On the Margins of Sustainability: Prehistoric settlement of Utrōk Atoll, Northern Marshall Islands 9781841712543, 9781407353173

Citation preview

BAR S967 2001  WEISLER  ON THE MARGINS OF SUSTAINABILITY

On the Margins of Sustainability Prehistoric settlement of Utrōk Atoll, Northern Marshall Islands

Marshall I. Weisler

BAR International Series 967 B A R

2001

On the Margins of Sustainability Prehistoric settlement of Utrok Atoll N orthem Marshall Islands

Marshall I. W eisler

Utrok

Atoll

c==--====

3km

BAR International Series 967 2001

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 967 On the Margins of Sustainability

© M I Weisler and the Publisher 2001 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841712543 paperback ISBN 9781407353173 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841712543 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd/ Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

EMAIL

PHONE FAX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

For Bruce and Roberta, for helping out along the way

111

CONTENTS

List of Figures ............................................................... vii

CHAPTER3: EXCAVATION OF HABITATION SITES................. 29

List of Tables ................................................................... ix

General Field Methods ........................................................ Allok Excavations: Site 2A.................................................. Summary of Allok Excavations .......................................... Bikrak Excavations: Site 3 .................................................. The Dune Excavations ................................................... TPI&I0 ....................................................................... TP 2 ................................................................................. Excavations Inland of the Berm .................................... TP 4 ................................................................................. Excavations Lagoon ward of the Berm ..........................

Preface ............................................................................ xi Acknowledgments ......................................................... xii Abbreviations ............................................................... xiii Names for Marshall Islands Atolls & Islands ............. xiii CHAPTERI: INTRODUCTION .................................................. I The Study Area ...................................................................... Cultural and Historical Setting .............................................. Previous Atoll Archaeology .................................................. Issues in Atoll Archaeology: The Research Design .............. Origins ............................................................................. Chronology ...................................................................... Sea Level Change and Islet Development ....................... Material Culture ............................................................... Marine Subsistence .......................................................... Terrestrial Production and Landscape Change ................

29 29 30 30 32 32 34 35 35 35

TP 3, 5 & 8 ····································································· 35 TP 6, 7 & 9 ..................................................................... 36 Summary of Bikrak Excavations ................................... 37 Utrok Excavations: Site 1 .................................................... 37 Lagoon-Ocean Side Transect ........................................ 37 TP I ................................................................................. 37 TP 2 & 4 ......................................................................... 39 TP 3 ................................................................................. 41 TP 5 ................................................................................. 41 The North-South Transect ............................................. 42 TP 16 ............................................................................... 43 TPI2-I5 ........................................................................ 43 TP 20, 22, 23 & 24 ......................................................... 46 TP2l ............................................................................... 48 TP 25 ............................................................................... 49 TP 26 ............................................................................... 50 Summary of Site I Excavations in Habitation Areas .... 50 Aon Excavations .................................................................. 51 Excavations at Site 4 ...................................................... 51 TPI-4 ............................................................................ 51 TP5-8 ............................................................................ 54 TP 9-12 .......................................................................... 57 Summary of Excavations at Site 4 ................................ 59 Excavations at Site 5 Habitation Area ................................ 59 TPI ................................................................................. 60 TP2 ................................................................................. 6o TP l2 ............................................................................... 6I TP6 ................................................................................. 6I TP 3, II, 13 & 14 ........................................................... 62 TP 4 ................................................................................. 65 TP 5 ................................................................................. 65 Summary of Excavations at Habitation Area Site 5 ...... 65 Summary of Excavated Features at Utrok Sites ................. 65 Combustion Features ..................................................... 65 Post Moulds ................................................................... 66 Preserved Breadfruit Storage Pits ................................. 66

1 4 4 6 6 6 6 7 7 7

CHAPTER2: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE .................. 9 The Modern Utrok Village .................................................... 9 The Economy ................................................................. 12 Settlement Pattern Components .......................................... 12 Prehistoric Habitation Sites ........................................... 12 Horticultural Systems .................................................... 13 Fish Traps ...................................................................... 14 Historic Burials .............................................................. 14 The Archaeological Survey ................................................. 14 Pike Islet ........................................................................ 15 Allok Islet ...................................................................... 15 MLUt-2A.......................................................................... 16 MLUt-2B& C ................................................................... 17 MLUt-2D-F...................................................................... 17 Bikrak Islet .................................................................... 17 MLUt-3............................................................................ 18 ~alap Islet ...................................................................... 18 ~aja Islet ........................................................................ 20 Utrok Islet ...................................................................... 20 MLUt-1............................................................................ 22 Aon Islet ........................................................................ 2 3 MLUt-4............................................................................ 24 MLUt-5............................................................................ 26 Summary ........................................................................ 26

V

CHAPTER4: EXCAVATIONS IN THE HORTICULTURAL SYSTEMS.........................................................................

Manuports ............................................................................ Historic Artefacts ................................................................

69

CHAPTERT ATOLLSUBSISTENCE PATTERNS..................... IOI

Previous Aroid Pit Archaeology in the Marshall Islands .... 70 Excavations on Utrok Islet .................................................. 70 The Utrok System .......................................................... 70 TP 6-II .......................................................................... 71 TP 17-19 ........................................................................ 74 Summary of Utrok Excavations .................................... 76 Excavations on Aon Islet ..................................................... 76 The Aon System ............................................................. 76 TP 7-IO .......................................................................... 77 Summary of Aon Excavations ....................................... 78 CHAPTER5: CHRONOLOGY OF THE NATURALAND CULTURALLANDSCAPE..................................................

79

Methods ............................................................................... Sample Selection ........................................................... Emerged Beach Deposits and Cemented Sand Subsoil Habitation Deposits ....................................................... Horticultural Deposits ................................................... Analysis ............................................................................... Results ................................................................................. Beachrock and Cemented Sand Samples ...................... Habitation Samples ........................................................ Horticultural Samples ....................................................

79 79 79 79 So So So So 81 83

CHAPTER6: MATERIALCULTURE....................................... 85 Percussive Ground Shell Cutting Tools (Adzes, Chisels & Gouges) .......................................................................... The Utrok Collections ................................................... Tridacna maxima Adzes ................................................ Tridacna gig as Adzes .................................................... Cassis cornuta Adzes .................................................... Cypraecassis rufa Adzes/Chisels/Gouges ..................... Lambis sp. Adze/Gouge ................................................. Conus sp. Adze/Gouge .................................................. Extra-Areal Comparisons .............................................. Other Tools and Worked Shell ............................................ Abraders ......................................................................... Vegetable Scraper .......................................................... Pounder .......................................................................... Hammerstones ............................................................... Worked Shell ................................................................. Tridacna spp .................................................................. Pinctada sp .................................................................... Conus spp ...................................................................... Cypraecassis sp ............................................................. Drilled Bone .................................................................. Ground Bone .................................................................. Fishing Gear ........................................................................ Ornaments ........................................................................... Shell Rings ..................................................................... Conus Beads .................................................................. Spondylus Beads or Disks ............................................. Perforated Strombus ....................................................... Pendants ......................................................................... Cypraea Disk ................................................................. Drilled Tooth ..................................................................

98 99

85 87 87 89 90 91 91 92 93 93 93 93 93 94 94 94 94 95 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 97 98 98 98

Methods and Analytical Sample ....................................... Vertebrate Fauna ................................................................ Small-Medium to Medium Vertebrate ......................... Mammals ..................................................................... Small-Medium Mammal, Medium Mammal and Medium-Large Mammal ............................................. Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans) ........................................ Dog ( Canis familiaris) ................................................. Pig (Sus scrofa) ............................................................ Human (Homo sapiens) ............................................... Sea Turtle ..................................................................... Lizard ................................................................................. Bird .................................................................................... Fish .................................................................................... Invertebrate Fauna ............................................................. Molluscs ............................................................................ Botanical Remains ............................................................

IOI 102 rn2 102

CHAPTER8: SYNTHESIS.....................................................

123

Chronology and Settlement Model ................................... Material Culture ................................................................ Marine and Terrestrial Subsistence ................................... Sea Level Change and Islet Formation ............................. On the Margins of Sustainability ......................................

123 123 124 125 126

REFERENCES......................................................................

129

APPENDIX1: Wato Names for Land Units on Utrok Atoll ...................................................................

137

I02 I02 I02 103 rn3 103 104 104 106 113 113 119

APPENDIX2: Catalogue Numbers for Artefacts Illustrated in Figures 6.1-6.11 .................................... 138 APPENDIX3: Fish Reference Specimens .......................... 141

Vl

List of Figures

1. 1. Map of the Pacific ....................................................... 2 1.2. The Marshall Islands archipelago ............................... 2

3.8. Site 3, TP 1, west profile, sterile dune sand layer II ................................................................. 34 3.9. Plan map of oven features 3 and 5, 135-150 cmbs in TP 1, site 3 ............................................................ 35 3. IO. South profile of TP 2, site 3 dune excavations .......... 35 3. 11. South profile of TP 4, site 3 situated 20 m inland of the berm ........................................................... 35 3.12. Section profiles of TP 3, 5 and 8 at site 3 .................. 36 3.13. Section profiles of TP 6, 7 and 9 at site 3 .................. 36 3. 14. Plane-table map of site 1 ........................................... 38 3.15. Section profiles ofTP 1, site 1 ................................... 39 3.16. Section profiles of TP 2, site 1 ................................... 39 3. 17. Section profiles of TP 4, site 1 ................................... 40 3.18. Child ( x

NAMES

above sea level before present, AD 1950 centimetre centimetres below surlace grams kilometre square kilometres (area) metre square metres (area) millimetre magnetic north test pit, used interchangeably with "unit" less than greater than by, e.g., 2 x 2 m approximately

FOR MARSHALL

ISLANDS

ATOLLS

AND ISLANDS

Names for the atolls and islands of the Marshall Islands used in this monograph are listed below. The English names are after Bender (1963) andMarshallese names follow Abo et al. (1976).

Xlll

English

Marshallese

Ailinginae Ailinglapalap Ailuk Arno Aur Bikar Bikini Ebon Eniwetok Erikub Jabwot Jaluit Jemo Kili Kwajalein Lae Lib Likiep Majuro Maloelap Mejit Mile Knox/N adikdik Namu Namorik Rongelap Rongerik Taka Taongi Ujae Ujelang Utirik Wotho Wotje

Aeloiiinae AeloiiJapJap Aelok Arno Aur Pikaar Pikinni Epoon Anewatak Adkup Jebat Jalooj Jamo Kole Kuwajleen Lae Ellep Likiep Majro ¥aJoeJap Majeej Mile Nadikdik ' Namo ' Namdik ' Roftlap Rondik Toka Bokak Wiijae Wujlaii Utrok Wotto Wojja )

)

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I

1993 I sketched a plan for the archaeological investigation of Marshall Islands prehistory knowing full well that it would take many years to outline the culture-historical sequence and require the co-operation of numerous individuals-including local Marshallese as well as scientific collaborators-and a great deal of money. Yet, there is something immensely fascinating about atolls, the most precarious landforms in the Pacific realm that consist of numerous islets-often no more than 2-3 min elevation and a few hundred metres wide-strung around a central lagoon. Islets can change shape with almost seasonal regularity brought on by the eroding as well as the depositional affects of high tides. The longer-term cyclic occurrence of typhoons can wreck near-complete devastation of these landforms that consist of unconsolidated sediments tenuously anchored by the roots of strand vegetation and introduced tree crops including varieties of the all-important coconut and pandanus. How human colonists managed to live on atolls for 2000 years in the Marshalls, Kiribati and Tuvalu, or -1500 in the Tuamotus, is no less amazing than any other achievements archaeologically documented during Pacific prehistory. N

THE STUDY AREA The Marshall Islands lie at the northern limit of a large swath of atolls running across the Pacific beginning at the Caroline Islands in the northwest, to the Tuamotu archipelago 7000 km to the southeast (Fig. 1.1). Consisting of 29 low coral atolls and five small coral islands without a lagoon, the Marshall Islands are spread over nearly 2 million km 2 of ocean making them the most dispersed island group in the Pacific. Incredibly, a single language is spoken across this vast area (Rehg 1995). Centred about 4000 km southwest of Hawai'i, the archipelago consists of two, nearly parallel island chains-the linear Ralik group in the west and the Ratak alignment in the east-trending northwest-southeast for -1200 km between 4° to 12° north latitude (Fig. 1.2). The islands range in size from Kuwajleen, the world's largest atoll at 16.4 km 2 of land whose 93 islets surround a 2174 km 2 lagoon, to the island of Jam9 at only 0.16 km 2 of land with no

lagoon. Utrok Atoll ranks twenty-first in total land area at -2.7 km 2 and its 66.2 km 2 lagoon is surrounded today by six islets. The lagoon and ocean facing reefs have a combined length of 86.7 km that define a reef platform some 30.3 km 2 • The largest entrance to the lagoon is through the leeward, west shore where a break in the reef creates a deeper water passage. South and north of the main passage are narrow channels that are navigable during periods of calm seas and high tides (see Fig. 2.1). During our stay between late November and early February, transit through the main pass was hazardous during several periods of high winds and rough seas restricting fishing sorties to the lagoon. In relation to the long-term trends of fluctuating sea level stands, the atolls of the Marshall Islands probably emerged above sea level about 3000 years ago judging from the radiocarbon ages of depositional features (Curray et al. 1970 ). The atolls seen today are merely the last stage in a series of transformations beginning when the volcanic base built upwards over millions of years from the sea floor, eventually breaking the ocean surface to form a small island. Coral colonised the perimeter of this new island forming a fringing reef. The weight of the island caused gradual subsidence while corals continue to build upwards forming a barrier reef surrounding all or part of the island (see Nunn 1994:255-258; Wiens 1962). In the next stage, the island submerges leaving a ring of coral known as an atoll. Northwest of Utrok and Anewatak atolls, very old atolls, on the order of 165 million years, are completely submerged forming guyots (Schlanger et al. 1987:166). Low coral atolls consist of unconsolidated biogenetic sediments deposited by ocean waves on reef platforms. The islets formed have an elevational profile that is higher on the ocean side where boulder and cobble ramparts have built up from sediments deposited by high-energy waves. The ground is generally undulating and rocky from this area towards the interior of the islet. Lagoonward from an islet's centre, often the lowest portion of the landmass, the sediments are gravel to sand sized and slope gradually to the protected waters of the

I._ I

AndesiteLine

...... •

: I

MarianaIs.

20°

HawaiianIs.

-:. /

.-·;

b

------::-,-::-

.. -:------

Yap,·,...../2 .. ~ar~;in~,Is. ....... .

. : Marshallls.

/ \. _

Bismarck - Arch1pel1go_.

•.

Near •• ~......._....._Oceania: J So/%' • ~ w ~ntain• ' J \: Remote ~ ..... ,•"• 0 ceama . ..:

..o,,~: · ,•

•••

•• • •

'_

•·

•

■

-

.Tuvalu

8amoa

~

-

--

........

FIJI.-,.· ~ ..

Vanuatu•: -:-

'-"•

:.. MarquesasIs.

· ..,Tokelau

-

:-

CookIs.

'-

:. \

20°

\

:

NewCaledonia

Tonga

I

PitcairnIs. Mangareva·

AustralIs.

I

I 1 1

Non-Oceanic Islands New\...

Oceanic

RapaNui.

slands

/ 40°

r...~ 1 1 .... AndesiteLine I

150°

1000km

0

Zealand 150°

170°

I

130°

110°

Figure 1.1. Map of the Pacific showing the division between Near and Remote Oceania, the Andesite Line which separates non-Oceanic from Oceanic islands, and the solid line encloses the greatest concentration of low coral atolls.

I

17oo1o

165°

0

Anewatak

-0

P .k. 1

(i1__ 0 Rofidik

inrn

Aelofiinaeci

Pikaar

noUtrok Toka"'

Rofilap >

AAelok

10°

(?Wotho

Likiep

,-~WOjlan

b

u

10°N -

owojja ~Adk

.,,

Kuwajleen + 0 -? tEllep ~Namo

~

3500 BP. I refer here to shell technology and the manufacture of adzes, chisels and gouges out of this inferior raw material-a poor substitute for fine-grained stone. Yet, with no local source of hard and durable stone, prehistoric Marshallese fashioned a range of cutting tools and ornaments from a large array of marine gastropods and bivalves. The development of the shell adze kit and temporal changes in ornament styles are important research objectives in Marshall Islands archaeology, as well as documenting the variation and changes in fishing gear across the archipelago.

The land-based atoll economy can be divided into a tripartite system of: small gardens located near houses within the village; arboriculture or tree crops found throughout the village and in the interior of the islet; and tuber crops, primarily, giant swamp taro, grown in elongate pits (bol) near the centre of the largest islets (Weisler 1999a). The evidence for small "house gardens" may never be identified in prehistoric deposits, but today they consist of well-defined plots of bananas and historically-introduced pumpkins. Prehistorically, these gardens probably contained bananas, and medicinal and ornamental shrubs. Horticultural and tree-cropping systems on low coral atolls are the least well-known of the terrestrial subsistence regimes practiced on Pacific islands (Yen 1973). Giant swamp taro was the backbone of terrestrial production on the southern atolls of the Marshall Islands where higher rainfall made this form of horticulture more productive than on the drier, northern atolls. Predictably, rainfall and groundwater salinity dictated the relative abundance of breadfruit in the south (Cox 1951 :25) and pandanus in the north-areas at the extremes of the 900 to 4000 mm precipitation gradient. Reconstruction of the terrestrial subsistence system on Utrok Atoll can be accomplished by mapping and dating the horticultural systems found on the largest islets. The historical trends of coconut shell (endocarp) and pandanus drupes in stratified deposits can point to the changing importance of these tree crops. Together, the horticultural systems and the

7

macrobotanical data form an important comparative database for examining differences in terrestrial subsistence at the extremes of the archipelago. The development of food storage on atolls is an important aspect of the terrestrial economy. The evidence for pit ensilage-an important technique for prolonging the seasonal abundance of breadfruit-can be identified by subterranean, steep-sided storage pits that may have been initially developed for coping with periodic, disaster-induced famine on marginal islands such as Utrok. The size and chronology of these pits may be related to changing human population levels, with food storage in the atoll context an example of intensification of production (Yen 1973). Concentrating food resources also created an opportunity for elites to gain control of the distribution of breadfruit paste reserves during times of famine (Kirch 1994:304-305). A topic related to terrestrial production is determining how humans altered and shaped their insular landscape during centuries of occupation on islets of limited land area. Initial horticultural efforts probably included some form of slashand-burn or swidden clearance in preparation for planting aroids and other economically and medicinally useful plants. Weeds were inadvertently introduced and a changing tree canopy altered the delicate balance of species composition and distribution in the understorey. Indeed, there are few areas of primary vegetation left on any of the atolls in the Marshall Islands (Merlin et al. 1994). Stone walls were constructed near the shore to retain soil and certainly the construction of aroid pits displaced much soil and clearly altered the landscape. Site mapping provides the spatial limits of these activities, while dating and analysis of sediments and plant remains charts these processes over time. The next chapter describes the results of the complete, intensive archaeological survey of Utrok Atoll, followed by a detailed reporting of the excavations. Subsequent chapters describe the analysis of excavated materials: dating, artefacts and subsistence remains, while the final chapter address issues raised in this introduction.

8

CHAPTER 2

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL

As with any settlement pattern-and perhaps more so on ./-\.low coral atolls-the environment strongly influences the location and density of archaeological sites. Consequently, it is not surprising that the largest habitation site and associated aroid pit horticultural system is situated on Utrok islet-the largest landmass of the atoll. The centre of this islet has a depression that exposes the Ghyben-Herzberg lens of fresh water, creating a low-lying swampy area that would have been ideal for planting aroids soon after human colonisation. Indeed, archaeological excavations there showed that the swamp was enlarged during later prehistory perhaps in response to an increasing population (see Chapter 4). Just lagoonward of the swamp, sandy sediments provided a smooth, rubble-free surface for habitation, while keeping residential areas the farthest possible distance from storm surf, in a locale relatively protected from strong seasonal winds and salt spray. At the other end of the continuum, Pike islet is nearly devoid of vegetation, with a gravel-strewn surface that is routinely inundated by waves because of its exposed, windward setting. Consequently, no archaeological sites were found there although, today, the islet is a good source of shells for curio manufacture. The chief (irooj) has forbid the planting of any trees on Pike so shells, used for curio manufacture, will be easy to collect. The intermediate islets, Allok and Bikrak, do not support a fresh water lens, yet have relatively dense vegetation. Sea birds nest in the Pisonia trees and coconuts grow on both islets, while a few breadfruit trees were found on Bikrak. Situated along the eastern rim of the atoll, these islets block the dominant northeast trades, providing shelter in the lee for bottom-fishing sorties in the lagoon (Fig. 2.1). The kind and size of archaeological sites on Utrok Atoll, then, is strongly correlated to islet size and the specific resources of the five islets that surround the lagoon. Before describing the results of the complete archaeological survey of Utrok Atoll, the definitions of the major site classes are given. But, first, the spatial layout and subsistence activities of the modem Utrok village are described.

LANDSCAPE

THE MODERN UTROK VILLAGE There is only one village on Utrok Atoll today, predictably located on the largest islet of Utrok. Situated along the lagoon shore, then trending inland for 200 m, the village, in 1988, consisted of 53 households with a combined population of 409 people; 53 % were male, and 54 % of the total village was under 15 years of age (Office of Planning and Statistics, 1988). It is a subsistence lifestyle where 81 % of households produce some of their own food, 85% are engaged in fishing, 83% keep pigs and/or chickens, and 76% tend copra plantations for cash to purchase imported goods such as rice, flour, sugar, kerosene (used for cooking and light), instant noodles and clothing-to name the major commodities. Utrok Atoll received radioactive fallout from nuclear testing on Bikini and Enewetok atolls during the 1950s. As part of compensation, the village receives financial aid and food support from the United States government which is reflected in the diet and housing of the community. For example, canned fruits, vegetables, meats and juices are delivered to Utrok a few times a year. There are no thatched houses and all recent dwellings are made of concrete blocks-some with plaster finish-and corrugated metal roofs. Older houses are made of plywood (Fig. 2.2) and there are a few two-story houses (Fig. 2.3) near the centre of the village. There is one Protestant church (Fig. 2-4) and one Assembly of God congregation. Reflecting, in part, the dwindling knowledge of indigenous skills, only one traditional-style canoe was operational in late 1996 to early 1997. The political centre of the village-containing the council house, Protestant church, pastor's house, school and dispensary-was mapped to illustrate the current distribution of habitation structures in relation to wells, wato (traditional land unit) boundaries and economically-important trees (Fig. 2.5). Sleeping houses vary greatly in size (n = 23; 68.o ± 32.9 m 2 ; range= 20.0-166.2 m 2 ) and consist of a four-walled structure and, oftentimes, a joined, open-sided, roofed outside space for lounging and craft working. Although kerosene stoves are sometimes

170° D

165°

0

0

10°

10°N