Papers in Italian Archaeology IV: The Cambridge Conference. Part ii: Prehistory 9780860543138, 9781407340296

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Papers in Italian Archaeology IV The Cambridge Conference

Part ii

Prehistory edited by

Caroline Malone and Simon Stoddart

BAR International Series 244

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S244, 1985: 'Papers in Italian Archaeolog y IY. Part ii: Prehistory'

© The Individual Authors, 1985 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543138 paperback ISBN 9781407340296 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543138 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P age L ist of

i llustrations

A ddresses P reface 1 .

o f

a nd

C ontributors Acknowledgements

C aroline

Malone

a nd

S imon

S toddart:

2 . Amilcare B ietti a nd A . Burani: P alaeolithic i n c ontinental I taly: n ew data a nd n ew perspectives.

T he old

1

l ate upper c lassifications, 7

3 . Randolph Donahue: L andscape and preliminary r eport on Paglicci cave. 4 . L inda H urcombe: a nalyses of obsidian

I ntroduction

s ite f unction: L evel 4 a.

a

T he potential o f f unctional tools: a c loser v iew.

5 . S ebastiano Tusa: T he beginning o f communities i n S icily: t he evidence of

2 8

5 0

farming U zzo cave.

6 1

6 . Marcello P iperno: S ome 14 C dates for t he palaeoeconomic evidence f rom t he H olocene l evels o f U zzo c ave, S icily.

8 3

7 . S ilvana B orgognini Tarli a nd E lena R epetto: D iet, dental f eatures a nd oral pathology i n t he Mesolithic s amples f rom U zzo a nd Molara caves ( Sicily).

87

8 . Gary effect on I taly.

S haffer: Architectural r esources c ertain N eolithic s ettlements i n

1 01

9 . C aroline Malone: P ots, Neolithic s outhern I taly. 1 0. Lawrence Barfield: C halcolithic I taly. 1 1.

a nd t heir southern

C hristopher

prestige

r itual

i n 1 18

Burials

a nd

boundaries

i n 1 52

C hippindale:

C larence B icknell a nd prehistoric r ock a rt.

a nd

t he

U na

V ita

d iscovery of

S acra: A lpine 1 77

1 2. C atherine D elano S mith: T he origins o f c artography: a n archaeological problem: maps i n prehistoric r ock art. 1 3.

James

L ewthwaite:

Colonialism

a nd

Nuraghismus.

2 05 2 20

1 4. G illian C lark: B eyond s ubsistence r econstruction: t he potential o f f aunal r emains i n t he s tudy o f s ocial a nd e conomic c omplexity.

2 52

1 5. P aolo B iagi, Mauro C remaschi a nd R enato N isbet: P alaeoecological i mplications i n t he l ater prehistory o f n orthern I taly.

2 72

1 6. G lynis J ones a nd P eter R owley C onwy: A gricultural d iversity a nd s ub-alpine c olonisation: s patial a nalysis o f p lant r emains f rom F iavä.

2 82

1 7. J ames G reig: A gricultural d iversity a nd s ub-alpine c olonisation: t he s tory f rom pollen a nalyses at F iavä.

2 96

L IST OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

F igures A .

R .

S .

M .

S .

B ietti a nd F ig. 2 .1. F ig.

2 .2.

F ig.

2 .3

Donahue F ig. 3 .1. F ig. 3 .2. F ig. 3 .3. F ig. 3 .4. F ig. 3 .5. F ig. 3 .6. Tusa F ig. 5 .1. F ig.

5 .2.

F ig.

5 .3.

P iperno F ig. 6 .1.

Borgognini F ig. 7 .1. F ig.

G .

S haffer F ig. 8 .1. F ig. 8 .2. F ig.

C .

7 .2.

8 .3.

Malone F ig. 9 .1. F ig.

9 .2.

F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig.

9 .3. 9 .4. 9 .5. 9 .6.

A . Burani Radiocarbon dates f or I talian E pigravettian s ites H ierarchical t ree-structure f or t he continental I talian E pigravettian P rojection on t he f irst principal axes o f t he continental I talian E pigravettian i ndustrial assemblages

T he l ocation of P aglicci c ave T he s tratigraphy i nside Paglicci cave Artifacts f rom P aglicci c ave, L evel 4 a A rtifacts f rom Paglicci cave, L evel 4 a A rtifacts f rom P aglicci cave, L evel 4 a A rtifacts f rom P aglicci cave, L evel 4 a

P ottery f rom t he l ater Neolithic horizon of U zzo S equence o f decorative patterns i n t he t hree horizons o f t he U zzo N eolithic s equence D istribution of Neolithic s ites i n S icily

R econstruction of t he U zzo e nvironment b ased on s ome o f t he economic evidence f rom t he s econd cultural unit T arli a nd E . Repetto Geographical position o f s ites I ncidence o f t he various i n t he Mesolithic s ample

U zzo

P age 8 1 6

1 6

2 9 3 2 3 7 3 9 4 2 4 3

6 2

6 5 6 9

8 4

a nd Molara 8 8

t ypes of c aries f rom U zzo cave

Botanical r esource s urvey Map s howing s tructural rock i n Acconia Map s howing daub sources i n

9 4

1 03 sources A cconia

D istribution o f F igulina and r edpainted ware B ar chart s howing t he r egional f requency of t he I talian N eolithic f inewares F igulina a nd r ed-painted forms D istribution of T richrome pottery T richrome pottery f orms D istribution of S erra d ' Alto wares

1 07 1 09

1 21

1 23 1 25 1 28 1 30 1 31

F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig.

L .

C .

B arfield F ig. 1 0.1.

F ig.

1 0.2.

F ig.

1 0.3.

F ig.

1 0.4.

F ig.

1 0.5.

F ig.

1 0.6.

F ig.

1 0.7.

F ig.

1 0.8.

S erra d 'Alto c ups S erra d ' Alto f unerary v ases S erra d ' Alto f orms D istribution o f D iana w are D iana p ottery f orms C hronological c hart f or t he N eolithic N eolithic f inewares i n I taly b ased o n u ncalibrated 14 C d ates

P rincipal t raditional c ulture a reas a nd C halcolithic s ites m entioned i n t he t ext i n n orthern I taly C halcolithic n orthern I taly s howing t he d istribution o f c ollective a nd s ingle b urial i n r elationship t o c haracteristic g rave g oods a nd t he d istribution o f s tatue s telae a nd s tatue m enhirs T he d istribution o f c ollective b urial t raditions i n n orthern I taly a nd t he a rea o f t he western A lps D istribution o f f lint a nd c opper daggers i n n orthern I taly T he c ontext o f n orthern I talian C halcol ithic ' grave g oods' T he main c ategories o f g rave g oods a ssociated w ith c ollective a nd i ndividual b urials f rom s elected C halcolithic s ites i n I taly P lan o f excavations a t Manerba, R iparo V altenesi 1 981-82 G audo, T omb no. 9 , c hamber ' a'

1 33 1 34 1 37 1 38 1 40

1 42

1 53

1 55

1 56 1 58 1 60

1 62 1 64 1 67

C hippindale F ig. F ig.

1 1.1. 1 1.2.

F ig.

1 1.3.

F ig.

1 1.4.

F ig.

C .

9 .7. 9 .8. 9 .9. 9 .10. 9 .11. 9 .12.

1 1.5.

F ig.

1 1.6.

F ig.

1 1.7.

C larence B icknell i n l ater l ife B icknell's watercolour o f O rchis p alustris, t he b og o rchid, which h e f ound i n t he M ont B dgo a rea I nterior o f t he l ibrary o f t he Museo B icknell, n ow h eadquarters o f t he I nternational I nstitute f or L igurian S tudies B icknell r ubbing o f a M ont B dgo r ock f igure, f rom t he L egato B icknell V arious t ypes o f h orned f igures f rom t he 1 913 G uide B icknell r ubbing o f p art o f a f igure f rom t he u ppermost F ontanalba W all p ainting b y B icknell i n h is C asterino h ouse

D elano S mith F ig. 1 2.1. P etroglyph

f rom B edolina

1 78

1 80

1 82

1 84 1 86 1 88 1 90

2 07

J .

G .

F ig.

1 2.2.

T racing o f a modern t opographical map s howing o nly f ield b oundaries, t racks a nd s treams, a nd t ree c rops

2 12

F ig.

1 2.3.

C osmological

2 13

L ewthwaite F ig. 1 3.1.

F ig.

1 3.2.

F ig.

1 3.3.

F ig.

1 3.4.

P .

G .

J .

K ey c lasses o f l ater prehistoric C yclopean a rchitecture i n t he M edit erranean T he c hronology o f S ardinian c ulture h istory: c hanging i nterpretations K ey s ites o f S ardinian p rehistory mentioned i n t ext H ypothetical d evelopmental s equences o f N uraghi ( A), T alaiots ( B) a nd T orn i ( C).

C larke F ig. 1 4.1. F ig.

J ones a nd F ig. 1 6.1.

F ig.

1 6.2.

F ig.

1 6.3.

G reig F ig. 1 7.1 F ig. 1 7.2. F ig. F ig. F ig.

L ocation o f f aunal s amples o f B ronze A ge d ate i n n ortheastern I taly Models f or t he l evels o f e xchange o f s ubsistence p roducts

1 4.2.

B iagi, M . F ig. 1 5.1.

1 7.3. 1 7.4. 1 7.5.

r epresentations

C remaschi a nd R . N isbet E vidence o f north I talian a griculture i n e arly N eolithic, m iddle N eolithic, S quare Mouth P ottery Culture a nd l ate N eolithic C hassey a nd L agozza p eriods P .

R owley-Conwy S patial d istribution o f nuts, f ruits, c ereals a nd pulses i n t he p eriod of c onstruction a nd u se o f t he m iddle B ronze A ge s ettlement S patial d istribution o f n uts, f ruits, c ereals a nd pulses i n t he d estruction p hase o f t he m iddle B ronze A ge s etlement S patial d istribution o f wheats i n t he d estruction p hase o f t he m iddle B ronze A ge s ettlement

F iavä: l ocation map F iavä: l ocation o f c ores a nd s tratigraphy M ainly n atural v egetation z ones F iavä F 4 t ree pollen d iagram F iavä F 4 h erb pollen d iagram

2 21 2 23 2 25

2 28

2 53 2 56

2 74

2 83

2 86

2 87

2 97 2 98 3 00 3 02 3 05

P lates L .

C .

P .

H urcombe P late 4 .1. P late 4 .2. P late

4 .3

P late

4 .4.

P late P late

4 .5. 4 .6.

P late

4 .7.

F resh o bsidian s urface Experimental t ool e dge u sed t o whittle wood E xperimental t ool e dge u sed t o s crape dry h ide P hytolith o n t he s urface o f a n experimental t ool u sed t o c ut G raminae P hytolith s een i n P late 4 .4. at 8 000x A rchaeological t ool w ith p ossible p lant particles embedded i n t he o bsidian s urface E xperimental t ool w ith m eat t issue embedded i n t he obsidian s urface

5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1

5 6 5 6

D elano S mith P late 1 2.1. O ne o f C larence B icknell's ' huts a nd properties' or ' topographical f igures'

2 09

B iagi, M . C remaschi a nd R . N isbet P late 1 5.1. A ) P it I V a t t he e arly N eolithic Vhö G roup s ite o f O stiano D ugali A lti whose profile s hows t races o f hydromorphy. B ) T he t erraced s ite o f Vöseraicha i n s outh T yrol

2 73

L IST OF

A .

R .

B ietti a nd A . Table 2 .1.

Donahue T able 3 .1. T able Table

L .

3 .2. 3 .3.

Hurcombe Table 4 .1.

TABLES

Burani R esults o f t he quantitative a nalysis o n t he t ree s tructure of F ig. 2 .2.

1 9

C omparison o f s tratum 4 and l evel 4 a Paglicci cave T ool t echnomorphology a nd u se L owland cave s ites

3 6 4 1 4 4

Summary of f unctional obsidian t ools

a nalyses

f or

S .Borgognini Tarli a nd E . R epetto T able 7 .1. Dental measurements on t he S icilian Mesolithic s amples f rom U zzo a nd M olara c aves compared w ith t hose o f E uropean upper P alaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic a nd Medieval populations: maxillary dentition

G .

J .

Table

7 .2.

Table

7 .3.

T able

7 .4.

T able

7 .5.

T able

7 .6.

S haffer T able 8 .1

Greig T able 1 7.1. Table 1 7.2. T able 1 7.3.

Table

1 7.4.

D ental measurements on t he S icilian Mesolithic s amples f rom U zzo a nd Molara c aves c ompared w ith t hose of E uropean upper P alaeolithic, M esolithic, N eolithic a nd Medieval populations: mandibular dentition T he s tudy o f t eeth as d ietary i ndicators R elationships b etween d iet, dental caries a nd c alculus deposition I ncidence of c aries i n c ircumMediterranean E pipalaeolithic a nd Mesolithic s amples as compared to Neolithic a nd modern populations T entative r econstruction o f t he vegetal c omponent of t he d iet i n t he Mesolithic s ample f rom U zzo c ave

5 5

8 9

9 0 9 2 9 3

9 5

9 7

M inimum d istances t o constructional r esources f rom S tentinello s ettlements i n A cconia

A dditional pollen r ecords P rovisional s eed l ist f rom F 4 1 76 cm. Pollen a nalysis o f h erbivore dung f rom F iave' A rea I II F 4, % of total pollen I nsect r emains f rom F iavä F 4 1 70 cm.

3 03 3 06

3 07 3 08

ADDRESSES Amilcare B ietti, D ipartimento d i B iologia S ez. d i A ntropologia, U niversitä d i Roma I , I stituto I taliano d i 0 0185 R oma, I taly. A . Burani, S .O.G.E.I., V .M. Carucci, Roma, I taly.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

A nimale

e dell'Uomo,

P aleontologia

Umana,

9 9,

S ilvana B orgognini T arli, I stituto d i A ntropologia e P alaeontologia V ia S . Maria, 5 3., 5 6100 P isa, I taly L awrence B arfield Department of A ncient H istory and T he University of B irmingham, P . O. B ox 3 63, B irmingham B 15 2TT, E ngland. Paolo B iagi, V ia S olferino, 2 5122 B rescia, I taly.

Umana,

A rchaeology,

1 1,

Christopher C hippindale, Department of Archaeology, Downing S treet, C ambridge, E ngland. G illian C lark, British S chool of P .O. Box 1 9283, Jerusalem, I srael.

A rchaeology

Mauro C remaschi, V ia Emilia S . P ietro, 4 2100 R eggio Emilia, I taly.

1 5.,

Randolph Donahue, Department of A nthropology, M ichigan S tate U niversity, E ast L ansing, MI 4 8824, U .S.A.

i n

J erusalem,

Catherine D elano S mith, D epartment o f Geography, University o f Nottingham, University P ark, Nottingham, NG7 2 RD. James Greig, Department o f P lant B iology, T he University of B irmingham, P . O. Box 3 63, B irmingham, B15 2TT, E ngland. L inda Hurcombe, Department o f Prehistory U niversity of S heffield, S heffield, S 10 2TN, E ngland. G lynis Jones, D epartment o f U niversity of S heffield, S 10 2 TN, E ngland.

and

Archaeology,

P rehistory and S heffield,

A rchaeology,

James L ewthwaite, Department o f Archaeological Wardley House, University o f Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP. E ngland.

S cience,

Caroline Malone, Department o f Archaeology, Downing S treet, Cambridge, E ngland. Renato N isbet, Corso L ombardini, Torre P ellice, I taly.

2 3,

Marcello P iperno, Soprintendenza s peciale a lla P reistoria e a ll' Etnografia, Museo Nazionale P reistorico etnografico Luigi P igorini, Viale L incoln, 1 ., Roma E .U.R. 0 0144. I taly.

E lena R epetto I stituto d i A ntropologia V ia S . Maria, 5 3., 5 6100 P isa, I taly.

e P alaeontologia

P eter Rowley Conwy, Department of Extra-Mural University of L ondon. Gary S haffer, 1 139 U pper Mountain L ewiston, 1 4092 New York, U .S. A.

Road,

S imon S toddart, Department of Archaeology, Downing S treet, Cambridge, E ngland. S ebastiano Tusa, V ia Bara, 2 4, Palermo, I taly.

Studies,

U mana,

P reface

a nd A cknowledgements

T his i s t he s econd o f f our v olumes b ased o n t he papers p resented a t t he T hird C onference o f I talian A rchaeology t hat t ook p lace i n S t. J ohn's C ollege a nd C hrist's C ollege, C ambridge i n January, 1 984. T he c onference was h eld a lmost exactly f our y ears a fter t he s econd c onference i n t he D epartment of C lassics a nd A rchaeology at S heffield U niversity which w as a lso published b y B ritish A rchaeological R eports ( Barker a nd H odges 1 981) a nd s even years a fter t he f irst a t L ancaster ( Blake e t a l. 1 978). T he organisers o f t he C ambridge c onference i nvited s peakers t o present e ither l onger t hematic p apers, o r p eriod r eports or v isual d isplays o n c urrent r esearch. A bout o ne h undred p eople r esponded t o t he c all f or p apers; a pproximately two f ifths o f t hese were f rom I taly ( of w hom a bout o ne t hird were b ased i n L azio); a bout o ne t hird w ere B ritish; a f urther o ne f ifth w ere f rom N orth America; a nd a l esser n umber w ere f rom t he N etherlands, S weden a nd A ustralia. T he g eographical c overage o f t he papers was f airly even; o ne t hird o f t he papers c overed t he S outh a nd t he I slands; a f urther t hird c overed C entral I taly ( although a f ull t hird o f t hese c oncentrated o n L azio); one f ifth covered t he N orth o f I taly; t he r emaining f ifth t ackled t hemes t hat encompassed more t han o ne o f t hese a reas. I t was t he s pontaneous a nd v aried r esponse o f a ll t he c onference p articipants t hat c ontributed s o much t o t he s timulating c onference t hat r esulted. T he p ublished papers h ave b een d istributed among f our v olumes. T he f irst v olume r etains a n important t heme o f t he c onference: t he H uman L andscape. T he t hree other v olumes a re d ivided a long b roadly c hronological l ines: P rehistory, P rotohistory a nd C lassical/Historical periods. I n t he s poken c onference, t he t hematic s essions b rought s pecialists o f d ifferent p eriods t ogether. H owever, i t was f elt t hat i n p ublication a ccess t o s pecialist i nterests would b e f acilitated i f t he volumes were d ivided c hronologically. A cknowledgements T he s uccess o f t he c onference r elied o n t he e fforts o f many people. T he o rganisers would l ike t o t hank D r. D . W hitehouse f or t he i nitial s uggestion o f h olding t he T hird C onference of I talian A rchaeology at C ambridge a nd f or h is c ontinuing advice. T he o rganisers a re v ery g rateful t o a ll who c oordinated t he c onference d ebates: P rof. A .C. R enfrew ( President), D r. G . B arker, M r. M . C rawford, D r. H . H urst, D r. T . P otter, P rof. P . W ells, P rof. J . W ilks, D r. D . W hitehouse a nd D r. R . W hitehouse ( Session C hairmen), P rof.ssa A .M. B ietti S estieri, P rof. S . T in , P rof. M . T orelli, D ott. S . T usa a nd D r. D . W hitehouse ( Discussants). A number o f b odies made g enerous c ontributions t owards t he f inance o f t he c onference: B ritish A cademy, B ritish S chool at R ome ( loan), A lwyn C otton F oundation, S t. J ohn's C ollege. W e would l ike t o t hank t he M aster, F ellows, B ursar, Junior Bursar a nd s taff o f C hrist's C ollege a nd S t. J ohn's C ollege who p rovided f ood, a ccommodation ( St. J ohn's C ollege) a nd c onference f acilities. Many others provided a dvice a nd w e would e specially l ike t o

thank Dr. J . A lexander, Dr. J . C herry, Mr. M . Crawford and Dr. H . Hurst i n t his r espect. L astly, we would l ike to express our gratitude to the many who h elped i n the preparation a nd r unning of t he conference: E lizabeth B annan, Kate Boyle, S am Evans, Judith Grömberg, N icholas James, S imon Kaner, James McVicar, Mark P earce, G ilbert P witi, A ndrew S argent, J anet Smith a nd James Whitley. Publication

Acknowledgements

I n t he f irst place t he editors would l ike t o t hank A ntonia Lovelace who patiently undertook t he massive t ask of t ransferring a 1 000 pages of t ext onto t he m icro-computer. T his work continued even when t he editors were away i n I taly. We would l ike t o t hank t he Department o f A rchaeology f or t he u se of t heir micro-computer facilities a nd i n particular Dr. C . S hell f or h is advice. T he Cambridge U niversity C omputing S ervice g enerously a llowed u s to u se i ts KDEM t ext r eading s ystem which considerably s peeded u p t he t ransfer of t exts to t he computer memory. I n a ddition, w e would l ike to t hank Debbie Cannon, Margerite Jones a nd T im Malim who r e-modelled s ome of t he drawings f or publication. L astly we would l ike to t hank Kate C lark a nd Rowland R eeve who g ave valuable assistance i n t he l ast moments of preparation o f t he t ext f or publication.

B ibliography Barker,

G . and Hodges, R . ( eds.) 1 981. A rchaeology and I talian S ociety. P rehistoric, R oman a nd Medieval studies ( Papers i n I talian Archaeology I I). ( B.A.R. I nternational S eries 1 02). Oxford, B ritish Archaeological R eports.

Blake,

H . McK., P otter, T . W. a nd W hitehouse, D .B. ( eds.) 1 978. Papers i n I talian A rchaeology I . ( B.A.R. Supplementary S eries 4 1). Oxford, B ritish Archaeological R eports.

1 .

I NTRODUCTION

C aroline M alone

a nd

S imon

S toddart

T he d ivision b etween prehistory a nd protohistory i s a rbitrary but c onvenient. I t marks t he b oundary b etween ' egalitarian' s ocieties a nd t he protohistoric s ocieties t hat w ere i nvolved i n t he p rofound s ocio-political c hanges v isible i n I taly i n t he l ater s econd a nd e ntire f irst m illenium b .c. During t he January c onference t here was a d efinite a ttempt t o b reak down t he a cademic a nd m ethodological c amps normally i mposed b y a c hronological o rganisation. T hree papers i n t his v olume were g iven a s p art o f t hematic s essions. Most o f t he others were presented a s r eports. H ere, h owever, t he editors f eel t hat i t i s p referable t o make c omparison w ithin i ndividual periods a nd h ence t he c hronological o rganisation ( continued a s f ar a s p ossible w ithin t he v olume i tself). T his v olume r epresents a s ample o f t he w ealth o f a pproaches t hat a re c urrently b eing a pplied t o t he I talian p rehistoric past b y I talian, American, Dutch a nd B ritish s cholars. T here a re p apers o n t he P alaeolithic, N eolithic, C halcolithic a nd B ronze A ge which, b y d rawing t ogether p revious r esearch, r eassess t raditional c oncepts o f I talian p rehistory. N ine o f t he papers have important t echnical s ections which e mploy methods a s d iverse a s quantitative methods, m icrowear a nalysis, 14 C d ating, d ental e xamination, d aub, f aunal, f loral a nd p ollen a nalysis. O ne paper a dds a h istorical d imension b y r eviewing t he s ocial a nd s cientific m ilieu o f a n ineteenth c entury r esearcher. A n otable f eature i s t hat many o f t hese papers a re b y y ounger a rchaeologists working away f rom a reas p opular w ith p ast r esearchers. S even o f t he papers concentrate o n s outhern I taly a nd t he i slands. T he r elatively u nknown a rea o f C alabria i s n ow b eing explored ( as i n p rotohistory). T he c onsiderable work u nderway i n S ardinia i s p ublicised i n t his v olume ( and at t he c onference). I nterest i n S icilian p rehistory h as b een r e-awakened w ith a project t hat i s o ne o f t he most important f or t he T yrrhenian a rea s ince t he L ipari e xcavations were s tarted. F urthermore, s even papers c oncentrate o n n orthern I taly where a n i mportant s chool o f p rehistoric r esearch h as b een e stablished s ince t he l ast c entury. E arly Man T he I talian P alaeolithic h as b een r elatively n eglected o n t he i nternational s cene, b ut i s n ow r eceiving much more o f t he a ttention i t d eserves. I n particular t he c urrent s pate o f publication on t he s ubject ( e.g. A tti 1 982; A tti 1 984) s hould n ow draw g reater a ttention t o t he i mportance o f t he p eninsula f or t he s tudy o f e arly man. T he a ccumulation o f i nformation o n absolute dating i s d emonstrating t he a ntiquity o f man's

1

presence i n I taly: e .g. b efore 7 00,000 B .P. a t I sernia l a P ineta ( presented at t he c onference; P eretto e t a l. 1 983). F urthermore, t he chronological f ramework, i ndependent o f t ypology, i s b eing enlarged t o make f easible more s ocioeconomic f orms o f a nalysis. T he emphasis o f r esearch i s c hanging f rom t raditional c ave excavations a imed at g leaning c hronostratigraphic p recision f rom s tratified deposits t o more i ntegrated r egional r esearch. O pen s ites a re b eing s tudied w ith t he f ull s upport o f palaeo-environmental a nd o ther t echnical s tudies: f or e xample, t he A gro P ontino ( Kamermans e t a l. v olume o ne), Rebibbia ( Rome) ( Anzidei a nd Ruffo v olume o ne), G hiardo ( Cremaschi a nd C hristopher v olume o ne) a nd I sernia l a P ineta ( Peretto et a l. 1 983). A ll t hese s tudies s tress t he importance o f t he e nvironmental s etting o f t he s ites concerned. I n I taly, particular c are i s r equired t o d isentangle t he f ragile r emains o f e arly man f rom t he a ctive a nd c omplex g eomorphological p rocesses ( see B arker v olume one). T hus emphasis i s b eing p laced o n s ystematic s urvey a nd a n a ttitude t o s ite organisation t hat p roduces d ata s uitable f or t he r econstruction o f t he d etails o f early b and organisation i n ways r ecently p roposed ( Binford 1 982). H owever, t he a pproaches r eferred t o i n t his a nd V olume O ne are s till s ufficiently r are t o a ttract t he powerful c alls o f B ietti ( 1981; 1 978) t o g o b eyond t ypology and e xtract d eeper f unctional a nd a nthropological i nterpretation. Much work, past a nd p resent, c oncentrates o n f itting t he a rtef a ctual d ata i nto F rench c lassificatory s chemes, i n p articular t hat o f L aplace ( 1964; 1 966). I n t his v olume, B ietti a nd B urani present a c ritique o f t he t ypological c lassification o f t he upper P alaeolithic a nd o ffer s ome s uggestions f or methodological a nd t heoretical c hanges w ith t he a im o f making a more p enetrating r econstruction o f P alaeolithic s ociety a nd economy. T he work of C remaschi a nd C hristopher ( volume one) a nd D onahue ( this v olume) i s a positive r esponse t o t he c all o f B ietti. A t G hiardo, m icrowear a nalysis a nd r efitting a re combined w ith precise s edimentological a nalysis. A t P aglicci, D onahue a lso u ses microwear t o a dd a n ew d imension t o o ne o f t he most i mportant s tratigraphic s equences o f s outhern I taly. H owever, i n t his l ast c ase a f ull u nderstanding o f t he s ettlement s ystem w ill h ave t o await more r egional r esearch i n t he G argano. I nterdisciplinary c ollaboration P rehistorians working i n I taly a re i ncreasingly drawing o n t he s kills o f other d isciplines i n f orming a b alanced r econstruction o f t he past. M any o f t he papers i n t his a nd Volume O ne b ear c onfirmation o f t his. T his i s i n s pite o f t he f act t hat, a s one r ecent r eview o f t he o rganisation o f I talian a rchaeology points out ( d' Agostino 1 984, 8 0), s ome b ranches o f A rchaeology are s till c onsidered a n A rts t raining i n I taly, w ith l ittle o r n o t raining i n t he s cientific a spects o f a rchaeology. A rchaeologists w ith a g eological b ackground make a n important exception t o t his pattern a nd a re more f requently i nvolved i n t he s tudy o f prehistoric

2

p eriods. N orth I talian r esearch h as l ong s hown g reat a ptitude t owards i nterdisciplinary c ollaboration i n t he f ield o f prehistoric a rchaeology. T herefore i t i s n o exception t o f ind p apers i n t his v olume which f ollow t his important t rend a nd d evelop i t i n t he f ield o f palaeo-economic r econstruction. B iagi et a l. ( this v olume) s uccinctly t ie t ogether a l arge amount o f r ecent p alaeo-ecological r esearch w ith t he e merging c ultural s equence o f l ater p rehistory. J ones a nd R owly C onwy a nd G rieg provide a c oncrete i nstance o f t he i ndividual s tudies o n which t he s ynthesis o f B iagi et a l. i s b ased. T heir work i s o ne c omponent o f t he r esults o f t he r esearch t eam c oordinated b y P erini ( 1984), working a t t he i mportant B ronze A ge s ite o f F iavä; t he f loral a nd palynological a nalyses d emonstrate h uman i mpact n ot o nly o n c ultigens but a lso on t he n atural v egetation; a nd t he s patial a nalysis a llows a q uantification o f t he v ariation o f a ctivities o ver t he s ite. T he e xceptional c onditions o f s urvival have b een exploited t o t he f ull b y t he p resence o f a n i nterdisciplinary t eam. I n c entral I taly t here i s a lso a n i ncreasing a bundance o f excellent i nterdisciplinary work ( e.g. B ietti S estieri 1 984); h owever, t he s outh h as h as u ntil r ecently b een l ess f ortunate. A n umber o f i mportant r ecent exceptions were b rought t o t he a ttention o f t he c onference. O ne was t he I sernia p roject r eferred t o a bove. A nother i s t he U zzo project w hich i s c overed b y t hree papers i n t his v olume. A t U zzo, a t eam o f a rchaeological s pecialists h as i ntegrated s everal t ypes o f d ata i n t he r esolution o f t he t heoretical p roblem o f t he t ransition t o f ull f ood p roduction ( Tusa t his volume); p alaeobotanists ( Costantini 1 983), f aunal e xperts ( Durante ( 1980), d ental s pecialists ( Borgognini T arli a nd R epetto t his v olume), e xperts o n 14 C d ating ( Piperno t his v olume) a nd others a re i nvolved. I t i s t o b e s peculated h ow many s imilar s ites h ave b een e ffectively l ost w ithout i nterdisciplinary i nvestigation. T he u niqueness o f U zzo i n I taly a nd F ranchthi i n G reece may b e more a product o f b iased r esearch t han a rchaeological r eality. I n f act t he N eolithic o f s outhern I taly h as r ecently b een s tudied b y i nterdisciplinary t eams i n at l east four other i nstances; t he work at P asso d i C orvo ( presented a t t he c onference; T inä 1 983), C oppa N evigata ( Cassano a nd Manfredini 1 983) a nd R endina ( Cipolloni S ampö 1 977-82) i s equally important f or P uglia a nd B asilicata a s U zzo i s f or S icily. T he work o f S haffer i s a lso p art o f a n i nterdisciplinary p roject o n t he s outh I talian N eolithic. T his s tudy o f t he S tentinello s ites f ound o n Ammerman's s urvey i n C alabria employs t he empirical s ite c atchment s uggested b y F lannery ( 1976) t o g reat e ffect. T he d ry s and dunes o f C alabria preserve c ertain d epositional p atterns a s e ffectively a s t he wet s ites o f C lark r espective

t he n orth.

a nd H urcombe methodologies

o utline t he potential o n f auna a nd o bsidian.

3

o f t heir C lark has

s tudied a r ich s et o f f aunal r emains f rom B ronze A ge s ites i n n orth I taly a nd proposes h ow t o g o b eyond s imple f aunal i dentification t owards modelling c omplex e conomic policy a nd s ocial o rganisation. H urcombe r eviews h er work o n o bsidian m icrowear f rom t he T yrrhenian r egion. S ynthesis R ecently t here h ave b een i mportant w orks o f s ynthesis f or t he N orth ( e.g. B agolini 1 980; Nuovo B anco Ambrosiano 1 982), t he C entre ( e.g. B arker 1 981) a nd t he S outh ( e.g. T usa 1 983). I n t his v olume f ive o f t he a rticles synthesise l arge quantities o f i nformation f rom a c hosen r egion o f t he c entral Mediterranean, o ften f or t he f irst t ime i n E nglish. A t t his l evel o f a bstraction, n ew l evels o f i nterpretation a re o ften possible. Many s tudies a re s till c arried out a t a v ery l ocal l evel, except t o p erceive c rosscutting c ultural c onnections. I n f act, i t i s c onstantly n ecessary t o w ork at a more i nterr egional l evel, u ndetermined b y modern a dministrative a nd political b oundaries. B arfield t ackles a s eemingly i ntractable burial c ulture o f northern I taly: t he R emedello. T he r esult i s a r e-assessment o f t he d efinition o f t he R emedello c ulture t hrough m aterial a nd s ymbolic d ata, i n t he l ight o f t he M anerba excavations. T here are obvious implications f or t he o ther f unerary cultures o f t he I IIrd m illenium b .c. C halcolithic. M alone c hallenges t he accepted a rchaeological d efinition o f Neolithic c ulture g roups i n s outhern I taly. T he p aper proposes t hat c ertain f ine p ottery a nd l ithic goods a re c ommodities i n a w ide r anging n etwork o f i nteraction a nd exchange during t he N eolithic which c ross-cuts t he l ocalised s ocial g roups. B iagi et a l., a s a lready d iscussed s ummarise t he palaeo-economic s etting o f man during t he r ecent prehistory o f n orth I taly. L ewthwaite i nvestigates t he o rigins o f t he S ardinian n uraghi a nd t he a ssociated s tone built s tructures o f t he w est M editerranean i slands. A fter examination o f t he 1 4 C d ates, c ulture s equences a nd t he v arious c onstructional methods employed i n t he d ifferent monuments, h e c oncludes t hat t he n uragic p hase w as a l apse i n t he preceding a nd s ucceeding p hases o f i nteraction i n t he c entral M editerranean: a utonomous o nly i n s ome l imited s ense. D elano S mith l ooks a t t he problem o f r ock a rt i n t he A lps. I nterpretations o f t his r ich s ource o f d ata a re s till r estricted. A s a h istorian o f c artography, t aking t he a rt o f n orth I taly a s t he s tarting point, s he s uggests t hat s ome o f t he s chematic r ock a rt o f M ont B eg° a nd V al C amonica c ould b e r epresentations o f f ields, s ettlements a nd t erritories, i n f act e arly f orms o f p ictorial maps. L astly, a n a lternative a pproach t o M onte B e r ock a rt i s p resented i n C hippindale's a ssessment o f C larence B icknell, t he V ictorian p ioneer o f M onte B e prehistory. V ery much i n t he E nglish t radition, but w ithout a c orresponding t radition i n I taly, t he p aper e xplores t he c haracter, e ducation a nd i nterests o f t his p ioneering prehistorian. W e f eel t hat s imilar work c ould profitably b e a pplied t o R ellini, P igorini, O rsi, P eet a nd others w hose work i n t he l ate

4

n ineteenth prehistory

i s

century today.

contributed

much

to

what

I talian

B ibliography Atti

1 982. Atti d ella XXIII R iunione S cientifica, 7 -9 maggio 1 980. I l paleolitico i nferiore i n I talia. F irenze, I stituto i taliano d i P reistoria e P rotostoriaP arenti.

Atti

1 984. Atti d ella XXIV R iunione S cientifica, 8-11 Ottobre 1 982. I l paleolitico e i l mesolitico nel L azio. F irenze, I stituto i taliano d i P reistoria e P rotostoria-Parenti.

Bagolini, B . 1 980. I ntroduzione a l s ettentrionale. P ordenone, " Silvia Z enari".

neolitico S ocietä

dell'Italia Naturalisti

Barker,

G . 1 981. Landscape a nd S ociety. I taly. L ondon, A cademic P ress.

B ietti,

A . 1 978. A lcune considerazioni s ulla t ipologia e s ulle l iste t ipologiche p er i l paleolitico s uperiore i n I talia. Quaternaria 2 0, 1 -27.

B ietti,

A . 1 981. S tyle morphology a nd f unction i n the typological s tudy of s tone artefacts: s ome examples f rom l ate P alaeolithic a nd Mesolithic s ites i n I taly. I n B arker, G . a nd H odges, R . ( eds.) A rchaeology and I talian S ociety ( Papers i n I talian Archaeology I I) ( B. A. R. I nternational S eries 1 02). Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, 1 9-26.

B ietti

P rehistoric

C entral

S estieri, A .M. ( ed.) 1 984. P reistoria e P rotostoria n el t erritorio d i Roma ( Lavori e s tudi d i archeologia p ubblicati dalla S oprintendenza archeologica d i R oma 3 ). Roma. D e L uca.

B inford,

L . 1 982. T he archaeology of P lace. A nthropological Archaeology 1 ( 1), 5 31.

Cassano,

S . M. a nd Manfredini, A . 1 983. S tudi sul neolitico d el Tavoliere della Puglia. I ndagine territoriale i n u n'area c ampione ( B. A.R. S upplementary s eries 1 60). Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

C ipolloni S ampö, R endina.

M . 1 97782. S cavi nel v illaggio 1 97076. Origini 1 1, 1 83354.

Costantini, L . 1 983. S emi e carboni del N eolitico della G rotta dell'Uzzo Quaternaria 2 3, 2 33247.

5

J ournal

n eolitico

of

d i

Mesolitico e ( Trapani).

d ' Agostino, B . 1 984. I taly. I n C leere, H . ( ed.) A pproaches to the archaeological heritage. A c omparative study of world cultural r esource management s ystems. Cambridge, C ambridge U niversity P ress, Durante,

S . 1 980. G rotta dell'Uzzo: n ota preliminare s ulla i ttiofauna e s ullo s fruttamento d elle r isorse marine. S icilia Archeologica 4 2, 6 566.

F lannery, K .V. 1 976. Empirical determinationof s ite catchments i n O axaca and T ehuacan. I n F lannery, K . V. ( ed.) T he early Mesoamerican v illage. New York, Academic P ress, Nuovo

B anco Ambrosiano M ilano, S ilvana.

1 982.

Archeologia

i n

L ombardia.

Laplace,

G . 1 964. L es s ubdivisions du L eptolithique I talien. Bullettino d i P aletnologia I taliana 7 3, 2 5-63.

Laplace,

G . 1 966. complexes Mélanges Paris,

R echerches s ur l 'origine et r dvolution des l eptolithiques. E cole f ran:aise de Rome, d 'archdologie e P rdhistoire. S uppl. 4 ,

B occard.

Perini,

R . ( ed.) S cavi archeologici nella z ona palafitticola d i F iave-Carera. P art I C ampagne 1 969-76. S ituazione dei depositi e dei r esti s trutturali. T rento, S ervizio b eni culturali della P rovincia a utonoma d i Trento. Peretto, C ., T erzani, C . and C remaschi, M . 1 983. ( eds.) I sernia l a P ineta. Un accampamento p i* antico d i 7 00,000 T ine,

Tusa,

anni.

M ilano,

Calderini.

S . 1 983. P asso d i C orvo Tavoliere. G enova, S agep. S .

1 983.

L a

S icilia

S ellerio.

6

e l a

nella

c iviltä

n eolitica

preistoria.

del

P alermo,

2 .

THE LATE UPPER

PALAEOLITHIC

OLD CLASSIFICATIONS,

A .

NEW

B ietti

I N

CONTINENTAL

I TALY:

DATA AND NEW PERSPECTIVES.

a nd

A .

B urani

I ntroduction T he I talian u pper P alaeolithic i ndustries are t raditiona lly d ivided i nto four main g roups, which also represent a c hronological d istinction: the U luzzian ( the a rchaic group, more o r l ess contemporary to t he F rench l ower P erigordian or C astelperronian), t he Aurignacian, the G ravettian ( more or l ess contemporary t o t he F rench middle and upper P erigordian) a nd t he Epigravettian. The l ast g roup ( formerly called T ardigravettian b y G . L aplace ( 1964a)) covers a t ime i nterval conventionally f ixed b etween c . 2 0,000 and 10,000 years b .p., and has b een further s ubdivided b y G . L aplace ( 1964a; 1 966) who may b e considered the ' founder' of t he present chronostratigraphic c lassification o f t he I talian upper P alaeolithic, i nto three periods: ' ancient', ' evolved' and ' final'. T hese t hree subg roups a re, i n G . L aplace's v iew, more o r l ess e quivalent r espectively to t he S olutrean, the M agdalenian and t he A zili an of t he c lassical F rench c lassification. T he subdivision made b y G . L aplace i n 1 964 was b ased e ssentially on fossil types, o r b etter, o n t he percentages of some particular t ools o r g roups o f tools ( e.g. the t anged ( a c ran) tools i n t he ancien Tardigravettian, t he c ircular end-scrapers i n t he f inal T ardigravettian, etc.) analysed a ccording to t he method described b y G . L aplace as ' analytical typology' ( Laplace 1 964b; 1 966). Such a chronostratigraphic c lassification was e ssentially qualitative, b ased only on t he typological c lassification o f t he tools, w ithout any r eferences to o ther characteristics of t he s ites, such a s, for i nstance, t he f aunal remains o r t he paleobotanical a nalyses. Moreover, practically no absolute d ates were available at t hat t ime.

was

G . L aplace's immediately

c lassification a dopted b y the

f or t he upper majority o f

P alaeolithic the I talian

r esearchers: t he c lassification r ecently proposed b y A . B roglio a nd A . P alma d i Cesnola ( Bartolomei e t al. 1 979) for t he I talian l ate u pper P alaeolithic ( now called E pigravettian i nstead o f T ardigravettian) i s more o r l ess t he s ame, apart f rom some minor modifications t hat we will d iscuss i n the n ext s ection, mainly due to t he evidence f rom some n ew s ites, and to a l arger b ody o f radiocarbon d ates. I n

F ig.

2 .1,

one

c an

s ee

7

t he

relevant

r adiocarbon

d ates

B .P .

7 . 0 0 0

& GRA NT

EP IORAVET T IANO

ANT ICO

EV O L UT O

f •

•

E P IGRAVET TI A NO

A •

M A D O N A

8 .000

9 .000

1 0 .000

I i

R O M A N E L I

1 .000

I t

T A G L I E N T E

I T

2 I T

1 2 .000

I I


1 towards northern A pulia; t he r atio long end-scraper/short end-scraper > 1 i n t he M arche, Abruzzo and Gargano, a nd v arying f rom > 1 to < 1 i n t he V eneto; t here a re f ew c ircular e nd-scrapers a nd g eometric tools, while t runcated t ools a nd t runcated b acked b ladelets a re well represented; d ) southern Adriatic and I onian, w ith e ssentially t he s ame characteristics o f the G . L aplace's S alentine ' facies', d ivided i nto two c hronological ' phases' ( Bartolomei e t a l. 1 979, 3 19): the f irst o ne, up t o about 1 2,000 y ears b .p. which shows a s trong development o f the t runcated b acked tools, and t he second one ( after 1 2,000 y ears b .p.) where t he c ircular end-scrapers a re much more f requent and there a re also some geometric tools. The l atest c lassification, as w e pointed out i n the I ntroduction, i s that presented a t the i nternational colloquium i n S iena ( November 1 983) . T he main modifications a re: a ) t he i ntroduction of an ' initial' ancient E pigravettian ( three s ites), proposed b y A . P alma d i C esnola ( Palma d i Cesnola a nd B ietti 1 983), which s hould p recede t he ä foliacds l evel, and b ) t he partition i nto r egional ' facies' now b eginning a lready w ith the evolved Epigravettian. The four z ones considered a re more or l ess t he s ame of t he f inal Epigravettian c lassification o f 1 979: 1 ) northern and m iddle Adriatic ; 2 ) Apulia; 3 ) northern Tyrrhenian; 4 ) middle and south Tyrrhenian. The f irst z one i ncludes V eneto, M arche and Abruzzo ( Bisi et al. 1 983) a nd t he main characteristics a re t he s ame a s presented i n 1 979, a s a re t he ones o f A pulia, w ith the s econdary d istinction b etween northern Apulia a nd t he S alentinian peninsula ( Palma d i C esnola a nd G aliberti 1 983). I n the northern Tyrrhenian region ( Liguria and Tuscany), t he c lassif ication i s e ssentially t he s ame a s t he old one: geometric tools ( triangles) i n t he evolved E pigravettian, more t runcated b acked tools, abundant c ircular end-scrapers a nd a ratio burin/end-scrapers < 1 i n t he f inal Epigravettian ( Palma d i C esnola, 1 983b). T he r atio l ong end-scraper/short end-scraper changes f rom > 1 i n t he evolved Epigravettian to < 1 i n t he f inal. A detailed s ubdivision o f the m iddle and s outhern Tyrrhenian region ( Latium, Campania a nd Calabria) h as b een suggested b y F . Martini ( Bietti e t al. 1 983b), who d istinguishes three chronological ' subphases' f or t he evolved Epigravettian a nd s ix chronological ' subphases' for t he f inal Epigravettian. I n general, t he evolved E pigravettian o f t his

1 2

r egion i s characterized b y burin/end-scrapers > 1 , l ong e nds crapers/ short e nd-scrapers > 1 , l arge percentages of burins, absence o f c ircular e nd-scrapers and f ew geometric tools. Moreover, i n t he substrat ( sensu L aplace) t he points a nd the r etouched b lades a re r ather i mportant a s a percentage a nd t he whole s ubstrat i s more abundant than t he b acked t ools. I n t he f inal period, we h ave b urin/end-scrapers 1 , l ong e nd-scrapers/short e nd-scrapers < 1 . T he burins a re l ess f requent, while t he percentage o f t he e nd-scrapers r ises and t he c ircular e nd-scrapers a re present, even i f i n l ow percent ages ( the s ame h olds f or t he geometric tools). H ere the b acked tools a re more abundant ( the t runcated b acked b ladelets are a lso i mportant) t han t he whole substrat, where t he retouched b lades a re l ess important a nd t he i mportance of t he d enticulated tools g rows i n comparison with t he evolved E pigravettian. A n

a ttempt

a t

quantitative

c lassification

The number o f i ndustrial a ssemblages ( representing a s ite o r a l ayer of a s ite) o f t he I talian E pigravettian reported a t t he S iena C olloquium i s l arge enough i n o rder to check more quantitatively t he v alidity of t he t raditional c lassific ation t hat has b een b riefly s ummarized i n t he l ast s ection. A s we s aid i n t he I ntroduction, t he s tructure i tself o f t he t raditional c lassification ( ancient E pigravettian ä c ran, f or i nstance) suggests t he u se o f s tatistical t ests i n o rder to choose t he tools o r groups o f tools t hat are d iagnostic i n d istinguishing ( whenever i t i s possible) the a p riori c lasses c reated s tarting f rom the t raditional chron dl s tratigraphic c lassification. Every i ndustrial a ssemblage i s d escribed b y 1 7 f eatures, e ssentially t he s ame u sed i n t he i llustration o f the a ssemblages g iven i n the prdtirage o f the S iena C olloquium, ( Palma d i Cesnola 1 983a), b ased on the G . L aplace's ' analytical typology': 1 ) B UR: t he percentage of t he burins; 2 ) B R/BS: t he ratio burins on r etouched/simple b urins ( this r atio i ncludes i n the s imple burins also the burins on f racture f or t he a ssemblages of t he middle and s outhern T yrrhenian z one); 3 ) GRA: t he percentage o f the ends crapers; 4 ) G L/GC: t he r atio long e nd-scraper/short ends craper; 5 ) I RC: t he ' restricted' i ndex o f t he c ircular ends crapers, i .e. t he percentage o f c ircular e nd-scrapers over t he whole end-scrapers g roup; 6 ) B /G: the r atio burins/ends crapers; 7 ) TRONC: t he percentage o f t runcated tools; 8 ) PDLD: the percentage o f b acked tools ( points, b lades a nd f ragments, w ithout t he t runcated b acked tools); 9 ) DT: t he percentage o f t he t runcated b acked tools; 1 0) CRAN: the percentage o f t he t anged ( ä c ran) tools; 1 1) I RCR: t he ' restricted' i ndex o f the ä c ran tools, i .e. their percentage over t he group represented b y b acked tools t runcated tools, t runcated b acked tools a nd b orers; 1 2) GM: t he percentage o f t he geometric tools; 1 3) EOL: the

1 3

percentage o f the l eaf-shaped tools ( foliacds); 1 4) SUBS: the percentage o f the substrat, i .e. pointed tools, retouched b lades, s ide-scrapers, tools w ith ' abrupt' r etouch a nd notched a nd denticulated tools; 1 5) POINT: t he percentage of the pointed tools; 1 6) LR: t he percentage o f the r etouched b lades; 1 7) D ENT: t he percentage o f t he notched and d enticulated tools. 1 24 i ndustrial assemblages h ave b een considered i n our analysis, a nd t heir d istribution a ccording to t he v arious ' facies' and ' phases' i s s hown i n F ig. 2 .2, where t he node EPA represents t he ancient E pigravettian and t he node FPEF t he evolved a nd f inal ones. F or reasons o f s tatistics t he i nitial a nd ä f oliac6s a ncient E pigravettian h ave b een g rouped i n t he node EPGF: Mochi C , A ia del C olle, P aglicci 1 8a and 1 7, A rene Candide F 6-F4, C ala d elle O ssa and P arabita A , while t he ä c ran a ncient E pigravettian ( EPGC i n F ig. 2 .2) i ncludes A rene C andide F 3-2 and F 2-1, G rotte d es E nfants F , Poggio a lla Malva, Ponte d i P ietra, Maurizio 1 4-12, T ronci H-C, P aglicci 1 6,15,14 a nd 1 3-12, T aurisano 2 3-18,17-13,121 0,9-7 a nd 6 , Mura G a nd C ipolliane 4 . The evolved-final E pigravettian E PEF node i s d ivided i n r egional ' fad es' according to t he S iena 1 983 c lassification: f or s tatistical r easons, we h ave a c hronological subdivision b etween evolved ( EPSE) a nd f inal ( EPSF) Epigravettian, only i n t he middle and s outhern T yrrhenian r egion ( the node EPS i n F ig. 2 ). I n t he northern Tyrrhenian z one ( the node PPNT i n F ig. 2 .2) t he f ollowing i ndustrial a ssemblages h ave b een considered: G rotte des E nfants E , C3,D and C , Mochi A , A rene Candide CIII, C II a nd C I, A rma d ello S tefanin V and I V, A rma del Nasino X III and XII, G rotte d elle C ampane. T he i ndustrial a ssemblages o f t he middle and northern Adriatic z one ( the node EPNA i n F ig. 2 .2) a re given b y: T agliente 1 6, 1 5, 1 4, 1 3, 1 2, 1 1, 1 0, 9 , 8 , 7 , 6 , 5 a nd 4 , R iparo B attaglia, Fiorentini, V iotte, P iancavallo, A ndalo, Maurizio 1 1-8, 7 -3, C . F elice, C . G raziani, O rtucchio. D ue to t he i ncompleteness o f t he d ata ( Bisi et al. 1 983, 1 87) i t was impossible to i nclude i n t his group t he s ites o f Marche ( Grotto del P rete, G rotto della F errovia). I n the southern Adriatic z one ( the node EPSA i n F ig. 2 .2) t he i ndustrial a ssemblages f rom the Gargano to t he S alentine peninsula a re considered: P aglicci 9 , 8 , 7 , 6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 and 1 , C ipolliane 3 i, I n, 3 s, 2 a nd 1 , Mura F-D, S .Croce, Taurisano 5 -4 and 3 -1, U gento B .Cesira and P . Z ecca, R omanelli E-D, C , B -A, C avallo B IIb, B IIa a nd B I. F inally, i n t he middle and southern Tyrrhenian r egion we h ave considered f or t he evolved E pigravettian ( the node EPSE i n F ig. 2 .2): R iparo B iedsno V I-V, I V a nd I II, C enciano D iruto I V, I II, I I and I , P alidoro 7 , 6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 and 1 , G rotta della C ala P , 0 , N2, N 1 a nd M ; a nd f or t he f inal Epigravettian ( the node EPSF i n F ig. 2 .2): G rotta d ella C ala I -L, H a nd G , Mezzogiorno 2 0-18, 1 7-15, 1 4-11, 9-7 a nd 6 -4, P olesini 1 2-11, 1 0-9, 8 -7, 6 -5, 4 -3 a nd 2-1, Jolanda, R iparo S alvini a nd R iparo B iedano I . O n

t he

b asis

of

t he

h ierarchical

1 4

t ree

s tructure of

F ig. 2 .2 we h ave performed s ome quantitative analysis, u sing s ome options contained i n t he i nteractive pattern r ecognition s ystem I SPAHAN ( Gelsema 1 981) . We f irst t ried the S tudent's t-test a t 9 9% confidence l imit, b etween t he v arious nodes o f F ig. 2 .2 a t t he s ame h ierarchical l evel, i n order to f ind d iagnostic f eatures. We h ave then applied to our d ata, a method of multivariate character, a nd more precisely, t he s tepwise l inear d iscriminant analysis which, u sing t he t echniques o f multiple partial r egression ( e.g. C ooley a nd L ohnes 1 971), ranks t he f eatures according t o decreasing c lassificatory power, i n order to f ind t he b est s eparation b etween the g iven c lasses o f objects ( EPGF a nd EPGC i n F ig. 2 .2, f or i nstance). The r esults a re g iven i n t he s econd column of T able 2 .1, where, i n t he f irst column, a sketch o f t he t raditional qualitative c lassification i s a lso g iven. A s c an b e s een, there a re several d iscrepancies b etween t he d iagnostic f eatures s uggested b y t he t raditional qualitative c lassificat ion and t he ones derived f rom t he quantitative analysis. A n

a greement

s eems

to exist

only a t

a very general

l evel,

i .e. i n the d iscrimination b etween t he a ncient a nd the evolved-final E pigravettian ( the nodes EPA a nd EPEF i n F ig. 2 .2): t he f eatures CRAN, GL/GC, I RCR a nd POL a re d iagnostic, for i nstance, even i f t here a re s ome new features ( GRA, SUBS) and t he c ircular e nd-scrapers ( the I RC f eature) a re not d iagnostic, i n c ontradiction with their role of ' fossil type' f or t he f inal E pigravettian. T he s ituation i s worse f or t he two ' facies' of t he ancient E pigravettian: t he l eaf-shaped tools ( FOL) a re d iagnostic, a s e xpected b y the t raditional c lassification, but the s ame d oes not hold f or t he CRAN ( and f or t he I RCR) f eature, i n s pite o f t he f act t hat an ä c ran l evel o f the ancient E pigravettian has b een commonly a ccepted a s a corners tone o f t he t raditional c lassification ( for a more d etailed d iscussion o n t his point s ee B ietti 1 980b). M oreover, the t runcated b acked b ladelets ( DT) a re d iagnostic b etween the two nodes EPGF a nd EPGC only i n t he s tepwise d iscriminant a nalysis a nd o nly a s t he l ast f eature sorted. I n t he evolved a nd f inal E pigravettian, f or t he nodes EPNT-EPNA, for i nstance, only the d iagnostic character of t he I RC f eature i s i n a greement w ith t he t raditional c lassif ication: the f eature TRONC i s t he l ast o ne sorted b y the s tepwise d iscriminant analysis a nd a ll t he o ther d iagnostic f eatures a re i gnored b y t he t raditional c lassification. T he s ituation i s even worse f or t he nodes PPNA-EPSA: only one of t he d iagnostic f eatures quantitatively d efined ( the ratio B /G, which, h owever, i s t he l ast o ne s orted b y the s tepwise d iscriminant a nalysis a nd i s not considered b y the t-test) i s present also i n t he t raditional qualitative c lassification.

1 5

ALL 1 24

EPEF

EPA

99

25

EPGF

EPGC

EPNT

EPNA

EPSA

1 8

13

23

26

7

EPS 37

EPS 37

F ig.

EPSE

EP SF

19

1 8

2 .2.

H ierarchical tree-structure f or I talian Epigravettian: EPA: ancient Epigravettian; EPGF: ancient foliaces; EPGG: ancient Epigravettian

the

continental

E pigravettian ä ä cranEPEF:

evolved and f inal E pigravettian; EPNT: northern Tyrrhenian z one; EPNA: middle and northern Adriatic z one; EPSA: S outhern Adriatic z one; EPS: middle and southern tyrrhenian z ne; EPSE: evolved Epigravettian o f the middle and s outhern Tyrrhenian z one; EPSF: f inal E pigravettian o f the middle a nd southern Tyrrhenian z one.

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2 .3

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continental I talian E pigravettian i ndustrial a ssemblages. A = EPGF, B = EPGC, C = EPNT, D = EPSE, E = EPSF, G = EPNA.

1 6

There a re t wo z ones where t he t raditional and the quantit ative c lassifications s eem to agree r easonably well: the northern Tyrrhenian ( EPNT) and t he southern Adriatic ( EPSA). I n f act, most o f t he f eatures considered i n t he t raditional c lassification s how a s imilar b ehaviour i n t he two z ones, a nd t he f ew f eatures d iagnostic a ccording to t he quantitative a nalysis a re e ssentially i gnored i n t he t raditional one. The s imilarity b etween t he f inal a nd evolved E pigravettian o f L iguria a nd A pulia was already observed ( e.g. A . P alma d i C esnola ( Bartolomei et al. 1 979, 3 22)) even i f i t i s hardly explainable b oth f rom a d iffusionist o r a multilocal evolutionary point o f v iew. T he

s earch

f or

d iagnostic

f eatures

b etween

t he

evolved

a nd the f inal E pigravettian h as b een d one for t he m iddle and s outhern Tyrrhenian a rea. T he t raditional c lassification s hows a v ery d etailed l ist of d iagnostic f eatures, b ut, apart f rom I RC which i s a pEiori d iagnostic ( IRC = 0 r igorously at t he node EPSE), only GRA and DT are a lso considered d iagnostic on t he grounds of t he r esults o f t he quantitative a nalysis. The f eature DENT i s also d iagnostic, but i n the opposite d irection, compared with the t raditional c lassification, as can b e s een f rom the means s hown i n the t hird column i n T able 2 .1. We h ave also performed a p rincipal component analysis i n o rder to v isualize b etter t he s ites i n d ifferent z ones and p eriods, a nd to f ind more evident s eparations among t hem. T he d etailed r esults o f the analysis w ill b e published elsewhere, a nd we s hall quote h ere only the f act that the f irst s ix f actors a ccount f or the 9 2.3% o f t he total v ariance ( the f irst four for 8 3%); as an e xample, i n F ig. 2 .3 one c an s ee t he d istribution o f t he i ndustrial assemblages along the f irst two principal axes 2 . T his f igure shows t hat the s eparation b etween t he v arious c lasses i s r ather poor. The c luster o f s ites i n t he r ight hand s ide of the s catterplot, l abelled b y G ( the node EPNA i n F ig. 2 .2) consists o f several l ayers o f t he T agliente s helter, V iotte, P iancavallo a nd A ndalo i n Veneto. O n t he o ther h and, the two s ites o f the EPNT node ( labelled b y C i n F ig. 2 .3) a nd t he s ite o f t he EPSA node ( F), very well s eparated a t t he b ottom o f F ig. 3 , a re the l ayers X III a nd X II o f A rma d el Nasino i n L iguria a nd the l ayers A-B of G rotta Romanelli i n t he S alentine peninsula. S uch a ' mixture' i s i n agreement w ith t he already quoted r esults o f the S tudent's t-test a nd t he s tepwise d iscriminant analysis f or t he nodes EPNT a nd EPSA. D iscussion

and

c onclusions

We h ave thus s een t hat only v ery f ew f eatures h ave b een recognized to b e d iagnostic b oth b y t he t raditional qualitat ive approach a nd b y t he quantitative one, w ith t he e xception o f the nodes E PNT and EPSA, whose relative homogeneity, h owever, creates some e xplanatory d ifficulties f or geo-

1 7

g raphical

r easons.

W e t hink t hat t he m ain s ource o f t he d iscrepancies b etween t he two a pproaches s tems f rom t he r ather r igid a nd a critical application n ot o nly o f t he t ypological method, b ut o f t he o riginal c lassificatory s cheme o f G . L aplace, e ven i f i n t he 1 964 p aper o nly 6 5 i ndustrial a ssemblages were considered i n continental I taly, while about twice a s many h ave b een c onsidered i n t he S iena C olloquium. S ome i mportant f eatures, e xternal to t he L aplace's d iagnostic c lassification, a re quoted o nly i n a d escriptive way: g eographical d ifferences ( for i nstance t he d ifference i n d istribution o f t he ä c ran t ools b etween t he A driatic a nd t he T yrrhenian c oasts i n t he a ncient E pigravettian, most p robably t he p rincipal s ource o f t he l ack o f d iagnostic v alue o f t hese t ools b etween t he F PGF a nd F PGC n odes i n F ig. 2 .2) o r t he outburst o f n ew types, n ot p resent i n L aplace's typology ( for i nstance t he ' points-end-scrapers' ( Bartolomei e t a l. 1 979, 3 14)). I n f act, t he emphasis g iven, even r ecently, b y t he t radit ional c lassification, e .g. t o t he v alues, o f t he r atios b urin / end-scrapers, b urin o n r etouched/simple b urin, l ong e nd-scrapers/short e nd-scrapers, a s c an b e s een i n t he f irst c olumn o f T able 2 .1, s tems d irectly f rom t he c lassificatory power t hat h as b een a ttributed to t hese r atios b y G . L aplace i n h is f irst p eriodization ( 1964a) o f t he I talian T ardigravettian. W e h ave s een, i nstead, t hat f rom a quantitative point o f v iew t hese r atios v ery s eldom h ave a d iagnostic c haracter, i n a greement w ith t heir qualitative b ehaviour s hown i n t he f irst column o f t able I : v ery o ften t hey o scillate f rom < 1 t o > 1 o r v ice v ersa. I t i s p ossible t o s uppose t hat s uch a l oss o f d iagnostic c haracter m ight b e d ue t o t he f act t hat w e h ave o ften g rouped i n a s ingle c lass t he f inal a nd t he evolved E pigravettian. A part f rom t he s evere l oss i n s tatistics, which, a s we h ave a lready pointed o ut i n t he l ast s ection, would d erive f rom t he s plitting o f t he evolved f rom t he f inal E pigravettian ( in t he s outhern A driatic z one, f or i nstance, t here a re o nly f ive i ndustrial a ssemblages a ttributed to t he evolved E pigravettian), i t i s worth noting t hat s uch a g rouping i s o ne o f t he c haracteristics o f t he n ew S iena c lassification, p articularly evident f or t he m iddle a nd n orthern A driatic z one ( Bisi e t a l. 1 983) 3 . H owever, our a nalysis f or t he middle a nd s outhern T yrrhenian z one s hows t hat n one o f t he a forementioned r atios a re d iagnostic, i n s pite o f t he i ndications g iven b y t he t raditional c lassifications, a s c an b e s een i n T able 2 .1. A possible way out, i n o rder to s olve t he p roblem o f t he d iscrepancy b etween t he qualitative a nd t he quantitative c lassification, could s imply b e to a ccept a ll t he i ndications o f t he quantitative a nalyses, i .e. w ith a ll t he ' new'

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d iagnostic f eatures l isted i n t he s econd column o f T able 2 .1, t hus l eaving t he a p riori s cheme d rawn i n F ig. 2 .2 u naltered, w ith t he c hoice o f t he 1 7 f eatures, d irectly d erived f rom t he L aplace's method, a nd a ssumed f or t he v arious t raditional c lassifications. W e d o n ot t hink, h owever, t hat t his c hoice i s p riate, a nd w e w ill i ndicate two main a rguments r eject s uch a s olution.

v ery a pproi n o rder t o

T he f irst o ne i s t ypological: t he c hoice o f t he f eatures i n t he t raditional c lassification ( and t herefore i n our quantitative a nalysis) i s r ather general, i .e. i t i s r est ricted t o t he l evel o f t he typological g roups ( the ' elementary s tructure' o f G . L aplace) w ithout a ny r eference ( except f or t he ä c ran t ools a nd t he c ircular e nd-scrapers) t o t he d etailed i nternal s tructure o f e ach g roup i n t erms o f ' primary types' ( sensu L aplace). M oreover, a s i t h as b een p ointed o ut b y o ne o f u s ( Bietti 1 978), a lso t he l evel o f t he ' primary types' i s i nadequate f or a correct typological d escription; i n L aplace's c lassification, to quote j ust a f ew e xamples, t he b acked points w ith r ectilinear a nd w ith curved b ack h ave b een c onsidered t ogether i n t he p rimary t ype P D4, a nd t he n otches o n f lake, b lade a nd b ladelet h ave b een g rouped t ogether i n t he p rimary type D l. T he s econd a rgument i s much more r elevant, a nd i s o f s tatistical t ype: t he t -test, t hat w e u sed i n o rder t o f ind t he d iagnostic f eatures, a ssumes r andom s amples a nd, b y t he c entral l imit t heorem, t he a symptotic normality o f t he s ampling d istributions, s o t hat t he e stimated s tandard d eviation o f s ome quantity X i s o kK A/N w here a k a nd N a re t he c orresponding s tandard d eviation a nd t he number o f e lements o f t he s ample. A s i s w ell k nown, t he h ypothesis o f r andomness i s h ardly a pplicable t o a rchaeological s amples. A s a matter o f f act, i f w e n ow l ook a t t he t hird c olumn i n T able 2 .1, w here t he means a nd t he s tandard d eviations o f t he d iagnostic f eatures a ccording t o t he t -test a re l isted, w e f ind v ery l arge v alues o f t he s tandard d eviations, a llowing s ubstantial o verlaps b etween t he m eans o f t he f eatures o f t he two nodes considered; t hus i ndicating w ide o scillations i n t he v alues o f t he f eatures f or d ifferent i ndustrial a ssemblages 4 . T here a re s everal possible r easons c ontributing t o s uch a p henomenon: t he f irst o ne, i n o ur opinion, i s s imply d ue t o a s ampling b ias e ffect: f or e xample w hen t he s urface e xcavated i s t oo l imited, s o t hat i ts r epresentativeness o f t he w hole a ssemblage i s h ighly questionable. A n e xample i s t he 1 955 e xcavation a t P alidoro ( Bietti 1 976-77) which was a s ondage o f e ight cuts over a s urface o f about 1 m2 ; e ven i f G . L aplace c laims h e r ecognized ' a typical e xample o f i nternal evolution o f a n i ndustrial a ssemblage' ( Laplace 1 966, 1 29) a nd more r ecently F. M artini ( Bietti e t a l. 1 983b, 2 91-293) p roposed a s ubdivision i n t hree ' subphases' o f t he s ame i ndustrial a ssemblage.

2 0

T o quote j ust a nother e xample, t he p ercentages o f t he t ools o f t he 1 964 e xcavations a t t he C ippoliane C s helter ( Gambassini 1 970) a re r ather d ifferent f rom t he o nes r esult ing f rom p revious excavations ( Palma d i C esnola 1 962). A nother p ossible s ource o f s tatistical d eviations f rom a r andom s ampling h ypothesis s tems f rom cultural c ircumstances: i n a ll t he c lassifications o f c hronostratigraphic type n o a ttention i s paid t o p roblems o f i nterassemblage v ariability. A ll t he s ites o r t he l ayers o f a s ite a re a p riori considered a s r epresentative a t t he s ame l evel o f a whole ' culture' o r b etter o f a ' cultural f acies'. T he p ossible o ccurrence o f d ifferent p atterns o f s pecialized a ctivities, w hich may w ell b e r esponsible f or l arge s ystematically d ifferent d istrib utions o f t he t ool types amongst t he s ites, i s e ssentially i gnored. W e t hink, t herefore, t hat t he i nconsistencies b etween t he r esults o f t he qualitative a nd t he quantitative c lassific ations i ndicate t hat t he purely c hronostratigraphic approach s imply i s u ntenable. What i s n eeded, i n o rder t o r esolve t his p roblem, i s, i n our opinion, a complete s hift o f t heoretical i deas a nd p erspectives, i n a word, a r eal p aradigmatic c hange, t owards a n i ntegrated a nthropologlcal a pproach. I n o ther words, t he a nalysis o f t he E pigravettian I talian i ndustrial a ssemblages s hould b e o rientated t owards a ' contextual' p erspective, where t he t ools b ear a d eep c ultural s ignificance, a s i ndicators o f patterns o f a ctivities o f a h uman g roup, b oth f rom a n ormative a nd a b ehavioural point o f v iew. I n t his s pirit, a typological s tudy o f t he i ndustrial a ssemblages c oncerned o nly w ith t he morphological a nd s tylistic d efinition o f t he types i s i nsuff icient: we n eed a b etter u nderstanding o f t he f unctional c haracteristics o f tools, t hat could b e obtained n ot o nly b y m icrowear a nalysis, b ut a lso b y correlations ( of t he s patial t ype, whenever i t i s possible) a s f or e xample, b etween t he t ypes o f t ools a nd t he d istribution a nd t he p atterning o f t he f aunal r emains. M oreover, t he a nalysis o f t he e ntire c hain o f t he t echnic al p rocedures u sed i n t he making o f t he tools ( very o ften c ompletely i gnored i n t he c hronostratigraphic p erspective) c an g ive i nformation o f p aramount i mportance o n d ifferent c ultural t raditions i n d ifferent r egions. T he s ame t ype, a s i s w ell k nown, c an b e made u sing t otally d ifferent o perational c hains. A c lassic e xample i s t he E pigravettian o f t he 2 a1entine p eninsula, w hich covered a v ery l arge i nterval o f t ime ( Bietti 1 979), c ompared w ith t he m iddle a nd s outhern T yrrhenian r egion. I nstead, i t i s c lear t hat t he t raditional c hronostratig raphic p aradigm i s o nly marginally concerned w ith p roblems o f f unction o r o f t echnological v ariability i n t he i ndustrial

2 1

a ssemblages. I n f act, t he c hronostratigraphic p aradigm i s n ot concerned w ith t he s tudy o f cultures i n t he s tandard a nthrop ological s ense, b ut w ith ' archaeological c ultures' i .e. ' facies', i dentified f rom a s trict morphological a nd s tylistic p oint o f v iew b y t ools o r g roups o f t ools w hich s hould p rovide d iagnostic c riteria i n o rder t o e stablish c hronological s equences. F rom o ur point o f v iew, o n t he c ontrary, t he t ypological a nalysis o f t he tools s hould n ot b e u sed f or chronological purposes: we b elieve t hat t he a nalyses o f t he e nvironmental c haracteristics ( fauna, p alaeobotany, e tc.), a s well a s t he absolute d ating t echniques, h ave r eached a f airly good d egree o f r eliability i n o rder t o e nsure a c orrect chronological f ramework f or a n u pper P alaeolithic s ite. O n t he o ther h and w e b elieve i t quite possible t o a ccept t he t raditional chronostratigraphic c lassification o f a ncient-evolved-final E pigravettian, but, a s h as b een r epeatedly s tressed even r ecently ( Bietti e t a l. 1 983b, 2 78) o nly f rom a conventional c hronological point o f v iew: f or e xample, t he a ncient F pigravettian f rom a bout 2 0,000 t o 1 6,000 y ears b .p., t he evolved E pigravettian f rom about 1 6,000 t o 1 4,000 b .p. e tc., w ithout a ny compulsory r eference t o ' diagnostic' percentages o f t ools i n t he i ndustrial a ssemblages. I t i s a lso evident t hat, a ccording to t he ' anthropol ogical' p erspective, t he ' odd' s ites i n F ig. 2 .1, t hat i s t he o nes w hich i n absolute t erms a re e ither t oo y oung o r t oo o ld i n comparison w ith t heir chronostratigraphic a ttribution d etermined b y t he a nalysis o f t he i ndustrial a ssemblage, may w ell n ot b e ' odd' a t a ll. A t ypical e xample i s t he u pper l ayers ( 5-4) o f T aurisano i n t he S alentine p eninsula, which h ave b een c lassified a s f inal F pigravettian o n t he g rounds o f t he t ypological a nalysis, s ince t he ä c ran t ools a re absent a nd t he t runcated b acked b ladelets a re well r epresented; h owever, t heir absolute d ate ( 15.500 + 1 50 b .p.) i s p ractically t he s ame a s t he o ne d etermined f or t he l ayers 1 2-10 ( 15,600 + 1 20 b .p.), w hich, on t he b asis o f t he o ccurrence o f a n i mportant p ercentage o f ä c ran tools, h ave b een a ttributed b y t raditional a nalysis t o t he a ncient E pigravettian. O n t he o ther h and, t he s tratigraphic s ituation, a s well a s t he d istribution o f t he f aunal s pecies, i s v ery s imilar i n t he t wo g roups o f l ayers ( Bietti 1 979), s o t hat t he d ifferences i n t he p ercentages o f t ools m ay w ell b e d ue t o a s ampling b ias e ffect ( the s urface e xcavated w as i n f act v ery l imited). A nother e xample c an b e d rawn f rom t he s ite o f A rma d ello S tefanin i n L iguria. A s c an b e s een i n F ig. 2 .1, t he a bsolute d ates a re r ather y oung ( the l ayers V-IV a re H olocene, p resumably e arly B oreal) a nd t he s ite h as b een c onsidered E pigravettian o n t he g rounds o f t he t ypological a nalysis o f t he i ndustrial a ssemblage: h owever, a c hronological d ifference o f a n o rder o f magnitude o f 2 000 y ears b etween t his s ite a nd A rene C andide l ayers C I II-I ( dated t o t he e nd

2 2

o f t he D ryas I II, s ee F ig. 2 .1) s eems r ather d isturbing ( Palma d i C esnola 1 983b, 2 72) 5 . O n t he o ther h and, t he c limatic s ituation o f A rma d ello S tefanin s eems t o a gree w ith i ts a ttribution t o t he B oreal ( Bartolomei e t a l. 1 979, 3 07) a nd, f rom our p oint o f v iew, i t i s p erfectly r easonable to f ind E pigravettian t raditions i n a n i ndustrial a ssemblage even o f a M esolithic p eriod, p articularly i f i t i s t he r esult o f a s pecialized s easonal h unting a ctivity ( Bietti 1 980a). A s a concluding r emark, w e would a dd a f inal c omment o n t he u se o f t ool p ercentages i n t he s trict c hronostratigraphic a pproaches. W e t hink, t hat t he l arge v ariability o f t hese p ercent ages, s hown i n T able 2 .1, i n a ddition t o t he e ffects t hat we h ave a lready d iscussed, s uch a s s ampling b iases o r t he p resence ( or absence) o f s pecialized a ctivities, m ight b e due a lso t o f unctional a nd t echnical d ifferences, a nd a lso p roblems o f availability o f r aw material. A t ypical e xample o f s carcity o f r aw m aterial i s r epresented, i n our opinion, b y t he l arge percentage o f c ircular e nd-srapers i n t he S alentine c omplexes o f t he f inal E pigravettian, s uch a s G rotta R omanelli. T he continous r esharpening o f t he f ront c ontour o f t he e nd-scrapers o n s mall f lake, w hich a re v ery f requent i n t he s ite, most p robably r esulted i n many c ases i n t he c reation o f a c ircular e nd-scraper, completely r etouched a ll over t he contour, which c an t herefore b e c onsidered a s a p articular c ase o f t he e nds craper o n small f lake, f unctionally e quivalent t o i t, a s i t c an a lso b e s een f rom t ypometric s tudies ( Bietti e t a l. 1 983a). A nother c ase o f t ool p ercentages t hat m ight b e ' inflated' b y f unctional c auses i s t hat o f t he f requency o f s ome m icroliths, i n p articular b acked b ladelets a nd g eometric t ools. I f t hey a re u sed a s components f or ' armatures' ( e.g. a h arpoon), i t i s c lear t hat t heir quantitative v alue would b e v ery d ifferent f rom t hat o f b urins o r o ther t ools consisting o f j ust o ne p iece. O f c ourse w e d o n ot s uggest a c omplete d ismissal o f t he u se o f t ool p ercentages, o r o f t heir morphological a nd s tylistic c haracteristics, b ut we want t o r ecommend s ome c aution o n t he s ubject, a nd w e h ope t hat t he quantitative a nalyses o n t he I talian E pigravettian s hown i n t his p aper p rovide a good e xample o f t he i nterpretative d ifficulties t hat a re i nherent t o t he u se o f a s trict c hronostratigraphic p aradigm. N otes ( 1) A f ull l ist o f r eferences o n t he i ndustrial a ssemblages t hat h ave b een l isted may b e f ound i n t he v arious a rticles o f t he S iena C olloquium p rdtirage ( Palma d i C esnola 1 983a). T he d ata o n t he p ercentages o f t he t ools h ave b een d rawn f rom t hese a rticles a nd f rom t he p revious a nalyses o f G . L aplace

2 3

( 1964a; 1 966), w ith t he e xception o f A rene C andide F 3 -2 and F 2 -1 ( Palma d i Cesnola a nd B ietti 1 983, Table 2 ), T aurisano ( Palma d i C esnola a nd B ietti 1 983, T able 1 ), P alidoro ( Bietti 1 976-77) a nd R iparo S alvini ( Bietti e t al. 1 983b, T able 3 ) even i f t he d ata f rom t hose four s ites have b een ' rewritten' a ccording to t he G . L aplace's method. ( 2) The r elevant f actor l oadings a re g iven b y t he f eatures P D-LD, SUBS, L R a nd DENT ( which obviously a re correlated w ith t he f eature SUBS) for t he f irst p rincipal component, and b y t he f eatures GRA, I RC ( obviously correlated w ith GRA), PD-LD, I XRCR, S UBS, L E ( obviously correlated w ith S UBS) f or t he s econd principal component. ( 3) A . B roglio ( pers. comm.) i s now i nclined to t hink that, no c lear d istinction c an b e made b etween t he evolved a nd t he f inal Epigravettian o f t his z one o n the b asis o f t he typological analysis o f t he i ndustrial a ssemblages. ( 4) I t i s r ather s urprising t hat t his p henomenon has not b een noticed u p to now: p ractically n one o f t he I talian r esearchers who accept t he t raditional c lassification h as evaluating s imple s tatistics such a s the ever t hought o f mean ( and t he s tandard d eviation) over t he i ndustrial a ssemblages o f a regional ' facies'. ( 5)

N ew d ates

o f

A rene

C andide

l ayer C r ecently done

b y

t he

1 4 C l aboratory o f Rome ( 10.900± 90 1 0 . P. f or t he u pper part a nd 1 1.750+ 1 00 b .p. f or t he m iddle p art o f t his l ayer) s eem to i ndicate an even wider chronological gap b etween t he two s ites.

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A ., Burani, A . a nd Z anello, L . 1 983a. A n application o f I SPAHAN to t he typological c lassification of some I talian u pper P alaeolithic end-scrapers. P attern R ecognition L etters 1 181-186.

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A ., Martini, P. and Tozzi, C . 1 983b. L 'Epigravettien d volud e t f inal d e al z one moyenne et b asse tyrrhdnienne. I n P alma d i Cesnola, A . ( ed.) L a P osition T axonomique et chronologique d es i ndustries ä pointes ä dos autour d e l a M editdrrande d Furopd enne. P rdtirage du Colloque I nternational ä S ienne, N ovembre 3 -6, 1 983. Conference C irculation.

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P alma

d i

C esnola, A . 1 962. Contributi a lle conoscenze d elle i ndustrie E pigravettiane n ell'Italia c entromeridionale. R ivista d i S cienze P reistoriche 1 7, 1 7 5.

P alma

d i

C esnola, A . ( ed.) 1 983a. L a position taxonomique e t chronologique d es i ndustries ä pointes ä dos autour d e l a M editerranee Europeene. P retirage du C olloque I nternational a S ienne, Novembre 3 -6, 1 983. Conference C irculation.

P alma

d i

C esnola, A . 1 983b. L 'Epigravettien evolue e t f inal de l a r egion h aute-tyrrenienne. I n P alma d i C esnola, A . ( ed.) L a position t axonomique e t chronologique des i ndustries ä pointes ä dos autour d e l a de l a M editerrande Furopeenne. P retirage du C olloque I nternational a S ienne, Novembre 3 -6, 1 983. Conference C irculation.

P alma

d i

C esnola, A . a nd B ietti, A . 1 983. L e G ravettien et l 'Epigravettien ancien en I talie. I n P alma d i Cesnola, A . ( ed.) L a position t axonomique et chronologique des i ndustries ä pointes ä d os autour Mediterrange EuroReenne. P retirage du Colloque I nternational ä S ienne, Novembre 3 -6, 1 983. Conference C irculation.

P alma

d i

C esnola, evolue et C esnola,

subdividsions d i P aletnologia

manual. Amsterdam F ree U niversity of

du L eptolithique I taliana 7 3, 2 5-

l 'origine e t l evolution d es E cole F rancaise d e R ome, e t P rehistoire s uppl. 4 ,

A . a nd G aliberti, A . 1 983. L 'Epigravettien f inal d ans l es P ouilles. I n P alma d i A . ( ed.) L a position t axonomique e t

chronoloqique d es i ndustries ä pointes ä d os autour d e l a M editerranee Europeenne. P retirage du C olloque I nternational a S ienne, Novembre 3 -6, 1 983. Conference

C irculation.

2 6

Summary. T he authors r eview t he typological f ramework of the I talian U pper P alaeolithic i n t he l ight o f t he r ecent S iena C onference a nd t heir own quantitative analysis. T he d iffering r esults o f qualitative and quantitative approaches a re a ssessed a nd r easons s uggested. A more a nthropological approach i s proposed f or future r esearch. R iassunto. G li autori d anno u no s guardo r etrospettivo alla s truttura t ipologica d el paleolitico superiore alla l uce del convegno r ecente a S iena e l a l oro a nalisi quantitativa. I r isultati d issimili d ei metodi quantitativi e qualitativi s ono analizzati e n e s ono s piegati i motivi. 1 p roposto un approccio p iü a ntropologico per l a r icerca d el futuro.

2 7

3 .

LANDSCAPE AND S ITE

A P RELIMINARY REPORT ON

R andolph

F UNCTION:

PAGLICCI

F .

CAVE.

L EVEL

4 a

D onahue

I ntroduction One

o f

t he

most

f rustrating

experiences

f or

the

anthropologically t rained palaeolithic r esearcher i n I taly i s t hat there are f ew, i f a ny, i nterpretations of cultural b ehaviour r eported. T his problem exists b ecause most I talian p alaeoethnologists f ollow i n t he t radition o f t he F rench s chool o f D enis P eyrony ( 1869-1954). T his s chool o f t hought d ismissed i nterpretations o f cultural b ehaviour f rom t he palaeolithic r ecord a s speculation a nd not as r igorous s cience ( Sackett 1 981). I nstead t hey b egan to formalize t he methods o f analyzing a nd typologizing s tone tools i n o rder to d evelop a s pace/time f ramework o f culturally meaningful i ndustries o f s tone tools. A most n ecessary move a t t he b eginning o f this c entury, i t h as n ow b ecome a s tumbling b lock to our u nderstanding o f human b ehaviour and cultural adaptations during the p alaeolithic. O nly r ecently h as more a nthropologically o rientated r esearch b egun to appear i n t he I talian P alaeolithic l iterature ( Bietti 1 976; 1 980; B arker 1 973; 1 981). I n I taly, no s ite e xcavated h as p rovided such d etailed i nformation on t he change a nd continuity o f u pper P alaeolithic i ndustries t han P aglicci C ave i n A pulia. H owever, t here h as not y et b een a ny i nformation o n the b ehaviour, activities o r adaptation of t he peoples t hat occupied t he s ite. T his paper will a ttempt t o s hed s ome l ight i n t his regard about P aglicci C ave a nd implications i t may h ave f or o ther s ites a nd future r esearch. A t t his t ime I w ill evaluate two hypotheses t hat h ave b een s uggested, e xplicitly a nd implicitly, about t he u se o f t he s ite a nd t heir i mplications on s ettlement s trategy. A . G aliberti ( personal communication) hypothesized that P aglicci Cave was o ccupied t hroughout t he y ear: i .e., that i t was a permanent r esidential camp. B arker ( 1981), b y generalization o f h is r esearch i n C entral I taly, would s uggest t hat P aglicci C ave was a s easonal r esidential c amp occupied i n t he winter. P aglicci

C ave

P aglicci C ave i s l ocated i n t he r egion o f A pulia, P rovince o f F oggia, Municipality o f R ignano Garganico. T he s ite s its o n t he s outhwestern edge o f the G argano P romontory a t a n e levation of 1 00m. a nd overlooks t he Tavoliere P lain ( Fig 3 .1). T he G argano P romontory i s a group o f mountains

2 8

f ag l icc i

T erra in S urround ing P ag l icc i C ave e v :P e

s t reams a nd r i vers marshes

0

.

0

p onds

k i lometers

t opograph ic i n terva ls o f 1 00 m .

n r t

F ig. 3 .1. The l ocation o f P aglicci C ave. On the s outhern edge o f the G argano P romontory near the communities o f L e G rotte and P aglicci.

r ising over 1 000 m . above peninsular I taly f orming

s ea the

l evel o n t he ' spur' of

e ast coast t he b oot.

o f T he

P romontory i s v ery rugged country a nd even today i s s parsely populated. Numerous s treams cut through t he mountains to the T avoliere P lain. O ften t hey f low u nderground to form g rottoes s imilar to that o f P aglicci Cave. T he Tavoliere P lain i s totally cultivated today, made possible b y d rainage s ystems a nd h eavy agricultural e quipment. T he p lain extends over a t housand s quare k ilometres i n a c rescent a round t he western extension o f t he G argano P romontory. Just b elow t he cave f lows t he T orrente C andelaro, a major s tream o f t he p lain. I t i s u ncertain what t he v egetation conditions o n t he plain were l ike during t he l ate P leistocene, but c hanges appear t o have b een substantial g iven t he temporal c hanges i n faunal r emains b eing r ecovered f rom P aglicci C ave. H istory o f

R esearch

I n 1 960, F . Z orzi s tudied t he possibility o f performing research at P aglicci Cave, but d ecided against i t b ecause of t he s erious v isible d amage d one to t he s ite b y c landestine excavations ( Mezzena a nd P alma d i C esnola 1 967). I n 1 961 Z orzi was i n A pulia r esearching o ther c ave s ites which p roved to b e o f l ittle v alue. Against h is b etter j udgement he d ecided t o test P aglicci C ave a nd p laced a few sondages outside t he cave. T hese s howed t hat i ndeed t he a rea had b een b adly d isturbed. H e t hen moved i nside t he c ave p lacing a t rench i n t he northwest part o f t he c ave's e ntryway. The t rench measured 2 .7 b y 1 .2 m . a nd paralleled t he e ntrance. The t rench was excavated t o a depth of 3 m . s topping a t what i s r eferred to as l evel 1 0. I t was e xpanded t hat autumn to a l ength o f about 6 metres a nd t he new a rea opened to l evel 5 . I n 1 962 t he t rench was completed to l evel 1 0. I n 1 963 a s mall sondage measuring 2 .0 b y 1 .5 m . was excavated f rom l evel 1 0 to l evel 1 8a. T he d eath o f Z orzi a nd additional d amage t o the s ite l ed to a h iatus i n t he excavations. I n 1 970, t he s ite was r eopened a nd e xcavation continued i n two l ocations. Outside t he cave a new sondage was excavated t hrough f our s trata, two containing m iddle P aleolithic assemblages a nd two containing l ower P alaeolithic ( Acheulian) assemblages, b efore s triking b edrock ( Mezzena and P alma d i C esnola 1 971). I nside t he c ave t he sondage was continued f rom l evel 1 8a to 2 2 ( Palma d i C esnola 1 975). A t l evel 2 1d a G ravettian burial was d iscovered ( Mezzena and P alma d i C esnola 1 972). A fter i ts r emoval i t was d ecided t hat t he o riginal excavation, now e ight metres b elow t he o riginal surface, s hould b e e xpanded horizontally. A t rench was p laced b eside t he o riginal, measuring 4 .0 b y 1 .5 metres. T his u nit i s currently e xcavated to l evel 1 0. S tratigraphy and

C hronology

The s tratigraphy i n the c ave i s v ery complex. T he o riginal excavation carefully f ollowed t he n atural s tratigraphy, b ut w ithout s ubdivisions. T he l ater excavations were able to subdivide t he o riginal 2 2 s trata currently

3 0

r ecorded i nto 6 6 l evels o f which a ll s how d istinct c haracteristics. H owever, a t t his t ime t he l evels v iewed a s arbitrary u nits and not i nterpreted a s o ccupation periods o f t he s ite. I

w ill

not

a ttempt

to

d etail

t he

s ediment s hould b e s eparate

characteristics

o f

the

s ediments for e ach o f t he s tratigraphic l ayers h ere, but i nstead, g ive a g eneral d escription o f t he k inds o f s ediments f ound ( see Mezzena and P alma d i C esnola 1 967; P alma d i Cesnola 1 975). T he s oil i n P aglicci Cave i s f ine, l oose soil t hat goes f rom s hades o f l ight g rey to d ark b rown a nd a llows f or v ery easy e xcavation. O ften t his soil w ill contain a l arge quantity o f a ngular b reccia a nd c alcareous c hips that o ften f orm a n atural f loor t hemselves. I n addition t here a re s ometimes l arge b locks o f downfall f rom t he c eiling and o ccasionally f rom t he walls. T here a re a lso o ccasional l enses o f s and a nd h earth debris. O ften burnt material appears to b e more a l ense t han a n actual hearth. H owever, many s trata and most l evels contain actual h earths. I t i s this abundance of carbonized r emains t hat h as provided a n e xceptionally l arge a nd very good s et of 14 C d ates. T here

a re

currently

2 0

1 4

C d ates

f or

P aglicci

C ave

r anging f rom 1 1,440±80 b .p. for s trata 2 a nd 3 to 2 4,720* 4 20b.p. for l evel 2 1d ( Bartolomei et a l. 1 977). S ome s tratigraphic u nits were d ated more than o nce while s trata 11 t o 1 8b1 have y et to b e d ated. Nonetheless t he s equence of d ates f or the s ite f or a ll o f I taly, b asin ( Fig. 3 .2).

i s t he most complete s equence o f 14 C d ates and I b elieve f or t he entire M editerranean

F aunal

t he

R emains

a nd

P alaeoclimatic

S equence

Macrofaunal r emains i n I talian P alaeolithic r esearch a re u sed a lmost totally f or t he i nterpretation of c limatic v ariation t hrough t ime. I h ave g reat d ifficulties accepting s uch i nterpretations s ince t hey neglect o ther f actors t hat could c ause the v ariability o f f aunal r emains. H owever, while I h ave these r eservations, I must admit t hat t he patterning s een i n t he v ariability o f f aunal r emains a t P aglicci C ave c an b e c losely correlated w ith t he palaeoclimatic s equence a s d erived f rom i ndependent s ources. T here a re e xtensive f aunal r emains f rom P aglicci C ave for a ll but a few s trata. Furthermore, t he palaeontological a nalysis s ubdivides most o f t he s trata i nto t he i ndividual l evels a s there a re e nough r emains to b e s tatistically meaningful even f or t hese thin s tratigraphic u nits. S ala ( 1983) suggests t hat certain species a re k ey i ndicators of c limatic e nvironmental change. T hese i nclude cold c limate a nd open country ( including h ighland) preference species s uch as C apra i bex, M armot marmot, E quus caballus a nd E quus a sinus. T here a re others which f avour more t emperate c limates and wooded l andscapes such a s Sus s crofa, Rupicapra rupicapra, C ervus elaphus, C apreolus capreolus and B os p rimigenius. F or t he analysis b y S ala ( 1983), E quus, Sus, C apra a nd C ervus p rovided most

o f

t he

i nterpretative

3 1

d ata.

P ag l icc i C ave

,

S tra t igraphy , C h rono logy ,

T echno log ica l a nd C l i mat ic P hases C l i mat ic P r i mes

3 a -X V 4 0- X IV -X I I I 3 a X 1 1

F i na l 5 6

1 3590*20C ) 1 4270*230

7

1 4820*2 10

8 a-6d -X

•

1 5 460 *220

8 d-8 1 )-

E vo lved . 1 c= ,

1 0

a

-

L i

7 7

e r l

e

6 c-5b -X I

9 d-9a V I I I

1 5320*250

1 010a- V I I

0 1

N le rod buosu B of f in 7 . ,e-Bon ing o ryasI

A ng les b ryas I

I

1 4 , 13 , 12-V I

-- 0

C o r re la t ion

I X

1 5270*220

C-3

A nc ien t

H ypo the t ica l

L as caux

1 5 1 715 - V

1 7

f— 1 8a

a r a . . 0

0

a r )

—18b 1 1 8b2

2 0200* 3 05

1 8b3

2 0 160*320

I 9a

2 0730*290

L auge r ie

.0

F i na l

2 0bI8 - I V 4 0.

d K-

W

4

•

1 9b

O ° 40

'= a .•

f 1--a m m WOM I C

2 0a 2 0b 2 0c O d

E vo lved 2 1a

I/ •

•.

-"=E r a

-

2 1260*340 2 2220*350/ 2 2 1 10*330 2 2630•380

2 1b-20c -I

2 3040*380

2 1b

2 3470*370

2 Ic

2 42 10*4 10

2 Id

2 4720'420

7 50*390 2 1d c

-I T ursac

2 2

N eT

rofiles F ig. 3 .2. T he s tratigraphy i nside P aglicci Cave . Two p t he s trata a re presented, d istinguished b y the b reak in P alma d i following l evel 1 8a. Modified f rom M ezzena and . Cesnola 1 967, F ig. 2 and 1 972, F ig . 1

Going f rom t he earliest to the l atest l evels, S ala describes l evel 2 2a a s moderately cold a nd humid b ased on the l arge percentage o f caprines. L evels 2 1d to 2 1c have an absolute dominance of Capra i bex a nd E quus spp. I n addition Marmot marmot was a lso r ecovered. T his implies a v ery cold phase. F rom l evel 2 0b to 1 8 t he p ercentage o f C apra i bex decreases while t hat o f E quus spp. i ncreases suggesting a s lightly m ilder cold phase. F rom l evel 1 7 i nferior t o 1 5 the Capra i bex again r ises to a v ery h igh f requency a long w ith the r eappearance o f M armot marmot. I t i s s uggested t hat t his i s a period of i ntense cold. T he n ext phase which continues to l evel 1 2 i s a c old c limate, but much l ess i ntense. L ayers 1 2 a nd 1 1 contained f ew f aunal r emains, but t his appears to b e s imilar to the l ower l evels. W ith t he l evels i n s tratum 1 0 t here b egins a s eries o f f luctuating cold c limates. L evels 9 d to 9 a appear to b e a short, very cold phase as i ndicated b y the r ise i n t he p ercentage o f C apra i bex. L evels 8 d to 8b show a d ecrease i n Capra i bex i ndicating a m ilder cold phase which i s i mmediately f ollowed b y an i ntense cold phase f rom l evels 8 a to 6d. W ith l evels 6 c to 5 b there b egins evidence o f a t emperate c limate w ith the d ominance o f S us s crofa i n the faunal a ssemblage and t he r eplacement o f Equus s pp. b y Cervus elaphus. C apfa i bex a lso b egins to d isappear. T his warming t rend continues t hrough l evel 4 b. W ith l evel 4 a t here i s an i nterruption i n t his warming t rend w ith a s lightly cooler, a lthough s till t emperate, c limate a s s een b y t he decrease i n Sus s crofa a nd t he i ncrease i n R upicapra rupicapra. W ith l evel 3 a a m ilder t emperate c limate emerges ( Pig. 3 .2). Technology and

Cultural

T raditions

T he r esearch a t P aglicci C ave h as emphasized the t echnol ogical and typological analysis o f s tone tools. A s i n most u pper P alaeolithic r esearch i n I taly, the L aplace c lassification s ystem has b een u sed to systematize collections. T he a im o f t he r esearchers and t he purpose f or which t he L aplace system was developed i s to define cultural entities b y means of characteristics o f t he artifact assemblage ( Laplace 1 964a; 1 964b). D istinct i ndex fossil types, i ndices o r r atios o f two types o r two t echnological attributes a re u sed to d istinguish t he cultural entities r eferred t o a s i ndustries. F or e xample, t he c ircular endscraper ( Laplace's G5) i s c haracteristic o f t he a ncient Epigravettian, t he i ndex o f l ong v ersus s hort e ndscrapers helps position t he a ssemblage temporally i n t he G ravettian/ Ppigravettian s equence a nd a h igh percentage o f g eometrics characterizes t he o nset of a l ate s tage i n t he f inal Epigravettian. I n

I taly,

t he

l atter

part

o f

t he

u pper

P alaeolithic

i s

d ivided i nto two major cultural t raditions; t he G ravettian and t he E pigravettian. E ach o f t hese cultural t raditions h as b een further subdivided i nto a ncient, evolved and f inal f orms although t heir e xistence t hroughout I taly i s not y et c ertain ( Palma d i Cesnola and B ietti 1 983). Further s ubdividing has b een a ttempted, b ut a s a r esult t here i s v ery l ittle r egional

3 3

continuity s een. T he quality o f Cave h as provided much o f t he further r efinements.

the s uccession a t P aglicci impetus to a ttempt these

P aglicci C ave contains materials f rom t he evolved G ravettian to t he f inal Epigravettian ( Palma d i C esnola and Galiberti 1 983; P alma d i C esnola and B ietti 1 983). I t should b e remembered that t he f loor o f t he c ave has not y et b een r eached. T he i nvestigators e xpect t hat t he G ravettian t radition w ill continue a nd b e preceded b y Aurignacian and Mousterian cultural t raditions when t hey excavate to greater depths ( Fig. 3 .2). The

hypotheses

T he hypotheses p resented about why a nd for h ow l ong t he s ite was occupied a re d erived f rom d ifferent t heoretical models which h ave t heir r oots i n v ery d ifferent t raditions o f a rchaeological research. A . G aliberti ( pers. comm.) has suggested t hat t he s ite was o ccupied t he year round except for perhaps minor foraging moves to r etrieve r esources such a s f lint. I t i s h ere generally u nderstood t hat a huntergatherer b and would occupy a camp f or a substantial l ength of t ime e xploiting t he l ocal r esources u ntil they no l onger were dependable. T he b and would t hen move to a n ew residential c amp where l ocal r esources would o nce again b e abundant. U sing such a model, t he a rgument would b e extended, s o that r esources i n t he v icinity o f P aglicci C ave were so abundant that the a nimal resources i n t he region would not b e overexploited, a nd i nstead, were available continuously. What a re t he characteristics o f t he s ite t hat make i t s eem s uch a f ruitful l ocation? A s d escribed, t he s ite overlooks the Tavoliere P lain g iving i t a commanding v iew of any game w ithin k ilometres o f the s ite. A major water s ource for t he plain, f lows b elow t he cave. I n addition, t he s ite i s found a t t he edge o f t he G argano P romontory where additional resources could b e exploited. I t i s a lso a rgued t hat the phenomenal quantity of f aunal r emains a nd the v ast numbers of s tone tools could only r esult f rom i ntense, long-term occupations a t the s ite. B arker's model ( Barker 1 973; 1 981) r esults f rom a n u nders tanding t hat t he combination of Mediterranean c limate a nd t he v ariable l andscape o f l owland coastal a reas and h ighland i nterior would require s easonal movement o f many l arge herbivore s pecies. S pecifically, the h eat and d ryness o f t he summer would cause a reduction i n forage on t he coastal plains a nd r equire t he h erbivores t o move i nto t he mountains to f eed i n t he h ighland meadows. T he s nows o f w inter would require t hat t he a nimals r eturn to pasture i n t he l owlands. T he Tavoliere P lain i s o ne o f t he l argest, a nd hypothesized as o ne o f t he most i mportant l ocations f or prehistoric w inter grazing. T he position o f P aglicci Cave overlooking t he plain would make i t one o f t he most v aluable l ocations for exploiting t he wintering herds. I t i s also t hought t hat the d ryness o f t he s ummer would f orce t he g ame to migrate i nto the Apennine mountains c losely followed b y t he hunters. A gain

3 4

t he quantity o f f aunal r emains and s tone a re u sed t o i nfer t he importance o f this model.

tools a t location

t he g iven

s ite t he

B oth models make e nvironmental a nd c limatological a ssumptions. B oth emphasize t he importance of t he l andscape, t he position o f t he s ite and t he l ocation o f l ocal f eatures w ithin v iew o f t he s ite. T hey b oth imply t hat l arge quantities o f f aunal r emains a nd a rtifacts r esult f rom l ongt erm ( a s eason o r l onger) u se o f a s ite a nd that s uch s ites a re r esidential b ase-camps. L evel

4

L evel 4 a i s t he l oose and s andy upper deposit o f s tratum 4 . I t i s approximately 5 to 7 centimetres thick and, a long w ith organic material f rom l evels 4b and 4 c, i s d ated a t 1 1,950±190 B .P. A pproximately 2 5 s quare metres o f t his f loor h ave b een e xcavated, mostly b y Z orzi, i n t he early 1 960s. T he l evel 4 a was not d istinguished f rom t he 4b and 4 c l evels at t hat t ime. The a nalysis presented h ere was performed on material f rom t he approximately 2 4% o f l evel 4 a r ecovered i n t he 1 970s. The p alaeoenvironmental i nformation we have for l evel 4 a a t this t ime r esults f rom t he faunal analysis b y S ala ( 1983) d iscussed p reviously. H is i nterpretation o f 4 a i s t hat i t was a t emperate climate cooler than t he c limates existing during t he d eposition o f t he l evels above and b elow i t. H e suggests t hat this correlates w ith t he D ryas I I phase. T he faunal a ssemblage, u nlike other l evels, shows no specialization on t he exploitation o f a s ingle s pecies. Equus a sinus, C ervus elaphus a nd Bos p rimogenius a re a ll equally represented a nd f orm 7 5% o f the i dentifiable b one assemblage. Sus s crofa a nd Rupicapra rupicapra f orm 1 0% each. T he remainder i s r epresented by C apra i bea and C apreolus capreolus which make s howings o f a l ittle over 2 % each. A microwear a nalysis ( Keeley 1 980) o f t he l ithic a ssemblage f rom t he more r ecent e xcavation of l evel 4 a was performed as part of a s tudy on t he r elationship b etween tool u se and tool t echnomorphology. T he results o f t his a nalysis a ssist i n i nterpreting a ctivities performed i n this l evel a nd have i nteresting i mplications on t he hypotheses about h ow P aglicci C ave m ight have b een u sed. P resented b elow i s a summary o f how the d ifferent t ool types were u sed. I t i s i mportant to consider t he r epresentativeness o f t he s ample o n which t he m icrowear analysis was performed. A pproximately 8 0% of t he tools f rom the r ecent e xcavation were s ampled. T his represents a n a real s ample o f t he cave o f about 1 0%. I n comparison w ith the 1 960s e xcavation, t echnologically s peaking the s amples a re v ery s imilar except f or a s lightly l ower r epresentation of t he b acked t ools f rom t he f irst excavation ( Table 3 .1). T his has b een previously a ttributed to a s t he u se o f l ess r efined e xcavation t echniques which c aused these s mall b ladelets and m icroliths t o

b e

m issed

at

a g reater

f requency.

3 5

Table

3 .1.

Comparison

o f

S tratum

P aglicci

Tool

Type

4 a nd

4

L evel

4 a

8 .2 1 7.2 1 0.0 1 .6 8 .9 4 .1 4 .7 0 .2 1 2.2 0 .0 2 .4 1 9.4 4 .9 0 .0 5 .7

4 .3 1 1.7 6 .6 2 .0 3 .5 2 .5 6 .6 4 .7 2 7.0 1 .0 1 .4 1 7.0 4 .5 2 .9 4 .3

9 9.5

1 00.0

N = 1 250

3 6

4 a.

C ave

S tratum

B B urins G E ndscrapers T T runcations B c B ecs PD B acked Points L D B acked B lades D T B acked a nd T runcated Tools Gm G eometrics 3£ F ragmented B acked Tools F F oliates P P oints L S idescrapers ( blades) R S idescrapers ( flakes) A Abrupt P ieces D D enticulates

L evel

N = 4 98

F ig. 3 .3. A rtifacts f rom P aglicci C ave, l evel 4 a: a-4, b urins; e-h, e ndscrapers; i , t runcation; j , b ec. P olish codes f or F igs. 3 -6 a re f or t he f irst c haracter: H -hide, M-meat, B b one, U -unknown ; a nd f or t he s econd c haracter: G-graving, S scraping, C-cutting, W-whittling, D-drilling, I -i mpact, Mmultiple motions, U -unknown.

T he L aplace c lassification s ystem w as u sed a s t he s ource f or t echnological i nformation w ith a dditional a ttributes r ecorded. T he L aplace s ystem i s h ierarchical a nd consists o f t hree l evels: t he e lementary l evel consisting o f f ive g roups i ncluding b urins, e ndscrapers, b acked t ools, f oliates, a nd substrat; t he e ssential l evel consisting o f 1 5 c lasses t o b e d iscussed l ater; a nd a p rimary l evel w hich f urther s ubdivides t hese 1 5 c lasses i nto 8 5 types. L aplace ( 1964a) h as s tructured t his s ystem s uch t hat f urther s ubdivision c an b e done a t a s econdary l evel. I n t he f ollowing d iscussion o n t he u se o f s tone t ools I w ill u se t he e ssential l evel o f t he L aplace c lassification s ystem b ecause t his o ne a ppears t o b e t he most r elevant i n t he a nalysis o f s tone t ool u se. I w ill n ot d iscuss u se o r t ype i n d etail, b ut i nstead p resent a b rief d escription o f t he u ses s een o f t hese types s o t hat s ummary s tatements c an b e made a t t he e nd. D escriptions o f a rtifact t ypes w ill o nly b e p resented w hen n ecessary. F or t he m ost p art, t he r eader w ill b e f amiliar w ith t hese t echnomorphological t erms. B urins a re a u nique c lass o f a rtifacts f rom t his s ite a nd f it i nto t wo u se g roups. M any a re multifaceted w ith l ong, n arrow r emovals p roducing a convex w orking edge. O ften r eferred t o a s n ucleus-form b urins b ecause t hey appear t o b e small cores o n l arge, t hick f lakes, t he m icrowear a nalysis i ndicated t hat t his w as e xactly w hat t hey w ere. I n a ll i nstances t hese polygonal-edge b urins s howed n o evidence o f u se, but s ubstantial evidence f or t he p reparation o f b lade r emoval. T he r emaining n ine ( 50%) burins s howed evidence o f g raving wood o r b one. I n many c ases t he l ongitudinal edges o f t hese b urins h ad evidence o f u se a s w ell. T his i ncluded b oth h ideworking a nd meat p rocessing. W hen i t w as possible t o d etermine, t he l ongitudinal edges w ere found t o h ave b een u sed p rior t o t he u se o f t he t ool a s a b urin ( Fig. 3 .3). E ndscrapers were v ery numerous a nd r equired s ampling. T he e nds o f t he s crapers, when u se-wear w as evident, a lways i ndicated h ide working a lthough i t w as o ften d ifficult t o d istinguish f resh f rom d ry h ide. T he l ateral m argins o f t he e ndscrapers, w hether r etouched o r u nretouched, whether l ong o r s hort, o ften s howed evidence o f h aving b een u sed o n h ides o r f or cutting meat. O ccasionally, evidence o f h afting was noted, i n o ther c ases i t w as s uggested t echnomorphologically, b ut i mpossible t o a scertain ( Fig. 3 .3). T runcations a re b lades w ith a brupt r etouch a t o ne e nd. T he e nds n ever s howed evidence o f u se, b ut t he l ateral e dges were o ften u sed f or c utting meat, f leshing h ide a nd i n o ne c ase w orking b one ( Fig. 3 .3). T he p rojections o f b ecs were u sed f or m aking h oles i n h ide, b one a nd w ood. A s i n t he c ases o f b urins a nd e ndscrapers, l ongitudinal edges w ere o ften u sed f or c utting meat i n addition t o w orking t hese o ther materials ( Fig. 3 .3). B acked t ools,

i ncluding t he

3 8

b acked p oints,

b acked b lades,

MC MC

MC

a

M I

( )

1

0

_ 1 23 cm

A M

C MC

HM

\ e i >

:

( . : MC

f t M C

MC

mc

P

F ig. 3 .4. A rtifacts f rom P aglicci C ave, l evel 4 a: a -f, b acked points; gi b acked b lades; j -n, b acked and truncated tools; o-q, geometrics. P olishes corresponding to dorsal v iew are not s hown o n v entral v iew o f a rtifacts.

3 9

b acked a nd t runcated tools and geometrics showed u ses always r elated to t he capture a nd butchering o f g ame except for one h ide p iercer. A ll o f t hese tools were manufactured f rom b ladelets. T he l onger o nes appear to b e u sed mainly f or cutting meat, while t he s horter appear t o b e a rmatures for p rojectiles ( Fig. 3 .4). D etails o f t hese c lasses cannot b e presented h ere a nd w ill b e d iscussed i n a f uture paper ( Donahue n .d.). F oliates are a c lass which contain a v ariety of morphologically d issimilar types, but a re a ll characterized b y foliate o r f lat r etouch. T his was o riginally developed f or d istinguishing S olutrean assemblages. A s would b e e xpected, only a f ew f oliates were found i n t his l evel. T hese s howed evidence o f b eing u sed o n meat a nd wood ( Fig. 3 .5). A f ew points were a lso f ound. I n a ll c ases t hese tools were u sed f or t he butchering o f game a nd possibly f or h ide f leshing. S ome o f t he points s howed evidence o f b eing h afted. I n no case was t here evidence o f t hese tools b eing u sed a s points on p rojectile o r t hrusting weapons ( Fig. 3 .5). T here were numerous l arge, r etouched a nd u nretouched b lades ( sidescrapers) f rom t he l evel. T hose s ampled s howed evidence o f b eing u sed o n f resh h ide but most o ften o n meat. S ome may h ave b een u sed f or depilating h ides. T he f ew r etouched p rocessing

f lakes also ( Fig. 3 .5).

s howed

evidence

o f

b eing

u sed

f or meat

Very f ew abrupts a nd d enticulates c ame f rom t his l evel. T hese also showed evidence of u se o n meat except f or o ne b one working tool. I t s hould b e noted t hat many o f these tools were o f such poor quality f lint t hat i t was d ifficult to a ssess u se ( Fig. 3 .6). The splintered f lakes wre a lso examined; t heir splintered edges could not b e i nterpreted a s to material b eing w orked, b ut t heir l ongitudinal edges a lways s howed wood working t races. I t i s suspected t hat t he splintered e nds may h ave b een u sed f or splitting o r wedging wood ( Fig. 3 .6). A summary o f t he d ifferent tool u ses i s presented i n T able 3 .2. E ach d ifferent u se o f a tool was t allied f or e ach type. T he proportion of t he population o f each tool type was d ivided b y t he number s ampled a nd t his was multiplied b y each u se count for each type. P redicted s ums were t hen totaled and t heir p ercentage f or t he l evel calculated. R esults T hose tools a ssociated w ith t he hunting a nd b utchering of game were found to dominate t he a ssemblage a t 6 4.9% o f the total. H ide working t ools f ollowed a t 2 6.6%. B one working and wood working was evident 4 .2 a nd 4 .4 p ercent r espectively. T here was no evidence o f a ntler working o r p lant processing. A

f ew

t echnological

characteristics

4 0

o f

t he

a ssemblage

T able

Tool Type B G T B c PD LD DT Gm f F P L R A D E Total E stimated

P ercent

H ide

3 .2.

Tool

M aterial M eat

5 3 4 3 2 1 1

1 2

3 7 7 4 1 1 4 1 4 9 2 3 1 7 4 1 2

T echnomorphology

Worked B one

Wood

3

1

1 1

2

1

1 3

4 9 number 6 5.1 2 3.6

9 5

6

1 0

o f tools u sed on t his 2 32.2 1 5.0 1 5.6 6 4.9

4 .2

4 .4

4 1

and U se

No.of U ses 1 2 4 1 1 1 9 1 2 4 1 5 9 0 3 4 1 9 4 1 3 3 1 60 material

S ample S ize

P opul ation

2 1 3 1 9 7 1 2 4 1 5 9 0 3 4 1 9 4 1 3 3 1 52 e xcluding

2 1 5 7 3 2 1 0 1 7 1 2 3 2 2 3 1 32 5 7 8 3 2 2 1 4 2 1 1 0 4 98 f : 3 57.8 1 00.1

F ig. 3 .5. A rtifacts from P aglicci C ave, l evel 4 a: a-b, foliates; c-d, points; e-h, b lade s ide s crapers; ij, f lake s ide s crapers.

Al

F ig. 3 .6. A rtifacts f rom P aglicci Cave, l evel 4 a: a , abrupt p iece; b -c, denticulates; d-f, splintered f lakes ( pieces e sguill6e).

must a lso b e mentioned. D 6bitage i ncluding cores, b lades and f lakes w ith no r etouch o r evidence o f u se consisted a lmost totally o f small r etouch f lakes, some small b ladelets a nd b ladelet cores a nd very f ew b lades. T hese cores were d imensionally s imilar to t hose b urins w hich were f ound t o b e b ladelet cores a s well. T here were a lso 2 4 m icroburins r ecovered f rom l evel 4 a. F inally f ragments o f b acked tools, o r more appropriately, t hose b acked tools u ncertain i f f ragments o r not, number 1 32. When t hese f ragmented b acked t ools a re taken i nto a ccount, o ne h as a t echnological a ssemblage v ery s imilar to t hose r eported by B arker f or l owland F inal E pigravettian s ites i n c entral I taly ( Table 3 .3).

T able

3 .3.

S ites G rotta G rotta G rotta G rotta G rotta G rotta

P olesini P olesini P olesini P olesini Jolanda Paglicci

L owland

Burins 1 2-11 1 0-9 8-7 6 -5

5 .7 5 .4 5 .7 7 .8 6 .5 4 .3

4 a

C ave

S ites

E nd S crapers 2 1.3 2 5.4 2 4.9 2 6.0 1 8.9 1 1.7

B acked T ools 5 0.0 4 4.0 4 7.0 4 1.0 3 3.0 4 3.3

D enticu lates 0 .8 0 .8 1 .1 1 .6 1 .6 4 .3

Conclusions G iven a r epresentative s ample, what are s ome o f t he characteristics o f t his level i n r egard t o general activities? There i s no a ntler working, nor i s t here a ny plant processing evident f rom t he s tone tools. T here i s some wood working a nd b one working. T here i s evidence f or a t remendous amount o f meat p rocessing a t t he s ite a s well a s a s ubstantial amount o f h ide working. T he b ladelet cores, i ncluding t hose t echnologicallly burins, a nd t he m icroburins i ndicate t hat t he manufacture o f b acked tools ( as evidenced b y t heir numbers) was also a f requent activity. T his implies t hat t he r etooling o f compound tools, specifically t hose u sed i n t he c apture of g ame was i mportant. T he l arge b lades t hat were s tudied h ad well developed polishes a nd enough edge rounding to i ndicate t hat t hese were well u sed tools. O ften t here i s evidence o f u se followed b y r etouch a nd reuse. O ften b lades which o riginally h ad l ateral edges u sed o n meat o r h ide were l ater e nd modified ( burin, end s craper o r b ec) a nd u sed f or o ther purposes. I n evaluating t hese f indings i t i s evident t hat a t t his t ime t he proposition o f l evel 4 a o f t he s ite a s having b een a p ermanent r esidential b ase c amp i s not a cceptable. T he tool

4 4

assemblage,

a lthough

t echnologically v aried,

i s

dominated

b y

activities o rganized a round t he capture, butchering and processing o f g ame. H ide working p lus meat processing represent over 9 0% o f t he u ses to which t he tools were put. The l ittle evidence f or wood, b one a nd a ntler working i ndicates t hat t hose activities which we k now to have occurred a t other s ites during t he u pper P alaeolithic were rarely performed h ere i n l evel 4 a. T he conclusion t hen i s t hat t hey were probably done elsewhere, another t ime i n a n a nnual round.

a t

a nother

s ite

and

T he s eason o f t he year that the s ite was o ccupied w ill probably b e b est u nderstood b y f urther a nalysis o f t he faunal r emains. H owever, t he n ew d ata t ends to s upport B arker's model ( 1981) i n that i t appears t he s ite ( level) was o ccupied i n t he winter. S uch a ctivities a s h ide working, but no antler working or plant processing s uggest t his. T he i ntensity o f wear f rom t he u se o f t he a rtifacts a lso implies a w inter s eason. F lint would b e d ifficult to quarry i n w inter i n most p laces, a nd a t P aglicci C ave t he s ources for f lint are i n t he G argano P romontory. I n winter t hese sources would b e a ll b ut i naccessible. T hus o ne would e xpect g reater curation, i ncreased u se, reduced waste and t he u se o f a t echnology that reinforced s uch characteristics. A lthough other explanations f or t he t echnology at Paglicci Cave c an b e presented, i t does s eem t hat conservation o f r aw material was o ne a spect o f their behaviour a t this s ite. What l ittle i s k nown o f the f aunal r emains d oes s uggest a winter s eason o f u se o f the s ite. T he f auna represented a t the cave i nclude s pecies t hat a re adapted to warm c limates and l owland environments a s well a s t hose adapted to cold climates and h ighland environments. P aglicci C ave's l ocation overlooking t he Tavoliere P lain, a t a n a ltitude o f l ess t han 1 00 m . a nd s ome d istance f rom the c entral mountains o f the Gargano P romontory s uggest that a ll t he species were e ither i n t he h ills s urrounding t he c ave o r on t he p lain i tself. F or such species as C apra ibex and Rupicapra r upicapra to b e compressed t o such l ow a ltitudes i mplies t hat t he environment i n t he mountains w as u nsuitable f or h abitation a t t hat t ime, thus w inter a nd not summer i s s uggested. T his i s not a s trong a rgument s ince l ittle i s a greed u pon i n t erms of t he b ehaviour o f t he f auna that l ived i n t his r egion during the P leistocene. T here w ill h ave to b e f urther s tudies, b ut i t i s an a spect o f r esearch t hat c an contribute to our u nderstanding o f s easonality a t t he s ite. T he type o f c amp i s perhaps t he most d ifficult a spect o f t he s ite to a ssess, y et i t i s a lso t he most c rucial i n o rder to b egin to u nderstand the overall adaptive s trategy that existed i n peninsular I taly during t he u pper P alaeolithic. The p reliminary r esults can b e i nterpreted i n two d ifferent ways r epresenting potentially two v ery d ifferent a daptive s trategies.

4 5

I n a model o f collectors ( Binford 1 980) o ne would e xpect a t a r esidential b ase c amp t he p erformance o f a w ide v ariety o f a ctivities, n ot o nly t hose n ecessary f or t he d ay to d ay s urvival o f t he g roup, b ut a lso t hose maintenance t asks p erformed i n p reparation o f f uture r equirements. T hese s ites would b e l ocated n ear n ecessary r esources, b ut away f rom where g ame would l ikely b e s o a s n ot t o s care t hem o ff. H unters b y t heir p rocurement s trategy p roduce a v ariety o f d ifferent k inds o f c amps. T hese s pecialized s ites could i nclude h unting-camps, o bservation posts a nd p rimary b utchering a reas, p ossibly combined, a s w ell a s i nclude types o f s ites. T he c haracteristics o f P aglicci C ave, l evel 4 a s uggest t hat i t was b eing u sed n ot a s a r esidential s ite, but a s s ome s pecialized t ype o f s ite w hich, g iven t he l ocal l andscape, performed s ome a nd possibly a ll o f t he a bove s pecialized t asks. H unters w aited a t t he s ite w atching f or g ame e ither a s t hey g razed o n t he p lain o r a s t hey moved t oward a l ocal s ource o f water j ust b elow t he c ave. G ame k illed would b e t aken u p t o t he c ave. B utchering, p erhaps b oth p rimary a nd s econdary, would o ccur a t t his l ocation. W hile waiting f or g ame, i f w e a ccept a nalogous s ituations, men would s pend t ime r elaxing o r r etooling t ools a nd weapons. E quipment b rought t o t he c ave would b e m inimal a s t he s tay w ould b e t emporary. T he d ominance o f b utchering, t he s ubstantial amount o f h ide working a nd t he p roduction o f a rmature f orm t he b asis f or t his s uggestion. T he p roblem o f s uch a p roposition i s t he i mplications i t could h ave o n numerous o ther s ites. A s p reviously mentioned, o n t he b asis o f t echnology many l owland c ave s ites ( which a re characterized b y a s imilar l andscape) a re v ery s imilar to t he a ssemblage v ariablility f ound i n l evel 4 a. I f a s imilar r elationship h olds b etween u se a nd t echnomorphology a t t hese s ites, t hen o ne would h ave t o a rgue t hat t hese a lso a re p robably t he r emains o f h unting c amps a nd n ot r esidential c amps. T he i mplications a re overwhelming a nd would d rastically e ffect o ur whole concept o f t he ' Palaeolithic C ave M an'. H owever, t he s upport f or t his i nterpretation o f l evel 4 a i s s till t entative. A s a n a lternative, t he f oraging model f or a w inter-season r esidential c amp m ight a lso e xplain t he d ata a dequately. A f oraging model s uggests t hat o nly o ne t ype o f s ite would b e v isible a rchaeologically a nd t hat i n c ontemporary f oraging s ocieties t hese r esidential l ocations a re o ften r eoccupied ( Keeley 1 982). G ame a re h unted i n ' catch a s c atch c an' s tyle, t hen b rought b ack t o c amp. W inter c onditions would c ause t he h unter-gatherers t o emphasize f ood p rocurement a nd p rotective-wear p roduction a ctivities. T here i s a lso a mobile w inter s eason model w hich h as n ot b een d iscussed i n which a f oraging g roup r elies o n numerous movements i n t he w inter i n o rder t o maintain f ood r esources. T his model would c hallenge even t he n otion o f t he ' great r esource a bundance' f or t he T avoliere

P lain.

4 6

Exactly how t he s ite was b eing occupied or u sed i s uncertain. T he analysis o f f aunal r emains probably o ffers the b est course f or u nderstanding t his a spect o f P aglicci C ave. What we d o f ind f or P aglici Cave will most l ikely have important implications. I t h as b een noted t hat many P alaeolithic s ites i n P eninsular I taly s how v ery s imilar characteristics, i n t erms o f l ithic a ssemblages, f aunal remains a nd l andscape. I n almost a ll o f these cases these s ites h ave b een t hought o f a s permanent r esidential c amps. This s tudy puts t o s erious doubt such c laims. I n t erms o f the s eason, t hese l owland s ites appear to b e u sed i n w inter although that i s n ot a certainty. F inally i n evaluating how P aglicci C ave m ight h ave b een u sed during the occupation or occupations o f l evel 4 a, a nd the implications this has on o ther s imilar s ites, t here i s much u ncertainty b ecause d ifferent models o f h unter-gatherer subsistence and s ettlement s ystems c an predict s ites containing the characteristics d escribed h ere. Acknowledgements I w ish to t hank t he s taff a nd f aculty a t the D ipartimento d i A rcheologia e S toria degli A rti, S ezione d i P reistoria, S iena a nd e specially P . G ambassini, A . P alma d i C esnola, A . Galiberti, A . R onchitelli, G . Fabbri, A . C allatini a nd D . Burroni. A special t hanks must a lso b e g iven to P rofessor A . B ietti, D r. G . B arker, M iranda B arker, S imon S toddart and C aroline Malone. I w ish to a cknowledge the s upport I r eceived f or t his r esearch f rom t he Fulbright Commission a nd f rom the E truscan F oundation.

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d e typologie s ystematique. A nnali F errara, Nuova S erie, 1 5 ( Suppl.

d i C esnola, A . 1 975. I l G ravettiano della G rotta P aglicci nel Gargano I : L 'Industria l itica e l a cronologia a ssoluta. R ivista d i S cienze P reistoriche 3 0, 3 -178. d i

Cesnola, A . a nd B ietti, A . 1 983. L e G ravettien et l 'Epigravettien a ncien en I talie. I n P alma d i C esnola ( ed.) L a P osition T axonomique e t C hronologique d es I ndustries ä P ointes ä D os autour d e l a M editerrande Europdenne. P rdtirage du Colloque I nternational ä S ienne, Novembre 3 -6, 1 983. Conference C irculation.

4 8

P alma

d i

C esnola, A . a nd G aliberti, A . 1 983. L 'Epigravettien dvolud e t f inal d e l a r egion h aute-tyrrenienne. I n P alma d i C esnola ( ed.) L a P osition T axonomique et C hronologique des I ndustries ä P ointes ä D os Autour d e l a M editerrande Europdenne, P rdtirage du C olloque I nternational a S ienne, Novembre 3 -6, 1 983. C onference C irculation.

S ackett,

J . 1 981. F rom Mortillet to B ordes: a c entury of F rench P alaeolithic r esearch. I n D aniel, G . ( ed.) Towards a H istory o f A rchaeology. L ondon, T hames and H udson, 8 5-99.

S ala,

B . 1 983. Variations c limatiques et s equences chronologiques sur l a b ase d es v ariations des a ssociations f aunistiques ä g rands mammifdres. I n P alma d i C esnola ( ed.) L a Position T axonomique et C hronologique des I ndustries ä P ointes ä D os autour d e l a Mediterrande Europdenne, P rdtirage du Colloque I nternational ä S ienne, Novembre 3 -6, 1 983. Conference C irculation.

Sun tmary T he author e mploys the excellent d ata f rom the l ong s tratigraphic sequence o f G rotta P aglicci to t est alternative hypotheses on t he economic o rganisation of the A pulian P alaeolithic. F irst, a review o f r ecent r esearch at G rotta P aglicci i s g iven. T hen t he a lternative hypotheses o f all year round o ccupation a nd s easonal occupation a re i nvestigated, f or l evel 4 o f t he s equence. M icro-wear analysis i s employed. T he author favours a n i nterpretation of winter s eason o ccupation but admits that t he r esults a re tentative.

R iassunto L 'autore u tilizza ottimi d ati della l unga s equenza s tratigrafica d ella Grotta P aglicci per e saminare l e i potesi a lternative sull'organizazione economica del paleolitico pugliese. P er prima cosa, e samina l a r icerca r ecente a G rotta P aglicci. I n s eguito, i ndaga s ulle i potesi alternative d i occupazione permanente e d i o ccupazione s tagionale per i l l ivello 4 d ella s equenza. L 'autore f avorisce u n i nterpretazione d i o ccupazione i nvernale, ma ammette c he i r isultati s iano t entativi.

4 9

4 .

THE POTENTIAL OF F UNCTIONAL A NALYSES

O F O BSIDIAN TOOLS:

A CLOSER V IEW.

L inda

Hurcombe

T he f unction o f s tone tools h as b een a ssessed i n many ways, r anging f rom guesswork to forensic t echniques ( Briuer 1 976). Most o f t he experimentation a nd i nvestigation h as concentrated o n t he a nalysis o f tools made f rom f lint. T his paper w ill t herefore consider t he three d ifferent a pproaches u sed i n t he f unctional i nterpretation o f f lint t ools a nd t hen d iscuss t he p roblems a nd advantages o f e ach a pproach w ith r egard t o obsidian t ools. A s the v arious methods define t he tool's ' function' o n s lightly d ifferent l evels s ome consideration s hould b e g iven t o t he m eaning o f t he t erm and t he types o f evidence which e nable d ifferent a spects o f ' function' t o b e d etermined. Function c an b e a c ombination o f t he a ction w ith which a tool was u sed a nd t he material i t was u sed o n. T he u se-action c an b e described b y i ts o rientation t o the working e dge o f t he t ool, f or e xample parallel o r p erpendicular, a nd b y whether, t here a re o ne o r two d irections t o t he e ffective s troke: t hus a s ingle a ction might b e u sed i n r eaping a nd a r eturn a ction i n s awing. T he motion o f u se i s most c learly s hown b y s mall l inear f eatures k nown as ' striations' o r ' striae'; t hese a re ' minute l ines, s cratches, o r g rooves' ( Semenov 1 964, 4 ). S triations a re u sed b y a ll methods o f f unctional a nalysis t o i ndicate t he u se-action. T heir observation i s c learer when t he s urface o f t he s tone tool i s s mooth a nd s o t hey a re e asily s een o n obsidian s urfaces ( Semenov 1 964, 1 5). T he u se-action t herefore u sually l eaves t races more r eadily o n obsidian t han o n f lint t ools. O bsidian i s a lso more l ikely t o s ustain s triations b ecause t he microc hips d etached during u se a ct a s abrasive particles. H owever t he number o f s triations f rom s oures o ther t han t he material o f u se w ill a lso i ncrease. T he ' background noise' o f s triations i s t herefore g reater o n o bsidian b ut a s s uch s triae d o not o ften c oncentrate o n o ne area o f t he tool a ligned i n o ne d irection, those s triae caused b y u se can normally b e d istinguished, a nd t he u se-action defined ( Vaughan 1 981a, 2 03-204). T he methods f or e stablishing t he u se-material a re more v aried i n t he f eatures which a re e xamined a nd t he l evel o f d efinition g iven t o t he material. T his paper d iscusses t he t hree major m ethods o f f unctional a nalyses: edge-damage, polishes a nd r esidues. T he

f irst

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i s

b ased o n t he

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1 00 . ,u

P late

4 .1.

P late

4 .2

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s urface ( original 1 25X). E xperimental t ool edge u sed t o ( original magnification 2 50X)

magnification whittle

wood

4

5 P late

4 .3

E xperimental t ool edge u sed t o s crape ( original magnification 2 50X).

P late 4 .4. P hytolith o n t he s urface o f a n u sed t o cut G raminae. ( Scanning E lectron s cale i n 1 0 µ d ivisions). P late

d ry

h ide

e xperimental t ool M icrograph 1 250X

4 .5. P hytolith s een i n P late 4 .4. a t 8 000X ( Scanning E lectron M icrograph s cale i n 1 µ d ivisions).

5 1

employed t he f lake s cars f ormed during u se t o d etermine t he f unction o f a f lint tool. T he f lake s car s hape, s ize a nd t ype was u sed t o d efine t he h ardness c ategory o f t he u se-material, whilst t he l ocation a nd p atterning o f t he f lake s cars was i ndicative o f t he motion o f u se ( Tringham e t a l. 1 974). More r ecently a committee f ormed t o g ive a c lassification o f u sef racture t ypes a greed t hat t he p rofile o f t he f lake s car was more i ndicative o f t he u se-material ( The H oHo C lassification a nd N omenclature C ommittee R eport i n H ayden 1 979a, 1 33-135). T he u se-material i s u sually d efined a s o ne o f four c ategories v arying f rom ' soft' t o ' hard' ( Odell a nd O dell-Vereecken 1 980). T his method i s obviously a ffected b y edge modifications t hrough causes o ther t han u se. F or e xample, a t ool may b e d amaged during i ts manufacture v ia t he process o f ' spontaneous r etouch' ( Newcomer 1 976), o r i n p ostd epositional contexts b y p lough d amage ( Mallouf 1 982) a nd b ag-wear ( Gero 1 978). T he amount a nd t ype o f d amage c an a lso b e a ffected b y t he s pine p lane a ngle, e dge a ngle ( Tringham e t a l. 1 974; D el B ene and S helley 1 979, 2 54) a nd t he e dge morphology ( Tringham e t a l. 1 974, 1 80; O dell 1 975, 2 33 a nd F ig. 1 7; Odell 1 979, 3 41; Moss 1 983, 2 36-237). N on-use d amage may obscure o r confuse t he u se-wear. T herefore t his method r equires considerable s kill t o u se a nd i s u nsuitable f or b adly d amaged a rtefacts. T he edge d amage approach was developed f or f lint a nalyses b ut can b e u sed o n o bsidian t ools a s demonstrated b y H ay ( 1978), L ewenstein ( 1981) a nd S tafford ( 1977). H owever, b ecause obsidian i s more b rittle i t w ill s how b oth u se-wear a nd non-use edge-damage more r eadily. N on-use d amage o n obsidian may b e c aused b y t rampling ( Flenniken a nd H aggarty 1 979) a nd b ag-wear d amage ( Schousboe 1 977). T he s econd method o f d efining u se-material i s b ased o n t he polished s urface o f f lint tools s een at 2 00-400X magnification. K eeley h as f ound t hat a t s uch magnifications t he i ntensity, extent a nd type o f polish o n t he surface can define u se-categories s uch a s ' meat', ' wood', ' antler' and h ide' ( Keeley 1 980, 3 5-83). T he polishes a re d estroyed o r masked b y s ome patinas a nd conditions ( for e xample P lisson 1 983; S tapert 1 976), s o t heir s urvival w ill v ary d epending u pon i ndividual b urial contexts a nd conditions. H owever t hey have b een o bserved o n s ome o f t he oldest P alaeolithic t ools ( Keeley a nd T oth 1 981). D espite s cepticism t hat polishes would n ot b e v isible o n n aturally b right s urfaces, V aughan ( 1981b) found t hat s ome polishes could b e s een o n obsidian t ool s urfaces a nd t hat t hese were i n s ome c ases d istinctive o f t he u se-material. S ickle-gloss, r eeds a nd d ry h ide c ategories were d etermined b ut o ther u se-materials could o nly b e d ivided i nto ' hard' a nd ' soft' u sing t he polish approach ( Vaughan 1 981a, 2 13-214). My own r esearch h as s hown t hat o ther u se-material c ategories can b e d istinctive. I t i s i mportant t o appreciate t hat i n o rder t o r ecognise altered o r ' polished' s urfaces o n o bsidian tools i t i s f irst n ecessary t o b e f amiliar w ith t he n atural s urface

5 2

f eatures. P late 4 .1 s hows a n atural, f reshly s truck, o bsidian ( Monte A rci: S ardinia) surface o riginally photographed at 2 50X. I t c an b e s een t hat t here a re a number o f l inear f eatures a lmost p erpendicular t o t he e dge. T hese a re m icroscopic v ersions o f s tress f issures o r h ackle marks: t hey a ll point towards t he b ulb o f f orce a nd s o a re easily d istinguished f rom u se s triations. O ther f eatures a re n atural i nclusions i n t he matrix a nd a round t hese c an b e s een f aint, m icroscopic v ersions o f t he r ipple marks. I n c ontrast t o t his n atural s urface P late 4 .2 s hows a n e dge ( at t he s ame magnification a s P late 4 .1) t hat was u sed t o whittle wood. T he edge i s f airly e roded b ut t he polish o n t he edge a ppears r ounded a nd b right. I t s hould b e n oted t hat n ear t he edge n one o f t he m icroscopic r ipple marks c an b e s een. T hese f eatures h ave b een s moothed over. F or c omparison P late 4 .3 s hows a n edge u sed t o s crape d ry h ide. T here i s s evere e rosion, f aint s urface s moothing o nly o ccurring n ear t he e dge, and t here a re many s triations. T he abrasion a nd polish qualities c an i n s uch a way b e employed t o d istinguish t he u se-material. M eat wear a lso has d istinctive f eatures which a re d iscussed b elow. R esearch i s s till i n progress, but r esults s o f ar i ndicate t hat polishes a re v isible o n s ome a rchaeological t ools a nd f urther s uggest t hat t he l ist o f s pecific u se-polishes f or obsidian tools c an b e e xtended s o t hat obsidian f unctional a nalyses b ased o n polishes may b e c omparable t o t he r ange o f u se-categories observed o n f lint t ools. T he t hird method o f f unctional a nalysis i s b ased o n r esidues f rom t he u se-material b eing p reserved o n t he f lint s urface. T hese r esidues c an b e c lassed a s p lant o r a nimal b y means o f forensic t echniques a nd s tandard c hemical t ests. Amino a cids h ave b een f ound a nd i dentified o n s tone t ools u sing p aper c hromatography a nd b y t he u se o f gas c hromatography ( Clouse i n H ayden 1 979a, 3 72-373). S uch d eposits could i dentify t he r esidue t o t he l evel o f genus i f s ufficient comparative material were available ( Hayden 1 979, 3 72). A nother v ery p recise i dentification c an b e made f rom b lood r esidues. T he H aemoglobin i n s uch r esidues c an b e p recipitated out a nd i dentified t o t he s pecies l evel ( Loy 1 983). More r arely, l arger particles o f t he u se-material, a nd H olloway s uch a s p hytoliths, may b e p resent ( Shafer ilica f ormed 1 979). P hytoliths a re a ccumulations o f o paline s v ariety o f b y s ome p lant c ells a nd s urvive i n a e d iagnositc a rchaeological c ontexts ( Rovner 1 983) a nd c an b o f t he p lant f amily ( Anderson 1 980, 1 86). T he f unctional i nterpretation o f r esidues i s l imited b y t heir p reservation. A ll o f t he above r esidue a nalyses r equire t ools t o b e u nwashed a nd every r esidue, e xcept t he b lood d eposit, s urvives only i n exceptional conditions, f or e xample d ry c aves. H owever L oy's work h as s hown t hat t he b lood r esidues may s urvive f rom a g reater r ange o f contexts ( Loy 1 983). A h igh c hance o f p reservation a lso o ccurs f or r esidues which a ppear t o b e part o f a f lint tool surface. A nderson ( 1980) e xplains t his b y t he f act t hat during u se a f lint t ool s urface may not b e s olid b ut may e xist i n a g el s tate, t hat

5 3

i s t here i s a partial d issolution o f t he f lint s urface, a nd whilst t his more l iquid phase e xists, u se-material p articles may s ink i nto t he s urface and b e partially o r wholly covered b y i t. A nderson ( 1980) h as found d eposits o n f lint tools consisting o f p lant phytoliths, periosteum, b one, a ntler a nd c artilage. T he d iscovery o f d ry h ide c ells w ithin t he t ool s urface h as p rovided s upport for t he model o f t he f ormation o f t he g el l ayer, a nd a ffirmed t he i nclusion o f p articles f rom t he worked material i nto t he s urface ( Mansur-Franchomme 1 983). T here i s obviously no r eason why r esidues l ying o n t he s urface o f t ools s hould n ot s urvive o n obsidian t ools: a ll t hat i s n ecessary a re t he r ight conditions. H owever o nly a f ew c ases o f obsidian t ools s howing r esidues w ithin t he s urface h ave b een published. P hytoliths h ave b een i dentified b y A nderson-Gerfaud ( 1982). My own work h as s hown phytoliths i ncorporated i nto t he obsidian s urface a fter working g rasses w ith experimental t ools ( Plates 4 .4 and 4 .5). O ther f eatures s een o n a rchaeological o bsidian tool s urfaces may b e p lant p articles a s t hey a re a ssociated w ith a p lant polish ( Plate 4 .6). U nfortunately w ithout a comparative collection t he i dentification o f s uch r esidues i s d ifficult. More evidence f or t he d issolution o f t he obsidian s urface d uring u se h as come f rom my own meat e xperiments. P late 4 .7 s hows a p iece o f meat i ncorporated i nto t he surface o f a n experimental t ool. T his r esidue could n ot b e r emoved f rom t he s urface a nd o ccurred o nly a fter meat had b een cut. T herefore, i t c an b e s hown t hat a d issolution o f t he obsidian s urface c an c ause particles f rom t he u se-material t o b ecome t rapped w ithin t he s urface i n a s imilar way t o t hat h ypothesised f or f lint ( Anderson-Gerfaud 1 982). T he l evel o f u se-material i dentific ation f rom r esidues c an b e to i ndividual s pecies, a lthough i n many cases t he l ack o f a comparative collection d oes not a llow f ull i dentification to b e made ( amino a cids - H ayden 1 979a, 3 72; p hytoliths - A nderson 1 980; Rovner 1 983, 2 34; f eather a nd h air f ragments - S hafer a nd H olloway 1 979, 3 92). T herefore t he i denfication o f u se-material could b ecome more s pecific a s more c omparative material i s amassed. a nalyses T he t hree d ifferent approaches t o f unctional h ave b een o utlined above a nd t heir a pplication to obsidian he t ime a rtefacts considered. T able 4 .1 g ives a b reakdown o f t methods, t aken t o a nalyse a n artefact u sing t he d ifferent s urvival together w ith t he d ifferent a rchaeological conditions f or s uitable evidence a nd t he l evel o f f unctional i nformation which c an b e obtained. A lthough s ome r esidues c an b e washed o ff d uring f inds p rocessing, t he edge d amage, polishes a nd r esidues t rapped w ithin t he s urface w ill a ll s till b e p resent o n processed a rtefacts i n museums, s o f unctional s tudies a re potentially applicable t o many obsidian t ools. P roblems w ith t he method d o e xist, f or e xample post-depositional d amage t o o bsidian tools, b ut t hese d o not i nvalidate t he positive r esults. W ith e xperience nonu se wear i s r ecognisable a nd t he a rchaeological tools which h ave b een e xamined s o f ar d o s how u se-wear t races. O ther p roblems may i nclude t he cost o f e quipment a nd t he t ime

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possible p lant particles ( original magnification

4 .7 E xperimental tool w ith meat t issue embedded i n obsidian s urface ( original magnification 2 50X).

5 6

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The purpose o f t his paper has b een to show the l imits a nd potential o f obsidian u se-wear s tudies. U nfortunately the potential has not yet b een r ealised. Functional a nalyses can b enefit archaeology b e defining activity l oci o n s ites ( Cahen a nd K eeley 1 980). T hey could i nvestigate the general r elationship b etween form and function a nd s how how typologies r eflect technological o r functional c riteria. More specifically u se-wear analyses could a lso d etermine the function o f obsidian tools, f rom d istant s ources, i n order to compare them with the function o f tools made f rom local s tone. I n this way s ome o f the reasons why obsidian was exchanged over s uch l arge d istances might b e i lluminated. Such questions s how the potential o f obsidian functional a nalyses to b enefit much b roader a rchaeological i ssues.

Acknowledgements This paper h as a risen f rom my research on obsidian microwear a nalysis which i s funded b y the SERC. I am g rateful to them for s upporting b oth this r esearch and my a ttendance a t the conference. T alking with o ther researchers working i n s imilar a reas i s a lways f ruitful and i t p leases me to acknowledge d iscussions with P atricia Anderson-Gerfaud and P atrick V aughan. W arm t hanks also go to my supervisors, D r. P . P hillips a nd D r. R . Torrence, plus G ill C lark, Don H enson a nd Marcus Jecock, a ll o f whom a ided i n the preparation o f this paper. T he I talian summary was k indly t ranslated b y P aola F ilippucci. N eedless to s ay the f aults that remain are my responsibility.

B ibliography Anderson, P .C. 1 980. A testimony o f prehistoric d iagnostic residues o n s tone tool working World A rchaeology 1 2, 1 81-194. Anderson-Gerfaud, agricole

P . des

l ' Euphrate

3 ,

1 982. Comment preciser outils pr4historiques?

t asks: edges.

l 'utilisation C ahiers de

1 49-164.

B riuer,

F .L. 1 976. New c lues to s tone t ool function: plant and animal residues. American A ntiquity 4 1, 4 78-483.

C ahen,

D . than

Del

and 3 '.

K eeley, World

L .H.

1 980.

A rchaeology

' Not 1 2

l ess

( 2),

than

2 ,

not more

1 66-180.

B ene, T . A. and S helley, P .H. 1 979. S oapstone modification and i ts e ffects on l ithic implements. I n H ayden, B . ( ed.) L ithic U se-Wear Analysis. A cademic P ress, N ew

5 7

Y ork, F edje,

2 43-258.

D . 1 979. S canning e lectron m icroscopy a nalysis o f u ses triae. I n H ayden, B . ( ed.) L ithic U se-Wear A nalysis. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, 1 79-187.

F lenniken, J .J. a nd H aggarty, J .C. 1 979. T rampling as a n a gency i n t he formation o f e dge-damage. Northwest A nthropological R esearch N otes 1 3, 2 08-214. Gero,

H ay,

J .M. 1 978. Summary o f e xperiments e xcavational d amage to tool edges. 7 ( 2), 3 4.

t o duplicate postL ithic T echnology

C .A. 1 978. K aminaljuyu O bsidian: L ithic A nalysis a nd t he E conomic O rganisation o f a P rehistoric M aya C hiefdom. P h.D. t hesis, P ennsylvania S tate U niversity.

H ayden,

B . ( ed.) 1 979a. P ress, N ew Y ork.

L ithic U se-Wear A nalysis.

A cademic

H ayden,

B . 1 979b. S nap, s hatter a nd s uperfractures: u se-wear o f s tone s kin s crapers. I n H ayden, B . ( ed.) L ithic U se-Wear A nalysis. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, 2 07-229.

Keeley,

L .H. U ses.

K eeley,

L .H. a nd T oth, N . 1 981. M icrowear polishes o n e arly s tone t ools f rom K oobi F ora, K enya. N ature 2 93, 4 644 65.

1 980. E xperimental D etermination o f S tone T ool U niversity o f C hicago P ress, C hicago.

L ewenstein, S . 1 981. Mesoamerican obsidian b lades: a n e xperimantal approach t o f unction. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 8 , 1 75-188. Loy,

T .H. 1 983. P rehistoric b lood r esidues: d etection o n tool s urfaces and i dentification o f s pecies o f o rigin. S cience 2 20, 1 269-1271.

Mallouf,

R .J. 1 982. A n a nalysis o f p low-damaged c hert a rtefacts: t he B rookeen C reek C ache ( 41H186), H ill c ounty, T exas. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 9 , 7 9-98.

Mansur-Franchomme, M .E. 1 983. S canning e lectron microscopy o f d ry h ide working tools: t he r ole o f abrasives a nd h umidity i n m icrowear polish f ormation. J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 1 0. 2 23-230. Moss,

E . 1 983. S ome c omments o n e dge-damage a s a f actor i n a f unctional a nalysis o f s tone a rtefacts. Journal o f A rchaeological S cience 1 0, 2 31-242.

Newcomer, M .H. 1 976. S pontaneous r etouch. S econd I nternational S ymposium o n F lint. S taringia ( Nederlandse G eologische V ereniging M aastricht) 3 , 6 2-64.

5 8

O dell,

G . 1 975. M icrowear i n p erspective: a s ympathetic r esponse t o L awrence H . K eeley. World A rchaeology 7 , 2 26-240.

O dell,

G . 1 979. A n ew i mproved s ystem f or t he r etrieval o f f unctional i nformation f rom microscopic o bservations o f c hipped s tone t ools. I n H ayden B . ( ed.) L ithic U se-Wear A nalysis. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, 3 29-344.

O dell,

G .H. a nd O dell-Vereecken, F . 1 980. V erifying t he r eliability o f l ithic u se-wear a ssessments b y ' blind t ests': t he l ow p ower approach. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 7 , 8 7-120.

P lisson,

H . 1 983. D e l a conservation d es m icro-polis d 'utilisation. B ulletin d e l a S ocidt6 P rO listorique F ran9aise 8 0 ( 3), 7 4-77.

R ovner,

I . 1 983. P lant o pal p hytolith a nalysis: major a dvances i n a rchaeobotanical r esearch. I n S chiffer, M .B. ( ed.) Advances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory V olume 6 . A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, 2 25-266.

S chousboe, R . 1 977. M icroscope edge s tructures a nd m icrof ractures o n obsidian. L ithic T echnology 6 ( 1-2), 1 42 1. S emenov,

S . A. 1 964. P rehistoric T echnology ( translated M . W. T hompson). C ory, Adams a nd M acKay, L ondon.

b y

S hafer,

H .J. a nd H olloway, R .G. 1 979. O rganic r esidue a nalysis i n d etermining s tone t ool f unction. I n H ayden B . ( ed.) L ithic U se-Wear A nalysis. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, 3 85-399.

S tafford, B .D. 1 977. B urin manufacture a nd u tilisation: an experimantal s tudy. Journal o f F ield A rchaeology 4 , 2 35-246. S tapert,

D . 1 976. S ome n atural s urface modifications o n i n t he N etherlands. P alaeohistoria 1 8, 7 -41.

f lint

T ringham, R ., C ooper, G ., O dell, G ., V oytek, B . a nd W hitman, A . 1 974. E xperimentation i n t he f ormation o f edge d amage: a n ew a pproach to l ithic a nalysis. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 1 , 1 71-196. V aughan,

P . 1 981a. L ithic M icrowear E xperimentation a nd t he Functional A nalysis o f a L ower M agdalenian S tone T ool A ssemblage. P h.D. d issertation, U niversity o f P ennsylvania.

V aughan,

P . 1 981b. M icrowear A nalysis o f E xperimental F lint a nd Obsidian Tools. I n E ngelen, F . ( ed.) T hird I nternational S ymposium o n F lint. S taringia N o.6 N ederlandse G eologische V ereniging M aastricht, 9 0-91.

5 9

Summary T his paper r eports s ome o f t he p reliminary r esults o f research o n obsidian f unctional a nalyses. T he t hree approaches a dopted f or f lint u se-wear a nalyses, a nd t he s ort o f i nformation t hey g ive, a re outlined. C onsideration i s g iven t o t he b enefits o r d isadvantages o f applying t he t hree approaches t o obsidian tools. W here p revious f unctional a nalyses o f obsidian t ools h ave b een c arried o ut t hese a re d iscussed together w ith t he author's own r esearch. P articular a ttention i s paid t o obsidian f unctional s tudies a t h igher magnifications a nd t o t he t heory o f a l iquid surface l ayer f orming d uring u se a nd t rapping p articles f rom t he u sematerial p ermanently w ithin t he s urface. T his n ew d evelopment c an g ive v ery p recise d efinition o f t he u se-material. F inally t he s ignificance a nd potential o f obsidian f unctional a nalyses t o a nswer much b roader a rchaeological questions i s mentioned.

R iassunto Questo r icerca n el o ssidiana.

a rticolo r iassume i r esultati c ampo d elle a nalisi f unzionali

p reliminari d ella s u u tensili i n

S ono qui delineati b revemente i t re metodi a dottati n ell'analisi d elle t racce d i m icrousura s u s elce, e d i l t ipo d i i nformazione c he d a e ssi S i r icava: v engono quindi d iscussi i v antaggi e g li svantaggi d ell'applicazione d i t ali metodi ad u tensili i n o ssidiana. P recedenti i ndagini c ondotte i n questo c ampo sono d iscusse parallelamente a lla r icerca o riginale d ell'autrice. P articolare a ttenzione e r ivolta a lle a nalisi m icrosopiche ad a lta r isoluzione, e d all'ipotesi c he, durante l 'uso, u na p atina l iquida s i f ormi a lla s uperficie d ello s trumento, t rattenendo i n modo permanente a lcune p articelle d el materiale s u c ui quest'ultimo ä s tato u so, e r endendone c osi possibile l 'identificazione. I nfine, è e saminata l 'importanza d ell'analisi f unzionale d i s trumenti i n o ssidiana n ell'ambito d i p iü v aste p roblematiche a rcheologiche.

6 0

5 .

THE BEGINNING OF THE

FARMING COMMUNITIES

T here

and

a re

S ICILY:

EVIDENCE OF U ZZO CAVE

S ebastiano

I ntroduction

I N

Tusa

B ackground t wo main

r easons

for

t he

l ack o f

r esearch

on

t he S icilian Neolithic: 1 ) t he l ong d istance f rom t he p rimary Neolithic centres, 2 ) the s hortage o f i nterested s cholars over t he l ast d ecades. T he excavations of t he fortified Neolithic s ettlements a round S yracuse a llowed P aolo O rsi to build up a p ioneering t axonomy o f t he f irst post-Pleistocene cultural s tages. H is paradigm was b ased on the l ate a rrival o f t he Neolithic i n S icily through t he immigration of well s ettled agricultural producers, who took over the l ocal environment. This was an environment that O rsi could not have k nown b ecause, a t t hat period, k nowledge o f post-Pleistocene groups was very p oor. I t was l ogical, therefore, t hat the great scholar s ponsored t he d iffusionistic point o f v iew b ecause i t gave an easy explanation for phenomena t hat appeared t o h im a s s udden. Such t heories were well established i n that period and continue u ntil today, but they could n ot h ide the archaeological f act t hat the N eolithic was much more complex. O rsi, with h is acute i ntuition, r ecorded of course, much more complex evidence. I n f act, i n h is papers we note that, when speaking about G rotta C oruggi ( Orsi 1 898), h e pointed out some a rchaic f eatures o f t he Neolithic l ayer. B ut he d id not t ry to search for cultural and typological r elations w ith the underlying Mesolithic l ayer. T hese relations were underlined, on t he contrary, by B ernabb B rea when reviewing t he s ame cultural a ssemblage, who e xplained t hem i n s ame d iffusionist point o f v iew ( Bernabb B rea 1 949). T he N eolithic l ayers o f G rotta Corruggi, R iparo d ella S perlinga ( Cavalier 1 971) a nd other s ites have quite d ifferent f eatures f rom t he typical S tentinello. H owever, t hese d ifferences were explained a s b eing p roduced b y very l ate M esolithic i ndigenous groups, partly acculturated after t he a rrival of Neolithic immigrants. T he r esemblance b etween these and Mesolithic l ithic a ssemblages, the c rude decoration o f pottery and t he d ifferent s ettlement pattern ( in cave or s helters) were a lways e xplained i n t he f rame o f cultural d ifferentiation i nstead o f a r eal chronological sequence. R ecently T ine, while pointing out t he d ifferences b etween two k inds o f impressed Neolithic pottery f rom K ronio ( Tine 1 971, 1 975; Magi 1 976-77), s tated that they were contemporary although t he s tratigraphical s ituation could g ive t he i dea of a d iachronic s equence. B y t his hypothesis he f ollows t he i dea of cultural, e thnic a nd t echnological d ifferentiation

6 1

c ) F ig.

5 .1.

P ottery f rom t he l ater N eolithic horizon o f ( Scale: 1 /2)

6 2

U zzo

i gnoring t hat o f

c hronological

d ifferences.

A t t he b eginning o f t his c entury, a t imid h int o f t he hypothesis o f a c ultural, t echnological a nd typological p reS tentinello s tage w as a lready p resented b y one o f t he s everal s erious a rchaological e nthusiasts o f t he S icilian u pper c lasses a nd n obles, C orrado C afici. T his was i n h is d escription o f t he r esults o f t he P oggio R osso a nd F ontana d i P epe e xcavations, where h e o ffered t he hypothesis o f a cultural a nd typological p re-Stentinello a ssemblage ( Cafici 1 915; 1 920). A s imilar c onfused f ormat was u sed t o r ecord t he d ialectical a nd c hronological r elations b etween t he l ater Neolithic s tyles a nd cultural a ssemblages. L ike t he A puloM aterano a rea, t he v arious p ainted pottery s tyles o f S icily were not o rganized i n a c lear p icture f or t he m iddle a nd l ate N eolithic s equence. I t was not u ntil t he L ipari e xcavations, f ollowing t he e qually e nlightening work a t A rene C andide, t hat a c lear typological a nd c hronological s equence b ecame possible ( Bernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 956; 1 957; 1 980; B ernabö B rea 1 956). A l ittle l ater T ine, f ollowing t he A eolian s cholars, constructed t he s ame c hronological s equence f or s outhern I taly ( Tine 1 975; 1 976a). H owever, we must r ealise t hat t he T yrrhenian a rea b enefits f rom a w ider a nd d eeper s eries o f s tratigraphical d ata, owing t o t he L ipari s equence. T he s ituation i s quite d ifferent f or t he I onic a nd t he Adriatic where t he s cholars' e fforts were d evoted to d iscovering a workable h orizontal s equence. A lthough t he p roblems were d ifficult, T ine s ucceeded i n b uilding u p a c lear a nd workable s equence t hat t ogether w ith t he A eolian o ne, b ecame the current c hronological f ramework. T he d iffusionist e xplanation g ave a nd a nd continues to g ive, o f course, a g reat impulse t o t he s tudy o f c hronological d ynamics among d ifferent N eolithic s tyles. O n t he o ther h and, s uch t rends forced a rchaeological r esearch i nto v ery n arrow p aths. T he v alue o f t he a nalysis o f t he connections t hat t ied t he b eginning o f t he s outhern I talian a nd S icilian N eolithic w ith t he contemporary B alkan a nd o riental c ivilizations c annot b e d enied. B ut t his p erspective h as confined, o r l eft o ut, o ther i mportant cultural a spects a nd r esearchers' f ields. T he main d eficiency concerns two p articular p roblems. F irstly, s cholars d id not a ttempt t o u nderstand a nd d efine t he r elationship b etween s ettlements a nd e nvironment. T he c onsequence i s t hat a lmost nothing i s k nown about N eolithic s ettlement a nd s ocio-economic d ynamics. T his a spect i s quite i mportant s ince t he e xplanation o f a p henomenon l ike t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic c annot b e r evealed b y material c ulture c hanges a lone. S econdly, we note t hat t he p roblem o f t he r elationship b etween t he N eolithic a nd t he Mesolithic h as a lways b een i gnored i n s pite o f i ts g reat importance. T he c ommon l ack o f i nterest i n t he r elationship h as l ed t o i ts d efinition a s a ttardamento culturale. T he

P otential o f T his

was

U zzo

t he s tate o f a ffairs when

6 3

a

post-Pleistocene

s tratigraphic s equence w as d iscovered w hich provided t he chance to d eal w ith t his f ascinating p eriod. T here was a n opportunity t o t ackle a p roblem a lways n eglected i n western S icily, t he s o c alled passagio f rom a n e conomy o f passive exploitation o f t he e nvironment t o a ctual f ood production. T he s cientific perspective c hosen b y M arcello P iperno a nd t he author a imed t o f ocus o n t he c hanging r elationship b etween t he g roup l iving i n t he c ave o f U zzo a nd t he s urrounding h abitat. U zzo d emonstrated t hat t he c hange b etween t he N eolithic a nd Mesolithic was n ot t raumatic but, o n t he contrary, c haracterized b y c lear evidence o f c ultural continuity a ccompanied b y g radual t echnological i nnovation which r esulted i n s ocio-economical c hanges ( Piperno a nd T usa 1 976; P iperno e t a l. 1 980b; P iperno a nd T usa i n p ress). T here was a s ignificant continuity o f o ccupation o f t he s ame s ite and t he d omesticated v arieties o f b oth p lants a nd a nimals d id n ot oust t he w ild v arieties when t hey appeared. F auna Among t he f aunal r emains during t he M esolithic, c ervus a nd sus a re quite p lentiful ( Piperno e t a l. 1 980a). T his f its v ery well w ith t he g eneral p icture f or t he central a nd s outhern E uropean M esolithic ( Jarman 1 972). P assing t o N eolithic l evels, t he two v arieties were s till h unted, b ut t here was a n i ncreased d iversification i ncluding a n i ncrease i n f ishing a ctivities ( Durante 1 980). G enerally c ervus prevailed during t he Mesolithic a nd t he t ransition t o t he N eolithic. During t he N eolithic t his t rend c hanged a nd t he c ervus a nd s us b ecame e qually r epresented. T he o ldest r emains o f s us d omesticus appear i n c ut 1 1 o f t rench F . H ere t he i ncreased p resence o f young i ndividuals may b e p roof o f domestication i n p rogress. During t he N eolithic t here was a d rastic r eduction o f wild p ig a nd a g reater i ncrease i n t he b reeding o f d omesticated p igs. T hese c hanges must b e t he r esult o f management d ecisions made b y t he U zzo c ommunity a nd c annot b e put down t o e nvironmental c hanges. T he a uthor a rgues t hat t his l ocal d omestication o f w ild p ig c ould b e explained b y t he concept o f ' multipolar d omestication' ( Guilaine 1 976a). T he o nly d ifference e ncountered w ith t he appearance o f d omesticated p ig i s t he i ncrease o f y oung i ndividuals. B ut this n eed not i ndicate a c hange i n t he s laughtering a nd processing o f s uch a nimals. P ig b reeding d id not i nvolve, o n t he o ther h and, a ny i ncrease o f s us i n p roportion t o o ther v arieties. W ith t he N eolithic t here i s a lso t he appearance o f ovis v el c apra, while vulpes a nd ayes c ontinue t o b e p resent. S umming u p t hese f aunal a nd t opographical considerations we a gree w ith t he conclusions o f P iperno e t a l. ( 1980a) t hat i t i s quite d ifficult t o apply t he model o f mobile e conomy o f B arker ( 1975) t o U zzo. W e h ave t o a dd a f urther i ndication o f s edentary e conomy l asting f rom t he Mesolithic, d emonstrated b y t he l arge Mesolithic c emetery i n t he i nner c ave. T his s edentism could have b een a p rerequisite f or t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic.

6 4

a ci o

« MN .

l e

l k

I

‚0 00 . 0V,0 4 90

7 3 5 77%

F ig.

5 .2. S equence o f decorative p atterns i n t he t hree horizons o f t he U zzo N eolithic s equence ( Scale 1 /1).

6 5

P alaeobotany Costantini, i n a p reliminary r eport, p oints o ut t he marginal role o f p lants i n mainly meat d iet ( Costantini 1 983). O lea europea v ar., o leaster a nd v itis v inifera s p. s ilvestris f irst a ppeared i n t he p re-Neolithic l ayers i ndicating a meso-xerophytic v egetation i n north-western S icily. T hese r emains d o n ot p rovide evidence o f s ystematic g athering. T he p resence o f T riticum monococcum, d icoccum a nd a estivum a long w ith H ordeum s p. i s i mportant. A ccording t o what F ollieri h as a lready p roposed ( Follieri 1 973) t he aestivum i s t he f irst o f t hese v arieties t o b e i ntroduced i n I taly b efore t he I Vth m illennium b .c. ( Evett a nd R enfrew 1 971). A ll t he above cereals were f irst consumed a t t he b eginning o f V th m illennium b .c., b ut t heir s mall quantity, c ompared w ith t he p rojected s ize o f t he community, may e xplain why a griculture was not a s udden event i n t he e conomy. F ollowing C ostantini, t he a uthor p roposes t hat a griculture was i ntroduced over a l ong p eriod a nd h ad a m inor r ole c ompared t o g athering. I t i s c lear t hat t he i ntroduction o f n ew p lants a nd t he n ew way o f b reeding a nimals d id not r esult i n t he e nd o f t he p revious a ctivities. O n t he contrary t he w idening o f p roduction sources s eems to have l ed t o more s ophisticated f orms o f hunting a nd g athering. T he collection o f M alacostraca, e ither f rom s ea o r l and w as o n t he s ame s cale. H owever, f ishing i ncreased a nd d eveloped i n a quite s ophisticated way w ith s uccess i n c atching l arge v arieties s uch a s O rc, a nd d eep-sea f ish s uch a s C ernia ( Durante 1 980). L ithic t echnology Among t he l ithics g eometrics ( triangles e tc.) a nd b acked implements a re common i n t he Mesolithic l ayers. S crapers a nd b urins a re p resent, b ut t he s crapers i ncrease t owards t he e nd o f t he Mesolithic together w ith t runcates. A t t he b eginning of t he N eolithic t he p eculiar e lements o f t he M esolithic b egan t o d ecrease, while b lade types i ncreased. T he most t ypical tool o f t he n ew phase i s t he s ide t ranchd which, together w ith t he m icroburin, b ecomes v ery c ommon t hroughout t he N eolithic ( Piperno 1 976; P iperno a nd Tusa 1 976; P iperno e t al. 1 980b; S egre a nd P iperno 1 975; P iperno a nd T usa i n p ress). P ottery and o ther material culture A t a round t he s ame period a s t he a ppearance o f pottery, obsidian was p resent a t U zzo a nd i ncreased t hroughout t he N eolithic. B one a nd s hell o rnaments a nd t ools b ecome v ery c ommon. P ottery a ppears i n s mall amounts, a nd w ith a l imited d ecorative v ariety, w ithout a ny a pparent s tylistic o rder ( Piperno, e t a l. 1 980b; P iperno a nd T usa i n press) ( Figs. 5 .1, 5 .2). T he o ldest h orizon o f impressed pottery a t U zzo i s made u p o f a f ew s herds d ecorated w ith c ardial p atterns, t acche, c ircular punzonature, u ngihate e p izzicature, o r s mall s mall V -shaped i mpressions. D ecorative e lements a re i solated

6 6

a nd d istributed w ithout a ny o rder. C ardial a nd V-shaped i mpressions d o n ot appear i n t he f ollowing h orizons a nd h ave b een u nknown u ntil n ow i n o ther s imilar s ites. A w ide f irep lace i n t he t alus i s r elated to t his p hase. I n t he s econd pottery phase t here i s a combination o f t he previous p atterns, d eveloped i nto a more p recise s tyle, w ith t he f irst v arieties o f a r egular d istribution o f s tamped a nd l inear i ncisions. A n i ncrease i n geometrical c omposition appeared, b ut i t o nly d eveloped f ully during t he t hird pottery h orizon a t U zzo, when t he typical S tentinello ware a ppeared. A ssociated w ith t hese l evels was t he b ig d oublef aced wall b uilt i n t he t alus. T he t hird h orizon marked t he a lmost t otal d isappearence o f t acche a nd p izzicato d ecoration, whilst p ainted pottery appeared. T his i s a lways o f f ine a rgilla f igulina ware a nd n arrow b ands a re p ainted i n b rown o r y ellow, a nd t he p atterns r esemble t he M asseria L a Quercia s tyle. C arinated o r c ylindrical s hapes o n a h igh b ase a re v ery common, a nd b oth s hapes a nd d ecorations f it well i n t he S tentinello f acies. Summary o f changes I t i s c lear t hat a t U zzo t he b eginning a nd t he d evelopment o f t he N eolithic were part o f a g radual continuum. O n t he o ther h and, i t i s c lear t hat b oth pottery and s ome d omesticated v arieties were i ntroduced f rom outside. I t i s n ot n ecessary t o a ssume t hat n ewcomers b rought s uch i nnovations, a nd i t i s also c lear t hat s uch i nnovations d id not g ive r ise t o a ny cultural b reak. T he g roup l iving i n t he c ave accepted t he c hange a nd, l ittle b y l ittle, s ucceeded i n e xploiting t he n ew t echnological methods, i mproving r elations w ith t he s urrounding e nvironment. I n conclusion we s uggest t hat i t i s u nneccessary t o s peak o f i nvasions when d ealing w ith t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic a t U zzo. C hronology A f urther c hronological p roblem i s l eft. s tratigraphy d iscussed above, t he 14 C d ates were a s S ample I t

S ample

P -2735: I

P-2734:

8 330+80 8 579±80

7 910±70 8 147+70

( Meulengracht e t a l.

b .p. b .p.

= 6 380 = 6 629

b .p. = 5960 b .p.=6197

b .c. ( h.1.5568) b .c. ( h.1.5730) T rench F cuts

b .c. b .c.

( h.l. ( h.l. T rench

5 568) 5 730) F cuts

I n the f ollows:

1 6-18,

1 3-14,

1 981).

The o ldest d ate was obtained f rom a s ample collected i n a l ater Mesolithic l ayer, whilst t he s econd c ame f rom a l ayer t hat i mmediately p receded t he appearance o f pottery ( Cut 1 2 i n t he s ame t rench F ). W e h ave, o f course, t o a ssume t hat t here may b e a g ap b etween t hese d ates a nd t he pottery

6 7

N eolitico a ntico 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1.

( facies

a c eramica

i mpressa)

L evanco, g rotta d i C ala d ei G enovesi G rotta M aiorana G rotta d ell'Uzzo, g rotta d ei C iaravelli G rotta d ei P untali G rotta R egina G rotta G eraci K ronio Rocca d i P ietro P allio R iparo d ella S perlinga G rotta M asella G rotta Corruggi

3 6. 3 7. 3 8. 3 9.

T refontane, P oggio ROSS O F ontana d i P epe P erriere S ottano, P oggio M onaco V alcorrente Monte A lfone T orricella P unta Castelluzzo P etraro d i M elilli ( Timpa D ieri) M egara H yblaea C apo S anta P anagia S tentinello Matrensa, T errauzza, A renella O gnina C altagirone C alaforno G rotta Z ubbia F . C aputo, g rotta I nfame D iavolo C asalicchio P oggio B iddini Monte G isira S an F rancischiello ( Scicli)

N eolitico medio c romica) 7 . K ronio

K ey

to

( facies

F ig.

d ella

c eramica

L ipari, C astellaro V ecchio L ipari, A cropoli C enturipe T refontane. P oggio R osso M egara H yblaea S tentinello C utrufelli ( Taormina) A drano. L e R ocche

N eolitico m edio ( facies d ella c eramica m eandro-spiralica: s tile d i S erra d 'Alto) 7 . 9 . 1 1. 1 4. 1 5. 1 9. 2 0. 3 3. 4 1. 4 3. 4 8. 5 0.

N eolitico medio ( facies d i S tentinello) 3 . G rotta d ell'Uzzo 7 . K ronio 9 . R iparo d ella S perlinga 1 2. Abacaenum 1 3. Motta ( Rometta) 1 4. L ipari, C astellaro V ecchio 1 5. L ipari, D iana 1 6. Naxos 1 7. A gira 1 8. F ontanzza 1 9. Muglia b assa 2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4. 3 5.

1 4. 1 5. 1 9. 2 0. 2 8. 3 0. 4 0. 4 1. 4 2.

K ronio R iparo d ella S perlinga G rotta C orruggi L ipari, M ulino a V ento L ipari, A cropoli, D iana C enturipe P aternö C altagirone A drano M onte P ellegrino P anarea, M ilazzese P alikä

N eolitico 1 . 3 . 7 . 1 0. 1 4.

1 5. 2 8. 3 1. 3 5.

t ri-

3 /. 4 1. 4 4. 4 5. 4 6. 4 7. 4 8. 4 9. 5 0. 5 1.

5 .3.

6 8

s uperiore

( facies

d i

D iana)

L evanzo, g rotta d i C ala d ei G enovesi G rotta d ell'Uzzo K ronio G rotta M asella L ipari, C astellaro V ecchio, P iano C ont e, S patorella, M ulino a V ento, M ercurella L ipari, A cropoli, D iana M egara H yblaea M atrensa G rotta Z ubbia F . C aputo, g rotta I nfame D iavol o P oggio B iddini A drano C astello d ella P ietra G rotta d el V ecchiuzzo B asicö F ilicudi, C apo G raziano P anarea. L a C alcara, P iano C ardosi B iancavilla P alikä G rotta d el C onzo, g rotta d ella C hiusazza, g rotta P alombara

Q

0

p •

-

0_

E :2

0

6 9

l evels, b ut a ccording t o t he s tratigraphical f eatures, t his g ap could not h ave b een v ery l ong. W e t hink t hat t he c orrect a pproach i s t o p lace t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic d evelopment a t U zzo i n t he f irst c enturies o f t he V Ith m illennium b .c. I n g eneral, t he evidence f rom s outhern I taly a grees w ith our hypothesis. B oth P raia a Mare ( 5605 b .c.) a nd C oppa N evigata ( even i f t his d ate o f 6 200 b .c. i s d oubtful) r egister a s imilar c hronological l ay o ut. A nother 1 4 C d ate, r elating t o a l ayer i n which p ainted pottery o f Masseria L a Quercia type i s a ssociated w ith S tentinello ware, was 6 750+70 b .p ( =4800 b .c. a ccording t o 5 568 h .1.) ( sample P-2733). T his f its v ery w ell w ith a d ate made o n a s ample c ollected i n a s imilar cultural l ayer a t P asso d i C orvo ( 4990 b .c.). R egional

c omparisons

T he s uccessful r econstruction o f t he d evelopment f rom h unting a nd g athering t o f ood p roduction a t U zzo i s o nly o ne t essera o f a w ide mosaic t hat i ncludes S icily a nd S outhern I taly. C an t he U zzo p attern b e exported t o t he r est o f S icily? I t i s currently i mpossible t o a nswer t his question; b ut, o n t he o ther h and, our evidence h elps t o u nderstand t he p anorama o f t he S icilian N eolithic. I n W estern S icily t here a re many t ypological r elations t o t he U zzo c ave. S tarting f rom t he n earest s ites s uch a s G rotta d ei C iaravelli ( Vaufrey 1 928), G rotta M aiorana ( Bovio M arconi 1 952; 1 956; G raziosi 1 954; 1 962), G rotta d 'Oriente ( Tusa, V . 1 976-77), P aracazzi ( Falsone u npublished), a nd going f urther west t o G rotta R egina, G rotta M olara ( Mannino 1 975), G rotta d ei P untali ( Mannino 1 978), G rotta G eraci ( Palumbo 1 876) t here a re a f ew, b ut s ignificant, i ndications o f t he e arly N eolithic emerging f rom t he l atest M esolithic d evelopments, f ollowing t he U zzo p attern ( Fig. 5 .3). U nfortunately t he evidence f rom t hese s ites i s s o l imited t hat n othing c an b e s aid. I n a ll S icily only t hree s ites i n t he c entral a nd e astern parts, c an o ffer comprehensive a nd r eliable evidence o f a t rend s imilar t o t hat o f t he e arly N eolithic a t U zzo. T hese a re G rotta d el K ronio, R iparo d ella S perlinga a nd G rotta C orruggi. A t K ronio, T ine ( Tine 1 971; 1 975; M agi 1 976-77), a s we h ave a lready d iscussed, a greed t hat a f irst N eolithic h orizon i s t he t ypological b ase f or t he s ubsequent d evelopments o f t he i mpressed p ottery o f S tentinello a nd P ienza ( Calvi R ezia 1 972). I t i s i mportant t o d istinguish t he I mpressed N eolithic f rom t he S tentinello. H owever, i t i s a t G rotta C orruggi a nd a t R iparo d ella S perlinga t hat t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic s eems t o b e more s imilar t o U zzo ( Bernabö B rea 1 949; C avalier 1 971). A lthough t he e xcavators g ave a d ifferent e xplanation, we t hink t hat t he s tratigraphic s equence w hich b egins w ith t he Mesolithic i s evidence f or a c lear p re-Stentinello e arly

7 0

N eolithic. I n t hese l ayers t here a re a rchaic N eolithic f eatures i ncluding a m icrolithic i ndustry o f M esolithic t radition, a nd, i n t he c ase o f S perlinga, a h igh p roportion o f w ild s pecies. A c omparable a nalysis c ould g ive a more d etailed outline o f t he s ituation a t C astellaro V ecchio - L ipari ( Bernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 956; 1 957; 1 980; C avalier 1 979). I t would s eem t hat a t L ipari t here w ill a lso b e t he c hance t o i solate a n e arly N eolithic. T here a re, i n f act, s everal potsherds b earing a rchaic d ecorative f eatures. I n addition t he p resence o f o bsidian i n e arly N eolithic l ayers a t U zzo, S perlinga a nd Corruggi p roves t he existence o f connections b etween S icily a nd L ipari b efore S tentinello pottery appeared. T he C alabrian s ituation i s c learly connected w ith t hat o f A eolian i slands. F avella ( Tine 1 962; 1 964a), S ant'Angelo I II d i C assano I onio ( Tine 1 964b), C apo A lfiere ( Salvatori 1 973) a nd P raia a M ara ( Cardini 1 970) o ffer i ndications o f a c ultural a nd s tratigraphical d ichotomy b etween a n early i mpressed N eolithic a nd t he d iffusion o f t he typical S tentinello pottery t hat was also found a t P iano d i Curinga ( Ammerman e t a l. 1 976; A mmerman e t a l. 1 978; Ammerman 1 983) a nd a t P restarona ( Costabile 1 972). L astly, f arther north, i n t he Apulo-Materano a rea, t here a re more notable t races o f t he e arlier N eolithic developments, t he e arliest p hase o f t he N eolithic i n S icily, p receeding t he d iffusion o f painted pottery o f Masseria L a Quercia t ype i n t he west a nd o f P asso d i C orvo i n t he east, a re c learly c onnected w ith t he two e arliest phases i solated b y T ine i n t he T avoliere ( Tine 1 975; 1 976a; 1 976b). B oth t he a rchaic i mpressed d ecoration ( cardium, t acche a nd p izzicato) a nd t he m ixed e conomy b ased o n v arious a ctivities, s uch a s a griculture, h erding, h unting a nd g athering d emonstrate t hat t he position i n t he N eolithic development i s t he s ame. A lso t he c hronology s eems t o b e s imilar. Coppa N evigata ( Mosso 1 903; P uglisi 1 955; 1 975; T ine 1 976a; 1 976b) could i ndicate ( if o ne a ccepts t he 14 C d ate) t hat N eolithic d evelopment s tarted a round t he b eginning o f V Ith m illennium b .c., a s a t U zzo. C onnections b etween t he e arly N eolithic o f U zzo w ith R endina ( Cipolloni 1 972; 1 975; T ine 1 976a), G rotta d el Guardino ( Cardini 1 953; 1 957), i l P ub o( Mayer 1 904), P rato don M ichele a t T remiti ( Squinabol 1 907; F usco 1 965), t he questionable G rotta d elle P razziche ( Borzatti 1 969) and G rotta L e Mura ( Cornaggia e t a l. 1 963) a re also s ignificant. S imilarly t he a ppearance o f p ainted p ottery o f M asseria L a Quercia type d ates t o t he s ame period ( 4990 b .c.) a t P asso d i Corvo ( Tine 1 968; 1 972) a nd 4 800 b .c. a t U zzo. D ealing w ith t he p ainted p ottery o f Masseria L a Quercia type we f ind connections w ith P asso d i C orvo ( Tine 1 968, 1 972) L ama Marängia ( Geniola 1 975a), Monte d i S alpi ( Geniola 1 975b), Monte A quilone ( Manfredini 1 975) a nd t he v illage o f C ontrada C asone ( De Juliis 1 975). T here a re a lso c lear t races o f r elationships b etween t he two s ides o f t he A driatic v ia t he T remiti, L agosta, C azza a nd

7 1

P elagosa i slands. T he e arly phases o f I talian i mpressed pottery f ind c lose r elations i n B osnia w ith t he h orizon o f Z elena P ecina a nd Obre I /Starcevo I Ib, while p ainted p ottery r ecalls K ankanj I a nd V inca A l ( Benac 1 975). But, d ealing w ith i mpressed p ottery, we c an t race a l ine o f r elations t hat r each t o t he p re-Sesklo h orizons ( Milojcic 1 959; 1 971) i n T hessaly, a nd t hrough t he K orce b asin ( Podgori), i n s outhern A lbania ( Prendi 1 976). I t could h ave b een v ia t hese r outes t hat t he t echnological i nnovations a nd t he e arliest s eeds r eached t he W est ( Renfrew 1 969). T ypological r elations a nd s imilarities i n development b etween S icily, C alabria, a nd t he Apulo-Materano a rea u nderline c lear i nterrelationships a nd h istorical t ies. A d ifferent s ituation i s evident i n t he northern T yrrhenian a rea. T he t rend o f t he e arly N eolithic i n t his a rea i s turning t owards what Guilaine c alls t he H ispano-French C ardial f amily t hat d iffers, i n many a spects, f rom t he I taloD almatian f amily. I n t he northern T yrrhenian we note t he absence o f t he l ater painted p ottery. T his f urther e mphasizes t he positive r elationships b etween S icily, s outhern I taly a nd t he B alkans. I n northern I taly f rom F iorano ( Bagolini a nd B iagi 1 975) t o A rene C andide ( Bernabö B rea 1 946; 1 956; T ine 1 973) t here i s a t rend o f t he i ncised a nd i mpressed d rawing t hat, l eaving a side t he typical g eometrical f eature o f S tentinello a nd P ienza, r uns towards t he ' baroque' o f t he C ardial horizons i n L anguedoc, P rovence a nd C atalonia. T he earliest N eolithic p hases o f s outhern F rance a nd C atalonia p rovide t oo f ew c ardial s imilarities w ith S tentinello ( Guilaine 1 979; C ourtin 1 974; Guilaine e t a l. 1 971-2), to point o ut t he c hronological d ifferences ( it s eems t hat t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic was l ater i n t he N orth) ( Guilaine 1 974; 1 976a; 1 976b; 1 978). H owever, i t i s v ery i mportant t o s ee t hat t here i s a convergence i n t he f orm o f t ransfer o f t he Mesolithic e conomy to p rimary f orms o f f ood p roduction ( Guilaine 1 975; 1 978). B y emphasising s uch s imilarities i t i s c lear t hat w e a gree w ith t he e xplanatory p attern t hat s hows t he e xistence o f a multipolar phenomenon o f European a nd M editerranean N eolithic emergence. Summing u p what h as s ummarize our h ypothesis

b een d iscussed i n t his p aper, u nder t he f ollowing p oints:

we c an

1 .

T he r oots o f t he s tability d emonstrated d uring t he t ransition f rom M esolithic t o N eolithic i n S icily go d eep i nto t he l ast p hases o f t he u pper P alaeolithic. I n t hat period we c an f ind s edentism ( as a p re-requisite f or t he r ise o f f ood p roduction) a nd a t echnological a nd c ultu ral h eritage t hat l inks t he M esolithic w ith t he N eolithic.

2 .

I t i s possible t o p ropose t he h ypothesis t hat t his t ransition d emonstrated a t U zzo was a lso r ecorded i n many o ther s ites ( such a s G rotta d i C ala d ei G enovesi, G rotta C orruggi, R iparo d ella S perlinga, G rotta M olara e tc.).

7 2

3 .

I n S icily t he e arliest N eolithic d evelopment c an b e d ivided i nto t wo parts. A f irst s tage - f rom t he e nd o f t he V IIth t o t he V Ith a nd b eginning o f t he V th m illennia b .c. - a nd a s econd, during t he V th m illennium, a ssociated w ith S tentinello a nd L ipari t ricrome pottery ( Lipari 4 190 b .c.).

4 .

T he S icilian N eolithic, w ith i mpressed pottery, h as t o b e s een a s a c ultural d evelopment w ithout a ny b reak. T he p rofound c hange w as i n s ocio-economic d evelopment. We s ee a t ransition f rom m ixed s ystems o f f ood p roduction ( hunting, f ishing, g athering, a griculture a nd h erding) to f ully a ccomplished f arming c ommunities. I n o ther words we h ave a t ransition f rom t he b ands a nd c lans l iving i n t he c aves t o t he v illages o f S tentinello, M egara, M atrensa e tc.

5 .

T he

most

r emarkable

c hanges

a re

s een

i n

t he

l ithic

t echnology a nd i n t he s ettlement patterns whilst pottery d evelops w ithout a b reak. P ottery s hows a c lear t rend t owards more c omplex s ystems o f i ncised a nd impressed d ecoration w ith t he g radual appearance o f s tampigliatura ( or s tamped d ecoration) a nd o f t hose p eculiar e lements o f S tentinello ware, s uch a s t he r homboid p attern ' eyes' t hat c an h ave b een amulets, a s well a s t he p ainted d ecoration. 6 .

I t i s i mpossible t o a ccept n ow t he e quation: S tentinello = I mpressed p ottery culture. W e h ave t ried t o e xplain t hat a h orizon w ith i mpressed p ottery ( e.g. M aiorana, C iaravelli, U zzo, C ala d ei G enovesi, R egina, P untali, Molara, G eraci, P ietro P allio, S perlinga, Masella, C orruggi, K ronio) c an b e i solated f rom t he S tentinello f acies i tself ( Stentinello, M egara M atrensa, O gnina, F ontana d i P epe, P oggio Rosso, P restarona, P iano d i Curinga). T he s tratigraphy o f t hese s ites s hows t hat t here i s considerable c omplexity i n t he s uccession o f s ocial g roups, t hat culminates i n t his l ast p hase.

7 .

T here a re c lose a ffinities b etween t he I mpressed p ottery s ettlements o f S icily, C alabria, P uglia a nd t he B alkans. C lose t ies connect S icily w ith t he B alkans t hrough S outhern I taly. I t w as t hrough t hese a reas t hat i n t he b eginning s ome c ultigens a nd pottery, a nd l ater, t he v arious s tyles o f p ainted pottery a rrived. I t was t hrough t he s ame route, b ut i n t he o pposite d irection, t hat S tentinello ware r eached C alabria.

8 .

I t i s i mpossible t o d eny t hat t here could h ave b een r elations w ith n orth A frica. L ittle a ttention h as b een d evoted t o s uch p roblems a nd o nly g eneric s imilarites have b een p ointed o ut f or i mpressed p ottery a nd l ithics. T he p ossiblilty o f s ea r elations i s quite c ertain. I n t hat p eriod L ampedusa was s ettled a nd w e k now t hat t his i sland i s much more d ifficult t o r each t han C apo B on ( Radi 1 972).

9 .

L ipari

was

s ettled

during

7 3

t he

e arliest

p hases

a s

demonstrated

b y

t he

p resence

o f

o bsidian

i n

S icilyfrom

the beginning of the Neolithic and due to the presenceof a rchaic Impressed p ottery at C astellaro V ecchio . I n conclusion, we think that only a new approach ( like the U zzo one) relating to a wider area i n S icily will help to solve many proble ms related to the beginning of the Neolithic. We have to undertake f ield projects choosing v arious areas i n order to collect d ata coming f rom d ifferent ecosystems. We need a wide spectrum of s ites to provide t he potential ans wers to the ecological stresses. This perspective f inds l ittle u seful d ata f rom o ther s ites s o f ar excavated. We can trace styles and pottery d iffusion but, apart f rom U zzo, there i s an almost total l ack of data on the palimpsest o f p roductive a ctivities t hat t he i ntroduction o f new v arieties o f a nimals a nd p lants p roduced i n t he e xcavated s ettlements. Ho wever,

the

si mple

increase

of

b i oarchaeologica 1

research i s n ot enough to f ill t his g ap u nless t he r esults o f such researches are s een i n a dynamic perspective. Our research will be u seless i f we persist i n the idea of a hypothetical Neolithic ' headquarters'. Nobody wants to deny t he role and the importance of new i tems to accelerate the cultural processes, but we have to consider that their r elations were d ialectical. T hen t he a ctual p rocesses will b e co mprehensible, but only if we pursue the internal reconstruction o f h istorical phenomena a nd t ry to avoid easy d iffusionistic panaceas. B ibliography Ammerman, A . 1 983. 1 5-25. Am mer man,

A .,

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I talian

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( 2),

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8 1

Summary. T he a uthor r eviews r ecent work b y t he i nterdisciplinary t eam, a t U zzo, a nd t he implications o f t he work f or t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic i n S icily. F irst a h istory o f r esearch o n t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic i n S icily i s g iven. T hen i nformation o n t he f auna, p alaeobotany, material culture a nd c hronology o f U zzo i s p resented. F inally r egional comparisons w ith S icily a nd t he r est o f t he c entral Mediterranean a re made. R iassunto. L 'autore p assa i n r assegna i l l avoro r ecente d ell'equipe i nterdisciplinare della G rotta d ell'Uzzo e i l peso d el l avoro per l 'inizio d el n eolitico i n S icilia. P er p rima c osa ä presentata u na s toria della r icerca s ull'inizio d el n eolitico i n S icilia. P oi s ono f orniti i d ati s ulla f auna, s ulla paleobotanica s ulla materia culturale e s ulla c ronologia. I n f ine, l a G rotta d ell'Uzzo e messa a c onfronto c on l a S icilia e 1 1 r esto d el Mediterraneo c entrale.

8 2

6 .

S OME

1 4

C DATES FOR THE PALAEOECONOMIC EVIDENCE FROM

T HE HOLOCENE LEVELS OF U ZZO CAVE,

S ICILY

M arcello P iperno

E ight 1 4 C d ates ( 10,070 ± 9 0; 9 300 ± 1 00; 9 180 ± 1 00; 9 030 ± 1 00; 8 330 ± 8 0; 7 900 ± 7 0; 6 750 ± 7 0; 6 720 ± 8 0, b .p.) a nd two a spartic-acid r acemization d ates ( 8600 a nd 9 500) h ave b een u p to now obtained f rom t he H olocene d eposit o f U zzo C ave ( Trapani, S icily). W ithin t he 3 00 y ears r epresented i n t he U zzo l evels i t i s possible t o d istinguish r oughly t hree main s uperimposed c ultural u nits, w ithout a ny v isible b reak i n c ontinuity i n more t han f our metres o f d eposit. A t t he b ottom o f t his s equence a f ew f ragmentary b ones a ssociated w ith s ome l ithic ddbitage o f no typological i nterest, d ate p robably t o t he e nd o f t he u pper P leistocene, w hile a post-Neolithic u tilization o f t he c ave i s d ocumented b y s ome s poradic pottery f ragments o f t he E neolithic a nd B ronze A ge. During a ll t he P reboreal a nd a t l east part o f the B oreal, a l ong a nd continuous Mesolithic p resence, c orresponding t o t he f irst cultural u nit i s p resent b oth i nside a nd i n t he t alus o f t he c ave. 1 4 C d ates b elonging to t his u nit s uggest a t ime s pan b etween 1 0,070 + 9 0 a nd 8 330 ± 8 0 b .p., while t he two o ther r acemization d ates w ithin t his r ange h ave b een o btained f rom h uman b ones i n two d ouble g raves ( Uzzo I a nd I V) o f t he Mesolithic c emetery. Hunting ( red d eer, w ild b oar a nd a s mall number o f b irds), a nd G athering ( molluscs a nd w ild f ruits) s eem t o h ave t aken p lace i n a t errestrial e nvironment o f mediterranean c oastal macchia w ith o ak g roves. F ollowing t he p ost-glacial s ea l evel r ise, marine r esources were a lso e xploited; c rustaceans, s ea u rchins a nd molluscs were c ollected a nd a round 9 000 b .p. t here w as t he b eginning o f i ntermittent f ishing a ctivity. T he s econd cultural u nit, which s eems b rief on s tratigraphical g rounds, i s marked b y a s udden i ncrease i n marine e xploitation; t his i s v isible n ot s o much i n t erms o f t he quantity o f f ish r emains f ound i n t his l evel, b ut i n t erms o f t he s ize o f marine s pecies h unted d uring t his p eriod. V ertebrae a nd s ome f ragments o f r ibs a nd mandible b elonging t o a t l east t hree d ifferent s pecies o f C etaceans a re p resent. T he p resence o f t hese h as i nteresting i mplications f or t he n avigational abilities a nd other t echnology o f t he U zzo community. T he 14 C d ate f or t his l evel i s 7 900 7 0 b .p. L evels b elonging to t his c ultural u nit were p reviously i dentified t hrough t he e xcavation o f t he d eepest t rench

8 3

F ig. s ome

6 .1. R econstruction o f the U zzo environment o f t he economic evidence f rom the s econd u nit ( Drawing M .T. S erafini).

8 4

b ased o n cultural

o utside t he c ave ( Trench F ) a nd c onfirmed i n T rench L . T he a reas where these l evels l ie above t he Mesolithic h orizons b ut a re n ot covered b y t he N eolithic d eposit a re o nly p reserved i n t he a rea b etween t he extensive e xcavation a t t he b ottom o f t he t alus a nd t he d eposit i nside t he c ave. During t he 1 983 e xcavations, particular c are was p laced i n r ecognising t he e conomic a nd cultural f eatures o f t he s econd u nit. A t rench o pened i n t he above mentioned a rea confirmed o nce a gain t he e xistence o f t his v ery s hort p hase, c haracterized b y a h unting e conomy i n which t he c apture o f c etaceans a nd b ig f ishes, even w ithout r epresenting a p redominant a spect i n r espect t o w ild a nimal exploitation, n evertheless constituted a peculiar a ctivity l imited t o t his l evel. L ithic t echnology i s c haracterised b y a s mall f requency o f t ransverse a rrowheads s imilar t o t hose a ssociated w ith N eolithic l evels i n t he s ame c ave. T his s econd cultural u nit i s a ceramic b ut s everal b aked c lay f ragments smoothened o n o ne s ide h ave b een f ound. T he two l ast 14 C d ates ( 6720 + 8 0 a nd 6 750 + 7 0) are r elated to t he t hird c ultural U nit a nd h ave b een obtained r espectively f rom t he m iddle a nd f rom t he l ower-middle part o f t he N eolithic d eposit. T his c lose a greement o f d ates, a lthough t he c harcoal s amples a re s eparated b y 3 0 cms., s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he d eposit was a ccumulated i n a r elatively s hort t ime. T he 1 983 excavations h owever p roduced n ew s tratigraphic evidence f or t he i nitial p hases o f t he U zzo N eolithic. T he two quoted 1 4 C d ates r efer t o t he d eposit l ying above a paving o f pebbles a nd s tones, r ich i n a rchaeological material, o n which a l arge s tone wall h ad b een c onstructed. More t han 4 0 cms. o f N eolithic d eposit a re s till p resent b elow t his p aving i n t he t rench o pened i n 1 983; no 14 C d ates a re a t t he moment available f or t hese l owest N eolithic l evels; i mmediately b elow t he p aving, a f ragmentary c lay f emale f igurine was found i n July 1 983. A t ypical N eolithic e conomy ( including s heep, goat, p ig a nd more r arely b ovids; f arming, w ild p lant collection a nd s ome b ut d ecreasing h unting a ctivity, e specially o f w ild d eer) i s n ow c haracterised b y a n i ntense a nd continuous f ishing a ctivity, e mploying b one o r i vory hooks. C etaceans a re n o l onger exploited b ut s everal s pecies o f f ishes, l ike E pinephelus g igas, D entex d entex, S parus auratus, Muraena h elena, a re c ommonly r epresented. A more d etailed a nalysis o f f ish b ones f rom U zzo C ave, a ctually c arried o ut b y P .F. C assoli, i ndicates t he p resence o f s mall s pecies, l ike f or e xample S corpaena s crofa, d emonstrating t he w ide s pectrum o f f ish r esouces exploited b y t he U zzo N eolithic c ommunity. T he cultural a nd e conomic s equence here b riefly s ummarized f or t he U zzo C ave, h as a s iginificant s imilarity, i n many o f i ts a spects, w ith s tages 3 , 4 and 5 d escribed b y

8 5

J acobsen f or F ranchthi C ave ( Jacobsen 1 981). A s f ar a s o ur f irst cultural u nit ( = S tage 3 o f F ranchthi C ave) i s concerned, t he evidence f rom U zzo s eems c learly t o i ndicate, f ollowing what h as a lready b een expressed b y C lark ( 1980) a nd J acobsen ( 1981) ' the p ivotal r ole o f t he M esolithic a s a p relude t o t he cultural a chievements o f t he N eolithic'. O f particular i nterest i s t he convergence, a t a p alaeoeconomical l evel, b etween S tage 4 o f F ranchthi C ave, c haracterized b y a l arge e xploitation o f marine r esources, e specially t una, and our s econd u nit i n which d ifferent s pecies o f c etaceans a re p resent; b oth t hese p hases o f F ranchthi a nd U zzo, a re c hronologically contemporaneous. I n conclusion, our h ypothesis c oncerning t he t ransition f rom Mesolithic a nd N eolithic a nd a p ossible s edentism a t t he e nd o f M esolithic t imes c ould b e v erified i n t he l ight o f d ata emerging f rom t hese two M editerranean s ites.

B ibliography C lark,

G .

1 980.

Mesolithic prelude.

J acobsen, T . W. 1 981. s ettled v illage 3 19.

E dinburgh.

F ranchthi C ave a nd t he b eginning o f l ife i n G reece. H esperia 5 0 ( 4), 3 03-

Summary. T he r adio c arbon a nd a spartic a cid r acemization d ates f rom t he H olocene l evels o f U zzo a re p resented. T he author s uggests s ignificant s imilarities i n t he palaeoeconomic c hanges, w ith t he s equence a t F ranchthi c ave i n G reece. R iassunto. E p resentata ( tipo r adio c arbon e aspartic a cid r acemization) d ei l ivelli o locenici d ella g rotta d el'Uzzo. S econdo l 'autore, i c ambiamenti p aleoeconomici s ono molto s imili s ia n ella g rotta d i F ranchthi i n G recia.

8 6

7 .

D IET,

S ubject

DENTAL

F EATURES

AND ORAL PATHOLOGY

SAMPLES

F ROM U ZZO

S ilvana

B orgognini

a nd a im

o f

t he

I N

A ND MOLARA CAVES

T arli

a nd

THE MESOLITHIC

( SICILY)

E lena

R epetto

r esearch

Th e pur pose of the present research was the reconstruction of dietary habits by means of dental c haracteristics ( measurements, wear, p laque-related d iseases, abcesses and osteitis, calculus and anomalies) and by the i ntegration of t he r esults with a rchaeological d ata. M aterial

available

f or

s tudy

S ix nearly complete adult dentitions were found i n the Tisolithic levels of U zzo cave ( Sicily) ( Fig. 7 .1),dated by C to 9 ,030±100 8 ,600 - 9 ,500 b .p . f our more o r l ess

- 9 ,300±100 b .p. and by racemization to ( Piperno this v olume) a nd b etween two and i ncomplete adult dentitions were found i n

the Mesolithic l evels stratigraphically to ( Mannino, 1 975).

of Molara cave approxi mately

( Fig. 7 ,000

7 .1), dated - 8,000 b .p.

M ethods Measurements were made by d igital/electronic calliper. T he o ral pathology was i nspected v isually. C lassification of wear s everity was made u sing t he methods o f Martin and S alver ( 1956 -9), Molnar ( 1971) an d Scott ( 19 79); an d of periodontal d isease u sing the method o f D alitz ( 1962); and of d ental a nomalies u sing t he categories of B rabant ( 1967). R esults

and

d iscussion

As compared to European and Circum -Me diterran ea n Mesolithic samples, the dental measurements of U zzo are generally smaller and c loser to Neolithic samples, while those of Molara a re generally larger and closer to P alaeol ithic samples, especially in the mandibular dentition ( Tables 7 .1 and 7 .2). T he i nformation o n d ietary h abits which c an b e obtained b y the study of dental wear and pathology i s i llustrated in Table 7 .3. The degree of dental wear i n the anterior and posterior d entition o f I talian E pipalaeolithic a nd Mesolithic s amples i s reported i n T able 7 .3. The h igher degree of severity i n t he anterior dentition o f a ll t he s amples s hown i n Table 7 .3, t ogether with the constant p resence o f dental calculus i n t he S icilian s pecimens, s uggest a regular a nd r elatively h igh

8 7

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consumption o f v egetable f ood ( Hillson 1 979; P uech 1 980). A s c ompared to U zzo, Molara s hows a p attern o f h eavier w ear, w hich could b e r elated t o a g reater a ge a t d eath. F ig 7 .2 s hows t he r elationships c aries a nd c alculus f ormation.

b etween

d iet,

d ental

T able 7 .5 s hows t he f requency d istribution o f c aries i n c ircummediterranean E pipalaeolithic, M esolithic a nd N eolithic p opulations a s c ompared w ith a modern r eference population. T he h igh i ncidence o f d ental c aries i n t he S icilian s amples, e specially i n t he U zzo s ample, i n comparison w ith contemporary populations, h as t o b e noted. I n t he U zzo s ample p olycaries i s p resent i n 4 o ut o f 6 i ndividuals a nd i n a ll t he s ubjects w ith c aries. T he i ncidence o f t he v arious t ypes o f c aries i n t he U zzo s ample i s s hown i n F ig. 7 .2. Molara i s not r epresented owing t o t he s mall s ample s ize, w hich p revented f urther s ubdivision o f t he d ata. T he h igh i ncidence o f c aries, i ts particular d istribution ( 72.0% i nterproximal, 8 0% o n l ower t eeth a nd 6 8% o n posterior d entition), together w ith t he v ery h igh i ncidence o f polycaries i n t he U zzo s ample s uggest a r egular s ugar i ntake o r, more g enerally, c arbohydrate consumption. T he s ugar s upply m ight have b een f urnished b y h oney a nd b y s weet f ruits f rom t he Mediterranean b ush, s uch a s f igs, c arobs, I rish s trawberries, T amarix mannifera e tc. T his hypothesis i s s upported b y p aleobotanical f indings ( Costantini 1 981), a s s hown i n T able 7 .6. T he i ncidence o f periodontal d isease i n t he two S icilian s amples c ompared w ith o ther I talian E pipalaeolithic a nd Mesolithic populations i s s hown i n T able 7 .4. T here i s a l ower d egree o f s everity o f p eriodontal d isease i n t he U zzo s ample. T he i ncidence o f o steitis ( with o r w ithout a nte-mortem tooth l oss a nd a lveolar r esorption) i s h igher i n t he Epipalaeolithic s amples f rom F ucino a nd T aforalt ( 16-28%) t han i n t he N eolithic s amples f rom M atera t renched v illages ( 5-6%) ( Borgognini T arli 1 978). T his o bservation i s i n agreement w ith t he expected modification o f o ral pathology r esulting f rom t he e conomic t ransition w hich t akes p lace d uring t his period. I n f act, while d uring L ate U pper P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic t imes o steitis a nd p eriodontal d isease a re more f requent a nd more s evere t han d ental c aries, t he o pposite i s t rue during t he N eolithic. A lveolar o steitis i s p resent i n t he U zzo s ample w ith a f requency o f 1 4.3% ( in 2 7/189 s ockets) a nd i n t he M olara s ample w ith a f requency o f 1 8.6% ( in 1 1/59 s ockets). O n t he w hole, t he s ample f rom Molara c ave s hows a p attern o f d ental wear a nd o ral p athology more s imilar t o t hat c haracteristic o f t he P alaeo- M eso-lithic p eriod, while t he U zzo s ample i s c loser t o N eolithic s amples.

9 1

T able 7 .3.

- T he

S tudy o f

T eeth a s

D iet

I ndicators

- Teeth p rocess a ll f ood e ntering t he b ody: t hey a re t herefore among t he more d irect i ndicators o f d iet. - T eeth a re amongst t he most f requently a nd b est p reserved p arts o f t he h uman b ody: t hey a re available i n r elatively l arge amounts even i n small s amples.

Main

f eatures

t o

b e observed o n

Abrasion: D ental W ear A ttrition:

- a ge a t d eath D ue to g ritty - masticatory s tress contaminants i n t he - d ietary h abits f ood o r t o collagen a nd c ellulose molecules

c aries

P eriodontal

D ental c alculus

D ental a nomalies:

E namel

M ainly r elated t o:

D ue t o tooth/tooth c ontact: non-dietary

D ental P laque-related D iseases:

t eeth:

- a ge a t d eath - masticatory s tress d isease - d ietary h abits - g enetic f actors

- s alivary pH

I n s hape, v olume, number o r position o f t eeth ( hypo- o r hyperodontia, - g enetic m icro- o r macrodontia, e tc.)

f actors

- d ietary s tress - f ebrile conditions ( during c hildhood)

hypoplasia

9 2

D ental a nomalies a re p resent i n t he U zzo s ample i n 5 /6 i ndividuals ( 83.8%); more t han o ne type o f a nomaly c an b e p resent p er s ubject a nd/or p er t ooth. T he a nomalies were g rouped p er t ype a ccording t o t he c lassification b y B rabant ( 1967); t en c ases were t hen d iagnosed. I mpaction i s p resent i n 4 /10 c ases ( 40.0%); m icrodontia i n 3 /10 c ases ( 30.0%); malposition i n 2 /10 ( 20.0%) a nd e namel v ariations i n 1 /10 ( 10.0%). T he a nterior d entition i s a ffected i n 4 /10 c ases ( 40%) a nd t he t hird molar i n 6 /10 c ases ( 60.0%).

T able

7 .4

- R elationships b etween d iet, d ental c aries c alculus d eposition ( Hillson, 1 979).

and

metabolize p roteins P lague

b acteria

> A lkaline waste p roducts

R eplacement o f e namel's m ineral o r c alculus d eposition

m etabolize c arbohydrates

L actic a cid a s waste p roduct

D issolution o f t he e namel's m ineral

CARIES

T he i ncidence o f d ental c aries o r o f i ndicates p rotein v s. c arbohydrate c ontent

d ental c alculus i n t he d iet.

I n t he Molara s ample o nly o ne a nomaly i s p resent ( microdontia o n M 3). I n t he F ucino s ample 2 /4 i ndividuals s how a nomalies ( malposition o f M 3). I n t he A rene C andide s ample 3 /4 i ndividuals s how a nomalies ( two c ases o f i mpaction o f t he a nterior d entition, o ne c ase o f malposition a nd o ne o f a genesia o f M 3).

9 3

ABSOLUTE

OCCLUSAL

FREQUENCY

INTERPROXIMAL

LOWER

POSTERIOR

F ig.

7 .2.

AND

NON— PENITRANT

I N V a , L 3 N a d

' 1 V D I A 2 1 3

NON—CERVICAL

I ncidence o f t he v arious t ypes o f c aries Mesolithic s ample f rom U zzo cave.

9 4

i n

t he

T able

7 .5

- I ncidence

o f

c aries

i n

c ircummediterranean

E pipalaeolithic a nd M esolithic s amples a s pared t o N eolithic a nd modern populations

S ample

No. o f t eeth

No.

F ucino 6 8 ( Parenti 1 960; 1 961 B orgognini T arli 1 969) T aforalt ( Ferembach

% o f

1

6 77

c an ed t eeth

1 .5

4 0

5 .9

1 962)

A rene C andide ( Paoli e t a l.

1 16

2

1 .7

1 980)

U zzo ( present p aper)

6 2

Molara ( Borgognini Tarli 1 976; p resent p aper)

5 0

Muge ( Ferembach

o f c an ed t eeth

com-

2 2

1 3.2

3

4 28

6 .0

4 -10

0 .9-2.3

1 974)

Average o f I talian E pipalaeolithic a nd Mesolithic s amples * *

2 34

2 .6

6

S outhern E uropean Mesolithic s ample ( Chamla 1 969)

2 .6

2 .0-10.0

E uropean N eolithic s amples ( Brabant 1 967) M atera N eolithic s ample ( Borgognini T arli 1 978)

8 .5-9.0

3 3-35

3 87

5 0.0-60.0

M odern P opulations ( Brabant a nd T wiesselmann 1 964)

* U ngrouped s amples a re l isted approximately i ncreasing a ge. * * U zzo e xcepted.

9 5

i n

o rder

o f

T he i ncreased f requency o f d ental anomalies i n modern h uman p opulations i s connected w ith a r elaxation o f s elective p ressures f avouring a complete a nd p erfectly e fficient d entition ( Brace a nd Mahler 1 971). I n h ave U zzo

g eneral, t he r esults o btained f or t he Molara s ample t o b e r egarded w ith g reater c aution t han t hose f or t he s ample, c onsidering t he s maller s ample s ize.

T he r esults point t o : - a g enerally h igh v egetable c onsumption i n a ll t he I talian E pipalaeolithic a nd Mesolithic p opulations; - a l ower masticatory s tress a nd a r elatively h igh c arbohydrate o r s ugar i ntake i n t he U zzo s ample, whose d ental f eatures a re g enerally more s imilar t o N eolithic t han t o o ther c ircummediterranean E pipalaeolithic a nd M esolithic s amples.

A cknowledgements We t hank t he I talian I nstitute o f H uman P alaeontology a nd t he A rchaelogical S ervice o f P alermo a nd T rapani P rovinces f or s uggesting a nd a llowing t his r esearch; D r. M . P iperno f or u seful d iscussion o n u npublished a rchaeological d ata; D r. C . Meiklejohn f or d ental measurements p erformed a s c ontrol o f t he i nterobserver e rror; M r. C ay. P . C assoli f or t he p reparation o f t he s pecimens. T he r esearch was s upported b y a M inistry o f E ducation g rant ( M.P.I. 4 0%).

9 6

T able

7 .6

Vegetal U zzo

- Tentative reconstruction of the vegetal c omponent o f t he d iet i n t he mesolithic s ample f rom U zzo c ave.

r emains

cave

T riticum

f ound

( Costantini

sp.

( V-VIIth

at

Our

hypotheses

1 981)

s ugar

M illennium)

H oney;

about possible s upplies

f igs,

c arobs,

Hordeum

s p.

( 1st half of Vth m illennium)

I rish

Quercus

s p.

( 7630

T amarix mannifera

L athyrus

s p.

b .c.)

( since t he s econd h alf o f IXth m illenium)

s p.

( since t he s econd h alf o f I Xth M illennium.)

Vitis

sp.

( 7350

b .c.)

( 6180

b .c.)

( 8420

b .c.)

s p.

A rbutus L ens F icus

s p.

s p. sp.

( undated) ( undated)

9 7

and

other s weet f ruits f rom t he Mediterranean bush.

P isum

O lea

s trawberries,

B ibliography Borgognini Tarli, S .M. 1 969. Studio antropologico d i uno scheletro d i epoca mesolitica r invenuto nella grotta Maritza presso Avezzano A ntropologia 5 6, 1 35-156.

( Abruzzo).

Ri vista

di

Borgognini Tarli, S .M. 1 976. S tudio antropologico d i un cranio mesolitico r invenuto n ella g rotta d ella Molara ( Palermo, S icilia). A rchivio per l 'Antropologia e l 'Etnologia 1 06, 1 93-228. Borgognini

T arli,

S .

1 978.

I resti

s cheletrici

d el

N eolitico

materano d el Museo R idola ( Nota p reliminare). I n A tti della XX R iunione S cientifica. F irenze, I stituto I taliano d i preistoria e protostoria, 2 41-259. B orgognini T arli, S .M. 1 980. I nquadramento, n el contesto del Mesolitico i taliano, degli s cheletri p rovenienti d a una sepoltura duplice nella grotta dell'Uzzo ( Trapani). A ntropologia C ontemporanea 3 , 3 81-393 . Brabant, H . 1 967. Palaeostomatology. I n B rothwell, D . and Sandison, A .T. ( eds.) D iseases in Antiquity. London, T homas. Brabant, H . 1970. La denture humaine au Paleolithique superieur d 'Europe. I n Ca mps, G . and Olivier, G . ( eds.) L 'Hom me de Cro-magnon. Anthropologie et A rcheologi .. P aris, A rts e t Metiers G raphiques, 9 91 19. Brabant, H . and Twiesselmann, P . 1 964. Observations sur l 'evolution de la denture permanente humaine en Europe occidentale. B ulletin d u group i nternational de R echerches en S ciences S tomatologiques 7 , 1 1 .

Brace,

C .L. and Mahler, P .E. 1 971. Post-Pleistocene changes i n t he h uman d entition. American Journal of P hysical Anthropology 3 4, 1 91-203.

Cha mla,

M .C. 1969. La can e dentaire chez les hommes prehistoriques d 'Afrique du Nord; e pipaleolithique et neolithique. L 'Anthropologie 7 3 ( 7-8), 5 45-578.

Costantini, L . 1 981. Semi e carboni del Mesolitico e Ne oli ti co della Gr otta dell' Uzzo, Tr apani. Quaternaria 2 3, 2 33-247. Dalitz,

G .D. 1 962. Age determination of adult human remains b y t eeth examination. Journal of t he F orensic S cientific Society 3 , 11.

P erembach, D . 1 962. L a ngcropole d pipaleolithique de ( Maroc O riental). E tude d es s quelettes R abat, Edit C asablanca.

9 8

T aforalt h umains.

F erembach,

D .

1 974 .

I I

- A nthropologie.

I n

D irecgäo-Gera

dos

A ssuntos C ulturais ( ed .) L e g isement mdsolithique de Moita do Se ba st iäo- Muge-Portugal. L isboa, D irecgäo-Gera dos A ssuntos Culturais. Prayer,

D .W. 1 978. The evolution of dentition i n Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Purope. University of K ansas Publications i n A nthropology 1 0.

Hillson, S . W. 1 979. A rchaeology 1 1,

D iet and 1 47-162.

dental

disease.

World

Mannino, G . 1 975. La grotta della Molara. Appunti per un P arco speleologico a i P itrazzi. S icilia Archeologica 27, 47-56. Martin,R.and S ailer, K . 1 956-59. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie i n systematischer D arstellung. V ols. III. S tuttgart, F ischer. Molnar,

S . 1971. Human tooth wear, tooth function and cultural v ariability . American Journal of P hysical A nthropology 3 4, 1 75-190.

Paoli,

G ., Parenti, R . and Sergi, S . 1980. Gli scheletri mesolitici della Caverna delle Arene Candide ( Liguria). Memorie I stituto I taliano P aleontologia Umana 3 ( N.S.), 33-154.

Parenti, R . 1960. Calvario cromagnonoide trovato i n un deposito mesolitico del bacino fucense ( Abruzzo). A rchivio per l 'Antro olo i a e l 'Etnologia 9 0, 5 -92. Parenti, R . 1961. Resti scheletrici umani dell'epoca mesolitica provenienti da due grotte del b acino fucense ( Abruzzo). A rchivio per l 'Antropologia, e l 'Ftnologia 9 1, 9 -43. Puech,

P .P. 1980. L 'ali mentation A rcheologia 1 40, 6 -12.

S cott,

E .C. 1 979. Dental wear scoring technique. American Journal o f P hysical A nthropology 5 1, 2 13-218.

9 9

de

l 'homme

prdhistorique.

Summary A n a ttempt i s p resented, o f t he r econstruction o f d ietary h abits i n t wo S icilian Mesolithic population s amples ( Uzzo c ave, T rapani a nd M olara c ave, P alermo) b y t he s tudy o f d ental t raits i ntegrated w ith a rchaeological f indings i s p resented. T he r esults s uggest t he p resence o f a r egular a nd r elatively h igh v egetal c omponent o f t he d iet w ith a n appreciable c arbohydrate i ntake. R iassunto T entativo d i r icostruzione d elle a bitudini a limentari i n d ue c ampioni d i p opolazioni mesolitiche s iciliane ( grotta U zzo, T rapani e g rotta M olara, P alermo) a ttraverso l o s tudio d ei d enti ( dimensioni, u sura e patologia) e l 'integrazione d ei d ati con i r itrovamenti archeologici. L 'insieme d ei r isultati s uggerisce l a p resenza d i u na c omponente v egetale abbondante e r egolare con u n s ensibile apporto d i c arboidrati.

1 00

8 . ON

ARCHITECTURAL RESOURCES AND THEIR

CERTAIN NEOLITHIC

SETTLEMENTS

G ary

D .

I N

E FFECT

SOUTHERN

I TALY

S haffer

Detailed s tudies o f Impressed Ware N eolithic wattle and daub buildings f rom t he s outhern I talian r egion o f C alabria h ave recently b een carried out ( Shaffer 1 983). O ne a spect o f this r esearch was t he examination o f v arious resources needed for making the buildings. T he r aw materials required f or t heir construction i nclude p lants, rocks, and s oil. Two additional resources important to those who built t he daub s tructures were water and possibly t he h elp of people i n neighbouring s ettlements. H ere, the procurement o f these s everal architectural r esources w ill b e considered a s well a s their e ffect o n t he placement, certain I mpressed Ware s ettlements.

continuity,

and growth

o f

I ntensive s urveys i n t he mid and l ate 1 970s l ocated a number o f Impressed Ware Neolithic s ites i n d ifferent parts o f C alabria. T en such s ites, d ating to the s ixth a nd f ifth millennia b .c., were d iscovered near the v illage o f A cconia, l ocated on the Tyrrhenian coast's Golfo d i S ant'Eufemia. Much new k nowledge of impressed ware, or S tentinello period s ettlement patterns and wattle and daub buildings i n these s ites has b een g ained through the survey work and the succeeding excavations ( Ammerman and S haffer 1 981; S haffer 1 983; Ammerman 1 984). T he S tentinello buildings are generally located towards the edges o f l arge s and dunes, which were formed around t he P leistocene-Holocene t ransition and a re b ordered b y a lluvial terraces. A t l east 4 8 buildings were found i n o ne o f the s ites a lone. T hose wattle and daub s tructures that have b een excavated prove to r epresent the f irst good s eries o f N eolithic buildings k nown for s outhern I taly. They a re represented b y f ire-hardened ( sintered) f ragments o f t imber-impressed d aub, i n s ome cases weighing over 1 000 k g. f or a n i ndividual s tructure - a wealth o f d ata u sually not e ncountered i n other European N eolithic contexts. A s mentioned above, the r aw materials u sed i n building t hese s tructures i ncluded plants. E xamination o f d aub f ragments r ecovered f rom t he e xcavations i n S ettlements i and 1 ( Fig. 8 .1) a t Acconia r evealed many p lant i mpressions. A couple o f carbonized p lant elements were also found within p ieces o f daub. S everal v arieties o f t he p lants have s ubsequently b een i dentified b y S . Marchiori and S . R azzara o f the U niversity o f P adua's I stituto d i B otanica e F isiologia V egetale. K nowledge o f vernacular wattle and d aub architecture h as h elped a ssign u ses t o the d ifferent plants for s tructural f rames, cordage, roofing, or temper. Additionally, o ne must b e aware o f certain a ccidental

1 01

p rocesses whereby s ome p lants could c ome moist d aub a nd b e p reserved i n i t.

i nto c ontact

w ith

I dentification o f t he r emains f rom A cconia s howed t hat potential h ard o r woody members o f t he s tructural f rames i ncluded t rees o f white w illow ( Salix a lba L .), h olm a nd cork o ak ( Quercus i lex L . a nd Q . s uber L .), a nd b lack a lder ( Alnus g lutinosa ( L.) G aertner). W hile evidence f or s ome o f t hese s pecies h aving s erved i n t imber f rames i s quite c lear, f or o thers i t i s l ess d efinite. F or e xample, numerous i mpressions o f w illow l eaves a ttached t o t heir b ranches a re p resent, while t he o aks, f or t he most p art, a re r epresented b y j ust a f ew i mprints o f t heir cupules e lements which c ould e asily have b een a ccidentally i ncluded i n d aub s oil. A f inal p lant which s erved a s a member o f b uilding f rames - a s e ither l athing for w alls o r more probably r oofs - was t he c ommon r eed ( Phragmites a ustralis ( Cay.) T rin.). A nother g roup o f p lants i ncludes b racken f erns ( Pteridium aquilinum L . ( Kuhn)), g rasses ( Gramineae), and s edges ( Cyperaceae), a ll o f which could h ave b een u sed a s c ordage to t ie together t he w oody parts o f wattle f rames. U nidentifiable g rass-like b its appear t o h ave s erved a s t emper i n t he d aub. S uch a r ole could a lso h ave b een s erved b y t he b racken f erns, a s e xperimental a nd e thnolinguistic evidence h as s hown ( Shaffer 1 983, 4 45-447). H aving i dentified t he t ypes o f s everal p lants u sed i n t he construction o f t he wattle a nd d aub b uildings, a f urther s tep i n t heir s tudy was t o d etermine where, i n r elation t o e ach s ettlement, b uilders would h ave h ad t o go to a cquire t hem. T he g oal h ere was t o s ee t he g eneral magnitudes o f d istance r equired t o h ave b een t raversed f rom p lant g rowing a rea t o b uilding s ite, a nd t hereby t o g ain a b etter i dea o f the t ime a nd work c ommitment d emanded t o b uild t hese s tructures i n t he A cconia l ocality. W ith r espect t o t hese questions o f t he e ffort o f r esource p rocurement, i t i s i nteresting t o note t hat a s tudy o f o ne o f t he more c omplete b uildings ( Area H ) s howed t hat most t imbers were j ust u nder 7 cm. i n d iameter, many o f t hem were s plit i n h alf, a nd t heir minimal preserved l ength was a ltogether about 4 1 m . ( Shaffer 1 983, 1 78-225). S tarting t hen w ith a s et o f s pecific, i dentified p lants, i t w as a ttempted t o f ind where t hey could h ave b een obtained. T he methodology employed h ere was a kin t o what o thers h ave c alled t he empirical d etermination o f s ite c atchments ( Flannery 1 976). I n C alabria t his meant s urveying f or p atches o f t he i dentified p lants which w ere c losest t o e ach o f t he t wo S ettlements i a nd 1 ( Fig. 8 .1). I n p ractice, t his i nvolved mapping t he p lants w ithin two c ircles o f a s omewhat a rbitrary 5 00 m . r adius a round e ach s ite. A rguments c an b e made t hat t he S tentinello b uilders would most l ikely h ave w anted t o r educe t he d istances over which t hey t ravelled f or s pecific p lants ( e.g., Z ipf 1 949; V ita-Finzi a nd H iggs 1 970, 7 ). H owever, o ne s hould k eep i n

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mind with respect to t he plants and the other r esources to b e mentioned l ater that more d istant r esources could well h ave b een u tilized f or t heir b etter i nherent qualities, f or t he d emands o f s ocial r elationships, a nd s o o n. With s ite c atchment a nalysis i t i s also necessary to evaluate t he i nherent a ssumption t hat t he modern e nvironment i s a c lose approxi mation of the prehistoric one. O nly b y doing t his can one u tilize present d ay conditions - for e xample, here, t he d istributions of plants - to i nfer p rehistoric activites on a s pecific l andscape. I n t he Acconia s ituation i t was, t herefore, necessary to e xamine a ny c hanges i n geomorphology a nd c limate over t he p ast s even millennia that may have altered t he d istributions of b otanical r esources. R ecent geomorphological s tudies carried out on t he southern S . Eufemia P lain where t he N eolithic s ettlements a re located indicate there have been only localized and r elatively minor c hanges t o t he g eneral f orm o f t he l and i n t he past 7 000 years ( Remmelz waal 1 984). A s f ar a s t he c li mate i s concerned, D elano Smith ( 1979, 3 07-317) has s ummarized pollen d ata a nd t he writings o f o ther a uthors t o s tate that t he western Mediterranean enjoyed a ' climatic o ptimum' around 5 500 b .c. during t he A tlantic phase. The S ub-Atlantic p hase, which b egan about 7 00 b .c . a nd c ontinues t oday, i s c haracterized b y a c limate n ot v ery d ifferent f rom t he A tlantic one, but with cooler temperatures and s ome periods of u nstable weather. S he f urther notes t hat the most s ignificant c hanges i n western M editerranean v egetation during t he Sub-Atlantic have b een c aused b y anthropogenic acti vity, especially the clearance of thick forests originally e stablished i n t he A tlantic phase ( Delano Smith 1 979, 3 14-317). O ne can readily s ee s uch changes i n the v egetation n ear A cconia. Modern farming practices have turned much o f the s tudy area i nto neat patterns of cultivated f ields of s trawberries a nd o ther c rops. O live a nd c itrus g roves a lso cover much l and today, i n addition to a number o f u npaved roads. O ther major h ighways and a r ailroad have gouged the l andscape as well. R eclamation of many marshy f ields for a gri-business v entures a nd extensive d eforestation f or t imber a nd c harcoal making ( G . B ova pers. comm . 1 982) h ave c reated s ome easily perceptible changes, t he major one b eing t he d isplacement o f many w ild p lants b y cultivated o nes. R eturning now to t he survey f or plants around S ites i and 1 , it can be noted that al most all of those plants i dentified i n d aub f ragments were found within e ach o f t he two s urvey r ings. T hese i nclude o ak, willow , b racken f ern, a nd r epresentatives o f t he g rass a nd s edge f amilies. S everal plants, i ncluding b lack alders, were absent i n the survey z ones, but k nown f rom o ther l ocalities on t he S . Eufemia P lain. I t i s necessary to emphasize, however, t hat we c annot expect t he modern d istributions o f p lants a t A cconia precisely to correspond with those i n Neolithic t imes. A s

1 04

p ointed o ut above, t here h ave b een t oo many c hanges during t he l ast s everal h undred y ears. S till, i t i s p ossible t o u se t he b otanical r esource s urvey to n ote c ertain g eomorphological f eatures, s uch a s s treams a nd marshes, which h ave n ot b een d rastically a ltered s ince N eolithic t imes a nd w hich t hen p robably o ffered p lants s imilar t o t hose o f t oday. T he r esults o f t his s ite c atchment a nalysis o f p lants s hould t herefore b e r egarded a s t entative ( versus t he more r eliable o nes o f r ocks a nd s oil i n t he f ollowing p aragraphs), b ut s erving a h euristic r ole i n t he s earch t o u nderstand b etter t he u tilization o f b otanical r esources. I n s um, o ne c an s uggest t hat S tentinello b uilders could h ave a cquired t heir r aw materials o f Quercus, S alix, P teridium, C yperaceae, a nd G ramineae w ithin 5 00 m . o f t heir s ettlements a nd s ometimes much c loser. T he r ecovery a nd a nalyses o f t he N eolithic b otanical r emains h ave p rovided much i nformation o n t he p rehistoric e nvironment a t A cconia a s well a s o n i ts u se b y S tentinello b uilders. S everal types o f rocks a nd m inerals found w ith t he S tentinello s tructures h ave i ndicated a nother a spect o f N eolithic a rchitectural r esource p rocurement i n t he A cconia a rea ( also Ammerman a nd A ndrefsky 1 982). T he v arious r ocks f ulfilled constructional f unctions a s wall f ill, r oof weights ( ?), a nd p arts o f o ther d iscrete f eatures. W ith t he a ssistance o f A . S colari o f t he U niversity o f P adua's I stituto d i M ineralogia e P etrologia, t he p rimary b uilding r ocks, o r t hose most p revalent i n t erms o f numbers a nd weights, were i dentified a s g abbro, g neiss, a nd quartzite. I ncidental s tones, o r t hose p resent i n v ery s mall quantities o r mainly i n p ebble f orm, i ncluded s even v arieties ( viz., t uff, c onglomerate, s andstone, p hyllite, l aterite, quartz, a nd s erpentine). I n e xamining t he c onstructional r oles o f t he rocks more c losely, i t i s i nteresting t o point out h ow experimentation w ith t he e ffects o f v arious t empers o n t he s trength o f d aubed walls r evealed t hat t he a ddition o f cobbles t o a d aub matrix l ed t o i ncreased c racking o f a w all a s i t d ried ( Shaffer 1 981; 1 982; 1 983, 1 24-132). T he conclusion was t hat many o f t he s tones a ssociated w ith d aub b uilding c ollapses p robably r epresented o nly a type o f ' filler' i ncorporated i n walls s o a s t o l essen t he amount o f d aub which h ad t o b e p repared. B uilders could, nonetheless, h ave added s tones t o walls f or d ecorative o r s ymbolic purposes. I t i s p ossible t oo t hat s ome o f t he l ithic materials c ollected n ear A cconia were u sed t o weight d own r oofs o n t he s tructures against t he w ind. O nly s uggestive o r i ndirect evidence e xists f or s uch a p ractice i n t he S tentinello s ettlements, b ut o ne o ften s ees r ocks u sed i n t his manner i n t he M editerranean a rea t oday. A nother way i n which rocks a nd m inerals w ere u sed was t o f orm s mall s urfaces o r e nclosures o f s tone. T hese ' rock f eatures' could h ave s erved a s h earths, t he b ases o f ovens, wall o r u pright post f ootings ( Baldacci 1 958, 3 1-32), r ock s torage a reas, a nd s o f orth.

1 05

A lso o f i nterest i s t hat t he t otal w eight o f rocks f ound w ith s ingle, e ntirely e xcavated b uildings was i n t he o rder o f 1 00 kg. G iven s uch l arge quantities o f t his k ind o f a rchitectural material a nd i ts a pparent i mportance t o S tentinello b uilders, a p lan was made t o d etermine where t he p eople f rom e ach o f t he N eolithic s ettlements would h ave had t o go to a cquire t he l ithic r esources. C ombining t his i nformation w ith t he r esults o f t he b otanical s urvey would p rovide even b etter i nsight i nto t he demands o f N eolithic construction a t A cconia a nd i ncrease t he c hances o f l earning w hy S tentinello p eople s ettled w here t hey d id. I n t his s tudy o f r ock a nd m ineral c atchments, a gain a s w ith t he e xamination o f b otanical r esources , i t was possible to b egin w ith a l ist o f s pecific, i dentified materials k nown to h ave b een u sed f or b uilding purposes a nd t o d etermine where t hey could have b een obtained. T he p lan w as to f ind t he m inimum d istances b etween S tentinello s ettlements a nd particular r esource l ocations. I t must b e k ept i n m ind, h owever, t hat t he N eolithic b uilders m ight h ave s ought l ithic materials i n o ther, more d istant l ocalities e ither f or s pecial qualities o f t he s tones a nd f ind s pots t hemselves o r f or s ome o ther r easons. S imilar i ntervening f actors w ith t he a rgument o f m inimum d istances were mentioned above w ith r espect t o t he p lant r esources. S till, i t m ight b e t hat h eavy r ocks were more o ften o riginally obtained f rom s ources c losest a t h and t han l ight, a lbeit s ometimes b ulky, p lants. T o b e k ept i n m ind a s well i s t he possibility t hat l ithic materials c ould h ave b een s alvaged f rom f allen, o lder s tructures, p robably much n earer t han t he n atural s ources, a nd i ncorporated i n n ewer b uildings. T he c ollapsed b uildings m ight h ave b een considered a s ' gold mines' f or s tone c lose a t h and a nd h ence f or t he s aving o f a dditional l abour. B ecause o f t heir b etter qualities o f p reservation, rocks would p robably h ave b een r ecycled i n t his manner more o ften t han p lants. R eturning n ow t o t he c atchment a nalysis per s e, i t i s t o b e p ointed out t hat g eological s urvey work i n t he A cconia a rea h as l ocated b oulders, cobbles, a nd p ebbles o f g abbro a nd g neiss together i n s tream b eds a nd adjacent a lluvial d eposits ( Fig. 8 .2). Additionally, o utcrops o f t hese r ocks were f ound j ust t o t he south a nd e ast i n s ome h ills. Quartzite pebbles a nd cobbles were observed i n f ive l ocalized d eposits i n t he s outhwestern portion o f t he s tudy a rea, a ssociated w ith f luvial t erraces ( Shaffer 1 983, 4 975 00). F or t he n ine s ettlements w ith c lear o r p robable evidence o f d aub b uildings, t he mean m inimum d istances t o g abbro/gneiss a nd quartzite sources were 0 .44 km. ( s = 0 .14 k m.) a nd 0 .66 k m. ( s = 0 .68 k m.), r espectively. G eomorphological d ata f rom t he a rea s uggest t hese d istances would a lso h ave b een o n t he s ame o rder o f magnitude i n S tentinello t imes ( Remmelzwaal 1 984). M ost o f t he i ncidental r ocks a nd m inerals a re f ound i n t he f luvial t errace o r r ecent a lluvial s oils a round t he s and d unes. A s t hese w ere t he s oils u sed f or t he d aub p lastered o n wooden b uilding f rames, i t s eems v ery l ikely t hat t he s mall s izes

1 06

F ig. 8 .2. M ap S howing ( clear evidence f or

S tructural R ock S ources i n d aub b uildings i s not f or S ite c .).

1 07

A cconia. p resent

( pebbles) a nd/or s mall quantities o f many s uch s tones mean t hey w ere o ften a t f irst n aturally i ncluded i n d aub b ut l ater f ell out a s t heir e ncasing s oil e roded away. T he quantities o f t his d aubing s oil t hat i nitially would h ave b een r equired t o b e quarried a nd t ransported t o b uilding s ites were s ubstantial. E xcavations o f s everal e ntire s tructures h ave y ielded over 1 000 k g. o f d aub e ach. I n o ne o f t hese b uildings, t he e stimates o f p reserved, o r f ire-hardened ( sintered) w all h eights h overed n ear 2 0 cm. I t i s e asy t o s ee t hat b y i ncreasing t hese wall h eights t o whatever h igher v alue t hey o riginally w ere would m ean S tentinello b uilders h ad t o h aul s everal t ons o f s oil - s ome f ive t o t en t ons f or e ach o f t he v ariously s ized b uildings - u p o nto t heir s and d une construction s ites. W ith s uch l arge amounts o f e arth i nvolved h ere, i t would s eem l ikely t hat t he c losest a lluvial s oil d eposits o ff t he s and d unes were quarried f or t his r esource. H owever, i t i s h ighly p robable t hat b uilders would h ave s alvaged p art o f t he d aub f rom abandoned, f allen s tructures a nd r ecycled i t t o make n ew w alls, t hus s aving c onsiderable work ( Shaffer 1 982; P russin 1 969, 3 0; D avid 1 971, 1 19). I n o rder t o s ee i f more p ersuasive evidence d id e xist f or S tentinello p eople h aving u tilized s oil f rom t he c losest a lluvial deposits, s everal p etrographic a nalyses ( of particle-size d istributions a nd mineralogical c ompositions) w ere c arried o ut o n d isaggregated d aub f ragments a nd s amples o f s oil collected n ear t he A cconia s ettlements ( Shaffer 1 983, 5 14-528). T hese s tudies were i nitiated b y A . S colari a nd t he author, b efore b eing e xpanded b y D . C urran o f S UNYB inghamton's D epartment o f G eological S ciences. A c ouple o f t he s ettlements were found t o s how g ood a ssociations b etween t heir N eolithic d aub a nd t he c losest s oil d eposits w ith r espect t o r elative amounts o f potassium f eldspar a nd quartzite g rains a s well a s w ith g rain s ize d istributions. T hese comparisons, t ogether w ith t he a forementioned g eomorphological s tudies, l ed to t he c onclusion t hat S tentinello b uilders p robably d id o btain s oil f rom t he n earest a lluvial d eposits - a mean m inimum d istance o f 0 .12 k m. ( s = 0 .04 km.) f or t he n ine s ettlements ( Fig. 8 .3). T able 8 .1 r ecords t he m inimum d istances t o constructional r esources f rom t he n ine S tentinello s ites i n question. T o b e n oted i s t hat t he d istances t o p lant s ources a re i ncluded u nder t he c ategory f or water. B uilders required water i n o rder t o puddle s oil t o a p lastic s tate f or u se a s d aub p laster. W ater s ources would have b een f requented b y b uilders f or t he l iquid i tself t o wet t heir s oil o r, p erhaps more l ikely, f or t he a djacent a lluvial s oils a lready n aturally moistened f or working. A lso not t o b e f orgotten i n t his d iscussion o f s ettlement i s t he i mportance t hat c loseness to water s ources would h ave meant f or purposes o f d rinking, cooking, a nd maybe s tock b reeding a nd a griculture. D ata o n p lant u tilization f or c onstruction o f b uildings were r ecovered o nly f or S ettlements i a nd 1 . H owever, t he s urvey f or p lant r esources a round t hese two s ites i ndicated t hat

1 08

( C O N T O U R

i L I N E . , I . -‘ r n . a . 8 . 1 . )

R E C E N T A L U V I A L P L A I N

A

•

I I

t • 4

:

' . . 0

_

—

% ,

• ,••

S .

. . , ,,,,, e. , ,,,, ee =

, , u , „ „ „ , , e s „ „ . , ,

' . . : 1 , ,,,, ,

1

, c : e,, ,, , ,, , ,,,, .,

. . . .\ s o ...

E . ,

8 , . . . , , . . . . . _. . . . . . . „„ „ „ „ , . . . ‚. -I , ' , , -

‚ ‚ 5'

F ig.

8 .3.

M ap

S howing D aub S ources

1 09

i n A cconia.

oak t rees, brac k e n fer ns, and grasses c ou ld be f ound directly on the sand d unes of settlements, while willows, sedges, and perhaps alders and reeds would have been available for Stentinello builders along streams and beside marshes in the area. There is some justification, therefore, for arguing that most plants used for construction could have been obtained within the distance from a site on a sand dune to the nearest substantial fresh water source, be it a stream or a marsh. The mean minimum distance from the nine Stentinello sites to one of these water sources is 0.27 km. (s = 0.16 k m.).

Table 8.1. Minimum distances to constructional resources from Stentinello settlements in Acconia. Settlement d f g h l

j 1 m n Means

Gabbro/ Gneiss Quartzite . 4 km. . 9 km. 1. 6 .5 1. 9 .4 •5 .7 .3 .2 .2 .2 .5 .1 .2 .5 .1 .7

Another H o Stentinello Daub 2 Soil* (& Plants) Site .1 km. .1 .2 .1 .2 .1 .1 .1 .1

. 2 km. .2 .4 .5 .2 .2 .1 .5 .1

. 6 km. .3 .3 1.0 .6 .3 .6 .3 .5

X=. 4 4Km. X=. 6 6Km.X =. l2Km.X =. 27Km.X=.5OKm (s=.14) (s=.68) (s=.04) (s=.16)

(s=.23)

*Potential sources of the incidental rocks and minerals (conglomerate, laterite, phyllite, quartz, serpentine, and tuff) in fluvial terrace and other alluvial soils off the subrecent dunes. Sandstone could be found with quartzite. Gabbro and Gneiss could also be found in th� daub soils naturally (usually as pebbles) .

Also to be observed in Table 8.1 is the social resource of other people in neighbouring sites. When constructing wattle and daub buildings, the people from one site may have d esired the assistance of tho s e f r o m another. Mor e generally, the decision of where to place a settlement will be influenced by how near the people want to be to other settlers for a number of benefits, pl us how far away from others they wish to be to avoid certain disad vantages (Hall 1966). For the nine Stentinello sites, the mean distance to an other Stentinello settlement is 0.50 km. (s = 0.23 km.). 110

W e must k eep i n m ind, h owever, t hat t here a re f ew a ssurances a ll S tentinello period s ites h ere were s imultaneously o ccupied. I t i s now p ossible t o r ank t he d istances t o constructional r esources:

f ive

mean

m inimum

D istance t o a quartzite s ource

- 0 .66 k m.

( s = 0 .68 km.)

D istance t o a nother

- 0 .50 km.

( s = 0 .23

- 0 .44 km.

( s = 0 .14 km.)

- 0 .27

k m.

( s = 0 .16

km.)

- 0 .12

k m.

( s = 0 .04

k m.)

S tentinello s ite

D istance t o a g abbro/gneiss D istance t o water D istance t o s oil

s ource

( and p lants) f or d aub

k m.)

I t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat t he o rdering o f t he r esources b y t hese d istance measures r eflects i n s ome w ay t he importance o f t he v arious materials o r o ther a ssets t o S tentinello b uilders. F or e xample, i t would appear t hey wanted t o place their construction s ites a s c lose a s possible t o s ources o f s oil r ather t han t he o ther r esources. T his would make s ense, when o ne r ecalls t he l arge quantities o f e arth r equired i n wattle a nd d aub a rchitecture a nd t he e nergy n eeded t o obtain t hem. I t i s important, h owever, b efore making a ny s uch i nferences, to s ee i f t he d ifferences b etween d istances a re a ctually s ignificant o nes, g iven t heir a ssociated s tandard d eviations. F urthermore, o ne must k eep i n m ind t hat s ome s light d ifferences i n t he measurements a nd t hose t hat would h ave b een p resent i n S tentinello t imes could e xist; t hese would b e d ue t o minor g eomorphological c hanges i n t he p ast s even m illennia a nd t heir e ffects o n r esource p lacement p lus t he a rchaeological v isibility o f a ll S tentinello s ites which t ruly were p resent ( McDonough 1 981; R emmelzwaal 1 984). A lso, a s h as b een emphasized b efore, the s trong possibility e xists t hat b uilders s alvaged a nd r ecycled s ome materials f rom old, abandoned s tructures. T his would c learly not i nvolve water o r p lants, b ut could i nclude p eople s till l iving i n o ther b uildings w ithin t he s ame s ettlement a s p otential s ocial r esources whose a ssista nce could b e p rocured b y n ew b uilders ( as r eciprocation ? ). T esting o f t he s ignificance o f d ifferences i n mean minimum d istances t o t he v arious constructional r esources f or t he n ine A cconia s ites was d one b y making pair-wise c omparisons w ith t he t -test f or s mall non-independent s amples ( Shaffer 1 983, 5 33-541). O f i nterest h ere i s t hat t he mean d istance f rom a s ite t o a s ource o f a lluvial s oil, 0 .12 km. ( s = 0 .04 k m.), was s hown a t t he 0 .05 l evel o f s ignificance t o b e l ess t han t he d istances t o o ther c onst ructional r esources. F urthermore, a l imited s imulation o f r andom s ettlement i n t he A cconia a rea a nd comparison o f t hat w ith t he observed S tentinello p atterning s uggested t hat most S tentinello s ites were p laced c loser t o t he d une edges, a nd h ence t o d aub s oils, t han e xpected b y c hance a lone ( Shaffer 1 983, 5 33-542).

1 11

T he p lacements o f t he A cconia s ites were a lso e xamined i n a manner more f ree o f t he l imitations o f f ormalized s tatistics t hat g enerally r equire l arge s ample s izes. T he a im a gain was t hat o f b etter u nderstanding t he e ffects o f constructional r esource a vailability o n s ettlement p atterns ( while r ealizing t hat o ther f actors would b e i mportant t oo). O ne major consideration i n b uilding wattle a nd d aub s tructures i s t he amount o f l abour i nvolved i n b oth a cquiring r aw materials a nd c onstructing w ith t hem. U nfortunately, t he l abour costs o f a ctual construction a re d ifficult, i f n ot i mpossible, t o d etermine i n p rehistory d ue t o u nknown v ariables o f a g iven work c rew's s ize, s kills, t ime c ommitments, a nd even p recise t ask ( cf. C oles 1 967, 7 ). I t i s much e asier t o t alk o f t he d emands o f acquiring c ertain r esources, e specially o f t ransporting t hem. H ere, o ne c an e xamine t he d egree t o which S tentinello b uilders i n A cconia may h ave a ttempted t o r educe t heir work o f p rocurement b y making s ettlements c lose t o t heir h eaviest r esource: t he d aubing s oil. T o c arry o ut t his s tudy, w e c an i magine two hypothetical b uilding s ites. O ne would b e l ocated a s f ar f rom a d aub s ource a s possible, t hus r equiring t he most l abour costs f or wattle a nd d aub construction. T he o ther h ypothetical s ite would b e f ound p recisely o n a s ource o f d aubing s oil; and t he i nhabitants o f t his s pot would s pend t he l east amount o f e ffort i n t ransporting s oil t o a n ew construction. ( One s hould a lso t hink o f t he l ife h istory o f a s ettlement a nd r ealize t hat t he construction o f l ater b uildings m ight i nvolve s alvaging d aub f rom a n o lder, abandoned s tructure c lose o n h and a nd carrying i t o nly a f ew metres.) T he p lan n ow i s t o g ive s ome measure o f t he l abour r equirements o f s oil t ransport a t b oth o f t hese i maginary s ettlements. T hen, i t w ill b e possible t o quantify t he work n eeded t o b ring d aubing s oil to t he r eal S tentinello s ites a nd s ee where t his v alue f its i nto t he r ange p rovided b y t he two hypothetical l ocations. T he extent t o which s oil t ransport costs were a ctually m inimized b y S tentinello b uilders c an t hen b e s een. F or t he A cconia a rea, t he amount o f e ffort f or moving s oil would b e maximized b y d eciding t o b uild i n t he c entre o f o ne o f t he s and dunes ( i.e., t he northern dune i n F ig. 8 . 3 ). T o t here, s oil would h ave t o b e h auled i n f rom t he g reatest d istance - about 6 00 m . L ooking now t owards a h ypothetical s ettlement b uilt s o a s t o r equire t he l east expenditure o f e ffort f or t ransporting s oil, o ne r ealizes t hat many l ocations o ff t he s and d unes would s uffice. H owever, t hose l ocations a long t he a rea's e xtensive s tream b anks would r educe t he d istances f or c arrying r ocks, water, a nd s ome p lants - i n a ddition t o t he s oil - t o j ust a f ew metres, s ay t en h ere. When c onsidering t he l abour c osts o f t ransporting s oil to t he hypothetical s ettlements, i t i s p erhaps b etter t o u se a measure o f b oth t he mass o f t he s oil a nd t he d istance i t i s c arried r ather t han o f t he d istance a lone. H ere o ne c an u se t he e quation, L abour = ( mass) x ( distance), a s a c onvienent

1 12

i ndex f or t he amount o f l abour r equired t o move t his c onstructional m aterial. F or t he h ypothetical poorly p laced s ite, t he average mass o f s oil i n a d aub s tructure, 7 000 k g., would h ave t o b e moved 6 00 m . T he l abour i nvolved h ere would b e: ( 7000 k g.) x ( 600 m .), o r 4 ,200,000 k g.-m. O n t he o ther h and, t he i maginary well p laced s ettlement would r equire l abour i n t he amount o f ( 7000 k g.) x ( 10 m .), o r 7 0,000 k g.-m. T his v alue i s o nly 1 .7 per c ent o f t he p revious amount. T o s ee h ow t he observed S tentinello s ites f it i nto t his r ange o f h ypothetical work, o ne c an u se t he mean minimum d istance o f 1 20 m . c alculated f rom t he n ine s ites e arlier. T he l abour h ere i s ( 7000 k g.) x ( 120 m .), o r 8 40,000 kg.-m. I n s um t he t wo h ypothetical s ettlement l ocations r eveal a v ery l arge r ange i n t he l abour n eeded to h aul s oil: 7 0,000 to 4 ,200,000 k g.-m. I t i s a lso c lear t hat S tentinello b uilders p referred s ettlements t hat would h ave r equired l esser amounts o f work f or t ransporting t he s oil: 8 40,000 k g.-m. i s much c loser t o t he v alue f or t he well p laced s ite t han f or t he poorly p laced o ne. H owever, i t i s i mportant t o emphasize t hat S tentinello b uildings were not made i n t he most optimal s ettings f or s aving t he e ffort o f s oil p rocurement. I nstead o f b eing s et d irectly u pon t he a lluvial t errace d eposits ( daub s ources), t hey were p laced h igh o n s and dunes. A lso, t his s patial p atterning a t A cconia i s not u nique. F ive o ther S tentinello s ites h ave b een f ound f urther d own t he C alabrian c oast n ear N icotera, a nd a ll l ie h igh o n a s and d une, y et n ear i ts edges ( Ammerman 1 984, F igure 7 .4). T he r easons w hy S tentinello p eople p referred t o b uild s ome d istance f rom t he s ources o f d aub a nd u p t he s lopes o f t he dunes r emain e lusive. I t s hould b e c lear, h owever, t hat i nstead o f concentrating o n j ust o ne a rchitectural r esource t o e xplain t he s ettlement patterns, i t i s n ecessary to consider t he multiple e ffect o f d ifferent constructional a nd o ther f actors. O ne m ight s uggest t hat l ocations u p o n t he s and dunes o ffered t he b uilders a more b alanced a ccess to t he w hole r ange o f n eeded o r d esired r esources. F or example, p lacing b uildings w ith mud walls o n t he dunes i nstead o f o n c ertain a lluvial s oils would h ave p rovided i nsurance t hat periodic i nundations b y l ocal s treams would n ot h ave washed away t he p roducts o f much l abour ( Baldacci 1 958, 3 9). T he s andy s oil o f t he dunes would a lso h ave b etter s olved p roblems o f d rainage f or S tentinello s ettlers, a nd p erhaps would h ave l essened t he c hances f or r ising d amp contributing t o t he e rosion o f t he d aubed walls. S everal o ther b enefits t he s and d unes may h ave p rovided i nclude b etter p ositioning f or f arming o r s ocial r elationships, p ossibly b etter v egetat ion, b etter v iews o f t he l and, b etter a ccess t o r itual l oci, a nd s o o n. T hese b enefits would a ccordingly h ave b een o f e nough i mportance to c ompel t he b uilders t o h aul t ons o f d aubing s oil h igh o nto t he dunes. T he much

l abour r equired b y S tentinello b uilders a t A cconia i s more s triking t han t hat s een i n many o ther E uropean

1 13

N eolithic s ettlements, where l ittle d aub i s r ecovered and b uildings a re f ound s et d irectly u pon s uitable d aub s ediments. Experimental a nd a rchaeomagnetic evidence s uggests t he S tentinello i nhabitants o f A cconia were t rying t o r educe t heir h eavy l abour o f d aub t ransport - g iven t hey p referred t he d unes - b y r ecycling t he d aub f rom old, abandoned s tructures a lready u pon t he dunes ( Shaffer 1 983). To continue s aving t hemselves f rom i ncreased construction work, t here would h ave b een a g reat i ncentive f or p eople t o b uild n ew s tructures n ear t he o lder o nes. I f t he b uilders i nstead wanted t o p lace a n ew s tructure a t a more d istant l ocation, l ittle work would b e s aved b y h auling p reviously u sed construction materials a l ong way f or r ecycling. I t would s eem, t herefore, t hat o ld, abandoned b uildings would a ttract p eople l ike magnets t o s ettle i n adjacent l ocations; a nd t he p ractice o f r ecycling construction materials t o s ave human e ffort could b e a t l east partly r esponsible f or t he continuation a nd g rowth o f s ingle N eolithic s ettlements a t Acconia f or s everal c enturies. F uture a rchaeological i nvestigations t here a nd i n o ther r egions o f E urope s hould now i nclude a consideration o f t he r ole o f t he construction process per s e i n t he d ecisions o f N eolithic p eople t o s ettle i n t he s ame o r n ew l ocations. Furthermore, i t would b e u seful i f p rehistorians would p ay a s much a ttention t o questions o f b uilding b ehaviour i n t he N eolithic a s t hey d o t o concerns o f s ubsistence.

A cknowledgements T his paper c ontains material r eported u pon i n my d octoral d issertation. F inancial s upport f or t his r esearch was provided b y t he N ational S cience F oundation u nder G rant BNS-79-06187 a nd D octoral D issertation R esearch G rant B NS8 111348. I s hould l ike to t hank my d octoral committee members, A . Ammerman, T . D onnelly, H . H offmann, H . K oster, a nd V . S teponaitis, f or t heir comments d uring my writing o f t he t hesis. A lso, A . Moroni a nd S . B onardi o f t he U niversity o f P arma's I stituto d i E cologia who k indly p rovided l aboratory f acilities f or much o f t he work.

B ibliography Ammerman, A .J. ( ed.) 1 984. T he A cconia s ettlement a nd obsidian e xchange. o f A rchaeology.

s urvey: L ondon,

N eolithic I nstitute

Ammerman, A .J. a nd A ndrefsky, W ., J r. 1 982. R eduction s equences a nd t he exchange o f o bsidian i n N eolithic C alabria. I n E ricson, J . a nd E arle, T .K. ( eds.) C ontexts f or P rehistoric E xchange. N ew Y ork, A cademic P ress, 1 49-172.

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Ammerman, A .J . a nd S haffer, G .D . 1 981. Neolithic s ettlement patterns i n Calabria. Current Anthropology 22, 4 304 32. B aldacci, 0 . 1 958. L 'ambiente geografico della c asa d i t erra i n I talia. S tudi geografici pubblicati i n o nore del P rof. R enato B iasutti. R ivista G eografica I taliana 6 5 ( suppl.), 13-43. Coles,

J .M . t he

David,

N . 1 971. The Fulani compound and World A rchaeology 3 , 1 11-131.

Delano

1 967. Experimental a rchaeology. P roceedings S ociety of A ntiquaries o f S cotland 9 9, 1-20. the

of

archaeologist.

Smith, C . 1979. Western Mediterranean Europe: A H istorical Geography of I taly, Spain and Southern F rance s ince t he Neolithic. L ondon, A cademic P ress.

Flannery, K . V. 1976. Empirical deter mination of site catchments i n O axaca a nd T ehuacan. I n F lannery, K .V . ( ed.) The Early Mesoamerican V illage. New York, A cademic P ress, 1 03-117. H all,

E .T . 1 966. T he anthropology R eview 1 40 ( 835), 1 63-166.

of

space.

A rchitectural

McDonough, J .E. 1 981. S oils and S urvey Work i n t he A cconia Areaof Calabria I taly. SUNY-Binghamton, Department of A nthropology, U npublished M .A . t hesis,. Prussin, L . 1 969. A rchitecture of F orms a nd Functions. C alifornia P ress.

in Northern Ghana: A Study B erkeley, U niversity o f

Rem melz waal, A .R. 1 984. Physiography and soils of the A cconia dune area. I n Ammerman, A .J. ( ed.) Acconia S urvey : N eolithic S ettlement and Obsidian E xchange. L ondon, I nstitute o f A rchaeology. S haffer,

G .D . 1 981. A n Experimental A rchaeological S tudy of Wattle a nd D aub S tructures i n C alabria I taly . S UNYB inghamton, D epartment of A nthropology . Unpublished M .A. thesis.

S haffer,

G .D . 1 982. A ttempts a t maxi mizing a nthropological knowledge of prehistoric buildings. Antropologia Contemporanea 5 ( 1-2), 1 41-146.

S haffer,

G .D.

1 983.

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Calabria, I taly. A nthropology, P h.D .

Building

SUNY-Binghamton, d issertation.

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of

V ita-Finzi, C . and H iggs, E .S. 1 970. P rehistoric economy in the Mount C armel area o f P alestine: s ite catchment analysis. P roceedings of the P rehistoric S ociety 3 6, 1-37.

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Z ipf, G .K. 1 949. Human B ehaviour and t he P rinciple o f L east Effort: An I ntroducti on to Hu man Ecology. C ambridge, M assachusetts, A ddison-Wesley.

S ummary D etailed s tudies of Neolithic wattle and d aub b uildings f rom t he s outhern I talian r egion o f C alabria h ave r ecently b een carried out. O ne aspect of t his research was t he e xamination o f v arious r aw materials n eeded f or making t he buildings: plants, rocks, and soil. The procurement o f t hese a nd o ther a rchitectural r esources i s considered a s well a s t heir e ffect o n t he p lacement, continuity , a nd g rowth o f s everal impressed ware, or S tentinello period ( sixth and f ifth millennia b .c.) s ettlements near t he present d ay v illage o f A cconia. A t l east 4 8 buildings were f ound i n o ne o f t he s ites a lone; a nd t hose wattle a nd d aub s tructures t hat have b een excavated represent t he f irst good s eries of N eolithic b uildings k nown f or s outhern I taly . I n a n a ttempt to d iscover t he g eneral magnitudes o f d istance S tentinello b uilders h ad t o t raverse t o a cquire t he v arious construction materials, s ite c atchments a re d etermined w ith a r egard f or e nvironmental c hanges over t he l ast 7 000 y ears. S tatistical a nd o ther means a re t hen employed t o s how t hat s ettlements were p laced c losest t o t he h eaviest r esource: t he d aubing s oil o f a lluvial t erraces. S till, b uildings were n ot made d irectly u pon t hese soil sources but h igh on s and dunes. Experimental and a rchaeomagnetic evidence s uggests the S tentinello builders t ried to reduce t heir l abour of d aub t ransport g iven t hey preferred t he dunes - by r ecycling t he d aub f rom old, abandoned s tructures already o n t he dunes. T he b enefits of recycling construction materials could have been at least partly responsible for the c ontinuation a nd g rowth o f i ndividual N eolithic s ettlements a t A cconia .

R iassunto S ono s tati r ecentemente condotti s tudi dettagliati d i s trutture neolitiche d i canniccio r icoperto d i fang o provenienti dalla C alabria . U n aspetto d i questa r icerca s tato l 'esame delle v an e materie p ri me necessarie per costruire l e s trutture: p iante, p ietre e terra. S i ä ' s tudiato non solo l a provenienza d i queste e altre r isorse a rchitettoniche ma a nche i l l oro e ffetto s ulla collocazione, la continuitä e la crescita d i van i i nsediamenti s tentinelliani ( 6 ° e 5° millennio a .C .) v icino a l v illaggio odierno d i A cconia. A lmeno 4 8 s trutture sono s tate t rovate i n u no solo d i questi s iti; e l e s trutture che sono v enute alla luce rappresentano l a prima buona s erie d i s trutture n eolitiche note n el M ezzogiorno . N el t entativo d i s coprire

1 16

l e d istanze generali che i costruttori stentinelliani d ovevano c oprire p er a cquistare l e v an e materie edili, s i d eterminano ' site c atchments' t enendo p resenti i c ambiamenti ambientali avvenuti durante g li u ltimi 7 000 anni. P oi s i u sano mezzi s tatistici e altri mezzi per mostrare che g li i nsediamenti erano messi v icinissimi alla r isorsa p id pesante: i i suolo d i i ntonaco dei t errazzi alluvionali. T uttavia l e s trutture n on v enivano c ostruite d irettamente s u queste s orgenti d i s uolo ma i n a lto, s u d une d i s abbia. D ati s perimentali e a rcheomagnetici s uggeriscono c he i costrutto ri s tentinelliani cercavano d i r endere meno faticoso i i t rasporto della t erra - d ato che preferivano l e dune mediante i i r iciclaggio d ell'intonaco d elle v ecchie s trutture abbandonate g iä e sistenti sulle dune. E ' possible che i benefici der ivati dal riciclaggio d i materie edi 1i spieghino, almeno i n parte, l a continuazione e la crescita d 'insediamenti n eolitici i ndividuali a d A cconia .

1 17

9 .

POTS,

P RESTIGE A ND R ITUAL

I N NEOLITHIC S OUTHERN I TALY

C aroline M alone

I ntroduction P rehistoric p ottery i s g enerally r egarded a s o ne o f t he more i ntractable types o f d ata r eadily available f rom a rchaeological s ites. F or, a lthough pottery p rovides t he main c hronological a nd cultural f ramework o f p rehistory, i t f requently r emains a s d ata w hich h ave n ot b een e xploited t o t heir f ull potential. T he N eolithic p ottery o f s outhern I taly i s no e xception t o t his, a nd i ndeed, t he v aried a nd t echnically a ccomplished p ottery, a lthough d ominating a rchaeological r esearch f or g enerations, h as d efied more t han t he most s uperficial s orts o f r esearch. T he s tyles a nd f orms h ave p rovided evidence f or a c lear s equence o f typological a nd cultural d evelopment. H owever, most r esearches h ave b een a pplied a t v ery l ocal l evel, comparison o f s tyles o f pottery over s mall a reas ( Bernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 960; 1 980; P eroni 1 967; R admilli 1 977; S tevenson 1 947; T rump 1 966; W hitehouse 1 968a; 1 969). T he t raditional e xplanation f or t he v ariation o f p ottery s tyles h as b een c hronological a nd cultural ( i.e. d iffering cultures). S ince t he a pplication o f 1 4 C d ating t o the N eolithic of I taly, i t h as b ecome c lear t hat a v ery l ong p eriod o f t ime i s i nvolved i n t he ' Neolithic' period ( Whitehouse 1 978). S ome pottery s tyles, s uch a s t he R ed b anded, f igulina a nd R ipoli types continue over h undreds o f y ears, a nd a re s o w idely d istributed i n s pace, t hat t hey c annot b e s een a s t he c hronological o r cultural i ndicators t hat w e h ave b een e ncouraged t o b elieve t hey a re. H owever, p rehistorians d ealing w ith t he I talian N eolithic h ave o pted f or s imple explanations when f aced w ith t he d istinctive p ottery t hat s eems t o c haracterize a p eriod o r a r egional culture. T hey i nvariably p ronounced i n t he l iterature, i n museum d isplays a nd i n t heir whole a pproach t o t he s ubject, t hat a d istinctive type o f pot must r epresent a d efinite g roup o f p eople i n t ime a nd s pace. T he l iterature i s f ull o f e xamples o f t he ' such a nd s uch' p ot p eople, a nd I taly i s n ot e xceptional i n t his approach; most o f E uropean p rehistory h as b een p ioneered o n j ust t hese l ines, w ith t he B eaker f olk a nd t he L inearbandkeramic p eople t o n ame j ust two e xamples. H owever, more r ecent a pproaches h ave s tressed t hat a rchaeological ' cultures' may w ell b e t he c reation o f a rchaeologists s triving t o g ive t he d istant p ast a human i dentity f rom t he s urviving c eramic a nd a rtefactual r emains. A s R enfrew ( 1978) h as s uggested, i t m ay b e t ime to a bandon t he whole n otion o f a rchaeological cultures a s r epresented b y c ertain e lements o f material culture, i n f avour o f a lternative e xplanations. I n t his p aper, I want s equence o f I taly i n

t o d iscuss t he N eolithic f ine ware t he l ight o f s ome a lternative

1 18

approaches. First, I shall review the sequence and the characteristic types of pottery associated, then discuss the various explanations for the variation and wide dispersal of fine ceramic goods in the context of long-distance exchange networks and the social organisation of Neolithic groups in Italy. The Neolithic pottery of southern Italy From the first appearance of the Neolithic in southern Italy and Sicily, associated with the whole package of Neolithic economy and technology, pottery is present in two broadly defined groups, coarsewares and finewares. The coarsewares are generally crudely made, heavy, bulky cooking pots, sometimes decorated with impressed designs, and rarely conforming to more than a loosely defined style or form. The finewares, on the other hand, are carefully made, small, lightweight pots of distinct form and design. Invariably, the finewares are made from untempered, yellow-buff fabric called figulina, and the surface may be painted. As Whitehouse (1968a) has argued, the painted finewares are present from the earliest Neolithic in southeast Italy. Areas outside the south eastern zone have fewer sites yielding figulina or painted pottery, whereas in Apulia and eastern Basilicata the presence of the finewares is common. Whitehouse has suggested that the early Neolithic farmers arrived, perhaps from across the Adriatic, bringing with them the tradition of painted fineware pottery. However, as is becoming increasingly clear, the earliest Neolithic in Italy falls into several distinct cultural areas, each with quite distinctive Impressed pottery traditions. In Apulia there is a range of Impressed wares, including the Molfetta, Guadone and newly discovered Rendina types, (Tine 1983; Radmilli 1978; Cipolloni 1971). The Stentinello groups cover much of Calabria, Sicily and Malta, and Cardial and Linear-impressed wares are common in central and Tyrrhenian Italy. However, although these various Impressed ware groups are different, they all possess , to a greater or lesser extent, the facility to obtain the figulina and painted pottery that has in the past been regarded as part of the south east Italian Neolithic package. The figulina and red-painted pottery mark only the beginning of 'what becomes in the middle and later Neolithic, a frequently repeated trend, the production and widespread dispersal of fairly standardized finely made pottery, of distinct style and form. Traditional approaches have viewed the presence of the finewares either as proof of cultural diffusion, or as disparate elements in a poorly defined typology of artefacts. Unfortunately, there have been no very objective studies made of the dispersal of finewares, or any attempt to explain why there should have been movement of pottery over vast distances, over an area stretching from southern Sicily/ Malta, north, to the foot of the Alps. David Clarke (1976), in his important paper The Beaker Network: social and economic models, provides some useful models which can be applied to the south Italian Neolithic. Clarke pointed out that one of the common functions of fine 119

c eramics w as a s s pecially p roduced, l uxury i tems w hich s upplied w idely s paced e xchange n etworks, a long w ith a w hole r ange o f ' primitive v aluables'. T he B eaker n etwork was n ot a n i solated i nstance o f e arly pottery exchange, but c ame a t t he e nd o f a l ong p hase o f d evelopment o f a t radition t hat c ame i nto e xistence a t t he i nception o f pottery making. T he f ine pottery r epresented ' prestige p roducts a s e arly a s S tarcevo, p roto-Seskio a nd C apri phases' a nd culminated ' in t he e laborate p roduction a nd d istribution n etworks f or T ripolye, G umelnitsa, S erra d ' Alto a nd D imini p roducts' ( Clarke 1 976). S everal p oints r aised b y t he p aper c an b e t hus s ummarised: 1 ) C lay, f uel, water a nd potting s kills a re r estricted r esources. 2 ) T here i s evidence f or t he e xchange o f f ine pottery a t l east 1 000 y ears b efore t he a ppearance o f B eakers. 3 ) P ottery w as d istributed i n t he s ame way a s s tone, metals, s hells, o bsidian e tc. b etween g roups, moving p rincipally ' by canoe a long c oastal a nd r iverine n etworks'. 4 ) E xchange n etworks w ere p robably c yclical, a nd i nvolved o rganic a nd i norganic c ommodities, c irculating a gainst e ach o ther. 5 ) P ots a nd o ther v aluables w ere e xchanges f or ' social r easons, i nvolving p ersonal a lliances, p restige s tatus s ymbolism a nd d isplay b ehaviour'. 6 ) T he i norganic r emains s uch a s p ottery a nd l ithics ' are merely t he s keletal t races o f a much more comprehensive r ange o f b oth s taples a nd v aluables' ( Clarke 1 976). F rom t his s ummary i t i s c lear t hat pottery c anot b e r egarded merely a s a n i ndicator o f a s pecific c ultural i dentity, b ut c an b e c onsidered a s a commodity w hich h ad v alue, a nd a esthetic a ppeal over comparatively w ide a reas. T he d ispersal o f t he p ottery to w hat c an b e a ssumed t o b e d ifferent ' cultural' a reas t hrough exchange, d isposes o f t he t raditional e xplanations, i e. where a p ot t ype i s s ynonymous w ith a s pecific culture, a nd i nstead p oses quite a lternative e xplanations. T he

f ineware p ottery s equence.

E arly t o M iddle N eolithic F ine W are: T his d iscussion i s b ased o n t he a nalysis o f s ome 3 60 N eolithic s ites, most o f t hem l ocated i n S icily a nd t he S outh o r Mezzogiorno a rea o f I taly. O thers, o utside t hat z one h ave b een i ncluded b ecause o f t he p resence o f e xotic f inewares a nd obsidian. ( Percentages a re c alculated f rom t he n umber o f s ites, not f rom t he quantity o f pottery m aterial f ound) ( Pig. 9 .3). T he f iqulina i s t he most r eadily d efined o f t he f inewares, a nd i t i s c ommon f rom t he e arlier N eolithic ( Pig. 9 .1). A ll t he p ainted f inewares a re m ade o f f igulina f abric, a p ale b uff-yellow u ntempered, p olished, evenly f ired material, a nd i t i s v ery p robable t hat a number o f t he p lain

1 20

R ED-PA INTED & F IGUL INA S ITES

•

AEOLIAN ISLANDS

•

0

F ig.

1 00

9 .1.

2 00

300k m

D istribution

o f

F igulina

1 21

a nd

Red-painted ware.

f igulinas were o nce p ainted. U nfortunately, f ew c omplete v essels s urvive, a nd t he s mall f ragments making u p t he b ulk o f t he p resent s ample a re n ot easily constructed i nto a c lear typology. H owever, b owl, f lask a nd c up f orms a re c ommon, s ometimes w ith s mall h andles a nd l ugs. U npainted f igulina i s p resent o n 1 42 s ites i n t he s ample, 3 6% o f w hich a re i n A pulia, 1 4% i n t he A bruzzo, a nd about 1 2% i n b oth e ast S icily a nd B asilicata. E lsewhere t he f requency i s much l ower ( Fig. 9 .2). H owever, i t i s p erhaps s urprising t hat a s m any a s about 6 % o f f ig i llina s ites o ccur i n north I taly, where a s B arfield points out ( 1981) t he f orms appear t o b e f lask t ypes, s uitable f or t ransporting s ome s ort o f l iquid. T he R ed p ainted/Red-banded s tyle i s e ssentially much t he s ame a s t he p lain f iqulina, w ith s imilar f orms b ut w ith t he a dded i nterest o f t he p ainted motifs i n c urvilinear d esigns. U nfortunately f ew w hole p ots s urvive, a nd i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t he whole r ange o f f orms. H owever, t he more evolved r ed-painted t ypes, n amely t he S caloria B assa, P asso d i C orvo a nd C atignano s tyles p rovide a f air r ange ( Tine 1 983; T ine a nd I setti 1 975-80; T ozzi 1 978). ( Fig. 9 .3). R ed-painted pottery o ccurs o n s ome 9 6 s ites a nd 5 0% a re i n A pulia, 1 3% i n e ast S icily a nd 1 2% i n A bruzzo. T he g reat quantity i n A pulia during t he f irst h alf o f t he N eolithic h elps to emphasize W hitehouse's p roposal t hat R ed-painted pottery was p resent f rom t he e arlier N eolithic, s ince i t o ccurs s o f requently i n I mpressed-ware contexts o n t he A driatic s eaboard ( Whitehouse 1 968a). t he D uring t he e arlier N eolithic ( c. 5 000-4000 b .c.), inewares w ere n ot t he e xclusive f ine f igulina a nd p ainted f p ottery d estined f or e xchange. A s L ewthwaite ( 1981) h as arlier N eolithic i mpressed w ares were s uggested, s ome o f t he e p robably moved over c onsiderable d istances i n t he west to b e d eposited i n p redominantly M editerranean, o ften M esolithic s ettings, a nd a cquired, p resumably, b y a cculturated M esolithic g roups. T he S tentinello I mpressed w are o f S icily a nd C alabria a lso s eems t o h ave b een v alued s ufficiently f or movement over moderate d istances ( Ammerman p ers. comm.). A h igh p ercentage o f i mpressed w are s ites i nclude b oth R ed-painted a nd f iqulina p ottery which d emonstrate contemporaneity o f b oth i mpressed a nd f ineware pottery. I n s outh-east I taly, t he S cratched wares o f t he e arlier N eolithic a re a lso a ssociated w ith t he f igulinas, a nd t hey t oo, s eem t o h ave b een d istributed o ver modest d istances. T herefore, during t he e arlier N eolithic ( 5th - e arly 4 th m illennia b .c.) a c omplex p attern o f pottery d istribution i nvolving f ineware p ottery types i s emerging much a s s uggested b y C larke's model ( 1976). T here i s a t hree-tier p attern o f p ottery t ype a nd d ispersal. A t t he l ocal, d omestic l evel, coarse I mpressed w ares i ndicate r estricted d istribution o f pottery. A t a n i ntermediate l evel, t he s emif ine, I mpressed a nd S cratched w ares w ere d istributed over

1 22

KEY

F I GUL INA

R IPOL I

RED P A INTED

SCALORIA

SERRA D 'ALTO

CAPRI

N ORT H

ENTR AL ABR U Z Z O PU U A C AMPANI

/ D IANA

CALABRI A

/Z/

S I CILY

1 00

•

CA MPAN IA

50

E .S IC ILY

o APUL IA

F

l i l iE

W . SI CILY :; ;;;; « BB MO M Ba f le W IZ

BAS ILICATA

MU U M Ben MU O M

e z 'w

1 11 , CALABR IA

1 1 11

M

M » » M »

M.

1 U.... 11 1 1 1 1 » 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 12 1

A

ABRUZZO

-

CENTRAL

I TALY

NATALY

F ig. 9 .2. B ar chart showing the r egional the I talian Neolithic f inewares

f requency of

9

g reater d istances, a nd probably i ndicate l ocal exchange b etween n eighbouring groups. A t the h ighest l evel, t he f ar more s tandardised, very small, l ightweight, painted pottery was d istributed over enormous d istances, cutting across l ocal exchange n etworks, as an i nter-regional commodity of ' universal' appeal. T he v ery h igh percentage o f earlier Neolithic s ites w ith b oth f igulina a nd red-painted pottery i n A pulia, S icily, a nd t he Abruzzo n eed explanation, e specially as t he i ntermediate a reas s uch a s C alabria and B asilicata have r elatively f ew s ites. A pulia may well b e the production c entre f or a l arge amount o f t he f igulina a nd R ed-painted pottery. I t i s c lear f rom t he s tratified s equences i n c ave s ites o n the coast that painted f igulina was part o f t he early N eolithic a ssemblage. More westerly s ites, such a s R endina i n B asilicata ( Cipolloni 1 971; 1 977-82) a nd Favella i n C alabria, h ave a lmost no f ineware r epresented, s uggesting that i t was a rare l uxury. I n Apulia, on t he o ther h and, painted f iqulina wares a re p resent i n about h alf the N eolithic s ites of t he region, a nd these represent about h alf t he t otal s ites i n I taly a nd S icily. T herefore, the r elative ease with which Neolithic groups i n Apulia obtaineding t he f inewares, suggests t hat t heir production must h ave b een v ery local ( Fig. 9 .2). T he h igh percentage of s ites i n east S icily may b e explained t hrough that a reas i nvolvement w ith t he L ipari obsidian t rade. T he i ntense activity of L ipari, f rom r elatively early i n t he Neolithic as w ell as t he extraordinary a rray of c learly exotic goods f ound on L ipari ( Berna l : 36 B rea a nd Cavalier 1 960; 1 980) suggest that eastern S icily a nd t he A eolian i slands were p roducing obsidian cores and tools f or exchange, i n r eturn for which t hey obtained t he f inewares o f the s outh-east I talian t radition. I t i s l ikely t hat l ocal i mitation pottery p roduction also existed i n S icily. T he number o f s ites w ith f igulina f inewares i n the Abruzzo i s more d ifficult to explain, s ince t hat a rea has no very obvious export goods. T he r ecent f inds o f f igulina and painted pottery i n Molise ( Barker f orthcoming) provide a l ogical connection however, b etween A pulia and t he more northerly A driatic coastal z one. R esearch i s b eginning to demonstrate that relatively early N eolithic settlement comparable to t he Tavoliere N eolithic i s present a long the geographically s imilar Adriatic coastlands ( Bray 1 966; Radmilli 1 977). I s uggest t hat g roups a long t he coast acquired t he k now-how o f f ine pottery production f rom t he south, a nd developed i t i nto their own regional t radition, emerging a s t he R ipoli s tyle pottery i n the l ater middle Neolithic. The

L ater N eolithic T richromes. P rom t he m iddle o f the 4 th m illennium b .c. several painted T richrome f inewares appear southern

I taly and

S icily,

and they c an

1 24

b e

more

( Fig. 9 .4) throughout precisely

F ig. 9 .3. F igulina a nd R ed-pained f orms. 1 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 ) 7 ) f rom P asso d i C orvo, ( FG). 2 ) Z inzulusa, ( LE). 6 ) 9 ) 1 1) 1 4) 1 6) 1 8) f rom G rotta S caloria, ( FG). 8 ) 1 0) 1 3) 1 5) 1 7) f rom C atignano, ( TE). 1 2) f rom Murgecchia, ( MT).

1 25

defined than t he p receding f inewares, i nto regional s tyles ( Frangipane 1 975). U nfortunately, t here are s till too few absolute d ates t o determine t he exact sequence of development. H owever, t hey s eem to appear a t much the s ame t ime, but the R ipoli s tyle o f t he Abruzzo-Marche a nd t he S erra d 'Alto o f the whole south I talian a rea continued l ong after the other s tyles were abandoned. I t may b e s ignificant that the f our main T richrome s tyles emerge i n a reas previously characterised b y d ifferent Impressed ware t raditions. The R ipoli i n t he S asso F iorano pottery a rea, the C apri i n the S tentinello the S caloria and S erra d ' Alto i n t he A pulian Molfetta I mpressed/Matera ware S cratched a reas. The S caloria s tyle ( Fig. 9 .4) i s t he most geographically restricted, w ith f ew s ites outside A pulia. I ndeed, i t i s also t he r arest a nd currently t he eatrliest, s tyle, o ccuring on a t most, only 2 1 s ites, 8 5% o f which a re i n A pulia. O thers are i n B asilicata, and t here i s o ne recently found rather s uspect example a t M essina i n S icily ( Scibone p ers. comm). T he S caloria s tyle ( Tine a nd I setti 1 975-80) occurs a s cups a nd b owls w ith r ather c rude s emi-geometric and curvilinear d esigns i n red, b rown a nd b lack paint on t he u sual buff f igulina fabric. T he contexts i n which S caloria pottery i s found a re v aried, but w ith a n emphasis on r itualburial s ettings. E ight s ites a re c aves, some of which h ave burials a nd a rt ( eg. S caloria Cave a nd G rotta P orta B adisco); and t hree f urther s ites a re b urials. E lements i n the designs o f S caloria pottery a re s imilar to some o f the Yugoslavian painted N eolithic types, and on the T remiti i slands, types f rom b oth Apulia and Y ugoslavia a re p resent together ( Palma d i C esnola 1 965). T he C apri s tyle i s a western T richrome, with a predominantly coastal d istribution over S icily, C alabria and Campania. O f the 2 3 s ites which h ave producted C apri-style T richrome, 4 0% a re i n east S icily, 2 1% i n west S icily, and 1 4% are i n b oth B asilicata and C ampania. O ne s ite ( Arene Candide) i s known f rom L iguria. T he C apri-Lipari s tyle i s t raditionally characterized b y t he ' flame' motif, w ith red painted a reas outlined i n d ark b rown-black. H owever, on i nspection, this motif i s rare, and geometric patterns i nfilled w ith c losely painted t rellis patterns a nd margined i n d arker paint a re more common ( Fig. 9 .4). S ites i nclude caves and burials, a s well a s a number o f particularly r ich s ettlements, such a s o n L ipari a nd a t R occapalumba, P alermo ( Mannino pers. comm.). T he

R ipoli

s tyle

covers

a comparable

a rea

to the

C apri,

but i n c entral a nd eastern I taly. I t i s also t he only T richrome of the f irst phase to penetrate r egularly, northern I taly, w ith examples i n L iguria a nd t he P o V alley. T he R ipoli i s probably t he b est s tudied o f t he T richromes with a wide range o f s ites excavated i n t he Abruzzo ( Radmilli 1 977). T here a re a lso a number o f 14 C d ates which demonstrate the longevity of t he s tyle f rom 3 680 + 8 0 b .c. ( Ripoli, Hut 1 2) to

2 820

± 1 10

b .c.

( Bolognano,

1 26

G rotta

P icconi).

T he

wide

r ange o f d ates, l ike t he S erra d ' Alto s uggest t hat t he R ipoli s tyle d ominates b oth t he e arly a nd l ate T richrome p hase o f t he M iddle N eolithic. T he f orms a re v aried ( Fig. 9 .5) a nd h ave a wealth o f p lastic modelled h andles. T he painted d esigns a re normally g eometric t riangles i n b road b ands, o utlined w ith d ark p aint, o ften i ncluding r ows o f p ainted d ots i n t he b order p atterns. P aint i s u sually r ed a nd d ark b rown o n a b uff t o p inkish f igulina ( Fig. 9 .5). R ipoli o ccurs o n s ome 4 0 s ites, 4 0% o f w hich a re i n t he Abruzzo, 1 4% i n A pulia a nd 2 2% i n c entral I taly ( Marche Umbria, T uscany a nd L azio), a nd 1 4% i n north I taly. C ontexts i n c entral a nd n orthern I taly a re o ften r elated t o quite d ifferent l ocal t rajectories, w ith no p revious t radition f or p ainted f inewares. R ipoli i s t he o nly painted f ineware t hat i s p resent o n a r elatively h igh p ercentage o f N eolithic s ites o utside t he M ezzogiorno a rea ( 36% o f R ipoli s ites a re i n c entral o r n orthern I taly). S ome o f t he p ainted motifs a re comparable to t he i ncised d esigns o f t he north I talian pottery s equence. A lthough i t i s p ossible t o d istinguish t he f our m ain T richrome s tyles f or t he f irst T richrome phase, t he f orms a re f airly s imilar, a nd even t he p ainted d esigns h ave much i n c ommon. W hether t hey a re i ndependent d evelopments, o r whether t hey were i nspired t hrough t he common mechanism o f e xchange a nd i mitation i s s till a p roblem t hat c annot b e r esolved. I t i s l ikely t hat t hey evolved f rom t he common t radition o f t he e alier f iqulinas t ogether w ith s ome s timulus f rom a cross t he Adriatic ( Bray 1 966), a nd emerged a s l ocal s tyles f rom d ifferent p roduction a reas, d estined f or exchange, but over more r estricted a reas t han t he e arlier types. S erra d ' Alto F rom t he b eginning o f t he M iddle N eolithic T richrome p hase c . 3 700 b .c., t he S erra d ' Alto s tyle i s p resent, i n a n a rchaic h igh r immed cup f orm, i n s outh east I taly ( Fig. 9 .5/1-2). T he o rnate g eometric a nd curvilinear p ainted d ecoration i s i n b road b ands a round t he b ulk o f t he v essel ( Fig. 9 .5/2, 4 , 6 , 8 ). O ther f orms i nclude j ars a nd b owls. R ecent d ates f rom A pulia ( Whitehouse p ers. comm.) i ndicate t hat S erra d ' Alto a ppears a t l east a s e arly a s t he R ipoli a nd l ater S caloria s tyles. T he s econd h alf o f t he T richrome p hase i n s outhern I taly a nd S icily, i s typified b y t he S erra d 'Alto s tyle w hich s eems t o i ncorporate many o f t he c haracteristics o f t he f irst p hase, p articularly t he S caloria p ainted motifs a nd t akes over t he d istribution a reas o f a ll b ut t he R ipoli s tyle i n c entral I taly ( Fig. 9 .6). T he R ipoli continues a s a n evolved s tyle ( Fig. 9 .6) u ntil t he l ate N eolithic. A lthough a bsolute d ates a re i nconclusive f or t his p hase, i t r anges f rom c . 3 500 - 3 000 b .c. T he S erra d 'Alto o ccurs t hroughout t he M ezzogiorno r egion a nd S icily, a nd i s even r eported f rom M alta ( Evans 1 971, 2 11; T rump 1 966b). R are e xamples a re k nown f rom c entral I taly, a nd

1 27

E ARLY T R ICHROME S ITES

•• . .• • ••.. •

o TRICHROME • CAPR I A

R IP OL I

✓ SCALOR IA

AEOLI AN ISLANDS

3 00 km

F ig.

9 .4.

D istribution o f

1 28

T richrome p ottery.

o nly o ne e xample f rom t he n orth ( Barfield 1 981). S erra d ' Alto i s c ommon i n A pulia, where i t makes u p 4 8% o f t he 1 09 s ites i n t he s ample. 1 2% o f s ites o ccur i n B asilicata, a nd i t s hould b e pointed o ut, t hat i n t erms o f actual quantity o f pots, t his i s t he r ichest a rea. S ome 1 4% o f s ites o ccur i n e ast S icily a nd L ipari, which d emonstrates t he c ontinuing ability o f L ipari t o obtain what must b e l argely i mported c eramic f ineware goods ( Fig. 9 .2). T he S erra d 'Alto pottery i s t he most d istinctive a nd s tylistically d eveloped o f a ll t he p ainted wares. I t r epresents t he p eak o f pottery making i n t he N eolithic, a nd i s c omparable i n quality a nd a rtistic s ophistication to contemporary, N eolithic c eramic a rt i n t he B alkans, t o w hich i t m ay owe s ome a spects o f t he s tyle ( Bray 1 966). C up f orms a re c ommon, w ith e ither l arge s trap h andles, w ith a nimal h eads modelled o n t hem, o r e laborately s crolled l ugs i n a g reat v ariety o f f orms ( Fig. 9 .7; 9 .9). O ther f orms i nclude b owls, v ases a nd s mall f lasks. A l arge percentage o f S erra d 'Alto v essels a re p ainted, w ith v ery r ecognisable motifs, i n a f airly r estricted r ange o f d esigns, a rranged i n a n i nfinite v ariety o f p atterns o f z ig zags, g eometric a nd curvilinear b ands, c reating a f ascinating p ositive/negative e ffect. T he s tyle i s easily r ecognised s ince even s mall f ragments u sually i nclude typical motifs. A lthough t he S erra d ' Alto i s typically a painted w are, t here a re s everal e xamples o f u npainted v ases. O ne n otable c lass i s t he s mall, r ounded f lask, which i s g enerally f ound i n f unerary contexts over much o f s outhern I taly ( Fig. 9 .8). S ome o f t he p ainted a nd u npainted v ases a re typologically v ery s imilar t o t he l ater N eolithic ' Diana' s tyle, a nd i t s eems c lear f rom t he numerous contexts containing b oth S erra d 'Alto a nd D iana p ottery, t hat t he two s tyles w ere b eing p roduced a t t he s ame t ime, w ith t he S erra d ' Alto d isappearing i n f avour o f t he D iana i n t he l ate N eolithic, t he S erra d ' Alto was i n u se i n t he l ast t hird o f t he f ourth m illennium b .c. w ith t he D iana continuing u ntil t he e arly t hird m illennium b .c. ( Fig. 9 .12). T he

L ate N eolithic. T he l ate-final N eolithic i s typified t hroughout t he M ezzogiorno b y t he D iana p ottery, a more v aried type, p resent a s b oth f ine a nd c oarseware, w ith a number o f d istinctive s tyle f eatures. T hese i nclude a c haracteristic b right r ed s lipped o r b urnished s urface, ' trumpet' l ug-handles, a nd a s uccession o f d istinctive r im a nd c arination f orms. P ainted d ecoration i s r are, a lthough e xamples e xist i n S icily a nd i mpressed a nd s cratched s urface d ecoration i s k nown, p articularly f rom t he f inale phase. T he D iana s tyle h as b een i ntensively s tudied a t t he type-site o n L ipari, a nd a c lear evolution o f t he s tyle c an b e d emonstrated t hrough A , B , a nd C t o a d egenerate f inale ( Bernabö B rea a nd C avalier 1 960; 1 980) ( Fig. 9 .11). T he d istribution p attern o f t he earlier

o f D iana pottery r epeats t he g eneral f inewares, w ith most s ites o ccuring i n

1 29

F ig. 9 .5. T richrome pottery f orms. Scaloria s tyle : 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 5 -6) 7 ) 8 ) f rom S caloria, 4 ) f rom T remiti ( FG). Capri s tyle: 9 ) 1 0) 1 1) 1 3) f rom C apri ( NA). 1 2) Gr. S t A ngelo, Cassano J onico ( CS). 1 4) 1 5) f rom M egara Hyblaea ( SR). 1 6)-22) f rom t he L ipari Acropolis ( ME). R ipoli forms 2 3)-32) f rom R ipoli ( TE).

11( 1

S ERRA D 'ALTO S ITES .

. •

AE3 1 . _I AN I SLAND %

"4

M MO I M MM M IL _ _ __ _ _ A M M M M M M 0 3 00k m

F ig.

9 .6.

D istribution o f

1 31

S erra

d ' Alto wares.

t he south ( Fig. 9 .10). I n a ll, 1 31 D iana s ites a re k nown, a number w hich f ar e xceeds a ny o f t he e arlier s tyles, a nd i t does s uggest t hat a s well a s t aking over t he r ole o f f ineware i n a ll t he p revious s outh I talian f ineware a reas, t hat t here a re e ither more s ites i n u se, ( Ammerman 1 979); W hitehouse 1 968b) connected w ith a s teady population g rowth during t he n eolithic, o r t hat t hey a re more v isible. A pulia c hanges f rom b eing t he d ensest a rea o f f ineware d istribution, to r epresenting o nly 2 6% o f t he t otal. E astern S icily o n t he o ther h and, h as 3 2% o f D iana s ites, a nd west S icily h as 9 %. O ther a reas ( Calabria, B asilicata, C ampania, A bruzzo a nd c entral I taly) h ave o nly 3 0%, a nd a t t he moment, o nly o ne s ite i s k nown f rom t he P o V alley i n n orth I taly a t C esena, F orli. I n t he p ast t here h ave b een a number o f e xplanations f or t he c hange f rom p ainted b uff f inewares t o t he u npainted r ed o f t he D iana. A d iffusionist l ine h as u sually b een t aken, a nd c olonists f rom t he east a re i nvariably a ccredited w ith t he n ew p ottery s tyle ( Bernabö B rea 1 957; B ranigan 1 965). S ylistically, h owever, t he main f eatures o f t he D iana s tyle c an b e i dentified f rom t he m iddle N eolithic T richromes, w ith t he b asic f orms a nd h andles evolving s teadily t hrough t he N eolithic. A number o f r egional types h ave b een i dentified s uch a s t he M armo o f S icily, t he B ellavista o f A pulia a nd t he R ed S korba o f M alta ( Trump 1 966b). T he d istribution o f s ites s hows s everal c lusters, w ith concentrations a round Mount E tna, a nd i n A pulia. T hese may t urn o ut t o b e l ocal p roduction a reas, o r t hey may r eflect t he r e-distributive mechanisms c irculating t he p ottery.

T he

T hird M illennium. T he D iana s tyle o f p ottery f ades i nto a n i ndefinable f inale of i ncreasingly c oarse a nd s tylistically d egenerate pottery, sometime d uring t he e arly t hird m illennium b .c. W ith t he d emise o f t he D iana, t he e laborate f ineware p ottery s tyles d isappear t hroughout t he M ezzogiorno. I n t he w ake o f t he f inal N eolithic, numerous, v ery r egional pottery s tyles appear during t he e arly t hird mllennium b .c. I n every way, t he n ew s tyles d emonstrate a complete b reak w ith t he past t radition o f w idely d ispersed f inewares, a nd s tylistically, u se quite n ew i deas i n pottery p roduction. ( For e xample, t he S icilian P iano N otaro-Conca d ' Oro a nd M altese I ncised s tyles, t he d ark b urnished P iano C onte o f t he A eolian i slands a nd C alabria, a nd t he v arious s outh I talian g roups, t he O stuni, G audo, M acchia a M are a nd L aterza, t raditionally c alled C opper A ge ( Renfrew a nd W hitehouse 1 974)). T he b reak w ith t he p ast t raditions s eem t o r epresent a type o f ' unit r eorientation' ( Sherrätt 1 974), w ith g reater emphasis o n m icro-regional i dentity. E xplanations f or w hy t his s hould h ave come about a re many, b ut i t d oes appear t hat t he s tylistic t ransformations were i n part due t o t he p rofound s ocial a nd e conomic c hanges o f t he t hird m illennium b .c. ( Sherratt 1 981), w here t he pottery s tyles m erely r eflecting c hanges i n s ocial a nd e conomic o rganisation.

1 32

' ) c rn

F ig.

9 .7

S erra d ' Alto cups. 1 )-4) 7 ) ( MT). 6 ) 8 ) S anta B arbara ( BA).

1 33

f rom S erra d ' Alto, 5 ) L ipari A cropolis.

0

1 1 7

1 2

1 8 0

5 cm

1 3

1 4

7 1 9

•

1 5

1 6

2 0

F ig. 9 .8 S erra d 'Alto Funerary v ases. 1 ) G rotta F uneria, ( MT). 2 ) 1 0) 1 4) 1 7) 1 8) f rom C ala C olombo ( BA). 3 ) S caloria ( FG). 4 ) G irifalco ( CZ). 5 ) A drano, ( CT) 6 ) S coglio d el T onno ( TA).

7 )

8 )

1 2)-13)

1 34

Marmo

( CT).

C ontexts T he morphological contexts i n w hich t he f ineware pottery w ere d eposited a re o f g reat i nterest a nd i mportance w hen t rying t o a ssess t he r ole o f t he f inewares. C ontexts r ange f rom n ormal d omestic s ites, t o b urials a nd h ighly r itualised d eposits i n s hrines a nd c aves. O f t he w hole N eolithic s ample, 5 7% a re s ettlement s ites, w ith a f urther 9 %, s ettlements a ssociated w ith b urials. C aves amount t o 2 0% o f s ites a nd a f urther 2 .25% h ave b urials a ssociated. O nly 2 % o f s ites a re i solated b urials. A lthough i t i s g enerally b elieved t hat N eolithic c ommunities i nhabited caves a s much a s t hey u sed open s ettlements, e xamination o f t he c ave contexts s uggest t hat t his w as n ot t he c ase. T he g reater percentage o f caves u sed i n t he m id-later N eolithic h ave p roduced l ittle evidence f or s ustained h abitation. I nstead, where good e xcavations h ave e stablished a ctivity a reas, i t i s c lear t hat c aves were u sed p redominantly f or n on-domestic a ctivities. O ne t hird o f t he c aves i n t he s ample were u sed f or b urial during t he N eolithic, a nd a f urther t hird a re a ssociated w ith w hat may b e i dentified a s ' ritual' a ctivities. T he r emaining t hird o f c ave s ites have n ot b een c arefully e nough excavated t o i dentify s pecific a ctivities. A c hanging p attern o f c ave-burials c an b e i dentified during t he N eolithic. Out o f t he t otal number o f caves k nown t o h ave b een u sed f or N eolithic b urial, I mpressed w are i s p resent i n 4 1% o f a ll c ave burials, f iqulina/Red-painted ware i n 8 3%, T richrome ( including S erra d ' Alto) i n 7 5% a nd D iana i n 3 7%. T his d emonstrates s uggests t hat, even a llowing f or s tratigraphic p roblems, a h igher p ercentage o f c ave b urials a re a ssociated w ith middle N eolithic f inewares. S everal c aves h ave a l ong h istory o f r itual u se, w ith I mpressed ware burials, f ollowed b y middle a nd l ater N eolithic b urials a nd o ther d eposits. I n s ome e xamples t he s ites ( caves w ith h ot v olcanic s prings, v olcanic f umerole e tc) were u sed a s s hrines f or o fferings, s acrifices, b urials a nd possibly f easts a nd i ntiation c eremonies. F or e xample, G rotta L atronico i n B asilicata ( Rellini 1 916; 1 940) h as h ot s teaming s prings, a ssociated w ith l arge v essels f illed w ith g rain a nd b urials. G rotta S an C alogero ( Tine 1 971) i n west S icily h as s ulphorous h ot s prings a ssociated w ith c hild s acrifices o ther o fferings; G r. P iccioni B olognano i n t he A bruzzo h as r evealed small s tone c ircles a nd c hild burials ( Radmilli 1 977), a nd numerous c aves h ave v ases p laced u nder d ripping s talagmites ( Grotte L attaia i n T uscany, S caloria ( Tine a nd I setti 1 975-80) a nd P orta B adisco ( Graziosi 1 980) i n A pulia). T he n atural phenomena o f t he caves, a s d escribed a bove, may well h ave p rovided t he s etting f or a v ariety o f c ult a ctivites, r ites o f passage, a ppeasement o f d ivine f orces a nd c eremonial b urials. M any c aves continued i n u se t hrough t he B ronze a ge a nd s ometimes i nto h istoric t imes, w ith s hrines t o w ater d eities a nd s aints, a nd t here i s every r eason t o b elieve t hat N eolithic g roups had c omparable r eligious a nd cult b eliefs ( Maringer 1 973).

1 35

B urial contexts make u p a s izeable p roportion o f t he t otal o f s ites w ith f inewares. B urial contexts make u p t he f ollowing p ercentages o f t he t otal o f e ach o f t he f ollowing f ineware pottery types: F igulina R ed-painted R ipoli C apri S caloria S erra d 'Alto D iana

2 9.41% 2 1.97% 3 0.76% 3 6.36% 2 5.00% 2 8.70% 2 4.60%

I n most cases, a quarter o f a ll f ineware s ites a re b urials, w hich d oes confirm t he g eneral hypothesis t hat t he f inewares were r egarded a s goods s ymbolising v alue, p restige a nd possibly h ad r eligious s ignificance. T hey were c onsidered a s suitable g rave goods, a long w ith l ithic t ools a nd j ewellery. I h ave a ttempted t o quantify, a t a v ery g ross l evel, t he a pproximate p roportions o f f ineware a t t he v arious s tages o f t he N eolithic, i n r itual ( cave, c ave-burial, b urials, s hrine) a nd d omestic ( settlement) contexts, i n o rder t o s ee i f t he f inewares h ad a s pecific r ole. T he p roportions a re c alculated f rom t he total o f each c eramic c lass.

F igulina R ed-painted R ipoli C apri S caloria S erra d ' Alto D iana

R itual 4 8% 5 1% 5 4% 4 8% 6 0% 4 9% 4 5%

D omestic 5 2% 4 9% 4 6% 5 2% 4 0% 5 1% 5 5%

T he overall t rend o f t hese r esults s hows a f airly e qual d ivisions o f what could b e r egarded a s p restige p ottery, b etween two c lasses o f s ite, w ith R ipoli a nd S caloria T richromes more commonly f ound i n r itual contexts. T aking a ll t he s ites north o f t he M ezzogiorno ( i.e. A pulia-Campania) t his p attern c hanges, w ith 6 0% o f s ites p roducing a ny o f t he f inewares c lassed a s r itual s ites. T he s imple e xplanation f or t his may b e t hat, t he more d istant t he s ites a re f rom t he s outh e astern c ore a reas o f f ineware pottery c irculation ( excepting n orth I taly) t he more l ikely t hey a re t o b e r itual i n c haracter a nd c ontain e xotic i mported v aluables. E xchange a nd i nteraction T he geographical e xtent over w hich t he N eolithic f inewares ( Figs. 9 .1, 9 .4, 9 .6 & 9 .10) a re d istributed i n S icily, s outhern I teay a nd b eyond i s v ast, a nd i n t he c ontext o f N eolithic s ociety, r equires much more d iscussion t han i t h as r eceived t o d ate. C larke's model ( 1976) o f l ong d istance, cyclical e xchange n etworks which d ealt i n f ine pottery a s well a s a number o f

1 36

F ig. 9 .9 S erra d ' Alto f orms 1 ) P aterno ( CT). 2 ) 3 ) 7 a) 1 1h,i,j,l,n,p). L ipari A cropolis ( ME). 4 ) 3 ) S coglio d el Tonno ( TA). 5 ) S erra d ' Alto ( MT) 1 0) G ravella, S erra d ' Alto ( MT). 6 ) 7h) Caverna d ell'Erba ( TA). 7 c) D essueri ( CL). 1 1b, 1 1f) C ontrada D iana, L ipari ( ME). 1 1c) L eporano ( TA). 1 1g) C anne ( BA).11m) S erra d 'Alto ( MT). 1 1o) 1 3) S coglio d elTonno.

1 37

D IANA S ITES

0 S .

AEOL IAN a I SLANDS t . e

0

1 00

200

300

km.

c

F ig.

9 .10

D istribution

o f

k,3 J IALTA

D iana wares.

1 38

o ther o rganic a nd i norganic c ommodities does s eem a ppropriate i n t he I talian N eolithic context. T he r elatively h omogenous s tyles a s well a s t he h ighly a ccomplished potting s tandards o f t he d ifferent s tyles, i ndicate, e ither r estricted p otting c entres, o r a h igh d egree o f i nteraction a nd l ocal i mitation. H owever, t he d istributions s how s ome c lustering, w hich s uggests t hat p roduction may h ave b een o n a r estricted l ocal s cale, a s s pecialist c raft p roduction, w ith e xchange n etworks c arrying t he pottery t o a number o f s econdary a nd t ertiary d estinations. U nfortunately, l ittle r esearch h as y et b een c arried out o n c lay s ources, s o c entres h ave not y et b een i dentified. F rom t he evidence o f l ithic materials, polished axes o f c rystalline s tone f rom r estricted a reas o f I taly, f ine f lint, a nd o bsidian f rom a number o f west M editerranean i sland sources, were moving over l arge a reas o f I taly during t he N eolithic. T he polished s tone a xes, p articularly g reenstone e xamples, were v ery w idely d istributed t hroughout southern I taly a nd S icily, during t he N eolithic a nd C opper a ge. T raditional explanations h ave g enerally a ssumed t hat t he axes o riginated f rom t he western A lps, where s ources f or j adite a nd o ther r are g reen s tones h ave b een i dentified. E vett ( 1973) c onstructed a n e laborate model f or t he r edistribution a nd s ize r eduction o f t he axes t o southern I taly, b ased o n t he a ssumption t hat t here was o nly o ne s ignificant s ource o f t he rock i n north I taly. H owever, i nspection o f g eological maps, a s well a s a d istribution map o f g reenstone axes i n s outhern I taly d oes d emonstrate t hat i t i s f ar more l ikely t hat t he a xes o riginated f rom t he c rystalline r ocks o f t he S ila o f C alabria. A reas a djoining C alabria h ave quite d ense s catters o f axes o n N eolithic s ites, e specially A pulia a nd e astern S icily, t he two z ones t hat h ave h igh d ensities o f f inewares a s well a s obsidian. Obsidian i s p resent o n N eolithic s ites a ll over I taly. T he p roblem a t t he moment, i s t hat u ntil many more s amples a re e xamined, i t i s not p ossible t o s ay which s ource o f o bsidian s upplied t he d ifferent a reas o f I taly. E arlier s tudies ( Hallam e t a l. 1 976) s howed t hat A eolian a nd S ardinian o bsidian s ources s eemed t o s upply d ifferent a reas o f I taly, w ith t he b ulk o f N orth I talian o bsidian c oming f rom S ardinia. M ore r ecent work h as d emonstrated t hat t he s ituation i s much more complex, w ith u p t o four s ources s upplying even t he r emote corners o f northern I taly, f ar f rom t he main a reas o f o bsidian c irculation ( Barfield e t a l. 1 979). T he most i mportant a spect o f t he o bsidian t rade, b esides t he f act t hat we c an i dentify t he source, i s t hat a ll t he s ources a re i slands, w hich confirm t hat N eolithic t raders were able s eamen, w ith h ighly d eveloped maritime skills t hat a llowed t he r egular e xploitation o f t he o bsidian s ources. T he p resence o f S erra d 'Alto a nd D iana material o n M alta f or e xample, ( Evans 1 971) a long w ith a n a rray o f obsidian a nd

1 39

F ig. 9 .11 D iana pottery forms. 1 ) 4 ) 5 ) 6 ) 1 0) 1 3) 1 4) 1 8) 2 5) 2 6) 2 8) Contrada D iana, L ipari ( ME). 2 ) 2 3) 2 8) C ala Colomba ( BA). 3 ) 8 ) B iancavilla ( CT). 7 ) Materensa ( SR). 9 ) 2 0) 2 2) Marmo, ( CT). 1 1) 1 5) 2 7) 3 0) T refontane, ( CT). 1 1) 3 2) Megara Hyblaea ( SR). 1 6) 2 4) S perlinga S an B asilio, ( ME). 1 7) 1 9) G rotta S ant' Angelo, C assano Jonico ( CS). 2 1) O rto del Conte ( CT). 2 9) 3 2) B ellavista ( TA). 3 1) Adrano ( CT). P ainted D iana ware. P hases A = 1-4. B = 5-8. C = 10,13-18,23,24,26.

1 40

p olished s tone goods d emonstrates t hat even d istances o f 9 0 k m. were n avigable i n t he l ater N eolithic. S imilarly, s everal e xamples o f c eramic a nd l ithic material have b een f ound o n t he T remiti a nd o ther i slands b etween t he two coasts o f t he A driatic, o riginating f rom b oth I taly a nd Y ugoslavia. A number o f s cholars h ave s uggested t he l ikelihood o f t ransA driatic movement, t hroughout t he N eolithic ( Bray 1 966; B atovic 1 975; K orkuti 1 975). Obsidian T he r esults o f t he C alabrian s urveys ( Ammerman 1 979; A mmerman e t a l. 1 978) h ave concentrated o n t he p roblem o f o bsidian e xchange a nd r edistribution. F rom t he a nalysis o f r eduction t echniques, a nd t he i ntermediate p rocesses, t he p roduction o f obsidian c ores a nd t ools f or e xchange c an n ow b e s een t o b e a c omplex p rocess ( Ammerman a nd A ndrefsky 1 982), w ith s ites d ifferentially i nvolved i n t he a cquisition a nd p rocessing o f o bsidian ( Hodder a nd M alone 1 984). T he C alabrian c oastal s ites d emonstrate t his a t t he p rimary l evel, w ith g reat quantities o f r aw o bsidian s traight f rom

L ipari. S ites l ike P escale s ituated o n t he n atural r outes b etween t he p eninsula a nd t he P o V alley r epresent quite d ifferent t ypes o f s ite, w hich a cted a s collecting points f or t he d ispersal o f c ores a nd b lades o f e xotic o bsidian ( Barfield 1 981; B arfield e t a l. 1 979). T he i ntermediate t raffic, b etween s ource a nd a rchaeological d eposit i s a p articularly d ifficult p rocess to i dentify i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T he d ensity o f obsidian-bearing s ites d eclines i n f requency, w ith d istance f rom t he source, o n t he g ross s cale. O n t he l ocal s cale, t he p attern i s f ar more v ariable, a s A mmerman h as d emonstrated ( Ammerman e t a l. 1 978). S imple d own-the-line exchange models a re not e ntirely a pplicable to t he geographically v aried mainland-island e nvironment o f I taly, a nd t here a re s everal a lternative models. ( Renfrew 1 969). A s P ascale d emonstrates, s ome s ites, even a t t he e nd o f t he exchange n etwork, had a g reater a bility i n obtaining t he e xotic goods t han s imilar, n eighbouring s ites. E ven i n southern I taly a nd S icily, where t he f requency o f o bsidian b earing s ites i s much h igher, s ome s ites r emained ' marginal' t o t he main exchange systems, a nd r arely o btained o bsidian, e xotic axes o r t he pottery f inewares ( for e xample, s outhern S icily a nd m uch o f C alabria a nd C ampania. G eographical i solation i s o ne obvious explanation f or t he poverty o f s ome s ites, a s i s t he p resence o f l ocal l ithic s ources a nd p otting c lay p roviding l ocal r aw materials. B ut i n t he context o f s outhern I taly a s a whole, where t he mountain r anges, rocky coasts a nd i slands d ominate much o f t he l andscape, c omparable poverty o f o ther s ites e qually i solated i s n ot r epeated. S ome a reas c learly h ad w ell d eveloped i nteraction n etworks operating o n a r egular b asis, a nd o btained e xotic goods, a nd o thers d id n ot. C larke points o ut t hat c oastal a nd r iverine n etworks w ere p robably o f g reat i mportance i n t he d evelopment a nd

1 41

y ears

y ears

BP

b c

5000

< z < a

3050

= 0 a .

2 6000

4 050

7 000

S O U T H I T A L I A N I M P R E S E D W A R E S

5050

3 000

F ig.

9 .12 i n

605 0

C hronological I taly b ased o n

c hart f or t he N eolithic u ncalibrated 14 C dates.

1 42

f inewares

maintenance o f l ong-distance exchange n etworks, a long which s mall b oats o r c anoes would p ly. C omparable e xamples i nclude t he Kula r ing ( Clarke 1 976; M alinowski 1 922) o f t he O ceanic i slands o ff N ew G uinea, w here m aritime e xchange was a f undamental p art o f t he p restige g ift-giving b etween K ula p artners. S imilarly, t he p rehistoric i nteraction s phere n etwork o f t he H opewell I ndians o n t he M ississipi a nd o ther l arge r ivers o f n orth A merica, d epended l argely o n r iverine c ommunications i n t he acquisition o f e xotic, a nd h igh v alue g oods ( Streuver a nd H owart 1 972). I n b oth t hese e xamples, t here was a double f unction t o t he l ong d istance exchange. O n t he d omestic l evel, s taple goods w ere a cquired, a nd o n t he i nter-regional l evel, c ertain g oods t ook o n t he c haracter o f h igh p restige s ymbolic g ifts a nd t ributes t hat were u sed t o c onsolidate exchange r elationships b etween d istant g roups, a nd r egulate t he more e ssential e xchange o f s ubsistence goods ( Renfrew 1 975). I n t he c ontext o f t he S outh I talian N eolithic, t he evidence f or exchange i s p atchy, but u ndoubtedly, t he coastal a reas were b est s erved b y e xchange n etworks. A t o ne e nd o f t he s pectrum, ' wealthy' s ites l ike L ipari, w ith t heir v ery e xistence b ased o n t he e sploitation o f a specific r aw material, p rovide b ountiful d ata about t he material b rought i n f rom e lsewhere, i n e xchange f or t he o bsidian ( Bernab6 B rea a nd C avalier 1 960; 1 980). A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s pecturm, t he evidence i s v ery poor. F ew s ites h ave b een well e nough e xcavated t o d emonstrate t he on-site p roduction o f p ottery o r o ther g oods, a nd w e must r ely o n t he r ather s uspect evidence o f d istribution maps, pottery typologies, a nd t he r elationship o f goods a nd contexts. H owever, even t hese c an b e r evealing. I made a b rief s tudy o f imported/exchange goods c irculating t hroughout t he N eolithic ( obsidian, t he f ine potteries, polished axes), a nd t heir c ontexts, t o s ee i f a ny r elationship c ould b e i dentified b etween t hem. M any s ites h ave two i mported materials i n a burial o r cave s etting a nd s ome s ites m ay h ave t hree types o f goods b ut o nly a f ew s ites have more t han t hree types o f g oods. W here t here a re f our o r f ive goods p resent t he s ites c an b e s hown t o b e e ither r itual o r b urial i n c haracter. O nly two s ites have s even a ssociated i mport/ r itual c ontext a ttributes a nd t hey a re b oth coastal cave s ites. G rotta S an C alogero i n w est S icily, w ith h ot s ulphurous u nderground s prings i s a ssociated w ith c hild s acrifices, a nd G rotta F elci o n C apri, w here t he cave i s f illed w ith N eolithic b urials, a nd o bjects o f s ymbolic v alue, s uch a s p ainted s tones. I t would appear t hen, o n t he r esults o f t his v ery p reliminary a nalysis, t hat t he g oods o f t he l ong d istance e xchange n etworks a re f requently f ound a ssociated t ogether a nd f requently i n n on-domestic s ettings, o f r itual o r s ymbolic c haracter. A t t he s ame t ime, t here i s r egional v ariation i n t he p atterning; s howing t hat t he more d istant t he a reas w ere f rom s outh-east I taly, t he more l ikely was t he d eposition o f t he imported g oods i n r itual contexts.

1 43

S tyle a nd s tylistic e xchange T he u se o f s pecific s tyles i n t he f orm a nd d ecoration o f t he f ineware pottery i s a most c haracteristic f eature o f t he I talian N eolithic. A s d escribed e arlier, t he d ifferent s tyles h ave b een d efined o n c hronological, r egional, a nd t ypological g rounds. H owever, i n b oth t he c hronological a nd r egional a spects i t h as b een d emonstrated t hat t here a re n o s trict r ules, a nd t he c eramic f inewares o ccur i n d ifferent r egions a nd a t d ifferent a nd overlapping t imes ( Fig. 9 .12). Above a ll, i t i s t he ' style' o f t he pottery which i s t he s ingle most i dentifiable f eature o f south I talian N eolithic a rtefacts. A s t he d istribution maps ( Figs. 9 .1, 9 .4, 9 .6, & 9 .10) s how, s tylistically s imilar pottery i s f ound over w ide a reas a nd e xchange o f p ottery h as b een s uggested a s b eing t he p rimary cause o f t he d ispersal o f i t. H owever, w hy t he p ottery s hould h ave h ad s uch w ide appeal, a nd w hy i t c onforms t o v ery s pecific s tyles a re t he questions t hat n eed i nvestigation. T he b asic s tyles o f t he composed o f f our main e lements:

v arious

c eramic

c eramic f orm s urface colour s urface d ecoration: p ainted, s lipped, i ncised/ p lastic modelling o r h andles, l ugs e tc.

types

a re

impressed

E ach o f t hese e lements a re p resent i n a lmost every v essel, i n v arying amounts a nd t reatment. T he s tyles a re d istinctive b ecause t hey u se p articular s ets o f e lements, r epeated i n s pecific ways. N ot every pot c onforming to a s tyle w ill i nclude a ll t he e lements, b ut may h ave a dapted o r r e-arranged t hem i n s ubtle ways, s o t hat even t hough only p erhaps o ne e lement i s p resent, t he s tyle i s r eadily d etectable. F or e xample, t he p ainted motifs o f t he S erra d ' Alto a re s ometimes r epeated a s i ncised d esigns ( Figs. 9 .9/11, p ; 9 .8/11) a nd t he typical D iana ' trumpet' h andles ( Fig. 9 .11) a re found o n p ottery t hat o therwise b ears l ittle r elationship t o t he D iana s tyle. T he r easons f or t he d evelopment o f, a nd a dherence to, ' style' i n a rtefacts, h as b een t he s ubject o f much d iscussion. P log ( 1980) o utlined t he d ifferent approaches, a nd concluded t hat two main explanations a re a pplicable: 1 ) t he t ransmission o f s tyle t hrough l earned b ehaviour a nd s ocial i nteraction; 2 ) s tyle u sed a s a n i nformation c arrier. T he t ransmission o f s tyle t hrough l earned b ehaviour i s d emonstrable i n S outhern I taly b ecause evolving s tyles c ontinue i n t he a rea over h undreds o f y ears. T he d evelopment o f l ocal s tyles i ndicate t he acquisition o f l ocal p otting k now-how, p resumably t hrough s ocial i nteraction a nd i mitat ion, s uch a s t he C atignano s tyle o f R ed P ainted p ottery i n t he A bruzzo. T he

a dherence t o pottery s tyles

1 44

over w ide a reas a nd l ong

p eriods must b e due, i n part, t o t he exchange o f c eramic g oods, a nd i n p art t o t he ' information' c arrying a spect o f t he pottery. T he u se o f s tyle e lements s uch a s motifs i n o ther mediums, f or e xample a s c ave a rt ( Graziosi 1 980) a nd a s c lay s tamps ( pinterdere) ( Fig. 9 .7/a, b , c ) s uggest t hat t he p ainted motifs were i n t hemselves s ignificant. H owever, t he p ainted d ecoration makes u p only p art o f t he ' style' o f t he f inewares, which h ave s pecific f orms a nd h andles a nd c olours i ntegral t o t he ' overall' s tyle. Wobst ( 1977) p roposes t hat s tyle a cts a s a message c arrier, b roadcasting concepts s uch a s e thnicity, s tatus, a ge, w ealth, a nd r eligious a ffiliation. T he i nformation c arried t hrough I talian N eolithic pottery i s o bviously v ery s ubtle, a nd we must r ely o n t he a ssociatios a nd t he contexts o f t he pottery, a nd o n t he p ossible f unctions t hat t he pots f ulfilled, t o explore w hat t hat ' information' c ould b e. T he contexts, a s s uggested above, a re f requently a ssociated w ith b urials o f i ndividuals, f urnished w ith g rave g oods w hich i nclude t he f inewares; t hey a re a lso c aves a nd o ther s ites which c an b e i nterpreted a s r itual i n f unction. O utside t he c entral-south I talian z one, h owever, t he ' message' c arried b y t he pots s eems t o h ave b een considerably modified over t he l ong d istance t he v essels t ravelled. T he n orth I talian f inewares t end to b e f lask-bottle f orms, s uitable f or c arrying l iquid a nd f ound i n ' domestic' c ontexts. I t i s possible t hat t he i mportation o f f inewares i n t he north, together w ith t heir f luid c ontents, was p romoted t hrough commercial r ather t han r itual o r p restige c onsiderations. W ithin t he s ocieties o f t he c entral-southern I talian a nd S icilian z one, t he pottery must have c arried g reater s ignificance, o r t he l ong c ave s equences a nd r itual s ites w ith t he imported f inewares would n ot d emonstrate l ongt erm continuity a s d epositories f or t he f inewares a nd o ther e xotic goods. S imilarly, t he u se o f t he pottery i n b urials ( incidentally t he f irst c eremonial b urials f urnished w ith g rave goods o n a r egular b asis) s uggest a c eremonial f unction, o r a s ymbolization o f o ne. C onclusions T he B eaker N etwork ( Clarke 1 976) h as b een t raditionally h ailed, b y p rehistorians, a s extremely s ignificant a s a n i ndication o f t he i ncreasing complexity o f s ociety i n t he t hird millennium b .c. T he n etwork h as b een i nterpreted i n p art, a s a p restige, g ift-giving, n etwork, i nvolving emerging e lite g roups, p articularly males, over a v ery w ide a rea o f E urope. B ut, a s C larke notes ( 1976) t he g rowth o f n etworks i nvolving t he e xchange o f s taple a nd p restige g oods, evolved v ery much e arlier t han t he B eakers. T he w ide d ispersal o f t he p ainted, f igulina a nd o ther f inewares o f t he e ntire N eolithic o f t he I talian M ezzogiorno a nd S icily, t o a w ide v ariety o f contexts, i ndicates t hat n etworks comparable t o t hat o f t he B eaker, were o ne o f t he most c haracteristic f eatures o f N eolithic I taly. T he p attern t hat i s now emerging f rom t he a rchaeological d ata s uggests

1 45

o ne o f i ncreasing complexity, d emonstrating t hat N eolithic g roups h ad t he t echnical s kills, a s well a s s ufficient t he social o rganisation t o maintain s ustained l ong d istance e xchange n etworks. T he r elatively s tandardised pottery p roduction s uggests adherence t o s pecific s tyles, a nd t hese could b e i nterpreted a s p art o f t he s ymbolic apparatus u sed i n N eolithic burial a nd r itual b ehaviour. T he pottery s tyles could b e i nterpreted a s ' information c arriers', w ith particular pot f orms a nd d ecorative motifs r epresenting ' social messages' o f s tatus, v alue, s ymbolic m eaning, a nd s ocial a llegiance. F rom t he i nter-related d istribution n etworks i nvolving obsidian, polished axes a nd pottery a s well a s a h ost o f o ther i tems, we c an i nfer t hat t here was considerable i nteraction b etween w idely s paced N eolithic g roups i n t he Mezzogiorno. T he maintenance o f t he e xchange n etworks over t he l ong d istances p robably i nvolved a v ariety o f s ymbolic a ctions, s uch a s p restige g ift g iving b etween e xchange partners, a s w ell a s participation i n r itual a nd s ocial actions. F rom t he evidence o f b urials, a s izeable p ercentage o f goods f rom t he l ong-distance e xchange n etworks w ere d eposited w ith i ndividuals. I t i s quite possible t hat t he evolving s ocial complexity n ecessitated t he p romotion o f s ome i ndividuals t o h igher r anks, a nd t hat t hey b oth u sed, a nd were buried w ith, t he e xotic, h igh v alue goods f rom t he n etworks. W e c an i nfer t hat t he i nteractions b etween t he Neolithic communities o f t he Mezzogiorno had more t han a commercial d imension, w ith evidence f or t he d eposition o f goods f rom t he e xchange n etworks i n contexts t hat c an o nly b e i nterpreted a s r itual. P redictable s ites a re c aves w ith h ot water s prings, v olcanic outlets, d ripping s talagmites a nd painted c aves, v olcanic f umerole a nd h ot-mud c raters, a nd open-air, man-made s hrines, b urials, a nd s ettlements. T he i dentification o f t he r egularity o f N eolithic d eposits o f a symbolic n ature i s p erhaps, i s p erhaps a f irst s tage i n u nravelling t he s ocial a nd i deological d imension o f N eolithic society i n t he c entral M editerranean. F rom t he evidence summarised a bove, i t i s c lear t hat t he t raditional a ttitudes t o I talian N eolithic p ottery, chronology a nd ' cultures' n eed modification. I t i s t ime t o r eplace t he n otion o f culturally s pecific a rtefacts w ith a b roader approach t hat c an a ccount f or b oth t he e conomic a nd s ocial causes o f t he a rchaeological d istributions o f prehistoric a rtefacts.

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Whitehouse, R . D. 1 978. I talian prehistory, C arbon 1 4 and t ree-ring calibration. I n B lake, H ., P otter, T . W. and Whitehouse, D . B. ( eds.) P apers i n I talian A rchaeology 1 , 7 1-91. ( B. A. R. S upplementary s eries 4 1.) O xford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, 7 1-91. Wobst,

M . 1 977. S tylistic b ehaviour and i nformation exchange. I n C leland, C . ( ed.) R esearch essays i n honour of James B . G riffen. R esearch P apers o f the Museum of A nthropology 6 1. A nn A rbor. M ichigan. 3 17-42.

Summary T he a rticle addresses t he problem of the N eolithic ceramic f inewares o f S icily, southern a nd central I taly. T he t raditional explanations o f culturally specific pottery s tyles a re explored, a nd a more general model o f exchange, b ased on the model o f t he ' Beaker Network' of D avid C larke, i s proposed. T he ceramic f ineware s tyles a re d escribed, and the d istributions o f the pottery are quantified. Neolithic exchange systems i n I taly a re reviewed, with the current evidence f rom obsidian a nd o ther l ithic s tudies, and these a re i ntegrated i n a more general model for the r itual and s tylistic exchange o f pottery as well a s o ther goods over the whole Neolithic period. R iassunto. L 'articolo a ffronta i i problema d ella ceramica f ine della S icilia e dell'Italia centrale e meridionale. Sono sottoposte ad e same l e spiegazioni t radizionali degli s tili culturalmente s pecifici ed e proposto u n modello piu generale d i scambio, b asato sul modello della ' Beaker Network' d i

1 50

D avid C larke. G li s tili d ella c eramica f ine s ono d escritti, e l e d istribuzioni d ella c eramica s ono quantificati. I s istemi d i s cambio n el n eolitico i taliana sono passati i n r assegna i nsieme a i d ati r ecenti d egli s tudi d i o ssidiana e d i a ltri e lementi l itici. T utto è i ntegrato i n u n modello p lu g enerale p er i l r ituale e p er l o s cambio s tilistico d ella c eramica c ome pure a ltri b eni d el i ntero p eriodo n eolitico.

1 51

1 0.

B URIALS AND

B OUNDARIFS

L awrence

H .

I N C HALCOLITHIC

I TALY

B arfield

P rior to 1 971 the C halcolithic period i n t he P o V alley was k nown a lmost e xclusively f rom f inds o f i ndividual t rench graves and cemeteries ( Colini 1 898-1902). T hese assemb lages were taken as r epresenting one characteristic ' facies' o f t he I talian ' eneolitico' b y L aviosa Z ambotti, who f irst u sed the most prolific cemetery, R emedello d i S otto, as the type s ite for t he group ( Laviosa Z ambotti 1 939). Although atte mpts have been made to define a R emedello culture more p recisely ( Acanfora 1 956; C ornaggia C astiglioni 1 971a) i n r ecent y ears t hese have i ncreasingly b een s een t o b e u nsatisfactory b ecause o f t he h eterogeneity o f t he evidence ( Barfield 1 981a; B agolini 1 981; B agolini a nd F asani 1 982). The recognition s ince 1 971 of a second major North I talian C halcolithic b urial t radition l ocated i n t he P reA lps o f L ombardy i n which collective b urial u tilizing s mall c aves a nd r ock s helters was t he r ule h as a lso i ntroduced a n added d i mension to the cultural complexity of t he area ( Cornaggia Castiglioni 1 971b; B arfield 1 981a). T he burial s ites of this t radition i n L ombardy have b een called the C ivate Culture ( Cornaggia C astiglioni 1 971b) a nd more l oosely t he ' Civate G roup' ( Barfield 1 981a), h owever t hese s ites c an also b e r ecognised as b eing part of a more widespread i dentical b urial s tyle a ssociated with consistent material culture i n mountain a reas extending across L iguria and northern T uscany ( Barfield 1 981a; C occhi G enick e t a l. 1 982) and even i nto the Pmilian A pennines to the south of t he Po P lain

( Barfield

1 975;

B agolini

1 981)

( Fig.

1 0.1).

T his duality o f burial r ite was i nitially i nterpreted by Cornaggia C astiglioni as representing two s uccessive waves o f F ast Mediterranean immigrants; t he f irst, with collective burial, entering the western P o V alley f rom T uscany a nd e stablishing t hemselves i n t he L ombard A lps, t he second, with i ndividual t rench graves, coming i n f rom the A driatic a nd t he s outh-east ( Cornaggia C astiglioni 1 971a). More r ecently b oth B arfield a nd B agolini h ave s uggested that the d ifference r eally represents no more t han a d ifferential adaptation o f burial r itual to environmental c onstraints, with t rench g raves o n t he p lain d ictated b y t he absence o f s uitable c aves f or collective b urial, e ven t hough clear d ifferences in material culture could also be r ecognised b etween the two traditions ( Barfield 1 981a, B agolini 1 981). A s i milar explanation f or why R emedello b urials contrasted with t he c ollective b urial t radition o f southern F rance, h ad i ndeed b een o ffered b y A canfora b efore t he r ecognition o f t he C ivate g roup ( Acanfora 1 956, 3 66).

1 52

F ig. 1 0.1. P rincipal t raditional culture a reas a nd C halcolithic s ites mentioned i n t he t ext i n n orthern I taly. S ites: 1 . Manerba., 2 . R emedello., 3 . G rotta d i M aiale., 4 . T ana della Mussina., 5 . Cumarola., 6 . S pilamberto., 7 . F arneto., 8 . G rotta d el I nferno., 1 0. B uco d elle F ate n ord.

1 53

I n a r ecent d iscussion o f t he p roblem a s s een f rom t he v iewpoint o f northern Tuscany, C occhi G enick e t a l. ( 1982) point to evidence f or l ocal n eolithic continuity i n t he collective c ave b urial t radition - t he V ecchiano f acies which t hey contrast w ith t he s ingle b urials o f R emedello t o t he north e ast a nd t he c ollective b urials i n r ock-cut tombs o f G audo and R inaldone t o t he s outh. R emedello t hey i nterpret a s a m ixture o f i ntrusive a nd l ocal e lements, while G audo a nd R inaldone a re s een a s o f u ltimately e ast Mediterranean d erivation. I n t his a rticle t he r elationship b etween t he collective a nd s ingle burial t raditions i s e xamined f rom t he e vidence o f g rave goods a nd r itual a nd, i n opposition t o t he i nterpretation we put f orward i n 1 981, t hat t he duality o f b urial was d etermined b y e ntirely e nvironmental f actors, a more culturally conditioned explanation i s n ow s uggested, c loser t o t hat o f C occhi G enick e t a l. ( 1982). E nvironmental determinism i s r ejected f or t he f ollowing r easons. I f we l ook a t t he d istribution o f c ollective a nd i ndividual burial we do i ndeed f ind, f irstly, a c lear g eographical d istinction e xisting b etween t he two i n L ombardy, w ith collective b urial a long t he edge o f t he P re A lps a nd i ndividual i nhumation o n t he P lain, a nd i n E milia a n even c loser j uxtaposition o f s ome i nhumation c emeteries o n t he l evel v alley f loor ( Cumarola, S pilamberto) a nd c ave b urial i n t he a djacent h ills ( Farneto, T ana d ella Mussina). H owever i ndividual b urial, while w holy absent f rom t he mountain a reas o f western a nd northern I taly, i s f ound f requently i n t he P re-Alps t o t he e ast o f L ake G arda, e specially i n t he Monti L essini, w here s uitable c aves a nd r ock s helters a re available f or c ollective b urial ( Battaglia 1 958-59; S alzani 1 981). C ollective b urial i s i ndeed a lso s parsely p resent i n t his l atter a rea, where i t c an b e d ated t o b oth t he C halcolithic a nd p robably t o t he early B ronze Age ( Bagolini 1 981) b ut s ingle b urial p redominates. T he overall d istribution pattern ( Fig. 1 0.2) c an t hus b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f a n e ast-west d ivision, which considered i n t he w ider c ontext o f t hird millennium E uropean b urial t raditions, r eveals t he north I talian c ave s ites a s t he e asternmost o utpost o f t he multiple b urial r ite i n t his part o f Europe extending westwards a cross L iguria, S outhern F rance t o t he A tlantic a nd I beria. T he l ine o f t he e astern b oundary o f c ollective b urial c an b e f ollowed north o f t he A lps t hrough c entral S witzerland a nd f urther n orth f ollowing r oughly t he l ine o f t he R hine ( Fig. 1 0.3). A f urther a rgument a gainst a n e nvironmental constraint o perating i n northern I taly i s t hat t he two b urial t raditions probably r epresent v ery d ifferent a ttitudes t o d eath, a s w ill b ecome c lear i n t he l ater part o f t his a rticle. I t must b e s aid h owever t hat a complication t o t he i nterpretation o f t he d istributional evidence p resented h ere i s t hat p robably many b urial s ites may now b e i nvisible to a rchaeological d etection. T he r ecognition o f wooden c hambers f or c ollective b urial b elow t he c liff o f S asso d i M anerba ( BS) ( Barfield

1 54

F ig.

1 0.2.

C halcolithic

n orthern

I taly

s howing

t he

d istribution o f c ollective a nd s ingle b urial i n r elationship t o c haracteristic g rave goods a nd t he d istribution ( after A nati) o f s tatue s telae a nd s tatue menhirs.

1 55

•A r t i f ic ia l c hambe rs --Eas te rn l i m i t o f b u r ia l c aves

•. 41 g7 • • • • •

9

. .U m .x

F ig. i n

1 00 km

1 0.3. T he d istribution o f c ollective b urial t raditions northern I taly a nd t he a rea o f t he western A lps. ( after C ourtin, Wyss, R oudil a nd B erard).

1 56

1 983a; 1 983b ) s uggests t hat t he c ollective b urial r ite could easily have b een practised on the Po P lain, but had i t b een i t would b e a lmost impossible t o d etect s ince a combination o f burial at ground level, i n a wooden s tructures without any substantial covering would be almost impossible to i dentify. Wooden mortuary houses, i n f act, have b een found r ight i n the middle of the P o P lain, at S anta C ristina and C a ' d i Marco ( BS), b ut t hese would n ot h ave b een d iscovered had they not b een associated with i ndividual B ell B eaker trench graves ( Colini 1 898-1902; B arfield and P erini 1 981). We cannot, therefore, s ay whether or not collective burial was practised i n this form on the Po P lain. Furthermore, the absence of burial evidence from areas in which C halcolithic settlement i s demonstrated b y, for example, s tatue s telae and menhirs, but which, apart f rom Aosta, are g rouped i n a reas which h ave p roduced l ittle o ther evidence o f b urial o r s ettlement, s uggests t he practice o f, p resumably collective, burial r ituals which l eave l ittle archaeol ogical t race ( Fig. 1 0.2). S ome c onfirmation o f t his v iew i s p rovided b y t he s cattered b ones o n t he g round s urface within a s tone c ircle at Velturno I I ( Alto Adige) which had b een sealed by r apidly accumulating s cree deposits derived f rom t he adjacent v alley s ide ( Dal R i a nd C oltorti V olume 1 ) A s imilar l ack o f a rchaeological v isibility i s p robably represented b y the erratic groupings of statue stelae i n N orthern I taly a nd S outhern F rance, which would s eem t o b e t he o nly s urviving e xamples o f a continuous d istribution o f monuments which were mostly i n wood ( Fig. 1 0.2)(Barfield 1 981a). T he t radition o f wood c arving i s s ometimes evident even o n t he s tone s telae ( Anati 1 981). T he two f orms o f b urial, b esides p roducing a contrasting d istribution pattern, a re also each characterised b y a d ifferent range o f associated artifacts. T he grave goods placed with i ndividual burials i n trench graves on the Po P lain, o r i n c ist g raves i n t he Monti L essini, o ften d iffer considerably f rom cemetery to cemetery ( see b elow), but a consistent f eature o f most o f t he s ites a ssociated with male burials, is the dagger of flint, or, more rarely and principally south of the Po, of copper ( Fig. 1 0.2). With the collective burials, daggers a re r are and the predominant f inds comprise b eads and necklace elements, a t rait which i s e qually c haracteristic o f t he b urial c aves o f L iguria a nd N orth T uscany a s i t i s o f t hose i n L ombardy ( Fig. 1 0.2). O ther i tems, e specially a rrowheads, p ottery a nd a xes, are c ommon t o b oth g roups a lthough t he quantity o f a rtifacts i n proportion to corpses appears to be greater in the i ndividual b urials t han i t i s with t he c ollective b urial. The apparent correlation b etween material culture and burial r ite might at f irst s ight be taken as a clear confirmation of a cultural b oundary b etween the collective and i ndividual burial tradition. T his conclusion i s not, as

1 57

F ig.

10.4.

D istribution of flint and northern I taly .

1 58

copper

daggers

in

it turns out, a completely valid one, s ince it can be d emonstrated t hat t he v ariation i n g rave goods i s t he r esult, not o f contrasting t raditions o f material culture, but i s a p roduct o f t he d ifference i n b urial r ituals a nd what objects were s elected i n e ach c ase f or i nclusion with t he d ead . T he grave goods thus r eflect d ifferences i n spiritual rather t han material culture . The presence o f daggers, at this t ime, i n the mountain regions i s widely demonstrated by their prominent representation i n all the I talian s tatue s telae groups ( Bagolini 1 981; B agolini et al. 1 982), even though they do not f eature i n collective burial deposits o f the P re-Alps. A t Manerba t he o nly f lint d agger c ame, s ignificantly, f rom a n on-burial c ontext ( 1982 u npublished e xcavations). F ig. 1 0.4 s hows the d istribution of f lint a nd copper d aggers i n northern I taly . I t i ncludes e xamples f rom burial a nd s ettlement c ontexts covering t heir period o f u se b etween t he C halcolithic a nd e arly B ronze A ge, b ut t he majority a re i solated f inds. T he concentration o f these daggers i n the areas of the P o P lain to the exclusion of the mountain r egions, with t he s ignificant e xception o f t he Monti L essini to the east, may reflect the d istribution o f stray daggers originally i n s ingle i nhumation burials, rather than r epresenting t he a ctual a rea o f u se o f s uch t ools. I n a comparable way b eads, which a re t he hallmark of collective b urials, a re f ound occasionally a sociated with i ndividual b urials, a s i n two c ases a t R emedello a nd o ne a t F ontanella ( Cornaggia C astiglioni 1 971a), a nd e xamples a re found even f urther s outh i n I taly a t Tursi ( Cremonesi 1 976). I n F ig. 1 0.6 a comparison b etween the main categories of g rave goods i n c ollective b urial caves a nd g raves i n s ome o f the principal individual burial cemeteries shows the d ifference b etween categories of g rave goods a s one of r elative p roportion r ather t han p resence o r absence . T he fact that necklaces a re made mostly o f r aw materials o riginating i n t he a rea o f t he c ollective b urials s hould b e noted h owever a s t his could s ignify s ome c orrelation b etween a b urial s tyle a nd material c ulture . A n explanation o f t he r easons b ehind t hese d ifferences i n grave goods has r ecently b een revealed through the i nterpretation o f the burial sequence a nd r itual i n the collective b urial c emetery i n t he R iparo V altenesi, Manerba ( Barfield 1 983a; 1 983b) ( Fig. 1 0.7). Four wooden b urial chambers were excavated here i n one part of the rock s helter. These appear to represent a sequence of construction and u se developing f rom south to north, a lthough t o what extent t hey may overlap c hronologic ally cannot b e determined. There presumably originally would have b een more c hambers, s ince destroyed b y Roman quarrying, s o t hat we c an now o nly r econstruct a p art o f t he o riginal b urial s equence .

1 59

D is tu rbed

9

. 5 0

F ig. 1 0.5. T he contexts o f north I talian C halcolithic ' grave goods'. 1 . R emedello grave 6 5 ( after Cornaggia C astiglioni) 2 . Manerba, R iparo V alternesi. C remated b ones i n p robable cremation hearth with burnt arrowheads unburnt necklace e lements ( after B arfield).

1 60

T he f our c hambers e ach contained t he r emains o f s everal i ndividuals, whose remains were almost entirely d isarticulated and only partially preserved. The sealing of the d eposits with s tones p recludes a ny l ater d isturbance a s t he c ause o f t he d isarticulation a nd we conclude t hat t he b ones were p resumably b rought t o t he c hambers f ollowing a period o f e xposure e lsewhere . T he c hambers c an t hus b e r egarded a s ossuaries r ather t han burial v aults, which had b een e ither burnt or d ismantled b efore b eing s ealed b y platforms of c arefully l aid s tones. A cremation p it for the burning of already defleshed bones, perhaps r emoved f rom the chambers, was found i n b etween t he c hambers. Pottery, arrowheads, stone axes, copper awls and, especially, b eads were found associated with the chambers and cremation p it. S ome o f these were on the f loors of the c hambers, mingled with t he b ones, where i n s ome c ases t hey may have b een objects placed with the dead at the t ime of death and b rought i n with the b ones f rom their original place of exposure. H owever, i t i s e qually probable that some of these were placed at the t i me of the deposition of the dry b ones i n the chamber. Other offerings, such as four pots i n c hambers MS 1 33, were p laced o n t op o f a s tone s ealing d eposit s ome t ime a fter t he l ast b ones h ad b een put i n the chamber, while close to t he cremation p it two pots and a flint point and a columbella shell necklace, were associated with the burning o f b ones previously taken f rom burial c hambers o r e xposure p laces . I n a nother part o f t he s ite excavated i n 1 976 an unburnt necklace was found lying above a d eposit o f h eavily b urnt b ones a nd a rrow h eads . T his was probably another cremation p it ( Fig. 1 0.5/2) ( Barfield 1 978). I n most o f these cases t he objects were c learly not a ssociated w ith i ndividual corpses but must b e i nterpreted a s l ater o fferings . I t i s c lear t hat what we h ave h ere, a s i s b eing i ncreasi ngly r ecognised i n megalithic t ombs a cross Europe ( Renfrew 1 979; Duday 1 980; Kaelas 1 981), i s the r ite of delayed burial; a phenomenon which was f irst studied on a c rosscultural b asis b y t he a nthropologist R obert H erz ( 1907). T he term ' secondary' burial i s f requently u sed b y anthropol ogists b ut t his h as o ther c onnotations f or a rchaeologists and should therefore b e avoided. I n this r ite a period of exposure or burial of the corpse elapses b etween death and t he consignment o f t he d ry b ones to a n o ssuary o r a ncestral b one h ouse. T his p eriod o f d elay not o nly a llows t he f lesh to d ecay b ut may s erve a v ariety o f o ther f unctions s uch a s, defining t he p eriod o f mourning, s ymbolizing a t ransition o f a n i ndividual member o f t he c ommunity t o b ecoming a d eified ancestor or allowing t ime for a funerary feast to b e prepared. I n t his context we can s ee t he associated artifacts, not for the most part as personal possessions of the dead, as they mostly certainly a re i n the a rea of i ndividual graves, but as offerings made i n the context of r ites carried out at the t i me o f the delayed burial and,

1 61

Mane rba

2 1

4

L omba rd C aves

1

L igur ian C aves

1 11 2 7 2 5

1 0 8 5

R emede l lo

4

2 1

F on tane l la

r1 i 1 8

S p i lambe r to ,

1

11

B ucc ino

F ig. 1 0.6. The main categories of grave goods associated with collecti ve and indi vidual burials fro m selected C halcolithic s ites i n I taly; absolute numbers o f i tems.

1 62

also, as can be c learly s hown at Manerba, o ften even long a fter d elayed b urial h as t aken p lace . I t i s a lways possible, however, that s ome artifacts were collected together with the b ones from the place of exposure and thus represent o riginal e ffects d eposited a t t he t ime o f d eath. L ikewise t he i dentity o f i ndividual b ones may b e r emembered b y r elatives, although even i n t his case o fferings would not b e original p ersonal b elongings ( Catlin 1 844, 9 0). The offering of necklaces, which can b e r egarded as p rimitive v aluables a nd would i n a ll p robability h ave b een u sed i n b ride wealth a nd o ther exchange t ransactions ( Dalton 1 975), appears to have b een a standard deposition and may t hus r elate to s ocial a nd e conomic r eadjustment when a member of the community d ied ( Strathern 1 981). Necklaces are a characteristic g rave i tem with collective burial also i n s outhern F rance a nd t hroughout t his whole a rea we a lso s ee a r emarkable uniformity i n b ead ( calcite a nd s teatite) a nd p erforated s hell ( columbella and d entalium) types ( Barfield 1 981a; 1 981b ). I ndividual burials are associated with objects which often clearly reflect personal equipment and b elongings often found i n the position they would have b een worn or carried b y the dead person ( Fig. 1 0.5/1) Pottery i n s uch graves can however b e regarded e ither as an offering or personal belongings so the distinction again is not absolute. D irect evidence of the u se of many of the burial caves of the C ivate group and of North Tuscany a s o ssuaries can b e also demonstrated, as at the Grotta d i Maiale, Como, where d isarticulated b ones were s ealed b y a s tone c airn ( Gagliardi 1 976) and at the Buca delle F ate-nord i n northern Tuscany o ssuary deposits were c losed i n with dry s tone walling ( Fornaciari 1 977). I n a ll t hese c ases t he s ealing o f d eposits o f d isarticulated b ones with s tones i s a nalogous to the s ealing of bones on hut f loors b elow s tone platforms at Manerba. We s hould, however, also note the occasional p resence o f a rticulated s keletons i n s ome o f t hese c aves a s i n t he G rotta d el I nferno d i V ecchiano ( Cocchi G enick e t a l. 1 982) a nd again t he G rotta d i Maiale ( Como) ( Gagliardi 1 976) s uggesting t hat e ither t he r ite was not wholly c onsistent o r that these represent the ' excavnation' s tage o f d elayed b urial. R ecent s tudies h ave d efined a r elatively c lear s outhern b oundary t o t he c ave b urials o f N orthern T uscany a nd L iguria a long t he l ine o f t he A rno ( Grifoni C remonesi 1 971; C occhi G enick e t a l. 1 982). S outh o f t his r iver s tart t he i ndividual i nhumation g raves, c ollective r ock-cut t ombs a nd o ccasional cave burials of t he R inaldone culture, while further south s till are the collective a forno rock-cut tombs of the G audo c ulture. I n the R inaldone area the burial tradition and r ange of g rave goods a re v ery v aried, with t o t he s outh a p redominance

1 63

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1 64

R iparo

V altenesi

of collective rock-cut tombs and i n the north and east s ingle trench grave burials. A lthough the suggestion has someti mes been made, as in northern I taly, that the d ifference b etween s ingle and collective burial here i s d etermined b y g eological f actors ( Barker 1 981), B arich e t a l. ( 1968) p ointed out t hat g eological f ormations s uitable f or the excavation o f chamber tombs are present i n the areas i n which trench graves occur. They suggested that the rock-cut tombs were essentially associated with a colonizing population whereas the i ndividual burials represented a mixing o f t hese i ntrusive e lements with a n i ndigenous b urial t radition c losely r elated to R emedello . B oth g roups h ave s imilar g rave goods b ut a p reponderance o f d aggers was noted associated with s ingle burials as against pottery i n t he rock-cut t ombs. I t i s i nteresting t o a gain n ote a c ontrast b etween the f requency o f daggers, usually o f copper, with R inaldone graves a nd their relative absence north of the Arno among the burial caves a s has b een observed b y Cocchi and C eccanti ( 1977). T he c ollective b urial t radition i n t he R inaldone r ock-cut tombs, i n contrast with the cave burials, c learly often i ncludes d irect b urial of b odies i n which no delay elapsed between death and deposition i n the tomb. I n t his r ite earlier skeletons were pushed u p against the tomb walls on the i ntroduction of the latest corpse. However forms o f d elayed b urial a re a lso i n evidence, a s possibly a t B andita S . Pantaleo ( Tarquinia) where mixed b ones suggested this r ite, even t hough h ere, l ater d isturbance h ad c ertainly a lso occurred . T he red c innabar painting o f the supra orbital r idges o n s kulls a t P onte S . P ietro, S gurgola, a nd B andita S . P antaleo l ikewise s uggests a d elay b etween d eath a nd burial ( Barich et al. 1 968). I n t he G audo c ulture o f s outh-west I taly d irect, a nd n ot delayed collective b urial i s t he r egular p ractice i n a ll t he cemeteries(Fig. 10.8). Exceptions again occur, as at Eboli where o ne t omb d id contain totally d isturbed a nd i ncomplete skeletal r emains, which was i nterpreted a s a dumping o f b ones cleared out f rom other tombs ( Bailo Modesti 1 974). I n the Gaudo tombs the regular occurrence of copper and f lint daggers ( Voza 1 974) may well be seen as largely the deposition of personal possessions, rather than l ater offerings, relating to the d irect burial custo m and r epresenting a r ange o f f inds t hat h ave more i n c ommon with s ingle t rench g rave burials than with f inds with delayed b urials. T he overall p icture i s b y n o means s imple a nd v ariations i n b oth g rave goods and burial r ite exist within all the main burial traditions at a local level. The d iscussion o f t he R inaldone a ssemblages b y B arich h as c learly s hown t his, together w ith t he r esulting p roblems i n a ttempting t o d efine d istinct culture a reas. B agolini, too, i n h is recent study, has demonstrated how d istinct i ndividual trench grave c emeteries o f t he P o P lain were o ne f rom a nother, making t he o ld c oncept o f a R emedello culture i nvalid. A t Cumarola, f or

1 65

example, t here was no p ottery, a t S pilambarto e ach g rave had a pot, while the s tyle of the pottery from Spilamberto d iffered totally f rom that of Remedello ( Bagolini 1 981). A t R emedello i tself s ome i ndividual b urials were even c laimed t o r epresent d elayed b urial ( Colini 1 898-1902, 1 07). D espite t his i nternal v ariety we would c laim t hat major regional t raditions i n burial r ite may have existed, comprising c ollective d elayed b urial i n t he n orth-west, with i ndividual d irect trench graves i n t he north-east a nd collective d irect burial rock-cut tombs i n R inaldone and G audo . T he d ivision b etween d irect a nd d elayed b urial, which i s emphasised b y d ifferences i n grave goods, may b e as s ignificant as the d istinction b etween collective and i ndividual b urial. D iscussion of the material culture has so far only b een concerned with t he p resence a nd absence o f c ertain a rtifacts in relationship to the burial ritual. I f we try and correlate actual patterns of stylistic variation in a rtifacts, f lint a nd pottery, b etween t hemselves a nd w ith t he burial traditions, we obtain only a very discordant palimpsest such as has b een recognized for a long t ime b y people trying to define a Remedello culture. For e xample, recent definition of an area of metope decorated pottery contrasting with a s cale-decorated z one p roposed a s a n a lternative c lassification for the north I talian Chalcolithic ( Bagolini and Fasani 1 982), may have r elevance when cons idering pottery, but i t avoids the c entral i ssue of the complexity of t he cultural context as a whole a nd the ceramic d istribution i s not cöincident with the patterns b urial r ites outlined i n t his a rticle . Burial r ites may i ndeed form a more solid b asis than artifacts for considering s uch questions a s ethnicity. I n northern I taly t here i s quite a s triking coincidence b etween the d istribution of d elayed collective burial and s tatue menhirs on the one hand and the area of northern I taly previously dominated b y Chassey a nd L agozza N eolithic traditions on the other, perhaps i ndicating a b asic continuity o f population. T he F rench d i mension i n b oth these phenomena t ends t o s upport t his i dea a nd would confirm t he general conclusions o f C occhi G enick e t a l. ( 1982) o f t he continuity f rom L agozza i n northern Tuscany. T he practice of i ndividual d irect b urial i n the northe ast i n a ll p robability may l ikewise r epresent t he s urvival o f t he b urial r ite o f t he S quare-Mouthed pottery culture . I n considering t he o rigins o f c ollective b urial we s hould n ot o nly e xamine t he e arly o ccurrence o f a rtificial c hambers a nd c aves, b ut a lso focus our a ttention o n evidence f or t he d elayed b urial r ite. I n s outhern a nd c entral I taly f orms o f d elayed burial and skull retention o ccur already i n the middle Neolithic i n the S caloria C ave ( Winn and S himabuku 1 978), S asso d i Furbara a nd t he G rotta d i P iccioni ( Radmilli 1 972) L anciano ( Chieti) ( Geniola a nd Mallegni 1 976) a nd L ama

1 66

1 67 ( a f t e r V o z a ) .

d ei

P eligni

( Rellini

1 914).

I n both the Chassey and the L agozza areas of Neolithic France and northern I taly a form o f s econdary burial i s widely a ttested a longside i ndividual b urial with b ones f ound i n s ettlement deposits i n the C hassey of the P aris b asin, where t he d iscontinuation o f r egular i nhumation b urial a fter t he B andkeramik period i s s triking ( Burkill 1 983), a nd a lso i n s outhern France where several s ettlement s ites have p roduced s cattered human b ones ( Phillips 1 982) a nd c ollective b urial i s a lso k nown ( Duday 1 980; G utherz 1 975). T he s ame phenomenon has b een noted i n northern I taly i n the L agozza levels at Monte Covolo ( Barfield et al. 1 977-79) and the G rotta d i L eone d i A sciano ( Radmilli 1 972). F orms o f delayed b urial e xisted a lready i n t he I mpressed Ware culture ( Duday a nd Guilaine 1 975), while evidence o f a perhaps related skull cult has b een found on the D almatian Coast a t Smilci' ä ( Batovi 1 966) a nd i n t he F ontbr6goua c ave, Provence, where remarkable scalped skulls have been r ecovered ( Bouville 1 982) A ll t hese e arly f inds mostly l ack evidence o f permanent burial s tructures and we might suggest that megalithic or cave ossuaries may only b e the l ater, and more monumental manifestations o f a l ocal t radition o f b urial. I n s outhern I taly t he e arly appearance o f r ock c ut t ombs h as b een taken a s evidence o f a l ocal d evelopment ( Whitehouse 1 972) and i n a s i milar way the collective burial tradition may h ave had e arlier roots. L ater c ontinuation o f d elayed b urial i s a lso probable i n northern I taly and may well explain t he scarcity o f early B ronze Age burial evidence. Collective burial has i n fact b een d ocumented a ssociated with e arly B ronze A ge s ettlement s ites a t L e S assine ( VR) a nd Mori ( TN ) ( Bagolini 1 981) while s ome o f the burial caves i n the C ivate group have also b een c laimed as early B ronze Age ( Poggiani K eller 1 980; 1 983) a lthough t he evidence f or t his i s b y n o means c ertain . H uman s kulls a re a lso r ecorded o n many s ettlements o f early B ronze Age d ate, S olteri ( Corrain and C apitanio 1 967), B arche d i Solferino, Cattaragna and C avriana ( Corrain 1 958), while l ong a go B attaglia ( 1947) d escribed t he e ighteen s kulls f rom F iavä a nd o thers a t F imön a s evidence o f a s kull cult . T hese skull f inds probably represent the r emoval o f skulls f rom trench graves as i s suggested b y t he headless burial of middle B ronze Age d ate f rom S tenico ( TN) ( Perini, 1 983). I n several recent s tudies of burial r ite the focus of i nterest has turned to the social role of burials i n terms of evolving social organisation. Renfrew ( 1973) has suggested that the change to i ndividually r ichly endowed i nhumation burials i n B ritain and Europe i n B eaker t i mes, with the metal or f lint dagger as a prestige i tem might reflect change f rom collectively to i ndividually focused authority i n the society. I n I taly however i ndividual

1 68

burials with grave goods go b ack to Neolithic t imes i n the P o Valley and t he Remedello burial r ite may b e s een as a continuation o f t hat tradition. I n the s ame way d elayed b urial without monumental g raves i s f ound i n N eolithic I taly and southern France so that the two traditions existed s ide b y s ide. Delayed burial may b e characteristic of societies i n which continuing active veneration o f the ancestors who have lost their i ndividual i dentity plays a more important p art i n d aily l ife t han i s t he c ase i n s ocieties w ith s ingle i nhumation . N either r ite c an b e s een b y i tself a s n ecessari ly r eflecting a s tage i n t he evolution o f s ocial c omplexity . As f ar as d ifferences i n the r ichness of grave goods i n burials are a reflection o f social ranking, B arker ( 1981) suggested that ranking becomes apparent in the 3 rd millennium C halcolithic b urials . H owever no s cale o f wealth clearly emerges when grave goods are compared within cemeteries. Only at Remedello are a l arge number o f g raves without g rave g oods, a f act t hat may b e e xplained b y s ubsequent d isturbance . R ich g rave g oods t hemselves might r eflect t he p resence o f p restige goods and t he e xistence o f competitive trading, but then it is also true to say that comparable goods existed during the N eolithic, as f ine p ainted pottery, j ade axes a nd r ings a nd o bsidian i ndicate . We s hould note t hat t he r anking o f b urials b ased o n ' wealth scores' or grave goods has recently come under criticism f rom O rton a nd H odson ( 1981). I n the s tudy we have so far not c losely considered the absolute o r r elative d ating o f t hese a ssemblages d iscussed, a question which c ould b e c rucial t o t he main conclusions o f this s tudy and may account for s ome l ocal v ariations. C ollective o r d elayed b urial c ertainly l asts i nto t he e arly B ronze Age and i t may actually replace i ndividual c ist b urial i n a n a rea l ike t he Monti L essini, h owever 14 C d ates, the typology of pottery, copper and f lint artifacts and d istribution patterns d o a llow u s t o s uggest t hat collective burial and s ingle burial were i n u se contemporaneously and that s ites d iscussed all b elong to the s ame b road period of t ime.

C onclusions T his s tudy o n t he o ne h and r eveals a b ewildering v ariety i n burial custom about which generalisations may b e premature, but a number of suggestions, which still require e xtensive v erification, c an b e made. 1 .

T he d istinction b etween d irect a nd d elayed b urial r ites, which cuts a cross t he collective/single burial d ivision, may b e as important as the contrast b etween s ingle and c ollective b urial.

1 69

2 .

The character o f t he g rave goods f ound with burials may b e very d ifferent according to whether d irect or delayed burial i s p ractised; t he f ormer b eing p laced i n t he g rave a t the t ime o f d eath and representing mainly i ndividual possessions, t he l atter b eing o fferings t o a ncestors.

3 .

T he t he

absence o f burial evidence may i n many cases i ndicate existence o f f orms of delayed b urial p ractises.

4 .

T he d ichotomy b etween d elayed collective burial a nd s ingle trench grave burial in I taly probabl y goes back to Neolithic t i mes with more permanent cha mbers b eing a f eature o f the C halcolithic period.

5 .

The I talian burial r itual does not by i tself provide evidence for ranking within society or evidence for a greater degree of ranking than already existed in Neolithic t imes.

6 .

A v ery complex r elationship e xists b etween burial r itual, ge °morphological factors and cultural tradition in Chalcolithic I taly but burial r itual may tell us more about ethnicity or political o rganisation than does material culture.

Note. T he i llustrations i n t his paper author and d rawn b y H . B uglass.

h ave

b een

prepared

b y

t he

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S cotia,

9 .

Summary I n the past i t has b een the practice to attempt to define c lear-cut, g eographically d efined, a rchaeological cultures i n Chalcolithic I taly. Such a n approach i s b ecoming more d ifficult to accomplish as evidence accumulates, s ince d ifferent types o f material culture show reluctance to conform t o t erritorial b oundaries . I n t his paper t he burial a spect o f t he n orth I talian C halcolithic i s e xamined i n t he l ight of recent excavations at Manerba and i s found to p rovide a u seful b asis f or t he s tudy o f r egional p atterning . The d istinction b etween collective and i ndividual burial appears to be culturally, rather than environmentally, d etermined a nd d ifferences i n g rave g oods s eem to b e a ffected by the two contrasting traditions i f only b ecause i n the case of collective burial, we a re d ealing with o fferings made after death while i ndividual burial grave goods are mostly t he personal possessions o f t he d ead . A plea is made for the closer examination of the d ifference b etween d elayed b urial a nd d irect d eposition o f the b ody i n the context of collective burial and i t i s demonstrated that s uch a d istinction can b e made, up to a point, b etween t he d elayed r ite i n north I talian c ave b urials and d irect burial i n the rock-cut tombs further south. Again the type of grave goods relate to the type of burial r itual p ractised . I t i s s uggested t hat collective b urial o r delayed b urial may have had i ts roots i n the Neolithic period both i n I taly a nd F rance a nd h ave continued i nto t he B ronze A ge. R iassunto E ' s empre i nvalsa l a consuetudine d i t entare d i definire chiari confini geografici e c ronologici per l e culture archeologiche dell'eneolitico i taliano. Un tale approccio diventa perö sempre piü d ifficile e problematic° con l 'accumularsi d i nuove i nformazioni, i n quanto i d ati sulle culture materiali spesso non s i adattano ad essere i ncasellati i n p recisi l imiti s paziali. I n questo l avoro g li a spetti f unerari d ell'eneolitico dell'Italia s ettentrionale sono l etti alla luce dei dati emersi d ai recenti scavi e seguiti a Manerba ( BS), c he s ono r eputati u na b ase u tile per la compresione d i problemi inerenti la d istribuzi one geografica. L a d istinzione delle aree d i d istribuzione r ispettivamente delle sepolture indi viduali e delle sepolture collettive pare il risultato d i differenti tradizioni culturali piuttosto c he d i condizionamenti a specifiche

1 75

realtä ambientali. L e d iferenze t ra i corredi f unerari nei contesti dei due riti sono infatti da collegare a due tradizioni d istinte: nel caso d i sepolture collettive s i tratta generalmente d i offerte deposte dopo l a morte ( in occasione d ella definiti va tumulazione), mentre neu e sepolture indi viduali c i si trova d i fronte a effetti personali c he a ccompagnano l 'inumato . U na particolare a ttenzione deve essere r ivolta ad un e same p iü d ettagliato d elle d ifferenze e sistenti t ra i l r ito della i numazione secondaria ( 0 r itardata) e quello della d eposizine d iretta d el d efunto n el contesto d elle s epolture collettive . S i ä p otuto d imostrare c he f ino ad u n c erto punto ä possi bile fare una tale distinzione soprattutto confrontando l e s epolture secondarie delle grotticelle funerarie dell'Italia s ettentrionale con le deposizioni dirette in di verse tombe a grotticella artificiale dell'Italia centrale e meridionale. A nche qui l a t ipologia dei c orredi s i collega c on l o s tile d ella s epoltura. V iene i noltre evidenziato come i l r ito d ella s epolture collettiva secondaria s ia g iä radicato neu e tradizioni funerarie neolitiche dell'Italia e della Francia con persistenze f ino n ella e ta d el b ronzo.

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1 1.

UNA VITA SACRA :

CLARENCE B ICKNELL A ND THE

ALPINE

D ISCOVERY OF

PREHISTORIC ROCK ART

C hristopher

C hippindale

I ntroduction Clarence

B icknell;

b orn

i n

L ondon,

E ngland,

1 842;

d ied

i n

V al C asterino, A lpi Marittime, I taly, 1 918; i s an obscure f igure, even b y a ntiquarian s tandards. H e held no honours, or even memberships o f l earned societies, and T he T imes d id not notice h is death. A memory o f h im a nd h is work survives i n the Museo B icknell, B ordighera; i n E ngland he i s f orgotten ( Hawkins 1 890). Nevertheless, h e deserves a modest and honourable n iche i n the h istory o f I talian a nd of European a rchaeology, partly b ecause h is work exemplifies s ome o f the b est f eatures of l ater 1 9th century pre-history; i t points up i n a s ingle case-study the s trengths of t he n ew s ystematics a s applied to material previously a matter for a ntiquarian B esides, B icknell d id unusual things, and h is b oth appealing and d iverting.

s peculation. character i s

Materials for a b iographical sketch o f B icknell are patchy. T here i s nothing for h is f irst 1 9 years, for i nstance, but t here i s much for h is b otany a nd archaeology, and h is public l ife i n B ordighera. F or h is personal l ife, the only d irect s ource i s t he l etters h e wrote, over a f ive-year period near the end, to a Swedish b aroness; they s how s trikingly t he attitudes o f the o lder man, but c annot i nform c learly about the younger. I have c alled this paper U na V ita S acra. When B icknell and h is companion-cum-servant Luigi P ollini f irst e xplored t he f igures cut o n the h igh s labs o f t he Fontanalba, t hey called t he l ast, s tiff haul, the s cramble i n t he s corching s un above the top meadow, the ' devil's h illside'. A t i ts top i s the l owest o f t he g reat F ontanalba s urfaces, a 5 0-metre l ength o f r ed s andstone that r uns l ike a corridor s traight u p and down t he h ill. B icknell called i t l a v ia s acra, the sacred way, b ecause i t seemed l ike a natural passage to guide t he p ilgrim f rom t he mundane l and b elow i nto the h igh a nd holy l and o f f igured rocks t hat l ies above. A n impossible devotion to good works runs a ll through B icknell's l ife: u na v ita sacra i s i ntended a s a reminder b oth o f that a nd o f t he f igured rocks h e l oved.

The

' figured Mont

B ggo

rocks' ( in

o f

Mont

I talian

Bggo

Monte

1 77

B ego)

i s

a principal

peak

o f

F ig. 1 1.1. C larence B icknell i n l ater l ife. T he notebooks r ecord h ow l ong h e t ook t o c limb f rom t he C asterino v alley to Mont B e; t hey s how t hat h e was, even i n h is l ate s ixties, a much f aster walker t han most younger p eople t oday ( Istituto i nternazionale d i S tudi L iguri/Enzo B ernardini).

1 78

the M aritime A lps. P art o f t he f ormer C omtd d e N ice, s ince 1 947 i t h as b een i n F rance; i n B icknell's d ay i t was r etained i n I taly a s p art o f t he h unting g rounds o f t he r oyal H ouse o f S avoy. Mont B dgo i tself, 2 872 metres h igh, i s t he most s outhe asterly p eak o f t he M ercantour massif, t he z one o f a ncient metamorphic r ocks r elated g eologically t o t he M assif C entral o f F rance r ather t han t he A lps p roper. I t l ies about 4 0 km. due north o f M onaco, a l ittle e ast o f t he R oya v alley, whose N apoleonic route over t he C ol d u T ende makes t he e asiest p assage a cross t he M aritime A lps f rom N ice a nd the M editerranean t o C uneo, Turin a nd t he P iedmont p lain. Above t he l arch t rees, which r each t o a bout 2 300 metres, Mont B dgo h as a r ugged l andscape, o f s cree, g rass a nd b are r ock s urfaces. M any o f t hese, e specially t he s chists a nd metamorphic s andstones, h ave b een s craped a nd polished s mooth b y g lacial abrasion. O ften b rightly coloured i n r ed, o range, b uff, g reen a nd g rey, t hese i nviting s tones h ave a ttracted people t o c arve d ecorations, f igures a nd i nscriptions, f rom prehistoric t imes, t hrough t he R oman ( Gascou 1 976) a nd R enaissance ( Bicknell 1 913a, 5 8-62) p eriods, i nto modern t imes ( Lumlfy e t a l. 1 976). A rchaeologically t he most i mportant o f t his p alimpsest o f r ock-engravings ( in I talian, i ncisioni r upestri; i n F rench, q ravures r upestres) a re t he v ery numerous e arly f igures made b y a t echnique o f ' pecking' l ittle r ound h oles ( 'cupules'), e ach mark s howing where a s tone o r p erhaps metal t ool h as b een h ammered o n t o t he r ock f ace. Now t hat t he M ont B dgo f igures a re s ecurely d ated t o, b roadly, t he e arlier B ronze A ge, t hey c an b e s een t o l ie s econd, i n b oth number ( upwards o f 5 0,000 i n a ll) a nd r ange, among t he A lpine t raditions o f p rehistoric r ock-art b ehind o nly t he a stonishing c ollection o f V alcamonica. B ut r esearch i n V alcamonica d id n ot b egin u ntil 1 929 ( Marro 1 930; G raziosi 1 931), a nd t he i mpetus t o work t here, the ' Anati M ission' o f 1 956, h ad i ts r oots o n M ont B dgo; f or i t was a s earch f or c omparative material t o c omplement h is major work o n M ont B dgo t hat t ook E mmanuel A nati t o V alcamonica, t here t o r ealize i ts r iches ( Anati 1 980). B icknell's e arly y ears a t H erne H ill, i n t he C larence B icknell was b orn ctober 1 842. H is f ather, p rosperous L ondon s uburbs, o n 2 7 O amily o f wool E lhanan ( 1788-1861), c ame f rom a west-country f ondon a nd t hen t urned t o merchants, which h ad moved t o L E lhanan was t aken i nto t he s chool-teaching. A s a y oung man, s hipping b usiness o f h is u ncle J ohn L angton, a nd u nder h is d irection t he f irm o f L angton a nd B icknell t hrived. T he c ore o f i ts p rosperity was a f leet o f t hirty v essels a nd a monopoly o f s perm-whaling i n t he P acific. W ith h is f ortune s ecure, E lhanon s tarted i n 1 838 t o c ollect modern B ritish p ictures. T here was no g allery a s s uch a t H erne H ill, b ut t he Turners, E ttys a nd G ainsboroughs a nd s o o n, t ogether w ith t he modern s culptures l ike B aily's Eve, were d isplayed i n t he

1 79

t nnu puin rm irtR T s

ee ,r ,,

F ig. 1 1.2. B icknell watercolour o f O rchis palustris, t he b og o rchid, which h e f ound i n t he Mont B 6go a rea. N ow i n the collection o f h is f lower paintings which i s h eld, w ith h is h erbarium, b y t he G enova U niversity b otanical i nstitute. ( Banbury I stituto B otanico d i G enova).

1 80

p rincipal r ooms o f t he i nterested c onnoisseurs.

house,

which

was

a lways o pen t o

I n p olitics a nd i n t heology, E lhanan was a n ' ardent a nd a dvanced l iberal', a nd a h andsome s upporter o f u nitarianism. T he f amily a llegiance h ad b een e arlier t o M ethodism, a nd t he n ame E lhanan c ame f rom a n i nfluential American p reacher, E lhanan W inchester, who was a c lose f amily f riend ( Bicknell, A .S. 1 900; 1 911; 1 912). I t i s d angerous t o s ee too s trongly t he c haracteristics o f a f amily, a s i f a n i ndividual p ersonality counted for nothing, o r t o e xtrapolate t oo s imply f rom generation to g eneration, a s i f no s on ever t urned a gainst h is f ather. N evertheless, o ne c an s ee i n t his f amily b ackground, a nd e specially i n t he c haracter o f E lhanan, t he s ource o f major e lements i n C larence's l ife - t he f inancial s ecurity ( ironically, f or o ne who c ame t o c are s o much about c ruelty to a nimals, w ith i ts o rigins i n whaling); t he i ntellectual a nd a esthetic t urn o f i nterests; t he l iberal a nd f reethinking ways o f t hought; a nd E lhanan's e nergy a nd application. E lhanan married four t imes, a nd had twelve c hildren, o f whom C larence was t he y oungest. T he e ldest o f h is f ull b rothers, H erman, h ad t he most s triking l ife. H e was a p ioneer A lpinist, a nd s uffered o n t he M atterhorn i n 1 870 a f all which permanently d amaged h is h ands. H is g ift was for e astern l anguages, a nd h e was i n 1 862 t he f irst E nglishman to make t he p ilgrimage t o M ecca w ithout d isguise o f person o r o f n ationality. L ater h e made t he j ourney, even more d angerous f or a n i nfidel t o t he g reat s hrine o f Kum i n P ersia ( Bicknell, A .S. 1 875; B icknell, H . 1 872). T he s econd f ull b rother, A lgernon S idney, was - u nderstandably - a quieter k ind o f a dventurer, who wrote a s plendid t ravel b ook about I taly during t he G aribaldian y ears o f t he 1 850s ( Bicknell, A .S. 1 861). C larence went to s chool a t M r E dward's e stablishment i n B uckinghamshire a nd t hen t o T rinity C ollege, C ambridge, where h e r ead mathematics a nd g raduated i n 1 865 ( Ball a nd V enn 1 913). T hen h e took o rders, A nglican r ather t han n onconformist, a nd was c urate, f irst a t S t P aul's, W alworth, S urrey, a nd t hen a t S toke-on-Terne i n S hropshire. H e g ave u p t hat post i n 1 881, when h e was s ettling i n B ordighera ( Clergy L ists). W alworth was not a comfortable p arish, b ut t he most s qualid o f s outh L ondon s lums, a nd t he f ocus o f n ew a ttempts t o r each t he u rban poor. T he C hurch A rmy, f or i nstance, c hose W alworth f or i ts f irst m ission. A n e arlier, a nd more exotic m ission h ad b een t he O rder o f S t A ugustine, a passionate, R itualistic ' community whose ' monkery o f r ich men' made ' a h otbed o f s o-called R omanism'. W hether o r not C larence approved, h e c ertainly c annot h ave i gnored i t. A fter W alworth h e went t o S toke-on-Terne, h ome o f a nother o f t he v ery f ew A nglican c ommunities, t he B rotherhood o f t he H oly S pirit; i t c losed about 1 879 - e xactly when C larence l eft E ngland a nd

1 81

F ig. 1 1.3. I nterior o f t he l ibrary o f t he Museo B icknell, n ow h eadquarters o f t he I nternational I nstitute f or L igurian s tudies. T he l ibrary, a p lain oblong r oom w ith g alleries a nd a n apse, h as a n e cclesiastical a ir, which h ints a t t he r everence B icknell f elt f or l earning a nd h umane s cience. Over t he apse, c haracteristically, i s a p ainted d ecoration o f f lowers, b y B icknell. ( Author's p hotograph).

1 82

t he p riest's v ocation ( Anson a nd C ampbell 1 964, 9 1-104; A llchin 1 958, 1 63; A non. 1 878, 7 ). W hatever t he c ourse o f h is s piritual l ife, t he c onnection b etween W alworth a nd S toke, a s c entres o f R itualism, i s s urely s ignificant. C larence was t hirty-eight when h e l eft S toke, a nd c learly making n o r apid a dvance i n t he C hurch, u nderstandably i f h e was t ainted w ith R itualism. A lthough h e was f or a t ime c haplain t o t he E nglish c hurch i n B ordighera, h e b ecame i ncreasingly d isillusioned w ith o rganized r eligion, a nd d eclared t owards t he e nd o f h is l ife, ' I h ave b ecome r ather n arrow about a ll C hurch t hings, h aving b ecome convinced t hat t he c hurches d o more h arm t han good a nd h inder h uman p rogress, a nd I l ook u pon t he pope, t he c lergy a nd t he d octrines a ll a s a f raud, t hough not a n i ntentional one' ( letter t o B aroness v on T aube 1 9 J anuary 1 914). T he i deals o f E speranto t ook i ts p lace. During t he l ate 1 870s, while s till curate a t S toke, C larence h ad found o ccasion t o t ravel t he world - t o M orocco, Majorca, C eylon a nd N ew Z ealand. I n 1 878 h e c ame t o I taly, s taying b riefly a t F inale L igure a nd t hen moving west t o the r esort o f B ordighera, a f ew m iles s hort o f t he F rench f rontier, where h e overwintered. T he summer o f 1 880 h e t ravelled a gain, i n C orsica, L iguria, E ngland, the I talian l akes, b efore s ettling i n B ordighera f or g ood. T he f lower paintings, e ach marked w ith p lace a nd d ate ( discussed b elow) s how t ravels not o therwise r ecorded. B ordighera a nd

b otanizing

T here i s not much l eft, o n e ither t he F rench o r I talian s ide o f t he b order, t o r emind t he modern E nglish t ourist o f t he confident e ra ' when t he R iviera was o urs' ( Howarth 1 977). T he e nvironment, b oth p hysical a nd s ocial, h as b een s o t ransformed i n t he l ast c entury t hat considerable e ffort h as to b e made t o r e-imagine t he r ather s trange R iviera t hat C larence B icknell c hose t o i nhabit. T he R iviera w as l argely a n E nglish i nvention, b egun b y T obias S mollett a nd h is r evolutionary i dea t hat t he s ea was t here t o b e b athed i n. T raditionally, t he c oast h ad b een s o d angerous, e xposed t o r aids b y i llegal p irates a nd l egal n avies, t hat s ettlement k ept c lear o f i t. T he medieval towns a nd v illages, t he o ld r oads, o f L iguria a re mostly u p i n t he h ills, where s trategic s ecurity made u p f or t hin s oil a nd s teep f ields. N ice a part, t he most a nglophile r esort was M enton, where t here i s s till a s tatue o f Queen V ictoria, n aturally o f a l arge s ize a nd o f f ine white marble, remembering h er h oliday t here i n 1 892. M enton, which c laimed t he m ildest w inter i n s outhern E urope, w as t ransformed o ut o f a f isherman's h amlet b y a n E nglish c leric a nd g iven a ll t he a pparatus o f a c ivilized w inter l ife - a p romenade, a c lub, a l ending l ibrary o f T auchnitz p aperbacks ( Cameron 1 975, 2 08). T his may not a ll h ave b een p rogress. A ugustus H are, a uthor o f t he

1 83

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F ig. 1 1.4. B icknell r ubbing o f a M ont B 6go r ock-figure, f rom t he L egatö B icknell. I t was B icknell's r ecognition o f t his motif a s d epicting a n a rd, d rawn b y t wo o xen a nd guided b y a p loughman, t hat e nabled h im t o i dentify t he t housands o f h orned f igures a s b ovids even when n either yoked nor a ttached to p loughs. T he l imitations o f h is r ubbing method w hen i t comes t o f ine d etail a re evident. ( Istituto d i G eologia, U niversitä d i G enova)

1 84

s tandard guidebook, c omplained i n 1 890 t hat M enton was ' filled w ith h ideous a nd s tuccoed v illas i n t he worst t aste', s o t hat ' artistically M enton i s vulgarized a nd r uined, but i ts d ry, s unny c limate i s d elicious, i ts f lowers e xquisite, a nd i ts excursions - f or good walkers - a re i nexhaustible a nd f ull o f i nterest' ( Hare 1 890, 5 64). S tuccoed v illas apart, t he p rincipal b lot o n t he i dyllic l andscape was t he p lain f act t hat most o f t he t ravellers h ad c ome t he R iviera i n o rder to b e i ll, o ften f atally. Tuberculosis b eing a s low k iller, a nd r unning i n f amilies, i t o ften meant a g loomy d escent a t t he b eginning o f t he i nvalid s eason, t he s econd week o f O ctober, y ear a fter y ear. L odging h ad t o b e f ound i n t his ' Eldorado o f h otel p roprietors a nd e xpensive medical a ttendants', t heir ' mansions u ndergoing a s ub-division consistent w ith t he l argest r eturn i n p rofit for t he s eason' ( Brown 1 872, 1 65-6). T he other f avoured r esort was B ordighera, j ust a cross t he b order i nto I taly, f or n o r eason b eyond t he c hance r esult o f a publisher's hunch. I n 1 855 C hamber's o f E dinburgh b rought out a n E nglish t ranslation o f D octor A ntonio, a s entimental novel b y G iovanni R uffini, which put t he r omance o f E nglish M iss L ucy a nd I talian D r. A ntonio i nto a ll well-bred E nglish h earts, a nd p laced t he n ew r esort o f B ordighera, whose l ush c harms i t s o warmly d escribed, f irmly o n t he E nglish t ourist map. T here was a n i mportant F rench community i n B ordighera, i ncluding a t t imes t he p ainters C orot a nd Monet, b ut i t was t he E nglish c ommunity, a t i ts peak 3 000 s trong a nd outnumbering the n atives, which s et t he s tyle o f t he p lace. I t s till p reserves t he m anner o f E dwardian T orquay i n i ts v illas, r estrained, d ignified a nd t erribly r espectable b ehind g reat h edges. T he t ennis c lub, f ounded b y t he E nglish, i s t he o ldest i n I taly. A c hief d ifficulty, f or t he convalescing E nglish i nvalid, was f inding s ufficient o ccupations a nd pastimes t o f ill t he w inter weeks. Country t rips, w ith nothing more s trenuous t han f lowers o r b utterflies t o h unt, were r ecommended, even f or t hose many i nvalids who i magined t henselves i n a s ub-tropical paradise r ather t han a n, admittedly m ild, E uropean w inter: ' Faithful t o prescribed r ule o r c apricious f ashion, t hey l ive a nd move i n a manner a s u tterly opposed to p hysical o r s anitary n eeds a s i s p ossible t o conceive; b oth s exes, a t a ll a ges, a ffecting a n e ccentricity o f s tyle a nd c ostume a s r idiculous a s i nconvenient. O n a s harp, c lear D ecember morning, i t i s amusing t o meet our f ellow-countrymen among t he h ills a stride a d onkey, b eneath a huge white u mbrella a nd h arnessed w ith b otanic c ases, b esides t he goggles a nd o dd c lothes, f or which h e c annot even p lead t he s ufficient F rench e xcuse o f having b een i n I ndia. N ear h im i s t he l ittle M entonaise d amsel c arrying h is b lock, s tock, s tick a nd o ther i mpediments' ( Bennet 1 866, 1 61). B otanic

collecting a nd b otanic d rawing occupied B icknell

1 85

F ig. 1 1.5. V arious types o f h orned f igures Guide. I t i s u nfortunate t hat t hese published which a re f reehand sketches a t v ery v ariable b een r eferred to ever s ince, r ather t han r ubbings ( Author's d rawing).

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f rom t he 1 913 i llustrations, s cales, h ave h is a ccurate

f rom t he moment h e a rrived. I n t he c entre o f t he M aritime A lps, B ordighera o ffers e specially a n a stonishing r ichness o f p lants. I t i s h ere, a t t heir s outheast e xtremity, t hat t he A lps c ome c losest t o t he s ea. F rom t he b ridge a cross t he R oya a t V entimiglia, t he n ext t own t o B ordighera, c an b e s een t he s ummit r idge o f G rand C apelet, o nly 4 0 k m away b ut over 2 900 metres h igh a nd u nder s now f rom O ctober t o June. C limbing t o i ts s ummit, o ne p asses t hrough a g rand r ange o f e cological z ones, e ach w ith i ts d istinctive f lora; i n f ew o ther a reas o f E urope a re s o many d ifferent s pecies o f p lants concentrated i n s o s mall a s pace. I n t he manner o f a b otanist o f h is g eneration, B icknell's i nterest was i n s eeking o ut t he g reatest number o f s pecies, t aking s pecimens t o d ry f or t he h erbarium a nd p ainting t hem i n watercolour. B icknell's h erbarium n ow f orms t he c ore o f t he c ollection i n t he B anbury I stituto d i B otanico i n G enoa, w hich a lso h ouses t he f lower p aintings. T he l ast watercolour, o f a f lower f rom t he F ontanalba, i s d ated 1 2 July 1 918, l ess t han a week b efore h is d eath. T he f irst, p ainted i n C orsica i n M arch 1 890, i s e qually a ccomplished t o t he s ame c areful s tandard. B icknell's p aintings a re v ery much i n t he s tud ied manner o f t he V ictorian b otanist, a d etailed d rawing, u sually about 2 0 b y 2 5 c m., o f a s ingle p lant i n b loom, p recisely d epicted a s a n i solated s pecimen a nd a nnotated w ith i ts n ame i n L atin o nly, t he d ate a nd l ocality, a nd s ometimes a n ote o n h abitat. T he p aintings t otalled b y t he e nd 3 349. I n 1 885 B icknell published a b ook o f b otanical w atercolours ( Bicknell, C . 1 885) t o c ompliment Moggridge's ( 1866-72) b ook o f L igurian f lowers. L ater c ame a n u nillustrated s pecies l ist ( Bicknell, C . 1 896) a nd b rief p apers o n n ew f inds ( Bicknell, C . 1 893; 1 894; 1 904a; 1 907). I n a ll, h e contributed 7 3 n ew s pecies t o t he L igurian f lora ( Anon. 1 925). Cavillier, s urveying i n 1 941 major b otanical contrib utions i n t he a rea, p laced B icknell u nhesitatingly i n t he f orefront, a s a n ' explorateur z d16 e t i nfatigable' who h ad e nriched t he s tudy w ith n ew s pecies a nd a g reat many o ccurrences o f ' plantes, r ares r arissimes o u c ritiques' ( Burnat a nd C avillier 1 941, 2 1-22). F irst

v isits

to t he f igured r ocks

B icknell h eard o f t he M erveilles, o r r ather t he M eraviglie ( Italian), s oon a fter c oming t o w inter o n t he R iviera i n 1 879. H e went u p i n J une 1 881 a nd a gain i n S eptember 1 885, s ketching a f ew o f t he f igures ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a, 8 5). H e f ound t hem g reatly f ascinating, b ut t here was l ittle t he a ntiquarian l iterature could t ell h im about t hem, a s a b rief s ummary o f e arlier work w ill i ndicate. T o j udge b y t heir p lace-names, t he mountains round M ont B dgo h ad i n medieval o r post-medieval t imes, s omething o f a d emonic r eputation, w ith, f or i nstance, a V alley o f t he

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-

N . 4

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F ig. 1 1.6. B icknell r ubbing o f part o f a f igure f rom t he u ppermost F ontanalba. B icknell, t hinking i t m ight make a map o f a s ettlement, c alled i t ' Mont B dgo v illage'. N otice t he s olid ovals a nd r ectangles ( houses) w ith a ttached e nclosures ( fields) o ccupied b y l arge ( cattle) o r s mall ( sheep a nd goats) d ots a nd c onnected b y l ines ( paths). T he s imilarity w ith t he well-known ' map' o f B edolina i n V alcamonica i s i mmediately apparent. T he whereabouts o f M ont B dgo v illage was l ost u ntil r ediscovered i n 1 983 w ith t he h elp o f r eferences i n t he B icknell a rchives ( Istituto d i G eologia, U niversitä d i G enova).

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I nferno ( Val d 'Enfer i n i ts c urrent, F rench f orm), a ny number o f D evil's mountains ( Cime d u D iable), a nd a S haking Mountain ( Cime du T rem), among t he n ames. T he t radition s eems t o go b ack t o, a t l east, 1 460, when t he V allde d es M erveilles i tself, t he d eep d efile i mmediately west o f Mont B dgo, was s aid t o h ave ' figures d e d iables e t m u le ddmones partout t aillde e n r ochiers' ( Montfort 1 460). T he n ame M erveilles o r Meraviglie i tself may r epresent more t han s imple a stonishment a t t he r ock c olours o r a t t he f igures o n t hem. B efore B icknell, t here were o nly b rief mentions o f t he e ngravings, b ased o n a d ay o r two i n t he M erveilles ( if t hat), a nd more i nclined t o t alk o f C arthaginians, H annibal's e lephants o r P hoenicians t han t o e xplain u sefully j ust what t he f igures were. T he most h elpful was a b rief r eport, s ubmitted t o t he I nternational P rehistoric C ongress i n 1 868, b y t he E nglish b otanist M . Moggridge ( 1869). T he a rchaeologist E mile R iviäre ( who i s r emembered today mostly f or h is r ole i n i dentifying P alaeolithic c ave-art) was s ent b y t he F rench g overnment t o e xamine t he f igures i n 1 877. P rofessor C elesia ( 1886) was s ent b y t he I talians i n 1 886. H is r eport turned i nto a t reatise o n t he P hoenicians, t hey must h ave b een t he makers o f t he e ngravings, a s t he v ague s imilarity o f s ome o f t hem t o P hoenician c haracters p roved. T hese r eports a nd o thers ( Blanc 1 878; C lugnet 1 877; F oddrd 1 821, 1 8; H enry 1 877; M olon 1 880, 2 0-21; R eclus 1 864, 3 733 74) amounted t o n o more t han d rawings o f a f ew f igures a nd g uesses a s t o t heir possible d ate a nd authorship. T here was, i n a ny c ase, n o methodology f or working w ith r ock-art available t o B icknell, a lthough h e was modest about h is work: ' we a re f ully aware t hat i f s cientific men h ad h ad o ur o pportunities, t hey would p robably h ave made more i mportant d iscoveries .. W e a re o nly t he collectors o f f acts' ( Bicknell,C. 1 913a, 2 4). N ow, B icknell was n ot a n a ntiquarian, b ut h e was h imself a s cientific man, a nd h e a pproached t he r ock-engravings a fter t he e xample o f h is own s cience o f b otany. T hat i s, i nstead o f c oncentrating h is mind o n who made t he f igures - s hepherds? s oldiers? wandering metal-traders? - a nd o n what t hey were p ictures o f, h e b egan w ith s ystematic r ecording, a nd then p roceeded t o a c lassification b y t he n atural g roupings t hat p resented t hemselves i n t he r ange o f f orms. B icknell b egan h is s tudy i n 1 897, when h e r ented a h ouse i n V al C asterino, i n t he v alley e ast o f M ont B 6go a nd a t 1 600 m etres t he h ighest a nd n earest h amlet t o t he mountain. P artly h e was i nterested i n t he r ock-engravings, p artly i n e xploring t he d istinctive f lora o f t he g ranites, g neisses a nd o ther a cid r ocks o f t he M ercantour. C hief o f i ts g lories i s S axifraga f lorulenta, t he A ncient K ing, a h igh mountain s axifrage t hat c lings t o v ertical r ock f aces. S lowly i t g rows a f at r osette o f s harp h ard l eaves t hen, a fter f ive t en o r f ifteen o r ( supposedly) a h undred y ears d evoted t o g athering s trength, i t s ends u p a s tocky s pire, 2 0 o r 2 5 c entimetres h igh, f lowers i n a most wonderful g lory o f purple-rose, s eeds

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F ig. 1 1.7. Wall painting b y B icknell i n h is C asterino house decorates a b edroom w ith mountains, t rees, f lowers a nd an improving s logan, h ere i n E nglish, elsewhere o ften i n Esperanto.

( Author's

photo/courtesy, d e l a B rigue).

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l e

Comte

A lberto Rosso

a nd d ies ( Farrer 1 911, 1 58-164). T he A ncient K ing, t oday t he emblem o f M ercantour N ational P ark, s till g rows i n t he Valmasque v alley n orth o f Mont B eg°. I n B icknell's t ime i t could a lso b e f ound i n t he F ontanalba, t he h anging v alley b etween C asterino a nd M ont B ego, o n t he c liffs t hat d ivide t he s loping s labs o n which t he r ock-engravings a re f ound. T hat f irst s ummer e stablished h is working methods. B icknell a nd h is c ompanion, L uigi P ollini would l eave C asterino a t 5 .00 o r 5 .30 i n t he morning, w alk u p t o t he F ontanalba a nd s earch o ne o r o ther a rea o f r ocks. A t f irst t hey made p encil d rawings; f inding t hese u nsatisfactory, t hey t ried pencil r ubbings a nd p apier-mache s queezes. B icknell d id not l ike t he s queezes, a s t hey s howed u p every n atural f eature i n t he r ock-surface, a s well a s t he e ngraving i tself. I t i s u nfortunate t hat h e gave t he method u p ( only 7 2 s queezes s urvive), s ince i t p rovides a n o bjective r ecord o f t he s tate o f p reservation o f f igures t he b est p art o f a c entury a go, a nd m ight h ave g iven i mportant c lues a s t o t he s peed w ith which t he f igures a re, o r a re n ot, e roding. I nstead, B icknell s tarted t o make h eelball r ubbings, p ressing s oft paper ( it h as a n E nglish watermark, a nd must h ave b een s ent s pecially f rom E ngland t o B ordighera) i nto t he f igures w ith o ne h and, a nd r ubbing i t w ith t he s tick o f h eelball h eld i n t he o ther. F rom t he b eginning, photographs were t aken ( few o f which s urvive), a nd t he c ollection b ecame more s ystematic, t he i ntention b eing t o make a complete c ollection o f r ubbings, a t l east f or t he F ontanalba a nd V allauretta, t he z ones n earest t he working b ase i n C asterino. E ach y ear, B icknell a nd P ollini made a t rip t o t he M erveilles, t he o ther major z one o n t he s ide o f M ont B eg°, d irectly over t he mountain-top f rom C asterino. A mule c arried t ent a nd p rovisions f or two overnight c amps. T he r ubbings o f f igures, which t otal 1 5,512 make u p a n a lmost c omplete c ollection f or t he F ontanalba, the major r egion o n t he e astern s lope o f Mont B ego, a nd a good s ample f or t he M erveilles ( Chippindale 1 984a). A lthough h e made n o maps, b eyond u nscaled s ketches i n h is d iaries, B icknell l ocated e xactly a ll t he d rawings, marked b oth o n t he s heets o f p aper a nd i n t he master c atalogue ( now l ost) which e nsured n o f igures were a ccidentally l eft u ncopied. A gain, t his i s a fter h is b otanical h abits, which marked e ach o f h is 3 000-plus f lower-paintings w ith d ate a nd p lace, a nd r egistered i t i n a g eneral c atalogue. A s v ery f ew l andmarks h ad l ocal n ames, B icknell i nvented s uitable n ames f or i ndividual s urfaces, r ocks a nd t opographic f eatures, which a re s till t he b asis f or p resent work ( not a lways w ith e ase: ' Dying l arch gully' i s a gully o therwise u nremarkable which B icknell i dentified b y t he l arch t ree t hat d ied i n i t i n 1 910. F inding w here a l ittle t ree d ied about t hreequarters o f a c entury a go i s n ot s traightforward i n t hat t errain).

t o

A s B icknell c ame t o k now t he r ecurrent f orms, h e was able r evise t he c lassification i nherited f rom R ivi re, B lanc

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a nd t he o ther e arly v isitors. T hey h ad d istinguished ( 1) a nimals; ( 2) weapons a nd i nstruments; ( 3) f igures o f u ncertain meaning, s haring a f amily l ikeness a nd geometrical c haracter. B icknell's k ey observation w as t o r ecognize f igures o f p loughs, d rawn i n a s chematic manner which m ight h ave come about f rom l ooking d own f rom h ill s lopes o nto t he p lough-teams b elow. T hese p loughs were pulled b y s tylized a nimals. U sually t hese consisted o f a s ingle r ound o r r ectangular a rea w ith two h orns g rowing out o f t hem, o ften s o i mpossibly l arge, l ong o r f antastical t hat t hey c ould not have r epresented r ealistically t he h orns o f a ny l iving a nimals. N ow t he o nly h orned c reatures t hat could d raw p loughs were oxen; a ccordingly a ll t he horned f igures i n p lough-teams, h owever e xtravagant w ere t heir h orns, were oxen. S imilar h orned f igures, a s i solated i ndividuals, a re f ar more c ommon; s ince t hey were comparable i n every o ther way w ith t he h orned f igures i n p lough t eams, i t was f air t o conclude t hat t hey were o xen a lso, even t hough t he f orm o f i ndividual p airs o f h orns m ight r esemble c hamois, i bex o r deer a ntlers - o r n o c reature t hat ever walked t his e arth. T he i dentity o f t he many t housand h orned f igures ( group 1 ) a nd t he f ew h undred p loughteams ( 2), once e stablished, B icknell made a g roup o f w eapons a nd t ools ( 3). S ome o f t hese h e r ecognized a s h alberds, which S ir A rthur E vans h ad d emonstrated t o b e c haracteristic o f t he early B ronze A ge. Most h alberds, a nd a ll t he o ther weapons, were a lone; s ome h alberds were c arried b y human f igures, which t ogether w ith a s mall number o f h uman f igures, ' petits p ersonnages', made u p a nother g roup ( 4). T he g eometrical f igures h e was able t o d ivide i nto t hree g roups,: t hose which s eemed t o r epresent p lans o f p roperties, w ith a c entral r ectangular hut s urrounded b y walled e nclosures, o ften c ontaining d ots t o r epresent t he a nimals ( 5); skins, r ectangles w ith r ounded corners a nd l oops o n e ach s ide ( perhaps s trings meant t o h old s kins out t o d ry) ( 6); a nd a f inal g roup o f g eometric f igures which d efied c lassification ( 7). T he B icknell c lassification h as i ts d ifficulties; i t i s n ot e asy, f or i nstance, t o d efine e xactly w hat i s a h orned f igure a nd w hat i t i s not. S ome a re c lear, w ith a d istinct b ody, t ail, l egs a nd a n extra p air o f p rojections which B icknell t hought must b e ears. S ometimes t here i s a n eck b elow t he h orns, a nd s ometimes ( a f eature B icknell d id n ot r emark o n) a d istinct h ead a s well. O thers a re much l ess certain; i t i s h ard t o j udge when a n i rregular open V -shape w ith s ome s ort o f t hickening a t i ts b ase i s a h orned f igure, a nd when i t i s s imply a n i rregular l ine. B icknell a lso had much d ifficulty i n d eciding whether g roups o f motifs were d eliberate c ompositions o r s cenes, a nd w hen t hey were c hance g roupings w hich h appened t o r esult f rom t he p ositioning o f f igures s et d own, p erhaps a t d ifferent t imes, a s s ingle motifs. A lthough h e noted t he v ery g reat v ariation i n t he s tyle o f p ecking w ith which t he f igures w ere made, h e d id not explore i ts p attern o r a ttempt, a s h as n ow b een d one ( Lumley e t a l. 1 976, 1 04-105), t o f ind t he c hronological s ignificance i n t he v ariance. N or d id h e i nterest h imself i n t he s cratched

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f igures, l ightly i ncised a s i f d rawn w ith a p en-knife b lade, which were l ater t o d isrupt t he e ntire s tudy o f M ont B 6go a rt t hrough t he e rroneous b elief ( Conti 1 940; I setti 1 957; 1 958; 1 965) t hat t hey were c onsistently a s o ld a s, o r o lder t han, t he p ecked s tyle o f f igures. T hese questions, i f h e t hought o f t hem a t a ll, B icknell must h ave t hought were r eserved f or t hose ' men o f s cience' whose g reater k nowledge a nd e xperience would make f or f ar more f ruitful d iscoveries ( Bicknell, C . 1 911a, 2 2) o nce h is amateur e fforts h ad b rought t he f igures t o a ntiquarian n otice. I n t his h e was m istaken. F irstly, n o b ody o f e xpertise e xisted i n h is own t ime t o s tudy r ock-art b etter t han t he methods h e d evised ( as t he l ong d ebate about t he a ge o f P alaeolithic c ave-art i n B icknell's own t ime a lso d emonstrates). S econdly, t he d ifficulties h e found t axing t he r eliable r ecognition o f motifs a nd t heir r eliable i nterpretation, t he d istinction b etween s eparate f igures which h appen t o b e p laced i n p roximity a nd g rouped s cenes o r c ompositions, t he d istinction a nd possible c hronology i n s tyles o f p ecking - h ave r emained f undamental a nd i ntractable obstacles t o t he s mooth p rogress o f r ock-art s tudies. A nd h is method o f a pproach, w ith i ts e mphasis o n c omplete a nd a ccurate r ecord-keeping a nd cautious r easoning, a ssisted b y s tatistical a nalysis, f rom what i s observed o n t he g round, r emains v alid. W hen i t c ame t o i nterpretation, B icknell was c autious. H is publications h ave a much more modern f lavour t han P rof. A rturo I ssel's f uller a ccount i n h is L iguria P reistorica ( Issel 1 908, 4 05-559), where l imited f ield-observations d erived f rom B icknell's r ecords a re s ubmerged i n a mass o f i ngenious a nd u nprofitable s peculation. B icknell ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a, 6 7ff) s howed t hat t he r eliable evidence d iscernible o n t he g round was i ncompatible w ith C elesia's ( 1885; 1 886) b elief t hat t hey were c ut b y P hoenicians, w ith R iviäre's ( 1878) t hat t hey were t he work o f L ibyans, w ith Mader's ( 1901) t hat P hoenician m iners were r esponsible, a nd d ' Albertis's ( 1884, 6 9-70) r elating t hem t o f igures i n t he C anary I slands. A gainst t he b etter a rgued s uggestion ( Lissauer 1 900) t hat t he f igures were made b y p eople o f I berian o rigin, p robably l iving n ear t he R höne d elta, B icknell r easonably o bjected t hat a ccess t o t he r ock-engraved z ones was v ery much e asier f rom t he P o p lain t o t he n orth t han f rom t he s eacoast, a nd t hat, w ithin t he M ont B 6go a rea, t he e ngraved z ones were more o n t he I talian, northern s ide t han t owards t he p asses a nd r outes f rom t he coast o r t he R höne v alley ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a, 6 9-71). F or g ood measure, h e s howed t hat t he a lternative t heory, t hat t he f igures were t he work o f l ocal s hepherds i n t heir i dle hours, was n ot e asily compatible w ith t heir concentration i n a reas away f rom t he g razing ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a, 7 2-73). H is own s uggestions, v ery modestly p roposed, concerning p ilgrims' o fferings, t he s ignificance o f t he h orns, a nd t heir possible s ymbolic v alue a s n otional s acrifices t o a mountain d eity ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a, 7 3-78), a re a t l east a s g ood a s o thers'.

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A fter a d ozen s ummers o f f ieldwork i n t he F ontanalba, B icknell a nd P ollini h ad t aken t heir s tudy a s f ar a s t hey b elieved t hey were able. T hey h ad a f ull s et o f r ubbings, t o a d ecent quality, mostly o f i solated motifs but a lso o f g roupings where motifs overlapped o r s eemed t o make u p c ompositions; t hey h ad a good many p hotographs; a nd t hey had a n e xcellent u nderstanding o f t he r ange o f motifs a nd t heir c lassification. T hey a lso h ad a b ecoming r estraint a s t o h ow much c ould w ith c ertainty b e k nown, c onfessing t hemselves ' each s ucceeding y ear' more a nd more impressed b y the s trange mystery' ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a, 9 6). I n concluding h is v isitors' g uide t o t he F ontanalba, B icknell b roke away for once f rom h is c autious a nd p ractical a ttitude i n a r everie which a cutely expresses what h e b elieved could n ot b e r ecovered b y t he modern r esearcher: ' sometimes we h ave f elt t hat t he v oices o f our p rehistoric f riends were m ingled w ith t he marmot's whistle a nd t he music o f t he f alling s treams, a nd a lso expected t o f ind s ome o f t hem c arving t heir f igures a nd e mblems, a nd b e able t o a sk t hem who t hey were, whence t hey c ame, a nd ' what was t he meaning o f t heir work'. E thnic i dentity, o rigins, a nd meaning were not questions t he s cientific r esearcher could u sefully a ddress h imself to. ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a, 9 6). P ublication R esearch, h owever good a nd c areful, i s o f l ittle u se i f i t i s not w ell p ublished; i n t his r espect, a gain, B icknell was e nergetic a nd c apable, a lthough h e was h andicapped b y h is not b eing k nown t o t he a rchaeological p rofession. H is f irst s eason, h e s ent t o L ondon a d etached s lab w ith a h orned f igure f rom t he 3 00 r ock i n t he F ontanalba ( now i n the B ritish Museum, a ccession number 9 7.12-29.1) a nd a l etter which was r ead t o t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries ( Bicknell, C . 1 897). H e wrote s eason b y s eason f or t he L igurian a ntiquarian j ournal ( Bicknell, C . 1 898; 1 899; 1 906; 1 908) a nd e lsewhere i n F rench a nd I talian ( Bicknell, C . 1 904b; 1 911a; 1 911c; 1 913b; also 1 909). I n E nglish, h e p ublished a n 8 0-page b ook ( Bicknell, C . 1 902; s econd edition 1 911a), well i llustrated w ith d rawings a nd p hotographs, a s upplement ( Bicknell, C . 1 903), a nd i n 1 913 t he e nlarged a nd d efinitive A G uide t o t he P rehistoric R ock E ngravings i n t he I talian M aritime A lps ( Bicknell, C . 1 913a). I t i s again p rofusely i llustrated w ith s ketches, a nd i n e ach copy i s a n o riginal r ubbing o f a r ockf igure f rom t he F ontanalba. I t i s a r emarkable b ook t horough, r estrained, comprehensive - w hose v alue i s s hown b y i ts r emaining, a f ull s eventy y ears l ater, t he b est g eneral guide t o t he f ull a rea o f M ont B 6go r ock-engravings, and b y i ts publication, i n n ew F rench a nd I talian t ranslation, a s r ecently a s 1 971 ( Bicknell, C . 1 971a; 1 971b). H is a rchive o f d rawings a nd notebooks h e l eft t o t he I stituto d i G eologia o f t he U niversitä d i S tudi d i G enova, w here t hey h ave not, r egrettably, b een u sed b y l ater r esearchers ( Chippindale 1 984a); h e t hought t hey would b e more e asily a ccessible f or s tudents i n G enova t han i n t he l ittle museum a t B ordighera ( Berry 1 929). H is r ecording t echnique i s d eficient b y modern s tandards, a nd h e made no r ecords o f matters, s uch a s the

1 94

s tyle o f p ecking a nd t he s lope a nd o rientation o f r ock f aces, now c onsidered i mportant. N evertheless, t he B icknell a rchive r etains a p ermanent v alue f or t he u nknown number o f f igures d estroyed s ince t he e arly y ears o f t his c entury b y f looding u nder e nlarged l akes, b y tourist v andalism, a nd b y the construction o f m ilitary r oads a nd mule-tracks during, e specially, t he 1 930s. O ne o f t hese, a g eometric f igure i n t he F ontanalba quite u nlike a ny o ther k nown o n M ont B 4go, h as b een r econstructed f rom t he a rchival r ecords ( Chippindale 1 984a). T he C asa

B icknell

i n

C asterino

I n 1 903 S ignor P ellegrino s old t he h ouse B icknell was a ccustomed t o r ent e ach s ummer i n C asterino, a nd B icknell d ecided t o b uild h is own. T he h ouse was p ut u p i n t he s ummer o f 1 905, a nd i ts f ittings, p ainted d ecorations o f f lowers a nd r ock-engravings a nd g arden made t he f ollowing y ear. T hereafter, t he C asa B icknell was t he summer h ouse o f B icknell a nd S ignor a nd S ignora P ollini. A nd i t was o n i ts b alcony, t aken out f or a l ast g limpse o f t he mountains h e l oved, t hat B icknell d ied i n 1 918. B icknell h oped t hat a rchaeologists would come u p t o C asterino t o b e s hown t he f igures, b ut h e was d isappointed. T he v isitors were mostly f riends, o r tourists w ith a n a ntiquarian i nterest ( Bucknall 1 913); t he o nly a rchaeologists o f r epute t o s ee t he f igures t hemselves were t he F rench p rehistorians C artailhac a nd R aymond ( in 1 910). B icknell's n ephew E dward B erry, who a lso l ived i n B ordighera, h elped w ith t he f ieldwork a nd maintained t he f amily i nterest a fter B icknell's d eath, t hought t his was b ecause B icknell was t oo modest about h is work a nd o nly published t he r esults i n l ittle-known p eriodicals ( Berry 1 929). T he Museo B icknell

i n

B ordighera

B icknell's p rivate means were considerable, h is manner o f l iving modest a nd h e was a ctive i n philanthropic work i n B ordighera ( B6guinot 1 931). H is major e nterprise, i n 1 887-8, was t he f ounding o f a n i nternational l ibrary a nd Museum i n B ordighera. T he M useo B icknell was t he f irst l ocal museum i n I talian L iguria; i t s till f lourishes a s t he h eadquarters o f t he I stituto I nternazionale d i S tudi L iguri, a nd i s t he most c onspicuous memorial t o t he v anished E nglish c ommunity o nce s o i mportant t here. S et i n a g enerous g arden w ith a t ulip t ree b y t he e ntrance, which h as n ow g rown s o b ig i t h as t hrown over t he g ateway, i t i s b uilt t o B icknell's own d esign. B ehind a n a rcaded f acade, t he main b uilding w ith i ts apse a nd c lerestory e choes e cclesiastical a rchitecture, a nd h ints a t t hat h umane r everence f or s cience, l earning a nd education t hat was s o d ear t o B icknell. Two g reat f ireplaces r ather s uggest a n E nglish c astle. T he f ireplaces were d ecorated b y B icknell w ith f lowers, a nd w ith s logans i n t he a rtificial l anguage, E speranto, evidence o f a nother o utlet f or B icknell's e nergies. W ith t he d ominance today o f E nglish a s t he world l anguage, E speranto

1 95

i s r educed t o a dying curiosity. I n i ts h eyday, t he e arly y ears o f t he c entury, i t a spired n ot j ust t o b eing a n i nternational l anguage b ut t o b ringing about, t hrough t he medium o f a c ommon u nderstanding, a world u nity o f f riendship b etween p eoples; i t b ecame a quasi-religious movement, even a n e ntire way o f l ife ( Forster 1 982). B icknell w as a n e nthusiastic s upporter, s etting u p a twenty-strong E sperantist c ircle i n B ordighera, a nd t ravelling e ach y ear t o t he s ummer congress. T his meant, i n t he y ear o f h is 7 0th b irthday, t he l ong j ourney t o C racow i n P oland f rom t he C asterino s ummer house, whose p ainted d ecorations a lso i nclude, b esides f lowers a nd motifs f rom t he r ock-figures, i mproving mottoes i n E speranto. T he s tudious y ears o f patient work, collecting a nd p ainting f lowers, r ecording t he r ock-engravings, founding a nd e ncouraging t he Museum a re c ongruent i n B icknell's l ife w ith h is o ther b eliefs, h is pacifism, h is v egetarianism, h is c are f or a nimals. I t adds u p t o a k ind o f s tern g entleness t hough not w ithout h umour o r s ense o f f un - a nd a v ery V ictorian d edication t o work. Even i n h is 7 0s, h e c omplained ( but g ently) about n eeding t o g et u p a t 5 .30 e ach d ay, s ince s o much h ad t o b e d one, e specially a n ew duty h e h ad f ound f or h imself, t he typing o f E speranto poems ( some o f h is own writing) i n b raille, a s a c omfort a nd amusement f or b lind E sperantists overseas. T he r ock-engravings a fter B icknell T he s tudy o f t he r ock-engravings s ince B icknell's t ime h as n ot e ntirely b een h appy. H is s uccessor was C arlo C onti, a n I talian s cuptor who worked i n t he Merveillles t o c omplement B icknell's s tudy o f t he F ontanalba. A gain t he a im was a s ystematic r ecording, l argely b y making p laster c asts a n a ppallingly l aborious method i n s uch w ild country f or a man working a lone. B ut o nly a f raction ( Conti 1 972) o f t he s urvey was published, a nd C onti's m aterial h as not b een u sed b y o ther workers. I n 1 947, w ith t he r ealignment o f t he f rontier, Mont B dgo was t ransferred t o F rance f rom I taly, a nd C onti's a ctive work c ame t o a n e nd. I n 1 967 a n ew c ampaign o f p rospection a nd r ecording b egan u nder t he d irection o f P rof. H enry d e Lumley, t hen o f t he L aboratoire d e P aldontologie Humaine e t d e P rdhistoire d e M arseille, n ow o f t he Musde d e l 'Homme, P aris; t his continues i n a f ield s eason every s ummer a nd w ill - t hough t here i s a t l east a d ecade more work t o b e d one - i n t ime constitute t he complete r ecord o f t he M ont B dgo r ock-engravings which B icknell s et o ut t o make a lmost a c entury e arlier. B icknell's work

i n

r etrospect

M any f ailings c an b e f ound i n B icknell's work b y modern s tandards. B y t he s tandards o f h is own d ay, i t w as o f a n e xceptional quality, a s i s s hown b y t he c orrectness o f h is c lassification s ystem a nd b y h is d ating t he f igures o f weapons t o t he e arlier B ronze A ge. W hat i s e specially i nteresting i s t he p articular 1 9th c entury p attern t o which

1 96

h is work, a nd i ts s uccess c onforms. A s t he n ew p rehistory o f t he l ater 1 9th c entury was c haracterized b y s ystems o f s tudy, e specially o f t axonomic c lassification, t aken over f rom t he n atural s ciences, s o t he o ld a ntiquarian methods b ecame i neffective. I ndeed, t he h istorical a pproach, o r i ts a nthropological v ariant, b y c oncentrating i ts i nterest o n t he r acial i dentity o f t he g roup r esponsible f or s ome p rehistoric p henomenon, was a p ositive h indrance, a s i t s pread r aces o f megalith-builders o r I berian r ock-engravers o n l ong-distance m igrations. N or was t he a rt-historical approach, w ith i ts i nterest i n t he i ndividual p ersonality o f t he c reative a rtist, much h elp f or t he s tudy o f p rehistoric a rt, h owever v aluable i t p roved i n t he c ontinuing t radition o f c lassical a rchaeology. T he r esult, t herefore, was t hat f or many a spects o f p rehistoric r esearch ( Chippindale 1 984b), t he b est t raining was n ot a p rofessional k nowledge o f a rchaeology o r even e thnology ( which p rovided d istractions o r i rrelevance) b ut a g rounding i n t he p rimary methods o f n atural s cience, together w ith t hat patient h abit o f d ata-collecting c haracteristic e specially o f t he 1 9th c entury n aturalists. B icknell p recisely e xemplifies t he p attern o f t he n ew p rehistory, w ith h is n atural-science b ackground a s urer b asis f or h is r esearch t han would h ave b een p rovided b y more ' professional' a ntiquarian c onnections. H is work i s a lso a r eminder o f j ust h ow i ntractable t he s tudy o f p rehistoric a rt c an b e. D espite 8 0 more y ears o f r esearch, a nd i ncreasing i nterest i n t he v alue o f r ock-art b oth f or B ronze A ge s tudies ( Coles a nd H arding 1 979) a nd f or p rehistory i n g eneral b ecause o f t he d irectness o f p rehistoric e xpression i t c onveys ( Renfrew 1 982), we h ave n ot a dvanced s o v ery f ar, when f aced w ith f igures l ike t hose o f M ont B 6go, b eyond w hat a n amateur 1 9th c entury b otanist t hought was t he b est way t o p roceed.

A cknowledgements I n a cquainting myself w ith t he r ock-engravings, I h ave e normously b enefited f rom t he o pportunity, k indly g ranted b y P rof. H enry d e L umley, Musde d e l 'Homme, P aris, t o work w ith h is f ield-team a nd t o r efer t o t he M ont B 6go a rchive a t t he L aboratoire d e P al6ontologie Humaine e t d e P rghistoire, M arseilles, where M . a nd Mme. B ernard P ichard h ave b een most h elpful. I n G enova, P rof. G iuliano F ierro a nd c olleagues a t t he I stituto d i G eologia a nd a t t he H anbury I stituto d i B otanico h ave g iven me every f acility t o u se t he L egato B icknell. I t hank D ott.ssa. F rancesca P allares, D irector o f t he I stituto I nternazionale d i S tudi L iguri, a nd h er colleague S ignor E nzo B ernardini, f or t heir i nterest a nd a ssistance. I h ave b een able t o v isit t he C asa B icknell, C asterino, t hrough t he k indness o f l e C omte A lberto R osso d e l a B rigue a nd w ith t he f riendly cooperation o f M . e t Mme. M ichel B oulanger.

1 97

B ibiliography Bgguinot ( 1931) B ernardini ( 1972)

provides a r everent b iographical s ets B icknell i n t he context o f

a ccount; L igurian

s ociety at t he t ime. C hippindale ( 1984a) sets o ut t he contents o f the L egatö B icknell i n G enoa; C hippendale ( 1984b) examines B icknell's work as a c ase-study i n the h istory o f archaeology i n the f irst decades o f prehistoric s cience; Chippindale ( in press a ) g ive much new i nformation on B icknell's l ife; C hippindale ( in press b ) reconstructs a n important f igure, now destroyed, f rom B icknell's r ecords. A llchin,

Anati,

A .M. 1 958. T he s ilent rebellion: anglican communities 1 845-1900. L ondon, SCM P ress.

E . 1 980. I C amuni: M ilan, J aca B ook.

alle

radici

Anonymous, 1 878. Appendix London, R ivingtons. Anonymous, 1 925. l igusticae'

to

d ella

C hronicle

S upplemento alla d el P enzig. A rchivo

r eligious

c iviltä

o f

europea.

Convocation.

' Synopsis B otanico 1 ,

f lorae nos.3-4.

Anson,

P .F., and C ampbell, A . W. 1 964. T he c all o f the c loister: r eligious communities and k indred b odies i n t he anglican communion. London, SPCK.

B all,

W . W.R., a nd V enn, J . A. 1 913. B icknell, I n Admissions to Cambridge, 5 , 1 851 to 1 900, 2 05.

E ntry on C larence T rinity C ollege, London, Macmillan.

Bgguinot, A . 1 931. L 'opera s cientifica e f ilantropica C larence B icknell. A tti d ella S ocietä L igustica S cienza B ennet,

J .

e L ettere

1 866.

W inter

1 0, i n

d i d i

1-24.

t he

south

o f

Europe.

L ondon,

J ohn

Churchill. B ernardini, E . 1 972. C larence B icknell, i n B ordighera, I stituto I nternazionale 1 52-61. B erry,

E .E.

1 929.

L etter

to T .E.

P eet,

4 .

B icknell, A .S. 1 861. I n t he t rack o f t he I taly and S icily. L ondon, G eorge

B ordighera i eri, d i S tudi L iguri,

July. G aribaldians Mainwaring.

through

B icknell, A .S. 1 875. P reface to H .Bicknell. H afiz of s elections f rom h is poems. London, Trubner.

S hiraz;

B icknell, A .S. 1 900. Excerpta B iconyllea; a f orgotten C hancellor a nd a forgotten k night - notes f or a h istory o f t he S omersetshire f amily of B iconylle. Taunton, B arnicott and P earce. B icknell,

A .S.

1 911.

B icknell

family pedigree.

1 98

I n

F .A.

C risp

( ed.) V isitation o f London.

E ngland

and W ales.

1 7,

3 3-46.

B icknell, A .S. 1 912. F ive pedigrees: B icknell o f Taunton; B icknell o f B ridgewater; B icknell o f F arnham; B rowne ( Le B run) o f F rance and S pitalfiels; W ilde o f H igh Wycombe. L ondon, George S herwood. B icknell, C . 1 885. F lowering plants and neighbouring mountains. B icknell, C . nella

a nd f erns o f t he London, Trubner.

1 893. Addenda a d f loram i talicam: F lora L igustica. Malpighia 7 , 4 15.

R iviera

s pigolature

B icknell, C . 1 894. Addenda ad f loram i talicam: u n nuovo ibrido nel g enere C irsium, C . E rithisales x bulbosam ( = C . Norrisii mihi), Malpighia 8 , 2 75-276. B icknell, C . 1 896. F lora of B ordighera a nd San R emo: o r a catalogue o f the w ild plants growing i n western L iguria, i n the a rea b ounded b y the outer watersheds o f the Arma a nd Nervia torrents. B ordighera, P ietro G ibelli. B icknell, C . 1 897. L etter communicated to the S ociety their meeting o f 9 O ctober. P roceedings o f Society o f A ntiquaries 1 7 ( 1897-9), 1 3-15.

at the

B icknell, C . 1 898.

V al

L e

f igure

i ncise

Fontanalba, A tti dell S ocietä Naturali e G eografica 8 .

sulle

rocce

L igustica

d i

d i

S cienze

B icknell, C . 1 899. O sservazioni u lteriori sulle i ncisioni rupestri i n Val F ontanalba. A tti dell S ocietä L igustica d i S cienze N aturali 1 0. B icknell, C . 1 902. T he P rehistoric rock engravings i n the I talian Maritime A lps. B ordighera, P ietro G ibelli. B icknell, C . 1 903. Further e xplorations i n t he regions o f t he prehistoric rock engravings i n the I talian Maritime A lps. Bordighera, P ietro G ibelli. B icknell, C . 1 904a. U na g ita primaverile i n B ollettino d ella S ocieta B otanica I taliana,

S ardegna. 1 93-202.

B icknell, C . 1 904b. L es i nscriptions prehistoriques des environs de T ende. Annales de l a S ociete d es L ettreA S ciences e t A rts des A lpes Maritimes, 9 -34 B icknell, C . 1 906. I ncisioni rupestri nuovamente o sservate nelle alte v alli d elle A lpi Marittime. A tti d ella Societä L igustica d i S cienze Naturali 1 7, 8 -22. B icknell, C . 1 907. U na passeggiata b otanica i n S pagna. Bollettino d ella S ocietä B otanica I taliana, 7 4-77.

1 99

B icknell,

C .

1 908.

Nuovo contributo a lle

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2 03

gravdes

of

et

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l es

mind.

Summary C larence B icknell was A nglican p riest, f luent i n E speranto a nd a b otanist. I n 1 896, h e r ented a house i n t he V al C asterino f rom where h e was t he f irst t o s tudy t he Mont Bdgo r ock e ngravings w ith t he methodical t echnique o f a b otanist o f h is d ay. T he a rchive o f h is r esearches r emains a n i nvaluable r ecord f or t he modern s tudy o f I talian r ock a rt. Furthermore, B icknell made o riginal observations i n t he i dentification o f p loughs d epicted among t he e ngravings. T he author e xamines c ritically h ow f ar modern a rchaeology h as t aken t he s tudy o f r ock a rt b eyond t he s tandard o f B icknell's d ay. R iassunto C larence B icknell e ra u n p rete a nglicano, c he p arlava correntemente e speranto, e b otanico. N ell'anno 1 896, p rese i n a ffitto u na c asa i n V al C asterino d a d ove l ui e ra i l p rimo d i s tudiare l e i ncisioni r upestre d i Monte B ego c on l a t ecnica s istematica d i u n b otanic° c ontemporaneo. L 'archivio d elle sue r icerche r imane u n d ocumento d i i nestimabile v alore p er l o s tudio moderno d ell'arte r upestre i taliana. I noltre, B icknell o sservö p er l a p rima v olta g li a ratri r appresentati nelle i ncisioni. L 'autore e samina quanto l 'archeologia moderna s ia avanzata o ltre i l l ivello d el periodo d i B icknell.

2 04

1 2.

THE O RIGINS OF C ARTOGRAPHY

A N ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROBLEM:

MAPS

I N P REHISTORIC ROCK ART

C atherine D elano S mith

A rchaeology h olds t he k ey t o t he o rigins o f c artography. T he s tandard l iterature o n t he h istory o f maps f ocuses o n t he c lay t ablet maps excavated f rom a ncient M esopotamian s ites s uch a s N ippur, N uzi a nd L agash a s e xamples o f the ' earliest maps k nown' ( Brown 1 949; B agrow 1 964; T hrower 1 972). O nly occasionally i s passing r eference made t o t he ' instinctive' mapping s kills o f p rimitive p eoples o f t he h istoric p eriod a nd, more r arely, t o t he artistic s kills o f p rehistoric man ( e.g. C rone 1 953, 1 5). Y et, t hose M iddle E astern p roto- a nd e arly h istoric maps a re c artographically s ophisticated. T hey have conventional s igns a nd, b y t he s tart o f t he s econd m illennium b .c., many were b eing d rawn t o s cale f rom measured s urveys ( Harvey 1 980, 4 8-53, 1 22-5). I t i s a rguable t hat t he r elevant c oncepts a nd s kills must h ave d eveloped over a period o f t ime - i n t he p rehistoric period, i n o ther words. T hus, i t i s t o t he p rehistoric p eriod t hat we s hould l ook f or t he o rigins o f c artography . Moreover, i f t here a re s urviving e xamples o f p rehistoric maps, t hese w ill b e found i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f t he p eriod. T he l iterature o n p rehistoric a rt ( both r ock a nd mobiliary) f rom t he u pper P alaeolithic d ownwards d oes i ndeed contain m any r eferences to l andscape d epictions, s ome o f which a re i n p lan while o thers a re a c ombination o f p lan a nd p rofile e lements. I n a s much a s t he e ssence o f s uch d epictions i s a portrayal o f t he s patial r elationships o f l andscape f eatures o r o f events t aking p lace i n a l andscape s etting t hey c an b e considered c artographic. I n a ddition, t he a rt contains a s ubstantial b ody o f evidence t hat h as p roved h ard t o i nterpret - non-naturalistic markings g enerally d escribed a s ' signs' o r a s ' abstract' o r ' geometric'. Quantitatively s peaking, t hese markings a re a t l east a s i mportant a s t he b etter k nown n aturalistic f igures. A ll t his evidence merits r econsideration. H owever, d espite a s hortage o f adequately d ated map e xamples f rom t he a rchaeological c orpus, t he p rimary p roblem i s a c artographical o ne. I n w riting about primitive maps ( i.e. t hose o f n on-literate peoples o f t he h istoric p eriod) o r possible p rehistoric maps, h istorians o f c artography h ave h itherto f ailed t o consider what t hese maps m ight b e l ike a nd, more i mportant s till, what p rinciples s hould b e d eveloped f or t heir i dentification a nd s tudy. T he f irst s tep, t herefore, i n t he n ew approach t o t he p roblem o f ' what i s a p rehistoric map?' i nvolves t he e stablishment o f s ome p ertinent c artographic p rinciples. B efore t hese a re d iscussed, h owever, r eference i s made t o s ome o f t he

2 05

evidence, notably t hat f rom I taly, a nd to o ne o r t wo a spects o f t he t raditional approaches t o i t. T raditional

k ey

S tudies

The antiquarian l iterature o f t he n ineteenth a nd twentieth c enturies, i n B ritain a nd o n t he continent, contains a n abundance o f r eferences t o p rehistoric ' maps'. B ut i ts approach - u nsystematic, e clectic, l acking a ny d iscussion o f a rchaeological context - u sually r esulted i n g reater f eats o f i magination t han o f s cholarly r eason. H owever, o ne o f t he f undamental e rrors made b y a ntiquarians o f t he l ast c entury i s s till b eing made i n t he i nterp retation o f petroglyphs. T his i s t he f ailure t o appreciate t he n ature o f t he g eometry u nderlying p rimitive a nd p rehistoric maps. P rimitive maps, i t i s well k nown, a re constructed a ccording t o t opographical p rinciples. I t i s m isleading t o e xpect a n e xact g eometrical c orrespondence b etween what i s s hown o n t he p rehistoric ' map' a nd t he a ctual l ayout i t m ight h ave b een i ntended t o r epresent, h owever s ymbolically. M atters o f d istance, d irection a nd a ngle ( i.e. o f s hape) a re i rrelevant i n t he c ontext o f p rehistoric g raphics; t hese a re f eatures o f E uclidean g eometry, not f ormulated u ntil t he C lassical p eriod. A ll t hat matters i n topology i s t he s patial r elationship o f o ne u nit t o a nother. T his h as t wo consequences i n t he p resent c ontext. F irst, a rchaeologists s hould n ot b e s urprised i f t he t opographical maps o f M onte B ego o r V alcamonica, f or e xample, appear t o h ave b een ' distorted' i n o rder t o f it t he contours o f t he r ock i nto which t hey were h ammered o r i ncised. A n e xact correspondence o f t he d rawn f igure w ith a ny r eal l ayout o f f ields a nd huts s ome d istance d own t he v alleys would not h ave b een i n question; i t was s ufficient to p reserve t he c ontiguity o f t he i ndividual u nits. S econd, i t i s wasteful o f t ime a nd e nergy to c arry out painstaking e xercises, b ased o n modern s urveying t echniques a nd g eometrical r elationships, i n a n a ttempt t o match markings o n t he r ocks w ith f ield f eatures ( e.g. Molt 1 979; B orgna 1 969). T here i s, however, s omething t o b e l earnt f rom e arly modern s cholars' i nterest i n t he I talian petroglyphic ' maps'. U ndoubtedly t he b est k nown e xample o f a p rehistoric ' map' i s t he l arge p etroglyphic complex a t B edolina i n t he A lpine c ommune o f C apo d i P onte ( Brescia). T he e ntire s urface o f t he r ock ( which measures 4 .15 x 2 .30 m .) i s c overed w ith a v ariety o f c arved f igures t hought t o h ave b een p roduced o n no l ess t han f our d istinct o ccasions during t he B ronze A ge a nd early p art o f t he I ron A ge ( Lion s 1 972). ( Fig. 1 2.1a) T he ' map' a ssemblage,which d oes n ot i nclude t he h ouses, r epresents t he s econd s tage ( Fig. 1 2.1b) - t he house i mages ( shown i n p rofile) b eing a dded l ater. E xactly who was t he f irst t o s ee t he B edolina rock a nd r ecognise i t a s containing a map i s n ot c lear b ut i n 1 932, a t t he L ondon m eeting o f t he F irst I nternational C ongress o f P rehistoric a nd P rotohistoric S ciences, R affaello B attaglia d escribed two p etroglyphic compositions f rom V alcamonica a s ' very a ccurate' r epresentations o f f ields a nd e nclosures ( Battaglia

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F ig. 1 2.1. P etroglyph ( 4.15 x 2 .30 m .) f rom B edolina ( Capo d i P onte, V alcamonica) s howing ( a) t he t otal complex o f markings a nd ( b) t hose t hought t o d ate f rom t he s econd phase, i ncluding t he ' map' assemblage ( after L ion s 1 972).

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1 934, 2 36). O ne o f t hese a ssemblages w as B edolina. I n 1 958, a nother a rchaeologist, Emmanuel A nati, i ntroduced B edolina a s ' the r ock w ith t he p lan a nd t he v iew toward t he v alley b eyond' a nd s uggested t hat ' it s eems c lear t hat t he e ngraving i s a f aithful r epresentation o f what t he a rtist s aw i n t he v alley' ( Anati 1 958, 3 60). T he r ock i s o n a s mall s pur o f t he mountainside a nd d oes i ndeed o ffer e xtensive v iews over t he f lat-bottomed, i ntensively c ultivated, O glio V alley, s ome 4 0 metres b elow. I n 1 964 a S wiss s cholar, W alter B lumer, a ccepted A nati's d escription a nd, w riting i n I mago Mundi o n ' The o ldest k nown p lan o f a n i nhabited s ite d ating f rom t he B ronze A ge, a bout t he m iddle o f t he 2 nd m illenium b .c.', b rought i t t o t he a ttention o f h istorians o f c artography ( Blumer 1 964). S ince t hen, t he B edolina map h as f eatured i n a rchaeological, g eographical a nd h istory o f c artography l iterature. T here a re a f ew o ther p etroglyphs i n V alcamonica s imilar to B edolina, i n s tyle i f not i n s ize, which h ave a lso b een d escribed i n t he l iterature a s maps. T hese h alf-dozen ' topographical f igures', h owever, r epresent a m inute f raction o f t he 1 80,000 f igures, o f a ll s ubjects, r ecorded f rom t he 7 6 s ites s o f ar k nown i n t he a rea: p redominant s ubjects a re a nthropological a nd a nimal, weapons, u tensils, ploughteams a nd a v ariety of ' abstract' o r ' geometric' f igures. N eighbouring v alleys a lso c ontain p etroglyphs b ut i n f ewer numbers a nd nothing h as b een r eported o f o ther possible map e xamples f rom t hem. T he i nterpretation o f t he B edolina map a nd o thers i n V alcamonica owes much t o t he work o f C larence B icknell a t Monte B ägo a t t he t urn o f t he c entury ( Chippindale t his v olume). B icknell s pent twelve summers exploring t he a rea a round t his p eak. H e d iscovered, t raced a nd c lassified s ome 1 4,000 c arved f igures i n a n a rea r estricted to 1 3 k m. 2 . around t he p eak. A mongst f igures o f h orned a nimals, p loughs, weapons a nd i nstruments, men, a nimal s kins p egged out t o d ry, a nd v arious g eometrical f orms i s a c ategory o f c arefully c omposed f igures d escribed b y B icknell ( 1902) a s ' huts a nd p roperties' o r ' topographical f igures' ( Plate 1 2.1). T his c ategory c omprises 1 94 p etroglyphs f rom V al F ontanalba ( on t he north s ide o f t he p eak) a nd 1 5 f rom V al Meraviglia ( on t he s outh s ide). D espite s ubsequent r esearch a nd t he d iscovery o f t housands more f igures - t he t otal i s now t hought t o b e n earer 1 00,000 - n o f urther e xamples o f t he ' topographical f igures' h ave b een r eported. B icknell's i nterpretation was b ased o n s imple empiricism. O n h is many j ourneys u p a nd d own t he v alleys t o M onte B ägo, h e r epeatedly observed t he s triking l ikeness o f t he c arved combinations o f s olid r ectangles, s ubcircular f orms, p ecked s urfaces a nd i rregular i nter-connecting l ines t o f eatures i n t he l andscape a round h im w hen t hese a re v iewed f rom a bove, a s f rom a v antage p oint h igher u p t he mountainside; w hen t hey a re s een i n p lan, i n o ther words. I n

t his

way,

B icknell

2 08

was

l ed

to

i nterpret

t he

P late 1 2.1. O ne o f C larence B icknell's ' huts a nd p roperties' o r ' topographical f igures' ( 1913, n . 3 9, P late 1 8). ( Photograph r eproduced b y courtesy o f E . A nati, C entro C amuno d i S tudi P reistorici).

2 09

' rectangular f igure w ith t he s emicircle a nd o ther s ort o f c losed l ine a djoining i t' a s s ignifying h uts o r s heds w ith a p iece o f g round e nclosed b y a wall' ( Bicknell 1 913, 5 3). T he f our k inds o f s tippling ( made b y a s ingle o r b y r epeated b lows o f t he h ammer) t hat f ill s ome o f t he e nclosures while o thers a re l eft b lank, h e s aw a s possibly i ndicating d ifferent c ategories o f l and u se. A N ew A pproach T he B edolina p etroglyph h as e ntered t he l iterature a s a map p resumably - t here h as n ever b een a ny r eal d iscussion o n t his point - b ecause, w ith B icknell's o bservations f rom M onte B ägo i n m ind, i t ' looks l ike a map'. B ut s uch a s pontaneous a nd i ntuitive a cceptance, o n t he b asis o f v isual f amiliarity, i s h ardly a s ound f oundation f or generalising about c artography i n t he p rehistoric p eriod. S ome o bjective means o f a ssessment i s n ecessary. T he d iagnostic a ttributes o f a modern t opographical p lan map ( title, s cale, p lace-names, f amiliarity o f outline) a nd i ts k nown c ontext e nsure t he i dentification o f s uch a map f rom t he h istoric p eriod b ut a re b y d efinition l acking i n the c ase o f p rehistoric maps. Moreover, i n addition to g eneral p roblems o f i nterpretation, s uch a s t hose o f s tyle a nd o f t he meaning o f s igns a nd s ymbols, there i s t he d ifficulty, common i n rock a rt f rom a ll periods, o f d istinguishing a n i ntended composition f rom a n a ssemblage r esulting merely f rom a ccidents o f j uxtaposition. A s a means o f a dvancing t he d iscussion d espite s uch p roblems, f our c riteria h ave b een suggested a s k ey d iagnostics ( Delano S mith 1 981). ( To appreciate t hese, F ig. 1 2.2 c an b e compared w ith F ig. 1 2.1b). F irst, i t h as t o b e e stablished t hat t he a ssemblage i n question ( or most o f i t) was i n f act i ntended f rom t he o utset a s a s ingle c omposition. I n t he c ase o f a modern o r h istoric map i t i s a ssumed t hat a ll t he constituent i mages were contemporaneous i n execution. H owever, a n outstanding c haracteristic o f E uropean ( though n ot o f a ll) r ock a rt i s i ts apparent l ack o f o rder a nd, even more, i ts l ack o f a ny s uggestion o f c omposition. S o, i n t he p resent c ontext, i t h as b een s uggested t hat o nly w here i t i s r easonably c lear t hat t he e ngraved o r p ainted l ines c onnect n eatly w ith e ach o ther, a re n either s uperimposed n or i solated, a nd a re o f i dentical t echnique a nd s tyle, may i t b e a ssumed t hat t he i ndividual i mages a re constituents o f t he l arger whole, were contemporaneous i n e xecution, a nd t hat t he whole was i ntended a s a composition. S econd, i t h as t o b e e stablished t hat constituent i mages c an b e t aken a s c artographic s igns. T he meaning o f s uch s igns o n a modern map i s e xplained t o t he map-user b y m eans o f a k ey. A lternatively, w ithout t hese, t here would b e n o w ay o f b eing c ertain about t he m eaning o f a s ign: a ny i mage c ould b e u sed t o s tand f or a ny o bject ( though i n f act s ome d egree o f correspondence b etween t he i mage a nd t he o bject i t i s i ntended t o r epresent i s n ormal). I n t he c ase o f t he p rehistoric composition, i t h as t o b e a ssumed a nd i t i s r easonable t o d o s o - t hat n aturalistic

2 10

f igures a re i ndeed i conica ( pictorial) r epresentations a nd h ave t he meaning t hey appear t o h ave ( a h orse-like f igure r epresents a horse o r s ome h orsely a ttribute), a t l east a t t he f irst l evel o f m eaning. T he meaning o f u nidentifiable, ' abstract', or ' geometric' s igns may never b e k nown b ut s ome o f t hese may b e s een a s h aving b een i ntended a s m imetic s igns. M imetic s igns a re t hose h aving s ome v isual e quivalence ( Robinson a nd P etchenik 1 976, 6 1). T his e quivalence was t he b asis o f B icknell's i nterpretation o f t he M onte B ägo ' topographic f igures'. S uch a ssumptions mean t hat a s tart c an b e made, i n t he c ase o f t he p rehistoric c omposition, b y e liminating t hose i mages l east l ikely t o b e p resent o r c ommon-place o n a t opographical map ( weapons r ather t han h ouses, f or e xample). T he r esidue t hat i s t o b e c onsidered s eriously a re t ermed ' cartographically a ppropriate s igns'. T hird, f urther r eference t o t he modern t opographical map r eveals t hat i t i s c omposed o f a r elatively l imited r ange o f s igns a nd t hat most, i f n ot a ll, o f t hese s igns o ccur f requently. T his s hould a lso b e t he c ase w ith t he prehistoric counterpart. To t hese t hree k ey d iagnostics c an b e a dded o thers. Most l andscapes a re i rregular i n l ayout, a lthough t here a re e xceptions ( land r eform a reas, p lanned t owns e tc) a nd a s omewhat r andom p attern, r ather t han a s trictly g eometric o ne, i s t he f ourth c haracteristic o f t he map. S ize may a lso b e i mportant b oth p ractically ( demanding a t hreshold d esigned to e xclude i ncomplete, i solated o r o therwise ambiguous g roups o f appropriate i mages) a nd conceptually ( a l arge, complicated composition may i mply a d ifferent o rder o f p erception f rom t hat n eeded t o p roduce a s mall o ne). A f igure c omposed o f f ewer t han s ix l inked a nd c artographically appropriate s igns i s e liminated. T he B edolina p etroglyph ( Phase B ) was e xamined i n t he l ight o f t hese c riteria. T aking o nly i nterlinked e lements i nto c onsideration, t he c omposition i s found t o b e c omprised o f no more t han f our d ifferent s igns ( ignoring t he two l adder-signs) u sed i n combinations t o g ive t hree types o f i mages t hat a re t hen a ssumed t o b e m imetic s igns. T hese could b e r epresenting c ertain l andscape f eatures, v iewed i n p lan: f ields - most w ith o rchards o r o ther c rops; p aths a nd/or s treams; wells o r s prings. T he overall p attern i s i rregular, t hough c oherent. T he ' map' i s t he b iggest s o f ar k nown. S o f ar, d iscussion h as b een l imited t o o ne f orm a nd o ne c ategory o f map o nly, t he t opographical p lan map. A lthough t his i s t he most common map g enre i n c irculation t oday, t his h as n ot a lways b een t he c ase. T he h istoric p eriod contains many e xamples o f p icture-maps ( perspective o r b ird's e ye v iew maps). T hese may i nclude s ome p lan e lements ( as i n t he P alaeolithic f igures) b ut most f eatures a re p ortrayed i n e levation. T hese f eatures a re n ot o nly o f a spects o f the l andscape ( mountains, r ivers, t rees, b uildings) b ut a lso o f humans, a nimals, s hips, b attle s cenes. T he i ntention may h ave b een t o e mphasise a n event i n i ts

2 11

F ig. 1 2.2. T racing f rom a modern topographical map ( showing only f ield b oundaries, t racks and s treams, a nd t ree c rops) to emphasise t he v isual characteristics o f modern maps, too o ften t aken f or g ranted ( Sheet 1 64 I NE Manfredonia; I .G. M. 1 964. O riginal s cale 1 :25,000).

2 12

F ig. 1 2.3. Cosmological r epresentations: ( a) t he s tele f rom Triora ( Liguria) w ith the t hree r egisters s uggested b y E . A nati ( 1973) a nd ( b) t he l abyrinth f igure, a ubiquitous s ymbol, i n i ts v arious f orms, i n b oth prehistoric a nd h istoric a rt ( Kern 1 981). T his one comes f rom V alcamonica and h as, u nusually, s ome additional markings ( Anati 1 961).

2 13

l andscape s etting, r ather than t he l andscape i tself, t his i n n o way m inimises i ts c artographic n ature. T o r einforce t his p oint,

i t

but

i s worth d rawing a ttention t o

t he d efinition o f a ' map'. T raditional d efinitions f ollowed b y h istorians o f c artography - h ave t ended t o b e n arrow. T hey c onfine c artography t o t he d rawing o f g eographical maps a ccording to E uclidean s cale a nd emphasise t his mathematical a ccuracy ( as t hrough t he u se o f coo rdinates o r l atitude a nd l ongitude). H owever, a n authoritat ive r edefinition h as n ow b een o ffered which r eflects a much b roader c oncept o f what constitutes a map. A ccording t o t his, maps a re: ' artefacts which b y means o f t heir i mages e pitomise t he s patial d istribution o f n atural a nd a rtificial f eatures, p rocesses a nd events i n t he human world' ( Harley a nd W oodward f orthcoming). S uch a d efinition r eleases h istorians o f c artography f rom t he confusion a nd, a t t imes, contradictions e ngendered b y t he immense v ariety o f map g enres, map s tyles a nd f orms o f c artographic p resentation found t hroughout t he h istoric p eriod. I t s hould a lso open t he a rchaeologist's mind a s to what might b e c onsidered quite p roperly c artographic i n p rehistoric a rt. Non-topographical maps f rom t he prehistoric period W ith s uch a d efinition i n m ind, t he p rehistoric evidence i s found t o c ontain a s r emarkable a v ariety o f map types a s the h istoric. I n a ddition to t he two t ypes o f t opographical r epresentations d iscussed above, t here a re p lan models. T wo a re k nown s o f ar, b oth f rom t he N eolithic period, t hat a re k nown f rom E urope. B oth c ame f rom M alta. O ne i s a s culptured l imestone b lock, f irst noted b y Z ammit ( 1930), d escribed r ecently a s a d etailed p lan r epresentation o f ' a building, made o f r ectangular r ooms a nd corridors' ( Trump 1 970, 2 122) . S ince no b uildings o f t hat particular f orm e xisted a t t hat d ate i n Malta, i t i s possible t hat t his was c reated a s a d emonstration model o r a s a t hreed imensional p lan f or t he a ctual p rocess o f construction. T hen t here a re t he c elestial maps. Quite apart f rom t he d ebate about t he p lace o f advanced a stronomical s cience i n t he p rehistoric p eriod, i t i s well k nown t hat s tars a re u sed i n p rimitive a nd t raditional s ocieties f or way-finding a nd t ime-keeping a nd f or marking t he s easons. I t might b e t hought t hat r epresentations o f g roups o f constellations would b e c ommon i n p rehistoric a rt. T hey c ertainly s hould b e e asy t o i dentify, s ince o ne would e xpect n othing l ess t han a n e xact c orrespondence b etween t he a stronomical e ntity a s observed t oday ( allowing f or c hanges o ver t ime) and t he markings o n t he r ock o r a rtefact. I n f act, d espite considerable a ntiquarian i nterest i n p rehistoric s tar maps, t he s ituation i s f ar f rom s atisfactory. T oo many would-be i nterpreters o f ' star maps' h ave b een c ontent t o a ccept

2 14

i nexact c orrespondence a nd r edundant e lements ( however,

t o i gnore b oth S chutte 1 920).

m issing

a nd

F inally, t here a re t he cosmological maps. Current r esearch o n e arly h istoric maps i s h ighlighting t he p aramount p erformance o f cosmological r epresentations. S uch maps ( like t he mappae mundi o f M edieval E urope) r eflect man's concern about h is f ate a fter d eath a nd h is b eliefs about the s tructure o f h is u niverse. T hat s imilar p reoccupations were h eld b y p rehistoric man i s c lear f rom s tudies o f p rehistoric a rt a nd o f t he h istory o f r eligions a nd myths a nd s upported b y e thnographic evidence. R ecognition o f a cosmological map i n p rehistoric a rt i s made d ifficult b y not k nowing w hat b eliefs, concerning t he s tructure o f t he u niverse, were h eld b y a s pecific s ociety a t a s pecific t ime a nd t hus what s patial a rrangements t o l ook f or i n t he a rt. H owever, s tudies i n comparative r eligion s how t hat t here h ave b een o nly a l imited r ange o f b eliefs about t he b asic s tructure o f t he c osmos a nd t his p rovides a b asis f or t he i dentification o f p ossible cosmological r epresentations. I n addition, t here a re a number o f s ymbols o f c osmological s ignificance t hat a re found t he world over - l adders, t rees, l abyrinths, f or e xample. L adders p rovide t he means o f a ccess b etween t his world a nd t he world o f t he d ead. L ikewise, o ften a ssociated w ith b urial p laces, t he l abyrinth d esign h as b een e xplained b y a t l east o ne r ecent p rimitive culture a s a map o f the j ourney b etween t his l ife a nd t he n ext ( Fig. 1 2.3b). I n t he l ight o f s uch b eliefs, t he t riple r egisters o f d ecoration f ound o n p rehistoric s telae h ave b een i nterpreted a s r epresenting t he d ifferent l evels o f t he c osmos - t he h eavenly, e arthly a nd n ether worlds ( Anati 1 973) ( Fig. 1 2.3a), a f orm o f d ecoration t hat i s not w ithout a p arallel i n t he memorial s tones o f t he V iking period. Future

r esearch

d irections

When p resent r esearch o n p rehistoric c artography s tarted, o nly f our p rehistoric t opographical maps were c ited i n t he modern l iterature. A fter a r e-assessment o f a ll available evidence f rom E urope, t he M iddle E ast a nd N orth A frica ( including t he S ahara) i n t he l ight o f n ew c riteria, not l ess t han 7 0 a nd possibly a s many a s 2 00 maps o r s patial r epresentations o f o ne s ort o r a nother h ave b een l isted a s meriting c onsideration. T he l ist ( Delano S mith f orthcoming) i s n ot i ntended a s d efinitive; i n p articular i nstances i t may b e c ontroversial; i t i s c ertainly i ncomplete. I t d oes p rovide a b asis f or f urther d iscussion o n t he o rigins o f c artography. H owever, a n authoritative r ewriting o f t he o rigins o f c artography d epends o n t he a dvance o f r esearch i n t hree r elated d irections: t he a rchaeological d iscovery o f possible p rehistoric maps; a rchaeological v erification o f t he p hysical context o f t hese maps; a nd i llumination o f t he mental c ontext a nd t he meaning o f p rehistoric a rt t hrough e thnography. T hese three a spects a re b riefly e laborated o n b elow. F irst,

o ne o f t he most

i nteresting r ecent d iscoveries

2 15

i n t he context o f p rehistoric maps - h as b een t hat o f t he s hrine wall-painting a t C atal H uyuk ( Konya, T urkey). T his i s t hought to d epict t he N eolithic s ettlement a nd t he n eighbouring v olcano, possibly i n e ruption. T he painting c lassified a s a p icture map - h as b een g iven a d ate o f 6 200 4 9 7 b .c. ( Mellaart 1 964). I t i s u nique i n s everal r espects b ut n otably b ecause i t h as a r elatively p recise d ate a nd a well-documented a rchaeological c ontext. T his l ast point means i ts r eligious c ontext i s a rchaeologically d emonstrated a nd not, a s i s t he c ase i n s o much E uropean r ock a rt, merely a ssumed. I t i s hoped t hat t here w ill b e f urther d iscoveries o f t his n ature a nd t hat t hey w ill b e made k nown t o h istorians o f c artography. S econd, what i s u rgently n eeded a re r econstructions o f t he r eal-world l ocalities t he maps a re thought to i ndicate. A s atisfactory correspondence b etween f eatures o n t he p rehistoric map a nd contemporary f eatures o n t he g round i s t he o nly p otentially c onclusive evidence t hat t he c omposition was i ntended a s a map - ' epitomising t he s patial d istribution o f objects ( and) events' ( see H arley a nd W oodward's d efinition, above) - t hat c an b e h oped f or. T he t ask o f r ecovering t he l ocal l andscape a t a s pecific moment i n t he p rehistoric p eriod i s p rimarily a rchaeological. I t may not b e e asy, b ut i t i s a n e ssential o ne i f t he i nterpretation o f ' maps' a nd ' topographic f igures' i n p rehistoric a rt i s to a dvance f rom t he p resent s tate o f i nference, a ssumption a nd s peculation. I n t his context, I taly h as a major r ole t o p lay, i n v iew o f t he r emarkable concentration ( to d ate) o f topographical p lan maps i n t he A lps. F inally, d espite t he obvious h azards o f i nterchanging experiences f rom d ifferent p art o f t he world, d ifferent cultures, a nd d ifferent t ime p eriods, t he i nsight g ained f rom modern e thnographic s tudies o f p rimitive man i s i ndispensible t o t he s tudy o f t he o rigins o f c artography. F or i nstance, i t h as b ecome c lear t hat way-finding i nvolves memorised k nowledge a nd t hat g raphic r epresentations o f r outes a nd t erritory a re not normally n eeded w ithin a p rimitive s ociety f or d aily l iving. T his means t hat p rehistoric maps d id not s erve t he s ame d irectional a nd r ecording f unctions a s t heir h istoric c ounter-parts. I t i s a lso c lear t hat t he r ock a rt r eflects t he a rtists' b eliefs, a nd t hat t hey were n ot concerned w ith p rovision o f f ood t hrough t he c reation o f ' sympathetic magic' a nd t hat the s ites o f r ock a rt were o ften s acred o r h oly p laces ( LewisW illiams 1 981). M ost i mportantly, i t s hows t hat t he a rt i s composed o f ' crystallised metaphors', e xecuted, l ike maps, to convey messages e ncoded i nto v isual f orms. T he d ifficulty, a s w ith maps, i s t hat e ach c ode n eeds t o b e b roken b efore t he message c an b e r eached. W hat c an b e concluded, h owever, i s t hat a g ood d eal o f man's ' mapping i mpulse' i s manifest i n t he a rt o f p rehistoric man i n Europe, a nd e lsewhere, f rom t he u pper P alaeolithic o nwards.

2 16

Acknowledgements

1 984. A ll t his material i s copyright and s hould not b e quoted without written permission f rom the U niversity o f Chicago P ress.

I am particularly g rateful to B rian H arley ( University o f E xeter) f or h is perceptive criticism o f this paper and to b oth h im and D avid Woodward ( University o f W isconsin) for permission to quote f rom their P reface to V olume I o f the H istory o f C artography prior to publication.

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T arxien

T emples.

S ummary Amongst t he g reat number a nd w ide v ariety o f p etroglyphs i n t he I talian a nd L igurian A lps a re a f ew which h ave b een d escribed i n t he a cademic ( as d istinct f rom t he a ntiquarian) l iterature a s maps. R ecognition o f s uch ' maps', h owever, h as a lways b een o n t he b asis o f s pontaneous r ecognition - ' it l ooks l ike a map' - r ather t han o n a ny c ritical o r objective c artographical a nalysis. A n ew approach t o p rehistoric maps i n E urope a nd t he O ld World b orderlands, a nd t o t he s tudy o f t he o rigins o f c artography, i s r eported h ere. I t i s b ased o n f irst p rinciples. T hese i ncorporate, amongst o ther t hings, a f ormal a nalysis o f t he p etroglyphic a ssemblages a nd make a llowance b oth f or t he topological ( as o pposed t o E uclidean) n ature o f p rehistoric geometry a nd f or t he s ymbolic a s opposed t o way-finding o r r ecording f unction o f p rehistoric maps. T he p rehistoric p eriod i s f ound t o b e a s r ich i n v ariety o f map types a s t he h istoric but t he i mportance o f t he a rchaeological c ontribution to a ny f urther a dvance o f t he topic i s s tressed t hroughout. R iassunto F ra i l g ran numero e l a ampia v arietä d i petroglifi s ulle A lpi i taliane e l iguri c i s ono a lcuni c he s ono s tati d escritti n ella l etteratura a ccademica ( in contrasto con quella a ntiquaria) c ome c arte. I i r iconoscimento d i t ali ' carte', p erö, é s tato s empre s ulla b ase d el r iconoscimento s pontaneo ' sembra e ssere u na c arta' - p iuttosto c he s u qualche a nalisi c ritica o obiettivamente c artografia. Qui S i r iferisce a d u n metodo nuovo d ello s tudio d elle c arte p reistoriche n ell' E uropa e n ei confini d el M ondo V ecchio e d ello s tudio d elle o rigini d ella c artografia. S i b asa s ui p rimi p rincipi. Q uesti i ncorporano, f ra v an e c ose, u n a nalisi d elle f orme d egli a ggregati petroglifici e p rendono i n c onsiderazione l a n atura t opologica ( in c ontrasto c on quella e uclideana) d ella g eometria p reistorica e a nche l a f unzione s imbolica, i n c ontrasto con l a f unzione p ratica d i t rovare l a s trada o d i r egistrare i d ati d elle c arte p reistoriche. I i periodo p reistorico s i manifesta cosi r icco n ella v arietä d ei t ipi c artografici c ome i l periodo s torico, ma s i s ottolinea d appertutto i mportanza del c ontributo a rcheologico a qualsiasi p rogresso d el a rgumento.

2 19

1 3.

COLONIALISM A ND NURAGHISMUS.

J ames

L ewthwaite

I ntroduction O ne o f t he most i mportant t rends i n E uropean prehistory over t he l ast two d ecades h as b een t he r eaction against t hose d iffusionist culture-histories which s tressed t he c ausal i nfluence o f t he t echnological, e conomic a nd s ocial d evelopments o f western A sia o n n eighbouring r egions. T he e nsuing quest f or empirical d emonstrations o f t he p rinciple o f a utonomous d evelopment h as b een pursued o n two l evels: o n t he o ne h and, t hrough r efutation, r egion b y r egion, o f c ases o f s upposed d iffusion a nd t hrough t he g eneral u pward r evision o f t he c hronology o f European p rehistory compared w ith t hat of w estern A sia, b ased o n t he b ristlecone-pine d endroc hronological r ecalibration o f r adiocarbon d ates ( Renfrew 1 979); on t he o ther, through t he i mposition o f much more s tringent p rocedures i n t he d etection, excavation, r ecovery a nd a nalysis o f archaeological d ata a nd t hrough the i nterpretation o f t he l atter i n t erms o f t he systems a nalogy f or culture ( Clarke 1 972). A n u nfortunate consequence o f t he e mplAsis o n meticulous methodological r igour, i n t he c ontext of f inancial impoverishment o f t he past d ecade, has b een t he r estriction o f r esearch p rojects t o r elatively e xiguous t erritories, typically a n aturally-defined r egion s uch a s a v alley ( examples i n K eller a nd R upp 1 983) o r a n i sland ( Renfrew a nd W agstaff 1 982). C learly, there i s a n a cute d anger o f h aving to r e-learn a t t he macro-scale t he f olly of a ttempting t o r econstruct t he i nternal s tructures a nd a ctivities o f a t ell f rom r andomly-placed ' telephone b ooths' b e t hey e ver s o painstakingly o rganised. T he M editerranean f orms o ne o f t he main c orridors a long w hich A siatic cultural i nfluences a re h eld t o h ave i mpinged o n E uropean p rehistoric d evelopment. T he e xtreme polarisation o f t he debate over t he possibility o f c ontacts b etween t he e arly H elladic a nd e arly C ycladic ' civilisations' o f t he A egean a nd t he C opper A ge o f A lmeria a nd t he T agus e stuary ( Renfrew 1 967) i s partly a f unction o f t he r elative d earth o f i nformation, u ntil r ecently, concerning contemporary ( later t hird m illennium b .c.) d evelopments i n t he i ntervening r egion o f t he c entral a nd w estern M editerranean; d iscoveries i n Murcia, t he M idi o f F rance a nd S icily f oster t he i mpression o f a more c ontinuous d istribution ( Lewthwaite 1 983a). T he i sland o f S ardinia, c hiefly f amous o n a ccount o f t he N uragic culture o f t he l ater B ronze a nd I ron A ges, o ccupies a n odal position w ithin t his c entral z one o f C opper A ge obscurity. T his e ssay i s addressed t o t he dual p roblem o f t racing t he p renuragic f oundations o f t he Nuragic culture a nd o f

2 20

2 21

estimating, i n the l ight o f r ecent t heoretical approaches, t he weighting to b e a ssigned t o endogenous a nd exogenous f actors r espectively. F rom the purely architectural perspective, i t h as l ong b een k nown t hat the nuraghi of S ardinia were merely t he most numerous and elaborate e xamples of a set of generically s imilar d ry-stone constructions s uch as the s pecchie o f Apulia, t he s esi of P antelleria and, i n particular, the talaiots o f the l arger B aleares ( Lilliu 1 962; 1 966; R ossellö B ordoy 1 973). T he r esearch of t he l ate R . G rosjean i n C orsica and o f a team of archaeologists f rom the U niversity o f G ranada have added to t hese c lasses the torn i of s outhern Corsica and t he motillas of L a M ancha, r espectively ( Grosjean 1 960; 1 961; 1 971; V irili a nd G rosjean 1 979; Martin M orales 1 983; Molina a nd Näjera 1 978; Näjera a nd Molina 1 977; N äjera et al. 1 979) ( Fig. 13.1). T he d iscovery of t he l atter suggests t hat t his a rchitectural t radition was not s imply confined to i slands. T he currently attested d istribution i s h arder t han ever to explain, with f ew obvious environmental f actors b oth common and u nique to t he a reas of occurrence. M ight t hese enclaves not r epresent t he t runcated remnants of a o nce more continuous pattern f ragmented b y s everal centuries o f demolition and s tone-robbing b y the d enselys ettled peasantry o f i ntervening a reas? A lternatively, m ight each c lass have d eveloped b roadly i n p arallel, perhaps f rom a common substrate? T he whole

problem was

c learly considered

b y

the

' modified

d iffusionist' Childe, who c ame to two, perhaps surprising, conclusions: f irstly, that the developments i n the B aleares were no more t han parallel to those of S ardinia ( Childe 1 957, 2 64); s econdly, that each t radition evolved i n s itu f rom l ocal copper age a ntecedents ( Childe 1 957, 2 63-4). I n the specific c ase of the Nuragic culture, the absence o f e xotic imports implying more t han sporadic contacts w ith h igher c ivilisations, the continuity i n artefact and tomb-types and the assumption of a s hort chronology, i ndicated a d irect d erivation f rom t he h eterogenous Copper Age exemplified b y the assemblages of t he A nghelu Rüju cemetery. C hilde j udged t hat t he t ime-span available for t his t ranslormation was r elatively s hort, b racketed by t he t ermini of, on t he o ne hand, t he B eaker presence i n copper age contexts, and, on the other, of e ighth century b .c. A tlantic a nd A egean b ronzes found i n hoards associated with developed Nuragic s ettlements: ' archaeologically a millennium i s n ot v ery p lausible, two quite i ncredible' ( Childe 1 957, 2 62-3). A v ery d ifferent chronology i s b eginning to emerge f rom t he s till s lim corpus of 14 C d eterminations available f rom S ardinia ( Castaldi 1 980; i n press; Contu 1 980). T he e ffects a re not only to l engthen the overall f ramework of S ardinian prehistory, o nce b elieved h ardly to antedate t he i nception o f the s econd millennium b .c. ( Lilliu 1 965) but to open u p g aps i n t he sequence b etween t he t hree components which, w hether through their obvious u niqueness o r t heir wider a ffinities, were r eadily r ecognisable early i n t he h istory of r esearch: t he O zieri N eolithic, t he B eaker a ssemblages of the C opper

2 22

F ig.

D I 9V2 I nN

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z

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Z 0

u . , c z c _ Z

C L A R O ! I

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1 3.2.

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0 0 0

C A R D I A L

F I L E S T R U

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M O N T E

B O N A N R O

W A R E

N U R A G I C

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H I S T O R Y : C H A N G I N G I N T E R P E T A T I O N S

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T H E C H R O N L O G Y O F S A R D I N A N C U L T U R E

z

N E O C A R D I A L

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T able

1 7.1.

Additional

r ecords

( not

d rawn

o n

d iagram)

depth

pollen

8 0 1 00 1 20 1 30

cm. cm. cm. cm.

1 40

cm.

1 50

cm.

C altha type 1 % ( wet g rassland). F ilicales 7 %, P olypodium + ( spores). A llium 1 % ( woodland), Myriophyllum + ( aquatic). S olanum dulcamara + , P lantago major + ( ruderals) Myriophyllum + ( aquatic), F ilicales 1 % ( spore). P olygonum persicaria type + ( segetal), R hinanthus type + ( grassland), Myriophyllum + ( aquatic). R hinanthus type 1 % ( grassland), Myriophyllum 3 % ( aquatic). L ythrum + ( grassland), H ydrocotyle + , Myriophyllum 1 % ( aquatic), c f. S phagnum + cf. P teridium + ( spores). P lantago major + ( ruderal), L ythrum + ( grassland), Myriophyllum + ( aquatic). P olygonum persicaria type + ( segetal), P lantago media + ( ruderal), L inum catharticum + ( grassland), Myriophyllum + ( aquatic). P olygonum persicaria type + ( segetal), L inum c atharticum + ( grassland), cf. Mercurialis + ( various), Myriophyllum + ( aquatic). A llium 1 % ( woodland) c f. Hypericum + ( grassland), Myriophyllum 1 1% ( aquatic), F ilicales 1 % ( spores). P olygonum persicaria type + , A nagallis + ( segetal), P olygala + ( grassland), S axifraga opp2sitifolia type

1 60 cm. 1 70 cm. 1 80

cm.

1 90 cm.

2 00

cm.

2 10

cm.

2 20 cm. 2 30

cm.

2 40

cm.

2 50

cm.

2 60 cm.

2 70

cm.

2 80

cm.

2 90 3 10 3 20 3 30

cm. cm. cm. cm.

type

pollen

approximate

e cological

group

+ , S edum + ( various), F ilicales + ( spores). P olygonum convolvulus + ( segetal), c f. U tricularia + ( aquatic), F ilicales + ( spore). A llium + ( woodland), P olygonum persicaria type + ( segetal), R hinanthus type + ( grassland), Polygonum b istorta type + , Myriophyllum + ( aquatics), F ilicales + ( spore). P olygonum persicaria type + ( segetal), R hinanthus type + , L inum c atharticum + ( grassland), Epilobium + ( various). H ypericum 1 %, Geraniaceae + , Lythrum + ( grassland), Nuphar + ( aquatic), Lycopodium + ( spore). P apaver + , A nagallis + ( segetals), A rctium + , C altha + , Hypericum 1 %, A nemone + , R hinanthus type 2 %, L ythrum + ( grassland), S edum + ( various), c f. U tricularia + ( aquatic). P olygonum persicaria type + ( segetal), P lantago major + , S olanum dulcamara + ( ruderals), G eranium + ( grassland), Ppilobium + ( various), Polygonum b istorta + ( aquatic), F ilicales 1 % ( spore). P lantago major + ( ruderal), c f. C altha + ( grassland), Ppilobium + ( various), c f. I ris + ( aquatic). R hinanthus type + ( grassland). F ilicales 1 % ( spore). M enyanthes + ( aquatic). F ilicales + ( spore).

3 03

v egetation a s well a s h aving b een g athered, b ut t he d ry g rassland p ollen f lora may r epresent t he dung o f g razing a nimals, o r h ay. T he f lora o f g razed m eadows a nd h ayfields i s s imilar, a lthough t he l atter may h ave more o f t he t aller p lants l ike C entaurea ( knapweed) a nd A grimonia ( agrimony) which a re l ess t olerant o f g razing t han t hose w ith a b asal r osette l ike P lantago ( plantain) a nd t he C ompositae. T hese s igns o f t he i mportance o f g rassland c ontrast w ith t hose f rom N eolithic l evels a t Z ürichsee ( Heitz Weniger 1 978) a nd S eeberg, B urgäschisee-Süd ( Welten 1 967) where t here a re i nstead p eaks o f t ree pollen s uch a s T ilia ( lime), A cer ( maple), a nd F raxinus ( ash) together w ith H edera ( ivy), a nd A llium ( wild g arlic) which h as b een e xplained a s t he r esult o f t he g athering o f l eaf h ay f rom t rees, s hrubs, e tc. s uch a s t he s ummer f lowering o nes which f eature i n t he p ollen r ecord, a nd a lso t he e arly s pring f lowerers l ike U lmus ( elm) which would n ot f eature i n t he pollen r ecord. T he d eposits a t F iavd s how s imilar evidence o f g rassy v egetation t hroughout z one F 2 which s uggests t hat t he B ronze A ge s ettlement r elied u pon h ay r ather t han l eaves f or f odder, a s i n S witzerland ( Heitz Weniger 1 978). F 2b 2 50-210 F 2c

c m.

2 00-180 cm.

more

s igns o f occupation

g reatest

s igns o f o ccupation

T he s igns o f o ccupation a nd o f pollen b rought i n t o t he s ite b y i ts occupants i ncrease t o a p eak which c orresponds to t he o ccupation l ayer w ith t he l arge amounts o f c harred p lant material a nd b roken pottery. I t i s possible t hat t his l ayer r elates t o a h ouse f ire which c aused a l arge amount o f b urnt and u nburnt material t o b e d ropped i nto t he l ake a t t his point, r ather t han t he n ormal s catter o f r ubbish a t o ther t imes. O f course, t he s igns o f o ccupation a t t he p lace w here t he c ore was t aken may n ot b e r epresentative o f t he s ite a s a whole. F 2d 1 70-150 macrofossils

cm.

s ettlement

d ecreasing?

comparison

w ith

T here i s a g eneral c hange i n t he r atio o f t ree t o h erb pollen ( 41% t ree c ompared w ith 2 7% b efore), a lthough t here a re c oncentrations o f s ome h erb pollen r ecords h ere, l ike t hose o f U rtica ( nettle), Rumex ( dock) a nd C henopodiaceae ( goosefoot). T hese could b e f rom weedy v egetation g rowing o n abandoned parts o f t he s ettlement. T he s eed s pectrum, ( Table 1 7.2), a nd t he o ther macrofossil r esults f rom t he s ite ( Jones a nd R owley-Conwy t his v olume) a re v ery v aluable i n h elping t he i nterpretation o f t he pollen r esults. T rees A lthough t rees a re well r epresented o n t he p ollen d iagram, t hey a re n ot g enerally well r epresented a s s eeds, a nd S choch's wood i dentifications r esults a re n ot y et available a lthough o ak, a sh a nd a lder w ere t he c ommonest wood

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1 7.2. 1 76

R anunculus a cris/ r epens/ b ulbosus R anunculus s celeratus R anunculus s ubgenus B atrachium C eratophyllum c f. d emersum B rassica sp. V iola s p. S tellaria media A renaria s p. C henopodium s p. A triplex s p. L inum u sitatissimum L inum c atharticum T rifolium p ratense ( flower F ilipendula u lmaria R ubus

c f.

b ase)

i daeus

F ragaria v esca ? A grimonia odorata A ethusa c ynapium P olygonum aviculare P olygonum convolvulus Rumex s p. B etula sp. Mentha c f. a rvensis G aleopsis t etrahit/speciosa L ycopus e uropaeus P lantago major G alium s p. V alerianella d entata B idens s p. ? S enecio

1 ,

v iscosus

L apsana c ommunis S onchus a sper A lismataceae P otamogeton C arex

sp.

s pp.

G ramineae P hleum c f. C erealia T riticum H orde u r n

pratense

L ist i n t axonomic o rder * c harred r emains.

( Clapham,

3 06

cm.

( 450

m l.

s ediment)

3 b uttercup 8 c rowfoot 9 c rowfoot 2 0 h ornwort 1 0 c abbage 1 v iolet 2 c hickweed 2 1 s andwort

g rassland l ake edge aquatic aquatic ? cultivated v arious weed weed ( dry p laces) 3 goosefoot weed 1 o rache weed 6 f lax c ultivated 4 purging f lax meadow 2 r ed c lover meadow 1 meadowsweet d amp g rassland 1 r aspberry woodland edges 1 1 s trawberry 1 * a grimony h ay f ields 1 3 f ool's p arsley weed l *knotgrass weed/ruderal 2 b indweed weed I d ock v arious 4 b irch woodland 3 corn m int cornfield 3 h emp n ettle weed 1 g ypsywort d amp p laces 5 h oary p lantain r uderal 1 g oosegrass ? cornfield 1 * c ornsalad c ornfield 1 b ur marigold d amp p laces 1 s tinking g roundsel waste g round 3 n ipplewort ? cornfield 1 s ow t histle weed 2 water p lantain l ake e dge 2 p ondweed s hallow water 3 s edges, l ake edge d amp p laces 2 , 1 * g rasses v arious 2 * t imothy m eadows 9 c ereals c ultivated 5 * g rains,5* g lume b ases 1 * g rain, 6 * r hachis f ragments

Tutin a nd W arburg

1 962),

T able P ollen T rees

a nalysis

and

o f

1 7.3.

herbivore dung f rom % o f total pollen.

F iavd

A rea

I II

s hrubs

P inus Quercus Corylus D aphne

1 7 8

pine oak hazel spurge

l aurel

H erbs Galium Compositae ( T) A rtemisia U rtica C henopodiaceae G ramineae Compositae P lantago l anc. ?Agrimonia Aconitum V aleriana C ampanulaceae Mentha type P runella type Umbelliferae

pollen

sum

1 99,

3 1 1

5 1

1 3 4

goosegrass

etc.

mugwort n ettle goosefoot f amily g rasses hawkbits etc. r ibwort p lantain ? agrimony monkshood v alerian f amily b ellflowers mints e tc. s elf-heal etc. umbellifers

a further

1 0

grains

3 07

not

i dentified.

F 4,

T able I nsect r emains Identified

1 7.4.

f rom F iav4 F 4 1 70 b y P .J. O sborne

cm.

HEMIPTERA G erridae ? G erris

sp.

1

COLEOPTERA H ydrophilidae C ercyon sp. L eiodidae H ydnobius sp. S taphylinidae X antholinus sp. S carabaeidae Aphodius sp. O nthophagus sp. S cirtidae gen. e t sp. i ndet. P tinidae P tinus s p. Rhizophagidae Monotoma sp. B ruch idae B ruchus c f. pisorum ( L) Chrysomelidae D onacia c inerea Hbst. C repidodera ? ferruginea ( Scop.) Curculionidae ? P hyllobbius sp. Gymnetron c f. pascuorum ( Gy n.)

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

D IPTERA Chironomidae gen. et sp.

i ndet.

3 ( larval

3 08

h eads).

types i dentified f rom Z ürichsee, ( Jacomet-Engel 1 980). A t F iave Abies ( fircones), Quercus ( acorns), C orylus ( hazelnuts) a nd C ar us mas ( cornelian) c herry were f ound, p robably b rought t o t he s ite, and B etula ( birch) s eeds could e asily h ave b lown t here. T he pollen d iagrams s how t hat montane f orests o f b eech a nd f ir, a nd c olline f orests w ith o ak, h azel a nd a r ange o f o ther t rees g rew o n t he d ry l and, while d amp woodland w ith a lder a nd w illow p robably g rew a round t he l ake a nd a long s treams. C rops,

edible p lants

T he most abundantly r epresented c rop, c ereals, i s r epresented b y about 1 0% pollen a t t he b urnt l ayer 1 80-190 cm. w hich r epresents a moderate amount. T he c ereals could h ave b een s imply s tored o n s ite, a nd t he w aste f rom p rocessing s mall amounts could h ave g iven t his pollen r ecord. I t c ould a lso h ave c ome f rom a nimal f eed o r t he r esulting dung, f or s traw was g iven t o l ess i mportant a nimals i n h istorical t imes ( Tusser 1 984). S ome c ereal p ollen could a lso h ave come f rom t he c orn f ields. P ulses l ike p eas a nd b eans were c ertainly g rown a t t his t ime ( Körber-Grohne 1 981) b ut t hey d o not s urvive well b ecause c rop p rocessing d oes not l ead t o c harring a s i n t he c ase o f c ereals, nor d o waterlogged s eeds s urvive well. I f t hey had b een abundant s ome pollen m ight h ave b een e xpected, but none was f ound, a lthough P eter O sborne f ound a b ean weevil, s o t he c onclusion i s t hat t hese c rops were n ot v ery important a t F iave. F lax s eeds were f ound i n t he 1 76 cm. s ample, a lthough n ot o therwise. T his m ight r epresent a r are accumulation o f f lax, o r t hat t he f roth f lotation method u sed f or t he main macrofossil s amples was u nsuitable. N o p ollen o f c ultivated f lax was f ound, b ut i t i s a n e xtremely l ow pollen p roducer s o t hat o nly o ccasional g rains a re f ound even i n f lax s traw. F ruit s eeds were abundant, b ut pollen f rom s uch p lants a s apples, pears, p lums, b rambles, a nd s trawberries i s r are a nd h ard to i dentify, a nd p erhaps s urprisingly, n o pollen o f C ornus mas ( cornelian c herry) was f ound e ither. O ne pollen g rain o f V itis v inifera ( grape) was f ound i n F 4 a nd a nother t hree i n F 5, which could b e a s ign t hat w ild g rapes g rew i n t heir n atural h abitat i n d amp woodland a t F iave. 1 % V itis pollen h as b een f ound i n B ronze A ge l evels a t Molino C asarotto ( Greig u npublished). G rassland a nd possible h ay T here i s a l arge pollen f lora o f possible g rassland p lants, s uch a s g rasses, c omposites, C entaurea j acea ( knapweed), P lantago l anceolata ( ribwort p lantain), S anguisorba m inor ( salad b urnet), A grimonia ( agrimony), P otentilla ( cinquefoil), T rifolium s pecies ( clovers), R anunculus ( buttercups), a nd o n t he s eparate l ist ( Table 1 7.1) R hinanthus type ( yellow r attle), L inum c atharticum ( purging f lax), P olygala ( milkwort), H ypericum ( St J ohn's

3 09

Wort), G eranianceae ( cranesbills), A rctium ( burdock) a nd C ampanul-aceae ( bell f lowers). T he c orresponding s eed r ecord i s r ather p oor, b ut t here a re g rasses l ike P hleum ( timothy), purging f lax, c lover f lowers, b uttercup s eeds and t hose o f t he w ild c arrot, a nother g rassland p lant. T here a re s everal r easons f or t his poor s eed r ecord, l ike l ow s eed p roduction, i mmature s eeds i n h ay, a nd poor s urvival i n dung ( Greig 1 983). P eter O sborne's r eport o n t he b eetles s hows t hat h erbivore dung was p resent, a nd s ome s heep o r g oat d roppings were f ound d uring e xcavation, i n a rea I II. T he p ollen a nalysis f rom o ne o f t hese ( Table 1 7.3) was r ather s urprising, w ith pollen mostly f rom C orylus ( hazel) a nd s ome h erb pollen. D aphne ( spurge l aurel) was a lso p resent, a n e arly s pring f lowering p lant l ike t he h azel, b ut poisonous. P erhaps t he pollen c ame f rom o ther v egetation e aten b y t he a nimals a t t he edge o f a wood. H aymaking i s n ow a n i mportant p art o f a lpine f arming, w ith t he l ower s lopes u sed f or h ay w hile t he a nimals g raze t he h igher p astures, a nd perhaps t his was a lso s o i n t he past. I t i s a l ogical management t oo, b ecause h ay meadows a nd g rowing c rops n eed t o b e p rotected f rom t he d estructive e ncroachments o f s heep a nd c attle u nless a good s ystem o f t horny h edges i s p rovided, a s s uggested b y G roenman v an Waateringe ( 1978). I t would b e much e asier t o l et t he a nimals g raze s ome w ay away i n s ummer, a nd s tall t hem i n the s ettlement i n w inter t o make i t e asier t o f eed t hem t heir h ay t hen. Weed C ommunities T he weed c ommunities a re h ard t o i nterpret b ecause t he h abitats a re n ot a lways c learly s eparable. O n t he p ollen d iagram a r ough d ivision h as b een made b etween weeds more o f a rable l and s uch a s c orn f ields, s uch a s R ubiaceae, a s f or example G alium s purium which s eems t o h ave b een c ommon i n p rehistoric f ields, a nd t he c rucifer C amelina s ativa ( gold o f p leasure) which s eems a lso t o h ave b een cultivated, a nd t he r uderals. S ome o f t hese, l ike A rtemisia ( muqwort) may h ave g rown a s c ornfield weeds, a nd s ome o f t hem may h ave g rown i n s uch p laces a s p aths l ike t he p lantain, o r even on p arts o f t he l ake v illage, l ike n ettles a nd C henopodiaceae ( goosefoot) a nd t he s andwort, o f which o nly t he s eeds were i dentifiable. W etland p lants,

aquatics

H ardly s urprisingly, t hese a re a lso r epresented, a nd t hey p robably g rew n ear t he l ake v illage i n t he s hallow w ater a nd a t t he l ake edge. L ake e dge p lants d etected b y their pollen i nclude Cyperaceae ( sedges), S parganium ( bur-reed), a nd A lisma ( water-plantain), a nd t he s eed s ample s hows t hat R anunculus s celeratus ( celery l eaved c rowfoot), a nd L ycopus europaeus ( gypsywort), a re a lso i n t his g roup. S hallow ( pondweed),

w ater i s Nymphaea

s hown ( water

3 10

b y p ollen o f P otamogeton l ily), Myriophyllum ( water

m illfoil) and U tricularia ( bladder-wort), and b y s eeds o f R anunculus subgenus B atrachium ( water crowfoot), C eratophyllum cf. d emersum ( hornwort), also o f P otamogeton. F3a

1 40-100

cm.

no

s ettlement?

T ree pollen i ncreases a nd h erb pollen decreases, a lthough n ot t o t he l evel o f p re-lake s ettlement, t he amount o f pollen goes down to about a t hird o f i ts f ormer concentration, and t he s ediment b ecomes p eaty. T he s ediment change also h appens i n t he F 5 core, a llowing s ome correlation b etween t he two. I n t he r egion a s a whole, p ine, s pruce a nd f ir i ncrease compared w ith b eech and o ak, a nd i n t he l ake s edges a nd w illow s eem to have b een growing o n t he p eat. T he f orests d o not therefore appear t o have i ncreased a s might appear f rom the F 4 pollen d iagram at this s tage, but r ather r emained more o r l ess constant apart f rom t he c hanges to a more montane type. This c hange to a cooler and wetter c limate during t he I ron A ge has b een noted i n other pollen d iagrams ( Beug 1 982; Rösch 1 983). F 3b

9 0-59

cm.

possible

R oman

period

Apart f rom i ncreased p ine pollen, t hat o f Juglans ( walnut) i s present i n t races, although there i s about 3 % at t he top o f t he F 5 d iagram. A lthough t he walnut horizon has not b een radiocarbon d ated, B eug a rgues t hat i t i s l ikely to r epresent t he b eginning o f Roman t imes at L edro ( Beug 1 964) and i ndeed the e arliest f inds o f walnut s hell are R oman i n age. T he l ater peat at F iavA may have b een cut for fuel, or the p eat may have s topped g rowing. T he

i nsect

r emains

f rom

F iavA

F 4,

1 70

cm.

( Peter

O sborne)

The small s ample u sed for plant r emains, about 4 50 cm. 3 o riginal s ediment, had t he i nsect r emains e xtracted a s well. T here were f ew o f them a nd s ome were poorly p reserved. B ecause o f this a nd t he f act that they are f rom a n area only s paringly touched u pon b y our textbooks i t was t hought prudent not to i dentify b eyond generic l evel i n many c ases, a nd to qualify s ome o f t he species named w ith a 1c f'. T his s ignifies t hat t he f ragment compared well w ith t he modern B ritish example b ut that t he f auna available i n I taly m ight contain something e qually comparable. D espite t hese r eservations, however, s omething may b e s aid about the environment f rom t he i nsect evidence. T he i nsect r emains are l isted i n Table 1 7.4. S ome o f t he l isted i nsects a re aquatic, l ike t he G errids ( pondskaters) which r un o n the s urface o f s till o r s lowly f lowing water, and t he C hironomids ( midges) whose l arvae e ither s wim f reely or l i ve i n mud o r s ometimes i n r eed s tems, a gain u sually i n quiet water. Amongst the b eetles, D onacia c inerea i s f ound o n waterside r eeds, the l arvae l iving s ubmerged and obtaining t heir o xygen f rom the roots o f t heir host plants, while t he members o f t he f amily S cirtidae are most o ften f ound on r eed b eside water. The aquatic g roup i s i n keeping w ith t he d ata f rom pollen and s eeds on s hallow s till water conditions around and u nderneath the l ake s ettlement a t t his s tage.

3 11

T here a re a lso dung b eetles s uch a s O nthophagus a nd most members o f t he g enus Aphodius, while C ercyon a nd X antholinus a re o ften f ound i n t he d ung o f g razing a nimals o r i n o ther f orms o f d ecomposing v egetation. C ertainly, s heep/goat d roppings were f ound, a nd i t would b e i nteresting t o k now whether t he s ettlements' a nimals w ere n ormally k ept t here i n w inter, o r a t n ight f or p rotection, o r t hese were j ust a f ew a nimals, p erhaps f or a m ilk s upply. S ome b eetles f eed u pon v egetation, r otten i n t he c ase o f Monotoma, a h abitat which was p robably widely available i n t he l ake v illage. B ruchus p isorum ( bean weevil) f eeds u pon s tored f ood p roducts a s d oes P tinus, s pecies o f which a lso l ive i n o ld b irds' n ests a nd s imilar a ccumulations o f o rganic d ebris a s m ight o ccur i n a l ake v illage. T he o nly s pecies r ecognised w hich f eed u pon l iving p lants apart f rom D onacia were C repidopora, p robably C . f erruginea, which l ives o n a w ide r ange o f h erbaceous p lants, b ut p articularly t histles a nd n ettles, t he l atter b eing well r epresented i n t he pollen r ecord. G ymnetreon c f. p ascuorum l ives o n s pecies P lantago ( plantain) corresponding t o pollen a nd s ome macrofossil r ecords, a nd a lso V eronica a nd L inaria, t he r emains o f which were not f ound. 4 .

C onclusions

F l

3 50-290

c m.

T he s ite was a s hallow l ake w ith v arious f loating a quatic plants l ike P otamogeton pondweed a nd Nymphaea, water l ily. I t was p robably b ordered b y a n a lder c arr. T he s lopes above t he b asin were f orested w ith p ine, f ir, s pruce a nd b eech, a nd l ower d own w ith a mixed-oak f orest. T here a re s igns o f N eolithic o ccupation corresponding t o t he N eolithic r emains f rom F iavd, w ith b oth p re- a nd post-elm d ecline f arming. P ollen d eposition b y n atural means. F 2

2 80-150

c m.

T he B ronze A ge l ake v illage o n t he s ite c aused much p lant material t o b e b rought t o t he s ite, s ome o f which d ropped i nto t he l ake a nd p rovided i ts own p ollen contribution. Much o f t his w as evident f rom t he s eed r emains, a nd which a ppear t o r epresent t he r emains o f h ay, a lthough t he a nimal dung s o f ar e xamined h as s igns o f g razing outside t he l ake v illage. A s mall macrofossil s pectrum p rovided s ome g rassland p lants, a lthough w eeds w ere b etter r epresented o wing t o t heir g reater s eed p roductivity, a nd may b e a s ign o f l ess i ntensive s ettlement i n t his u pper s ettlement. T he i nsects f rom t his s ample c onsist p artly o f a n a quatic f auna which would h ave l ived i n t he l ake o r o n r eed, a nd p artly o f t hose which could b e c onnected w ith t he s ettlement, l ike dung b eetles, a p est o f s tored p roducts, a nd v arious i n s ects which f eed u pon d ry l and v egetation. T he pollen d iagram f rom 5 m . o utside t he s ettlement s hows s igns o f a c ontinuing f orest cover, w ith c learings, b ut n o d ramatic f orest c learance c onnected w ith

3 12

t he F 3

s ettlement. 1 40-50

cm.

T he s ettlement i s abandoned, a nd a t t he s ame t ime the c hange to a peat s ediment could b e t he r esult o f a cooler a nd wetter c limate during t he I ron A ge. T here a re s ome s igns o f f orest clearance i n t he F 5 d iagram, and at t he top o f i ts s equence a d istinct curve o f walnut pollen, which could b e R oman i n d ate. Comparison w ith

o ther

s ites

T he only other s ite i n the area w ith comparable results i s L edro ( Beug 1 964), although the excavation o f the l ake s ettlement and s tudy o f macrofossils was done 4 0 years a go. T he l evels associated w ith the B ronze Age s how s igns o f s ettlement even t hough t he pollen cores were not f rom t he actual occupation s ite. F lax pollen was found i n addition to cereal pollen as a t F iav , and a t n either s ite was t here a C ornus mas record to correspond to macrofossil f inds. T here a re also s igns o f more i ntensive forest c learance during t he I ron Age compared with the preceding s ettlement phase, followed b y possible Roman walnut cultivation, w ith c hestnut evident at L edro. O lives were also cultivated i n t he r egion, perhaps s omewhat l ater, and grapes, but their absence and s carcity r espectively a t F iavé are not u nexpected. Acknowledgements I would l ike t o thank t he excavator of F iav , Renato P erini, f or h is h ospitality while I was doing the f ieldwork and for h is continuing encouragement. P rofessor H .J. B eug made s ome u seful comments, and S . J acomet-Engel and M . Rösch s ent important offprints.

B ibliography B eug,

H .J. 1 964. U ntersuchungen s ur s pät- u nd postglazialen V egetationsgeschichte im G ardaseegebiet u nter b esonderer B erücksichtigung der mediterranen A rten. F lora 1 54, 4 01-444.

B eug,

H .J. 1 982. V egetation h istory and c limatic central a nd southern Eurpoe. I n H arding, Climatic C hange i n L ater P rehistory. Edinburgh U niversity P ress, 8 5-92.

C lapham,

Greig,

A . R., Tutin, T .G. t he B ritish I sles. P ress ( 2nd ed.).

changes i n A . ( ed.) E dinburgh,

and Warburg, E .F. 1 962. F lora o f C ambridge, C ambridge U niversity

J .R.A. 1 982. T he i nterpretation o f pollen spectra f rom u rban archaeological d eposits. I n H all, A .R. and K enward, H .K. ( eds.) E nvironmental A rchaeology i n t he

3 13

U rban Context. R esearch R eport

G reig,

J .R. A. types. P lants

Council 4 3, 4 7-65.

f or

B ritish

A rchaeology,

1 983. T he palaeoecology o f s ome B ritish h ay I n v an Z eist, W . a nd C asparie, W .A. ( eds.) and A ncient Man. Rotterdam, B alkema, 2 13-226.

G roenman-van W aateringe, W . 1 978. T he i mpact o f Neolithic man on t he l andscape i n t he N etherlands. I n L imbrey, S . a nd Pvans, J . G. ( eds.) T he E ffect o f M an o n t he L andscape; t he L owland Z one. ( C. B.A. R esearch R eport 2 1) L ondon, Council f or B ritish A rchaeology, 1 35-146. G roenman-van W aateringe, W . 1 983. T he early agricultural u tilisation o f the I rish l andscape; t he l ast word o n the e lm decline? I n R eeves-Smith, T . and H amond, P . ( eds.) L andscape A rchaeology i n I reland. ( B.A. R. B ritish S eries 1 16) Oxford, B ritish A rchaeological R eports, 2 17-231. G rüger,

J . 1 968. U ntersuchungen a ur spätglazialen u nd f rüpost-glazialen V egetationsentwicklung der S üdalpen im Umkreis d es G ardasees. B otanische J ahrbücher 8 8 ( 2), 1 63-199.

H eitz -Weniger, A . 1 978. P ollenanalytische U ntersuchungen a n den neolitischen u nd spätbronzezeitlichen S eerandsiedlungen ' Kleiner H afner', ' Großer H afner' und ' Alpenquai' im u ntersten Zürichsee ( Schweiz). B otanischer J ahrbücher 9 9 ( 1), 4 8-107. Jacomet-Engel, S . 1 980. B otanische M akroreste a us d en n eolithischen S eeufersiedlungen des A reals ' Presseh aus R ingier' i n Z urich ( Schweiz). S tratigraphische und v egetationskündliche Auswertung. V iertelj2hrsschrift der n aturforschenden G esellschaft i n Zürich 1 25 ( 2), 1 3-163. Körber-Grohne, U . 1 981. P flanzliche A bdrucke i n e isenzeitlicher K eramik - S piegelbild d amaliger Nutzpflanzen? Fundberichte a us B aden-Württemburg 6 , 1 66-211. P ercival, Rösch,

J .

1 921.

M . 1 983. Thurgau)

T he

Wheat

G eschichte u nd i hrer

P lant.

L ondon,

D uckworth.

der N ussbaumer S een ( Kanton Umgebung s eit dem A ugang d er

l etzten P iszeit aufgrund quatärbotanischer, s trati g raphischer and s edimentologischer U ntersuchungen. M itteilungen der T hurgauischen N aturforschenden Gesellschaft 4 5, 1 -110. Tusser,

T .

1 984. Oxford,

F ive O xford

H undred P oints U niversity P ress.

3 14

of G ood H usbandry. R eprinted.

Welten,

M . 1 967. B emerkungen s ur paläoethnobotanischen U ntersuchung v on v orgeschichtlichen Feuchbodenwohnplätzen z ur pollenanalytischen U ntersuchung v on B urgäschisee-Süd.

A cta

B ernensia

( 2)

4 ,

9 -20.

S ummary The author d escribes t he pollen cores f rom the s ettlement s ite o f P iave. T hese were taken b oth i nside a nd outside t he s ettlement to a llow comparison, but o nly t he analysis f rom t he core w ithin t he s ettlement i s completed a nd p resented h ere i n d etail. A detailed i nterpretation o f the environment a nd t he e ffect o f t he B ronze A ge s ettlement i s then g iven. I nformation on i nsect r emains i s i ncluded i n the r eport. R iassunto L 'autore d escrive i campioni dei polleni d ell'insediamento d i F iavä. I c ampioni d ei polleni e rano r accolti s ia n ell'interno s ia a ll'esterno dell'insediamento p er f are i confronti, ma s olo l 'analisi d ei c ampioni d all'interno dell'insediamento ä s tata f inita ed ä s tata p resentata i n questo a rticolo. P oi, è f ornita u n'interpretazione d ettagliata dell'ambiente e l 'impatto d ell'insediamento dell'etä del b ronzo. S ono comprese l e i nformazioni sui r esti d egli i nsetti.

3 15