 8, 17477–17488. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS. 2020.2966762

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Hana Ait Si Ahmad is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She holds a master’s degree in Multimedia and Pedagogical Engineering from High Normal School, UAE. She is developing research on active learning and teaching methods and tools with the Trans ERIE research group at UCA. Khadija El Kharki is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She holds a master’s degree in Engineering and Technology of Education and Training. She is developing research on virtual laboratories based on digital simulation with the JavaScript programming language with the Trans ERIE research group at UCA. Daniel Burgos works as Vice-rector for International Research (https://research.unir.net), UNESCO Chair on eLearning, and ICDE Chair in Open Educational Resources at Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR, https://www.unir.net). He is also the Director of the Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED, https://ited.unir.net). His work is focused on Adaptive, Personalised and Informal eLearning, Learning Analytics, Open Education and Open Science, eGames, and eLearning Specifications. He has published over 150 scientific papers, 20 books, and 15 special issues in indexed journals. He has developed >55 European and Worldwide R&D projects, with a practical implementation approach. He holds degrees in Communication (PhD), Computer Science (Dr. Ing), Education (PhD), Anthropology (PhD), Business Administration (DBA), and Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning (postgraduate, at MIT).

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Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder on ‘Teaching physics by doing’. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books in special issues in indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French program of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016.

Chapter 7

From MOOCs to OER: A Case Study of the “Maroc Université Numérique” Initiative Sofia Margoum, Said Machwate, Ismail Mekkaoui Alaoui, Rachid Bendaoud, Marc Landry, Karine Masse, Mohammed Bennis, and Khalid Berrada Abstract Massive online open courses (MOOCs) based on open educational resources (OER) could be one of the most flexible ways to offer and provide equal access to education. In this context, Morocco has implemented a Morrocan platform named “Maroc Universite Numerique (MUN)” to enable Moroccan universities to develop any form of online courses. MOOCs in different fields delivered on MUN are available for anyone to enrol. This chapter presents the experience of Cadi Ayyad University with the openness movement. Three MOOCs (societal implications of neuroscience, physical optics and OER: approaches and fundamentals) were produced as open educational resources for MUN. This chapter describes the content of each MOOC and presents their structure and main results in terms of delivery.

S. Margoum · S. Machwate · I. Mekkaoui Alaoui · R. Bendaoud · M. Landry · K. Masse · M. Bennis Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, BP 2390, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] I. Mekkaoui Alaoui e-mail: [email protected] R. Bendaoud e-mail: [email protected] M. Landry e-mail: [email protected] K. Masse e-mail: [email protected] M. Bennis e-mail: [email protected] K. Berrada (B) Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B.P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_7

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Keywords Massive online open courses · Open educational resources · Maroc Universite Numerique platform

1 Introduction Since the UNESCO Paris Declaration on open educational resources (OER) in June 2012, a significant number of governments and institutions have participated in the OER movement (UNESCO, 2012). Morocco has also joined this initiative. In December 2016, the Moroccan declaration on OER was addressed to the Moroccan Government, in the frame of the OpenMed project, a project focussed on the development of OER, open frameworks for technology-enhanced learning and massive open online courses (MOOCs), adoption of Open Educational Practices (Idrissi et al., 2018). Moreover, UNESCO promotes the concept of universal access to information and knowledge, equal access to education and cultural diversity (UNESCO, 2010). Open Education is receiving increasing attention because of digital openness during the last two decades (Mulder, 2015). OER are learning tools that stand in the public domain or are openly licensed, meaning they can be (re)used, remixed, revised and redistributed (Bonk et al., 2015). Quality in higher learning can be achieved by opening up education and introducing open learning innovations (Stracke, 2017). Sharing OERs through MOOCs will help educators display their courses in various learning contexts and enhance the student experience (Yuan & Powell, 2013). Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are part of the large family of OER open to all learners through the Web (Gaševi´c et al., 2014). A MOOC usually contains videos (capsules), course manuals, multiple-choice questions (MCQs), comprehension activities, simulations, forums, assessments and a certificate for those who have exceeded the evaluation threshold (Bakki et al., 2017). Since 2000, the concept of openness in education has evolved rapidly (Fig. 1) (Bozkurt et al., 2018). The first MOOC was conducted by Stephen Downes and George Siemens (Boven, 2013). In 2012, Thrun and Norvig launched the Udacity platform as a for-profit MOOC model (Peter & Deimann, 2013). Later that year, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University launched edX as a nonprofit MOOC platform. Furthermore, we see the appearance of blended learning; a combination of online technologies and face-to-face instruction. It can be located on a continuum, between fully online and fully face-to-face courses (Helms, 2014; Skrypnyk et al., 2015). MOOCs are at the centre of the evolution of educational technology and open or distance learning. They provide several learning opportunities to learners. MOOCs offer free and open access courses for a massive number of learners. The emergence of MOOCs generates a race to design efficient platforms (Siemens, 2011). Universities worldwide are embracing openness by making MOOCs a substantial component of their work (Daniel, 2012). They are enduring overcrowded conditions and need to increase accessibility and reduce costs. The course platforms and other available social connection tools initiate a link between students as they perceive

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Fig.1 Timeline of MOOC and open education

computer interaction as social communication (Daradoumis et al., 2013). The pedagogical staff should consider the motivations, intentions and goals of their mass audience. Motivation and assessment play a large part in student learning in higher education. In this chapter, we share our experiences with the openness movement and describe the motivations for producing three MOOCs as OER by taking advantage of the revolutionary MOOC in e-learning history.

2 Background The last years were marked by an unprecedented increase in the flow of students applying for higher education. This phenomenon, referred to as overcrowding, presents many problems for the university system. It generates financial, social and pedagogical complications. One of the indicators of pedagogical and didactic issues is the low student-to-teacher ratio. Moreover, educational material is in deficit and premises are inadequate in their design and reception capacities. In Morocco, for the last five academic years, an increase of 19–20% in the number of enrolled students was seen each year in open access universities (Fig. 2). Current trends in student enrolment do not appear likely to reverse soon. To face these challenges, Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) launched the initiative UC@MOOC, which consists of producing actual courses to open educational resources with a similar structure to MOOCs. The output is a scripted video put

78 Fig. 2 Number of enrolled students at open access universities in Morocco

S. Margoum et al. 1000000

Number of students

800000 600000 400000 200000 0

2015/2016 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 2019/2020

online with free open access (Idrissi et al., 2018). The university started supporting staff in using and integrating Open Educational Practices OEP and OER. The main objectives of the UC@MOOC project are: • Lighten the effects of massification. • Improve university student retention and decrease dropout rates (less than 25% in the first year). • Improve the internal efficiency of UCA. • Increase students’ language capabilities (with courses in English, Arabic and French) (Idrissi et al., 2021). On 15 July 2016, an agreement on creating the platform “Maroc Université Numérique” (MUN) was signed between the Moroccan Ministry of Higher Education and Research, France Université Numérique FUN, and France’s Embassy in Rabat (Morocco). The purpose of this agreement is to set up a white-label Moroccan platform operated by FUN to enable Moroccan universities to develop MOOCs, small private online courses (SPOCs) or other online courses. The ministry launched a call for proposals that involved all universities in Morocco. A total of 49 MOOCs were selected, including five from Cadi Ayyad University (MUN, 2016). MUN is an online platform that offers flexible and adapted MOOCs for students without any restriction of access. In the following sections, we describe the content of each one of the three MOOCs where our group was involved. We present their structure and some of the main results in terms of delivery.

3 Mooc—Societal Implications of Neuroscience The teaching staff of the Euro-Mediterranean master’s degree in Neuroscience and Biotechnology (University of Bordeaux, Cadi Ayyad University), in collaboration with the team of the pedagogical innovation centre at Cadi Ayyad University, developed a MOOC called Societal Implications of Neuroscience (ISN). This collaboration aimed at creating a community of research and practice around the themes

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of the MOOC. The resources developed for this MOOC can be reused in various contexts and can be reinvested elsewhere, such as in distance learning courses and programmes. The objectives of this MOOC are to provide an understanding of the basic structure and function of the nervous system, neurological development and changes during ageing. It is designed for people who wish to acquire specific knowledge in neurosciences, students whose study time is constrained by their professional and family life, learners far from campuses or even beyond borders. The MOOC was designed to be delivered via the MUN platform. The quizzes and activities were shaped by the capacity of the Edx platform. Each professor of the pedagogical staff provides essential background on each topic and prepares manuscripts and presentations.

3.1 Content and Structure The MOOC ISN took place over seven weeks, with each week structured similarly. This course comprises six units of content organised into 7 weeks: Developmental aspects, Neurodegenerative diseases, Addiction/Nutrition, Psycho-affective disorders and comorbidity, Stress and pathological consequences and Decision-making. We customised the content based on learners profiling to optimise the learning process; in each unit there were: • Weekly lectures formatted as short original videos combined with formative quizzes with immediate feedback; • Discussion forum to help create a dynamic learner–trainer environment; • Teasers with guiding questions to reflect an aspect of their everyday life based on the weekly topic; • Glossary of key terms used in the course.

3.2 Delivery MOOC ISN is the first introduced MOOC in the MUN platform. It was released under a creative commons license in the autumn of 2019. There were 555 registered participants; 546 identified as students and 9 as instructors, teaching assistants and others in administrative roles. Of 546 participants, 48% were female and 52% were male; 35 (6%) were aged >20 years, 285 (54%) were between 21 and 30, 169 (32%) between 31 and 50 and 62 (6%) between 51 and 70. In this MOOC, we had a large participant population with a diversity of age, experience, culture, preparedness and motivation (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3 An overview of MOOC ISN on the MUN platform

4 MOOC Physical Optics (Optique Physique) The physical optics MOOC was designed for students at the Faculty of Sciences in the second year of physics studies in Moroccan universities and those at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia. However, it is open to all learners who wish to learn and study physical optics. For instance, students and learners from all Moroccan universities were registered in the first and second sessions in spring 2019 (session 1) and spring 2020 (session 2). Session 2 was of great help to our students during the first COVID19 lockdown in Morocco (March–July 2020). The third session is scheduled for the spring semester of 2021.

4.1 Content and Structure The physical optics MOOC is designed with the same teaching material as the faceto-face course. This course comprises four units of content organised into 8 weeks. In each part, there is a PDF course document, video capsules of each concept in the course, exercises in the form of MCQs, assessment exercises and practical presentations (experiences recorded in the form of video capsules in the laboratory of practical work). Some links to computer simulations were proposed to clarify situations. In

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Fig. 4 Structure of the physical optics MOOC

each chapter, frequently asked questions are set up to answer learners’ queries by pairs or by pedagogical staff. The physical optics MOOC can be used to perform blended or hybrid teaching (Pelletier et al., 2017). The structure of the physical optics MOOC is sketched in Fig. 4. It contains PDF course support, 22 video capsules to explain concepts, comprehension activities and interactive exercises at the end of the week. It contains some recorded practical work in the audiovisual format, to facilitate understanding of the optical phenomena. The MOOC also contains 17 PDF documents related to 22 sets of comprehension questions and 7 sets of weekend quizzes. External resources to deepen the learners’ knowledge are given in the bibliography section of the MOOC.

4.2 Delivery The first session of the physical optics MOOC has been described (Machwate & Alaoui, 2020) and includes an evaluation of the content, learning outcomes of learners and student results following the physical optics module in FSSM. Moreover, we noticed an increase in the number of learners. In the first session, they were 215 (205 from FSSM) with only 8 certificates (learners who reached a grade of more than 60%). This result represents less than 4% of the total number of learners. However, among the learners who took the course completely or in part, those who belong to the SMP stream of FSSM improved their knowledge, which allowed them to better prepare for the face-to-face exam. We need to highlight here

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Fig. 5 An overview of the physical optic MOOC on MUN platform

that few students from the 2019 spring FSSM promotion knew about MOOCs. In the second session, we had 778 learners with 47 certificates. This result, which represents about 8% (double compared to the first session), is encouraging us to open the third session in spring 2021 Fig. 5.

5 Mooc Open Educational Resources: Approaches and Fundamentals The MOOC “Open Educational Resources: Approaches and Fundamentals” (OERAF) was produced within the framework of the OpenMed project with the support of Erasmus + from the European Union (Stefanelli et al., 2018). It was set as training that aims to strengthen the capacities of universities in southern Mediterranean countries in open education and free OER. Moreover, participants in this MOOC can build a clear understanding of the search, use, adaptation and integration of these OER in their specific contexts. The MOOC OER-AF is primarily designed for higher education teachers who are particularly interested in integrating OER into their teaching. The MOOC was produced between partners from different countries: Italy, Spain, United Kingdom and Morocco.

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5.1 Content and Structure The MOOC OER-AF contains: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Audiovisual capsules animated by experts in various fields related to OER. Guided educational activities. Webinars and interviews with experts in the field of OER. Self-assessments in the format of weekly quizzes, final quiz or peer assessments on the acquisition of basic knowledge in OER.

During six weeks, participants take five-module courses (Fig. 6) for an estimated global work time of 20–24 h, where they have to read the content and do the activities (tests, forum discussions, etc.). Each week, learners have to answer the quiz for self-assessment. Week 0 is placed to present the structure of MOOC. The distribution of this training is structured as follows: Week 1: Introducing Openness in Education. Learners will be initiated to the main concepts connected to open education. Reasons why teachers must use open access in teaching are discussed. During the module, some history of the open education movement is provided. Week 2: Open Licensing and Copyright where the debate on open licenses within education is introduced, presenting the most common open licenses, such as Creative Commons. It introduces concepts such as Open Access to research, Open Data and Open Science. Week 3: Creating and reusing OER. Starting by describing what is or is not an OER, providing examples of OER and explaining how to search for open content, the module focuses on MOOCs by presenting their history and typologies. Week 4: Localising OER and MOOCs addresses the importance of intercultural communication in open education, focussing on personal learning environments and diversity in open learning networks and discussing how to adapt existing OER and MOOCs to a different linguistic and cultural context.

• Introducing Openness in Education

Week 2 • Open Licensing and Copyright

Week 1 Fig. 6 Structure of OER MOOC

• Creating and reusing OER

Week 3

Week 4 • Localising OER and MOOCs

• Open Educational Practices

Week 5

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Fig. 7 An overview of MOOC REL on the MUN platform

Week 5: Open Educational Practices. It mainly explains how to open up teaching practices and experiment with Open and Networked teaching, presenting success stories of OEP. Moreover, it provides an intro to Open Assessment and Open Badges. The final week was set for assessment and self-evaluation.

5.2 Delivery The MOOC OER-AF will be delivered soon. Meanwhile, the pedagogical staff is working on a platform called FORMAREL (CIP, 2021) in the light of COVID19. This platform aims to support the teaching staff in using and integrating open educational resources in their teaching (Fig. 7).

6 Discussions The delivery of the three MOOCs on the MUN platform for free presents one of the best ways for students to benefit from this high-tech educational innovation.

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The MOOCs are organised as sequences of instructor produced videos. Each video is shorter than 6 min and includes the instructor’s talking head with slides because they are much more engaging (Guo et al. 2014). To avoid the low interaction between learners and the teaching team, we included the instructor interaction aspect (instructor support and feedback) (Hone & El Said, 2016). MOOC discussion forums provide learners with the opportunity to interact and communicate. It allows exchanges on the courses, quizzes, assignments and debate questions. The instructors post a topic for discussion among MOOC learners so they can interact, exchange, argue, answer and ask. The teaching team can relaunch the debate by reacting to a statement. Moreover, there are individual activities (quizzes to assess learning, individual assignments due each week) and newsletters announcing the start of the course, presenting the content of each week and reminding the participant of the expected output and deadlines. The similarity in structure does not necessarily mean similarity in goals. MOOCs vary hugely in their objectives. MOOC ISN targets individuals who want to understand the structural and functional classification of the nervous system, ageing process and physiological changes. Physical optics MOOC is more about the integration of a hybrid MOOC into a face-to-face course. This MOOC provides the learners with an opportunity to engage in healthy discussions with the instructor. MOOC OER-AF explores aspects of openness within higher education. It is addressed to educators (professors, lecturers) from all disciplines. Releasing learning materials as OER allows people to benefit from the educational content for free. Especially, after the disruption of education due to COVID-19.

7 Conclusion MOOCs improve access and transfer of knowledge and information from universities to a wide range of users. They are a pedagogical approach that considers the increase in the number of students without altering the quality of training. In this chapter, we described three MOOCs, each dealing with a specific type of content dedicated to different target audiences: • A MOOC dedicated to the general public, which can be the subject of an introduction to several disciplines related to this field (ISN). • A MOOC in the form of training dedicated to teaching staff (OER-AF). • A MOOC specific to undergraduate students to switch to a new teaching mode (Hybrid) and improve their enriched face-to-face learning. The university, the educational team and the pedagogical team gained experience and became more confident in running MOOCs. However, we should continuously improve and innovate other methods to meet the growing demands of learners. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the ministry of national education, vocational training, higher education and scientific research in Morocco; the SCAC «Service de Coopération

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et d’Action Culturelle» and MAPI «Mission d’appui à la pédagogie et àl’innovation». Our thanks also to all the participants and collaborators in the three MOOCs.

References Bakki, A., Oubahssi, L., George, S., & Cherkaoui, C. (2017). Approche et outils pour assister la scénarisation pédagogique des cMOOCs. Ème Conférence Sur Les Environnements Informatiques Pour L’apprentissage Humain, 8, 185–196. Bonk, C. J., Lee, M. M., Reeves, T. C., & Reynolds, T. H. (2015). MOOCs and open education around the world. Routledge. Boven, D. (2013). The next game changer: The historical antecedents of the MOOC movement in education. E-Learning Papers, 33, 1–7. Bozkurt, A., Kilgore, W., & Crosslin, M. (2018). Bot-teachers in hybrid massive open online courses (MOOCs): A post-humanist experience. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 34(3). CIP. (2021). Formation sur les REL. Retrieved March 13, 2021, from http://cip.uca.ma/enrol/index. php?id=6. Daniel, J. (2012). Korean National Open. Making Sense of MOOCs: Musings in a maze of myth, paradox and possibility. Retrieved from University. https://www.tonybates.ca/2012/10/01/dan iels-comprehensive-review-of-mooc-developments/. Daradoumis, T., Bassi, R., Xhafa, F., & Caballé, S. (2013, October). A review on massive elearning (MOOC) design, delivery and assessment. In 2013 eighth international conference on P2P, parallel, grid, cloud and internet computing (pp. 208-213). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ 3PGCIC.2013.37. Gaševi´c, D., Kovanovi´c, V., Joksimovi´c, S., & Siemens, G. (2014). Where is research on massive open online courses headed? A data analysis of the MOOC Research Initiative. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(5), 134–176. Guo, P. J., Kim, J., & Rubin, R. (2014). How video production affects student engagement: An empirical study of MOOC videos. In Proceedings of the First ACM Conference on Learning@ Scale Conference (41–50). Helms, S. A. (2014). Blended/hybrid courses: A review of the literature and recommendations for instructional designers and educators. Interactive Learning Environments, 22(6), 804–810. Hone, K. S., & El Said, G. R. (2016). Exploring the factors affecting MOOC retention: A survey study. Computers and Education, 98, 157–168. Idrissi, A. J., Berrada, K., Bendaoud, R., El Kharki, K., Machwate, S., & Miraoui, A. (2021). Cost effective open educational platform to face the challenge of massification in Cadi Ayyad University. Iraqi Journal of Science, 7–16. Idrissi, A., Margoum, S., Bendaoud, R., & Berrada, K. (2018). UC@ MOOC’s effectiveness by producing open educational resources. IJIMAI, 5(2), 58–62. Machwate, S., & Alaoui, I. M. (2020). Smart integration of evaluation activities in the framework of physical optics mooc (mooc UCA-002) of the Mun platform. The International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 44, 273–277. Mulder, F. (2015). Open (ing up) Education for all… Boosted by MOOCs. MOOCs and Open Education around the World. MUN. (2016). Maroc Université Numérique. Retrieved from https://www.mun.ma/. Pelletier, P., Le Clech, C., & Bédard, F. (2017). La recherche-action. Construire l’expertise pédagogique et curriculaire en enseignement supérieur Connaissances, Compétences et Expériences, 249. Peter, S., & Deimann, M. (2013). On the role of openness in education: A historical reconstruction. Open Praxis, 5(1), 7–14. Siemens, G. (2011). The race to platform education. eLearnspace.

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Skrypnyk, O., Joksimovi´c, S., Kovanovi´c, V., Dawson, S., Gaševi´c, D., & Siemens, G. (2015). The history and state of blended learning. Preparing for the Digital University: A Review of the History and Current State of Distance, Blended, and Online Learning, 55–92. Stefanelli, C., Union, M. U., & Nascimbeni, F. (2018). Opening-up Education in SouthMediterranean Countries at the Macro, Meso and Micro Level. Exploring the Micro, Meso and Macro, 284. Stracke, C. M. (2017). The Quality of MOOCs: How to improve the design of open education and online courses for learners? International Conference on Learning and Collaboration Technologies, 285–293. UNESCO. (2010). UNESCO at a glance. Paris. UNESCO. (2012). 2012 Paris OER Declaration. Paris: UNESCO (2012). 2012 World Open Educational Resources (OER) Congress. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MUL TIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/Events/Paris OER Declaration_01.pdf Yuan, L., & Powell, S. J. (2013). MOOCs and open education: Implications for higher education.

Sofia Margoum is a Ph.D. student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is a holder of a Master’s Degree in physics, chemistry, and analysis of materials. She is developing research on the implementation of Micro-Computer Based-Laboratory and OER at Trans ERIE group of research of UCA. She is also contributing to the joint MOOC on Societal Implication on Neurosciences between UCA and Bordeaux University in France. Said Machwate is currently works as administrator of the Pedagogical Innovation Centre at Cadi Ayyad University. Said does research as a PhD student in Educational Engineering and Sciences Didactics. He is member of the TransErie group of research at Cadi Ayyad University. Current projects are ‘E-learning, MOOC, Blended Learning, Pedagogical Innovation’. Ismail Mekkaoui Alaoui obtained a Ph.D. in Physics from the Texas Technological University (1992) and a “Doctorat de Trosieme Cycle” from the University of Sciences and Techniques of Montpellier, France (1984). He is a professor at the Cadi Ayyad University in Marrakech working on Open Educational Resources and Forensic Sciences. Rachid Bendaoud is professor of physics in charge of e-Learning at Cadi Ayyad University. He holds a PhD in physics from Toulouse University (France) and the International Master in e-Learning from Kurt Bush Institute (Switzerland). He is working on MOOCs, blended learning, open education, educational technology and innovation. He is one of developers of the UC@MOOC initiative at Cadi Ayyad University. He works as an instructor for professorsresearchers in e-Learning and is also a consultant in educational techniques and teaching methods with university institutions. He has coordinated about fifteen projects funded by IRD, OIF, CNRST and currently is working on a project with AUF that deals with the training of trainers in open education. Marc Landry got a PhD from the University Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris 6. He is now Professor of Cell Biology and Neuroscience at the University of Bordeaux. He leads the team “Purinergic signalling and neurological disorders” at the Institute of Neurodegenerative Diseases and is the deputy-director of the Bordeaux Imaging Center. He works on mechanisms of pathological sensitization to pain in preclinical models. He coordinates the Euro-Mediterranean Master of Neuroscience online (EMN-Online) and was a cofounder and past-President of the Mediterranean Neuroscience Society.

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Karine Masse is an associate professor at Bordeaux University (UB). She is a developmental biologist and developing research on the functions of the purinergic signaling pathway during vertebrate development, specially during nervous system formation in the “Purinergic mediated neuroinflammation and brain disorders” team at the Institute of Neurodegenerative Diseases (IMN). Mohammed Bennis is full Professor of Physiology & Neurosciences at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). Coordinator of the Master Neurosciences & Biotechnology at UCA and the Head of Neurobiology & Behavior team. Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder on “Teaching physics by doing”. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books in special issues and indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French programme of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016.

Chapter 8

Motives to Attend Entrepreneurship MOOC: Lessons Drawn from the Experience of Ph.D. Students at University Cadi Ayyad Moulay Othman Idrissi Fakhreddine and Khalid Berrada Abstract In the era of digitalisation and the emergence of the Internet, universities called for the adoption of innovative pedagogical tools. Massive online open courses (MOOCs) are considered a revolutionary way to provide learning and access to international expertise. This chapter aims to examine the motivations behind the enrolment of Ph.D. students at Cadi Ayyad University in a MOOC dedicated to entrepreneurship. A qualitative research approach was adopted for the study. Data from the France Université Numérique-MOOC platform were collected from exchanges between students. Our results suggest that students enrolled in the open course with two main motivations—extrinsic and intrinsic, with both showing some complementarity. This chapter contributes to the nascent literature on MOOCs in Morocco by providing practical insights for, on the one hand, managers and professors at Cadi Ayyad University when designing entrepreneurship MOOCs, and on the other, policymakers to profit from the classes. This would provide entrepreneurship education, which could overcome the problems of unemployment among young graduate students. Keywords Massive online open courses · SPOC · Entrepreneurship · Intrinsic motivation · Extrinsic motivation · University Cadi Ayyad

1 Introduction The use of massive online open courses (MOOCs) as educational tools is a hot topic in the world of higher education. Universities globally are offering a growing M. O. Idrissi Fakhreddine (B) National School of Management and Business, University Cadi Ayyad, Avenue Allal El Fassi, BP 3748 Amerchich Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] K. Berrada Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B.P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_8

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number of courses to a large world audience. According to Tuteja (2014), MOOCs are innovative tools that blend technology and knowledge for both students and managers. The introduction of MOOCs in higher education was reported to bring more benefits to students and universities (Fomin, 2013) in terms of accessibility, cost and expertise. In fact, learner numbers increased from 2 million in 2012 to >180 million globally, excluding China, in 2020.1 A significant increase in the number of courses has been registered, with >16,000 courses available from different providers in countries worldwide, excluding China. Business courses represent 19% of the most attended courses, with Harvard University’s “Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies” standing among the first 10 most popular courses.2 In higher education, MOOCs are considered a revolutionary tool in university education (Meneses et al., 2020). They are recognised as learning resources in higher education. In business disciplines, such as entrepreneurship, Al-Atabi and DeBoer (2014) have suggested that MOOC is a suitable platform to teach entrepreneurship. However, only one MOOC related to entrepreneurship has been launched, among a few others, dedicated to the business discipline by Moroccan universities. As an initial initiative, Moroccan universities, such as Cadi Ayyad University (UCA), introduced MOOCs to provide innovative access to education for students and to optimise the university’s resources (Dahbi, 2016; Oubibi & Zhao, 2017). However, there is no entrepreneurship MOOC developed by UCA. The available literature on entrepreneurship education and the use of MOOCs focuses mainly on the evaluation of the use of MOOCs in entrepreneurship education (Al-Atabi & DeBoer, 2014; Welsh et al., 2014), on justifying the importance of MOOCs as a mean to teach management courses (Tuteja, 2014), or on designing the educational content of MOOCs (Daskalou & Komninou, 2016). Studies on the motivation behind using MOOCs for learning entrepreneurship among UCA Ph.D. students are scarce. In this chapter, we have evaluated the rationale behind student enrolment in this MOOC UCA. Our interest will be particularly to answer these questions: 1. What are the characteristics of UCA Ph.D. students interested in the “Désir d’entreprendre” MOOC? 2. What are the motivations for UCA Ph.D. students to enrol in this MOOC? The rest of this chapter is organised as follows. Section 2 reviews UCA’s achievements in both adopting MOOCs, and its MOOC offer regarding entrepreneurship as well. Section 3 describes the context of the study, the data used and the approach adopted to analyse the data. Section 4 presents the results of the study. Section 5, finally, summarises and discusses the main results and sets out the main limits of the study.

1 2

https://www.classcentral.com/report/the-second-year-of-the-mooc/. https://www.classcentral.com/subject/business.

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2 Moocs and Entrepreneurship MOOCs at UCA UCA is a leading Moroccan university using the MOOCs platform. In 2013, UCA launched its UC@MOOC initiative (Idrissi et al., 2020), which covers diverse disciplines. UC@MOOC is nurtured by >10 schools and faculties, accounting for many MOOCs in different disciplines. Several studies have evaluated why UCA has adopted this innovative form of teaching (Idrissi et al., 2018, 2020; Razouki et al., 2017). The introduction of MOOCs at UCA was geared not only towards finding solutions for “massification” at UCA, but also introducing more innovative forms of learning. Studies conducted by UCA professors and Ph.D. students outline both the history and evolution of UCA’s MOOCs (Idrissi et al., 2018). UC@MOOC is an open educational platform that allows students to access educational resources designed to promote, anywhere, anytime learning, together with interactions between professors and students. Since its inception, this platform has been nurtured by professors at UCA with diverse content from several disciplines (Idrissi et al., 2018). Owing to this pedagogical innovation, UCA is reaching many students, allowing them to access free courses, practical and guided work, etc. According to Idrissi et al. (2018, p. 470), the outcomes from this experience “are quite satisfying”. When talking about MOOCs, two issues should be addressed in the context of UCA and Moroccan universities. First is the concern for legal issues when discussing MOOCs. In a study conducted among UCA students, Razouki et al. (2017) noted the lack of legal texts regulating distance diplomas. Second is the issue of instilled practices in using MOOCs among professors. The authors noted a lack of engagement and technical skills among professors, in terms of online course design requirement, which renders the shift to digitalised courses harder, thereby leading to a recourse to traditional classes. Third, most MOOCs provided by UCA are in the form of videos that do not provide the desired outcome and benefit to end-users (Idrissi et al., 2020). Fourth, unlike those in developed countries, Moroccan universities do not use the principles of a business model to produce MOOCs. In fact, MOOCs are considered a classic example of disruptive innovation (Flynn, 2013; Yuan & Powell, 2013). To be considered disruptive innovation, a product or service should comprise three components: performance, benefits and market (Al-Imarah & Shields, 2019). The authors suggest that although MOOCs may be a sustaining innovation that establishes new markets for learners who are not served by universities, they do not have the performance, benefits and market characteristics of disruptive innovation. Unlike real business models in the United States and Europe, the situation remains unclear in Africa (Epelboin, 2016), and thus in Morocco. This issue engenders an in-depth discussion about the most suitable Moroccan model for promoting MOOCs. For instance, when talking about MOOCs in the context of Moroccan universities, it is their enthusiasm rather than a business model that matters. Although UC@MOOC does provide a large choice of business courses, thanks to the efforts of many professors, entrepreneurship MOOCs are absent from the platform.

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Since the seminal work of Schumpeter on innovation, entrepreneurship is seen as the engine for economic growth and among the most determinant factors of competitiveness (Tremblay et al., 2011). Therefore, promoting entrepreneurial culture in society is important. The learning process is important for initiating people towards entrepreneurship. Several empirical studies have shown a positive correlation between entrepreneurship education and starting a business (Karimi et al., 2016; Von Graevenitz et al., 2010). In Morocco, several initiatives have been made to promote entrepreneurial culture among young people, especially young graduate students, because Morocco has a climbing unemployment rate within this social category. According to the Haut Commissariat au Plan (2019), the national unemployment rate by diploma among students has reached 21.9% for graduated students. Recent data show that 32.4% of surveyed Moroccan students never took an entrepreneurship course, and thus the Moroccan education system should strive to promote entrepreneurship education (Dawson, 2016). In this context, the Moroccan government has engaged in numerous initiatives to improve entrepreneurial culture and encourage business creation (Binkkour & Messaoudi, 2012). Such initiatives were concretised through partnership agreements involving four Moroccan universities, including UCA, and the Conservatoire Nationale des Arts et Métiers de Paris to launch a training program on entrepreneurship in the form of MOOCs available on the France Université Numérique (FUN) platform (Mongenet et al., 2016) and enable Moroccan universities to develop MOOCs, SPOCs and other forms of online courses. This partnership, called “Désir d’entreprendre”, is dedicated to provide MOOC training to Moroccan Ph.D. students.3

3 Methodology The aim of this study is to examine the motivations that drive UCA Ph.D. students to enrol in the “Désir d’entreprendre” MOOC. We used a qualitative approach using content analysis. Data were collected from UCA participants in this MOOC, which was organised for 5 weeks.4 To ensure large-scale participation, students were informed by their faculties, schools and professors to register for the FUN-MOOC platform before training began. To guarantee large-scale participation among Ph.D. students, some incentives, such as certifications of participation, were given. A total of 42 UCA Ph.D. students participated in this activity, which does not reflect the actual number of Ph.D. students enrolled in UCA. Data were collected daily from 30th November 2015 to the first week of January 2016 directly from the FUNMOOC online forum. The data collection period was extended by two weeks by the researchers to collect more MOOC theme-oriented discussions and to check that no more have occurred after training ended. Data from discussions held >210 exchanges 3 4

http://www.fstg-marrakech.ac.ma/Lancement-MOOC.pdf. https://www.fun-mooc.fr/courses/course-v1:CNAM+01007+session02/about.

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between participants (approximately 12 pages). To extract relevant information, a template was designed to collect names, affiliations, disciplines and discussions. All discussions were first translated into English by an expert and then transcribed and included in the final analysis. The analysis plan adopted in this study is consistent with the qualitative approach of content analysis in its inductive version. The objective of qualitative content analysis is to systematically transform a large amount of text into a highly organised and concise summary of key results (Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2013). The choice of this approach is justified by the fact that the state of knowledge on the use of MOOC for teaching entrepreneurship among Moroccan students is non-existent (Lauri & Kyngas, 2005). Content analysis is a method for exploiting and understanding documents analysed based on deduction and inference (Wanlin, 2007, p. 249). The method is organised around three chronological phases: the phase of pre-analysis, the phase of exploitation of the material and treatment of results and the phase of inference and interpretation. Accordingly, the pre-analysis phase is dedicated to organising the work, including the material choice upon which the analysis will be based (Feller, 1977). In this paper, the discussions between participants on the FUN-MOOC forum provide the basic working material. These discussions abide by the four rules specified by Feller (1977) to constitute material on which analysis will be performed, as far as principles of completeness are concerned. Thus, the principle of representativeness is followed by including all interactions of Ph.D. students enrolled in this MOOC. The principle of homogeneity is followed because only Ph.D. students participated in this activity. Finally, the principle of relevance is followed because the topic under study raises the question of exploring the use of the MOOC for teaching entrepreneurship to Moroccan Ph.D. students. The second phase of content analysis is essentially a matter of coding, creating categories, and classifying the content of the discussions to provide a means of describing the phenomenon. Therefore, written discussions are read and re-read as many items as necessary and written on the margins to describe all aspects of the content (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). In this sense, our coding operation was first grounded on the creation of freely generated categories (Burnard, 1991). To go through this phase, we used different colours to distinguish between contents related to categories. After open coding, categories were obtained by collapsing categories that presented similarities (Dey, 2005). As proposed by Cavanagh (1997), the purpose of cerating categories is to increase understanding and generate knowledge. Finally, categories are grouped as main categories which tries to descripe the phenomenon under study. The final phase, in content analysis, is the processing, interpretation and inference of the data. In this phase, simple statistical operations, such as percentages, table of resultants, diagrams and figures will be used to highlight the information provided by the analysis during the categorisation phase (Wanlin, 2007).

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4 Findings This section is structured in two parts. The first presents the profile of UCA participants in this MOOC, whereas the second presents the results related to thematic analysis.

4.1 Profile of Participants in “Désir Entreprendre” MOOC The first results collected the socio-demographic data of the participants. Table 1 shows affiliation and gender participation in this MOOC. The results show that Ph.D. students enrolled in this MOOC came from different backgrounds—14 were from engineering school (ENSA), 17 from the science and technology faculty and one student from the business faculty (FSJES). These results suggest most students interested in this MOOC came from Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines, and only one, in our sample, came from the business faculty. Regarding gender variables, 32 of 42 participants were males, which suggests that they were more motivated than females to participate in this MOOC. This result should be analysed with great caution because not all studies converge on the correlation between MOOC achievements and demographic variables, such as gender (Ebben & Murphy, 2014; Gil-Jaurena et al., 2017). Evidence suggests that online learning shows some gaps regarding certain socio-demographic groups, such as women, in STEM disciplines (Bettinger et al., 2017). However, when we consider gender and entrepreneurial intention in the Moroccan context, Berrad and Taqi (2017) found that gender variables had a statistically significant difference between males and females regarding entrepreneurial intention. Though, some results regarding gender participation in MOOCs have shown that gender participation rates have been largely related to subjects addressed by MOOCs (Macleod et al., 2015; Jordan, 2014; Ihsen et al., 2013). Finally, these results can be explained by the low number of Ph.D. students enrolled in this MOOC which does not provide any sampling thoroughness upon which we can draw conclusions about the gender effect on “Désir d’entreprendre” MOOC participation. Table 1 Institutional affiliation and gender distribution of UCA participants

Institutional affiliation

Gender Male

Total Female

ENSA

14

6

20

FST

17

4

21

FSJES

1

–

1

Total

32

10

42

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4.2 Ph.D. Students’ Motivations to Enrol in “Désir D’entreprendre” MOOC For the purpose of this chapter, we used a simplified definition of motivation that captures the “reason for attending the Désir entrependre MOOC.” We coded 84 comments of various motivations found in 9 of 12 pages of extracted data. According to Fig. 1, and generally speaking, the most common intrinsic motivation was the gain of entrepreneurship knowledge, suggesting that most Ph.D. students at UCA were intrinsically motivated to increase their knowledge in entrepreneurship (cited 33 times). Other common intrinsic motivations included setting up businesses (cited 22 times). However, the least common intrinsic motivation was curiosity and discovering entrepreneurship MOOC (cited 1 time). Considering extrinsic motivations, pursuing academic training to earn a certificate (cited 5 times) and responding to a mandatory call from student supervisors (cited 4 times) were among the extrinsic motivations reported by the analysis of the participants’ comments. Regarding thematic analysis (Fig. 2), we identified two clear sub-themes, which refer to the motivations behind Ph.D. students’ enrolment in this MOOC. Consistent with theories related to motivations (Reiss, 2012), we identified two main motivations, extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation involves pursuing a task for purposes other than the task at hand; for example, to obtain a salary or a diploma, Type of motivations 33

Number of participants

35 30 25

22

20 15 10 5

12 5

4

5

8

7 1

0

Fig. 1 Number of participants by type of motivations

Extrinsic motivations Intrinsic motivations

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M. O. Idrissi Fakhreddine and K. Berrada Main category

Generic category

Extrinsic motivation Motivations to enroll in Désir d’entreprendre MOOC

Intrinsic motivation

Sub-category Part of university programs Discovery Learning Professional Selfachievement

Fig. 2 Results of thematic analysis

etc. Intrinsic motivations involve pursuing a task for the satisfaction, commitment or interest that the task itself might provide to the user. For extrinsic motivations, according to data analysed, the results suggest that UCA students were largely enrolled in this MOOC solely because of institutional obligations and to which some participants simply responded. because it is part of the transversal courses organized by the university mandatory to finish my studies I registered following the invitation of the person in charge of the center for doctoral studies of my faculty.

These results are quite interesting because previous research has shown a relationship between motivation and engagement of students on MOOCs (Jordan, 2014). Actually, institutional obligation, in this study, had a significant impact on preserving the constancy of enrolment of UCA Ph.D. student numbers from the beginning to the end of the MOOC. Regarding intrinsic motivations, two themes were drawn from the analysis. Intrinsic motivations are related to curiosity for discovering new experiences and desire to learn skills related to entrepreneurship. by CURIOSITY, because entrepreneurship is an exciting and interesting field to discover. to DISCOVER entrepreneurship and evaluate my desire to undertake it. to know more myself and break down fears and negative ideas about entrepreneurship.

Equally important, the thematic analysis shows that motives were directed towards acquiring entrepreneurial skills. In fact, these results are consistent with previous research, which suggests that the digital environments of learning could favour the development of entrepreneurial, social and interpersonal skills among entrepreneurs (Beltrán Hernández de Galindo et al., 2019; Cinque, 2017). to learn new skills in entrepreneurship deepen my knowledge regarding entrepreneurship.

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I hope to learn some real entrepreneurial skills within this course. to develop communication and negotiation skills, etc. to develop technical skills, values, emotional intelligence and relational capital.

Results also show that UCA Ph.D. students bear a more pragmatic view regarding enrolment in this MOOC, as they envision the start of a new venture. We can clearly understand this intention through the students’ discussion. Wishing to develop a new business to evaluate my desire to entrepreneurship especially that I have a goal to create my own business according to the will of God (inchae Allah). to acquire new skills that can help me start my own business.

This latest result stays remarkably crucial as much as it constitutes a solution to the unemployment rate among graduate students in Morocco.

5 Discussion and Conclusion Our aim in this study is to examine the motivations that drive UCA Ph.D. students to enrol in the “Désir d’entreprendre” MOOC. Data from this MOOC were collected and >210 discussions were analysed among UCA Ph.D. students. We discuss our findings in light of available literature, as we suggest some relevant practical implications. Although we adopted an exploratory approach, this chapter made more contributions to emerging research on MOOCs, especially entrepreneurship MOOCs at UCA. First, we addressed to an acceptable extent the profile of UCA students enrolled in this MOOC. Notably, the number of male Ph.D. students far exceeded that of female. The results confirm some acceptable evidence related to gender participation in MOOCs (Ebben & Murphy, 2014; Gil-Jaurena et al., 2017). Our results may also be interpreted as a lower or pessimistic perception of business opportunities among women (Armuña et al., 2020; Camelo-Ordaz et al., 2016). These authors found that there was a significantly lower perception among women regarding their ability to recognise the potential that an idea might have for creating value. We also found evidence of discipline-driven enrolment. Out of 42 students, only one belongs to the business faculty. These results suggest that students from STEM disciplines were more interested in this MOOC than those from the business faculty. Early works on the relation between enrolment in STEM disciplines and entrepreneurship found that Ph.D. students from STEM fields showed more engagement in entrepreneurship (Blume-Kohout, 2014). In fact, the literature suggests that these students are more exposed in their curricula to scientific and technical knowledge, which made them better positioned to recognise business opportunities (Colombo & Piva, 2020). Finally, this chapter highlights two major findings regarding the motivations behind UCA Ph.D. students to enrol in “Désir entreprendre” MOOC. Generally

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speaking, and according to our results, extrinsic and intrinsic motivations were behind this enrolment. In fact, our results remain consistent with prior research that demonstrates a wide variety of motivations for enrolling in MOOCs (Breslow et al., 2013; Koller et al., 2013). In particular, our quantitative results suggest that intrinsic motivations, such as gaining knowledge about entrepreneurship and starting a business, are the most cited motivations that stimulate Ph.D. students at UCA to enrol in the “Désir d’entreprendre” MOOC. These findings should be interpreted with caution as our study is by nature exploratory, and therefore, not transferable to another context. The extrinsic motivations were quite obvious from our analysis. For example, students enrolled to respond to their professors’ requests, which suggests that students enrolled in this MOOC to satisfy an external demand (professors) or to obtain a reward (certification of participation). These results remain consistent with previous research on students’ motivations to enrol in MOOCs (Romero-Frias et al., 2020; Watted & Barak, 2018; Shapiro et al., 2017). The intrinsic motivations were also stressed by the participants. Indded, according to our results, many students showed a strong desire to start their own business, whereas others aspired to know more about entrepreneurship or were curious about entrepreneurship. This finding is consistent with previous research, which reported that personal interest is a factor in determining the enrolment of students in MOOCs (Zheng et al., 2015; Hew & Cheung, 2014). Intrinsic motivation is reflected in students’ will to start their own business. This motivation appeared to be tightly intertwined with participants’ careers. The participants claimed that they needed to acquire knowledge and skills that would help them to start a new business (or to carry out a takeover), and this MOOC was among the opportunities that were to boost students’ entrepreneurial intentions. This finding remains in agreement with that of other studies (Littlejohn et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2015; Zhenghao et al., 2015) in which participants reported that career boost and increase in employability were among the motives that drove them to enrol in MOOCs. Finally, some participants claimed to be motivated not only by discovering entrepreneurship but also by the desire to obtain a certificate of participation. These results may highlight the existing complementarity between the two motivations (Romero-Frias et al., 2020). These results do have some implications for both UCA as a provider of MOOCs and for policymakers. For UCA, in an effort to improve the quality and quantity of MOOCs focusing on entrepreneurship and to a large extent business, it is time to start producing its own MOOCs. This would certainly contribute largely to provide contextualised knowledge and skills regarding the act of entrepreneurship in a Moroccan context. In fact, the results of our study were based on data extracted from the exchanges of Ph.D. students at UCA who have attended, for 5 weeks, a French MOOC on entrepreneurship (Désir d’entreprendre), which is probably not adapted to Moroccan reality. This seems somehow true, because Moroccan higher education authorities launched a platform called “Maroc Université Numérique” where public universities can propose a vast catalogue of courses. Regarding our results, we do not have any first results evaluating the outcomes of “Désir d’entreprendre”, among UCA students. UCA entrepreneurship MOOCs

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should firstly and mostly target STEM Ph.D. students, and then, target all Ph.D. students from different disciplines to a large extent. However, UCA should remain aware that there is no “one size fit all” approach to teaching entrepreneurship. The concept should be handled cautiously because it wrongly assumes that all Ph.D. students learn in the same way. UCA, in providing business MOOCs in general and entrepreneurship MOOCs in particular, needs to tailor its MOOCs according to the target audience. In this respect, and when designing MOOCs, UCA, should consider on the one hand students’ learning style together with internal and external institutional environment, and both the technical design and content on the other (Whitaker et al., 2016). The latter would maintain acceptable levels of motivation and engagement among MOOC participants. In fact, Xiong et al. (2015) in their study found that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations contributed to engagement and to students’ final outcome. For policymakers, MOOCs may be used as a complementary asset to forge entrepreneurial culture among people, especially young graduates. In fact, MOOCs bring more advantages than disadvantages. MOOCs can overcome the need for infrastructure and promote entrepreneurship education for a broad and diverse audience. MOOCs undoubtedly show the flexibility of time, minimise the cost of learning, break geographical boundaries and promote entrepreneurial education among a large pool of students and professionals. These advantages should be used by policymakers to promote entrepreneurship education, particularly digital entrepreneurship education, to overcome the problem of unemployment among young graduates and others generally. This study is not without limits, and this comes fairly from two main aspects. On the one hand, the study focused uniquely on Ph.D. students at UCA and could by any means integrate other grades. This conspicuously limited the generalisation of the results related to the motives of Moroccan students to enrol in this MOOC. Additionally, the number of participants enrolled in this MOOC brought more challenges to the validity of the results. On the other hand, this study investigated only the motives behind the enrolment of Ph.D. students in the “Désir d’entrependre” MOOC for which data was available. However, other factors would be worthwhile to explore. For example, facilitating conditions, instructional quality, MOOC topics and participant engagement should be considered when studying MOOC usage. Despite these limitations, the results of the study are important because, for the first time, they explore the motives behind UCA graduate students to enrol in the “Desir d’enreprendre” MOOC. The study modestly contributes to the nascent literature exploring entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intention that use an innovative educational approach in the Moroccan context, especially UCA.

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Moulay Othman Idrissi Fakhreddine , Ph.D., is a Professor at Cadi Ayyad University. Before his Doctorate (Ph.D.) in management at Laval University, he completed a Master’s of Business Administration (M.B.A.) and research Master’s in Business Administration (M. Sc.) at the same university. Mr. Idrissi Fakhreddine’s research interests focus on innovation, open innovation and pedagogical innovation. Actually, he is a part of a funded research project on frugal innovation among Moroccan SMEs. He has authored many research-indexed articles on open innovation. Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder on “Teaching physics by doing”. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books and special issues in indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French program of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016.

Chapter 9

Personalised Learning Paths for Smart Education: Case Studies from Cadi Ayyad University Essaid El Bachari, Outmane Bourkoukou, El Hassan Abdelwahed, and Mohamed El Adnani Abstract Digital learning presents a new way to learn more effectively, efficiently, flexibly and comfortably anywhere, anytime, with the opportunity for lifelong learning. It enables educators to create an efficient learning environment for a successful learning experience. The learner can use smart devices to access digital resources through a wireless network and enter a personalised learning environment. In this context, the real challenge appeared related to huge amounts of learning objects that are created in various forms and styles for digital learning purposes. This chapter presents a summary of the studies on distance learning during the last decade at Cadi Ayyad University. It aims to explore the potential of artificial intelligence and learning style models to deal with the issue. A personalised online learning framework called LearnFit was designed and implemented to adapt learning paths by selecting and sequencing learning objects fitting with the learner profile, using learning styles models and machine learning. Moreover, many experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of our algorithms. Results reveal the suitability of using artificial intelligence to support online learning activities to enhance learning outcomes and learning performances. Keywords Smart cities · Smart education · Artificial intelligence · Learning path · Learning styles · Personalisation · Learning objects

E. El Bachari (B) · O. Bourkoukou · E. H. Abdelwahed · M. El Adnani Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] O. Bourkoukou e-mail: [email protected] E. H. Abdelwahed e-mail: [email protected] M. El Adnani e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_9

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1 Introduction Smart cities aim to increase the quality of life of their citizens by employing emerging technologies. Smart education is one of the key ingredients of smart city development. In fact, infrastructure for advanced training with certification, smart universities, smart schools, e-learning, massive open online courses (MOOC), lifelong learning and innovation in education are all part of what defines a smart city. The first advantage that smart education focuses on is to achieve education programmes to graduate learners who will be future employees with knowledge, practical skills and a collaborative attitude to fit with the ongoing industrial revolution called Industry 4.0. Indeed, the smart concept refers to an action or decision that involves careful planning, intelligence, innovation and a desirable outcome. In contrast to many traditional classroom learning models, smart education is an interactive, collaborative and visual model, designed to increase learner engagement and enable teachers to adapt to learners’ skills, interests and learning preferences (Spector et al., 2015). According to Visvizi et al. (2018), education is crucial in understanding, explaining and addressing challenges confronted by society. For Hudson et al. (2019), education is crucial to empower citizens and facilitate active roles in smart city initiatives. Therefore, smart education not only enables one to face the challenges of Industry 4.0, but it has also become a necessity in our society for other reasons. First, it aims to present a new way to learn more effectively, efficiently, flexibly and comfortably anywhere, anytime, which is important, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, with smart education, the learning content can be personalised to fit the preferences of the learner, in contrast to traditional learning where that is impossible. In fact, traditional learning models based on the “one size fits all” approach tend to support only one learning experience because, in a typical classroom situation, a teacher often has to deal with several students at the same time in the same place. Indeed, such a situation forces each student to receive the same course materials, disregarding their personal needs, characteristics or preferences. Moreover, it is extremely difficult and even impossible for a teacher to determine the best learning strategy for each learner and to apply it in a real classroom. This scenario could affect deeply the outcomes of learners. The last reason for the success of distance learning, which is “the key ingredient” of smart education, has created huge amounts of learning objects, which makes locating suitable ones a challenge. In fact, learning objects’ repositories have grown and matured exponentially, providing each day with interesting educational resources for various needs. In our viewpoint, too many “learning objects” could kill the “learning object”. It is obvious that for teachers, the distance learning effort could be higher than in the traditional face-to-face approach. In this context, there is an urgent need to personalise learning to address these issues using online or blended learning modes.

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The application of tools of machine learning, learning analytics and learning styles to the educational field has a vast potential for personalisation of the learning process according to the interests and goals of each learner. This chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 gives the related works cited in the literature related to the smart learning concept, artificial intelligence in education and learning styles. In Sect. 3, a smart learning framework is proposed using learning style models and predictive algorithms based on machine learning. In Sect. 4, evaluations and results of some of our research studies are briefly presented. Finally, the conclusions and perspectives section provides concluding remarks with suggestions for future work in smart education design and development using machine learning and learning analytics.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Smart Education In the last decade, smart education, based on digital learning, has gained importance by performing several studies. However, providing a clear and unique definition of smart learning is challenging. The word smart is used with the aim to improve learning quality throughout the student’s education using digital technologies. Latest technological innovations, such as the Internet of things, cloud computing, learning analytics, big data and serious games, could also enhance smart education. We should also emphasise that the smart education concept covers not only formal learning, but also informal learning, which involves all other forms of learning, through informal channels (social media, the Internet, MOOCs, serious games, etc.). Thus, creating a suitable smart education environment could be the key element for innovative and sustainable development, which is in the form of smart cities. According to Lee et al. (2014), smart education bases its foundation on smart devices that help students to learn by providing flexibility in the learning mode. Middleton (2015) also focuses his studies on the students and how they benefit from the use of technologies, allowing them to participate in their learning and increase their independence. In this context, Picciano (2012) points out that learning analytics, which focuses on how learning data can be captured, analysed and directed towards improving learning and teaching, could support the development of a real learning ecosystem matching the real need of learners.

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2.2 Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI), defined as intelligence exhibited by machines, has extensive applications. In their studies, Moreno and Pedreño (2020) noted that machine intelligence’s success had gone beyond academic publications and is discussed in social media, newspapers, TV shows and publicities. Various AI techniques that were used earlier for providing adaption in education are briefly reviewed here. As a result of the great success of the recommender system in many areas, especially online business, various tools have emerged, including collaborative filtering (Yu et al., 2003), content-based filtering (Lang, 1995) and association pattern analysis (Huang & Huang, 2009). Others use hybrid methods combining two or more of these approaches (Choi et al., 2012; Salter & Antonopoulos, 2006). AI is also used to support the learning process with intelligent assistants or tutors (Martens & Uhrmacher, 2002) to predict student behaviour (Waheed et al., 2020) and manage huge amounts of data of learning experiences (Daniel, 2017).

2.3 Learning Styles Models According to Dorça et al. (2013), learning style models refer to a range of competing and contested theories that aim to account for differences in individual learning. In fact, learning styles are defined as a state of processes used by the individual to perceive and process information in the learning experience. Knowledge of the learner’s learning styles model makes it easier to recommend a teaching strategy based on a collection of the most adequate learning objects, thereby helping students have a better learning outcome. As in e-Business, where the customers are considered at the centre of the process of commerce, their preferences are used to identify their real needs and to help them in the process of purchase. Most studies on adaptive learning are focused on learner profiles based on learning style models and indicate that learner profile, including personal characteristics, is an essential and important element to achieve efficient and successful teaching in the distance education context (García et al., 2007; Manolis et al., 2013). In the last decade, many studies have been performed on personalisation for teaching and learning in the distance learning context and several adaptive systems have been introduced, with most based on learner preferences (Essalmi et al., 2010; Latham et al., 2014). Several models have been used for defining and evaluating learning styles, such as Kolb’s questionnaire (Kolb, 1985), Honey and Mumford’s (2006) questionnaire, Keefe’s questionnaire (Keefe, 1982) and Myers–Briggs Type Indicator’s questionnaire (Briggs Myers, 1962). Felder and Silverman (1988) proposed a psychometric Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire that assessed four learning style dimensions: introvert/extravert, verbal/visual, sensitive/intuitive and global/sequential.

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In the following section, a proposed smart learning framework will be presented using our personalised learning paths approach based on both artificial intelligence and learning style models in the distance environment.

3 The Proposed Smart Learning Framework 3.1 System Architecture The main purpose of our smart framework LearnFit is to recommend useful and interesting learning resources for learners based on their preferences in the distance learning context. The system was organised using three basic components: learner model, domain model and pedagogical model. These three components interact with the learners to adapt teaching strategies according to their learning style models for a relevant instructional process. Figure 1 illustrates the system architecture. The learner model represents various learner characteristics, which can be used to adapt

Fig. 1 System architecture of LearnFit

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to the learning scenario. The domain model contains knowledge about curriculum structure, which is a conceptual network of concepts. A concept can be represented as a tree of many learning objects. such as presentations, tutorials, quizzes, examples, etc. Finally, the pedagogical model represents the teacher’s knowledge of how to teach each concept. Our pedagogical model has two main modules: an adaptive teaching strategy module and a revised adaptive teaching strategy module for adjustment of the adaptive teaching module. For more details about this study, see El Bachari et al. (2012).

3.2 Personalised Online Learning Paths A learning scenario is defined as the way teachers could present and sequence a list of learning objects to conduct pedagogical activities in their courses. This scenario is designed to encourage the learner to observe, analyse and learn efficiently. To achieve this scenario, we first defined a new score function to weight each learning object considering explicit feedbacks of learners and implicit preferences, by mining their web log files. Second, we built a hybrid method using collaborative filtering and sequential pattern algorithms to select and sequence the most appropriate learning object set retrieved from the learning objects repositories. Thus, we can offer learners suitable learning paths according to their preferences. The recommender process is depicted in Fig. 2. The learner profile can be revisited dynamically using the learner’s interactions with the system by extracting their interests and preferences from web log files that are generated to recommend the most appropriate list of learning objects. Data mining techniques use collected information about learner interactions, such as navigation history and bookmarks, to build the learner profile, and thereafter, to make recommendations. For a learner, when a session starts, the framework predicts their learning styles model, then an adaptive learning path is selected for their learning activities.

Fig. 2 Recommender process

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If it is the first session, and there are no data available, the situation is known as the “cold start problem”, the framework invites the learner to fill out online the psychometric Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire. Based on this step, the system selects an adaptive teaching strategy, which can be adjusted in real time using learner tracks. For more detail, see El Bachari et al. (2012), Bourkoukou and El Bachari (2016) and Bourkoukou et al. (2016).

4 Evaluations and Results To validate the effectiveness of our framework LearnFit in which we implement many predictive models, we conducted experiments in two parts. In the first part, our target was to evaluate learners’ perception of the proposed framework. For result validation, we used a quantitative analysis tool, such as Student’s t-test. The questionnaire prepared in this study is intended to measure the importance of each of the specific standards of e-learning as perceived by students. The standards are as follows: instructional design, course opening, assessment of learning, interaction and community, instructional resources for teaching and learning, learner support, technology design, course evaluation, course closing, and instructional design cycle. Our main research question or hypothesis was “Does the teaching strategies based on learner’s preferences affect the learning outcome?”. Participants for these experiments were drawn from a pool (n = 28) of computer sciences master’s degree students at Cadi Ayyad University from 2010 to 2014. Five concepts of the course “Introduction PHP programming” was selected to be taught using the framework. For four successive years, the pool was divided into two groups: experimental and control. The control group used the traditional teaching style, which is basically given in a sequential way using the same learning path for all learners, whereas the experimental group used the personalised learning paths. Figure 3 presents the results of the experiment performed in the fall semester of 2012. The perception of learners was very positive. Most learners thought that the adaptive educational system was good for learning and that their requirements were met. For more details about this experiment, see El Bachari et al. (2012). In the second part of our studies, we aimed to improve the performance of our predictive models in predicting learning styles. Unfortunately, we do not have enough data to improve the performance of these algorithms because all our experiments targeted a small pool of learners. Therefore, to improve prediction accuracy, we used external open data sets in the e-learning environment, such as Algebra (Alg) and

Fig. 3 Results of the t-student test in experimental and control groups

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Fig. 4 Structure of Alg and Geo datasets

Geometry (Geo), from the Pittsburgh Science of Learning Center (PSLC) DataShop. The structure of these datasets is depicted in Fig. 4. The PSLC DataShop project aims to collect and share data about the interactions of learners with tools and learning activities. Our experiments were conducted to evaluate the best values of similarity metrics, number of neighbourhoods and data set size, to increase the performance of the predictive models. We mainly focussed on testing the prediction accuracy of our proposed method and used mean absolute error (MAE), which is the most widely used technique to compare deviation between predictions and real user-specified values. We used the K-NN algorithm with different similarity metrics, such as Pearson’s, Cosine and Euclidian, to find the best value of K-neighbours by increasing the size of the data set. Results are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. In Fig. 5, the experiment was carried out for the following values of K; 20, 60, 150 and 190. It can be seen that by increasing the number of users by varying the K-value, we can obtain optimal prediction, except when K = 20, for most similarity metrics.

Fig. 5 Increasing data set sizes with different value of K

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Fig. 6 Comparison between traditional and personalised learning strategy

Figure 6 shows that K-NN with Pearson’s metric performs better in all cases in the Alg data set. In Fig. 6b, we can also observe that when the percentage of the training set is between 10 and 30%, K-means performs better than any other method. Results show how our predictive models could have more accuracy by varying similarity metrics and K-value. For more detail about these results with exhaustive discussions, see El Bachari et al. (2012), Bourkoukou and El Bachari (2016), Bourkoukou et al. (2016) and Bourkoukou et al. (2020).

5 Conclusions and Perspectives The smart learning concept emphasises the importance of digital transformation to make learning better. However, the approach should not be limited to the use of smart devices, because we believe that in smart education, education should be important and not the digital tool. According to UNESCO’s Director General, artificial intelligence will transform education in the coming decades. Indeed, it has the potential to achieve education goals by reducing barriers to access learning, automating management processes and optimising ways to improve learning outcomes. We conducted many studies to evaluate the potential of artificial intelligence and learning style tools to improve education performance, deal with the dropout issue in MOOC frameworks and perform learning experiences fitting with the real needs of learners. Firstly, we present our smart learning framework LearnFit architecture in which we implement many predictive models using machine learning and learning styles. Experimental results of different topics and the number of taught courses show that our proposed framework outperforms the traditional learning approach both in accuracy and efficiency. In addition, placing the learner beside an appropriate

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teaching strategy matching their learning preferences led to improving and making the virtual learning environment more enjoyable. In our opinion, the impact of artificial intelligence on education is far from being a magical tool to replace traditional classroom education as we know it. In fact, we cannot substitute teaching practices with mathematical algorithms, but its potential benefits in education do not seem to be negligible in improving learning outcomes. The didactic triangle of Houssaye (1988), which is the most used tool for modelling and analysing learning scenarios, can give us a source of inspiration for these benefits. Indeed, the three poles of the triangle (teacher, learner and knowledge) and the relationships between them (didactic, educational and learning) should use artificial intelligence in many ways to adapt learning to the real need of the learner. In the future, we will continue exploring the potential of analytic learning, machine learning and learning styles to enhance learning performance for smart cities. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the referees of this chapter for their valuable feedback and constructive comments on this work. We also thank the editors of this Springer Book entitled “Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies—Research Experiences and Outcomes in Enhanced learning and teaching at Cadi Ayyad University”.

References Bourkoukou, O., El Bachari, E., & El Adnani, M. (2016). A recommender model in e-learning environment. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 42(2), 607–617. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s13369-016-2292-2. Bourkoukou, O., & El Bachari, E. (2016). E-learning personalization based on collaborative filtering and learner’s preference. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 11(11), 1565–1581. http://jestec.taylors.edu.my/Vol%2011%20issue%2011%20November%202016/11_11_5.pdf. Bourkoukou, O., Bachari, E. E., & Boustani, A. E. (2020). Building Effective Collaborative Groups in E-Learning Environment. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 107–117. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36653-7_11. Choi, K., Yoo, D., Kim, G., & Suh, Y. (2012). A hybrid online-product recommendation system: Combining implicit rating-based collaborative filtering and sequential pattern analysis. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 11(4), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2012. 02.004. Daniel, B. K. (2017). Big Data and data science: A critical review of issues for educational research. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(1), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12595. Dorça, F. A., Lima, L. V., Fernandes, M. A., & Lopes, C. R. (2013). Comparing strategies for modeling students learning styles through reinforcement learning in adaptive and intelligent educational systems: An experimental analysis. Expert Systems with Applications, 40(6), 2092– 2101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.10.014. El Bachari, E., Abelwahed, E. H., & El Adnani, M. (2012). An adaptive teaching strategy model in e-learning using learners’ preference: LearnFit framework. International Journal of Web Science, 1(3), 257. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijws.2012.045815. Essalmi, F., Ayed, L. J. B., Jemni, M., Kinshuk, & Graf, S. (2010). A fully personalization strategy of E-learning scenarios. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(4), 581–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.chb.2009.12.010.

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Felder, R. M., & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning styles and teaching styles in engineering education. Engineering Education, 78(7), 674–681. García, P., Amandi, A., Schiaffino, S., & Campo, M. (2007). Evaluating Bayesian networks’ precision for detecting students’ learning styles. Computers and Education, 49(3), 794–808. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.017. Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (2006). The learning styles questionnaire. Peter Lang. Houssaye, J., (1988). Le triangle pédagogique. Théorie et pratiques de l’éducationscolaire. Berne: Peter Lang. Huang, C.-L., & Huang, W.-L. (2009). Handling sequential pattern decay: Developing a twostage collaborative recommender system. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 8(3), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2008.10.001. Hudson, L., Wolff, A., Gooch, D., van der Linden, J., Kortuem, G., Petre, M., ten Veen, R., & O’Connor-Gotra, S. (2019). Supporting urban change: Using a MOOC to facilitate attitudinal learning and participation in smart cities. Computers and Education, 129, 37–47. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.10.012. Keefe, J. W. (1982). Assessing student learning styles. In J.W. Keefe (Ed.), Student learning styles and brain behavior. National Association of Secondary School Principals. Kolb, D. A. (1985). Learning-style inventory: Self-scoring inventory and interpretation booklet (Revised ed.). McBer. Lang, K. (1995). NewsWeeder: Learning to filter netnews. Machine Learning Proceedings, 1995, 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-55860-377-6.50048-7. Latham, A., Crockett, K., & McLean, D. (2014). An adaptation algorithm for an intelligent natural language tutoring system. Computers and Education, 71, 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.com pedu.2013.09.014. Lee, J., Zo, H., & Lee, H. (2014). Smart learning adoption in employees and HRD managers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(6), 1082–1096. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12210. Manolis, C., Burns, D. J., Assudani, R., & Chinta, R. (2013). Assessing experiential learning styles: A methodological reconstruction and validation of the Kolb Learning Style Inventory. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 44–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.009. Martens, A., & Uhrmacher, A. M. (2002). Adaptive Tutoring Processes and Mental Plans. Intelligent Tutoring Systems, 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-47987-2_12. Middleton, A. (2015). Smart learning: Teaching and learning with smartphones and tablets. Sheffield Hallam University. Moreno, L., & Pedreño, A. (2020). Europa frentea EE.UU. y China. Prevenir el declive en la era de la inteligenciaartificial (Spanish Edition). KDP. Myers, I. B. (1962). The Myers-Briggs type indicator. Consulting Psychologists Press. Picciano, A. G. (2012b). The evolution of big data and learning analytics in american higher education. Online Learning, 16(3), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v16i3.267. Salter, J., & Antonopoulos, N. (2006). cinemascreen recommender agent: Combining collaborative and content-based filtering. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 21(1), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1109/mis. 2006.4. Spector, J. M., Ifenthaler, D., Johnson, T. E., Savenye, W. C., & Wang, M. M. (Eds.). (2015). Encyclopedia of educational technology. Sage. Visvizi, A., Lytras, M. D., & Daniela, L. (2018). (Re)defining smart education. Enhancing Knowledge Discovery and Innovation in the Digital Era, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-52254191-2.ch001. Waheed, H., Hassan, S.-U., Aljohani, N. R., Hardman, J., Alelyani, S., & Nawaz, R. (2020). Predicting academic performance of students from VLE big data using deep learning models. Computers in Human Behavior, 104, 106189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106189. Yu, K., Schwaighofer, A., Tresp, V., Xu, X., & Kriegel, H. P. (2004). Probabilistic memory-based collaborative filtering. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 16(1), 56–69. https://doi.org/10.1109/tkde.2004.1264822.

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Dr. Essaid El Bachari is a full professor currently working at the Department of Computer Science since 2004, at Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University Morocco. His research interests include information and communication technology (ICT) adoption, e-Learning, MOOCs, Machine vision, Artificial Intelligence, Machine learning. He is the author of numerous publications related to his research interests. Mr. Outmane Bourkoukou received his PhD in Computer Science from Cadi Ayyad University Morocco in 2017. Most of his scientific activities are devoted to computer science especially elearning, recommender systems and engineering. Dr. El Hassan Abdelwahed is full professor of Computer Science at Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco since 1993. His main research interests are in the field of Computer Science including: Data Science, Machine learning, Context-aware systems, Recommender systems and their applications (Education; Digital Learning, Industry 4.0, etc.). He is the author of many publications related to his research interests. Dr. Mohamed El Adnani received his PhD in Computer Science from Clermont Ferrand University France in 1994. He is currently a full professor at Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco since 1995. Most of his scientific activities focus on e-learning, spatial database topics. He is the author of numerous publications related to his research interests.

Chapter 10

Towards Adaptive Teaching Through Continuous Monitoring of Students’ Learning Using Artificial Intelligence and the Internet of Things Aimad Karkouch and Hajar Mousannif Abstract In the learning context, communication between instructors and learners is key for optimal knowledge transfer. Specifically, feedbacks are essential both for instructors and students in that they enable the former to measure the effectiveness of the teaching process and providing the latter with a means to express their needs. In this chapter, we take a look at various feedback-giving methods, from the traditional show of hands to the more advanced, artificial intelligence-driven, emotion-based, student response systems. We explore various applications of artificial intelligence in the educational field and present a novel approach of using embedded smart objects to monitor the learner’s state. Keywords Education · Artificial intelligence · Internet of things

1 Introduction Teaching, or the process of transferring knowledge, is a pillar of our modern societies where an instructor, in an educational context, commits to assist their students to assimilate abstract concepts and acquire new skills needed to adapt to the world in which they live and contribute to its ever-evolving nature. Ultimately, the goal of an instructor is to achieve perfect transfer of skills and competence. However, such an outcome is hardly achievable mainly because of teaching using various communication tools, such as speech and writing, and also, being a form of communication in and of itself. In fact, human communication suffers intrinsically from noise because of reasons including language barrier, cultural background, personal perception and traits (Han, 1999). All these parameters make A. Karkouch (B) IMIS Lab, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, Ait Melloul, Agadir, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] H. Mousannif Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_10

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it hard to establish a lossless channel between the instructor and their audience. Moreover, given that teaching usually occurs in a one-to-many context, these noise factors amplify in proportion to the number of involved parties in the process (e.g. ensuring that everybody in large classrooms understood a key concept is more difficult than in a more restricted, numbered class). As a result, both instructors and students, although for complementary end goals, need feedback during a teaching session to quantify the effectiveness of the transfer. The instructor uses feedback to measure how well the concepts and skills are assimilated by the students and the student needs feedback to self-assess and acknowledge (or not) the received payload. Traditionally, feedback could be requested and channelled through different mediums and according to multiple frequencies (Voerman et al., 2012). Some of the following methods or student-response systems (SRS) could be initiated from one party, whereas others could be evoked mutually: • Raising hands: One of the most intuitive medium for students to convey information about their understanding level. A student raises their hand signalling that the flow of information might have not been optimal resulting in not understanding or misunderstanding taught concepts. • Q&A: Questions and answers are a great way to evaluate whether a concept has been understood. Q&A can be initiated by either instructors or students. • Tests: Usually a form of evaluating students’ acquired skills. It gives an after-thefact overview of their understanding of a whole subject but can be lacking details when it comes to their learning performance regarding more specific aspects or concepts. • Line of sight: Through experience, instructors usually have the ability to effectively measure the level of understanding of a student by monitoring various manifesting behavioural attributes (e.g. avoiding eye contact). This implies a direct interaction between instructors and their audience, which is not always guaranteed, especially in large classes. What is really interesting about feedback in a learning context is how it can (re-)shape the teaching process, and thus, enable a contingent learning approach (Draper & Brown, 2004). Instructors could decide to re-explain key concepts if the received feedback indicates a low assimilation rate, whereas students could, for example, use them to identify weaknesses in their understanding of the concepts presented (Fig. 1). Clearly, only receiving feedback at the end of a long semester is not as beneficial as receiving it at the end of each teaching session or, even better, multiple times during the same session. As a rule of thumb, the more feedback, the better the outcome of the teaching process. It is important to note however that, given the requirements of some SRS, it is not always feasible to obtain a high frequency of feedback. For example, written tests need logistics, time and resources. Raising hands is a more straightforward feedback channel but might turn into a time-consuming task when trying to aggregate the results, especially in large classes. For example, allowing less control during Q&A might introduce more sources of distraction. Thus, forcing a high-frequency

10 Towards Adaptive Teaching Through Continuous … Fig. 1 A contingent teaching approach overview

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(re-)shape process

Student

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Feedback

operating model for time-consuming or distraction-introducing SRS might rapidly become detrimental to the learning process. Therefore, considering the importance of feedback and the constraints some SRS might impose, an ideal feedback medium or SRS would have to offer two key advantages: • High-frequency or real-time operating mode: Being able to continuously report students’ feedbacks without costing time for both students and instructors is an invaluable feature that is sure to spark exciting educational transformations. • Seamless integration into the learning environment: An ambient solution that can integrate learning environments without being a distracting source for students will enable a more natural and uninterrupted learning flow. To enable such continuous and seamless SRS, various solutions have been proposed mainly through integrating technologies in learning environments. The remainder of this chapter is organised as follows; Sect. 2 lists the first generation of SRS that aim to offer better feedback-conveying channels. In Sect. 3, we focus on the applications, challenges and ethical considerations of integrating AI in learning environments. In Sect. 4, we present advanced SRS using AI and the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm to seamlessly monitor and convey feedback about students. Finally, in Sect. 5, we conclude this chapter.

2 First-Gen Technology-Enabled SRS Traditional SRS, while intuitive, present many drawbacks, such as losing time and not accommodating students’ personalities (e.g. a shy student would hesitate to ask or provide feedback through raising their hands). In an effort to provide more efficient SRS time-wise and inclusive solutions, electronic and technological tools have been proposed:

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2.1 Clickers Clickers (Campbell et al., 1993; Le, 2004; Martyn, 2007) are handheld devices used by learners to provide feedback in the classroom. They provide time-saving features, such as aggregating answers. They offer more answer options (depending on the provided keypads) compared to raising hands while also catering to shy students who no longer need to publicly display their answers.

2.2 Smartphones To cut cost and take advantage of an existing device, clickers apps (Aljaloud et al., 2019) have been proposed. These apps mimic the layout of hardware-based clickers to provide the same use case; a medium for students to express their feedback in a timely manner. Smartphone-based SRS are not limited to these apps and sometimes offer SMS as another way to provide feedback.

2.3 Social Media Giving its popularity, social media is proposed as a platform for both instructors and students to request and give feedback (Altrabsheh et al., 2015).

3 Next-Gen Artificial Intelligence in Education Artificial intelligence (AI) has seen a surge in usage in many fields, including education, where it is expected to have significant impact (Holmes et al., 2019; Kerr, 2017; Luckin et al., 2016). AI has brought forth a fourth industrial revolution requiring policy-makers and educators to look into the new skills needed for the new era (Anon, 2018). Many countries have adopted nation-wide policies to integrate AI into the curricula of not only elementary and secondary schools but also high schools and universities (Chatterjee & Bhattacharjee, 2020; Yang, 2019). In a study, the authors presented a departure from the traditional intelligent tutoring system (ITS) that dominated AI applications in education to focus on the newer trends in education, such as placing more emphasis on open domains and conceptual understanding, accounting for the learning environment, encouraging collaboration rather than isolation and taking advantage of large information databases (Andriessen & Sandberg, 1999). AI in education (AIED) has the potential to revolutionise both in-class practices and the learning process to reach and help students outside the classroom (Roll &

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Wylie, 2016). Studies suggest that AI and its fundamental concepts can be of use in many educational fields, such as mathematics and medical education (Carin, 2020; Gadanidis, 2017; Imran & Jawaid, 2020).

3.1 Ethical Considerations AI relies on big data to extract patterns and learn knowledge representation, which allow it to simulate biological intelligence in decision making. In the educational sector, AI applications will need to gather data about learners at different school levels, such as elementary, secondary, high-school and university. These data could be visual, voice, etc. Moreover, intelligent agents enabled by AI will probably interact directly with learners. Many ethical issues arise in these cases that need serious consideration. Such concerns have been evaluated (Remian, 2019) and include, but are not limited to, privacy, fairness, bias, transparency and accountability. In one study, a list of principles and guidelines was given for AIED systems revolving around the need and obligation to avoid harming learners on the physical, psychological, social, intellectual, ethical and aesthetic dimensions (Aiken & Epstein, 2000).

3.2 Applications A plethora of AI applications exist in education; however, the majority falls into four major use cases (Zawacki-richter et al., 2019).

3.2.1

Profiling and Prediction

Classification, modeling and prediction are among the primary tasks of AI. In the context of education, student profiling creates a learner model which can be used for learning at course level-related tasks but also for administration and management. Examples include: • • • •

AI-assisted admission decisions AI-assisted course scheduling Predicting students most susceptible to drop-out Predicting academic achievement.

3.2.2

Assessment and Evaluation

Many AI-based assessment tools have been proposed to provide an easy and accurate means to evaluate aspects of the learning process:

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• Auto-grading • Providing feedback through prompts and guidance to students when confused or facing difficulties in understanding the course • Measuring students’ understanding and engagement • Evaluating instructors. 3.2.3

ITS

ITS has been in use in the education sector for years and its functionality changes depending on the discipline (e.g. medical, STEM, SC, etc.) and implementation: • • • •

Teaching course content Providing a collaboration platform Assisting learners by providing frequent feedback Adapting course material to learner needs.

3.2.4

Adaptive Systems and Personalisation

AI-based adaptive systems and ITS have many functionalities in common (e.g. teaching course content and providing feedback). However, these adaptive systems also provide support to instructors through: • Recommending teaching strategies • Helping instructors provide personal guidance based on insights gained from analysing students’ academic information.

3.3 Trends and Challenges Although AI has been successfully used in enabling new learning paradigms and providing tools for innovative pedagogics, various challenges need addressing. One important challenge ties to the nature of machine learning models, which are usually seen as a black box. We know they work, but we do not know how. (Conati & Mavrikis, 2018) suggest that investigating interpretable machine learning is an essential step and requirement for enabling open learner modelling. (Woolf et al., 2013) groups these challenges according to the long-term educational goals they fulfil or help support; providing mentors for every learner, learning skills in the twenty-first century, interaction data for learning, democratic access to classrooms and continuous learning. Similarly, (Kay, 2012) reports more challenges that were defined by various organisations and committees and which evolved around the need to enable more personalised learning and better assessment tools.

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(Chassignol et al., 2018) reviewed existing and in-use AI tools aimed to enhance the educational process to paint a picture of ongoing trends, which were classified into three categories; AI as feedback channelling tool, AI for tracking student performance and AI as a building block for educational robots.

4 An Ambient Srs In our study (Karkouch et al., 2018), we have proposed a novel SRS capable of continuously monitoring and reporting students’ states using AI and IoT. Our system relies on various variables of interest to infer whether students are facing challenges during a teaching session. In the following sub-sections, we will provide an overview of our approach and the features we rely on to build our learner model.

4.1 System Overview Our system (Fig. 2) is composed of three-main layers: • A physical layer containing our smart IoT devices that are in direct contact with the students. These devices have sensory and communication capabilities through which they can obtain and report readings about students. • A network layer providing the backbone of data transfer between various components.

Fig. 2 An overview of the proposed Ubiquitous SRS (Karkouch et al., 2018)

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• An application layer specialising in managing data and creating pertinent learner models. It is also responsible for reporting insights to the instructors.

4.2 Learning Indicators Our system relies on various features (Table 1) that were shown to correlate with learning outcomes (either negatively or positively) in other studies (Kim et al., 2018; Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2016; Mendzheritskaya & Hansen, 2019; Peterson et al., 2015). Specifically, we use emotions, body gestures and environmental parameters to build our model, which is then used to predict a student’s state. Notably, these parameters are monitored using our smart IoT devices through their sensors.

5 Conclusion Learning, involving giving and receiving parties, will always benefit from both parties being able to effectively communicate with each other through feedback. Technologies can provide a reliable medium to convey such information. AI and IoT are shaping to be significant enablers of an evolution, if not a revolution, in the educational sector. Many applications have been proposed to help instructors better understand the states and needs of their audiences and students to get the most of their learning experience. Although our focus was on AI and IoT, other emerging technologies have shown promising usage and impact in classrooms. Such technologies include augmented and mixed reality (Holstein et al., 2018). Table 1 The set of features used to monitor student’s state (Karkouch et al., 2018) (edited)

Category Emotions

Feature

Source

Confusion

Embedded camera

Flow Eureka Boredom Frustration Body gestures Movements/vibrations Movements sensor Environment

Noise Luminosity Temperature Humidity

Environmental sensors

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The extent to which these technologies will change our educational environments is still to be seen. What is clear, though, is that they will have a key role to play in the future.

References Aiken, R. M., & Epstein, R. G. (2000). Ethical guidelines for AI in education: Starting a conversation dedication to Martial Vivet. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 11, 163–176. Aljaloud, A., Gromik, N., Kwan, P., & Billingsley, W. (2019). Saudi undergraduate students’ perceptions of the use of smartphone clicker apps on learning performance. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3340 Altrabsheh, N., Cocea, M., & Fallahkhair, S. (2015). Predicting learning-related emotions from students’ textual classroom feedback via twitter. In The 8th International Conference on Educational Data Mining (pp. 436–39). Andriessen, J., & Sandberg, J. (1999). Where is education heading and how about AI. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 10(2), 130–150. Anon. (2018). The fourth industrial revolution and education. South African Journal of Science, 114(5–6), 17159. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2018/a0271 Campbell, R. L., Okey, J. R. Quitadamo, I. J., Kurtz, M. J., Paul, G., Nosich, R., & Rathburn, S. (1993). Curriculum & leadership journal—Skills for the 21st century teaching higher-order thinking. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 6, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.06 Carin, L. (2020). On artificial intelligence and deep learning within medical education. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 95(11S Association of American Medical Colleges Learn Serve Lead), S10–S11. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.000000 0000003630. Chassignol, M., Khoroshavin, A., Klimova, A., Bilyatdinova, A., Chassignol, M., Khoroshavin, A., & Klimova, A. (2018). Artificial intelligence trends in conference education: A narrative overview. Procedia Computer Science, 136, 16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2018.08.233 Chatterjee, S., & Bhattacharjee, K. K. (2020). Adoption of artificial intelligence in higher education: A quantitative analysis using structural equation modelling. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10159-7 Conati, C., & Mavrikis, M. (2018). Learner Modelling. (Whi). Draper, S. W., & Brown, M. I. (2004). Increasing interactivity in lectures using an electronic voting system. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20(2), 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13652729.2004.00074.x Gadanidis, G. (2017). Artificial intelligence, computational thinking, and mathematics education. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 34(2), 133–139. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/IJILT-09-2016-0048 Han, Z. L. (1999). Communicating information in conversations: A cross-cultural comparison. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(3), 387–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/S01471767(99)00003-6 Holmes, W., Bialik, M., & Fadel, C. (2019). Artificial Intelligence in Education.

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Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M., & Aleven, V. (2018). Student learning benefits of a mixed-reality teacher awareness tool in AI-enhanced classrooms (Vol. 10947 LNAI). Springer International Publishing. Imran, N., & Jawaid, M. (2020). Artificial intelligence in medical education are we ready for it? Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 36(5), 857–859. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.5.3042 Karkouch, A., Mousannif, H., & Moatassime, H. A. (2018). A ubiquitous students responses system for connected classrooms. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 37, 528–537. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-319-74500-8_49 Kay, J. (2012). AI and education: Grand challenges. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 27(5), 66–69. https:// doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2012.92 Kerr, S. (2017). Exploring the impact of artificial intelligence on teaching and learning in higher education. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-017-0062-8 Kim, Y., Soyata, T., Behnagh, R. F. (2018). Towards emotionally aware AI smart classroom: Current issues and directions for engineering and education. IEEE Access, 6(Box I), 5308–31. https:// doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2791861 Le, P. (2004). Clickers: A teaching. 796–98. Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., Patall, E. A., & Pekrun, R. (2016). Adaptive motivation and emotion in education: Research and principles for instructional design. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 228–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732216644450 Luckin, R., Holmes, W., Griffiths, M., Griffiths, F., Laurie, B. (2016). Intelligence unleashed: An argument for AI in intelligence unleashed. Martyn, B. M. (2007). Clickers in class. Educause Quarterly, 2, 71–74. Mendzheritskaya, J., & Hansen, M. (2019). The role of emotions in higher education teaching and learning processes. Studies in Higher Education, 44(10), 1709–1711. https://doi.org/10.1080/030 75079.2019.1665306 Peterson, E. R., Brown, G. T. L., & Miriam, C. (2015). Achievement emotions in higher education: A diary study exploring emotions across an assessment event. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 42, 82–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.05.002 Remian, D. (2019). Ethical considerations for incorporating augmenting education: Ethical considerations for Incor. Roll, I., & Wylie, R. (2016). Evolution and revolution in artificial intelligence in education. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(2), 582–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s40593-016-0110-3 Voerman, L., Meijer, P. C., Korthagen, F. A. J., & Simons, R. J. (2012). Types and frequencies of feedback interventions in classroom interaction in secondary education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(8), 1107–1115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.06.006 Woolf, B. P., Lane, H. C., Chaudhri, V. K., & Kolodner, J. L. (2013). 66 AI magazine AI grand challenges for education. 66–84. Yang, X. (2019). Accelerated move for AI education in China. https://doi.org/10.1177/209653111 9878590 Zawacki-richter, O., Marín, V. I., & Bond, M. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education—Where are the educators ?”

Aimad Karkouch is a professor at the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ibn Zohr University in Ait Melloul, Agadir. His research interests include artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things and their application in education. Hajar Mousannif is an associate professor and coordinator of the Master program in Data Science within the Department of Computer Science at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia (Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco). She holds a PhD degree in Computer Sciences on her work on Wireless Sensor Networks and Vehicular Networks. She received an engineering degree in Telecommunications in 2005. Her primary research interests include artificial intelligence, machine learning,

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big data, IoT, human–computer interaction and next generation technologies. In addition to her academic experience, she has chaired the program committees of many international conferences. Hajar Mousannif holds two patents for her work on artificial intelligence and was selected among five best female researchers in North Africa. She has received many international awards, such as the L’Oréal-UNESCO Award and Emerald Litterati Prize for Excellence. On December 2020, she was selected as the GOLD winner of the prestigious International prize: “Women Tech Global AI Inclusion Award”.

Chapter 11

Impact of Using Smart Learning Platforms in E-learning on Student Achievement Abdelali El Gourari, Mustapha Raoufi, and Mohammed Skouri

Abstract Moroccan institutions and universities suffer from poor student achievement, particularly in basic subjects associated with applied work. This may be due to the limited availability of resources, school or social environment and presentation of content. By observing teachers, supervisors, directors of institutions and universities, the use of modern teaching methods makes students more effective, engaged, vibrant and willing to teach and break the deadlock of the educational process. In this study, we will address the problem of the impact of using smart learning platforms and multiple media on students’ quality achievement. In some educational situations where using direct sensory experience is impossible because of its gravity, rarity, cost and spatial or temporal dimension, intelligent learning environments are needed as effective alternatives. Thus, this study aims to help teachers of educational materials overcome challenges, place the student at the center of the educational process and provide an opportunity to benefit from technological advancements, harnessing them to achieve a good education. Keywords Smart learning platform · E-learning · Student achievement · Education

1 Introduction The modern era is witnessing a scientific revolution and an explosion of knowledge, science and technology. The accumulation of discoveries, theories and technological applications continues in a way that humankind has never seen before. In this age of informatics, many changes are taking place in all walks of life. The goal of A. E. Gourari (B) · M. Raoufi · M. Skouri Faculty of Sciences Semlaia, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] M. Raoufi e-mail: [email protected] M. Skouri e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_11

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educational institutions is to graduate students with information, knowledge, organized memory, connected ideas and scientific skills to serve their community. For education to be effective, attention should be paid to both sides of the communication process (teacher and student). The educational thought tracker notes that traditional education has focused on teachers, making them the key element in the educational process, where they were responsible for providing information to the learners without acknowledging their abilities and readiness. Educational systems and teaching strategies need to change so that we can achieve the goals of education. Notably, self-learning needs to change, with multiple means of learning for both the student and teacher. According to “Piaget” (Kuhn, 1979), education is not easy, because which concepts a student can study at a given age needs to be planned, thereby setting up and defining the activities they can undertake, providing an opportunity for them to discover information and focus education on experimentation and exploration, not indoctrination and preservation. Although direct sensory experiences in the teaching and learning process are important, some of these experiences cannot be passed down, owing to their gravity, rarity or spatial and temporal dimension. Hence, the need to seek alternatives to these experiences, called teaching aids, which have gone through different nomenclature until work with their connotations, terminology, studies and research. Technology has helped develop these modern educational tools in an unprecedented way and has made their use indispensable. Technology is no longer an avoidable option in educational environments. Technology from automated exchange to e-mail has brought about a fundamental change in lives and become an integral part of the personal lives of individuals, civil and governmental institutions and large corporations in developed and, to a lesser extent, developing countries. According to “Bruges” (Vanhove, 2002), the technology consists of several elements: • Actions relating to the design of the educational process. • Devices or tools used in education. Multimedia is one of the innovations of this technology. Multimedia has been associated with computer technology and teleconference technology and now refers to a class of computer software that provides information in various forms, such as sound, image, animation and written text. Smart learning platforms and their multimedia are an effective alternative to research verbal displays (i.e. using both images and words). Recent developments in communication techniques and graphics stimulate efforts to understand the potential of multimedia as a means of promoting human understanding. Based on that, some studies, in particular foreign studies, have dealt with multimedia in several areas, including information, culture and education. These include studies conducted by Meyer (2008) in Santa Barbara on multimedia learning, the results of which were systematically summarized in his book “Learning by Media.” The book contained seven rules for the design of multimedia (Gapsalamov et al., 2015):

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• Multimedia rule: Students learn better from words and images together than from only words. • Spatially adjacent rule: Students learn better when words and images are displayed next to the screen than when they are shown apart. • Time convergence rule: Students learn better when words and images are received simultaneously rather than sequentially. • Rule of provisions: Students learn better when excess material is removed from the display. • Sensory Device Base: Students learn better from motion pictures and narratives than from motion pictures and on-screen text in the sense that students learn when the text is heard. • Extravagance rule: Students learn better from motion pictures and narratives than from motion pictures, narratives and visual text. • Rule of individual differences: Design characteristics are more influential in learners who are less well-versed than more knowledgeable learners. The problem of the study can be summarized in the answer to the following questions: • What is the impact of using smart learning platforms on student achievement? • What impact do smart learning platforms have on different levels of thinking? • What effect does the teaching method have on the student’s ability to retain?

2 Proposed Work 2.1 Importance of the Study The importance of this study lies in the importance of the intelligent learning platforms themselves, as they move the educational process from the space of inertia and theory to the space of vitality and application and allow students to interact with the educational process through this platform and the multimedia it contains, drawing on the enormous technological advancements in important subjects they need to positively interact with. The importance of our study is reflected in the impact of the use of intelligent learning platforms on student achievement in educational materials related to applied work. Student results will be taken into account in planning the educational process, training teachers for educational success in science disciplines, encouraging teachers to adopt modern teaching methods and helping teachers overcome obstacles to educational situations where using experience is difficult.

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2.2 Objectives of the Study The study sought to achieve the following objectives: • Recognize that smart learning platforms can be used to teach educational materials to educate students and compare them with the traditional method. • Compare the effectiveness of the two teaching methods used in the study on the achievement of students at different levels of thinking. • The impact of the use of smart learning platforms on the student’s ability to retain (the ability of the student to remember the teaching material, retain it as long as possible and compare the results with the traditional method).

2.3 Study Terminology This study included the following terms: • Smart learning platforms: Learning platforms that mimic reality have been programmed and are multimediabased. They allow interaction with the user by enabling them to input variables and obtain results after processing them. • Multimedia: A system with an integrated and interactive set (written text, spoken text, fixed and animated images, graphics, animations and sound effects) that works in a single format aimed at providing teachers with a range of information and skills through a computer-controlled program. • The traditional method of education: In our institutions and universities, the National Charter on Education and Training, Ministry of National Education for Education and Training provides a common method of teaching, based on oral discussion, use of book-based questions and the confirming results for class evaluation and homework. • Retention: The ability of the students to retain the teaching material after at least 2 weeks of learning, and the ability to retrieve that information from memory, or to recognize it when reminded, measured by their marks on the test prepared for that purpose. The procedural definition of retention is the ability of the student to remember teaching material in the immunological test used in this study.

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2.4 The Importance of Multimedia Various studies have shown that people can remember 20% of what they hear, 40% of what they hear and see, and 70% of what they hear, see and do (Mohd Elmagzoub, 2015). This proportion increases with human interaction. One of the most important tools to interact with are those used in display techniques, such as photos, texts and films, which are known as multimedia. Multimedia has special importance in education: • • • •

Facilitates the educational process and presentation of required material. Increases supply rate. Motivates students to interact with educational subjects and work together. Can be used to produce educational materials with different models, enriching the methods used to display the required teaching material. • Can be used to show stories and films, thus increasing students’ understanding of the subject. The main features of multimedia education include • Providing the learner with sufficient time to learn at their speed. • Providing the learner feedback. • Providing the qualities of a good teacher, especially in terms of patience, accuracy and efficiency. • Achieving the desired result and diversity in learning situations. • Helping the learner know their true potential through a calendar. • Enabling the learner to study dangerous and complex phenomena. • Reducing total learning time. • Generating motivation to learn in learners. • Increasing the self-confidence of learners. Multimedia is a combination of written text, graphics, sound, music, animation and static and animated image that can be provided to the learner through a computer. Virtual learning environments are technological innovations based on multimedia programs. Virtual learning environments offer several potential applications (Cornoiu et al., 2011): • Training students to use complex and sensitive equipment, such as those in airport control towers without risking misdirection that could lead to disaster. • Training students to deal with natural disasters, such as earthquakes and volcanoes. • Training students to exercise skills that cannot be exercised on the ground or are difficult to provide for, e.g. practicing a serious surgical procedure. • Provide the possibility of exposing the students to many possibilities while living in a particular environment, so they can react appropriately to any risk they have of preparing a chemical compound. • Deepening values and concepts linked to student culture and beliefs.

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2.5 Obstacles to Using Tools and Smart Platforms in Education Obstacles to the use of educational methods, particularly in the field of educational equipment and machinery, including multimedia and intelligent learning platforms, have been addressed in the literature. Factors that limit the use of educational methods in school are as follows (Leidner et al., 2016): • Some teachers do not believe in the usefulness of teaching methods in the learning process and consider them a waste of time. • Lack of knowledge among teachers about the methods, areas and conditions of use of methods used; if knowledge exists, it is not inclusive of all means educational. • Lack of teaching skills for teachers, especially in the use of equipment and educational machines. • Teachers cannot choose the appropriate means of education to achieve the goals of the occasion. • Poor maintenance, preservation and repair of means in the event of failure during or after use. • Difficulty in obtaining appropriate educational means to achieve the objectives. There are three main limitations to the use of multimedia for self-education: cost of audio-visual production, cost of hardware and difficulty of operation. Despite all the potential and benefits available on the smart platform (El Gourari et al., 2021), some obstacles exist that can be overcome through efforts. • Many students are computer illiterate; therefore, comprehensive plans must be developed. • Many adhere to traditional methods of education, whether teachers or decisionmakers. They must be confronted with reality and informed of technology advancements in education. • To reduce the high cost of designing smart learning platforms, educational institutions must collaborate, so they can share the cost of production. • Some educational institutions seek to import smart learning platforms from abroad; however, this comes with a warning. These environments must be tailored to the requirements of the prevailing educational system and culture to give children a sound upbringing. According to (Gautreau & Binns, 2012), know-how (computer awareness), openness to innovation and keeping up with the demands of the times are key to integrating learning practical techniques and making use of what it provides to both the teacher and learner and the teaching material. In the previous session, we have seen that there are many books and references in educational literature that are interested in technology and its innovations. Therefore, the sequence in tracking the evolution of the use of different educational techniques toward qualitative transfers using technological innovations, primarily smart learning platforms, is the best way to realize the importance of the field in improving the

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success of the educational process and giving the student an active role in it to become its main focus and pillar.

3 Method and Procedures This session includes a description of the approach, dataset, tools, sincerity, consistency, implementation procedures and design of the study, as well as a description of the statistical treatments used in data analysis. At the beginning of platform design, we relied on a dynamic knowledge base, which enables all implicit and explicit knowledge units to be kept within the platform with which all learners and teachers deal, both formal and informal, indexed according to the labels assigned to each unit so that everyone can search, circulate and share them. They also participate in their creation or modification without restriction because the knowledge base will retain all such amendments in the form of reversible versions. Knowledge sources will be available in the form of electronic files, multiple media or Internet content links and will be structured to help access, search and contribute, as appropriate. Stored knowledge includes. • Educational lessons, duties and exams that teachers create and provide to learners are discussed in a participatory environment that connects learners through forums, direct messaging tools and social communication. • Achievements of learners, both individual and collective, including writing blogs or practice and collaborative work. • Various educational sources can be provided by educational institutions or found through Internet search. • The accumulated experience of teachers resulting from the practice over time. Such experiences would represent knowledge of great value if it always existed in the knowledge base. • All these tools may be made available through this platform. It is important that all this be done through the cloud structure and that teachers and learners be free to build, develop, implement and treat their e-courses as open learning spaces.

3.1 Strategy This study used the experimental method of learning the impact of using a smart learning platform in teaching science materials on the achievement of students using experimental control for two groups, one female officer who learned in the traditional and the other experimental way learned the same content using our smart learning platform to illustrate the impact of the independent variable in the two groups, by taking three measurements: tribal, telemetric and retention.

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3.2 Dataset The dataset consisted of 1048 students (67.14%) from the first and second years of university and was divided into 4 divisions, each composed of two categories: the first, learned through the traditional method, and the second, learned using smart learning platforms. Each group included 262 students.

3.3 Tools To achieve the goals of the study, we prepared an immunological test in electricity, to measure the impact of using the smart learning platform on student achievement in distance testing (El Gourari et al., 2020) and retention testing after completion of the study (El Gourari et al., 2021). The preparation of the test was in the following stages: • Carefully examine the selected module and analyze its content. • The test contained 21 paragraphs, which evaluated mental levels according to “Bloom’s” classification (Bloom & Krathwohl, 1956): knowledge and recollection, understanding and assimilation, application, analysis, structure and evaluation. • The test was presented to several reviewers with knowledge and experience, who gave their opinions and suggested changes. The test was approved after the suggestions were incorporated. • The teaching process lasted 3 weeks.

3.4 Believe Tool To verify the veracity of the tool, we will present its paragraphs to several arbitrators from the Faculty of Sciences, Cadi Ayyad University, and some supervisors and science teachers who teach electricity. Based on their observations, recommendations and suggestions, we will reformulate some paragraphs and make some adjustments. The test may contain 21 paragraphs, some of which are subject-matter related or textual, with 3 paragraphs measuring the level of knowledge and recollection, 3 paragraphs measuring the level of understanding and assimilation, 5 paragraphs measuring the level of application, 3 paragraphs measuring the level of analysis, 2 paragraphs measuring the level of composition and 2 paragraphs measuring the level of evaluation.

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3.5 Device Stability To verify the persistence of the test (Artusi et al., 2002), we will finally apply it to a sample of many students, class from outside the sample, where we are going to calculate a coefficient. Persistence (Pearson’s correlation coefficient (Schober & Schwarte, 2018)) has a value of 71%, which is appropriate for the purposes of the study. The difficulty factor for each test paragraph has also been calculated using the following equation: F1 =

N S AW × 100% N ST A

(1)

• NSAW: Number of students who answered wrong about paragraphs. • NSTA: Number of students who tried to answer. The distinction factor was calculated for each test paragraph using the following formula (Tervalon & Murray-García, 1998): F2

N C AT G − M N C A × 100% N ST A

(2)

• NCATG: Number of correct answers in the top group. • MNCA: Minimum number of correct answers. • NSTA: Number of students attempting to answer. The ease factor should range from 10 to 90% and the acceptable minimum discrimination factor is considered to be 25% (Bafadal et al., 2018).

3.6 Design This study was designed to identify the impact of the use of smart learning platforms in science education. The study included several variables: • Independent variable: The teaching method has two levels (traditional or smart learning platform). • Dependent variable: Educational achievement (grade of students in the achievement test adopted in our study) was measured in the tribal, telemetric and retention by their levels (knowledge and memory, understanding and assimilation, application, structure analysis and evaluation). • Selected variables: Level: Level 1 and 2 of university education.

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Subject: It is a set of software packages with smart learning platforms that mimic the practical reality of electrical circuits taught in the first year of the university curriculum. Sociocultural variable: The sample was from the same environment and social level.

4 Results of the Study This session describes the results of the study, where students were tested in a specific educational subject (electricity) to compare the method based on the smart platform and the traditional method. Figures 1 and 2 show that student achievement in telemetrics and retention was better at all levels of achievement. The total degree of achievement in tribal measurement in both traditional method and intelligent platform tests, as well as in telemetric was better than retention. Notably, the percentage of smart platform results exceeded the percentage of results in the traditional method. Therefore, the use of the smart learning platform has had a positive impact on student achievement and retention.

Fig. 1 Student test results for long-distance comparisons between averages of the three measurements based on the traditional route

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Fig. 2 Student test results for long-range comparisons between averages of the three measurements based on the smart learning platform

5 Discussion and Conclusion This study aimed to see the impact of using smart learning platforms in education. The study produced results that can be summarized and discussed in the positive impact of using intelligent learning platforms on learning achievement and retention. Although this method has a few drawbacks, its advantages include guiding and providing student feedback, which is the most powerful way to understand student orientation and communicate information effectively. It is therefore natural for this method to produce better results at different levels of the student’s mindset. The results of student achievement in distance measurement were better than those of retention. We think that these results are normal because the distance achievement test is applied once the unit has been completed. The entry of knowledge and its relationship to student achievement as essential elements in e-learning environments will have a significant impact on improving the output of the educational process, because the goal of obtaining knowledge is to do business, not just acquire and store information. Thus, learners will be professionally ready for real practice once they have completed self-reliant learning and can pursue learning even after the school curriculum is done. To achieve this, the e-learning environment must be an open and unfettered participatory environment that supports self-learning and helps to share and store experiences and ideas among learners in a manner that makes them accessible to all. This requires common learning spaces based on a dynamic knowledge base through which to maintain explicit and implicit knowledge obtained, while being able to generate knowledge through discussion, analysis and exploration, with practice being an essential element of this, leading to genuine business processes.

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In the light of the objectives and results of the study, the following recommendations must be made: • Include the curriculum activities and experiences that employ intelligent learning platforms in the educational process, especially at application, analysis and evaluation levels. • Adopt modern learning strategies, such as smart learning platforms, to achieve meaningful learning and develop interaction and self-reliance skills. • Organize seminars and workshops for teachers on smart learning platforms as technological innovators aimed at identifying ways of recruiting them, their choice and their relevance. • Provide tools, materials and techniques for institutions and universities to benefit from technological innovations. • Prevent congestion of classes with students, which is an obstacle to the use of these technological innovations. • Reward and promote high-performing teachers who seek to learn the newest in the world of technology to achieve better results for their students away from adherence to lecture and indoctrination. • Promote studies on the use of smart learning platforms at other age stages.

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Gapsalamov, A., Akhmetshin, E., Falyakhov, I., Vasilev, V., & Sedov, S. (2020). Model of scientific and methodological support for training of mentors for vocational education system in the conditions of digitalization. In E3S Web of Conferences (Vol. 159, p. 09016). EDP Sciences. https:// doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202015909016 Gautreau, B. T., & Binns, I. C. (2012). Investigating student attitudes and achievements in an environmental place-based inquiry in secondary classrooms. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 7(2), 167–195. Kuhn, D. (1979). The Application of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to education. Harvard Educational Review, 49(3), 340–360. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.49.3.h70173113k7r618r Leidner, D. E., & Jarvenpaa, S. L. (1995). The use of information technology to enhance management school education: A theoretical view. MIS Quarterly, 265–291. Meyer, E. J. (2008). Gendered harassment in secondary schools: Understanding teachers’ (non) interventions. Gender and Education, 20(6), 555–570. Mohd Elmagzoub, B. A. (2015). For effective use of multimedia in education, teachers must develop their own educational multimedia applications. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 14(4), 62–68. Schober, P., & Schwarte, L. A. (2018). Correlation coefficients: Appropriate use and interpretation. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 126(5), 1763–1768. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000002864 Tervalon, M., & Murray-García, J. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence: A critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 9(2), 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2010.0233 Vanhove, N. (2002). Tourism policy—between competitiveness and sustainability: The case of Bruges. Tourism Review, 57(3), 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb058385

Abdelali El Gourari is a Ph.D. student in the laboratory of physics high energy and astrophysics at Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco. His research interests lie in artificial intelligence for adaptive education systems: application to remote-controlled experiments. Mustapha Raoufi is a Professor of Physics Department Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University Marrakech, Morocco. Mohammed Skouri is a Professor of Physics Department Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University Marrakech, Morocco.

Chapter 12

Dynamic Collaborative Learning Based on Recommender Systems and Emergent Collective Intelligence in Online Learning Communities Sara Qassimi, Meriem Hafidi, El Hassan Abdelwahed, and Aimad Qazdar Abstract The presence of interaction and mutual support functionalities offered by online social networks has increased in e-learning systems. Current collaborative learning platforms have witnessed the emergence of many resources, relationships and interactions provided by social information systems, leading to an information overload. Indeed, this phenomenon has made users unable to cope with information overload. As a solution, we aim to recommend relevant resources based on the interaction between users. We present a multilayer, graph-based recommender system that enables pedagogical resources to be recommended by relying on the connections between individuals in collaborative online learning communities. The multilayer, graph-based recommender system harnesses emergent collective intelligence in online learning communities. Our proposal describes dynamic collaborative learning that uses a recommender system based on emerging semantic graphs by investigating collective intelligence within online learning communities. Our findings reveal relevant performance results of the multilayer, graph-based recommender system of pedagogical resources. Future studies on network analysis aim to improve the performance of recommendations. Keywords Graph-based recommender system · Dynamic collaborative learning · Collective intelligence · Online learning communities S. Qassimi (B) Laboratory L2IS, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques (FST), University Cadi Ayyad (UCA), B.P 549, Av. Abdelkarim Elkhattabi, Guéliz Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] M. Hafidi · E. H. Abdelwahed · A. Qazdar Laboratory LISI, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia (FSSM), University Cadi Ayyad (UCA), Boulevard Prince My Abdellah B.P., 2390 Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] E. H. Abdelwahed e-mail: [email protected] A. Qazdar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_12

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1 Introduction The interaction and mutual support functionalities offered by online social networks have been increasingly present in e-learning systems, such as the learning management system (LMS). Collaborative learning platforms combine traditional LMS and social network functionalities to facilitate content creation; access to and sharing of learning resources among users, etc. (Fazeli et al., 2016). In addition to the forums and chat functions in LMS, collaborative learning platforms allow users to create more connections and expand their network of friends. Recent years have witnessed the emergence of innumerable resources, relationships and interactions provided by social information systems, leading to an information overload such that users are unable to cope. Thus, it would be practical to recommend resources that are likely to interest users. We aim to recommend only relevant resources based on the interaction between users. Thus, the objective of our work is to propose an approach that enables the recommendation of pedagogical resources by relying on connections between individuals in collaborative online learning communities. We aim to assist learners (learners within a community) in identifying learning or pedagogical content or resources more effectively from a potentially large collection of choices. This study presents our contributions by harnessing recommender systems and emergent collective intelligence in online learning communities towards dynamic collaborative learning. Indeed, similar individuals tend to refer or connect to the same resources. The recommender system can rely mainly on the evaluations of users who are similar to a given user to try to predict their preferences. Users who share the same or similar interests are likely to be socially connected, and thus, interested in their activities, like tagging and rating pedagogical resources. Collective intelligence is a representation of emergent collective behaviour within social communities (Hafidi et al., 2021). Defining collective behaviour depends on studying the correlation between connected users. Within social networks, a user’s profile is characterised by the user’s behaviours; interacting with others, sharing information, attributing tags, ratings, commenting resources, etc. This collective behaviour creates a complex network of interactions among users who are semantically connected to their peers. Linked users are created by similarity in behaviour, and thus, influenced by their neighbours. For example, for Amazon and Netflix, if a user’s friends are interested in (buy, rate, share, tag, comment, etc.) an item, the system will implicitly recommend it to the target user. By analysing the emergent collective intelligence, the recommender system will evaluate an educational resource based on user activities or implicit and explicit evaluations (attributed tags and ratings) on that resource. However, the generated complex network cannot be used by the classical recommender system approaches, which rely on techniques of content-based, collaborative filtering and hybrid filtering recommendations using the similarity matrix. The user-item matrix is unable to model the collaborative behaviour represented by the complex network. For example, the use of a user-item matrix will be insufficient and inefficient to merge the explicit

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taste of a user about its favourite genres with its ratings and tagging for specific items. It has called the attention of using a flexible recommendation approach that will efficiently model multiple possible interactions between different entities (users, items, tags, ratings, etc.). In this regard, this paper describes dynamic collaborative learning that uses a recommender system based on the emerging semantic graphs by harnessing the collective intelligence within online learning communities. The aim is to: (i) describe the use of recommender systems in online learning and present recent works concerning graph-based recommender system approaches, (ii) model the interactions in a community of practice faced with problem-solving and (iii) study a usecase of pedagogical resources recommendation to improve learning within online communities. The rest of the paper is organised as follows: Sect. 2 presents the background of recommender systems in education and related works of recent graph-based recommender system approaches. Section 3 depicts the online learning communities and the dynamic interaction of their collaborative behaviour. Section 4 presents the interaction and emergence of collaborative intelligence. Section 5 describes a usecase of pedagogical resources recommendation to improve learning within online communities. Finally, the conclusion and future directions are delineated in Sect. 6.

2 Recommender Systems in Education 2.1 Recommender System in Computer Environments for Human Learning Computer environments for human learning (CEHL) have become popular over the past decade. These environments aim to design, develop and evaluate computer tools for different types of learning (Drachsler et al., 2015). Recent years have seen the emergence of the research field of recommender systems in CEHL. A recommender system is a subclass of an information filtering system. Its purpose is to help users conduct searches by suggesting resources (items) that best match their interests and preferences (Qassimi et al., 2020). Recommender systems in CEHL are designed to develop a recommended strategy based on specific characteristics of the learning context. The goal is to provide support to learners to achieve their learning goals (Drachsler et al., 2015). In CEHL, pedagogical resources (items) are regularly produced, organised and diffused (Manouselis et al., 2012). On such platforms, one of the main concerns of learners is to determine which course to choose or resource to consult. Recommendation systems can help these learners by recommending content that might be of interest and that they may not have discovered before. The first challenge in designing a recommender system for e-learning is to properly define learners and the purpose of the specific context or subject area (Klašnja-Mili´cevi´c et al., 2017). The educational recommendation system should consider the characteristics

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of the learning environment, such as learner characteristics and preferences, learner grouping, learning objectives, learning or pedagogical resources, prerequisite knowledge and learning strategies. Several studies (Drachsler et al., 2009; Santos et al., 2014; Erdt et al., 2015) have emphasised that recommender systems can have positive outcomes on learning, such as academic and learner performances and learning motivations.

2.2 Graph-Based Recommender System Latest studies have demonstrated the feasibility of using graphs to increase the performance of recommender systems. Durand et al. (2013) demonstrated that the order of learning objects is essential to learners and implemented a method based on graph theory that can create oneway learning paths through relationships by linking all necessary learning objects. Fazeli et al. (2014) developed a social recommendation system using a graph-walking method for suggesting learning resources that combines classical LMS with social networks. Even if rating data are sparse, the graph-based recommender system increases the accuracy of its recommendations. The graph is constructed with the social index (S-index depending on ratings) attributed to each user. The proposed recommender system uses the graph to walk through a target user’s neighbours and gathers recommendations for this given user. The graph-based recommender system has shown its performance in other domains. By leveraging a directed graph of multiedge linked jobs to suggest jobs, the authors (Shalaby et al., 2017) overcome the major challenges of sparsity and scalability of recommender systems. The authors suggest a graph-based model for a social recommendation to promote social trust (Bathla et al., 2020). The authors (Yang & Toni, 2018) introduce a graph-based recommendation system that learns and explores the geometry of the user space to create clusters in the user domain, thereby reducing the dimensionality of the recommendation problem. They propose a heterogeneous music recommendation system based on the knowledge network which uses a graph-based algorithm to generate recommendations (Wang et al., 2020).

3 Online Learning Communities The community of practice is a group of individuals who learn and pass on knowledge to others, including through various collectives (Wenger, 2011). Another definition given to the community of practice is that of Wenger: “A community of practice is a group of individuals who interact, build relationships and through it gradually develop a sense of belonging and mutual commitment” (Wenger, 2005). A community of practice is characterised by a working environment shared by a group of individuals with heterogeneous levels of competence. Alongside this collaboration

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and cooperation, unscheduled learning of the members becomes the most important character of the community. This collaborative problem solving can be represented by this equation: RCP = {C, P, A}. C Community of practice. P represents the problem to be solved. A is the collaborative resolution activity. • Dynamic interaction within communities: Interactions are the most important factor of success within a community and the origin and result simultaneously. Their diminution or disappearance causes the dissolution of the community (Nagham et al.). These interactions are also the main factor of emergent collective intelligence in social and animal communities. Therefore, the construction of our knowledge is dependent on the existence of these exchanges. Interactions are the reciprocal influences between individuals in a community. They can be either challenging or conflicting. Moreover, interactions exist between the individual and their environment or space. In social sciences, social interaction refers to reciprocal actions between two or more individuals sharing information; the buyer, for example, will discuss with the seller and they will interact in a prior context and are known to the two protagonist—the trading exchange. • Interactions and learning: In a collaborative situation within an online community, the exchange between members becomes beneficial for learning. Then interactions are based on a problemsolving or pure learning object. Moreover, the heterogeneity of the community between experts and beginners directs the interactions with objects of learning towards the beginners who are in a situation of the construction of knowledge. With an equivalence of expertise level of the participants, an equivalent co-construction of knowledge to all the senses is generated. To bring collaborative learning theories closer to each other in a community, we will use our research results on the above interactions as well as try to see the concept of the Sound Multiagent Incremental Learning (SMILE) protocol on collaborative learning of agents (Gauvain et al., 2009). In SMILE, an individual is an agent with information or knowledge and covers the new knowledge by keeping the correct and neglecting the false. The arrival of new knowledge is ensured by a personal search or interactions with the community. Then, the agent is supposed to compare this knowledge or hypothesis to its present if it contradicts it, confront it to the critic of other individuals or agents. If the responses received by the community are all positives the agent shares the new information or knowledge with others as being commonly accepted. Therefore, new knowledge is adopted by the community (Gauvain et al., 2009). We will see the application of this protocol in a collaborative, problem-solving situation in the community (Fig. 1). The diagram (Fig. 1) above illustrates interactions within a community of practice that solves problem P encountered by one of these members. In the beginning, we see sharing of P by individual 2 to sensitise his neighbours to share their knowledge

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Fig. 1 Diagram modelling the interactions in a community of practice faced with the situation of problem-solving

about this problem; subsequently, individuals 1 and 3 transfer their knowledge to individual 2, who collects it and arrives at knowledge K, which is greater than the sum of others, and shares it with the other members. After the problem is solved, the individual shares the solution which could be useful for the future (knowledge capitalisation in knowledge management). Global behaviour: According to this modelling, the sharing of knowledge ensures the emergence of collective intelligence, this intelligence serves to solve problems and ensures the learning of members of the community implicitly and promotes capitalisation of knowledge through the knowledge management system.

4 Collective Intelligence Collective intelligence or behaviour is a result of a group collaboration or competition. Scientists from the fields of sociology, mass behaviour and computer science have made important contributions to this field. Collective intelligence is a shared intelligence that emerges from the collaboration and collective efforts of and competition between many individuals. Wikipedia is often the first-cited example of collective intelligence (Wikipedia, 2016). • Collective intelligence: According to the definition given by Surowiecki (2005) “under the right circumstances, groups are remarkably intelligent, and are often

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smarter than the smartest people in them”. A crowd’s collective intelligence will produce better results than that of a small group of experts if four basic conditions are met.

4.1 Collective Intelligence in Online Communities The growing significance of Web 2.0/3.0, social networks, wikis and other collaborative platforms in helping users and communities to share knowledge is a great source for organisational intellectual capital. The collective intelligence within online communities is gathered from data collected from user traces, user interactions, etc. The interactions between users and resources are the main sources of emerging and collective intelligence. Many web2.0 platforms collect data from their users and use collective intelligence algorithms to benefit from them. Google is the best example of such platforms; it not only uses web links to rank pages but also gathers data when advertisements are clicked by users, allowing Google to target the advertising more effectively. Other examples include seller companies web sites with recommendation systems. Sites like Amazon and Netflix use data about what users buy or rent to determine which users or items are similar and then make recommendations based on purchase history. Other sites like Pandora and Last.fm use ratings of bands and songs to create custom radio stations with music they think the users will enjoy. Within online communities, increased user interaction and participation gives rise to data that may be converted to intelligence. The use of collective intelligence to personalise systems help make decisions and seek information is the main goal of online applications. The importance of using online platforms in gathering collective intelligence is that user behaviour is monitored and used to derive information without asking or interrupting the user. Social users are influenced within online community platforms directly by each other or indirectly through emergent collective intelligence used by the personalised system (Fig. 2). To extract collective intelligence and use it in personalised systems, application steps are used (Fig. 3): • Enable users to interact with the system and with each other. • Collect and aggregate data contributed by users using adapted algorithms. • Personalise content using the collective intelligence emerged.

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Fig. 2 A user may be influenced by users or indirectly through intelligence (Teixeira, 2010)

Fig. 3 Collecting data to personalise system based on collective intelligence (Teixeira, 2010)

5 Use-Case of Pedagogical Resources Recommendation to Improve Learning Within Online Communities We modelled the real-world goodbooks-10 k dataset application to turn our proposal into form. We extracted the collective intelligence represented within the collaborative behaviour of tagging and rating. The dataset was modelled within a multilayer graph (Fig. 4). Each layer is a graph of homogeneous nodes linked with weighted edges. The layers represent layers of users that tag and rate the layer of pedagogical resources.

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Fig. 4 Proposed approach of the multilayer, graph-based recommender system

To evaluate book recommendations, we performed an automatic evaluation by considering that the ground truth or true positive is the previously rated books (rating >3) that are relevant for the user. Therefore, we can evaluate how pertinent the recommendations are to the actual preferences of the user. We selected the previously rated book for each of the 10 users and evaluated book recommendations based on the proposed approach of the graph-based recommender system (Fig. 5). Precision = TpTp + Fp Recall = TpTp + Fn. We compared the results of our proposed approach with the content-based recommender system (CB-RS) using accuracy metrics, namely precision and recall. We computed precision P1 for our proposed approach and P2 for CB-RS; recalled R1 for our proposed approach and R2 for CB-RS. The precision and recall are calculated from the number of books that are either rated or not and either recommended or not. Four possible outcomes are shown in the confusion matrix (Table 1). The comparative figure (Fig. 6) shows that precision P1 and recall R1 of our proposed approach have higher results than precision P2 and recall R2 of CB-RS.

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Fig. 5 Knowledge graph representation of user rating of a tagged resource using Neo4j

Table 1 Confusion matrix

Relevant

Not relevant

Recommended

Tp (True positive)

Fp (False positive)

Not recommended

Fn (False negative)

Tn (True negative)

6 Conclusion and Perspectives Online social networks have created interactions and mutual support functionalities within communities present in e-learning systems. Collaborative learning platforms used in LMSs allow users to create more interactions and expand sharing many

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Fig. 6 Comparison of the proposed approach of the multilayer, graph-based recommender system with CB-RS

resources within the social information systems, leading to an information overload. To enable users cope with the overload, we propose to exploit the interactions between users to recommend only relevant pedagogical resources. Thus, we present an approach that assists learners by recommending pedagogical resources by relying on the connections between individuals in collaborative online learning communities. This article presents our contributions by harnessing recommender systems and emergent collective intelligence in online learning communities towards dynamic collaborative learning. Indeed, users who share similar interests are likely to be socially connected, and thus, interested in their activities, such as tagging and rating pedagogical resources. We explored emergent collective behaviour and collective intelligence by studying the correlation between connected users. This collective behaviour creates a complex network of interactions among users who are semantically connected to their peers. Linked users are created by similar behaviours, influenced by their neighbours. For example, on Amazon and Netflix, if a user’s friends are interested in (buy, rate, share, tag, comment, etc.) an item, the system will implicitly recommend it to the target user. By analysing emergent collective intelligence, the recommender system will recommend an educational resource based on the complex network of users’ activities or implicit and explicit interactions and evaluations. Thus, the complex network generated call attention to using a flexible recommendation approach that will efficiently model multiple types of possible interactions between different entities (users, items, tags, ratings, etc.). In this regard, our proposal describes dynamic collaborative learning that uses a recommender system based on emerging semantic graphs by harnessing collective intelligence within online learning communities.

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Future work will focus on extending the experiment to online evaluation and integrating additional contextual information to improve the description of resources, incorporating deep network analysis for forming and improving the graphs to enhance recommendations.

References Bathla, G., Aggarwal, H., & Rani, R. (2020). A graph-based model to improve social trust and influence for social recommendation. The Journal of Supercomputing, 76(6), 4057–4075. Bourgne, G., Bouthinon, D., Seghrouchni, A. E. F., & Soldano, H. (2009). Collaborative concept learning: non individualistic vs individualistic agents. In 2009 21st IEEE International Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence (pp. 653–657). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICTAI.2009.73 Collective Intelligence. (2016). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectiveintelligence. Drachsler, H., Verbert, K., Santos, O. C., & Manouselis, N. (2015). Panorama of recommender systems to support learning. Recommender Systems Handbook (pp. 421–451). Springer, Boston, MA. Drachsler, H., Hummel, H. G. K., & Koper, R. (2009). Identifying the goal, user model and conditions of recommender systems for formal and informal learning. Journal of Digital Information, 10(2), 4–24. Durand, G., Belacel, N., & LaPlante, F. (2013). Graph theory based model for learning path recommendation. Information Sciences, 251, 10–21. Erdt, M., Fernandez, A., & Rensing, C. (2015). Evaluating recommender systems for technology enhanced learning: a quantitative survey. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 8, 1–1. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2015.2438867 Fazeli, S., Loni, B., Drachsler, H., & Sloep, P. (2014). Which recommender system can best fit social learning platforms? In European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning (pp. 84–97). Springer, Cham. Fazeli, S., Rajabi, E., Lezcano, L., Drachsler, H., & Sloep, P. (2016). Supporting users of open online courses with recommendations: an algorithmic study. In 2016 IEEE 16th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) (pp. 423–427). IEEE. Hafidi, M., Abdelwahed, E. H., & Qassimi, S. (2021). Graph-based tag recommendations using clusters of patients in clinical decision support system. Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience, 33(1), e5624. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpe.5624 Klašnja-Mili´cevi´c, A., Vesin, B., Ivanovi´c, M., Budimac, Z., & Jain, L. C. (2017). Recommender systems in e-learning environments. In E-Learning Systems (pp. 51–75). Springer, Cham. Manouselis, N., Drachsler, H., Verbert, K., & Duval, E. (2012). Recommender systems for learning. Springer Science and Business Media. Qassimi, S., Abdelwahed, E. H., & Hafidi, M. (2020). Folksonomy Graphs Based Context-Aware Recommender System Using Spectral Clustering. International Journal of Machine Learning and Computing, 10(1), 63–68. http://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18178/ijmlc.2020.10.1.899. Santos, O. C., & Boticario, J. G. (2014). Exploring Arduino for building educational context-aware recommender systems that deliver affective recommendations in social ubiquitous networking environments. In International Conference on Web-Age Information Management (pp. 272–286). Springer, Cham. Shalaby, W., Al Aila, B., Korayem, M., Pournajaf, L., Al Jadda, K., Quinn, S., & Zadrozny, W. (2017). Help me find a job: A graph-based approach for job recommendation at scale. In IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data) (pp. 1544–1553). IEEE. Surowiecki, J. (2005). The Wisdom of Crowds.

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Sara Qassimi holds a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in computer science and computer science engineering degree from the FSTG, UCA Marrakesh, Morocco. She is an assistant professor at FSTG. Her research interests focus on recommender systems, machine learning, context-aware systems, social interactions, folksonomy and the semantic web. Her Ph.D. research thesis is about recommending useful and relevant information, and resources to users. The purpose of the research is to investigate social interactions and extracting descriptive semantics from resources towards establishing a semantic graph-based context-aware recommender system applied in a specific domain of interest, such as a health community of practice, social learning, and for the valorization of cultural heritage. Meriem Hafidi holds a master’s degree in software quality from the University of Kenitra in 2009. She is currently a Ph.D. student in the LISI Laboratory at Semlalia Faculty University of Cadi Ayyad Marrakech, Morocco. Her research interests include interactions and the emergence of collective intelligence within a community of practice. El Hassan Abdelwahed holds a Ph.D. in computer science and robotics from Montpellier II University and Doctorat d’Etat in Computer Science from Cadi Ayyad University. He is currently a full professor of computer science at Cadi Ayyad University and an associate professor at Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Morocco. He was the head of the Computer Science Department from 2005 to 2009 and has been the director of the Computer Systems Engineering Lab since 2015. His research interests include data science, machine learning, context-aware systems, recommender systems, and their applications (education & digital learning, industry 4.0, etc.). He was a general chair of international conferences (ICWIT-2010, JFO-2014, MEDI-2018) and a member of the program committees of national and international conferences. Aimad Qazdar is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia—Cadi Ayyad University in Marrakech, Morocco. He taught computer science at high school level for 8 years. He obtained a doctorate in computer science, as well as a Master’s in software engineering and computer networks in 2010 from the National School of Applied Sciences (ENSA) Agadir, Ibn Zohr University, Morocco. His research interests focus on technology enhanced learning, disruptive innovation in education, education 4.0, and digital transformation.

Chapter 13

Impact of Choices Made at the Summative Evaluation on the Teacher’s Practice: Case of Teaching Mathematics at the Last Year of High School Mustapha Ourahay, Youssef Ezzahraouy, Somaya E. L. Gharras, and Abdelaziz Razouki Abstract We aim to present our findings on the dominance of summative evaluation in the pedagogical practice of teachers at the end of high school. Our findings are based both on an analysis of the political choices that frame certification assessment and curricula and on methodology inspired by the international assessment Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (1) that monitor trends in student achievement in mathematics. The rigid organisation of school rhythm as well as choices made in summative evaluation and its normalisation profoundly influenced the pedagogical practices of teachers. These elements reduced the activity of teaching mathematics to cramming and the academic achievements of students at the first cognitive level of mathematical thinking, knowing and applying. Changing and improving assessment practices is crucial for the overall improvement of the education system. We believe that it is time to review the educational framework for curriculum and assessment implementation to ensure consistency and harmonisation between the minimum requirements for continuation of studies in normal conditions and the threshold for success. Keywords Summative evaluation · Standardised exam · Assessment of learning · Teaching practice

Standardised examination at the last year of high school “Baccalauréat” M. Ourahay (B) · Y. Ezzahraouy · S. E. L. Gharras · A. Razouki Laboratoire LIRDEF, Ecole Normale Supérieure Cadi Ayyad University, Ecole Normale Supérieure Hay Hassani, BP 2400, Marrakesh, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] S. E. L. Gharras e-mail: [email protected] A. Razouki e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_13

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1 Introduction and Presentation of Research Questions Certificate evaluation is used at the end of a course, cycle or program and takes stock of the knowledge and skills of each learner. In the Moroccan education system, it is organised in the form of a continuous process of internal evaluation and each cycle of education (primary, secondary and high school) ends with an external evaluation in the form of a standardised examination at the regional or national level. Each external evaluation is supported by a frame of references that lead to a table of specification of knowledge, which is a tool to guide and support the conception of an assessment test and ensure its validity.1 Summative assessment is an essential tool for the student, teacher and education system. It enables students to determine their shortcomings and successes and have their academic achievements and skills recognised socially. It allows the teacher to regulate his teaching practice. It also allows the educational system to manage the school map and to orientate learners towards suitable curricula. In the Moroccan education system, summative evaluation and curricula are under the responsibility of CNEEO2 and the Curriculum Department, respectively. The organisation of summative evaluation and its operationalisation is governed by ministerial notes. It does not fall under the tasks of the Curriculum Department and does not appear in pedagogical guidelines, which support pedagogical operationalisation of school programs. The choices made in the conception of summative evaluation to promote resultsbased governance have allowed this evaluation to become an essential component of the teaching–learning process. Its separation from the pedagogical orientations guiding program delivery gives it the status of a tool for assessing both teachers’ pedagogical practices and learners’ learning outcomes. This summative evaluation presents a framework in which the school administration, teachers and learners must align themselves to ensure good governance of the education system through results. Thus, we argue that the management and design of summative evaluation affects the quality of both teachers’ pedagogical practices and students’ learning outcomes and can improve the performance of the education system. To deal with summative evaluation and its consequences on teachers’ pedagogical practice, we considered it sufficient to limit this study to the teaching of mathematics, because we can refer to both the methodological elements and results of the national (PNEA) and international (TIMSS) surveys as benchmarks and points of comparison. To identify issues with the evaluation conveyed by the Moroccan education system and its impact on teachers’ pedagogical practices, we will evaluate factors relevant for the institutional organisation of summative evaluation, which act globally on the development of students’ academic achievements rather than socially, and explain the inequalities in their performance. Our research questions arise from the following observations: 1 2

Trends in Mathematics and Science Study. The National Center for Evaluation, Examinations and Guidance.

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• Since 2008 and following the recommendations of the Higher Council for Education, Training and Scientific Research (CSEFRS), the success rate of students in the last year of higher School (Baccalauréat) and at all school levels has increased and now exceeds 70%. This result leads us to believe that our educational system has reached a high degree of efficiency and that teachers train their students according to what the teaching targets as pedagogical objectives. • Results from the national PNEA,3 (CSEFRS, 2009a, b) and (INE, 2019a) and international TIMSS surveys (IEA, 2008a, b, 2015) attest to the ability of Moroccan students’ academic performance at the lowest level. • The CNEEO is the national coordinator of the TIMSS surveys, PNEA program and summative evaluation. TIMSS and PNEA are based on the conception of their evaluation tests, on the school curriculum prescribed by the Ministry of National Education. This institution is also responsible for organising the summative evaluation of student achievement from the first year of elementary school to the last year of higher school. The frames of reference for standardised tests of the summative evaluation in mathematics and science of different school cycles are designed by CNEEO and based on the TIMSS methodology to determine the frame of reference of its standardised tests. These lead us to ask why do results of summative evaluation not reflect the results of TIMSS? How do teachers integrate summative evaluation into teaching practices? We intend to base our treatment of these questions on elements of the institutional context of summative evaluation. We will build on the choices that have been made and shaped summative assessment and its practice within mathematics education. Our analysis of the operationalisation of the evaluation will focus on the treatment of the TIMSS methodology, the reference frame of the last year of higher school mathematics exam, this exam for the last ten years, the official documents intended for mathematics teaching and the reports produced by CSEFRS and INE.4 To link the treatment of these questions to pedagogical practice, we have chosen to refer to the summative evaluation related to the mathematics examination of the last year of higher school of Experimental Science streams. The study will focus on methodological aspects and choices made at the institutional level to identify the issues and quality of pedagogical practices that frame the teaching of mathematics.

3

Programme National d’Évaluation des Acquis des élèves, which is a Moroccan National Program for Assessment of Student Achievement. 4 “Instance Nationale d’évaluation du système Educatif”, which is the “National Authority for the Evaluation of the Educational System”.

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2 Analysis of the Institutional Context of the Summative Evaluation We consider summative evaluation a tool for some political choices made at the level of steering the education system. To make sense of our results, we need to situate this assessment in its institutional context. In this analysis, we referred to the INE 2008 report entitled “State and outlook of the education and training system” and official documents organising teaching practice, such as (INE, 2009a, b, 2017, 2019a, b bis). This report describes the state of the education system and offers recommendations to breathe new life into the reform started in 2000. It is the reference document for the two projects of education system reform, i.e., the “emergency plan” covering 2009–2012 and the “2015–2030 strategic vision”. In this report, we can identify two determining factors: the abolition of repeating grades and organisation of summative evaluation.

2.1 Abolition of Repeating Grades In its 2008 report, the CSEFRS underlines that the education system is marked by low internal rates of return from the end of primary school. It refers to the national survey on illiteracy in 2006, which confirms that non-schooling and dropping out of school revealed an illiteracy rate of the population aged 10 at >38.5%. It refers to findings of international studies, which reveal that students who drop out of school in less than four years fall into illiteracy. In this report, CSEFRS underlines that repeating grades has substantial repercussions on voluntarily abandoning school, on the capacity of the Moroccan education system to generalise compulsory education and to improve the quality of education. Moreover, it increases the costs for families. The report adds that: “Education experts, especially those from the OECD, stress that the recurrent recourse to repeating grades is unnecessary because, in addition to its ineffectiveness against school failure. Also, it generates high additional costs for families due to the number of years spent at school.” p. 54. According to this report, the high rate of repeating grades can be explained by the absence of references and standards of summative evaluation and by the low qualification of teachers who cannot adapt courses and pedagogical approaches to the level of each student. The education system is thus in a dilemma in which neither automatic transfer nor repeating grades alone can solve the problems of pupils with learning difficulties. Faced with this situation, the CSEFRS recommends making almost all students succeed and compulsory schooling effective up to the age of 15. It conditions this recommendation by the need to institute educational support for students with poor academic performance. It therefore makes the following recommendations:

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• Organise the summative evaluation to remedy the weaknesses highlighted to ensure equity and equality of opportunity, representativeness of the school program, increase of the success rate and improvement of the quality of learning outcomes. • Institutionalise learning support and integrate it into the weekly service of teachers. Following this recommendation, the frames of reference for standardised examinations for the last year of each school cycle were revised in 2010. The school administration also acted to ensure the smooth running of summative evaluation, to encourage teachers organise support sessions for low-performing students and promote the success of all students.

2.2 Organisation of Summative Evaluation The organisation of summative evaluation is part of the educational policy of the education system. It is designed, structured and governed by the CNEEO and takes the form and status of ministerial notes. It is designed to be an institutional tool for monitoring academic performance and its operationalisation is compulsory. It is used to manage success rate, academic performance and school map. It is introduced as a tool geared towards the evaluation of student learning. It is not integrated as a tool for regulating educational practice. Its mission is to manage academic success. It is subject to pre-established planning and programming that is standardised at the national level. Summative assessment planning is structured for each discipline and by grade. It specifies the number of evaluation tests to be administered per year. For each of these tests, it specifies the targeted parts in terms of content as well as the importance of each. The examinations of the final years of each cycle are characterised by an external standardised evaluation (regional or national) supported by reference frameworks. The role of the latter is to provide specification tables to ensure the validity and representativeness of the evaluation test. Their conception is inspired by the methodology used by TIMSS to determine the reference frameworks for its standardised tests. In the final year of the higher school cycle, summative assessment in mathematics is structured by two ministerial notes. Ministerial Note No 142-08, (CNEEO, 2007) structures the annual organisation of continuous controls and their mathematical content. Ministerial Note no. 39, (CNEEO, 2010a, b) presents the reference framework for the national examination in the last year of higher school. It offers teachers the specification table intended for the mathematics program and to the national examination of the last year of higher school. These two ministerial notes allow teachers to specify content targeted by each assessment as well as its importance rate. They make it possible to standardise the assessment of learning outcomes at the national level. They represent for teachers’

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essential pedagogical resources allowing to guide their students towards the learning targeted by summative evaluation. The role of specification tables of reference frameworks for standardised examinations is to guarantee the validity of assessment tests, the equity and regulation between expectations in terms of learning and assessment. The standard form of external examinations (national or regional) allows teachers and students to focus on the types of mathematical activity targeted by the assessment. Thus, the reference frameworks, their specification tables and previous standardised exams have become both a teaching tool and preparation and learning resources for the student. These different tools have become educational tools that most teachers use to plan and prepare their teaching activities. They have also become support tools for students to improve academic performance. These tools offer summative assessment a privileged place in the teaching–learning process. They condition both pupil achievement and teaching practice.

2.3 Organisation of the Teacher’s Work The official document of curricula and educational guidelines currently used was produced by the Curriculum Directorate (Direction des curricula, 2007). This document presents the principles and benchmarks adopted to support and structure mathematics teaching activities. It does not allow the teacher to use it as a guide or to extract pragmatic tools from it to identify learning targeted in terms of mathematical skills that should be the subject of special attention. It advocates a discourse oriented more towards the management of teaching activities than the management of learning. It is based on a school rhythm in which the programming of various teaching activities for each school year is predefined, supported by standardised planning and structured by Ministerial Note no. 43. This is an institutional standardisation of the teaching act which leaves no choicefor teachers to readjust the school rhythm and learning progression. This document advocates a discourse based on the competencies approach while structuring the programs according to a content organisation guided by internal and disciplinary logic. Most teachers report having overcrowded classes, with most students facing challenges in mathematics. These are due to the gaps accumulated over years of schooling and the widening gap between the minimum of what is necessary for the pursuit of studies and the threshold of achievements guaranteeing academic success. In addition, teachers are caught between an initially low level of students and a rigid and predefined school schedule. Notably, to support the increase in success rate, teachers have been recommended to program support sequences for students with grades below the average considered the success threshold. They are required to make teaching profitable according to the requirements of summative assessment. They must offer support sessions to students with below-average marks. These elements of the school context require teachers to respect predefined institutional planning of teaching activities, learning targeted by summative evaluation and support students with poor academic performance.

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Without improving the professional and pedagogical training of the teacher, promoting quality education under the various constraints of mathematics teaching is a challenge. In a crowded class, it is difficult for the teacher to adopt differentiated pedagogy to support the pace of learning of each student. Under these conditions, the pedagogical practice chosen by many is that of aligning the teaching activity with the preparation for summative assessment tests. Since the abolition of repeating grades in 2009, a form of implicit contract has been developed between the teacher, pupil and school administration to increase the school success rate. Thus, the function of most teachers is reduced to a coach for passing exams. Therefore, educational support is limited to cramming. Moreover, the entrenchment of this implicit contract at all school levels has encouraged the proliferation of the overtime market, inflation of marks, development of books with solved exercises and tests and end-of-cycle exams.

3 Analysis of the Operationalisation of the Summative Evaluation We base our analysis of the operationalisation of summative assessment on the methodology adopted by TIMSS and the reference framework for the mathematics examination of the last year of higher School Certificate: option “experimental sciences”. In this study, we begin by situating the methodological structure of summative evaluation in relation to that of TIMS. Then, we complete the prior learning specification table using the reference framework of last year’s higher school exam to analyse the certificate exam of this level. We end with an analysis of previous certificate exams of the higher school last year. We hope to explain through these analyses the observation supporting our questioning and identify factors that determine its nature.

3.1 TIMSS Methodology for the Assessment of Mathematical Learning TIMSS is an international survey aimed at comparing educational systems on their academic performance. TIMSS is based on the assessment of student achievement in mathematics and science and their learning environments. It is spread over four years and based on parts of the official programs5 common to all participating countries. TIMSS targets the knowledge and skills that the learner is expected to master through planned programs. It is a device comprising cognitive evaluation tests as well as questionnaires aimed at identifying the learning environment. Morocco has participated in TIMSS since 1999. 5

Each country official program is meant to be converted into learning activities in the classroom.

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To assess student academic achievement, TIMSS uses a methodology based on the “specification table” as a tool for the conception and analysis of items on the assessment test. This table is two-dimensional and is defined as an ordered presentation of all the notions and skills of mathematical activity recommended by a school program (IEA, 2005, 2006, 2014, 2016). It includes indications on the taxonomic level of skills and on the relative importance of a concept or a subset of concepts compared with the totality of taught concepts. It weights each component of the program to ensure some form of balance in the conception of assessment tests (number and distribution of questions to be designed in various categories). Experts from the International Association for Evaluation of educational achievement (IEA) develop the specification table in collaboration with national coordinators of the participating countries. According to Bodin (2016), the content and know-how of this table are broadly consistent with those of the countries participating in the study. The director of the national center for examinations, assessment and guidance (CNEEO) represents the Moroccan education system. This table has two dimensions: content dimension and cognitive dimension.

3.1.1

The “Content” Dimension

This dimension structures different mathematical concepts, which are the content of the school program, into domains, subdomains and mathematical themes. It specifies for each component the types of mathematical tasks or activities targeted by teaching. It attributes to each component a weight reflecting its importance in the discipline itself, its subsequent use, time allocated to its study, time taken by the students to achieve mastery, etc. The aim of this structuring is to arrive at determining the weight of each content sub-domain and its representativeness at the evaluation test. Table 1 shows the content domain of TIMSS intended for assessing pupil achievement in the final year of the high school cycle (grade 12), which corresponds to the second year of the Moroccan “baccalauréat”. Table 1 Trends in mathematics and science study (TIMSS) content domain

Domain

Subdomain

Weight (%)

Algebra

Expressions and operations

35

Equations and inequalities Functions Analysis

Limits

35

Derivatives Integration Geometry

Synthetic and vectorial geometry Trigonometry

30

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The Cognitive Dimension of TIMSS

This dimension involves classifying, according to a well-defined taxonomy, the cognitive skills targeted by each mathematical activity in the content domain. It uses a hierarchical taxonomy comprising three categories of cognitive skills. Each category has a weight that represents its rate of representativeness within the mathematical activity conveyed by the mathematics program. These categories of skills characterise three hierarchical levels of mathematical activity: “knowing”, “applying” and “reasoning”. • “Knowing”: includes the skills underlying a student’s ability to remember and recognise facts, procedures and concepts necessary for a solid foundation in mathematics. • “Applying”: refers to the skills associated with applying this knowledge and procedures in strategies to solve problems. • “Reasoning”: includes skills supporting analysis, synthesis, generalisation and justification by mathematical arguments or proofs. Table 2 presents the important skills of each level of the cognitive dimension of mathematics education according to TIMSS. Table 2 Cognitive dimension of the trends in mathematics and science study (TIMSS) specification table Domain Rate (%) Ability

Definition

Know

Recall

Restate definitions, terminology, notation, mathematical conventions, numerical properties and geometric properties

Recognise

Recognise mathematically equivalent entities (for example, different representations of the same function)

Calculate

Perform algorithmic procedures (for example, determine derivatives of polynomial functions and solve a simple equation)

Translate

Translate information from graphics, tables, texts or other sources

Determine

Determine effective and appropriate methods, strategies or tools for solving problems for which there are commonly used methods of solution

Representor model

Generate an equation or diagram that models problematic situations and generates equivalent representations for a given mathematical entity or set of information

Set-up

Implement concepts, procedures, strategies and operations to solve familiar mathematical problems

Apply

35

35

(continued)

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Table 2 (continued) Domain Rate (%) Ability

Definition

Reason

Identify the elements of a problem and determine the information, procedures and strategies needed to resolve the problem

30

Analyse

Integrate or synthesise Relate the different elements of knowledge, related representations and procedures for solving problems Evaluate

Determine the relevance of strategies and alternative solutions

Conclude

Make valid inferences based on information and proofs

Generalise

Make statements that represent relationships in more general and broadly applicable terms

Justify

Provide mathematical arguments or proofs to support a strategy, solution or statement

3.2 Methodology for the Assessment of Mathematical Skills at the Moroccan “Baccalaureat” The CNEEO is both responsible for the organisation of summative evaluation within the national education department and coordinator with TIMSS for carrying out its surveys in Morocco. He is also called upon by CSEFRS to participate in the various National Acquisition Assessment Programs (NAAP6 ) alongside the National Assessment Authority (NAA7 ) for the education system. To improve the ranking of the education system in the TIMSS classification, the Ministry of National Education has chosen to adopt the TIMSS methodology for developing reference frameworks for the evaluation at the final year of primary (grade 6), secondary (grade 9) and high school (grade 12). He has chosen to align itself with this methodological model to bring the teaching of mathematics closer to the expectations of the TIMSS assessment and to improve the international ranking of the Moroccan education system. At the final year of high school (grade 12), the final standardised exam is based on the methodological approach of TIMSS. The aim is to identify the components of each dimension of the specification table and components of the three hierarchical categories of cognitive skills.

6 7

PNEA in french. INE in french.

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Table 3 Content dimension of the baccalaureate examination Domain

Subdomains

Weight (%)

Analysis

Numerical sequence

55

Continuity, derivation, and study of functions Integral calculation Algebra and geometry

Scalar product in V3

30

Applications of the scalar product in space Vector product Complex numbers

15

Probability theory

3.2.1

The “Content” Dimension

Table 3 shows the content of the frame of reference for the final standardised examination for the high school option: “experimental sciences”, as presented in the reference frame. The specification table of the last year of higher school examination provides the teacher a guide for planning teaching activities and a tool for designing the continuous assessment and national standardised examination.

3.2.2

The Cognitive Dimension

The cognitive dimension of the reference framework of the “baccalauréat” exam is inspired by that of TIMSS. Each category characterises a type of examination question and simultaneously, refers to a type of mathematical activity and level of cognitive skill (Table 4). As described in the reference framework, the cognitive dimension characterises each category of cognitive skills by a type of examination question. The difference between the cognitive dimension of this frame of reference and that of TIMSS lies in the weight given to each category (Table 5). The TIMSS survey grants 30% to reasoning activity, whereas summative assessment by Moroccan mathematics education grants 15%. Summative evaluation gives Table 4 Cognitive dimension of the frame of reference Skill level

Weight (%)

Direct application of knowledge (definition, property, algorithm, formula, technique and.rule)

50

Evoke and apply non-explicit knowledge in a question (definition, property, theorem, algorithm, expression, technique and rule) in a usual situation

35

Deal with unusual situations by synthesising knowledge and results

15

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Table 5 Cognitive dimensions of trends in mathematics and science study (TIMSS) and the frame of reference Reference framework for the “baccalauréat” exam

TIMSS

Category Rate (%) Category

Rate (%)

Know

35

Direct application of knowledge

50

Apply

35

Evoke and apply non-explicit knowledge in a question

35

Reason

30

Dealing with unusual situations by synthesising knowledge and 15 results

importance to the activity of restitution of knowledge at the detriment of reasoning. The two methodologies target the same categories of cognitive skills but with different degrees of importance. Note that TIMSS weighting is considered by most education systems as an international standard for characterising a prior learning assessment test. Thus, summative evaluation encourages the development of performance in mathematics based on the restitution of knowledge and know-how (knowing as an object of knowledge) and their use as application tools. This comparison highlights the presence of a difference in weighting which reflects a significant difference in the nature of mathematical achievements targeted. In our opinion, this weighting gap is an explanatory factor for the gap between the academic performances of Moroccan students in TIMSS surveys and summative assessment of the “baccalauréat”. Notably, the trend in mathematics education globally is based on the development of competence and encourages the development of scientific reasoning and the cognitive processes associated, without neglecting the importance of mastery of content. The difference in representativeness rates between summative evaluation and TIMMS is located in the “know” and “reason” categories. This difference shows that summative evaluation targets achievements of poor academic performance and according to TIMSS, characterises performance below the international average level. According to Bernard, R., “Although the notion of competence dominates today the curricula of many countries, many institutionally constructed evaluation’s systems mainly include evaluations of procedures and elementary knowledge,” (Rey, 2014, p. 31).

4 Analysis of the “Baccalauréat” Exams Before starting the analysis, we must first complete the specification table of the “baccalauréat” exam to use it as a processing tool. It is a question of reworking the frame of reference to cross the content with cognitive categories and specify the weight of each (Table 6). We will use this specification table as a methodological tool to test the validity of the various mathematics exams of the “baccalauréat” in “experimental sciences”

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Table 6 Specification table for the mathematics “baccalauréat” exam Targeted skills

Content dimension Domain Analysis

Algebra and Geometry

Sub-domains

Cognitive dimension Know

Apply

Reason

Numerical sequences

5

2

1

2

Continuity, derivation and study of functions

24

11

10

3

Integral calculation

4

1

2

1

Scalar product in V3

3

2

0

1

Applications of the scalar product in V3

6

1

4

1

Vector product

4

2

2

0

Complex numbers

9

7

1

1

Probability theory

6

5

1

0

Calculated weight (%)

100

50.82

34.43

14.75

Weight proposed by the reference framework (%)

100

50

35

15

Weight proposed by TIMSS Av (%)

100

35

35

30

option. For each exam, we expect to estimate the correspondence between what we want to assess via the reference framework and what we assess. Our analysis relates to a sample of exams comprising nine national exams from the normal session of the “baccalauréat” from 2009 to 2017. Mathematics teaching adopts a curricular approach based on the development of competences; an approach that aims to mobilise different skills in problem-solving. Our analysis will focus on the cognitive dimension underlying each exam. The estimation of the validity of the tests will be based on the comparison of the weights associated to the different categories of the cognitive dimension (Table 7). Notably, the cognitive category “reasoning” does not even cover 10% of the questions constituting the “baccalauréat” examination. The scales adopted generally assign more marks to questions that require skills of reasoning. The overall score for this category does not exceed 3 of 20 points. Referring to the scale, "reasoning" should have 15% of the total score, although the number of questions does not cover 10%. This table shows that the “baccalauréat” exam gives importance to the restitution of knowledge (knowing) and know-how (direct applications). The “baccalauréat” exam targets the skills of the first two levels of the cognitive dimension of the frame of reference. The more we decrease the representativeness rate of reasoning, the more we minimise the requirements of the pass threshold. We analysed the wording of the examination questions and found that most were written to orient the student towards the use of automatisms and adoption of a guided resolution. This type of formulation is based on the dividing reasoning questions into sub-questions to guide the student towards the construction of the expected

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Table 7 Analysis results of “Baccalauréat” exam Exam year

Know Size

Apply Freq. (%)

Size

Reason Freq. (%)

Size

Total Freq (%)

Size

Freq. (%)

2009

16

55.17

12

41.38

1

3.45

29

100

2010

17

56.67

11

36.67

2

6.66

30

100

2011

14

48.27

13

44.83

2

6.9

29

100

2012

17

54.84

13

41.93

1

3.23

31

100

2013

14

50.00

13

46.43

1

3.57

28

100

2014

16

55.17

11

37.93

2

6.9

29

100

2015

18

54.55

12

36.36

3

9.09

32

100

2016

17

50.00

15

44.12

2

5.88

34

100

2017

17

51.52

14

42.42

2

6.06

33

100

solution. The “baccalauréat” exams promote recourse to the technical and computational aspect of mathematics. They do not assess the development of skills in the third cognitive domain (reason), which ensures the development of basic skills for further studies. What is expected by this type of evaluation is to test the capacity to reproduce or apply what has been learned in school. A student may have a very good “baccalauréat” score without knowing how to reason or having developed the basic skills necessary for further studies. According to this specification table, the development of skills supporting reasoning is a matter of excellence. The frames of reference for lower cycle examinations are also designed to target skills associated with the restoration of knowledge and its direct applications. Over the years, this deliberate choice has led most students to conceive of mathematics as a purely academic activity characterised by a set of techniques and procedures to be memorised. This conception of mathematics is an obstacle to the development of the meaning of mathematical notions and of the cognitive skills underlying scientific reasoning.

5 Conclusions The assessment must strike a balance between two seemingly contradictory requirements: • exigency of result-based piloting, seeking to improve the performance of the education system, which is struggling to become massified and seeks to generalise schooling, • exigency of a pedagogical practice that should improve student performance and academic achievement.

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Mathematics programs provide a framework for teaching and learning mathematics equivalent to that of some successful education systems. The problem of poor performance for Moroccan students lies in the discrepancy that characterises the relationship between teaching practices and choices made for summative evaluation. Summative assessment has been reviewed and standardised to increase success rate and ensure equity and equality of opportunity. Mathematics teaching is characterised by a school rhythm in which all students at the same grade level and nationwide must assimilate the same content and develop the same skills within the framework of an annual school planning—rigid and identical—(Ministère de l’Education Nationale de l’Enseignement Supérieur de la Recherche Scientifique, 2006). In addition, this teaching is performed by teachers who are unequipped to face the reality of the classroom: they have neither necessary training nor sufficient motivation to face this challenge. We are faced with a teaching of mathematics standardised at the levels of the school rhythm of learning and summative evaluation and operated by a teacher with inadequate training. Summative assessment tests have become frozen over time and are similar to standardised tests. Then, we are faced with teaching a subject to standardised assessment. This reality, established over the years, has led teachers and students to rely on previous exams and use them as main teaching and learning resources. In other words, the high stakes associated with these tests have led the teacher and the student to adopt learning strategies to bring their activities closer to the demands of assessment tests. This type of teaching practice brings the teaching of mathematics closer to assessment tests to promote an increase in the success rate. The frames of reference for final year examinations of various cycles are designed to adjust the examinations to low levels of academic performance and prevent repeating grades. Therefore, they set aside the evaluation of reasoning and skills associated because they characterise high levels of academic performance. This choice made at the level of reference frameworks has led teachers and students to underestimate mathematical reasoning and skills, and consequently, the development of scientific thought. This choice reduces the development of mathematical skills to the first two domains of the cognitive dimension of mathematics education, knowing and applying. By this choice, the evaluation is oriented towards what is easy to acquire rather than towards what is important. Thus, the system encourages the abolition of repeating grades by low-level evaluation to the detriment of the quality of education. By aiming low to increase the success rate, we end up developing a failing education system. The lack of training and professional skills is confirmed by the CSEFRS report.8 The high stakes surrounding standardisation of assessment and rhythm of schooling influence mathematics education significantly. They led the evaluation to format educational activity in an abusive manner, seriously distorting the intended objectives. The choices made in summative assessment have implicitly oriented teaching practice towards exam preparation. The didactic contract built between the teacher 8

État et perspectives du système d’éducation et de formation. Vol 4: métier de l’enseignant, 2008. Status and prospects of the education and training system. Vol 4: The teaching profession, 2008.

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and the pupil implicitly reduces training to cramming oriented towards cognitive domains “know” and “apply” and damages the conception of scientific activity. Most obtain decent results without having the skills necessary to succeed in future studies. The weakness of this teaching lies in the fact that the assessment tests do not target the mathematical skills of reasoning, which is the pillar of the development of mathematical thinking. The management of the education system, as adopted and operationalised at school, makes evaluation discordant with the reality of scientific activity and misappropriates the purpose of schooling. School mathematics is characterised by an internal progression that must be related to the level of student achievement. This progression requires the understanding, construction of the meaning of mathematical notions and development of mathematical skills underlying reasoning and communication. As long as the assessment is not designed to be in synergy with the characteristics of this internal progression, the development of the education system in terms of scholar gain will remain a difficult objective to achieve. According to the INE 2019 report, the choices made to promote the abolition of repeating grades by promoting low-performance education could not reduce the rate of school failure at any of the school levels. The latter continues to be the major obstacle to the various reforms carried out to date. Thus, first, the choices made at the level of evaluation did not bring any improvement to the level of academic performance of the education system; second, the current management of the education system does not give importance to either the role of the teachers or their qualifications. It is time to bring the assessment in line with the expectations of a quality school, to emphasise the role of teachers and to consider their qualification at the centre of the next educational reform.

References Bodin, A. (2016). PISA, TIMSS et les MATHÉMATIQUES, Étude commandée par le Conseil National d’évaluation du système scolaire “C.N.E.SCO” pour préparer la sortie des résultats de PISA 2015 et de TIMSS 2015; téléchargeable de www.cnesco.fr. CNEEO. (2007). Note ministérielle No 142-08, Organisation de l’évaluation continue des mathématiques du cycle du secondaire qualifiant, Ministère de l’Education Nationale de l’Enseignement Supérieur de la Recherche Scientifique. CNEEO. (2010a). Note ministérielle No 39, Cadres de référence de l’examen national normalisé pour l’obtention du baccalauréat, Ministère de l’Education Nationale de l’Enseignement Supérieur de la Recherche Scientifique. CNEEO. (2010b). Note ministérielle No 63, Cadres de référence des matières de l’examen normalisé pour l’obtention du certificat d’études primaires, Ministère de l’Education Nationale de l’Enseignement Supérieur de la Recherche Scientifique. Direction des curricula. (2007). Orientations pédagogiques et programmes de mathématiques de l’enseignement secondaire qualifiant, Ministère de l’Education Nationale de l’Enseignement supérieur, et de la Recherche Scientifique. INE auprès du CSEFRS. (2008a). Rapport annuel 2008a, État et perspectives du système d’éducation et de formation Volume 2: Rapport analytique, publié par le Conseil Supérieur de l’Enseignement du Maroc.

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INE auprès du CSEFRS. (2008b). rapport annuel 2008b, État et perspectives du système d’éducation et de formation Volume 4: Métier de l’enseignant, publié par le Conseil Supérieur de l’Enseignement du Maroc. INE auprès du CSEFRS. (2008c). Rapport annuel 2008c; État et perspectives du système d’éducation et de formation Volume 3: Atlas du système d’éducation et de formation. INE auprès du CSEFRS. (2009a). Programme National d’Évaluation des Acquis-2008, Rapport analytique version en langue française. INE auprès du CSEFRS. (2009b). Programme National d’Évaluation des Acquis-2008, Rapport synthétique en langue française. INE auprès du CSEFRS. (2017). Sous la direction de Rahma Bourqia, TIMSS 2015. In A. Benbigua & H. El Asmai (Eds.), Résultats des élèves marocains en mathématiques et en sciences dans un contexte international. INE auprès du CSEFRS (2019a). Analyse des parcours de la cohorte 2014–2018 et cartographie communale. In W. Benaabdelaali, S. Berhili, M. Moukdir, R.H. Menyani, I. Bouchama, E. Noura Kelloul, M. El Msayer (Eds.), Sous la direction de Rahma Bourqia, Atlas Territorial de l’abandon scolaire. INE auprès du CSEFRS (2019b bis). Sous la direction de Rahma Bourqia. In W. Benaabdelaali, S. Berhili, S. Bani, H. Radi, I. Menyani & I. Laaroussi (Eds.), Cadre de Performance du suivi de la vision stratégique à l’horizon 2030, Niveau national 2015–2018. IEA. (2005). TIMSS-2007 Assessment Frameworks. In I.V.S. Mullis, M.O. Martin, J. Graham, Ruddock, C.Y. O’Sullivan, A. Arora & E. Ebberber (Eds.). Publishers: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005921005 ISBN:1-889938-39-4. IEA. (2006). TIMSS Advanced 2008 Assessment Frameworks. In R.A. Garden, S. Lie, D.F. Robitaille, C. Angell, M.O. Martin, I.V.S. Mullis, P. Foy, A. Arora, (Eds.). TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2006906982. ISBN: 1-889938-42-4. IEA. (2008a). TIMSS 2007 International Mathematics Report: TIMSS at the Fourth and Eighth Grades. In I.V.S. Mullis, M.O. Martin, P. Foy, J.F. Olson, C. Preuschoff, E. Erberber, A. Arora, & J. Galia, (Eds.) Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. IEA. (2008b). Revised August 2009. TIMSS 2007 International Mathematics Report: TIMSS at the Fourth and Eighth Grades. In I.V.S. Mullis, M.O. Martin & P. Foy (Eds.). TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008b902434, ISBN: 1-889938-48-3. IEA. (2014). TIMSS Advanced-2015 Assessment Frameworks. In I.V.S. Mullis & M.O. Martin, (Eds.). TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education. Boston College and (IEA) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2013947583 ISBN: 978-1-889938-20-2. IEA. (2015). TIMSS international results in mathematics. In I.V.S. Mullis, M.O. Martin, P. Foy & M. Hooper (Eds.), TIMSS&PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College ISBN: 978-1889938-29-5. IEA. (2016). Methods and procedures in TIMSS 2015. O.M. Martin, I.V.S. Mullis & M. Hooper (Eds.), TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College and International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2016919196, ISBN: 978-1-889938-32-5. Ministère de l’Education Nationale de l’Enseignement Supérieur de la Recherche Scientifique (2006). Note ministérielle N°43: Organisation des études en enseignement secondaire. Rey, B. (2014). Compétence et évaluation en milieu scolaire: une relation complexe. L’évaluation des compétences en milieu scolaire et en milieu professionnel (pp. 8–30).

Mustapha Ourahay Ph.D didactic of mathematics and Education sciences, Director of the Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory in Didactics, education and training (LIRDEF), Coordinator of Ph.D. on didactics of science and pedagogical engineering.

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Ezzahraouy Youssef Ph.D. student in didactics of science and pedagogical engineering. El gharras Somaya Master didactic of mathematics, member of the Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory in Didactics, education and training (LIRDEF), Trainer in computer science and didactics. Razouki Abdelaziz Doctorat on didactic of physical sciences and education science, member of the Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory in Didactics, education and training (LIRDEF), Trainer in science didactic and educational science.

Chapter 14

The Impact of Ict on Teaching by Procedural Simulation Soumia Merrou, Khalid Berrada, Khadija El Kharki, Moulay El Mehdi Bouhamidi, and Daniel Burgos

Abstract In medicine, using simulation as a teaching method enables meeting training requirements. These requirements can be technical (gestures, procedures, decision-making) as well as non-technical (communication, collaborations, management). In fact, the different techniques used make it possible to acquire theoretical, procedural and behavioural knowledge as well as to develop clinical reasoning. The recent implementation of the bachelor–master–PhD The system has involved new requirements in terms of student nurse training and pedagogical methods used. It has created an opportunity for the integration of other methods or techniques, such as simulation in its diverse forms, at the level of Instituts Supérieurs des Professions Infirmières et Techniques de Santé au Maroc (High Institute of Nursing and Health Technology). An alarming decrease in the number of hours allotted to procedural courses—up to 75% for certain courses—represents a real threat to the quality of procedural teaching courses—even more to the use of medical simulation as a method with specific requirements. For instance, intensive care courses in anaesthesia and resuscitation for student nurses have gone down from 80 h in the old program to 20 h in the new program, which is a 75% decrease in the number of hours. Thus, in this study, we propose a new approach to teaching by simulation based on reverse pedagogical principles that stress the contribution of digital technologies and ICT in teaching and learning. A teaching model inspired by the advantages of e-learning is

S. Merrou · K. El Kharki · M. E. M. Bouhamidi Trans ERIE—Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, B. P. 2390, Marrakech, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] K. Berrada (B) Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, No. 4, Avenue Ibn Batouta, B. P. 1014, Rabat, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] D. Burgos Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED), Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR), Avenida de la Paz, 137, La Rioja, 26006 Logroño, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Berrada and D. Burgos (eds.), Pedagogy, Didactics and Educational Technologies, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5137-4_14

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proposed for better time management and the active involvement of students in their learning. Keywords Simulation · Medical training · Clinical reasoning · e-learning · ICT education

1 Introduction In cognitive psychology, knowledge categories are of paramount importance to teaching and learning because they require different teaching strategies and are represented differently in long-term memory. The teacher’s interventions should be adequate to the knowledge in question (Tardif, 1992). In fact, according to cognitive psychology, knowledge can be divided into three categories: declarative, conditional and procedural (practices). For every type of knowledge, a number of strategies, methods and techniques based on cognitive principles have been prescribed to enable better retention of information. According to Barbeau et al. (1997a, b), procedural and declarative knowledge is acquired in three phases. The first phase is production representation, which includes identifying and sorting operations needed to perform a task. During the second phase, we move to composition, shaping and adjustment of the procedure; at this level, students modify the way they proceed after the first attempt. The third phase involves internalisation and automation of the procedure through several performances of the procedure. In the field of nursing training, teaching technical skills (know-how) is primarily based on procedural simulation as an animation technique. Simulation is used to replace or amplify real experiences with guided ones to invoke or reproduce important aspects of the real world in an interactive manner (Gaba, 2007). In fact, it consists of the reproduction of behaviour of a given system for analytical, learning or evaluation purposes. Simulation offers a broad field for researchers teaching science and technology, which has been explored for decades. The earliest works on simulation in science were listed by Giordan and Martinand (1987), as cited in (Le Maréchal & Coquidé, 2006). In pedagogy, current trends incentivise the development of teaching tools that aim to confront students, as early as possible, with the complexity of future professional practices. Thus, simulation seems to be a fit technique for achieving that aim. The main function of simulation in pedagogy is to store, process and provide information about a real system and its operational setting to place factors in the most realistic position for them to act in a given situation. Studies have shown the benefits of simulation as a teaching technique. A simulation was shown to have positive effects on the acquisition of information and practical skills (Ravert, 2002). This is corroborated by the results of a study conducted in Canada by Simoneau et al. (2012) about the efficiency of clinical simulation in

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training nursing students. In this study, the teachers affirmed that a simulation is an important tool in teaching nursing care. They noted that constructive criticism directed at the students during the technique could not but boost their confidence in learning. They went on to add that the technique is formative and that students learn more and give their best. Hence, according to the teachers, this positive aspect of simulation can raise the bar for the objectives of teaching and learning. However, simulation as a method of teaching is not exempt from limitations. Organisation-, human-, material- or even communication-related stakes could lead to underuse or aberrant use of simulation in teaching. By contrast, among the main factors that could affect the quality of teaching by simulation include a shortage of full-time teachers (trained in pedagogy and animation techniques), higher numbers of learners and a decreased number of hours allotted to practicums. In fact, the implementation of the bachelor–master–PhD system in paramedical training in Morocco since 2013 has been characterised, among other things, by the reduction of training hours to meet the requirements of the National Council of Higher Education. Thus, the total number of hours dropped from 3500 to 2640, which indicates a 24.6% decrease. This decrease has had an impact on the taught subjects and practicums and internships. Hence, adopting a teaching method based on approaches and tools complementary to the older models of training is a necessity. Blended learning has proven to be a cutting-edge alternative in teaching by simulation. It is about multimodal training that combines many learning styles, modes and models for the benefit of the learner. Moreover, by relying on digital tools and resources, it combines face-to-face and distance learning. According to Peraya et al. (2006), blended learning is a harmonious and balanced mix of face-to-face and distance, supported by the use of digital technologies and networks. Bersin (2004) defines it as a mixed model of proximate and autonomous distance learning. E-learning activities are prerequisites during face-to-face sessions and in between face-to-face sessions. In fact, this will help improve the ‘traditional’ training models by using the different key strengths of ICT (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Vaughan, 2010). Learning is the conscious integration of learning experiences in class with online learning experiences. The concept of integration of synchronous (face-to-face) and asynchronous (online) learning activities is intuitive (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). This way, mixed learning could decrease the time allotted to classical teaching and become an alternative solution to manage time allotted to practicums. To accomplish this, we set up a Moodle platform named eNOV where students find nine videos that deal with three intensive care techniques (three videos per technique). The videos were recorded beforehand as a small private online course. For every procedure, a video containing the application of modelling as well as a video containing a set of activities related to proceduralisation (the first phase in teaching a procedural course) were performed outside the classroom. In this way, the content of the platform will make up the ‘distance’ component in the proposed teaching model. In the classroom (or simulation room), we go directly to shaping (second phase of a procedural course) after a brief discussion of the content of the videos.

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2 Methodology As discussed earlier, to address the shortcomings of teaching by simulation, we proposed a model of mixed training (blended learning). This model combines faceto-face learning with distance learning (e-learning). This model was launched through the conception and setting up of the Moodle platform that we named eNOV*. The platform contains videos about parts of courses (especially the first animation phase of a procedural course: proceduralisation), and hence, activities to conduct outside the class. During face-to-face courses, students will be asked to perform tasks of the practicum in the simulation room of the High Institute of Nursing and Health Technology (HINHT) (shaping phase). Prior to the integration of ‘blended learning’ in teaching by simulation in paramedical training in Morocco, a study on the practicability of mixed learning must be conducted. Our study aims to do so by first evaluating the impact of the mixed teaching model on teaching through simulation at the Anesthesia and Resuscitation Nursing (ARN) and Emergency Care and Intensive Care Nursing (ECICN) departments of the HINHT of Marrakesh.

2.1 Study Types This study is experimental and attempts to evaluate the impact of the mixed model on the course of procedural courses by simulation. In this way, the study will be the first attempt to integrate mixed education with paramedical training in Morocco, pending its generalisation. To do this, the study had qualitative and quantitative aspects. The qualitative aspect focused on the perception of teachers and students in relation to blended learning in simulation, whereas the quantitative aspect focused on the elements of a session of teaching of procedural courses by simulation (time, methodology of teaching, management of the class and number of students benefiting from the practice).

2.2 Study Environment The study was conducted at the HINTH, Marrakesh, specifically at the ARN and ECICN departments during the second semester of the academic year 2017/2018. HINTH, Marrakesh, was chosen because of the functional character of the institute, which meets the feasibility criterion of this study; the proximity and accessibility of the institution and finally, by the professional nature of nursing training that promotes simulation-based teaching. Moreover, ARN and ECICN were chosen based on the

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basic profile of the researcher (nurse in anaesthesia and resuscitation) and the discipline, which is characterised by a great degree of technicality involving decisionmaking under difficult conditions, and hence, the importance of procedural teaching and simulation use. Therefore, the departments of ARN and ECICN seemed to be a supportive and operational environment for the study, especially because the two options are supervised and taught by the same teaching staff, having shown availability and commitment to improving and perfecting training, which is required due to the introduction of the LMD system.

2.3 Target Group and Study Sample The target of this study consists of full-time teachers at ARN and ECICN, HINTH. The criteria of inclusion in this study are consent to be part of the research, being a teacher at both departments and taking procedural courses. However, one criterion of exclusion is not having had training in paramedical pedagogy. The choice was to include ARN and ECICN among fourth-semester students. This choice is justified by the program and the layout of the modules because procedural courses (intensive care and first aid) are scheduled for the fourth semester. Because students have already had IT courses in the second semester, they would be familiar with IT tools and can use the platform. Thus, the type of student sample is well-founded. Considering the mixture of the variables of the study, two data collection methods were planned. An observation grid from the teachers is justified by the quantitative nature of the variables connected to teaching by simulation. The observation grid is a reliable method due to its uniformity; it also allows the description of the teacher’s practice without observer influence (Fortin & Gagnon, 2016). To describe the simulation courses as well as the time management of the sessions, a grid has been designed based on the theoretical guidelines of procedural courses noting the number of students at work in class in front of the teacher and the time it would take. These guidelines are from Tracer les chemins de la connaissance by Barbeau et al. (1997b): a reference in the animation technology teacher training in Morocco. Moreover, a semi-directed interview was adopted to cover qualitative variables in connection with the teachers (perception type) and to collect more information. A satisfaction test in the form of a questionnaire was given to the students. This is justified mainly by the nature of the satisfaction variables and linked perception. This method enables the acquiring opinions, knowledge and reflections of students about the mixed-teaching model. Added to that are data collected on the platform: the number of students that subscribe and number of students that have viewed the courses and performed the activities.

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2.4 Data Collection Data collection was done for >3 weeks. Several versions of the questionnaire, interview and observation grid were written and corrected before getting the final version. The structured interview was directly done in May with the participants of the study: full-time teachers at the ARN and ECICN who handle procedural courses. The observation of the sessions of procedural courses by simulation was done in nine sessions (three 4 h sessions and two 6 h sessions) after obtaining the teacher’s consent. The first three sessions were taught using the ‘traditional’ model, putting together ARN and ECICN freshman students, whereas the 6 h sessions were taught using the mixed model and the eNOV platform. The contentment test was administered to the students at the end of the module, which was in mid-June. A total of 43 questionnaires were given to S4 ARN and ECICN students, and the rate of answered questionnaires was 95.23%, indicating 41 questionnaires returned and two lost.

2.5 Data Analysis The analysis of the observation grid was done based on the descriptive statistics principles. Given the limited number of the target group, only frequency and relative frequency were used to describe the impact of the model on teaching. Later, a comparison between the sessions based on the two teaching models was performed to sample existing differences. Similarly, the questionnaire was analysed based on descriptive statistics. Calculations of frequency and central tendency were performed to describe variables focusing on student satisfaction and perception data using spreadsheets (Excel & Sphinx, 2004, trial version). For the semi-directed interview, a codification was undertaken followed by content analysis of the responses following the most widespread method to analyse interviews or observations in a qualitative study (Loiselle & Harvey, 2007).

2.6 Ethical Considerations The participants were informed of their right to choose to participate in the study and withdraw at any time. Data collection was only carried out after free and informed consent was obtained. The right to confidentiality was also observed, and the identities of the participants were not divulged.

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3 Results and Discussions In this study, we collected two types of result evaluation from the experiment of mixed learning by simulation: objective measurement through the observation of sessions and subjective measurement through student perception of the mixed teaching experiment. This latter rests on three aspects: usefulness, motivation and contentment.

3.1 Session Progression This part is devoted to the presentation of study results by depending on the data collection methods and different tools chosen. After the description of the study group, results of the observation grid and those of the interview and contentment test will be presented. The target group of the study consists of three full-time teachers, with an average age of 34 years. All have had pedagogical training. In fact, all have a master’s degree in nursing (major in paramedical training). Consequently, they have all been trained in animation technologies for teaching: theoretical and procedural courses (simulation and others). Thus, all the teachers have a basic profile of an anaesthesia and resuscitation nurse. Their average teaching experience is 7 years. As mentioned, the objective of the observation grid is to describe the progression of a procedural course by simulation to compare the teaching model in use and the one proposed by this study (blended learning). The results of the grids are given in Table 1. After theoretical content about a technique or procedure is presented, ‘proceduralisation’ is the first phase in teaching a practical course. It consists of presenting to the students an array of elements about the practice of the technique with the objective of facilitating the integration of information organisation (Barbeau et al., 1997a). Proceduralisation is finished off by the performance of the practice in front of the students. Observation of the sessions showed that the theoretical part of the current teaching model takes on average 65 min, with maximum and minimum durations of 70 and 60 min, respectively, for a 4-h session. This part is animated by interactive presentations in all observed sessions. During traditional teaching style sessions, students from ARN and ECICN were grouped in the common core of 43 students. The teachers justified this with lack of time and monotony experienced as they provided the same content to several groups in succession. By contrast, during blended learning sessions, theoretical reviews took up to 8 min on average, with a maximum duration of 10 and a minimum of 5 min for a 2-h session. This could be explained by the availability of the theoretical content on the eNOV platform in the form of videos. This way, the theoretical review mainly consisted of brainstorming, Q/A and discussions

0

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Mental repetition of the procedure

Application: proceduralisation

Developing application ability

Avoiding mistakes and utilisation traps

Use of procedure in different situations

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aimed at fine-tuning, making having better organisation and integration of information possible. In fact, according to Barbeau et al. (1997a), teaching styles that are based on ‘dialogue’ as a method allow students to actively contribute to the elaboration of knowledge. Moreover, dividing students into groups of 21 and 22 made having better interaction during face-to-face courses possible. Course observation revealed that the set of steps for the first phase was not performed in either the traditional or mixed model. However, in the blended model, all elements of proceduralisation were recorded, published on the eNOV platform and viewed by 100% of students before the face-to-face course in the simulation room. By contrast, for the classical model, removing this phase was justified by the teachers because of time constraints. Eventually, the blended model provided a solution for the time-constraint issues, as this experiment showed that 51 min could be reallocated in favour of lab work, meaning 21% of the total session time. The second animation phase of the procedural course consisted of the application of the procedure by the students while making them aware of the mistakes to avoid and exposing them to different possible situations during practice (Barbeau et al., 1997a). In the current teaching model, we noticed that the second phase lacked certain elements (shaping). Even though ‘shaping’ was achieved in all sessions conducted using the traditional model, a deficiency was noted. In fact, in all sessions, the teachers laboured to develop utilisation skills. By contrast, the number of students who successfully performed the technique was 12 on average or 28.25% of the total number of students, in contrast to 100% for the mixed model. The low success rate in the traditional teaching model could be explained by the extended performance time, which was an average 14–5 min for the mixed model. The contrast in time necessary to perform the procedure can be explained by the absence of the proceduralisation phase in the traditional teaching model compared with the mixed model and the high number of mistakes requiring teacher intervention several times. By contrast, cognitivists consider a learning subject to be an active and constructive subject that acquires, integrates and reuses knowledge; this knowledge is gradually constructed (Tardif, 1997). In this sense, the role of the teacher would be to aid the creation of just and efficient rules because of ample examples and practice. This is where the importance of the first phase comes in. In this way, blended learning exploits the best aspects of online learning and classical learning (Condie & Livingston, 2007). According to Barbeau et al. (1997b), internalising a new procedure necessitates repeated, varied and adapted exercises, ease and precise execution and acquisition of use automatisms. Given that the ultimate goal of training is to develop skills through the transfer of knowledge in different circumstances (Meirieu et al., 1996), the development of automatism proves to be elementary, more so in jobs such as nursing sciences. Observation has shown that an automation program was discussed and scheduled at the end of all the sessions with the mixed teaching model against one session with the traditional teaching model. The training sessions were not subject to observation in this study; only interviews with teachers enabled collection of pertinent data.

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Thus, the teachers confirmed that training sessions after a mixed course targeted repetition of techniques, with the aim of developing automation, increasing precision and decreasing realisation time. This corroborates the principle of skills acquisition according to cognitivist theories. For the time being, in the traditional model, the training program has not been devised to develop automatism but to make up for the low rates of realisation by students during the shaping phase. Given that the training program sessions are spaced from the course itself, the teachers find themselves compelled to do a theoretical and practical review, which becomes the objective of the session. Consequently, teachers tend to skip this phase of automatisation. However, with the mixed model, the training program held fast to its objective because the students not only performed the technique during the shaping phase but also referred to the videos of the theoretical review and proceduralisation on the eNOV platform before every training session. According to Owston et al. (2013), students could benefit from time and space flexibility as well as wide and easy access to learning resources. From this, we conclude that the mixed model yields the best teaching process. In fact, Heterick and Twigg (2003) and Twigg (2003) stipulate that the mixed learning model has more potential than the traditional model.

3.2 Student Perception To evaluate student perception or satisfaction with mixed teaching, a contentment test in the form of a questionnaire was handed out to the students at the end of the module. All students filled out the questionnaire (100% answer rate). The first question was about the importance of labwork during training. We deemed this question important because it could influence student perception of the proposed mixed model because the experiment was on sessions of procedural courses. Most students (91%) were aware of the importance of the lab work in their training (Fig. 1). This could motivate them during the courses and incentivise them to be more objective while choosing the learning model that meets their expectations (Fig. 2). Most students (98%) were very satisfied with mixed learning (Fig. 3) and testified to a good course of sessions in this model (93.02%). These results corroborate those of many other studies about mixed teaching. In fact, several studies show that students are more satisfied with mixed courses than courses that use traditional training styles and are entirely online (Castle & McGuire, 2010; Farley et al., 2011; Martínez-Caro & Campuzano-Bolarín, 2011). This could be explained by the active integration of ICT in the teaching model; students receive courses that incorporate ICT in a positive way (Huon et al., 2007). Moreover, student contentment could be determined by the rate of course completion, improved retention, conditions of the sessions or the autonomy in dealing with a part of the course at their own pace. Furthermore, access to content is perceived as important for satisfaction by students regarding mixed learning (Martínez-Caro & Campuzano-Bolarín, 2011). Ginns et al. (2007) stipulate that using such a teaching method (a) allows students to acquire a deeper

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understanding of the subject, (b) gives a positive perception of received teaching, (c) clarifies objectives and rules and (d) gives students a high degree of independence during the learning process. Consequently, student choice leaned towards mixed teaching (Fig. 3). Almost all students expressed a preference for the mixed-teaching model. These results are consistent with those of Owston et al. (2013). Regarding preferred course format, the answers were 35.2%, 48.6% and 16.3% for face-to-face, mixed and online models, respectively. This preference could be justified by the contribution of mixed teaching to the training in general and to lab work as it happens. According to Owston et al. (2013), it is all about a useful experience to understand and learn the content of the course.

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4 Conclusion Nursing and health technology training institutions will inevitably use simulation as a teaching method, given the highly technical nature of the training and ethical considerations for patients. However, many factors seem to affect the normal course of simulation classes: time constraints surrounding lab work, number of students and involvement of part-time teachers without previous training in simulation and course animation technologies. In this study, we examine the impact of digital technology on paramedical training, mainly education by simulation, and propose a mixed education model. Therefore, we created a Moodle platform named eNOV to provide distance education before the face-to-face simulation session. We could compare ‘traditional’ (current) and ‘mixed’ teaching for procedural courses by simulation. This comparison favours mixed education all the way. Insofar as observation is concerned, the course with traditional lessons showed a certain dysfunction, whereas the mixed model sessions proceeded with absolute respect for the standards of teaching procedural courses. In fact, during traditional classes, ARN and ECICN students were grouped together in a common core to avoid repeating separation of the theoretical component and save time. However, even with this mode of management, the hourly volume of theory weighed heavily because it constituted almost 28% of the total hourly volume of a session meant for procedural simulation. Consequently, the teaching phases for the procedural course were not respected, the time necessary for the realisation of the techniques by the students was lengthened and the rate of realisation remained very low (almost 27%), although the goal of the simulation was to offer students an opportunity to master the procedures and techniques before performing them on patients in a clinical setting.

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Contrastingly, mixed education resulted in better class management and respect for possible standards during the course. Because the students from the two departments were taught separately (i.e., one group of 21 and another of 22 students), interactivity during the sessions was noted. In addition, the volume of theoretical review represented only 6.5% of the total hourly volume of the session, in addition to reduced time for the realisation of the techniques (5 min on average per student). As a result, all the students managed to perform the procedures on dummies during the simulation sessions. In addition to its positive impact on the running of the simulation sessions, the mixed teaching model was clearly appreciated by the students; moreover, 95% of them expressed a preference for mixed education over the current (face-to-face) model. Thus, we predict that the positive perception of blended learning can yield other results, such as improved skills, significant interest in the subject or improved learning and results. In this sense, in the medium term, we plan to measure the impact of the mixed model on learning and skills development. In addition, our findings can help measure the degree of resistance to change because of the integration of distance learning into mainstream education.

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Soumia Merrou is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is professor of anaesthesia and resuscitation at High Institute of Nursing and Health Technology in Marrakech. She is developing research on medical simulation and e-learning platforms with Trans ERIE research group at UCA. Khalid Berrada is full professor of physics at Mohammed V University in Rabat. He was director of the Centre for Pedagogical Innovation at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA) and UNESCO Chairholder on “Teaching physics by doing”. He has been a member of many national and international conference and meeting committees. He has published over 80 scientific papers, 10 books and special issues in indexed journals. He is also one of the developers of the successful French program of UNESCO Active Learning in Optics and Photonics. He was coordinating the UC@MOOC project created in 2013 at UCA. He has led a group of researchers on educational innovation at UCA (Trans ERIE) and the Morocco Declaration on Open Education since 2016. Khadija El Kharki is a PhD student at Cadi Ayyad University (UCA). She is a holder of a master’s degree in Engineering and Technology of Education and Training. She is developing research on virtual laboratories based on digital simulation using the JavaScript programming language with the Trans ERIE research group at UCA. Moulay El Mehdi Bouhamidi is an Administrator of network and systems at the computer Science department of the Cadi Ayyad University in Marrakech. Daniel Burgos works as Vice-Rector for International Research (https://research.unir.net), UNESCO Chair on eLearning and ICDE Chair in Open Educational Resources, at Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR, https://www.unir.net). He is also Director of the Research Institute for Innovation & Technology in Education (UNIR iTED, https://ited.unir.net). His work is focused on Adaptive, Personalised and Informal eLearning, Learning Analytics, Open Education and Open Science, eGames, and eLearning Specifications. He has published over 150 scientific papers, 20 books and 15 special issues in indexed journals. He has developed +55 European and Worldwide R&D projects, with a practical implementation approach. He holds degrees in Communication (PhD), Computer Science (Dr. Ing), Education (PhD), Anthropology (PhD), Business Administration (DBA) and Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning (postgraduate, at MIT).