Non-Flint Stone Tools and the Palaeolithic Occupation of Britain 9780860545408, 9781407318080

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Non-Flint Stone Tools and the Palaeolithic Occupation of Britain

edited by

R. J. MacRae and N. Moloney

BAR British Series 189 1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR 189, 1988: 'Ion-Flint Stone Tools and the Palaeolithic Occupation of Britain' © The Individual Authors, 1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545408 paperback ISBN 9781407318080 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545408 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS

R .J . MacRae , F o rewo rd

N . Mo loney i v

D .A .Roe T he s t udy o fn on -f l in ta r t ef a c t si nt h eB r i t i sh P a la eol i th ic : i t sv a lue a nd s i gn if icance .

1

GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE J . Wymer AR ea s se s smen to ft h eG eog raph ica lR ange o fL owe rP a laeo l i th ic A c t iv i ty i nB r i ta in .

1

L ITHIC TECHNOLOGY N . Mo loney , C . B ergman , M . N ewcomer , F . Wenban -S m i th E xpe r imen ta lR epl ica t ion o fB ifa c ia lI mp lemen t su s ing B un te rQ ua r tz i te P ebb le s .

2 5

N . Mo loney E xpe r imen ta lB if ace Manu f ac tu r eu s ing Non -F l in tL i th ic Ma te r ia l s .

4 9

MIDLANDS OF ENGLAND • A .Savi l le T he Wa i te C ole c t ion o fP a laeol i th ic Q ua r tz i te sf r om t h eN unea ton A rea o f Wa rw ick sh i re . F .W .

6 7

S ho t ton

T he Wo l s ton ian G eo logy o f Wa rw ick sh i r ei nR e la t ion t oL owe rP a laeo l i th ic S u r f ace F ind s i n No r th Wa rw ick sh i re .

8 9

R .J . MacRae T he P a laeo l i th ic A r te f a c t so f Wa rw ick sh i re .

9 5

P . Wh i tehead L owe rP a laeo l i th ic A r te f a c t sf r om t h eL owe rV a l ley o ft h e Wa rw ick sh i re Avon .

1 03

UPPER THA MES R .J . MacRae T he P a laeo l i th ic o ft h e Uppe rT hame sa nd i t sQ ua r tz i te I mp lemen t s .

1 23

J . Wa l l is N a tu ra lD amage i nQ ua r tz i te P ebb le s .

1 55

i

J. Tyldesley

Quartzite Implements Recovered from the Wolvercote Channel, Oxfordshire, (with an additional note by R.J.MacRae).

159

D.J. Briggs

The Environmental Background to Human Occupation in the Upper Thames Valley during the Quaternary Period. D.R.Bridgland

The Quaternary Derivation of Quartzites used by Palaeolithic Man in the Thames Basin. for Tool Manufacture. N .J.Preston

The Triassic Bunter Pebble Beds as a Source for Non-Flint Artefacts in the Upper Thames.

167 187

199

SOUTHERN ENGLAND A.Roberts

Notes on the Use of Non-Flint Raw Materials in the Palaeolithic of Southwestern Britain.

217

CAVES H.S.Green

Pontnewydd Cave: The Selection o� Raw Materials for Artefact Manufacture and the Question of Natural Damage. Editors

223 233

Note on Cresswell Crags.

AFRICAN AFFINITIES R.R.Inskeep

235

Africa: Everything but Flint.

GAZETTEER R.J.MacRae and N. Moloney

Gazetteer of Lower Palaeolithic Non-Flint Artefacts in Great Britain.

ii

243

CONTRIBUTORS CHR IS BERG MAN ,P h .D . I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ,U .C . , U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . DAV ID R . BR IDGLAND , P h .D . E a r th S c ience s D iv is ion , N a tu re C onse rvancy C ounc i l , No r thm in s te r Hou se , P e te rbo rough , P E1 l UA . a nd , G eog raphy D epa r tmen t , C i ty o fL ondon P o ly techn ic , C a lcu t ta H ou se A nnex ,O ld C a s t le S t ree t ,L ondon ,E l 7 NT . DAV ID J . BR IGGS ,P h .D . D epa r tmen to fL i f eS c ience s ,H udde r sf ie ld P o ly techn ic . H . S TEPHEN GREEN ,P h .D . ,F .S .A . D epa r tmen t o fA rchaeo logy a nd N um i sma t ics , N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s ,C a rd if f CF 1 3 NP . R .R . 1NSKEEP , M .A . D ona ld B aden -Powe l l Qua t e rna ry R e sea rch C en t re a nd D epa r tmen t o fE thno logy a nd P reh i s to ry , Un ive r s i ty o fO xfo rd . R .J . MACRAE . 1 6 , t h eT enn i s , C a s s ing ton , O xfo rd OX8 1 EL . NORAH MOLONEY ,M .A . I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy ,U .C . ,U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . MARK NE WCO MER ,P h .D . , F .S .A . I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U .C . , Un ive r s i ty o fL ondon . NE IL J . PRESTON . 2E l i zabe th R oad ,H en ley -on -Thame s ,O xon RG9 1 RG . AL ISON ROBERTS , M .A . B r i t ish Mu seum , D epa r tmen to fP reh i s to r ic a nd R omano -Br i t i sh A n t iqu i t ie s , F rank s Hou se ,3 8 -46 O r sman R oad ,L ondon N i . DEREK A . ROE , D .L i t t . ,F .S .A . Dona ld B aden -Powe l l Qua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re a nd D epa r tmen to f E thno logy a nd P reh is to ry ,U n ive r s i ty o fO xfo rd . ALAN SAV ILLE , B .A . ,F .S .A . , M . I .F .A . 9 3 C hu r ch R oad , L e ckhamp ton , C he l tenhan , G louce s te r sh i re . G .L . 5 3 OPF . F .W . SHOTTON , M .B .E . , F .R .S .

Eme r i tu s P rof e sso r o f G eo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f B i rm ingham ,

a nd ,

11 D o r r idge R oad ,D o r r idge ,S ol ihu l l , We s tM id land sB 93 8 BP . J OYCE A . TYLDESLEY ,D .Ph i l . Hono ra ry R e sea rch F e l low o ft h eI n s t i tu te o fP reh is to r ic S c ience s a nd A rchaeo logy ,L ive rpoo l Un ive r s i ty . J EFFREY WALL IS . 5 9 H en ley S t ree t ,O xfo rd , OX4 l ES . FRANC IS WENBAN -S M ITH ,B .A . I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ,U .C . ,U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . PAUL . F . WH ITEHEAD . Moo rL ey s ,L i t t le C ombe r ton , P e r sho re , Wo rcs . W .R .10 . 3 .E .P . J OHN WY MER , M .A . , F .S .A . F ie ld O f f ice r , No r fo lk A r chaeo log ica l U n i t , Un ion H ouse , G re ssenha l l , D e reham NR20 4DR .

1 1

FORE WORD

T he p r in c ipa lt h eme o ft h i sm u l t i -au tho rp ub l ica t ion i st h ei n c idence o fq ua r tz i t ea nd o t he rn on -f l in tL owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r te f ac t s i nB r i ta in . T he i rk nown n umbe r s a r ec omp i led , t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion i sp l o t ted a nd t h e s i gn if icance o f t h e i r g eog raph ica l d i spe r s ion i sa s se s sed . A spe c t s o ft h e g eo logy , g eomo rpho logy a nd a r chaeo logy i n vo lved , f r om r aw m a te r ia l s t ou l t ima t e f i nd spo t s , a r e d i scu s sed . R ecen t d i scove r ie s a r e d e sc r ibed -n ew f i nd sw h ich d oub le t h et o ta lo fn on f l in t a r te f a c t sk nown f r om g l a c ia la nd r i ve r ine d epo s i t s l e s st h an t wen ty y ea r sa go . Mo s to ft h e se r e cen tf i nd sa r ep ub l i shed h e re f o rt h ef i r s tt i me .

P a ra l le lw i th t h i st h eme i sa ne xam ina t ion o ft h ea r cha eo log ica le v idence f o rt h ep ene t ra t ion b ye a r ly m an i n to r e g ion s o f B r i ta in h i the r to r e ga rded a s a lmo s t u n t rodden b y p eop le o fL owe r P a laeo l i th ic t i me s . S eve ra l c on t r ibu to r s , a wa r e t h a t ac omp r ehen s ive s t udy s u ch a st h i sw a s o ve rdue , s t rong ly r e in f o r ce t h e b el ie ft h a tt h et h en o r ther na nd w e s t e rn b o rde r so fe a r ly o ccupa t ion s hou ld n ow b em uch e x tended . T ak ing v a r iou s p a th s , t h e a u tho r s o f m any o f t h e c hap te r s a r r ive a tt h e s ame g ene ra l c onc lu s ion t h a t L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p eop le sw e re n o ti mpeded b yt h es c a r c i ty o ff l in t ( a s u sed t ob et h ough t ) b u tt h a tw hen f l i n t w a s n on -ex i s tan to ro fp oo rq ua l i ty , e xp lo i ted o t he r r o ck s , e spec ia l ly q ua r tz i t ic p ebb le e r ra t ic s , f o r t h e m anu f a c tu re o ft o o l s . S eve ra la u tho r sg i ve r e -app ra i sa l so fp a laeo -env i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion sl i k e ly t oh ave b e en e ncoun te red b y e a r ly m an i nB r i ta in . O the r s , s t udy ing s t one t o o l t e chno logy , r e co rd e xpe r imen t s i nt h e m ak ing o ft o o l s f r om n on -f l in tr o ck i na ne f fo r tt ou nde r s tand t h er e s t r ic t ion si tm ay h ave p l aced o ne a r ly m an a nd h i st o o l m ak ing . B o th t h e se a venue so fr e sea r ch p rov id e much n ew d a ta . F r equen tc ompa r i son sb e tween f l in ta r te f a c t sa nd t h o se m ade o fo t he rr o ck s ,b o th n ume r ica l ly a ts i te sa nd i ng eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , h ave b een f o und n ece s sa ry i na s se s s ing t h e r o le o fn on f l in ti mp lemen t s i n t h e l i ve s o f A cheu l ian p eop le s .

A bove a l l , q ua r t z i te t o o l s , m anu f ac tu red f r om t h e u b iqu i tou s B un te r

p ebb le ,d om ina te t h en ew p i c tu re w h ich t h i sv o lume a t temp t st op r e sen t .

T he d raw ing sa nd p ho tog raph sh ave b een c a ref u l ly c ho sen ,a nd m o s to ft h em a r en ew . A cknow ledgmen t s o fa s s i s tance g i ven t ot h ec omp i le r so ft h i ss t udy a r en o ted e l sewhe re ,b u tt h ee n thu s ia s t ic c o -ope ra t ion o f a l lt h ec on t r ibu to r s ,a nd t h ep ub l i she r ,h a sb een e spec ia l ly g r a t i f y ing .

R .J . Ma cRae a nd N . Mo loney

i v

THE S TUDY OF NON -FL INT ARTEFACTS I N THE BR MSH P ALAEOL ITH IC : I TS VALUE AND S IGN IF ICANCE

D e r ek R o e

T h i s v o lume , w h ich s hou ld m ake av e ry w o r thwh i le a dd i t ion t ot h e l i t e ra tu re o ft h e B r i t i sh L owe r a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic , i st h es p lend id o u t com eo fi t se d i to r s 'e n thu s ia sm a nd e n te rp r i se . I ft h a ts ound sl i ke a r a the rt r i t eb eg inn ing t oa ni n t roduc to ry c hap te r ,c on s id e rh ow m any s u ch v o lume s n owaday s , n o tl e a s ti n t h eB .A .R . s e r ie s , a r e s t ra igh t fo rwa rd p ub l ica t ion s o fd oc to ra lt h e se so r ,l e s sf r equen t ly , e d i ted c o l le c t ion s o fp ape r s o n s ome s i ng le t h em e , g i ven a t am a jo rc onf e r ence . S uch w o rk s a r ee s sen t ia l a nd v i ta l s ou r ce s o fi n fo rma t ion , a nd t h ey n ow o f ten d om ina te t h el i s t s o fr e f e rence si nj our na l a r t ic le s . B u t , a sr e ga rd s t h e a c tua lp roce s so fp ub l ica t ion ,t h ey a r eo f t en a lmo s tr e ady t og o ,f i gu re s ,t a b le s a nd a l ,w hen p ub l i ca t ion i s f i r s to f f e red ; t h eh a rd w o rk w a sd one l o ng b e f o re ,t om e e ta no the rs e to fd ead l ine s , s uppo r ted b yg r an t sa nd s upe rv i sed b y a n a cadem ic a dv i se r o r a n o rgan i s ing c omm i t tee . Ad oc to ra l t h e s i s c an b e i np r in t a sa m onog raph w i th in t wo o rt h r ee mon th so fi t sa pp rova lb yt h ee xam ine r s , a nd e ven c on f e r ence p roceed ing s c an b e p ub l i shed w i th in s i x mon th s o r ay ea r , i ft h e e d i to r i ss u f f ic ien t ly f i rm w i th t h e a u tho r s a bou t d ead l ine s f o r t h e s ubm i s s ion o f t e x t s i nf i na l f o rm . Wha t av e ry d i f f e ren t m a t te r i ti st oi d en t i fy , a sa p r iva te i n d iv idua l , at o p ic t h a ti sw o r th p ub l ica t ion a s as e r ie s o fc o l le c ted p ape r s , t oe x t ra c tp rom i se s o f a r t ic le sf r om ad ozen o rm o re b u sy s c ho la r s ,t ot ur nt h ep r om i se si n to r e a l i ty a nd t h en t oc a r ry o u tt h eh a rd w o rk o fc o l la t ion , e d i t ing , c r o s s r e f e renc ing a nd g ene ra lu n if i ca t ion t op roduce ac ohe r en tw ho le ,w i th n o p e r sua s ion t oo f f e rt h ec on t r ibu to r se xcep t af ew o f fp r in t s , ar educ t ion o nt h ep u r cha se p r ice o ft h ev o lum e -o h , a nd t h e h onou r a nd g l o ry , o fc ou r se . T h i s i st h e a ch ievemen to fR .J . MacRa e a nd No rah Mo loney , a nd i np a r t icu la ro ft h ef o rm e r ,w ho se i d ea i ta l w a sa nd w ho w a sm a in ly r e spon s ib le f o rg a the r ing i nt h e a r t ic le s .

Ih ave k nown M r . Ma cRae f o rs ome 2 0y ea r s , a s ad ed ica t ed a ma teu rs t ud en to fa l t h ing sP a laeo l i th ic , a nd ab r i l l ian t ly s u cce s sfu lf i nd e ro fL owe rP a la eo l i th i ca r t ef a c t si nt h ef i e ld . H ea n swe r ss o le ly t ot h en am eo f Ma c , a nd c onno i s seu r s o fg ood a r chaeo log ica l t e rm ino logy m ay c a re t oa c cep t t h e i n i t ia l s R . J . a sp u re ly s keuomo rph ic ; i na ny c a se , t h e i rs i gn i f icance i sn eve rr e vea led . Ma c i nf a c tb e long s t ot h eg r ea tt r ad i t ion o f a ma teu r f i e ld -wo rke r s a nd c o l lec to r s w ho h ave s o p ro found ly a nd b enef ic ia l ly i nf luenced B r i t i sh P a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo logy , f r om Wo r th ing ton Sm i th a nd B en jam in H a r r i son i nt h e l a s tq ua r t e ro ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry d own t ot h e p r e sen t , a nd a mong s t t h em h e h a s , o ve rt h ep a s tt e n y ea r s ,j o ined t h e s p ec ia l g roup w ho s t udy a nd p ub l i sh t h e i ro wn f i nd s ,r a the rt h an m e r e ly a ma s s ing c o l le c t ion sw h i ch e ven tua l ly p a s si n to t h e h and s o fo ne o rm o re m u seum s . H e h a s b een aw e lcome u s e ro fo u rf a c i l i t ie s a tt h eD ona ld B aden P owe l l Q ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re d u r ing t h a t t ime , a nd m any o f t h e r e sea rch s t uden t s t h e re h ave b ene f i ted f r om h i sk now ledge a nd e xpe r ience o fs t one a r te f a c t s . Is uppo se o ne c ou ld s a y , w i th h i nd s igh t , t h a t , o nce h e moved t ot h e O x fo rd a r ea , t h i s p r e sen t v o lume w a s u l t ima te ly i n ev i tab le , t h ough e ven t h e i d ea o fi tr ema ined u nbor nf r om m any y ea r s : w i th Ma c ' se ye f o ra r te f a c t si ng r ave l , i tw a so n ly am a t t e ro f t im e b efo r e h ew ou ld f i nd q ua r tz i t eh andaxe s a nd f l ake s ; w i th Mac ' s e nqu i r ing m ind , t h eq ue s t ion s w h i ch t h e c on t r ibu to r s d i scu s s h e re w ou ld s oon s t a r t t oa r i se ; w i th Ma c ' s t a len t f o r m ak ing f r iend s a mong s t a r chaeo log i s t s a nd g eo log i s t s ,p o t en t ia lc on t r ibu to r sw ou ld s y s t ema t ica l ly b er ounded u p ; w i th Ma c ' sh i gh l e ve l o fp e r s i s tence , a lmo s t a l o ft h em w ou ld e ven tua l ly p roduce t h e i r a r t ic le s . O nce b egun , t h e w ho le p roce s sh ad t h ek i nd o fr e len t le s sf o rwa rd mo t ion t h a to ne a s soc ia te s w i th i c es h ee t si nt h eM id land s ,w h i le

1

f ewe ru nce r ta in t ie s r e ga rd ing s ou rce , d i rec t ion a nd t im ing a t t ended i t . When No rah Mo loney , ag radua t e r e sea rch s t uden t a tL ondon U n ive r s i ty w i th i mmed ia te r e sea rch c omm i tmen t s t os ome o ft h e m a in t o p ic s u nde rc on s ide ra t ion ,j o ined Ma ca s ac o -ed i to r ,p rog r e s s b ecame r ap id i n deed a nd t h ea c tua lv o lume q u ick ly t ook s hape .

I ti s my b e l ief t h a tt h e t wo o ft h em h ave p roduced amo s t i n te re s t ing a nd v a luab le c on t r ibu t ion t oB r i t i sh P a laeo l i th ic s t ud ie s , a nd t h a t w ha t may h ave o r ig ina ted a st h e r e la t ive ly s imp le n o t ion o fr e co rd ing a nd d i scu s s ing an eg lec t ed b ody o f ma te r ia lh a s i nf a c tb e come a n e xe rc i se c l o se ly b ound u p w i th s ome o ft h e mo re c ruc ia l c u r ren t p rob lem s i nB r i t i sh Q ua te rna ry R e sea rch .

B y w ay o f i n t roduc t ion , p rev iew a nd

c ommen ta ry o n t h e v o lume , Iw i l l s e t o u t i n af ew p age s w ha t Ih ave i nm ind i ns ay ing t h i s , a nd t h en l e ave t h e r eade r t oe n joy t h e c on ten t s o ft h e v o lume , w he the r f o r t h e i r o wn s ake o r w i th s uch g ene ra l p o in t s i nm ind .

T he s t a r t ing p o in tf o r t h i s s t udy w a s t h eg row ing n umbe ro ff i nd s o fP a la eo l i th ic i mp lemen t s , e spec ialy t h er ead i ly r e cogn i sab le L owe rP a laeo l i th ic h andaxe s , m ad e f r om r ock s o the rt h an f l in t , i na r ea s n o r th a nd w e s t o f t h e M idd le T hame s V a l ley .

A g aze t tee r i si n c luded , o f a l l s uch B r i t i sh f i nd s k nown t o i t s

c omp i le r s , a nd w h i le s ome i nd iv idua l i mp lemen t s l i s ted i ni th ave b een k nown a nd p ub l i shed f o r many y ea r s -t h eS a l t ley a nd P en -y lan h andaxe s , f o re xamp le , o rt h eo r ig ina l 1 9 th c en tu ry f i nd s a tP on tnewydd C ave -t h e c umu la t ive t o ta l a nd t h e e x ten t o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion c an h a rd ly f a i l t os urp r i se mo s t r eade r s . Many o ft h ea r t ic le s i n c lud ed e ta i l s o fp a r t icu la rg roup s o ff i nd s , a nd t h e a ccoun t s b y S av i l le o ft h e Wa i te C o l lec t ion , b y Wh i tehead o fh i sL owe r Warw ick sh i r e A von d i scove r ie s , b y MacRae o ft h eU ppe rT hame s ma te r ia l , e spec ia l ly f r om B e r in sf ie ld a nd S t an ton H a rcour t , a nd b yR ober t s o fn on -f l in t a r tef ac t s f r om t h e S ou th - We s t , a r e a l l o f i n te re s t a nd c on ta in n ew i n fo rma t ion .

P on tnewydd C ave a nd t h e Wo lve rco te

C hanne l s i te h ave r e cen t ly b een t h e s ub jec t s o f ma jo r p ub l i ca t ion s ( G reen 1 984 ; T y lde s ley 1 986 ) , b u t G reen h e re d i scu s se s s ome n ew a spec t s o ft h e P on tnewydd a r te f ac t s , a mong s t w h ich f l in t e xamp le s a r e s ca rce , w h i le T y lde s ley c on s ide r s s pe c if ica l ly t h eq ua r tz i te c omponen to ft h e Wo lve rco te i ndu s t ry w he re , b yc on t ra s t , f l in ti sd om inan t .

A pa r t f r om c omb in ing t o d ocumen t t h e r ange o f t h i s d i s t r ibu t ion o f f i nd s , many o f t h e a u tho r s i nd iv idua l ly d i scu s s i t s s i gn if icance , t o ag rea te r o r l e s se r e x ten t , a nd t h a t i sa l so t h e p a r t icu la r t op ic o f Wyme r ' sp ape r . I ti sp e r fe c t ly c l ea rt h a t , i ft h e re w a s t ob ee a r ly h uman s e t t lemen to ft h eB r i t i sh M id land s a nd We s t ,t h en a r tef a c t sw ou ld h ave t ob e made o fr o ck s o t he rt h an f l in t , s i nce t h el a t te ri ss c a rce o ra b sen t i nt ho se r eg ion s . I n f a c t , w e m igh tc a re t ov i ew g ood q ua l i ty f l in t a s al uxu ry r a the r t h an an ece s s i ty i n t h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a s aw ho le -ap o in tw h ich Wyme r a l so m ake s . I ff l in ti t se l fh ad b een e s sen t ia lt o t o o l manuf ac tu re , t h eP a laeo l i th ic w ou ld n eve rh ave g o to f ft h eg round i nP l io -P le i s tocene A f r ica ; i nd eed , g i ve o rt a ke af ew u nce r ta in t ie s a bou tc h ronome t r ic d a te s h e re a nd t h e re , o ne c ou ld q u i t e p robab ly a r gue t h a t h a lf o f t h e w ho le t ime span o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic h ad e l ap sed b efo re a ny t oo lmake r f i r s t p i cked u p a n odu le o ft r ue f l in t , a so ppo sed t oo the rs i l iceou sr ock s . I n ske ep ' sp ape ro n t h eA f r ican r aw m a te r ia l su sed f o r s t one t oo l manuf ac tu re i sa n i mpo r tan t a nd i lum ina t ing a dd i t ion t ot h e c on ten t s o ft h i s v o lume , a nd a l so aw e lcome r em inde r t h a t t h e B r i t i sh P a laeo l i th ic s imp ly c anno t b e u nde r s tood w i thou t r e f e rence t o o the r a r ea s .

I ti sa bundan t ly c l ea r i n A f r ica a nd e l sewhe re t h a t t h e e a r ly t oo lmake r s c ou ld a nd d id

s ucce s sfu l ly u se r ock s o f many d i f f e ren t t e x tu re s , h a rdne sse s a nd o r ig in s . T he O lduvan a nd A cheu l ian

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i n du s t r ie s o fO lduva i G o rge o f f e r m any f i ne a nd d i f f e ren t e xamp le s o ft h i s ( Hay 1 976 : 1 82 -86 ; s e e a l so L eakey 1 971 ) . I np a r t so fS ou thea s tA s ia , p e t r if i ed w ood w a sn o ti n f requen t ly e mp loyed a s at o o lmak ing r o ck , f o r e xamp le i nt h e A nya th ian i n du s t r ie s o fB u rma ( Mov iu s 1 943 ) . I nL ibya , t h e r e i sa tl e a s to ne e xamp le o f ah andaxe m ade f r om ' L ibyan D e se r tg l a s s ' ( Roe e ta l1 982 ) , ar aw m a te r ia l w ho se e x i s tence a nd d i s t r ibu t ion c ou ld h a rd ly h ave b een p r ed ic t ed b yn ewcome r s t ot h ea r ea . T om ove n ea re rh om e ,g ood q ua l i ty C re taceou sf l in t ,o ccu r r ing a sl a rge n odu le si nt h ec ha lk o rs ub s tan t ia lp ebb le so rc obb le sr ewo rked i n to g l a c ia lo rf l uv ia l d epo s i t so rm a r ine b eache s , c an b eh ad o nb o th s i de s o ft h eE ng l i sh C hanne l , b u tt o t h e f i r s t i n hab i tan t s o f N o r thwe s t E u rope , c om ing f r om t h e s ou th o r e a s t , i t s n a tu r e a nd mode o f o ccu r rence w ou ld h ave c on s t i tu t ed an ew e xpe r ience . T he p o in to fa l l t h i s i st h a tt h ey w ou ld h ave b een w e l l q ua l if ied t om anage w i thou t i t ,w heneve r t h ey c ho se t op r e s s d eepe r i n to t h e B r i t i sh p en in su la , s o l o ng a so t he rf l akeab le r o ck w a st ob ef o und . A no bv iou s a nd w ide sp read s ou r ce o ft h el a t te rw ou ld b et h e q ua r t z i t ep ebb le s ,w ho se o r ig in a nd d i sp e r sa li sw e l ld e sc r ibed i nd e ta i lb yB r idg land a nd b yP re s ton ,w h i le p i e ce so fv a r iou so t he ru sab le r o ck sc ou ld a l so b eh ad h e r ea nd t h e re f r om e xpo su r e so ft i l l so rg r ave l s .

I ti sa l so i n c r ea s ing ly r e a l i sed , o n t h e b a s i s b o th o f t h e s t udy o f P a laeo l i th ic a r tef a c t s a nd a l so o f e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion , t h a t t h e d i f f e r ing f r a c tu r e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o fd i f f e ren tr o ck s , a nd t h e i r v a ry ing mode s o fo ccu r rence , p ro found ly i n f luence t h e k i nd s o f i mp lem en t s t h a t c an b e f a sh ioned f r om t h em . S uch i n f luence s a r er ef le c t ed i nt h e t e chno logy , m o rpho logy a nd s ome t ime s t h es i ze o fs u ch a r t e f ac t s . I n t h i s v o lume , t h ef l ak ing c ha ra c te r i s t ic so ft h er e levan tB r i t i sh r o ck s a r em en t ioned b ys e ve ra l a u tho r s a nd p a r t icu la r ly e xp lo red , f r om d i f f e ren tp o in t s o fv i ew , b y Mo loney , B e rgman , Wenban -Sm i th , Wa l l i s a nd G re en . I ti sc l ea rt h a ts ome c on s t ra in t s i n deed a r o se f r om t h en a tu r eo ft h er o ck s ,p a r t icu la r ly t h e B un t e r a nd o t he r q ua r tz i te s i nr ounded p ebb le f o rm , a nd t h e f o l low ing e xamp le s w i l l s ugge s t t h a t t h e se h ave s i gn if icance f o r a r chaeo log i s t s a s w e l l a s t h e o r ig ina l P a laeo l i th ic i n hab i tan t s .

T hu s , f a r f ewe r

c ha ra c t e r i s t ic t r imm ing a nd w a s te f l ake sw i l lo ccu rw hen h andaxe s a r ef a sh ioned f r om q ua r tz i t et h an w hen f l in ti su sed . i td o e sn o ta pp ea rt h a tq ua r tz i t ep ebb le sy i e lded e f f e c t ive b l ad ec o r e s , s ot h ey w e r el i t t le u sed d ur ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic .

A ga in , w he re s u ch p ebb le s c on s t i tu te t h e s upp ly o f r o ck f o r t o o l

m anuf ac ture , ' p ebb le t o o l t ype s ' w i l l b e p re sen t i n t h e i ndu s t ry , v i r tua l ly b y d ef in i t ion , w i th n o i mp l ica t ion s o f h i gh a n t iqu i ty , h oweve r a r cha ic t h e i r a ppea rance . As a lu ta ry D evon sh i re e xamp le o f H o locene a ge i sm en t ioned b y R obe r t s ( s ee a l so Ma s son -Ph i l l ip s 1 958 ) , a nd t h i s m a t che s o t he r s uch o ccu r rence sa r ound t h ew o r ld . O nt h eo t he rh and ,o ne w ou ld n o te xpe c ti nt h eB r i t i sh M id land sa ni n du s t ry l i ke t h e m a s s ive a nd w a s te fu l L eva l lo i s ian o f B ake r ' s Ho le i nN o r th K en t ( Sm i th 1 911 ; s e e a l so R oe 1 981 : 8 0 -83 ) ,w h ich d epended o nv a s ts upp l ie so fn odu le so fh i gh q ua l i ty c ha lk f l in t .

Y e t , w hen a l lo ft h a th a sb e en s a id , Id on o tr e ce ive t h ei mp re s s ion t h a tt h en a tu r eo ft h er o ck st ob eh ad i n t h ev a r iou sp a r t so fB r i ta in c on s ide r ed w ou ld h ave c on s t i tu t ed as e r iou sh and i cap t ow ou ld -be s e t t le r s . N o n ew t e chn ique sn e eded t ob ei n ven t ed ,s u ch a st h ea b il i ty t os t r ike l a rge f l ake b l ank sf r om m a s s ive u n i t so f v o lcan ic o rs ed im en ta ry r o ck , w h ich w a s s oe s sen t ia lt ot e chno log i ca lp rog r e s s i nt h e A f r ican A cheu l ian . Wou ld i tb ef a i rt ob o r row o ne o ft h o se o b je c t ionab le b u tg r aph ic c l iché s s or e ad i ly p roduced b y m ake r s a nd u s e r s o fc ompu te r s , a nd d e sc r ibe t h e B r i t i sh n on -f l in tr o ck s a si n c lud ing ar e a sonab ly ' u se r -f r iend ly ' c omponen t ? T he r ock s e ncoun t e red b y t h e e a r l ie s t i n hab i tan t s o fs ome o t he r a r ea s , s u ch a sC h ina a nd S ou thea s t A s ia , w e r e b y c on t ra s tu se r -ho s t i le , i ft h a t ' s t h e r i gh t t e rm , s i nce t h e i r f r ac tu re c ha ra c te r i s t ic s s e em t oh ave h ad a na dve r se e f f e c to nb o th r a nge a nd e l egance i nt h eP a la eo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s t h e re .

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I ft h e p o in t s m ade t h u s f a r a r e c o r rec t , i tn eed o cca s ion n o s u rp r i se t of i nd t r ace s o fL owe rP a laeo l i th i c s e t t lemen ti nt h e B r i t i sh M id land s a nd p e rhap s s omewha tf u r the rn o r th a nd w e s t . T he q ue s t ion t h e r e fo r e b ecome s o ne o ft h ed en s i ty ,f r equency a nd c h rono logy o fs e t t lemen tt h e r e . S om eo ft h e a u tho r s a low f o r ac on s id e rab le a moun to fs e t t lemen t , t r a ce so fw h i ch w i l lh ave b een d e s t royed o rr emoved ,t h ough o ne m ay h ope t h a tg ood s i t e s s t i l lr ema in t ob ed i scove r ed . P on tnewydd C ave i si mpo r tan ti nt h i s c on tex t . T hank s t o t h e c a r efu l w o rk t h e r e o ve r t h e p a s t e i gh t y ea r s , w e n ow k now t h a t t h i s i s as ub s tan t ia l L owe r P a la eo l i th ic ( La te rA cheul ian ) s i t e ,d a t ing f r om s om e th ing i nt h eo rd e ro f0 . 25 m i l l ion y ea r s a go , w he r ea s t h o se w ho w e r ep r ev iou s ly a wa re o fi t se x i s tence o f t en s uppo sed i tt ob e aMou s t e r ian o ccupa t ion o fL a s t G la c ia la ge . T he m anne ri nw h ich t h ea r te f ac t so ccu ra tP on tnewydd ,c a r r ied i n to t h ec ave b yd eb r i sf l ow s , g i ve s s om ei d ea o ft h ed e s t ruc t ive f o rce st h a tw i l lc ommon ly h ave a f f e c ted o r ig ina lo ccupa t ion s i t e s ,w h i le a tt h e s ame t ime d emon s t ra t ing t h a t e v idence c an s u rv ive .

T he n ea re s t c e r ta in f i nd spo t s o fL owe r

P a laeo l i th ic a r te f a c t s s ou th a nd e a s to fP on tnewydd a r ea r ound ah und red m i le s a way a nd n o tn e ce s sa r i ly c on tempo ra ry o rc onnec t ed i na ny w ay ;n os i t e s a r ek nown f u r the rn o r th o rw e s t . Y e tt h ev e ry e x i s t ence o f t h e P on tnewydd s i te , w he the r i tb e s e en a s ab a se c amp o r ar emo t e a c t iv i ty o u tpo s t , d emand s b eyond d oub tt h a to t he rt r a ce so fL owe rP a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen ts hou ld o nce h ave e x i s ted i nN o r th Wa le s a nd a l ong w ha teve rr ou te o rr ou te s t o ok L owe rP a laeo l i th ic p eop le t h e r e : t h i s m u s tb e t r ue , r e ga rd le s s o fw he the r a ny o fs u ch t r ace sh ave a c tua l ly s u r v iv ed a nd a wa i td i scove ry . L a ck ing u nd i s tu rbed a nd w e l l -p r e se r ved s i t e s w he r ea r tef a c t s a r ed i r ec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th e nv i ronm en ta ld a ta a nd e v id ence f o rs ub s i s t en ce ,w ec anno ts a y w ha tp a r t icu la r l o ca l r e sou r ce s p roved a t t rac t ive t ot h e A cheu l ian v i s i to r s . T he re i sn o e v idence f r om s ou the rn E ng land t h a tw ou ld l e ad u st os uppo se t h a tn ece s s i ty ( s uch a sp opu la t ion p re s su r e )f o r ced t h em t o move n o r th a nd w e s t ; t h o se w ho w en t w e re p e rhap s s imp ly p ro spec to r s a nd e xp lo re r s , i mpe l led b y o rd ina ry h uman c u r io s i ty . Im y se lf r ema in u nconv inced f o rt h em omen tt h a ts u ch p ene t ra t ion s w e re f r equen to rp ro longed ,r e ga rd le s s o ft h ep o in ta bou td e s t ruc t ion o ft h ee v id ence . H ad i tb e en s o , It h ink t h a tc e r ta in s ou r ce so fe a s i ly w o rked f i ne -g r a ined i g neou s ,v o lcan i co rm e tapho rph ic r o ck sw ou ld s oon h ave b e en d i scove red a nd e xp lo i t ed -f o r e xamp le , i nt h ec a se o ft h en o r th -we s t , t h o se v e ry s ou r ce s i nN o r th Wa le so rt h eL ake D i s t r ic tw h ich l a t e r s aw t h ee s tab l i shmen to fN eol i th ic a xe f a c to r ie s , l i k et h eG roup V I I a ug i t e -g ranophy re o fG ra ig Lwyd , t h e G roup XX Ib aked s ha le o f Mynydd R h iw o rt h eG roup V Ie p ido t i sed i n te rm ed ia te t u f fo fG r ea tL angda le a nd t h e a d ja cen t a r ea . T he se r o ck s c an a l l b e f l aked v e ry m uch i nt h e m anne r o ff l in t o rc he r t ( Coope 1 979 ) , a nd t h e i r w o rk ing c r ea ted a bundan t r e cogn i sab le a nd d u rab le d eb r i s , mo s t o f i ts how ing c l ea r c oncho ida lf r a c tu r ef e a tu r e s . T he o u t c rop s a r en o tt o od i f f icu l to fa c ce s s , a nd w ou ld s u r e ly h ave b e com e i mpo r tan tp l a ce s i na ny s y s tema t ic l o ng t e rm P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion o ft h er e g ion s i nw h ich t h ey o ccu r . E ven i ft h e r e su l t ing a r t e f ac t s h ad l a t e r b een s wep t a way s ou thwa rd s b y g l a c ia l a nd g l ac if luv ia l a c t ion , m any w o rked f r agm en t so ft h o se r o ck t y pe s w ou ld s u re ly h ave r ema ined r e ad i ly i d en t if iab le a ss u ch , a nd s hou ld a cco rd ing ly b e q u i t e c ommon a sd e r ived f i nd s i nt i l l s o r o u twa sh g rave l s .

A s i ti s , o n ly t h e

o cca s iona l e r ra t ic p i ece o fs u ch r o ck , a l r eady f a r f r om i t s s ou r ce , s e em s t oh ave b een p i cked u p i nt h e M id land sa nd w o rked t h e r e . I n p a ss ing , i ti si n te re s t ing a nd r e levan t t or e ca l l t h a t s ome o f t h e o t he r B r i t i sh r o ck s u sed f o r t h e p roduc t ion o fN eo l i th ic a xe s , n o tab ly t h e c oa r se r -g ra ined b a s ic i g neou s r o ck s , c anno tb e w o rked b y t h e k i nd s o fp e r cu s s ion t e chn ique s f am i l ia r t oa nc ien t o r mod em f l in t k nappe r s : t h ey r e qu i re p eck ing a nd

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g r ind ing p roce s se s ( Coope o pc i t ) , a nd t h e w o rk ing d eb r i s t h a tr e su l t s i sn e i the rr e cogn i sab le n o rd u rab le , m uch o fi tb e ing m e r ep owd e r . C lea r ly , an umbe ro fB r i t i sh a xe f a c to ry s i te s h ave e l uded d i scove ry f o r t h i s v e ry r e a son , e ven w hen t h e g ene ra l s ou r ce a r ea o ft h e r o ck i sk nown . T he s u r f ace s o ft h e f i n i shed i mp lemen t s t h em se lve s a l so w ea the re a s i ly a nd w ou ld b e u n l ike ly t or ema in i d en t if iab le a sw o rked , a f te r p ro longed e xpo su re t og l a c ia lc ond i t ion s a nd v i o len tt r an spo r t . Wh i le , o nt h e se g r ound s , w em igh te xpec t n eve r t ok now w he the ro rn o t s u ch r o ck s w e re u s ed t o make L owe rP a laeo l i th ic i mp lem en t s , i ta tl e a s t s e em sf a i rt oa dd t h a tt h e r ei sn oe v idence a nywhe re i nt h ew o r ld t os ugge s tt h a tL owe rP a laeo l i th ic p eop le e ve ru sed o rk new t h ep eck ing a nd g r ind ing t e chn ique st h a tt h es h ap ing o fs u ch r o ck s w ou ld r e qu i r e .

F o r t h e r e s t , n o tw i th s tand ing t h e e xce l len t g a ze t t ee r i n t h i s v o lume , a nd a l low ing f o r t h e n ece s sa ry a dd i t ion t oi to f t h e s p ec imen s m ade o f f l in t , t h e a b so lu te q uan t i ty o fL owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s i n t h e M id land s i sn o t l a rge , a nd t h e i r p a tchy d i s t r ibu t ion s ugge s t s t o m e o n ly o cca s iona l p ene t ra t ion s o ft h i s a r ea b y p eop le f u l ly c apab le o fl i v ing t h e re b u t g a in ing n o p a r t icu la r a dvan tage b y d o ing s o . Iw ou ld t h e re fo r ec e r ta in ly e xpe c tf u r the ri n d iv idua lf i nd s f r om t im et ot ime , a nd w i th l u ck e ven s ome s t ra t i f ied a nd d a tab le s i t e s ,b u t Id on o tm y se lf a n t ic ipa te m a jo rq uan t i t ie so fn ew L owe rP a laeo l i th i c d i scove r ie s i nt h er emo te ra r ea so ft h ew e s to rn o r th ,o ri nI r e land . A tt h es am et im e , Iw ou ld b ed e l igh ted i ft h i s o p in ion t u rned o u t t ob e w rong , s i nce a ny g ood s i t e s i nr e a l ly r emo te a r ea s w ou ld h ave g r ea t i n t r in s ic i n te re s ta nd w ou ld a l so e nhance o u ro p in ion o ft h ea ch ievemen t so fo u rA cheul ian a nce s to r s .

F rom t h ep r e sen ts t a te o ft h ee v idence , i ti sb yn om ean sc l ea rj u s tw hen s e t t lem en tn o r th a nd w e s to ft h e T hame s V a l ley t o ok p l ace , a nd w he the r o n m any o cca s ion s o rf ew . H e re t h e e nqu i ry b ecome s d eep ly i n vo lved w i th t h e g row ing c u r r en t d eba te o n t h e P l e i s tocene s equence i nB r i ta in . F ew n ow d oub t t h e i n adequa cy o ft h ec u r r en ts e to fn amed g age s . I th a sl o ng b een c l ea rf r om t h ed e ep sea c o re o xygen i s o top e r e co rd ( s ee f o re xamp le S ha ck le ton a nd O pdyke 1 973 , 1 976 ) , t h a tt h e re w e r e m any mo re m a jo rc o ld a nd w a rm c l ima t ic e ven t s t h an c an b e a c commoda t ed i n a ny o f t h e c u r ren t s cheme s b a sed o n t e r re s t r ia l d epo s i t s , t h ough c e r ta in l o ng p o l len s e quence s o b ta ined f r om E u rop ean l a ke s ed im en t st e l l a tl e a s tp a r to f t h e s ame s t o ry ( s ee f o re xamp le v an d e rH ammen e ta l1 971 ) . I nB r i ta in , w e b ad ly n eed t or edef ine o ra t l e a s te xpand o u r l o ca l s e quence ( M i t che l l e ta l1 973 ) o fC rome r ian -A ng l ian -H oxn ian -Wo l s ton ian I p sw ich ian -D even s ian . I tm ay b e al o ng w h i le b e f o re n ew n om enc la tu re a nd t y pe l o ca l i t ie s a r ea g re ed f o r t h em i s s ing s t age s ,b u tt h ep rob lem sn e ed t ob ea c t ive ly a dd re s sed b ym u l t id i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch t oa ch ieve t h i s , f o l low ing t h e s t a r t a l r eady m ade ( Sho t ton 1 983 ) . A r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld a s s i s ti nt h i s w o rk , b u tt h e m a in e f fo r t w i l l s u re ly n eed t o c ome f r om e xpe r t s i n v a r iou s b r anche s o f g eo logy , s ed imen to logy , p a lyno logy a nd p a laeon to logy .

Meanwh i le , t h e re i st u rmo i l , f r om t h eP a la eo l i th ic p o in to fv i ew . R ecen tw o rk , m uch o fi to n ly r e po r t ed i np r e l im ina ry f o rm s of a r , i n d i ca t e sg r ave a nd i n c rea s ing d i ff icu l t ie si nr e conc i l ing t h el o ng a c cep ted o rde r o fe ven t si nt h ea r cha eo log ica ls e quence w i th t h ea c tua la ge so fs om eo ft h ek ey s i te s . T hu s ,f o re xamp le , H igh L odge i nS uf fo lk ,w i th a ni n du s t ry d om ina ted b yf i ne f l ake t o o l s ,w h ich m any h ave r e ga rd ed a ss om e k i nd o fp ro to -Mou s te r ian a nd t h e r efo re l i ke ly t ob e o fl a t e rr a the r t h an e a r l ie rL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a ge , i s n ow c l a im ed a sC rome r ian ( c f . Wyme r 1 985 : 35 , a nd t h e p o in t i sa l so m en t ioned i nh i s p ape r i nt h i s v o lume ) ; t h eP on tnewydd C ave i n du s t ry , c a l led L a t e A cheu l ian ( G reen 1 984 ) , a ppea r s t ob e a r ound 0 . 25

5

m i l l ion y ea r so ld ,w h ich w ou ld h a rd ly h ave c oun ted a s aL a te A cheu l ian d a te i nB r i ta in af ew y ea r s a ge ;t h e f i ne s i t ea tB oxg rove i n We s tS u s sex , w i th w e l l m ade A cheu l ian o va te h andaxe s ( Robe r t s 1 986 ) i st h ough t t ob e long t oa n i n te rg lac ia l e a r l ie r t h an t h e Hoxn ian , f o r w h ich n o n ame y e t e x i s t s ; whe the r o rn o t t h a t i n te rg lac ia l i st h e s ame a s t h e o ne r ep re sen ted a t We s tbury sub - Mend ip , r ema in s t o b e s e en .

T he

C lac ton ian o ft h e t ype a r ea m ay s oon b e l ook ing q u i te ay oung i ndu s t ry , a so ppo sed t or ep re sen t ing t h e e a rl ie s tt r ace s o fh uman p re sence i nB r i ta in , a ss ome o ft h eb ook s s ay . Whe the ro rn o t t h e se a nd v a r iou s o the rc l a im s w i l l a l l u l t ima te ly p rove c o r rec t , a tt h et ime o fw r i t ing n one o ft h em i si n he ren t ly i mpo s s ib le a nd s om es e em h i gh ly p robab le . T he ' l ong a ccep ted ' B r i t i sh L owe rP a laeo l i th ic s equence i sn o ts ome th ing t ob ed ef ended a ga in s tn ew e v idence : i ti sm e re ly t h e l a te s ti n al o ng l i ne o fw o rk ing h ypo the se s , w h ich t a ke s a ccoun t o fs uch t h ing s a st h e s uppo sed o rde ro fe ven t s i nC on t inen ta l E u rope , w h ich mu s tp rov ide t h e i mmed ia te b ackg round t ot h e B r i t i sh s equence . B u t i nE u rope t oo t h e s ame t u rmo i l e x i s t s , a sn ew d i scover ie so rs t ra t ig raph ic r e in t e rp re ta t ion s o fs i te s i nF rance , G e rmany , I t a ly a nd i nd eed e l sewhe r e , h ave a l l t e nded t oe xpand t h e t ime sca le a nd t od emon s t ra te t h e e x i s tence o f mo re w a rm o r c o ld e ven t s t h an c u r ren tn omenc la tu r ec an a ccommoda te .

I nB r i ta in , o bv iou s t a sk s i n c lude d e c id ing w h ich a c tua l g l ac ia ld epo s i t s b e long t o Wo l s ton ian a nd A ng l ian r e spe c t ive ly , a nd e s tab l i sh ing w he the r a ny o the rm a jo rc o ld e ven t s , a l so r ep re sen ted b y g l ac ia l d epo s i t s , o ccu re i the rb e tween A ng l ian a nd Wo l s ton ian a sa tp re sen td ef ined , o rp r io rt ot h eA ng l ian . A r i s ing f r om t h a t , t h e re n eed s t ob e ar e coun t o fi n te rg lac ia l s , f o l lowed b y a g r eemen t , i fp o s s ib le , r ega rd ing h ow t h ey r e la te t ot h en umbe red s t age s i nt h e o xygen i s o tope p a laeo tempe ra tu re r e co rd , f o rw h ich r e a sonab ly g ood c h ronome t r ic d a te s e x i s t , b a sed o n d i rec t a nd e x t rapo la ted u ran ium se r ie s d a te s , w i th p a laeomagne t ic p o la r i ty c hange s a s ac he ck . P u t l i ke t h a t , i tm ay a l l s ound e a sy ; w he the ri ti se ven p o ss ib le i nt h e s ho r t t e rm r ema in s t ob es e en .

I f Is e em i nt h e se c ommen t s t oh ave p a s sed b eyond t h e s cope a nd c on tex t o ft h e p re sen tv o lume , t h a t i s n o tr ea l ly s o . T he ma t te r sj u s tr e f e r red t oa r eo fv i ta lc oncer nt ot h es t udy o ft h ee a r l ie rP a laeo l i th ic i na ny r eg ion o fB r i ta in . B u t a pa r t f r om t h a t , s ome o ft h e k ey e v idence i nt h e p re sen t c on t rove r sy h a s i nf a c t c ome f r om t h e M id land s , i n c lud ing t h e Uppe r T hame s V a l ley . T he a dm i rab le p ape r b y B r igg s r e f e r s t o t h i s , a nd t h ec ont r ibu t ion s b y S ho t ton , b y Wyme ra nd b y MacRae o n t h e Uppe rT hame s a r e a l so d i rec t ly r e levan t . T he S ugwo r th C romer ian s i te n ea r O xfo rd a nd t h e L inch H il i n te rg lac ia l c hanne l d epo s i t s a t S tan ton H a rcou r t w e re t wo Uppe rT hame s d i scove r ie s , d i scu ssed b y B r igg s , wh ich c ou ld n o tr e ad i ly b e a ccommoda ted i nt h ee x i s t ing B r i t i sh Q ua t e rna ry s ucce s s ion : t h ef o rme r may i mp ly as ub s tan t ia l g l a c ia l e p i sode o lde rt h an t h eA ng l ian , a nd t h el a t te rs e em st od emand a n i n te rg la c ia lo lde rt h an t h eI p sw ich ian b u t y ounge r t h an t h e Hoxn ian o ft h e t ype s i te . A nd w he re d oe s t h e Wo lve rco te C hanne l , w i th i t s f i ne a nd d i s t inc t ive h andaxe i ndu s t ry , f i ti n ? I n d e sc r ib ing t h a t , i na n a ccoun t o f t h e B r i t i sh L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 1981 : 18 -30 ) , Id e l ibe ra te ly a dop ted t h ep o in to fv i ew o fa n a r chaeo log i s tc on s ider ing t h e t e chno logy a nd t ypo logy o ft h e a r tef ac t s , s imp ly b e cau se t h ey w e re s od i s t inc t ive a nd t h e re w e re d i f f e r ing i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e g eo logy o ft h e s i te , a nd Is ugge s ted t h a t t h e b e s t p a ra l le l s f o r t h e h andaxe s l a y i n c e r ta in l a te A cheu l ian ' M icoqu ian 'i ndu s t r ie so fF rance a nd G e rmany , a l lr ega rded a so fL a s tI n te rg lac ia lo r e ven , i ns ome c a se s ,p o s s ib ly e a r ly L a s tG lac ia la ge . T h i s w ho le m a t te rw a ss ub sequen t ly s t ud ied i nd e ta i l b yJ .A .T y lde s ley , a sp a r to fh e rd oc to ra lr e sea r ch a tO xfo rd , a nd s he h a s s i nce p ub l i shed af u l la ccoun to f t h e Wo lve r co te a r tef ac t s ( 1986 ; s ee a l so h e rp ape ri nt h i s v o lume ) . Wh i le s he d id n o tf i nd a ny c omp le te ly s a t i sfac to ry p a ra l le l f o r t h e Wo lve r co te i ndu s t ry i nC on t inen ta l E u rope , p a r t icu la r ly n o t i nG e rmany , s he r e a ched b road ly s im i la rc onc lu s ion so nt h es t a tu s a nd p robab le a ge o ft h e Wo lve r co te s i te . I fi nd ue c ou r se

6

i tt r an sp i re s t h a tt h e Wo lve rco t e C hanne ld epo s i t s , w i th w h ich t h e a r tef ac t s a r ea s soc ia t ed , b e long t os ome w a rm p ha se o the rt h an t h e I p sw ich ian 5 ensu s t r ic t° , i tm ay b e o fi n te re s tt or e -exam ine t h e d a t ing o ft h e C on t inen ta lM icoqu ian i n du s t r ie s ,t os e e w he the r t h e i ra ge a l so r equ i re sr e a ss ignmen tw i th in a ne xpand ed U ppe rP le i s tocene s equence . I fn o t , i tw i l l b e c l ea rt h a tt o o much empha s i s w a s l a id u pon t h e Wo lve rco te h andaxe s 'p ecu l ia rt e chno logy -t h ek i nd o fm i s judgemen to fw h ich a r chaeo log i s t s a r eo f ten s u spe c ted . B u t f i r s t ,t h er e a la ge o ft h e Wo lve rco t eC hanne ln eed st ob ed e t e rm ined .

F ur the rn o r th ,S ho t ton d emon s t ra te s t h a tt h eh andaxe s f ound b y Mr . Wa i t e i n Wa rw ick sh i re mu s tb eo lde r t h an t h e O adby T i l l , w h ich i so ne u n i t w i th in a c omp lex o f Wo l s ton ian d epo s i t s ; b u t s ome o f t h e s uppo sed ly Wo l s ton ian t i l l s i nt h e M id land s a r e n ow s u spe c ted ( Ro se 1 987 ) o fb e long ing i nf a c t t ot h e A ng l ian , s o t h e a r tefac t s m igh t e nd u p a s o f A ng l ian o r p re -Ang l ian a ge .

B ea r ing i nm ind Wyme r ' s

c ommen t so nt h ep robab le a ge o f af ew o ft h eo t he rM id land s s pe c imen s ( t h i s v o lum e ) , a nd n o tf o rge t t ing t h ep r e sence o fa tl e a s to ne h andaxe i ng rave l so ft h eH anbo rough T e r ra ce o ft h e Uppe rT hame s , t e n ta t ive ly h e re a s s igned t o t h e A ng l ian b y B r iggs , w e b eg in t o s ee p o ss ib i l i t ie s t h a t s ome o f t h e M id land s A cheu l ian , i n c lud ing q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s , may b e o f much h ighe r a n t iqu i ty t h an m igh t h ave b een s u spec ted w hen MacRae b egan t oc o l lec t i n fo rma t ion f o r t h i s v o lume . I fw e a l so t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e P on tnewydd d a te s ,n o te o t he rs c rap so fc h rono log ica li n forma t ion r e co rded i n Wyme r ' sp ape r , a nd ma in ta in t h a t Wo lve rco te mu s t a tl e a s t b e long t o s ome w a rm p ha se y ounge r t h an t h e Hoxn ian , w e c an p e rhap s e ven tua l ly c onc lude t h a tt h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic p ene t ra t ion s o ft h eB r i t i sh M id land s w e re s ca t te red o ve ra w ide r ange o fM idd le a nd U ppe rP le i s tocene t ime . A s u sua l , w e a r el e f th op ing f o rt h ed i scove ry o fg ood a nd d a tab le s i te s , b ecau se s o many o ft h e i nd iv idua l a r tef a c t s f r om o u ra r ea a r e i ns econda ry c on tex t s o r wo r se , a nd t h e b e s tt h a t c an b e s a id i st h a tt h ey a r e m e re ly ' o lde rt h an ' s ome s pec if ic d epo s i t s uch a st h e O adby T i l lo rt h eS u rnme r town -Rad ley T e r ra ce o ft h eU ppe rT hame s .

B r igg s a l so o f f e r s i n te re s t ing a nd h i gh ly r e levan tc ommen t so nh ow ' g lac ia l ' , ' i n t e r s tad ia l ' a nd ' i n te rg la c ia l ' e p i sode s w ou ld b er ep re sen ted i nt e rm s o fe nv i ronm en ta lc ond i t ion s a nd t h e refo re s e t t lemen tp o s s ib i l i t ie s , i nt h e Uppe rT hame s V a l ley , a nd h i sr ema rk s c an s u re ly b ea pp l ied a tl e a s ti ng ene ra lt e rm s t om uch o ft h e r e s to ft h er eg ion u nde rd i scu s s ion . T he m a t te ro fh ow a nd w hen p eop le p a s sed f r om C on t inen ta lE u rope t os ou the rn a nd e a s te rn B r i ta in , w h ich t h ey w ou ld n eed t oh ave d one b efo re t h ey c ou ld e ve rs e tf oo ti nt h e B r i t i sh M id land s , We s to rN o r th ,w ou ld b e ag rea td ea lc l ea re ri fw eh ad ad ef in i t ive a ccoun to ft h eh i s to ry o ft h el a ndb r idge c onnec t ion s d u r ing t h eP le i s tocene . B u ti fs uch a n a ccoun te x i s t s , Ih ave y e tt of i nd i t .

T he se , t h en , a r e s ome o f t h e f a sc ina t ing a nd i mpo r tan t p o in t s , a s t h ey s eem t o m e , w h ich a r e e i the r c on ta ined i n t h e p ape r s w h ich make u p t h i s v o lume , o r e l se a r i se a s s oon a s o ne s eek s t o a s se ss t h e s i gn if icance o ft h e p ub l ica t ion a s aw ho le . I ta ppea r s a t ap a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t a nd i n te re s t ing t ime f o r B r i t i sh Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s , i n c lud ing P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo logy , a nd i tw ou ld b e as t range r e ade rw ho d id n o tf i nd s ome th ing o fi n t e re s ti nt h ep age s w h ich f o l low .

7

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S ha ck le ton ,N .J . & Opdyke , N .D . , 1 976 . O xygen i s o tope a nd p a laeomagne t ic s t ra t ig raphy o fE qua to r ia l P ac if ic c o re V 28 -238 : L a te P l io cene t oL a te s t P le i s tocene . G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f Amer ica Memo i r s . 1 45 : 4 49 -64 .

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Sm i th ,R .A . , 1 911 . Ap a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t ry a tN o r th f le e t , K en t . A rchaeo log ia . 6 2 : 5 15 -32 .

T y lde s ley , J .A . , 1 986 . T he Wo lve r co te C hanne l H andaxe A s semb lage : ac ompa ra t ive s t udy . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rcha eo log ica lR epo r t s( Br i t i sh S e r ie s ,N o . 1 53 ) .

Wyme r , J . J . , 1 985 . T he P a laeo l i th ic S i te s o fE a s t A ng l ia . N o rw ich : G eo B ook s .

9

A REASSESS MENT OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE OF LO WER PALAEOL ITH IC ACT IV ITY I N BR ITA IN

J ohn Wym e r I ti sa s ton i sh ing t oc on s id e rt h er ema rkab le r a p id i ty w i th w h ich d i scove r ie s o fp a la eo l i th s w e re m ade a nd e va lua ted i nt h em e re d ecad ef o l low ing t h ef amou sp ap e rg i ven b yP re s tw ich t ot h eR oya lS oc ie ty i n1 860 . T he f i r s te d i t ion o fJ ohn E van s ' " Anc ien tS tone I mp l emen t s o fG r ea tB r i ta in " w a sp ub l i shed i n1 872 a nd , a l ready , t h e g ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o f " d r i f t i mp lemen t s " i nB r i ta in w a s e v iden t , a l though n o th ing w a s r e co rded f r om f u r the rn o r th t h an s om eh and -axe sf r om t h eO u se G r ave l so fB ed fo rd sh i re . I nE van s 's e cond e d i t ion ( 1 897 , 5 79 ) t h e re i st h ea dd i t ion o ft h ew e l l -known e ng rav ing a nd d e ta i l so ft h eq ua r tz i t eh and -axe f r om S a l t ley , Wa rw ick sh i re .

T h i s p romp ted E van s t oc ommen t o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f p a laeo l i th s i n

B r i t a in . H e s t a ted t h a t" i th a sb een h e ld t h a tt h ea b sence o fp a laeo l i th ic i mp lem en t s i nB r i ta in n o r th o fa n i mag ina ry l i ne d rawn f r om t h e mou th o f t h e S eve rn t ot h e Wa sh i sd ue t og l a c ia l c ond i t ion s h av ing p r eva i led i nt h en or th -we s tp a r to fE ng land a nd i nS co t land a tt h e t ime w hen t h e m ake r s o ft h e se e a r ly t o o l s o rw eapon s o ccup ied t h e s ou the rn a nd e a s ter np a r t s o ft h i s c oun t ry , w h ich , h oweve r , i nt h o se d ay s w a sn o ta ni s land b u tw a s s t i l lc onnec t ed w i th t h eC on t inen t . " H ea l so p u t s f o rwa rd f o u rv e ry g ood r e a son s w hy t h ey h ave n o th i the r to b een f ound : t h es c a r c i ty o ff l i n t , t h ed i f f icu l ty o fr e cogn i s ing a r t i f a c t sm ad eo fq ua r tz i t eo rs im i la r ly h a rd r o ck s ,t h ed if e r ence i nc ha ra c t e ro f t h e a luv ia l d epo s i t s w he re t h ey m igh t b e e xpec t ed t ob e f o und , a nd t h e r e la t ive l a ck o fe xp lo i ta t ion o f s u ch g r ave l s . T o s om e e x ten tt h e se r e a son s s t i l l a pp ly , b u tw i th t h ep a s s ing o f ac en tu ry t h e re h ave b e en mo re d i scove r ie s n o r th o f t h e i mag ina ry S ever n - Wa sh l i ne a nd a much g r ea te r r e a l i sa t ion o f t h e c omp lex i t ie s o fg l a c ia l in te rg lac ia l e ven t s d u r ing t h e M idd le a nd L a te P l e i s tocene , a nd am o re c r i t ica l a pp roa ch t ot h ec on tex to fa ny a r chaeo log ica lm a t e r ia lt h a ti sf o und . Y e t a no the r o b se rva t ion o fE van s w h ich i sh i gh ly r e levan t t o t h e s ub jec t o f t h i s v o lume i st h a t t h e a b sence o f f l in t w a s n o t l i ke ly t o h ave b een af a c to r o f m uch i mpo r tance t o i tne ran t p a laeo l i th ic p opu la t ion s . I tc an n ow b es e en t h a tt h i si sc o r r ec t , s u ff i c ien t ly d emon s t ra ted b yt h ew ea l th o fp a laeo l i th ic t o o l s f ound i nA f r ica w he re q ua r t z i t e s , l a va s , d o le r i t e s a nd o t he rr e la t ive ly i n t ra c tab le r o ck w a s t h eo n ly r aw m a te r ia l u sua l ly a va i lab le . O b s id ian , c ha l cedony a nd o t he r s i l iceou s m ine ra l s a k in t of l in t w e re , h oweve r , u nd e r s tandab ly u sed w heneve ra va i lab le , b u ts e em ing ly h ad n oe f f ec to nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion : i tw a sj u s t ab onu s w h ich m ade l i f ee a s ie r . T he s am ec an b es a id o ft h eO ld Wo r ld . A r ea so f s upe rb k napp ing m a ter ia l s u ch a si nN o r th A f r ica , t h eM idd le E a s t a nd C r e taceou s o u t c rop s i np a r t s o f E u rope a r et h ee xcep t ion s ,n o tt h er u le . T he re fo re ,t h e re i sn oa r gumen tt os uppo r tt h el a ck o fp a laeo l i th i c a c t iv i ty i nt h en o r th o fB r i ta in o nt h eg round so fi n adequa te r aw m a te r ia l . Whe the rt h er e la t ive s c a r c i ty o f p a laeo l i th ic t o o l s i nt h i s r e g ion i st h e r e su l t o f m uch l e s s a c t iv i ty c ompa red w i th t h e s ou ther np a r t o f B r i ta in , a so ppo sed t od i f f e ren t ia lp r e se rva t ion o rd i scove ry , o rb o th , i sa no the rm a t te r . I tw i l lb e a r gued h e re t h a t t os ome e x ten t i ti st h e l a t te r w h ich i sm o r e l i ke ly . T h i s p ape r w i l l o n ly c once rn i t se l f w i th m a te r ia l a bove t h e S eve rn - Wa sh l i ne a nd b y L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i si mp l ied e ve ry th ing p r io r t oU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic b l ade i ndu s t r ie s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fk nown a r t if a c t s i sc on s ide red f i r s t , t h en t h eq ue s t ion o f t h e p re se rva t ion o f b o th s i t e s a nd t h e a r t if ac t s t h em se lve s ; m a t t e r s .

1

f i na l ly , s ome g eog raph ica l a nd c l ima t ic

0

L E- WOLD

C C

N C O e< < e ‚ c o

C O


50

AF1 /1

> 5

1 10

AF1 /1

5

LG /1

1 70

1 0

1 30

TABLE 4 : Mod i f ied q uar tz i te p ebb les f rom B ramco te H i l l( s ee F IG .4 )

p robab ly

p oss ib ly n o t

p a laeo l i th ic

p a laeo l i th ic

t ype 1

8

1

9

t ype 2

4

3

7

t ype 3

4

-

4

t ype 4

1

2

3

t ype 5

1

1

t ype 6

1

1

t o ta ls

1 9

t o ta l s

6

2 5

TABLE 5 : C ompar ison b e tw een q uar tz i t eb i face sf rom Nunea ton a nd t ho se f rom Wo lverco te ,O xfordsh ir e ( Ty ldes ley 1 986 , t ab le 5 8 )

Nunea ton No .

Mean

Wo lverco te S D

No .

Mean

SD

1 0

1 06

± 10

7 5

± 10

L eng th

7

1 03

± 15

B read th

1 1

7 2

± 12

T h ickness

1 2

3 8

+ 9

1 0

3 5

± 9

L1

1 2

3 5

+ 11

1 0

2 50

+ 7

7

2 67

+ 95

2 50

± 110

We igh t ( g )

9

8

7 4

4 4 / 1

F IG . 4 .

I

D iagram s i lus t ra t ing t he s i x d i f feren t t ypes o f mod if ied q ua r tz i te p ebb le p resen t i n t he B ramco te H i l l a s se mb lage .

T he s ca le i s a rb i t ra ry a nd t h e t ype s a r e i d ea l ized .

7 5

0 l um ina

F IG . 5 .

1

I

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 00 1 mm

T ype 2 b ifac ia l ly r e touched q uar tz i te p ebb le c ore -chopper f r om B ur ton H a s t ings , Wa rw ick sh i re .

S ca le 2 : 3 .

5 0

F IG . 6 . U n ro l led ( ?me so l i th ic ) q ua r tz i t e f l ake f r om C o r ley R ock , Wa rw ick sh i re .

7 6

S ca le 2 :3 .

c a tego r ie sf r om s l igh t ly r o l led ,t h rough r o l led a nd h eav i ly r o l led , t oe x t reme ly r o l led . T he se c a tego r ie s a r e i n tended o n ly t op rov ide a n i n t e rna l c ompa r i son w i th in t h i s g roup o fp a laeo l i th s , a nd a r e n o t v a l id f o r e x te rna l c ompa r i son e xcep t i nv e ry g ene ra l t e rm s . O n ly o ne b i f ace , t h a t f r om A t t lebo rough F ie ld s F a rm ( AFF /1 ) i se x t reme ly r o l led , t h e f l ake r i dge s b e ing s o e x ten s ive ly s moo thed t h a t a tf i r s t g lance t h i s r e semb le s af o r tu i tou s ly h andaxe shaped p ebb le .

Quar tz i te so ther t han b i f ac e s I na dd i t ion t ot ho se q ua r tz i te s w h ich c an u nque s t ionab ly b e a ccep ted a sb i fa ce s , t h e Wa i te C o l lec t ion a l so i n c lude s ( bo th i n Mr . Wa i te ' sp r iva te c o l lec t ion a nd a mong m a te r ia lh eh a sd ona ted t o Wa rw ick Mu seum ) a w ho le r ange o f mod if ied a nd p o s s ib ly mod if ied B un te rp ebb le s a nd f l ake s d er ived f r om B un t e r p ebb le s . A rchaeo log ica l a s se s smen to fs uch p i ece s i sb yn om ean s s t ra igh t fo rwa rd , s i nce w i thou tt h eb enef i to fa ny s t ra t if ied c ompa randa i ti si mpo ss ib le t oe s tab l i sh r i g id c r i ter ia f o r w ha t i so r i sn o t p a laeo l i th ic , e i the r t e chno typo log ica l ly o ri nt e rm s o fc ond i t ion ( c f . J one s , 1 982 , 8 -9 ) . I nt h e e ven t i tw a s d ec ided t h a t a ny mod if ied ( i . e .t wo o r mo re n ega t ive f l ake s c a r sp re sen t )o rs t ruck ( i . e . d ef in i t e s t r ik ing p l a t fo rm a nd /o rb u lb o fp e r cu s s ion )p i ece o fq ua r tz i t e ,w h ich s howed s ome d eg re eo fr o l l ing ,c ou ld b er ega rded a s ap o ten t ia l ly g enu ine , h uman ly p roduced p a laeo l i th . A ny s uch p i ece s i na n a ppa ren t ly f r e sh , u n ro l led c ond i t ion w e re a c co rd ing ly d i scoun t ed a sp a laeo l i th ic ( s ee b e low ) .

S ome o ft h eq ua r tz i te s , a l though t ypo log ica l ly a nd mo rpho log ica l ly i n exp l ic i t , n ever the le s s s ha red s ome t r a i t s w i th t h e b i f ace s a nd w e re o f ag ene ra l c ha rac te r t h a t s ub jec t ive ly s ugge s ted t h ey w e re c onv inc ing p a laeo l i th ic p roduc t s . S ix o ft h e se f r om B ramco t eH i l lh ad b een c l a s s if ied b y Mr . Wa i t e a s' h andaxe s t , a nd a r e o nt h e b o rde r l ine o fs uch at ypo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion . F ive a r e o nf l ake s f r om B un te rp ebb le s ( BH /1 , BH /21 , BH /28 ,BH /29 , BH /34 ) , t h eo the ri so n as ma l lp ebb le ( BH /17 ) . A l l s i x a r ee i the ro n ly u n if ac ia l ly r e touched o r h ave v e ry l im i ted b i f ac ia l r e touch , a nd l a ck c l ea r ly d e f ined p o in t s o r l e ng thy c on t inuou s r e touched e dge s . O n ly o ne o ft h e s i x ( BH /21 ) i sb roken , a nd c ou ld i nt h i s c a se j u s t c once ivab ly b e t h e b u t te nd o f ad amaged b i f ace . BH /28 , w h ich h a s b i fac ia lr e touch d own o ne o ft h e l ong e dge s o f af l a t t i sh B un te rp ebb le a nd w h ich c ou ld w e l lb e a nu nf in i shed b i f a ce , i s i lu s t ra ted ( F IG . 1 2 ) . T he f l ake r i dge s a nd s c a r s u r f ace s o ft h i s p i ece a r e h eav i ly r o l led . Two o the r q ua r tz i te s w i th e x ten s ive u n ifac ia l r e touch b u t o t he rw i se h andaxe l ike s hape a nd a ppea rance c ome f r om A bbey F a rm s i te 1( AF1 .3 ) a nd B u r ton H a s t ing s ( Bu r tH a st / 5 )r e spec t ive ly .

A pa r tf r om t h e se p i ece s , t h e re i s al a rge g roup o f mod i f ied q ua r tz i te p ebb le sw h ich c an b ec l a s sed u nde rt h e g ene ra lh ead ing o fc hoppe r so rc o re s . T he re a r ea tl e a s t2 5o ft h e se f r om B ram co te H i l l a l one , a nd i no rde r t o p rov ide s ome w ay o f c l a ss ify ing t h em i n mo re d e ta i l , as cheme f o r s u mma r iz ing t he t ype o f mod if ica t ion w a s d ev i sed ( F IG .4 ) , a nd i su sed t os ub -d iv ide t h eB ramco te q ua r tz i te s i n TABLE 4 . No t e t h a to n ly t ype s 3a nd 5i n vo lve t h el o ng i tud ina l s p l i t t ing o f ap ebb le , a nd i ns ome c a se s i tw a s d i f f icu l tt o t e l l i ft h i s h ad h appened n a tu ra l ly o ra s ar e su l to fi n ten t iona lf l ak ing ; t h e s ame w a s t r ue o ft ho se p ebb le s s p l i tt r an sve r se ly ( t ype s 4a nd 5 ) . O n ly t y pe 2c ou ld b ed e sc r ibed a s ab i f a c ia lc hoppe ro rc hoppe r -co re ( s ee F IG . 5 ) , t hough t ype s 1 , 3 , a nd 6 c ou ld b e t e rmed u n ifac ia l c hoppe r s .

T ypes 4 a nd 5 a r e mo re

c onven t iona lc o re type s , w i th o b tu se -ang led e dge s u n l ike ly t oh ave b een u se fu lf o r' c hopp ing ' .

T he b a s i s f o rd i v i s ion i n to p robab ly p a laeo l i th ic a nd p o s s ib ly n o t p a laeo l i th ic i n TABLE 4 i sp u re ly t h e s u r f ace c ond i t ion o ft h ep i ece s ,t ho se i nt h ef o rme rc a tego ry b e ing t os ome e x t en tr o l led , t h o se i nt h el a t te r b e ing a ppa ren t ly u n ro l led a nd o f' f r e she r 'a ppea rance . T he t a b le , t h e r efo r e , p rov id e so n ly ar ough a nd r e ady

1 '7

g u ide t ot h ep r e sence o fs u ch ar a nge o fp o ten t ia l ly p a la eo l i th ic m od if ied q ua r t z i t e sf r om B r amco te H i l l . I n a dd i t ion t ot h e se , t h e Wa i te C o l le c t ion f r om B ram co te H i l l i n c lude s a tl e a s t t e n d e f in i t e ly s t r uck a nd s ub sequen t ly r o l led f l ake s( e i the rp r ima ry o rs e conda ry t y p e s )f r om t h ee x te r io ro fB un te rp ebb le s . N one o f t h e se f l ake s , w h ich c ou ld a l l h ave b een p r epa ra t ion f l ake s r emoved d u r ing b i f ace m anuf a c tu re o ro t he r p ebb le m od i f ica t ion ,e xh ib i t ed a ny s e conda ry mod i f ica t ion p r io rt or o l l ing , b u tt h eB ram co te H i l lm a te r ia l d oe si n c lude as i ng le t e r t ia ry f l ak e( BH /59 )r e touched a tt h ed i s ta le nd t oc r ea te ab i la te ra lp o in t .

A s w i th t h e b i f ace s , t h e m o s tp ro l if ic f i nd spo tf o rt h e se o t he rq ua r t z i te a r t ef a c t s i sB ramco t eH i l l , b u tt h e o t he rb i f a ce f i nd spo t sh ave p roduced a tl e a s tt h ef o l low ing p i e ce si n ar o l led c ond i t ion ; A bbey F a rm s i t e 1 ( t h ree f l ake s ) , B u r ton H a s t ing s ( o ne f l ake , t wo t y pe 2 p ebb le s [ s ee F IG . 5 ] , o ne t y pe 4 p ebb le ) , a nd L e ice s te rG range ( o ne f l ake , o ne t y pe 2p ebb le ,t wo t y p e 4p ebb le s ) . I na dd i t ion , t h e r e a r eo t he rl o ca t ion s i nt h es ame a r ea f r om w h ich n oq ua r tz i te b i f ace s h ave y e tb een f o und b u tw h ich h ave p roduced q ua r t z i t e a r t e f a c t si n ar o l led c ond i t ion . T he se a r e :

S he lfo rd S p r ing ( SP422896 ) ,B u r ton H a s t ing sp a r i sh , as i ng le t y pe 1p ebb le ; C a ldeco te ( SP347947 ) ,C a ldeco te p a r i sh , as i ng le t y pe 1p ebb le ; A bbey F a rm s i te 2 ( SP444895 ) , Wo lvey p a r i sh ,o ne f l ake ,o ne t y pe 1p ebb le , a nd t wo t y pe 2p ebb le s ; C op s ton S p inney ( SP450892 ) , Wo lvey p a r i sh , o ne f l ake ( F IG . 1 4 ) ; J e f f = ' sa am ( SP442886 ) , Wo lvey p a r i sh ,o ne t y p e 4p ebb le . T echno log ica l ly , t h e l a rge p r ima ry f l ake f r om C op s ton S p inney ( F IG . 1 4 ) i so fp a r t icu la r i n te re s t i n d emon st ra t ing t h ea b i l i ty t os p l i ta ne x t r eme ly h eavy p ebb le s op r ec i se ly .

Mo s to ft h e se l o ca t ion s e i the rf a l l w i th in , o ri nt h e c a se o fJ e f f e ry ' s B a rn c l o se t ot h e e dge o f , t h e s am e s p read o f p l e i s tocene s a nd a nd g r ave l d epo s i t s t ow h ich t h e b i f ace f i nd spo t s r e la te . A n e xcep t ion i s C a ldeco te , t ot h en o r th -we s to fN unea ton a nd o n as e pa ra te s p r ead o fg r ave l a l ong s id et h eR . A nke r . T he g ene ra lc onc lu s ion a bou tt h e se n on -b if a ce q ua r tz i te s mu s tb et h a tt h ey a r el i ke ly t oh ave e r oded o u to ft h e s ame g eo log ica l d epo s i t s a st h e b i f ace s a nd t h a t t h ey a r e af u r the r i n d ica t ion o ft h e s am e p a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry o ri n du s t r ie s . I tm u s tb er e i te ra ted , h oweve r , t h a tt h e re c an b en o a b so lu te c e r ta in ty a bou tt h ep a la eo l i th ic a ge o ft h e se s u r f ace f i nd so fq ua r tz i te a r te f a c t sw hen t h ey l a ck t h et ypo log ica lc e r t i tude o ft h eb i f ace s . I no t he rp a r t so f B r i ta in q ua r tz i te ' c hopp ing t o o l s ' h ave b een a c cep ted a sp a r t o f m e so l i th ic t o o lk i t s ( e .g . i nC or nwa l l : Sm i th a nd H a r r i s , 1 982 , f i g . 1 2 ) . I n t h i s c onnec t ion i tc an b e n o t ed t h a t M r . Wa i te ' s c o l le c t ion d oe s i n c lude m od if ied B un te rp ebb le s a nd s t r uck q ua r t z i te f l ake s f r om o t he r l o ca t ion s i nt h e N unea ton a r ea , w he re t h ey a r e a s soc ia t ed w i th s u r f a ce s i t e s o fm e so l i th ic o rl a t e rt y pe , o n d i f f e ren tg eo log ica l d epo s i t s s uch a st h e s a nd s tone s o ft h e e a s t Wa rw ick sh i r e p l a t eau . A tt wo o ft h e s i te s f r om w h ich t h e m e so l i th ic a s semb lage s h ave b een p ub l i shed ( Sav i l le , 1 981 ) , C o r ley R o ck a nd O ve r Wh i ta c re s i te 4 ,b o th q ua r tz i te f l ake s a nd c o re s h ave b e en f o und i ns ma l ln umbe r s . T he se p i ece s a r e i n af r e sh , u n ro l led c ond i t ion , a nd t h e re s e em s l i t t le d oub t t h a t t h ey a r e t ob e i n te rp r e ted a st h e r e su l t o fd e l ibe ra t e u t i l iza t ion o fq ua r tz i t e p ebb le s d ur ing t h e l a te r m e so l i th ic .

O ne o f t h e se f l ake s , e xh ib i t ing a s c a r -pa t tern c ompa t ib le w i th

m e so l i th ic t e chno logy , i si l u s t ra t ed h e r e ( F IG . 6 ) .

7 8

T o f u r the r c omp l ica te t h e p i c ture , t h e re a r e af ew e xamp le s i nt h e Wa i te C o l lec t ion o f h eav i ly r o l led m e so l i th ic f l in t i mp lemen t s , i n c lud ing m icro l i th s ( Sav i l le , 1 981 , 5 8 ) .

T he se p i ece s , p re sumab ly

s ub jec ted t oe x t reme ly u nu sua l c ond i t ion s i n as t ream -bed o r s im i la r l o ca t ion , n eve r the le ss s e rve a s a r em inde rt h a tc au t ion s hou ld a lway s b e a pp l ied t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fs ur f a ce f i nd s . F o rt h e se r ea son s i t w a sf e l ta pp rop r ia t et h a to n ly t h eb i f ace s s hou ld b ei n c luded i nt h eg aze t tee ra ccompany ing t h i s v o lume .

F l in tp a laeo l i th si nt he Wa i te C o l lec t ion F rom t h e s ame c o l le c t ing a r ea a st h eq ua r tz i te s d e sc r ibed h e re , Mr . Wa i te h a s r e cove red l a rge n umbe r s o f h eav i ly s t a ined a nd r o l led f l in t s . T he se i n c lud e s ome 2 9b i f ace s , t h i r teen o fw h ich a r ef r om B ramco te H i l l a nd f i ve f r om L e ice s te rG range , w i th s ma l le rn umbe r s f r om o the rf i nd spo t s w i th in t h e s am e s ma l lz one o f p l e i s tocene d epo s i t s e a s to f Nunea ton . T ypo log ica l ly o ne c an n o te t h e g ene ra l ly s ma l l s i ze o ft h e se f l in t b i f ace s ( t he m ean l e ng th o fe l even b i f ace s f r om B ramco te H i l l i s8 6 mm ) a nd t h e i rb a s ica l ly p o in t ed b u t o f ten v e ry i r regu la r s hape s . A l though g ene ra l ly mo re e x ten s ive ly f l aked t h an t h e q ua r tz i te b i f ace s , i t w ou ld b e d i ff i cu l t t oc ha ra c te r ize t h em a s mo re r e f ined , a nd t h ey a r e c e r ta in ly l e ss s ymme t r ica l . T he se f e a tu re su ndoub ted ly r e su l tf r om t h ep oo rq ua l i ty a nd s ma l ls i ze o ft h ef l in tp ebb le s b e ing e xp lo i ted .

G iven t h e s u r f ace n a tu re o ft h e se f i nd s t h e re i so n ly c i r cum s tan t ia l e v idence t os ugge s tt h a t t h e f l in t a nd q ua r tz i t eb i fa ce s m igh tb ea pp rox ima te ly c on t empo ra ry a nd p a r to ft h es ame i n du s t ry . T aken a tf a ce v a lue , h oweve r , t h e i mba lance b e tween t h e n umbe r s o ff l in t a nd q ua r tz i te b i f ace s wou ld i nd ica te a n i ndu s t ry p ref e ren t ia l ly e xp lo i t ing f l in t r a the r t h an q ua r tz i te , e ven w hen t h e o n ly f l in t a va i lab le w a s o f s uch i n d if f e ren tq ua l i ty t h a t a t temp t s a tr e f inemen t s w e re c l ea r ly o f ten f r u s t ra ted b y f l aw s i nt h e m a te r ia l . O n t h e o the rh and , i tw a s o bv iou s ly p o ss ib le t of l ake t h e u n ifo rm ly s t ruc tu red B un te rp ebb le s , w h ich mu s t h ave b een i na bundan t s upp ly , i n to mo re r e f ined a nd r egu la r s hape s .

P re sumab ly , t h e refo re , t h e f l in t

b i f ace s w e re r ega rded a si ns ome w ay s upe r io rd e sp i t e t h e p rob lems a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e i rp roduc t ion a nd a ppea rance , a nd o ne e xp lana t ion m igh t b e t h a t e ven t h e c rude s t o f f l in t b i f ace s c ou ld r e ta in as ha rpe r w o rk ing e dge o rp o in tt h an aq ua r tz i te o ne ( c f .E van s , 1 897 , 5 81 ) .

T ak ing t h en umbe r so ff l in t a nd q ua r tz i te b i f ace s i nt h e Wa i te C o l lec t ion a st h e b a s i s f o r ac r ude e s t ima te o fq ua r tz i te v e r su s f l in te xp lo i ta t ion i nt h i sr eg ion , t h er a t io o f 1 : 2 .4 ( i .e . 1 2 :29 ) i so b ta ined . T h i s w ou ld s ugge s t , n o tu nexpec ted ly , ag rea te r u sage o fq ua r tz i te f o r b i face p roduc t ion t h an c u r ren t ly d ocumen ted e l sewhe re i nt h eE ng l i sh l owe rp a laeo l i th ic ( Ma cRa e , 1 982 , 8 ;P o snan sky , 1 963 ; T y lde s ley , 1 986 , 8 5 ) .

D i scus s ion Wha t , i fa ny th ing , c an b e s a id a bou t a ny e x terna l c ompa r i son s f o r t h e se p a laeo l i th ie -qua r t z i te s f r om Nunea ton? I ti sc er ta in ly t h ec a se t h a tt h e Nunea ton q ua r tz i te s d i f f e ro n ly i nq uan t i ty r a the r t h an q ua l i ty f r om p rev iou s f i nd s i nt h er eg ion . I s o la ted f i nd s o fq ua r tz i te b i f a ce s h ave c on t inued t ob e m ade s i nce t h e f amou s d i scove ry a tS a l t ley , B i rm ingham i n 1 890 ( Evan s , 1 897 , 5 79 ) , a nd a r e s u mma r ized e l sewhe r e i n t h i s v o lume b y Ma cRae . T he c o l lec t ion o fq ua r tz i te b i f ace s f r om L i t t le A lne , n ea r A lce s te r ( C l if fo rd , 1 943 ) p rov ide s ag ene ra l l o ca l p a ra l le l f o r t h e N unea ton f i nds , a nd i so f i n te re s t i nt h a t t h e L i t t le A lne b i f ace s a r e a l so s u r f ace f i nd s f r om p lough so i l , t hough i nt h i s i n s tance d e r ived f r om r i ve r t e r race g rave l s . Q u i te s pec if ic p a ra l le l s i n s i ze a nd f o rm c an b e d rawn w i th s ome o f t h e p rev iou s l o ca l f i nd s , s uch a s b e tween LG /1 a nd BH /16 a nd o ne o ft h e t wo q ua r t z i te b i f ace s f r om B ag in ton ( Sho t ton , 1 934 , p l a te V I ) , n ow i nC oven t ry Mu seum . I nt h i s c onnec t ion i ti sa l so w o r th n o t ing as ma l l f l in t b i face f r om j u s tn o r th o fC oa lv i l le , L e ice s te r sh i re ( L e ice s te rJ ew ry Wa l l Mu seum A S , 1 98 2/ 1) ,s im i la r i ns i ze t o BH /24 , w h ich

7 9

h a s b een made u s ing t h e s ame s p l i t -pebb le t e chn ique f ound a mong t h eq ua r tz i te t o o l s .

S omewha t f u r the r a f ie ld , t h e q ua r tz i te b i f ace s f r om H i l ton a nd W i l l ing ton i nD e rby sh i re ( Po snan sky , 1 963 ) p rov ide t h e mo s tn o r the r ly E ng l i sh p a ra l le l f o rg roup s o fq ua r tz i te b i f a ce s f r om w e l l -p rovenanced l o ca t ion s , w h i le t h e t e n q ua r tz i te b i f ace s f r om B e r in sf ie ld i nO xfo rd sh i re ( MacRae , 1 982 ) r ep re sen t t h e mo s t r e cen t ly r epo r ted n ew g roup o fp a laeo l i th ic q ua r tz i te s f r om c en t ra l E ng land p r io r t ot h o se f r om N unea ton . T he l a t te ra r eo fp a r t icu la ri n t e re s ts i nce t h ey w e r er e cove red a l ong w i th q ua r tz i te c hoppe r -co r e s a nd f l ake s( J one s , 1 982 ,9 )w h ich p rov ide ad i rec tp a ra l le lf o rt h en on -b if ace ma t e r ia ld e sc r ibed a bove .

F rom t h ep o in to fv i ew o ft ypo log ica lc ompa r i son , h oweve r ,p e rhap st h e mo s ti n te re s t ing ma te r ia lt oh ave b een p ub l i shed r e cen t ly i st h a t f r om Wo lve rco t e i nO xfo rd sh i re ( Ty lde s ley , 1 986 ) . T y lde s ley ' s d e ta i led a na ly s i s o ft h e Wo lve rco te a s semb lage i d en t if ied n i ne c omp le te a nd o ne b roken q ua r tz i te b i f ace s f r om a t o ta l o f 6 1 c omp le te b i f ace s a nd 1 7 b i face f r agmen t s , a nd t h e i lu s t ra t ion s p rov ided i nh e r b ook m ake o bv iou s t h e g ene ra l s im i la r i ty w i th t ho se f r om Nunea ton .

T h i s i sf u r the r b o rne o u t b y t h e m e t r ica l

c ompa r i son g iven i n TABLE 5 ,u s ing as e lec t ion o ft h es ame m ea su remen t s a st a ken b yT y lde s ley ( 1986 , 1 79 ) .

T he se f i gu re s s how ac lo se o ve ra l l c ompa rab i l i ty i ns i ze r ange b e tween t h e N unea ton a nd Wo lve rco te q ua r t z i te b i f ace s . G iven t h ew ide p o ten t ia lr ange o fq ua r tz i te p ebb le s a va i lab le f o ru se , t h i s c ompa rab i l i ty p e rhap sr e la te s t on o mo re t h an c e r ta in u nde r ly ing d e te rm in ing p r inc ip le so fb i f ace manuf a c tu re a sa pp l ied t o t h is r aw ma te r ia l ( e .g . a ve rage h uman h and s ize a nd ' c omfo r tab le ' t oo l -we igh t ) r a the r t h an a ny t ypo log ica l /cu l tu ra l s e lec t iv i ty . Am o re ' s ty l i s t ic ' t ypo log ica l s im i la r i ty m igh t p o ss ib ly b e i n d ica ted b y u s ing o ne o fR oe ' s v e ry b a s ic i ndexe s o fr e f inemen t i nvo lv ing t h e t h ickne s s to -b read th r a t io ( Roe ,1968 , 2 4 ) ,b u tt h i sw ou ld n eed t ob et e s t ed a ga in s tm ea su remen t sf r om aw ide rr a nge o fi mp lemen t s : Wo lve rco t e( Ty lde s ley 1 986 , 8 8 ) m ean T h /B x1 00 f o r 9q ua r tz i te b i f ace s =4 7 ±1 0 N unea ton m ean T h /B x 1 00 f o r 1 2

"

"

=5 2± 7

T he Wo lve r co te q ua r tz i te b i f ace s c ou ld p e rhap s b e s e en a ss l igh t ly mo re r ef ined t h an t h eN unea ton o ne s , w i th r ega rd t ot h e i rp lanfo rm s , t h inne s s , o ve ra l l s ymme t ry , a nd e x ten t o fr e touch ( Ty lde s ley , 1 986 , f i g s . 2 . 72 -2 . 81) , a nd t h i s wou ld c e r ta in ly b e t h ec a se w i th t h ef l in tb i f ace s f r om t h e t wo c o l lec t ion s , s i nce t h e N unea ton e xamp le s i n c lud en o th ing t om a tch t h e' c la s s ic ' Wo lve r co te t ype o f' s l ippe r shaped 'b i f ace .

C hrono logy T he p o in t h a s r e cen t ly b een made q u i te c a tegor ica l ly t h a t ' t he u se o f t h e t ypo logy o ff l in t i ndu s t r ie s a s t empo ra l i nd ica to r s mu s t , f o r t h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic a tl e a s t , b e r e je c ted ' (Wyme r , 1 986 , 1 03 ) . I ft h i s i s s of o rf l in tb i fa ce s ,i tmu s tb ee ven mo re a pp l icab le i nt h ec a se o fq ua r tz i te s ,w h ich c l ea r ly d on o te v idence a ny th ing l i ke t h e t ypo log ica l v a r ie ty o ft h e f l in t ' h andaxe ' . T he f l in t b i f ace s f r om t h e s ame N unea ton l o ca t ion s e xh ib i t ar ange o f f o rm s a nd t r a i t s w h ich m igh t i nt h e p a s t h ave e l ic i ted d e s igna t ion s f r om ' Abbev i l l ian ' t o' Mou s te r ian ' . T he a b sence o fa ny L eva l lo i s t r a i t s a mong t h e f l in t o rq ua r tz i te a r tefa c t s , h oweve r ,c omb ined w i th t h e' M idd le A cheu l ian '( Roe , 1 986 )c ha rac te ro f mo s to ft h ef l in ti mp lemen t s , c an b e u sed t oc ha ra c te r ize t h eq ua r tz i te b i f a ce s s a f e ly a sl owe rp a laeo l i th ic , a nd p robab ly e a r l ie rr a the r t h an l a t e r , b u tw ha tm igh tt h i s m ean c h rono log ica l ly?

8 0

E ven i ft ypo log ica l c ompa r i son s w e re t ob e a dm i t ted , t h e re a ppea rt ob e f ew r e a l ly f i rm d a t ing s f o r l owe r p a laeo l i th ic q ua r tz i t e s i nE ng land . T he t e n ta t ive d a t ing f o r t h e Wo lve rco te C hanne l a s semb lage i sl a t e I p sw ich ian /ea r ly D even s ian ( Ty lde s ley , 1 986 , 8 ) , w h i le t h e b i faces f r om H i l ton a nd W i l l ing ton i n D e rby sh i re h ave b een b road ly r e la ted t o a' Hoxn ian " t empe ra te s t age ( Po snansky , 1 963 ) , a s mo re c onv inc ing ly h ave b een t h e s t ra t if ied f l in t b i f ace s f r om We l ton le - Wo ld i nL inco ln sh i re (Wyme r a nd S t raw , 1 977 ) . T he w r i te r i su nawa re o f a ny B r i t i sh q ua r tz i te b i f ace s f o r w h ich a n A ng l ian c on tex t h a s b een s ugge s ted , t hough ' E a r ly A cheu l ian ' f l in tb i f ace so fA ng l ian a ge a r e a ccep ted ( Roe , 1 986 ,4 ) .

I nt h e a b sence o fa ny o the rc h rono log ica l ma rke r s , t h e f a c tt h a tt h er a the r s oph i s t ica ted h a rd s tone b i f a ce s ( ' Uppe r A cheu l ian w i th L eva l lo i s ' ) f r om P on tnewydd i nn o r th Wa le s a r e d a ted t oa n i n te rg lac ia l p e r iod b efo re c .2 25 ,000 y ea r sa go ( G reen , 1 984 ) i sa n a t t rac t ive s t raw a tw h ich t oc l u tch .

I n ar e cen t p ub l ica t ion o ft wo o f t h e f l in t p a laeo l i th s f r om t h e Wa i te C o l lec t ion , Is ugge s ted t h a t t h e i r c h rono log ica l c on tex t m igh t b e ' Hoxn ian /ea r ly Wo l s ton ian ' ( Sav i l le , 1 986 , 5 ) , r a ther t han t h e ' I p sw ich ian /ea r ly D even s ian ' c on tex tp rev iou s ly p o s tu la ted ( Sav i l le a nd S ho t ton , 1 974 , 2 44 ) . P rof e s so r S ho t ton h a s n ow t ho rough ly r ev iewed t h e g eo log ica l p o s i t ion i n h i s a r t ic le i n t h is v o lume , a nd h a s c onc luded t h a tt h eN unea ton f i nd s a r el i ke ly t ob eo lde rt h an t h eO adby g l ac ia le p i sode , a nd w e re p robab ly i n c luded w i th in t h e Wig s ton G rave l ( = Wo l s ton S and ) b y e ro s ion o f ap rev iou s l a nd s u r f ace , w h ich mu s t h ave b een o fe a r ly ' Wo l s ton ian ' , Hoxn ian , o re a r l ie rd a te . T h i s , a tt h e mom en t , i sw he re t h e m a t te r m u s t r e s t , w i th t h e s ugges t ion , w h ich i s i n r ea l i ty l i t t le mo re t h an a g ue ss b a sed o n t h e P on tnewydd c h rono logy , t h a t t h e Nunea ton q ua rt z i te s ( a nd t h e f l in t b i face s ) a r e c oeva l w i th , o r o lde r t h an , o xygen i s o tope s t age 7 ( z . 2 51 ,000 -1 95 ,000 B P ) . T he i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e d a t ing o f t h e se b i f ace s o f R o se ' s r e a s se s smen to f t h e ' Wo l s ton ian ' ( Ro se , 1 987 ) , w h ich wou ld r e c la ss ify t h e Wo l s ton S and a so fA ng l ian g l ac ia la ge ,h ave y e tt ob ec on s id e r ed .

C onc lus ion T he w ide rs i gn if icance o ft h eN unea ton f i nd s f o r t h e s t udy o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fp a laeo l i th ic e v idence i n B r i ta in a nd i t s i mp l ica t ion s f o r h uman s e t t lemen t w i l l b e c ommen t ed u pon b y J ohn Wyme r i nh i s p ape r e l sewhe re i n t h i s v o lume .

T h i s a r t ic le c an b e c l o sed b y r ef lec t ing t h a t M r . Wa i te , b y i ndependen t ly

r ed i scove r ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l w ea l th o fa n a r ea p rev ious ly r e sea rched o ve r 5 0 y ea r s a go b y P rof e sso r S ho t ton a nd c o l league s ( Sho t ton , 1 938 ) , h a s s i ng lehanded ly m u l t ip l ied m any t ime s o ve r t h e a va i lab le e v idence f o rt h ee a r l ie s tp r eh i s to ry o ft h er e g ion . Whe reve rt h eN unea ton p a laeo l i th s m ay h ave o r ig ina ted p r io r t o t h e i r p l e i s tocene r edepo s i t ion a nd s ub sequen t d i s turbance b y p lough ing , t h ey n ow a dd an ew d imen s ion t ot h ef i r s tc hap t e ro f Wa rw ick sh i re p r eh i s to ry .

A cknow l edg emen t s I ti s ap l ea su re t or e co rd t h e h e lp r e ce ived f r om Mr . R . Wa i te a ta l l s t age s o f t h e c omp i la t ion o f t h i s a r t ic le , w h ich f o rm s p a r t o ft h e c on t inu ing d ocumen ta t ion o f h i s e x ten s ive c o l lec t ion . Ia m g ra tef u l t o Mr . J .P icken a t Wa rw ick Mu seum f o r h i s h e lp i nt h e e xam ina t ion o f a r tef ac t s i nh i s c a re , t o Ms . A nne G ra fo fL e ice s te r sh i re Mu seum s f o r s how ing m e t h e C oa lv i l le b i f ace , a nd t o Mr . R . J . MacRae , w ho w a s t h ec a ta ly s ti nt h i s e n te rp r i se , f o rh i s h e lp a nd e n thu s ia s t ic s t imu lus .

A lan S av i l le

8 1

D ecembe r 1 987

F IG . 7 , a& b . Qua r tz i te b i face f r om B ramco te H i l l ( BH /6 ) , d or sa l a nd v en t ra l v i ew s .

S ee F IG . 2 .

C M W O MB 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1

F IG . 8 , a& b . Qua r tz i te b i face f r om B ramco te H i l l ( BH /8 ) , d or sa l a nd v en t ra l v i ew s .

8 2

M O M

S ee F IG . 2 .

F IG . 9 , a& b ( t op L & R ) .

Q ua r tz i te b i face f r om B ram co t e H i l l ( BH /12 ) , d o r sa l & v en t ra l v i ew s .

F IG . 1 , a& b ( l owe r L& R ) .

S ee F IG .2 .

Q ua r tz i te b i face f r om A bbey F a rm s i te 1( AF1 /1) , d o r sa l & v en t ra l v i ew s . S ee F IG .3 .

8 3

F IG . 1 0 , a& b . Q ua r tz i te b i face s f r om B ramco te H i l l ( 1 3 1 1 /16 l e f t ; BH /25 r i gh t ) , d or sa l a nd v en t ra l v i ew s .

8 4

S ee F IG . 2

8 5 L eng th 1 25 mm ;

w e igh t 2 80 g ram s .

8 6

F IG . 1 3 .

Q ua r tz i te b i face f r om L e ice s te r G range ( LG /1) , d or sa l v i ew .

S ee F IG . 3 .

F IG . 1 4 .

1 30 mm x w id th 7 9 m inx t h ickne s s 5 0

Q ua r tz i te f l ake f r om C ops ton S p inney , v en t ra l v i ew . t a l )

0 . )

w e igh t 5 75 g ram s .

A dd endum S ince t h i s a r t ic le w a s w r i t ten Mr . Wa i te h a s d i scove red af u r the r q ua r tz i te b i f ace o n af i e ld s u r f ace a t C a ldeco te ( SP349940 ) ,j u s t t ot h e n o r th o fN unea ton . T h i s i s ap o in ted b i f ace , s im i la r i nt ype t o BH /6 b u ts ho r te ra nd s qua t te r , m ade o n as p l i tp ebb le w i th m in ima lr e touch o n t h ev en t ra l f a ce . T he i mp lemen t i sc omp le te , a nd t h e d im en s ion s a r e : l e ng th 8 2mm , b r ead th 6 9 mm , t h ickne s s 3 2 mm . T he w e igh t i s 1 99 .3 g ram s . I ti sh oped t op ub l i sh t h i s i mp lemen t mo re f u l ly i nd ue c ou r se .

REFERENCES

C l if fo rd , E .M . 1 943 . P a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s f r om L i t t le A lne , A lce s te r , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . , 9 : 5 2 -54 .

C ran shaw , S . , 1 983 . H andaxe s a nd c l eave r s : s e lec ted E ng l i sh A cheu l ian i ndus t r ie s . O xfo rd : BAR B r i t . S e r . 13 .

E van s , S i rJ . , 1 897 . T he a nc ien ts t one i mp lemen t s . w eapon s a nd or namen t s o fG rea tB r i ta in a nd I r e land . ( 2nd e dn . ) . L ondon : L ongman ,G reen , a nd C o .

G reen , H .S . ,

1 984 . P on tnewydd c ave . al owe r p a laeo l i th ic h om in id s i te i n Wa le s :

t h e f i r s t r epo r t .

C a rd if f : N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s .

J one s ,P .R . , 1 982 . T he B e r in sf ie ld q ua r tz i te p a laeo l i th s a nd t h e i rs i gn if icance . O xon ien s ia , 4 7 : 8 11 .

MacRae , R . J . , 1 982 . P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om B er in sf ie ld , O xfo rd sh i re . O xon ien s ig , 4 7 : 1 11 .

P o snan sky ,M . , 1 963 . T he l owe ra nd m idd le p a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s o ft h e E ng l i sh e a s tM id land s . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . , 2 9 : 3 57 -394 .

R oe , D .A . , 1 968 . B r i t i sh l owe r a nd m idd le p a laeo l i th ic h andaxe g roup s . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . , 3 4 : 1 82 .

R oe , D .A . ,

1 986 . T he p a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i nt h e O xfo rd r eg ion . I n : B r igg s , G . , C ook , J .a nd R ow ley ,

T . e d s . T he a r chaeo logy o ft h e O xfo rd r eg ion .

O xfo rd :

O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty D epa r tmen t f o r E x ter na l

S tud ie s , 1 17 .

R o se , J . , 1 987 . S ta tu s o ft h e Wo l s ton ian g l ac ia t ion i nt h e B r i t i sh Q ua ter na ry . Q ua ter na ry N ew s le t te r , 5 3 :

1 9 .

S av i l le , A . , 1 981 . Me so l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s i nc en t ra l E ng land : a n e xp lo ra to ry i n ve s t iga t ion u s ing m ic ro l i th t ypo logy , A rchaeo l . J . , 1 38 : 4 9 -71 .

S av i l le , A . , 1 986 . Two p a laeo l i th s f r om n o r th -ea s t Wa rw ick sh i re . L i th ic s . , 7 : 3 -6 .

8 7

S av i l le , A . & S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 973 .

A n A cheu l ian f l in t h and -axe f r om n ea r B ur ton H a s t ings ,

Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . C oven t ry D i s t . N a tur . H i s t . S c i . S oc . , 4( 7 ) : 2 14 -217 .

S av i l le , A . &S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 974 . Ap a laeo l i th ic h and -axe f r om A bbey F a rm , Wo lvey , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . C oven t ry D i s t . N a tur . H i s t . S c i . S oc . , 4( 8 ) : 2 14 -244 .

S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 934 . S tone i mp lemen t s o f Wa rw ick sh i re . T ran s . P roc . B irm ingham A r chaeo l . S oc . ,

5 8 : 3 7 -52 .

S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 938 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fN eo l i th ic , B ronze A ge a nd I r on A ge r e l ic s a r ound C oven t ry .

P roc . C oven t ry D i s t . N a tur . H i s t . S c i . S oc . , 1( 9 ) : 1 84 -192 .

Sm i th , G . &H a r r i s , D .

1 982 .

T he e xcava t ion o f m e so l i th ic , n eo l i th ic a nd b ronze a ge s e t t lemen t s a t

P o ldow r ian , S t . K eve rne , 1 980 . Co rn i sh A rchaeo logy , 2 1 : 2 3 -66 .

T y lde s ley , J .A . ,

1 986 . T he Wo lve r co te C hanne l h andaxe a s semb lage :

ac ompa ra t ive s t udy . O xfo rd :

BAR B r i t . S e r . 1 53 .

T y lde s ley ,J .A . , 1 987 . T he b ou tc oupe h andaxe : at ypo log ica lp rob lem . O xfo rd : BAR B r i t . S e r . 1 70 .

Wyme r , J . J . , 1 986 . O ve rv iew : r e cen tt r end s i nB r i t i sh p a laeo l i th ic s t ud ie s . I n : C o l lcu t t , S .N . e d . T he p a laeo l i th ic o f B r i ta in a nd i t s n ea re s t n e ighbou r s :

r e cen t t r end s .

S hef f ie ld :

S hef f ie ld Un ive r s i ty

D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry , 1 03 -106 .

Wyme r , J . J . &S t raw , A . , 1 977 . H and -axe s f r om b enea th g l a c ia l t i l l a t We l ton le - Wo ld , L inco ln sh i re , a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fp a laeo l i th s i nB r i ta in . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . , 4 3 : 3 55 -360 .

8 8

THE W OLSTON IAN GEOLOGY OF WAR W ICKSH IRE I N RELAT ION TO LO WER PALAEOL ITH IC S URFACE F INDS I N NORTH WAR W ICKSH IRE

F .W .Sho t ton

A l l t h e a r tefa c t s m en t ioned o rd i scu ssed i nt h e f o r thcom ing p age s w e re p i cked u p b y Mr . R . Wa i te o f N unea ton d ur ing t h e l a s t 1 5 y ea r s o rs o , i n ad i l igen t s ea rch o fp loughed f i e ld s , a l l e a s t o r s ou th -ea s to f N unea ton . T he a r ea h ad b een g eo log ica l ly s u rveyed a sp a r to fS hee t 1 69 b y t h e Gove rnmen tG eo log ica l S urvey p r io rt ot h e f i r s t Wo r ld Wa r , b u t t h e m ap o n t h e s c a le o f 1i n ch t o 1m i le w a s n o tp ub l i shed u n t i l 1 922 .

E a s t o ft h e Wa rw ick sh i re c oa lf ie ld t h e re i sa n e x ten s ive c ove r ing o f' G lac ia l D r i f t ' i nw h ich t h e S u rvey o n ly d i s t ingu i shed t wo c a tego r ie s( a pa r tf r om a ni n s ign if i can tO lde rA l luv ium ) . T he se w e re ' Bou lde rC lay ' a nd ' S and a nd G rave l ' . S ub sequen t ly t h ey w e re t ob e mo re p a r t icu la r i sed , e spec ia l ly i nt h e a ccompany ing Memo i r ( Ea s twood e ta l , 1 923 ) b u t i tw a s v e ry c l ea r f r om t h e m app ing t h a t t h e ma in m a ss o f s and a nd g rave l f o rmed ar ough ly h o r izon ta l l a ye r i n te r s t ra t if ied b e tween a n u ppe r a nd al owe r ' b ou lde r c l ay ' . I n p l ace s t h i s s p l i t s i n to t wo m embe r s w i th i n te rven ing c l ay s b e tween at h icke r u ppe r g rave l a nd at h inne r l owe ro ne .

I tw a sf o r tuna te t h a tt h eo r ig ina l mapp ing w a s c omp le ted w hen t h ec oun t ry s ide w a s u nmod i f ied f a rm land . D ur ing t h e 1 939 -45 w a r al a rge a i rf ie ld c ove r ed a pp rox ima te ly t wo s qua re k i lome t re s o fB ramco te H i l l a nd t h i sw a sr ep la ced l a t e rb yt h ep r e sen ta rmy G amecock B a r ra ck sc ove r ing a bou th a lf t h i s a r ea . C on s ide rab le mod if ica t ion o ft h e l a nd s u r f ace mus t h ave t a ken p l ace . A s a n o bv iou s c o ro l la ry , Mr . Wa i te h a s b een u nab le t ot r ave r se t h ea r ea i nh i s s ea rch f o ra r tef ac t s a nd i nf a c tt h el o ca l i ty ' B ramco te H i l l ' o n s o many o f h i s f i nd s , o n ly r e f e r s t ot h e u na l te red f i e ld s n or th o ft h e B 4114 , L u t te rwo r th R oad , wh ich a r e a bou t9 -14 me t re sb e low t h es umm i to fB ramco te H i l l . T he b ounda r ie s o ft h i s g rave l s hee ta ss hown o nf i g s .1 a nd 2 , a r ev i r tua l ly a ss hown o nt h e 1 923 g eo log ica l map .

Modern w o rk o nt he c la s s i f i ca t ion o ft h eP le i s to cene d epo s i t s T he f ounda t ion f o rs ub sequen t wo rk w a s s e tb y S ho t ton ( 1 953 ) w hen h ee s tab l i shed t h e Wo l s ton ian s e r ie s i nt h ea r ea b e tween C oven t ry ,R ugby a nd L eam ing ton . I nt h es ucce s s ion o fr e gu la r ly s t ra t if ied d epo s i t s h e e s tab l i shed ad e scend ing s ucce ss ion o fD un smo re G rave l , Uppe r Wo l s ton C lay , Wo l s ton S and , L owe r Wo l s ton C lay , B ag in ton S and a nd B ag in ton -L i l l ing ton G rave l .

T he Wo l s ton S and a nd mo s t o f t h e

Wo l s ton C lay w e re o f g l ac io lacus t r ine o r ig in , p onded a ga in s t i c e a dvanc ing s ou thwa rd a n o ld v a l ley w h ich a tt h a t t ime i fu n impeded , wou ld h ave f l owed n o r th -no r th e a s twa rd f r om t h e n e ighbou rhood o f B redon H i l l t owa rd s L e ice s te ra nd b eyond ( t he ' P ro to -Soa r ' ) . F o r t h i s l a ke S ho t ton c o ined t h e t e rm L ake H a r r i son . H e l a te rs howed ( 1 976 ) f r om b o r ing s a l ong t h el i ne o ft h e M69 , t h a tt h e Wo l s ton ian s ucce s s ion c on t inued u nb roken b enea th t h e h i ghe r g round o ft h e m a in E ng l i sh w a te r shed , e a s t o fB edwor th , f o r i t s e a r l ie r m embe r s t o eme rge a to u tc rop a ga in a st h ey a pp roach L e ice s te r . I ti si nt h e se n o r thern o u tc rop s t h a to ccu rt h eA cheu l ian a r t ef a c t s d ea l tw i th i nt h i s p ape r .

B y t h i s t ime i th ad b een r e cogn i sed t h a t t h e l owe s t m embe r o ft h e L owe r Wo l s ton C lay w a s i nf a c t a g l ac ia l t i l l . T h i s h ad b een r e cogn i sed b y R ice ( 1968 ) a nd h e h ad g iven i tt h e n ame , T h ru ss ing ton T i l l .

8 9

4 0

4 0

9 0

9 0

A bbey F arm

• S he lford F arm A •

A C ops ton F arm

•

B ramcote H i l l \ : LJ •

Wo lvey

8 5 4 0

Wo lvey

L odge

8 5 4 0

F i g 1.

F igs . 1& 2 .

Map s how ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e Wigs ton G rave l ( do t ted ) a nd ' Bou lder C lay ' ( undo t ted )

a pprox ima te ly f o l low ing t he l i nes o f G eo log ica l S hee t 1 69 . b lack s po t s ( f l in t ) .

H andaxes i nd ica ted b y t r iang les ( qua r tz i te ) a nd

B roken l i ne p a ra l le l t o Wa t l ing S t ree t -L e ices ter sh ire / Wa rw icksh ire B ounda ry .

9 0

5 0

4 5

9 0

C laybrooke Magna

C louds ley Bush

4 5

5 0

F ig . 2 .

9 1

T he d epo s i t so fL ake H a r r i son w e re i mpounded b yt h eT h r u s s ing ton T i l lg l a c ie r , w h ich r e t r ea t ed n o r thwa rd a f t e ra ni n i t ia la dvance t ob ef o l lowed b yt h ea dvance o f as t ronge rg l ac ie rw h ich p u shed f u r the rs ou th t h an t h ee a r l ie rg l ac ie rh ad d one . T h i s d epo s i t ed i nf r on to fi t se lf a no u twa sh p l a in o fs and a nd g r ave l , w h ich i t e ven tua l ly o ve r r an . R i ce n amed t h i sc omp lex o fg l a c ia ld epo s i t st h eO adby T i l l s a nd t h eo u twa sh g r ave l s b enea th , t h eW ig s ton G rave la nd S and . T he l a t t e rm u s ti n co rpo ra t et h em e l ted -ou tc on t en t so fw ha tw a si n t h eO adby g l a c ie r s ,w h ich m u s ti n c lude a ny th ing ( s uch a sa r te f a c t sa nd t h ew a s te p roduc t so fm anu f a c tu r e ) w h ich w e re l y ing a bou t o n t h e l a nd s u r f a ce o ft h a t t im e . H ence a ny i n c luded a r tef ac t s i nt h e W ig s ton G rave lw i l lb eo l de rt h an t h eO adby T i l l s .

F ina l ly D oug la s ( 1 980 ) p ub l i shed a m ap o f t h e ' s andu r ' o r o u twa sh p l a in o f t h e O adby c omp lex o f g l a c ie r s , i nt h o se a r ea s w he re i th ad b een s pa red f r om e r o s ion , a nd i ti sa bou t4 5 km f r om n o r th t os ou th . C lo se t ot h eg l a c ie rf r om w h ich t h em e l tw a te r sc ame t h es a ndu ri sr e p re sen t ed b y ac oa r se g r ave li nw h ich f l in ti s ac ommon c on s t i tuen t , b u ta ti t ss ou the rn e nd i ti sr e p r e sen ted o n ly b ys a nd ( Wo l s ton S and ) . T h i s i st h en o rma l b ehav iou ro f as a ndu ra si tf o rm s f u r the ra nd f u r the ra way f r om t h em e l t ing i c e s upp ly ing i t w i th d e t r i tu s . S ub s equ en te v en t si nt h ed ev e lopmen to ft h et o pog raphy S of a rw ha th a s b e en w r i t t en h a s b een as umma ry g eo log ica lh i s to ry o ft h e Wo l s ton ian . I ti si mpo r tan tt o r e a l i se t h a tn o tu n t i l t h ee n t i re s ucce s s ion w i th in t h eP ro to -Soa rh ad b e en d epo s i ted , f r om t h e B ag in ton L i l l ing ton G rave l t ot h eD un smoo r G rave l , d id t h e w a t e r l y ing i nt h e P ro to -Soa r v a l ley e s cape i n to t h e T hame s d ra inage s y s tem . N o t u n t i l t h en w a s t h e A von D ra inage s l ow ly i n i t ia t ed a nd i t s w a te r shed e x tended b ackwa rd s . A t t h e s am e t ime t h e R ive r S oa r w a s r e -e s tab l i sh ing i t se lf a s ad im in i shed r i ve r f l ow ing n o r thwa rd , T h i s l e f tt h em a in E ng l i sh w a te r shed s i tua ted e a s to fB edwo r th ,p rodu c ing o ne o ft h e l a rge s tr i ve rc ap tu re s i nB r i t i sh g eomo rpho logy . T h i s m u s th ave t a ken av e ry l o ng t ime t oe f f ec ta nd t h e t r ue a ge o ft h e W ig s ton G rave l i sf a ro lde r t h an t h e d a t e o fi t sr e -expo su r e o n i t s p re sen t -day p o s i t ion . H ow o ld ? T ha t c an o n ly b e d e t e rm ined b y d a t ing i t s c on ta ined f o s s i l s , w h ich i nt h i s c a se , i n c lude t h e i mp lemen t sm anuf a c tu r ed i ns ome p e r iod ( o rp e r iod s )w i th in t h eA cheu l ian . T ha tt h e a r t e fa c t s a r e t r u ly d e r ived b y w a te rt r an spo r tw h ich c a r r ied t h er e s to ft h e g r ave l a l ong , i sc l ea r f r om t h e i rs t a t eo fw ea r . E ve ryone w ho h a s c o l lec ted a r t ef a c t s f r om w i th in ag r ave lk now s t h a tt h ey c an v a ry i mmen se ly . A l l w i l l h ave l o s t t h e i rr a zo r sha rp c u t t ing e dge s w h ich , i ft h ey a r e m ade o ff l in tt h ey w i l lo r ig inaly h ave h ad , b u tm ay b el i t t le a l t e red b eyond t h a t . O the r s a r ee x t r em e ly b a t t e r ed a tt h e i re dge s a nd m ay b e s moo thed b y w a te r a b ra s ion a lmo s tb eyond r e cogn i t ion a st o o l s . T he re i so ne t y pe o ft o o l w h ich i su nm i s takab le -t h eh andaxe . Whe the rs om eo ft h em a r es os ma l la st ob er e ga rded o n ly a st o y so r s ymbo l s i sd i spu tab le b u tt h e l a rge ro ne s c e r ta in ly w e r e u sed f o rp rac t ica l p r upo se s . T he se a r et h e o n ly c l a s s o f a r t ef a c t s hown o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion m ap s , f i g s . 1a nd 2 . O the r c o re t o o l s o ccu r a nd af a i r ly c ommon o ne i st h ec hoppe r , o f ten m ade f r om q ua r t z i te b ecau se o fi t st o ughne s s . When i ti sf a sh ioned b y s e ve ra l b l ow s c om ing f r om b o th s i de s o ft h e c u t t ing e dge ,r e cogn i t ion o fw ha tw a s i t su s ei sn o td i f f icu l t , b u ti n d ec i s ion a r i se sw hen t h e' c o r e 'o n ly h a so ne o rt wo f l ake sr emoved . A ccep t ing t h e f a c t t h a t a l t h e ' h uman ' m a te r ia l h a s b een w a t e r t ran spo r t ed a nd i sn o tw he r e f a b r ica t ion t o ok p l a ce , i tf o l low s t h a t t h e re mu s t b e a n a bundance o ff l ake s r a ng ing f r om t h o se w h ich a r e c l ea r ly r e cogn i sab le a ss u ch t oo t he r s s o' k nocked a bou t ' t h a tt h ey c anno tw i th c onf idence b ea s s igned t o ah um an o r ig in . F aced w i th t h e s c o re s o fw a s t e f l ake s w h ich h ave b een c l a im ed f r om t ime t ot im e , i ti su n l ike ly

9 2

t h a ta ny t wo e xpe r t s w ou ld m ake t h e s ame s e lec t ion . A l l t h a tc an b e s a id i st h a tt h ew a s te p roduc t s o ft h e m anufac tu re o fs p lend id a r tef ac t s s uch a sh andaxe s , mu s th ave b een p i cked u pb y t h eO adby g l ac ie r s a nd l i be ra ted i n to i t ss andu r ,u ndoub t ed ly i ng r ea te rn umbe r s t h an e l egan t ly f i n i shed t oo l s .

G eo log ica l r ea sons h ave b een g i ven f o r b e l iev ing t h a t t h e A cheu l ian i mp lemen t s w e re p i cked u p a nd c a r r ied b y ag l ac ie r , i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e o u twa sh f r om t h a t g l ac ie r , c ove red b y t h e t i l l a nd n o t u n t i l t h e s ed imen ta ry d epo s i t s o n t h e s i te o fL ake H a r r i son w e re e r oded , a st h e A von r i ve rs y s t em d eve loped a nd a r e l ic o ft h e P ro to -Soa r r edeve loped , w a s t h e p re sen t t opog raphy r evea led i ns ome th ing l i ke i t s p re sen t f o rm . On t h a tt opog raphy d ur ing t h el a s t 8m i l len ia o rs o , w e re d ropped Me so l i th ic ,N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge s t one i mp lemen t s . T hey a r eo ff l in t , c omp le te ly s ha rp , u na f f ec ted b y f r o s ta nd u npa t ina ted . I nv i v id c on t ra s ta r et h eA cheu l ian t o o l s , t h o se o ff l in ts how ing t h e mo s te f f ec t s o fo ld a ge s i nce t ho se o fq ua r tz i te d o n o t s how s im i la r s i gn s o f a ge ing . Mo s t o f t h e f l in t s h ave as t rong ly d eve loped p a t ina -i n as ma l l p ropo r t ion i ti sw h i te , i n mo s ti ti sd eep ly i r on s ta ined . F ro s ts pa l l ing a f te r manuf ac tu re i sc ommon , a nd o r ig ina l f r o s t c r ack s a r e f r equen t w h ich h ave o f ten p reven ted t h e c omp le t ion o f ah andaxe .

T he se

i mp lemen t sb e long t o al o ng -d i s tan tt ime w hen c l ima te a nd t opog raphy w e re v e ry d if e ren tf r om w ha tt h ey w e re af ew t hou sand y ea r s a go . T hey w e re n o tm ade o n s i te a nd w e re n o td ropped w he re t h ey h ave b e en f ound o n t h ep re sen tl a nd s u r f ace b ecau se t h a tl a nd s u r f ace d id n o te x i s t w hen t h eA cheu l ian s m ade t h e i r t o o l s , s omewhe re n o r th o f Wa rw ick sh i re .

O nf i g s . 1a nd 2w h ich s how t h e f i nd s po t s o n ly o fh andaxe s , t h e re a r e t h ree a ppa r en ta noma l ie s . Two o f t h e se l i e as ho r td i s tance o u t s ide t h e m apped l im i t o f t h e Wig s ton G rave l n o r th o fB ramco te H i l l . Mr . Wa i te c e r ta in ly p i cked t h e se u p i nf i e ld s w h ich h ave ag rave l s o i l , s o t h e e xp lana t ion c ou ld b e t h a t t h e o r ig ina l s urveyo r s m igh tu sefu l ly h ave c a r r ied t h e i r b ounda ry f u r the rn o r th . A n e xcava t ion w h ich Ih ad d one o no ne o ft h e i mp lemen t if e rou s f i e ld s n o r th o ft h e r oad B 4114 s howed o n ly at h in g rave l ly s o i l o n s t one le s sc l ay ,t h ep roduc to fL ake H a r r i ion . C ond i t ion sc ou ld h a rd ly b e m o re f a vou rab le f o rt h eg rave lo f B ramco te H i l l t o s o l if luc t o n t h is c l ay f ounda t ion ( a p roce ss f o rme r ly k nown a s ' h i l l c r eep ' ) .

T he

s u rveyo r s m igh t h ave d ec ided t oe nd t h e e x ten t o f t h e g rave l o u tc rop w h i l s t h igh ly g rave l ly s o i l s t i l l o ccu r r ed o nt h ef i e ld . C e r ta in ly Mr . Wa i te p i cked u pt h eh andaxe si nf i e ld s w h ich h er e ga rded a ss t ony .

T he o t he r a noma ly i st h e f l in th andaxe w h ich w a s p i cked u p a bou t7 00m n o r th o f Wo lvey L odge . T h i s l o ca l i ty i si na n a r ea m apped a s' b ou lde rc l ay ' w h ich i si nf a c ts o -i ts hou ld b eO adby T i l l . Mo re t h an o ne e xp lana t ion i sp o s s ib le : 1 .

S ince t h e a r tefac t s w e re d epo s i ted i n t h e o u twa sh f an o f ag lac ie r b y t h e m e l t ing o f t h e g l a c ie ri t se lf , t h e re i sn or e a son w hy c ome i mp lemen t s s hou ld n o ta l so r ema in i nt h e t i l l .

2 .

T he a c tua l mapp ing o f t h e t i l l i s s uch t ha t i t a ppea r s t o r un c on t ra ry t o i t s n orma l b ehav iou r , i . e . w i th a mo re o r l e ss h o r izon ta l o r g en t ly i n c l ined c on tac t w i th t h e u nde r ly ing Wigs ton G rave l .

I n s tead i tc ou ld b e i n te rp re ted a s p lough ing i n to t h e g rave l .

T h i s a ga in i s

an o rma lp o ss ib le b ehav iou r . 3 .

Mr . Wa i te r e co rded ap a tch o f g rave l a r ound t h e f i nd s po t .

T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e re m igh t b e

a n e r ro r i n t h e m app ing , o r e ven t h a t t h e re m igh t b e g l ac i tec ton ic c omp l ica t ion s h e re .

S uch

a r e c e r ta in ly k nown i n ab e l t w he re t h e O adby G lac ier p ushe s i n to e a r l ie r d epo s i t s , p roduc ing o ve r thrus t ing a nd o ve rfo ld ing o f t h e se , wh ich c ou ld d efy mapp ing b y n o rma l s u rf ace e xam ina t ion ( s ee R ice i n S ho t ton 1 977 ) .

9 3

Howeve r , t h is b e l t i se n t i re ly n o r th o f t h e

a r ea u nde rd i scu s s ion a nd i sh a rd ly l i ke ly t oh ave a f f ec ted m a t te r sh e re . O n t h e w ho le Ii n c l ine t ot h eb e l ie ft h a tt h i s p a r t icu la rh andaxe w a s s t i l l i nt h eO adby T i l l , i nw h ich al e n s o fg rave l w ou ld b e q u i te n o rma l . T h i s m igh t a l so e xp la in t h e g r ea tp o s t -manuf ac tu re d amage w h ich t h e a r te f a c th a ss u s ta ined .

S o , o fa bou t2 3 f l in th andaxe s o fw h ich w ek now t h el o ca t ion s , a tl e a s t2 0 a r ed ef in i te ly s i ted o no u tc rop s o fW ig s ton G rave l , a nd a l l 1 6 q ua r tz i te o ne s c ome f r om s im i la r s i tua t ion s . T h i s s umma ry c onv ince s m e t h a t , w ha teve r p er iod s o ft h e A cheu l ian c ove r t h e N o r th Wa rw ick sh i re p a laeo l i th s w h ich M r . Wa i te h a s c o l le c ted o ve rs om any y ea r s ,t h ey d e f in i t e ly a r eo l de rt h an t h eO adby g l a c ia le p i sode .

REFERENCES

Doug la s , T .D . , 1 980 .

T he Q ua te rna ry d epo s i t s o f w e s tern L e ice s te r sh i re , P h i l . T ran s . R . S oc . L ond .

B .258 : 2 59 -286 .

E a s twood , T . , G ib son , W . , C an t r i l l , T .C , & Wh i tehead , T .H . , 1 923 . T he g eo logy o ft h e c oun t ry a r ound C oven t ry . Mem . g eo l . S urv . U .K .

R ice , R .J . , 1 968 . T he Q ua t er na ry d epo s i t s o fC en t ra lL e ice s te r sh i re . P h i l . T ran s . R . S oc . L ond . A2 62 : 4 59 -509 .

S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 953 . T he P le i s tocene d epo s i t s o ft h e a r ea b e tween C oven t ry , R ugby a nd L eam ing ton .

P h i l . T rans . R .Soc .Lond . B2 37 :209 -260 .

S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 976 .

Amp l if ica t ion o f t h e Wo l s ton ian S tage o f t h e B r i t i sh P le i s tocene .

G eo l . Mag .

13 :241-250 .

S ho t ton ,F .W . , 1 977 . T he E ng l i sh M id land s . G u idebook f o rE xcu r s ion A 2 , XI NQUA C ong re s s .

9 4

THE PALAEOL ITH IC ARTEFACTS OF WAR W ICKSHIRE

R .J . MacRae

I nl o ok ing a tt h ee v idence f o rt h ep ene t ra t ion o fp eop le o ft h eO ld S tone A ge i n to t h e a r ea b eyond t h eu ppe r T hame s ,n ow t h eS ou th M id land s o fB r i ta in , o ne i si r re s i s t ib ly d rawn t ot h ew o rk o fo ne m an . F o r a lmo s t s i x ty y ea r s F .W .Sho t ton , b efo re , d ur ing a nd s i nce h i s l o ng t e rm a sP rof e sso ro fG eo logy a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham , h a s ma in ta ined au n ique p o s i t ion i nM id land s p a laeo l i th ic s t ud ie s , i nt h a te ve ry s i t e , e ve ry f i nd h a s b een i nve s t iga ted b y h im a nd i n m any c a se s p ub l i shed e i the r b y h im o r u nde r h i s a eg i s . T he f o l low ing o u t l ine o fp a laeo l i th ic f i nd s a nd f i nd spo t s i n Wa rw ick sh i re ( and o ne i nS h rop sh i re ) h a s b een c omp i led w i th h i s h e lp a nd a pp rova l .

E l sewhe re i n t h is v o lume i sa n a ccoun t o f P au l Wh i tehead ' s r ema rkab le r e cove r ie s o f p a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s f r om t h e g rave l s o f t h e L owe r A von v a l ley i n Wo rce s te r sh i re a nd G louce s te r sh i re , mo s t a t t r ibu t ed t ot h e Wa rw ick sh i r e A von t e r race sN o 2a nd 4 . P ro f e s so rS ho t ton h a sp o in ted o u t( p e r s . c omm . ) i nt h i sr e spe c tt h a t" s ince a l l t h e se a r te f ac t s a r e d e r ived , t h ey a r e a l le a r l ie rt h an t h e t e r race g rave l i nw h ich t h ey w e re f ound . No 2T e r race i sw e l ld a ted a ta bou t3 0 ,000 y ea r s , a nd No 4i sp robab ly e a r ly D even s ian " . N o t u n t i l a f te r t h e Wo l s ton ian s ed imen ta t ion w a s t h e A von e s tab l i shed i nt h e o ppo s i te d i rec t ion t ot h e P ro to -Soa r( s ee S ho t ton i nt h i s v o lume ) . .

A s i ns ome o the r c on t r ibu t ion s t ot h i s s t udy , t h i s s e c t ion i sp r ima r i ly c once rned w i th e a r ly P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion o fa r ea sf o rme r ly s uppo sed t ob e a lmo s tb a re o ft r ace so fs uch p re sence . T he r ef o re f l in ta nd h a rd r o ck a r tef a c t s a r e d ea l tw i th t o ge the r t og i ve a s a ccu ra te an ume r ica l a ccoun t a sp o s s ib le . B u t i tw i l l b e s e en a to nce t h a t t h e p ropo r t ion o fq ua r tz i te a nd o the rn on -f l in t f i nd s i s much g rea te r t h an i na ny r eg ion s ou th a nd e a s t o ft h e C h i l te rn H i l l s . T he re a r e 1 30 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic f l in t a r tefac t s r e co rded s o f a r i n Wa rw ick sh i re a l one , p lu s 8 7 o fq ua r tz i te a nd o the rr ock s . A l l a r e g rave lp i to rs u r fa ce f i nd s a nd u pt on ow n op r ima ry c on tex ts i te s h ave b e en i d en t i f ied .

T he F ir s tD is covery I nt h eh i s to ry o fp reh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy t h eS a l t ley q ua r tz i t e h anda xe h a s as pec ia lp la ce . T he i mp lemen t w a s d e scr ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted b y S i rJ ohn E van s i n 1 897 a st h e f i r s t O ld S tone A ge i mp lemen t f ound i n Wa rw ick sh i re .

T he S a l t ley h andaxe d i sp lay s ac ha rac te r i s t ic o f many o f i t s k ind i nt h a t ap a r t o ft h e

o r ig ina l r ounded s u r face o ft h e p ebb le w a s l e f t t of i t i n to t h e p a lm o ft h e h and . " Be ing ag ranu la rr ock , q ua r tz i te c anno tp roduce ar a zo r sha rp e dge b e tween t wo f l ake sca r s , b u ti ti s much t o ughe rt h an f l in t a nd t h e r efo re l e s sp rone t oa cc iden ta lc ro s s -f ra c tu re i nu se . " ( Sho t ton , p e r s .c omm . ) .

N ow ,n ea r ly ac en tu ry l a te r , as e cond q ua r tz i te h andaxe h a st ur ned u pi n ag a rden a tO sco t t ,j u s tt h ree m i le s n o r th o f S a l t ley ( f ig . 1 ) .

T he i mp lemen t s a r e r ema rkab ly s im i la r , a nd , S ho t ton b e l ieve s , t h ey h ave a

c ommon o r ig in . T he l a te s t f i nd l a y o n t h e o u tc rop o f g l ac ia l g rave l s w h ich c ove r much o f t h e h ighe r g round o ft h e B i rm ingham a r ea . T he i mp lem en t i sw a te r -wo rn , as t a te a t t r ibu tab le t of l uv ia l t r an spo r t d u r ing t h e t ime w hen t h e g rave l s w e re b e ing d epo s i ted . T hu s , t h e h andaxe i so lde r t h an t h e a ge o ft h e g r ave l s a nd w a s n o t i nt h e p l ace o f i t s o r ig ina l m anuf ac tu re . T he S a l t ley s i te , o nce b y t h e b ank s o ft h e R ive r R ea , h a s l o ng s i nce d i sappea red . S ho t ton ' s a s se s smen t o ft h e g eo log ica l s i gn if icance o ft h e se t wo

9 5

9 6 Q ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om O sco t t .

h andaxe si n vo lve s t h eG eo log ica l S u rvey ' sr e co rd ing o fp a t che s o fb ou lde rc l ay l y ing o nt h e se g r ave l s a nd i f t h i s i ss o , t h e g rave l s m u s t b e o lde r t h an t h e t i l l . " I t i sk nown " , h e s ay s " t ha t t h e L a s tG la c ia t ion d id n o t r e a ch B i rm ingham , s o a ny t i l l i nt h e B i rm ingham a r ea m u s t b e a tl e a s t a so ld a s Wo l s ton ian . Wh i le i ti s p o ss ib le t h a t g rave l s y ounge r t h an t h i s m ay h ave b een d epo s i ted o n t h e r i ve r ' s a nc ien t f l oodp la in a nd s ubsequen t ly l e f t b y i t s d owncu t t ing , t h e re i sn o r e a son w hy t h e mo re o bv ious a n t iqu i ty s hou ld b e d i srega rded i fw e a s sume t h a tt h e g l ac ia l g r ave l s s hown o n t h e g eo log ica l m ap a r e t h e a dvanc ing o u twa sh g rave l s o f aWo l s ton ian o r a n e a r l ie r g l ac ie r .

Am in imum a ge o f a round 2 00 ,000 y ea r s i st h e refo re

p o s tu la ted " ( Sho t ton , p e r s . c omm . ) .

I nve s t iga t ing t h eC oven try A r ea S ho t ton ' s f i r s t p ub l ica t ion o f i mpo r tance w a s h i s " Pa laeo l i th ic I mp lemen t s f ound n ea r C oven t ry " ( P .P .S .E .A . , 1 930 ) d e sc r ib ing a r tef ac t s f ound i n i n te rg lac ia l g rave l s a tB ag in ton , t wo a nd ah a lf m i le s s ou th o f t h e c i ty . H e l a te r r e a l i sed t h a t t h e d epo s i t i nq ue s t ion w a s i nf a c t No 4 T e r race o f t h e A von s y s tem . H ew a s t h en a n a s s iduou s s eeke ro fh andaxe sb ecau se v e ry f ew , f l in to rq ua r tz i te , w e re a tt h a tt ime k nown f r om Wa rw ick sh i re . H e w a s r ewa rded b y an ow n o tab le h andaxe o fq ua r tz i te f r om as ma l lp i tn ea r t h eR ive rS owe .

I ti s made o n aB un te rp ebb le , s t ra igh t s ided , s l ende ra nd w e l l -po in ted . S ha r ing

h i s e xc i temen tw e re membe r s o ft h e C oven t ry N a tu ra lH i s to ry a nd S c ien t if ic S oc ie ty w ho w e re d ed ica ted h e lpe r s i nt h e s e a rch . V e ry s oon t h ey r e cove red f r om t h e s ame p i t t h ep o in t -end o f af l in th andaxe , af l in t s c rape ra nd al a rge f l in tf l ake , a l lf a i r ly f r e sh . D u r ing t h en ex tf ew y ea r s t h e se g rave l s a tB ag in ton y i e lded s e ve ra l mo re s ma l lf l in ta r te f ac t s . T he p r e sen ta u tho rr emembe r sw i th p l ea su re a ccompany ing F r ed S ho t ton a nd l o ca l a ma teu r s o n o ne o ft h e i r " pa laeo l i th -hun t s ' S uch w a s t h e r a r i ty o fM id land s i mp lemen t s a tt h e t ime t h a t e ve ry f r agmen t w a s p ub l i shed i nd e ta i l w i th c ommen t s b y P ro fe s so r Ma r r , a nd M .C .Bu rk i t t a mong o the r s .

As ma l l f l in th andaxe , s omewha tw a te rwo rn , h ad b een f ound a tB a r fo rdon -Avon i n1 922 , b u tb y t h e m id 1 930 ' s t h e re w a s s t i l l o n ly ah andcoun t o f i mp lemen t s . D r . M .E . T om l in son f ound as e cond q ua r tz i te h andaxe , as ma l lo ne , a tt h eB ag in ton p i ta nd s he l a te rp i cked u p a nu nf in i shed f l in th andaxe i n ag rave lp i t a tT emp le B a l sa 1 1 .

T he m u seum a t Wa rw ick c on ta ins a l a rge , w e l l -made f l in t o va te h andaxe , b u t

u n fo r tuna te ly i t sp rovenance i sn o tk nown , t hough l a be l led "Wa rw ick P le i s tocene G rave l s " .

P ubl i ca t ion o fE a r ly F ind si n Warw i ck sh i re " The S tone I mp lemen t s o f Wa rw ick sh i re " b yF .W .Sho t ton , a ppea red i n1 934 . I ni ta l l t h e f o rego ing f i nd s w e re d e sc r ibed t o ge the rf o rt h ef i r s tt ime , a sw e l la s ar e v iew o f Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e c oun ty . O ne o b se rva t ion i sw or th r epea t ing h e re -" I fo ne d id n o tk now h ow f r equen t ly a s se r t ion s b a sed o n n ega t ive e v idence a r e c on t rad ic ted b y s ub sequen t r e sea rch , o ne w ou ld b e t emp ted t os ugge s t t h a t U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic m an d id n o t p ene t ra te i n to Wa rw ick sh i re " . H a lf ac en tury l a te r w e s t i l l h ave n o e v idence o f t h i sp e r iod .

I nt h es ame p ape rS ho t ton c ommen t s t h a tL owe rP a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s o ccu ri n" g rave l s w h ich h ave h ad s ome t r an spor t f r om an o r the r ly d i rec t ion " a nd g oe s o n t os ay , " . ..w hen A cheu l ian m an l i ved i nt h e M id land s b e fo re t h e d epo s i t ion o ft h e g rave l s i nw h ich h i s i mp lemen t s a r e f ound , l a rge p ebb le s o fg ood q ua l i ty f l in tw ou ld b e d i s t inc t ly r a re . T he a r t ef ac t -make r mu s th ave b een h a rd -p r e s sed t of i nd e nough f l in t f o rh i s n eed s -i nf a c t , h ed i dn o ts ucceed , a nd h ad t ot u rn t oa no the rt ype o fp ebb le w h ich a bound s i nb o th t h es o l id a nd s upe rf ic ia ld epo s i t s o ft h eM id land s . H i sc ho ice w a s t h ew ond er fu l ly rounded q ua r t z i te s o ft h e

9 7

B un t e rb ed s " .

1 934 -1987 : More S i tes , More A r tef ac t s T he Wa rw ick sh i re t o ta l o f i mp lemen t s r e ce ived aw e lcome a dd i t ion w i th t h e p ub l ica t ion b y Mr s . E .M . C l i f fo rd i nP .P .S . 1 943 o fs i x q ua r tz i te a nd t wo f l in t h andaxe s w h ich w e re f ound o n p lough land a tL i t t le A lne n ea rA lce s te r , b y Mr . G .H . S wa in s ton w ho f a rmed t h e re ( f ig 3 ) . T he s i te i so n t h e w e s ts i de o ft h e R ive r A lne , a nd a bou t 2 50 f e e t a bove s e a leve l . Mr s . C l if fo rd s ay s s he h a s o n ly c ho sen t h e " be s t " f o r p ub l ica t ion a nd " i n a dd i t ion t ow h ich t h e re a r e o the r s l e s s w e l l -wo rked " . T he h andaxe s , s ome p o in ted , s ome o va te , a r e n ow i nt h e G eo logy D epa r tmen to fB i rm ingham U n ive r s i ty . T hey a r e w e l l i l u s t ra ted i n Mr s .C l i f fo rd ' sp ape r .

O ve rt h e y ea r s i s o la ted f i nd s o ff l in th andaxe s , u sua l ly s ma l l a nd w o rn , u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e A von T e r race s 2a nd 4 ,w e re made a t We l fo rd -on -Avon , S tone le igh , R ugby , I lm ing ton , We l le sbour n e , Wa rw ick , T idd ing ton , H a rv ing ton , H ea thco te ( Leam ing ton ) , R adfo rd S eme le , B u r ton H a s t ing s a nd C oven t ry . A l l w e re s ubm i t ted t oF red S ho t ton f o rh i s o p in ion , a nd s ome a ppea ri nh i s o cca s iona l p ape r s . I nh i s o p in ion a tt ha t t ime q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s w e re r a re , b u t t h e re t o b e f ound b y d i l igen t s ea r ch .

I n 1 970 , i n

c on junc t ion w i th A . Ha r r i son R eed , h e p ub l i shed a n a ccoun t o f aq ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om C lave r ley , i n S h rop sh i re . I tw a s as ur f ace f i nd , w orn a nd w ind -f ace ted b u tw el -made , a nd i tw a s t h en t h en o r ther nmo s t q ua r tz i te i mp lemen tr e co rd ed ,a nd a t t r ibu ted t oa ne a r ly p ha se o ft h eD even s ian .

I n Wa rw ick sh i re t h e re s eem s t oh ave b een ar e su rgence o fi n t e re s t i nt h e p a laeo l i th ic i nt h e 1 970 ' s w hen Mr . R . Wa i te o f Nunea ton , ad ed ica t ed a nd e ne rge t ic c o l lec to r , f ound ah i the r to u n suspec ted s ou rce o f a r te fa c t si nt h en o r th -ea s to ft h ec oun ty n ea rt h eL e ice s te r sh i re b o rde r . T he g eo logy o ft h ea r ea i se xam ined i nS av i l le a nd S ho t ton ' s 1 973 p ape r . F ew o f Mr . Wa i te ' s f i nd s h ave u n t i l n ow b e en p ub l i shed a nd h e i s s t il mak ing d i scover ie s . I n as ma l l a r ea n o tf a rf r om h i s h ome h e h a s r e cove red 2 9 s ma l l f l in t h andaxe s , s ome r o l led a nd f r o s t -c racked , o the r s f r e sh . I n a dd i t ion , 1 3 q ua r t z i t e h andaxe s h ave n o te s caped h i s e ye . S ho t ton a s s ign s t h e t oo l s t ot h e Wig s ton G rave l , w h ich i s Wo l s ton ian . T he i mpo r tan t Wa i te c o l lec t ion i s d ea l tw i th s epa ra te ly b yS ho t ton a nd S av i l le e l sewhe re i nt h i s v o lume .

A nde s i te a sR aw Ma t er ia l T he c ommone s t a l ter na t ive t of l in tc ho sen b y t h e A cheu l ian h andaxe make r s w a s q ua r tz i te , p r ef e rab ly t h e h eav ie r , c lo se r -g ra ined t ype .

Q ua r tz i t ic r ock s v a ry w ide ly i n d ens i ty a nd i n f l ak ing p rope r t ie s .

O cca s iona l ly o the rf i ne -g ra ined r ock w a s u sed , a nd i n 1 973 , i n ag rave l p i t a tB randon , am agn if icen t ly w o rked h andaxe o fe p ido t ized a nde s i t ic t u f f w a s f ound ( f ig . 4 ) . I tm ea su re s 1 4cm x 8 cm x4 cm a nd i s d e sc r ibed i ng rea td e ta i l( Fenne l l a nd S ho t ton , 1 977 , 1 5 -18 ) . I ti sd e sc r ibed a s" ap o in ted o va te o fm ed ium t h ickne ss " a nd i so n ly s l igh t ly worn b u t h eav i ly p a t ina ted .

T he c u t t ing -edge c on t inue s a l l r ound t h e

i mp lemen t a nd i sn o t ma rked ly s i nuou s . T he r ock f r om wh ich i ti s made i sc er ta in ly ag l ac ia l e r ra t ic o f O rdov ic ian v o lcan ic o r ig in mo s tp robab ly f r om t h eL ake D i s t r ic t . T he h andaxe w a s f ound o n t h e Me rc ian Mud s tone s u rf ace w h ich l a y b enea th t h e wo rked -ou t b a sa l g rave l o f t h e Wo l s ton ian .

H andaxe s o f

p o rphy r i t ic a nde s i te h ave c ome f r om H i l ton i nD e rby sh i re , B eck fo rd i n Wo rce s te r sh i re a nd B e r in sf ie ld i n O xfo rd sh i re , b u ta r ee x t reme ly r a re . A ne ven mo re e l egan ta nde s i t eh andaxe , r e cen t ly f ound a tB randon , i s s ho r t ly t ob e p ub l i shed b y S ho t ton .

9 8

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1 I ND , F ig . 4 . Handaxe o f a nde s i t ic t u f f f r om B randon , Wa rw ick sh i re , f ound i n 1 973 .

,

1 00

N e ed f o r Mo re R e s ea rch T he p re sen tt o ta l o fp a laeo l i th ic a r tef a c t s i nt h e c oun ty h a s , t h en , b e en g rea t ly i n c rea sed i nt h e p a s tt wen ty y ea r s . T he w r i te r h a s af e e l ing t h a to the r s m u s te x i s t u n re co rded , i nt h e p o s se s s ion o fp r iva te c o l le c to r s . T he k nown f i nd spo t s a r e w ide ly s ca t te red , a nd t h e A von g rave l s h ave b een c omme rc ia l ly e xp lo i t ed i nt h e m any s t re tche so ft h er i ve r . T he P le i s tocene g eo logy h a s b een p ub l i shed i nm e t icu lou s d e ta i l . T he refo re i t s e em s s t range t h a t P a laeo l i th ic e v idence h a s n o t b een mo re e ne rge t ica l ly s ough t b y a ma teu r s , w o rk ing a l one o rw i th l o ca l s oc ie t ie s . T he l ow t o ta l o fa r te f ac t s c anno t p o s s ib ly r e f le c t t h e d en s i ty o fP a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion i nt h er e g ion . Wa rw ick sh i re , t h ough a f f ec ted a tt ime s d u r ing t h eP le i s tocene b y s eve re g l a c ia l a nd p er ig lac ia lc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s m u s tn ever the le ss h ave a f fo rded g ood h un t ing /ga the r ing o ppo r tun i t ie s o ve rs eve ra lt empe ra te p er iod so fm any t n i l len ia i nd u ra t ion .

T he r eg ion w a sn o t , p e rhap s , s uch a n a t t ra c t ive t e r ra in a s , s ay , t h eM idd le T hame s a nd l a cked t h ep l en t i fu l s upp l ie s o f e a s i ly -wo rked t oo l ma te r ia l f ound t h e re , b u t i t mu s t o f ten h ave p rov ided a n e nv i ronmen t i n w h ich t h eA cheu l ian w ay o fl i f ew a sp e r f ec t ly f ea s ib le . C ompa red w i th f i nd so fi mp lemen t sf a una lr ema in s i n Wa rw ick sh i re a r e p len t ifu l .

T he p re sen t w r i te r , t o w hom f i e ld w o rk h a s a lway s b een o f t h e f i r s t

i mpo r tance , c an o n ly l amen t t h e a ppa ren ti nd if f e rence o fl o ca l a r chaeo log i s t s t ot h e s t udy o ft h e c oun ty ' s e a r l ie s t i nhab i tan t s .

On ly af ew n o tab le e xcep t ion s t ot h i s a pa thy h ave made i tp o ss ib le t o w r i te t h i s

r ev iew a ta l l . I t wou ld b e p l ea s ing t oh ea r o f an ew g ene ra t ion o f e n thu s ia s t s p repa red t oe xp lo re t h e g r ave l sp read sw h ich r ema in .

A s o ne w ho h a s l ong e xpe r ienced t h e p l ea su re a nd i ndeed e xc i temen t o f s uch a c t iv i ty t h e a u tho r c an c ommend t oy oung a r chaeo log i s t s t h i s s t renuou s b u t r ewa rd ing b ranch o f t h e s t udy o f t h e p a s t .

T hey

s hou ld r emembe ra lway s t oo b ta in a u tho r i ty t ov i s i ts i t e s , t ot a ke s a f e ty p recau t ion s a ga in s tt h et h eh aza rd s o f mode rn g rave le x t rac t ion a nd t or e co rd i nd e ta i l a l lf i nd so rs u spe c t ed f i nd sw i th t h ea pp rop r ia t e mu seum o rU n ive r s i ty d epa r tmen t . T he p re sen ta u tho rh im se lf r e cen t ly v i s i ted t h eC oven t ry a r ea a f te ra n a b sence o f t wen ty y ea r sa nd a lmo s ta to nce ,o nt h eh eap o fd i sca rded s t one e r ra t ic s a t Wave r ley Wood F a rm p i cked u pa s ma l lb u tn i ce ly -made q ua r tz i t eA cheu l ian f l ake too l . A von g rave l s a r ec e r ta in t oc on ta in many mo re s uch a nc ien ts t one i mp lemen t s .

Wa rw ick sh i re ' s i mp lemen t st o ta ls e em st ob e ,o ve rt h el a s th und red y ea r so rs o :

F l in th andaxe s

6 0

F l in tf l ake s

7 0

Q ua r tz i t eh andaxe s

2 4

O the rh a rd r o ck i mp lemen t s

2 6

H a rd r o ck f l ake s

1 8

A l l a r el i ke ly t ob e A cheu l ian . T he re i s ad oub t fu l Mou s ter ian f l ake f r om K en i lwo r th a nd n or e co rd a ta l l o fU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic f i nd s . O f t h e 2 6 n on -f l in t t o o l s m en t ioned a bove , 1 9 a r e q ua r tz i te c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing t o o l s ,p robab ly p a laeo l i th ic a nd f r om t h eN unea ton a r ea ( Sav i l le , t h i s v o lume ) .

1 0 1

A cknow ledg emen t s . G ra t i tude mu s t b e e xp re s sed t oP rof e sso r S ho t ton f o r h e lp i nm any w ay s t owa rd s mak ing t h i s r e co rd o f Wa rw ick sh i re p a laeo l i th s ; a nd t oJ ohn P i ck in , o f t h e Wa rw ick sh i re C oun ty Mu seum f o r a s s i s tance i n t r a c ing a l l k nown i mp lemen t s i nt h ec oun ty .

REFERENCES

C l i f fo rd , E .M . , 1 943 . P a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s f r om L i t t le A lne , A lce s t e r , Wa rw ick sh i re . P .P .S . 5 2 -54 .

E van s , S i rJ . , 1 897 . Anc ien t S tone I mp lemen t s . Weapon s a nd O rnamen t s o fG rea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land . 1 2nd e dn ,r ev ) . L ondon : L , ongman s , G reen & C o . 5 78 -580 .

F enne l l , J . F .M . &S ho t ton ,F .W . , 1 977 . Ah andaxe f r om B randon , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . C oven t ry N a t . H i s t . a nd S c ien t if ic S oc , V o l V :15 -18 .

R e ed ,A .H . &S ho t ton ,F .W . , 1 970 . Aq ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om n ea rC lave r ley , E a s tS h rop sh i re . P roc . B ham .Na t . H i s t . S oc , V o l 2 1 , No 4 :2 43 -249 .

S av i l le , A8 z .S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 973 . S tone I mp lemen t s o f Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . C oven t ry a nd D i s t . N a tura l H i s t . a nd S c ien t if ic S oc . , V o l 1 V : 7 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 930 . P a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s f ound n ea rC oven t ry . P .P .S . , V 1(111 ) : 1 74 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 934 . S tone I mp lemen t s o f Wa rw ick sh i re . T ran s ,Bham ,A rch .Soc . . V o l LV111 : 3 6 -42 .

S ho t ton ,F .W . , 1 960 . Two A cheu l ian i mp lemen t s f r om t h e Wa rw ick sh i re - Wo rce s te r sh i re A von . P roc . C oven t ry N a t . H i s t . a nd S c ien t if ic S oc . , 10 -112 .

S ho t ton F .W . , 1 964 . Two H andaxe s f r om t h e Wa rw ick sh i re A von . T ran s . B ham A rch . S oc . , V o l 7 9 .

S ho t ton ,F .W . , 1 969 . A nA cheu l ian h andaxe f r om N o 4T e r ra ce a tR adfo rd S eme le , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . , C oven t ry N a t . H i s t . a nd S c ien t if ic S oc . , 1 V : 7 8 -9 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 983 . T he Wo l s ton ian S t age o ft h e B r i t i sh P le i s tocene i na nd a round i t s t y pe a r ea o ft h e E ng l i sh M id land s .

O ua te rnary S c ience R ev iew s . V o l 2 :2 61-280 . ( Th i s p ape r g ive s 3 7 r e f e rence s t o

p ub l ica t ion s r e levan tt ot h eg eo logy o f Wa rw ick sh i r e ) .

1 02

LO WER PALAEOL ITH IC ARTEFACTS FRO M THE LO WER VALLEY OF THE WAR W ICKSHIRE AVON

P .F . Wh i tehead

S umma ry L owe rP a laeo l i th ic a r te f a c t sc o l le c t ed b yt h ew r i te rb e twe en 1 972 a nd 1 986 a r ed e scr ibed w i th r e f e rence t o t h ee a r l ie rh i s to ry o fc ompa rab le f i nd s , t h e i rp e t ro logy ,p e t rog raphy , a nd p rovenance .

I n troduc t ion I ti s n ow e xac t ly 9 1 y ea r s s i nce S i r J ohn E van s d e scr ibed a q ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om S a l t ley i n Wa rw ick sh i re , b u t2 5 y ea r s e l ap sed b efo re f u r the r p ub l ica t ion s t ook p l ace . J ack ( 1922 ) d e sc r ibed ar a re o ccu r rence o f ab i fa ce i ns i tu a tB a r fo rd i n Wa rw ick sh i r e , w h i l s ti nt h es ame y ea r ,R .A . Sm i th d e scr ibed a n o va te b i face f r om t he C a r ran t V a l ley n ea r C onde r ton i n Wo rce s te r sh i re .

S ince t h a t t ime , af u r the r 2 7

a r tefac t s h ave b een f o rma l ly p ub l i shed p r inc ipa l ly b y S ho t ton ( 1960 , 1 964 , 1 969 ) i n c lud ing an umbe r f r om t h eA von V a l ley f u r the ru p s t ream ( Sho t ton 1 930 , 1 93 ; F enne l &S ho t ton 1 977 ) .

C l i f fo rd ( 1943 )d e sc r ibed q ua r tz i te a nd f l in tp i e ce sf r om t h es u r fa ce o fA von N o 4t e r race o nt h eR ive rA lne a tL i t t le A lne . I n mo re r e cen t y ea r s , n umbe r s o fL owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r te fac t s h ave b een f ound f u r the r n o r th -ea s ti nt h e Nunea ton a r ea o f Wa rw ick sh i re ( Sho t ton , S av i l le t h i s v o lume ) .

T he v a l ley o ft h eR ive rS ever nh a sp roduced l i t t le i nc ompa r i son . I tm ay s imp ly b e t h a tf u r the rf i e ldwo rk i sr equ i red , o r t h a t T r ia sd e r ived s ed imen t s a r e r e la t ive ly u np roduc t ive , o f f e r ing l i t t le a t t rac t ion t ot h e m ega f auna a nd t h e r efo r ea l so t om an .

Sm i th e ta l . d e sc r ibed 3f l in t b i f ace s f r om t h e S ever n Ma in T e r ra ce a t Wo rce s te r ; S av i l le a nd S ho t ton ( 1 976 )d e sc r ibed aq ua r tz i t eh andaxe f r om H an ley C a s t le ; a nd W i l l iam s ( 1980 )f ound aq ua r tz i t eh andaxe o n t h es u r f ace o ft h e K idde rm in s te rT e r race o ft h e S eve rn a tH ind l ip . Mo rgan ( 1973 ) a nd R eed a nd S ho t ton ( 1 970 )r e co rd i s o la ted f i nd sf u r the rt ot h en o r th a nd e a s t .

Af u r the r i n t r igu ing f i nd m en t ioned b y Wh i tehead ( 1980 ) i st h a t o f ab i fa ce o fw e lded i g n imb r i te , t h e p re sen t w he reabou t s o fw h ich i su nknown , p i cked u p i nt h e C a r ran t V a l ley n ea r B redon ' s H a rdw ick i n 1 965 . Ac l ea rp o ss ib i l i ty i st h a tt h i s h ad b e en s o l if luc t ed d own f r om t h a ta r ea n ea rby k nown a sH a rdw ick B ank ,w h ich i sc apped b ys ed imen t so fA von N o 4t e r ra ce .

A r t ef ac t sf r om t he L ower A von V a l ley ,1 972 -1986 T he f i nd s i t e sa r e ma rked o nF ig . 1 ,a nd t h eg ene ra l i sed p e t ro logy o ft h ef i nd s i sa sf o l low s : S i tes Wor c es t e r sh i r e

F l in t

L owe r Moo r ,A von N o 2T e r ra ce

1

B redon ' sH a rdw ick ,A von No 2T e r ra ce

1

B eck fo rd ,A von No 2T e r ra ce c o r r e la t ive

1 2

A s ton M i l l ,A von No 2T e r race c o r re la t ive

1 5

1 03

Q ua r tz i te

O the r

1 1 5

G louces ter sh i r e

F l in t

Q ua r tz i t e

O the r

Twyn ing , A von N o 2T e r race

0

5

Twyn ing ,A von N o 4T e r ra ce

2 1

3

1

5 0 (75 .7% )

1 4 (21 .2% )

2 (3 .1% )

T he ' o the r 'r ock t ype s a r ed e scr ibed i nt h ei n ven to ry o fa l lt h ep i e ce s ,g i ven b e low .

I nv en tory o fL ow er P a laeol i th ic a r te f ac t s T he i n ven to ry i sa r ranged a sf o l low s . E a ch p i ece i sd e sc r ibed u nde ri t s a cce s s ion n umbe ri nt h e a u tho r ' s c o l lec t ion . Whe re t h ee xac t f i nd s i te i sk nown , a n 0 .S m ap r e f e rence i sg iven . I ft h i s i sp receded b y ' c ' t h ea r tefac tw a s n o tf ound i ns i tu , o therw i se i tw a s . Mea su remen t s ( t aken b y c a l ipe r s ) a r e i nm i l l im e t re s , g iv ing where p o ss ib le , l e ng th , b read th a nd t h ickne ss i n t h a t o rde r .

I n t h e c a se o f f l in t a r te fac t s t h e

c onven t ion ' 3 5% c o r tex ,4 0% c or tex ' e t c .i sa pp l ied w heneve ra ne s t ima te i sp o s s ib le . W i th i t em s o fo the r o ru ncer ta in r aw ma te r ia l s , a nd a r te f ac t st h a th ave s uf f e red t h e rma ld amage , t h ep e rcen tage f i gu re g iven i s t h a tp e rcen tage o ft h ei mp lemen t s t h a th a sn o tb een mod if ied b yh uman ly -ef f e c ted r emova l s . T he n umbe r o fm a jo rr emova l s i sa l so g iven w he re p o s s ib le , a nd t h e r aw m a te r ia l i sd ef ined i n av e ry g ene ra l s en se . D imen s ion s a nd d e ta i l s o fc o r tex a r en o tg i ven i nt h ec a se o fb roken i mp lemen t s .

L ower Moor ,A von N o 2T errace ( Lowe rP a laeol i th ic ) 1 900 . 1 6 . 5 . 1981 . c 978467 . A nc ien t ly s napped p o in ted h andaxe . G rey c he r ty f l in t .

B redon 's H ardw i ck ,A von N o 2T er race ( Lowe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) 1 546 . 1 0 .1 .1980 . c 908356 . We l l made s ub t r iangu la rh andaxe o n af l ake o ff i ne g ra ined p u rp le q ua r tz i te . C o r tex b u t t . 1 2% . c 97x77x36 .L igh t ly r o l led . T he re i sa l so o ne f l in tf l ake f r om t h i s f i nd s po t .

B eck ford ,A von N o 2T errace ( Lowe r ,M idd le a nd E a r ly U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic ) 4 69 .

7 . 8 .1973 . c 984363 . We l lm ade s ub tr iangu la rh andaxe o nf l ake o fg re en f i ne -g ra ined E p ido t i sed P o rphy r i t ic A nde s i te . 1 5% . 12x73x30 . R o l led . F ig . 2 .

4 71 .

2 8 .4 .1973 . L ow a ng le e nd sc rape ro n t h ick f l ake o fg rey c he r ty f l in t . 6 3x53x25 .

137 . 1 5 .6 .1974 . c 98333621 . V e ry l a rge r ef ined o va t eh andaxe , b i la te raly s ymme t r ica lw i th s ponge c av i ty . 0% . 1 57x117x47 . 2 4 r emova l s . G rey c he r ty f l in t . B a t t e red . 157 . 2 9 .6 .1974 . c 983362 . L a rge L eva l lo i s f l ake , g rey c he r ty f l in t . 1 614 . 1 . 1977 . c 983362 . T r iangu la rl ow -ang le f l ake sc rape r ,g r ey c her ty f l in t . 6 1x66x16 . 1 642 . 1 .11 .1977 . c 985362 . B ifa c ia lc o re , w o rked a lr ound ,g r ey c he r ty f l in t . 1 685 . 3 0 .6 .1978 . c 98463632 . E xcep t iona l ly c rude h andaxe , m ade o n at h ick p i ece o fg rey c he r ty f l in t . 1 u ncon t ro l led r emova l s . S ha rp . 4 5% . 1 03x89x37 . 1 697 . 2 5 .2 .1979 . c 98453625 . We l lw o rked mo re o rl e s sc o rd ifo rm h andaxe , h i gh shou lde red , t h in b u t t , a pp roach ing t h e b ou t -coupe t ype . G rey c her ty f l in t . 0% 3 0r emova l s . 9 5x64x26 . 1 739 . 7 . 4 .1980 . c 984363 . O va te h anda xe , b acked c o r tex , g ood b l ack f l in t . 2 5% . 1 8r emova l s . 7 9x67x36 . Al i t t le r o l led . T he re a r e a l so 4f l in tf l ake s f r om t h i s f i nd spo t .

1 04

0

1 4

1 3 1 2 S t ra t fo rd NUMBERS OF F INDS

E vesham

A 5 - 10

• 1— 5

• 1 0 — 2

I 2 0 X

T ewkesbu ry

1 H ind l ip

8 B eck ford

2 Wo rces ter

9 L owe r Moor

3 H an ley Cas t le

1 0 Harv ing ton

4 Twyn ing

1

5 B redon 's

1

01

H a rdw ick

L i t t le A lne

1 2 T idd ing ton

6 -A s ton M i l l

1 3

7 Conder ton

1 4 R ad fo rd S eme le

B ar fo rd a nd H ea thco te

11 0 Kms

F ig . 1 . S eve rn -Avon V a l ley :

1 05

D i s t r ibu t ion o f P a laeo l i th s

A s ton M i l l ,A von N o 2T errace ( Lowe r ,M idd le a nd E a r ly U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic ) 7 42 .

2 2 .3 .1979 . C rude o va te h andaxe ,t h eb u t ti n co rpo ra t ing p re -ex i s t ing t h e rma lf r ac tu r e s . G rey c he r ty f l in t . 1 r emova l s . 8 1x81x30 .

8 40 .

1 5 .12 .1973 . V e ry w e l l m ade p o in ted o va te o n b l a ck f l in t . 1 5% 2 3 r emova l s . 8 5x68x34 .

8 71 .

1 0 .3 .1974 . c 94173552 . Sma l lp lano -convex c o rd ifo rm h andaxe , b u t tt h inned . G rey c he r ty f l in t . F a i r ly s ha rp . 0% . 1 9r emova l s . 7 6x61x33 .

1 434 . 3 0 .1 .1975 . c 94483541 .U nu sua lh andaxe o n f l a tn odu le o f mo t t led a nd b anded f l in t . C o r tex b u t t . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h i s i s amod if ied s t ruck L eva l lo i s c o re . 4 0% . 2 3 r emova l s . 8 2x63x27 . S ha rp . 1 633 . 4 . 9 .1977 . 9 4283586 . O va lu n i f ac ia l h andaxe : v en t ra ls u r f ace i se s sen t ia l ly u n r e touched . G r ey c he r ty f l in t . 1 5% . 5r emova l s . 9 3x77x32 . Al i t t le r o l led . 1 634 . 4 . 9 .1977 . 9 4283586 . We l ls haped e l onga ted o va te h andaxe ,w o rked a l lr ound . O ne s i de s a nd b l a s ted . G rey c he r ty f l in t . 1 5% . 2 8 r emova l s . 18x79x35 . Al i t t le r o l led . 1 635 . 4 . 9 .1977 . 9 4283586 . U nf in i shed h andaxe o nf i ne -g ra ined q ua r tz i te p ebb le , l u s t rou s a nd v en t ef ac t ed , w i th l a ten tf l aw s . 7 5% . 9r emova l s . 18x90x59 . F ig . 3 . 1 636 . 4 . 9 .1977 . c 943358 . S t ruck L eva l lo i s c o re . S ha rp . 1 655 . 2 7 .3 .1978 . c 942358 . V e ry c r ude p o in ted h andaxe w i th ah eavy r ough b u t t , o n t h e rma l ly f r ac tu red g rey c he r ty f l in t . 3 0% . 8r emova l s . 9 0x69x42 . 1 700 . 2 2 .3 .1979 . V e ry c r ude s ma l lp o in ted h andaxe ,b u t tp o in t ed , s omewha ti n t rac tab le g r ey c her ty f l in t . 1 4 r emova l s . 9 9x63x35 . R o l led . 1 770 . 3 1 .8 .1980 . c 946349 . Unf in i shed b i f ace o nc oa r se q ua r tz i te p ebb le . 5 5% . 8r emova l s . 1 893 . 2 9 .3 .1981 . 9 4613492 . L imande , w e l l w o rked o ng ood q ua l i ty b l ack f l in t . 5% . 2 0r emova l s . 9 8x57x21 . B a t te red a nd r o l led . F ig . 1 . 1 915 . 1 3 .6 .1981 . We l lw o rked p o in ted s ub t r iangu la rh andaxe o ng rey c he r ty f l in t . B u t to b l ique ly a nd a nc ien t ly b roken . 1 967 . 2 4 .1 .1982 . c 94693500 . B u t t le s st r iangu la rh andaxe , c oa r se q ua r tz i t e . Wea the r ing a nd v en te fa c t ion h a sp roduced e x ten s ive m ic ro -ex fo l ia t ion so ft h er o ck , a nd n or e a lt r ace so ft h ef l ake s ca r sr ema in . R o l led . 0% . R emova l s u nknown . 2 205 . 2 3 .9 .1984 . c 952353 . L eva l lo i s f l ake . 9 0x43x21 . 2 286 . 1 6 .3 .1985 . c 952353 . Q ua r tz i te c hopp ing t oo l . 5 0% . 9r emova l s . 1 08x77x48 .

l i t t le r o l led .

2 309 . 1 0 .11 .1985 . c 95253564 . H andaxe o n q ua r tz i te p ebb le . 5 0% . 1 r emova l s . 13x95x55 . R o l led . 2 325 . 1 4 .4 .1986 . c 954355 . E xcep t iona l ly c r ude c o rd ifo rm h andaxe o nh eav i ly w ea the red g r ey c he r ty f l in t . 2 5% . 1 r emova l s . Two f l in tf l ake s o ccu rf r om t h i s s i t e .

Twyn ing ,A von N o 2T er race ( Lowe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) 9 49 .

8 . 2 .1975 . c 89613572 . Sma l lh andaxe o n q ua r tz i te p ebb le , a nc ien t ly s napped d i s ta l ly . 3 5% . V e ry r o l led .

1 215 . 2 5 .8 .1974 . 8 9593571 . Q ua r tz i te h andaxe o np ebb le , o b l ique ly t r unca ted d i s ta l ly , b u t tu t i l i sed a s h amme r( ma rked b y a r row i nF ig .4 ) . 3 5% . 9r emova l s , a l l l a rge a nd p r ima ry . 1 30x84x46 . R o l led . 1 355 . 2 3 .11 .1974 . 8 9643575 . Q ua r tz i te f l ake , t r unca ted t or e c tang le . P ebb le s u r f a ce d o r sa l ly . 6 9x71x27 . V e ry r o l led . 1 425 . 2 5 .1 .1975 . c 89623573 . Q ua r t z i t e c hopp ing t o o l , b u th i gh a ng le f l ak ing . 5 0% . 1 3 r emova l s . 12x82x78 . Al i t t le r o l led . F ig . 5 . 1 460 . 1 5 .3 .1975 . 8 9583669 . Ma ss ive c o r t ica l q ua r tz i t e f l ake , f i ve r emova l s . 9 6x100x34 . R o l led .

1 06

Twyn ing ,A von N o 4T er race ( Lowe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) 3 33 .

1 7 .12 .1972 . 8 9453650 . P lanoconvex e l onga ted o va te h andaxe ,r e f ined , b u t t le s s . Uppe rG r een sand C her t . 0% . 3 4r emova l s . Unwea the red ,r o l led . 1 41x82x34 .

3 91 .

1 .3 .1973 . c 89483640 . H eavy b u t ted t w i s ted c o rda te , c o r tex b u t t . G rey c he r ty f l in t ,r o l led , s l igh t ly v en te f ac ted . 2 0% . 9 2x63x39 .

4 08 .

2 5 .3 .1973 . 8 9543652 . Sma l l h andaxe o nq ua r tz i te p ebb le . Ih ave n o t , f o rt h e momen t , b een a b le t ol o ca te t h i s i n my c olec t ion ; i ti st h e re fo re n o tm ea su red .

4 45 .

1 4 .4 .1973 . Sma l lc o rd ifo rm b i face , b e s td e scr ibed a s ac hoppe r . G rey c he r ty f l in t . 8% . 1 6 r emova l s . 6 8x55x30 . R o l led .

4 85 .

1 2 .5 .1973 . 8 9653660 . C o rd ifo rm h andaxe , s ha rpened a l lr ound , h i gh shou lde r ed . G rey c he r ty f l in t . 1 5% . 1 8 r emova l s . 8 0x74x32 . S ha rp .

7 97 .

1 6 .2 .1974 . Sma l ls qua re -end ed o va te ,o ne s i de t h e rma l ly f r ac tu red , t h eo the rw i th l ow -ang le b ipo la r f l ak ing , p o s s ib ly a t yp ica lL eva l lo i sc o re . B lack f l in t . 2 0% . 1 3 r emova l s . 6 6x52x18 .

8 01 .

1 0 .11 .1973 . N a r row p o in tm ade o n at h e rma l f l ake . G rey c he r ty f l in t . 3 7x43x11 .

9 10 .

1 2 .1 .1974 . c 894365 . T h ick f l a tt h e rma l ly f r a c tu red p i ece o ng rey c her ty f l in t . B road n o se c r ea ted b yo ppo sed c oncave e dge s . 7 5x59x25 .

9 12 .

1 2 .1 .1974 . c 894365 . Appa ren t ly as ma l lo va l s t ruck L eva l lo i s l ike c o re , mo t t led p u rp le f l in t . 5 0% . 1 3 s mal r emova l s . 5 7x44x18 .

9 52 .

2 . 2 .1974 . S ubovo id c o re -choppe ro nn odu le o fb l ack f l in t . 7 5x57x38 .

1 202 . 1 7 .8 .1974 . Sma l lc hoppe ro nq ua r tz i te p ebb le , o ne g ood c u t t ing e dge . 3 5% . 1 0r emova l s . 9 1x74x32 . F ig . 6 . 1 485 . 1 2 .4 .1975 . A nc ien t ly s napped o va te h andaxe ,g rey c he r ty f l in t . 1 484 . 1 2 .4 .1975 . P lano -convex o va te h andaxe , g rey c he r ty f l in t . 5% . 1 9r emova l s .9 5x79x34 . 1 487 . 4 . 5 .1975 . c 89523650 . ' B i face p a r t ie l le ' e n su B o rde s . G rey c he r ty f l in t . O ne f a ce i sc ove red b y l ow a ng le i n va s ive b a rh amme rr e touch , s how ing 1 3 s i gn if ican tf l ake sca r s . T he o the rs u r fa ce i s e n t i re ly f r o s ts ha t te red . 6 0% . 8 0 .62 .32 . F ig . 7 . 1 488 . 4 . 5 .1975 . c 89523650 . A nc ien t ly s napped o va te h andaxe , g rey c he r ty f l in t . 1 575 . 1 6 .11 .1975 . c 89523653 . L a rge q ua r tz i te h andaxe o n s p l i tp ebb le . 4 5% . 9r emova l s . 1 42x88x48 . V ery h eav i ly r o l led . F ig . 8 . P lu s 1 0f l in tf l ake s .

A l l a r te fa c t s i nt h e a bove i nven to ry w e re f ound d ur ing t h e e x t ra c t ion o f s and a nd g rave l . T he m e t r ica l a t t r ibu te so f2 8o ft h eb i f ace s a r es hown i nF ig . 1 . Af u r the rv e ry s ma l lo va te h and a xe w a s f ound o n t h e s u r face o ft he w r i te r ' s o wn l a nd a tL i t t le C ombe r ton , Wo rc s . , 9 6694322 .

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P e t ro logy a nd T e chno logy I n t h e i nven tory , C re taceou s f l in t i sd e sc r ibed a s ' g rey c he r ty ' , ' b lack ' , ' mo t t led a nd b anded ' ( 1434 ) , o r ' mo t t led p u rp le ' ( 9 12 ) . N one o ft h i sh a sb een s ub jec ted t om ic ro scop ica le xam ina t ion , a nd n od e sc r ip t ion s a tt h a tl e ve la r ea t temp ted .

T he g rey c her ty f l in t t a ke s ay e l low i sh p a t ina , a nd h a s o paque mo re c oa r se ly c ry s ta l l ine i r regu la r i n c lu s ion s . I tc an , p robab ly i ni t s u nwea the red s t a te , b e made t op roduce e l egan t b i f ace s ( 1 137 , 1 634 , 1 915 ) , b u ts u r fa ce e xpo su re s oon d amage s i t s i n te rna l s t ruc tu re a nd i tb ecome s , f r om t h e p o in to fv i ew o f h uman wo rkman sh ip , q u i te i n t rac tab le .

I tw a s am ea sure o f L owe r P a laeo l i th ic man 's a b i l i ty t o

c omp rom i se i nh i s s e a rch f o ru sab le r ock n o r th -we s to fn a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing C r e taceou sc ha lk t h a te ven s uch w ea the red f l in t w a s n o t p a ssed b y .

7 42 , 8 71 , 1 655 a nd 1 700 d emon s t ra te t h i s c omp rom i se .

S ome

h andaxe sa r ed e f ined b yo n ly af ew p r ima ry f l ake sca r s a nd h ave c l um sy b u t t sd ef ined b yt h e rma lf r ac tu re s .

P o snan sky ( 1963 ) made au sefu l c on t r ibu t ion t ok now ledge o ft h e n a tu re a nd o r ig in o ft h i s g rey c her ty f l in t .

I ti sb e l ieved t o o r ig ina te o n t h e L inco ln sh i re Wo ld s , f r om w he re i tw a s t r an spor ted b y p re -

D even s ian i c e -shee t s . On m e l t ing , t h i s i c e w h ich h ad f i l led t h e P ro to -Soa r v a l ley a nd i mpounded p ro g l ac ia lL ake H a r r i son ( Sho t ton 1 953 ) , m ade t h ef l in tc on ten to fi t s mo ra ine s a va i lab le f o ri n c lu s ion i nt h e A von V aley r i ve rt e r race s . E x i s t ing h andaxe s may a l so h ave b een t r an spo r ted i nt h i s w ay , t h e ma s s ive b a t t e red o va te ( 1 137 )f r om B e ck fo rd b e ing ac l ea rc and ida t e .

O ft h e 5 0a r tef ac t s f a sh ioned i ni ndub i tab le C re taceou s f l in t , 3 8 ( 76% ) a r eo ft h eg rey c her ty t ype , wh i l s t 1 2( 24% ) a r eo fg ood q ua l i ty b l ack f l in t . P o snan sky ( 1963 )a l so r e co rded t h e' mo re o cca s iona l 'u se o fs uch b l ack f l in t i nt h e T ren tV a l ley i nt h e E a s tM id land s . A l though t h e f i n i shed b l a ck f l in t i mp lemen t s f r om t h e A von V a l ley a r e o f ten s ma l l ( 1 739 ,840 ,1893 ) t h ey s how t h a tL owe rP a laeo l i th ic man i nt h e a r ea h ad o cca s iona lo ppo r tun i t ie st op roduce much b e t te rq ua l i ty p roduc t s .

How t h i s b la ck f l in ta r r ived i nt h eL owe rA von V a l ley m ay b e i mpo ss ib le t od e te rm ine . Ac l ue , h oweve r may c ome f r om t h ed i scove ry i nA von No 4t e r race a t Twyn ing o f ah andaxe ( 333 ) f a sh ioned f r om Uppe r G reen sand C he r t . T h i sa ppea r st ob et h e mo s tn o r the r ly e xamp le o fa nA cheu l ian a r te fac to ft h i sr ock . D r . S imon C o l lcu t th a s s ugge s ted ( p e r s . c omm . ) , Ia g ree , t h a tt h el i ke l ihood i st h a tt h i s h andaxe a r r ived a tt h e s i te i n af i n i shed s t a te t h rough t h e a gency o fm an . I ti sn o ti mpo s s ib le , t h e refo re , t h a t s ome h andaxe s o f g ood q ua l i ty b lack C re taceou s f l in t c ou ld h ave b een c a r r ied t o t h e n or th -we s t b y i n cur s ive L owe r P a laeo l i th ic man .

Ih ave a l ready a l luded t ot h eb i f ace f a sh ioned f r om w e lded i g n imb r i te f ound n ea rB redon ' sH a rdw ick , a nd a s ma l l n umbe r o fo the r s a r e n ow k nown t oh ave b een m ade f r om e p ido t i sed p o rphyr i t ic a nde s i te . T he se i n c lude h andaxe s f r om H i l ton i n D e rbysh i re ( Po snan sky 1 963 , F ig . 8 : 5 ) , a nd t wo f r om B randon i n Wa rw ick sh i re ( Fenne l l & S ho t ton 1 977 ; S ho t ton p e r s . c omm . ) .

T he o the r i st h e h andaxe 4 69 f r om

B eck fo rd i n Wo rce s te r sh i re ( F ig . 2 ) , t h e r ock b e ing d e term ined b y P rof e sso r F .W .Sho t ton f r om t h in s ec t ion . T h i s v e ry f i ne -g ra ined O rdov ic ian l a va , h ad i tb een mo re w ide ly a va i lab le w i th in h i s h ab i ta t , wou ld u ndoub ted ly h ave b een f r equen t ly u t i l i sed b y man .

I ta l low s f i ne s econda ry w o rk ing , a nd t h e

p roduc t ion o ff i r s t c l a s s t oo l s , t h e mo s t r e cen t o ft h e t wo B randon f i nd s b e ing q u i te m agn if icen t i nt h i s r e spe c t .

17

T he r ock i t se lf o r ig ina te s i nt h eL ake D i s t r ic to r Wa le s , a nd i ti sl i ke ly t h a t i c e b rough t t h e r aw m a te r ia l i n to t h eB eckfo rd a r ea . I ti sp e r t inen th e re t om en t ion af l ake ( no ti ndub i tab ly o fh uman w o rkman sh ip ) o f v e ry f i ne -g ra ined a nde s i te ( 1 726 ) a l so f r om B e ck fo rd , b ea r ing o no ne s i de c l ea rg l ac ia ls t r iae .

I ti sh oweve r , q ua r tz i te w h ich f o rm s t h ed om inan tn on -f l in tr o ck t ype a mong s tL owe rA von V a l ley L owe r P a laeo l i th s ; 8 7 .5% o fs uch n on -f l in tt o o l s a r eo fq ua r tz i te .

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S ince 7 6% o fL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s i nt h e A von V a l ley a r e f a sh ioned i nf l in t , i tc anno tb ec l a imed t h a t f l in t w a s i ns ho r t s upp ly .

I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t p r io r t ot h e d eve lopmen t o f t r ade a nd t h e s o r t s o f

r ou teway st h a tc ha rac t e r i se l a t e rp reh i s to ry ,L owe rP a laeo l i th ic m an ' sa pp roa ch t or aw m a te r ia li nt h eA von V a l ley w a s t h a to fa n o ppo r tun i s t . T he s or t o fg ood q ua l i ty f l in t t h a t c omp r i sed o n ly 2 4% o ft oo l s w a s a va i lab le n of u r the rt h a t5 0m i le s t ot h e s ou th -ea s t .

C er ta in ly n o ti ns ho r ts upp ly i nt h e A von V a l ley w e re q ua r tz i te p ebb le s d e r ived i nt h e f i r s ti n s tance f r om t h eT r ia s s ic B un te rP ebb le B ed s . T he se q ua r tz i te p ebb le s v a ry c on s ide rab ly i nt e x tu re . C oa r se rq ua r tz i te s w e re f r equen t ly s haped b y af ew p r ima ry b low s ( e .g . 1 215 ,F ig .4 ) , f i ne r tex tu red q ua r tz i t e so f f e r ing s cope f o r amo re t ho roughgo ing a pp roa ch ( e .g . 1 546 , 1 635 , F ig . 3 ) . Ma s s ive f l ake s w e re s ome t ime s c onve r t ed i n to h andaxe s ( 1575 ,F ig .8 )b u t mo r et yp ica l ly p ebb le sw e re w o rked b i f ac ia l ly . Q ua r tz i te f l ake sw e re a l so u t i l i sed a ss uch , a nd m ay h ave b een r e sha rpened ( 1 460 ) .

C lea r ly , L owe r P a laeo l i th ic m an d id n o t a lway s d i sc r im ina te b e tween t h e s u i tab i l i ty o fo ne p ebb le a nd a no the r .

S ome ( e .g . 1 635 ) , o the rw i se p re -em inen t ly s u i tab le , w e re d i sca rded w hen l a ten t f l aw s w e re

e ncoun te red ( F ig . 3 ) , l i kew i se 1 770 , i nw h ich av er t ica l e dge w a s d ef ined , b u t w h ich w a s t h en d i sca rded w i thou tt h ea ch ievemen to fa ny t ypo log ica ls t anda rd i sa t ion .

T he q ua r tz i te c hopp ing too l 1 425 ( F ig . 5 )h a s f l ake sca r s m ak ing h i gh a ng le s f r om t h e i rc ommon e dge o f o r ig in . T h i s w ou ld h ave b e en a n e f f ec t ive t oo l w i th w h ich f o re xamp le t ob reak o pen ma r row -con ta in ing b one so fl a rge mamma l s .

L ow er P a laeo l i th ic a r t ef ac t si nr e la t ion t oA von V a l l ey r i ver t erra ce s . O f9 1 a r t ef ac t s , 5 5% a r e f r om A von No 4 t e r race a nd 4 5% a r e f r om A von No 2 T e r race . A s t h e t a b le s hows , t h e re i sn o p e t ro log ica l d i s t inc t ion b e tween a r tefac t s f r om t h e t wo t e r race l e ve l s .

T he L owe r

P a laeo l i th ic p i ece s t h a to ccu ri nt h e l owe r , y ounge r No 2T e r race s ed imen t s , w h ich a sa n a gg rada t ion a r e e n t i re ly m id -Deven s ian , mu s tb ed e r ived f r om e a r l ie rd epo s i t s , i n many c a se sn od oub tf r om No 4T e r ra ce , e i the rb yd i rec tl a t e ra le ro s ion o fi t ,o rs o l if luc t ion d ownwa rd s f r om i t .

I ti sh oweve r , n ece ssa ry t od raw ad i s t inc t ion b e tween A von N o 2T e r ra ce i ni t s s t r ic t s en se , a nd t h o se

18

c onf luen t t e r race s t h a t a s cend t h e t r i bu ta ry v a l ley s . Wh i l s t t h e i r a gg rada t ion s w i l l e ncompa s s t h e s ame t i me -p e r iod ,t h e i rf l uv ia lr e g im e s , m echan i sm so fa gg rada t ion , s e d im en tl i t ho log ie s a nd e n t i r eb i o ta w i l lb e d i s t inc t . 9% o fL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a r te f ac t so r ig ina t ei nt h et r ue A von N o 2T e r race ,w h i l s t3 6% o r ig ina t e i nt h eC a r ran t Ma in T e r race , i t sN o 2c o r r e la t ive . H e re , a tA s ton M i l la nd a tB eck fo rd , w i th t h ee xcep t ion o f a eo l ian q ua r t z s a nd ( B r igg s , C oope & G i lbe r t son 1 975 ) , t h e t e r race s ed imen t s a r e c ompo sed a lmo s t e n t i r e ly o fl o ca l ly -d e r ived J u ra s s ic r o ck f r agmen t s . T he r e i sa l so aw e l l d i s t r ibu ted , o f t en b a sa l s c a t te ro f B un t e rP ebb le s ,f l i n ta nd o cca s iona li g neou sr o ck sd e r ived f r om o l de rd epo s i t s . A t A s ton M i l l , h oweve r , t h e re w a s am a jo r a nd r e levan t e xcep t ion t o t h i s .

I n 1 976 , c en t red o n

S O /94253570 , e x t end ing i ni t s mo s tm a rked f o rm n o r th sou th f o r3 20m a nd e a s t -we s tf o r 10m , ab ed o f l a rge p ebb le sa nd b ou lde r s wa se ncoun te red b e tween t h et e r ra ce g r ave l sa nd u nd e r ly ing L owe rL ia sC lay . I n i tw e re many s t r ik ing v en tef ac t s , l ump s o f g r ey c her ty f l in t o f u p t o 3 00mm m ax imum d imen s ion , b ou lde r s o f q ua r t z i te , q ua r t z i t ic a s h , C a rbon if e rou s

a nd T r ia ss ic s and s tone s , b a sa l t s , g r i t s , r hyo l i t e s ,

o l iv ine d o le r i t e s ,E skda le g r an i te ,s phe r u l i t ic o b s id ian ,g a rne t if e rou sm ica sch i s ta nd o t he rU r i con ian r o ck s .

As i gn if ican tp ropo r t ion o ft h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a r t e f a c t sf r om A s ton M i l lw e r ea s so c ia t ed w i th t h i sr o ck b ed a nd o t he r s a r e l i ke ly t ob e d e r ived f r om i to r as im i la r s ou r ce . T he r o ck b ed i s ar emnan to f ap r e D even s ian t i l l , r o ck s f r om t h en o r th -we s tb e ing b rough ti nb y g l ac ie r s mov ing f r om t h a td i re c t ion . When o ne r e cal st h a ta lr a d iom e t r ica l ly d a t ed b i ogen ic m a t e r ia l si nA von N o 2T e r ra ce a nd i t s •Ca r r an te qu iva len t f a l lw i th in t h em id -Deven s ian ,t h i sb u r ied t i l r emnan tm ake s t h ee x i s tence o f as ub s tan t ia ln umb e ro fp r e D even s ian h andaxe s i nt h e C a r ran t V a l ley mo r e p l au s ib le .

I tm igh t a l so e xp la in t h e s i gn i f icance o f

' b ou ld e rc l ay 'f o und t ou nde r l ie r i ve rg r ave l sn ea rB e ck f o rd b yR icha rd son ( 1 929 ) . D e sp i te t h i s c oncen t ra t ion o f L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s i n am id -Deven s ian a gg rada t ion i nt h e C a r ran tV a l ley , i ti s No 4T e r ra ce a t Twyn ing t h a th a sp roduced t h eg r ea te s tn umbe ro fa r tef a c t s ,2 5 ,f r om as i ng le s i t e . T h i s i sn o t as u i tab le p l a t fo rm f r om w h ich t oa t temp ta no ve rv iew o ft h eA von V a l ley r i ve r t e r race s , b u ti ti sn e ce s sa ry t om ake s ome r e f e rence t ot h em a nd t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip s . A bove a l luv ium , i n t h eL owe rA von , t h et e r ra ce l e ve l s a r en umbe red f r om 1t o 5i no rde ro fa s cend ing h e igh ta bove t h er i ve r ( Tom l in son , 1 925 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip o f No 3 a nd N o 4T e r ra ce i sc omp lex , a nd w hen S ho t ton ( 1953 , 1 968 ) a ppl ied ac h rono logy t oT o tn l in son ' s s e quence h ea s c r ibed No 3T e r race t ot h eI p sw ich ian w h ich i n p l a ce s c ou ld u nde r l ie am a jo r a gg rada t ion u p t ot h e s u r fa ce o fN o 4T e r ra ce . U s ing f a una l e v id ence c ompounded f r om an umbe ro fs i te s i nt h eA von V a l ley , t h ew ho le w a s o fi n c r ea s ing a ge d ownwa rd s a nd A von N o 4T e r race w a s l i ke ly t ob e e a r ly D even s ian .

We n ow k now (Wh i tehead u npub . ; K een &

B r idg land , 1 968 ) t h a tN o 3T e r race i si n deed I p sw ich ian , a nd t h a t No 4T e r rac e a t Twyn ing y i e lded af u l l g l ac ia l b i o ta , b u t i ts e em s w i se a tt h e p r e sen t n o t t oa pp ly s t age -name s t or e s t r ic ted s i te s i nt h e A von V a l ley , t h ef a una a nd f l o ra o fw h ich i sn o tu namb iguou s ly d i agno s t ic o fs uch as t age . I fN o 4T e r ra ce i s e a r ly -Deven s ian , t h e w r i te r k now s o f n o s e c t ion i n i tt h a t p o s i t ive ly o ve r l ie s t h e I p sw ich ian .

A

g ene ra l i sed s e c t ion t h rough A von N o 4T e r race a t Twyn ing i ss hown i nF ig . 1 0 . T he s e c t ion s a t Twyn ing d emon s t ra ted b eau t if u l ly, a tt h ec onf luence o ft wo m a jo rr i ve r s , t h e i rr e spec t ive l i t ho log ica lc on t r ibu t ion st ot h et e r ra ce s ed imen t s . A l lo ft h eL owe rP a la eo l i th i c a r te f ac t sf o und i ns i tu ( 5 ) o ccu r red i nt h e u ppe rq ua r t zo se s a nd s a nd g r ave l s , c on t r ibu ted b y t h e R ive r S evern , a nd t h e re w a s g ood e v idence t h a t m o s to ft h e o t he r s s ha red t h i s o r ig in . T he l owe rJ u ra ss ic r ich g rave l s , c on t r ibu ted b y t h e

19

R ive rA von , c on ta ined r a re M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s i n c lud ing ac ha rac te r i s t ic d i sc -co re ,c on f irmed b y D r . D .A .Roe , a nd ar i ch c o ld -c l ima t e b i o ta (Wh i tehead , u npub . ) . T he U ppe rs ed imen t s i n t roduced b y t h e R ive rS eve rn c on ta ined a bundan tn o r th -we s te rn e r ra t ic s , u pt o1 / 2t o nne i nw e igh t ,d e r ived v i ai t sd r a inage .

T he o ccu r rence o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e l owe rg rave l s i nn o w ay c onf l ic t s w i th S ho t ton ' s a s c r ip t ion o f No 4T e r race t ot h ee a r ly -Deven s ian . T he d e r ived L owe rP a laeo l i th ic p ie ce s s uppo r tt h eo f t c l a imed a s soc ia t ion o fs uch a r tef ac t s w i th A von N o 4T e r race w h ich o n i t s w ide f l ood p l a in h ad r e ady a cce s s t o mo re a nc ien ts ed imen t s . I ts t i l lh oweve r , l e ave su nan swe red t h er e a son s f o rt h ep auc i ty o fL owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h ee qu iva len tK idde rm in s t e rT e r race o ft h eR ive rS eve rn .

A cknow ledg emen t s P rof e sso r F .W .Sho t ton g en t lemen .

a nd D r . D e rek R oe o f f e red c on s t ruc t ive g u idance t h roughou t .

It h ank t h e se

T o t ho se many i n te re s ted p eop le , p a s t a nd p re sen t , a s soc ia ted w i th We s t e rn A ggrega te s

( e spec ia l ly Mr . T om S p ry ) , G louc s . S and & G rave l C o . , A von G rave l s , a nd Hun t sman ' s Q ua r r ie s , I e xp re s s my g ra t i tude .

Imu s t t h ank a l so Mr . R .J . MacRae f o r f i na l ly p rovok ing me t ow r i te t h i s , a nd

t ho se u nnamed p eop le , who i nm emo rab le e ncoun te r s , m i scon s t rued my i n te re s t s a se i the r" poach ing " o r " r unn ing l o ng d og s " , t h e r eby p rov id ing f r e sh i mpe tu s !

REFERENCES

B r iggs , D .J . , C oope , G .R . , G i lber t son , D .D . ,

1 975 .

L a te P le i s tocene T e r race D epo s i t s a tB eckfo rd ,

Wo r ce s te r sh i re , E ng land . G eo l .J our n . 1 0 : 1 ,1 16 .

C l if fo rd , E .M . , 1 943 . P a laeo l i th ic I mp lemen t s f r om L i t t le A lne , A lce s te r , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . 9 : 5 2 -54 .

F enne l l ,J . F .M . , S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 977 . An ew ly d i scove red h andaxe f r om B randon , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . C oy . &D i s t . N a t . H i s t . &S c i . S oc . 5 : 1 5 -18 .

J ack , A . , 1 922 . AP a laeo l i th ic I mp lemen tf r om B a r fo rd , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . E .A ng l ia 3 : 6 21 .

K een , D .H . , B r idg land , D .R . ,

1 986 .

A n i n te rg lac ia l f a una f r om Avon No 3 T e r race a tE ck ing ton ,

Wo rce s te r sh i re . P roc . G eo l . A ss , 9 7 ( 3 ) : 3 03 -307 .

Mo rgan , A . ,

1 973 .

T he P le i s tocene G eo logy o f t h e a r ea Nor th a nd We s t o f Wo lverhamp ton ,

S ta f fo rd sh i re , E ng land . P h i l . T ran s . R oy . S oc . L ond . B 2 65 : 2 33 -297 .

P o snan sky ,M . , 1 963 . T he L owe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ie s o ft h eE ng l i sh E a s tM id land s . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . 2 9 : 3 57 -395 .

1 20

R eed , A .H . , S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 970 .

Aq ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om n ea r C lave r ley , E a s t S h rop sh i re . P roc .

B i rm . N a t . H i s t . S oc , 2 1 ( 4 ) : 2 43 -249 .

R icha rd son , L . , 1 929 . G eo logy o ft h e c oun t ry a round Mo re ton in -Ma r sh . Mem . G eo l . S urv . U .K .

S av i l le , A . , S ho t ton , F .W . 1 976 . AP a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen tf r om H an ley C a s t le , Wo rce s te r sh i re . T ran s , Wo rc s . A r chaeo l . S oc , 5 : 7 9 -80 .

S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 930 . P a laeo l i th ic I mp lemen t s f r om N ea r C oven t ry . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . E . A ng l ia , 6 :

1 74 .

S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 934 . S tone I mp lemen t s o f Wa rw ick sh i re . T ran s . B i rm . A rchaeo l . S oc . V o l . LV I I I :

3 6 -42 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 953 . T he P le i s tocene D epo s i t s o ft h e a r ea b e tween C oven t ry , R ugby a nd L eam ing ton . P h i l . T ran s . R oy . S oc . L ond . B , 2 37 : 2 09 -260 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 960 . Two A cheu l ian i mp lemen t s f r om t h e Wa rw ick sh i re - Wo rce s te r sh i re A von . P roc . C oy . N a t . H i s t . &S c i . S oc . 4 : 7 9 -80 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , S oc . 7 9 :

1 964 . Two h andaxe s f r om t h e Wa rw ick sh i re A von . T rans . &P roc . B i rm . A rchaeo l .

1 20 -122 .

S ho t ton , F .W . ,

1 968 , T he P le i s tocene S ucce ss ion a round B randon , Wa rw ick sh i re . P h i l . T ran s . R oy .

S oc , L ond , B , 2 54 : 3 87 -400 .

S ho t ton ,F .W . , 1 969 . A nA cheu l ian h andaxe f r om L ear n No 4T e r race a tR ad fo rd S eme le , Wa rw ick sh i re . P roc . C oy , N a t . H i s t . & S c i . S oc . 4 : 7 9 -80 .

Sm i th , R .A ., 1 922 . F l in ti mp lemen t s o fS pec ia l I n te re s t . A rchaeo log ia , 7 2 : 2 5 -39 .

T om l in son , M .E . , 1 925 . R ive rT e r ra ce s o ft h eL owe rV a l ley o ft h e Wa rw ickwh i re A von . O uar t . J our n . G eo l . S oc . L ond . 1 : 1 37 -163 .

Wh i t ehead ,D . , 1 980 . A nA cheu l ian h andaxe f r om B redon . Wo rc s . A rchaeo l . a nd l o ca lH i s t .N ew s , 2 4 : 4 .

Wi l l iam s , D . , 1 980 . 3 0F l in t s f r om N o r th o f Wo rce s te r . Wo r c s . A rchaeo l . A nd l o ca l H i s t . N ew s , 2 4 : 1 3 .

1 21

THE PALAEOLITHIC OF THE UPPER THA MES AND I TS QUARTZITE IMPLE MENTS

RJ . MacRa e

A REG IONAL REV IE W T he P le i s tocene g rave l s o ft h e u ppe rT hame s a r ound O xfo rd h ave y i e lded af a rg rea te rn umbe ro fL owe r P a laeo l i th ic q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t st h an a ny o the rc omp lex o fr i ve rt e r race s i nB r i ta in . S uch ac oncen t ra t ion o ccu r r ing " i n p rox im i ty t ot h e v ery e dge o f t h e L owe r a nd M idd le p a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s o fE u rope " ( Roe , 1 986 ) g ive s s t rong s uppor t t ot h e a s sump t ion t h a t d im in i sh ing f l in t r e sou rce s d id n o t i n h ib i t t h e a c t iv i t ie so fe a r ly v i s i to r st oB r i ta in a st h ey v en tu red n o r thwa rd a nd w e s twa rd a l ong t h eT hame s v a l ley .

I n t h e u ppe r T hame s r eg ion -d ef ined a s t h o se r eache s o f t h e r i ve r b e tween t he Go r ing G ap a nd t h e h eadwa te r sb eyond L e ch lade -mo re t h an 1 00 a r te f ac t so fq ua r tz i te a nd o t he rh a rd r ock sh ave b een r e cove red i n t h e p a s t c en tu ry , ama jo r i ty o f t h em i n t h e p a s t 1 5 y ea r s .

H andaxe s p redom ina te o ve r c hoppe r s ,

c hopp ing too l s a nd c hoppe r -co re s , b u t t h e re a r e f ew f l ake s . T he t o ta l o fa l l r e co rded L owe rP a laeo l i th ic a r t ef ac t sf r om t h eu ppe rT hame s i sn ow a r ound 7 00 ,s ot h a to ne seven th a r en o to ff l in tb u tf a sh ioned f r om a l ter na t ive l i th ic ma te r ia l s .

T he s t age s wh ich make u p t h e B r i t i sh P a laeo l i th ic s equence a r e n o t a l l r ep re sen ted i n t h e r eg ion . C lac ton ian i sl a ck ing c omp le te ly , M idd le P a la eo l i th ic i ss pa r se , a nd Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic o n ly h in ted a t . A cheu l ian t oo lfo rm s i nb o th f l in t a nd q ua r t z i te a r e d om inan t , a nd t h e i r w ide v a r ie ty r ef lec t s d i f fe ren t t r ad i t ion sa nd p e r iod s .

F ramewo rk f o rq ua r t z i te i n ve s t iga t ion T he s i gn if ican tp ropo r t ion o fq ua r tz i te t oo l s t ot ho se o ff l in t w a s o n ly r e cen t ly p e rce ived b y t h e w r i te r , w ho h ad r e cove red ag rea t many o f t h e n on -f l in t a r tef ac t s t o ge the r w i th t h ree t ime s t h e n umbe r o ff l in t i mp lemen t s f r om t wo ma in p i tc omp lexe s -B e r in sf ie ld a nd S t an ton H a rcou r t . T h i s l e d t ot h e i n i t ia t ion o f t h eg ene ra ls t udy o fn on -f l in tt oo l s i nB r i ta in w h ich i so ne ma in t h eme o ft h i s v o lume .

T he c o ro l la ry , t h e p ene t ra t ion o fp r im i t ive Homo S ap ien s i n to r eg ion s b eyond t h e f l in t -r ich a r ea s o f s ou the rn a nd s ou th -ea s te rn B r i ta in h ad b een s e en b y S i rJ ohn E van s i n1 897 ( p .578 ) , e choed b y P rof e sso r S ho t ton i n 1 934 , a nd r epea ted b y Wyme r a nd S t raw ( 1977 ) w hen t h ey w ro te a bou th andaxe s f r om u nde r g l ac ia l t i l l a t We l ton le - Wo ld i nL inco ln sh i re . S t ephen G reen a nd h i s c o l league s w i th t h e i rr i ch m ine o f A cheu l ian ma te r ia l f r om t h e P on tnewydd c ave h e lped t oe r a se t h e B r i s to l / Wa sh l i ne f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic d i s t r ibu t ion m ap s ; a nd t h eC re swe l lC rag s a s semb lage s t reng thened t h ec a se f o r ac omp le te r e a s se s smen t .

O xfo rd i st h ec en t re o ft h eu ppe rT hame sr eg ion a nd t h eT hame s g rave l t e r ra ce s c oncerned i nt h i s c hap te r l i e b e tween 2 0 k i lome t re s s ou th a nd s ou th -ea s t o f t h e c i ty t o 1 0 k i lome t re s d ue w e s t . G rave l d epo s i t s , s ome o ft h em s t i l l m a s s ive , o the r s o n ly r emnan t s , e x tend t h rough t h i s a r ea a nd b eyond . S and fo rd ( 1924 ) m apped t h e s equence , s t a r t ing w i th t h e P la teau ( o r No r the rn ) D r if t , a nd n am ing t h e C ombe -F ree land , H anbo rough , Wo lve rco te , S umme r town /Rad ley a nd F loodp la in t e r race s i nt h a t d e scend ing o rde r . T he t e r race f o rma t ion s , t h e i rg eo log ica l a nd p a laeo -env i ronmen ta lh i s to ry a nd t h e i rl i th ic c on s t i tuen t s a r ed ea l t

1 23

w i th b y o the ra u tho r s i nt h i s v o lume .

T he p re sen t w r i te r i sc oncerned w i th t h e L owe r P a la eo l i th ic i mp lemen t s r e cove red i nt h e r eg ion ; t h e c i rcum s tance s o ft h e i r f i nd ing ; t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion ; t h e r aw m a te r ia l s u sed a nd t h e i r o r ig in ; t h e t e chno logy a nd p o ss ib le f unc t ion .

S ome a t temp t i sm ade a tr e la t ive d a t ing , a nd t h e k ind o f t e r ra in t h e i r make r s

e xp lo i ted i ss pecu la ted u pon . S ome o ft h e i mp lemen t s a r ed e sc r ibed , a nd f o rt h er e s tt h er eade ri sr e f e r red t ot h eG aze t tee ra ppended t ot h i s v o lume . T he e mpha s i s i so n t h e h a rd r o ck a r tef ac t s , e spec ia l ly t ho se o f q ua r tz i te .

"When t h ef l i n tr an o u t" T he s uppo s i t ion t h a t a l ter na t ive r ock s w e re u t i l i sed " when t h e f l in t r an o u t " i s s uppo r ted b y t h e g eog raph ica l f a c tt h a tt h e re i sn ob ed rock s ou r ce o ff l in t b e tween t h e C h i l te rn s a nd t h eL incon sh i re c ha lk w o ld s . On ly " D r if t " f l in t , a nd t h a t mo s t ly o fv e ry p oo rq ual i ty , w a s o cca s iona l ly a va i lab le o n t h e g round i nt h eO xfo rd r eg ion a nd u pi n to t h eM id land s .

I th a s t ob ec onceded t h a tg ood f l in tw a se a r ly m an ' s p ref e r red ma te r ia l i nB r i ta in . T he n umbe ro fL owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e u ppe rT hame s i sv e ry much l e s s t h an i nt h e v a l ley b e low t h e G o r ing G ap . Many t hou sand so ff l in th andaxe sh ave b een r e cove red i nt h eM idd le T hame s , a nd many t e n s o ft hou sand s i nt h eL ondon B a s in . Wo rkab le f l in ti sp l en t ifu l r i gh t t ot h e mou th o ft h e T hame s e s tua ry , s o q ua r tz i t e t oo l s a r ev e ry r a re i ndeed ,t hough t h ey d oo ccu ra so dd i t ie si nb i gf l in tc o l lec t ion s .

B r i ta in h a s w e l l o ve r 1 00 ,000 L owe r a nd M idd le p a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s , w i th a r ound 4 0 ,000 o ft ho se a s h andaxe s ,b u ts ou th o ft h eC h i l te rn sf ewe rt h an 2 0q ua r tz i te a r tefa c t s a r ek nown . T he a u tho ro nce a ma s sed s eve ra lt hou sand t oo l s a nd f l ake s f r om t h eC ave r sham C hanne lo ft h eM idd le T hame s a tH en ley , a nd o n ly f ou rw e r eo fq ua r tz i te d e sp i te t h ea bundance o fB un te rq ua r tz i t ep ebb le st h e r e .

T he p r inc ipa lp l ace si nt h eu ppe rr e ache so ft h er i ve rw he r eq ua r tz i t e a r te f a c t s h ave b een f ound a r e ,i no rde r o fn umbe r ,Ber insf ie ld , Wo lve rco te , S tan ton H a rcou r t , A b ingdon a nd I f f ley . T ab le 1g ive s t o ta l s o f a l l f i nd s a tt h e se s i te s , a nd i nd ica te s t h ep ropo r t ion s o fq ua r tz i te t of l in t . T ab le 2g ive s as im i la rr a t io f o r t h e h andaxe si nt h e se a s semb lage s .

R e cen ti n crea se i nf md s T he u ppe rT hame s t o ta l o fa l l t ype s o fe a r ly a r tef ac t s o ff l in t a nd o t he rr ock s i n c lude s t h e 3 00 h andaxe s l i s ted b y R oe i n h i s 1 968 G aze t tee r , mo re t h an h a lf o f t h em f r om t h e Wa l l ingfo rd F an G rave ls a nd Wo lve r co te . O ft h e4 00 t o ta l a r te fa c t s t h en r e co rded i n c lud ing f l ake s a nd m i sce l laneou s w o rked p iece s , q ua r tz i te a nd o the r h a rd r ock a r tef ac t s a moun ted t oo n ly 3 0 , l a rge ly made u p f r om t h e o ld Wo lve rco te C hanne l a nd I f f ley c o l lec t ion s made e a r ly t h i s c en tu ry .

S ince t ho se f i gu re s w e re c omp i led t h e u ppe r

T hame s r e co rd h a s b een i n c rea sed b y o ve r 3 00 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tefac t s o f a l l t ype s a nd ma te r ia l s . Among t h e se r e cen tf i nd sa r e6 5a r tef ac t so fq uar tz i te a nd s im i la rr o ck s .

I tw i l lb es e en t h a tb yc ompa r i son w i th t h er e s to fl ow land B r i ta in t h e u ppe rT hame sc l a im s s l igh t ly mo re t h an o ne th i rd o ft h e n on -f l in t t o o l r e cover ie s , a st h e n a t iona l t o ta l t od a te ( apar t f r om t h e c ave s ) i ss t i l l u nde r3 00 . T he a cc iden t so fd i scove ry , t h el o ca t ion o fg rave lp i t s , a nd s ca r c i ty o fc o l lec to r s d on o t , i nt h e w r i te r ' s v i ew i nva l ida te t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s amp le f r om t h i s r e g ion i s af a i r r ef lec t ion n o t o n ly o f t h e

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T ab le 1 Q ua r tz i te a nd f l in t L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s a tm a in s i te s f r om t h e u ppe r T hame s r eg ion t h rough t o t h e s ou th M id land s t o t h e e nd o f 1 987

S i te

F l in t

Qua r t z i t e

C omb ined t o ta l s

%o fq ua r t z i t e

1 40 c . 14 2 05

1 1 2 3 6

1 41 c . 26 2 41

0 .71 4 6 1 4 .93

I f f ley Wo lve rco te

c . 19 c . 170

1 0 2 6

2 9 1 96

3 4 .48 1 3 .26

S t an ton H a rcou r t N unea ton (Wa i te ) Wa rw ick sh i re ( a l l o the r s i te s )

3 9 c . 100

1 6 7 4

5 5 1 74

2 9 .01 4 2 .52

3 2

1 4

4 6

3 0 .43

Wa l l ingfo rd a r ea A b ingdon a r ea B e r in sf ie ld

T ab le 2 Q ua r tz i te a nd f l in t h andaxe t o ta ls e x t rac ted f r om T ab le 1

S i te

F l in t

Q ua r tz i t e

C omb ined t o ta l s

%o fq ua r t z i t e

Wa l l ingfo rd a r ea A b ingdon a r ea B e r in sf ie ld I f f ley Wo lve rco te

1 26 c . 14 8 2 c . 19 5 7

1 4 1 0 8 1

1 27 1 8 9 2 2 7 6 8

0 .78 2 2 .22 1 0 .86 2 9 .62 1 6 .17

S t an ton H a rcou r t N unea ton (Wa i te ) Wa rw ick sh i re ( a l l o the r s i te s )

3 0 c . 29

1 2 1 2

4 2 4 1

2 8 .57 2 9 .26

2 1

1 3

3 4

3 8 .23

B e low Gor ing G ap , t h a t i st h e M idd le a nd L owe r T hame s whe re f l in t i sp l en t ifu l a n e s t ima ted 2 0 ,000 f l in t h andaxe s h ave b een f ound , b u t o n ly 1 6 q ua r tz i te h andaxe s .

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p re sence o fe a r ly h un te r s b u to ft h e i ra b i l i ty t oa dop tf l in ta l t e rna t ive s .

T he T ham e sH eadwa t e r s No r th a nd w e s t o f t h e S t an ton H a rcour t a r tef ac t c oncen t ra t ion , f i nd s f ade o u t t o am e re 8 -a l l f l in t h andaxe so fv a ry ing q ua l i ty . F ou rc ame f r om t h ee x ten s ive p i t s a tC emey n ea rC i rence s te r ;o ne e a ch f r om L ech lade , B our ton -on the - Wa te r , Mey seyhamp ton a nd P oo le K eyne s . No q ua r tz i te s h ave y e t a ppea red . T he l ow t o ta l i sc er ta in ly d ue t oi n adequacy o fs ea r ch . S ome o ft h e T hame s t r ibu ta r ie s t ot h e w e s t o f O xfo rd h ave g rave l d epo s i t s , b u t t h e Wind ru sh r evea l s mo s t s i gn s o fp a laeo l i th ic p re sence . B eyond t h e T hame s /W ind ru sh c onf luence t h eh un t ing /ga the r ing e nv i ronmen t mu s th ave b een much t h es ame a sd own r i ve r , a l though t oo l ma te r ia l may h ave b een s ca rce . A t t ime s a nd i ns ome a r ea s -a nd t h i s i n c lude s t h e i mmed ia te O xfo rd a r ea -h eavy v ege ta t ion a nd s wamp land c ou ld h ave l im i ted b o th h un t ing a nd t h e a va i lab i l i ty o ft o o l ma te r ia l( Br igg s , p e r s . c omm . ) , b u ti no the rp e r iod s a nd o t he rs ea son s t h e re n eed h ave b een n o c l ima t ic o r t opog raph ica l d i f f e rence b e tween a ny o f t h e u ppe r r e ache s o f t h e r i ve r a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s .

T h eh un t e r /ga th e r e r s I nt h i s a t t emp t , s upp lemen ted b y amap ( f ig .1 )t ot r ace t h ep a th s t a ken b yp reh i s to r ic t o o lmake r s a l ong t h e u ppe r T hame s , many q ue s t ion s a r i se . Wi th w ha t f r equency , a nd t ow ha t e x t en t , a nd u nde r w ha t v a r ied c l ima te s , w a s t h et e r ra in o ccup ied? O ccupa t ion , h ab i ta t ion , s e t t lem en t , c o lon i sa t ion -n one o ft h e se t e rm s i sa ta l ls a t i sf ac to ry i nt r y ing t ov i sua l i se t h e a c t iv i t ie so ft h o se w hom w eb road ly r ega rd a sA cheu l ian s .

We h ave o n ly s t one i mp lemen t s t o ma rk t h e i rp a ssage o rt h e i rc amp s i te s . We a s sume t ho se i mp lemen t s w e re f o r k i l l ing , b u tche r ing , wo rk ing w ood , d igg ing f o r r oo t s o r a ny f unc t ion r equ i r ing a n a dequa te c u t t ing -edge . U n l ike mo re f a vou red p l a ce s i no the rp a r t s o ft h ew o r ld w he re u nd i s tu rbed s i t e s a r e a b le t o b e s c rupu lou s ly e xcava ted , t h e u ppe rT hame s g i ve s n o c l ue t ol i f e span , f am i ly o rt r iba lr e la t ion sh ip s , o r d u ra t ion o fv i s i t s . We d o n o tk now w hence t h e se p eop le c ame , o rb y w ha tl a nd -br idge t h ey c ro s sed a nd r e tu rned .

F o r t h e i r a ppea rance a nd p hy s ique , w e c an r e f e r t o c on tempo ra ry f o ss i l h om in id r ema in s

e l sewhe re ,i n c lud ing s ome f r om w e s tern C on t inen ta lE u rope .

T im ea nd c hance F ew o f t he i mp lemen t s f ound i n t h e r eg ion c an w i th a ny c e r ta in ty b e a t t r ibu ted t o a ny o ne o f t h e s ucce s s ion o fa gg rada t ion s , s o l if lux ion s , a nd r epea ted s cou r ing s a nd r e -depo s i t ion s o ft h e g rave l s . T hey a r e ,w i th af ew p o s s ib le e xcep t ion s ,u n s t ra t i f ied . E ven t h e much -deba ted Wo lve rco te C hanne lw i th i t sf i ne L a te A cheu l ian /M icoqu ian h andaxe s r ema ins a s ub jec t f o r c on t rove r sy b e tween g eo log i s t s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s . C omp le te ly u nd i s tu rbed s i te s a r ea sy e tu nknown .

Mo s to ft h ei mp lemen t s i nt h e v a l ley a sf a r a sc an b ej udged , h ave b een moved b yn a tu ra l a genc ie s a way f r om t h ep lace o ft h e i r manuf ac tu re , o f ten b y o n ly af ew m e t re s , s ome t ime s p e rhap s b y m i le s . T ime a nd c hance h ave d i c ta ted t h e i rr e cove ry , a sw i th t h eg r ea tm a jo r i ty o fp a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s i nB r i ta in . B u tw e re w et or e jec tt h em b ecau se t h ey h ave n o tb een e xcava ted u nde ri d ea l ly s t ra t if ied c ond i t ion s w es hou ld b el e f t w i th av e ry s ma l l p a r t o ft h e B r i t i sh t o ta l o fe a r ly S tone A ge r ema in s , a nd r e sea rch w ou ld b e s eve re ly l im i t ed . " Of t h e t a ng ib le e v idence o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fL owe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ma te r ia li nB r i ta in 9 5% c ome s f r om f l uv ia t i le d epo s i t s" (Wyme r , i n C o l lcu t t , e d . ,

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1 986 ) .

A s a lu to ry t hough t .

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D ISCOVERY Who s aw a nd i d en t if ied t h e f i r s tq ua r tz i te p a laeo l i th ic h andaxe i nt h e u ppe rT hame s i sn o tk nown , b u tt h e i mp lemen tw a s d redged f r om ab a ckwa te ro ft h e r i ve r a tN o r th H ink sey i n 1 883 o r b e fo re , t o ge the rw i th t h ree f l in t b i f ace s .

P e r cy Mann ing a cqu i red t h e f i nd s , w h ich a r e i n t h e A shmo lean Museum .

T he

Wo lve rco te b r ick p i t w a s o pen i n 1 894 a nd c on t inued u n t i l 1 930 , b u t a ts ome t ime e a r ly t h i s c en tury Mon tgome r ie B e l l a cqu i red m any o ft h ep i ano -convex f l in th andaxe s , a nd w i th t h em an umbe ro fq ua r tz i te b i fa ce s , a nd t h e se n ow r e s ti nt h eP i t tR ive r s Mu seum .

Mo re n on -f l in tb i f ace s t u rned u pa tI f f ley d u r ing t h ee a r ly 1 900 ' s , t o ge the rw i th s ma l la nd r a the rc r ude f l in t h andaxe s . A round 3 0a r tef a c t s a r ep r e se rved b u tt h e re m ay h ave b e en mo re f ound a nd l o s ta ga in . T he re a r e 7q ua r tz i te h andaxe s a nd o ne o f p o rphyry .

T hey c ame f r om t h e i n f i l l o f ad eep c hanne l w i th in t h e

S ummer town /Rad ley t e r race g rave l s ( A rke l l , 1 947 ) a nd S and fo rd ( 1924 ) n o ted t h a t s eve ra l o ft h em w e r e e mbedded i nt h e O xfo rd C lay b enea th t h e c hanne l , c onc lud ing t h a t t h e i mp lemen t s w e re o lde r t h an t h e g rave l s w h ich o ve r lay t h em . T ha ta s sump t ion c ou ld w e l lh o ld g ood f o r mo r er e cen td i scove r ie s a tt h eb a se o ft h ev a l ley g rave l s . B e l lp ub l i shed t h eI f f ley f i nd si n1 904 .

Aq ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om L on sda le R oad , O xfo rd , i n 1 923 s e em s t oc omp le te t h e s t o ry o fe a r ly n on -f l in t f i nd s i nt h e u ppe rT hame s , e xcep tf o r as i ng le q ua r tz i te b i f ace f r om Wa l l ingfo rd s ome t ime i nt h e 1 920 ' s . A s f a ra st h ew r i te rc an d i scove r ,n o mo re q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s , a nd v e ry f ew o ff l in t , w e re r e co rded u n t i l h eh im se lf r e scued aq ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om t h ep i tf l oo ra tB e r in sf ie ld i n1 970 .

T he P a laeo l i th ic r ev iva l D e sp i te mo re t h an f o r ty y ea r s o fi n ten s ive c omme rc ia lg rave l e x t rac t ion a tB e r in sf ie ld , S tan ton H a rcou r t , H a rdw ick , S u t ton C ou r tenay a nd A b ingdon , t h e p a laeo l i th ic p o s s ib i l i t ie s o ft h e u ppe r T hame s s e em t o h ave a r ou sed o n ly s pa rk s o fi n te re s tu n t i l t h e e a r ly s even t ie s . I n 1 968 R oe w a s a b le t or e co rd o n ly t h re e h andaxe s f r om B e r in sf ie ld a nd t wo f r om S tan ton H a rcour t . T ha ts u ch ap o ten t ia l ly p roduc t ive t e r ra in w a s n eg lec ted f o rs o l ong s eem s s t range , e spec ia l ly w hen a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion o f much l a te rp e r iod s f l ou r i shed .

T he g eo logy o f t h e " Oxfo rd " g rave l s w a s f a r mo re a dequa te ly s t ud ied t h roughou t t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e c en tu ry , b u to n ly p a s s ing i n te re s tw a s s hown i nm an ' s e a r l ie s t a r r iva l s i n to t h e v a l ley . S and fo rd ( 1939 ) , A rke l l( 1947 ) a nd B aden -Powe l l( p e r s .c omm . )w e re e xcep t ion s . Ar e newa lo fr e sea r ch i n to t h eg eog raphy , g eo logy a nd g eomo rpho logy o ft h eu ppe rT hame s , n o tab ly b yG oud ie ( 1976 ) , S ho t ton ( 1980 ) , a nd B r igg s a nd h i s c o l league s ( 1985 ) , o ccu r red i nt h e p a s t t wo d ecade s . I n 1 968 Wyme r p ub l i shed h i s s urvey o f L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te s , a nd b rough t u p t od a te t h e s t o ry o f t h e u ppe r T hame s i mp lemen t s a nd t h e i r g eo log ica l b ackg round . S t imu lu s t ot h e g row ing i n te re s ti nt h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e p e r iod w a s g iven b y R oe ( 1981 ) a nd t h i s m a jo rw o rk s howed t h a tQ ua tema ry d i sc ip l ine s w e re n ow w o rk ing t o ge the rt o amuch g rea t e rd eg r ee i n s t ead o fi nc ompa ra t ive i s o la t ion .

Two p ro l i f ic s i te s B e tween a bou t 1 900 a nd 1 970 p a laeo l i th ic f l in ta nd q ua r tz i te h andaxe s , c hoppe r s , f l ake s a nd o t he rp ie ce s f r om t h e u ppe rT hame s t o ta l led j u s t o ve r 4 00 . O f t h e se , f ewe r t h an 4 0 w e re o fq ua r tz i te . B y 1 981 t h e B e r in sf ie ld g rave l s h ad a dded 2 40 a r tef ac t s , 3 6o ft h em q ua r tz i te s . B y 1 987 S tan ton Ha rcou r th ad y i e lded 5 5 mo re L owe rp a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s , i n c lud ing 1 6 q ua r tz i te s . T he a s semb lage s c on ta in t o ge the r mo re

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t h an 7 0c omp le t ef l in th andaxe s a sw e l la sn um e rou s b roken t i p s a nd b u t t s , s ma l lb i f ac ia lt o o l s a nd f l ak e s , a nd 2 2q ua r tz i t eb i f a ce s . F o r t h e se a dd i t ion s , t h e p r e sen t w r i t e r w a s h e lped v e ry m uch b y t wo e n thu s ia s t ic e mp loyee s a tt h ep i t s . A t Amey R oad s tone C ompany ' s p i t s a tB e r in sf ie ld t h ev i g i lance o fC o l in W in te rbour ne , t h en e ng inee ra t t h e w a sh ing a nd g r ad ing p l an t , r e su l ted i nr e cove r ing a tl e a s th a lf o ft h e f i nd s , a nd h i s c o -ope ra t ion w a s i n va luab le . N ow , a tS t an ton H a r cou r t , t h e mo s t r ewa rd ing p i ti s" G rave l ly G uy " , o wned b y Sm i th a nd S on sw he r et h ed i gge r -ope ra to rV ic to rG r i f f in h a sd eve loped a ne qua l ly s h a rp e ye . L ike C o l in , h eu sua l ly r e cogn i se s , f r om t h e c o lou r a nd t e x tu re o f t h e g rave l s a nd t h e d ep th t ow h ich h i s g i an t d i gge r -bucke t d e lve s , t h el a ye r sf r om w h ich i mp lem en t s a pp ea ri nt h ed epo s i t s a bove t h ec l ay b ed ro ck . T ra ce so fm a t r ix a dhe r ing t ot h ef i nd sa r ea l so u s e f u li n d ica to r s .

L im i ta t ion so fs e a r ch . I nh i s s o l i ta ry e xp lo ra t ion s o ve r t h e f l oo r s o fg r ave l p i t s w he re i mp lem en t s a r e u sua l ly f ound t h e w r i t e r r a r e ly h ea r s o fo t he r s m ak ing s im i la rs e a r ch , n o ts u rp r i s ing ly , p e rhap s , a st a ng ib le r e su l t s a r e o f ten s l ow , c a lcu la ted r e cen t ly t oa ve rage o ne a r tef a c tp e r e i gh th ou r s o fs e a r ch . Mud , l o o se g r ave l s c ree , p oo l s o f w a t e ra nd m o re m ud a r eo n ly c oun te r ed b yp e r s i s ten to p t im i sm a nd al i k ing f o re xe r c i se . E ven i ft h eq ue s t i sc a r r ied o u tw e ek ly ,s ome a r te f a c t sa r eb ound t ob em i s sed b e fo re t h ey s p eed a l ong t h ec onveyo rb e l t sa nd i n to l o r r ie s h ead ing f o rb u i ld ing s i t e s a nd r o adwo rk s . G rad ing p l an t s a r e d i f f icu l te nough , b u tr o ad s tone c r u she r sa r ea l -devou r ing .

T he i mp lemen te v idence g a ined i st h e r efo re o n ly p a r t ia l . E igh ts qua re k i lome t r e s o fp i t s w e re w o rked a t B e r in sf ie ld b e fo re c l o su r ei n1 981 , a nd o n ly aq ua r te ro ft h a ta r ea w a s a b le t ob em on i to red o ve rt e ny ea r s , a nd t h a t s pa smod ica l ly o w ing t oo t he r c omm i tm en t s . T he o t he r t h ree -qua r te r s w e re w a te r -f i l led l o ng b e fo re , a nd a l a r en ow l a ke s ,r u bb i sh -dump so rr e c la im ed f i e ld s . A ne qua l ly e x t en s ive a r ea a r ound S t an ton H a r cou r tb egan t ob ee xp lo r ed a f t e rB e r in sf ie ld c l o sed , a nd t h e G rave l ly G uy p i t p roved t h e mo s t p ro l if ic .

B y t h i s t ime t h e s e eke r ' s e ye , a c cu s tomed t of l in t -g rave l

s p read s i ns ou the rn E ng land f o ra bou t2 5 y ea r s , h ad u nd e rgone ac hange i nf o cu s , s ot os p eak . Q ua r t z i t e w a s n ow t h e d e s i rab le q ua r ry , mo re d i ff i cu l t t os po t t h an t h e m o re e a s i ly r ecogn i sab le h uman ly s t ruck f l in t . B u ti mp lemen t s m ad eo fr o ck o t he r t h an f l in tw e re t h e re , a nd w e re f o und . I ti st h ough tt h a tw ha t h a s b een r e cove red a tt h e t wo m a in s i te s i sr e p re sen ta t ive o ft h e p a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ia l o u tpu t i nt h e se s t re t che s o fu pp e rT hame s g r ave l s , a nd t h a tt h ep ropo r t ion s o fq ua r t z i t e t of l in t a ss e ti nT ab le s 1a nd 2 r ef le c ta pp rox ima t e ly t h ec ho ice o fr aw n i a te r ia lm ade b yt h et o o lmake r s .

L o ca t ion o fr e c en tf i nd s Wh i le a tB e r in sf ie ld t h e re w a s as t eady f l ow o f i mp lem en t f i nd s , b o th f r om S umme r town /Rad ley a nd F loodp la in g rave l s , a tS t an ton H a r cour t r e cove r ie s s t i l l s e em t oo ccu r i np a t che s . As e r ie s o ff r u i t le s s v i s i t s i sf r equen t ly f o l lowed b yf i nd so fs e ve ra lt o o l s ,f l in ta nd q ua r tz i te t o ge the r . T he p a t te rn o fr e cove ry o ff a i r ly c l o se s c a t t e r so fa r t e f ac t s a l ter na t ing w i th a r ea s w h ich S i rJ ohn E van s c a l l s " imp lem en t i f e rou s ly s t e r i le " h a s o f t en b een n o ted .

T reache r e ncoun t e r ed t h i s v a r ia t ion e ven a tt h e r i ch F u r ze P la t t s i te

( C ran shaw 1 983 ) . Whe the rc oncen t ra t ion s o ft o o l s o ve r as ma l l a r ea d o i n d ica te s i te s b r ief ly o ccup ied i s s p ecu la t ive , a sn a tu ra lf o r ce sm ay h ave r e -d i s t r ibu ted b o th t o o l sa nd d epo s i t s .

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F o rw ha tt h eo b se rva t ion i sw o r th , h oweve r , t h re e f l in th andaxe s , a lmo s tf r e sh a nd much a l ike i ns i ze a nd t e chno logy , t u rned u p i n t h e s ame s ma l l s e c t ion o f g rave l s a tS tan ton H a rcour t .

T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e

i mp lemen t s h e re , b o th f l in t a nd q ua r tz i t e , c ame f r om t h e n o r th -we s t m a rg in s o f t h e g rave l s p read ( S .U . 4 04051 G )a nd w e re c on ta ined i na n a r ea o fa r ound 2 00 m e t re ss qua r e . T h r ee o ft h eq ua r tz i te h andaxe sw e r e p i cked u p i nt h e l owe r l e ve l s o n as u r f ace l e ss t h an 3 0 m e t re s s qua re . T he se r e s ted o n t h e c l ay , o ro n g rave l 2 0 c en t ime t re s a bove i t s w ea the red s u r f ace . N ea rby w a s t h e b u t t o f av e ry l a rge f l in t h andaxe , s l igh t ly a b raded .

I ti si n te re s t ing t h a td e sp i te d i l igen ts ea rch t h e g rave l s a tL inch H i l l , av a s tp i tc en te r ing o n S .U . 4 15045 Ga nd i nt h ep a r i sh o fS t an ton Ha r cou r t ak i lome t r eo rs of r om " G rave l ly G uy " , h ave y i e lded v e ry f ew f l in t i mp lemen t s , a nd o n ly o ne o fq ua r t z i te . I ng ene ra la tt h e mo re p ro l if ic G rave l ly G uy s i te f l in ta nd q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s a ppea r t oc ome f r om t h e s ame l owe r l e ve l s b u t i tw ou ld b e h aza rdou s t o a ccep t t h a t a s e v idence f o rc on t empo rane i ty . A s w i l lb e s hown l a te r , mo s to ft h ef l in th andaxe s mu s th ave b een b rough t t oS tan ton H a r cou r tr e ady -made ,w he rea st h eq ua r t z i te s w e re a lmo s tc er ta in ly f l aked o n t h es po tf r om l o ca l B un te rp ebb le s .

D om inance o ft h eA cheu l ian T he i mp lemen t sf r om b o th B e r in sf ie ld a nd S tan ton H a rcou r tc ove r av e ry w ide r ange o ft y pe s , a l b u to ne o r t wo f a ll ing i n to t h e s t i l l c ommon ly -accep ted c a t ego ry o fM id -Acheu l ian . O ne e xcep t ion i s as upe rb p ia no -convex h andaxe , i t sf l ak ing t e chn ique ma t ch ing e xac t ly t h eb e s to ft h e Wo lve rco te C hanne lb i f a ce s . T h i s c ou ld w e l l h ave b een a" s t ray " f r om t h a t s i te , e nd ing u p i nt h e B e r in sf ie ld F loodp la in .

A l so a t

B e r in sf ie ld t h e re a r e s eve ra lL eva l lo i s type f l ake s a nd t wo d i s t inc tL eva l lo i sc o r e s , t h ef i r s to ft h e i rk ind i n t h e r eg ion . T he q ua r tz i te t oo l s amoun t t o 1 5% o f t h e B e r in sf ie ld a s semb lage a nd 2 9% o f t h e S tan ton H a r cour tt o ta l s ( i nc rea s ing q ua r tz i t ea st h ef l in td im in i shed u p r ive r ) .

F o r t h e r e s t o f t h e u ppe r T hame s , t h e re a r e t r ace s o fr a re v i s i t s b y p eop le h av ing t r ad i t ion s l a te r t h an M idd le A cheu l ian . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i so n ly c l ea r ly r ep re sen t ed b yt wo f i ne t yp ica lf l in tb ou t -coup6 h andaxe s f r om t h eD even s ian F loodp la in n ea rA b ingdon ; ad i sc c o re f r om R ad ley ; a nd as ma l lc o rd ifo rm f l in th andaxe . " On ly as i ng le f r agmen ta ry l e a f -po in tf r om O sney r ep re sen t s t h ee a r ly Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic , a nd t h e f ew f i nd spo t s o f l a te r Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n c lude B en son ( ac o re ) a nd a n a ng le -backed b l ade f r agm en tf r om H a rdw ick " ( R .N .Ba r ton ,p e r s . c omm . ) . T he Wo lve r co te C hanne lf l in th andaxe s s t and o u t i ns p lend id i s o la t ion i nt h e r e g ion a sf i na l A cheu l ian /M icoqu ian t hough a l l o ft h e 1 0 q ua r tz i te h andaxe s may n o tb e long t ot h a ts t age .

Ag i an tf r om t h eu pper T hame s . I n as t udy i nw h ich t h e empha s i s i so n q ua r tz i te , f l in t h a s ah ab i t o fi n trud ing . O ne d ay l a te i n1 986 t h e d igge r -ope ra to r a tS tan ton H a rcou r t , V ic to rG r if f in , h anded t h e a u tho r av e ry l a rge f l in t h andaxe r e scued f r om t h e d igge r -bucke t .

T he " G ian t o fG rave l ly G uy " i st h e t h i rd l a rge s t h andaxe e ve r f ound a mong

B r i ta in ' s 4 0 ,000 o r mo re b i f ace s ( f ig . 2 ) . A t2 69mm l o ng , 1 27mm w ide a nd 5 4mm t h ick , i ti se xceeded i ns i ze o n ly b y t h e F u rze P la t t s pec imen a nd o ne f r om S h rub H i l l i nE a s t A ng l ia . Ad em i -f ic ron , o n ly l i gh t ly r o l led a nd u nb roken , s e em s l i ke ly t oh ave b een made f r om f l in td own r ive r , a nd b rough tt ot h e s po t b yi t s p roud make r .

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Quar tz i te sf r om A b ingdon ( f ig s . 3a nd 4 ) Mo re e v idence o f t h e u se o fq ua r tz i te h a s b een c on t r ibu ted i nr e cen t y ea r s b y J ef f rey Wa l l i s , al o ca l e n thu s ia s tw ho h a sc oncen t ra ted s e a rch i nt h ep i t s a r ound A b ingdon ,R ad ley a nd D ray ton . H eh a s f ound n o f ewe rt h an 1 2a r te fac t so fq ua r tz i t ea nd o ne o fa nde s i te , i n c lud ing f ou rh andaxe s , a nd s ome c hopp ing too l s a nd f l ake s . I ti sn ow e s t ima ted t h a tn ea r ly h a lf o ft h e i mp lemen tf i nd s i nt h e A b ingdon a r ea a r e i nn on f l in t ma te r ia l s .

Mr . Wa l l i s r e ta in s h i s f i nd s i nh i s own c o l lec t ion .

A l l t h e a r tef ac t s r e cove red i nt h e

O xfo rd r eg ion b y t h e w r i te r a r e l odged i n t h e P i t t R ive r s Museum i n O xfo rd i n t h e MacRae L oan C o l lec t ion .

RA W MATER IAL SOURCES I no rde rt oe s tab l i sh w hy q ua r tz i te w a su sed , i n c r ea s ing ly s oa st h eA cheu l ian s moved t ot h eu ppe rr e ache s o f t h e r i ve r a way f r om f l in t s ou rce s , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o l ook a tw ha t r aw ma te r ia l s w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le , a nd i nw ha tc i r cum s t ance s .

I t may b e a s sumed t h a t s uch h uman movemen t s w e re s po rad ic o ve rg rea t s t r e tche s o ft ime a nd p e rhap s w i th l ong i n te rva l s b e twe en . A l so t h a tt h ey w e re made p o s s ib le o n ly b yc l ima t ica l ly t empe ra te c ond i t ion s s u i tab le e qua l ly t o ah un t e r /ga the re rl i f e -pa t ter na nd t ot h e c on t empo ra ry a n ima l s a nd p l an t s . P e r ig la c ia l c ond i t ion s a r eu n l ike ly t oh ave b een t o le ra ted , t hough t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fo cca s iona l s umme re xcu r s ion s t o s t eppe l a nd scape s c anno t e n t ire ly b e r u led o u t .

T he a bundance o f mammo th t e e th i n t h e g rave l s -

e spec ia l ly a tS tan ton H a rcou r t -may b e i nd ica t ive o n ly o f t h e e x i s tence o f m ammo th a nd n o t m an . F auna l r ema in s a r e p l en t ifu l i nt e r race g rave l s w a rm a nd c o ld , a nd much h a s b een w r i t ten a bou t t h em ( Sandfo rd 1 925 , 1 932 , 1 939 , 1 965 ; S ho t ton 1 980 ; G i lbe r t son 1 980 , C oope 1 985 ; C ur ran t 1 985 ) . V e r teb ra te r ema in s , molu sca a nd i n sec t s h ave b een r e cove red i nq uan t i ty , s ome s t ra t if ied , b u t n one c an c h rono log ica l ly b em a t ched w i th man ' sp re sence e xcep tb yi mp l ica t ion .

Wha teve r t h e i r e nv i ronmen t h un te r s a nd s cavenge r s mu s t h ave t o o l s . T he mo s t -favou red m a te r ia l w a s f l in t . A t t h ep l ace w e n ow c a l l B er in sf ie ld i ts e em s t oh ave b e en s ough t f o r i nt h e C h i l ter nf oo th i l l s , a t Wa l l ingfo rd o rb e low Wi t tenham C lump s b e tween 3a nd 5k i lome t re s f r om t h e s i te . F re sh n odu le s w e re l i ke ly t oh ave b een m ade a va i lab le b yn a tu ra le r o s ion b u tw e re n o tn ece s sa r i ly e a s i ly g a ined .

C ho ice o ft oo l ma t er ia l H eavy v ege ta t ion a nd e s tab l i shed o pen g ra s s land o b scu re s s u r f ace f l in t , s o s t ream -bed s may h ave b een a b e t te rs ou rce . C h i l te rn sf l in ti sm a in ly s e cond q ua l i ty , e ven i fn o tf r o s t -c racked a sm uch o ft h ef a n -g rave l i sn ow a nd may h ave b een t h en ( w i th af ew e xcep t ion s e ven t h e Wo lve r co te C hanne l i mp lemen t s a r en o t o ff i r s t -c la s s ma te r ia l ) . E ven s o , r ea sonab ly w o rkab le f l in t w a s u sed a tB e r in sf ie ld , t hough t h e re w a s e v iden t ly n o te nough o fi t ,a nd q ua r t z i te w a su t i l i sed ,e spec ia l ly f o rh eavy -du ty t oo l s .

T he re e x i s t s i nt h eu ppe rT hame sg rave l s s ome a nc ien th a lf ro t t en N o r the rn D r if tf l in t , i nn odu le s s e ldom e xceed ing t h es i ze o f ac l o sed f i s t , a nd mo s to ft h em much s ma l le r . S uch f l in tc omp r i se s 1 0% o ft h eD r i f t ( Goud ie , 1 976 ) . Wi th r a re e xcep t ion s , t h e se f l in t n odu le s a r e h eav i ly c o r t ica ted a nd i n ter na l ly f r o s t d amaged ,a nd mu s th ave b een s ow hen A cheu l ian o p t im i s t s t r i ed t of l ake t h em , n o tv e ry s ucce s sf u l ly .

Ou to f2 05 f l in ta r te f ac t s a tB e r in sf ie ld o n ly 3a r e s e en t ob e made o ft h e se d r if tn odu le s ; a nd a tS t an ton

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H a r cou r to n ly t wo s ma l lb i fa ce s , o fs im i la rc rud i ty , a r e m ade f r om t h i s u np rom i s ing ma te r ia l , w h ich n i ne t ime s o u to ft e n w ou ld s ha t te ra tt h e f i r s tb low . Moder ne xpe r imen te r s s ucceeded i np roduc ing o n ly o ne s ma l lb i face o u to f 1 0r andom s amp le so fD r if tf l in tc o l le c ted a tt h ep i t s ( Mo loney , p e r s . c omm . ) .

Wh i le a tB e r in sf ie ld s uppl ie s o ff a i r to -good w o rkab le f l in t m igh tb e f ound af ew k i lome t re s a way o n o r n ea rt h ec ha lk h i l l s , a tS tan ton H a rcour tg ood f l in tw a sn on -ex i s ten t -h ence t h e i n c rea sed u se o fq ua r tz i t e i na dd i t ion t ot h e w e l l -made h andaxe s o fg ood f l in t b rough t t ot h e a r ea f r om d own s t ream . T h i s f l in t i s c l ea r ly i d en t if iab le a s f r om C h i l te rn s s ou rce s .

I ti ss i gn if ican t t h a t 2 9% o f a l l t h e S tan ton H a rcou r t

a r te f a c t sa r eo fq ua r tz i te ,B un te rp ebb le sb e ing i na dequa te s upp ly . T he h un te r so fS tan ton H a rcou r tn eeded q ua r tz i te t oo l st os upp lemen tt h e i rn eed s ,b u to ne w onde r sw hy t h ey w e re s oc a re le s s a st ol o se o ra bandon s om any e l egan ta nd w e l l -mad ef l in th andaxe s , i n c lud ing t h er ema rkab le ' g ian t 'r e f e r red t oa bove .

A nd e s i t ea nd q uar tz N on -f l in tt oo l s a r eg ene ra l ly r e f e r red t oi nt h i s c hap te ra sq ua r tz i te ,o n ly t oa vo id r epe t i t ion o f aq ua l ify ing p h ra se , b ecau se v e ry f ew a r eo fo t he rr ock s . T he mo s ti n te re s t ing i s ah andaxe f r om B e r in sf ie ld m ade o na w ea the red p i ece o fr ock w i th ab lue -g rey c r u s t , t h et op t h i rd o fw h ich i sn ea t ly f l aked a l lr ound t o ap o in t . I ti so n ly s l igh t ly r o l led . T he r ock w a s n o t f i na l ly i d en t if ied u n t i l t h e p iece w a s s e c t ioned b y P rof e s so r S ho t ton a tB i rm ingham . I ti s" dev i t r if ied l a va o fa nde s i t ic c ompo s i t ion " -aNo r the rn D r if te r ra t ic f r om t h e L ake D i s t r ic t . Af ew o the rp i ece so fu nwo rked a nde s i t eh ave b een f ound i nl o ca lg rave l s , a nd an ea to va t e o fa nde s i te f r om A b ingdon e x i s t s ( f ig . 5 ) . A no the rh andaxe , a n o va te f r om B e r in sf ie ld , i so fa lmo s tp u re q ua r tz w i th t r a ce s o f magne t i te a nd i sl i gh to range i nc o lou r .

O the r c ont r ibu to r s t o t h i s v o lume e xp lo re i n d ep th t h e o r ig in o f q ua r tz i te i n t h e T r ia ss ic a nd t h e P le i s tocene d e r iva t ion o fB un te r p ebb le s . Q ua r tz i te a r tef ac t s i nt h e u ppe r T hame s v a ry w ide ly i nt h e i r c o lou r , g ra in , d en s i ty a nd h a rdne s s . S ome w or no ne s s e em a lmo s t a ss of t a ss and s tone , o the r s s o t o ugh t h a to ne w onde r sh ow t h ey w e re f l aked a ta l l .

TECHNOLOGY AND FUNCT ION I ti sw e l ln owaday s t h a tt h e re i sn o c ompu l s ion i nd e scr ib ing p a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s t of o r ce t h em i n to s t r ic tt ypo log ica lc a tego r ie s , b ecau se t h eu pp e rT hame s q ua r tz i te s a r eb e s tv i ewed f r om t e chno log ica l a nd f unc t iona l s t andpo in t s .

T he f a c to r s i nvo lved i n t r an sform ing aB un te r p ebb le i n to a u sefu l t oo l a r e

r e co rded i n d e ta i l b y t h e e xpe r imen te r s i nt h i s v o lume .

I th a s a l ready b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e u ppe r

T hame s q ua r tz i te s a r e p robab ly c on tempo ra ry w i th o ne o r mo re o f t he A cheu l ian i n cu r s ion s i n to t h e r eg ion .

T he ir s hape s , s i ze s a nd d eg ree s o f s k i l l a r e s o d ive r se t h a t t h e i r e f f ec t ivene s s a s c u t t ing o r

c hopp ing t oo l s s eem s t ol i e mo re i nt h e c l everne ss o r c l um s ine ss o f t h e i nd iv idua l make r t h an i nt h e p rope r t ie s o ft h er aw ma te r ia l . T ha t may b e ah a s ty j udgm en ta st h e mo rpho logy o ft h ei mp lemen t sc ou ld w e l ld epend o np u r e ly f unc t iona lc on s ide ra t ion s .

O nc a refu ls c ru t iny i tmay b ed e t ec ted t h a ti nf a sh ion ing t h eq ua r tz i te h andaxe s t h e make r sh ad i nm ind t h e t r ad i t ion s t ow h ich t h ey w e re a ccu s tomed w hen wo rk ing f l in t . T he i n i t ia l f l ake wa s much mo re d i f f icu l t t or emove f r om ar ounded , t o ugh p ebb le , b u to nce t h a tw a s a ch ieved , t h e s k i l l o rp a t ience o ft h e m ake r w a s r evea led i nt h e e f f ec t ivene ss o ff u r the rf l ak ing . S ome o pe ra to r s s eemed t og ive u p h a lf -way , o the r s h amme red o na nd p roduced ac r ed i tab le r e semb lance t o aw o rkman l ike f l in tb i f ace . S ome o ft h eh andaxe s m ay h ave b een f i n i shed b y s o f t -hamme r t e chn ique , w h ich i sp e rf ec t ly f ea s ib le ( s ee Mo loney e ta l . t h i s

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v o lume ) . O the ra t temp t s a wkwa rd ly t u rned o u tt ob et r ihed ra lp o in t sw i th h a lf t h ep ebb le u n touched . T he t o o l s v a ry g r ea t ly i ns i ze , b u ta l a r e v e ry l i t t le s ma l le rt h an t h e o r ig ina l b l ank . P o in ted t y p e s a nd o va t e s a l te rna te , b u tf ew a r ea sc l ea ri nd e s ign a st h e i rf l in tc oun te rpa r t s .

C hopper co r e sa nd c u t t ing e dg e s . O ne t y pe o ft o o l , t h ec hoppe r -co r eo n ac obb le w i th f o u ro rf i ve r emova l s a to ne e nd o rs i de m ay n o tb ea t o o l a ta l , b u t m e re ly ac o re f r om w h ich u se f u l f l ake s w e re r emoved . S uch a n i n te rp r e ta t ion c ou ld b e c on t rove r s ia l , a s c hoppe r -co re s , e spec ia l ly t h e c l a s s ic C lac ton ian v a r ie ty , h ave o f ten b een h e ld t ob e i mp lem en t s i nt h e i ro wn r i gh t , a sw e l l a sh av ing y i e lded u sab le f l ake s . P .R .J one s ( p e r s . c omm . ) .f a vou r s t h ef l ake t h eo ry , w i th t h ec o re a sr e s idue . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o fs om ec hoppe r co re s ,e ven u n i f a c ia lc hoppe r s , b e ing h andaxe r oughou t s a l so a r i se s . O ri tm ay b et h a tq ua r tz i te c hopp ing too l sa nd c hoppe r sh ad as p ec ia l f unc t ion w h ich ah andaxe c ou ld n o t p e r fo rm s o w e l l . A tl e a s t a l l t h e se i mp lemen t s s ha r e o ne t h ing i n c ommon w i th t h e h andaxe s -t h ey a l h ave ac u t t ing e dge -a n e dge n o ts ok een a sf l in t , b u tm o r ed u rab le a nd a lmo s ti mpo s s ib le t oc h ip i nu se . T he s p l i t -pebb le t h eory T he b e l ief i ss ome t ime sh e ld t h a tq ua r t z i t eh andaxe sa r em ade o nB un te rp ebb le sw h ich h ave b een s p l i t ,o r b i sec ted , b yt h em ake r s i no rd e re i the rt op ro cu r e al a rge f l ake o rt oc r ea t e af a ce w h ich m ay b eu sed a sa p l a t fo rm t of a c il i ta te f u r the rf l ak ing o rt r imm ing ( Sho t ton 1 937 ) . T he w r i te rh a s a l so h ea rd t h i s a s se r t ion f r equen t ly p u tf o rwa rd i nv e rba ld i scu s s ion , b u tf a i led t ot r ace a ny e xpe r im en ta lv e r i f ica t ion o ft h et h eo ry . H i s o wn e f fo r t s t oc r ea te t wo mo re o r l e s s e qua l h a lve s i np ebb le s f r om 1 0 cm t o2 0 cm l o ng , r ound o r o vo id , w e re c omp le te ly u n succe s sf u l , a nd s ma l l f l ake s a nd b r u i sed f i nge r s w e re t h e o n ly r e su l t . H u r l ing p ebb le s v i o len t ly a t as t a t ic l ump o fs a r sen o n ap i tf l oo r ( r e comm ended b y o ne a rm cha i rp und i t )p roved q u i te u se le s s , m e re ly p roduc ing a l a rm ing r i cho che t s . H e t h en p a s sed t h ep rob lem t ot h ee xpe r imen te r si n q ua r t z i t ef a b r ica t ion .

Mo re t h an h a lf t h e e r ra t ic s o f t h e N o r ther n D r if t o ft h e u ppe r T hame s v a l ley c on s i s t o fq ua r t z i te a nd s a nd s tone p ebb le s ( Goud ie a nd H a r t 1 975 ) . T hey v a ry i ns i ze ,c o lou r , d en s i ty ,g ra in a nd m ine ra lc on t en t , a nd m o s ta r ew or nt os moo th ,r ounded s h ape s . S i ze s v a ry f r om 1c mt o2 0c m a nd a bove . I ti so b se rved i nt h e f i e ld t h a t m any l a rge r c obb le s a r e s p l i t o r e ven n ea t ly b i sec t ed b y t h e rma l o rn a tu ra l p e r cu s s ive f o rce s , a nd o ne m igh t e xpec t t h a t t h e se w ou ld h ave b een c ho sen b y t h e t o o lmake r s .

Y e t , c l o se ly

s c ru t in i sed ,o n ly t wo o ft h eB e r in sf ie ld h andaxe s a nd o ne f r om S t an ton H a r cou r ts e em a ta l ll i ke ly t oh ave b een m ade o ns u ch s p l i ts t one s . O ne o rt wo o t he r s m ay h ave h ad as ma l li n i t ia ln a tu ra lb r eak t os e rve a sa p r ima ry f l ake p l a t fo rm , b u tt h eg r ea tm a jo r i ty h ave b e en f a sh ioned f r om r ound o ro vo id p ebb le s , o rt h o se f l a t t ened i n to d i sco id s h ape s . T he f a c ti sp uzz l ing , w hen r e ady s p l i ts t one s a r e a bundan tn ow , a nd p r e sumab ly w e re t h en . C e r ta in ly a n e x i s t ing n a tu ra l c l eavage w ou ld m ake ap ebb le o r c obb le e a s ie r t ot r an sfo rm i n to a n i mp lemen t . I ti s p o s s ib le t h a t an a tu ra l ly s p l i tp ebb le o f f e red t ot h ep o t en t ia l u s e rs u ch au se fu l w o rk ing -edge t h a tf u r the r t r imm ing w a s n o t n ece s sa ry , i nw h ich c a se i tw ou ld b e i mpo s s ib le t oi d en t ify t h e p i ece a sa n a r tef a c t . H oweve r , m o s tp e rcu s s ive ly b roken q ua r t z i te s h ave h ad t h e i re dge s b l un ted b y g l a c ia l o ro t he r a b ra s ion l o ng b e fo re m an w a s o nt h es c ene .

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C ou ld i th ave b een b e cau se o fa ni n na t e ly c on se rva t ive a pp roach ,c ond i t ioned b yf am i l ia r i ty w i th u nb roken f l i n tn odu le s ,t h a tq ua r t z i te t o o lm ake r s t o ok t h ed i ff i cu l tp a th a nd r emoved p r ima ry a nd s e conda ry f l ake s i n t h e t r ad i t iona l w ay? T ha t s ome w e r e mo r e s k i l led t h an o t he r s i sh a rd ly t ob e d oub ted , c ompa r ing t h e e l egan t w i th t h e c r ude i nt h e s ame a s semb lage s . N eve r the le s s , o ne m u s t n o t a s sume t h a t t h e q ua r tz i t e m ake r s w e r e as i ng le g roup w i th v a ry ing s k i l l s , a st h ei mp lemen t s m ay b ew ide ly s epa ra ted i nt ime . T he p uzz le r ema in s .

T he re i sa no the r v i ew o ft h e m a t te r . D r . D e r ek R oe h a s p o in t ed o u t ( p e r s . c omm . ) t h a t w h i le t h e f ew t h inne r a nd b e t te rf l aked h andaxe s m ay w el h ave b een m ade f r om s p l i t b l ank s , t h er ema inde rm ay l o ok i n e legan t t ou s , b u t m ay h ave b een h i gh ly e f f ec t ive f o r s ome r obu s t u se o r o t he r i nw h ich f l a tne s s a nd s ymm e t ry w ou ld h ave b e en d i sadvan tageou s . T hu sc e r t a in Me so l i th ic a s semb lage sm ay i n c lude t h ec r ud e s t s t one p i ck s a l ong s id et h em o s td el i ca te m ic ro l i th s . S ome o b se rva t ion so ns p l i tp ebb le s a r eg i ven b yJ e f f r ey Wa l l i s a tt h ee nd o ft h i s s e c t ion .

R e sha rp en ing T he q ua r t z i te h andaxe s f r om b o th B e r in sf ie ld a nd S t an ton H a r cou r th ave b een s c ru t in i sed f o rs i gn s o fr e s ha rpen ing , b u t w i th o n ly i nde te rm ina te c onc lu s ion s , e spec ia l ly o n t h e a s syme t r ica l t o o l s .

T he

e xam ina t ion o ft h em w a s s ugge s ted b y ar e po r to fb u t che r ing t r ia l s w i th q ua r tz i te b i f a ce s i nw h i ch i tw a s n o t ed t h a t s uch b i f ace s " a r e v e ry e f f ic ien t , b ecau se t h e t o o l e dge s r ema in s ha rp d u r ing u se a nd , w hen b l un ted , c an b e e a s i ly r e sha rp ened . ..t h ec oa r se g r a in o ft h eq ua r tz i te i n h ib i t s t h e u se o ff i ne r e touch" ( J one s 1 979 ) .

O u t s tand ing q ua r t z i t ei mp l emen t s I ti sn o tp ropo sed h e re t og i ve d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion s o fe ve ry n on -f l in tf i nd i nt h e u ppe rT ham e s a l though s uch d e sc r ip t ion s h ave b e en m ade a nd a r e a va i lab le t ot h e c u r iou s . T he G a ze t te e r i nt h i s v o lume g i ve s b a s ic i n fo rma t ion a bou t e a ch a r te f a c t , b u t af ew m e r i t al i t t le mo re a t ten t ion t h an t h a t , t os upp lemen t s ome o ft h el i ne d r aw ing s . Two o ft h eq ua r t z i t eh andaxe sa r eo u t s tand ing i nt h a tt h ey a r ef a sh ioned f r om t o ugh ,c l o se -g ra ined q ua r t z i te w i th a lmo s t a s much s k i l l a nd r e f inemen t a s t h e b e s t o f t h e A cheu l ian f l in t b i face s f r om t h e s ame l o ca t ion s . O ne o ft h e se , a n o va te w i th as l igh t t w i s t , f r om S t an ton H a r cou r t , i sf i ne ly w o rked w i th v e ry l i t t le c o r tex l e f t , a nd t h e i n va s ive f l ak ing s ugge s t s t h eu s eo f as o f th amme r( f ig .6 ) . B one o ra n t le rm u s t a l so h ave b een u sed t of i n i sh av e ry s hap e ly h andaxe f r om B e r in sf ie ld , a t1 4cm l o ng s l igh t ly l o nge rt h an t h et w i s ted o va t e a nd o ft h inne rs e c t ion . S ha l low f l ake sc ove ra lb u t2 0% o ft h et wo f a ce s , a nd t h et o o li s o n ly l i gh t ly r o l led ( f ig . 7 ) . I nc l o se p rox im i ty t ot h e S t an ton H a r cou r t o va te w a s f o und t h e o n ly h andaxe f r om t h e s i te m ade o n a f l a t t ened p ebb le am e re 2 cm t h ick . I tc on s i s t s o f at r i angu la rp o in to n af l a tb u t tf o rmed o fp ebb le c o r t ex o nb o th f a ce s , a nd m ea su re s 1 2 cm x9 cm x2 cm . F lak ing i sc a r r ied o u to nb o th s i de sf o rt h ree -qua r te r so f t h ep e r ime t e r -e v iden t ly aq u ick a nd s imp le o pe ra t ion p roduc ing av e ry e f e c t ive t o o l( f ig . 8 ) .

O ne o fs e ve ra l s ma l lp o in ted h andaxe s m ade o n o vo id p ebb le s , s t one s s t ruck w i th n o mo re t h an ad ozen b l ow s b u t p roduc ing a u se fu l p o in t , i ss hown i n f i g . 9 . T he se w e re f r om B e r in sf ie ld .

: 3 5

T he m o s t

s pec tacu la r t o o l f r om t h a t s i te i s am a s s ive h andaxe , 1 8 c m l o ng a nd w e igh ing mo re t h an 1k i log r am , ( f ig .10 ) a nd t h e re a r e f ou r o t he r s a lmo s t a s l a rge f r om B e r in sf ie ld , b u t o f v a r ied f o rm a nd r o ughe r w o rkman sh ip . O n t h e w ho le , t h e B e r in sf ie ld q ua r tz i t e s a r e l a rge r a nd m uch mo re d i ve r se i ns t y le t h an t h o se f r om S t an ton H a rcou r t , w he re t h e r e a r e 1 2 h andaxe s b u t o n ly o ne u n if a ce , o ne c hopp e r a nd o ne c hoppe r -co re . A tt h ed own s t r eam s i te c hoppe ra nd c hoppe r co r e s a r em o re n ume rou s , a nd n o tewo r thy a r e t h ree t r ihed ra l p i ck s r e semb l ing c r ude p o in t ed h andaxe s o n e l onga t ed p ebb le s . T he s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e se t h r ee i mp lemen t s i sr ema rkab le i nd imen s ion s , f l ake r emova l s a nd t h e e x ten t o fi n va s ive f l ak ing d own t h el o ng a xe so ft h ep ebb le s .

I den t if i ca t ion o fn on f l in tt o o l s T he p o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion o fp a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t sm ade o fq ua r t z i te a nd o t he rh a rd r o ck s a su ndoub ted p roduc t s o fh uman m anuf ac tu re i sn o tn ea r ly s oe a sy a sp ronounc ing s u ch v e rd i c t s o n f l in t . Whe r ea s i n s e a led a nd u nd i s tu rbed s i te s l i ke t h o se i nE a s tA f r ica , f ew p rob lem s a r i se , t os po ta nd r e cove r aq ua r t z i t e i mp lemen ti nB r i ta in n eed s ag ood d ea l o fp a t ience a nd e xp e r ience . N um e rou s n a tu ra l ly -b rok en B un t e r p ebb le s a nd o t he re r ra t ic s h ave t ob e l o oked a ta nd d i sca rd ed . R o l l ing , a b ra s ion a nd w ind -fa ce t ing a r e f a c to r s t ob et a ken i n to a c coun t , a nd c l o se c ompa r i son m u s tb em ade w i th c obb le s f r om t h e s ame g r ave l s t h e rma l ly o rn on -m echan ica l ly b r oken . P i e ce sw i th p oo r ly -de f ined f l ak ing m ay h ave t ob em a t ched a ga in s t a u then t ic e a r ly s t one t o o l s . When o ne e ven tua l ly e nd su pw i th o ve rf i f ty g enu ine a r te f a c t s ,t h e re r ema in sa b oxfu l o f " doub t fu l s " n o t i n c luded i nt h e c oun t . T he se a r e m a in ly s p l i t c obb le s w i th c l eavage p l ane f r a c tu re sa nd u pt ot h r ee f l ak e sca r so fd ub iou so r ig in . T o a dd t ot h e d i ff i cu l t ie s , c oncho ida l f l ake sca r s a r e v e ry s e ldom a s s ha rp ly d e f ined a st h o se i nf l in t . C one s , b u lb s , c oncen t r ic r i pp le s a nd s t r ia t ed f i s su re s a r ei n f r equen t ly c l ea ri nt h ec oa r se g r a in o ft h er o ck . A ny b u tt h o se p i e ce s p a t en t ly s hap ed b y m an h ave b e en r e jec ted , a f t e rc on su l ta t ion w i th c o l league s a nd c ompa r i son w i th mod e rn e xper imen ta t ion i nq ua r t z i te .

Q ua r t z i t e a l so c omp le te ly l a ck s t h e s t a in ing ,

p a t ina t ion a nd g l o s so fa nc ien tf l in t . THE P ROBLEMS OF DAT ING I tu sed t ob ec u s toma ry t oc a tego r i se a r t ef a c t si n to c onven t iona l s l o t s i na na c cep ted t ime sca le . T ypo logy a nd s t ra t ig raph ica lc o r r e la t ion w i th s im i la ri mp lem en t -bea r ing d epo s i t s w e r es uppo sed t oa ch ieve t h i s ,a nd t o ac e r ta in e x t en t t h o se t wo c r i te r ia a r e s t i l l v a luab le . T o t h em m ay n ow b e a dded aw ho le r a nge o f s pec ia l i s t Q ua te rna ry s t ud ie s a imed a te s tab l i sh ing a r chaeo log ica l s equence s o n t h e b a s i s o f p rope r c h ronome t r ic d a te s . Whe the r c l a r if i ca t ion o r c onf u s ion s ome t ime s r e su l t s f r om s u ch l i a i son b e tween a r chaeo log i s t s a nd t h o se w ho se d i sc ip l ine s a r ec a l led u pon t oh e lp i s am a t te rf o rc au t iou s c on s id e ra t ion b u t s uch c o -ope ra t ion i se s sen t ia l , w e lcome a nd r ewa rd ing .

T o t h i s g ene ra l s ke t ch o f t h e q ua r t z i te

i mp lemen t s i nt h eO xfo rd v a le ( a nd o ft h e i rf l in tb ed f e l low si nt h eg r ave l s )t wo a u tho r i t ie so nt h eg eo logy , g eomo rpho logy a nd l i t ho logy o ft h e r e g ion c on t r ibu te o t he rc hap te r s . As o lu t ion o ft h e u ppe r T hame s c h rono log ica le n igma i sb rough t much n ea r e rb yt h e i rw o rk . S hou ld a" p r ima ry c on tex t " s i t ee ve re me r ge ( a nd t h a ti sb yn om ean s i mpo s s ib le ) ac on s ide rab le b ody o fi n f o rma t ion w i l lb e a va i lab le t owa rd s d a t ing i t .

I th a s t ob e s a id t h a tn one o ft h e f i nd si nt h er e g ion c an u nequ ivo ca l ly b ec l a imed a sh av ing b e en f o und i n s i tu .

T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f t h e Wo lve r co te C hanne l i mp lemen t s n o t h av ing b een d i s tu rbed i sc a ref u l ly

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c on s ide red b yT y lde s ley ( 1986 , a nd i nt h i s v o lume ) w ho c onc lude s t h a tt h ey w e re n o tg rea t ly moved a f te r d epo s i t ion , b u tt h ec i r cum s tance so ft h e i rr e cove ry p re c lud ec l a s s if ica t ion a s as e a led s i te .

D ef in ing t he A cheul ian I na ny o b serva t ion s w h ich m igh tb e h e lpfu l t owa rd s d a t ing i ti sn ece s sa ry t od ea l w i th q ua r tz i te a nd f l in t a r tef ac t s t oge the r , b ecause n owhe re i n t h e u ppe r T hame s v a l ley h ave t h ey b een f ound i n s epa ra te a s semb lage s -a l lq ua r tz i te f i nd s w e re r e cove red f r om l o ca t ion sn o tf a rf r om f i nd spo t s o ff l in ti mp lemen t s , a nd i ns im i la rd epo s i t s .

T he i mp lemen t s a r e i ng ene ra l a ppea rance M idd le A cheu l ian , i ft h a t b road d e scr ip t ion i ss t i l l v a l id . T he e xcep t ion s a r e , o f c our se , t h e Wo lve rco te C hanne l f l in tb i face s a nd t h e A b ingdon f l in t b ou t -coupe h andaxe s .

M id -Acheu l ian h a s u n t i l r ecen t ly b een a c onven ien t g ene ra l l a be l c over ing a lmo s t a ny

i mp lemen ta t tr ibu ted t oa ny s t age f r om t h e s t a r to ft h e Hoxn ian t ot h ee nd o ft h eE p sw ich ian , i . e . m ade a t a ny t ime b e tween 3 00 ,000 a nd 1 00 ,000 y ea r sB .P . Many e s say s a tg rea te re xac t i tude i nd a t ing A cheu l ian t ypo log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l s t age s h ave b een made , s ome o ft h em c a r ry ing c onv ic t ion , b u ta lway s w i th r e se rva t ion s . T he a t temp t mo s tc l o se ly r e a soned o ccu r s i nR oe ( 1981 ) , a nd h i sr e cen td e f in i t ion o fM idd le A cheu l ian mu s ts t and f o rp r e sen tp u rpo se su n t i l c u r ren tc on t rove r s ie sc ome n ea re rs ome s o r to fr e so lu t ion . R oe d ef ine sM idd le A cheu l ian a s" we l l -made h andaxe i n du s t r ie s w i th s eve ra l v a r ian t s c l a s s i f iab le w i th in g ene ra l' p o in ted 'a nd ' o va te 't r ad i t ion s " ( Roe 1 986 ) .

T ypo log ica lp uzz le T he t wo mo s tr e cen t ly d i scove red s i te s , B e r in sf ie ld a nd S tan ton H a rcou r t , a r e t a ken h e re t oi lu s t ra te t h e p redom inance o fM idd le A cheu l ian i nt h e r eg ion , b ecau se t h ey h ave p rov ided t h e g rea te s t n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s a nd i ndeed t h e w ide s tv a r ie ty o ft ype s w i th in t h e A cheu l ian r ange . T he o n ly d ive rgence f r om ma in s t ream A cheu l ian m ay b et h es even L eva l lo i sf l ake s a nd t h et wo c o re s a tB e r in sf ie ld ,bu tt h e i rp lace i n a ny t empo ra l s equence r ema in s p rob lema t ica l . T he r ange o fi mp lemen tt ype s a tB e r in sf ie ld i sw ide r , b u t t h a t may b e b e cau se f i ve t ime s a s many a r tefa c t s w e re r e cove red t h e re t h an a tS t an ton H a rcour t . F rom B e r in sf ie ld c ame as omewha tb ew i lde r ing m ix o fp o in ted , o va te , f i c ron , t r iangu la r , a mygda lo id -i nf a c t s pe c imen s o fp rac t ica l ly e ve ry th ing i nt h e A cheu l ian f l in t c a ta logue a nd c om ing i ns i ze s t o ma tch e ve ry f unc t iona ln eed . T he s ma l le s th andaxe i s 5c en t ime t re s l o ng , t h el a rge s t 1 8 c en t ime t re s , a nd t h e re i se ve ry s i ze a nd s hape b e tween w i th v e ry f ew i mp lemen t s c l o se ly i d en t ica li nt h ew ho le a s semb lage .

A s p rev iou s ly n o ted , t h e B e r in sf ie ld q ua r tz i te c on ten t o f t h e i mp lemen t s t o ta l ( 15% ) r ef lec t s as im i la r d ive r s i ty , w i th mo re c hoppe r s ,c hopp ing t o o l s a nd f l ake s t h an h andaxe s . T he S tan ton H a r cour tc o l lec t ion , b yc on t ra s t ,i sd om ina ted b yw e l l -made t r i angu la rp o in ted h andaxe s i nf l in t ,s eve ra ls ow e l l -ma tched i ns i ze a nd f l ak ing p a t te rn s t h a tt h ey m igh th ave c ome f r om t h e s ame h and . I na dd i t ion t h e re a r e l a rge r , o va t e o r o vo id f l in t h andaxe s w i th r ef ined , e ven d e l ica te , a n t le r -s t r uck f i n i sh , a nd t h e re i s al a rge f l in tc l eave r o f s im i la rf i ne w o rkman sh ip . T he q ua r tz i t e s f r om t h i s s i te ( 29% o ft h e t o ta l ) a r e n ea r ly a l l b i face s , b u t a l b u tt wo o ft h em f a l l f a rs ho r to ft h ef l in t s i nr ef inemen t .

A s ap o in te rt oc l o se rd a t ing o t he r t h an M id -Acheu l ian t h e v a r ia t ion o ft h e B e r in sf ie ld i mp lemen t s i sn o t v e ry h e lpf u l . T he c o lou r , s t a in ing a nd d eg ree o f r o l l ing o f t h e f l in t s a r e i nt h e m a in v e ry s im i la r a nd p a t ina t ion i sq u i te a b sen t e xcep t o n av e ry f ew . T he f l in t , n o t o f t op q ua l i ty , i ss e en t ob e f r om l o ca l C h i l te rn s ou r ce s , w i th t h e g r ey c he r ty i n c lu s ions c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h a t ma te r ia l . N eve r the le s s , t h ed eg ree

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o f s k i l l i nd ea l ing w i th s e cond -c la s s f l in t i sr ema rkab ly h i gh , t h e b e s t o f t h e h andaxe s b o rde r ing i n w o rkman sh ip o na n" advanced " l e ve l . T he r ea r e ,o fc ou r se ,n um e rou sa r te f a c t so fc r ude d e s ign a nd h u r r ied f i n i sh a l ong s ide t h e mo r ee l egan tt o o l s , b u tt h e i mp r e s s ion g i ven i st h a tt h e se w e re ' t oo l s o ft h e m omen t ' , m ade f r om p i ece so ff l in tu n su i t ab le f o rr ef ined w o rk o re ven f r om l a rge rb rok en h andaxe s ,b yp eop le w ho c ou ld f a sh ion e l egan t t o o l s i ft h ey w i shed . T ha t i mp re s s ion i se qua l ly s t rong w hen t h e q ua r t z i te s a r e e xam ined .

Mo re p rob l em so fc hrono logy B ecau se o ft h e g r ea t v a r ia t ion i nt y pe s , a nd t h e s c a t te r o ff i nd spo t s a tB e r in sf ie ld o ve r s e ve ra l s qua r e k i lome t re s , t h e p robab i l i ty i st h a tt h e f i nd s r e p re sen t an umbe ro fA cheu l ian o cupa t ion s , n o tn e ce s sa r i ly s ha r ing t h e s ame t r ad i t ion s o ft o o l m anuf ac tu re a nd p o s s ib ly s e pa ra t ed i nt ime b y m any m i l lenn ia . T hey c ou ld h ave b een t h e p roduc t s o f s e ve ra l g roup s w ho f o l lowed s umme r g ame m ig ra t ion s u p t h e v a l ley . Mo r e t h an o ne g roup m ay h ave u t i l i sed q ua r tz i te c obb le s f o r t o o l s , b u t t h e re c an b e n o c on f i rma t ion o f t h i s . D i s tu rbance i nt h eg r ave l sc ou ld a c coun tf o rd i f f e r ence s i nw ea r . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h ei mp lemen t s a t b o th B e r in sf ie ld a nd S t an ton H a rcou r t , b o th f l in t a nd n on -f l in t , a r e o n ly l i gh t ly o r mod e ra t e ly r o l led ( whe the rp o in ted o ro va te )b u tn one i sm in tf r e sh . S ome o ft h eS t an ton H a r cou r tq ua r tz i te sh ave d i s t inc t ly mo re b l un ted e dge s t h an t h ef l in th andaxe s . R el iab le d a ta o na b ra s ion o fq ua r t z i t et o o l s -t o ughe ra nd f a r l e s s b r i t t le t h an f l in t -i sl a ck ing , a nd i n ve s t iga t ion i sp l anned .

T h e rma ld amag e T he re i so ne s i gn if i can td i f f e rence i nt h ec ond i t ion o ft h e a r t ef a c t s f r om t h e t wo s i te s , w h ich m ay h ave a b ea r ing o nr e la t ive d a t ing . A bou to ne th i rd o ft h ef l in th andaxe sf r om B e r in sf ie ld a r et h e rma l ly d amaged w i th m any i n c ip ien tf r o s t -c ra ck s s how ing a sh a i r l ine s o n t h e s u r f a ce s . Many o ft h e h anda xe b u t t s a nd t i p s s how s e ve r ed amage b y i c e , b u tt h eq ua r tz i te s a r en o ta ta l l a f f ec ted . A tS t an ton H a r cou r tn ot h e rma l d amage a ta l li sa ppa r en t ,e i the ro ff l in to rq ua r tz i te . T he b u lk o ft h eg r ave l sh e r e , i tw i l lb er e ca l led ,w e r e l a id d own i nc ond i t ion so fs e ve r ea nd p ro longed c o ld , a nd t h eu ndamaged s t a te o ft h ei mp lem en t sm igh to n t h i sb a s i sb e a tr ibu ted t o : a ) t h e i rh av ing b e en c on tempo ra ry w i th t h ee a r l ie rw a rm S t an ton H a r cou r tC hanne lr e f e r red t ob e low , o r , b ) t h e i rh av ing b e en s ub jec tt os e conda ry r e -depo s i t ion t o al owe re l eva t ion f r om t h eE yn sham G rave la nd p ro tec ted b y t h e i r p o s i t ion i n t h e b a sa l s i l t s a nd c l ay s f r om t h e mo re s eve r e e f f ec t s o f s ub sequen t D even s ian p e rma f ro s t .

T he S t an ton H a r cour tC hann e l T he f i r s tp ropo s i t ion i sa na t t rac t ive o ne ,e spec ia l ly a st h ep r e sen tw r i t e rr e cove r ed ad ozen o ft h eS t an ton H a r cou r ti mp lemen t sf r om t h ef l oo ro ft h ep i t ,s e ven o ft h em p a r t ly e mbedded i nt h ew ea the r ed O xfo rd c l ay w h ich d i dn o ta ppea rt oh ave b een r e -wo rked . B r igg s a nd G i lbe r t son ( 1 980 )d i scove red a tt h ev e ry b a se o f t h e c o ld d epo s i t s aw a rm c hanne l w h ich , t h ough t r unca ted b efo r e b u r ia l b y t h eg r ave l s , h ad am in imum w id th o f6 0m e t r e s a nd r a nf r om e a s tt ow e s t , b r oad ly p a ra l le lw i th t h e moder nT hame s . T he d ep th o ft h i s c hanne l , c u ti n to t h eO xfo rd c l ay , w a s a sm uch a s 2m e t re s i np l a ce s . T he c hanne l i n f i l l d epo s i t s o ft h i s p ro to -Thame s i n d ica ted f u l ly t empe ra t ei n te rg lac ia lc ond i t ion s . B r igg sa nd h i sc o l league si n ve s t iga ted t h e c hanne l o ve r s eve ra l y ea r s , a nd f a una , f l o ra , mo l lu sca a nd c o leop te ra c onf i rmed ap a laeo -env i ronmen t s u i tab le f o r h uman o ccupa t ion . I nt h i s v o lume B r igg s s umma r i se s t h e e v idence f r om t h i s c hanne l , a nd

1 38

o f f e r sn ew i n te rp r e ta t ion so ft h eu ppe rT hame st e r ra ce s equence , a s s ign ing t h e ma in a gg rada t ion s o ft e r ra ce g rave l s t of l uv io -pe r ig lac ia lp roce s se s u nd e rc o ld c ond i t ion s . T he c omp lex i t ie so ft h et e r race s a r eg i ven a n a l t er na t ive i n te rp re ta t ion b y D .R .B r idg land i nh i scon t r ibu t ion. S uch s t imu la t ing i fc on t rove r s ia lr e sea r ch i sv i ta lt ot h ep rob lem s o fd a t ing t h ei mp lem en t s c on ta ined i nt h ed epo s i t s .

I n c on s ide r ing t h e S tan ton H a rcour t w a rm c hanne l , t h e re eme rge s t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t b ecau se " . ..a h i a tu so fu nknown d u ra t ion e x i s t sb e tween t h ec hanne ls ed imen t s a nd t h et e r race d epo s i t s " ( Br igg s , 1 985 ) , t h e S tan ton H a rcour t i mp lemen t s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave h ad t h e i r o r ig in i nt h e t empe ra te c l ima te o f s uch a l a nd su rface b efo re i tw a s b u r ied u nde r t h e c o ld -s tage g rave l s .

However , i th a s n o t b een p o ss ib le

d ef in i te ly t o a s soc ia te t h e i mp lemen t l o ca t ion s w i th t h e l i ne o f t h e w a rm c hanne l , t hough s ome w e re r e cove red f r om t h ec l ay s a nd s i l t s i ni t sp rox im i ty . T he " g radua l d epo s i t ion.. . b y am eander ing s t ream i n ar e la t ive ly s t ab le e nv i ronmen t " o ft h ec hanne l s ed imen t sw ou ld c e r ta in ly s e em i d ea lf o rh uman a c t iv i ty .

A l terna t ive D a t ing E v idence T he o the r p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t t h e S tan ton H a rcou r t i mp lemen t s , b o th q ua r tz i te a nd f l in t , h ad t h e i r o r ig in a f ter a gg rada t ion o ft h e c o ld -s tage g rave l s , a nd w h ich w e re f o l lowed b y t h e w a rm s tage ( ? Ip sw ich ian ) E yn sham G rave l t oc omp le te t h e d epo s i t ion o ft h e c ompo s i te • S umm e r town /Rad ley T e r ra ce . D ur ing t h i s s t age t h e m eande r ing r i ve rr e -wo rked t h e l owe rc o ld g rave l s , a nd c u ti n to t h em . I n ac l ima te w h ich w a s t empe ra t e ( h ippopo tamu sw a s a bundan t ) t h e re mu s th ave b een p e r iod s w hen t h et e r ra in w a s s t ab le e nough f o r t empo ra ry h uman o ccupa t ion , a nd t h e p re sumed d a t ing o f t h e se g rave l s d oe s n o t p rec lude t h e a s sump t ion t ha tM idd le o rL a te A cheu l ian a r te f ac t s w e r e i n co rpo ra ted i nt h em . D en se w ood land p robab ly e x i s ted i nt h ev a l ley b u tt h e re mu s ta l so h ave b een o pen g ra s s land o rs c rub o na d jacen ts l ope s a nd h i l l s .

S ub sequen tp ha se s o fe ro s ion r emoved t h eb u lk o ft h eE yn sham G rave ld own s t ream a ts ome t ime p r io rt o t h e m id -Deven s ian . I fa si sl i ke ly t h i s g rave l c on ta ined i mp lem en t s t h ey c ou ld h ave b e en g radua l ly l e t d own b ye ro s iona ld i s tu rbance t ot h el e ve l s w he re m any w e re f ound -o n o rj u s ta bove a ne roded b ed rock s u r f ace .

S im i la rr e -wo rk ing o fg rave l sa nd s ed imen t sm ay w e l lh ave c au sed t h eB e r in sf ie ld a r te fac t st ob ecome p a r t o f al a g d epo s i to fg rea te ra n t iqu i ty t h an t h eo ve r ly ing F loodp la in G rave l s . T he se g rave l s w e re l a id d own i n am id -Deven s ian i n te r s tad ia lb e tween 4 0 ,000 a nd 2 5 ,000 y ea r s b . p . , f o l lowed b y af u r the ra ccumu la t ion i nt h el a te D even s ian ( Br igg s , 1 985 ) . T he i mp lemen t s a r ec er ta in ly o lde rt h an t h i s .

A no the rp o s s ib i l i ty i st h a tt h ey o r ig ina t ed o na n a nc ien tl a nd s u r f ace d ur ing at empe ra te p e r iod l o ng b efo r e i tw a s o ve r la id b y t h eg rave l s ( Ma cRae , 1 982 ) . Ab u r ied c hanne l w a s t hough t b y S and fo rd ( 1924 , 1 965 ) t ob e p re sen t , b u t t h i s h a s n o t y e t b een c onf irmed . I t may h e re b e r epea ted t h a t i tw a s f r om t h e v e ry l owe s tl e ve lo ft h e S ummer town /Rad ley g rave l s t h a tM idd le A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s w e r e f ound a tI f f ley e a r ly t h i s c en tu ry , s ome r e s t ing o n t h e b a sa l O xfo rd C lay . T hey a l so may h ave b een d er ived f r om e a r l ie r d epo s i t s ( Be l l , 1 904 ) . O ne t h i rd o ft h et o ta lo f2 7 h and ue s f r om I f f ley w e re o fq ua r tz i t e .

C h rono log ica lu ncer ta in ty r ema in s . D epo s i t s a t Ma r swo r th d a ted a t1 65 -170 ,000 y ea r s b . p . ( C .P . G reen g t a , 1 984 ) h ave b een c o r re la ted w i th t h e S tan ton H a rcou r t C hanne l ( Br igg s , t h i s v o lume ) , a nd t ho se d a te s c ou ld a cco rd w i th s ome A cheu l ian i ndu s t r ie s ; o n t h e o t he r h and p lan t d ebr i s a tt h e b a se o ft h e c hanne l r ecen t ly g ave a 1 4C d a te o f 4 3 ,730 y ea r s b .p .

1 39

S i l t s s l igh t ly h ighe r i n t h e c hanne l g ave t wo

t h e rmo lum ine scen t d a te s o f a round 9 0 ,000 y ea r s b . p . C ou ld s uch r e su l t s i nd ica te t h a t t h e l e ve l s f r om w h ich s amp le s w e re t a ken h ad b een much d i s tu rbed d ur ing t h e t u rbu len t h i s to ry o ft h e u ppe r T hame s g rave l s? I ts e em s t h a ti ti sn o to n ly p a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s t h a tg e t moved f r om t h e i rp l ace o fo r ig in .

D eg re eo fi mp lemen tw ea r Wh i le i ti sn o t s ugge s ted t h a tt h e d eg ree o fw ea ro n t h e e dge s a nd f l ake r idge s o fd e r ived i mp lemen t s i s i nd ica t ive o fr e la t ive a ge ,i ts hou ld b er e co rded t h a ta tb o th S tan ton H a rcour ta nd B e r in sf ie ld h eavy r o l l ing i sr a re i nb o th f l in ta nd q ua r tz i te , a nd t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e t oo l s a r eo n ly l i gh t ly o r mode ra te ly a b raded . I n t h e f l in t h andaxe s a nc ien t c r ush ing o ft oo l e dge s i s mo re ma rked t h an s moo th ing o r r educ t ion o ff l ake r i dge s , e spec ia l ly a tt h e u p r ive r s i te , n ea re r t h e a l ka l in i ty o ft h e C o t swo ld l ime s tone . S imon C o l lcu t t ( p e r s . c omm . ) h a s b een h e lpfu l i ns ugge s t ing t h e c au se s . H andaxe s , h ep o in t s o u t , t e nd t ol i e f l a ti nt h e i r p a r t icu la rs t ra ta , a nd t h ei mmen se p re s su re o ft h eo ve r ly ing g rave ld ownwa rd s t e nd s t oc r u sh a nd s nap t h e s ha rp e dge s . T h i s i se spec ia l ly n o t iceab le a tS tan ton H a r cou r t , w he re t h ef l in tb i f ace s h ave av e ry d eep a nd d i s t inc t ive y e l low p a t ina t ion d ue t ot h ep ene t ra t ion o fw a te ri na l ka l ine c ond i t ion s . T he f l in t " c ru s t " h a s b een a l te red a nd h yd ra ted l e av ing i ts of ta nd p o rou s , e a s i ly s u scep t ib le t oe dge -cru sh ing . T he a r r e te s a r e u naf f e c t ed .

T ha tp henomenon c anno ta ccoun tf o rt h ev a r iab le d eg r ee so fe dge -ab ra s ion o nt h eq ua r tz i te a r tef ac t s a tb o th s i te s , f o r w h ich s o l if luc t ion a nd r i ve r ine d amage mu s tb e b l amed . A s m igh t b e e xpec ted , t h e t o ugh a nd c l o se -g ra ined q ua r tz i te s r ema in a lmo s ts ha rp , wh i le t h e t oo l s m ade o fs of te rm a te r ia l a r e b l un ted o n b o th e dge sa nd f l ake r idge s .

C ur r en tr e -a s s e s smen t s A ny p o s tu la t ion r ega rd ing t h ea ge o ft h ei mp lemen t s , w he the rt h ey b e long t o as i ng le p ha se o fo ccupa t ion o rt ow ide ly sepa ra ted p e r iod s , mu s tt a ke i n to a ccoun tc u r ren tr e sea rch i n to Q ua t e rna ry d iv i s ion s a nd t h e p ropo sed n ew c h rono log ie s . F o r e xamp le , t h e Wo l s ton ian s t age i se ven n ow u nde rgo ing f u r the r a t tack ( Ro se 1 987 ) a nd s e em sl i ke ly t od i s in teg ra te s o much i tm ay l o se i t s i d en t i ty e n t i r e ly .

F rom a no the rd i rec t ion a na u tho r i ty o nP le i s tocene f auna i sf a rf r om c onv inced t h a th uman p re sence mu s t i ns ome w ay b e r e la ted t oi n t e rg lac ia l c ond i t ion s , a nd f avou r s s t eppe l ike e nv i ronmen t s a st h e c ho ice o f t ho se p eop le w ho w e re a round a f te r t h e Hoxn ian a nd u p t o t h e Me so l i th ic ( Cur ran t , 1 986 ) .

"Mo re

p rob lem s t han a n swe r s " , l amen t s Wyme r (Wyme r , 1 986 ) a nd h e c oncede s t h e l i ke l ihood o f" nume rou s o the ri n te rg lac ia l s a nd i n te r s tad ia l s d u r ing t h eM idd le a nd L a te P le i s tocene " . I ti sr a re , h es ay s , " t ha te ven r e la t ive d a t e sc an b ea s se r ted w i th c onf idence " .

S ot h eq ua r tz i te i mp lemen t so ft h e u ppe rT hame s r ema in u nda ted i nt e rm s o fy ea r s B .P . a nd t h e i rp l ace i n a ny c h rono log ica l s ca le i ss t i l l u ncer ta in . I ti sc u s toma ry i nd ea l ing w i th s uch p rob lem s t oe nd a ny s e r ie s o fs uppo s i t ion s w i th t h ec onf iden tp red ic t ion t h a t" f u tu re r e sea rch w i l l u ndoub ted ly p rov ide t h e a n swe r s " . T he p re sen t w r i te rp rofound ly h ope s s o , a nd t h e o n ly a b so lu te d a te h e i sp repa red t op r in t i s1 973 w hen M i tche l l a nd h i s c o l league s p u t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e H oxn ian a t aq ua r te r o f am i l l ion y ea r s a go ; Wo l s ton ian a t1 90 ,000 ; t h e I p sw ich ian a t1 50 ,000 a nd t h eD even s ian a t7 5 ,000 .

1 40

t h e

5c ms

F ig . 3 . Quar tz i te i mp lemen t f r om A b ingdon , Oxfordsh i re .

1 41

1 42 F ig . 4 . Qua r tz i te h andaxe f r om Ab ingdon , Oxford sh i re .

C ) L O

1 43 F ig . 5 . A nde s i te h andaxe f r om A b ingdon , Oxfo rdsh i re .

i h E 0 i n

I I I

1 44

1 45

1 46 Q ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om S tan ton H a rcou r t , O xford sh i re .

1 47 Q ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om B e r insf ie ld , O xford sh i re .

L r )

I

1 48 F ig . 1 0 . Q ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om B e r insf ie ld , O xfordsh ire .

o E 0

1 49

F ig . 1 2 . Q ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om B e r in sf ie ld , O xfo rd sh i re .

•

1 50

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1 51 F ig . 1 3 . Q ua r tz i te h andaxe f r om B er in sf ie ld , O xfordsh i re .

u i E

A cknow ledg emen t s T he a u tho ri sa wa re o fh i s g ood f o r t une i nh av ing h ad m uch a dv ice w i l l ing ly g iven , n o to n ly i np repa r ing t h i s p ape r b u t i n t he a r rangemen t o f t h e p re sen t v o lume .

D r . D .A . R oe 's i nva luab le h e lp a nd

e ncou ragemen t i se spec ia l ly a pp rec ia ted , a s a r e t h e f a c i l i t ie s s o f r ee ly g ran ted o ve r m any y ea r s a tt h e D ona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua ter na ry R e sea rch C en t re i nO xfo rd . S ome w i se g u idance c ame f r om D r . S imon C o l lcu t ta nd D r .N ick B a r ton , a mong o the r s . T he g eo log ica lc omp lex i t ie s b ecame mo re u nd e r s tandab le i n d i scu s s ion s a nd f i e ld t r ip s w i th D r . D .J . B r igg s , a nd D r . D .R . B r idg land c l a r if ied s ome o bscu r i t ie s r ega rd ing g l ac ia t ion s . T hank s i nf u l lm ea su re a r ed ue t oJ ohn Wyme rf o rp e rm i t t ing t h e w r i te rt od raw o n h i sk now ledge o ft h ep reh i s to ry o ft h eT hame s V a l ley . T he m ea su re o fi n deb t edne s s t oJ e f f r ey Wa l l i s c an b ej udged b y h i s s upe rb d raw ing s . T he re wou ld b e f ew r e cen t ly f ound p a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s t ow r i te a bou tw e re i tn o tf o r Mr .J ohn Sm i th a nd Mr . N ige lB a i ley , w ho a l lowed f r e ea cce s s t ot h e i rG rave l ly G uy p i ta tS tan ton H a rcour ta nd t ot h e i rw o rk ing p l an t . S ince re t h ank s a l so t ot h em anagemen ta nd emp loyee s o f Amey R oad s tone C ompany ,w ho se h e lp a nd c o -ope ra t ion a tt h e i rB e r in sf ie ld a nd L inch H i l lp i t se nab led m any d i scove r ie st ob em ad e .

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A rkel ,W . J . , 1 947 . T he G eo logy o fO xfo rd . O xfo rd : C la rendon , 2 20 -1 .

B e l l , A .M . , 1 904 . I mp lemen t if e rou s s e c t ion s a t Wo lve rco te . Q ua r te r ly J .G eo l . S oc . L , ond . . 6 0 : 1 20 1 32 .

B r igg s , D . J .& G i lber t son , D .D . ,

1 980 . Q ua te rna ry p roce s se s a nd e nv i ronmen t s i nt h e u ppe rT hame s

b a s in . T ran s . I n s t . B r i t . G eog . , NS 5 : 5 3 -65 .

B r igg s , D .J . , C oope , G .R . &G i lber t son , D .D . , o fE a r ly Man i nt h e Uppe rT hame s V a l ley .

C ran shaw , S . ,

1 985 . T he C h rono logy a nd E nv i ronmen ta l F ramewo rk

B .A .R . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 37 . O xfo rd : B .A .R .

1 983 . H andaxe s a nd C leave r s :

S e lec ted E ng l i sh A cheu l ian I ndus t r ie s . B .A .R . B r i t i sh

S e r ie s 13 . O xfo rd : B .A .R .

C u r ran t , A .P .

1 985 .

V e r teb ra te s .

I n : B r iggs , D .J . , C oope , G .R . , & G i lbe r t son , D .D . e d s .

T he

C hrono logy a nd E nv i ronmen ta l F ramewo rk o fE a r ly Man i nt h e U ppe r T hames V a l ley . B .A .R . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 37 . O xfo rd : B .A .R .

C u r ran t , A .P . ,

1 986 . Man a nd Q ua terna ry I n te rg lac ia l F auna s o f B r i ta in . I n :

C o l lcu t t , S . e d . T he

P a laeo l i th ic o rB r i ta in a nd i t s n ea res tn e tehbour s .S heff ie ld : U n ive r s i ty o fS he f i e ld .

E van s , S i rJ ohn , 1 897 . T he A nc ien t S tone I mp lemen t s . Weapon s a nd Or namen t s o fG rea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land . ( 2nd e dn ,r e v ) , L ondon : L ongman s , G r een a nd C o .

1 52

G reen , C .P . , C oope , G .R . , C ur ran t , A .P . , H o lyoake , D .T . , I vanov ich , M . , J one s , R .L . , K een , D .H . , McG r ego r , D .F .M . &R ob in son , J . E . ,

1 984 . E v id ence o f t wo t empe ra te e p i sode s i nL a te P l e i s to cene

d epo s i t s a t Ma r swo r th , U .K . N a tu re , 3 09 : 7 78 -781 .

G oud ie , A .S . , 1 976 . I n t roduc t ion : t h e O x fo rd R eg ion . I n : R oe D .A . e d . Q .R .A . F i e ld G u ide t ot h e O xfo rd R eg ion .

J one s ,P .R . 1 979 . E f f ec t so fR aw Ma t e r ia lo nB i f ace Manu f a c tu re . S c ience , 2 04 : 8 35 -836 .

Ma cRae , R .J . , ( w i th a c on t r ibu t ion b y P .R .Jone s ) ,

1 982 .

P a laeo l i th ic A r te fa c t s f r om B e r in sf ie ld

O x fo rd sh i re . O xon ien s ia , 4 7 : 1 11 .

Ma cRae , R .J . , 1 985 . P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy o ft h e u ppe rT hame s . I n : B r igg s , D .J . , C oope , G .R . , & G i lbe r t son , D .D . , e d s . T he C h rono logy a nd E nv i ronmen ta l F ramewo rk o f E a r ly Man i nt h e Uppe r T hame s V a l ley . B .A .R . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 37 . O xfo rd : B .A .R . M i t che l l , G .F . e ta l . , 1 973 . AC o r r e la t ion o fQ ua te rna ry D epo s i t s i nt h eB r i t i sh I s le s . G eo l . S oc . L ond . S pe c ia lR epo r tN o . 4 .

R oe , D .A .

1 968 , AG aze t t ee r o f B r i t i sh L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s . L ondon : C ounc i l f o r

B r i t i sh A r chaeo logy R e sea rch R epo r tN o . 8 .

R o e ,D .A . , 1 981 . T he L owe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic P e r iod s i nB r i t a in . L ondon : R oudedge a nd K egan P au l .

R oe , D .A . ,

1 986 . I n : B r igg s , G . , C ook , J . , &R ow ley , e d s . T he P a laeo l i th ic P e r iod i n t h e O xfo rd

R eg ion . O xfo rd : O x fo rd U n ive r s i ty D ep t .E x t e rna lS t ud ie s .

R o se , J . , 1 987 . S t a tu s o ft h e Wo l s ton ian G lac ia t ion i nt h e B r i t i sh Q ua t e rna ry . Q ua terna ry N ew s le t t e r . 5 0 : 1 9 .

S and fo rd , K .S . , 1 924 . T he R ive rG rave l s o ft h eO x fo rd D i s t r ic t . Q ua r t . J ou rn . G eo l . S oc . L ond . , 8 0 : 13 -179 .

S and fo rd , K .S . , 1 925 . T he F o s s i lE lephan t s o ft h eu ppe rT hame s B a s in . Q ua r t . J ou rn . G eo l . S oc . , LXXX1 : 1 : 6 2 -86 .

S andfo rd , K .S . ,

1 939 .

Q ua t e rna ry G eo logy o f O xfo rd sh i re w i th r e f e rence t oP a laeo l i th ic Man .

:2 23 -239 . V ic to r ia C oun ty H i s to ry o fO x fo rd sh i re . 1

S and fo rd , K .S . , 1 965 . N o te so n t h eg r ave l s o ft h e u pp e rT hame sF loodp la in . P roc . G eo l . A s s . , 1 : 6 1 -76 .

1 53

I n :

S ho t ton , F .W . , 1 934 . S tone I mp lemen t s o f Wa rw ick sh i re . T ran s . B irm . A rch . S oc . , LV111 : 3 686 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , G oud ie , A .S . , B r igg s , D .J . , &O sma s ton , H .A . ,

1 980 . C romer ian I n te rg la c ia l D epo s i t s

a tS ugwo r th . P h i l . T ran s . R oya l S oc . ( Se r ie s B ) , 2 89 : 5 5 -86 .

T y lde s ley , J .A . ,

1 986 . T he Wo lve rco te C hanne l H andaxe A s semb lage . B .A .R . B r i t i sh S er ie s 1 53 .

O xfo rd : B .A .R .

Wyme r , J . J . ,

1 968 . L owe r P a laeo l i th ic A r chaeo logy i nB r i ta in a sr ep re sen ted b y t h e T hame s V a l ley .

L ondon : J ohn B ake r .

Wyme r , J . J . , &S t raw , A . , 1 977 . H andaxe s f r om b enea th G lac ia l T i l l a t We l ton le - Wo ld , L inco ln sh i re , a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fP a laeo l i th s i nB r i ta in . P roc . P reh i s t . S oc . , 4 3 : 3 55 -360 .

Wyme r , J . J . ,

1 986 .

O ve rv iew :

R ecen t T rend s i nB r i t i sh P a laeo l i th ic S tud ie s .

I n :

C o l lcu t t , S . , e d .

T he P a laeo l i th ic o fB r i ta in a nd i t sn ea re s tn e ighbou r s . S hef f ie ld : Un iv . o fS heff ie ld , 1 03 -107 .

1 54

NATURAL DA MAGE I N QUARTZ ITE P EBBLES

J ef r ey Wa l l i s T o s upp lemen t s ome s ugge s t ion s i nt h e g ene ra l r e v iew i nt h i s v o lume o f u ppe r T hame s P a laeo l i th ic q ua r t z i t e i mp lemen t s , Iu nde r took ab r ief l o ca lf i e ld s t udy i n to t h en a tu r e a nd e x t en to fn a tu ra l d amage t o q ua r t z i te p ebb le s( o rc obb le s )o ccu r r ing i nt h eA b ingdon a r ea .

H av ing r e cove red i nr e cen ty ea r s ad ozen q ua r t z i te a r tef a c t s f r om t h e se g r ave l s , i n c lud ing f o u rh andaxe s , s ome c hoppe r s , c hoppe r -co re s a nd af ew f l ake s , Iw ond e red i ft h e i rm ake r s t o ok a dvan tage o ft h e rma l o r p e r cu s s ive b r eak st om ake t h ef l ak ing p ro ce s se a s ie r . A bundan tr aw m a te r ia li sa va i lab le i nt h eg r ave l s , a nd t h ef o l low ing b a s ic o b se rva t ion sm ay t h row s ome l i gh to nt h ep rob lem . Awa r et h a tq ua r tz i t ep ebb le s v a ry g r ea t ly i nc ompo s i t ion ,d en s i ty ,c o lou ra nd o r ig in , Ia t temp ted n ol i t ho log ica la na ly s i s a nd t h ee xe r c i se w a s c on f ined t ol o ok ing a tn on -me chan ica lf r a c tu r e s .

T he o b jec t ive s o ft h es t udy w e r et od i scove rt h ep ropo r t ion o fc obb le s w h ich h ad s u f f e red n a tu ra l d amage d ur ing o r b efo re t h e i r t r an spo r t v i a t h e No r the rn D r if t i n to t h e u ppe r T ham e s P le i s tocene d epo s i t s ; t o c on s ide rw he the rs u ch b r eakage so f f e red t o o lmak e r s ap l a t fo rm o rp l a tfo rm sf o rf l ak ing , t h e r eby o ve rcom ing t h ek nown d i f f icu l ty o fr emov ing ap r ima ry f l ake f r om as moo th ,h a rd ,r ounded B un t e rq ua r tz i t e ;t oc onf i rm t h a tt h es t one se xam ined c ame p r inc ipa l ly f r om t h el owe rl e ve l so ft h eg r ave l -p i t s , e i the rh av ing b een t h e r e b e fo re d epo s i t ion o rl e td own a ss e conda ry d epo s i t sb yf l uv ia la c t ion .

R e je c th eap s T he s amp le c on s i s ted o f1 60 q ua r tz i te a nd i n du ra t ed s a nd s tone c obb le s t a ken f r om r e jec th eap s a d jacen tt o t h e g r ave l -wa sh ing p l an t s a t Amey R oad s tone C ompany ' s p i t a tS u t ton C ou r tenay ( S .U .505932 ) , a nd a t T uckwe l l ' s P i t a tR ad ley , 5k i lome t re s n o r thwa rd a tS .U .522977 . T he h eap s , a ccumu la t ed o ve r s ome y ea r s , c on ta in s t one s 1 0cm a nd o ve r i nd i ame te r . T he s amp le w a s n o t s e lec ted o r b i a sed t owa rd s a ny p a r t icu la rs hape a nd t h es t one sf r om t h et wo h eap sw e re e xam ined t o ge the ra st h e i rl i t h ic c on ten t sw e re v e ry s im i la r . Q ua r tz i t ep ebb le s w e re t h e mo s tn ume rou s c on s t i tuen ti nt h e h eap s , f olowed b yq ua r tz p ebb le s , w ea the red f l in t ,b and ed g ne i s s ,i r on s tone , s a r sen , m ud s tone ,l ime s tone , a nde s i te a nd o t he re r r a t ic s .

T he 1 60 s amp le s t one sw e re o fs phe ro id ,s ub sphe ro id o ro vo id f o rm . V e ry f ew f l a t tened o rd i sco id p ebb le s a ppea red , a nd t h e re w e re s e ven n a tu ra l ' f l ake s ' , i n c lud ing t wo o ft a bu la rf o rm , s p l i ta nd s how ing t wo f l a t f a ce s . F ou r teen o ft h ec obb le s w e re n a tu ra l ly b i sec t ed i n to t wo a lmo s te qua l h a lve s . O ft h et o ta lc obb le s i nt h es amp le 9 4( 5 8 .75% )w e r ed amaged i nv a r iou sw ay sa nd 6 6( 4 1 .25% )w e r eu ndamaged .

P e rcu s s iv ea nd t h e rma lf r a c tu r e s T he c ommone s t f o rm o f d amage w a s t h a t o f s t ep -f ra c tu re f r om ap o in t o f p e rcu s s ion a lmo s t a lway s o ccu r r ing a tt h ep o in to fs h a rpe s tc u rva tu r ea to ne e nd o ft h ec obb le , a nd p roduc ing an a tu ra ln ega t ive f l ake s c a re x t end ing t o aq ua r t e ro rl e s s o fi t sl e ng th . S uch f r ac tu re s w e re mo s t ly s ha l low a nd s e ldom i n va s ive . H inge f r ac tu r e s a l so o ccu r r ed . O the rf r a c tu re s s e en w e re l i ke ly t ob ed ue t ow eakne sse s i nt h e b edd ing o r c l eavage p l ane , b u tt h i s c ou ld n o te a s i ly b ec onf i rm ed , a sg r a in b ounda r ie s i nc l o se tex tu red q ua r tz i te a r e v e ry d i f f icu l tt oi d en t if y , i ft h ey e x i s ta ta l . T he o t he rm o s tn o t iceab le f o rm o fd amage w a s t h e i regu la r

1 55

s ha l low p i t t ing o n 4% o ft h ec obb le s , o ccu r r ing r andom ly o n t h e s u r f ace a nd m uch r e semb l ing t h e ' p o t l id ' f r ac tu re sc ommon o nf r o s ted f l in t .

I nt h e s amp le a s aw ho le d amage w a s p robab ly v e ry a nc ien t . Mo s t o ft h e b reak s h ad s eve re ly r o l led o r a b raded e dge s a nd f l ake -r idge s , s ome a lmo s tt ot h e p o in to fo b l i te ra t ion . S om e w e re w ind -f ace ted , o t he r s w a te rwo rn . Wea the r ing v a r ied w i th t h eh a rdne s so ro the rw i se o ft h ep ebb le s , a nd t h es c a r so fd amage w e r e e qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted among t h ec obb le s ,r e ga rd le s s o fs i ze , w h ich r a nged f r om 3 8cm l o ng d own t o6 cm l o ng , w i th a na ve rage l e ng th o f1 5cm .

R aw ma ter ia lf o rt oo l s Wi th s uch a n a bundance o fq ua r tz i te c obb le s w i th r eady -made p l a t fo rm s i ts e em s v e ry s t range t h a ta mong my own f i nd so fp a laeo l i th ic a r te f ac t sf r om t h eA b ingdon a r ea n one o ft h ef ou rh andaxe s s how a ny s i gn so f n a tu ra ld amage p r io rt oh uman f l ak ing , t hough i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s ma l lp re -f lak ing s ca r s w e re r emoved i n t h e mak ing . A l l f ou rh andaxe s a r e made o nr ound o ro vo id p ebb le s , a nd o n ly o ne o u to fe i gh tc hopp ing t oo l s i s made o n an a tu ra l ly -sp l i tc obb le . MacRae ( t h i s v o lume ) r ega rd s o n ly 3o u t o f2 2 h andaxe s f r om t h eB e r in sf ie ld a nd S t an ton H a r cou r ts i te s a sm ade f r om s p l i tp ebb le s .

Whe re n on -mechan ica l s pl i t t ing a l ong ab edd ing o r c l eavage p l ane r e su l t s i nt wo h a lve s , i tm igh t s eem l o g ica l t ou se t h e se p i ano -convex b l ank s f o re a sy c onve r s ion . Ag ood f l ak ing -p la t fo rm i sp re sen ted r i gh t r ound t h e p e r ime te r , a nd a s e r ie s o f l i gh t b low s c ou ld p roduce a s ha rp a nd e f f ec t ive t oo l .

Y e t s uch

i mp lemen t s a r e v e ry r a re . P ebb le s s p l i tn a tu ra l ly , w hen s ha rp , may h ave b een u sed a st oo l s , b u t t h e re i s n op roo fo ft h i s . T he i rv en t ra ls u r fa ce s a r ef l a t , a nd u sua l ly h eav i ly w ea the red , a sa r et h ee dge s .

T he l owe s td epo s i t s T he q ue s t ion o fa va i lab i l i ty o fq ua r tz i te y aw ma te r ia l c an b e s t b e a n swe red b y g eo log i s t s , w ho i ng ene ra l a g ree t h a tt h ec oa r se rm a te r ia l si nt h eu ppe rT hame s g rave l s l i eo n o r al i t t le a bove t h e b a sa lc l ay , a nd t h a t s u i tab le c obb le s w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een t oh and o n o ld l a nd su r fa ce s o r s t ream -bed s b efo re m a ss ive a gg rada t ion t o ok p lace ( Br igg s , 1 985 , p a s s im ) . I nt h eF loodp la in g rave l so ft h eA b ingdon a r ea Ih ave s e en m any s ec t ion s w he re q ua r tz i te c obb le s ( f rom 1 0cm t o2 0cm i nd i ame te r ) o ccu ri np a tche s o rc l u s te r s , a nd s ome t ime s h o r izon ta l b and s , a bou t3 0 cm a bove t h e c l ay . T hey a ppea r t o ge the r w i th o the rr ock ma t e r ia l , a nd t h i s p a t ter ni sa l so s e en j u s ta bove t h e b ank s o ft h e d ra inage c hanne l s c u t m echan ica l ly o n to t h e c l ay b ed rock .

I ft h eq ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s a r e o lde rt h an t h eD even s ian F loodp la in d epo s i t s i nw h ich t h ey w e re f ound a t A b ingdon -a nd i ts e em sc e r ta in t h ey w e r e -t h ec obb le sf r om w h ich t h ey w e re m ade mu s tb e long t o amuch e a r l ie r s t age o fd epo s i t ion . " The c hanne l o ft h e S um rner town /Rad ley s t age o ccu r s b e low t h e F loodp la in g rave l s o ft h ep re sen tr i ve r.. . g rave l so fb o th t h e S umme r town /Rad ley s t age a nd t h eF loodp la in ( t he l a t te r a r e i np a r tr e -depo s i ted m a te r ia l s o ft h e f o rme r ) i nw h ich o ccu r s i l iceou s a nd o t he rp ebb le s d e r ived f r om o l de rd r i f t " ( Sand fo rd , 1 965 ) .

1 56

REFERENCES

B r igg s , D .J . , C oope , G .R . &G i lber t son , D .D . , 1 985 . T he C h rono logy a nd E nv i ronmen ta l F ramewo rk o f E a r ly Man i nt h e u ppe rT hame s V a l ley .

B .A .R . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 37 , O xfo rd : B .A .R .

S and fo rd , K .S . , 1 965 . No te s o n t h e g rave l s o ft h e u ppe rT hame s F loodp la in . P roc . G eo l . A s sn . , 1 : 6 1 7 5 .

1 57

QUARTZ ITE IMPLEMENTS RECOVERED FROM THE WOLVERCOTE CHANNEL , OXFORDSHIRE J .T y ld e s l ey T he Wo lve r co t e B r ick P i t , O xfo rd , w a s w o rked f r om t h e e nd o ft h e l a s tc en tu ry u n t i l 1 930 , a nd i sn ow f l ooded . F rom t h e p i t c ame ad i s t inc t ive s e r ie s o fp o in ted -py r ifo rm f l in t b i face s s how ing ac on s i s t en t m anu f ac tur ing t e chn ique ( Ty lde s ley , 1 986 ) ; o n t y po log ica l g round s t h i s s e t o f i mp lemen t s i su n ique a mong s tB r i t i sh h andaxe g roup s . U n fo r tuna t e ly , a lt h ea r t i f ac t sw e re r e cove r ed a tl e a s t5 y ea r s a go , a nd i ts e em s c e r ta in t h a tt h eh i gh p ropo r t ion o fw el -made f l in tb i f ace s , a nd t h el ow p ropo r t ion o fl e s so bv iou s a nd n on -f l in t a r t if ac t s , i s ad i rec tr e su l to ft h e s e le c t ive c o l lec t ion o f" good " o re a s i ly r e cogn i sed p i ece s w h i ch c ou ld b e s o ld b y t h ep i tw o rkm en . T h i s m ay e xp la in w hy t h e re a r en oq ua r t z i te b i f a ce f r agm en t s , a nd n oq ua r tz i te f l ake s ,e i the rr e touched o ru n r e touched . T he s u rv iv ing i mp lem en t s , n ow d i v ided b e tween t h eP i t tR ive r s a nd t h e A shmo lean Mu seum s , O xfo rd , a nd O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty Mu seum ,a r ea sf olow s : f l in tb i f ace s

5 7

q ua r tz i t eb i f a ce s

1 0

f l in tb i f a ce f r agm en t s

1

q ua r tz i t eb i f a ce f r agm en t s

0

f l in tf l ake too l s

7(6% )

f l in tf i n i sh ing f l ake s

7(6% )

u n re touched f l in tf l ak e

1 7( 16% )

f l in tt h e rma lf l ake s

2(2% )

q ua r t z i te f l ake s

0

TOTAL

11

A l lt h ea r t i f ac t sw e r er e cove red f r om t h eb ed a nd b ea che so fa n a nc ien ts t r eam t h e "Wo lve r co t eC hanne l " . O n t h e b a s i s o f a s soc ia ted f a una l e v idence i ti sw ide ly a ccep ted t h a t t h i s C hanne l i si n te rg lac ia l i n c ha ra c te r ;h oweve r , i ti si mpo s s ib le t oa s s ign ad ef in i te d a t et oe i the rt h eC hanne lo ri t si n du s t ry , a l though t h ey a lmo s tc e r ta in ly b o th b e long t o ap o s t - Wo l s ton ian w a rm p ha se . T he a r t i f a c t s l a y i no ru nde rg r ave l a nd w e re a ccompan ied b ya ni n t e rg la c ia lf a una . T he C hanne lb ed w a sc ove r ed b yl a ye r so ff i l( b edded s i l t a nd s i l ty c l ay )a nd s e a led b ys o l if lu c t ion d epo s i t s . T he i n du s t ry w a s n o tr e cove red i ns i tu . H oweve r , t h e f r e sh a nd u n ro l led c ond i t ion o ft h em a jo r i ty o ft h e f l in th andaxe s i n d ica te s t h a tt h ey w e re n o tg r ea t ly d i s tu rbed a f te rd epo s i t ion , w h i le t h e l a ck o fp a t ina t ion a l so s ugge s t s t h a tt h ey d i dn o tl i ee xpo sed o n t h e s u r f a ce f o r al o ng t im e . A l though t h e re i sn od e f in i t ive p roo ft h a tt h e Wo lve r co te C hanne lc o l le c t ion d oe s n o tc on ta in t wo o r mo re a s semb lage s m ixed t o ge the r , t h ec on s i s ten tc ond i t ion o ft h ef l in ta r t i f a c t s c omb ined w i th t h e i rt y po log ica l a nd t e chno log i ca ls im i la r i ty s uppo r t s t h e s ugge s t ion t h i s i sl i k e ly t or e p re sen to ne u nm ixed f l in ti n du s t ry . I ti sl e s s c l ea rw he the rt h e q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s s hou ld b e i n c luded w i th in t h i s i ndu s t ry , o r w he the r t h ey r e p re sen t as epa ra te c o l lec t ion o f a r t ifac t s . a va i lab le ,

w h i le

D ue t o t h e c i r cum s tance s o f c o l lec t ion t h e re i sn o s t ra t ig raph ic i n fo rma t ion

t h e d i f fe rence i n r aw

m a te r ia ls

make s

i t d i f f icu l t t o c onduc t a v a l id

t y po log ica l / t echno log ica l c ompa r i son a nd m ay w e l l a ccoun t f o r c e r ta in o b se rvab le d i f f e r ence s i ns i ze , s hape , a nd w o rk ing t e chn ique . I nt h e o p in ion o ft h ep r e sen tw r i te r , a l though t h e q ua r t z i t e b i f a ce s a ppea r

1 59

s l igh t ly d i f f e r en tf r om t h o se m ade o ff l in t( b o th m o rpho log ica l ly a nd t e chno log ica l ly ) , t h e r ei sn oe v idence t os ugge s tt h a tt h ey w e r en o td i rec t ly a s soc ia t ed w i th t h ef l in tb i f a ce s . W i th t h ei n c r ea s ing r e cogn i t ion o f t h ei mpo r tance o fn on -f l in ta r t if ac t s , i ti sb e com ing c l ea rt h a ti ti sn o tu nu sua lf o rs i te s i nr e g ion s l a ck ing as upp ly o fg ood q ua l i ty f l in t t oy i e ld a s semb lage s c on ta in ing a r t if ac t s m ade f r om b o th f l in t a nd o t he r l o ca ls t one ; f o re xamp le a tB e r in sf ie ld , O xfo rd sh i re , 3 6q ua r t z i te a r t i f ac t s w e re r e cove red f r om p i t s w h ich h ad p roduced 2 05 f l in ta r t i fa c t s ( MacRa e , 1 982 , 8 ) . U nfo r t una te ly , n one o ft h e B e r in sf ie ld m a te r ia l w a s r e cove red i ns i tu a nd s o , a sa t Wo lve r co t e ,n od i re c tc onne c t ion b e tween t h et wo t y pe so fi mp lemen tc ou ld b e e s tab l i shed a nd i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od e t e rm ine w he the rt h ef l in ta nd q ua r tz i te b i f a ce s p l ayed d i f f e ren t f u nc t iona lr o le s i nt h ea s semb lage . G ood q ua l i ty f l in td oe sn o to ccu re i the ri ns i tu o ra sa ne r ra t ic r o ck i n t h e i mmed ia te O xfo rd r e g ion . A l though s om e o ft h e s ma l le r Wo lve r co te C hanne l f l in tb i f a ce s a nd f l ake t o o l s c ou ld h ave b een m ade o n f l in tp ebb le s e i the r f r om t h eP la teau D r if to ft h e A ng l ian G la c ia t ion , o r f r om t h e Wo lve r co te T e r race ,t h el a rge rh andaxe sm u s th ave b een m ade f r om c o r r e spond ing ly l a rge p i ece s o ff l in t , p robab ly s pec ia l ly s e lec ted i ne a ch c a se . T he n ea re s tf l in t s ou r ce i sa n o u t c rop i nt h e C h i l ter n s f oo th i l l s , a bou t 2 0km t o t h e s ou th -ea s t o f Wo lve r co te .

T he f l in t u sed i n t h e m anuf a c tu re o f t h e

i mp lemen t s , w i th s ome e xcep t ion s , a ppea r s t ob e o fm ed ioc r ek napp ing q ua l i ty , r a ng ing i nc o lou rf r om l i gh tg r ey t ob l a ck , w h i le s eve ra l o ft h e p i ece s s how t h e m ine ra l i n c lu s ion a nd s ma l l c av i t ie s w h i ch a r e f a i r ly c ommon i nC h i l te rn s f l in t . I nc on t ra s t , q ua r t z i te p ebb le s a r er e ad i ly a va i lab le l o ca l ly , h av ing b e en b rough ti n to t h er e g ion w i th t h eP la t eau ( No r the rn )D r if t ,f r om v a r iou sM id land s s ou r ce s . Among s t t h e f l in t b i f ace s , as ub -g roup o f e i gh t "Wo lve rco te s ty le " h andaxe s c an b e i s o la t ed o n t h e g round s o fc ond i t ion , s i ze , mo rpho logy a nd t e chno logy , w h i le a r ound t h i s c en t ra l g roup t h e re i s ac l u s t e r o fb i f ace s s ha r ing m any o ft h es ame f e a tu re s . T he h anda xe s a l h ave a" sl ippe r shaped " p l an fo rm ,p l ano c onvex p rof i le , w e l l -made t i p , a nd c u t t ing -edge s w i th d e l ica te f l ake r emova l s . T he c l ea rs im i la r i ty s hown b y t h ec l a s s ic Wo lve r co te C hanne lh andaxe s , i np a r t i cu la rt h e s i gn s o fa n a lmo s ti d en t ica lm anuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique , s ugge s t s e i the rt h a tt h e i mp lemen t s w e re b e ing m anu f ac tu r ed t o ap r ec i se a nd d e f in i te p a t t er n ( p e rhap s f o r af unc t iona l r e a son , o r a sp a r to f a" knapp ing t r ad i t ion " ) , o r t h a t t h ey a r e t h e w o rk o fo ne c r a f t sman w i th ad i s t inc t ive i n d iv idua l s t y le . T he a s semb lage i sn o tl a rge , a nd , g i ven a n a d equa t e s upp ly o ff l in t a nd h amme r s , i tw ou ld c e r ta in ly b ep o s s ib le f o ro ne p e r son t oh ave m ade a l l t h e a r t i f ac t s i no ne d ay .

T he g ene ra l ly a ccep ted e xp lana t ion o f t h e a s semb lage ( e .g . R oe , 1 981) i st h a t i ti n d ica te s t h e

p r e sence o f ap o in ted p l ano -convex h andaxe t r ad i t ion i nB r i ta in , s im i la ro ri d en t ica lt ot h eL a te A cheu l ian C on t inen ta l" M icoqu ian " h andaxe g roup . A l l t h e q ua r t z i te b i f ace s a r e s ub s tan t ia l ly c omp le te w i th o n ly m ino r e dge -damage , a nd a l though t h r ee a ppea rs l igh t ly w o rn ,n one s e em st oh ave e xpe r ienced m a jo rm echan i ca ld amage ;p e rhap st h i si sd ue t ot h e h a rd n a t u re o fq ua r tz i te .A sh a sa l r eady b e en n o ted ,n of r agm en t so fq ua r t z i t eb i f a ce so rq ua r t z i te f l ak e sh ave b een r e cove red .

A l l t h e i mp lemen t s a r e b i fa c ia l ly w o rked , b u t s ome o n ly j u s t q ua l ify f o r s uch a

d e sc r ip t ion . T hey h ave b een m ade e i the ro n s p l i tq ua r tz i te n odu le s o r , l e s s l i ke ly , o n f l ake s s t ruck f r om q ua r t z i te c obb le s ( t he re m ay n o th ave b een l a rge e nough q ua r t z i te b ou ld e r sp r e sen ti nt h ea r ea t op roduce s u ch f l ake s ) , a nd i n mo s tc a se s t h eo r ig ina lb l ank w a sn o tm uch l a rge rt h an t h ef i n i shed t o o l . Many h ave l a rge p a t che s o ft h eo r ig ina lp ebb le s u r f a ce r ema in ing . T he q ua r t z i te b i f a ce s s how much l e s s v a r ia t ion i n s i ze t h an t h e f l in t b i fa ce s ; t h ey a r eg ene ra l ly s l igh t ly b roade r a nd l e s s p o in ted , a nd t h ey e xh ib i t f ewe r s i gn s o fm od if ica t ion w i th f a rf ewe rd e l ibe ra te s e conda ry f l ake r emova l s ; p r e sumab ly t h i s i sa ga in d ue t o t h e h a rd n a tu re o ft h e q ua r tz i te . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t m o s to ft h e b i f a ce s d on o td i f f e rm uch i ns i ze f r om t h e o r ig ina ln odu le s u s ed i nt h e i rm anuf ac tu re , a nd i n deed t h em a jo r i ty s t il r e ta in t h eg ene ra lo u t l ine o ft h o se n odu le s . O n ly o ne q ua r t z i t e b i f ace a ppea r s t oh ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly w o rked t op roduce t h e p o in t ed p y r ifo rm s h ape t y p ica lo fm any o ft h ef l in th anda xe s . T he q ua r tz i t eb i f ace s a l so s how am a rked f l a t t en ing

1 60

t owa rd s t h et i pw hen v i ewed i np rof i le . T h i s w ou ld s e em t ob e ar e f lec t ion o ft h e u nwo rked n a tu re o ft h e b u t to ft h e t yp ica l q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t , r a the r t h an a n i nd ica t ion o f aw e l l -wo rked t i p ; t h i s i mp r e s s ion i s c onf i rmed b ya ne xam ina t ion o ft h ei l us t ra t ion sp rov ided . B r ie fd e scr ip t ion so ft h eq ua r tz i te b i f ace s a r eg i ven b e low : ( 1 ) F igu re 1 . O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty Mu seum . Ap y r ifo rm p i ano -convex b i face m ade f r om q ua r t z i te o r ag r ey i sh s t one i d en t i f ied b y Wyme r( 1968 , 8 9 ) a s g reywa cke . A l though t h eb u t ti sr ough ly w o rked , t h i s h andaxe s t and s o u ta sb e ing m uch b e t te rm ad e t h an t h e o t he r q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s , w i th l o nge r c u t t ing -edge s , f a r mo re f l ake r emova l s o n e ach f a ce a nd a d e l ibe ra t e ly p lano -convex p rof i le . I ti sn o t much r o l led , i fa ta l l . L1 46mm ,

B7 1 mm , T4 5mm .

( 2 ) F igu re 2 . P i t tR ive r s Mu seum Ac l ea r ly p iano -convex b i f ace m ade f r om af l ake o r as p l i tp ebb le o fg rey i sh q ua r tz i te . V e ry f ew f l ake s h ave b e en r emoved i nt h e manuf ac tu re o ft h e i mp lemen t , a nd i ts t i l l r e ta in s t h e g ene ra l o u t l ine shape o f t h eq ua r tz i te n odu le u sed i ni t s m anuf ac tu re . I ti si n as l igh t ly r o l led c ond i t ion . L1 09mm , B6 8mm , T2 4mm . ( 3 ) F igu re 3 . P i t tR ive r s Mu seum A nu nu sua l ly w e l l -made q ua r tz i t eh andaxe m ad ef r om as p l i tq ua r tz i te p ebb le o rf l ake , w i th f u l la nd c a re fu l b i f ac ia l w o rk ing . I tl ook s a si ft h i s i mp lemen t may s ub sequen t ly h ave b een u sed a s ac o re t od e tach o ne l a rge f l ake f r om t h eb u t to ft h eb i f a ce . L 16mm , B7 7 tnm , T2 3mm . ( 4 ) F igu re 4 . P i t tR ive r s Mu seum At y p ica l q ua r tz i te h andaxe made o n as t ruck f l ake o rs p l i tp ebb le . T he i mp lemen ti sb i f ac ia l w i th s ome s e conda ry f l ake s ca r s o nb o th f a ce s , a l though t h eo r ig ina lp ebb le s u r f ace c an s t il b es e en a nd t h eb u t ti sb y n om ean s f u l ly w o rked . I np rof i le t h ei mp lemen ti ss l igh t ly p lano -convex t owa rd s t h e t i p ; t h i s a ppea r s t o b e ar e su l t o f t h e u nwo rked b u t t r a the r t h an a d e l ibe ra te a t temp t a tp iano -convex i ty a s s e en i n t h e Wo lve rco t ef l in tb i f ace s . L1 01nun , B7 6nun , T2 9mm . ( 5 ) F igu re 5 . P i t tR ive r s Mu seum Aq ua r tz i t e b i f ace m ade f r om as p l i tp ebb le . I ti sm a rked ly p lano -convex i np rof i le , b u td oe s n o t h ave a t y p ica l Wo lve rco te p o in ted -py r ifo rm o u t l ine shape . T he b u t t i su nwo rked o n t h e l e ss f l a t f a ce , a nd t h e o r ig ina lp ebb le s u r f ace c an b es e en . L1 09mm , B8 5mm , T4 1mm . ( 6 ) F igu re 6 . P i t tR ive r s Mu seum As imp le q ua r tz i te b i fa ce m ade o n e i the r ah eavy f l ake o r as p l i tp ebb le . I ts t i l l r e ta in s t h e o u t l ine shape o f t h e o r ig ina l q ua r tz i te p ebb le , a nd h a s v e ry f ew s e conda ry f l ake r emova l s .

I ti si n as l igh t ly w orn

c ond i t ion . L1 24mm , B8 4mm , T4 8mm . ( 7 ) A shmo lean Mu seum 1 92 1 .25 A ne l onga ted o vo id q ua r tz i te b i f a ce m ade f r om e i the r ah eavy s t ruck f l ake o r as p l i tp ebb le . I ti sb i f a c ia l ly w o rked , a l though t h e re a r en o tm any s e conda ry f l ake r emova l s , a nd t h e o r ig ina l s u r f ace i ss t i l l v i s ib le o n

1 61

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1 63

F ig . 6 .

t h e mo re c onvex f a ce . I np rof i le i ti ss l igh t ly p i ano -convex . L9 4mm , B5 8m rn , T2 8mm . ( 8 ) P i t tR ive r s Mu seum Aq ua r tz i te h andaxe m ade f r om as t ruck f l ake o r as p l i tp ebb le . T he h andaxe i sb i f ac ia l ly w o rked , a l though t h e re a r ev e ry f ew s e conda ry f l ake r emova l s . I np rof i le i ti ss l igh t ly p i ano -convex . P a t che so ft h eo r ig ina l p ebb le s u r f a ce a r ev i s ib le o no ne f a ce . "Wo lve r co t e , O xon .R ive rbed " i sw r i t ten o n t h ei mp lemen t . L 10mm , B7 7mm , T3 5mm . ( 9 )P i t tR ive r s Mu seum Ap iano -convex q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t i n as l igh t ly w or n c ond i t ion .

I ti sf u l ly b i f ac ia l , a nd h a s mo re

s e conda ry f l ake r emova l s t h an s ome o ft h eo t he r Wo lve r co te q ua r tz i te h andaxe s . L8 9mm , B7 1 mm , T 41 mm . ( 10 ) O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty Mu seum S5 035 Ar ough ly w o rked s ma l lo va te b i f ace ,o rp o s s ib ly a" choppe r " (Wyme r 1 968 , 8 9 ) , made o n as p l i tq ua r tz i te p ebb le o rf l ake . N e i the rf a ce h a s m any s e conda ry f l ake r emova l s , a nd t h e o r ig ina l s hape o ft h e q ua r t z i t e n odu le c an s t i l lb ee a s i ly s e en . L7 9mm , B6 5mm , T3 1 mm . Aq ua r tz i te " hamme r s tone " w h ich w a s i lus t ra ted b y B e l l ( 1894 , 1 50 ) h a s n o tb een t r a ced b y t h e p re sen t w r i te r . I ti sd i f f icu l tt od raw a ny c onc lu s ion s a bou t t h ep re sence o ft h e se q ua r tz i t e i mp lemen t s w i th in t h e m a in ly f l in t Wo lve rco te C hannne l c o l lec t ion , a nd t h e s i tua t ion i sc omp l ica ted b o th b y s e le c t ive c o l le c t ion a tt h e p i t a nd b y t h e l a ck o f i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e s t ra t ig raphy a nd r e cove ry o f t h e p i ece s .

T he p hy s ica l

d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e t wo r aw m a te r ia l s make i tu n rea l i s t ic t oh ope t h a t a ny d e ta i led t ypo log ica l o r mo rpho log ica l s t udy w i l le i the rp rove o rd i sp rove t h a tt h ef l in t a nd q ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s f o rm p a r t s o fo ne u nm ixed a s semb lage .

I n t h e o p in ion o f t h e p re sen t w r i te r t h e l a ck o f g ood q ua l i ty f l in t i n t h e

n e ighbou rhood o f Wo lve r co t e s uppo rt s s ugge s t ion s t h a t t h e t wo s e t s o fi mp lemen t s d o b e long t o ge the r ; c on t ro l led a r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion a tt h ep i tw ou ld p robab ly h ave y i e lded f a r mo re q ua r tz i te a r t i f ac t s a nd w a s te p roduc t s , a nd w ou ld h ave a l lowed af a r mo re a ccu ra te c ompa r i son o ft h e se t wo d a ta se t s .

REFERENCES

MacRae , R .J . ( 1982 ) , P a laeol i th ic A r tef ac t s f r om B e r in sf ie ld , O xfo rd sh i re , O xon ien s ia . 4 7 : 1 11 . R oe , D .A . ( 1981 ) , T he L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic P er iod s i nB r i ta in . R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l , L ondon .

T y lde s ley , J .A . ( 1986 ) , T he Wo lve rco te C hanne l H andaxe A ssemb lage : ac ompa ra t ive s t udy . B .A .R . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 53 . O xfo rd : B .A .R . .

Wyme r , J . J . ( 1968 ) , L owe rP a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo lo2y i nB r i ta in a sR ep re sen ted b y t h e T hame s V a l ley . J ohn B ake r ,L ondon .

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WOLVERCOTE CHANNEL QUARTZ ITE A SSEMBLAGE : AN ADD IT IONAL NOTE

RJ . MacRae D r . T y lde s ley h a s p erm i t ted o ne o ft h e e d i to r s ( R .J .M . ) t oa ppend an o te , a nd s ome s pecu la t ion . o n t h e t h re eb oxe so fp ebb le s , s p l i tp ebb le s , f l ake s a nd w o rked p i e ce s f r om Wo lve rco te r e f e r red t oi nh e rB .A .R . B r i t i sh S er ie s N o 1 53 , p ub l i shed i n 1 986 . T he b oxe s o f a r tef ac t s a nd f r agmen t s a r e i ns t o re a tt h e P i t t R ive r s Mu seum C o l lec t ion s a nd s he r e jec t s t h em a s" i t i sn o tp o s s ib le t od e te rm ine t h e p re c i se o r ig in o f t h e se p i ece s , s ot h ey h ave n o tb een c on s ide red a sp a r to ft h e Wo lve rco t eC hanne lc o l lec t ion " ( p .11 ) . T he p re sen tw r i te rh a se xam ined t h ec on ten t so ft h e se b oxe s , a nd a g r ee st h e re i sd oub tw h ich m ay n eve rb e r e so lved a bou t a ny d i rec tc onnec t ion w i th t h e C hanne l d epo s i t s . Howeve r , ac l o se e xam ina t ion o f t h e m a te r ia ld i sc lo se s s ome e v idence ,p e rhap so n ly t e nuou s ,t h a ts ome w e re r e cove red f r om t h eC hanne la nd i n a ny c a se , s of a ra st h i s v o lume i sc oncerned , t h e e x i s tence o ft h i s m a te r ia l i sw o r th r e co rd ing . I t mu s tb e r emembe red , a sT y lde s ley r ema rk s t h a t" t he m a jo r i ty o ft h ea r t ef ac t s ( f rom t h eb r ick p i t )w e r er e cove red 5 5 y ea r s a go o r mo re ; t o oe a r ly f o rp rope ra r chaeo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion .. .ag rea td ea lo f ma te r ia lh a s c l ea r ly b een l o s t : t h i si sp a r t ly d ue t os e le c t ive c o l lec t ion " ( p .3 ) . T he P i t tR ive r s s t o rage b oxe sc on ta in : 1 6 q ua r tz i te f l ake so rf l ake too l s . 1 s ma l l , b i fa c ia l , q ua r tz i te h andaxe . 2 2 q ua r t z i te ' c h ip s ' , a l lt h e rma lo rn a ru taly f r a c tu red . 1 2

q ua r tz i te ' e o l i th s ' , v e ry o bv iou s ly n a tu ra l .

5 5

f l in tf l ake s , mo s t ly h anda xe t r imme r s , d e f in i te ly a r t ef a c t s .

2 s ma l l ,w e l l -made , f l in th andaxe s . 4 2 p i e ce s o fn a tu ra l ly -f ra c tu red f l in t ,n o ti n c lud ing a ny a r tefa c t s . 3 l a rge , f l a tq ua r tz i te p ebb le s ,n o ta r t efa c t s . Much o f t h i s m a te r ia l i s ma rked a s p u rcha sed i n 1 920 .

Mo s t p i ece s a r e ma rked "Wo lve rco te " o r

"Wo lve rco t " , s ome t ime s w i th d a te s b e twe en 1 890 a nd 1 915 , a nd o f t en t h e s c r ip t , s ome t ime s h andw r i t ing o np ape rl a be l s , s e em s t ob et h a to f Mon tgome r ie B e l l , w ho , w i th Mann ing , B ayzand a nd o t he r s , w a s o ne o ft h e mo s te ne rge t ic c o l lec to r s a t Wo lve r co te a tt h a t t ime . Many a r e m a rked b y t h e m u seum a s" A .M . B e l lC o l l " . S om eo ft h ep ie ce s b ea rs uch l e gend s a s" R ive rb ed , b u td e r ived " ; " R .B . " ; o r" O ld D r i f t " . T he i n sc r ip t ion s i n mo s tc a se s s e em t ob eb y t h e s ame h and a st h e l e gend s o n s ome o ft h e c l a s s ic Wo lve r co t e C hanne lh andaxe s , t h a ti s ,i n sc r ibed b y A .M . B el . T he re i s , o fc ou r se , at a n ta l i s ing s hadow o f ad oub t .

Why d id B e l l , u sua l ly ar e l iab le d i agno s t ic ian ,

i n c lude s o m any p a ten t " eo l i th s "? C ou ld h e h ave p u rcha sed ( a s h e d id ) m i sce l laneou s c olec t ion s b y p i t w o rkmen ,m a rked t h em t empo ra r i ly a nd n eve rg o tr ound t os o r t ing t h em? N e i the r , e v iden t ly ,d id B a lfou r , t h en P i t tR ive r sc u ra to r , w ho p u r cha sed m uch o fB e l l ' sc olec t ion . N eve r the le s s , t h e p re sen t w r i te r , i n f luenced p e rhap s b y h i s e n thu s ia sm i nu nea r th ing f o rgo t ten a r t e fac t c o l lec t ion s , may b e f o rg iven f o rs ugge s t ing t h a tt h eq ua r tz i te i mp lemen t s a nd f l ake s i nt h e se b oxe s m igh t w e l l b e long t ot h e C hanne l a s semb lage . T y lde s ley l i s t s 1 0 q ua r tz i te h andaxe s b u t n o q ua r tz i te f l ake s . A ga in , i ti se mpha s i sed t h a tT y ld e s ley w a s a b so lu te ly c o r rec ti nn o ti n c lud ing t h ec on ten t s o ft h e" my s te ry b oxe s " i nh e r t h e s i s , b u t i ti sn o t e a sy t os ugge s t w he re e l se t h ey c ou ld h ave c ome f r om .

A pa r t f r om

i s o la ted h andaxe f i nd s i na nd a r ound O xfo rd d u r ing t h e 1 890 ' s a nd t h e e a r ly y ea r s o ft h i s c en tu ry , t h e re i s n or e co rd o fa ny m a jo rs i te s d u r ing t h a t t ime e xcep t Wo lve r co te a nd I f f ley . Sma l l g rave l p i t s a bounded ,

1 65

b u tv e ry f ew a r t ef a c t s a r ek nown f r om t h e se . A s f o r "Wo lve r co te " m a rk ing s o n t h et h ep i ece s , i tm igh tb e s pecu la ted t h a ts ome o ra l l b e long t ot h ed epo s i t so fw ha ti sn ow k nown a st h e Wo lve r co te T e r race , b u ti t s eem s g ene ra l ly a g reed t h a t t h e se g rave l s a nd o u twa sh d epo s i t s y i e lded v e ry l i t t le , i fa ny , p a laeo l i th ic ma te r ia l . S and fo rd r e co rd s , " r o l led , r a the re a r ly , C he l lean i mp lemen t s , " f r om a n o ld c l ay p i t al i t t le n o r th o ft h e C hanne l ( Sand fo rd , 1 932 ) . T he T e r race c on ta in s al o to fP la teau D r if t o u twa sh a nd i ti su n l ike ly t h a tf l in ta nd q ua r tz i te f l ake s o ft h ek i nd i nt h e " my s te ry b oxe s " , many s ha rp a nd a lmo s tf r e sh , c ame f r om t h a ts ou rce . Mo re s pecu la t ion i sp o ss ib le , b u t t h i s k ind o f s pec ia l p l ead ing mu s t h ave a n e nd .

F o r w ha t t h ey a r e

w o r th ,t h eq ua r tz i te f l ake s , f l ake too l sa nd h anda xe h ave b e en i n c luded a nd d e sc r ibed i nt h eG aze t tee ri nt h i s v o lume .

REFERENCES S andfo rd , K .S . ,

1 932 . S ome r e cen t C on t r ibu t ion s t o t h e P le i s tocene s ucce s s ion i nE ng land .

Mag . , 6 9 : 1 17 .

1 66

G eo l .

THE ENV IRONMENTAL BACKGROUND TO HUMAN OCCUPAT ION I N THE UPPER THA MES VALLEY DUR ING THE QUATERNARY P ER IOD

DJ .B r igg s

I n trodu c t ion L ike many o the r r i ve r v a l ley s i ns ou the rn E ng land , t h e u ppe r T hame s v a l ley h a s p rov ided af o cu s f o r h uman o ccupa t ion a nd s e t t lemen t a tv a r iou s t ime s o ve r t h e l a s t h a lf m i l l ion o r s o y ea r s . T he n a tu re o f t h is o ccupa t ion , h oweve r , h a s b o th b een i n f luenced b y a nd o ccu r red i n r e spon se t o t h e c hang ing e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s w h ich h ave c ha rac te r i sed t h i s p e r iod .

T he se c hange s a r e , t o al a rge e x ten t ,

c a ta logued i nt h e d epo s i t s -t h e r i ve r g rave l s a nd h i l l s lope s ed imen t s -w h ich h ave a ccumu la ted i nt h e v a l ley s . A n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e se d epo s i t s t hu s f o rm s ab a s i s f o r af u l l a pp rec ia t ion o f t h e h i s to ry o f h uman o ccupa t ion .

I nt h ec a se o ft h e u ppe rT hame s , t h er i ve rt e r race d epo s i t s h ave b een t h e s ub jec to fi n ve s t iga t ion f o r many y ea r s : mo s tn o t ab ly b y S and fo rd d ur ing t h e e a r ly p a r t o ft h i s c en tu ry ( Sand fo rd , 1 924 , 1 932 , 1 965 ) a nd , mo re r e cen t ly , b y B r igg s a nd c o l league s ( Br igg s , 1 973 ; B r igg s a nd G i lbe r t son , 1 973 , 1 980 ; B r igg s e ta l . , 1 985 ) . Wh i l s ti ts hou ld n o tf o ro ne momen tb es ugge s ted t h a tt h e se s t ud ie s h ave y e tr e su l ted i n af i na l a nd d ef in i t ive u nde r s tand ing o ft h e g eomo rpho log ica l h i s to ry o f t h e u ppe r T hame s , t h ey d o y i e ld av a luab le i n s igh t i n to e ven t s a nd c ond i t ion s d u r ing t h e Qua te rna ry P e r iod .

A s s uch , t h ey g ive ap ic tu re o f t h e

p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t s w i th in w h ich e a r ly man h ad t o s u rv ive a nd t ow h ich h e h ad t o a dap t , a nd t h ey p rov id e ac h rono log ica lf r amewo rk w i th in w h ich t op l ace a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l s .

Qua t erna ry d epo s i t so ft h eU ppe rT hame s T he Q ua terna ry h i s to ry o f t h e u ppe r T hame s i sn o t e a sy t o u n rave l .

A l though , o ve r t h e y ea r s , much

e v idence h a s b een a va i lab le f o r s t udy , m any o f t h e e a r l ie r i nve s t iga t ion s w e re l im i ted b y t h e r ange o f t e chn ique sw h ich c ou ld b ea pp l ied , a nd b yt h er e la t ive ly s imp l i s t ic u nde r s tand ing o fQ ua te rna ry c h rono logy w h ich t h en e x i s ted . I nc on t ra s t , w h i l s tr e cen t y ea r s h ave s een a n e no rmou s i n c rea se i nt h e a rmou ry o f a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s u sed b y t h e Q ua terna ry g eomo rpho log i s t , t h ey h ave a l so s e en ad im inu t ion a nd l o ca l i sa t ion o ft h e a va i lab le s e c t ion s a nd e xpo su re s . Mo reove r , p re sen td ay s t ud ie s f a ce t h e p a radox ica l p rob lem o f ac hang ing s c ien t if ic p a rad igm : t h e s imp le t h ree -g la c ia l mode l o ft h e B r i t i sh Q ua te rna ry t h a t h a s b een t h e b a s i s o fi n t e rp re ta t ion f o r m any y ea r s ( e .g . We s t , 1 968 ; M i tche l l e ta l . , 1 973 ) i sn ow b e ing c ha l lenged , b u ta sy e tn of i rm s t ruc tu re h a s b een p u ti ni t s p l ace . A s ac on sequence , t h e re i sn o l onge ra n e s tab l i shed c h rono log ica l o rde r a nd t e rm ino logy t ow h ich l o ca l s equence s c an a u toma t ica l ly b e r e la ted . A dded t ot h i s , o fc ou r se , a r e t h ei n ev i tab le d if icu l t ie s c r ea ted b y t h ef r agmen ta ry n a tu re o fm any d epo s i t s a nd t h eg ene ra ls ca rc i ty o fd a tab le r ema in s .

T he r e su l to ft h i s s i tua t ion i st h a ta ny i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e Q ua te rna ry c h rono logy o ft h e u ppe rT hame s i s i n he ren t ly u ncer ta in a nd o pen t od eba te . I ta l so m ean s t h a t t h e l i ne s o fa r gumen tn ece s sa ry t oj u s t ify t h e i n te rp re ta t ion a r el e ng thy a nd c omp lex . F o rr e a son s o fs pace , t h e re fo re , i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t op re sen te i the r a ne xhau s t ive o rd e ta i led a c coun th e re . F igu re 1 ,h oweve r , o u t l ine s o ne mode lo ft h eQ ua te rna ry s equence i nt h eu ppe rT hame s a nd t h i s i sd i scu s sed b e low . F u r the rd e ta i l sc an b eo b ta ined f r om B r igg s e ta l . ( 1985 ) , w h i l s t ,f o r as omewha td if e ren ti n te rp re ta t ion ,r e f e rence s hou ld b em ad et oG ibba rd ( 1985 ) .

1 67

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T he P l a t eau D r i f ta nd S ugwor th C hanne l A bou t t h e e a r l ie s t c ou r se o ft h e u pp e r T hame s a lmo s tn o th ing i sk nown . S ca t te red h i gh l e ve l g r ave l s , v a r iou s ly r i ch i nb o th q ua r tz i te a nd f l in t , o ccu ri nt h e u pp e rr e a che s o ft h e v a l ley b e tween F a r ingdon a nd Ma lm e sbu ry , a nd e ven s e em t oe x t end t h rough t h e Ma lm e sbu ry c o l i n to t h e A von v a l ley ( Br igg s , 1 973 ) . T he i rc ompo s i t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion h ave n eve rb een e xam ined i nd e ta i l ,h oweve r ,s ow he the rt h ey r e p r e sen t a ne a r ly c ou r se o ft h eT ham e s ,l a t e rt r unca ted b yt h en ewe rA von s y s tem , i sp u re ly am a t t e ro fc on je c t u re . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e p re sence o f as i gn i f ican t v a l ley , n o r thwe s twa rd s a l ong t h e l i ne o f t h e p r e sen t E ven lod e , i si mp l ied b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s o -ca l led P la t eau ( o rN o r ther n )D r i f t . T h i s f o rm s ab road b and , s om e 1 2 -15 km w ide , f o l low ing t h eE ven lod ev a l ley i n to t h eT ham e s , a nd e x tend ing a sf a rs ou th a s C umno ra nd B oa r sH i l l , 8km s ou th o fO xfo rd ( F igu re 2 ) . I t sh e igh tr a nge i sc on s ide rab le , a nd a l though i t n owhe re o ccu r s b e low 8 5 ma nd i sg ene ra l ly a b sen t f r om t h e h i ghe s t s umm i t s , i t sr e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e t o pog raphy i so t he rw i se r e la t ive ly w eak :

i tm ay b e f ound o n t h e p l a teau s u r f ace , o n h i l l top s , o n

h il s lop e s ,i nc o l s a nd o nb enche so nt h ev a l ley s i de .

I nt h es ame w ay ,t h ed epo s i t ss how av a r ied i n t er na ls t ruc tu r e . F o rt h e mo s tp a r tt h ey a r eu nbedd ed ,w i th a m a t r ix o f c l ay o r s and , b u t a ts ome l o ca l i t ie s , n o tab ly t ho se a tl owe r e l eva t ion s , t h ey d i sp lay c l ea r s t ra t i f ica t ion a nd g rad ing , i nt h e m anne r o fw a te r la in d epo s i t s . T he c ompo s i t ion o f t h e .P l a teau D r i f t , c onve r se ly , i sf a r mo r e u n ifo rm . Q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i t ec on s t i tu te a bou t9 0% o ft h eg r ave lf r ac t ion , w h i le i g neou s a nd m e tamo rph ic r o ck s ( e spec ia l ly ' s cho n' ) c omp r i se a bou t 1 2% , a nd f l in t a bou t 8 % ( Tab le 1 ) . L ime s tone i sg ene ra l ly a b sen t , a l though i ns ome s e c t ion s i tm ay a moun tt o 5% o r mo r eo ft h ec l a s t s . T ha tt h e se d epo s i t s r e p re sen t s om e o ft h e o l de s tQ ua t er na ry d r if t s i nt h e C o t swo ld s h a s b een a g reed f o r m any y ea r s ( e .g . L ucy , 1 878 ; S and fo rd ,1924 ,1929 ; A rke l l , 1 947 ) . S im i la r ly , t h e i r u l t ima t e d e r iva t ion f r om t h eK idd e rm in s te rC ong lom e ra te s ( f o rme r ly B un t e rP ebb le B ed s )o ft h eM id land s s om e5 0 km t ot h e n o r th a nd 3 0 -50 m l owe ri na l t i tude h a s l o ng b een n o t ed . Wha t h a s r ema ined a n e n igma , h oweve r , h a s b een t h e m anne r a nd e nv i ronmen t o f t h e i r f o rma t ion , a nd t h e mo re s pec if i c d a te o f t h e i r d epo s i t ion . Among s t o the r e xp lana t ion s , i th a s b een v a r iou s ly s ugge s ted t h a t t h ey a r e i c e ra f ted d epo s i t s , b ea ch g r ave l s , r i ve rg r ave l s , d eca lc if ied t i l l s a nd g l a c io f luv ia l d epo s i t s . G ene ra l ly , t h e l a t te rt wo e xp lana t ion s h ave r e ce ived mo s ts uppo r tb e cau se t h ey s e emed b e s tt oe xp la in t h ed i s t r ibu t ion a nd e xo t ic c ompo s i t ion o f t h ed epo s i t s ,a l though ac on s id e r ab le d eg r ee o fr ewo rk ing b yf l uv ia la nd s l ope p ro ce s se ss e em su nden iab le .

I nm any w ay s t h ee n igma o ft h e se d epo s i t s w a s i n c rea sed b y t h ed i scove ry d u r ing t h e 1 970 s o f ah i the r to u nknown c hanne l s e c t ion a t9 5 m0 .D . , 9km s ou th o fO xfo rd . R e f e r red t ob ecau se o fi t sl o ca t ion a st h e S ugwo r th C hanne l , t h i s w a s c l ea r ly o f f l uv ia l o r ig in , a nd w a s i n t e rp re ted a s af o rme r c hanne l o f t h e T ham e s . I t s p o s i t ion l a y w i th in t h e h e igh tr a nge o ft h e P la teau D r if t , b u t i tc on ta ined ar i ch a nd v a r ied f a una a nd f l o r ai n c lud ing r em a in s o ft empe ra te w ood land st r ee ss u ch a so ak a nd h o rnbeam ,v e r t eb ra t e ss u ch a sD ice ro rh inu s e t ruscu s ,M imo sy s s av in i a nd P l iomy s e p i scopa l is , a nd t h e mo l lu sc s U n io c r a s su s , N em a tu re l la r u n ton iana , a nd V a lva ta g o ld f u s s iana .O nt h eb a s i so ft h i se v idenc e ,t h ec hanne lh a sg ene ra l ly b een a s s igned t os t age C rI Io ft h eC rom e r ian I n te rg la c ia l ( B r igg s e ta l . , 1 975 ; G ibba rd a nd P e t t i t t , 1 978 ; S ho t ton e ta l . , 1 980 ; G i lbe r t son , 1 980 ) . I na dd i t ion , h oweve r , t h e S ugwo r th C hanne l a l so c on t a in s ag r ave lf r ac t ion s im i la ri nl i t ho logy t ot h a to f

1 69

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e . °

t h e P la teau D r if t ( Br igg s al l . , 1 975 ; S ho t ton e t2 . , 1 980 ) , i nd ica t ing t ha t t h e se l a t te r d epo s i t s w e re a t l e a s tp a r t ly i np lace p r io r t of o rma t ion o ft h e c hanne l ( Tab le 1 ) . T h i s , i nt u rn , i mp l ie s t h a t i ft h eP la teau D r if t i si n f a c t ag lac ia l o r g lac io -f luv ia l d epo s i t , t h e re mu s t h ave b een ap re -C rome r ian g l ac ia t ion i n B r i ta in ( a s sum ing t h a td a t ing o ft h eS ugwo r th C hanne li sc o r re c t ) . A l ter na t ive ly , ac on s ide rab le a n t iqu i ty mu s tb e a t tached t ot h eP la teau D r if ti no rde rt oe xp la in t h et r an spo r to ft h e g rave l s b y o the r mean s ( e .g . r i ve ro r ma r ine a c t ion )f r om t h eM id land st ot h eC o t swo ld s , a c ro s s w ha ti sn ow t h e much l owe re xpan se o f t h eM id land P la in . I no the r wo rd s d epo s i t ion o ft h eP la teau D r if t mu s th ave o ccu r red p r io rt of o rma t ion o ft h eM id land sv a le . I ne i the rc a se , i tn ow s e em s a ppa ren tt h a tt h eP la teau D r if t , a si th a sg ene ra l ly b een mapped a nd d ef ined , i s ac ompo s i te d epo s i t , c on ta in ing ma te r ia l s w h ich h ave b een r ewo rked f r om t h e o r ig ina l , p re -C romer ian d r if t s a tv a r iou s t ime s . I ti sa l so c l ea r t h a t t h e T hame s w a s f o l low ing a tl e a s t s ome th ing c lo se t o i t s p re sen t c ou r se i n t h e O xfo rd a r ea b y C rome r ian

t ime s , a l be i t a s p a r t o f a

c on s ide rab ly l a rge rs y s tem , w ho se h eadwa te r se x tended f u r the rw e s ta nd n o r th .

W i thou td oub t , t h e P la teau D r if t r e p r e sen t s ap rob lema t ic d epo s i t i nr e la t ion t ot h e Q ua te rna ry h i s to ry o f t h e u ppe r T hame s , a nd i tr a i se s many q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e e a r ly c ou r se a nd e x ten t o f t h e v a l ley . Much mo re w o rk w i l lb er equ i red b efo r e t h e se p rob lem sc an b er e so lved . T he P la teau D r if t , h oweve r ,h a s a no the r s i gn if icance f o r , i na n a r ea d evo id o fa ny i mmed ia te s ou rce s o ff r e sh o rl a rge f l in tn odu le s , t h eq ua r tz a nd q ua r t z i te p ebb le s i tc on ta in s m ay w e l l h ave p rov ided t h e o n ly l o ca l s upp ly o fu sab le m a ter ia l f o rh andaxe f a br ica t ion d u r ing P a laeol i th ic t ime s .

T h eH anbo rough T e r rac e T he H anbo rough T e r race r ep re sen t s t h e h i ghe s t , a nd t h u s i t may b e a s sumed t h e o lde s t , o ft h e 1 me s tone g rave lt e r race s i nt h e Uppe rT hame s . L y ing s ome 2 5 -30 m a bove t h e mode rn f l oodp la in i nt h eO xfo rd a r ea ( F igu re 3 ) , i tc an b e f o l lowed u p s t ream t o t h e c onf luence w i th t h e E ven lode , a nd t h ence a l ong t h i s t r ibu ta ry t ot h e p re sen th eadwa t er s n ea r Mo re ton in - Ma r sh . T he re i sa l so s ome s ugge s t ion t h a tt h eg rave l s e x tend f ur the r n or th i n to t h e V a le o f Mo re ton ( A rke l l , 1 947 ; B r igg s a nd G i lbe r t son , 1 973 ) . W i th in t h e u ppe rr e ache s o ft h e T hame s i t se l f , h oweve r , n o c l ea ri nd ica t ion s o fi t s e x i s t ence c an b e f ound ( F igu re 2 ) . Wh i l s tt h is may b e n o mo re t h an t h ec hance r e su l to fl a te re ro s ion , r emov ing a l t r ace s o ft h eg r ave l s f r om t h eb roade rh eadwa te ra r ea o ft h eT hame s ,i tm ay e qua l ly i mp ly t h a t -a tt h i s s t age -t h ec ou r se o ft h e ma in r i ve rl a y i nw ha t i sn ow t h e E ven lode v a l ley a nd t h a t l i t t le o rn o d epo s i t ion o ccu r red i nw ha t a r en ow t h e u ppe rr e ache so ft h eT hame s .

T he e nv i ronmen t i n w h ich t h e g rave l s w e re d epo s i ted c an b e d educed w i th s om e c er ta in ty . A l though v e r teb r a te r ema in s i nd ica t ive o fw a rm t emp e ra tu re c ond i t ion s h ave b een d i scove red a tt h e v e ry b a se o ft h e t e r race , t h e b u lk o f t h e d epo s i t s s eem t oh ave a gg raded i n ac oo l , p e r ig lac ia l e nv i ronmen t . T hu s , t h e g rave l s , w h ich c on s i s ta lmo s te nt i re ly o fl o ca l l ime s tone , w i th o n ly m ino r a dm ix tu re s o fq ua r t z , q ua r tz i te a nd o the r e xo t ic r ock s d e r ived f r om t h e P la teau D r if t ( Tab le 1 ) , a r e t yp ica l ly p lane -bedded , w i th l o ca l ma s s ive ly -bedded u n i t s ,n ume rou s s ha l low l e n se sa nd s cou rc hanne l sa nd r a re , s ha l low c ro s s -bedded u n i t s a l lf e a tu re st yp ica lo fb ra ided r i ve rf l oodp la in s . I c e -wedge c a s t s a nd f r o s t -c rack s a r ea l so p re sen t ,w h i le t h e u pp e rl a ye r so ft h eg rave lh ave b een s eve re ly a f f ec ted b yc ryo tu rba t ion . Mo reove r , a tt h et ype s i te o fL ong Hanbo rough , t wo f o ss i l n on -ma r ine mo l lu scan a s semb lage s h ave b een f ound , c on ta in ing C o lume l la c o lume l la a nd o the rs pe c ie s i nd ica t ive o fc oo l , o pen , p robab ly s pa r se ly v ege ta ted c ond i t ion s ( Br igg s a nd

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G i lbe r t son , 1 973 ) .

N eve r the le s s , s ome t ime a f te r d epo s i t ion , w a rme r a nd mo re h um id c l ima te s

u ndoub ted ly r e tu rned , f o r t h e s u r f ace o f t h e g rave l s i sp ocked w i th s o lu t ion p i t s , mo s t o f w h ich s i gn if i can t ly -a r el o ca t ed i nt h eu p tu rned l imb so ft h ec r yo tu rba t ion s t ruc tu re s ,w he r ew a te rp ene t ra t ion h a s a ppa r en t ly b een a i ded b yt h ev e r t ica la l ignmen to ft h eg r ave l . I nt h ep a s t , w hen t h eo n ly e v id ence f o rt h ed epo s i t iona le nv i ronmen to ft h eg r ave l s w a s b e l ieved t ob et h e v e r t eb ra te r ema in s , t h eH anbo rough T e r ra ce d epo s i t sw e r en o rma l ly a t t r ibu ted t ot h eH oxn ian w a rm s t age ( e .g . M i t che l l g ta l . , 1 973 ) . W i th t h e r e in t e rp r e ta t ion o f t h e d epo s i t s , h oweve r , t h i s n o l o nge r s e em s l i ke ly , a nd i n s tead i tm us t b e s uppo sed t h a t t h e g rave l s r e la t e t o aQ ua t e rna ry c o ld s t age .

F rom i t s

mo rpho log ica l s i tua t ion b e low t h e S ugwo r th C hanne l , i ts e em s c l ea rt h a t t h e t e r ra ce i sp o s t -C rome r ian , b u tt h e re i sn o f i rm e v idenc e t oa s s ign i tt oa ny p a r t icu la rc o ld s t age . B r igg s a nd G i lbe r t son t e n ta t ive ly a tr ibu ted i tt ot h ee a r ly Wo l s ton ian , b u tf o rr e a son s o u l t ined b e low , t h e mo s tc onv inc ing i n te rp re ta t ion i s p e rhap s t h a ti ti sA ng l ian i na ge . I nt h i s c a se i tw ou ld r e la t e t ot h el o ng a nd i mmen se ly c omp lex g l a c ia l p e r iod d u r ing w h ich i c ee x t ended f a rs ou th a c ro s sE a s tA ng l ia a nd p e rhap se ven i n to t h eV a le o f Mo re ton ( e .g . P e r r in e ta l . , 1 979 ) .

T h e Wo lv erco t eT e r ra c ea nd C hann e l T he H anbo rough T e r ra ce h a sy i e ld ed o n ly o ne ( s omewha ti mp re c i se ly r e co rd ed )h andaxe , a nd a ss uch h a s l a rge ly i nd i re c tr e levance t ot h eP a laeo l i th ic h i s to ry o ft h eu ppe rT hame s . T he s ame i sn ot t r ue , h oweve r , o f t h e d epo s i t s w h ich s e em c h rono log ica l ly t of o l low i t : t h e Wo lve r co te T e r race a nd i t s a s soc ia ted C hanne l . A se xp la ined e l sewhe re i nt h i s v o lum e , t h e Wo lve rco t eC hanne l h a s b een t h e s ou r ce o fo ne o f t h e m o s tp ro l if i c a nd s i gn if ican tP a la eo l i th ic a s semb lage s i nt h e a r e a . I nt h i s c on tex t , much i mpo r tance o bv iou s ly a t ta che s t ot h ed epo s i t iona l e nv i ronm en t a nd a ge o ft h ed epo s i t s ; u n fo r tuna t e ly , m uch r ema in s c ont rove r l ia l .

A ti t s t ype s i t e , i nn o r the rn O xfo rd , t h e Wo lve r co te T e r ra ce l i e s a bou t 1 8 ma bove t h ep re sen ta l luv ium ( F igu re 3 ) . Up s t r eam , i tc an b e t r a ced a l ong t h e t r ibu ta r ie s o ft h e C he rwe l l a nd E ven lode a nd , mo re i n t e rm i t ten t ly , u p t h e ma in v a l ley o ft h e T hame s ( F igu r e 2 ) . A l though i ti sa ga in f o rm ed p r edom inan t ly o f l ime s tone g rave l , w i th s ma l l q uan t i t ie s o f m a te r ia l d e r ived f r om t h e P la t eau D r if t , t h e t e r race i s c ha rac t e r i sed b y ar e la t ive ly h i gh p ropo r t ion o ff l in t( Tab le 1 ) . T he o r ig in o ft h i s i sg ene ra l ly b el ieved t o h ave b een t h e C ha lky B ou ld e r C lay o ft h e M id land s ( e .g . T om l in son , 1 929 ; B i shop , 1 958 ; B r igg s a nd G i lbe r t son , 1 980 ) ,a nd i nd eed a st h et e r ra ce g r ave l sa r ef o l lowed u pt h eE ven lode t h eq uan t i ty o fr e la t ive ly f r e sh f l in t i n c rea se s a nd , u l t ima te ly , t h e t e r ra ce a ppea r s t og r ade i n to f l in t r ich o u twa sh g rave l s a tt h e s ou the rn m a rg in so ft h eV a le o f Mo re ton .

A s t h i s i mp l ie s , t h e g rave l s s e em t oh ave b een d epo s i ted i n ac o ld , p e r ig lac ia l e nv i ronmen t , p o s s ib ly a t t im e s r e ce iv ing d i rec tg l a c ia l m e l twa te r s . Ac o ld , t h ough n o tf u l ly g l a c ia l , e nv i ronm en ti sa l so i nd ica ted b yn on -ma r ine Mo l lu sca r e cove red f r om t h ed epo s i t s( B i shop , 1 958 ) .

A t t h e i r t ype s i t e , t h e se t e r race g r ave l s a r e c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th ab road , d eep c hanne l , i n f i l led w i th g r ave l s , s and s a nd s i l t s . T he b a sa l g r ave l s h ave y i e lded a bund an tv e r teb ra t er ema in s , i nd i ca t ive o fw a rm t emp e ra t ec ond i t ion s , a nd o n t h i s b a s i s t h e c hanne l i sg ene ra l ly r e ga rded a si n te rg lac ia l . N ever the le s s , i n t h eo ve r ly ing s and s a nd s i l t s t h e re o ccu rp l an tr ema in s ( Du igan , 1 956 ) , b ee t le s ( B la i r , 1 923 ) a nd mo s se s ( Be l l , 1 904 ) i n d ica t ing an o tab ly c oo le r e nv i ronm en t . F rom t h e s ame u ppe r l a ye r , m o r e r e cen t s t ud ie s

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h ave a l so o b ta ined p o l len w h ich , a l though s ca rce ,s ugge s t s ap rog re s s ive d e te r io ra t ion o ft h ec l ima te d u r ing c hanne l i n f i l l ing , w i th l ' inu s wood land b e ing r ep laced b y mo re o pen v ege ta t ion ( Br igg s e ta l . , 1 985 , p . 175 ) .

Wha t h a s c onfounded i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e Wo lve rco te C hanne l , h oweve r , i si t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e t e r race g rave l s . I n i t ia l ly , S and fo rd ( 1924 ) d e sc r ibed t h e c hanne l a sb e ing c u t i n to , a nd y ounge rt h an , t h e t e r race d epo s i t s , b u tt h i s w a s l a te rc ha l lenged b y B i shop ( 1958 ) . T he q ue s t ion r ema ined u n re so lved u n t i l 1 985 , when -f o r t h e f i r s tt ime i na tl e a s t 2 5 y ea r s -as ma l l s e c t ion i nt h e c hanne l b ecame a va i lab le f o r s t udy . A s w e l l a s c onf i rm ing p rev iou s d e scr ip t ion s o f t h e d epo s i t s t h i s p e rm i t ted p ebb le c oun t s t ob e u nde r taken i nt h ec hanne l . T he r e su l t s a r e s hown i nT ab le 1 .

A l though t h e s amp le s i z e w a s s ma l l ( on ly 1 81 c l a s t s ) , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e c hanne l c on ta in s af a r g rea te r p ropor t ion o ff l in t t h an o ccu r s i nt h eH anbo rough T e r race o re a r l ie rd epo s i t s . O n t h e o t he rh and , t h e f l in t c on t en to f 1 3 .3 % i sv e ry c l o se t ot h a tr e co rded f o rt h e T e r ra ce g rave l s a t Wo lve rco te ( i . e 1 2 .4 % ) a nd f o r t h e Wo lve rco te T e r race a s aw ho le .

T he c onc lus ion mu s t b e t h a t t h e c hanne l d epo s i t s p o s t -da te t h e

i n t roduc t ion o ff l in t i n to t h e v a l ley a nd t h u s , a sS and fo rd ( 1924 ) o r ig ina l ly c l a imed , a r e y ounge r t h an t h e Wo lve rco t e T e r ra ce d epo s i t s .

How much y ounge r i s ama t te r o f s ome u ncer ta in ty .

O n g eomo rpho log ica l g round s i ti sd i f f icu l t t o

e nv i sage a ny l o ng t ime span b e tween t h e t wo , a nd i ts e em s h igh ly l i ke ly t h a t t h e c hanne l r e la te s t o t h e w a rm s t age i mmed ia te ly s ucceed ing t h e c o ld s t age d ur ing w h ich t h e t e r race d epo s i t s a ccumu la ted . T rad i t iona l ly , h oweve r , t h i s h a s r a i sed p rob le m s i nr e la t ion t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , a nd S andfo rd ( 1932 ) a nd R oe ( 1981) h ave c l a imed t h a t t h e c hanne l i sc on s ide rab ly y ounge r , p o s t -da t ing n o t o n ly t h e Wo lve rco te T e r race b u t a l so t h e much l owe r S u rnme r town -Rad ley t e r race . T he g eomorpho log ica l c omp lex i t ie s wh ich t h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion r a i se s a r ec on s ide rab le , t os ay t h el e a s t .

T he f i na l q ue s t ion r e la te s t o t h e a ge o f t h e Wo lve rco te T e r race a nd C hanne l .

O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r

l i tho s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion sh ip , t h e t e r race g rave l s may b e a s s igned w i th s ome c onf idence t ot h e c o ld s t age i n w h ich t he C ha lky B ou lde r C lay w a s d epo s i ted .

P rev iou s ly , t h i s w a s r ega rded a s t h e Wo l s ton ian

( Sho t ton , 1 953 ; B ishop , 1 958 ; M i t che l l e ta l . , 1 973 ) .

I n r e cen t y ea r s , h oweve r , t h i s d a te h a s b een

c ha l lenged , ( e .g . S umb le r , 1 983 ; P e r r in e ta l . , 1 979 ) a nd t h e re i sn ow as t rong a r gumen t t h a t , l i ke i t s c oun t e rpa r t i nE a s t A ng l ia , t h eM id land s C ha lky B ou lde r C lay i sA ng l ian i na ge . B y a s so c ia t ion , d oub t s t h e refo re e x i s t a bou tt h e d a t ing o ft h e Wo lve r co te T e r race d epo s i t s . T he se , i nt u rn , make i ti mpo s s ib le t o d ef ine w i th p re c i s ion t h e a ge o ft h e c hanne l .

T he i n te rp re ta t ion p re sen ted i nF igu re 1mu s t t h e r efo re b e

r ega rded a sn o mo re t h an aw o rk ing h ypo the s i s .

T h eS umme r town -Rad ley T e r rac ea nd S tan ton H a rcour tC hanne l T he S ummer town -Rad ley T e r ra ce f o rm s a n e x ten s ive s u r f ac e w h ich , i nt h e v i c in i ty o f Oxfo rd i t se lf , l i e s s ome 6 -7 m a bove t h e mode rn f l oodp la in ( F igu re 3 ) . D own s t r eam , i tc an b e t r aced a sf a r a sD o r che s te r whe re i tf o rm s as ma l l ' i s land 's u r rounded b y l owe rF loodp la in T e r race g rave l s ; s ou th o ft h a t , h oweve r , i t s e x ten t i su nce r ta in .

Up s t ream o f O xfo rd i ti se spec ia l ly w ide ly d eve lop ed a tt h e c onf luence o f t h e

Wind ru sh , b u tc an b ef ound o n ly a ss ca t te red d epo s i t s i nt h e u ppe rr e ache s o ft h eT hame s o ri t s t r ibu ta r ie s ( F igu re 2 ) . L ike o t he rt e r race s i nt h ea r ea i ti sc ompo sed p redom inan t ly o fl ime s tone g rave l , w i th s male r

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q uan t i t ie s o fq uar tz , q ua r t z i te , f l in t , i r on s tone a nd i g neou s a nd m e tamo rph ic r ock s ( Tab le 1 ) . N ume rou s P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s h ave a l so b een f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e se t e r race d epo s i t s , e spec ia l ly a t B e r in sf ie ld n ea r Do rche s te r , a nd i nt h e p i t s a round S t an ton H a rcou r t ( MacRae , i nB r igg s tta l . , 1 985 ) . S ign if ican t ly , a lmo s t a l l t h e se f i nd s a ppea r t o h ave c ome f r om t h e v e ry b a se o f t h e t e r race d epo s i t s , n o rmaly o nt h eu nde r ly ing b ed ro ck s u r f ace .

I nc ommon w i th o the rt e r race s , a l so , i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e S u rnmer town -Rad ley T e r race p o se s an umbe ro f p rob lem s . F o rl o ng , i tw a sr e cogn i sed t h a tt h e t e r ra ce w a s ac ompo s i te f e a ture ,f o rmed o fa n u ppe rg rave l u n i tc ha rac ter i sed b y t h e v e r teb ra te H ippopo tamus a mph ibu s a nd t h e b iva lve C o rb icu la f l um ina l i s , a nd a l owe r u n i t c on ta in ing a bundan t - r ema in s o f Mammo thu s p r im igen ius ( Sand fo rd , 1 924 ) .

A s s uch , t h e

d epo s i t s a ppea rt or ep re sen t ac o ld -wa rm s equenc e .

Mode rn e xpo su re s i nt h e S u rnme r town -Rad ley T e r race s e em t or e la te e n t i re ly t ot h e l owe r o ft h e se t wo u n i t s . T he p re sence i nt h e se g rave l s o fn ume rous s i l tl e n se s c on ta in ing Mo l lu sca i nd ica t ive o fc oo l , o pen c ond i t ion s , a nd t h eo ccu r rence o f many l a rge , i n t ra fo rm a t iona l i c e -wedge c l a s t s a nd c ryo tu rba t ion l a ye r s , n ever the le s s c on f irm s t h a t t h ey f o rmed i nc o ld -a nd i ns ome i n s tance s v e ry c o ld -c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s . Mo r eove r , r e -excava t ion o fo ne o f t h e k ey s i te s d e scr ibed b y S and fo rd , a t Magda len C o l lege , Oxfo rd , s im i la r ly c onf i rmed t h a t t h e u ppe r g rave l s a gg raded i n at empe ra te c l ima te ( Br igg s e ta l . , 1 985 ) . T hu s S and fo rd ' se a r ly d e sc r ip t ion so ft h et e r race d epo s i t s s e em b o th r el iab le a nd a ccu r a te .

R ecen ts t ud ie s , h oweve r , h ave a dded af u r the re l emen tt ot h ep i c tu r e . I n 1 978 , i nt h ee x ten s ive e xcava t ion s a tL inch H i l ln ea r S tan ton H a rcour t , ab road c hanne l w a s r e vea led a tt h e v ery b a se o ft h e t e r race g rave l s , c u ti n to t h e u nde r ly ing O xfo rd C lay ( Br igg s a nd G i lbe r t son , 1 980 ; B r igg s e ta l . , 1 981) . T h i s , t oo , y i e lded a n e x ten s ive mo l lu scan f a una , i n c lud ing C . f l um ina l i a nd U n io s p . , a sw e l l a sr ema in s o fP an the ra l e o ,

E quus s p . , a nd ar i ch a nd v a r ied b ee t le f auna . T oge the r , t h e se s howed b eyond d oub t t h a t t h e c hanne l a gg raded i n aw a rm ‚s t age o ft h eQ ua terna ry .

O n t h i s b a s i s B r igg s e ta l . ( 1985 ) p ropo sed t h e f o l low ing t r ipa r t i te d iv i s ion o f t h e S u rnmer town -Rad ley T e rrace :

T op

B a se

E yn sham G rave l

w a rm s t age

S t an ton H a r cou r tG rave l

c o ld s t age

S tan ton H a rcou r tC hanne l

w a rm s t age

a nd d i scu s sed a tl e ng th t h el i ke ly a ge a nd s t ra t ig raph ic c o r re la t ion so ft h et e r race d epo s i t s .

T he a r gumen t s a dduced t of i x a n a ge f o rt h e se d epo s i t s a r e c omp lex a nd c anno ta l l b er epea t ed h e re . F ou r i mpo r tan tl i ne s o fe v idence m ay b em en t ioned , h oweve r ,n ame ly : a .t h e mo rpho s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence i nd ica t ing t h a tt h eE yn sham g rave l r e la te s t ot h e mo s t r e cen tw a rm s t age p r io rt ot h ep re sen ti n te rg lac ia l ( i . e . t h eI p sw ich ian ) b .t h e a bundance o f H ippopo tamus r ema in s i nt h e E yn sham G rave l ; t yp ica l ly t h e se a r e i nd ica t ive o fI p sw ich ian ( Ä en su s t r ic to )d epo s i t s ( da ted a t1 00 -125 ,000 y r s b . p . ) c .c l ea r a ff in i t ie s b e tween t h e b ee t le f auna s o f t h e S tan ton Ha rcour t C hanne l a nd t h e Ma r swo r th d epo s i t s ( Green gu l . , 1 984 ) d .t h e r e su l t s o f am ino a c id r acem iza t ion a na ly se s o f s he l l s f r om t h e S tan ton Ha r cour t

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i nd ica te a na ge i n t e rmed ia te b e twe en t h eI p sw ich ian ( s en su s t r ic to )a nd t h eH oxn ian ( Bowen , p e r s . c omm . ) .

T oge the r , t h i s e v idence t hu s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e S umme r town -Rad ley T e r race s pan s aw a rm -co ld -wa rm c l ima t ic o sc i l la t ion e x tend ing i n to t h e I p sw ich ian w a rm s t age ( i . e . i s o top es t age 5 e ) . Mo reove r , i ta ppea r s t h a tt h e S tan ton H a rcour tC hanne lr e la te s t ot h e p rev iou s ly u n re cogn i sed w a rm s t age a l so r ep re sen ted b y t h e Ma r swor th d epo s i t s ( da ted a t 1 65 -170 ,000 y r s b .p . ) .

S uch a n i n te rp re ta t ion h a s c on s ide rab le

i mp l ica t ion s , o fc our se , n o t o n ly f o r t h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e g eomo rpho log ica l h i s to ry o f t h e a r ea , b u t a l so f o rP a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy . I np a r t icu la r , i tr a i se s s e r iou s q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e a ge a nd r e la t ion sh ip s o ft h ea r tef a c t sf r om Wo lve r co te , S t an ton H a rcou r ta nd f r om o t he rs i t e si nt h eS ummer town -Rad ley T e r ra ce d epo s i t s .

N eve r the le ss , i t mu s t b e a dm i t ted t h a t t h i s a r gumen t i sn o t e n t i re ly w i thou t o ppo s i t ion , f o r S eddon a nd H o lyoak ( 1985 )r epo r t a1 4C d a te o f3 4 ,730 y r s b . p . f r om p l an td ebr i s a tt h eb a se o ft h e S t an ton H a rcour t C hanne l , a nd t wo t h ermo lum ine scen td a te s f r om s i l t s s l igh t ly h i ghe ri nt h e g rave l s o f9 1 ,000 ± 8 ,000 a nd 9 3 ,000 ± 9 ,000 y r s b .p . . T he d i sc repanc ie s b e tween t h e se d a te s c l ea r ly r educe t h e i r c r ed ib i l i ty , b u t t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h e s equence a tS tan ton H a r cour tr ep re sen t s al a te rp ha se o fd epo s i t ion c anno t b e w ho l ly r u led o u t . E ven i ft h i s i st h ec a se , h oweve r , i td oe sn o ta f f e c tt h eo t he re v idence f o rt h ea ge o ft h eS tan ton H a r cour tC hanne la nd E yn sham G rave l .

T h eF loodp la in T er ra ce Wi th t h ee xcep t ion o ft h e mode rn a l luv ium , t h e y ounge s tQ ua te rna ry d epo s i t s i nt h eu ppe rT hame s v a l ley a r et h o se f r om t h eF loodp la in T e r race . T he se a r ea l so t h e mo s te x ten s ive a nd b e s tu nde r s tood , a nd a ss uch h ave p rov ided av a luab le t emp la te f o ri n t e rp re ta t ion so fe a rl ie rd epo s i t s i nt h ea r ea .

T he s u r f ace o ft h eF loodp la in T e r race s t and s s ome 2 -3 m e t re s a bove t h el e ve lo ft h e mode rn a luv ium , b u t a sw i th o the rt e r race s i t s t h ickne s s v a r ie s c on s ide rab ly , f r om l e s s t h an am e t re w he re i tl a p s o n to b ed rock o ra ga in s to lde rt e r race s t oo ve r 1 0m e t re s i ns ome a r ea s n ea rt h e c en t re o ft h e v a l ley . T h i s l e dS and fo rd ( 1924 ) t o s ugge s t t h e e x i s tence o f ab ur ied c hanne l b enea th t h e t e r race , t hough t h i s h a s n eve r b een u nequ ivoca l ly d emon s t ra ted . L ike o t he r t e r ra ce s , a l so , i tc on s i s t s o fp lane o rg en t ly c ro s s -bedded s andy g rave ls , w i th in wh ich o ccu r many s cou r c hanne l s , wh i le l o ca l J u ra ss ic l ime s tone make s u p t h e p reponde rance o ft h eg rave lf r a c t ion ( Tab le 1 ) . I na dd i t ion , i tc on ta in sn um e rou s i n t rafo rma t iona la nd p o s t d epo s i t iona l i c e -wedge c l a s t s , a nd t wo d i s t inc tc r yo tu rba t ion l a ye r s : o ne a tt h es u r f a ce a nd t h e o t he rm id w ay t h rough t h e g rave l s . A nd , a sw i th e a r l ie r t e r race d epo s i t s , i ty i e ld s a bundan t v e r teb ra te , mo l lu scan b ee t le a nd p l än tr ema in s i nd ica t ive o fc oo l , o pen c ond i t ion s . Ove ra l l , t h ee v idence t h u sp o in t s o nce mo re t oa gg rada t ion o n ab ra ided r i ve rf l oodp la in d u r ing ac o ld s t age o ft h eQ ua ter na ry .

U n l ike o t he rt e r ra ce s , h oweve r , t h ed a t eo ft h i s a gg rada t ion i sn o tm e re ly am a t te ro fs pecu la t ion , f o rp l an t d eb r i s f r om t h ed epo s i t s h ave b e en d a ted b y 1 4C a na ly s i s a tt we lve s i te s ( Br igg s e ta l . , 1 985 ) . T he r e su l t s s how c l ea r ly t h a td epo s i t ion t o ok p l ace d u r ing t wo d i s t inc tp ha se s o ft h eD even s ian c o ld s t age . T he l owe r g rave l s a ccumu la ted i nt h es o -ca l led M id -Deven s ian I n t e r s tad ia l , b e tween 4 0 ,000 a nd 2 5 ,000 y ea r s b . p . , t h e u ppe rg rave l s w e re l a id d own i nt h eL a t eD even s ian (W inde rme re ) I n te r s tad ia l , f r om 1 ,500 t o1 0 ,250 y r s b . p . I n t h e i n te rva l b e tween , i ts e em s t h a t l i t t le i fa ny d epo s i t ion o ccur red , a nd i tm ay b e i nt h i s p ha se

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t h a t t h ee x ten s ive b u r ied c ryo tu rba t ion l a ye rw a s f o rmed . C e r ta in ly , d epo s i t ion s e em s t oh ave c ea sed b y 6 , 000 y r s b . p .f o r 1 4C d a te s f r om p ea t s a tL ech lade , i nt h e u ppe rr e ache s o ft h eT ham e s , s how t h a tb y t h en t h er i ve rh ad r e ve r t ed t o am eande r ing f o rm a nd w a s b eg inn ing t oc u ti n to t h eg rave l s . S ince t h en , i ts eem s t h a t a gg rada t ion h a s b een c ha rac ter i sed b y t h e d epo s i t ion o f t h e modern a l luv ium , l a rge ly a so ve rbank d epo s i t s a s soc ia ted w i th ar e la t ive ly l a rge a nd s t ab le m eander ing c hanne l . T he c au se o ft h i s c hange i nt h e f l uv ia l s y s tem -f r om b ra ided t om eander ing , f r om g rave l b ed t os i l t -c anno t b e p roven , b u t i ts e em s t o r e f lec t ac hange i nt h ec ha rac te ro f t h er uno f fa s ar e su l to fa s soc ia ted c hange s i nt h ec l ima te a nd v ege ta t ion c ove rd u r ing t h ee a r ly F land r ian .

T he C hrono logy o ft h eT er ra ce A gg rada t ion O n t h e b a s is o ft h i s e v idence i ti sp o ss ib le t or ev i se e a r l ie r i d ea s a bou t t h e h i s to ry o fr i ve r t e r race s i nt h e . u ppe rT hame s a nd t op ropo se an ew , mo re d e ta i led c h rono logy . T h i s i ss umma r i sed i nF igu re I . B r ie f ly , t h ep ropo sed s equence o fe ven t si sa sf o l low s :

D epo s i t s

P la teau D r if t

P ro ces s/ Env ironmen t

A ge /Co r re la t ion

L ong a nd c omp lex p ha se o fa gg rada t ion a nd

P re-Cro mer ian

e ro s ion ,p robab ly b y f l uv ia l a c t iv i ty b u tp o s s ib ly i n c lud ing mo re g l a c ia le p i sode s .

S ugwo r th C hanne l

I n te rg lac ia lc ond i t ion s : R ive rT hame s ( po s s ib ly

C rome r ian

w i th i t s ma in h eadwa te r s i nt h eM id land s )a s am eand e r ing s y s tem . D e ca lc if ica t ion o ft h e P la teau D r if t .

H anbo rough T e r ra ce

L ong a nd c omp lex p ha se o fa gg rada t ion a nd e ro s ion ;

?A ng l ian

i c ef r om NW p o s s ib ly i n vade ss ou the rn M id land sa nd d i sgo rge sm e l twa te ri n to t h eE ven lode

Wo lve rco te T e r ra ce

C o ld s tage .T e r ra ce a gg rade sd u r ing ( o rs oon a f t e r )t h e

C ha lky B ou lde rC lay

i n cu r s ion o f NE i c ei n to t h e V a le o f Mo r e ton .

( Anglian

B ra id ed r i ve rf l oodp la in .

Wo lve rco te C hanne l

o r Wo l s ton ian )

I n te rg la c ia lc ond i t ion s ;E ven lode V a l ley n ow ar e la t ive ly m ino rt r ibu ta ry ;T hame s a s am eande r ing s y s tem .

S t an ton H a rcou r t

I n te rg la c ia lc ond i t ion s ;T hame s a dop t s m eande r ing

C hanne l

f o rm .

S t an ton H a rcou r t

C o ld s tage . E x ten s ive t e r race a gg rada t ion o nf l oodp la in .

G rave l s

I c e -wedge d eve lopmen ta nd c r yo tu rba t ion .

E yn sham G rave l s

Wa rm s tage . R ive rT hame s a dop t s meande r ing f o rm a nd r ewo rk s a nd c u t si n to S tan ton H a r cou r tG rave l s . H ippopo tamu s a bundan t .

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c f . Ma r swo r th

I p sw ich ian

D epo s i t s

F loodp la in T e r race

P ro ces s/ Env ironmen t

A g e /Co rre la t ion

C o ld s tage . E x ten s ive a gg rada t ion o nb ra ided r i ve r

D even s ian

f l oodp la in i no pen , e xpo sed i n t e r s tad ia lc ond i t ion s . D u r ing s t ad ia l s l i t t le o rn o f l uv ia l a c t iv i ty .

A l luv ium

R ive rT hame s r e ve r t s t om eande r ing f o rm

F land r ian

( by 6 000 y r s . b . p . ) , c u t s t h rough F loodp la in T e r race . A l luv ium f o rm s a so ve rbank d epo s i t s .

I t mu s t , h oweve r , b e s t re ssed t h a t t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion s t i l l d epend s t o ag rea t e x ten t u pon s pe cu la t ion . I t r ep re sen t sn o mo re t h an ah ypo the s i st ob et e s ted , a nd s hou ld b ev i ewed a ss uch .

T he Qua t ernary Human E nv ironmen t si nt h eU pp e rT hame s T h i s r ev iew o ft h er i ve rg rave l s o ft h eu ppe rT hame s i lu s t ra te s n o to n ly t h ed i f f icu l t ie s o fi n te rp re t ing t h e Qua te rna ry h i s to ry o f t h e a r ea , b u t a l so s ome o f t h e f undamen ta l e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s w h ich h ave o ccu r red d ur ing t h i sp e r iod . Wh i l s tt h e se c hange sh ave b een i n i t ia ted f o rt h e mo s tp a r tb yc l ima t ic e ven t s , t h ey h ave b een f e l t i n a lmo s t a l l a spec t s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t :

t h e v ege ta t ion , t h e f a una , t h e s t ream

h yd ro logy a nd t h eg eomo rph ic p ro ce s se s . I nc on sequence t h ey mu s th ave h ad f a r r each ing i mp l ica t ion sf o r t h es u i tab i l i ty o ft h ea r ea f o rh uman o ccupa t ion .

I ng ene ra l t e rm s , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h ree m a in e nv i ronmen ta l r e g ime s h ave o ccu r red d ur ing t h e Q ua te rna ry : t hough i ti s ag ro s s s imp l if ica t ion , t h e se m ay b e r e la ted t oi n t e rg la c ia l e p i sode s , i n te r s tad ia l s a nd s t ad ia l s . E ach w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y ma rked ly

d i f f e ren t h uman e nv i ronmen t s , a nd e ach l e f t ad i s t inc t ive

g eomo rpho log ica l l e gacy . E ach , t h ough ; i tmu s t b e s t re ssed , w a s i t se lf ac omp lex e p i sode , d u r ing w h ich s ub s tan t ia lv a r ia t ion s i nc l ima te o ccu r red .

h i t er s tad ia lP ha s e s T he r i ve r t e r race g rave l s s eem t or ef lec t a lmo s t e n t i re ly c o ld s tage s ; a nd w i th in t h e se t h e b u lk o ft h e i r d epo s i t s a ppea rt oh ave a ccumu la t ed u nde ri n te r s tad ia lc ond i t ion s . W i th b r ie fe xcep t ion s t h e se i n te r s tad ia l s mus t h ave b een h a r sh a nd i nho sp i tab le e p i sode s .

Win te r s w e re u ndoub ted ly l ong , w i th a ve rage

t empe ra tu re sp e rhap s a sl ow a s 15C. B u tt h e c l ima te w a s e xce s s ive ly c on t inen ta l . I nt h es ho r ts umm e r , t empe ra tu re s p e rhap s r o se t o 8 10C .

T h i s v a r ied s ea sona l c l ima te mu s t h ave f ound ar e spon se i nt h e

T hame si t se l f . Whe rea s , d ur ing t h ew in te r s , f l ow s w e re p e rhap sm in ima l , a st h ee n t i re s u r fa ce f r oze o rw a s c ove red i ns now , d u r ing t h es p r ing a nd s umme ra c t ive s now m e l t mu s th ave s we l led t h es t ream s a nd l e dt o e x ten s ive f l ood ing o ft h e v a l ley f l oo r . T he v ege ta t ion , t o o , r e f lec ted t h e se c ond i t ion s . O n t h e f l oodp la in i t se lf , o n ly t h e mo re s t ab le a r ea s -t h e h ighe r b a r s a nd t e r race s -a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een p e rmanen t ly v ege ta ted , a nd t ho se p e rhap s w i th al ow , o pen c ove r o f mo s se s , l i chen , g ra s se s a nd s h rubs . T ree s w e re s ca r ce , t h ough p a t che so fw ood land m ay h ave s u rv ived i n mo re s he l t e red d ep re s s ion so nt h ev a l ley s i de .

Wi th in t h i s e nv i ronmen t , t h e f a una -a nd t h u s p re sumab ly h uman a c t iv i ty - w a s n o d oub t a l so l im i t ed . M ig ra t ing h e rd s o fm amma l s , n o tab ly mammo th , w oo l ly r h inoce ro s a nd r e indee r , c l ea r ly g razed t h e a r ea , b u t t h e i nacce ss ib i l i ty o f t h e f l oodp la in a nd t h e i nho sp i tab le c l ima te mu s t h ave p rec luded h uman

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o ccupa t ion f o r l o ng p e r iod s . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , i ts e em s c l ea r , m an ' s r o le w a s r e s t r ic ted t ot h a t o f a n o cca s iona l h un te r , as e a sona l v i s i to r .

A nd i ti si ns uch ac on tex t t h a t P a laeo l i th ic a r te fac t s f r om t h e se

e p i sode s mu s t b e v i ewed . No t s u rp r i s ing ly , n o s i te s f r om t h e se g rave l s h ave y e t b een f ound c on ta in ing m a jo ra c cumu la t ion s o fa r t ef ac t s . A lmo s ta l t h ea r te f ac t sw h ich h ave b een r e cove r ed h ave d e r ived f r om t h e s ub -g rave ls u r fa ce ,o no re mbedd ed i nt h eO xfo rd C lay .

S t ad ia lP ha s e s I ft h e i n te r s tad ia l p ha se o ft h e Q ua te rna ry c o ld s t age s w e re g ene ra l ly h a r sh a nd i n ho sp i tab le , t h e s t ad ia l p ha se s mu s th ave b een w ho l ly u n su i ted t oh uman o ccupa t ion . T hen , i ts e em s , e ven s u mme rt empe ra tu re s mu s t h ave b e en c l o se t of r eez ing , s nowme l tw a s l im i ted , r unof fr e s t r ic ted , a nd f o r l o ng p e r iod s t h e l a nd w a sp e rhap s ab a r ren ,p o la rd e se r t . W i th in t h e se p e r iod s , t h e refo re , t h e r ew a sl i t t le o rn od epo s i t ion a nd t h e m a in a c t iv i ty a ppea r s t oh ave b een t h e d eve lopmen t o fp e r ig lac ia l s t ruc tu re s i nt h e e xpo sed f l oodp la in d epo s i t s . C er ta in ly t h e se w e re n o c ond i t ion s f o r l i f e ; b io log ica l e v idence i se n t i re ly l a ck ing f r om t h e se i n t erva l s . H uman o ccupa t ion , i tc an b e a s sumed , w a s n on -ex i s ten t .

I n terg lac ia lP ha se s F o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h e i n te rg lac ia l s t age s mu s t h ave p re sen ted am a rked c on t ra s t i n t h e u ppe r T hame s . U ndoub ted ly m a jo rf l uc tua t ion s i nc l ima te a nd o the re nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s o ccu r red w i th in t h e se , b u t f o r t hou sand s o f y ea r s a t at ime t h e c l ima te w a s c e r ta in ly a tl e a s t a s w a rm a s t h a t a tp re sen t a nd t h e v ege ta t ion mu s th ave b een c ha rac te r i sed b yd en se a nd e x ten s ive w ood land w i th , o n t h e s u r round ing h i l l s e spec ia l ly , a r ea s o f mo re o pen s avanna a nd g ra s s . T he s t ream s w e re d eep a nd b road -n o l o nge r s h if t ing , a na s tom i s ing b ra ided s y s tem s b u t s t ab le m eander ing c hanne l s . W i th in t h i s e nv i ronmen t a n ima l l i f e w a s n o d oub t p ro l if ic .

A nd i n t h i s e nv i ronmen t man mu s t h ave f ound f a r mo re s u i tab le c ond i t ion s f o r

o ccupa t ion . No t s u rp r i s ing ly , i ti st h e refo re i nt h e d epo s i t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se p ha se s t h a t t h e r i che s t a nd mo s ta bundan th uman r ema in s h ave b een f ound . O ne a tl e a s t -t h a ti nt h e Wo lve rco te C hanne l -w ou ld s e em t or ep re sen t al o ng la s t ing , s t ream s ide s i t e o fo ccupa t ion . B u tt h i s w a s w i thou td oub tn o t t h e o n ly s uch s i te .

F o r o n a tl e a s t t h ree o the r o cca s ion s -a s r ep re sen ted b y t h e S ugwor th C hanne l , S tan ton

H a rcour tC hanne l a nd E yn sham G rave l s -s im i la r w a rm s t age c ond i t ion s p reva i led . A tt h e se t ime s , t o o , t h e u ppe rT hame s a nd i t s t r i bu ta r ie s mu s th ave o f f e red a na t t rac t ion f o rh uman o ccupa t ion .

T aphonom ic P ro ces s e sa nd P a laeo l i th ic A r tef ac t s F rom w ha th a s b e en s a id , i ti sc l ea rt h a tt h eP a laeo l i th ic a r te fac t s f ound i nt h eu ppe rT hame s v a l ley o ccu r i nt wo ma in s i tua t ion s : e i the r a tt h e b a se o ft h e t e r race g rave l s , o n o r c l o se t ot h e u nde r ly ing b ed rock s u r f ace ; o ri na s soc ia t ion w i th c hanne lf i l l sf o rmed d u r ing w a rm , i n te rg lac ia lp ha se s . T he q ue s t ion w h ich i n ev i tab ly a r i se s i sw ha ti st h e s i gn if icance o ft h i s d i s t r ibu t ion?

Doe s i tr e f lec t t h e a c tua l d i s t r ibu t ion o f

o ccupa t ion ,o ri si tar e su l to fs ub sequen tt a phonom ic p ro ce sse s?

F o r t h e momen t , i t mu s t b e a dm i t ted , n o d ef in i t ive a n swe r c an b e p rov ided . Much mo re n eed s t ob e l e a rned a bou t t h e p roce sse s o f a r tef ac t r ewo rk ing a nd d epo s i t ion i n f l uv ia l e nv i ronmen t s .

Two

o b serva t ion s m ay , h oweve r , b e m ade . F i r s t ly , t h eh andaxe s a r ef o rt h e mo s tp a r tc on s ide rab ly l a rge rt h an t h eb u lk o ft h e s ed imen t s w h ich c on ta in o rb ury t h em . S econd ly , m any o ft h ea r te fac t s s how o n ly l im i ted e v idence o fa b ra s ion . A ny e xp lana t ion n eed s t ot a ke a ccoun to ft h e se t wo a sp ec t s .

I nf a c t ,d i f f e ren te xp lana t ion s a ppea rt ob ev a l id i nd i f f e ren ts i tua t ion s . I nt h ec a se o ft h ea r tef ac t s f ound i n

1 79

T ERRACES

9

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i n

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e i

I SS 51 2

e i

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C CE M a lCOI LD 7 . 3

r

0 3 : 1 1 :=3

b oreho le a nd f i e ld e v idence ) .

D ISTANCE

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C D = 73

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1 80

t r ) t z ,

0 L t )

a s soc ia t ion w i th c hanne l i n f i l l s , f o r e xamp le , i tm ay b e a s sumed t h a t o n ly m in ima l r ewo rk ing h a s o ccur red . T h i s i si nd ica t ed b yt h ec oncen t ra t ed n a tu re o ft h es i te a t Wo lve rco te , a nd i tc an a l so b ed educed f r om w ha ti sk nown a bou th yd ro log ica l c ond i t ion s i nt h e se c hannne l s . O n t h ew ho le i ts e em s t h a t s t ream v e loc i t ie s w e re n owhe r en ea rs u f f ic ien tt oe n t ra in a nd t r an spo r tt h e a r te fa c t s t oa ny s i gn if ican td eg r ee . A nd t h e v e ry p re se rva t ion o ft h ec hanne l f i l l s s how s t h a t -a tt h e se s i t e s a tl e a s t -t h ey h ave n o tb een a f f ec t ed b ys ub sequen tr ewo rk ing .

C onve r se ly , f o rt ho se a r tefa c t s f ound a tt h e b a se o ft h et e r ra ce g rave l s , a tl e a s t s ome d eg ree o fr ewo rk ing m ay b e p o s tu la ted .

S ome d own s t ream t r an spor t n o d oub t o ccur red , f o r e ven i fa ve rage f l ows w e re

i n adequa te t o move t h ea r t ef a c t s ,o cca s iona lf l ood d i scha rge s w ou ld c e r ta in ly h ave d one s o . B u tt wo o t he r p roce s se s may a l so b ee nv i saged : t h es l ump ing o fm a t er ia lf r om c hanne lb ank s a nd h il s id e s e i the rb yb ank c o l lap se o r b y s o l if luc t ion ; a nd t h e g radua l l e t t ing d own o f t h e a r tef ac t s a s t h e c hanne l b ed w a s p rogre ss ive ly t r immed a nd l owe red .

T hu s , ac on s ide rab le d eg ree o f l a te ra l r ed i s t r ibu t ion mus t h ave

o ccu r red ; b u t , mo re i mpor tan t ly , a l ong w i th o the r c oa r se l a g m a te r ia ls , t h e a r tefac t s mu s t h ave b een l owe red c on s ide rab ly b enea th t h e i ri n i t ia lp o s i t ion . T ha tt h e a r tef a c t s s how l i t t le e v idence o fa b ra s ion a sa r e su l to ft h e se p roce sse s i sn o t s u rp r i s ing . F o r mo s to ft h e t ime , t h ey wou ld h ave l a in o n t h e c l ay b ed o f t h ec hanne l , a nd i ndeed m ay o f ten h ave b een a rmou red b y mud a nd s and a nd p ro te c ted b y av enee ro fo t he r l a g ma te r ia l s . E ro s ion o ft h i s s u rf ace may t h u s h ave b een d ue t ot h e e f fec t s o fs app ing a nd f l u id i sa t ion ( e .g . b yw eaken ing o ft h ec ohe s ive b and sb e tween t h ec l ay )r a the rt h an d i rec tc o r ra s ion b yb ed load . I nde ed , d u r ing f l uv ia li n c i s ion a nd f l oodp la in t r imm ing b ed load c oncen t ra t ion s may h ave b een r e la t ive ly l ow . I n a dd i t ion , t h e l ime s tone w h ich f o rm s t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e o ve r ly ing g rave l i si t se lf r e la t ive ly s of t . A l l o f t h i s s ugge s t s t h a t a b ra s ion m ay h ave b een l im i ted . T h i s c onc lu s ion i sb or ne o u tn o to n ly b y t h e s t a t e o f t h ea r t efac t s b u ta l so o ft h e much mo re v u lne rab le l a g m a t er ia l s , s uch a sG ryphaea s pec imen s , w i th w h ich t h ey a r e a s soc ia ted . I nt h i s c a se , o fc ou r se i tm ay b e s ugge s ted t h a tt h e l o ca t ion i nw h ich t h e a r tef ac t s a r e f ound i ss i gn i f ican t ly d i f f e ren tf r om t h a ti nw h ich t h ey w e r ei n i t ia l ly a bandoned .

C onc lu s ion s O ve rt h el a s t 1 0 -15 y ea r s ac on s ide rab le a moun to fn ew r e sea rch h a s b e en c a r r ied o u ti nt h eu ppe rT ham e s v a l ley : many n ew s e c t ion sh ave b een e xpo sed a nd a na ly sed ,n ew t e chn ique so fa na ly s i s h ave b een a pp l ied , a nd n ew h ypo these s h ave b een p ropo sed a nd t e s ted .

A s ar e su l t much h a s b een l e a rned a bou t t h e

Q ua te rna ry h i s to ry o ft h eu ppe rT hame s a nd , a l though s e r iou s g ap s i no u rk now ledge r ema in , m uch o ft h i s i su ndoub ted ly o fw ide rs i gn if icance n o to n ly t og eomo rpho log ica l s t ud ie s b u ta l so t ot h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f h uman o ccupa t ion .

O ne o ft h e mo s tc ruc ia l c onc lu s ion s t o eme rge , f o re xamp le , i st h ec l o se a nd c on s i s ten tr e la t ion sh ip w h ich s e em s t oh ave e x i s t ed b e tween e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s a nd t h e n a tu re o ff l uv ia l a c t iv i ty i nt h e v a l ley . Wi th f ew e xcep t ion s i ts eem s t h a t i n te r s tad ia l p ha se s w e re c ha rac te r i sed b y o pen , s pa r se ly v ege ta ted c ond i t ion s w i th in w h ich b ra ided r i ve r s y s tem s t e nded t od eve lop . I tw a s a ppa ren t ly d ur ing t h e se p ha se s t h a tt h ev a s tb u lk o fr i ve rt e r ra ce g rave l s a ccumu la ted . I nc on t ra s t , d u r ing f u l ls t ad ia lp ha se s f l uv ia l a c t ion s e em s t oh ave a l lb u tc ea sed ,w h i le t h el o ng a nd c omp lex w a rm s t age s a ppea rt oh ave b een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o fm eande r ing r i ve r s y s tem s w i th in amo re d en se ly v ege ta ted a nd g eomo rpho log ica l ly s t ab le e nv i ronmen t .

1 81

T h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion u ndoub t ed ly n eed s f u r th e rt e s t ing b e fo re i tc an b ea pp l ied e l sewhe r e , b u tt h e r e i se ve ry r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a ti ti se qua l ly v a l id f o r m any o t he rr i ve r b a s in s i ns ou ther nE ng land . I nt h i s c a se , i t p rov id e s af a r mo re c on s i s t en ta nd c omp r ehen s ive e nv i ronm en ta lf r amewo rk w i th in w h ich t oi n t e rp re tt h e e v id ence f o rh um an o ccupa t ion . I tg i ve s , f o re xamp le , ac l ea re ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e l o ca le nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s i n d ica ted b y t h e d epo s i t s i nw h ich t h e a r t ef ac t s a r e p r e se rved . I to f f e r s , s im i la r ly , af i rm e r g eomo rpho log ica l b a s i s o n w h ich t o b u i ld mode l s o f a r te fa c t t a phonomy .

Among s t o t he r t h ing s , i t

s ugge s t s t h a t a r t ef ac t s a r e o n ly l i ke ly t ob e f ound i ns i tu a nd i na bundance i na s so c ia t ion w i th c hanne l i n f i l l s , w he re s u i tab le o ccupa t iona lc ond i t ion s o ccu r red a nd w he re s ub sequen tr ewo rk ing o ft h em a te r ia l s t e nd s t oh ave b een n eg l ig ib le . E nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s d u r ing t e r race a ggr ada t ion w e r e , c onve r se ly , g ene ra l ly u nf avou r ab le f o rl o ng t e rm o ccupa t ion ,w h i le a ny a r t ef ac t s a bandoned o nt h ef l oodp la in s u r f a ce a t t h a tt ime w ou ld h ave b een m uch m o r ep r one t od i sp e r sa l . I nd eed , t h es c a t te r ed h andaxe s f o und o nt h es ub t e r ra ce b ed ro ck s u r f ace t h roughou t t h e u pp e rT hame s a ppea r t oh ave r e a ched t h a tp o s i t ion a s ar e su l to f t h e i r g r adua l l owe r ing d u r ing s ucce s s ive e p i sode s o f v a l ley f l oo r i n c i s ion a nd t r imm ing .

T hu s , t h e i r

s t ra t ig raph ic s i gn i f icance i sl im i t ed .

A t t h e s ame t ime , t h i s i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h e r i ve r t e r race s h i gh l igh t s t h e e x t r eme b i a s w h ich e x i s t s i nt h e d epo s i t iona l r e co rd o f r i ve r v a l ley s , w i th t h e g r ea t o ve r rep re sen ta t ion o f s ome p ha se s ( no tab ly i n t e r s tad ia l s ) a nd t h ev i r tua ln on rep r e sen ta t ion o fo t he r s . T h i sm u s tb eb o rne i nm ind w hen a na ly s ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion sh ip s o fP a laeo l i th ic m a te r ia l s . Q u i t e c l ea r ly , t h e s c a r c i ty o fi n s i tu c oncen t ra t ion s o f a r tef ac t s m ay r e f lec t n o t s o m uch t h e a b sence o fo ccupa t ion , b u t t h e v e ry l o ca l i sed o ccu r r ence o fs u i tab le s i te sa nd p r e se rva t ion o ft h ed epo s i t s .

I na dd i t ion , r e cen t s t ud ie s i nt h e u pp e rT hame s h ave c a s t s e r iou s d oub t s o n t h e e s tab l i shed Q ua te rna ry c h rono logy . I np a r t i cu la r , i ts e em s t h a to ne a dd i t iona lw a rm s t age a nd o ne a dd i t iona l c o ld s t age m ay b e r e p re sen ted , a ppa r en t ly b e tween t h eH oxn ian a nd I p sw ich ian ( s en su s t r ic to ) i n t e rg la c ia l s . A ga in , f u r the r w o rk i sn e ce s sa ry t od emon s t ra te t h i s b eyond a l ld oub t s ,b u ta l r eady s t rong s uppo r t ing e v idence i sa c c ru ing f r om o the r a r ea s , mo s t e spec ia l ly a t Ma r swo r th ( G reen , e t . a l . , 1 984 ) . s ub s tan t ia l r ev i s ion o f i n te rp re ta t ion s o f Q ua t erna ry c h rono logy .

T h i s i nd ica te s t h e n eed f o r

I ta l so i mp l ie s t h a t m any o f t h e

a s sump t ion sm ade i nt h ep a s ta bou tt h ea ge a nd c h rono log ica lp o s i t ion o fP a la eo l i th ic a r t e f a c t sn e ed c a r e f u l r e -exam ina t ion .

I n t h e u ppe r T hame s v a l ley t h i s a pp l ie s i n p a r t icu la r t o t h e c r uc ia l ly i mpo r tan t

Wo lve r co te C hanne la s semb lage .

A s h a s b e en s t a ted , m any q ue s t ion s s t i l lr ema in a bou tt h eQ ua t e rna ry h i s to ry o ft h e u pp e rT ham e s v aley , a nd i ti sa sy e tt o oe a r ly t op ropo se a ny d ef in i t ive i n t e rp r e ta t ion s . Al t h e h ypo the se sp r e sen t ed h e r et h u s n eed f u r the r v e r if ica t ion .

B u t r e sea r ch o ve r r e cen t y ea r s i n t h i s a r ea h a s d emon s t ra ted c l ea r ly t h e

c on t r ibu t ion w h ich g eomo rpho log ica ls t ud ie sc an m ak et oP a laeo l i th i ca r cha eo logy . A l ready ,c on s id e rab le s t r ide s h ave b e en m ade i nu nd e r s tand ing t h ee nv i ronmen t a lc on tex to fP a laeo l i th ic a r t e f ac t s . T oi mp rove o u rk now ledge , h oweve r ,r e qu i r e s n o to n ly a nu nde r s tand ing o fQ ua ter na ry e ven t s a nd e nv i ronm en t s , b u t a l so a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft h ep roce s se s s a f f ec t ing P a laeol i th ic a r t ef a c t sa f t e rt h ey h ave b een a bandoned . F o r t h ef u tu re , t h e r e fo re , t wo s p ec if ic n eed s c an b ei d en t if ied : t h ed eve lopmen to f an ew m ode lo fQ ua t er na ry c h rono logy w i th in w h ich t op l ace t h e a r t ef ac tua l e v idence ; a nd , p e rhap s m o s t i mpo r tan t o f a l l , t h e f o rmu la t ion o fs ound mod e l so fa r te f a c tt a phonomy .

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THE QUATERNARY DER IVAT ION OF QUARTZ ITES U SED BY PALAEOL ITH IC MAN I N THE THA MES BAS IN FOR TOOL MANUFACTURE

D av id R .B r idg land

I n t rodu c t ion Q ua r tz i te h andaxe s a ccoun t f o r av e ry s ma l l p ropo r t ion o ft h e h uge n umbe r s o fP a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s r e cove red f r om t h e t e r race d epo s i t so ft h eT hame s s y s tem , t h ev a s tm a jo r i ty o fw h ich a r e made f r om f l in t . Q ua r tz i te so fv a r iou s t e x tu ra lc ha rac te r i s t ic s d om ina te c o l le c t ion s o fn on -f l in ta r te fac t s , h oweve r , t h e o n ly o t he r l i tho log ie s r e cogn i sed b e ing o cca s iona l f i ne -g ra ined i g neou s t ype s .

T oo l s p roduced f r om t h e se

m a te r ia l s a r eu sua l ly i n f e r io rt of l in ti mp lemen t s a nd q ua r tz i te i np a r t icu la ri s much mo re d i f f icu l tt of l ake , s oi ti sg ene ra l ly b e l ieved t h a tt h ey w e re o n ly u sed w hen s u i tab le f l in tw a s s ca r ce o ra b sen t . Q ua r tz i te w a s a va i lab le t o P a laeo l i th ic man t h roughou t t h e T hame s b a s in , s i nce l a rge p ebb le s a nd c obb le s o f t h i s m a te r ia l a r er e la t ive ly c ommon i nt h e t e r race g rave l s o ft h eUppe r a nd M idd le T hame s , b e com ing s ca r ce o n ly i nt h e mo s tr e cen tt e r ra ce s o ft h eL owe rT hame s d own s t ream f r om L ondon . I ti so n ly i nt h e U ppe r T hame s , u p s t ream f r om t h e C ha lk e sca rpmen t a nd t h e refo re f r om s ou rce s o f f r e sh f l in t , t h a t q ua r tz i te s pec imen s r ep re sen t as i gn if ican t p ropo r t ion o f h andaxe a s semb lage s . I mp lemen t s f a sh ioned f r om t h i s m a te r ia l a r e a l so c ommon i nt h e t e r race d epo s i t s o f s eve ra l M id land r i ve r s , n o tab ly t h e Wa rw ick sh i re / Wo rce s te r sh i re A von a nd t h eT ren t , t h e g rave l s o fw h ich a r eg ene ra l ly d om ina ted b y q ua r tzo se r ock s . I n t h eM id land s ,h oweve r ,p re -P le i s tocene s ou r ce so fs uch m a te r ia l a r ea l so c l o se ra th and .

T he p re sence , i nt h eg rave l so ft h eO xfo rd a r ea ,o fa r t ef ac t sm ade f r om g ood q ua l i ty f l in t( f o rw h ich t h e r ei s n o l o ca l s ource ) p e rm i t s t h e s ugge s t ion t h a tP a laeo l i th ic man w a s p repa red t ot r an spor tr aw m a te r ia l s o r t o o l so ve rc on s ide rab le d i s tance s . T h i s , h oweve r , i sb eyond t h es cope o ft h ep re sen tc hap te r , w h ich m e re ly s e t s o u t ( 1 ) t od e sc r ibe s ome o f t h e q ua r tzo se r ock s f ound i nt h e g rave l s o f t h e T hame s b a s in , b o th a s p ebb le s a nd , i n f in i te ly l e ss f r equen t ly , i nt h e f o rm o fa r tef ac t s , ( 2 ) t os ugge s t s ou rce s f r om w h ich t h e se l i tho log ie s may h ave b een d er ived a nd ( 3 ) t o d i scu ss t h e p o ss ib le m echan i sm s b y wh ich t h ey w e re t r an spo r ted t ot h e i rp re sen tp o s i t ion s .

A s p a r t o f as t udy o f g rave l s i n t h e e a s ter n p a r t o f t h e T hame s B a s in , t h e a u tho r h a s i nve s t iga ted t h e v a r ious ' e xo t ic ' r ock t ype s w h ich o ccu r i n t h e se d epo s i t s .

T h i s h a s i nvo lved t h e s t udy o f t h e i r

c ha rac ter is t ics a nd v a r iab i l i ty a nd t h e i nve s t iga t ion o f p o ten t ia l s ource s , w h ich h a s e n ta i led t h e a ccumu la t ion o f as ou rce rock ' t ype c o l lec t ion ' c u r ren t ly l odged i nt h e G eog raphy D epa r tmen to fC i ty o f L ondon P o ly te chn ic . T he se l i t ho log ie s f o rm p ar to f ad i s t inc t ive ' T hame s e xo t ic s u i t e ' w h ich c ha ra c t e r i se s t h e g rave l s o ft h a tr i ve r f r om O xfo rd sh i re t ot h e n o r ther nmo s t e x t en t o ft h e e a r l ie s tT hame s d epo s i t s , i n N o r fo lk . T he q ua r tz i te s w i th w h ich t h i sc hap te ri sc once rned r ep re sen t as i gn if ican te l emen to ft h i s s u i t e . O the rq ua r tzo se r o ck so ccu ri nt h e se g rave l s a nd w i l l a l so b ed i scu s sed .

T he e ar ly h i s to ry o ft h eU pper T hame sr eg ion T he P le i s tocene s ucce ss ion i nt h e Uppe rT hame s i sd e sc r ibed e l sewhe re i nt h i s v o lume b y D av idBr igg s . L i t t le r equ i re s t ob e a dded t oh i s a ccoun te xcep t ad e ta i led l ook a tt h e e a r l ie s tp a r to ft h i s s ucce s s ion , t h e p l a t eaux d epo s i t s o r No r the rn D r i f t . T he se d epo s i t s , p oo r ly b edded c l ayey g rave l s c ove r ing h i gh g round o ve r look ing t h e v a l ley s o f t h e T hame s , W ind ru sh a nd E ven lode , ma rk t h e f i r s t k nown i n f lux o f f a r -

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t r ave l led ma te r ia l i n to t h e T hame s b a s in . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se d epo s i t s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e E ven lode r ep re sen t s t h eo lde s te s tab l i shed l i ne o fd ra inage i nt h er e g ion ( F ig . 1 ) .

I th a s l o ng b een r e cogn i sed t h a tt h e t e r ra ce g rave l s o ft h e T hame s b a s in c on ta in r ock type s d e r ived f r om b eyond t h e l im i t s o f t h e p re sen t c a tchmen t , f r om t h e a r ea t ot h e n o r th -we s t . T he se l i t ho log ie s i n c lude q ua r tz , q ua r tz i t e s , P a laeozo ic c he r t s , i g neou s r ock s a nd o the r l e s s c ommon v a r ie t ie s . I nt h e M idd le a nd L owe rT hame st h i s ' e xo t ic s u i te ' i sd i lu ted b yf l in t sf r om t h eC re taceou s a nd , s e conda r i ly , f r om t h e' Lowe r L ondon T e r t ia r ie s ' , a sw e l l a sm a t e r ia lf r om t h eL owe rG reen sand o ft h e Wea ld ( Br idg land , 1 986 ) . I nt h e l owe r t e r race g rave l s o f t h e Uppe r T hame s t h e se e xo t ic s a r e s ubo rd ina te t ol ime s tone s a nd o the r n on d u rab le m a t e r ia l s o fl o ca lo r ig in , b u t t h ey d om ina te t h e No r thern D r i f t . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue o fq ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i t e s , w h ich t oge the rc omp r i se mo re t h an 9 5% o ft h e c l a s t s i nt h e se e a r ly d epo s i t s , w ho se o r ig in h a sb een , a nd s t i l li s ,t h es ub jec to fc on s id e rab le d eba te . B y t h eb eg inn ing o ft h i sc en tu ry t h e se l i t ho log ie s h ad b een t r a ced a l ong t h er ou te so ft h eE ven lod e a nd C he rwe l l , ma in ly i nt h ed epo s i t s c app ing t h ep l a t eaux w h ich f l ank t h e v a l ley s ( Buck land , 1 821 ; L ucy , 1 872 ; Wh i te , 1 897 ; S hrub s° le , 1 903 ) . T he i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h e se p la teaux d epo s i t s h o ld s t h e k ey t ot h e o r ig in o f t h e q ua r t z i te s u sed i nt o o l manuf ac tu re i nt h i s r eg ion b ya nc ien tm an .

U n t i l r e cen t ly , mo s t wo rke r s c on s ide red t h e No r the rn D r if t t o b e ad eca lc if ied g lac ia l d epo s i t , mo s t s ugge s t ing a n A ng l ian o rp re -Ang l ian d a te ( Ca l laway , 1 905 ; S and fo rd , 1 929 ; B i shop , 1 958 ; T om l in son , 1 929 ;B r igg s a nd G i lbe r t son , 1 973 ) . A rke l l ( 1947 )r e cogn i sed w i th in t h e l owe s tp a r to ft h eN o r the rn D r if t w ha th ec on s ide red t ob et wo d eca lc if ied f l uv ia l t e r race a gg rada t ion s , h i s ' Combe ' a nd ' F ree land T e r race s ' . T he se a l lowed t h e E ven lode t e r race s equence , e s tab l i shed i nt h e l owe r l ime s tone g rave l s , t ob e e x tended h i ghe r u p t h e v a l ley s i de . S ho t ton e ta l . ( 1980 ) c on s ide red t h a t much o f t h e h i ghe r ma te r ia l w a s a l so d eca lc if ied r i ve r g rave l , b u t H ey ( 1986 ) w a s t h e f i r s t t o s ugge s t t h a t a l l t h e Nor the rn D r if t c ou ld b e e xp la ined i nt h i s w ay a nd a l so t h e f i r s t t oa t temp t as ubd iv i s ion o ft h e d epo s i t s a bove A rke l l ' s C ombe T e r ra ce . H ey d ef ined t h e No r thern D r i f t a s al i t ho s t ra t ig raph ic f o rma t ion a nd r e cogn i sed w i th in i tt h ree f u r the rd eca lc if ied t e r ra ce g rave l s , m ak ing ( w i th A rke l l ' sC ombe a nd F ree land T e r race s ) f i ve s ubd iv i s ion s , o rm embe r s ,i na l l . H ec onc luded t h a tt h eN o r the rn D r i f tr e p re sen ted t h ed eg rad ed d epo s i t so f am uch l a rge r r i ve rt h an t h e mod er nE ven lode ;h ee nv i saged a ne a r ly P le i s tocene r i ve rw i th h eadwa te r sf a rt ot h en o r th a nd w e s to ft h ep re sen tE ven lode -Avon w a te r shed .

I t mu s tb e s a id t h a t m any e a r ly g eo log i s t s a nd g eog raphe r s h ad a l so e nv i saged s uch ar i ve r . A round t h e t u rn o ft h ec en tu ry t h e re w a s aw ide ly h e ld v i ew t h a tt h eh eadwa te r so ft h eS ever nf o rme r ly d r a ined i n to t h e T hame s s y s tem ( E l l i s , 1 882 ; D av i s , 1 895 ; B uckman , 1 897 ; Wh i te , 1 897 ; Wa r ren , 1 945 ) . S uppo r t f r om r e cen tr e sea rch f o rt h ef o rme re x i s t ence o f at h rough d ra inage r ou te o ft h i s t ype c ome sn o to n ly f r om H ey ' s r e app ra i sa lo ft h e No r the rn D r if t , b u ta l so f r om t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f We l sh r ock s i ne a r ly T hame s g rave l s i nt h eL ondon B a s in ( Hey a nd B rench ley , 1 977 ; G re en e ta l . , 1 980 ) . T h i s S ever n -Thame sr i ve rw ou ld h ave d ra ined a r ea s i nw h ich s ou rce s o fq ua r tz i te s o ccu r , b o th i ns i tu a nd i nd e t r i ta l f o rm i nc ong lome ra te s a nd b recc ia s ( F ig . 1 ) . H ey ' s wo rk , a nd h i s c o r re la t ion s w i th t h et e r race s equence i nt h eM idd le T hame s , s ugge s t t h a t t h i s d ra inage s y s tem p e r s i s ted f r om s ome t ime i n t h e e a r ly P le i s tocene u n t i l l a te i nt h e A ng l ian G lac ia lS tage ( Hey , 1 986 ) .

D e scr ip t ion o fq uart zo se r ock type sf ound i nt h eT hame sB a s in T he q ua r tzo se c omponen t o ft h e v a r iou s d r if t d epo s i t s o ft h e T hame s b a s in c an b e s ubd iv ided i n to t h ree

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c a tego r ie s : v e in q ua r tz ,m e taqua r tz i te ( o rm e tamo rph ic q ua r t z ) a nd o r thoqua r tz i t e( B r idg land , 1 986 ) . V e in q ua r tz i sc oa r se ly c r y s ta l l ine q ua r tz f r om h yd ro the rma l v e in f i ll ing s ,o r thoqua r tz i t e i s ah i gh ly q ua r tzo se , d u rab le s ed imen ta ry r o ck , w h i l s t m e tamo rph ic q ua r tz a nd m e taqua r tz i t e a r e n ame s g i ven t o q ua r t z r e c ry s ta l l i sed d u r ing m e tamo rph i sm . A l though e a ch o ft h e se c an b e c l ea r ly d ef ined a nd t y p ica le xamp le s a r e e a s i ly r e cogn i sed , i np r a c t ice i ti so f ten p o s s ib le t oc on f u se l e s s c ha ra c te r i s t ic v a r ie t ie s , p a r t icu la r ly w he re d i s t inc t ion o fm e taqua r tz i te f r om v e in q ua r t z o ro r thoqua r tz i te i si n vo lved . Mo s t w o rke r s c a r ry ing o u tl i t ho log ica la na ly se so fT ham e sg r ave l s h ave n o tr e cogn i sed am e tamo rph ic q ua r tz c omponen t . Whe re t h ey h ave s imp ly r e co rded ' q ua r tz ' a nd ' q ua r tz i t e 'c a tego r ie s i ti sl i ke ly t h a te xamp le s o fm e taqua r t z i te a r e i n c luded i nb o th . T he t h ree c a tego r ie so u t l ined a bove w i l ln ow b ed e sc ibed .

V e in q ua r t z T yp ica lv e in q ua r tz i sc oa r se ly c r y s ta l l ine ,w i th s t ra igh tc r y s ta lb ounda r ie s , s om e t ime ss how ing i n te rg rown e uhed ra l c r y s ta l s . I ti sp r edom inan t ly o paque w h i te o rt i n ted b y i mpu r i t ie s ( f o re xamp le , t h e v a r iou s r e d a nd b rown s t a in sw h ich r e su l tf r om i r on ) ,b u tm ay b ec o lou r le s s .

Me tamo rph i cq ua r t z /me taqua r t z i t e Q ua r t zo fm e tamo rph ic o r ig in ,o rr e c ry s ta l l i sed d u r ing m e tamo rph i sm , i sg ene ra l ly m o re f i ne -g ra ined t h an v e in q ua r tz a nd i sf e quen t ly c o lou r le s s a nd ' g la s sy ' i na ppea rance . C ry s ta l b ounda r ie s a r e f r equen t ly e mbayed , l o ba t e o rs e r ra ted , a l though t h ey m ay b e s t ra igh t o rc u rved , i nw h ich c a se ' t r ip le p o in t s ' ( t he b ounda r ie s o ft h ree c r y s ta l s m ee t ing a t as i ng le p o in ti nt h in s e c t ion ) t e nd t ob e c ommon ( Sp ry , 1 969 ) . O f ten t h e p o lyc ry s ta l l ine n a tu re o ft h e se r o ck s i sr e ad i ly v i s ib le i nh and s p ec imen , a l though t h e re i sn o s i gn o fc l a s t ic t e x tu re . A r ea s m ay b e r e c ry s ta l l i sed i no p t ica l c on t inu i ty , m ak ing d i s t inc t ion f r om v e in q ua r t zd i f f icu l t . C la s t ic q ua r t z i te sb e long ing t ot h en ex tc a t ego ry c an a l so b ec onf u sed w i th m e taqua r t z i te , e spec ia l ly w hen t h ey a r e w e l l c emen ted w i th s e conda ry ( a u th igen ic ) q ua r tz , w h ich o f ten o b scu r e s t h e o u t l ine so ft h ed e t r i ta lg r a in s . U ndu lo se e x t inc t ion , w he re d i f f e ren tp a r t s o f as i ng le q ua r t zc r y s ta lg oi n to e x t inc t ion a ts l igh t ly d i f f e ren t p o s i t ion s r e la t ive t ot h e a na ly se r( und e rt h ec r o s sed p o la r s o f ap e t ro log ica l m ic ro scope ) , i n d ica t e s s l igh t d e fo rma t ion o ft h ec r y s ta ls t r uc tu re a nd i sn o tc onf ined t om e tamo rph i cq ua r tz .

O r thoqua r tz i t e O r thoqua r t z i te s a r e v e ry ' ma tu re ' ( i . e . c omp r i s ing o n ly h i gh ly d u rab le s i l iceou s m a te r ia l ) c l a s t ic r o ck s c on ta in ing , b y d e f in i t ion , am in imum o f 9 5% q ua r tz .

D e t r i ta l r o ck s w i th 7 5 -95% q ua r t z a r e t e rmed

' q ua r t z i t ic s and s tone s ' o r' p ro toqua r t z i t e s ' ( Pe t t i john , 1 954 ; McB r ide , 1 963 ) . P re -Me sozo ic r o ck s o ft h i s t y pe a r e a lmo s t i n va r iab ly c emen ted b y a u th igen ic q ua r tz , p roduced f r om p r e s su re so lu t ion a tg ra in c on tac t s , f r om t h e s o lu t ion o f s ma l l i n te r s t i t ia l q ua r tz g ra in s o r m e r e ly f r om s i l iceou s p o re -wa te r ( G r een sm i th e ta l . , 1 971 ) . T he c omb ina t ion o fp r e s su re so lu t ion a nd t h eg row th o fa u th igen ic q ua r tz h a s i nm any s uch c a se s r e su l t ed i na n e x t r eme ly t o ugh r o ck o f' we lded ' c ha ra c t e r , i nw h ich i n d iv idua l g r a in s m ay b ed i f f icu l tt om ak e o u t . T he se r o ck s u sua l ly b r eak t h rough t h em idd le o fg r a in s r a the rt h an a tg r a in b ounda r ie s . T hey m ay e ven h ave ac oncho ida l f r ac tu re , m ak ing t h em t h e mo s t s u i tab le o ft h e v a r iou s l i t ho log ie sd i scu s sed f o ru se i ns t one t o o lm anuf ac tu re . I no r thoqua r tz i te so f Me sozo ic a nd C enozo ic a ge , p r e s su re so lu t ion a nd t h e g r ow th o fs e conda ry q ua r t z a r e , a s ar u le , l e s s a dvanced . T he se y ounge rr o ck s t h e r efo re u sua l ly a ppea r mo r eg r anu la rt h an p r e -Me sozo ic o r thoqua r tz i te s . S a r sen ( s e e b e low )i so f ten a n

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e s '

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e xcep t ion t ot h i s r u le .

T h ed er iva t ion o ft h e s e ma t e r ia l s Q ua r tzo se p ebb le s i nt h e g r ave l s o f t h e T hame s b a s in p robab ly i n c lude e xamp le s d e r ived d i rec t ly f r om q ua r tz v e in s , w h ich a r ec ommon i nt h ep re - Me sozo ic r o ck s o fw e s ter na nd n o r thern B r i ta in . F ur thermo re , v e in q ua r tz i sa ni mpo r tan tc on s t i tuen to fp ebb le b ed s a nd c ong lome ra te s o fa l l a ge s ( Tab le 1 )a nd m uch o f t h a ti nt h eg rave l s h a sp robab ly b e en s e conda r i ly d e r ived f r om s uch s ou r ce s . Me taqua r tz i te h a sr a re ly b een d i f f e ren t ia t ed f r om v e in q ua r tz i nd e sc r ip t ion s o ft ho se p ebb le b ed s , a nd t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o fc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tzo se p ebb le sh ave s e ldom b een r e co rded i nd e ta i l .

N os i ng le p rovenence c an t h e re fo r eb ed e t e rm ined f o rt h ev e in q ua r tz a nd m e taqua r tz i te p ebb le so ccu r r ing i n t h eg rave ls , b u tt h e mo s tl i ke ly s ou rce s a r e :

( a ) Q ua r tz v e in s a nd m e tomo rpho sed q ua r tzo se r ock s ( bo th a s soc ia ted w i th a r ea s o ff o rme ri g neou s a nd /o r t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty ) i nt h e p o s s ib le c a tchmen t a r ea o fa n e x tended T hame s ( Uppe r S evern -Thame s ) , i . e . i n Wa le sa nd t h e We l sh -Bo rd e r land s .

( b ) G lac ia t ion m ay h ave i n t roduced m a t e r ia lf r om c ompa rab le s ou r ce si nn o r ther nE ng land a nd S co t land , a s w e l la s Wa le s .

( c ) P ebb le -bed s w i th in t h e s ame c a tchmen t a r ea ( Tab le 1 ) . O ft h e se t h e v a r ious c ong lome ra te s i nt h e P e rm ian a nd t h e T r ia s s ic o ft h e M id land s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave p rov ided ah igh p ropo r t ion o ft h e ma te r ia l , e spec ia l ly s i nce t h eq ua r tz i te sw h ich a r e s oa bundan ti nt h e se b ed s a r ea l so a n i mpo r tan tc on s t i tuen to ft h e T hame s g rave l s .

T he D evon ian ' Qua r t z C ong lome ra te ' o f s ou th -ea s t Wa le s a nd t he F o res t o f D ean

( T ro t te r , 1 942 ; K e l laway a nd We lch , 1 955 ) i sa l so al i ke ly s ou rce o f a bundan t c ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz . T h i s c ong lome ra te , w h ich c on ta in s f a r l e s s o r thoqua r tz i te t h an t h e l a te r P e rmo -T r ia ss ic p ebb le b ed s , may f o rme r ly h ave e x tended o ve r m uch o ft h e a r ea t ot h e n o r th o fi t s p re sen to u t c rop , s i nce e qu iva len t s t ra ta o ccu ri nt h eC lee H i l l s ( F ig . 1 ) . T he J u ra s s ic a nd C re taceou s o ft h es ou th M id land sc on ta in p ebb le b ed s i n w h ich q ua r tz i sc ommon ( Tab le 1 )a nd t h e se b ed s m ay w e l l b e t h e s ou rce o f ap ropo r t ion o ft h e q ua r t z p ebb le se ncoun t e red i nt h eg r ave l s .

I th a s b een g ene ra l ly a g reed t h a to r thoqua r tz i te s o ccu r r ing i nt h e g rave l s o ft h e T hame s B a s in h ave b een d e r ived f r om t h e B un te rP ebb le B ed s ( K idde rm in s te rF o rma t ion ) o f t h e M id land s . Howeve r , B r idg land ( 1986 ) l i s ted p o s s ib le a l ter na t ive s ou rce s o f o r thoqua r tz i te p ebb le s w i th in t h e c a tchmen t a r ea o f a h ypo the t ica l e a r ly ' S eve rn -Thame s ' f r om e ve ry p re - Me sozo ic g eo log ica l s y s tem ( Tab le 1 ) , a l though r e cogn i s ing t h a tt h e B un te r m ay w e l l h ave s upp l ied t h e b u lk o fs uch ma te r ia l . F u rt he rmo re , t h e P e rmo T r ia so ft h e We s tM id land sa nd We l sh B o rde r land sc on t a in s an umbe ro fo t he rc ong lome ra t ic f a c ie s , s eve ra l o fw h ich c on ta in o r thoqua r tz i te (W i l l s , 1 948 ) .

O r thoqua r tz i t e s a l so o ccu r i ns i tu i nt h e M id land s a nd t h e We l sh b o rde r land s i n an umbe r o fg eo log ica l s y s t em s . H a rd ,c ompac to r thoqua r tz i te so fC amb r ian a ge o ccu ri ns eve ra lp a r t so ft h e a r ea ( F ig .1) ; o fn o te a r e t h e Ha r t sh i l l Q ua r tz i te o ft h e N unea ton i n l ie r , t h e L ickey Q ua r tz i t e o f t h e L ickey H i l l s , t h e Wrek in Q ua r tz i te o f S h rop , b e ing q ua r tz -a ren i t e

a nd t h e Ma lve rn Q ua r tz i te ( Ru sh ton , 1 974 ) .

T he se a r e l i tho log ica l ly s im i la r ,

s a nd s tone s )c on ta in ing a cce s so ry f e ld spa ra nd c emen ted b ya u th igen ic q ua r tz .

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O r thoqua r tz i t e a l so o ccu r s a tt h e b a se o ft h e A r en ig ( O rdov ic ian )o fS h rop sh i re ( F ig .1 ) i nt h ef o rm o ft h e S t ip e r s tone sQ ua r tz i te , ah a rd , m ed ium t oc oa r se -g ra ined , f r equen t ly p ebb ly q ua r t z -a r en i te w i th a u th igen ic q ua r tz c emen ta t ion . As im i la rr o ck c ha r ac te r i se st h eb a sa lA ren ig o ve rm uch o fi t so u t c rop i nN o r th Wa le s ( F ig .1) ; l o ca l e xamp le s a r e t h e G a r th G r i t o f S nowdon ia a nd t h e P a rwyd G r i t o f t h e L leyn P en in su la ( W i l l iam s e ta l . , 1 972 ) .

Q ua r t z i t ic f a c ie so ccu rw i th in t h eU ppe rO ld R ed S and s tone ( Qua r tz C ong lome ra te G roup )o fS ou th Wa le s ( A l len , 1 974 ) a nd q ua r t z i t ic s a nd s tone s f o rm p a r to ft h eF a r low S e r ie s ( Uppe rO .R .S . ) o fT i t te r s tone C lee H i l l ( G re ig e ta l . , 1 968 ) . O r thoqua r t z i t e , q ua r tz i t ic s a nd s tone s a nd q ua r tz -cem en t ed ' g r i t s ' ( ' gan i s t e r s ' ) a r e c ommon i nt h eC oa l Mea su r e so fn o r ther na nd c en t ra lE ng land ,S ou th Wa le sa nd t h eF o re s to fD ean ,w h i le h a rd s i l iceou s s a nd s tone s a nd c ong lome ra t e s o ccu r i nt h e M i l l s tone G r i to fS ou th Wa le s a nd t h e S ou th We l sh B o rd e r land s( G re en sm i th e ta l . , 1 971 ;T ro t t e r , 1 942 ) .

T he v a r iou s P a laeozo ic o r thoqua r tz i te s a r e w e l l r e p r e sen ted i n t h e O ld a nd N ew R ed S and s tone c ong lome ra te s a nd b re cc ia so ft h eM id land sa nd t h e We l sh B o rde r land s( Tab le 1 ;s e eP r e s ton ,t h i s v o lum e ) a nd i ti sl i ke ly t h a tt h eN o r ther nD r i f to ft h eU ppe rT hame sB a s in , a nd o r thoqua r tz i te s i nT hame sg rave li n g ene ra l , h ave b e en d e r ived b o th d i rec t ly f r om t h e P a la eozo ic a nd r ewo rked , m a in ly f r om D evon ian a nd P e rmo -T r ia s s ic c ong lome r a t e s .

T he B un t e rP ebb le B ed s( K idd e rm in s te rF o rma t ion ) ,t h e mo s te x ten s ive ly d eve loped o ft h eP e rmo -T r ia s s ic c ong lome r a t i cf a c ie sh a sp robab ly y i e lded t h el a rge s tp ropo r t ion o ft h eo r thoqua rüze p ebb le se ncoun te r ed i n t h eP l e i s tocene d r i f to ft h e S eve rn a nd T hame s b a s in s . A na ly se s o fs amp le s f r om t h i s F o rma t ion i nt h e L ickey a r ea h ave s hown t h a to r thoqua r t z i te s c omp r i se 6 5% -85% o ft h e t o ta l p ebb le s ( Br idg land , 1 983 ) . T h ey v a ry i nd eg ree o fc o lou ra t ion , f r om c o lou r le s s ,t h rough p a le a nd mod e ra te s hade so fr e da nd b rown t o d eep p u rp le r e d ; i ng r a in s i ze f r om m ed ium -f ine s and g r ade u p t oc oa r se s a nd g rade , a nd i nd eg ree o f c em en ta t ion f r om f a i r ly p o rou s , e ven s l igh t ly f r iab le e xamp le s t os pe c im en s s ot h o rough ly c emen ted b y a u th igen ic q ua r tz t h a tt h eg r a in b ounda r ie sc an s c a r ce ly b em ade o u t( Br idg land , 1 983 ) . Many a r es l igh t ly f e ld spa th ic a nd r em in i scen to ft h eC amb r ian q ua r tz i t e s , w he rea s o t he r s a r e m ica ceou s . U n l ike t h ee a r l ie r P e rmo -T r ia s s ic c omg lome ra te s , t h e K idderm in s te r F o rma t ion c on ta in s o r thoqua r t z i t e s f r om d i s tan t p rovenance s , m a in ly t h eO rdov ic ian a nd D evona in o ft h eA rmo r ican Ma s s if t ot h es ou th ( Sh rub so le , 1 903 ; W i l l s , 1 948 ; P re s ton , t h i s v o lume ) , a nd t h e se t e nd t o p redom ina te , a l though l o ca l P a laeozo ic o r thoqua r t z i t e sa r er e p r e sen t ed ( W il s , 1 948 ) . I na n a na ly s i s o fs amp le s f r om t h e L ickey a r ea , o r thoqua r tz i te s f r om t h e K idde rm in s te rF o rma t ion w e r e s ubd iv ided ( i n to t h ree c l a s se s e a ch ) o n t h e b a se s o fc o lou r ( d a rk , m ed ium a nd p a le ) , g ra in s ize ( c oa r se , m ed ium a nd f i ne )a nd c emen ta t ion ( h igh ly , m ode ra t e ly ,p oo r ly ) . T he se t h ree b a se sf o rs ubd iv i s ion p rov ide t wen ty seven p o s s ib le c omb ina t ion s : a l t wen ty seven w e re e ncoun t e red i nt h e a na ly s i s , a mong s tc a .400 o r thoqua r tz i te s ( B r idg land , 1 983 ) . C lea r ly t h eB un t e rP ebb le B ed sc on t a in o r thoqua r tz i t e so fa lmo s te ve ry c once ivab le t y pe . F u r the rmo re ,H ey ( 1 976 ) h a s s hown t h et h ep i nk c o lou ra t ion w h ich c ha r ac te r i se s t h e se p ebb le s i sr e ad i ly r emoved u nd e rr e duc ing c ond i t ion s .T he r e fo re ,w h i le ap i nk c o lou rm ay b es ugge s t ive o f aB un te ro r ig in , t h e l a ck o fs u ch ac o lou rc e r t a in ly d oe sn o tp r ec lude s u ch a n o r ig in . T he B un te rP ebb le B ed s m u s tt h e r fo r eb ec on s ide r ed a s ap o s s ib le s ou r ce f o ra lmo s ta ny o r thoqua r t z i t ep ebb le e ncoun t e red i n T hame sg r ave l s .

1 93

A no the r p o s s ib le s ou rce o fo r thoqua r tz i te w h ich m igh th ave b een u sed f o r mak ing s ome o ft h e v e ry r a re q ua r tz i te h andaxe s f ound i nt h eM idd le a nd L owe rT hame s i ss a r sen . S a r sen i s av e ry h a rd u n jo in t ed r o ck f o rmed b y t h e l o ca l i sed c emen ta t ion o fP a laeogene s and s i nt h e L ondon B a s in . A s i tu sua l ly o ccu r s i n l a rge r e s idua l b ou lde r s i tw ou ld n o t h ave b een e a s i ly w o rked . H oweve r , s ma l le r s l ab s d o o ccu r i nr i ve r g rave l s a nd t h e r ock f r equen t ly b reak s t h rough g ra in s a nd m a t r ix a l ike , g iv ing ac her t l ike c oncho ida l f r ac tu re w h ich , g iven s a r sen ' s u nf lawed n a tu re , w ou ld a ppea r t o make i t ap o ten t ia l ly u sef u l m a ter ia l f o r t o o l manuf ac tu re . T he r e co rd o f ah andaxe m ade f r om H e r t fo rd sh i re P udd ing s tone ( Gaze t tee r ,t h i sv o lume ) , w h ich i se s sen t ia l ly s a r sen c on ta in ing f l in tp ebb le s , i nd ica te s t h a tt h ep o ss ib le i n c idence o fs a r sen a r t if ac t s s hou ld b ec on s ide red . U nfo r tuna te ly s a r sen i sn o te a sy t od i s t ingu i sh i np ebb le f o rm f r om o r thoqua r tz i te s f r om o t he rs our ce s .

L i tho log ica ld e scr ip t ion o fq ua r tz i te h and a xe sf r om t h eU pper T hame s Non -f l in th andaxe s f r om an umbe ro fs i te s i nt h e Uppe rT hame sh ave b e en s c ru t in i sed i no rd e rt oa s cer ta in t h e n a tu re o ft h e l i tho logy u sed f o r t h e i r m anuf ac tu re . T h i s t a sk i sv e ry much l e ss e a sy t h an m igh t b e i mag ined , s i nce many m e thod s w h ich t h e g eo log is t t a ke s f o r g ran ted w hen s t udy ing r o ck s a r e n o t a va i lab le :

b reak ing o pen t o o b ta in f r e sh s u r face s , c u t t ing , p o l i sh ing a nd s ec t ion ing f o r m ic ro scop ic

a na ly s i s wou ld a l lp rove u npopu la rw i th t h e c u ra to r s o ft h e v a r iou s c o l lec t ion s . Wi th m any r o ck s much c an b e d e term ined f r om w ea the red s u r f ace s , b u tq ua r tz i te h andaxe s h ave f r equen t ly d eve loped as moo th , a lmo s t p o l i shed s u rf ace p a t ina , q u i te u n l ike t h a t w h ich o ccu r s o n f l in t , b u t s im i la r ly ma sk ing t h e t r ue c ha rac t er i s t ic s o ft h er ock . O ppo r tun i t ie s t os t udy t h ei n te rna lc ha rac ter i s t ic s w e re a va i lab le , h oweve r , a s i ns ome c a se se dge d amage h ad r emoved s ub s t an t ia lf l ak e s , w ho se s c a r sr e vea led t h ef r e sh , u npa t ina ted c o re o f t h e i mp lemen t . I n t h i s w ay a n i mp re ss ion w a s g a ined o f t h e l i tho log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f ad ozen q ua r tz i te h andaxe s . I ne xam ina t ion s o ft h e se r ock s , q ua r tz i te t e x tu re w a s c l a s s if ied u s ing t h et h ree g ra in s i ze a nd t h ree c emen ta t ion c a tego r ie s u sed i nt h e a na ly s i s o fs amp le s f r om t h eP ermo -T r ia s ( s ee a bove ) . No c l a s s if ica t ion o fc o lou rw a s a t temp ted , a st h e d eg ree o fs u r f a ce d i sco lou ra t ion c ou ld n o tb ed e term ined i n many c a se s . T he i nd ica t ion s , f r om a n a dm i t t ed ly s ma l ln umbe ro fs pec imen s , w e re t h a tb o th m ed ium a nd f i ne -g ra ined o r thoqua r tz i te s h ave b een u sed , a l l o fw h ich f a l l i n to t h e mode ra te ly o rw e l l c emen ted c a tego r ie s . T he o n ly c oa r se -g ra ined q ua r tz i te e ncoun te red s howed s ome e v idence o fr e c ry s ta l l i sa t ion a nd m ay r ep re sen t am e taqua r tz i t e( h andaxe f r om H igh land sF a rm P i t ,f ound b yB ad en P owe l l ) . E xamp le s w e r e a pp rox ima te ly e ven ly d i v ided b e twe en t h ew e l lc emen ted a nd mod e ra t e ly c emen ted c a t ego r ie s , s p ec imen so f t h e f o rme r s how ing f r ac tu r ing t h rough g ra in s a nd ma t r ix a l ike , w he rea s i nt h e mode ra te ly c emen ted q ua r tz i te s s ome p ref e ren t ia l f r ac tu r ing a round g ra in s o ccu r s , g i v ing r i se t or a the r g ranu la r ( when f r e sh ) f l ake -sca rs u r f ace s . T h i s g ranu la rt e x tu re i si n va r iab ly l o s ti na r te f ac t s w h ich a r er o l led a nd /o ri p a t ina t ed ' , a s a r e t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o fs pec imen s i nt h e v a r iou s c o l lec t ion s . No e xamp le s o f o r thoqua r t z i te s w h ich c ou ld b e d e scr ibed a sp oo r ly c emen ted w e re o b se rved i nt h e h andaxe c o l lec t ion s . I no ne c a se w he re a n a r tef ac th ad an o t iceab ly p o rou s f e e l w hen h and led t h i s w a s f ound t or e su l tf r om a ngu la rq ua r tz g ra in s i na mode ra te ly c emen t ed q ua r tz i t e ,t h ea ngu la rg ra in sp ro t rud ing f r om f l ake sca rs u r f ace sg iv ing r i se t ot h ef e e l .

An umbe ro fo b se rva t ion s f r om t h e l a rge rg roup o fi mp lemen t s e xam ined , i n c lud ing t ho se w i th n or e cen t d amage t oa l low i n te rna lt e x tu re t ob ed e te rm ined , m ay b ew o r th r e co rd ing . F i r s t ly , s eve ra lh andaxe s h ave b e en s ucce s sf u l ly made f r om q ua r t z i te p ebb le s i nf i l t ra t ed b y t h in q ua r tz v e in s . I na l lc a se st h ev e in h a s h ad n op e rcep tab le e f f ec to nf l ak ing . Q ua r tz v e in ing i sr e s t r ic ted t ob e t te rc emen t ed o r thoqua r tz i t e s , t h es i l ica r i ch p o re f l u id s w h ich g ave r i se t ot h ev e in -f i l l ing p re sumab ly e n su r ing s ome d eg ree o fs e conda ry q uar tz c emen ta t ion .

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As e cond o b ser va t ion c once r n s t h e s u r f a ce ' p a t ina ' a nd h i gh ly r o l led a ppea rance w h ich c ha ra c t e r i se s t h e se s p ec im en s . An umbe r o ff a c to r s m ay b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h e c ond i t ion o f t h e se a r te f ac t s , w h ich s e em s m a rked ly p oo re r ,i nt e rm so fd eg r ada t ion o ff l ake s c a r s a nd r ound ing o fe dge s , t h an i na ve rage a s semb lage s o ff l in th anda xe s . I nt h e f i r s tc a se , i ti sa ppa ren tt h a tq ua r t z i t ep ebb le s a r e m o re r e ad i ly r ounded t h an a r e f l in to ne s . T h i s c an b e d emon s t ra t ed f r om t h e d eg re e o fr ound ing w h ich m ay b e o b se rved i nt h e B un t e r P ebb le B ed s , w h ich a r ef l uv ia l d epo s i t s ( s ee P r e s ton , t h i s v o lume ) . C ompa rab le r ound ing o ff l in tp ebb le s i so n ly f ound w he re t h ey h ave b een s ub jec t ed t ow ave a c t ion . N odu la r a nd b roken f l in t c a r r ied b y t h e T hame s a nd d epo s i ted i ni t s v a r iou s g r ave l s a r e s e ldom m o r e t h an s l igh t ly r ounded , t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty f a l l ing i n to t h e a ngu la r a nd s ub -angu la r c a t ego r ie s o f t h e s i x -way c l a s s if i ca t ion o fP owe r s ( 1 953 ; s e e F i she ra nd B r idg land , 1 986 ) . T h i sf a c ta l one w ou ld e xp la in t h eh i gh ly r o l led c ond i t ion w h ich c ha ra c t e r i se s a s semb lage s o fq ua r tz i te p a la eo l i th s . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e f o rma t ion o ft h e s u r f ace ' p a t ina ' c au se s f u r the r s moo th ing o fi mp lem en t s . N o a t temp t h a s b een m ade t od e te rm ine t h e c au se o ft h i s ' p a t ina ' , b u t s om es o lu t ion o rr e p re c ip i ta t ion o fs i l ica a tt h es u r f a ce o fb roken o rf l ak ed q ua r t z i t em ay b ei n vo lved .

C onc lu s ion s T he v e ry p r e l im ina ry s t udy w h ich t h e a u tho r h a s m ade o fq ua r t z i te p a laeo l i th s f r om t h e U pp e r T hame s l e ad s t ot h ec onc lu s ion t h a tt h ey h ave b een m anuf ac tu red f r om r o ck sc ommon a sp ebb le s i nt h eP l e i s tocene d r if t s o ft h e T ham e s b a s in , b u t t h a tt h e re h a s , n o t s u rp r i s ing ly , b een s ome s e lec t ion o ft h e m o s t s u i tab le l i t ho log ica l t y pe s . T he se p ebb le s s e em t oh ave b een b rough t i n to t h e T hame s B a s in b y f l uv ia l d ra inage t h rough t h e a r ea o ft h ep r e sen tE ven lode -Avon w a t e r shead , p o s s ib ly b y a n ' Uppe r S eve rn -Thame s ' r i ve r w ho se c a tchmen ta r ea i n c luded m uch o ft h e We s tM id land s , t h e We l sh B o rde r land s a nd e ven n o r ther na nd e a s te rn Wa le s ( F ig . 1 ) . T h i s r i ve r p e r s i s ted u n t i l t h e l a te A ng l ian , w hen i tw a s p r e sumab ly b eheaded , l e av ing t h em od er nE ven lod ev a l ley a si t sd i re c td e scendan t .

T he s ou r ce so ft h e se q ua r t z i te p ebb le s l i ei nt h e a r ea sd ra ined b yt h i s S eve rn -Thame s . T he B un te rP ebb le B ed s ( K idde rm in s t e rF o rma t ion ) i sc l ea r ly t h e p o ten t ia l p rovenance o ft h e v a s tb u lk o ft h e m a te r ia l , b u t o t he r p ebb le b ed s a nd b r ecc ia s i nt h e P e rmo -T r ia s a nd t h e D evon ian m ay h ave s upp l ied m uch s ma l le r a moun t s , w h i le s eve ra l P a laeozo ic s ou r ce s o fi ns i tu q ua r t z i t e e x i s t i nt h e s uppo sed c a t chm en t a r ea a nd m ay a l so h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h eT hame sg r ave l s .

A cknow l edg em en t s T he a u tho r w i she s t ot h ank E d . O l ive r , c a r tog raphe r i nt h e G eog raphy D epa r tmen t a tc i ty o fL ondon P o ly techn ic , f o ra s s i s tance w i th t h ef i gu r e a nd t a b le . H e i sa l so i n deb ted t oR icha rd H ey f o rr e ad ing a nd c omm en t ing o nt h ec hap t e r .

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G r ieg , D .C . , Wr igh t , J .E . , H a in s , B .A . &M i tche l l , G .H . , 1 968 . G eo logy o ft h e c oun t ry a r ound C hu r ch S t re t ton , C raven A rm s , Wen lock E dge a nd B rown C lee . Me n G eo l . S urv . U .K .

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1 976 . P rovenance o ff a r t rave l led p ebb le s i nt h e p re -Ang l ian P le i s tocene o fE a s t A ng l ia .

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H ey , R .W . , 1 986 . Ar e -exam ina t ion o ft h e N o r thern D r if t o fO xfo rd sh i re . P roc . G eo l . A s s . , 9 7 : 2 91 3 01 .

H ey , R .W . &B rench ley , P . J . ,

1 977 . V o lcan ic p ebb le s f r om P le i s tocene g rave l s i nN o r fo lk a nd E s sex .

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K e l laway , G .A . & We lch , F .B .A . , 1 955 . T he U ppe rO ld R ed S and s tone a nd L owe rC a rbon i f e rou sr ock s o fB r i s to l a nd t h e Mend ip s c ompa red w i th t h o se o fC hep s tow a nd t h eF o re s to fD ean . B u l l . G eo l . S urv . G .B . , 9 : 1 21 .

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C o t te swo ld H i l l s . P roc . C o t te swo ld N a t . F ld C lub , 5 : 7 1-142 .

McBr ide , E .F . , 1 963 . Ac l a s s if ica t ion o fc ommon s and s tone . j .s ed im . P e t ro l . , 3 3 : 6 64 -669 .

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1 954 . C la ss if ica t ion o fs and s tone s . J .G eo l . , 6 2 : 3 60 -365 .

P owe r s , M .C . , 1 953 . An ew r oundne ss s ca le f o rs ed imen ta ry p a r t ic le s . J .s ed im . P e t ro l , 2 3 : 17 -119 .

R u sh ton , A .W .A . , 1 974 . T he C amb r ian r ock s o f Wa le s a nd E ng land . I n : H o l land , C .H . e d . C amb r ian o ft h eBr i t i sh I s le s . No rden a nd S p i t sbe rgen .

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d i s t r ic t . Q . J lg eo l . S oc . L ond . , 8 5 : 3 59 -388 .

S ho t ton , F .W . , G oud ie , A .S . , B r igg s , D .J . &O sma s ton , H .A . , 1 980 . C rome r ian i n te rg la c ia l d epo s i t s a t S ugwo r th . P h i l . T ran s . R . S oc . , B2 89 : 5 7 -85 .

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1 903 . O n t h e p robab le s ou rce o fs ome o f t h e p ebb le s o f t h e T r ia s s ic p ebb le -bed s o f

s ou th D evon a nd t h eM id land c oun t ie s . 0 .J 1 . g eo l . S oc . L ond„ 5 9 : 5 85 -600 .

S p ry , A . , 1 969 . Me tamo rph ic t e x ture s . O xfo rd . : P e rgammon P re s s .

T om l in son , M .E . , 1 929 . T he d r if t s o ft h e S tou r -Even lode w a te r shed a nd t h e i re x ten s ion i n to t h e v a l ley s o ft h e Wa rw ick sh i re S tour a nd t h eU ppe rE ven lode . P roc . B gham n a t . H is t . p h i l . S oc . , 1 5 : 1 57 -195 .

T ro t te r ,F .M . , 1 942 . G eo logy o ft h eF o re s to fD ean c oa l a nd i r on -o re f i e ld . Mem . G eo l . S urv . U .K .

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Wa r ren , S .H . , 1 945 . S ome g eo log ica l a nd p r eh i s to r ic r e co rd s o n t h e n o r th -we s t b o rde ro fE s sex . E s sex 2 7 : 2 73 -280 .

Wh i t e , H . J .O . , 1 897 . On t h e o r ig in o ft h e h i gh leve l g rave l w i th T r ia s s ic d ebr i s a d jo in ing t h e v a l ley o f t h e Uppe rT hame s . P roc . G eo l . A ss . , 1 5 : 1 57 -174 .

W i l l iam s , A . , S t rachan , I . ,B a s se t t , D .A . , D ean , W .T . , I ngham , J .K . , Wr igh t , A .D . & Wh i t t ing ton , H .B . , 1 972 . Ac o r re la t ion o fO rdov ic ian r ock s i nt h e B r i t i sh I s le s . G eo l . S oc . L ond .Spec . R ep . , N o . 3 .

Wi l l s ,L . J . , 1 948 . T he p a laeogeog raphy o ft h e M id land s . 2 nd e d i t ion . L ive rpoo lU n ive r s i ty P re s s .

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1 THE TR IASS IC BUNTER P EBBLE BEDS A S A SOURCE FOR NON -FL INT ARTEFACTS I N THE UPPER THA MES BAS IN .

N e i lJ .P re s ton

A rchaeo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion si nt h et e r race d epo s i t s o ft h eT hame s b a s in h ave s hown t h a tt h e manuf ac tu re o fP a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s w a s d e te rm ined b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f s u i tab le m a te r ia l s . F l in t p rov ided t h e m a in s ou rce f o r s t one a r tefac t s b u t t h e re a r e n o o u tc rop s n o r th o f t h e Go r ing G ap . T he p ebb le s o f t h e t e r ra ce g rave l s s how aw ide v a r ia t ion i nc ompo s i t ion a nd r e la t ive a bundance , w h ich r ef le c t s t h e i rw ide ly s ca t te red p rovenance s a nd p ro longed t r an spo r t h i s to ry . Q ua r t z i te p ebb le s a r e c ommon a nd t h e se w e re e xp lo i ted a s a n a l terna t ive s ou rce f o r t h e m anufa c tu re o f s t one t oo l s i nt h e a b sence o f mo re t r ad i t iona l ma te r ia l s . I ti si mpo r tan tt or e v iew f i r s tt h ep r e sen to ccu r rence s o ft h e se q ua r tz i te s a nd o t he re r ra t ic s f r om a na r chaeo log ica l s t andpo in tb efo re p la c ing t h em i n to ag eo log ica lc on tex t .

F l in ta s ar e source f o rt he manu fa c ture o fs t one i mp lemen t s F l in to ccu r s a sb and s a nd n odu le s , w h ich a r er ough ly c onco rdan tw i th t h e b edd ing o ft h ee nc lo s ing Uppe r C r e taceou sC ha lk . S ub sequen te ro s ion o ft h eC ha lk l e ad t ot h ed epo s i t ion o fs eve ra l f l in tp ebb le h o r izon s i nP a laeogene s ed imen t s , w h ich w e re l a te rr ewo rked a nd p rov ided as ou rce o ff l in tp ebb le s i nt h eT hame s t e r race d epo s i t s . T he y ounge r t e r race s c on ta in a n i n c rea s ing p ropo r t ion o ff l in tp ebb le s d e r ived d i rec t ly f r om C r e ta ceou so u tc rop s .

F l in t i sa n i s o t rop ic s ed imen ta ry r ock c ompo sed o fc ryp toc ry s ta l l ine o rm ic roc ry s ta l l ine s i l ica i nw h ich m ino r t r a ce s o fo rgan ic ma t te r a ccoun t f o r t h e d a rk g r ey c o lou r . Ow ing t oi t s h i gh s i l ica c on ten t a nd i s o t rop ic c ha rac te r , f l in t b reak s w i th a ma rked c oncho ida l f r ac ture a nd t h i s make s i ti d ea l f o r t h e manuf ac tu re o fs t one i mp lemen t s , e spec ia l ly t ho se r equ i r ing s ha rp c u t t ing e dge s . F l in t p ebb le s , w h ich h ave b een r ewo rked f r om C re taceou s o u tc rop s , t e nd t ob e s phe r ica l i ns hape d ue t ot h e l a ck o f i n ter na l a n i so t rop i sm i mpa r ted b y l am ina t ion o r b edd ing . T he i r s hape , r e la t ive ly s ma l l s i ze a nd o f ten w ea the red f r o s t -c racked n a tu re made t h em l e s s s a t i sfa c to ry t h an f r e sh n odu le sf o rf a sh ion ing i n to s t one i mp lemen t s .

T he s ca rc i ty o ff l in to u tc rop s m ay h ave b e en am a jo rc on t r ibu ta ry f a c to ri nl im i t ing h uman o ccupa t ion o f t h e Uppe r T hame s B a s in i nc on t ra s t t o t h e L owe r a nd M idd le T hame s .

S ho t ton ( 1968 ) r ega rded t h e

a ppa ren tc o r re la t ion b e tween t h eo ccu r rence o fa r te f a c t s a nd t h el im i t so ft h ed i f f e ren tp o t en t ia lf l in ts ou rce s a sc o inc iden ta l . P a laeo l i th ic f l in t a r tef ac t s h ave n o t b een f ound i no t he r a r ea s w he re C re taceou s C ha lk o u t c rop ss uch a sw e s ter nS co t land a nd A n t r im . S ho t ton b e l ieved t h a tt h er e la t ive ly w a rme rc l ima te a nd t h e s u i tab i l i ty o ft h e mo re o pen , l e ss d en se ly f o re s ted c oun t ry f o r h un t ing i nt h e s ou th w e re mo re s i gn if ican t f a c to r s i nd e t e rm in ing P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion t h an s ou rce so fr aw m a t e r ia lf o rs t one i mp lemen t s .

F ind s o ff l in th andaxe s a nd o t he r a r tef a c t s , t o ge the r w i th c o re s a nd f l ake s , c onf i rm t h a t t h i s m a te r ia l w a s u sed a t af ew s c a t te red s i te s i nt h eU ppe rT hame s . T he se i mp lemen t s c ou ld h ave b een m anu f ac tu red f r om f l in t p ebb le s d e r ived f r om P le i s tocene d epo s i t s .

A l te rna t ive ly b e t te r q ua l i ty f l in t m ay h ave b een

t r an spo r ted f r om o u tc rop s i nt h e C h i l tern s a nd p roduced a ts i te s i nt h e U ppe r T hame s B a s in ( MacRae '9 82 ) .

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T he o ccu rrence o fn on f l in ta r t e f ac t s I nt h e Uppe rT hame s B a s in , f l in tt oo l s h ave b een f ound t o ge the rw i th i mp lemen t s w h ich w e re m ade f r om q ua r tz i te p ebb le s ( Sand fo rd 1 924 ; Wyme r 1 968 ; R oe 1 981 ; Ma cRae 1 982 , 1 985 & 1 987 ) . T he se p ebb le s w e re u sed a s as ubs t i tu te f o r f l in t a nd d emon s t ra te t h a t P a laeo l i th ic man w a s a dap tab le i ns e lec t ive ly u t i l i s ing l o ca l ly a va i lab le m a te r ia l s . Q ua r tz i te a nd v e in q ua r t z p ebb le s f o rm am a jo r c on s t i tuen t o ft h e N o r the rn D r i f t . I nt h ey ounge rr i ve rt e r ra ce g rave l s o ft h eU ppe rT hame s , q ua r tz i te p ebb le sr a re ly e xceed 5% o f t h e t o ta l s t one c oun t a nd t h e g rave ls a r e d om ina ted b y l o ca l ly o u tc ropp ing m a te r ia l s s uch a s l ime s tone , i r ons tone , mud s tone a nd ma r l s tone ( Br iggs & G i lbe r t son 1 973 ; Goud ie a nd H a r t 1 975 ) . Q ua r tz i te t oo l s a r e u ncommon t ot h e s ou th o ft h e C h i l te rn s , n o d oub to w ing t ot h e a bundan t s upp l ie s o f f l in t ,w h ich o u tc rop i nt h eL owe ra nd M idd le T hame sB a s in s .

Q ua r tz i te a r t ef ac t so fP a laeo l i th ic a ge h ave b een f ound a tm any s i te s i ns ou ther nE ng land , i n c lud ing s ome i nt h e Uppe rT hame s B a s in , s uch a s Wo lve r co te , I f f ley , B er in sf ie ld a nd S tan ton H a rcour t( Sand fo rd 1 924 ; Wyme r 1 968 ; Ma cRae 1 982 ; B r igg se ta l1 985 ) . A l though t h e se f i nd s a r er e la t ive ly f ew i nn umbe r , t h ey c onf i rm t ha t q ua r tz i te w a s emp loyed a s as ub s t i tu te i na r ea s l a ck ing o u tc rop s o ft r ad i t iona l f l in t . T he i r r e la t ive s ca rc i ty may n o tr e f lec t t h e e x ten to ft h e i ru sage a sm any t oo l s m ay h ave b een o ve r looked u n t i l r e cen t ly . P a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t sp roduced f r om q ua r tz i te a nd f l in te r ra t ic s h ave a l so b een f ound i nr i ve r t e r race d epo s i t s i nt h e M id land s ( Sho t ton 1 930 ; A rm s t rong 1 939 ) . T h i s s uppo r t s t h e g ene ra l v i ew t h a t A cheu l ian man w a s s uff ic ien t ly s k i l led a nd a dap tab le i n u t i l i s ing l o ca l ly a va i lab le m a te r ia l s f o r t h e m anu fa c tu re o fs t one a r t e fa c t s .

T h ep e tro logy o fq uar tz i te p ebb le s S and s tone s a r e ama jo r g roup o fd e t r i ta l s ed imen ta ry r ock s i nw h ich t h e a ve rage g ra in s i ze i sw i th in t h e r ange o f 1 / 16 -2mm . Q ua r tz i te i s at ype o fs and s tone w h ich c on ta in s a tl e a s t9 5% q ua r tz g ra in s c emen t ed e i the r b y q ua r tz o r s ome t ime s b y c a lc i te . P e t ro log i s t s o f ten s ubd iv ide q ua r tz i te s i n to m e taqua r tz i te a nd o r thoqua r tz i te b a sed o n d i f f e rence s i nt h e i r p o s t -depo s i t iona l h i s to r ie s . Me taqua r tz i te s o r ig ina ted f r om m e tamo rph ic r a the rt h an s ed imen ta ry p roce sse s w hen t h eq ua r t zo se s ed imen tr e c ry s ta l l i sed d ue t oc ru s ta l p roce s se s , w h ich i n vo lved i n c rea se s i nt empe ra tu re a nd /o rp re s su re . O r thoqua r tz i te s f o rmed b yd i agene t ic p roce sses i n w h ich t h e c emen t c ry s ta l l i sed f r om s i l ica -r ich f l u id s p re sen t i n t h e i n te rg ranu la r v o id s . O r thoqua r tz i te so rq ua r tz a r en i te s ( Pe t t i john e ta l1 973 ) c omp r i se m a in ly g ra in s o f monoc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz w i th m ino r amoun t s o f r ock f r agmen t s , f e ld spa r a nd h eavy m ine ra l s s uch a s t ou rma l ine , z i rcon a nd i lmen i te . A s t h e se s and s tone s a r ed om ina t ed b yc hem icaly s t ab le q ua r tz g ra in s , w h ich a r e w e l ls or ted a nd w e l l r ounded , t h ey a r e c on s ide red t ob e m ine ra log ica l ly a nd t e x tu ra l ly ma tu re s ed imen t s . T he se ma tu re s and s tone s a r e i n te rp re ted a sh av ing u nde rgone ap ro longed h i s to ry o ft r an spo r t a nd r e -wo rk ing p r io r t o t h e i r d epo s i t ion . T he p o re s pace s m ay b e p a r t ia l ly i n f i l led b y ad e t r i ta l c l ay m a t r ix b u t t h ey a r e ma in ly o ccup ied b y q ua r tz c emen t . Aq ua r tz i te i so n ly r ega rded a s at r ue o r thoqua r t z i te i fi ti sc emen ted b y c oa r se ly c ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz s ot h a tt h er o ck f r ac tu re s t h rough t h eg ra in s r a the rt h an a r ound t h e i rb ounda r ie s ( Pe t t i john t Lk 1 973 ) .

Q ua r tz i te p ebb le s h ave b een e xam ined f r om Sm i th ' s P i t , S t an ton Ha rcou r t ( SP402033 ) a nd at yp ica l s e c t ion i ss hown i nB r igg se ta l , 1 985 . T hey a r e u sua l ly b edded o r thoqua r t z i te s o rf o l ia ted m e taqua r tz i te s a nd t h i si n te rna l a n i so t rop i sm r e su l t s i n ap redom inance o fd i sco ida l a nd b l aded p ebb le s hape s . I ng ene ra l , t h eq ua r tz i t e s c omp r i se w e l l s o r t ed f i ne t om ed ium g ra ined s and s tone s w i th c o lou r s v a ry ing f r om w h i te t o d a rk r ed ,d epend ing o n t h e d eg re eo fs ub sequen tc emen ta t ion b yi r on o x ide . T h t s ubangu la rt os ub rounded

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g r a in s a r e c ompo sed m a in ly o fq ua r tz w i th v a r iab le a moun t s o f p l ag ioc la se a nd o r tho c la se f e ld spa r s , m ic roc l ine , m u scov i t e , h eavy m ine ra l s a nd l i t h ic f r agmen t s . T he f e ld spa r s h ave o f t en u nd e rgone p a r t ia l a l te ra t ion t os e r ic i te . T he g r a in s a r e f r equen t ly s u r rounded b y a n i n te r s t i t ia l c l ay m a t r ix c ompo sed o f s e r ic i te a nd t r a ce s o fk ao l in i t e , w h ich h a s t e nded t oi n h ib i tt h ec r y s ta l l i sa t ion o ft h eq ua r t zc emen t . S om e o ft h e q ua r tz i t e s l a ck a ny c l ay m a t r ix a nd c on s i s te n t i re ly o fq ua r t z g r a in s w i th s u tu red c on ta c t s , w h ich i nd ica te r e c ry s ta l l i sa t ion e i the r d ue t o p r e s su re s o lu t ion d u r ing c ompac t ion o r , i n o t he r c a se s , a s a c on sequen ce o fm e tamo rph i cp r o ce s se s . T he t y pe s o fP a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen t s , w h ich w e re f a sh ioned f r om t h e se q ua r t z i te p ebb le s , m ay h ave b e en d e t e rm ined b yt h e i rp r ima ry s hape s . I nc on t ra s tt om a t e r ia l sw on f r om o u t c rop ,t h e se p ebb le sr e qu i red l e s s f a sh ion ing t op roduce s t one i mp lem en t s s u ch a sh andaxe s , h amm e r s , s c rape r s a nd c hoppe r s . T hey a r e mo re d i f f icu l tt ok nap t h an f l in ta nd t of o rm t h in c u t t ing e dge s ,d ue t ot h el a ck o fp ene t ra t ive c oncho ida l f r a c tu r e . Q ua r tz i t e s c on ta in ing ac l ay m a t r ix t e nd t of r ac tu re a r ound g r a in b ounda r ie s a nd p roduce am uch r oughe rt e x tu re t h an f l in t . O r thoqua r t z i te s c ompo sed e n t i re ly o fc r y s ta l l ine q ua r tz a nd l a ck ing a ny m a t r ix w i l lf r a c tu re r a ndom ly t h rough b o th t h eg r a in s a nd c emen t . T he v a r iab le o r ien ta t ion o ft h eg ra in s a nd t h e d i f f e rence si nt h ec r y s ta ls i ze o ft h eg r a in sa nd c em en ts t i l ll e ad st ou neven f r a c tu r es u r f a ce s . T h i sc on t ra s t s w i th f l in t w h ich c on s i s t s o fu n ifo rm t n ic roc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz a nd , l i ke v o lcan ic g l a s s , p roduce s s moo th c oncho ida lf r ac tu re s u r f a ce s a nd f l ake s w hen s t ruck . T he f o r ce o fi mpa c tn eeded t ob r eak f l in tn odu le s i s u n l ike ly t oo ccu rd u r ing f l uv ia lt r an spo r t . S ome b r eakage o ff l in td id o ccu r , h oweve r ,d ue t oi c e -wedg ing a l ong f r a c tu re sa nd v o id si nt h ep ebb le s . T he r e su l t ing c l a s t sd on o ts how t h ec ha rac te r i s t ic mo rpho logy o f f l in t s w h i ch h ave b een w o rked b ym an .

P l e i s to cene d epo s i t so ft h eU pp er T hame s Ba s in T he se d epo s i t s c an b e b road ly s ubd iv ided i n to t h e o lde r D r i f t a nd y ounge r t e r race d epo s i t s b a sed o n d i f f e rence si ne l eva t ion , s ed im en ta ry s t ruc tu re s ,g r a in s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompo s i t ion . T h i s s ubd iv i s ion i sf undamen ta l t o a n u nde r s tand ing a s t ot h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f g l a c ia l a nd f l uv ia l p roce s se s i n d e t e rm in ing t h e d e r iva t ion a nd r ed i s t r ibu t ion o fP l e i s to cene d epo s i t s . S and fo rd ( 1 924 , 1 926 & 1 929 ) m apped t h e se d epo s i t s i n t h e T hame s B a s in a nd , a l though h i s t e rm ino logy s u rv ive s , s ome o f h i s i n te rp re ta t ion sh ave b e en m od i f ied b ym o r er e cen tr e sea r ch .

T he N o r the rn D r if t ( Hu l l 1 855 ) o rP la t eau D r if t ( Pocock 1 908 ) r e p r e sen t s t h e h i ghe s t a nd h ence o l d e s t P l e i s tocene r emnan t r e cogn i sed b y S and fo rd . I tc omp r i se s m a in ly u n s t ra t i f ied , p oo r ly s o r ted , m a t r ix s uppo r t ed g r ave l s b u ti so cca s iona l ly r e p re sen ted b yc r o s sb edded s a nd s ( Poco ck 1 908 ;D ine s 1 946 ;A rke l l 1 947b ; S ho t ton e ta l . 1 980 ) . I to ccu r s a ss ca t te red o u t c rop s f r om t h e E ven lod e V a l ley t ot h e v i c in i ty o f t h e G o r ing G ap . T he D r if ti sd om ina ted b y w e l lr ounded p ebb le s o fq ua r tz i t e , v e in q ua r tz a nd s a nd s tone w i th f ew c l a s t s b e ing d e r ived f r om l o ca l s t ra ta ( Goud ie a nd H a r t 1 975 ; G oud ie 1 976 ) . B uck land ( 1 823 ) b e l ieved t h a tt h e se p ebb le s w e re d e r ived f r om t h eN ew R ed S and s tone o ft h eM id land s . L a te r a nd m o re d e t a i led s t ud ie so fp ebb le c ompo s i t ion i d en t if ied amu ch w ide rv a r ie ty o ff a r t r ave l led e r ra t ic s , w h ich w e r e t h ough t t oh ave o r ig ina ted m a in ly f r om P recamb r ian a nd P a laeozo ic p rovenance s ( A rke l l 1 947a ) , w h ich i n c luded s ou the rn a nd c en t ra lE ng land , S ou th Wa le sa nd N o rway . T he se f a r t r ave l led e r ra t ic s w e re t h ough t t ob ed rop s tone s ,w h ich h ad b e en d epo s i t ed f r om i c ebe rg sc a lved d u r ing aP l e i s tocene m a r ine t r an sg r e s s ion . T h i s i n t e rp re ta t ion w a s s uppo r t ed b y t h e d i scove ry o fs t r ia t ed b ou lde r s i nt h eD r i f t ( Hu l l 1 855 ; S and fo rd 1 920 ) . L a t e rs t ud ie sc on t. ' f r n ed t h a tt h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e se e r ra t ic sc ou ld b em a tched w i th T r ia s s ic d epo s i t s

2 0 1

i nt h eE ng l i sh M id land s a nd a cco rded w i th a n e a r l ie r b e l ie ft h a t t h e D r if t w a s ag l ac ia l t i l l ( Ge ik ie 1 877 ; C a l laway 1 905 ; T om l in son 1 929 ; D ine s 1 946 ) .

T he r e cogn i t ion o fc rude t e r race s s ugge s ted r ewo rk ing o ft h e D r if t b y f l uv ia l p roce s se s ( Poco ck 1 908 ; A rke l l 1 947a a nd 1 947b ) a nd /o r s o l if luc t ion p roce sse s ( Sho t ton e ta l . 1 980 ) . T he p ebb le s o fq ua r tz i t e , v e in q ua r tz a nd f l in t s ca t te red o ve r t h e a d jacen t J u ra ss ic u p land s a r e s i tua ted a te l eva t ion s a bove t h e i r s ou r ce s a nd s o mu s tr ep re sen tr emnan t s o ft h i s f o rme r i c e s hee t . Mapp ing o ft h e No r the rn D r if to u tc rop s ugge s ted t h a tt h et i l l may h ave b e en r ewo rked b yt h ea nce s t ra lE ven lode R ive rt of o rm as ucce s s ive s e r ie s o ft e r race s ( A rke l l 1 947a & 1 947b ) . F ive l i t ho s t ra t ig raph ic m embe r s , w h ich c o r re spond t os ucce s s ive t e r race s h ave b een i d en t if ied ( Hey 1 986 ) , b a sed o n e l eva t ion a nd q ua r tz i te :qua r tz r a t io o f t h e g rave l c omponen t .

T he se g rave ls a r e d om ina ted b y f a r t rave l led e r ra t ic s , w h ich o r ig ina ted f r om T r ia ss ic

s ed imen ta ry r o ck sa nd w e re t h en t r an spo r ted s ou thwa rd s b yt h eM id land si c es he e t .

C o r re la t ion o ft h e Nor ther n D r if t i nt h e Uppe r T hame s w i th e qu iva len t t e r race s i nt h e M idd le T hame s B a s in i sh inde red b y al a ck o f o u tc rop s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e Go r ing G ap .

I n t h e M idd le T hame s

s ucce s s ive ly y ounge r t e r race g rave l s s how i n c rea se s i nt h e q ua r tz i te :qua r tz r a t io ( Hey 1 966 ) . T h i s m ay r e f lec tc ompo s i t iona lv a r ia t ion s i nt h e s ou rce r ock s t ot h en or th , w h ich w e re d om ina ted b y t h eT r ia s s ic o f t h e M id land s a nd t h e M i l l s tone G r i t o f t h e s ou ther n P enn ine s .

T he P le i s tocene g rave l s o f t h e U ppe r

T hame s c on ta in m any f a r t rave l led e r ra t ic s a pa r tf r om q ua r tz i te a nd v e in q ua r tz i n c lud ing aw ide r a nge o f i gneou s , me tamo rph ic a nd s ed imen ta ry l i thoc la s t s . T he se e r ra t ic s h ave n o to n ly a s s i s ted i nd e te rm in ing t h e ma in s ou r ce o ft h e No r ther nD r if tb u ta l so h ave p rov id ed i mpo r tan tc l ue s i ni n te rp re t ing L owe rT r ia s s ic p a la egeog raphy i ns ou the rn B r i ta in .

P a laeogeog raphy o ft h eP ermo -Tr ia s T he f a u l t ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h e H e rcye ian O rogeny o f l a te C a rbon if e rou s /Perm ian a ge e s tab l i shed a n i r regu la r t e r ra in o fe l eva ted h o r s t b lock s a nd f au l t -bounded e x ten s iona l b a s in s o r g raben s ( F ig .1 ) . T h i s s y s tem o fb lock s a nd b a s in sd om ina ted p a laeogeog raphy i nB r i ta in t h roughou tt h eP e rmo -T r ia s . T he ma in u p s tand ing m a s s if si nt h es ou th i n c luded C omub ia ,t h e We l sh U p land s , t h eL ondon -Braban t Ma s s if a nd t h e P enn ine H igh . P e rm ian d epo s i t s u nconfo rmab ly o ve r l ie d eep ly e roded a nd w ea the red C a rbon i f e rou s a nd ma rk a ma jo r p ha se o f c on t inen ta l s ed imen ta t ion i n as em i -ar id c l ima te .

I n t he L owe r P e rm ian

( Ro t l iegend e s ) ,r ap id d enuda t ion o ft h e ma s s if sp roduced t h ick , a luv ia lf a nb r ecc ia s , w h ich a ccumu la t ed a t t h e m a rg in s o ft h e f au l t -bounded b a s in s . T he se b r ecc ia s p a s s l a te ra l ly i n to a eo l ian d une s and s tone s a nd e vapo r i t ic mud s tone s o fp l aya l a ke s . Am a jo rm a r ine t r an sg re s s ion i n vaded much o f Nor th - We s tE u rope i n t h eU ppe rP e rm ian ( Zech s te in ) a nd r epea ted f l uc tua t ion s i ns ea l e ve lp roduced c yc l ic s equence sd om ina ted b yl ime s tone s a nd e vapo r i te s .

T r ia s s i cs t ra t ig raphy i nE urope Two d i s t inc t s t ra t ig raph ica l n omenc la tu re s w e re d ev i sed f o r t h e E u ropean T r ia s d ue t ot h e p rob lem s o f c o r r e la t ing t h e" Ge rman ic " l a rge ly c on t inen ta ls equence w i th t h e" A lp ine " m a in ly ma r ine s equence f u r the r t o t h e s ou th .

T he G e rman ic T r ia s c omp r i se s t h e c on t inen ta l f a c ie s o f t h e B un t sand s te in ( mo t t led

s and s tone )a nd t h eK eupe r( r ed m a r l )s epa ra t ed b yt h e ma r ine f a c ie so ft h e Mu sche lka lk ( mu s se l l ime s tone ) . T he E uropean s t age s w e re e s tab l i shed a s b io s t ra t igraph ic u n i t s u s ing a mmon i te s i n t h e A lp ine T r ia s . D if f icu l t ie s a r i se i nv -ve la t ing t h e l i t ho s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s o ft h e G erman ic T r ia s a nd t h e b i o s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t so ft h eA lp ine T r ia sd ue t o ama rked c on t ra s ti nt h e i rd epo s i t iona le nv i ronmen t s , w h ich i sr ef le c ted b y

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F ig . 1 . Ma jor T r iass ic ma ss if s a nd g rabens i n S ou thern B r i ta in ( a f te r many a u thor s ) .

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t h en a tu re o ft h es ed imen t s a nd t h ef o s s i lc on ten t .

T r ia s s ic s t ra t ig raphy i nB r i ta in ( F igu r e2 ) A s t h e B r i t ish T r ia s i s ma in ly c on t inen ta l , t he G e rman ic n omenc la tu re w a s a dop ted a nd t h e l i tho s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s u sed a st ime e qu iva len t s . Ma r ine a nd c on t inen ta l f a una l a s semb lage s h ave b een i d en t if ied l o ca l ly b u t t h e se a r e o fl im i ted u se d ue t ot h e s t rong f a c ie s c on t ro l o n t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion . E a r ly s t ud ie so ft h eM id land ' sT r ia s ( Hu l l 1 860a & 1 869 ) recogn i sed t h eB un t e ra nd K eupe rS e r ie s s epa ra ted b ya ma jo rs t ra t ig raph ic b r eak o rr eg iona lu nconfonn i ty r ep r e sen t ing t h e Mu sche lka lk . Mo r er e cen tr e sea rch o n T r ia s s ic c o r re la t ion u s ing f o s s i l p lan tr ema in s i nd ica te s t h a tt h e se l i t ho s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s d o n o th ave a ny s i gn if icance i nt e rm s o ft ime (Ge ige r & Hopp ing 1 968 ; Wa r r ing ton 1 970a & 1 970b ; Sm i th a nd Wa r r ing ton 1 971) . C o r re la t ion o fc on t inen ta lf a c ie s b a sed e n t i re ly o n l i t ho s t ra t ig raphy i g no re s t h e s t rong p o ss ib i l i ty t h a tl o ca l s equence s may h ave b een r epea ted b o th l a te ra l ly a nd v er t ica l ly a st h ey a ccumu la ted i ns im i la r d epo s i t iona l s e t t ing s . R ecen t f a una l e v idence h a s i d en t if ied al o ca l m a rg ina l m a r ine f a c ie s i nt h e B r i t i sh T r ia s , w h ich c o r re la te s w i th t h e ma jo r ma r ine t r an sg re ss ion i n Mu sche lka lk t ime s (Wa r r ing ton 1 970b ; I r e land e ta l . 1 978 ) .

T he l owe rmo s tT r ia s i nB r i ta in c o r re spond s t ot h e b a se o ft h e B un te rP ebb le B ed , w h ich i sc o r re la ted w i th t h eb a sa l B un t sand s te in o fG e rmany ( Aud ley -Cha r le s 1 970a ) . T he B un te rP ebb le B ed i sn ow a s s igned t o t h e S he rwood S and s tone G roup , w h ich i so ve r la in b y t h e Me r c ia Mud s tone ( =Keupe r Ma r l ) a nd P ena r th G roup s( =Rhae t ic a nd b a sa lL ia s ) (Wa r r ing ton e ta l . 1 980 ) .

T r ia s s ic d epo s i t ion w a s h e ra lded b y r enewed u p l if t a nd d enuda t ion o f t h e H e rcyn ian m a s s if s , w h ich i s r ep re sen t ed l o ca l ly b y a n u nconfo rmab le b ounda ry w i th t h e u nde r ly ing P e rm ian . T h i s b ounda ry i s mo re d i f f icu l t t o r e cogn i se w he re s im i la r c oa r se g ra ined f a c ie s o f P erm ian a nd T r ia ss ic a ge h ave b een s upe r impo sed . Du r ing t h e d epo s i t ion o ft h e S herwood S and s tone G roup , t h e r e l ief w a s a ccen tua ted b y u p l i f to ft h es ou rce a r ea s a nd c on t inued s ub s idence i nt h ei n te rven ing b a s in s . T h icke ra nd mo re c omp le t e s ed imen ta ry s equence s a ccumu la ted i nt ho se a r ea s o fa c t ive c on tempo raneou s r i f t ing s uch a sw e s te rn a nd n o r th -we s te rn B r i ta in a so ppo sed t ot h e mo re s t ab le a r ea s i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e L ondon -Braban t Ma s s i f . S c re ed epo s i t sp rog raded f r om t h e ma rg in so ft h ef a u l t -bounded b a s in s . D eep c anyon sd i s sec ted t h em a s s i f s a nd t e rm ina ted i na l luv ia lf a n s , wh ich l o ca l ly e xh ib i tf i n ing u pwa rd c yc lo them s i nw h ich b ra ided c hanne l f i l l s a r eo ve r la in b y f l oodp la in d epo s i t s , c ha ra c te r i sed b y d e s icca t ion c r ack s a nd s o i l c a lc re te s ( Thomp son 1 970 ; S tee l 1 974 ; S te e l e ta l1 978 ; S tee l &T homp son 1 983 ) . G radua l r educ t ion i nr i ve rp rof i le s l e ad t o t h ed eve lopmen to fm eande r ing c hanne l s a nd l a ke s , w h ich t r an sg r e s sed o ve rt h eu p land s a nd p romo ted l o ca l ma r ine i n cu r s ion s .

S ucce ss ive f au l t movemen t s r e juvena ted t h e se r i ve r s y s tem s , wh ich c aused s ome

r ewo rk ing o fe a r l ie rd epo s i t s a nd c hanne lf i l l s t ob es epa ra ted b ye r o s ion s u r f ace s . F rom b o r eho le e v idence i nt h e M id land s , Wi l l s ( 1970a , 1 970b & 1 976 ) r e co rded as e r ie s o ff i n ing u pwa rd s equence s i n wh ich c oa r se c l a s t ic sw e re i n te rp re ted a sf l ood d epo s i t s a nd o ve r ly ing f i ne rs ed imen t s a sd rough td epo s i t s . T he se m a jo rm iocyc lo them s s e emed t ob es upe r impo sed o n mo re l o ca lf l ood e p i sode s o rm ic rocyc lo them s .

T he o ve r ly ing Me rc ia Mud s tone G roup i sl a te ra l ly mo re e x tens ive a nd o ve r s tep s t h e e a r l ie r T r ia s . I t c omp r i se s at h ick mud s tone s equence l o ca l ly i n te rbedded w i th s i l t s tone s , s and s tone s a nd e vapo r i te s w i th s ubae r ia l e xpo su re i nd ica ted b y d e s icca t ion c rack s a nd r a in p r in t s . T he se s ed imen t s s ugge s t e x ten s ive e vapor i t ic mudf la t s o f ap l aya l a ke o r i n land s abkha e nv i ronmen t . C oa r se r s ed imen t s a round t h e b a s in

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m a rg in sr e semb le t h eb re cc ia so ft h ee a r l ie rS he rwood S and s tone G roup ( Tucke r , 1 977 & 1 978 ) .

T he P ena r th G roup o f t h e U ppe r T r ia s c on s i s t s o f s i l ic ic la s t ic s a nd l ime mud s tone s i n te rca la ted w i th s and s tone s a nd b one b ed s c ompo sed o f ma r ine a nd f r e shwa te r f o s s i l d ebr i s , w h ich s i gn ify ama r ine t r an sg re s s ion .

P ebb le b ed so ft h eS herwood S and s tone G roup ( Low er T r ia s ) T he r e su l t s o fp e t rog raph ic a na ly se s o ft h e L owe r T r ia ss ic p ebb le b ed s h ave b een p ub l i shed b y many a u tho r s . T he se s t ud ie s , r ev iewed i nA ud ley -Cha r le s , 1 970b , o f ten i n c lude i n te rp re ta t ion s a st ot op o s s ib le p rovenance a nd n a tu re o f t h e d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t .

P a r t icu la r i n te re s t f ocu sed o n t h e B ud le igh

S a l ter ton P ebb le B ed so fD evon a nd S ome r se ta nd t h eB un te rP ebb le B ed s o ft h eM id land s . B o th d epo s i t s s how s im i la r i t ie s i nc omp r i s ing t yp ica l ly w e l l r ounded p ebb le s , w h ich h ave b een i n te rp r e ted a s f l uv ia l g rave l s . T hey c on ta in aw ide v a r ie ty o fl i thoc la s t s , s ome o fw h ich s eemed t ob e o fl o ca l o r ig in w h i l s t o the r s r e semb le mo re d i s tan t s our ce s .

A ssum ing t h a t t h e se p ebb le s b ed s w e re c on tempo raneou s , t h e

g rave l s mu s th ave b een d e r ived f r om s ome c ommon s ou r ce s ,w h ich c omp r i sed t h ef o rme rT r ia s s ic m a s s i f s .

T he B ud le igh S a l ter ton P ebb le B ed se x tend e a s twa rd s i n to t h et h ick T r ia ss ic s equence o ft h e We s sex B a s in ( Ken t 1 949 ) a nd o f f sho re i n to t h e B r i s to lC hanne l ( L loyd

gu i . 1 973 ) , t h e E ng l i sh C hanne l ( Bo t t&S co t t

1 964 ) , t h e S ou the rn I r i sh S ea ( Dobson e ta l . 1 973 ) a nd t h e We s te rn App roache s ( Owen 1 974 ) . I n t h e o u t c rop so fS ou th D evon ( Du r rance & L am ing 1 982 ) i tc omp r i se s b ed s o fs ubangu la ra nd r ounded p ebb le s o fq ua r tz i te , s and s tone ,q ua r tz p o rphy ry a nd r hyo l i t ei n te rca la ted w i th s and s . When t r aced n or thwa rd s , t h e B ed s e xh ib i t ad ecrea se i n p ebb le s i ze , c hange s i n h eavy m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion a nd a n i n crea s ing c on t r ibu t ion o f l i thoc la s t s f r om Nor th D evon , t h e Mend ip s a nd S ou th Wa le s ( Ma r t in 1 909 ; T homa s 1 940 ) . T he e v idence f avou red am a jo rf l uv ia l s y s tem , w h ich p o sse ssed s eve ra l t r ibu ta r ie s b u tf l owed i na g ene ra ln o r thwa rd d i rec t ion . S ome o ft h el a rge q ua r tz i te c obb le s w e re f ound t oc on ta in O rdov ic ian f o s s i l s b rach iopod s s uch a s L ingu la l e suer i a nd O r th i s b ud le ighens i s . O the r p ebb le s o f s and s tone a nd s l a te c on ta ined t h e b rach iopod C y r to sp ir if e r v erneu i l i a nd t h e t r ibo l i te f loma lon tu s s p . w h ich i nd ica ted a D evon ian a ge . B o th p ebb le t y pe s w e re e qua ted w i th t h e G re s d e Ma i a nd G re s A rmo r ica in o fN o rmandy ( Sa l te 1 864 ) . T h i s e v idence s ub s tan t ia ted t h e i d ea o f ar i ve r s y s tem w h ich h ad h eadwa te r s i nn o r ther n F rance . T he p auc i ty o fg ran i te p ebb le s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e C o rnub ian g ran i te s o fD evon a nd C or nwa l l h ad n o tb een u n roof ed i nT r ia s s ic t ime s ( G rove s 1 931 ; B u tche r 1 961 ; H u tch in s 1 963 ) . T he p re sence o fc on tac t a u reo le , h ypaby ssa l a nd v o lcan ic l i t hoc la s t s i nt h e se B ed s ( S teven son & M i tche l l 1 955 ; Sm i th 1 963 ) a nd k ao l in i te i nt h el owe rmo s tP e rm ian i nd ica ted e ro s ion a nd e a s twa rd t r an spo r to fc on ta c tm e tamo rph ic s a nd m ino ri n t ru s ive s , w h ich w e r ea s soc ia ted w i th t h eC o rnub ian g ran i t e s . T he B un te r P ebb le B ed s o f t h e M id land s r e s t l o ca l ly o n b a sa l T r ia ss ic b re cc ia s o r u nconformab ly o n P e rm ian s and s tone s a nd b recc ia s . T he se B ed s c on s i s to fr ounded p ebb le c ong lome ra te s a nd c r o s s b edded s and s tone s , w h ich w e re d epo s i ted w i th in af l uv ia l s y s tem . T hey v a ry f r om t h ick p ebb le s p read s w i th a l i t t le s and ma t r ix t os and sc on ta in ing p ebb le l e n se s , w h ich b e come i n c rea s ing ly d om inan tt ot h en o r th a nd w e s to ft h e Me rc ian H igh land s . S ome o ft h e p ebb le s s how a f f in i t ie s w i th s ou th -we s ter nB r i ta in ( Sm i th 1 963 ) b u t , i nc ompa r i son w i th t h e B ud le igh S a l ter ton P ebb le B ed s , c on t r ibu t ion s f r om t h i s p rovenance mu s t h ave b een d i lu ted b y l o ca l s our ce s .

S ome f o s s i l if e rou s p ebb le s s how a p a laeogeog raph ic l i nk

b e tween t h eM id land s a nd N o rmandy ( Sh rub s° le 1 903 ) .

I n b o th t h e M id land : . a nd f u r the r t ot h e n or th -we s t i nt h e C he sh i re G raben , t h e p ebb le s a r e c ompo sed

2 06

m a in ly o fq ua r t z i te ( 5 5 -60% ) a nd v e in q ua r tz ( 2 5% ) t o ge the r w i th s and s tone , l ime s tone , c he r t , r hyo l i t ic t u f f , q ua r tz a nd m ica s c h i s t , t o u rma l ine r ich a c id i g neou s r o ck s , g r an i te , g r anophy re a nd q ua r t zp o rphy ry . P e t rog raph ic s t ud ie so fp ebb le t y pe s h ave n o ti d en t if ied e i the rl o ca lo r mo re d i s tan tp rovenance s w i th a ny g r ea td eg re eo fc e r ta in ty . S ome o ft h eq ua r t z i t ea nd v e in q ua r t zm ay h ave b e en r ewo rked f r om u nd e r ly ing P e rm ian b r ecc ia so rf r om p r e -T r ia s s i cc ong lom e ra t e sb u tt h et e x t u re a nd c ompo s i t ion d o e si mp ly a no ve ral h i s to ry o fp ro longed t r an spo r t( I rv ing 1 888 ; W i l l s 1 948 , 1 956 & 1 976 ; Sm i th 1 963 ) . E a ch r i ve rs y s t em w i th in t h eM id land s m u s th ave t r an spo r ted as om ewha td i s t inc t ive s u i t eo fp ebb le t y pe s a c co rd ing t ot h eg eo logy o fi t sc a t chmen t . S om eq ua r t z i t e sh ave b een m a t ched w i th C amb r ian o u t c rop so f N unea ton a nd t h eL ickey H i l l so fS ou th S t a f fo rd sh i r e . S ome o ft h ef o s s i l i f e rou sC a rbon if e rou sl im e s tone s a nd c he r t sm ay h ave b een d e r ived f r om t h el o ca l Me r c ian H igh land sb u tU ppe rL landove r ian s a nd s tone sd o n o to ccu ri no u t c rop , a l though t h ey m ay b ep r e sen tb enea th y ounge rc ove rr o ck s ( Lamon t 1 940 & 1 946 ) . S tud ie s r e vea l a n u pwa rd d ec rea se i n f a r t rave l led p ebb le s m a in ly f r om t h e s ou th b u t t h i s may n o t n ece s sa r i ly r e f lec t ag r adua l r e duc t ion i nt h e t r an spo r t ing p owe ro ft h e r i ve r s . S ome o ft h e p ebb le s a r e h i gh ly w ea the r ed a nd d ecompo sed . P ro longed f l uv ia l t r an spo r t w ou ld a l so r e su l t i nt h er emova l o fl e s s p hy s ica l ly a nd c hem ica l ly r e s i s tan t r o ck s s uch a sl ime s tone , s and s tone , s ha le , s l a te , s c h i s t a nd g ran i te . O the rl i t ho c la s t s m ay h ave d ecompo sed d u r ing d i agene s i s a nd w ea the r ing a f te rb e ing i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e p e rm eab le p ebb le b ed s . T he g ene ra lc onc lu s ion ,w h ich e m e rged f r om t h e se e a r ly s t ud ie so ft h eB un t e rP ebb le B ed si nt h eM id land s a nd t h e B ud le igh S a l te r ton P ebb le B ed s i nD evon , w a s t h a t t h ey s howed s im i la r i t ie s i nt e rm s o ft e x tu re , c ompo s i t ion a nd d epo s i t iona l s e t t ing .

T he se o b se rva t ion s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e re mu s t h ave e x i s ted a

p a la eogeog raph ic c onnec t ion b e tween n o r ther nF rance ,D evon a nd t h eM id land s i nL owe rT r ia s s ic t ime s b u ti n fo rma t ion w a s l a ck ing i nt h ei n te rven ing a r ea s . T h eB ud l e ighen s i sR ive r O n t h e e v idence o fa va i lab le b o r eho le d a t e , K en t ( 1 949 ) b e l ieved s ome 1 000 m e t re s o fP e rmo -T r ia s s ic s ed imen t s h ad b een d epo s i t ed i nt h e S eve rn V a l ley B a s in , w h ich i sa l igned a pp rox ima te ly n o r th sou th . T he B a s in f i l lt h in sf r om t h ec en t r et owa rd st h ef a u l t ed m a rg in s ,w h ich s e pa ra te i tf r om t h e Ma lve rn sh o r s t i nt h e w e s t a l ong t h e Ma lve rn A x i s ( Ph ipp s &R eeve 1 967 & 1 969 ; B rook s 1 969 & 1 970 ) a nd t h e L ondon -B raban t Ma s s if i nt h e e a s t a l ong t h e V a le o f Mo re ton A x i s . T he Wo r ce s te r G raben , w i th i t s Ma lve rn ian t r end , s e em s t oh ave r ema ined a c t ive t h roughou tt h ed epo s i t ion o ft h eT r ia s ( Aud ley -Cha r le s 1 970b ) . Mo re r e cen tb o reho le a nd g eophy s ica ld a ta h a sr e v i sed t h eb a s in t h ickne s st oa tl e a s t2 750 m e t re s ( Sm i th & B u rge s s 1 984 ) . T he P e rmo -T r ia s s ic s ed im en t sd epo s i ted i nt h i sd eep f a u l t -bound ed t r ough ,n ow c a l led t h e Wo r ce s te rB a s in , r e s t s u nconfo rmab ly o n s t ra ta w h ich r ange i na ge f r om P recambr ian t oC a rbon i f e rou s a nd i sl a rge ly o b scu r ed b enea th t h el a te rJ u r a s s ic c ove r . An umbe ro fb o r eho le sd r i l led b yt h eB r i t i sh G eo log ica lS ur vey t h rough t h e P e rmo -T r ia s r e co rd a s ucce s s ion o f a eo l ian , a l luv ia l f a n , f l uv ia l a nd s a bkha d epo s i t s ( s umma r i sed i n Sm i th & B u rge s s , 1 984 ) .

T he B r idgno r th S and s tone o f P e rm ian a ge h a s av a r iab le

t h ickne s s a si tr e s t s o n a n i regu la r t o pog raphy a nd t h e a eo l ian d une s a nd s tone s , w i th s ubo rd ina t e b a sa l b r e cc ia s ,u nd e rwen ts ub sequen te r o s ion b e fo r et h ed epo s i t ion o ft h eL owe rT r ia s . A na b rup ti n c rea se i nt h e a moun to fs e a sona lr un -o f fl e ad t ot h ed epo s i t ion o fc r o s sb edded p ebb ly s a nd s tone so ft h eK idd e rm in s t e r F o rma t ion a nd , l i ke t h eo ve r ly ing W i ldmoo rS and s tone F o rma t ion , i sc on s ide r ed t ob eo ff l uv ia t i le o r ig in . F au l tm ovem en t s a l ong t h em a rg ina l s c a rp sc au sed ar e juvena t ion o ft h er i ve rs y s t em b e fo r et h ed epo s i t ion o f t h e B rom sg rove S and s tone F o rma t ion . T h i s F o rma t ion i st h en l o ca l ly u nconfo rmab le a nd s how s a b r oad ly f i n ing u pwa rd s e quence a s so c ia t ed w i th af a c ie sc hange t h rough a luv ia lf a n ,b r a ided a nd m eand e r ing

2 07

r i ve r s y s tem s (Wa r r ing ton 1 970b ; W i l l s 1 970a & 1 976 ) .

S abkha c ond i t ion s w e re e s tab l i shed w i th t h e

d epo s i t ion o ft h es ucceed ing Me r c ia Mud s tone G roup o ft h et op T r ia s . T h i s c on t inen ta l d i spe r sa ls y s tem i n t e rp re ted f o rt h e Wo rce s te r B a s in d emon s t ra te s t h e i nf luence o fa c t ive f au l ts ca rp s o n t h ed epo s i t iona lr e g ime i nT r ia ss ic t ime s ( Aud ley -Cha r le s 1 970b ; B rennand 1 975 ; S t ee l & Wi l son 1 975 ; S tee l e ta l . 1 975 ; S t ee l 1 978 ; T ucke r 1 977 & 1 978 ) . B road s im i la r i t ie s a r e e xh ib i ted b y t h eT r ia ss ic b a s in s o f t h e n or thern No r th S ea s ( C lemmensen e t a l , 1 980 ; J akobsson e t a l , 1 980 ) . S ucce s s ive f a u l t movemen t s a l ong t h eb a s in m a rg in sr e su l ted i n ar epea ted s equence o fp rog rad ing a l luv ia l f a na nd b ra ided s t r eam d epo s i t s . T h i s ma rg ina lf a c ie s i n te r tongue sw i th f i n ing u pwa rd s equence sd epo s i ted b y a meande r ing r i ve r f l ow ing a l ong t h e b a s in a x i s .

T he m a rg ina l T r ia ss ic o f G lamo rgan w a s a l so

d epo s i ted t ot h e s ou th o fa ne a s t -we s tt r end ing f a u l ts ca rp . C anyon s d i s sec ted t h e h i gh land s o ft h e S ou th Wa le s C oa lf ie ld a nd t e rm ina ted i na luv ia l f a n s . S c ree d epo s i t s w e re b anked a ga ins t t h e f a u l t s ca rp a nd p a s sed s ou thwa rd i n to ab roade rf l oodp la in o fa ne a s te r ly f l ow ing r i ve ra nd a ne pheme ra ll a ke ( Tucke r , 1 977 & 1 978 ) . T h i s f a c ie s a s soc ia t ion e xemp l if ied b y t h e se T r ia s s ic b a s in s a l so c ompl ie s w i th t h e mode l d ev i sed f o rt h e Wo r ce s te rB a s in . T he s u r f a ce r ep re sen t ing t h eb a se o ft h eP e rm ian s ugge s t s t h a tt h e a x i s o ft h e Wo r ce s te r G raben w a s i n c l ined a t as ha l low a ng le t o t h e n o r th .

D ur ing t h e s ubsequen t T r ia s , a l l t h e e v idence

i nd ica te s t ha tt h e f l uv ia l s y s tem , t e rmed t h e B ud le ighen s i s R ive r ( F igu re 3 ) , t r an spor ted m uch o fi t s l o ad n o r thwa rd v i at h e Wo rce s te rB a s in . P a r to ft h i sl o ad wa s d epo s i t ed i nt h eM id land s a nd w a ss upp lemen ted w i th c on t r ibu t ion s f r om mo re l o ca l s ou r ce s s uch a s t h e Me rc ian H igh land s , t h e We l sh Up land s a nd t h e P enn ine H igh . T he m a in f l uv ia l s y s tem c on t inued n o r thwe s twa rd s i n to t h eC he sh i re a nd I r i sh S ea B a s in s ( Thomp son 1 966 & 1 970 ) . I s o top ic d a t ing o fd e t r i ta l m ica s i nt h ep ebb le b ed s o ft h e C he sh i re G raben i n d ica ted t h a tt h ey o r ig ina t ed f r om c ry s ta l l ine r ock s w i th a ge s o f2 80 -300 m .y . ( F i t ch e ta l . 1 966 ) . I gneou s r o ck so ft h i s a ge i n c lude t h e C o rnub ian g ran i te s b u t t h e se w e re n o t u n roof ed u n t i l much l a te r . A n a l t er na t ive s ou rce m ay h ave b een f r om g ran i te s f o rm ing t h e V a r i scan moun ta in s , wh ich a r e t h ough t t o b e p re sen t b enea th t h e E ng l i sh C hanne la nd b o rde red t h e We s sex B a s in i nT r ia s s ic t ime s . S eve ra lm a jo rt r ibu ta r ie s mu s th ave j o ined w i th t h e ma in B ud le ighen s i s R ive rt ot h es ou th o ft h e Wo rce s te rB a s in . A c t ive e ro s ion o ft h eT r ia s s ic m a ss if s s i tua ted i nn o r ther nF rance a nd s ou th -we s te rn B r i ta in m ade s i gn if ican tc on t r ibu t ion s t ot h e b e cload o ft h e r i ve r s y s tem .

A n a dd i t iona l t r ibu ta ry mus t h ave t r an spo r ted d e t r i tu s f r om S ou th Wa le s i na n e a s te r ly

d i rec t ion a l ong t h ea x i so fa nH e rcyn ian f a u l tg raben . T he f l uv ia ld epo s i t so fS ou th Wa le sh ave b een d a ted a s Uppe r T r ia ss ic i na ge ( Tucke r 1 977 & 1978 ) . I ts eem s l i ke ly , h oweve r , t h a t t h i s e l onga te d ep re s s ion may h ave f o rmed a n i mpo r tan t s ed imen t c ondu i t e a r l ie r i nT r ia s s ic t ime s a nd w a s d ra ined b y af l uv ia l s y s tem , wh ich t r an spo r ted s ed imen t s e a s twa rd si n to t h e ma in B ud le ighen s i sR ive r . T he d epo s i t iona le nv i ronmen to ft h eB un t er P ebb le B ed s T he s ed imen tl o ad o ft h eB ud le ighen s i sR ive r wa s d e r ived f r om s eve ra l s ou rce s i n c lud ing t h es ou ther np a r t o f t h e We l sh Up land s , C o rnub ia , t h e Mend ip s , n o r ther n F rance a nd t h e A rmo r ican Moun ta in s . T he se d epo s i t s w e re t r an spo r ted b y t h e i rr e spec t ive t r ibu ta r ie s n o r thwa rd s i n to am a jo rc hanne l , w h ich o ccup ied t h e Wo rce s te r B a s in .

R ecen t s ub su rf ace i n fo rma t ion h a s c onf i rmed t h e f l uv ia t i le c ha rac te r o f L owe r

T r ia ss ic s ed imen t s i nt h i s B a s in ( Sm i th & B u rge s s , 1 984 ) . T he R ive r eme rged a tt h en o r ther ne nd o ft h e Wo rce s te rB a s in a nd d i v ided i n to as e r ie so fl ow s i nuo s i ty b ra id ed c hanne l s ,w h ich s p read o u to ve r ab road p l a in b ounded b y t h e We l sh U p land s , t h e Me r c ian H igh land s a nd t h eP enn ine H igh (W i l l s 1 970b ) . T he ma in c hanne l f l owed n o r thwe s twa rd s i n to t h e C he sh i re B a s in ( F ig . 3 ) .

2 08

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T he S ed imen ta ry R o ck s F l in t T he mo s ts t r ik ing f e a tu re ( Tab le I V ) i st h e v e ry s ma l l a ve rage s i ze o fa r te f ac t s o ff l in t . T h i s h a s l e d t o ap red ic tab le u nde r rep re sen ta t ion ( Tab le s L eva l lo i s t e chn ique .

o fs uch h eavy t o o l s a sh andaxe s a nd , i n de ed , a l so o f

T he p re sence o f s ma l l a nd e v iden t ly e xhaus ted f l in t c o re s i lu s t ra te t h e f u l l

e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h i sr aw m a t e r ia lo ns i te f o l lowed b y a bandonmen to ft h ef u l ly r educed c o re s .

T he f a i r ly e ven r ep re sen ta t ion o fw a s te f l ake s a mong a l lr ock t ype s s how s t h a tn o u namb iguou s c a se c an r e ad i ly b e made f o rt h e i mpo r to ff i n i shed t o o l s o n ly . I ti sq u i te c l ea rt h a t a c tua lk napp ing t ook p lace a t t h e c ave . O fa l l t h er aw m a te r ia l s f l in t i st h e o ne , i n aB r i t i sh c on tex t , w he re o ne m igh t mo s t e xpec t t o f i nd e v idence o ft h ei mpo r to fc u ra t ed t o o l s . I ti so fi n te re s th e re , t h en , t h a tt h e s ma l l s i ze ( Tab le I ) o fa l l t h e ma in g roup so ff l in ta r tef a c t s ,r e la t ive t ot h eo t he rc ommon r ock s , l e nd sn o s uppo r tt os uch av i ew a nd i mp l ie s r a the r t h a t t h e ma ter ia l w a s p i cked o u t f r om l o ca l g l ac ia l d r if t . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic r o l l ing a nd s t a in ing o f s ome f l in t s ugge s t s as ou rce i nr i ve r g rave l s .

T he u l t ima te g eo log ica l s ou rce s o f t h e t wo

d i f f e ren tf o rm s o ff l in t p re sen t -c oa le sced lep i sphe r ic a nd s ke le ta l -r ich -r ema in , h oweve r , am a t te r o f i n f e rence ( C lay ton , 1 984 , 1 86 -192 ) , a l though t h e w e s t c oa s t o f S co t land , s ome 3 00 k i lome t re s t o t h e n o r th , i s al i ke ly s ou rce .

S i l ic ic s and s tones ,s i l t s tones a nd mud s tone s T he s ed imen ta ry r ock si nt h i sg roup a r ea l lh i gh ly s i l ic i f ied . A n i mpo r tan tc on t ra s t mu s tb e made h e re w i th t h e a bundan t mud s tone p ebb le s w h ich o ccu ri nt h e c ave d epo s i t s b u tw h ich t e nd t ob e l i t t le i fa ta l l s i l ic if ied a nd s o a r e g ene ra l ly q u i te u n su i tab le f o r i mp lemen t m anufac tu re . T h i s g roup i sn o t ac ohe ren to ne b u tc l ea r ly s uch r ock s , a l ong w i th t h eo the rr aw ma te r ia l s r e p re sen ted o n ly af ew t ime s ,w e re u sed e xped i t iou s ly a so cca s ion o f e r ed .

T he V o lcan ic R ock s R icha rd B ev in s ' a ccoun t( i nG reen e ta t ,i np re s s ) o ft h e mode o fd epo s i t ion a nd p e t ro logy o ft h e v o lcan ic r o ck s i sb a s ic t ot h e a ccoun tw h ich f o l low s . We m ay n o te t wo d iv i s ion s o fp a r t icu la r i mpo r tance : a tt h e t ime o ff o rma t ion ,r hyo l i te a nd f e ld spa r -phyr ic l a va s a r ec r y s ta l l ized f r om al i qu id s t a te a nd s oa r e i s o t rop ic i nc ompo s i t ion a nd a r e l e ss l i ke ly , i ng ene ra l , t oh ave d eve loped mu l t ip le f r ac tu re c l eavage s . T he o t he r r o ck s -i gn imb r i te s a nd t u f f s -a r ed epo s i ted i nb ed s a nd c l eavage s a r en o rma l ly d eve loped . F ine s i l ic ic t u f f m ay b es epa ra ted f r om t h el a t te rg roup : i ti sn o rmaly d epo s i ted ( a sd u s t )i nt h in b ed s a nd i ti sa cco rd ing ly u n l ike ly t h a t l a rge c obb le s o ft h i s m a ter ia l w ou ld o f ten b e f ound a l though , i nf a c t , t h e l a rge s t a r tefac t f ound o n s i te , ah andaxe r oughou t , i sa c tua l ly o f t h i s ma te r ia l , t h e e xcep t ion p rov ing t h e r u le .

I ti s

i mpor tan t t on o te , h oweve r , t h a t u nde r s tand ing o f t h e i nna te c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e se r ock s c anno t b e a pp l ied u ncr i t ica l ly t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e i rf l ak ing c ha rac t er i s t ic s . A n i mpo r tan t s e conda ry f a c to ri s t h e s ub sequen t s t ruc tu ra lh i s to ry o ft h er ock s . I ti sc l ea r( Cowa rd a nd S iddon s , 1 979 ) t h a t t h e d eg ree s o f s t ra in w h ich d eve loped i nd i f f e ren tr eg ion so ft h eS nowdon ian m a s s if l ong a f te rt h ef o rma t ion o ft h er o ck s w i l lh ave b een q u i te v a r iab le i nt h e i re f f e c ta nd , t h u s ,o r ig ina l ly i d en t ica lr aw ma te r ia l s w i l lh ave d eve loped q u i te d i f f e ren td eg ree so fc l eavage i nd i f f e ren tg eog raph ica l a r ea s . T hu s ,k now ledge o ft h ec ompo s i t ion a nd mode o f f o rma t ion o f t h e r ock s c an d o n o mo re t h an t o c on t r ibu te t o o ur u nde r s tand ing o f t h e v e ry c omp lex g eo log ica l h i s to ry o f t h e P onmewydd a r tef ac t s . d eve loped c l eavage si ns om ea r t ef a c t so fa l lr ock g roup s .

2 27

I n t h e e ven t , v i sua l i n spec t ion s how s w e l l -

TABLE I V P on tnewydd C ave . T he d if e ren t ia lr ep re sen ta t ion b yw e igh to fa r te f ac t so fd i f f e r en tr aw ma te r ia l s . T he r ock g roup sh ave b een s imp l if ied f r om t ho se u sed b y B ev in s ( i nG reen 1 984 , 1 94 ) a cco rd ing t ot he f o l low ing s y s tem : I . a -c . F l in ta nd c her t ; I L I gn imb r i te ; I I . R hyo l i t e , f l ow -banded p e r l i t ic r hyo l i te , q ua r tz -phy r ic l ava ; I V . F e ld spa r -phy r ic l ava ,p henoc ry s t ic l a va , f e ld spa r -po rphy ry ; V . F ine s i l ic ic t uf ; V I . A l l t u f f s e xcep t f i ne s i l ic ic t u f f ; V I I . S ands ton es , l ime s tones , q ua r tz i te , s i l t s tone a nd mud s tone ; V I I I . Qua r tz . I X . Ande s i te , m ic rod io r i te ; X . Dac i te ; X I . B a sa l t . F inds f r om e xcava t ion s 1 978 -86 , n ine teen th c en tu ry f i nds i nt he Na t iona l Mu seum o f Wa les ,p lu s a r tef ac t s i nt he S edgw ick Museum o fG eo logy , C amb r idge . We igh t s a re i ng ram s . Comp le te A r te f ac t s

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TABLE V P on tnewydd C ave . F requenc ie so fa r t ef ac t sw i th c o r tex b yp r inc ipa lr ock g roup . T he p e rcen tage o fc o r tex o na r tef ac t s i sc a lcu la t ed t ak ing b o th ma in s u rf ac es o ft he a r tefac ti n to a ccoun t : t hus av a lue o f5 0% wou ld s ugges te i the rt ha to ne e n t i re s u r fa ce , o rt ha t5 0% o fe ach s u r fa ce w a sc o r t ica l . F ind s f r om e xcava t ion s 1 978 -86 ; n ine teen th c en tu ry f i nd si nt he Na t iona l Mu seum o f Wa les ;a nd a r tef ac t si nt he S edgw ick Mu seum o fG eo logy ,C amb r idge . F requency o fa r tef ac t s

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I gn imbr i te T he n umbe ro fa r t e f ac t so fi g n imb r i te i ss im i la rt ot h a to ff l in tb u tt h em ean w e igh to fe a ch i s f i ve t ime s g r ea t e r . I g n imbr i t ew a s ,h oweve r , l i t t le u s ed f o rL eva l lo i sp roduc t s , p e rhap s b ecau se o fi t sw e l l d eve lop ed p a t t e rn o ff r ac tu r e c l eavage s , a nd i ti st h ef o rm s o fn on -Leva l lo i s c o re -e v id en t ly u s ed f o rt h e p roduc t ion o fm o s t ly u n r e touched f l ake s -w h ich a ppea r m o s tc ommon ly w i th af r equency r a ng ing f r om t w ice t ot e n t ime s t h e f r equency f ound w i th p roduc t s o ft h e o t he r v o lcan ic r o ck s . I tm ay b e s i gn if ican t h e r et h a tt h eo ne L eva l lo i sc o r ep r e sen ti sa c tua l ly u nf in i shed .

R hyo l i t e a nd F e ld spar -phyr i cl a va R hyo l i t eh a sm uch i nc ommon , a sm igh tb ee xpe c t ed o np e t ro log i ca l g round s , w i th t h e a r tef a c t r a nge a nd i mp lemen t f r equenc ie s o ff e ld spa r -phy r ic l a va . T he se g roup s a r e a c co rd ing ly c on s id e red t o ge the r . T he h i ghe s tf r equenc ie s o ft h eh eavy d u ty t o o l s -h andaxe s , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s a nd c l eave r s -b e long t ot h e se t wo g roup s . A ga in b o th g roup s d i sp lay c ompa rab ly h i gh f r equenc ie so fL eva l lo i sp roduc t sw i th r e la t ive ly r e du ced f r equenc ie so fd i sco ida la nd o t he rc o r e s . S i de a nd t r an sve r se s c rape r f r equenc ie s a r e r a the r l ow b u t a r e c ompa rab le w i th t h e f i gu re s h e re g i ven f o r o t he r p r inc ipa lv o lcan ic r o ck typ e s ( a no ve ra l lr a nge o f3 . 5 t o5 . 7% ) . T uf f s T he t u f f s a ppea rt od i sp lay f i gu re sc ompa rab le t ot h er hyo l i te /f e ld spa r -phy r ic l a va g roup , a l though t h i sw ou ld n o tn ece s sa r i ly b ee xpec t ed o ng eo log ica lg r ound s s i nce t h es ame t y pe o fc l eavage p a t t er nf o und i ni g n imbr i te si sa l so p r e sen ti nt u f f s . H oweve r ,m uch d ep end so nt h ep r ec i se s ou rce a nd s t ruc tu ra lh i s to ry o ft h e d epo s i t s . I ti sc l ea r , f o r i n s tance , t h a t s om e s ha rd ic t u f f s w e re p a r t icu la r ly u n su i tab le f o r a r te f a c t m anuf a c tu re ( Newcome r , 1 984 ,T ab le V .8 ,p . 157 ) . T he t u f f s , t o o , a r ed if i cu l tt oi d en t i fy m a c ro scop ica l ly a nd , a c co rd ing ly , ap rog ramme o ft h in se c t ion ing i su nde r w ay t oc onf i rm t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fa r t e f ac t s a s s igned t ot h i sg r oup a nd t os e ew he the ri tc an u s e f u l ly b ef u r the rs ubd iv ided . F ine s i l ic ic t uf A n i n te r e s t ing c on t ra s tw i th t h ep r eced ing g roup s i sm ade b y f i ne s i l i c ic t u f f , w h ich h a s b een s epa ra t ed h e re f o rs pe c ia ls t udy o nt h eb a s i so fi t sh i gh f r equency ( 5 9% )w i th in t h eg r oup o fT uf f s a s aw ho le . H e re t h e i n t ra rock g roup f r equency o f8 . 5% f o rL eva l lo i s p roduc t s c ompa r e s w e l l , g i ven t h e v e ry s ma l ln umbe r s i n vo lved , w i th t h er hyo l i t e s ( 1 0 .5% ) , t u f f s ( 9 .6% ) a nd f e ld spa r -phy r ic l a va s ( 1 1 .6% ) b u tt h ep a t ter ni sn o tr epea ted e i the ri nt h ec a se o fh andaxe s ( w i th v e ry m uch l owe rf r equenc ie s ) o rw i th n on -Leva l lo i s c o re s w h ich a r e a l b u ta b sen t . T he l owe rm ean s i ze o fa r tef a c t s o ff i ne s i l ic ic t u f f( FST ) p robab ly r ef l ec t s r aw m a t e r ia l ( i . e . p ebb le ) s i ze b u tt h er e la t ive s c a r c i ty o fc o r e s s ugge s t s t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tF ST c o r e s may h ave b een r emoved f r om t h e s i te f o r f u r the r u se e l sewhe re ( Tab le I ) . A ga in , t h e s c a r c i ty o fF ST h andaxe sm ay r ef le c tt h el i ke ly s ma l le rs i ze o fp ebb le so ft h i s m a t e r ia l .

As t udy o ft h ep r e sence o fc o r t ex o n a r tef a c t s g i ve s i n t e re s t ing r e su l t s ( Tab le V ) . T he h i gh f r equency o f c or t ica l f l ake s o f a l l r o ck t y pe s r ef lec t s t h e r e gu la r u se o fp ebb le s a s r aw m a te r ia l . I ti st emp t ing t o s ugge s tt h a tt h er e la t ive ly l owe rf r equenc ie s o fa r t e f ac t s o ff i ne s i l ic ic t u f fw i th l a rge a r ea s o fc o r tex ( i . e . m o r e t h an 2 5% a s ap e r cen tage o fb o th s i de s o ft h e a r te f ac t ) m ay i n d ica t e t h a tc o r e s o ft h i s r aw m a t e r ia l w e re b rough t t ot h e s i te a l r eady r o ughed o u t . T h i s w ou ld b e c on s i s ten t w i th t h e n o t ion t h a t F ST c o r e s w e r er emoved f r om t h e s i te a f t e ru se . C e r ta in ly , a n a r chaeo log i s t ' s v a lue judgemen tw ou ld s e e t h i s f i ne g r a ined v o lcan ic r o ck a s ap a r t icu la r ly a trac t ive r aw m a t er ia l f o ra r te f a c tm anuf a c t u r eo u to ft h es e le c t ion l o ca l ly a va i lab le .

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D i scus s ion D i scu ss ion mu s t b eg in w i th a n o ve rv iew o ft h e u se o ft h e d i f f e ren tr aw ma te r ia l s . I th a s b een s ugge s ted a bove t h a t r aw ma ter ia l w a s r e la t ive ly a bundan t a nd t h a t k napp ing t ook p lace o n o r n ea r t h e s i te .

A

s imp le a na ly s i s ( Tab le V I )o fo b se rved a nd e xpe c ted f r equenc ie so fi mp lemen tt y pe s ( t he l a t te rw e igh t ed b y t h er aw m a t er ia lf r equenc ie s ) s ugge s t s ad eg re eo fr aw m a ter ia l s e lec t ion . H andaxe s a nd o the rh eavy d u ty t o o l sw e re m ade p ref e ren t ia l ly o fr hyo l i te a nd f e ld spa r -phyr ic l a va a nd p e rhap sa l so o fm i sce l laneous t u f f s . Sma l l r aw m a te r ia l s i ze p robab ly a ccoun t s f o rt h er educed o ccu r rence o fh andaxe s o ff l in ta nd f i ne s i l ic ic t u f f .

( The s ed imen ta ry r ock s g roup i s ad ive r se o ne a nd w i l l n o t b e c ommen ted o n h e re . ) T he r aw

m a te r ia l s u sed f o rL eva l lo i s t e chn ique g ene ra l ly c o inc ide w i th t ho se p ref e r red f o r h andaxe -manuf ac tu re a l though w e m ay n o te t h a t t h i s i sn o tt h e c a se w i th f i ne s i l ic ic t u f fa nd t h a t i g n imbr i te -p e rhap s b ecau se o fi t s w e l l d eve loped c l eavage -i sp oo r ly r ep re sen ted . S c rape r s c l ea r ly wou ld n o t h ave s uf f e red f r om p rob lem so fa va i lab le r aw m a ter ia l s i ze a nd s how t h ea n t ic ipa ted h i gh i n c idence si nt h ef l in ta nd f i ne s i l ic ic t u f fg roup s b u t as u rp r i s ing ly l ow i n c idence i nr hyo l i te f o r w h ich t h e re i sn o o bv iou s g eo log ica l r ea son . N on -Leva l lo i s c o re s s how am a rked ly h i gh l e ve l o fa bandonmen to n -s i te i nt h e c a se o fi g n imbr i te a nd a m uch l owe rt h an e xpec t ed o ccu r rence o ff i ne s i l ic ic t u f fc o re s . I nt h e l a t te rc a se , t h er ea son may l i e w i th c o r e r emova l .

A na ly s i s o fb r eakage f r equenc ie s i si n fo rma t ive . Ap lo to ft h e ma in r o ck t ype s u sed ( Tab le V I I ) s how s a r a nge o fa ve rage v a lue sg ene ra l ly b e tween 2 5 -35% . Two r o ck s s how h i ghe rf r equenc ie s o fb r eakage -f l in t a nd f i ne s i l ic ic t u f f -a nd t h e se h ave b o th b een n o ted a bove a s b e ing c ha rac te r ized b y i mp lemen t s o f g ene ra l ly s ma l l s i ze .

I n t h e c a se o f f l in t , s i ze c on s t ra in t s w ou ld n o t g ene ra l ly h ave p erm i t ted t h e

m anuf ac tu re o f l a rge a r tefac t s a nd i ti sc l ea r , t oo , t h a t t h e f l in t w a s o f ten d eep ly f l awed . T he s ou rce m a te r ia l o ft h ef i ne s i l ic ic t u f fa r tef ac t s i sl i ke ly , a sw e h ave s e en , t oh ave b een o f ten s ma l l i ns i ze . F ine s i l ic ic t u f f , o fa l l t h ev o lcan ic r o ck t y pe s , i sa l so t h er o ck c l o se s ti ns t ruc tu re t of l in t -h av ing ah i gh s i l ica c on t en t , ag ene ra l a b sence o fc l eavage p l ane s a nd ap ref e ren t ia lc oncho ida l f r ac tu re . T he h ighe rb reakage r a te s o f f i ne s i l ic ic t u f f p robab ly r e f lec t b o th t h e s im i la r i ty o f t h e ma te r ia l t o f l in t a nd t he h ighe r v u lne rab i l i ty o fs ma l lp ebb le s t ob e com ing d eep ly f l awed t h roughou t t h e i rt h ickne s s d u r ing e xpo su re a nd n a tu ra lt r an spo r t .

A cknow ledg emen t s Ia mp l ea sed t oa cknow ledge R ache lE ame s a nd E l izabe th Wa lke rf o rv e ry c on s ide rab le a s s i s tance w i th t h e p o s t -excava t ion a na ly s i sr epo r t ed h e re . Ia mi ndeb ted a l so t oS t ephen K emp f o r mak ing a va i lab le s ome o f t h er e su l t s o fh i s 1 987 B .A .d i s ser ta t ion f o ri n c lu s ion h e re .

7D ecembe r 1 987

2 31

REFERENCES

B ev in s , R .E . ,

1 984 .

P e t ro log ica l I nve s t iga t ions .

I n : G reen , H .S .

P on tnewydd C ave .

A L owe r

P a laeo l i th ic Hom in id s i te i n Wa le s . T he F i r s tR epo r t . C a rd if f : N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s . ( Qua te rna ry S tud ie s Monog raph N o . 1 . ) , 1 93 -198 .

C lay ton , C . , 1 984 . T he f l in t s . I n : G reen , H .S . P on tnewydd C ave . AL owe rP a laeo l i th ic Hom in id s i te i n Wa le s . T he F i r s tR epo r t . C a rd if f : N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s . ( Qua terna ry S tud ie s Monograph No . 1 . ) , 1 86 -192 .

C owa rd , M .P . , & S iddon s , A .W .B . ,

1 979 .

Ha r r i s , A .L . , Ho l land , A .L . , & L eake , B .E .

T he t e c ton ic e vo lu t ion o f t h e We l sh C a lendon ide s .

I n :

T he C a ledon ide s o f t h e B r i t i sh I s le s -R ev iewed 1 979 .

L ondon : G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o fL ondon , 1 87 -198 .

G reen ,H .S . , 1 984 .

P on tnewydd C ave . AL owe rP a laeo l i th ic Hom in id s i te i n Wa le s . T he F i r s tR epo r t .

C a rd if f :N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s .( Qua te rna ry S tud ie s Monog raph No . 1 . ) .

G reen , H .S . , B ev in s , R .E . , B u l l , P .A . , C u r ran t , A .P . , D ebenham , N .C . , Emb le ton , C . , I vanov ich , M . , L iv ings ton H . , R ae , A .M . , S chwa rcz , H . , & S t r inger , C .B . , ( I n p re ss ) .

T he A cheu l ian s i te o f

P on tnewydd C ave , Wa le s : i t s g eomo rpho logy , s t ra t ig raphy , c h rono logy , f auna , f o s s i l h om in id s , g eo logy a nd l i th ic i ndu s t ry w i th in i t sp a laeoeco log ica lc on tex t . L 'An th ropo log ie .

K emp , S . , 1 987 . T he r e cogn i t ion o fm ic rodeb i tage f r om t h ea r chaeo log ica l s i te s o fP onmewydd a nd t h e Hoy le C ave s . U npub l i shed B .A .d i sse r ta t ion . I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon .

N ewcome r , M .H . ,

1 984 .

F lak ing e xpe r imen t s w i th P on tnewydd r aw ma ter ia l s .

I n : G reen , H .S .

P on tnewydd C ave . AL owe rP a laeo l it h ic Hom in id s i te i n Wa le s . T he F i r s t R epo r t . C a rd if f : N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s . ( Qua te rna ry S tud ie s Monog raph No . 1 . ) , 1 53 -158 .

2 32

CRESVVELL CRAGS

E d i to r ia ln o t e

B ecau se ap rom i sed c on t r ibu t ion t ot h i s v o lume o n t h e n on -f l in t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e c ave s a tC re swe l lC r ag sw a sn o ti nt h ee nd f o r thcom ing , t h eE d i to r sh ave a temp ted t oa s se s st h en umbe r s f r om t h e Mou s t e r ian l a ye r s i nt h e p r inc ipa l c ave s . Mou s t e i ian s s e em t oh ave b een t h e e a r l i e s to ccupan t s o ft h e n ume rou s c ave s i nt h e a r ea , a nd i nt h e c omp le t e a b sence o fl o ca l f l in t ( t he n ea r e s t s ou rce i s6 0 k i lome t r e s a way i nL inco ln sh i re ) t o o l s w e r e m ade o fq ua r t z i t e a nd i r on s tone , a nd o n ly o cca s iona l ly o f f l in t . F l in t w a s t h e c ho sen m a te r ia l o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h un t e r s w ho s ub sequen t ly o ccup ied t h e c ave s ,a nd t h ey l e f tb eh ind g r ea tq uan t i t ie so fa r te f a c t s . T he s t o ry o ft h e C re swe l l C rag s e xcava t ion s i s as o r ry o ne . B e tween 1 862 a nd 1 921 n ume rou s b ad ly c on t ro l led d i gg ing st o ok p l a ce a nd r e co rd ing w a si n adequa te o rn on -ex i s ten t . T he re w e re q ua r re l sb e tween 1 9 th -cen tu ry c ave d i gge r s ,a r te f ac t sw e re s c a t te red o rl o s t ,a nd t h ew o rk o fm ode rn s c ien t if ic e xcava to r s h a s b een m ade e x t reme ly d i f f icu l t . E ven n ow ag r ea td ea lo fu nce r ta in ty a nd d i f f e r ence o fo p in ion e x i s t s o n m any a spe c t so ft h ea r cha eo logy o ft h ec ave s . T he mo s tr e cen t s ub s tan t ia l a temp tt ou n rave l t h ed i scove r ie s a nd t h e e r ro r s o ft h ep a s t , a nd t oi n te rp re t t h e f i nd ing s o fe xcava to r s u p t ot h e p r e sen t t ime i st h a t o fR .D .S . J enk in son i nC re swe l l C rag s : L a te P l e i s tocene S i te s i nt h eE a s tM id land s , p ub l i shed i n aB r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t , B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 22 , i n1 984 . J enk in son ' so wn e xp lo ra t ion s , w i th ad e ta i led a na ly s i so ft h ev a s ta moun to ff a una lm a t e r ia l , a nd a n e ndeavou r t os epa ra te f a c t f r om c on jec tu re , a r e p r e sen ted v e ry f u l ly , a l ong w i th ac omp rehen s ive b i b l iog raphy . T he e nqu i re ri sr e f e r r ed t ot h i sv o lum ea nd t h eb i b l iog raphy f o rf u r the ri n fo rm a t ion .

Mou s te r ian a r t ef a c t s a r e c onf ined t oP in H o le , C hu r ch H o le , a nd R ob in Hood ' s C ave s , b u tn umbe r s a r e i mpo s s ib le t od e t e rm ine , a nd a pp rox ima t ion s m u s ts e rve . A tP in H o le f ou rh andaxe s , s eve ra lc hoppe r s , s ome s c rape r s a nd f l ake s t o ta l a bou t5 0 . Q ua r t z i t e a nd i r on s tone p i ece s f r om C hu rch Ho le n umbe r2 0o r s o . F rom R ob in H ood ' s C ave B oyd D awk in s r e co rd s4 79 q ua r tz i t e , i r on s tone a nd b a sa l ti mp lemen t s b u t o n ly 9 0o ft h e se a r ee x t an ti nc o l lec t ion s t o day . B i f ace s w e r ef ew , s c rape r s n um e rou s , a nd t h e m a in r aw m a te r ia lw a sl o ca l ly a va i lab le B un te rq ua r tz i te p ebb le s .

Wha teve r f i na l c onc lus ion i sr e ached a bou t t h e C re swe l l Mou s te r ian , i fe ve r i ti s , t h e s i te p rov ide s i n d i spu tab le e v idence o f t h e p ene t ra t ion o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h un te r s a s f a r n or th a s t h e p re sen t D e rby sh i re /No t t ingham sh i r e b o rde r , a nd p robab ly i n d ica te s s e a sona lp u r su i to fg ame i ns p r ing a nd e a r ly s umme r . I fn on f l in ta r t ef a c t sw e re u ncove red b e fo r e 1 875 ( a s S i rJ ohn E van sr e po r ted i n1 897 )t h ey m u s t h ave b e en t h ef i r s tr e co rd ed i nB r i ta in , t h ough n o to fc ou r se t h eo l de s t .

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AFR ICA : EVERYTHING BUT F L INT

R .R .I nskeep

T he t i le o ft h i s v o lume , a nd t h e v e ry f a c tt h a ti th a s b een w r i t ten a ta l l , i nd ica te s t h a tP a laeo l i th ic t oo l s i n m a te r ia l s o the r t h an f l in t a r e s omewha t o f ar a r i ty i nB r i ta in , w h i le t h e c on ten t s s ugge s t t h a t w he re n on f l in t m a te r ia l s h ave b een u sed i ti sg ene ra l ly i nt h e c on t ex to ft h eL owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , t hough t h e Me so l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s o ft h en o r ther nB r i t i sh I s le s , a nd p e rhap s t h e s ou th -we s to f f e r e xcep t ion s t ot h i s r u le .

I n A f r ica C re taceou s d epo s i t s , t hough w ide sp read , o ccu r mo s t ly i n t h e f o rm o f s and s tone s , c l ay s , a nd g rave l s , a nd a l though c ha lk i sp re sen t i nt h e v i c in i ty o fK ha rga O a s i s , i nE gyp t ( Ca ton -Thomp son , 1 952 : 2 ) , t h e re i sn o i nd ica t ion t h a t i ty i e lded f l in t o rc he r t a s ar aw ma te r ia l f o r s t one t o o l manuf ac tu re a tt h e o a s i s . H oweve r , T er t ia ry ( Eo cene a nd O l igocene ) l ime s tone s a r e w ide sp read i nL ibya a nd E gyp ta nd w e re a n i mpo r tan t s ou rce o f h igh q ua l i ty c her t , i nn odu la r a nd t a bu la r f o rm , o r d e r ived i n g rave l s , u sed f o r e ve ry th ing f r om A cheu l ian h andaxe s t o r i pp le -f laked k n ive s a nd s i ck le -b lade s o f t h e N eo l i th ic .

B u t

m a t e r ia l so ft h i sk ind a nd q ua l i ty a r eg ene ra l ly l im i ted t ot h eN i le V a l ley a nd t h eS aha ra .

I nt h eZ ambez iV a l ley , a bove t h eV ic to r ia F a l l s , a nd e l sewhe re i nZ amb ia ,Z imbabwe , a nd p robab ly f a r the r a f ie ld t h e re o ccu rt h in , d i scon t inuou sp a t che s o fc ha lcedony , a ppa ren t ly o fP l iocene a ge , a nd r ep re sen t ing s upe r f ic ia l , s andy , s u r face l ime s tone s w h ich b ecame s i l ic if ied s oon a f te r d epo s i t ion . Whe re t h e se o ccu r t h ey h ave b een u sed e x ten s ive ly b y t o o l -make r s f r om A cheu l ian t ime s t ot h e L a t e r S tone A ge , d e sp i te t h e f a c tt h a tt h e ma te r ia l i so f ten s ho tt h rough w i th i regu la rc av i t ie s , s uch t h a tt h e l a rge rt o o l s d i sp lay h i gh ly i regu la rs u r f ace s a nd m ay b er i dd led w i th h o le s . T he s ma l le rt o o l so ft h eM idd le S tone A ge l a rge ly e s cape s uch d ef ec t s , a nd t h ey p re sen tn op rob lem s - a ta l lf o rt h e s ma l l t o o l s o ft h eL a t e rS tone A ge .

T he u se o fs i lcre te A t n ume rous l o ca l i t ie s i nt h e K a laha r i B a s in , a nd a l ong t h e s ou the rn C ape c oa s ta l z one , s i lc r e te s h ave f o rmed i nr e cen t g eo log ica l t ime s .

I n t h e K a laha r i t h ey r ep re sen t s i l ic if ica t ion o f v a r iou s c on t inen ta l

d epo s i t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e C enozo ic K a laha r i B ed s , w he rea s i nt h e s ou th t h ey a r e a s soc ia ted w i th d eep w ea the r ing p rof i le s d eve loped i nt h e b ed rock . T he l a t te r m ay o ccu r a s ma s s ive c app ing s , o ra ss hee t s o r d i sc re te l e n se sw i th in t h ew ea the red r o ck p ro f i le . I nt h eK a laha r iB ed s t h es i lc re t e so f t en r ep re sen ts i l ic if ied c a lc re te s a nd s ha l low ( p laya ) l a ke d epo s i t s , a nd t e nd t oo ccu r a r ound p l aya ma rg in s , a l ong f o s s i l s t ream c hanne l s a nd , r a re ly i n e sca rpmen t s .

T he f o rm may v a ry f r om s ma l l , i r regu la r s i l ic if ied p a tche s t o

c on t inuou sh or izon s ( Summe r f ie ld , 1 983 ) .

T he f ab r ic o f t h e se s i lc re te s v a r ie s g rea t ly f r om t r ans lucen t c ha lcedon ic t o f a i r ly a mo rphou s , o paque ma te r ia l w i th f l ak ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s n o t u n l ike f l in t , a nd c ong lome ra t ic ma sse s w i th s ma l l p ebb le s o r d e t r i ta l m a te r ia l i n as i l iceou s m a t r ix . T he c ha lcedon ic f o rm s s e em r a the r r a re a nd , f o r p rac t ica l f l ak ing p u rpo se s , o ccu ro n ly i ns ma l lp i ece s , w he rea s t h eo paque , c he r t l ike f o rm s o ccu ri nl a rge rm a s se s a nd w e re c ommon ly u sed f o rs t r ik ing s ma l l b l ade s i nt h eH ow ie son ' sP oo r te p i sode o ft h eM idd le S tone A ge ( MSA ) a t± 70 .000 B P , a nd w e re e x ten s ive ly u sed i nt h e L a t e r S tone A ge . I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t a l ong t h e s ou thern C ape c oa s ta l z one , a nd i nt h e C ape F o lded Moun ta in s , s i lc re te w a s m uch u sed i nt h e H ow ie son ' s P oo r t

2 35

s t age o ft h e MSA , w he re s ma l l b l ade s w e re i nv ogue , a nd v a r iou s f o rm s o fb acked b l ade s w e re f a sh ioned , b u ti nt h ep reced ing a nd s ucceed ing s t age s ( o ft h e MSA ) l o ca lq ua r tz i t e w a s t h eo ve rwhe lm ing ly d om inan t r aw ma ter ia l , w h i le s i lc re te a nd o ther n on -qua r tz i te r ock s " r ank mo re a s c u r io s i t ies t h an p a r t o f t h e i n du s t r ia lt r ad i t ion " ( S inge ra nd Wyme r , 1 982 :7 8 ) .

Q ua r tz i t ep r e f e r r ed R eco rd so ft h eu se o fs i lc re te i nt h eE a r ly S tone A ge ( ESA ) a r en o ta bundan t . D eacon ( 1 970 ) r e co rd s 1 % o f 1 324 p i ece s a tt h e Amanz i s p r ing s s i t e whe re , d e sp i t e t h e a ppa ren t ly a bundan tp re sence o fs i lc re te o n t h e h i l l a bove t h e s p r ing s , q ua r tz i te c obb le s f r om t h eg rave l s a tt h eb a se o ft h eh i l lw e re p ref e r red ; a nd S eddon ( 1966 ) r e co rd s as ma l l d i sc c o re o f s i lcre te f r om t h e S t e l lenbo sch t ype l o ca l i ty i nt h e s ou thwe s t C ape . S inge ra nd C rawfo rd ( 1957 )r e co rd t h eu se o f" aw h i te o rc r eamy s i lc re t e ,q ua r tz i te , f e l spa rp o rphy ry ,o rs o f t s and s tone ... a nd t wo i mp lemen t s i nq ua r tz " f o r h andaxe s a tt h e H opef ie ld s i te ( home o f t h e S a ldanha s ku l l ) , a l though i ti st h e r e co l lec t ion o f t h e w r i te r t h a t t h e " wh i te o r c r eamy s i lc re te " w a s n o t t h e f i ne ' s i lky ' tex tu red v a r ie ty c ommon ly u sed i nt h e s ou thern C ape i n How ie son ' s P oo r t a nd L a te r S tone A ge i n du s t r ie s . S pec imen sc e r ta in ly o ccu r , a l so , i nc ong lome ra t ic s i lc re te .

I nr i ve rb a s in sd ra in ing t h eV en t e r sdo rp ( P recamb r ian ) l a va s ( i nt h en o r the rn C ape a nd SW T ran svaa l ) , a nd t h eD raken sbe rg l a va s ( l a te Me sozo ic ) i nt h e O range F ree S ta te a nd N a ta l , p ebb le s o fb anded c ha lcedony ( a ga te ) a r e n o t u ncommon , a nd h ave b een much u sed i nt h e L a te r S tone A ge .

T he p ebb le s i ze s a r e ,

h oweve r , t o o s ma l l t oh ave b een m uch u se i nE a r ly o rM idd le S tone A ge t ime s . F u r the r n or th , i ne a s t A f r ica , w he re v o lcan ic s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e G rea t R if t V a l ley a r e w ide sp read , o b s id ian i s a ma te r ia l e x t en s ive ly u sed i nK enya ,i nt h eM idd le a nd L a t e rS tone A ge , a nd a tt h eA cheu l ian s i t eo fK a r iandu s il a rge n umbe r so fh andaxe sw e re made f r om o b s id ian . T he u n re touched e dge so ff l ake s a r ee xceed ing ly s ha rp , b u t a r ev e ry b r i t t le . T h icken ing e dge s w i th r e touch d oe s much t oi n c rea se t h ed u rab i l i ty o fw o rk ing e dge s .

T he f o rego ing m a te r ia l s , w h i l s t w ide sp read i nA f r ica a r e o f ten o fl o ca l , a nd r e s t r ic t ed o ccu r rence , b u t i t s e em s a lmo s t c ha rac t e r i s t ic o fA f r ica t h a t a ny s t one t h a tc an b e f l aked , h a s b een f l aked a nd u sed . I nt h e H orn o f A f r ica C la rk ( 1954 ) men t ion s l a va , c he r t , s i lc re te , q ua r tz i te , f e r rug inou s s and s tone , s i l iceous s and s tone , b aked s ha le , c r y s ta l q ua r tz , a nd l im e s tone . I ti sd i f f icu l tt oq uan t ify t h e u se o ft h e se m a te r ia l s f r om t h ep ub l i shed e v idence , b u ti ta ppea r s t h a tt h ep r ef e r red m a te r ia li nt h eE SA w a s q ua r tz i te , w i th s ma l l q uan t i t ie s o fc he r t , w h i le i nt h e MSA a nd l a te r i ndu s t r ie s c he r t c l ea r ly p redom ina ted ( s ize o fc l a s t s m ay h ave p l ayed ar o le i nt h i s ) , w h i le t h er ema in ing r aw ma te r ia l s a ppea ra lmo s ta s' t r ace e l emen t s ' . I nN ige r ia S haw ( 1978 ) l i s t s E SA t oo l s ( handaxe s , c hoppe r s , c l eave r s , a nd ' S angoan p i ck s ' ) i nq ua r t z , b a sa l t , g ran i te , c ha lcedony , f e l s i te , a nd r hyo l i te , i n c lud ing o ne s i te i nw h ich a n e n t i re i ndus t ry w a s f o rmed f r om q ua r tz p ebb le s , i n c lud ing d i sc c o re s , i r regu la r c o re s , c hoppe r s , f l ake s , a nd o cca s iona l ' r ough b i f ace s ' a nd s t eep s c rape r s . Q ua r tz may o ccu r i n ma ss ive c hunk s , q u i te l a rge e nough f o rt h e l a rge s t A cheu l ian t o o l s , b u t i t t e nd s t of r ac tu re a l ong s t ruc tu ra lp l ane s , a nd i sg ene ra l ly r e ga rded ( by a r chaeo log i s t s ) a sa n i n t rac tab le a nd u nde s i rab le m a te r ia l .

Howeve r , Ic an r e ca l l b e ing s hown , b y L ou i s L eakey , i n 1 956 , af i ne ly s haped

t r iangu la rh andaxe i nq ua r tz , w hen h ew a s mak ing t h ep o in tt h a tc r af t sman sh ip w a sn o tn ece s sa r i ly l im i ted b y t h e n a tu re o f t h e r aw ma te r ia l .

I n many c a se s , i nN ige r ia , T anzan ia , a nd Z amb ia q ua r tz d om ina te s

m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o ft h eL a te rS tone A ge ; b u tf i ne ly f a sh ioned s ma l ls c rape r s a nd m ic ro l i th s w e r en one t h e le s s m ade f r om t h i sm a te r ia l

C lea r ly t h ec ho ice o fr aw ma t e r ia l o pen t oE a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te r S tone A ge p eop le w a s l im i ted b y t h e

2 36

l o ca l g eo logy , a nd f o r ac on t inen tt h e s i ze o fA f r ica i ti sn o tr e a l ly w i se t og ene ra l ize . B u t , p robab ly , t h e t wo c l a s se s o fr aw m a te r ia l s m o s t w ide ly a va i lab le t h roughou t A f r ica a r e q ua r tz i te s o fv a r iou s a ge s a nd v a ry ing c ha rac te r , a nd t h e g rea t v a r ie ty o f v o lcan ic r ock s , i n t ru s ive a nd e x t ru s ive ( ba sa l t s , d o le r i te s , r hyo l i t e s , t r achy te s , p o rphyr ie s , a nde s i te s ,p hono l i te s , e t c ) . Whe re t h e se d on o to u tc rop a tt h e s u r f ace t h ey a r e o f t en a va i lab le i ns t ream a nd r i ve rg rave l s f a rf r om t h ep a ren t s ou rce . Whe re a va i lab le i nc obb le s i ze , a r te fac t so ft h eE a r ly S tone A ge a r ec ommon ly m ade b yc obb le r educ t ion , a nd t h i s , mo re t h an t h en a tu re o f t h er aw ma te r ia li t se l f ,e xe r t s a no ve r r id ing i n f luence o nt h e mo rpho logy o ft h ef i n i shed a r te f ac t . I ndeed t h e s im i la r i ty b e tween c e r ta in O xfo rd sh i re q ua r t z i t e a r tef ac t s a nd E SA a r tef ac t s f r om O lduva i G o rge , a sJ one s ( 1982 : 1 0 -11 )n o ted , i sd ue mo re t ot h ef o rm o ft h eo r ig ina lc l a s tt h an t h ep e t ro logy o ft h er o ck .

Whe re m a ss ive b lock s , o rl a rge b ou lde r s ( o fq ua r tz i te o ri g neou sr o ck )w e re a th and ad if e ren ta pp roa ch w a s o f ten a dop ted , i nvo lv ing t h ed e ta ch ing o fv e ry l a rge f l ake s w h ich , w i th am in imum o fs e conda ry r e touch , a nd o f ten s ome b u lba r r educ t ion , p rov ided a lmo s t i n s tan t h andaxe s o r c l eave r s . T he m e thod w a s f i r s t d e scr ibed i n1 925 f o rs i te s i nt h ew e s t ern S aha ra , a nd n amed T a cheng i tt e chn ique , a f te ro ne o ft h ep r inc ipa l s i te s ( Goodw in , 1 933 ) . T he t e chn ique i sf ound t h roughou tA f r ica , a nd i sw e l l e xemp l if ied a tO lo rge sa i l ie ( I saac , 1 977 ) , O lduva i ( Leakey , M .D . 1 971 ,1975 ) , a nd Mon tagu C ave i nt h e s ou thern C ape moun ta in s ( Ke l le r , 1 973 : 7 7 ) : i ndeed , i ti sa lmo s t ah a l lma rk o ft h e A cheu l ian i nA f r ica , w he re t h e p o ten t ia l f o r i t e x i s t ed .

T he V ic tor ia We s tt e chn ique A n i n te re s t ing v a r ian to ft h e t e chn ique o ccu r s i nS ou th A f r ica i nt h e Y ounge rG rave l s o ft h e V aa l R ive r , a nd i np a r t so ft h eK a roo ,w he re l a rge b ou lde r s o fd o le r i te , o ra mygda lo ida ld i aba se o ccu r . Am a s s ive f l ak e i ss t ruck f r om ab ou lde r , a nd r educed t o s ome th ing r e semb l ing av ery l a rge , r oughou t f o r ah andaxe , d e l ibe ra te ly s t eep a nd d e ep o nt h eo ne f a ce , a nd s ha l low ly d omed o nt h eo the r . F rom t h e l a t te rf a ce al a rge s i de s t ruck f l ake i sd e tached , e xac t ly i nt h em anne ro f af l ake f r om ac l a s s ic E u ropean L eva l lo i s ( t o r to i se ) c o re . T he r e su l tan t f l ake i st r ea ted i n much t h e s ame w ay a s aT acheng i t f l ake , t of o rm ah andaxe o r c l eave r . T he f o rm d e sc r ibed w a s , b yi t sd i scove re r , g i ven t h ec o l loqu ia lA f r ikaan sn ame o fh oende rbek ( h en b eak ) b ecau se o fi t s g ro s s r e semb lance i ns hape . T he se a r e , h oweve r , a ccompan ied b y r ounde r v e r s ion s , t e rmed ' h o r se -hoof c o re s , a nd t h e t wo , t o ge the r , w e re t e rmed V ic to r ia We s tC o re s , Ia nd I . r e spec t ive ly , a f t e r t h e t ype l o ca l i ty . T hey a r e , o fc ou r se i n t e re s t ing a nd e a r ly e xamp le s o ft h e b e t te r -known L eva l lo i s t e chn ique , t hough g ene ra l ly p roduc ing l a rge r f l ake s t h an t h e i r E u ropean c oun te rpa r t s ; p a r t icu la r ly t h e V ic to r ia We s t Ic o re s . T he l a t te r( c o re s ) c an v a ry i nl e ng th f r om 6i n che s t oa s much a s 1 7 i n che s , a nd i n w e igh tf r om 2l b s t o6 7 l b s . T he l a rge s tr e co rded ( s id e s t ruck )f l ake f r om s uch ac o re m ea su re s 1 4 .5 i n che s b y 8i n che s , a nd i s3 . 5 i n che s t h ick .

F o r g ood d e sc r ip t ion s s e e V an R ie t L owe ( 1937 ) a nd Goodw in

( 1933 ) . A l imen ( 1957 ) h a s c l a imed t h e t e chn ique f o r t h e C ongo B a s in , b u t t h i s s eem s u n l ike ly , a nd a sa w e l ld eve loped m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique i ts eem s l i ke ly t ob el im i ted t o as ma l lp a r to fS ou th A f r ica , a nd t o t o ugh i g neou s ma te r ia l .

F lake st he mo s tu sefu lt oo l s I nt h e p re -Acheu l ian i ndu s t r ie s , O ldowan a nd D eve loped O ldowan , i n c lud ing t h e K a ra r i i ndu s t ry o fE a s t T u rkana , w he re h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a r en o ti n vo lved , a nd t h ep roduc t ion o fl a rge f l ake ' b lank s ' d oe s n o t a r i se , a r te fac t s s eem v e ry l a rge ly t oc on s i s to ff l ake s , a nd t h ec o re s f r om w h ich t h ey w e re s t ruck ( Leakey , 1 971 ; T o th , 1 985 ) , a nd p ebb le s o r c obb le s w e re t h e mo s t c ommon p r ima ry c l a s t f o rm .

2 37

I n h i s d e ta i led

s t udy o ft h e K oob iF o ra s i te s T o th ( i b id ) n o te s t h a tt h e mo s tr e ad i ly a va i lab le r aw m a t e r ia l w a s b a sa l tl a va , a nd t h a ti to ccu r red i nt h ef o rm o fp ebb le s a nd c obb le s i nt h e s t ream b ed s d ra in ing t h e v o lcan ic m a rg in s o f t h e b a s in , t ot h e l a ke . N ea re rt h e h i l l s l a rge rc l a s t s w e re a va i lab le , a nd l a rge ra r te f ac t s o ccu r . D e sp i te t h e c l a im s m ade b y s ome w o rke r s , t or e cogn i se av a r ie ty o fc o re /choppe rt y pe s , T o th i sc onv inced t h a tw i th t h e e xcep t ion o f s ome d i sco id s , mo s t o ft h e f o rm s i nq ue s t ion c ou ld a r i se q u i te c a sua l ly a s ar e su l t o f " l ea s t e f fo r t " p rocedu re s i no b ta in ing s ha rp f l ake s a nd f r agmen t s . I n aw ide rang ing s e r ie s o fe xpe r imen t s i tw a s h i s e xpe r ience t h a tf l ake s w e re b y f a ra nd a way t h e mo s tu sefu l t o o l s , e i the r w i th o rw i thou tr e touch , a nd t h a tc o re s /choppe r s w e re mo s t ly s u i tab le f o rs ma sh ing b one s t oo b ta in ma r row ; at a sk w h ich c ou ld a sw e l l b ep e r fo rmed w i th u nf laked c obb le s o r , i ft h ee dge s w e re a cu te e nough ( l e s s t h an 8 0d eg ree s ) ,f o rc hopp ing o r a dz ing w ood . B o th c o re s /choppe r s a nd f l ake s w e re a ppa r en t ly ' c u ra ted ' , a nd c a r r ied f r om s i te t os i te . Sma l l q uan t i t ie s o fc he r ta nd q ua r tz w e re a l so u sed , b u t t h e re i sn o e v idence t os ugge s t t h a t t h e c ommon r ange o fa c t iv i t ie s c ou ld n o tb e c a r r ied o u te f f ec t ive ly w i th f l ake s o fi g neou s r ock . T he o ne e xcep t ion t o t h i s a ppea r s t ob et h es phe ro id s a nd s ub sphe ro id s r e co rded f o rO lduva i w h ich a r e a lmo s tt o ta l ly l a ck ing a t K oob iF o ra . A tO lduva i q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te o ccu r a sl a rge e nough c l a s t s t oh ave b een u sed , a nd t oh ave r ema ined r e cogn i sab le . A t K oob i F o ra , i fs phe ro id s / sub sphe ro id s e ve r f o rmed a s ar e su l t o f u s ing l a va c obb le sf o rp ound ing , t h ey a ppea rn o tt oh ave s u rv ived .

I nt h eO ldowan i n du s t r ie so fB ed I ,a tO lduva i , t h e re i ss im i la re v idence o f' c u ra t ion ' . o rc a r ry ing a r ound o f c o re s /choppe r s , a nd l a va c obb le s w e re a l so t h ep ref er red m a te r ia l , b u tf o rt h es ma l lf l ake too l s t h e r ew a s a n a ppa ren t s e le c t ion o fq ua r t z i te . S omewha t l a te r , a tO lduva i , c her t n odu le s b ecame a va i lab le i nt h e l a ke b ed s , a nd Ma ry L eakey ( 1975 : 4 83 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f t h i s m a ter ia l g ave as t imu lu s t ot h e m anufac tu re o f l i gh t -du ty t oo l s i n p a r t icu la r , g iv ing r i se t o t h e mo re c omp lex i ndu s t r ie s d e s igna ted D eve loped O ldowan A . H oweve r , w he the rt h i sr e f lec t s a ni n c rea sed r a nge o fa c t iv i t ie so ve rt h o se p e r fo rm ed b yh om in id s l im i t ed t ol a va s ou rce s i s amoo tp o in t . T he s cope f o rs e lec t ion o fp a r t icu la rr aw m a t er ia l s i n e a s tT urkana s eem s t oh ave b e en l im i ted . A t O lduva i i tw a s o t herw i se , b u t i tp robab ly r equ i re s g r ea te r s t udy t oa s se s s w he the rs e lec t ion o fn on igneou s r ock s f o r s ma l l t o o l s r e la ted t ot h e s uper ior i ty o ft h er aw m a t e r ia lf o rt h et a sk se nv i saged ,o rw he the rs ome o t he ri n f luence sm ay h ave b een a tw o rk .

F abr i ca t ion a nd b u t ch ery e xp er im en t s P e te r R . J one s h a s c a r r ied o u t ar ange o fe xpe r imen t s , i ne a s t A f r ica , o n r aw m a te r ia l s u sed a tO lduva i G o rge i nA cheu l ian i ndu s t r ie s , w i th t wo p r inc ipa l o b je c t ive s i nm ind :

t od i scove r w hy s ome h andaxe

a s semb lage s h ave a' c rude ' a ppea rance , w i th o n ly l im i ted f l ak ing t og ive s hape t oh andaxe s , w h i le o t he r s w h ich a r eo lde ra ppea r mo re ' r ef ined ' ; a nd t oe xam ine t h ep ro s a nd c on s o ff l ake too l s v e r su s h andaxe s f o r v a r iou s t a sk s . I no ne s e t o fe xper imen t s ( J one s , 1 981) , i n vo lv ing p hono l i te a nd b a sa l t , i tw a s n o ted t h a t t h ee dge so fp hono l i te f l ake s w e r e b r i t t le , a nd e a s i ly b l un ted , b u tt h a th andaxe s wh ich h ad s u f f e red d amage i nu se c ou ld b ee a s i ly r e sha rpened . C onve r se ly , b a sa l tf l ake s a r es ha rp , s t rong , a nd n o te a s i ly b l un ted , b u t h andaxe s a r e v e ry d i f f icu l t t or e t r im . I np hono l i te h andaxe s t h e s e conda ry f l ak ing , w h ich g ave t h e t o o l s uch a' f i n i shed ' l ook , s e rved t o s t reng then t h e c u t t ing e dge , w he rea s b a sa l t h andaxe s d o n o t n eed s uch s t r eng then ing a nd , i ndeed ,r e spond s ob ad ly t oa t t emp t s a ts e conda ry r e touch t h a tt h ey r e ce ive n o mo re t h an i sn ece s sa ry t o' b lock o u t ' t h e t o o l . ' Re f inemen t ' i sn o to n ly u nnece ssa ry , b u ti tw ou ld b e d i f f icu l tt oe f f ec t a nd w ou ld q u i te l i ke ly r educe r a the rt h an e nhance t h e e f f icacy o ft h e t o o l . B u tn e i the r ma te r ia l r e spond ed w e l l t ow o rk ing w ood , a nd J one s b e l ieve s t h a t t h e p r ima ry f unc t ion o fl a rge c u t t ing t oo l s ( h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s ) ,a nd f l ake s , w a s b u t che ry .

2 38

Wh i l s tb i face sa tO lduva i a r em ade i n aw ide r a nge o fm a t e r ia l s , s ma l lt o o l s ( s uch a ss c rape r s ) a r eg ene ra l ly o fq ua r tz i te o rc he r t , a nd J one s ' se xpe r imen t s w i th s c rape r s s how t h a tw ha teve rt h e m a t e r ia l b e ing s c raped , q ua r t z i te e dge s s t and u pt ot h et a sk f a rb e t t e rt h an p hono l i t eo rb a sa l t . T he w e igh to fh andaxe s a nd c l eave r s w a s o fb enef i ti nb u tchery , b u tw h i l s tr aw ma ter ia l i nf luence s t h e t e chn ique s o fw o rk ing , a nd t h e f o rm o f t h e f i n i shed t o o l , t h e re i sn o s ugge s t ion t h a tr aw ma te r ia l h ad a ny p a r t icu la ri nf luence o n e f f ec t ivene ss i n b u t che ry . I ndeed , i na no the rp ape ro nb u tche ry e xpe r imen t s J one s ( 1980 ) d e scr ibe s t h eu se o fs i x d if e ren t a r tef ac t t ype s , o n s even r aw m a te r ia ls ( phono l i te , q ua r tz i te , c a lc re te , b a sa l t / t rachyande s i te , o b s id ian , n ephe len i te , a nd c he r t ) a nd , w h i l s ta s se r t ing t h a t , f o rh eavy d u ty b u tche r ing , l a rge b i f ac ia lc u t t ing t oo l s a r e s upe r io rt os ma l lf l ake s , h em ake s n o m en t ion o ft h er e la t ive e f f ic iency o ft h ev a r iou s r aw m a te r ia l s . T h i s m igh t b e t a ken t oi nd ica te t h a t t h e f o rm o ft h e t oo l i s mo re i mpor tan t , a tl e a s t i nb u tche ry , t h an t h e r aw m a t e r ia la va i lab le ,o rs e lec ted ; t h ough t h e s am ei sc l ea r ly n o tt r ue f o ro t he ra c t iv i t ie ss uch a sw oodwo rk ing .

C onc lu s ion s Wha tr e levance m igh tt h i sr a p id s u rvey o fr aw ma te r ia l si nA f r ica h ave f o rB r i t i sh P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy? P e rhap s mo s tc l ea r ly i ts ay s t h a th andaxe s , c l eave r s , a nd c o re s /choppe r s c an b e m ade o n aw ide v a r ie ty o f m a te r ia l s o t he rt h an f l in t( o rf l in t l ike r ock s ) a nd s t i l l f u lf i l q u i t e e f f ic ien t ly t h e t a sk s f o rw h ich t h ey w e re n eeded . I ta l so s ugge s t s t h a t , i fn on -f l in t ma te r ia l s w e re u sed i nB r i ta in , t h e f o rm a nd d eg ree o ff i n i sh m igh tb e v e ry d i f f e ren tf r om w ha t a r chaeo log i s t s a r e a ccu s tomed t ol ook ing a ti nf l in t . Q ua r t z i te c obb le s c an b e t r ea ted i n much t h e s ame w ay a s f l in t n odu le s , t op roduce ac onven t iona l h andaxe , t hough t h e a moun to ff l ak ing m ay b e m uch l e s s . B u t i fc obb le s w e re n o t a va i lab le , o ro u tc rop o r m a s s ive b ou lde r s w e re q ua r r ied f o rl a rge p r ima ry f l ake s t h ee nd -p roduc tm igh tb ev e ry d i f f e ren ta nd , a f te rw ea the r ing a nd /o r r o l l ing , m igh tb el e s s e a sy t or e cogn i se . Q ua r tz i te d oe sn o tt e nd t os how t h ec l a s s ic f e a tu r e s o fc oncho ida l f r ac tu re a s soc ia ted w i th f l in t . N ega t ive a nd p o s i t ive b u lb s a r e o f ten much s ha l lowe r , s o t h a t i na b raded s pec imens t h e i nd iv idua l f l ake s ca r s m igh t b e q u i te d i f f icu l t t od i s t ingu i sh ; n o r d o b u lba r r i ng s o ccu r . O cca s iona l ly b u lba r r i pp le s , o n al a rge r -s ca le , may s how u p , b u t o f ten , o n f r e sh s pec imen s , b u lba r r ay s w i l l b e a ppa ren t , r a the r t h an b u lba r r i ng s . T he s ame a pp l ie s t oi gneous r ock s . T o c omp l ica te ma t te r s , i g neou s r ock s a r e much mo re l i ab le t oc hem ica l w ea the r ing t h an i sf r e sh ly f l aked f l in t . I fs uch w ea the red a r t ef ac t sa r et h en s ub jec ted t oa b ra s ion i n ar i ve rl o ad t h ey m ay w e l lb ecome v i r tua l ly u n recogn i sab le .

U n le s sl owe rP a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion i nB r i ta in w a s l im i ted t og l ac ia le p i sode s ( f o rl a ck o f al a nd -b r idge t o t h ec on t inen t ) t h e re i sn o o bv iou s r e a son w hy a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o fi ts hou ld b e l im i ted t ol ow land B r i ta in , a s i sc u r ren t ly v e ry l a rge ly t h e c a se .

P on tnewydd i sa n e ncou rag ing s i gn t h a t t h ing s may b e

o the rw i se , a nd i ff i e ldwo rke r s c an d eve lop a n e ye f o r u n l ike ly look ing o b je c t s i nn on -f l in t ma t er ia l s t h a t p a t t er no fo ccupa t ion may w e l lb ec hanged i na ni n te re s t ing w ay .

2 39

E xamp les o f f i ne ly c on t ro l led f l ak ing o f q ua r tz i te , f r om t h e M idd le S tone A ge l e ve l s a tK la s ie s R ive r Mou th , S ou th A f r ica .

N os . 1 , 2 ,and 3 a r e u n if ac ia l ly w o rk ed p o in t s .

w o rked a t t he b u lba r e nd :

p robab ly a n u nf in i shed b i fac ia l p o in t .

K la s ie s R ive r Mou th i n S ou th A f r ica .

R . S inger a nd J . Wym er .

2 40

N o . 4i s al a rge f l ake , b i f ac ia l ly F rom T he M idd le S tone A ge a t

1 982 .

U n iv . o f C h icago P re s s .

REFERENCES

A l imen , H . , 1 957 . T he p reh i s to ry o fA f r ica . L ondon : H u t ch in son .

C a ton -Thomp son , G . , 1 952 . K ha rga O a s is i nP reh is to ry . U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon : A th lone P re s s .

C la rk ,J .D . , 1 954 . T he p reh is tor ic c u l tu re so ft h e h o rn o fA f r ica . C amb r idge : C .U .P .

D eacon , H .J . ,

1 970 . T he A cheu l ian o ccupa t ion a t Amanz i S p r ing s , U i tenhage d i s t r ic t , C ape P rov ince .

A nna l so ft h eC ape P rov inc ia l Mu seums ( Na t , H is t ) , 8( 2 ) : 8 9 -189 .

G oodw in , A .J .H . , 1 933 . S ome d eve lopmen t s i nt e chn ique d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r s t one a ge . T ransac t ion s o f t h eR oya l S oc ie ty o fS ou th A f r ica , 2 1 ( 2 ) : 1 09 -123 .

I s aac , G . L l . , 1 977 . O lo rge sa i l ie :

a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o f am idd le P le is tocene l a ke b a s in i nK enya .

C h icago : Un iv . C h icago P re s s .

J one s , P . ,

1 980 .

E xpe r imen ta l b u tche ry w i th mode rn s t one t oo ls a nd i t s r e levance f o r P a laeo l i th ic

a r chaeo logy . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy . 1 2( 2 ) : 1 53 -165 .

J one s , P . ,

1 981 .

E xpe r imen ta l i mp lemen t manufac tu re a nd u se ;

ac a se s t udy f r om O lduva i G o rge ,

T anzan ia . P h i lo soph ica lT ran sa c t ion s o ft h eR oya l S oc ie ty o fL ondon , B . 2 92 : 1 89 -195 .

J one s , P . ,

1 982 . I n : Ma cRae , R . J . , P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om B e r insf ie ld , Oxfo rd sh i re . O xon iens ia ,

4 7 : 8 11 .

K e l le r , C .M . ,

1 973 .

Mon tagu C ave i np reh is to ry :

ad e scr ip t ive a na ly s is .

B e rke ley :

U n ive r s i ty o f

C a l ifo rn ia P re s s .

L eakey , M .D . , 1 971 . O lduva i Go rge V o l . 3 . C amb r idge : C .U .P .

L , eakey ,M .D . , 1 975 . C u l tu ra lp a t te rn s i nt h e O lduva i s equence . I n : B u tze r , K .W . a nd I s aac , G .L 1 . e d s . A f te rt h ea u s t ra lop i the c ine s . T he H ague : Mou ton . 4 77 -493 .

L owe , C . V an R ie t . , 1 937 . I n : S ohnge , P .G . , V isse r , D .J .L . , a nd L owe , di .v an R ie t . T he g eo logy a nd a r chaeo logy o ft h e V aa lR ive rb a s in . Un ion o fS ou th A f r ica G eo log ica lS u rvey Memo i r No . 3 5 . P re to r ia : G ove rnmen tP r in te r .

S eddon , J .D . ,

1 966 .

T he E a r ly S tone A ge a t B o sman 's C ro ss ing , S te l lenbosch .

S ou th A f r ican

A rchaeo log ica lB u l le t in , 2 1 ( 3 ) : 1 33 -137 .

S haw ,C .T . , 1 978 . N ige r ia : i t sa r chaeo logy a nd e a r ly h i s to ry . L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son .

2 41

S inge r ,R . &C rawfo rd , J .R . , 1 957 . T he s i gn if icance o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l d i scove r ie s a tH opef ie ld , S ou th — A f r ica . J ourna l o rt h e K ova l A n th ropo log ica l I n s t i tu te , 8 8 : 1 -19 .

S inge r , R . & Wyme r , J . ,

1 982 .

T he M idd le S tone A ge a t K la s ie s R ive r Mou th i n S ou th A f r ica .

C h icago : C h icago Un ive r s i ty P re ss .

S umme rf ie ld , M .A . ,

1 983 . P e t rog raphy a nd d i agene s i s o f s i lc re te f r om t h e K a laha r i B a s in a nd C ape

c oa s ta l z one , s ou the rn A f r ica . J ou rna lo fS ed imen ta ry P e r t° logy , 5 3 ( 3 ) : 8 95 -909 .

T o th ,N . , 1 985 . T he O ldowan r e a s se s sed : ac l o se l ook a te a r ly s t one a r t if ac t s . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience . 1 2 : 1 0 1-120 .

2 42

GAZETTEER

OF

LO WER

PALAEOLITHIC

NON -FLINT

ARTEFACTS

I N

GREAT

BRITAIN

C omp i led b y R .J . MacRae a nd N . Mo loney

T h i sG aze t tee rh a sb een c omp i led i nt h eh op et h a ti tm ay p rov ide aq u ick ,e a sy a nd u se fu lr e f e rence o fn on f l in t s t one a r tef a c t s i nG rea t B r i ta in . I ti sc onf ined t ot h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e Mou s te r ian a s semb lage so fC re s swe l lC rag s ) . A r te f ac t so fc he r th ave n o tb e en i n c luded . T he f o rma tu sed b y R oe 1 968 w a s t a ken a s ag u ide i nt h e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e p re sen t w o rk s o t h a t t h e n on -f l in t a r t ef ac t s r e co rded h e re m ay b es e en i nt h ec on tex to fa l lL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a r t ef ac t si nG rea tB r i ta in .

T he f o l low ing n o tes a re i n tended t o c l a r ify t he G aze t tee r h ead ings .

I n t he f i r s t c o lumn

' P la ce /S i te /Loca t ion ' E ng l i sh c oun t ie s a r e l i s ted i na l phabe t ica l o rde r ( G rea te r L ondon i si n c luded a sa s epa ra te c oun ty ) , f o l lowed b yt h e We l sh c oun t ie s . Unde re ach c oun ty h ead ing , l o ca l a r ea s a nd f i nd s po t s a r el i s ted a l phabe t ica l ly a nd m ap r e f e rence sa r eg i ven w he re a va i lab le .

T he n ex t f ou r c o lumns g i ve s ome b a s ic i n fo rma t ion o n t h e a r tefac t s -r aw m a te r ia l , t y pe o f a r tef ac t , d imens ions a nd t e chn ica l o b se rva t ion s .

We r ea l ize t h a t s ome o f t h e t e chn ica l o b se rva t ion s may b e

s ub jec t ive ( e .g . t h ed eg ree o fr ol ing a nd a moun to fc o r tex r ema in ing o n t h ep i ece ) b u tb e l ieve t h a tt h e se a l ong w i th o the r o b se rva t ion s -t h e n umbe r o f f l ake s ca r s v i s ib le , l e ng th o f c u t t ing e dge a nd a ny i n fo rma t ion p e r ta in ing t ot h e manuf ac tu re o ft h e t oo l s -w i l lp rov ide t h er eade rw i th a n i mp re s s ion o ft h e a r te f ac ti nq ue s t ion .

Much o f t he ma te r ia l h a s b een c omp i led f r om w r i t ten s ou rce s w h ich a re i nd ica ted u nde r t h e h ead ing ' Co l lec t ion s /Sou rce s ' . R oe 1 968 a nd Wyme r 1 968 w e re u sed e x ten s ive ly ; t h e se a nd o the rr e f e rence s a r e g i ven a tt h ee nd o ft h eG aze t tee r . Whe re p o s s ib le t h ep re sen tl o ca t ion o ft h e a r te f ac t s a nd t h ec o l lec t ion s o fw h ich t h ey a r e ap a r ta r eg i ven . T ho se a r te fac t si lu s t ra ted i nt h ep re sen tv o lume a r ei nd ica ted . F u r the r i n fo rma t ion a nd o b se rva t ion s n o ted b y t h ec omp i le r s a nd t hough t t ob e o fi n te re s t a r e t ob e f ound i nt h e f i na lc o lumn .

T he n umbe ro f s pace s i nt h eG aze t tee ri nd ica te s t h a t o u r i n fo rma t ion i si n comp le te . We w ou ld b e mo s t g ra tefu l t oa nyone w ho c an h e lp f i l l t h e se g ap s i nt h e r e co rd . T he re a r e u ndoub ted ly m any a r tefac t s o f w h ich w e a r e u nawa re a nd w e s t rong ly u rge t ho se w i th i n fo rma t ion o n u n l is ted p i ece s , o r e x t ra i n fo rma t ion o nt h e t oo ls a l ready l i s ted h e re ,t og e ti nt o uch w i th u s .

2 43

5

2

c r .

. 2

a . . =

•1.

2

•,1

. = .=

c ! J ( 1 )

g.

2 44

• —

C 7 '

•

cr

a )

2

' .

N

g• g

C T '

" U "g "g

C Y

C 7 '

C Y '

l i ngua la te p o in ted h andaxe

c hoppe rc o r e p o in t ed h andaxe

2p o in ted h andaxel c ,i , . V

q ua r tz i t e

. =

h eav i ly r o l led

f l a tb u t t

h eav i ly r o l led

2= ' 2 = o . . ,0 ; . .

S onn ing T own T hame s t owpa th S U 7 51751

2

I ) . -,

S U 6 93732

• — a ) • -1

G rove land s -

c A z

R u scombe N o r thbu ry F a rm P i t L ynch H i l lT e r ra ce S U 7 92767

E —, ( .;

S U 8 78831

2 z C . . ;

P i t

•P. 1

11

S U 7 43722 G F ur ze P l a t tC annoncour tF a rm

M

. c i c

11

w el shaped

t h in e dge s h eavy b u t t

z . ) w • • .

E a r ley Ea r ly R i se

e c

S U 7 07754

, . ., ^

m ed sma l l

GI. 9 . ,

S U 7 06762 C ave r sham T oo t s F a rm P i t

C . )

p o in t ed h andaxe

gg

K idmo r eE nd P i t

g

S U 7 03765

2 , n z

C ave r sham -

W

C ave r sham Wood co t eR oad

B ERKSH IRE

P LACE /S ITE /LOC

c z > p a C

I n

1, -

3 0 c h . c o re s , 8 0 b i f ace s & 1 75 m i sc .

s l igh t ly r o l led . U n su re i fq ua r t z i te s a r e c on tempo raneou s w i th t h ef l in t s o r d e r ived f r om e a r l ie rd epo s i t s .

R ead ing Mu s . :49 :54 Wym e r , 1 968 :180

May h ave b e en d r edged f r om r i ve r .

f l in ta r t s . Q ua r tz t i te c h . c o re s A cheu l ian O .U .M . :T reache rc o l ln . O n ly q ua r t z i te a mong 2 00 Wyme r :1968 :186 f l in tb i f a ce s

Wyme r , 1 968 :156

BAR B r i t . S e r . 13 Wym e r , 1 968 :221

a r ound 1 900 i n as ma l la r ea . F ound i n1 904 .

O .U .M . :T reache rc o l ln . R ead ing Mu s . :57 :45 Wyme r , 1 968 :137 O .U .M . :T reache rc o l ln . C ran shaw , 1 983

T he o n ly q ua r t z i t e s a mong 1 600 f l in t s a tt h e s i te . T he f l in t s a r es ha rp o r

Wyme rr e ga rd s t h i s p i ta st h e " r iche s tA cheu l ian s i t e i nt h e T hame sV a l ley a bove Ma idenhead a nd C ookham "( 1 968 :137 ) H und r ed so fb i f a ce sw e r ef o und

CO MMENTS

R ead ing Mu s . Wyme r , 1 968 :141

T rea che r : O .U .M . Wyme r , 1 968 :146

L a ca i l le , 1 936 Wym e r 1 968 :144

R ead ing Mu s .

COLLECT IONS / SOURCES

1

. g

g

i

c q c5

0

2 45 . = c z ) , , , . = U

u z

• • , . =v n g e "8

g r EA

COLLECT IONS / SOURCES

Among a bou t 1 00 m a in ly f l in t C amb r idge : A &E N o t t ingham U n iv . S hef f ie ld Mu s . P o snan sky , 1 963 R oe , 1 981 :357 -394

i nl a s t 1 20 y ea r s .

1 " h

2 _ r z

N o t ley R oad T L7 60220 ( E )

1 )

H e r t fo rd sh i r e p udd ing s tone

> < « ‘ C L L4

Wym e r , 1 985 :251

R ober t s , t h i s v o l .

. -4

B ra in t ree & B o ck ing -

I K en t sbe r e I N .D evon E SSEX

S a l te r ton

II

o fs a nd r e -c ry s ta l l i sed .

e r a t eo ff l in tp ebb le se mbedded i na q ua r t zo se m a t r ix o fs i l iceou s g ra in s

P udd ing s tone i sa no r tho -cong lom -

c o l le c ted f l in t &q ua r tz i t eb i fa ce s b u tr a r e ly f l ake s .

a r t s . O ve rm any y ea r s w o rkmen

T o ta l s u nknown , h und red sr e cove r ed

E d s . n o t e t h i s v o l .

C oope r ' s &D eve r i l l ' s p i t s . c .1 930

F ound a mong n ume rou s f l in ta r t s . i n

CO MMENTS

J enk in son , 1 984

I Laca i l le , 1 936 a

L aca i l le , 1 936 a L aca i l le , 1 936 a

Wyme r 1968 :174

R ead ing Mu s . :94 :62

_

R ober t s , t h i s v o l .

.

q ua r tz i t ic r o ck v e s icu la rs p i l i te

g a )

I H a lbe r ton

a l

A l len , B e r r idge & R oe , f o r thcom ing

, _ , x

s i l ic i f ied f l in tc ong lom e ra te

t --

N r .B ud le igh -

s p l i t p ebb le s .

r oled , s ome o n

g

DEVON

>

s c rap e r s .

8f l ak es c a r s

TECHN . OBVS .

l i gh t ly r o l led

D IMENS IONS ( i n c m . )

, . =

c a ve s H i l ton & W il ing ton

i r on s tone

c r c r c r

P in H o le , C hu r ch H o le & R ob in H ood

.g

h an c iaxe s , c hopp e r s ,

1 . •

q ua r tz i te a nd

' 5 4 —4 ' = g A

C re swe l lC rag s -

c hoppe r

ARTEFACT

x

I B u rnham B e e che s DERBYSH IRE

. a )

E a s tB urnham

BUCK INGHAMSHIRE

S U 7 67742

5

Wood ley B u t t s H i l l P i t

BERKSH IRE ( c ont )

P LACF /S ITE /LOC

E . + . = Z . 2 =

.

\ . 0 ON , ,

G t . Wa l tham -s u r f a ce

C la c ton -on -Sea

E SSEX ( c on t . )

P LACE /SFFE /LOC

G 4

E . «

Z . )

0

o . o • c • • = > ,

C .

H u

> .

0

a ; -•.1 "

e n

t

o z i

o ° e l . > < CV oo

m r : c ,)

v.

0 . )

C 7 '

c q c . a ) c e

a )

0 >
,

, • c )

r i

e a

E x

(2‘

1

c . , HH 1 . )H i

2 46 < :

C 71 C 71

m r " 1 " c u C a ) 0 . . ) c c : c e

a ) C . ) e a

a ) c e

= 0 = 0 > > <


. a ) ( 5 Z

1 7 l o ng

C3 • C3 C; • C3 c 5 •c 5 Z ?Z Z 9Z Z °Z " c f z i c $ " c 1 -0 " C i c z t. 4 "I a s "a s. 4 a s a s. 4 a s

p o in t ed h andaxe

• v )• .• . . , , )•

2

Wan s tead A lde r sb rook P i t

A shmo lean Mu s .

6 2 /2 1 07 -135 .

,.. ...

•

k r ) k r )

r o l led .

COLLECT IONS / SOURCES Wa r r en , 1 951 ,

> , , o , c . " . ;

p o in t ed h andaxe

JD

c > r

S toke N ew ing ton

TECHN . OBVS .

l c

, ,

TQ 38869 G

D I MENS IONS ( i n c m . )

—

GREATER LONDON

c hopp e rc o r e

ARTEFACT

i r ) r -

" 1:

C 4 1 ) = 0

00

0 2 = • -

8 ,2

>g 0. . c

M idd le G rave l si n1 955 -60 e xcay s .

f ew q ua r tz i t e s a mong t h em . F ound i ns i tu ' a tt h e b a se o fU ppe r

P ro l if ic i nf l in t a r te f ac t s b u tv e ry

Among h und red so ff l in ta r te f a c t s .

B u t tb ea r s s i gn so fh av ing b een u sed a s ah amm e r .

S napp ed d i s ta l ly .

F ound i n1 883

A l l a r t s .f r om r e cen te xcay s . a r e f l in t .

CO MMENTS

2 47 =

0 2 = . — a

c h . t o o l

l a rge s c a ra tp rox ima l

1 2x 10x6

p e r iphe ry ,h i nge f r a c t s .

e nd , s ma l ls c a r s 7 5% o f

u n t r immed b u t t , 4 r im , 2v en t ra l s c a r s .

00 X 00

o vo id , s e gm en t ed

h eav i ly r o l led . h eav i ly r o l led .

f l ake .

I lu s . t h i s v o lume

Wyme r , 1 985 :21

Wyme r , 1 968 :261 B .M . :S tu rge c o l ln .

Wyme r , 1 968 :259 B .M . :S tu rge c o l ln .

B .M . B .M . L aca i l le , 1 936 a

F ound ' i n s i tu ' a tb a se o fU ppe r

B .M . : Wyme rc o l ln . :59

r im

J . Wa l l i s c o l ln .

i nw h ich t h ey w e re f o und .

&g rave lp i t s a r ound A b ingdon . 5 6 A r t s , l i s ted a r eo l de rt h an d epo s i t

a xe s f o und o np l oughed s u r f ace s

S eve ra lf l i n ta nd q ua r t z i te h and -

S o le h andaxe f r om N o r fo lk . P o s s . d e r ived f r om t h eM id land s .

M idd le G rave l s i n1 955 -60 .

Wyme r , 1 968 :336

p a r t ia l ly f l aked & s h a t t e r ed . w el d ef ined -

F ound a mong 5 5 f l in tp ebb le c h . c o re s &4 2 f l in tc h . c o r e s i n L owe rG rave l . C la c ton ian . C la c ton ian .

Wyme r , 1 968 :336

COM MENTS

a sh . s tone s / o ne w i th 2 -p e r iod w o rk ing .

COLLECT IONS / SOURCES F ound a mong > 100 f l in th andaxe s a tj unc t ion o fL owe rM idd le / U pp e rM idd le G rave l s .

p t i s ed

TECHN . OBVS .

B .M . : Wym e rc o l ln . Wyme r , 1 968 :342

, -

S U 5 03955

l i ve r -co lou r ed q ua r tz i t e

g . = . =

7 — 1 2 I

L odge H i l l

=, . c mc u ) 8

A b ingdon S U 5 28999 G A b ingdon -

' 2 I g

p o in t ed h andaxe

0

OXFORDSH IRE

1 ( 1 )

p o in t ed h andaxe v-1

S t ibba rd T F 9 82282 A

. 2

q ua r tz i t e f e l s i t e

1x7 .5x3 .6 t r i ang .h andaxe .3x8 .3x3 .3 c o rd i f o rm h andaxe 1

f l ake

p ebb le h . s tone

V

TQ 19797 NORFOLK

!

H i l l ingdon TQ 0 85797 G S ou tha l l E al ing G a swo rk s -

2p ebb lec hoppe rc o r e s

D IMENS IONS ( i n c m . )

= 0 — . . .

D aw ley

M IDDLESEX

TQ 5 95745

TQ 5 95745 S wan scombe B a rnf i e ld P i t-

S wan scombe B a rnf ie ld P i t-

KENT ( c on t . )

ARTEFACT

1

V ) cl

c i c i )

S ' Sx5 .83( S.O I

P LACE /S ITE /LOC

a )

2

7 5 U c n

g2 o

" d

c '

u. Ib e r u

CA

c , 3o

e w

0 C . )

, . , c . „. _ , ,( 1

e r l o•0 & . 5 a

N

-e 0,

0 c . ) 0 .• . 4 c n

4.

0— = • 4 . •e n 0 C D

Wym e r 1 968 :103

16

c . )

i,1

. .•

• ti

4:

e e 7 z e

c . 2

g C I )

C l 2

4,

0

4.

0

EA

>

a

= . i .

r 2 4

ob

0 4 .

ae

c n = ( 1 ) • . —

.• e f, .4

C e 3

0

.

N

Z

Z=

.=

. 5 › ,

4. • •

0

a >

( e n . i

t c r l . 1

/ 2: 1

p i a

•

CA

0. 2

.

CA •.

CA

z e

.=

, 7 0 > • '

d

6

U

4 .

4 ,6 ' e

c

z ezz iz 2 Ee

. ,

= : . 2

4.

4 )

d z

e jga) .

es

›,

= c e=

•C

C A

= o . .= . ( 2 .. 1 )v 3 .0 1 ), — • r - — GA

4 )

1 2 4

U

›, =

E= , V .4 4 • › 2 0 ,c ) ,

•

0 e n ; — . 0 0

t i

• E

i 0 " I s. n i O n; 4 : 1 c ,,-äd, .A • , . )g = ö20 •2 -5 . g 0 c . ) a ) a )4 0 e pm

a ) t u

2 . 0 t e c a . s

d z

• ' . =

t i ä > , 0

. e = e

a c› , o 2 =

, . .

c o 2

1

5 c

o

4.4

0

›,

D IMENS IONS ( i n c m . ) ,

4 1

0 0N7 . 0

( A '

_ „ c , , 2. c 1 2_ — D . , o

4 , en 4.

C . J VZ

I .

00

k fl t r 1 V5

x r x

• , r x c s )

m r x

r . ;

t -

c p

j

a g7 5

g . 4 e ,

g— c . =. , . ,

•• 1

11

a )

1 . .. 4

e

. e . , c 9 m ) .• • . , . o 3 OXFORDSH IRE ( c on t . ) B en son & C rowma r sh - p o in t ed h and axe Wa l l ingfo rd F an G rave l s ,T u rne r ' s C ou r t &B lenhe im S U 6 44880 & 6 38883

P LACOS ITE /LOC

X

e

z . . • ., • -

ARTEFACT 1

= c A r i i> " C S

in

•

8 e

f 2 4 H 4

3

% g 2 4 2 u„

TECHN . OBVS .

COLLECT IONS / S OURCES

00

g" 5

= c e 0 . o h e i

Il

. (

x c >

— g

k n

, c > . 1

s

a )

g . s . Z A3 •. =•

ö

. g

g

.

2 48

v4

x I n

N

. g

• .o o k n ( 1 ) f . 3 . , r 2 : 1 a zc n C / D

( z g y

1 5

g . =

2

. 2

,

a )

2

.o " 0N a )— 0 , k n e z f a .r 1 i n

I t s • -

t : K

a > g

2

. c r i

C r ; X in

. = a

1 5 & I )

. . c 0= . g

M

U gr

. 22

j §

1

t ;

2

C)

0

4.

1 5

C Y

= 00

=

› : ;2 › . , =-

8

2

.

g 2 = 01

1

c i .

7 1 . 5g u . g

9

e

8

2

c r .

E

COM MENTS

a i . .

a. e

a ) . z

. c 1

> , . 0

"

.0 . 0 c e

> c r )

: CA

0 7 i )

nw

C 1

E . . . o ai n

I . )

k .

g

I C J

1 8

a ; , . = . c , .

COLLECT IONS / SOURCES

T

.

_ TECHN . OBVS .

Z

0

e

_ e

9 _

" g" 2 s 4 &

. c i . o

>

. > 0

&

8 . ch

&

C V

C V

en

ON . 4 00

O N

C 5 Z

C 5 Z

C 5 Z

C 3 Z

6 Z

C 5 Z

C 5 Z

6 Z

C 5 Z

6 Z

C 5 C 5 Z Z

C 3 Z

0 0

r i ; a )

0

te .0

4.

. ä . " M

e

D I MENS IONS ( i n c m . )

Cn

1.

0

1

'I. 1=1

i r ; g

c gi > < v . ,

. ..

C-

> < v 1

, ,

c . )c . )• • , g o- = g o a i . • ici e z

t r )

> . .-„ =.1 , gc e ' v . „ i n 4 i

^

c l& gk . e

•

. 1

. .2 . . . , . 2 o >

r . •• . . › , • ' , ' . 0 = =

4 . ) ' V ) m t . 0

v • 1

r : ,

0

.CA

0 . )

gA O .=

. . S

. , . . . . . c . )a ) U =c )

. = . 3 = 0

kn >
e v r )

x

C e l

I rs:

, n 4 1

a ) 9 5

0 c y ) • . , . )

• , . 2 U

. 1 ) 2 . e .. = =0 > . .

rn

0 . 0 = =

i n ; > < a t ; > e i n ( . , i Il

e u

e e d . )

ge

g ii2 2 8

. ,

c r o c n

.=

U

M

C T

Cr

b=== Cr

0

2

. g CP

C ID

2 49

. 2

, .

v r ; > < i n , _ 1 .4

2

= c ) .1 22

U

. ,

g

C 7 '

: -.

c r

l

=

0 1 2

il

cn

e

K r )

e " c A= . G . , ,-8 v • I

c : > t

er

Il

o . )

cr

cn

0 C • 1

1 . i

Me i>. guu

i n c . ,;

c u

Z

0 .0

10 " 4 " . "

1

t n

, --a n

. › ,_ o n4 _ > „> ,

=

e r )

.o o pc q

a n

" §

. 4 E . . 5 › , 0 5 =•E 0 , , . . g 8 . e i s T ) 2 '. . e

g

M C I, CT a . ) • : V , C 3 1 v l 4 7. , : 1 e2 o o t e, 2 -

ct 2 : 1

0

ä l

Eg

8

> 1 .r . 3

v I x i n

. . . 1

Ci 0

-C3

ü

t s 0 c z u2 = = V D

i ni ,

c :

a .

0

C O2

' ' '

0

w )

.gi

.. ) e 6. ! et = ( 2 8 _ 0X 1 - § .A ö )e g .

•

8 , a )

. u • o c rG I2

e n 0

i n

x i t 1 d

1 24 " C i

e

0L › ,> ,r a ' " .

0

" . "4

1 3

2, g. o = 3 . 1

C I )

.

, 1 1 . 4

2 « e c r .

=

0 ' mo

, i ; O m

. , i

8e < c u r e ! e , . =E-e . 5 ,4

C , 2

; .

„ e w

4

. •

. m

e N 1

. 4

i n

e

0

c )

, i

c n

l ec L )

o

t i rz ,

t •

. ,

. . „ , e• =. . . ° ; .

ARTEFACT

c Ac . “-i :

• -M 0 =

, . . .

v ; )

U

C

. . "

.

i g = . CA

i n

. ) ac i e .

1 z x

-

. , z r

. t

"

5

X2 Q

,t

0

. 5

. .

r n

, .

.1 . :

P LACE /S ITE /LOC

OA

•c

. 1

=

1

c e j

° ' 3 : 1

Ee.

4:: .

c n

0 > c e0 . 0i j 0 9 " b i l ' 3

0

t u

, 7 „ . ! ,

• , . c„• . 4 0„ a i . i. n . -• -

c u

c e

g

„

. e

"• 12

=

0 a )4 •8 k . c '

7 : 1

t z t ) 0 : 1

•

0= i .0

^

c u > , •

e

g

g . = 1 . s . r z t c . ) e a ) 2

e CA

•

g

> < i n

" A -

Ec , i

a )

a ) g

x i >
• , . 4 Z

0

r oled .

.4. 4 .

i r .

TECHN . OBVS .

c u

R ead ing Mu s . L a ca ile , 1 936 J . Wa l l i s c o l ln . A shmo lean , 1 921 :19 E van s , 1 897 Wym e r , 1 968 OUM :S502 1 Wym e r , 1 969 :93

c d

[ 1 0 .7x7x7 .5

O L

D IMENS IONS ( i n c m . )

J D

e s e a

, 4 . . ,

COLLECT IONS / S OURCES

5

. 5 , . ,

r oled .

el ,

1 0 .5 l o ng

CA

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t n

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cm =

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ID IMENS IONS I ( i n c m . )

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J . Wa l l i s c o l ln . OUM :T r ea che rC onn . Wym e r 1 968 :200

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i

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1 0x7x2 .5

COLLECT IONS / SOURCES

r4

c h i se l -po in t ed h anda xe

TECHN . OBVS .

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S U 5 05933

( i n c m . )

D IMENS IONS

i i • • . „ C A 4 4 C V

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g 75 0

c oa r se q ua r tz i te

ARTEFACT

1 . C V > •. 4

P i t )

S t an ton H a rcour tG rave l ly G uy P i t ( a l so k nown a s Sm i th ' s

OXFORDSH IRE ( c on t . )

P LACE /S ITE /LOC

( * A

c n x

k r )

C D

r : 5, x

1

2

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.

o fm id -D even s ian g r ave l s . P o s s . d e r ived & o l d e rt h an g r ave l s .

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c hopp ing t o o l .

G ood e xamp le o ft h e " c la s s ic " h eavy

F ound o nr e jec th eap .

B u lb o fp e r cu s s ion w e l ld e f ined .

O n af l a tp ebb le

S o le q ua r tz i te t o o l f r om t h i s p i t .

U nu sua lp a le g r ey q ua r t z i t e . F l a t o va lp ebb le . F ound 1 988

COMMENTS

2

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" g

C 7 '

=

" U "g

c 5

C I D

C r C 7 ' C r

g = = =

1 =

2 58 1 3x8x3 .5

p o in t ed h andaxe

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2

1 "g =

" g

C r C r C 7 '

C r C r

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1 4x7x4 9 x6x3

p o in t ed h andaxe h andaxe

2 2 2

1 .g = = =

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C 7

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B ag in ton -g r ave lp i tb y

m r X C T X 0 0

2h amme r s tone s 2h amme r s tone s

2

WAR W ICKSH IRE

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w e l lf l aked ,s t ra igh t p rof i le , 2 0% c o r tex .

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c • . . .

2q ua r t z i te h andaxe s f o und a mong 2 , 000 f l in th andaxe s

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Af ew q ua r tz i te sr e co rded a mong 4 60 L Pc he r ta r t ef ac t s .

CO MMENTS

s im i la r t oS a l t ley t o o l , b u t l a rge r . F rom s ame g rave l s a sS a l t ley t o o l .

2 nd h andaxe f o und i ns ame p i tb y D r . T om l in son . S ome f l in tp i ece s S o c . V o l .LV111 i l us t . f ound a tt h e s ame s i t e . S ho t ton ( p e r s . c omm . )say s i ti s

S ho t ton , 1 934 . T ran s . B i rm . A r ch .

Wyme r , 1 985 :93

A shmo lean Mu s . B .M .

E van s , 1 987

E van s , 1 897 :566 I Wyme r , 1 985 :110 E van s , 1 897 :565

E van s , 1 897 :566

5 L ;

w el m ade ,r o l led .

c e 9 , =

f e l s tone

— • - c r• •c h

G rave lH i l l

I COLLECT IONS / I SOURCES

••

l i gh t ly r o l led .

w a t e rwo rn & w ind e t ched .

w ea the r ed & r o l led .

TECHN . OB V S .

r ••

I B randon Br ickk l in F a rm l

. e .

2p o in t s h anda xe s c rap e r

D I MENS IONS ( i n c m . )

c q

S hen s tone

ARTEFACT

c e

. " TAFFORDSH IRE

B r i s to lA von T e r ra ce s

SOMERSET

P LACE /S ITE /LOC

k r )

. 2 . = r •• n • ' , . ) i 1 -

_

C r

=

1

5

C Y "

2 59

Cr

2 i2 i

Cr

•

Cr

i

2 e 2 . 1 . 1 i

c r Cr 0' 0"

B ubbenha l lWav e r ley Wood F a rm P i t

Cr

2 i

SP 4 1O RR7

= = = ====

i

1

c r

2 2 2

B ur ton H a s t ing s B ram co t e Ma in s-

I =

. 1

B u r ton H a s t ing s B ram co t eH il S P 4 05890

2

B u r ton H a s t ing s B ram co t eH il S P 4 05890 1 2 .3x7 .4x4 .1

p o in t ed h andaxe

p o in t ed h andaxe

l i gh t ly r oled & w ind e t ched . 1cm .c u t t ing e dge ,l o ng a x i sf l aked , 4s c a r so no pp . s i d e . v e ry f r e sh . f r e sh . l i gh t ly r o l led , 8f l k . sca r s .

b r oken , h eav i ly r oled .

Wa i t ec o l ln . Mu s t . Wa i t ec o l ln . I lu s t . Wa i te c o l ln .

c omp le te ,r oled . c omp le t e ,l i gh t ly r o l led . n ea rc omp le te , l i gh t ly r o l led . n ea rc omp le t e ,h eav i ly r o l led . c omp le t e ,r o l led . b r ok en , s l igh t ly r o l led . c omp le t e ,heav i ly r oled .

9 . 1x5 .7x2 .4 9 x7x3 .7 1 0 .1x8x5

p o in t ed h andaxe o va t eh anda xe o va te h andaxe

1 0 .1x7 .9x3 .3 p o in t ed h andaxe 6 . 5 x 5 . 6 x 3 p oi n t ed h andaxe 8 . 7x6 .4x3 .3 p o in t ed h andaxe 2p o in ted h andaxe s

Wa i te c o l ln .

F ound i n1 986 . F ound i n1 987 . F ound i n1 987 . S ho t ton , f o r thcom ing S ho t ton , f o r thcom ing S ho t ton , f o r thcom ing

F ound i n1 988 .D e ta i l sn o ta va i lab le .

F ound i n1 987 .

c o l ln . Mu s t . c o l ln . c o l ln . Mu s t . c o l ln . c o l ln .

T he Wa i t ec o l ln .h a sb een r e co rded w i th i l u s t s . b y S av i l le i nt h i s v o lume . T he s am el o ca t ion h a sp r oduced q ua r t z i t ef l ak e sa nd m od i f ied p ebb le s a sw el a sf l i n th andaxe s . T he s ame l o ca t ion h a sp roduced n ume rou sq ua r t z i t e' c hopp e r s ' , ' c o re s 'a nd f l ake s ,a sw e l la sf l i n t h anda xe s .

F i r s tq ua r t z i te h and axe f o und i n M id land so ve r ac en tu ry a go b y J o seph L andon .O f ten r e f e r r ed t o . F ound i n1 9 73 o n f l oo ro fp i tb y J . F .M . F enne l l .

U n iv . B i rm ingham , G eo logy Mu s .

Wa i t e Wa i t e Wa i t e Wa i te Wa i te

Wa i t ec o l ln . Mu s t .

1 977 P roc . C oven t ry &D i s t r ic tN a t . H i s t . S o c .V : 1 5 -18

b r oken ,r oled .

F enne l l &S ho t ton ,

l i gh t ly r oled , m o s t o fs u r f a ce f l ak ed .

8 . 4x8 .3x4 .4

E van s , 1 897 :578

COLLECT IONS / S OURCES

r oled ,w e l lf l aked .

TECHN . OBVS .

p o in ted o va te h a ndaxe

a )

1 3x8x3 .5

0 . 1

o va te h andax e

=

B u r ton H a s t ing s S P 4 2 1884

e p idodz ed a nde s i t i ct uf

I MENS IONS ARTEFACT _ 1 D ( i nc m . )

a o

B r andon D enn if sg r ave lp i t S P 3 8976 1

S a ldey

WAR W ICKSHIRE ( c on t . ) B i rm ingham l q ua r tz i t e

IPLACF/SITE/LOC I

a n x t n

CT X 00

c i n t r i

CV

rn X X X

. 4 00 r . , 1 , • • . , , 4

" M

2

I

Cr X 0

g

WI X

V)

( 1 3

g

g

t -X

i g a )

= 2 i a )

a )

c e >

ee aa 0U

Cr

C 7 '

p o in t ed h andaxe

. g

Cr

.

2 60 x o K r )

c o d ,

e

Cr

C ID

C )

= 0

Z

0

. = = = r -= i : ; , a )r n a ) c r . e ut ) c„ . 4 . , . _ , a

a ) 1

Cr

i , _ _ , C • 1 = h e 0•

, Z

2

= C

1m . p . * t« t0 b 0

Cr

= = 1 2 °