The Taxonomy of Ground Stone Woodworking Tools 9780860547945, 9781407349183

Citation preview

The Taxonomy of Ground Stone Woodworking Tools Quentin Mackie

BAR International Series 613 . 1995

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 613 The Taxonomy of Ground Stone Woodworking Tools © Quentin Mackie and the Publisher 1995 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547945 paperback ISBN 9781407349183 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547945 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1995. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

ABSTRACT T he r e su l t s o f a mu l t iva r ia te s t udy o f a pp rox ima t e ly 1 , 500

i s o la ted

g round s t one t oo l s ( c e l t s ) f r om t h e C oa s t S a l i shan c u l tu ra l

r e semb lance m a t r ix u nde r d if e ren t t a xome t r ic a pp l ica t ion s

u s ing

t h i s

t e chn ique .

a r ea o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia, C anada , a r ep re sen ted i nt h i sb ook .

s ugge s ted

a w ea ldy

d e f ined

T he d a ta

b ehav io r

s t ruc tu re .

o f t h e

T h i s

w a s

i n con s i s ten t w i th t h e a s sump t ion t h a t c e l t s , b e ing h a f ted A n a t temp tw a s made t ou nde r s tand t h e v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e

a r t if ac t s m ade w i th ac on t ro l led a nd l a bo r iou s m anuf ac tu r ing

s t udy c o l lec t ion t h rough t h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f i n d iv idua l

t e chn ique , s hou ld s how s ome s t anda rd iza t ion o ff o rm .

a r t if ac t s .

A s pec ia l -pu rpo se

d e sc r ip t ive

t y po logy

w a s

c r ea ted ,w h ich e ncompa s sed a l ls t udy c o l lec t ion c e l t sa nd c an

P romp ted b y t h e se u nexpec ted n ega t ive r e su l t s , af u r the r

i n co rpo ra te n ew f i nd s a st h ey m ay o ccu r . I tw a s f o rmu la ted

a t temp t w a s m ade t o u nde r s tand t h e v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e

u s ing t h ree p r inc ip le s : a n a r chaeo log ica l t y po logy mu s t h ave

s t udy c o l lec t ion t h rough a na ly s i s o ft h e b ehav io ra l p roce s se s

ap a r t icu la r p u rpose ; t h i s s t a ted p u rpo se g u ide s t h e s e lec t ion

w h ich m ay h ave i n f luenced t h e m anuf ac tu re , mo rpho logy ,

o f a t t r ibu te s ; m ean ing d e r ived f r om o r a s c r ibed t o t h e t y pe s

a nd

d i sca rd

o f c e l t s .

T he

a ppa ren t

l ow

d eg ree

o f

m u s t b e i na cco rd w i th t h e i r p u rpo se , c on ten t a nd m ean s o f

s t anda rd iza t ion i n to " t ype s " i ss ugge s ted t o r e su l t f r om t h e

c on s t ruc t ion .

c umu la t ive e f ec t o f d if e ren t ia l p ref o rm m anu f a c tu re a nd

T he d iv i s ion s b e tween t y pe s w e re d ef ined

u s ing t h e m ed ian , as t ab le m ea su re o fc en t ra l t e ndency , s oa s

mo rpho logy , r epea ted r e sha rpen ing s a nd r e pa i r s o ve r a

t or e ta in t h e r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e t y pe m embe r sh ip t ot h e c l a s s

l e ng thy u se l if e , a nd p e r iod ic r e too l ing .

Mo rpho log ica l

o fa r t if ac t s a s aw ho le . T hu s , n o t o n ly i se a ch c e l tc l a s s if ied ,

c hange s o ve r t h e u se l if e s t op w i th e n t ry o ft h e c e l t i n to t h e

b u t i t st h ree d imen s iona l r e la t ion sh ip t oa l l s t udy a r ea c e l t s i s

a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd , w h ich c an h appen a ta ny p o in tt h rough

i n he ren ti nt h et y pe d ef in i t ion . S ub sequen t ly , a n a t temp t w a s

l o s s , b r eakage o rd i sca rd . T he se n on s ty l i s t ic , n on -func t iona l

m ade t o c r ea te g ene ra l p u rpo se a nd f unc t iona l t y po log ie s

i n f luence s c au se a c onve rgence o f c e l t s i ze a nd s hape , a nd

u s ing

t h ree

b lu ra ny d i sc re te t y pe sw h ich m ay h ave e x i s ted a tt h ep o in t o f

G owe r ' s

m anu f ac tu re . T he i n ten se r eu se , r e duc t ion , a nd r e pa i r o ft h e

c oeff ic ien t , a b le t o i n c lude a t t r ibu te s m ea su red a ta ny s c a le ,

c e l t s i ss ugge s ted t o b e l a rge ly d r iven b y at h r if ty a t t i tude

w a s u sed t o c r ea te t h e r e semb lance m a t r ix .

t owa rd s t h ev a luab le , l o ca l ized r aw m a te r ia l .

h i e ra rch ica l

p r inc ip le s

u sed

c l u s te r

i n t h e

a na ly s i s ,

f o l low ing

d e scr ip t ive

t y po logy .

t h e

D e sp i te t h e

o b se rved d i ve r s i ty w i th in t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion , n o t y pe s w e re

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS

i

L IST OF TABLES L IST OF P LATES L IST OF F IGURES

v i

P REFACE

v i i

CHAPTER 1 .I NTRODUCT ION

1

CHAPTER 2 . BACKGROUND

3

D ef in i t ion o ft h eS tudy A rea . E thnog raph ic B a ckg round . A r chaeo log ica lB a ckg round . I n t roduc t ion t oG round S tone C e l t s .

3 4 5 7

CHAPTER 3 .I NTRODUCT ION TO ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S YSTEMAT ICS

1

R ev iew o fA rchaeo log ica lS ys tema t ic s .

1

G ene ra l a nd S pec ia l P u rpo se T ypo log ie s . S e lec t ion o fV a r iab le s a nd " Type s o fT ypo log ie s . " C onc lu s ion so nA rchaeo log ica lS ys tema t ic s .

1 2 1 2 1 4

CHAPTER 4 : THE DESCR IPT IVE TYPOLOGY

1 5

S t a temen to fP u rpo se . Me thod a nd P rocedu re . R e su l t s .

1 5 1 5 1 6

D i scu s s ion .

2 0

CHAPTER 5 : CLUSTER ANALYS IS : METHOD AND P ROCEDURE

2 5

P r inc ip le so fN ume r ica lT axonomy .

2 5

Me thod o fC lu s te rA na ly s i s . C ho ice o f aC lu s te r ing A lgo r i thm .

2 6 2 8

T rea tmen to fM is s ing V a lue s . C onc lu s ion s .

2 9 3 0

CHAPTER 6 . RESULTS OF THE CLUSTER ING P ROCEDURES

3 3

I n t roduc t ion . P rocedu re I .G ene ra lP u rpo se T axome t r ic C la s s if ica t ion .

3 3 3 3

P rocedu re I .R ecogn i t ion o fP rocedu ra lF l aw s . P rocedu re I I . S pec ia lP u rpo se C la ss if ica t ion . F u r the rA t temp t st oD i scove rC lu s te r s . C onc lu s ion s .

3 4 3 5 3 6 3 6

1 1

CHAPTER 7 . BACKGROUND TO TOOL U SE -L IFE H ISTOR IES

3 9

I n t roduc t ion . A rchaeo log ica l S y s tema t ic sa nd H uman B ehav io r .

3 9 3 9

U se l if eH i s to ry o fC e l t s . T he N eed f o ra nE xpe r imen ta lP rog ram .

4 1 4 1

F unc t iona lA l te rna t ive s t oC e l t s .

4 4

CHAPTER 8 . RA W MATER IAL AND MANUFACTURE OF CELTS

4 5

I n t roduc t ion . T he S u i tab i l i ty o ft h eR aw Ma te r ia l . D i s t r ibu t ion o fN eph r i te R e la t ive t ot h eS tudy A rea . V a lue o ft h eC e l t s a sI nd ica ted b yT rade .

4 5 4 5 4 6 4 6

L abou rI nve s tmen ti nC e l t Manuf ac tu re . C onc lu s ion so n Manuf a c tu re . T he I n f luence o f Manuf a c tu r ing Me thod o nV a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e S tudy C o l lec t ion .

4 8 5 2 5 2

CHAPTER 9 . ASSESS MENT OF THE BEHAV IORAL MODEL

5 9

E xpec ted C o r re la te so ft h eU se reduc t ion Mode l .

5 9

E xpe r imen ta lE v idence f o rU se l if eA t t r i t ion .

6 6

R e too l ing . P roce s se so fD i sca rd . C omp le t eU se l if eH i s to ry a nd P a t ina F o rma t ion .

6 6 6 8 7 0

I mpa c to fU se L if eH i s to ry o n S amp le V a r iab i l i ty .

7 1

CHAPTER 1 0 . CONCLUS IONS DRA WN

7 3

C onc lu s ion so nG ene ra l Me thodo logy .

7 3

C onc lu s ion so nC la s s if ica t ion . C onc lu s ion so nt h eC e l tU se l if eC yc le .

7 3 7 4

C onc lu s ion so nC hange a nd C on t inu i ty .

7 4

C onc lu s ion so nt h i s S tudy a nd S tudy A rea S ys tema t ic s .

7 4

REFERENCES C ITED

7 7

APPEND IX I .VAR IABLE DEF IN IT IONS

8 3

G ene ra lR eco rd ing I n fo rma t ion .

8 3

L oca t iona lF ie ld s . Me t r ic F i e ld s . Mea su remen to fP r ima ry B eve lA ng le .

8 3 8 4 8 4

C a tego r ica lV a r iab le s . Mod if ica t ion s a nd R ecod ing sf o rt h eC lu s te rA na ly s i s .

8 6 8 9

APPEND IX I . DATA S U M MARY

9 1

I n t roduc t ion . C on t inuou sV a r iab le s .

9 1 9 2

C a tego r ica lV a r iab le s .

9 7

APPEND IX I I . ART IFACT L IST ING

1 09

i v

L IST OF TABLES T ab le 4 . 1 : S umma ry s t a t i s t ic sf o rd e sc r ip t ive c l a s se s 1 1-S t o1 2 -L a nd 1 -U .

2 1

T ab le 4 . 2 : S umma ry s t a t i s t ic sf o rd e sc r ip t ive c l a s se s2 1-S t o2 -2 -L , 2 -U a nd a l lf u l ly d e sc r ibed c e l t s .

2 2

T ab le 4 . 3 : S umma ry s t a t i s t ic sf o rd e sc r ip t ive c l a s se s 3 -B , 3 -P , 3 -F .

2 3

T ab le 8 . 1 . D imens ion so fc e l t s made o n v a r iou sk i nd so fp r efo rm s ( e xc lud ing e xped ien t ly m ade c e l t s ) .

5 3

T ab le 9 . 1 :V a r iance i nl e ng th , w id th a nd t h ickne s so fa l lc e l t s .

5 9

T ab le 9 . 2 :V a r iance i nl e ng th a nd t h ickne s so fc e l t sw h ich t a pe rt owa rd st h ep o l lv s . o ne s w h ich a r ep a ra l le lf a ced o rs i ded .

6 0

T ab le 9 . 3 .T e s t so fs i gn if icance o ft h ed i f f e rence sb e tween m ean d imen s ion sa nd p ropo r t ion s o fs e lec ted c e l t sw i th u n i la te ra ls awcu t sa nd s e lec ted c e l t s w i th n os awcu t s .

6 1

T ab le 9 . 4 .C ompa r i son o fd imen s ion sa nd p ropo r t ion so fs e lec ted c e l t sw i th n os awcu t sa nd t h o se w i th u n i la te ra ls awcu t s .

6 3

T ab le 9 . 5 .C hange i nt h ree d imen s ion so fn eph r i te c e l t s w i th d i s tance f r om s ou rce o fr aw m a te r ia l .

6 7

L IST OF P LATES P l a te 7 . 1 . C e l t sc o r re spond ing t of i gu re 7 . 1 .

4 2

P l a te 7 . 2 . C e l t sc o r re spond ing t oF igu re 7 . 2 .

4 3

P l a te 8 . 1 . E xamp le so fc e l t sm ade o np ebb le sa nd f l ake s .

5 4

P l a te 8 . 2 . E xamp le so fc e l t sm ade o np ecked p refo rm s .

5 4

P l a te 8 . 3 . E xamp le s o fc e l t sm ade o nf l aked p refo rm s .

5 5

P l a te 8 . 4 .E xamp le s o fp robab le h ea tt r ea ted c e l t s .

5 5

P l a te 8 . 5 . S awcu tn eph r i te c obb le .

5 6

P l a te 8 . 6 . E xamp le s o fc e l t sm ade o ns awn p refo rm s .

5 7

P l a te 9 . 1 .E xamp le so fc e l t sw i th al o ng i tud ina l s awcu t .

6 2

P l a te 9 . 2 . C e l tr epa i r .

6 4

P l a te 9 . 3 . C e l tr o ta ted 9 0d eg ree st oe x tend u se l if e .

6 4

P l a te 9 . 4 . D e ta i l o fc ru shed e dge o fD cRu 6 5 :2 ,p re sumab ly f r om u se a s ap eck ing t oo l .

6 8

P l a te 9 . 5 .E xamp le so fa r t if ac t s p e rhap s made o ne xhau s ted c e l t s .

6 8

P l a te 9 . 6 . E xamp les o fc e l t sw i th p a t ina ted b od ie s a nd u npa t ina ted b eve l s .

7 2

P l a te 1 . 1 . D ev ice f o rm ea su r ing e dge a ng le .

8 5

P l a t e 1 . 2 . U se o fd ev ice f o rm ea su r ing e dge a ng le .

8 5

L IST OF F IGURES F igu re 2 . 1 . S tudy a r ea .

3

F igu re 7 . 1 S ugge s ted u se l if ec yc le f o ra n " adze " .

4 2

F igu re 7 . 2S ugge s ted u se l if ec yc le f o r a" ch ise l " .

4 3

F igu re 8 . 1 . K nown b od ie so fu l t ramaf ic r o ck a nd k nown s ou r ce s o fn eph r i te r e la t ive t ot h es t udy a r ea .

4 7

F igu re 8 . 2 .N eph r i te s aw ing .

5 6

F igu re 9 . 1 . B a rg raph o fd i f f e ren tp ropor t ion a nd s i ze o fc e l t sw i th au n i la te ra ls awcu tv e r su s t ho se w i thou t .

6 1

F igu re 9 . 2 . G raph o fr e s idua l u t i l i ty ( L WR ) v e r su sd i s tance f r om r aw m a te r ia l s ou r ce .

6 5

F igu re 9 . 3 . G raph o fr e s idua l u t i l i ty ( LTR )v e r su sd i s tance f r om r aw m a te r ia l s ou r ce .

6 5

F igu re 9 . 4 . G raph o fe dge a ng le v e r su sd i s tance f r om t h er aw m a te r ia ls ou rce .

6 6

F igu re 9 . 5 .F requency h i s tog ram , l e ng th a l ong c en t r el i ne , a l lc e l t s .

6 9

F igu re 9 . 6 .F requency h i s tog ram ,w id th a tb eve lc h in , a l c e l t s .

6 9

F igu re 9 . 7 .F requency h i s tog ram , t h ickne s sa tp o l l ,a l c e l t s .

7 0

F igu re 9 . 8 .F requency h i s tog ram ,t h ickne s sa tb eve lc h in , a l c e l t s .

7 0

F igu re 9 . 9 .F requency h i s tog ram ,p r ima ry b eve la ng le , a l lc e l t s .

7 1

F igu re I . 1 . B a s ic d imen s ion s a nd n omenc la tu re o fc e l t s .

8 3

F igu re I . 1 . D en s i ty map s how ing n umbe ro fc e l t sb yB o rden U n i t .

v i

1 06

P re face T h is b ook c omp r ise s t h e l a rge ly u n r ev i sed t e x t o f m y M .A . t h e s i s ( Ma ck ie 1 992 ) w r i t ten a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f V ic to r ia ,

R ob H o sf ie ld d i d m o s t o ft h e w o rk o fp r epa r ing t h i s v e r s ion o ft h e t e x t , w h ich w a s p roduced w h i le i nr e ce ip t o f s uppor t f r om t h e C ommonwea l th S cho la r sh ip C omm i s s ion ( U .K .

B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . When r ev i s i t ing w o rk d one s eve ra l y ea r s p r ev iou s ly Is u spec t t h e re i sa lway s at e ndency t o s e e t h e f a u l t sa nd w an tt of i xt h em a l l . T h i sc an u sua l ly o n ly b ed one b y g e t t ing b a ck i n to t h e p ro jec t u p t ot h e e l bow s . W i th t h e b enef i to fh i nd s igh ta nd e xpe r ience , Ia mk een ly a wa re o ft h e s hor tcom ing s o ft h i s w o rk , a nd d i scu s s s ome o ft h e se i nt h e c onc lu s ion s . N eve r the le s s , Ih ave e l ec ted t ol e ti ts t and m o re o r l e ss a s i ti si n t h e h ope t h a t i t s s t reng th s o u twe igh i t s w eakne s se s . A t t h e t ime Iw a s w r i t ing t h i s w o rk u p a s a t h e s i s t h e i mpo r tan t b ook A r chaeo log ica l T ypo logy a nd P rac t ica l R ea l i ty ( Adam s a nd A dam s 1 991) w a s n o t a va i lab le . T he A dam s ' w o rk i s u ndoub ted ly mo re s oph i s t ica ted , r i go rou s , a nd i n c i s ive , y e t , Ib e l ieve i t i s r ough ly c ong ruen t w i th t h e mo re n a ive a pp roach If o l lowed i n t h is r e sea r ch . T o a vo id p o s s ib le c onfu s ion , t h e w o rd " c e l t s" h a s b een d ropped f r om t h e t i t le , b u t i s u sed

d i v i s ion ) a nd f r om t h e S oc ia l S c ience a nd H uman i t ie s R e sea rch C ounc i l o f C anada . T he o r ig ina l r e sea r ch w a s f u nded b y as cho la r sh ip f r om t h e U n ive r s i ty o fV ic to r ia a nd t h e B .C . H e r i tage T ru s t C ha r le s E . B o rden S cho la r sh ip . A m o re e xhau s t ive l i s t o f a cknow ledgemen t s i s g i ven i n m y M .A . , b u t Iw ou ld n ow l i ke t or e i te ra t e m y s pec ia l t h ank s t o A nn Mu rphy , t o w hom t h e M .A . w a s d ed ica ted , f o r a l h e r s uppo r t . C l in ton C oa te s h e lped w i th t h e t e d ium o f m ea su remen t w h i le R icha rd C hadw ick t amed S t eve C ro ss ' FORTRAN p rog ram f o rc a lcu la t ing G owe r ' s c oe f i c ien t . T he m embe r s o f m y M .A . c omm i t tee w e re v e ry h e lpfu l t h roughou t : V e rena T unn ic l if f e , J ohn O le son , a nd N ico la s R o l land . F ina l ly , m y s upe rv i so r , D ona ld M i tche l l , w ho r e t i re s t h i s y ea r a f t e r al o ng a nd d i s t ingu ished c a ree r i n N o r thwe s tC oa s ta r chaeo logy a nd e t hno logy , d e se rve s s pec ia l t h ank sf o ra l lh i sc r ea t ive , t ime ly , a nd f r iend ly a dv ice .

t h roughou tt h et e x tf o rr e a son so u t l ined i nC hap te r2 .

v i i

C hap ter 1

I NTRODUCT ION A r chaeo log ica l a pp roache s t o t h e p a s t w i l l b e h ampe red a nywhe re b y i mp rec i se o r i n app ropr ia te d ef in i t ion a nd i n t e rp re ta t ion o fa r t if ac t c l a s se s a nd t y pe s . I n c oa s ta l B r i t i sh C o lumb ia , t y pe d ef in i t ion s h ave b ecome g ene ra l ly a g reed u pon i na n i n f orma l w ay , b a sed o n am ix tu re o fk ey s t y l i s t ic a nd f unc t iona l a t t r ibu te s . T he se d ef in i t ion s a r e mo re o r l e s s p r ec i se a cco rd ing t ot h e i n he ren t s t anda rd iza t ion o f f o rm o f a r t if ac t s w i th in at y pe , a nd m ay r e ly o n t h e p re sence o f k ey d i agno s t ic a t t r ibu te s . F o r e xamp le , f l a t top h and m au l s a r e

Mos t p eop le a r e f am i l ia r w i th t h e p roce s s b y w h ich k i tchen k n ive s c hange s hape w i th u se . R epea ted r e sha rpen ing r educes t h ef i ne s t b l ade t o am i se rab le s t ee l t o o thp ick , w h ich u l t ima te ly e nd s u p i nt h e g a rbage b i n o rb ack o ft h e d rawe r . O the r s , t h rough u se o rm i su se , l o se t h e i rt i p s o rt h e i rh and le s , a nd a r er e inca rna ted i nt h e w o rk shop a ss c rewd r ive r s o rp u t ty k n ive s . S t i l l o t he r s , i n ev i tab ly i n c lud ing af ew n ew o ne s , a r e l o s t o n p i cn ic s o r a tt h e b each , o rg e ts wep t o ft h e c hopp ing b oa rd w i th t h e c a r ro t p ee l s a nd j o in t h e i r w o rn o u t

d i s t ingu i shed f r om s pec imen s t opped w i th a n i pp le o r a z oomo rph ic c a rv ing o n t h e b a s i s o f as i ng le a t t r ibu te . B one g o rge s a r e s epa ra t ed f r om t h e o t he rk i nd s o fb one b ipo in t s b y t h ep r e sence o f ag i rd l ing g roove . S ince p r ima ry d iv i s ion s i n t h i s h i e ra rch ica l c l a s s if ica t ion a r e b a sed o n r aw m a te r ia l , b one g o rge s a r e s epa ra ted f r om a ny f unc t iona l c ogna t es t h ey

p redece s so r si nt h el a ndf i l l . T h i s u se l if eh i s to ry i sc l ea r ly a n i mpo r tan t i nf luence o n t h e s hape o f a ny i n d iv idua l k n if e . When c omb ined w i th t h e v a r ied c i rcum s tance s o fd epo s i t ion i tf u r the r i n f luence s mo s t c o l lec t ive d e sc r ip t ion s o f t h e t o o l c l a ss " k i t chen k n if e ."

m igh t h ave w h ich a r e made o f a n t le r , s t one o r w ood . H and m au l s , o n t h e o t he r h and , a r e d i v ided b y t h e a t t r ibu te " s hape o f t o p " w h ich h appen s t o h ave s t y l i s t ic , f unc t iona l a nd

I ti sn ow c ommon f o r a r chaeo log i s t s t o e xp l ic i t ly c on s ide r t h e u se l i f eh i s tory o ft o o l s a sa n i mpor tan t i n f luence o n t h e i r s hape , a nd t h u s i n ev i tab ly u pon t h e i r c l a s s if ica t ion . I n t h e c a se o f t h e k i t chen k n if e , t h e b ehav iou ra l e nv i ronmen t t h a t

t empo ra l m ean ing . S uch p rob lem s o f f unc t iona l ly o ve r lapp ing t y pe s a nd i n con s i s ten t o r i mp rec i se c r i te r ia f o r t y pe m embe r sh ip a r e b ound t oo ccu r i na ny g ene ra l t y po logy

s hape s t h e t o o l a nd c ond i t ion s i t s u se i sw e l l e nough k nown . C lea r ly , h oweve r , c l a s s if ica t ion w i thou t s uch p r io r

w h ich h a sd eve loped i n fo rma l ly a nd i n c r emen ta l ly .

k now ledg e o f ag roup o ft h e se k n ive s c ou ld b e p rob lema t ic . Wou ld o ne c a tego r ize t h em b y s hape? T he " t oo thp ick s " c ou ld b ep u ti n to o ne g roup a nd t h e n ewe ro ne s i n to a no the r , e ven t h ough t h ey h ad a l s e rved t h e s ame f unc t ion . O r , t h o se w h ich h ad b een u sed a s s c rewd r ive r s m igh t h ave

W i th v e ry f ew e xcep t ion s , n o t y pe s o f g round s t one c e l t s f r om t h e s t udy a r ea ( Coa s t S a l i shan B r i t i sh C o lumb ia , e xc lud ing N uxa lk t e r r i to ry ) h ave b een d ef ined , d e sp i te t h e d i ve r s i ty o fi n f e r red f unc t ion s a nd r e cogn ized mo rpho log ica l c hange o ve r t ime . T h i s i s p robab ly d ue t o al a ck o f c on sp icuou sd i agno s t ic a t t r ibu t e so nC oa s tS a l i shan c e l t s . O n

c ha ra c t e r i s t ic u se -wea r , a nd b e k ep t a pa r t . T he se d i v i s ion s w ou ld p e rhap s b e f a i r e nough , d epend ing o n t h e p u rpo se o f t h e c l a s s if i ca t ion e xe r c i se . B u t , t h e f unc t iona l d i v i s ion " s crewd r ive r s , " f o r e xamp le , w ou ld f a i l t oa cknow ledge t h a t t h e t oo l i nq ue s t ion h ad s pen t t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f i t s a c t ive u se l if ei nt h ek i tchen , p e rhap se ven b e ing a c t ive ly k ep ta way f r om t h e w o rk shop . I ts e em s i mpo r tan t t o d i s t ingu i sh f i na l

o t he r p a r t s o f t h e o bv iou s f e a tu re s c a t ego r ize s im i la r S a l i shan c e l t s a r e ,

c on s t ruc t ion s , u se f u l o n ly f o r n a r row c a tego r iza t ion w i th in

u se f r om h ab i tua lu se ,a l though b o th a r eo fi n te re s t . C la ss ify ing k n ives s e em s l i k e at r i v ia l p rob lem .

B .C . c oa s t , a nd e l sewhe re i n t h e w o r ld , s u ch a s h af t ing g roove s a r e u sed t o a r t if ac t s . T he f ew t ypo log ie s o f C oa s t w i thou t e xcep t ion , p oo r ly d ef ined a d h oc

s ma l l s t udy c o l lec t ion s . T he g ene ra l ly u n sy s tema t ic r e g iona l t y po logy w a s c on s ide red a n i mped imen t t o t h e r e g iona l a r cha eo logy , a nd g round s t one c e l t s w e re c ho sen a s ag ood

I ndeed ,

c l a ss i f ica t ion i n a r chaeo logy , w h i le t h e s ub jec t o f o cca s iona l ly i n ten se d eba te , i s w ide ly p e r ce ived a s a n i mpo r tan tb u t d u l l a c t iv i ty r ou t ine ly c a r r ied o u t i nt h e c ou r se o f i n ve s t iga t ing mo re p rofound r e sea rch q ue s t ion s . Wh i le

p l ace t o s t a r t p u t t ing t h ing s r i gh t . T he w o rk w a s o f t en t e d iou s , a nd t ot h ee x ten tt h a tt h ep rog ramma t ic l i t e ra tu re w a s d i ff i cu l t b o th t o u nde r s tand a nd a pp ly , t h e w o rk w a s a l so f r u s t ra t ing . N eve r the le s s , s ome g ene ra l p r inc ip le s o f

n o te xa c t ly s e en a su np rob lema t ic , i ti sr a re ly d i scu s sed i nt h e c ou r se o f m o re g ene ra l r e sea rch . Mo s t l i t e ra tu re o n

c l a s s if ica t ion s l ow ly b ecame c l ea re r . T he s imp le g u id ing p r inc ip le f o l lowed i nt h i s r e sea r ch i st h a t t y po log ie s mu s t b e p u rpo sefu l ly d i rec ted . T he mo s t o bv iou s p u rpo se s a r e c l a s s if ica t ion o f f unc t iona l o r s t y l i s t ic d ive r s i ty . L e ss

a r chaeo log ica l s y s tema t ic s h a s t h u s t e nded t o b e p rog ramma t ic . When n o ti n teg ra ted i n to ap rac t ica lp rob lem , t h e a rgum en t s c an s e em t o b e o f l i t t le i mpor tance . T he t e ndency i st o t h row u p t h e h and s a nd s ay , " we l l , D unne 1 1 ( Spau ld ing , F o rd , R ead , t h e A dam s b ro the r s ) m ay h ave a p o in t , b u t a s t h e re i sn o a l t e rna t ive t o u s ing t h e r e g iona l t y po logy , t h e re i sn e i the rp u rpo se n o rp o s s ib i l i ty i na pp ly ing t h e d i c ta t e s o f t h e i r p rog ramme s . " A s A dam s a nd A dam s ( 1991) n o t e , i nn o f i e ld o fa r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty a r e m e thod

o bv iou s i st h e a im o f c r ea t ing at y po logy w h ich i s" gene ra l p u rpo se , " c apab le o f ab e ing a pp l ied t o many , b u t n o t a l l , r e sea rch q ue s t ion s . T h is s hou ld n o t b e c onfu sed w i th t h e g oa l o f a n " a l l -pu rpo se " t y po logy , a pp l icab le t o a ny a nd a l l r e sea rch q ue s t ion s , t h e c r ea t ion o f w h ich i s n o t l o g ica l ly p o s s ib le . F u r the r , t h e m e thod o f c r ea t ion a nd s ub sequen t i n t e rp re ta t ion mu s tb ei na cco rd w i th t h et ypo log ica l p u rpo se .

a nd t h eo r y f a r the r a pa r t . When Is t a r ted t h i s r e sea r ch , Iw a s l a rge ly i g no ran to ft h i sf a c t , a nd v a in ly s e a rched t h el i t e ra tu re f o r g ood e xamp le s o fa pp l ied c l a s s if i ca t ion . F ind ing n one , I

T he f o l low ing t wo c hap te r s c ompr i se a n i n t roduc t ion t ot h e s t udy a r ea , a nd a r ev iew o f a r chaeo log ica l s y s tema t ic s ,

f oo l i sh ly r e so lved t os e to ne . 1

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s r e spec t ive ly . S ub sequen t ly , t h i s b ook f a l l s i n to t wo m a in s e c t ion s . C hap te r s 4 , 5 , a nd 6 a t temp t t o a pp ly t h ree p r inc ip le s o f a r chaeo log ica l s y s tema t ic s : t h e s e lec t ion o f a t t r ibu te s u sed t od ef ine t y pe s i sc r i t ica l ; f o r t h i s s e lec t ion t o b e l o g ica l i tmu s tr e la t e t ot h e s t a ted t y po log ica l p u rpo se ; t h e

A n e xp lana t ion f o r t h e a b sence o fd i sc re t e c l u s te r s i so f f e red i nC hap te r s 7t h rough 9 . C e l t s a r e s ugge s ted t ob e v a luab le t oo l s , c ha rac te r ized b y d u rab le m a te r ia l , l o ng -u se l i ve s , a nd l ow r a te s o f l o s s . T he se t wo f a c to r s c omb ine t or e duce t h e t y po log ica l d i sc re tene s s o f t h e a r t i f a c t c l a s s . L ow

p u rpo se a nd m ean s o f c on s t ruc t ion o f at y po logy c on s t ra in t h e p o s s ib le m ean ing ( s ) o f i t s c on s t i tuen t t y pe s . C hap te r 4 c r ea te s as t r ic t ly d ef ined m ono the t ic , h i e ra rch ica l t y po logy ,

s t anda rd iza t ion o f p refo rm a nd f r equen t r ehab i l i ta t ion o f b roken s pec imen s a l so b l u r d i s t inc t t y po log ica l b ounda r ie s . Au se l if e c yc le i sp ropo sed , a nd i nC hap te r 9i ti sf ound t o

f o l low ing t h e se p r inc ip le s . T he n ex tt wo c hap te r s a t temp tt h e

b e c on s i s ten t w i th r e levan t a spec t s o f t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion d a ta .

s ame p rog ram f o r ap o ly the t ic t y po logy a imed a td i scove r ing t y pe s w h ich m igh t h ave s ome " em ic " m ean ing . B ecau se p o ly the t ic t y po log ie s a r e i n he ren t ly m o re c omp lex i n c on s t ruc t ion a nd m ean ing t h an m ono the t ic o ne s , C hap te r 5i s

F ina l ly , C hap te r 1 0 p rov ide s ad i scu s s ion a nd c onc lu s ion s o f t h e r e su l t s , a nd o ft h e m e thods u sed t oo b ta in t h em . G round s t one t e chno logy i s d ecep t ive ly s imp le a nd h a s n o t b een

d evo ted t od i scu s s ion o ft h e m e thod a nd t h eo ry o fn umer ica l t a xonomy a s u sed i n t h i s a pp l ica t ion . C hap te r 6p rov ide s d e ta i l s o ft h e p rocedu re s a c tua l ly f o l lowed , a nd d i scu s se s t h e r e su l t s o f t h e c l u s te r a na ly s i s . T he se a r e n ega t ive : n o

a dequa te ly a dd re s sed i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re . I b e l ieve t h e m e thod s , p i t f a l l s , w rong t u rn s , a nd u l t ima te ly t h e r e su l t s , d e ta i led i nt h i s s t udy a r e o fo bv iou s i n te re s t w he reve r g round s t one i sf ound . I ndeed , Ih ope t h i s w o rk m ay b e o f

i n c lu s ive , w e l l d ef ined c l u s te r s w e re i s o la ted b y t h e p rocedu re s a pp l ied . I tw a s a r ound t h i s t ime t h a t Ir e a l ized I

r e levance w he reve r a r chaeo log is t s w i sh t o g o b eyond s t y le a nd f unc t ion i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e d i ve r se s ou r ce s o f v a r iab i l i ty b e tween a r t if a c t s .

w a s i n ap o s i t ion s im i la r t o s omeone c l a ss if y ing k n ive s w i thou tu nde r s tand ing a ta l lw ha t ak n if er e a l ly w a s .

2

C hap ter 2

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND E THNOGRAPH IC BACKGROUND TO T HE S TUDY AREA T h is c hap te r d ef ine s t h e s t udy a r ea a nd t h e m a te r ia l t o b e s t ud ied ,

a nd

c on ta in s

a b r ief r e v iew

o f t h e

ma in land c oa s t t oi n c lude b o th T oba a nd B u te I n le t s ( F igu re

r e levan t

2 . 1) .

e t hnog raphy a nd p reh i s to ry .

t h e

T he a r ea s o d ef ined i n c lude s t r ad i t iona l t e r r i to r ie s o f H oma lco ,

C omox ,

K lahoo se ,

S l iammon ,

P en t la tch ,

S eche l t , S qua r n ish , a nd S t ra i t s s peake r s , a nd t h e d i ve r se ,

DEF IN ITION OF THE S TUDY AREA

w ide sp read s peake r s o f H a lkome lem .

T he g eog raph ica l ly

i s o la ted t e r r i to ry o ft h e C oa s t S a l ish s peak ing N uxa lk ( Be l la T he s t udy a r ea i sa l l t h e C anad ian t e r r i to ry e t hnog raph ica l ly

C oo la ) , c en te red o n D ean a nd B u rke C hanne ls a nd t h e

o r

B en t inck A rms , i sn o ti n c luded .

h i s to r ica l ly

r epor ted

t o h ave

b een

d om inan t ly

a nd

s i gn if ican t ly e xp lo i ted b y t h e No r the rn a nd C en t ra l C oa s t I n b road g eog raph ica l

A l l g round s t one c e l t s f r om t h i s a r ea a r e i n c luded , r ega rd le ss

t e rm s t h i s i n c ludes t h e F ra se r R ive r t r ibu ta r ie s w e s t f r om

o f a ge a nd w he the r k nown f r om e xcava t ion o r s u r f ace

a bou t Y a le t oc onf luence w i th s a l t w a te r ; V ancouve r I s land f r om S ooke s ou thea s t t h rough V ic to r ia a nd n or thwe s t t o

c o l lec t ion .

S a l ish , a s d ef ined i n S u t t le s ( 1990 ) .

T he se w e re b or rowed f r om o r e xam ined a t a

v a r ie ty o f i n s t i tu t ion s ( s ee A ppend ix 3 ) .

C omox ; t h e Gu lf I s lands f r om t h e i n te rna t iona l b o rde r t h rough t h e n or the rn S t ra i t o f G eo rg ia a nd h ence a l ong t h e F igure 2 . 1 . S tudy a rea .

3

C oa s t S a l ish

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s t e r r i to ry n ow i n t h e U n i ted S ta te s i se xc luded f o r l o g i s t ica l r e a son sr e la ted t oa r t if ac tl o an p rocedu re s . C e l t sf r om f o rme r

S a l i sh a s aw ho le i sH ome r B a rne t t ' s T he C oas t S a l i sh o f B r i t i sh C o lumb ia ( 1955 ) . T h is g ive s ag ene ra l a ccoun t o fa l a s pec t s o f C oa s t S a l i sh l i f e , w i th r e g iona l v a r ia t ion s

S a l i shan t e r r i to r ie s l o s t t h rough r e cen t e xpan s ion b y n e ighbo r ing g roup s , s uch a s V ancouve r I s land f r om C ampbe l l R ive r n o r thwa rds t o K e l sey B ay , a nd t h e A lbe rn i

s pe c if ied . O the r g ene ra l s ou rce s i n c lude B a rne t t ( 1938 , 1 939 ) a nd C u r t i s ( 1913 ) . I n fo rma t ion t h a t b ea r s o n o ne o ra f ew o f t h e S a l i sh e t hno l ingu i s t ic d i v i s ion s i n c lude s S u t t le s

c ana l a r e i n c luded o n ly i ff r om d ocumen ted a r chaeo log ica l s i te s w i th r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e G u lf o fG eo rg ia -Lowe rF ra se r

( 1 974 ) o n S t ra i t s S a l i sh , B oa s ( 1891) o n t h e S onghee s a nd

p reh i s to r ic c u l tu ra l s equence . P ra c t ica l ly , t h i s o n ly i n c lude s t h e S hoemake r B ay s i te , DhSe 2 ,a tP o r t A lbe rn i . S u r f a ce c o l lec t ion s f r om t h e se f o rme r S a l i sh a r ea s a r e n o t i n c luded .

o t he r g roup s , D uf f ( 1952 ) o n t h e S to : lo o f t h e u ppe r F ra se r v a l ley , J enne s s ( n .d . , 1 955 ) o n t h e S aan ich a nd K a tz ie , a nd H i l l -Tou t ( e .g . , 1 907 ) f o r v a r ious s ou thern c oa s ta l a r ea s .

I ti sf e l t t h a t e t hnog raph ic i n fo rma t ion c omb ined w i th t h e g ene ra l ly a ccep ted p reh i s to r ic s equence i st h e b e s tm ean s f o r

E thnog raph ic d e sc r ip t ion o f v a r iou s Ame r ican C oa s t S a l i sh g r oup s i n c lude s G un the r ( 1927 ) , S te rn ( 1 934 ) , H aebe r l in a nd

d e l im i t ing a l og ica l , i n te rna l ly c ohe s ive s t udy a r ea . N eve r the le s s , t h is i s n o t i n tended t o a s se r t t h a t t h e e t hnog raph ica l ly o b se rved b ounda r ie s c an b e p ro jec ted i n to t h e d eep p a s t , n o r i si tm ean t a s ac ommen t o n t h e r e la t ive

G un the r ( 1930 ) , E lmendo r f( 1960 ) a nd Sm i th ( 1930 ) . Mo re s p ec if i c monog raph s a nd a r t ic les c once rn ing s e lec t a spec t s o f C oa s t S a l ish l i f e i n c lude J ennes s ( 1 955 ) o n r e l ig ion a nd O l son ( 1927 ) o n t e chno logy . H is to r ic d ocumen t s c an b e o f c on s ide rab le u se i n r e con s t ruc t ing c e r ta in a spec t s o f e a r ly

b oundedne s so ft h e se s oc ia l g roup s .

p o s t -con tac tN a t ive c u l tu re .

ETHNOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND

Mo s to ft h e se s ou r ce s c on ta in l i t t le o rn o s pec if ic i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e u se o f s t one w oodwo rk ing t oo ls , p re sumab ly r ef lec t ing e a r ly a bandonmen t o ft h is t r ad i t iona l t e chno logy i n

A c omp rehen s ive k now ledge o f r e levan t e t hnog raphy i sa p re requ i s i te f o r a lmo s t a ny a r chaeo log ica l s t udy . T h i s i s p a r t icu la r ly t r ue i fo ne p l an s o n d raw ing c onc lu s ion s a bou t s ub s is t ence , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , o ri d eo logy . E ven w hen t h e g oa l i s t o d e sc r ibe o r a na lyze a s i ng le a r t if a c t c l a s s , a n

f a vou r o f t r aded i r on t o o l s o r f e r rou s r aw ma te r ia l . I r on o r s t ee l t o o l s h ave b een e xpe r imen ta l ly d e te rm ined t o b e t h ree t o e i gh t t ime s a s e f f ic ien t a s t h e i r s t one t oo l e qu iva len t s ( S i l l i toe 1 979 ; S a rayda a nd S h imada 1 971 ; P h i l l ip s 1 979 ; A r ca s A s soc ia te s 1 986b ) , a nd t h e i r r a p id p ene t ra t ion o f t h e

a pp rec ia t ion o f t h e s oc ia l a c t iv i t ie s w h ich p roduced t h e a r t if ac t s i si mpe ra t ive , a se thnog raph ic c au t iona ry t a le s a t t e s t . T he re i sv e ry l i t t le s pec if ic i n fo rma t ion f r om t h e s t udy a r ea o nt h eu se o fg round s t one c e l t s , a nd w ha tt h e re i sm ay n o tb e

c oa s ta l

w oodwo rk ing

t e chno logy

i s u nde r s tandab le

i n

e conom ic t e rm s a l one ( s ee R icka rd 1 939 ; F i she r 1 977 ) . O ne e xamp le o f t h e i r w o r th i s r e co rded i n t h e F o r t L ang ley

a ccu ra te . S u t t le s ( 1974 :279 ) s ugge s t s e a r ly d i f f u s ion a nd t r ade o fm e ta l , a nd ar e la t ive ly l a te " e thnog raph ic p r e sen t " a s t h e r e a son sf o rt h i s l a ck o fi n fo rma t ion . I np a s s ing , h e m ake s

J ou rna l o f 1 829 , w h ich r e co rds t ha t s om e " Nan imoo s " t r aded s e ve ra l t h ou sand s a lmon f o r 6 40 " sma l l c h i se l s " o f l ow q ua l i ty ( Fo r tL ang ley J ou rna l2 0 /8 / 1829 ) .

a n i n te re s t ing c ommen t o n t h e v a lue o f s ome i n f o rman t t e s t imony :

E thnog raph ic

b ackg round

d ef ine s

a r a nge

o f p o s s ib le

b ehav io r s a nd b e l ief s t h a t m ay l e ave p hy s ica l r ema in s . I n s ome c a se s o f c l ose ly p a ra l le l t e chno log ie s a nd e nv i ronmen t s , i n fo rma t ion f r om o u t s ide t h e s t udy a r ea m ay b e u sed i f s u i tab ly g ene r ic i n d e ta i l . T h i s i n c lude s t h e

P robab ly s t one t oo l s h ave n o tb een m ade f o r ac en tu ry . C on sequen t ly i n fo rman t s t o day c an g i ve l i t t le a bou ts t one w o rk . Mo reove r , l i ke a n th ropo log i s t s , t h ey a r e a p tt o make i n f e rence sf r om a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . B u tt h ey a r e mo re l im i ted t h an a r chaeo log is t s ; t h e re i sn or oom i nt h e i r

v o lum inou s m a te r ia l g a the red b y B oa s a bou t Kwak iu t l w oodwo rk ing ( e .g . , B oa s 1 909 , 1 921) , m a te r ia l o n s t one c e l t m anuf ac tu re f r om t h e i n te r io r o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia ( H i l l -Tou t 1 899 , D aw son 1 887 ) a nd f r om N ew Z ea land ( Chapman

c o smogony f o r " an e a r l ie rr a ce " . .. t h ey r e ga rd t h em se lve s a sh av ing b een c r ea t ed o nt h es o i lo n w h ich t h ey n ow f i nd t h em se lve s ;t h e refo re a ny th ing w h ich t u rn s

1 891 , B e s t 1 9 12 ) . F o r o r ien t ing p u rpo se s t h e f o l low ing b r ief e t hnog raph ic d e sc r ip t ion i sg i ven , c onden sed f r om t h e H andbook o fN o r th Ame r ican I n d ian s e n t r ie s b y Wayne S u t t le s ( 1990 ) a nd D o ro thy K ennedy a nd R anda l l B oucha rd ( 1990 ) e xcep t a s

u p mu s t ,t ot h e i rw ay o ft h ink ing ,h ave b een made e i the rb y t h et r an sfo rme ro rb y t h e i ro wn a nce s to r s ( Su t t le s 1 974 :279 ) .

n o ted o t he rw ise . T h i s i s ap owe r fu l s t a temen t o fc on t inu i ty o fo ccupa t ion a nd

S ub s i s tence

c onnec t ion t ot h e t e r r i to ry . S u t t le s , h oweve r , a ppea r s t ob e s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e re a r e s ome s phe re s o ft r ad i t iona l c u l tu re f o r w h ich t h e a r chaeo log is t o r e t hnog raphe r i sa s w e l l , o r b e t te r , e qu ipped t o i n te rp re t . W i th t h i s i n m ind , t h e f ew

T he m o s t i mpo r tan t f ood s w e re f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh . S a lmon c ou ld b e m a s s h a rve s ted a t r i ve r m ou th s i n f i sh t rap s a nd w e i r s , a nd a l ong t h e l owe r F ra se r a nd F ra se r c anyon , w i th d i p -ne t s , h a rpoon s o r s pea r s o r t r ap s . Among t h e S t ra i t s s p eake r s , t h e c omp lex r e ef -ne t t ing t e chno logy e ff ic ien t ly t r apped m ig ra t ing s ockeye e ven b efo re t h ey r e ached t h e r i ve r m ou th s . S a lmon c ou ld b em a s s h a rve s t ed w hen a bundan ta nd s t o red f o rw in te rf ood , t r ade o rf e a s t ing . O the ri mpo r tan tf i sh

s pec if ic p i ece s o f i n fo rma t ion a bou t g round s t one c e l t s o r t r ad i t iona l w oodwo rk w i l l b e c i ted i nt h e r e levan tp a r t o ft h e t e x t . T he p r inc ip le e t hnog raph ic s ou rce f o r t h e c en t ra l C oa s t 4

A rchaeo log ica la nd E thnograph ic B ackground t ot h eS tud yA rea T he mo s t v i ta l t r ee s pec ie s f o r s ub s i s tence a nd s he l te r w a s u ndoub ted ly w e s te rn r ed c eda r , f r om w h ich h ou se s , c anoe s ,

i n c luded r o ckf i sh , f l a tf i sh , h e r r ing , d ogf i sh , e u la chon a nd s t u rgeon . S he l lf i sh o f a l d e sc r ip t ion s w e re g a the red , a nd c ou ld b e d r ied o r s moked , a nd s t o red . Y ea r r ound

b a rk p roduc t s ( c o rdage , c l o th ing , m a t s ) a nd r oo t p roduc t s ( ba ske t s ) w e re m ade . V i r tua l ly a l l o t he r n a t ive w ood s a r e u t i l ized f o r s ome p u rpo se a cco rd ing t o t h e e t hnog raph ie s , i n c lud ing y ew , D oug la s f i r , t r ue f i r , h em lock , s p ruce , a nd y e l low c eda r a mong t h e s of twood s , a nd a l de r , m ap le , v i ne

a va i lab i l i ty , a nd t h e i rp rox im i ty t os e t t lemen t s m ade s he l lf i sh a n i mpo r tan t f ood , a s i s g raph ica l ly e v idenced i n t h e e no rmou s p i le s o fd i sca rd s he l l w h ich f o rm t h e m a t r ix o ft h e m os t c ha rac te r is t ic c oa s ta l a r chaeo log ica l s i te : t h e s he l l m idden .

m ap le , a r bu tu s , c r ab -app le , c o t tonwood , d ogwood , o cean sp ray , w i ld c he r ry , a nd w i l low a mong t h e h a rdwood s ( Su t t le s 1 974 , B oa s 1 890 , G un the r 1 930 , B a rne t t 1 939 ) . Wood a r t if a c t s s e ldom p re se rve i na r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t ion ,

H un t ing f o r s e a mamma l s w a s a l so i mpor tan t , c oncen t ra t ing o n s ea l , s e a l i on a nd p o rpo i se . O n ly s ou thwe s te rn g roup s s uch a s t h e C la l lam h un t ed w ha le s . I mpor tan t l a nd m amma l p rey i n c luded d ee r a nd e l k .

b u t A r che r a nd B e rn ick ( 1990 :21) r epo r t e i gh t d i f f e ren t t r ee s pec ie s w e re u sed i nt h e m anu f ac tu re o f 4 74 w ood o r b a rk a r t if ac t s f r om t h e 2 , 500 y ea r o l d Mu squeam N o r thea s t s i t e ( DhR t 4 ) , w he re o rgan ic ma te r ia ls w e re p re se rved i n

A w ide v a r ie ty o f b i rd s w e re

h un ted o rt r apped i nn e t s .

w a te r logged d epo s i t s .

P lan t f ood s g a the red i n c luded v a r iou s b e r r ie s a nd f r u i t s , b u lb s a nd r oo t s . O fr e g iona l i mpo r tance w e re c ama s a mong t h e S t ra i t ss peake r s , w apa to a mong t h e K a tz ie ,a nd b rake -f e rn a mong t h e Mu squeam .

O the r t h an w ood , b a rk a nd r oo t , s i gn if ican t r aw m a te r ia l s e xp lo i ted i n c luded b one ( l and m amma l , s e a m amma l , b i rd ) , a n t le r , h o rn , a nd h i de s ; s he l l ; f l aked , p ecked a nd g round s t one ; d og a nd g oa t w oo l ; a nd a v a r ie ty o f o t he r m ino r

T echno logy

m a te r ia l s .

Wood w o rk ing w a s p e rhap s t h e s i ng le m o s t i mpo r tan t t e chno logy o n t h e p reh is to r ic c oa s t . C la s se s o f p roduc t s

S oc ia lo rgan iza t ion

m anu f ac tu red w ho l ly o r p a r t ia l ly o u t o f w ood , b a rk o r r oo t i n c lude :

C oa s t S a l i sh s oc ie ty i so f ten r e f e r red t o a s b e ing r e la t ive ly

A . S he l t e r . B o th t h e t r ad i t iona l p o s t , b eam a nd p l ank l o nghou se o f t h e c oa s ta l a nd F ra se r R ive r a r ea s , a nd t h e w ood -f ramed , s em i sub te r ranean p i thou se o f t h e v a l ley a nd c anyon a r ea s w e re l a rge ly m ade o fw ood , a sw e re t empo ra ry s he l te r s ,g r ave h ouse s ,f l oo rm a t s , a nd c r ad le s .

e ga l i ta r ian c ompa red t o t h e m a rked ly r a nked , s t ra t if ied c u l tu re s t ot h e n or th a nd w e s t . T he re w a s , h oweve r , ac l a s s s y s tem e ncompa s s ing " wo r thy p eop le , " " wo r th le s s p eop le " a nd s l ave s . R e s iden t ia l g roup s c on s i s ted o f " f am i l ie s " e ncompa s s ing a n uc lea r f am i ly p l u s c o -w ive s , d ependan t s a nd s l ave s ( i fa ny ) . F am i l ie s b e longed t o" hou se s " : c ogna t ic b i la te ra l d e scen t g roup s w h ich m igh t c on t ro l i n he r i ted r i gh t s t o r e sou rce s ( e spec ia l ly f i sh ing a r ea s a nd s he l lf i sh b ed s ) , t i t u la r n ame s , a nd c e remon ia l p a raphe rna l ia . W in te r v i l lage s c ou ld c on ta in o ne o rs eve ra l r e la ted h ou seho ld s . H ou seho ld s w i th in v i l lage s m igh t c oope ra te o n m a jo r p ro jec t s s u ch a s

B . T ran spo r ta t ion . T he e t hnog raph ic C oa s t S a l i sh e conomy w a s w ho l ly d ependen t o n w a te r c ra f t t o e xp lo i t t h e v a r iou s s ho re l ine , i s land , r e ef a nd r i ve r r e sou rce s ; t o h un t m a r ine mamma l s ; t o f i sh s pec ie s s uch a s r o ck c od , h a l ibu t a nd d ogf i sh i no pen w a te r ; t og a in a cce s s t os a lmon s t ream s a nd t r an spo r t t h e c a tch h ome t o t h e w in te r v i l lage ; t o a pp ly s pec ia l ized f i sh ing m e thod s s uch a sr e ef -ne t t ing o r t r o l l ing ; a nd t o g a in a cce ss t oh un t ing , g a the r ing , a nd o t he r r e sou rce

c ommuna l f i sh ing o r d ef en se , b u t t h e re w e re n o f o rma l v i l lage leve lp o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re so ro ff ice s .

a r ea s . I n g ene ra l , w a te r c ra f t w e re a b so lu te ly n ece s sa ry t o m ake a l i v ing o n ac oa s t l ine t h a t i s o f t en r ough , s t eep , i n den ted , a nd b acked b y d en se f o re s t . T he se w a te rc ra f t , a nd t h e a ccompany ing p a raphe rna l ia ( p add le s , b a i le r s , e t c . ) w e re

H uman h i s to ry s t a r ted w hen X a l s e nded t h e m y th ica l a ge b y t r an sf orm ing a s u i te o f m y th ica l b e ing s i n to i n an ima te o b jec t s . L oca l g roup s w e re c onnec ted t h rough X a l s t ot h e i r t r ad i t iona l t e r r i to ry , a nd h ad r e c ip roca l r e la t ion sh ip s w i th t h e l o ca l r e sou r ce s . T he se w e re mo s t c l ea r ly m an if e s ted i nF i r s t S a lmon c e remon ie s , i n w h ich s ome b one s o f s a lmon w e re r i tua l ly r e tu rned t o t h e w a te r , i n o rde r t h a t t h e f i sh w ou ld

I deo logy

a lmo s te n t i re ly made o fw ood . C .

S ub s i s tence .

A s i gn if ican t p o r t ion o f t h e r e sou rce

c on t inue t oo f f e r t h e i r f l e sh .

e x t rac t ion , p roces s ing a nd s t o rage t e chno logy w a s w ho l ly o r p a r t ia l ly m ade o f w ood p roduc t s : f i sh ing g ea r , n e t s , f i sh w e i r s , d r y ing r a ck s , h un t ing g ea r , d i gg ing s t i ck s , b a ske t s , c ook ing v e s se ls a nd e a t ing u t en s i l s . S ome c l o th ing , s u ch a s

A l so i mpo r tan t w a s t h e p owe r

g a ined t h rough av i s ion q ue s t : t h rough f a s t ing a nd i s o la t ion a v i s ion w ou ld b e p rec ip i ta ted , u sua l ly r e su l t ing i n as p i r i t a ly ing i t se lf w i th a n i n d iv idua l a nd p rov id ing a g i f t i n t h e f o rm o f as pec ia l p owe r o r t a len t . F o r e xamp le , S u t t le s ( 1974 :228 ) r e co rd s t h e c a se o f am a s te r w oodwo rke r w ho

c ape sa nd h a t s , w a sm ade o fb a rk . D . C er emon ia l a nd a r t o b jec t s . C e remon ia l i t em s s uch a s m a sk s a nd r a t t les w e re u sua l ly m ade o f w ood , a nd c eda r h ou se p o s t s w e re s ome t ime s o rna t e ly c a rved . W i l low a nd c a sca ra b a rk s , a nd d ozen s o f o t he r p l an t s pec ie s , w e re u sed

r e ce ived h e lp f r om h i s h e lpe rs p i r i t , t h ep i lea ted w oodpecke r .

f o rm ed ic ina lp urpo se s .

T he p reh i s to ry o f t h e s t udy a r ea i n c lude s t wo f a i r ly w e l l

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL BACKGROUND d ocumen ted , r e la ted c u l tu re h i s to r ie s : t h e G u lf o f G eo rg ia s equence a nd t h eF ra se rC anyon s equence . 5

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s

E ar ly P er iod s

v e ry i n f requen t ly f ound , o t he r f e a tu re s o f a r e la t ive ly a dvanced w oodwo rk ing t e chno logy a r e p re sen t . Ma t son ( 1 976 :290 -292 , 3 01) , f o r e xamp le , r e po r t s b one a nd a n t le r w edge s , r oden t i n c i so r c h ise l s a nd as e a -mus se l c e l tf r om t h e G len ro se s i t e , a nd c onc lude s t h a t t h e r e wa s c on s ide rab le w oodwo rk ing t e chno logy , i n c lud ing t h e m anuf a c tu re o f

D eg lac ia t ion o fm uch o ft h e s ou the rn a r ea o ccu r red b y a bou t 1 2 ,000 y ea r s b efo re p re sen t . Av i ab le e nv i ronmen t f o r p o s t g l ac ia l m egaf auna q u ick ly e s tab l i shed i t se lf , a s t h e 1 ,750 y ea r o l d b i son r ema in s f r om N o r th S aan ich d emon s t ra te ( Hebda 1 988 :2 ) . O f p a r t icu la r i n te re s t i n t h e p a laeo e nv i ronmen ta l r e co rd i s t h a t w e s te rn r e d c eda r ( T hu ja

p o s s ib ly " advanced " w a te rc ra f t .

p l ica ta ) w a s n o t w ide sp read u n t i l 5 -6 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( Hebda a nd Ma thewe s 1 984 ) . T h i s t r ee i sc l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d eve lopmen t

o f

N o r thwe s t

c oa s t

c u l tu re s ,

a nd

T he L ocarno B each c u l tu re t ype d a te s f r om a pp rox ima te ly 3 , 200 y ea r s B .P . t o2 , 400 y ea r s B .P . Al i s t o fc ha ra c te r i s t ic a r t if ac t s a nd s ub s is tence i t em s i s g i ven b y M i tche l l

t h e

w oodwo rk ing t e chno logy s o c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h i s a r ea . B o th s equence s a r e u nde r la in b y t h e p oo r ly k nown O ld

( 1990 :341 ,344 ) . A t e ndency t o m o re e xp lo i ta t ion o f b ay m u s se l t h an i n l a te r p e r iod s i s n o ted b y M i tche l l , w h i le

C ord i l leran p e r iod , f r om a bou t 9 , 000 y ea r s b e fo re p r e sen t ( y ea r s B .P . ) t o a bou t 6 , 500 y ea r s B .P . S ub s i s tence d u r ing

Ma t son e ta l ( 1 991 :116 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h e C ha r le sLoca rno B each t r an s i t ion i sa ccompan ied b y t h e d eve lopmen t o fm o re s oph is t ica ted s a lmon p roce s s ing . S o c ia l o rgan iza t ion ,

t h is p e r iod i sb a sed o n am ixed l a nd -ma r ine e conomy , a nd i s r e p re sen ted b y ap r ima r i ly l i t h ic t e chno logy , w h ich m ay b e a

p robab ly m o re e ga l i ta r ian t h an s ub sequen t c u l tu re t y pe s

r e su l t o fp re se rva t ion f a c to r s . N o g round s t one i sp re sen t i n d epos i t s o ft h i s a ge , b u t b one a nd a n t le r a r t if ac t s a r e k nown

( M i t che l l 1 990 :344 ) , d oe s i n c lude s i gn if ican ts t a tu sd i f f e ren t ia t ion .

f r om t h e G len ro se C anne ry s i t e . W i th in t h e s t udy a r ea i ti s b e s tr ep re sen ted a tt h eG len ro se ( DgR r6 )a nd M i l l iken ( D jR i 3 )s i te s , a nd a l so a tt h e T sab le R ive r ( D jSf 1 3 ) a nd D ion i s io

s ome

a ppa ren t ly

T he L oca rno B each w oodwo rk ing i n du s t r y i si n f e r red t ob e s oph i s t ica ted , b u t mode s t . L a rge b one w edge s , a n t le r w edge s , s ea -mu s se l c e l t s , a nd s ma l l g r ound s t one c e l t s a r e p r e sen t , b u t h and m au l s a nd l a rge a n t le r w edge s a r e a b sen t . T he a b i l i ty t o c on s t ruc t t wo c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu re s o f t h e

P o in t ( DgRv 3 )s i te s . I ti sa l so k nown f r om s u r f ace f i nd s o f p robab le O ld C o rd i l le ran a r t if a c t s . R e f e rence s t ot h i s p e r iod i n c lude B o rden ( 1975 ) , C a r lson ( 1990b ) , a nd Ma t son ( 1 976 ) ; ag ood g ene ra l i n t roduc t ion t o e a r ly c oa s ta l p reh i s to ry i s

d eve loped c oa s ta l m a r i t ime a dap ta t ion th e p l ank h ou se a nd t h e d ugou t c anoe i s i n f e r red (M i tche l l 1 990 :344 ; 1 971 :58 5 9 ; A r che r a nd B e rn ick 1 990 :187 -189 ) , a l though Ma t son e t a l( 1991 :151) d i spu te t h a t p l ank h ou se s w e re a c tua l ly m ade u n t i l s ub sequen t p e r iod s . L oca rno B ea ch a ge g round s t one

g i ven b yF ladma rk ( 1986 ) .

T he Gu lf o fG eorg ia S equence M i tche l l ( 1971) a ma lgama ted a n umbe r o f r e g iona l p ha se s , s ome o fw h ich w e re i d en t if ied f r om o n ly o ne o r af ew s i te s , i n to a s equence f o r t h e e n t i re G u lf o f G eo rg ia r eg ion . H i s

c e l t s a r e u sua l ly d e scr ibed a s s ma l l a nd w e l l made , w i th r e c tangu la r c r o s s s e c t ion s a nd p l an s ( M i tche l l 1 971 :57 ) .

u n if y ing c oncep t w a s t h e c u l tu re t y pe : " a g roup o f c omponen t s d i s t ingu ishab le b y t h e p o s se s s ion o f ag roup o f t r a i t s " ( Spau ld ing i nM i tche l l 1 990 :340 ) . C on t inued u s e o f t h i s t e rm i sn o t m ean t t o i mp ly t h e a s semb lage s n ece s sa r i ly c o r re la te e xa c t ly w i th c u l tu re si nt h ea n th ropo log ica l s en se .

M h a i n tc dh l e e , ll r a ( t 1 h 9 e 7 r1 t h : 5 a 8 n )t h s u eg g e e n s e t s ra t l h l y at l a t h r g i s er fo e r lm b ow i sh s a u n i t d e ld e. t o Aa nt l e r s l eeve h a f t s a r e n o t k nown f r om d epo s i t s o fL oca rno B each a ge ( M i t che l l 1 971 :58 ) .

T he C har le sc u l tu re t y pe , l a s t ing f r om a bou t6 , 500 y ea r s B .P . t oa bou t3 , 200 y ea r s B .P . i sl e s s w e l l k nown t h an s ub sequen t

T he Marpo l e c u l tu re t y pe d a te s f r om a pprox ima te ly 2 , 400

p e r iod s . I tw a s d ef ined b y B o rden i n 1 975 . I te ncompa s se s t wo s ub reg iona l p ha se s : t h e F ra se rD e l ta " S t . Mungo " p ha se ,

a r t if ac t s a nd s ub s is tence i t em s i s g i ven b y M i tche l l ( 1990 :344 -346 ) , w h i le B u r ley ( 1980 ) d e sc r ibe s t h e p e r iod i n

a nd t h e G u lf I s land s "Mayne " p ha se . T he b eg inn ing s o ft h e e t hnog raph ic C oa s tS a l ish c u l tu ra l p a t te rn s e em t ob e p r e sen t a s , f o r e xamp le , g round s l a te k n ive s , b a rbed h a rpoon s a nd

s ome d e ta i l .

y ea r s B .P . t oa bou t 1 600 y ea r s B .P .

Al i s t o f c ha rac t e r i s t ic

T he w oodwo rk ing i n du s t ry i ss oph i s t ica t ed a nd h eavy -du ty . H and m au l s a nd l a rge a n t le r w edge s a ppea r . G round s t one c e l t s b ecome l a rge r a nd mo r e d ive r se i ns h ape , b u t l e s s f i ne ly m ade . T he Ma rpo le t e chno logy i se qu iva len t i na l l w ay s t o

l a b re t s a ppea r ( Bo rden 1 975 :95 ) R ecen t e xcava t ion s a t D gR s 2 ( T sawa s sen ) u ncove red s eve ra l C ha r le s p ha se b u r ia l s , t wo o f w h ich c on ta ined i n c lu s ion s a moun t ing t o a bou t 5 5 ,000 b ead s , a l though n o b u r ia l s h ad c r an ia l d efo rma t ion ( A rca s 1 991 :53 ) . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t s ome s t a tu s d i f f e rence sw e re a l r eady p re sen ti nC ha r le sc u l tu r e .

t h e l a te p r eh i s to r ic w oodwo rk ing t oo lk i t , a nd mu s th ave b een a dequa te t oc omp le te t h e f u l l r ange o f l i ke ly w oodwo rk ing p ro jec t s . L a rge p o s t mou ld s a r e p re sen ta ts ome s i te s ( Bu r ley 1 980 :29 ) i n d ica t ing t h a t l a rge p o s t a nd b eam p l ank h ou se s

O n ly t h ree g round s t one c e l t s h ave b een f ound i n k nown

w e re b u i l t .

C ha r le s p ha se d epo s i t s ( Pa tenaude 1 985 ) : t wo f r om t h e P i t t R ive r s i te ( DhRq 2 1) a nd o ne f r om t h e S t . Mungo s i te ( DgR r

T he G u lf o f G eorg ia c u l tu re t ype d a te s f r om a bou t 1 600 y ea r s B .P . t ot h e t ime o f c on tac t w i th E u ropean s . Al i s t o f t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic a r t if ac t s a nd s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s i sg i ven

2 ) . O ne o ft h ef o rme ri s amod if ied p ebb le , t h e o t he rt wo a r e s ma l l , w e l l m ade , t a bu la r s pec imen s d i ff icu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh f r om t y p ica l L oca rno B each s pec imen s . T he D hRq 2 1 s pec imen s w e re i mmed ia te ly b e low t wo c a rbon s amp le s r a d iome t r ica l ly a s sayed a t 3 , 750± 100 a nd 4 , 100± 100 y ea r s B .P . ( Pa tenaude 1 985 :124 ) . Wh i le g round s t one c e l t s a r e

b y M i tche l l ( 1 990 :346 -348 ;1971 :48 -51) . T h i s c u l tu re t y pe r e p re sen t s t h e i mmed ia te c u l tu ra l a n teceden t o f t h e e t hnog raph ica l ly d e sc r ibed C oa s t S a l i sh p eop le s , m any o f w ho se s o c ia l a nd i d eo log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ics p re sumab ly a r e 6

A r chaeo log ica la nd E thnograph ic B ackground t ot h eS tud yA rea p r e sen t o r d eve lop t h roughou t t h i s p e r iod , i fn o t b efo re .

h eavy t a sk s m o re e ff ic ien t ly , b u t d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly s i gna l

V i l lages c on s i s t ing o fr ow s o fh eavy t imbe red h ou se s c l ad i n p l ank s w e re c ommon ; f r equen t ly a s t ockaded o r e mbanked

t h e i rc ommencemen t .

r e fuge s i t e w a s o n an ea rby h e igh t o f l a nd , i n d ica t ing s ome t h rea tf r om w a r f a re o rr a id ing .

I NTRODUCT ION TO GROUND S TONE CELTS

T he w oodwo rk ing i ndu s t ry i s c ompa rab le t o t h a t o f t h e

D ef in i t ion

Ma rpo le p e r iod . T he h and m au l s a r e s t y l i s t ica l ly d i f f e ren t , b u t t h e g r ound s t one c e l t s a r e d i ff icu l tt od i s t ingu i sh f r om t h e e a r l ie rf o rm s ( Bu r ley 1 980 :22 -23 ) . M i tche l l ( 1971 :48 ) n o te s t h a t s om e m ay b e t h inne r , o r o f a h i ghe r q ua l i ty o f m anu fac tu re t h an t h e i r Ma rpo le c oun t e rpa r t s .

A cco rd ing t ot h e O xfo rd E ng l i sh D ic t iona ry " ce l t " r e pu ted ly s t em s f r om t h e V u lga t e L a t in c e l te s , " a s cu lp to r s c h ise l " . P ronounced " s e l t " , i tb ea r s n o e t ymo log ica l r e la t ion sh ip t o " Ce l t ic " . T he w o rd w a s a dm i t ted i n to t e chn ica l a r chaeo log ica l u se a bou t 1 700 , m ean ing a n i mp lemen t w i th a c h i se l shaped e dge , o fs t one , b ronze o ri r on , a nd o f v a r iab le h a f t ing ( s ocke ted , g rooved , p l a in ) a nd p u rpo se ( weapon ,

T he F ra ser C anyon S equence

a dze , h oe ) . I tt h e refo re h a s al o ng t r ad i t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l

T he F ra se r C anyon s equence i sk nown f r om as e r ie s o fs i te s i na nd a r ound t h e l owe r F ra se r c anyon a nd t h e u ppe r F ra se r

u sage a s ag ene r ic , n on -f unc t iona l t e rm . H oweve r , t h e t e rm i su sua l ly u sed u ndef ined , p r e sumab ly a s mo s t a r chaeo log is t s

v a l ley . I ti sb e s t r ep re sen ted a tt h e r ema rkab le s i te s n ea r Y a le ( D jR i 3a nd D jR i 5 ) , b u t i sa l so k nown f r om e xcava ted

a r e f am i l ia r w i th i t s m ean ing . I fq ua l if ied , i ti su sua l ly b y r aw m a te r ia l , t e chn ique o fm anuf ac tu re , o rb o th .

s i te s a round H ope ( D iR j 1 ,D iR i 1 4 , D iR i 3 8 , D iR i 3 9 , D hR j 1 4 ) . A g ood s u mma ry o f t h e c u l tu ra l a nd e nv i ronmen ta l h i s tory o ft h eF ra se r C anyon i sg i ven b y A rche r ( 1980 ) . T he n ume rou sp ha se s i n i t ia l ly p ropo sed f o rt h i s s equence ( Bo rden 1 975 ) h ave b een s imp l if ied b y M i t che l l ( 1990 ) , w ho p ropo se st h ree c u l tu re t y pe s -B a ldw in , S kame l ,a nd C anyon -

D e sp i te t h i s t r ad i t ion o f g ene r ic u sage , i ti s d i ff icu l t t o f o rmu la te ad ef in i t ion f o r " c e l t " t h a t d oe s n o t c on ta in s ome r e f e rence t oi n f e r red f unc t ion . K apche s , f o re xamp le , d ef ine s ac e l ta s

w h ich a r er ough ly a na logou s t ot h e L oca rno B each , Ma rpo le ac l a s s o fg round s t one i mp lemen t st h a t

a nd G u lf o fG eo rg ia c u l tu re t ype s . S ome d i f f e rence sb e tween t h e se a nd t h e i r c oa s ta l a na logue s m ay b e m a in ly d ue t o

i n c lude s t h ef unc t iona la nd mo rpho log ica l t y pe so fa r t if a c t s k nown v a r iou s ly a sa dze s , a xe s , g ouge s ,c h i se l s ,e t c . ; t h e se i mp lemen t sc an b ep a r t ia l ly o rt o ta l ly

d i f f e ren t ia lp r e se rva t ion i na na c id ic c anyon s o i l , s u ch a c id i ty n o rma l ly b e ing c oun te rac ted b y t h e p re sence o f s he l l i n c oa s ta l s i t e s ( M i tche l l 1 990 :353 ) .

H oweve r , t h e l a ck o f

g round ; h a f ted o ru nha f ted ;c an h ave

s he l lf i sh e xp lo i ta t ion a l so r ef lec t s as ub s tan t ia l d i f f e rence i n s ubs i s tence ,w h ich may b ei n f luen t ia l .

mod if ica t ion sf o rh a f t ing , o rn o mod if ica t ion sf o rh a f t ing ; t h es ugge s ted f unc t ion o fc e l t s i n vo lve st h eu se o fa c u t t ing e dge o rb i tf o rt h ep roce s s ing o f o rgan ic r aw m a te r ia l s ; t h ec e l tm ay b e p o l i shed , e i the ri n ten t iona l ly o rt h rough u se . B yt h i sd e f in i t ion Ie xc lude g round s t one i mp lemen t s s uch a sf ood p roce s s ing

S ummary I n

b o th

r e g iona l

s equence s ,

M i tche l l

( 1990 :352 -353 )

s ugge s t s t h a t t h e e v idence b e s t s u i t s a mode l o f i n s i tu d eve lopm en t a nd e vo lu t ion t owa rd s t h e e t hnog raph ica l ly d e sc r ibed C oa s t S a l ish c u l tu re . T hu s , t h e re i sn o r e a son t o b e l ieve t h e re h a s b een s i gn if ican t p opu la t ion i n f lux o r

t o o l s ( e .g . , mor ta r s , q ue rn s , p e s t le s , mano s , a nd m e ta te s ) , s pec if ica l ly r i tua l o b jec t s ( e .g . ,c ha rm s tone s ,a mu le t s a nd s mok ing p i pe s ) , a nd v a r iou so t he ra r t if a c tt y pe s ( e .g . , m au l s , b anne r s tones , g round p ro jec t i le p o in t s , k n ive s ,e t c . ) (Kapche s 1 979 :65 ) .

d i sp lacemen t i nt h e s t udy a r ea s i nce a tl e a s t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e C ha r le s c u l tu re t y pe , e xcep t f o r t h e h i s to r ica l ly d ocumen t ed e xpan s ion b y Waka shan s peake r s i n to n o r the rn a nd w es t e rn a r ea s . Woodwo rk ing t e chno logy g radua l ly b ecome s a b le t o t a ck le h eavy t a sk s , s u ch a s p l ank h ou se c on s t ruc t ion a nd d ugou t c anoe m anu f ac tu re . T he t r iad o fb a s ic t o o l s ( l a rge s p l i t t ing

T he c r uc ia l a t t r ibu te o f ag round s t one c e l t i st h e g round c u t t ing e dge . B u t , i ti sd i ff i cu l t t o d ef ine t h e d i f f e rence b e tween w oodwo rk ing c e l t s a nd g round s l a te f i sh k n ive s , f o r e xamp le , w i thou tr e cou r se t of unc t iona l i n f e rence , o rw i thou t a n e xp l ic i t e xemp t ion s uch a st h e o ne f o r m ano s i nK apche s ' d e f in i t ion . T he se e xemp t ion s a r e v e ry h e lpfu l , b u t l o g ica l ly t h ey d o n o tc l a r if y w ha t ac e l t i s ,o n ly w ha t i ti sn o t . I ns p i te o fi t sl o g ica l f l aw s , K apche s ' d ef in i t ion p rov ide s ag ood b a s i s f o rr e cogn iz ing ag round s t one c e l t .

w edge s , h and m au l s a nd n eph r i te c e l t s ) w h ich d e f ine t h e f u l l s c a le w oodwo rk ing i n du s t ry o f t h e l a te p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod i s p r e sen t a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e Ma rpo le c u l tu re t y pe ( Bo rden 1 970 :104 ) . H oweve r , w edge s a nd c e l t s a r e p re sen t a s e a r ly a s t h e l a te C ha r les c u l tu re t y pe , a nd t h e a b sence o f h and m au l s c ou ld b e c ompen sa ted b y u s ing u nmod if ied h amme r s tone s , w h ich a r e c ommon i n m any s i te s . T he a b sence o fl a rge c e l t s i nL oca rno B ea ch d epo s i t s c ou ld m ean o t he r f u nc t iona l ly e qu iva len t t o o l s , s u ch a s s ea m u s se l c e l t s , w e re b e ing u sed . Wh i le t h e Ma rpo le t oo l k i t i su ndoub ted ly m o re e ff i c ien t , i ti sn o t n ece s sa r i ly i n d i spen sab le f o r h eavy

T he t e rm " g round s t one c e l t " h a s u navo idab le f unc t iona l c onno ta t ion s : s ome s o r t o f c u t t ing o r c hopp ing f unc t ion i s i mp l ied . B u t , w i th in t h e c l a s s o f a r t ifa c t s , n o f u r the r

w oodwo rk ing . O ne c an s ugge s t t h a t t h i s t r iad o f w oodwo rk ing t o o ls w a s ar e spon se t o ad e s i re t o c omp le te 7

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s f unc t iona l d i f f e ren t ia t ion s ( e .g . , c h i se l , a dze ) a r e i mp l ied . U n les s o ne o f t h e se mo re s pec ia l ized f unc t ion s c an b e

u sed . A s ide f r om t h is h eavy ,g r ooved b l ade t h e re s eem st ob e n om a te r ia l o rf o rm s uff i c ien t ly d i s t inc t ive o rl o ca l ized t os e rve a s ac l a s s if ica t ion o fb l ade s ( O l son

i n f e r red w i th c onf idence , i ti sd e s i rab le t o u s e t h e b l anke t n on -func t iona l t e rm . T h i s i sf r equen t ly m i sapp l ied i n t h e l i t e ra tu re . B u r ley ( 1989 ) a nd H ayden ( 1989 ) , f o r e xamp le , r epea ted ly r e f e r t o c e l t s a s " c e l t s /adze s " , w rong ly i mp ly ing

1 927 :13 ) . T h i s b a s ic c l a s s if ica t ion o fh a f tf o rm i sc ommon ly u sed t o day ( e .g . , S u t t le s 1 990 :2 ) . N o f i rm a s soc ia t ion s b e tween h a f t ing

t h et wo t e rm sa r ec ompa rab le .

F unc t ion

m e thod a nd c e l t s t y le h ave b een m ade . O f c ou r se , v e ry f ew

T he a s sump t ion t h a t w oodwo rk ing w a s ap r ima ry f unc t ion o f c e l t s i so ve rwhe lm ing ly s uppo r ted b ye t hnog raph ic t e s t imony ( e .g . , B oa s 1 909 ) ; b y t h e p o s t -con tac t h a f t ing o fm e ta l b l ade s

h a f t s o fw ood o ra n t le rs u rv ive i na r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s . O ne o ft h e e a r l ie s t , a nd m o s t p rec i se , c l a s s if ica t ion s o fc e l t s f r om t h e N o r thwe s t c oa s t i s g i ven b y P h i l ip D rucke r ( 1943 :43 -49 ) . D rucke r d ev i sed aw e l l d ef ined t y po logy t h a t i n c luded h and a nd h a f ted m au l s , h a rpoon s , s l a te p o in t s , s l a te k n ive s , b one p o in t s , w edge s , a nd g round s t one c e l t s . C e l t s w e re p l aced i n to t wo s epa ra te c l a s se s : " heavy s p l i t t ing a dze s " , r e s t r ic ted t on o r the rn c oa s ta l a r ea s , a nd " c e l t s " . T he l a t te r w e re d i v ided i n to t h ree t y pe s a nd t h ree s ub type s ,

i n to t r ad i t iona l w oodwo rk ing h a f t s ; b y e xpe r imen ta l r e sea rch w h ich s how st h a tt h ey a r e f unc t iona l a nd c an c r ea te t h e k i nd s o f t oo l m a rk s o b se rved o n p reh i s to r ic s t ump s ( e .g . , A rca s A s soc ia t e s 1 986b ) ; a nd b y a na ly s i s o f u se -wea r c on s i s ten t w i th w oodwo rk ing ( e .g . , S emenov 1 964 ; R oodenbe rg 1 983 ) . A w oodwo rk ing f unc t ion i s a l so s uppo r t ed b y r e s idue a na ly s i s . R e s idue s t ud ies o n s t one c e l t s f r om a s i te a tP i t t R ive r ( DhRq 2 1) r evea led t h a t a l l s pec imen s e xam ined h ad p i tch o r r e s in a dhe ren t .

l a rge ly o n t h e b a s i s o f aq ua l i ta t ive a s se s smen t o fb ody p l an , b i t p l an , a nd c r o s s s e c t ion . D rucke r ' s o ve ra l l t y po logy w a s i n f orma l ly a dop t ed a nd f o rm s t h e b a s i s f o r mo s t N o r thwe s t

I n o ne c a se , i tw a s p o s s ib le t o

i d en t if y t h e s pec ie s a s L odgepo le P ine ( P inu s c on tor ta ) . A no the r h ad t wo s epa ra te k i nd s o fa dhe r ing r e s in , o ne a tt h e p o l l a nd o ne a tt h eb i t , s ugge s t ing t h a t as pec if ic t y pe o fp i tch w a s u sed f o r h a f t ing p u rpo se s ( Brode r ick 1 985 :349 ) . N o c e l t s h ad f a t o r b l ood r e s idue s , a l though s uch r e s idue s w e re c ommon o n av a r ie ty o f s pec imen s f r om o t he r a r t if a c t c l a s se s . U se -wea r a na ly s i s o f t h e c u t t ing e dge o f c e l t s r epo r ted i n P a tenaude ( 1985 :116 -125 ) w a s a mb iguou s , l a rge ly b ecau se o fp a t ina t ion p re sen to nm any s p ec imen s , a nd n oc onc lu s ion sa bou ts pec if ic f unc t ion w e re d r awn .

c oa s t a r chaeo log ica l t y po logy .

N eve r the le s s , c e l t s f r om t h e

O the r t a sk s t h an w oodwo rk ing a r e r a re ly s ugge s ted f o r g round s t one c e l t s f r om B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . B o rden ( 1970 :104 105 ) s ugge s t s t h a t s ome " ve ry s ma l l n eph r i te

s uch a ss awma rk sa nd a ng led b i t s .

s t udy a r ea h ave n o t u sua l ly b een d e sc r ibed i nt h e se t e rm s f o r , Ib e l ieve , s eve ra lr e a sons . 1 . I ti su sua l t of i nd o n ly af ew c e l t s i n amode ra te ly s i zed a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion . T h is t e nd s t oi n h ib i t o r s imp l if y t y po log ica l i n te re s t . 2 . D rucke r ' st y pe s w e re d e s igned f o rt h ec en t ra l a nd n o r the rn c oa s t , a nd d o n o t s pec if i ca l ly d esc r ibe s ome o f t h e o bv iou s , c oa r se m o rpho log ica l d i s t inc t ion s a mong c oa s t S a l i sh c e l t s ,

3 . T he t y pe s , w h i le c ommendab ly e xp l ic i t f o r t h e i r t ime , w e re n o t d ef ined p rec i se ly e nough t o b e e xc lu s ive a nd

c h i se ls " w e re u sed f o r c a rv ing s of t s t one . Emmon s ( 1923 :44 ,47 ) p i c tu re s s l eeve -ha f ted a nd e l bow -hand led

u namb iguou s .

n eph r i te c e l t s h e s ay s w e re u sed f o r s k in s c rap ing : t h e se a r e f r om A la ska b u t r e semb le s t udy a r ea h a f ted c e l t s . D u f f ( 1952 :59 ) r epo r t s t h a t n eph r i te " penc i l s " w e re u sed a s

R eg iona l a na ly se s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd h ave o cca s iona l ly p romp ted c e l t c l a s s if ica t ion s , a l though g r ound s t one c e l t s a r e o f ten t r ea ted a s as i ng le t y pe ( e .g . , Monk s 1 973 ) . Ma t son ( 1974 :110 ) i mpo se s as imp le t y po logy t oa i d e n t ry o fc e l t s i n to ac l u s te ra na ly s is . H i st wo t y pe s a r e " sma l l c e l t s " , w i th a b i t o f l e s s t h an 2 . 5 c m o r h av ing a l i gh t

i n d i rec t p e rcu s so r s ( punche s ) i n af l aked s t one i n du s t ry . A f ew c e l t s i nt h e s t udy c o l lec t ion h ave e n igma t ic f e a tu re s s uch a sd oub le o rb l un tb i t s , w h ich s ugge s t o t he rt a sk s t h an s imp le w ood w o rk ing . A l te rna t ive s ugge s ted f unc t ion s f o r g round

c on s t ruc t ion , a nd " l a rge c e l t s " h av ing ab i t w id th o fg r ea te r t h an 2 . 5 c m . Wh i le l im i ted i nf i ne s se , Ma t son ' s s y s tem h a s

s t one c e l t s , w h i le o f ten p l au s ib le , a r e u n l ike ly t oa ccoun t f o r mo re t h an av e ry s ma l l p e rcen tage o ft h e u se o fa ny o ne c e l t , o ro fm any c e l t sw i th in t h es t udy c o l lec t ion .

s ome a dvan tage s : i ti sr e la t ive ly u namb iguou s a nd r e p l icab le , i ti se xp l ic i t , a nd i ti sd i rec ted t owa rd s as pec if ic r e sea rch

P rev iou sc l a s s if ica t ion so fc e l t s

q ue s t ion .

O ne o f ten c i ted c l a s s if ica t ion o f N o r thwe s t c oa s t c e l t s w a s T he mo s t w ide ly u sed d e sc r ip t ive s y s t em c a tego r ize s c e l t s f r om d i f f e ren t p r eh i s to r ic c u l tu re t y pe s . C e l t s f r om t h e

d ev ised b y R ona ld O lson ( 1927 ) . H oweve r , t h e d i s t ingu i sh ing a t t r ibu te h e u se s i sh a f t ing t e chn ique : s t ra igh t , e l bow , o r D -hand le . L i t t le d i scu s s ion o f t h e s t one b i t s i s a t temp ted , a nd l i t t le i ss a id t ob ep o s s ib le :

L oca rno B ea ch c u l tu re t y pe a r e u sua l ly d e sc r ibed i ns im i la r t e rm s t o M i t che l l ' s ( 1971 :57 ) c ha ra c te r iza t ion : " sma l l , w e l l m ade , r e c tangu la r i np l an a nd c ro s s s e c t ion " . C e l t s f r om t h e Ma rpo le c u l tu r e t y pe a r e l i kew ise s a id t ob e :

I nt h en or th as t one b l ade w e igh ing s e ve ra l p ound s , a nd g rooved f o rl a sh ing , w a s a c ommon f o rm , t h ough s ma l lb l ade s s e t

...o fv a r iou s s i ze s ,g ene ra l ly l a rge , made w i th l i t t le c a re , o ff l a t tened o va lc r o s s

a ga in s t as hou lde ro ft h eh and le w e re a l so 8

A r chaeo log ica la nd E thnograph ic B ackground t ot h eS t udy A r ea s e c t ion a nd w i th ar ough r ounded p o l l ;t h e s i de so f t en t a pe rt owa rd st h ep o l l( M i t che l l 1 971 :52 ) .

c o l lec t ion o f 1 , 500 c e l t s d i d n o t s how t h e s ame s t ruc tu re a s t h a t o fv on K rogh ) . Wh i le i tu sefu l ly d e sc r ibe s a n a spec t o f v a r iab i l i ty w i th in v on K rogh ' s s amp le , t h e t r ipa r t i te d i v i s ion i sn e i the rr ep rodu c ib le a tt h e se s i te s b y o the rr e sea rche r s , n o r e xpandab le t o o t he r s i te s . L ikew i se , P a tenaude ( 1985 :116 -

T he Ma rpo le c e l t s w i th t a pe r ing s i de s a nd r ough p o l l s m ay r e f lec t t h e i n t roduc t ion o fa n t le r s l eeve h a f t s . C e l t s f r om t h e G u lf o fG eo rg ia c u l tu re t y pe a r e s a id t oi n c lude f a i r ly l a rge s pec im en s , " gene ra l ly w e l l m ade a nd o f t en v e ry t h in ( M i tche l l 1 971 :48 ) " . T he re i s n o e v idence t h a t c e l t s

1 25 ) i d en t if ie s f i ve t y pe s o f g round s t one c e l t o n a n a d h oc b a s i s : mod if ied p ebb le c e l t s , l a rge s haped c e l l s , s ma l l s haped c e l t s , f l ake c e l t s a nd b a r s haped c e l t s . S he a l so i d en t if ie s a s epa ra te a r t if a c t c l a s s " g round s t one w edge s " , w h ich o rd ina r i ly m igh t b e c l a s sed t o ge the r w i th c e l t s . N one o f t h e se w edge s w a s m ade o f n eph r i te , w h ich m ay h ave i n f luenced h e r c l a s s if ica t ion . O the r s i te spec if ic t y po log ie s i n c lude C rowe -Swo rd s ( 1 974 ) , H an son ( 1970 ) a nd B u r ley ( 1989 ) . T he l a t te r g i ve s as imp le , f ou r t y pe m ono the t ic t y po logy : s i ng le b eve l , d oub le b eve l , d oub le t a pe r a nd m i sce l laneou s / f ragmen ta ry " c e l t s /adze s " . Mo s t s i te r epo r t s d on o ta t temp tt os ubd iv ide t h is a r t if ac tc l a s s .

c ha ra c t e r is t ic o fe a r l ie rp e r iod sd on o tp e r s i s ti n to l a te rt ime s , a nd B u r ley ( 1980 )s ugge s t st h a t Ma rpo le a nd G u lf o fG eo rg ia c e l t s a r e n o t d i s t ingu i shab le . T hu s , t h e p re sence o f l a rge , p oo r ly m ade c e l t s a t as i te p robab ly m ean s i ti so f a tl e a s t Ma rpo le a ge , b u t t h e p re sence o fs ma l l w e l l m ade c e l t s d oe s n o tn ece s sa r i ly i nd ica te L oca rno b each a f i l ia t ion . O the r c l a s s if ica t ion s a r e d ev i sed i nr e f e rence t o as i ng le s i te o rs ub -a rea . T hey a r e u sua l ly p oo r ly d ef ined a nd b a sed o n a v e ry s ma l l n umbe r o f s pec imen s . V on K rogh ( 1980 : 1 82 1 87 ) , f o r e xamp le , g roup s 2 0 c e l t s a nd s i x f r agmen t s f r om t wo H ope -a rea s i te s i n to t h ree t y pe s H i s c r i t e r ia a r e s i ze ( ba sed o n l e ng th a nd w id th ) , a nd b eve l c on f igu ra t ion ;

O u t s ide t h e s t udy a r ea , t y po log ica l s t ud ie s a bound , p a r t icu la r ly i n O cean ia . N o tab le a mong t h e se a r e B e s t ( 1912 ) , S k inne r( 1941) ,T ugby ( 1958 ) , R .D uf f( 1970 ) , G reen ( 1971) a nd S immon s ( 1 973 ) , a l l r ev iewed b y C legho rn ( 1984 ) . G round s t one c e l t s h ave b een t h e s ub jec t o f m uch g r ea te ra t ten t ion i nO cean ia t h an i nB r i t i sh C o lumb ia b ecau se

i n d iv idua l s pec imen s i nt h e t y pe s a r e d e sc r ibed , b u tt h e t y pe s t h em se lve s a r e n o t d ef ined . I ti sa n o ppo r tun i s t ic t y po logy , b a sed o n s ma l l s amp le s ize a nd s ub jec t ive a s se s smen t o f a b i va r ia t e s ca t te rp lo t .

t h ey a r e m o re c ommon , s how d i s t inc t c hange o ve r t ime , a nd a r eo ne o fo n ly af ew d u rab le a r t if ac tc l a s se s .

( A s im i la r s c a t te rp lo t f o r t h e s t udy

9

C hap ter 3

I NTRODUCT ION TO ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SYSTEMAT ICS v a r ia t ion i n to w ha t F o rd s aw a s n on -mean ingfu l u n i t s , t h e h i s to r ica l r e a l i ty w ou ld b e m i s rep re sen ted a s as e r ie s o f n ea t ly d ef ined c hange s , w i th t h e c o r re spond ing b ehav io ra l

I nt h i s c hap te r ab r ief r e v iew o fa r chaeo log ica l s y s tema t ic s i s p r e sen ted . F o l low ing t h a t , t h ree r e la t ed a spec t s o f c l a s s if i ca t ion w h ich a r e c on s ide r ed i mpo r tan t t o t h e s t udy t o p ic a r ed i scu s sed :

m i s in te rp re ta t ion s . I n o t he r w o rd s , S pau ld ing ' s t y pe s a r e b yp roduc t s o fs amp l ing p rocedu re s :

1 .A l l a r chaeo log ica l t y po log ie s m u s t b e d i rec ted t o as t a t ed p u rpo se .

T ype sa r ee a s i ly s epa rab le a nd t h ey l o ok n a tu ra l . H oweve r , w hen t h eg ap s a r ef i l led i ns ot h a tt h eh i s to ry may b ev i ewed a sa c on t inuum t h rough t ime a nd a c ro s ss pace , t h en a ive t y po log i s ti sc er ta in t or un i n to s e r iou sd i ff icu l t ie s ( Fo rd 1 954 : 5 2 ) .

2 .T h e m e thodo logy t oc r ea te a nd d e f ine at y po logy m u s t b e c on s i s ten tw i th i t sp u rpo se . 3 . Mean ing a s s igned t o a ny t y pe s s o d ef ined m u s t b e c on s i s ten tw i th b o th t h ep u rpo se a nd t h e m e thod u sed i nt h e i r

H et h u s a r gue ss t rong ly f o r ac u l tu ra l -h i s to r ica l m e thodo logy . F o rd ' s t y pe s a r e t h e r e su l t o f a r chaeo log ica l t r ia l a nd e r ro r , m an if e s ted a sb road e mp i r ica l g ene ra l iza t ion s .

d e r iva t ion .

REV IE W OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SYSTE MAT ICS

S pau ld ing ( 1954a ) r e p l ied t h a tt h e k i nd o ft y po logy p ref e r red b y F o rd d i d n o t r ep re sen t c u l tu ra l ly r e levan t t y pe s ( wha t w ou ld l a te r b e t e rmed " em ic " t y pe s ) e i the r , a nd t h a t t h ey s u f f e red f r om p rob lem s o fr ep l ica t ion a nd v e r if ica t ion . Em ic t y pe s i n a r chaeo logy c an h ave t wo i n te rp re ta t ion s : ( 1 ) a c ogn i t ive i n te rp re ta t ion i mp ly ing r e cogn i t ion a nd u se b y m embe r s o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion , a nd ( 2 ) ab ehav io ra l c o r re la te w i thou t t h e i mp l ica t ion o f o ver t c ogn i t ive r e cogn i t ion , i . e . t y pe s a st h e b yp roduc t o fp a t te rned b ehav io r ( Dunne 1 1 1 986 :177 ) . F u r the rmo re , h e a r gued t h a t " any r e a sonab ly c on s i s ten t a nd w e l l d ef ined s oc ia l b ehav io r

A n e xce l len t r ev iew o fa r chaeo log ica l s y s t ema t ics , i n c lud ing as umma ry o fp re -1950 e f fo r t s , i sg i ven b y D unne 1 1 ( 1986 ) . D u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h e re w a s l i t t le d i f f e rence i n te rna t iona l ly i nt h e p rac t ica l a pp l ica t ion o f t y po log ie s . Mo s t w e re b a sed o n an o rma t ive v i ew o f c u l tu re , a nd w e re c r ea ted a nd v a l ida ted t h rough t h ee xpe r ience o ft h e i n ve s t iga to r . I mp l ic i t w a s t h e i d ea t h a t t h e " t ype s " w e re a s s igned a nd c on s t ruc ted , a nd h ad n o n ece s sa ry r e levance t o p reh i s to r ic c u l tu ra l c a tego r ie s , a l though s ome s o r to fr e levance t oa r cha eo log ica l p rob lem sw a sa s sumed , o fc ou r se .

p a t t e rn i sh i s to r ica l ly u sefu l " ( Spau ld ing 1 954 :392 ) . T he re w e re s ome n o tab le a t t emp t st oi mpo se ag r ea t e rd eg ree S pau ld ing i st h e re fo re a r gu ing f o r t h e d i scovery o f t y pe s , F o rd f o r t h e i r i mpo s i t ion . Af undamen ta l d i f f e rence i nt h e i r a pp roache s i st h a t S pau ld ing a nd h i s s ucce s so r s b e l ieved i n t h e d i scove ry o f " na tu ra l " t y pe s i n t h e e mp i r ica l w o r ld , w he rea s F o rd ' s t y pe s e x i s t o n ly a s c on s t ruc t s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l w o r ld . F o rd ' s i n te re s t w a s t h e c r ea t ion o f i n c lu s ive t y pe s t h a t w ou ld h ave d i ach ron ic u t i l i ty i nc u l tu re h i s to ry r e con s t ruc t ion , a nd i nt h is h e s ucceeded . S pau ld ing ' s a pp roa ch p r eva i led a tt h e t ime a nd f o rmed a n i mpor tan t l i nk i n t h e " new " a r chaeo log ica l m e thodo logy ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 965 ) .

o fr i go ro n t h et y po log ica l p roce s s , s u ch a sK roebe r ' s a t temp t a t s t a t i s t ica l d ef in i t ion o f a r t if a c t t y pe s ( 1940 ) . T he f undamen ta l a s sump t ion s a nd c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f a r cha eo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion , a nd t h e r o le t h e se p l ayed i n i n te rp re ta t ion d i d n o t c ome t o t h e f o ref ron t o f t h eo re t ica l d eba t e u n t i l t h e e xchange o fv i ew sb e tween A lbe r tS pau ld ing a nd J ame sF o rd i nt h e 1 950 s . A lbe r t S pau ld ing ' s 1 953 a r t ic le " S ta t i s t ica l T echn ique s f o r t h e D i scove ry o f A rchaeo log ica l T ype s " g a lvan ized a g r ea t d ea l o f d i scu s s ion i n t h e l i t e ra tu re o n t h e d e r iva t ion a nd m ean ing o f a r chaeo log ica l t y po log ie s . S pau ld ing ' s ( 1 953 :305 ) e s sen t ia l p o s i t ion w a s t h a t t h e m e thodo logy o f c l a s s i f ica t ion i n to t y pe s i s a " p roce s s o f d i scove ry o f c omb ina t ion s o f a t t r ibu te s f a vo red b y t h e m ak e r s o f t h e

T he m o s t i n s t ruc t ive a spec t o f t h i s " deba te " i s t h a t i ti s e s sen t ia l ly g round le s s : b o th k i nd s o f c l a s s if ica t ion a r e v a l id , a s w a s n o ted a tt h e t ime ( S tewa rd 1 954 ) a nd s ub sequen t ly ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 ; R ome sbu rg 1 984 ) , A l though S pau ld ing ' s m e thod m ay p roduce t y pe s t h a t a r e mo re " r ea l " t h an F o rd ' s , t h e re i sn o w ay o f t e s t ing t h e i r a b so lu te r e a l i ty . A pp l ica t ion i st h e ref o re l im i ted t oc a refu l ly d ef ined a r ea s o r t ime s : a st h e t y pe s c an o n ly b ep re sumed t ob e c u l tu ra l ly r e a l

a r t if a c t s , n o t a n a rb i t ra ry p rocedu r e o f t h e c l a ss if ie r . " H i s p r ef e r red m e thod w a sa t t r ibu te a s soc ia t ion , b u to t he rm e thod s s u ch a sc l u s te r a na ly s i s a r e t h eo re t ica l ly e qu iva len t ( Dunne 1 1 1 986 ) .

a nd m ean ing f u l t h ey mu s t b e a s sumed t ob e c u l tu re -spec if ic

F o rd ' s ( 1 954 ) r e ac t ion t o S pau ld ing ' s s y s tem c on s t i tu ted a d e f ence o f t r ad i t iona l m e thodo logy . H e f e l t t h a t o b se rved g r adua l c hange s o ve r s pace a nd t ime i na r t if ac t m o rpho logy o r c on t ex t ( a nd t h e i n f e r red c u l tu ra l c o r re la te s ) n ega ted t h e u t i l i ty o ft h e a t t r ibu te c l u s te r s . B y d i s sec t ing ac on t inuum o f

( Dunne 1 1 1 986 ) . T h i s i s ac au t iou s v i ewpo in t , b u t i td oe s a low t h a t t h ey a r e o f u se i nc u l tu ra l r e con s t ruc t ion . F o rd ' s t y pe s , b y c on t ra s t , a r e e f f ec t ive i n e xam in ing t h e b roade r s cope o f t ime a nd p l ace i n p reh i s tory , a nd , a s e xp l ic i t ly 1

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s

S ELECT ION OF VAR IABLES AND " TYPES OF TYPOLOG IES"

a r chaeo log ica l c ons t ruc t s , t h e i r u se fu lne s s w i th in a nd b e tween s i te s c an b e d e te rm ined b y a r chaeo log ica l m ean s s u ch a s s e r ia t ion a nd o the r r e la t ive o r a b so lu te d a t ing m e thod s . F u r the rmo re , t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fF o rd ' s t ype s c an

I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o i n c lude a l l t h e p o s s ib le v a r iab le s i na l t h e i r p o s s ib le s t a te s w hen c on s t ruc t ing at y po logy . Y e t , i ti s d e s i rab le t h a t a ny p roce s s o fs e lec t ion m u s t b e a sd ef en s ib le

b e p ragma t ic , a nd h ence a r b i t ra ry d i s sec t ion s w h ich p e rm i t c l ea rd e f in i t ion s may b e s uppo r tab le .

a nd r ep l icab le a s p os s ib le , g i ven t h a t t h e s e lec t ion w i l l a lway s i n t roduce a n e l emen t o f s ub jec t iv i ty i n to t h e r e su l t . S e lec t ion o f as amp le o f v a r iab le s t om ea su re f r om t h e t o ta l p o s s ib le i s m o s t e a s i ly d e f ended i f t h e re i s a n e xp l ic i t

T he a dvan tage o f S pau ld ing ' s ( 1954 ) a pp roa ch c ome s f r om t h e p rocedu ra l r i go r w h ich s hou ld e nab le a l r e sea rche r s t o s e e t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t h rough t h e " s ame p a i r o f g l a s se s " , i . e . , i ti sn o t c l a imed t ob e a n u nd i s to r ted v i ew o f t h e p a s t , b u ta tl e a s tt h e d i s to r t ion i se xpec ted a nd , h opef u l ly , u nde r s tood . A tt h a tt ime , F o rd ' st y pe s w e re n o ts or i go rou s ly

p u rpo se t o t h e t y po logy b e ing c on s t ruc ted ( Dunne l l 1 971 ; V ie r ra 1 982 ) . E ven s o , t h e s e lec t ion o f v a r iab le s i se i the r i n tu i t ive , b a sed o n t h e i n ve s t iga to r ' s e xpe r ience , o r d e r ived f r om c ro s s -check ing w i th s ome o u t s ide " ab so lu te , " s u ch a s s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t , a b so lu te d a te , k nown p roven ience , o r s ome o t he r b enchma rk . I nt h e f i r s t i n s tance , t h e re i sn o e a sy

d ef ined , b u t t h e re i sn o i n t r in s ic r e a son w hy t h ey s hou ld n o t b e . A nd , w i th a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e a im s o f t h e F o rd m e thod , e x t reme r i go r i sp o s s ib le b ecau se c ommun ica t ion o f

w ay t oj u s t i f y t h e s e lec t ion u n le s s i tc an b e s hown t h a t i t w o rk s , w h ich a ppea r s t ob o rde r o n ac i rcu la r i ty o fa r gum en t .

t y pe d ef in i t ion t oe nab le a r ea l s t ud ie st ob e p e r f o rmed c an b e a ne nd i ni t se lf .

O ne j u s t if ica t ion , a l though b y n o m ean s a n e a sy o ne , w ou ld b e d emon s t ra t ion t h a t t h e s e lec t ion w o rk s i n s i tua t ion s n o t

GENERAL AND S PECIAL PURPOSE TYPOLOG IES

e nv is ioned w hen t h e o r ig ina l p rob lem w a s s e t u p . Mo re i mpo r tan t , a s Wha l lon ( 1982 :137 ) p o in t s o u t , t h e re i sn o w ay t od i scoun t t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t s ome v a r iab le s t h a t " wo rk " d o s o f o r o t he r , u npe rce ived r e a son s , i n c lud ing f o r tu i tou s

S pec ia l p u rpo se t y po log ie s a r e s pec if ica l ly d e s igned t o d e sc r ibe v a r ia t ion a s a n a i d i n a n swe r ing s ome b roade r r e sea rch p rob lem . F o r e xamp le , i fo ne w e re i n te re s ted i n p reh is to r ic f i sh ing t e chno logy , t h en a l l s ma l l b i po in t s m igh t b e l umped t o ge the r i n to a s i ng le c l a s s , r e ga rd le s s o f r aw m a te r ia l , b u tc ou ld b e s epa ra ted i n to s uch f unc t iona l t ype s a s

a s soc ia t ion . I nt h e s e cond i n s tance , c o r re la t ion w i th o u t s ide v a r iab le s i n t roduce s a l l t h e o t he r m ea su r emen t u nce r ta in t ie s o f a r chaeo logy , i n c lud ing d a t ing e r ro r a nd c omponen t a s s ignmen t . I ta l so r i sk s p u t t ing t h e c a r t b ef o re t h e h o r se , a s t y po log ica l d ef in i t ion i s an ece s sa ry p r ecu r so r t o m uch

h e r r ing r ake p o in t s , s hank a rm ing p o in t s , a nd g o rge s . T he c on ten t iou s a spec to fs uch as chem e w ou ld , o fc ou r se , b e t h e

a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion .

c r i te r ia u sed f o rt h ef unc t iona l a s s ignmen t . I fh oweve r , o ne ' s a im w a s ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o fc hang ing r aw m a te r ia l u se o ve r t ime t h en b one a nd a n t le r p o in t s , r e ga rd le s s o f s hape , w ou ld h ave t ob e k ep t s epa ra t e i nt h e c l a s s if ica t ion . I n t h i s

E xamp le s o ft y po log ica l p u rposes i n c lude t h e c a tego r iza t ion o f t empo ra l o r s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion ; d e sc r ip t ion o r a na ly s i s o f f unc t iona l v a r ia t ion b a sed o n p rec i se ly s e lec ted a t t r ibu t e s

c a se , o ne c ou ld n o ta s s ign d i sc re te f unc t iona l m ean ing t oa ny t y pe s c r ea t ed . T he t wo t y po log ie s d i f f e ro n ly i np u rpo se , a nd

s uch a s u se -wea r a nd e t hnog raph ic o r e xpe r imen ta l i n fo rma t ion ; a nd g ene ra l d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e s im i la r i ty a nd

a l t h a t i s r e qu i red f o r t h e i r u se m e thodo logy a nd al og ica l a pp l ica t ion .

d i f f e rence s a mong s t a g roup o f o b jec t s , b a sed o n mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s . N o t y po logy c an b e d ef ended , o r e ven l o g ica l ly d i scu s sed , u n le s s t h e s e lec t ion c r i te r ia o f i t s c on s t i tuen ta t t r ibu te sa r e k nown .

i s a n

a pp rop r ia te

G ene ra lp u rpo se t y po log ie s , i nc on t ra s t , d e sc r ibe v a r ia t ion i n s u ch aw ay t h a t t h e d ef ined u n i t s m ay h ave s ome u t i l i ty f o r m any d i f f e ren t r e sea rch q ue s t ion s . N a tu ra l ly , t h e d ep th o f

Mono the t ic V er su sP o ly the t ic T ypo log ie s I n amono the t ic c l a s s if ica t ion , i ti sn ece s sa ry f o r a n o b jec t t o

t h e i r u se m ay b e l im i ted , b u t i n s cope , t h ey p rov ide a c ommon l i nk b e tween d if e ren tr e sea rch g oa l s .

p o s se s s a l t h e a t t r ibu te s u sed t od ef ine t h e t y pe t o w h ich i t b e long s . I n ap o ly the t ic c l a s s if ica t ion , i ti so n ly n ece s sa ry f o r t h e o b jec t t o p o s se s s as e lec t ion o f t h e d ef in ing a t t r ibu te s , w h i le m a in ta in ing s ome s o r t o f i n te rna l c ohe s ivene s s w i th f e l low m embe r s o ft h a t t y pe ( C la rke 1 968 ; S nea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :20 -24 ) . O bv iou s ly , r u le s f o r m embe r sh ip i nt h e l a t te r w i l l b e m o re d i ff icu l t t od ef ine p rec ise ly t h an t h e f o rme r , b u t w i l l y i e ld m o re f l ex ib le , s ub t le t y pe s . I n f a c t , S nea th a nd

T he i mpo r tan t d i f f e rence i sw e l l i lu s t ra t ed b y R ome sbu rg ( 1 984 ) . H e d i s t ingu i she s b e tween g ene ra l p u rpo se c l a s s if ica t ion s , u sefu l f o r a sk ing q ue s t ion s , a nd s pec ia l p u rpo se , u se fu l f o r a n swe r ing t h em . Mo s t i mpo r tan t , t h e re c an b e n o t y po logy t h a t i s" a l l -pu rpo se " . A s l o ng a s t h i s e l emen ta ry d i s t inc t ion i sa lway s k ep t i nm ind , a nd i th a s n o t

S oka l ( 1973 :25 ) s ugge s t a" backwa rd " d ef in i t ion o f ag ene ra l ( i n t h e i r u sage , " na tu ra l " ) c l a ss if ica t ion : i fi ti sd emon s t rab ly

a lway s b een ( e .g . , t h e S pau ld ing -Fo rd i s sue ) , t h en d eba te a bou t a ny p a r t icu la r c l a s s if i ca t ion w i l l b e l im i ted t oi s sue s o f v a r iab le s e lec t ion , m e thodo logy o f t y pe d ef in i t ion , a nd

e f f ec t ive i n s e rv ing mu l t ip le p urpo se s i ti sd eemed t o b e " na tu ra l " , r e ga rd le s s o fi t s d e r iva t ion . T he se n a tu ra l /gene ra l t y pe s a r e m o re l i ke ly t op a ra l le l c a tego r ie sp r eh i s to r ic p eop le m igh th ave r e cogn ized . T he re i s ,o fc ou r se , n o g ua ran tee t h a t t h i s w i l l b e s o , n o ri st h e re a ny w ay o fa s ce r ta in ing t h e a c tua l

i n f e rence o f m ean ing . T he se t h ree i s sue s a r e d i scu s sed t o ge the ri nt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion s .

p reh i s to r ic t a xonomy ( He ide r 1 967 ) .

1 2

I n t roduc t ion t oA r chaeo log ica lS y s tema t ic s

Me thod a nd Mean ing o f Mono the t ic T ypo log ie s

B . T he i n nova t ive a spe c t o f S pau ld ing ' s a pp roach i s s t a t i s t ica l m an ipu la t ion o f t h e se a t t r ibu te c omb ina t ion s i n

I ti si mmed ia te ly a ppa ren t t h a t m ono the t ic t y pe s a r e mo re a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e d ef in i t ion o f u namb iguou s t y pe s , f o r t h e

o rde r t o i d en t if y t h o se w h ich d epa r t s i gn if i can t ly f r om t h e d eg ree o f a s soc ia t ion o ne w ou ld e xpec t w e r e t h e s amp le d rawn f r om ar a ndom ly d i s t r ibu ted p opu la t ion , i . e . , c l u s te r s o f c omb ina t ion s , o r w ha t S pau ld ing w ou ld t e rm a s a t t r ibu te c l u s te r s o r d e sc r ip t ive t y pe s . T h i s a t t r ibu te a s soc ia t ion i s d one b yc ompa r ing t h e f r equenc ie s o fo b se rved c omb ina t ion s a s m a rg ina l t o ta l s t ot h e e xpec ted c omb ina t ion s o f m a rg ina l t o ta l s d e r ived f r om a n a s sumed h omogeneou s p opu la t ion . S ign if ican t d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e e xpec ted r ep re sen t mode s , a nd t h e se w ou ld d e l inea te s ome o ft h e t y pe s t h a t w ou ld h ave m ean ing t o t h e m ake r s o f t h e a r t if ac t s . T he f u r the r

i d en t if ica t ion o fn ew s pec imen s , a nd f o r t h e t r an sm i s s ion o f t y pe m embe r sh ip c r i te r ia t o o t he r r e sea rche r s . S ince i ti s o n ly n ece s sa ry t od ef ine a nd r e co rd t h o se a t t r ibu te s d eemed u se fu l f o r d i s t ingu ish ing t h e t y pe s o f i n t e re s t , i t i s a l so a ppa ren t t h a t a mono the t ic t y po logy s hou ld h ave a c l ea r ly d ef ined p u rpo se , a nd t h e m ean ing o f t h e t y pe s s hou ld b e o bv iou s , b u t l im i ted . F o r e xamp le , o ne c an c l a s s ify s pec imen sb yw e igh t , a n u namb iguou sa t t r ibu te w h ich i se a sy t od ef ine a nd m ea su re . H oweve r , i tw ou ld b e ag rave m is take t o t r y t o u s e t h e r e su l t ing t y pe m embe r sh ip s i n a ny o t he r

i mp l ica t ion i s t h a t t h e n on random p r ed ic tab le , o ne v a r iab le u pon a no the r .

a pp l ica t ion .

a s soc ia t ion s

a r e

T he mo s t f am i l ia r mono the t ic c l a s s if i ca t ion s a r e f ound i n i d en t if ica t ion k ey s . T he se u sua l ly u se t h e l e a s t n umbe r o f a t t r ibu te s p o s s ib le t o e nab le u namb iguou s a s s ignmen t t o a t a xon . T he a t tr ibu te s t h em se lve s a r e s e lec ted f o r t h e i r d i sc r im ina to ry p rec is ion , n o tn ece s sa r i ly f o rt h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t ob ehav io r ,f u nc t ion , o rh i s to ry .

C . H av ing d one t h i s , n on -phy s ica l o rl e s s a ppa ren t a t t r ibu te s s uch a sp roven ience , a ge , a nd u se w ea r c an b e a dded t o t h e a t tr ibu te l i s t , a nd a s soc ia t ion s t h a t i n c lude t h e se c an b e i s o la ted . T h i s m ay r e su l t i n t h e e xpo s i t ion o f f unc t iona l , c h rono log ica l o ro t he rs pec ia lp u rpo se t y pe s .

Me thod a nd Mean ing o fP o ly the t ic T ypo log ie s

T he mo s t a pp rop r ia te s t a t i s t ica l p rocedu re s t o u se a r e t h e

Many i n tu i t ive t ypo log ie s a r e p o ly the t ic b y d ef au l t , b ecau se

C h i -squa re s t a t i s t ic ( Spau ld ing 1 953 , 1 982 ) , o r l og l inea r r eg re s s ion t o d e te rm ine m u l t iva r ia te r e la t ion sh ip s ( Lew i s

t h e t y pe s a r e d e f ined i n aq ua l if ied m anne r .

F o r e xamp le ,

1 986 ) .

D rucke r( 1 943 :56 )d ef ine s t h et yp e " s tone d i sk s :"

2 . H od son ( 1982 ) a nd o t he r s h ave c r i t ic ized t h e u se o f a t t r ibu te a s soc ia t ion i nf a vou r o f t h e i r p r ef e r red m e thod o f o b j ec tc l u s ter ing , ad e r iva t ion o fn ume r ica l t a xonomy , w h ich i sd i scu s sed i nd e ta i l i nC hap te r5 .

S l igh t ly mo re t h an h a lf o ft h em a r e p e r f o ra ted ; s ome i mpe r fo ra te s pec imen s h ave p i t sp ecked i n to t h et wo f a ce s . S ome h ave aw ide g roove c oncen t r ic t ot h e p e r f o ra t ion o rp i t . S im i la r ly p l aced g r oove so ccu ro nu np i t ted i mpe r fo ra t e s p ec imen s . I ng ene ra l ,t h eo b jec t sa r es o

T he o b jec t -c lu s te r a pp roa ch t r ea t s t h e a r t if ac t , a s semb lage , c omponen t , e t c . , a s aw ho le , a s a n " ope ra t iona l t a xonom ic u n i t ( OTU ) " ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 ) . N om ina l , i n te rva l , o rd ina l o r r a t io v a r iab le s a r e i s o la ted a nd c ompa red o n a l l OTU s i nt h e f o rm o f l i nk ed p a i r s . T h i s n a tu ra l ly l e ad s t o a

s im i la rt h a tt h e se v a r ia t ion s a r ep robab ly n o ts i gn if ican t ,a nd t h ed i sk sm ay b e c on s ide red o fe s sen t ia l ly as i ng le t ype .

h i e ra rch ic o rgan iza t ion o ft h e OTU s , u sua l ly i nt h e f o rm o f a n a gg lome ra t ive d end rog ram . T he d eg ree a nd t ype o f c l u s te r ing d epend s o n t h e a l go r i thm u sed t od ef ine c l u s te r s , u nde rt h e o r ien t ing d ef in i t ion o f ac l u s te r a sb e ing " i n te rna l ly

T h i s d ef in i t ion i su sefu l f o r i d en t if y ing a n o b jec t , b u t r e ta in s ac e r ta in f l ex ib i l i ty f o r a be r ran t s pec imen s . N eve r the le s s , a l a ck o fp r ec i s ion i nd e f in i t ion i sf a ta l t oc l ea r c ommun ica t ion o ft y pe s f r om o ne r e sea rche r t oa no the r , a l though t h is s hou ld

c ohe s ive a nd e x te rna l ly i s o la t ed " ( Cowg i l l 1 982 ) . T he c l u s te r i so fa c tua l o b jec t s o rh i ghe r s yn the t ic u n i t s ( i . e . , n o t o f e mp ty c e l l s o rp o s s ib le OTU s t h a t a r e n o t r ep re sen ted i n

b ea no b jec t ive o fa ny d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy . Two m a in m e thod s

o f c r ea t ing p o ly the t ic

t y pe s

t h e s amp le ) , a nd b ecome s t h e " t ype . " T h i s c on t ra s t s w i th a t t r ibu te -a s soc ia t ion i n w h ich e mp ty c e l ls o r b l anked

u s ing

s t a t i s t ica l t e chn ique s h ave b een p roposed . A t t r ibu te a s soc ia t ion a nd o b jec t c l u s te r ing w e re t h e s ub jec t o f m uch m e thodo log ica l d eba te ( Ch r i s ten son a nd R ead 1 977 ; S pau ld ing 1 982 ; H od son 1 982 ; C owg i l l 1 982 ) , b u t a s i nt h e S pau ld ing -Fo rd d eba te , m uch o f t h e a ppa ren t d i sag reemen t w a s t h e r e su l t o f af a i lu re t o r e cogn ize t h a t t h e b a s ic g oa l s

a s soc ia t ion s s t and f o r p o s s ib le r e p re sen ted b yr e a l o b jec t s .

t y pe s

t h a t

c ou ld

b e

T he c l u s te r s p roduced a r e p o ly the t ic , b u t t h ey m ay h ave s u ff ic ien t d i sc re t ene s s f o r c e r ta in a t t r ibu te s t ob e i s o la ted a s m a rke r s w h ich c ou ld b e u sed t o e s tab l i sh a k ey . O r , c ompa r i son t oe x te rna l v a r iab le s m igh t e nab le s ome o f t h e t y pe s p roduced t o a cqu i re s pec if ic m ean ing . S ome r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , C h r i s ten son a nd R ead 1 977 ; D o ran a nd H od son 1 975 ) a dvoca te f u r the r n ume r ica l t a xonom ic t e chn ique s s u ch a s m u l t id imen s iona l s c a l ing o r p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s t od e t e rm ine w h ich a t t r ibu te s h ave t h e mo s te f f ec ti nd r iv ing t h eo b jec t si n to c l u s te r s

w e re s im i la re ven i ft h em e thodo log ie sd i f f e red . 1 .A t t r ibu t ea s soc ia t ion i st h e c l a s s ic a pp roach a dvoca ted b y S pau ld ing ( 1 953 ) . I tf o l low s as imp le m e thodo logy : A . T he p r ima ry o rgan iza t ion o ft h e d a ta i sd one b y o b se rv ing a nd t a l ly ing ( a s p ropor t ion s ) t h e a t t r ibu te c omb ina t ion s p r e sen t i nt h ea s semb lage .

1 3

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s m ean ing m ay b e t h e o ve rempha s is o n d i scove red t y pe s a st h e i n ten t iona l o r p rox ima l r e su l t s o f s t y l i s t ic o r f u nc t iona l c u l tu ra l b ehav io r ( e .g . , D unne 1 1 1 978 ) , r a the r t h an t h e u n in ten t iona l r e su l t s o f c u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra l p roce s se s ( Dunne 1 1 ' s [ 1 986 :177 ] s e cond d ef in i t ion o f a n em ic t y pe ) . T he f o rme r h a s b een mo s t c l ea r ly a r gued b y D ee tz ( 1 967 ) : e r n ic a r t if ac t t y pe s a r e t h e p hy s ica l c o r re la te s o f " m en ta l t emp la te s " , a n a pp roach w h ich w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n m uch mo re d e ta i l i nC hap te r 7 . I ti sw o r th n o t ing a tt h i s p o in t ,

T he b a s ic d i f f e rence b e tween t h e t wo m e thod s i st h a t o b jec t c l u s te r ing d raw si t ss t ruc tu re f r om t h er e la t ion sh ip s o fo b jec t s t oe ach o t he r( e i the r mo re o rl e s ss im i la r , b a sed o nt h es um o f t h e i n d iv idua l a t t r ibu te c ompa r ison s ) , w he rea s S pau ld ing ' s a pp roach l o ok s f o r c omb ina t ion s o f a t t r ibu te s t h a t h ave p red ic t ive v a lue f o ro t he ra t t r ibu te so ft h ea r t if a c ti nq ue s t ion . I no the rw o rds , t h e a t t r ibu te s a r e d i agno s t ic o f ar e la t ion sh ip , b u t n o t n ece s sa r i ly o f a ny o ne a t t r ibu te v a lue . A pa r t f r om t h i s , t h ey a r e s im i la r i nt h a t b o th c an d i scove r e i the r g ene ra l o rs pec ia lp u rpo se p o ly the t ic t y pe s .

h oweve r , t h a t m any o the r f a c to r s t h an i n ten t iona l b ehav io r c on t r ibu te t ot h e s hape o fa n a r t ifac t a nd t h e v a r iab i l i ty o fa n a r t if ac t c l a s s . T he se f a c to r s i n c lude t h e t e chn ica l l im i t s o f d i f f e ren t r aw m a te r ia l s , p o s t -depo s i t iona l a l te ra t ion , a nd ,

CONCLUSIONS ON ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SYSTE MAT ICS

p e rhap s m o s t i mpo r tan t , u se l if e p roce s se s o f r e -u se , r educ t ion , a nd r e too l ing w h ich a c t t ot r an sf o rm t h e " men ta l -

H av ing c r ea ted a t y po logy a imed a t a n e xp l ic i t p u rpo se , b a sed o n s u i tab le a t t r ibu te s a nd w i th s u i tab le m e thodo logy ,

t emp la te c o r re la te " b efo re i t i s e ve r p u t a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ( Ro l land a nd D ibb le 1 990 ) .

t h e m ean ing o ft h e d e r ived t y pe s m ay s t i l l n o t b e c l ea r . I f , f o r e xamp le , t h e p u rpo se i s ap o ly the t ic , f unc t iona l t y po logy

i n to

t h e

o fg round s t one c e l t s , b a sed o n ad ef en s ib le s e t o fa t t r ibu te s ,

I n o t he r w o rd s , n on -func t iona l , n on s ty l i s t ic v a r ia t ion w i l l

t h en a ny t y pe s d e r ived s hou ld h ave d i sc re t e f u nc t ion s . E xac t ly w h ich f unc t ion s a r e a s s igned m ay h ave t o b e

i n f luence m o rpho logy a nd t ype f r equenc ie s , a nd s hou ld a lway s b e c on s ide red i n a t ypo log ica l s t udy . I f t h e d i sc re t ene s s o f t y pe s i sa l te red , t h en a ny t y pe s d ef ined w i l l h ave b een i n f luenced b y o u t s ide f a c to r s w h ich m u s t b e

d e te rm ined b y u s ing t h e t y po logy a s a n a i d i n f u r the r r e sea rch . T he t y pe s c ou ld b e c o r re la ted w i th e x te rna l v a r iab le s , s uch a sa r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c on tex t o r u se -wea r p a t te rn s , w h ich c ou ld h e lp d i sc r im ina te s pec if ic

u nde r s tood t om ake p rope r i n terp re ta t ion . I n t h i s r e sea rch , t h e i n f luence o f t h e se f a c to r s i s d i scu s sed a t l e ng th i n

f unc t ion , r e p l ica s c ou ld b e m ade a nd t h e i r f u nc t iona l u t i l i ty a s se s sed , e t c . I f , o n t h e o t he r h and , t h e a im w a s a

C hap te r s 7t o9 .

m ono the t ic , d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy f o r i d en t if i ca t ion p u rpo se s , b a sed o n a tr ibu te s w h ich h ad d emon s t rab le u t i l i ty f o r t h a t

O ne c an c onc lude , t h en , t h a t at y po logy m u s t b e e xp l ic i t i n p u rpo se , c on s t ruc t ion , a nd a pp l ica t ion .

S ome w i l l b e b e t te r

t h an o t he r s a t a i d ing r e sea rch , a nd s ome w i l l h ave m e thodo log ica l f a u l t s o rb e b a sed o n f a u l ty p rem i se s . B u t a s l o ng a s t h e d e r iva t ion o f t h e t ypo logy i sc l ea r , s o t h a t t h e t y pe s d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave s p rung u nb idden f r om t h e m a te r ia l o r t h e a r chaeo log i s t ' s m ind , t h en i n f ormed d eba te

p u rpo se , t h en t h e t y pe s w ou ld o bv iou s ly h ave n o m o re n ece s sa ry m ean ing t h an a n " i nch " o r a" l i t r e " o r a ny o t he r u n i to fm ea su remen t . H oweve r , t h e d i ff icu l ty i st h a t a r chaeo log ica l t y po log ie s a r e n o t u sua l ly s o c a refu l ly c r af t ed , a nd s o d eba te a bou t t h e m ean ing o f t y pe s p e r s is t . O f ten , s pec ia l p u rpo se ( u sua l ly d e sc r ip t ive o r f unc t iona l , o r ah yb r id ) t y po log ie s a r e u sed i n a pp l ica t ion s o f c u l tu ra l r e con s t ruc t ion w he re p o ly the t ic " d i scove red " o ne s a r e mo re l o g ica l . T h i s p rob lem i s

w i l l b e p o s s ib le a bou t b o th t h e t ypo logy a nd t h e i n f e rence s a bou tp a s th uman b ehav io rw h ich i te nab le s .

h i s to r ica l a s much a sa ny th ing , r ef lec t ing t h ee s tab l i shmen to f a ccep ted t y po log ie s p r io r t o moder n t h eo ry o r m e thod . Monk s ( 1992 :216 ) , f o r e xamp le , d e sc r ibe s t h e s t udy a r ea t y po logy a s " . ..' Gu lf o f G eo rg ia T rad i t iona l ' ...aw ide ly u sed m ix tu re o f f o rma l , f unc t iona l , a nd c u l tu ra l c r i te r ia . " T he f a c t t h a t m any o ft h e se t r ad i t iona l t y po log ie s " wo rk " f o r av a r ie ty o f d i f f e ren t p u rpo se s i sp re sumab ly b ecau se t h e e xpe r ience a nd i n tu i t ion o fi n ve s t iga to r sm anaged t of o cu s o n e s sen t ia l , m ean ingfu l v a r iab le s . F o re xamp le , Ma t son ( 1974 ) h a s s hown t h a t a s semb lage s d ef ined b y t h e s t udy a r ea t y po logy c l u s te r i n am ean ing fu l w ay . T he B o rde s t y po logy o ft h eE u ropean M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i sa no the rg ood e xamp le o f a n i n tu i t ive ly d e r ived c l a s s if ica t ion w h ich a dequa te ly d e sc r ibe s s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion a nd h a s b een o f g r ea t u se i n e xpo s ing p rev iou s ly u n su spec ted a venue s o f r e sea rch ( Ro l land a nd D ibb le 1 990 ) . T he h uman b r a in i s e x t rao rd ina r i ly a dep t a t p a t te rn r e cogn i t ion , a nd t h i s h a s u nden iab ly w o rked t o t h e b enef i t o f i n tu i t ive ly d ef ined t y po log ie s . H oweve r , t h e mos t i mpo r tan t p rob lem i n t h e i n f e rence o f 1 4

C hap ter 4

THE DESCR IPT IVE TYPOLOGY S TATE MENT OF PURPOSE

i n f ormed p e t ro log ica l d ec i s ion s w ou ld h ave t ob e m ade . N o t o n ly i st h i s o u t o ft h e r ange o fe xpe r t i se o ft h e a u tho r , mo re i mpo r tan t , i ti su n l ike ly t o b e ac ommon o r c ommun icab le e xper t i se t o o t he r s . T he c ho ice w a s m ade t o u se m e t r ic d imen s ion s , e xp re s sed a sr a t io s o ra sw e igh t s , a st h e d ef in ing a t t r ibu te s . T he se a r e b a sed o n u namb iguou s ly d e sc r ibab le , omn ip re sen t c e l t l a ndma rk s , p r inc ipa l ly t h e b eve l c h in . D e te rm ina t ion o f t h e s co re f o r t h e a t t r ibu te i sm ade u s ing r e ad i ly a va i lab le m ea su r ing d ev ice s : c a l ipe r sa nd s c a le s .

A s d i scu s sed i nC hap te r 3 ,a n a r chaeo log ica l t y po logy m u s t h ave a n e xp l ic i t p u rpo se i n o rde r t o d e f end t h e c ho ice o f a t t r ibu te s u sed i n i t s c on s t ruc t ion . T he p u rpo se o f a d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy i s t o p rov ide a p e r f ec t ly i n c lu s ive , u namb iguou s a nd e xpandab le c l a s s if ica t ion s c heme t h a t r ef lec t s as ub s tan t ia l d eg ree o ft h e mo rpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e t o ta l s amp le . T he d e sc r ip t ive t y pe s a r e p u re ly a r chaeo log ica lc on s t ruc t s , w i th n on ece s sa ry c u l tu ra lm ean ing

F ina l ly , t h e d e sc r ip t ive c l a s s if i ca t ion mu s t a ccu ra te ly r e f lec t t h e mo rpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e s amp le . T h i s i s a s ub jec t ive d ec i s ion , s im i la r t ot h e c ho ice o f as t opp ing p o in t i n ac l u s te r a na ly s i s : al e ve l o fw i th in -g roup , b e tween -ob jec t s im i la r i ty i sd eemed a c ohe s ive t h re sho ld , s epa ra t ing l i ke f r om u n l ike . T he c l u s te r ing s o lu t ion i sm ean t t or e f lec t t r ue w i th in -g roup d i v i s ion s , a nd s o t h e n umbe r o f t y pe s i s a b yp roduc t o f t h e c r i te r ia f o r c l u s te r m embe r sh ip . T he n umbe r o f t y pe s i n ad e sc r ip t ive t y po logy c an b e c on t ro l led o n p ragma t ic g round s . S ince , b y d ef in i t ion , t h e t y po logy i sa m ea su remen t t oo l , t h e q ue s t ion i s , h ow f i ne as c a le d oe s t h i s m ea su remen t t o o l n eed t o d i sc r im ina t e g ro s s m o rpho log ica l d i f f e rence s? T he re c an b e n o r i gh t a n swe r t o t h i s q ue s t ion , m e re ly as ub jec t ive , s i tua t ion spec if i c r e spon se , b a sed o n t h e b o th t h ep e r ce ived a moun to fw i th in s amp le v a r ia t ion , a nd o n t h a t v a r ia t ion w h ich c an b e i n c lu s ive ly a nd u namb iguou s ly m ea su red . I f t h e re w e re s u i tab le a t t r ibu te s w i th d i s t inc t mode s , t h e se m igh tb e u sed . S imp le q ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s a r e o f ten s ub jec t ive t o s co re , a nd c ro s scu t o t he r m a jo r m o rpho log ica l d i s t inc t ion s , s uch a s s i ze a nd g ro s s s hape . S uch l im i ta t ion s m igh tb ea ccep tab le w e re t h e re g ood r e a son s t os e lec t t h e se a t t r ibu te s , e . g . , f o r as pec ia l p u rpo se t y po logy

o rb ehav iou ra l c o r re la te s . C lea r ly , am ono the t ic a pp roa ch i s mo s ta pp rop r ia te .

METHOD AND PROCEDURE J u s t if ied S e lec t ion o fA t tr ibu te s Wha teve r t h e p u rpo se o f ac l a s s if ica t ion e xe r c i se , i t i s i mpo r tan t t h a t t h e r e su l t s s hou ld b e r e p roduc ib le a nd e xpandab le b y a no the r r e sea rche r ; i nt h e c a se o fd e sc r ip t ion , w he re t h e r e a r e o n ly p ragma t ic c r i te r ia f o ra tr ibu t es e lec t ion , r ep l icab i l i ty i sa ne nd u n to i t se lf . I n sof a ra st h es e lec t ion a nd s co r ing o f a t t r ibu te s i s u namb iguou s , a nd p e rm i t s a ny m embe r o ft h e s t udy c o l lec t ion t ob e a s s igned t o at y pe , t h e t y po logy w i l l m ee t t h e c r i te r ia o f i n c lu s ion , r e p l ica t ion a nd d e sc r ip t ion . T he a t t r ibu te s s hou ld a pp ly t oa s m any o ft h e s p ec imen s a s p o s s ib le , i no rde r t om ake t h e r e su l tan td i v i s ion s a si n c lu s ive a s p o s s ib le . A l l a r t if ac t s , i n c lud ing a noma lou s o r b roken o ne s , m u s t b e a s s ignab le . A r t if ac t s t h a t h ave v a l id o b se rva t ion s f o r t h e c omp le te s e t o f d ef in ing a t t r ibu te s w i l l b e f u l ly c l a s s if iab le . T ho se w i th l e s s t h an a f u l l s e t o f d ef in ing a t t r ibu te s b ecau se o f b r eakage w i l l b e p a r t ia l ly c l a ss if iab le . I ti so bv iou s , t h en , t h a t t h e d ef in ing a t t r ibu te s

t h a t p roduced f unc t iona l o r t empo ra l t y pe s . F o r t h e d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy , w he re p ragma t ism i n p u r su i t o f t h e s t a ted t y po log ica l g oa l i st h e o n ly c r i te r ion , ag ood l e ve l o f d i v i s ion w i l l b e o ne t h a t i se xp l ic i t , l o g ica l , a nd r e su l t s i na w o rkab le n umbe r o f " d is t inc t " t y pe s . T o t h i s e nd , a nd t o f u r the r t h e a ppea rance o f ap u re ly d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy , a d e sc r ip t ive s t a t is t ic o fc en t ra l t e ndency i su sed t od i v ide t h e a r t if a c t s . T he a c tua l d e sc r ip t ive s t a t i s t ic p o in t s ( e .g . , m ed ian o ri n te rqua r t i le r ange ) a r e d e t e rm ined s ub jec t ive ly , a sw i l l b e d i scu s sed f u r the r i nt h e n ex t s e c t ion . A tt h i s p o in t , i tm u s tb e

s hou ld b e p r e sen t o n a l l c omp le te s pec im en s , a nd m any b roken o ne s , y e t t h ey m u s t a l so r e f lec t r e a l a nd m a jo r mo rpho log ica l v a r ia t ion . T he a t t r ibu te s mu s t b e a s u namb iguou s a s p o s s ib le . T h i s e nab le s c l ea r a nd c onc i se c ommun ica t ion o f t h e c r i te r ia f o r g roup m embe r sh ip t o o t he r s w ho m ay w i sh t o a dd a n ew m embe r t o t h e c l a ss if ica t ion . F o r e xamp le , a m a jo r d i s t ingu i sh ing c ha rac te r i s t ic w h ich h a s c u r rency i n a r cha eo log ica l a pp l ica t ion s ( e .g . , B u r ley 1 989 ) i sw he the r a c e l t i sb i f ac ia l ly o r u n if ac ia l ly b eve l led . H oweve r , t h i s i sa d i ff icu l t a t t r ibu te t o d ef ine , b ecau se m o s t o f t h e c e l t s a r e n e i the r p e r f ec t ly s ymme t r ica l ly b i f ac ia l , n o r c omp le t e ly u n if ac ia l . Mo s t o f t h e b i f ac ia l s pec imen s h ave s ome d eg ree o f s k ew a nd mo s t o f t h e u n if ac ia l s pec imen s h ave s ome

e mpha s ized t h a t u se o f t h e m ed ian i sn o t i n tended t o i mp ly a ny th ing a bou t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e v a r iab le s . U se o f t h e m ed ian i sf o rc onven ience , a nd t oe mpha s ize t h e a r b i t ra r ine s s o ft h ed iv i s ion p o in t s .

P rocedure T he m ed ian o ft h er ange o fv a lue s o ft h ec ho sen a t t r ibu te s f o r a l l c e l t s w a s c a lcu la ted . A l l c e l t s a bove t h e m ed ian v a lue f o r t h i s a t t r ibu t e w e re p l aced i n o ne g roup , t h o se w i th m ed ian v a lue s a nd l e s s w e re p l a ced i nt h e o t he r . B o th h a lve s w e re t h en d i s sec ted i n as im i la rm anne rt op roduce t h e f o u r m ed ia l

d eg ree o fb ima rg ina l g r ind ing . T he d e te rm ina t ion o fa t t r ibu t e s t a te i so ne o f d eg ree , n o t o f k i nd , a nd i nt h e a b sence o f a p rec i se m ea su remen t t o o l i ti s n ece s sa r i ly s ub jec t ive a nd u n su i tab le f o r ad e sc r ip t ive t y po logy . R aw m a te r ia l i s l i kew i se a n o bv ious c l a s s if ica t ion a t t r ibu te , b u t t h e a ppa ren t

q ua r t i le s , s epa ra ted b y t h e m ed ian o ft h e t o ta l r a nge , a nd t h e m ed ian f o r v a lue s l e s s t h an a nd e qua l t ot h e s amp le m ed ian ,

d i ve r s i ty o fm a te r ia ls u sed i nt h e s t udy c o l le c t ion m ean s t h a t 1 5

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s T he se h a lf samp le

e nab le s t y pe f r equenc ie s t o b e p red ic t ed , t h ese a r e g i ven

m ed ian s a r e r e f e r red t o a s t h e l owe r a nd u ppe r h i nge s , r e spec t ive ly . T he v a lue s b e tween t h e h i nge s a r e r e f e r red t o a s t h e m id sp read , o r i n te rqua r t i le r ange . I n i t ia l ly , a l l f ou r q ua r t i le s f o r a l t h ree a t t r ibu te s w e re u sed a sd i v i s ion p o in t s , a nd t h e a r t if ac t s w e re l a id o u t a cco rd ing ly . T h i s r e su l ted i n s i x ty -fou r f u l ly c l a s s if ied t y pe s , p lu s af u r the r n umbe r o f

a l ong w i th t h e a c tua l f r equenc ie s i n S ec t ion 4 . 3 , a nd d i scu s sed i n S ec t ion 4 .4 . T ho se a r t if a c t s o n l o an a t t h e

a nd g r ea te r t h an t h e s amp le m ed ian .

U n ive r s i ty o f V ic to r ia w e re p hys ica l ly p l aced i n to t h e i r a pp rop r ia te d e sc r ip t ive t y pe s a nd e xam ined , t o f a c i l i ta te t h e f o l low ing d e sc r ip t ion s .

RESULTS

p a r t ia l ly c l a s s if ied o ne s . T h i s w a s f e l t t ob e t oo m any t ob e w o rkab le , a nd a ppea red t oo ve rempha s ize m ino r v a r iab i l i ty . I tw a s l a rge ly o n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s e xe rc i se t h a t t h e a c tua l

A l l 1 , 496 c e l t s a nd c e l t f r agmen t s w e re c l a s s if ied u s ing t h i s

d i v i s ion p o in t sw e re s pec if ied .

p rocedu re .

Two o ft h e a t t r ibu te s c ho sen f o rd e sc r ip t ive c l a s s if ica t ion a r e r a t io s d e r ived f r om l i nea r d imen s ion s . R a t io s mo re

m u s t b e s t r e s sed t h a t a l though t h i s d e sc r ip t ion n ece s sa r i ly c once rn s a t t r ibu te s t h a t m ay h ave o bv iou s f unc t iona l o r

a ccu ra t e ly r ef lec t a n o b jec t 's s hape , r a the r t h an i t s s i ze . S i ze

m anuf a c tu r ing r e levance , a b so lu te ly n o a s sump t ion s h ave b een o rs hou ld b e m ade a bou t a ny m ean ing o ft h e t y pe s , n o r a r e a s soc ia t ion s o fo t he r a t t r ibu te s p red ic t ed o re xp la ined . A

i ss o r ted f o rb yt h et h i rd a t t r ibu te , w e igh t . 1 . T he f i r s t d i v i s ion i sm ade a cco rd ing t o t h e w id th t o t h ickne s sr a t io (WTR ) : t h e w id t h a tt h e b eve l c h in d i v ided b y t h em ax imum t h ickne s s a tt h eb eve lc h in . T he b eve lc h in w a s c ho sen a st h e p o in t o fr e f e rence b ecau se i ti sb o th a n e a s i ly d ef inab le l a ndma rk a nd i s a ppa ren t ly a f a i r ly d u rab le d imen s ion .

Wr i t ten a nd q uan t i ta t ive d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e se

t y pe s i sg i ven t oe xp re s s b e t te r , b eyond t h e t y pe m embe r sh ip c r i te r ia , t h e a ppea rance o f t h e a r t if ac t s w i th in e ach t y pe . I t

f u nc t iona lo ro t he rd i agno s t ic a t t r ibu te s t i l lr e ta in s d e sc r ip t ive v a lue ; i ti st h a tv a lue w h ich i s empha s ized i nt h is s ec t ion . T he f o l low ing s even teen d e sc r ip t ive c l a s se s a r e n amed , d ef ined a nd d e sc r ibed , b e low a nd o n T ab le s 4 . 1 , 4 .2 a nd 4 . 3 . Mo s t o f t h e a t t r ibu te s d i scu s sed a r e t h o se r e co rded i n t h e c ou r se o fd a ta g a the r ing , w h ich a r e f e l t t ob e r e levan t t ot h e

T hu s t h e re a r e r e la t ive ly f ew c e l t s , p o ten t ia l ly

c l a s s if iab le b y a ny o t he r u sefu l a t t r ibu te s , f o r w h ich c a lcu la t ion o ft h e WTR i sn o t p o ss ib le . T he m ed ian v a lue o f t h e WTR i s2 . 92 :1 . C e l t s w i th aWTR l e s s t h an o r e qua l t o t h i s a r e p l a ced i nt y pe s p r ef ixed w i th 1 . C e l t s w i th aWTR g r ea te rt h an 2 . 92 :1 a r e p l a ced i nt ype sp ref ixed w i th 2 . C e l t s f o rw h ich t h e WTR c anno t b e d e te rm ined , d ue t oi n comp le te w id th o r t h ickne s s a t t h e b eve l c h in , a r e i n t y pe s p r ef ixed w i th 3 .

t y pe i nq ue s t ion . D ef in i t ion s a r e f ound i nA ppend ix 1 .S ome a r e s ub jec t ive a s se s smen t s o ft h eg rouped a r t if ac t s . 1 .T ype 1 1-S . D ef in i t ion : WTR 52 . 92 :1 , LWR

1 . 76 :1 a nd GR M 53 0 .

2 . T he s e cond d iv i s ion i sm ade a cco rd ing t o t h e l e ng th t o w id th r a t io ( L WR ) , d ef ined a s m ax imum l e ng th a l ong t h e

F o r ty s ix c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 7 9% o f t h e e xpec ted n umbe r ( i . e . , t h e n umbe r w h ich w ou ld o ccu r i ft h e t h ree a t t r ibu te s w e re c omp le te ly u nco r re la ted ) . Mo s t a ppea r t ob e

c en t re l i ne ( f rom i n ten t iona l ly s haped p o l l t o b i t e dge ) , d i v ided b yt h e w id th a tt h e b eve l c h in . T he m ed ian l e ng th t o w id th r a t io i s1 . 76 :1 . C e l t s w i th aLWR l e s s t h an o re qua l t o

f a i r ly w e l l m ade , s ome e xcep t iona l ly s o . T he a ve rage q ua l i ty o f m anu f ac tu re i s5 . 5 , a nd r a nge s f r om 3 t o 8 . T hey a r e e ven ly s p l i t b e tween t h o se w i th p a ra l le l l o ng i tud ina l c r o s s -

t h i s v a lue a r e p l aced i n t y pe s 1 1(GRM ) a nd 2 1(GRM ) . C e l t sw i th aLWR g r ea te rt h an 1 . 76 :1 a r ep laced i nt y pe s 1 2 ( GRM ) a nd 2 -2 (GRM ) . C e l t s f o r w h ich t h e WTR i s c a lcu lab le , b u t t h e LWR i sn o t , a r e p l a ced i nt y pe s 1 -U a nd 2 -U . C e l t so n w h ich t h e b roken l e ng th t ow id th r a t io e xceed s t h e m ed ian , a nd f o r w h ich t h e w e igh t f a l l s i n to t h e u ppe r

s e c t ion s , a nd t h o se i n w h ich t h e re i sp o l lwa rd t a pe r . T he l a t te r a r e a l so m o re i n c l ined t o t a pe r t owa rds t h e p o l l i n w id th , a nd , i n g ene ra l , a ppea r t o b e r ough ly u sed a nd l e s s w e l l m ade . A lmo s t a l l h ave f l a t f a ce s , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se t h a t a r e w e l l m ade . O n ly t wo ( 4% ) o f t h e 4 6 a r e u n i f a c ia l ly b eve l led , t h i r ty -e igh t ( 83% ) a r e e i the r s ymm e t r ica l ly b i f ac ia l o rn ea r ly s o , a nd t h e r ema in ing s i x a r e s t rong ly s kewed . O n

q ua r t i le ( i . e . , l o ng , l a rge b i t f r agmen t s ) , m ay b e i n c luded i n t y pe s 1 2 -L o r2 -2 -L .

6 8% o f t h e b i f ac ia l c e l t s , b o th b eve l c h in s a r e f a ce ted , a f u r the r 2 0% h ave o ne f a ce t ed c h in . 6 0% h ave n o s e conda ry b eve l . T he a ve rage b eve l a ng le i s5 8 d eg ree s . I n p l an , 3 5% h ave a r ounded b i t , w h i le s t ra igh t / squa r e a nd

3 .T he f i na l d i v i s ion i sm ade a cco rd ing t o w e igh t ( GRM ) . S i nce t h e c e l t s h ave a l ready b een r ough ly s o r ted b y s hape ,

s t ra igh t /d iagona l b i t s a ccoun t f o r 2 4% e a ch .

w e igh t s o r t s e f f ec t ive ly b y g ro s s , t h ree d imen s iona l s i ze . I n t h e c a se o fs l igh t ly b roken c e l t s , t h e w e igh t d imen s ion i ss t i l l c on s ide red r e levan t , s i nce , b y d ef in i t ion , ac e l t m u s t b e s ub s tan t ia l ly c omp le te t or e a ch t h i s l e ve lo ff u l lc l a s s if ica t ion .

2 6% h ave

b a t te red p o l l s , a nd af u r the r 2 6% h ave p o l l c h ipp ing . 3 5% h ave o ne s t ra igh t a nd o ne c onvex s i de . 5% a r e m ade f r om d a rk g r een o r b l ack m o t t led n eph r i t e , a nd 1 % f r om l um inou s g r een n eph r i te . T he r ema inde r a r e made f r om a v a r ie ty o fr aw m a ter ia ls , mo s t ly u n iden t if i ed .

I n p ra c t ice , t h i s p rocedu re i s r e la t ive ly s imp le , b u t t ime c on sum ing , t oc a r ry o u t o n ac ompu te r . T he e n t i re s amp le c an b e o r de red o n t h e c ho sen a t t r ibu te s t o d e te rm ine t h e m ed ian . A s imp le " i f then -e lse " s t a temen t q u ick ly a s s ign s t h e c e l t s t ot h e a pp rop r ia te c l a s s . T he se c an t h en b e i s o la ted i n to b l ock s o f as i ng le t y pe , a nd s umma ry s t a t is t ic s c an b e c a lcu la ted . U se o f t h e m ed ian a s am e thod o f d i v i s ion 1 6

T he D escr ip t ive T ypo logy 2 .T yp e 1 1- M D ef in i t ion : WTR 5 _2 . 92 :1 , LWR

O ne h und red a nd f i ve c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 9 0% o ft h e

s i de s , a nd af u r the r 2 2% h ave o ne s t ra igh t a nd o ne e xcu rva te s i de . An o tab le m ino r i ty o f4 1% h ave u n i la te ra l s awcu t s , a nd af u r the r 9% h ave b i la te ra l s awcu t s . O n ly t wo c e l t s h ave s awcu t f a ce s . Two a r e m anu f ac tu red o n s ma l l n eph r i te f l ake s , a nd o ne mo re i se xped ien t ly m ade o n ap ebb le . P o l l

e xpec t ed n umbe r . S ome o f t h e c e l t s a r e o f m a rked ly h i gh q ua l i ty m anuf ac tu re , w i th f l a t e ven s i de s a nd p o l l s , w e l l

c o rne r s hape s a r e e ven ly s p l i t b e tween r ounded a nd s qua re , 1 3% h ave as i ng le o bv iou s a ng led p o l l c o rne r . 2 3% o f t h e

f i n i shed f a ce s a nd mode ra te p o l ishe s . Many o ft h e l e s s w e l l f i n i shed c e l t s a l so s how s i gn s o f h eavy -du ty u se , i n c lud ing r e pa i r ed b r eak s , b roken c o rne r s , b a t te r ing , e t c . 9 4% o f t h e c e l t sa r eb i f ac ia l ly b eve l led , o ft h e se , 9 0% a r es ymme t r ica l o r n ea r ly s o . T he a ve rage b i t a ng le i s5 9 d eg ree s . S econda ry b eve l s a r e p resen t o n o n ly 2 0% o f t h o se c e l t s w i th s u ff i c ien t ly i n tac tb i t s t or e co rd t h i s a t t r ibu te . O ft h e b i f a c ia l

p o l l s a r e b a t te red .

1 . 76 :1 a nd

GRM > 30 58 9 .

O ve r h a lf t h e b i t s a r e r ounded i np l an ,

s ome p ropo r t iona l ly v e ry r ounded . O ft h e b i f ac ia l o ne s , 4 3% h ave d oub le f a ce ted b eve l c h in s . R aw m a t e r ia l i s3 5% d a rk g r een mo t t led n eph r i te a nd 1 9% b l ack n eph r i te , b u t f i ne q ua l i ty , l um inou s n eph r i te s a ccoun t f o r 1 4% a nd 6% a r e m ade f r om a n o the rw i se u ncommon , u n iden t if ied g r ey m a te r ia lw i th q ua r tz i te v e in s .

c e l t s , 7 8% h ave d oub le -f ace ted b eve l c h in s , 1 9% h ave d oub le rounded c h in s , a nd o n ly 3% h ave m ixed c h in s . P o l l

5 .T ype 1 2 -M D ef in i t ion : WTR

b a t t e r ing i se v iden t o n 4 1% o f t h e c e l t s , 3 0% h ave c h ipped p o l l s , a nd t h er e s ts how n op o l l u se w ea r . Au n i la te ra ls awcu t

2 . 92 :1 , LWR > 1 . 76 :1 a nd

GRM > 30 58 9 .

i sp r e sen t o n 2 4% o ft h e c e l t s , b i la te ra l s awcu t s o n 4% , a nd O ne h und red a nd s i x ty -seven c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s , t h e m o s t n ume rou s o f a ny o f t h e d e sc r ip t ive c a tego r ie s , 1 43% o f t h e e xpec ted n umbe r . T he m a jo r i ty a r e e ven ly r e c tangu la r c e l t s ,

t h er e s t h ave n o l a te ra l s awcu t s . O n ly t wo c e l t s h ave af a c ia l s awcu t . R aw ma te r ia l i s d om ina ted b y b l ack a nd g r een m o t t led n eph r i te , 6 0% o f t h e t o ta l . B a sa l t a nd l um inou s n eph r i te c omp r ise 9% e a ch . T he r ema in ing 2 2% o ft h e c e l t s a r e m ade f r om v a r iou s o the r i d en t if ied a nd u n iden t if ied r aw

w i th s ome e l onga te a nd b a r shaped o ne s . T hey a r e o f a ve rage t o g ood m anuf ac tu re , w i th m o s t ly f i n ished s i de s . E ven t h o se s i de s w i th s aw m a rk s a r e much mo re l i ke ly t o h ave t h e f r a c tu re r i dge s moo thed . O ve r 4 0% h ave u n i la te ra l s aw m a rk s , o n ly 5% s how t h em b i la te ra l ly . 7 8% a r e e ven ly

m a t e r ia l s . 3 .T ype 1 1-L D ef in i t ion : WTR

2 . 92 :1 , LWR

b eve l led o r s l igh t ly s kewed , 1 6% a r e s t rong ly a symm e t r ic , a nd o n ly 6% a r e u n if ac ia l . O f t h e b i f ac ia l b i t s , 3 3% h ave

1 . 76 :1 a nd GRM > 89 .

b o th b eve l c h in s f a ce ted w h i le 5 3% a r e d oub le r ounded i n t h i s a t t r ibu t e . T he a ve rage b i t a ng le i s5 0 d eg ree s ; 6 0% o f t h e c e l t s h ave b i t a ng le s b e tween 4 6 a nd 5 6 d eg ree s . 7 4% h ave n o s e conda ry b eve l . A lmo s t2 / 3 h ave f l a t , p a ra l le l f a ce s i n l o ng i tud ina l c ro s s s e c t ion , 4 6% h ave s uch f a ce s i n t r an sve r se c r o s s s e c t ion . P o l l s a r e b a t te red i n 1 6% , a nd

N ine c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , o n ly 1 6% o f t h e e xpec t ed n umbe r . A s ag roup , t h ey a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l f o r t h e i ro pen e nded w e igh t c l a s s , h av ing a m ean w e igh t o f 1 05 g , c ompa red t o t h e much g r ea te r m ean w e igh t s o f t h e o t he r " l a rge " t y pe s . A l l a r e b i f ac ia l ly b eve led , e i gh t a r e s ymme t r ica l a nd o ne s l igh t ly a symme t r ic . P r ima ry b eve l a ng le a ve rage s 6 1 d eg ree s , w i th am ax imum o f 8 8 d eg ree s . O n ly o ne c e l th a s as e conda ry b eve l . O ne i sw e l l m ade a nd f i n i shed , a nd a ppa ren t ly l i gh t ly u sed , b u t t h e r e s t a r e c a r e le s s ly m ade a nd v e ry h eav i ly u sed . S ix o ft h e n i ne h ave

c h ipped i n 3 2% o f t h e c a se s . R aw m a te r ia l i s3 6% d a rk g r een mo t t led n eph r i te , 1 2% b l ack mo t t led n eph r i te , a nd 1 0% l um inou s g r een n eph r i te . 5% o f t h e c e l t s a r e m ade f r om a c ha lky w h i te m a te r ia l w h ich m ay b e h ea t t rea ted n eph r i te , a nd 3% e ach o fq ua r tz i te a nd ag r ey m a ter ia l w i th q ua r t z i te v e in s .

b a t t e r ed p o l l s o f w h ich f ou r a r e h eav i ly b a t te red ; o ne o f t h e o t he r s h a s e x ten s ive p o l l c h ipp ing . T he p o l l s a r e ma in ly i regu la r a nd u n shaped , mo s t t a pe r s l igh t ly i n w id th a nd

6 .T ype 1 2 -L . D ef in i t ion : WTR g .2 . 92 :1 , LWR > 1 . 76 :1 a nd GRM > 8 9 .

t h icknes s f r om b eve l c h in t op o l l . A l l b u t o ne h ave r ounded b i t s i np l an , t h e e xcep t ion h a s av e ry s t ra igh t , d i agona l b i t . R aw m a t e r ia l i se xc lu s ive ly ad a rk m o t t led b l ack a nd g r een n eph r i te o r s e rpen t ine . O n ly t wo h ave e ven o ne s awn s i de , w he rea s s eve ra l h ave f l aked s i de s a nd f a ce s . O n t h e se i ti s

F i f ty -s ix c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 9 7% o f t h e e xpec ted n umbe r . I n c luded a r e t h e m o s t m a s s ive ly p ropor t ioned c e l t s , a s w e l l a s t h e m o s t d rama t ica l ly l o ng , n a r row o ne s . A t t h e l owe r e nd o f t h e LWR s ca le , t h e re a r e af ew r e c tangu la r , t a b le t l ike o ne s , b u t t h e i mp re s s ion g i ven i so f al a rge ly b a r s haped t y pe , w i th t h o se t h a t a r e n o t s l ende r b e ing b u lky .

c l ea rt h a tt h ey a r e manuf ac tu red o n af l aked p r e fo rm . 4 .T ype 1 2 -S . D ef in i t ion : WTR 5 2 . 92 :1 , LWR > 1 . 76 :1 a nd GRM 53 0 .

T hey a r e o f a ve rage t o g ood q ua l i ty o n t h e w ho le ( mean q ua l i ty o f m anuf ac tu re i s5 . 5 ) , b u t o ne m u s t c on s ide r t h a t t h e i r l a rge s i ze w ou ld r e qu i re l a rge r a moun t s o f e f fo r t t o m ake a f i ne ly f i n i shed t o o l . O ne f i f th o f t h e c e l t s h ave

E igh ty -one c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 1 40% o ft h e e xpec ted n umbe r . A s ag roup , t h ey a r e m a in ly s ma l l , w e l l c r a f ted c e l t s ( q ua l i ty o f m anuf ac tu re v a r ie s f r om 1t o 8 ,w i th a m ean o f 5 . 3 ) , a nd a r e w e l l f i n i shed i n mo s t d imen s ion s . T hey v a ry c on s ide rab ly , a nd a ppa ren t ly c on t inuou s ly , i n f o rm , f r om

s t ra igh t ,d i agona lb i t s , o ne -ha lf a r e s l igh t ly e xcu rva te , a nd t h e r e s t a r e s p l i t b e tween s t ra igh t , s qua re b i t s a nd t h o se t h a t a r e s t rong ly c u rved . A ve rage b eve l a ng le i s5 3 d eg ree s , a nd 3 7%

l o ng a nd n a r row b a r s t o r egu la r , r e c tangu la r t a b le t s . Mo s t ( 6 0% ) d o n o t t a pe r n o t iceab ly f r om b eve l c h in t o p ol ; i n

h ave as e conda ry b eve l . U n i la te ra l ly a ng led p o l l c o rne r s a r e c ommon , 3% , t h e r e s t a r e e ven ly s p l i t b e tween s qua re a nd

m o s t o ft h o se t h a t d o , t h e t a pe r i ss l igh t . H a lf h ave s t ra igh t 1 7

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s 4 3% h ave c u rved b i t s . P o l l b a t te r ing i sp re sen t o n 1 9% o f t h e s pec imen s , i ti s t w ice a s l i ke ly t o b e l i gh t a s h eavy b a t ter ing . 2 7% h ave au n i la te ra l s awcu t , 3% ab i la te ra l o ne ,

r ounded f o rm s . A bou t at h i rd o f t h e p o l l s a r e b a t te red . H eav i ly b a t te red p o l l s o u tnumbe rl i gh t ly b a t te red o ne s t wo t o o ne . Af u r the r 2 7% o fp o l l s a r e c h ipped . S t ra igh t s i de s a nd f l a t f a ce s d om ina te . 3 4% i n t h i s t y pe h ave a u n i la te ra l

t h e r ema inde r h ave n one . T he a ve rage b i t a ng le i s 4 9 d eg r ee s , 3 1% h ave as e conda ry b eve l . S even s pec imen s h ad b eve l s t h a t w e re t o o s ho r t ( l e s s t h an 5mm ) t om ea su re u s ing t h e s pec ia l c a l ipe r s . T h i s i so ve r 1 / 3 o fa l t h e b eve l s o ft h i s l e ng th f r om t h ef u l ly c l a s s if iab le c e l t s .

s awcu t , 1% h ave b i la t e ra l s aw cu t s . A t l e a s t o ne f a ce i s s awcu t o n 1% o ft h e c e l t s . O n ly 4% i nt h i s c l a s s a r e m ade o f l um inou s n eph r i te , f ewe r t h an a r e m ade o f g r een s tone ( 5% ) a nd b a sa l t ( 14% ) , a l though o ne l um inou s s pec imen i s v e ry l a rge. B lack a nd mo t t led d a rk g r een n eph r i te s m ake u p 3 2% a nd 1 8% ,r e spec t ive ly . S even c e l t s w i thou ti n ta c tc en t re

9 .T ype 2 1- M D ef in i t ion : WTR >2 . 92 :1 , LWR

l i ne l e ng th s h ave b een a dded t o t h i s c l a s s , a s t h e i r b roken l e ng th t o w id th r a t io i sl e s s t h an 1 . 76 :1 , a nd t h e i r b roken w e igh t i sg r ea te r t h an 8 9 g r am s , m ean ing t h ey w ou ld b e p u t i n to t h i st ype e ven i fw ho le . 7 .T ype 1 -U . D ef in i t ion : WTR

O ne h und red a nd f o r ty -f ive c e l t s f a l l i n to t h is c a t ego ry , 1 24% o ft h ee xpec ted n umbe r . O n t h e w ho le , t h ey a r e n o tc a ref u l ly m ade , n o r d o t h ey h ave r e gu la r i t ies o fp l an o rc r o s s s e c t ion . A bou th a lf h ave f l a t f a ce s , e xcurva te f a ce s a nd p i ano -convex c ro s s s e c t ion a ccoun t f o r o ne -f if th e ach . T he r e i s at e ndency t owa rd s ac u rved b i tp l an , 6 3% h ave t h i s a t t r ibu te , 2 7% h ave as t ra igh t b i t p l an . 2 9% o f t h e b i t s a r e d i agona l ly o r ien ted . I nl o ng i tud ina l c r o s s s e c t ion , 5 5% o ft h e b eve l s a r e u n if a c ia l o r s t rong ly s kewed . O f t h e 4 0 u n if ac ia l c e l t s , 2 5 h ave a

2 . 92 :1 , LWR u nknown .

T h i s i s ad ive r se g roup o f 1 0 1 c e l t s . A s o ne m igh t e xpec t , i t b e ing al e s s f u l ly c l a s s if ied g roup , t h e i n te rna l v a r iab i l i ty o f t h is c l a s s i sg rea te r t h an t h a t o f t h e o t he r d e sc r ip t ive t y pe s . S pec im en s r ange f r om l a rge b i t e nd s o fr obu s t c e l t s t os ma l l

f a ce ted b eve l c h in . O f t h e b i f ac ia l ly b eve l led c e l t s i n t h i s t y pe , 6 0% h ave at wo f a ce ted , a nd 2 6% t wo r ounded b eve l c h in s . O ft h e 1 6 c e l t s w i th d i f f e ren t c h in s , t h e f r on t o ne i s

b eve l f r agmen t s o ff r ag i le f o rm s . A s t h e w id th t ot h ickne s s r a t io i s ad ef in ing a t t r ibu te , t h ey a l h ave a n i n tac t b eve l c h in w id th a nd t h ickne s s . F u r the r d i s sec t ion b a sed o n w e igh t w a s d eemed i r re levan t , i n t h e a b sence o f t h ree -d imen s iona l p ropo r t ion . Al a rge n umbe r( 54% )h ave u n i la te ra l s awcu t s , a

r ounded a nd t h e b a ck i sf a ce ted i n a l l b u t o ne c a se . T he a ve rage b eve l a ng le i s5 8 d eg ree s . U n i la te ra l s awcu t s a r e v i s ib le o n 1 9% o f t h is t y pe , o f t h e se , 8 0% o f t h e se h ave

f u r the r 1 2% h ave b i la te ra l s awcu t s . Mo s t ( 56% ) h ave f l a t f a ce s , b u t mo re o f ten t h an n o t t h e se c onve rge t owa rd s t h e

s moo thed f r ac tu re r i dge s . 7 9% o f t h e c e l t s h ave n o l a te ra l s aw cu t s . P o l l b a t te r ing i sp resen t o n 3 5% o f t h e c e l t s , a f u r the r 3 0% a r e c h ipped , a nd 3 5% a r e u ndamaged . R aw m a te r ia l i sv a r ied : 5 2% a r e b l ack o r d a rk g r een a nd mo t t led n eph r i te a nd 8% a r e l um inou s n eph r i te . E leven o t he r r aw m a te r ia l s w e re i d en t if ied , 2 8% o f t h e t o ta l , w h i le t h e

s i de s . Mo s t o f t h e 1 8% w i th ar ounded c r o s s f a c ia l s e c t ion a r e a symme t r ic , a l so . T he b eve l i s s ymme t r ic o r a lmo s t s ymme t r ic i n 7 5% o f t h e c a se s w he re t h i s d imen s ion i s r e co rdab le . T he m ean b eve l a ng le i s5 1 d eg ree s . O ft h e 3 4 c e l t s w i th s ome p o l l f e a tu re s r e co rdab le , 1 9 ( 56% ) h ad b een b a t te red . R aw ma te r ia l i s2 0% l um inou s n eph r i te , 5 0% b l ack

r ema inde rw e re o fu n iden t if ied m a te r ia l . O bv iou s a mong t h e o t he rr aw m a te r ia l s a r e f ou rc e l t s made f r om r e dj a spe r , t h ree f r om s a nd s tone , a nd s i x f r om a c ha lky w h i te m a te r ia l t h a t

a nd d a rk g r een mo t t led n eph r i te s , a nd t h e r ema inde r a r e a d ive r s i ty o f o the r r aw m a te r ia l s . T he a ve rage q ua l i ty o f manuf ac tu re i s5 .0 . 8 .T ype 2 1-S . D ef in i t ion : WTR > 2 . 92 :1 , LWR

1 . 76 :1 a nd

GRM > 30 5 8 9 .

r e semb le s l ime s tone . 1 0 . T ype 2 1-L D ef in i t ion : WTR > 2 . 92 :1 , LWR

1 . 76 :1 a nd GRM 53 0 .

S ix ty th ree c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 1 09% o ft h e e xpec ted n umbe r . T hey a r e o fv a r iou s a ppea rance s , w i th a n a ppa ren t t e ndency t owa rd s t wo e x t reme s : w e l l c r a f ted , r egu la r c e l t s o f r e c tangu la rp lan a nd c r o s s s e c t ion , a nd t h o se m ade w i th l i t t le

1 . 76 :1 a nd GRM > 8 9 .

N ine ty two c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 1 59% o ft h e e xpec ted n umbe r . T hey g i ve t h e g ene ra l a ppea rance o f l a rge , w e l l m ade ( mean q ua l i ty o f m anuf ac tu re 5 . 5 ) , t h in , t a bu la r c e l t s , p a ra l le l f a ced i nl e ng th a nd w id th , f r equen t ly w i th r ounded o r f a ce t ed s i de s . T he p o l l s t e nd t ob e w e l l f i n ished , i n av a r ie ty

c a re , i regu la r , o f ten t h in , a nd o f ten m ade o n af l ake o r a

o fc onf igu ra t ion s , 5 7% o fw h ich e xh ib i t u n if a c ia l o rb i f ac ia l t h inn ing . 6 0% h ave r ounded b i t s i n p l an , a nd 7 3% a r e

b roken f r agmen tf r om al a rge r s pec imen . T he f o rme rt e nd t o b e l a rge r . I n f a c t , t h e re i ss t rong c oncen t ra t ion i n w e igh t t owa rd st h eu ppe re nd o ft h er ange , a s2 1% o ft h ec e l t s a r e i n t h e t o p 1 0% o ft h e w e igh tc l a s s . 7 2% h ave n o o rv e ry s l igh t

u n if a c ia l ly b eve l led , o r s t rong ly s kewed . O n ly 8% h ave s ymm e t r ica l b i f a c ia l b eve l s , w h ich i st h e m oda l t y pe f o r t h e s t udy s amp le a s aw ho le . Ma rg ina l s e conda ry b eve l a ng le s a r ep r e sen to n4 7% o ft h eb i t s . T he a ve rage b eve l a ng le i s5 4 d eg r ee s . 8 7% h ave n o l a te ra l s awcu t s , o n ly t wo c e l t s h ave

p o l lwa rd t h ickne s s t a pe r . E xcep t iona l ly , ah i gh 4 3% o f t h e c e l t s a r e m ade o fl um inou s n eph r i t e s . D a rk g r een a nd b l ack n eph r i t e s make u p a n i d en t ica l p ropo r t ion . 2 4% a r e u n if ac ia l ly b eve l led , a nd 1 3% a r e s t rong ly s kewed . T he

u n smoo thed f r a c tu re r i dge s p re sen t . N one o ft h e c e l t s h ave a s awcu t f a ce . R aw m a t e r ia l i sa lmo s t 6 2% d a rk m o t t led o r b l a ck n eph r i te , t h e l um inou s v a r ie ty m ak e s u p o n ly 3% . T he re i s aw ide v a r ie ty o f o t he r r aw m a t e r ia l , i n c lud ing f i ve

r ema inde r a r e e ven ly s p l i t b e tween s ymme t r ica l a nd s l igh t ly s kewed b i t s . O f t h e d oub le b eve l led e xamp le s , 5 4% h ave t wo f a ce ted b eve l c h in s , 1 9% h ave t wo r ounded c h in s , a nd

c e l t s m ade o f t h e c ha lky l imes tone , a nd s i x o f b a sa l t .

t h e r e s th ave o ne o fe ach . I np l an , o ne q ua r te ro ft h e b i t s a r e d i agona l , 3 2% a r e s t ra igh t a nd s qua re , a nd t h e r ema in ing

N ine teen ( 2 1% ) h ave b a t te red p o l ls . 1 8

T he D e scr ip t ive T ypo logy L um inou s n eph r i te i su sed i no n ly 4% o ft h e s pec imen s , 4 0% a r e m ade o f d a rk m o t t led g r een o r b l ack n eph r i te s , a nd t h e r e s t a r e m ade o f av a r ie ty o fr aw m a te r ia ls . 2 5% o ft h e t o ta l

1 . T ype 2 2 -S . D ef in i t ion : WTR > 2 . 92 :1 , LWR > 1 . 76 :1 a nd GRM . 5 _3 0 .

a r e o f u n iden t if ied r aw m a te r ia l . A f u r the r 1 2 c e l t s a r e a s s igned t ot h i sc a tego ry b ecau se , w h i le b rok en , t h e i r LWR i s g r ea t e rt h an 1 . 76 :1 , a nd t h e i rw e igh ti sg r ea te rt h an 8 9 g ram s , m ean ing t h ey w ou ld b ep u ti n to t h i st y pe e ven i fc omp le te .

F o r ty th r ee c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 7 4% o ft h e e xpec ted n umbe r . T hey a r e , w i th o n ly a f ew e xcep t ion s , ap oo r ly m anu f ac tu red s e t o f a r t if ac t s . F ive a r e s c a rce ly mod if ied c h ip s o f n eph r i te , a nd s eve ra l mo re a r e c l ea r ly r ewo rked f r agmen t so fl a rge rt o o l s . T ho se t h a ta r e f u l ly f o rmed t e nd t o

1 4 .T ype 2 -U D ef in i t ion : WTR >2 . 92 :1 , LWR u nknown .

b e m ade w i th c a re , a nd a r e t a bu la r o rb a r l ike i ns hape , w i th s t ra igh t s i de s . T he b i t s o n t h e se a r e u sua l ly s l igh t ly c onvex o r d i agona l , t h e p o l ls a r e w e l l f o rmed b u t o fv a r iou s s hape s , a nd t h e s i de s a r e s moo th ly f i n i shed . U n i la te ra l s awcu t s a r e v i s ib le o n 1 4% o ft h et o ta l , b u to n ly o ne c e l th a s as awn f a ce . 2 8% a r e m anuf ac tu red o fl um inou s n eph r i te . Af u r the r 3 1% a r e m ade f r om d a rk g r een mo t t led n eph r i te , w h i le t h e

T h is i s ad i ve r se g roup o f8 4 c e l t s , r a ng ing i nl e ng th f r om 1 9 t o 1 09 mm , a nd i nw e igh t f r om 1t o2 46 g ram s . S pec imen s r a nge f r om l a rge b i t e nd s o f r obu s t c e l t s t o s ma l l b eve l f r agmen t s a nd r ewo rked n eph r i te f l ake s . 8 8% a r e c l a s sed a s b i t e nd s , t h e r ema inde r a r e c l a s sed a sf r agmen t s a st h ey h ave mo re t h an o ne d imen s ion m i s s ing . U n i la te ra l s awcu t s a r e p re sen to n2 8% , o n ly 5% h ave f a c ia l s awcu t s . 6 2% h ave f l a t f a ce s i nc r o s s s e c t ion , t h e se c onve rge t ot h e s i de s i n4 0% o f t h e se . O ft h ose 1 8 w i th s ome p o l l a t t r ibu te s d i s t ingu i shab le , 1 2 ( 6 7% ) a r e b a t te red . T he b eve l i su n if ac ia l o r h igh ly s kewed i n4 5% o ft h e c a se s . L um inou s n eph r i te i st h e r aw m a te r ia l o f 1 2% , b l ack a nd d a rk m o t t led g reen n eph r i te s m ake u p af u r the r4 0% . O ft h e v a r iou s o t he rr aw m a te r ia l s , a s u rp r i s ing 1 % a r e ac ha lky l im e s tone m a te r ia l . A l l e xcep t o ne o ft h e c e l t s m ade f r om t h i s c ome f r om t h e c en t ra l F ra se r V a l ley .T he a ve rage q ua l i ty o fm anuf ac tu re i s5 . 0 .

n o rma l ly c ommon mo t t led b l ack n eph r i te i sa lmo s t a b sen t . T h ree a r e m ade o f s l a t e , f ou r o ft h e l ime s tone l ik e m a te r ia l , a nd o ne o fs a nd s tone . 1 4% h ave b a t t e red p o l ls , 1 2 . T yp e2 2 -M D ef in i t ion : WTR > 2 . 92 :1 , LWR > 1 . 76 :1 a nd GR M> 3 05 _8 9 . F i f ty c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 4 3% o f t h e e xpec ted n umbe r . F o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h ey a r e o f m ode ra te ly c a ref u l m anuf a c tu re , a ve rag ing 5 . 1 , b u t t h ey a r e av e ry d i ve r se s e t i n t e rm s o f b ody p lan , r aw m a te r ia l a nd b eve l a ng le . Ah i gh n umbe r ( 5 4% ) a r e s ub rec tangu la r i n p l an , h av ing o ne o r b o th s i de s e xcu rva te . T he s i de s v a ry a g r ea t d ea l i nc r o s s s e c t ion , a nd o n ly 1 4% h ave t wo s i de s t h e s ame . T he f a ce s a r e p a ra l le l l o ng i tud ina l ly i n5 4% , i no n ly 6% d o t h ey t a pe r t o t h e p o l l e xc lu s ive ly , w h i le 2 0% t a pe r t o t h e b eve l c h in . Two a r em ade o n l a rge f l ake s , w h i le 3 2% h ave o ne s awn s i de a nd 4% o ne s awn f a ce . T he b eve l s a r e s l igh t ly a symme t r ica l i n 4 6% o f t h e c a se s , t h e r e s t e ven ly d i v ided b e tween s ymme t r ica l , h i gh ly s kewed a nd u n if ac ia l b eve l s . T he b eve l a ng le a ve rage s 4 8 d eg ree s . R aw m a te r ia l i s 6 0% d a rk mo t t led n eph r i te , 6% l um inou s n eph r i te , a nd t h e r ema inde r

1 5 . T ype 3 -B B i tF ragmen t s . O ne h und red a nd f i f ty two c e l t s w e re p l aced i n to t h i s c a tego ry . I ti sd ef ined a st h o se c e l t s n o tf u l ly c l a s s if iab le t h a t c anno t b e p u t i n to T ype 1 -U o r2 -U , w h ich h ave a tl e a s t p a r t o f ab eve l c h in a nd a r e c l ea r ly t h e b i t e nd o r af r agmen t t h e reof f r om a c e l t , n o m a t te r w ha t s i ze o r s hape . I t i s t h e re f o r e av e ry d i ve r se g r oup , r a ng ing i nl e ng th f r om 1 2 t o 1 77 r nm ( mean 5 8 ) , a nd i nw e igh tf r om 1t o3 54 g ram s ( mean 4 2 ) . N eve r the le s s , i ti sf e l t t h a t n o th ing i st o b e g a ined b y f u r the r d i s sec t ion . O f t h o se o n w h ich t h e a t t r ibu te c an b e d i sce rned , 1 6% a r e u n if a c ia l , a nd t h e r e s t a r e b i f ac ia l ly b eve l led t os ome d eg ree , e ven ly s p l i ta mong t h o se w ho se b i t s a r e s ymme t r ica l , s l igh t ly s k ewed , h i gh ly s kewed , a nd b i f ac ia l

a r eo fv a r iou so ru n iden t if ied r aw m a te r ia l s . 1 3 . T yp e2 2 -L D ef in i t ion : WTR > 2 . 92 :1 , LWR > 1 . 76 :1 a nd GRM > 8 9 .

w i th u nknown s k ew . A ve rage b eve l a ng le i s4 9 d eg ree s . U n i la te ra ls awcu t s a r ep re sen to n 3 2% o ft h o se w he re e nough

S even ty f i ve c e l t s f a l l i n to t h i s c a tego ry , 1 29% o f t h e e xpec ted n umbe r . T h i st y pe i n c lude s s ome o ft h e l a rge s ta nd mo s t i mp r e s s ive c e l t s i n t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion . Wh i le t h e a ve rage q ua l i ty o f m anuf a c tu re i s n o t h i gh , 4 . 8 , t h e i n ve s tm en t o fe f fo r t i n vo lved i n m ak ing s ome o f t h e l a rge r s pec imen s , m o s t o fw h ich a r e e ven ly p o l i shed w i th f i n i shed p o l ls , s i de s a nd f a ce s , i sv e ry a ppa ren t . Mo s to ft h e c e l t s a r e v a r ia t ion s o n at h eme o f a n e l onga te r e c tangu la r p l an , f l a t

o fb o th s i de s c an b e s e en . F ac ia l s awcu t s a r e p re sen t o n l e s s t h an 3 p e rcen t . Q ua l i ty o fm anuf a c tu re a ve rage s 5 .0 . R aw m a te r ia l i s 4 5% d a rk m o t t led n eph r i te s , 1 3% l um inou s n eph r i t e s , a nd t h e r e s t a r e m ade f r om a n a s so r tmen t o f

f a ced o r p l ano -convex i n t r an sve r se c r o s s s e c t ion . T he l o nge r o ne s t e nd t o b e p a ra l le l s i ded , w h i le m any o f t h e s hor te r o ne s h ave s t ra igh t s i de s w ho se c onve rgence i s

O ne h und red a nd f o r ty -one c e l t s w e re p l aced i nt h i s c a tego ry . T hey a l l a ck ac omp le te b eve l c h in , b u t p o s se s s ar e la t ive ly i n tac tp o l l , a nd o f t en as i gn if ican tp o r t ion o ft h e b ody a sw e l l . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t af ew o ft h e se a r e a c tua l ly f r om o t he r t a b le t s haped g r ound s t one t o o l s , mo s t p robab ly " wha tz i t s " , a n umbe ro fw h ich w e re m i s taken ly c o l lec ted f r om mu seum s a t t h e s t a r t o f t h is p ro jec t . N eve r the le s s , a s w i th d e sc r ip t ive t y pe 3 -F t h e re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a t m o s t a r e f r om c e l t s . E ven

i d en t if ied a nd u n iden t if ied r aw m a te r ia l s . 1 6 . T ype 3 -P P o l lF ragmen t s .

l a te ra l ly s k ewed , o r o ne s t ra igh t a nd o ne e xcu rva te s i de . A u n i la te ra l s aw cu t i sp r e sen t o n 3 2% , b u t o ve r 8 0% o f t h e se h ave h ad t h e f r ac tu re r i dge s moo thed o f f . O n ly t h ree c e l t s h ave as aw cu t f a ce . B a t te r ing i sp re sen t o n 1 / 3 o ft h e p o l l s , w he re i to ccu r s i ti st w ice a s l i ke ly t o b e h eavy a s l i gh t . 1 9

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s t h e i rf r agmen ta ry s t a te a rgue s f o rh eavy -du ty u se . S uch s i gn s o fu se a r e n o tab ly a b sen tf r om G u lf I s land C omp lex a r t if a c t s , o r " wha tz i t s " . T he se p o l l f r agmen t s r a nge i ns i ze f r om 3t o 2 39 g ram s ( mean 5 7 ) , i nl e ng th f r om 1 9 t o 1 20 mm ( 5 8 ) , i n p o l l w id th f r om 5t o7 7 mm ( 27 ) a nd i np o l l t h ickne s s f r om 3

t y pe f r equenc ie s u s ing t h e C h i -squa r e s t a t is t ic , t o s e e i ft h e o b se rved d i s t r ibu t ion i sl i ke ly t oh ave a r i sen b y c hance . W i th 1 d eg ree s o f f r eedom , C h i s qua re i s1 50 .15 , m ean ing t h a t t h e p robab i l i ty t h i s o b se rved p a t te rn o f t y pe f r equenc ie s c ou ld o ccu r b y c hance i sl e s s t han 1i n 1 0 ,000 . O ne m ay c onc lude t h a t w h i le t h e d e sc r ip t ive a tr ibu te s w e r e c ho sen

t o 2 1 mm ( 1 1 ) . 1 5% o ft h e p o l l s a r e b a t te red , a nd a no the r 1 6% a r e c h ipped . T he re a r e u n i la te ra l s awcu t s o n 3 8% o f

p u re ly f o r t h e i r d e sc r ip t ive u t i l i ty , a nd t y pes w e re d ef ined b a sed o n e qua l n umbe r s o fa t t r ibu te s t a t e s u s ing ad e sc r ip t ive

t h o se w i th e nough b ody p re sen t t o b e c onf iden t o f t h i s m ea su re , ar a the rs u rp r i s ing 1 4% h a s s awcu t s o n a tl e a s t o ne

s t a t i s t ic , s ome c omb ina t ion s o f t h e se a tr ibu te s a r e m o re l i ke ly t o c o -occu r o n a c tua l c e ll s . I n s o m any w o rds t h ickne s s , s t ubb ine s s , a nd l a rge s i ze ( 1 1-L ) a r e t h e l e a s t c ommon a t t r ibu te c omb ina t ion , f o l lowed b y f l a tne s s , e l onga t ion a nd m ed ium s ize ( 2 -2 -M ) . T he mo s t c ommon a t t r ibu te c omb ina t ion s a r e t h ickne ss , e l onga t ion a nd m ed ium s i ze ( 1 -2 -M ) a nd f l a tne s s , s t ubb ine s s a nd l a rge s i ze ( 2 -1 -L ) . T h i s c ou ld e i the r i mp ly t h a t t h ey h ave a ne m ic m ean ing , t h a t t h ey a r e d i f f e ren t ia l ly d u rab le , o r t h a t t h ey w e r e c u ra ted

f a ce , a s w e l l . T he a ve rage q ua l i ty o f m anu f ac tu r e i s5 . 1 . 1 3% a r e m ade o f l um inou s n eph r i te , 3 9% o f m o t t led d a rk g reen o r b l ack n eph r i te , 1 2% o f p a le m o t t led n eph r i te , a nd t h er e s ta r eo fv a r ious o t he rr aw m a te r ia l s . 1 7 . T ype 3 -F M isce l laneou sF ragmen t s . S ix ty -f ive s pec imen s w e re p l a ced i n t h i s c a tego ry , o n t h e g round s t h a t t h ey w e re p i ece s o f g round s t one l i ke ly r ep re sen t ing c e l t f r agmen t s , d e sp i te al a ck o fc u t t ing e dge o r

d i f f e ren t ly b yt h e i ru se r s . T he a nswe ri s ,o fc ou r se , i re levan t t o t h e d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy , a l though i tm ay h e lp p o in t t h e w ay t oo t he rt y po log ica lq ue s t ions .

s haped p o l l . Many o f t h e se a r e m ed ia l s egmen t s o f t a b le t s haped o b jec t s , o the r s a r e p o s s ib ly f r agmen t s o f " po l l s " o r " beve l c h in s " . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t s ome o f t h e se a r e n o t f r om c e l t s , b u t a r e f r om o t he r g round s t one t o o l t y pe s , s u ch a s " wha tz i t s " o r g round s t one p o in t s o r k n ive s . G iven t h e i r f r agmen ta ry s t a te , i ti sn o tu n rea sonab le t os ugge s t t h a t m any a r e f r om at o o l u sed i ns ome h eavy -du ty a c t iv i ty . E qua l ly ,

I tc anno t b e o ve rempha s ized t h a t t h e t y pe s w h ich r e su l t f r om ad e sc r ip t ive c l a s s if ica t ion h ave n o f u nc t iona l , s pa t ia l o r t empo ra l m ean ing . I ti si n i t ia l ly d i ff icu l t t ol ook a t ap u re ly d e sc r ip t ive c l a s s if ica t ion a nd n o t i n f e r f u nc t iona l m ean ing . T h i s i sb ecau se t h e d e sc r ip t ive t ypo logy u sua l ly r e f lec t s s i ze a nd s hape , w h ich a r e a l so o bv iou s f unc t iona l a t t r ibu te s . W i th f am i l ia r i ty , h oweve r , d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy b ecome s a s

m any m ay b e m anuf ac tu r ing w a s te . T hey a r e av a r ied l o t , r ang ing i nw e igh t f r om 1t o3 84 g ram s , i nl e ng th f r om 1 6 t o 1 52 mm , a nd i nw id th f r om 3t o7 2 mm . T he a ve rage q ua l i ty o f m anuf a c tu re i s 4 . 6 . R aw m a te r ia l i s 1 4% l um inou s

m ean ingfu l w i th in t h e b ound s o f i t s p u rpo se a s a ny o t he r t y po logy .

n eph r i te , 3 8% mo t t led b l ack o r g r een n eph r i te s , 1 5% s l a te , a nd t h er e s to fv a r iou so t he rm a te r ia l s .

F o re xamp le , s omeone a dd ing an ew c e l tt ot h e c l a s s if ica t ion w i l l a u toma t ica l ly k now a t h ree -d imen s iona l r e la t ion sh ip o f t h a t c e l t t o C oa s t S a l i sh c e l t s i n g ene ra l . T he m ed ian w a s c ho sen p a r t ly b ecau se i ti sl i ke ly t ob e s t ab le i nt h e e ven t o f

D ISCUSSION A s m en t ioned a bove , o ne b enef i t o f ad e sc r ip t ive t y po logy

n ew m embe r s b e ing a dded , e ven h igh ly a noma lou s o ne s , a nd

b a sed o n t h e m ed ian s t a t i s t ic i st h a t t y pe f r equenc ie s f o r t h e 9 34 f u l ly c l a s s if ied c e l t s c an b ep r ed ic ted . E s tab l i shmen to fa 2X 2X 4 ( 16 c e l l ) t a b le , b a sed o n t h e t wo m ed ian s a nd f ou r

s ot h ed i v i s ion p o in tw i l l c on t inue t or e f le c t t r ue m ed ian s i n to t h ef u tu re . I nt h i s w ay , s ome o ft h e b enef i t s o fh av ing al a rge s amp le o f a r t if a c t s , s u ch a s h av ing c onf idence i n t h e

q ua r t i le s , w ou ld g i ve 1 6c e l l s , e ach o fw h ich w ou ld h ave 1 / 16 o f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f f u l ly c l a s s if ied c e l t s . S i nce t h e

f r equency

d i s t r ibu t ion s

o f

t h e

a t t r ibu te s

m ea su red ,

i s

t r an sf e r red i n to t h e d e sc r ip t ive t ypo logy . We re t h e d i v i s ion p o in t s b a sed o n al e s s s y s tema t ic b a s i s ( e .g . , l e s s t h an o r g r ea te r t h an s ome r ound n umbe r ) , o r b a sed o n al e ss a pp rop r ia te m ea su re o fc en t ra l t e ndency ( e .g . , t h e a r i thme t ic

d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy i s a2X 2X 3 ( 12 c e l l ) t a b le , w i th t h e l a s t d imen s ion r ep re sen t ing s ma l l , m ed ium a nd l a rge , a s d ef ined b y t h e m ed ian a nd i n te rqua r t i le r a nge , e xpec ted c e l l f r equenc ie s a r e 8c e l l s w i th 1 / 16 o ft h e t o ta l a nd 4c e l l s w i th

m ean ) , t h en t h e t y pe s w ou ld n o t b ea r t h e i r i n t r in s ic r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e s amp le a s aw ho le . T he t o ta l s amp le m ed ian o fd ef in ing a t t r ibu te s i sn o t k nown t oh ave b een u sed a s ap r inc ipa l r a t iona le f o r c r ea t ing a n e xp l ic i t ly d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy i na ny p r ev iou s a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch .

1 / 8 o ft h et o ta l . "Med ium " s i zed t y pe s t h u s h ave a n e xpec ted f r equency o f a bou t 17 a nd t y pe s d ef ined a s " sma l l " o r " l a rge " h ave a n e xpec ted f r equency o f a bou t 5 8 . A c tua l f r equenc ie sa r en o ted i nt h ec ou r se o ft h ed e sc r ip t ion s , a bove . I ti s as imp le m a t te r t ot e s t t h e o b se rved v e r su s t h e e xpec ted

2 0

T he D e scr ip t ive T ypo logy

T ab le 4 . 1 : S umma ry s t a t is t ics f o rd esc r ip t ive c l asses 1 1-S t o1 2 -L a nd 1 -U . ATTR IBUTE TYPE

L eng th a l ong

W id th a tB eve l

T h ickne ss a t

C en t re L ine ( mm ) .

C h in ( mm ) .

B eve lC h in ( mm ) .

We igh t ( g ram s )

P r ima ry B eve l

Mean

3 8

2 7

1 0

2 3

5 8

R ange

2 9 -47

1 8 -39

7 18

9 30

3 7 -85

4 . 8

4 . 1

2 . 1

5 . 4

1 2 .6

Mean

5 0

3 5

1 5

4 8

5 9

R ange

3 2 -76

2 7 -47

1 0 -22

3 1-88

3 9 -80

S .D .

8 . 7

4 . 4

2 . 1

1 5

9 . 5

Mean

7 2

4 8

1 8

1 05

6 1

R ange

5 2 -86

4 2 -53

1 7 -2 1

9 1143

5 1-88

S .D .

1 0

4 . 0

1 . 3

1 7

1 0 .7

4 6

A ng le ( d eg ree s )

1 1 -S

S .D .

1 1 -M

1 1 -L

1 2 -S Mean

4 8

1 9

9

1 9

R ange

2 3 -83

7 27

3 15

2 30

2 7 -75

S .D .

1 2

4 . 5

2 . 3

7 . 9

9 . 5

Mean

6 8

2 9

1 3

5 5

5 0

R ange

4 7 107

1 8 -40

9 20

3 1 -89

2 5 -73

S .D .

1

4 . 6

2 . 4

1 6

7 . 6

Mean

I l l

4 0

1 8

1 7 1

5 3

R ange

7 4 -285

2 5 -56

1 3 -28

9 3 -594

3 5 -74

3 5

6 . 8

3 . 6

9 7

8 . 0

Mean

n / a

2 8

1 3

3 9

5 1

R ange

n / a

6 6 1

3 31

3 192

2 9 -90

S .D .

n / a

1 2 -M

1 2 -L

S .D . 1 -U

. 1 _9

3 . 6

_2 8

2 1

1 0 .6

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s T ab le 4 . 2 : S umma ry s t a t is t ics f o rd esc r ip t ive c l asses 2 1-S t o2 -2 -L , 2 -U a nd a lf u l ly d esc r ibed c e l ts . ATTR IBUTE TYPE

L eng th a l ong C en t r eL ine ( mm ) .

W id th a tB eve l .C h in ( mm ) .

T h ickne s sa t

P r ima ry B eve l

We igh t( g ram s )

A ng le ( d eg r ee s )

eve l C h in ( mm ) .B

2 1 -S Mean

3 9

3 0

6 . 5

1 8

4 9

R ange

2 1 -59

1 4 -47

3 12

2 30

2 1-77

S .D .

9

7 . 1

2 . 1

8 . 6

1 2 .6

Mean

5 6

4 6

1 2

5 7

5 5

R ang e

3 1-85

3 2 -83

7 18

3 1 -89

3 5 -85

1 0

8 . 1

2 . 0

1 7

1 .0

Mean

8 2

6 0

1 3

1 3 1

5 4

R ange

5 4 123

4 3 -77

8 19

9 0 -253

3 5 -75

S .D .

1 5

7 . 4

2 . 2

3 8

8 . 1

2 1 -M

S .D .

2 1 -L

.

2 -2 -S

4 1

Mean

4 9

2 1

5

1 5

R ang e

2 4 -83

7 -32

2 -9

2 29

1 5 -57

S .D .

1 4

5 . 6

1 . 9

9 . 2

1 .6

Mean

7 4

3 2

9

5 5

4 8

R ang e

5 0 -120

1 7 -43

4 13

3 1 -89

2 2 -71

S .D .

1 3

6 . 2

2 . 2

1 8

1 0 .6

Mean

1 25

5 0

1 3

1 95

4 9

R ang e

8 1 -275

2 6 -74

5 19

9 1 -640

3 1 -72

S .D .

3 5

9 . 3

3 . 1

9 8

8 . 3

2 -2 -M

2 -2 -L

, 2 -U Mean R ang e S .D .

i l i a n / a n / a

4 9

4 0

9

5 6

8 71

2 17

1 246

2 6 -71

3 . 3

4 7

9 . 9

5 2

1 4

T o ta l :A l l9 34 f u l ly c l a s s if ied c e l t s . Mean

6 7

3 7

1 2

7 2

R ang e

2 1-285

7 -83

2 -28

2 640

1 5 -88

1 3 .5

3 . 9

7 1

1 0 .6

S .D .

-2 9 .7

T he D e scr ip t iv eT ypo logy T ab le 4 . 3 : S umma ry s t a t is t ics f o rd esc r ip t ive c l asses 3 -B , 3 -P , 3 -F . ATTR IBUTE TYPE

Max imum

Max imum

Ma x imum

L eng th ( mm )

W id th ( mm )

T h ickne s s( mm )

We igh t ( g ram s )

P r ima ry B eve l A ng le ( d eg ree s )

3 -B Mean

5 8

3 4

1 2

4 2

R ange

1 2 -177

9 -69

4 -29

1 354

2 6 -80

S .D .

2 7

1 3

3 . 8

4 7

9 . 6

5 8

3 5

1 4

5 7

n / a

9 -77

4 -25

3 239

n / a

4 . 1

4 6

n / a

4 9 .1

3 -P Mean R ange

1 9 -120

S .D .

/ 1

1 3

Mean

6 0

3 4

1 2

5 3

n / a

R ange

1 6 -152

3 72

5 -29

1 384

n / a

S .D .

2 7

4 . 9

6 7

n / a

3 -F

_1 4

2 3

C hap ter 5

CLUSTER ANALYS IS : METHOD AND P ROCEDURE C lu s te r a na ly s is i s a g ene r ic t e rm f o r m e thod s u s ing m a thema t ica l man ipu la t ion o f t h e i d en t if y ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f as e t o f o b jec t s i n o rde r t o d i scove r w h ich o b jec t s a r e s im i la r t oe a ch o the r . I ti st hu s p a r t o f ab roade r a pp roach c a l led n um e r ica l t a xonomy . T h i s c hap t e r d i scu s se s c l u s te r a na ly s i s a s ag ene r ic a pp roach , a t temp t ing t o d ef ine w h ich p rocedu re s a r e a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e c l a s s if ica t ion o f C oa s t

o rgan iza t ion o ft h eo rgan i sm s ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :108 ) . I tw a s f ound t h a tt h e S a l i shan c e l t s d o n o t h ave as u ff i c ien t ly c omp lex m o rpho logy t o s uppor t av a s t n umbe r o f c oded c ha rac te r s . O bv iou s q ua l i ta t ive s hape a t t r ibu te s , s uch a s t h e s hape o ft h e p o l l c o rne r s , t e nded t ob e p oo r ly s t anda rd ized , m ak ing c a tego r iza t ion d if i cu l t . I n i t ia l ly , t h e c od ing

S a l i shan g r ound s t one c el s .

p rocedu re w a s o ve r ly o p t im i s t ic : l a te r i tw a s r e a l ized t h a t m any c a tego r ie s s hou ld b e d ropped o rc o l lap sed b ecau se o fa l a ck o f o b se rva t iona l r e l iab i l i ty . T he a c tua l n umbe r o f

PR INCIPLES OF NU MER ICAL TAXONO MY

c ha ra c te r s t h a t e n te red a ny a na ly t ica l p rocedu re v a r ied . T he r a t iona le f o r a t t r ibu te c ho ice o r r e jec t ion i s g i ven i n t h e c ou r se o ff o l low ing c hap te r s w hen t h e c l u s te r ing p rocedu re i s a pp l ied , a nd i sn o ted i nt h ev a r iab le d ef in i t ion s .

N ume r ica l t a xonomy i s a c oncep tua l ly s imp le , b u t o pe ra t iona l ly c omp lex , m e thod o fo b jec t ive ly q uan t if y ing t h e s im i la r i t ie s a nd d i s s im i la r i t ie s b e tween u n i t s , a nd o f d e sc r ib ing t h e s t ruc tu re o fr e semb lan ce r e la t ion sh ip s a mong t h o se u n i t s ( Rome sbu rg 1 984 :315 ) . A s a m u l t iva r ia te d e scr ip t ive m e thod , i ti su sed t oc r ea t e t a xa t h rough aw ide

P r inc ip le 2 :" A p r ior i , e ve ry c ha ra c te r i so f e qua l w e igh t i n c r ea t ing n a tu ra lt a xa ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :6 ) " .

v a r ie ty o f s t a t is t ica l p rocedu re s s u ch a s mu l t id imen s iona l s c a l ing , p r inc ip le c omponen t s a na ly s i s a nd c l u s te r a na ly s i s . I n te rp re ta t ion o f t a xa c r ea ted t h rough t h i s m e thod i s

T h i s e xp re s se s t a xonomy :

p rob lema t ic i fn o t s uppor ted b y , o rq ua l if ied i nt e rm s o f , t h e p rocedu ra l c ho ices m ade . T h i s s e c t ion s umma r ize s t a xom e t r ic m e thod , a nd s ome p rob lem s i n i n t e rp re ta t ion w hen i ti sa pp l ied t oa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l s .

t wo

c on t rove r s ia l

a spec t s

o f n ume r ica l

A . T he a s sump t ion o fe qua l w e igh ti g no re st h e l i ke l ihood t h a t s ome a t t r ibu te s o fa n o rgan i sm , a nd e ven mo re so t ho se o fa n a r t if a c t , m ay b eo fg r ea te ri n t r in s ic i mpo r tance t h an o t he r s f o r t h ep u rpo se s o fc l a s s if ica t ion . I n many c a se s , o fc ou r se , t h e re i s n o p r io r m ean s o f s ay ing w h ich a spec t s s hou ld b e d if e ren t ia l ly w e igh ted , o r b y h ow m uch . I n f a c t s uch w e igh t ing w ou ld i mp ly p r io rk now ledge o ft h e c a tego r ie st h a t t h e u n i t s s hou ld f a l l i n to , a n i log ica l a s sump t ion g i ven t h a t

S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1973 ) p rov ide a n e xce l len t g u ide t o n ume r ica l t a xonomy , o u t l in ing t h ep r inc ip le s o f , a nd s t ep s t o , av a r ie ty o f p rocedu re s . Among t h e s even p r inc ip le s o f n ume r ica l t a xonomy p ropo sed b y S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1973 :6 ) ,

t h e o ve ra l l p u rpo se i st od i scove r w ha t t h e se c a tego r ie s a r e ( Soka l 1 965 :109 ) . F u r the rmo re , g i ven t h e a dop t ion o f al a rge n umbe ro fc ha rac te r s , d i f f e ren t ia l w e igh t ing w ou ld h ave t ob e v e ry g r ea t t o o ve rcome t h e c umu la t ive e f f ec t o f al a rge n umbe r o f u nwe igh ted c ha rac te r s ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :112 -113 ) . P ragma t ica l ly , t h en , t h e re m ay n o t b e j u s t if ica t ion f o r w e igh t ing t o s uch a h i gh , o r i n deed a ny , d eg ree .

t h r ee a r eo fp a r t icu la ri n te re s tt oa na r chaeo log ica ls t udy . P r inc ip le 1 :" The g rea te r t h e c on ten t o f i n fo rma t ion i nt h e t a xa o f ac l a s s if ica t ion , a nd t h e mo re c ha rac te r so nw h ich i ti s b a sed , t h e b e t te r ag i ven c l a s s if ica t ion w i l l b e ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :6 ) " . T he u se o f al a rge n umbe r o f v a r iab le s , m ea su red a t a n a pp rop r ia t e s c a le , w i l l p roduce t h e w ide s t p o s s ib le b a se o f i n f orma t ion f r om w h ich t a xa ( t ype s ) c an b e d rawn . T he re i s n o u ppe rl im i to n t h e n umbe ro fv a r iab le st h a tc an b e c ho sen , e xcep t a s i mposed b y l og i s t ic s . G rea te r n umbe r s o f c ha ra c te r s i n c rea se s t h e c od ing a nd c ompu te r p roce s s ing t ime . T he l e a s t n umbe r o fc ha ra c te r s t h a t s hou ld b e u s ed i s n o t t h eo re t ica l ly d ef ined , b u t S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1 973 :108 )

B . T he a s sump t ion t h a t " na tu ra l " c l a s se s e x i s t w h ich c an b e d i scove red p o se s p rob lem s f o r a r chaeo log i s t s , s hou ld t h ey w i sh t ob e l ieve t h a tt h ep roduc to f at a xome t r ic a pp roa ch w i l l r e f lec t o rde r ing t h a t w ou ld h ave m ean ing t o t h e a r t if ac t ' s m ake r s . E xp lana t ion o ft h e o b se rved o rde r ing mu s t c on s ide r a t t r ibu te s t h a t a r e i n app rop r ia te f o r e n t ry i n to t h e

r e po r t t h a t v e ry l i t t le e mp i r ica l d if e rence i n c l u s te r ing s o lu t ion s w a s o bse rved i n t h ree i n dependen t s t ud ie s o f t h e s ame 2 5 b ee s pec ie s , u s ing 5 3 , 6 2 a nd 19 c ha ra c te r s . T he a dv ice g i ven i s :

r e semb lance m a t r ix . F o re xamp le , ac l u s te r ing s o lu t ion b a sed o n m o rpho log ica l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s m igh t d ef ine t empo ra l o r s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion , w h ich i n t u rn m igh t r e su l t f r om c u l tu ra l f a c to r s s uch a s s t y l i s t ic p ref e rence , t r ade p a t te rn s , r aw m a te r ia l e conom iz ing , o r a ny n umbe r o f o the r i n f luence s . I n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e se c l u s te r s mu s ts t op w i th t h e i rd ef in i t ion . F u r the r i n f e rence o fa ny c u l tu ra l m ean ing o ft h e c l u s te r s w i l l n ece s sa r i ly i n c lude o ne o r mo re o ft h ef o l low ing :

...t ot a ke a s many c ha rac te r sa si s f e a s ib le , a nd d i s t r ibu t e t h em a sw ide ly a si s p o s s ib le o ve rt h e v a r iou sb ody r e g ion s , l i f e h i s tory s t age s ,t i s sue s , a nd l e ve ls o f

1 . D i scu ss ion o f t h e m ean ing o f t h e i n d iv idua l o r g rouped 2 5

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s

S e lec t ion o fa n Appropr ia te Me thod o f C a lcu la t ing aMa tr ix o fR e semb lance

a t t r ibu te s w h ich d r ive t h e c l u s te r ing , p e rhap s t h rough a n a t t r ibu t e space r e duc t ion t e chn ique s uch a s mu l t id imen s iona l s ca l ing .

A r e semb lance c oeff ic ien t m ea su re s t h e s im i la r i ty o r d i s s im i la r i ty b e tween p a i r s o f o b jec t s . T he r e su l t s o f a l l p a i red c ompa r i son s f o r t h e s e t o f o b jec t s b e ing s t ud ied i s

2 . C o r re la t ion o ft h ec l u s te r s w i th o u t s ide v a r iab le st h a t h ave c u l tu ra lo ra r chaeo log ica lr e levance . 3 .

C on sc iou s

s e lec t ion

o f o n ly

t h o se

a t t r ibu te s

s t o red i n ar e semb lance m a t r ix ( Rome sbu rg 1 984 :316 ) . A c r i t ica l d ec i s ion i st h e c ho ice o fs im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t , w h ich

w i th

mu s t m a tch t h e m ea su remen t s ca le o ft h e a t t r ibu te s d ef in ing t h e o b jec t s a nd b e s u i tab le f o r f u r the r t r an sfo rma t ion i f d e s i red .

d emons t rab le r e levance t o as pec ia l -pu rpo se t y po logy . P r inc ip le 7 :" C la s s if ica t ion s a r e b a sed o n p hene t ic s im i la r i ty ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :6 ) " .

Many s im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t s h ave b een p ropo sed f o r c l u s te r a na ly s i s ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 , J a rd ine a nd S ib son 1 971 , C l if f o rd a nd S t ephen son 1 975 , R ome sbu rg 1 984 ) . Mo s t o f t h e se a r e d e s igned f o r s pec if ic s ca le s o f m ea su remen t . A s im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t s uch a s J acca rd ' s w h ich d epend s o n m a tch ing p a i red a n swe r s ( d icho tomou s m ea su remen t , p r e sence /ab sence , e t c . ) i s n o t a b le t o p roduce a d i s tance m e t r ic f o r av a r iab le t h a t i sm ea su red a t ar a nked q ua l i ta t ive o r c on t inuou s s c a le o f m ea su remen t ( Shennan 1 988 :203 2 04 ) . S im i la r ly , ae uc l idean d i s tance m ea su r e c anno t a b so rb q ua l i ta t ive m ea su remen t s . I f t h e d a ta b e ing a na lyzed a r e m ea su red a t av a r ie ty o f s c a le s , a s i st h e c a se i nt h e c u r ren t

S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1973 :9 -10 ) n o te t h a t mo re t h an o ne p roce ss c ou ld g i ve r i se t o t h e o b se rved d ive r s i ty o f f o rm s w i th in t h e s e t o fo b jec t s b e ing c l a s s if ied . S uch p roce sse s a s d i ve rgence a nd c onve rgence o b scu re t h e h i s to r ica l e vo lu t ion o ft h e p r e sen t d ay p a t te rn ing a nd a r e s a id t ob e u nknowab le , e xcep t b y r e f e rence t ot h e i mpe r f ec t f o s s i l r e co rd . T hu s , t h e r e la t ion sh ip si mp l ied b yt h ep roduc to f at a xome t r ic a pp roach s hou ld b e i n te rp re ted a sp u re ly p hene t ic , t h a t i s , t h ey r e f lec t o n ly p re sen t d ay f e a tu re s a nd c anno t b e a s sumed t oi n c lude o r i mp ly h i s to r ica l ( phy logene t ic o r c l ad i s t ic ) i n f o rma t ion .

s t udy , t h en t h e re a r e l im i ted o p t ion s o pen t ot h e r e sea rche r . T he se i n c lude , i ni n tu i t ive o rde ro ft h e i ra c cep tab i l i ty :

A l though s uch i n fo rma t ion m ay c o inc iden ta l ly r e su l t , i tmu s t b e d emon s t ra t ed b y r e f e rence t o t h e f o s s i l r e co rd o r o t he r e x te rna l i n fo rma t ion . T he i mp l ica t ion f o r a n a r chaeo log ica l s t udy i st h a tt h e t y pe s g ene ra ted b y c l u s te ra na ly s i s w i l l h ave n o n ece s sa ry r e f e rence f o re s tab l i sh ing c u l tu re h i s to ry e xcep t b y c o r re la t ion w i th a t t r ibu te s o u t s ide o f t h o se u sed i n c a lcu la t ion o ft h er e semb lance m a t r ix . T ha ti s ,o t he ra t t r ibu t e t y pe s s u ch a sp roven ience a nd a ge c an b e c o r re la ted w i th t h e " na tu ra l " t y pe s t o c r ea te a s pec ia l p u rpo se c l a s s if ica t ion

1 . I gno r ing t h e p rob lem , t hu s t rea t ing t h e q ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s a si ft h ey w e re q uan t i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s . A cco rd ing t o R ome sbu rg ( 1 984 :171) t h i s a ppa ren t ly a b su rd a pp roach o f ten w o rk s s u rp r i s ing ly w e l l . I n tu i t ive ly , o ne c an s e e t h a t i tw i l l w o rk b e t te r i ft h e c l u s te r s t ruc tu re i n he r en t i n t h e d a ta i s f a i r ly r obu s t . I ti sn o tu sed i nt h i s s t udy b ecau se o t he r , b e t te r

( Rome sbu rg 1 984 :206 -211 ) .

o p t ion sa r ea va i lab le .

METHOD OF CLUSTER ANALYS IS

2 . D i s sec t ing t h e c on t inuou s s ca le v a r iab le s i n to o rd ina l o r e ven d i cho tomou s c l a s se s . F o r e xamp le , c l a s s i n te rva l s o fn c m c ou ld b e e s tab l i shed f o r l e ng th , a nd e a ch c a se w ou ld b e

A t t r ibu t e s a r e a lway s s e lec ted a nd c oded a cco rd ing t o t h e r e sea rch g oa l , w h ich m ay b e g ene ra l p u rpo se a nd d e sc r ip t ive , o r s pec ia l p u rpo se a nd l i m i ted . A b a lance mu s t b e f ound b e tween t h e d e s i re t o d e sc r ibe f u l ly t h e mo rpho logy o f a n o b jec t , a nd t h e l im i ta t ion s i mpo sed b y l o g i s t ic s a nd p ragma t ic s . Mo s t t a xome t r ic g oa l s a r e u n l ike o t he r mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ica l g oa l s i nt h a t t h e i n i t ia l c ho ice o fs om e

r e sco red o n as c a le o f 1t on . One e x t rem ew ou ld b e as imp le d i cho tomy i n to l e ng th c l a s se s 0a nd 1( s ho r t a nd l o ng ) , w h ich e n ta i l s s i gn if ican t , a nd s omewha t a r b i t ra ry l o s s o f i n fo rma t ion e ven i n ar a re s i tua t ion o f a n o bv iou s b imoda l l e ng th f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion . A no the r e x t reme w ou ld b e t o s e t u p an umbe r o f b i na ry v a r iab le s c o r re spond ing t o t h e n umbe r o f p o s s ib le r e spon se s o n a n i n t e rva l o r e ven m e t r ic s ca le . F o r e xamp le , t h ickne s se s w i th ar a nge o f 2t o3 0 c m , m ea su red t o t h e n ea re s t m i l l ime t re , c ou ld b e c oded a s 2 8

a t t r ibu te s c an b e m ade o n t h e b a s i s t h a t t h ey a r e m e re ly d e sc r ip t ive . T he re i sn o t am ode l o fa t t r ibu te i n te ra c t ion t h a t m u s t b e j u s t if ied f r om t h e o u t se t .

N eve r the le s s , c a refu l

f a l se a nd o ne c o r rec t r e spon se t o as e r ie s o f2 9 b i na ry f i e ld s . T h i s a pp roa ch c an e a s i ly l e ad t o a n u nw ie ldy n umbe r o f

t h ough ts hou ld g o i n to t h e s e lec t ion o fa t t r ibu te s , a nd s hou ld c r ea t ion o fs pec ia l p u rpo se c l u s te r s b e c on s ide red n ece s sa ry , s e lec t ion o f t h e a t t r ibu t e s e t u sed t o c r ea te t h em mu s t b e j u s t if ied . A pa r tf r om s e lec t ion , t h e m ea su remen t s c a le o ft h e a t t r ibu t e s i st h e m o s t c r i t ica l e a r ly d ec i s ion . T h i s s t rong ly i n f luence s t h e n umbe r o f p o s s ib le r e semb lance c oeff ic ien t s t h a t c an b e c ho sen , a nd r e s t r ic t s f u r the r m an ipu la t ion s o ft h e r e su l t ing m a t r ix . Mea su remen t s c a le s hou ld b e a pp rop r ia t e

v a r iab le s , a nd h i gh ly i n ef f ic ien t d a ta p roce s s ing . I tw i l l a l so h ave t h e e f f ec t o f c omp re ss ing t h e r e su l tan t s im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t s i n to a n a r row r ange , o ve rempha s iz ing s amene s s a tt h e e xpen se o fr e a l d i f f e rence . T he c omb ina t ion o fl o s s o f i n fo rma t ion , a r b i t ra ry d i s sec t ion , a nd p roce s s ing d i ff icu l t ie s d ue t o t h e v e ry l a rge n umbe r o f a t t r ibu t e s , c au sed t h i s a pp roach t o b e r e jec ted . A lso , n one o f t h e c on t inuou s

f o r t h e l o nge r t e rm a na ly t ica l g oa l , a nd n o t j u s t s ho r t t e rm c onven ience .

a t t r ibu te s

h ad

a n onun imoda l

u n iva r ia te

f r equency

d i s t r ibu t ion . 3 . O ne o rm o re s ca le s o fm ea su remen t c an b e d ropped f r om t h e a na ly s i s , a ga in w i th am a jo r , a nd p o s s ib ly s y s tema t ic , l o s s 2 6

C lu s t er A na ly s i s : Me thod a nd P rocedure o f i n f orma t ion .

F o r e xamp le , o n ly m e t r ic c on t inuou s s c a le

t r ea ted a s n oncompa rab le , a nd d o n o t c oun t t owa rd s t h e

m ea su remen t sm igh tb eu sed i n am a t r ix o fd i s s im i la r i ty , w i th

d enom ina to r . T he c u r ren t s t udy h ad n o a t t r ibu te s m ea su red a t ad i cho tomou ss c a le .

t h e l o s s o fi n fo rma t ion c on ta ined i np o t en t ia l ly r e levan tf i e ld s s u ch a sr aw m a te r ia l , s hape o fp o l l , c r o s s s e c t ion s hape , e t c . T he c u r r en t s t udy e ven tua l ly a dop ted t h i s a pp roach , a f te r a

B . Mu l t i s ta te v a r iab le s a r e t r ea ted s im i la r ly , 1f o r am a tch a nd 0 f o r am i sma tch . I n t h e c a se o f r a nked m u l t i s ta te

l e ng thy a t temp tt o make ab e t te rw ay w o rk .

v a r iab le s 4 . Af o u r th o p t ion i st oa pp ly ac oeff ic ien t t h a t c an c r ea te a

( e .g . ,

r a nked

a s se s smen t s

o f

q ua l i ty

o f

m anuf a c tu re ) , t h e s imp le s t s o lu t ion i s f o r a m a t ch ing c oeff ic ien t t ob e u sed . A l though t h e re i sa n u nde s i rab le l o s s o f i n f o rma t ion i n he ren t i n u s ing a m a tch ing c oeff ic ien t , i t p a le sc ompa red t ot h el o s s o fi n fo rma t ion i fo ne w e re t ou s ea r e semb lance c oeff i c ien t t h a t c ou ld n o t u se a l l s ca le s o f m ea su remen t . I nt h e c a se o ft h e r a nked mu l t i s ta te a t t r ibu te s , i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t oa s sume e qua l i n te rva l s , a nd t ot r ea tt h e se a s i ft h ey w e re t r ue q uan t i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s . T h i s h a s b een d one f o r q ua l i ty o f m anu fa c tu re , d eg ree o f b eve l s kew , a nd

m a t r ix o f r e semb lance s u s ing mo r e t h an o ne s ca le o f m ea su remen t . O ne s uch m ea su re i s G owe r ' s G ene ra l C oeff i c ien t o f S im i la r i ty ( Gowe r 1 971) . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion d i scu s se s G owe r ' s C oe ff ic ien t , a nd e s tab l ishe s i t s s u i tab i l i ty f o ru se i nt h ec u r ren ta r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion .

G ower 's G enera lC oeff ic ien tO fS im i lar i ty G owe r ' s C oeff ic ien t h a s s e ldom , i fe ve r , b een u sed i n a n a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion . S hennan ( 1 988 :207 ) s t a te s t h a ti t h a s e n joyed w ide sp read u se i na r chaeo logy , b u t f a i l s t og i ve e xamp le s . R ome sbu rg ( 1984 :172 ) s t a t e s t h a t h e c ou ld f i nd

s u r f a ce f i n i sh , i nt h i s s t udy . I ti sr e a sonab le t od i sc r im ina te b e tween t h e c ompa r i son o f av e ry w e l l m ade a r t if ac t " a "

o n ly t wo a pp l ica t ion s o f G owe r ' s c oe f i c ien t , S G ', i n a l i t e ra tu re s e a rch t h a t i n c lude s a r chaeo log ica l s ub jec t m a t te r , a nd t h a t t h e se t wo a pp l ica t ion s a r e r e la ted . A ldende r f e r a nd B la shf ie ld ( 1984 ) n o te t h a t G ow e r ' s c oeff i c ien t i s a n e x t reme ly u sefu l c oeff ic ien t o fs im i la r i ty a nd c anno t e xp la in i t sl a ck o fa r chaeo log ica l u se , b u t s pecu la te i tr e su l t s f r om i t s e xc lu s ion f r om c omme rc ia l s t a t i s t ica l p a ckage s . D o ran a nd H od son ( 1 975 :143 ) s t a te t h a t i ti s " . .i d ea l ly s u i ted t o a r chaeo log ica ld a ta ."

( Q MF=6 ) , a nd b e tween " a " a nd a p oo r ly m ade ( Q MF=2 ) a r t if ac t " c " . W i th ar a nge o f QMF v a lue s f r om 1t o9 , S Gab i s0 . 89 , w h i le SGac i s0 . 38 , w h ich i s ar e a sonab le r e f lec t ion o f t h i s r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e t h ree o b jec t s . I fl e f t i n a s imp le m a t ch ing s i tua t ion , b o th SGab a nd SGac w ou ld e qua l 0 . 0 , al e s s r e a l i s t ic a s se s smen t , b u t s u i tab le f o r t h e s co re s o n r aw m a t e r ia l o fa =1 , b =3 , c =6 .

( s co re o n QMF=7 ) w i th i t s n ea r e qua l i n q ua l i ty " b "

C . A t t r ibu te s m ea su red o n a q uan t i ta t ive s ca le a r e s t anda rd ized i n t h e f o l low ing m anne r . F i r s t , t h e p a i rw i se c ompa r i son o f a l b1i sm ade , a nd t h e a b so lu te v a lue o f t h e d i f f e rence i sr e co rded . S econd , t h i s a b so lu te v a lue i sd i v ided

T he a r t ic le i nw h ich G owe rf o rma l ly p ropo se s t h e c oeff ic ien t ( a f te r y ea r s o f i n fo rma l s ha r ing o f t h e m e thod ) m en t ion s p r ev iou s a pp l ica t ion s ( Gowe r 1 971 :858 ) , b u t t h o se t h a t w e re

b y t h e v a lue r ange o f a t t r ibu te 1 ,t og i ve av a lue b e tween 0 a nd 1 .T h i rd , t h i sp roduc ti ss ub t rac ted f r om 1 ,t og i ve S Gab . F o r e xamp le , a r t if ac t ai s5 0 mm l o ng , a r t if ac t bi s7 5 mm

e xam ined i nt h ec u r ren tr e sea rch i nf a c tm ade s can tr e f e rence t om e thodo logy , a nd t h u s w e re d i ff i cu l tt oe va lua te . G owe r ' s a r t ic le h a s b een c i ted mo re f r equen t ly o f l a te , j udg ing b y r e cen t v o lume s o f t h e S c ience C i ta t ion I ndex . T he se c i ta t ion s a r e t om a in ly b r ie f , b o tan ica l a pp l ica t ion s , i nw h ich a bb rev ia t ed m e thodo log ica l d e sc r ip t ion s m ake i ti mpo s s ib le t o d e te rm ine e xac t ly h ow t h e c oeff ic ien t w a s a pp l ied . H oweve r , t h i s s t anda rd o fb r ief m en t ion d oe s i n d ica te ah i gh d eg ree o fa ccep tance o ft h i s m ea su re , c u r iou s i nv i ew o ft h e r e se rva t ion s d i scu ssed i n R ome sbu rg ( 1 984 :173 ) , a nd t h e

l o ng , a nd t h e l e ng th o f a l l a r t if ac t s r a nge s f r om 2 5 t o 1 00 . T he a b so lu te v a lue o f a lb i i s2 5 . D iv i s ion o f ( 25 ) b y t h e r a nge ( 7 5 ) g i ve s 0 . 33 . F ina l ly ( 1 ) (0 .33 ) i s0 . 66 , t h e v a lue o f SG f o r t h i s p a i rw i se c ompa r i son . I n e f f ec t , t h en , t h e q uan t i ta t ive c on t r ibu t ion t o SG i se qu iva len t t o ac i ty b l ock m e t r ic , s t anda rd ized b y t h er a nge ( Rome sbu rg 1 984 :173 ) . C o l la t ing t h e t h ree s ub -coeff ic ien t s i s am a t te r o fa dd ing u p a l s co re s a nd d i v id ing t h e r e su l t b y t h e n umbe r o f v a l id

p ecu l ia r i t ie s t h a t w e re u ncove red i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e c u r r en t

o b se rva t ion s w h ich i nt h is e xamp le i st h ree . O n r aw m a te r ia l t h e a r t if a c ts co red 0 . 0 , o n QMF 0 . 89 , a nd o n l e ng th i ts co red

w o rk ( d i scu s sed i nt h e f o l low ing c hap t e r ) . T he l a ck o fa c tua l a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion s o fG owe r ' s c oef f i c ien t i sd i ff i cu l t t o e xp la in , g i ven i t s s u i tab i l i ty t o t y p ica l a r chaeo log ica l m ea su remen t s ca les w h ich r e f lec t i n te re s t i n m e t r ic d imen s ion s a sw e l l a sr aw m a te r ia l , u s e w ea ra s se s smen t , a nd

0 . 66 s o S Gab= (0 .0 + 0 . 89 + 0 . 33 ) /3 , S Gab=0 .52 . A dd ing m o re a t t r ibu te s s imp ly i n c rea se s t h e n ume ra to r a nd d enom ina to ro ft h et h ree p a r t i t ion s o ft h ec omb ined m a t r ix .

o t he r q ua l i ta t ive s ca le s , a nd t h e e ndo r semen t s i th a s r e ce ived i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e , a sc i ted a bove .

G owe r ' s c oeff ic ien t t r an sf orm s a t t r ibu te s a t av a r ie ty o f d i f f e ren t m ea su remen t s c a le s i n to a s i ng le m a t r ix o f s im i la r i ty , w i thou t r e cod ing o r d i s sec t ion . I ti si n tended t o

C a lcu la t ion O fG ower 's C oeff ic ien t G owe r 's C oeff ic ien t i se a sy t o u nde r s tand .

T h ree d i f f e ren t

m in im ize i n fo rma t ion l o s s a nd s imp l if y c ha rac te r r e cod ing

m e thods o fc a lcu la t ing s im i la r i ty a r e u s ed i np a ra l le l , o ne f o r

( Gowe r 1 971 :865 ) . I tw a s f e l t t o b e t h e i d ea l m ea su re o f s im i la r i ty f o r at a xome t r ic a pp roa ch t o v a r iab i l i ty a mong C oa s tS a l ishan c e l ls .

e a ch o ft h r ee s ca le so fm ea su remen t . A . F o r d i cho tomou s ( b ina ry , s imp le m a tch ing c oeff ic ien t m a tch a nd 0 f o r am i sma tch . t h e m anne r o ft h e C oeff ic ien t

p re sence -ab sence ) v a r iab le s , a i se mp loyed , s co r ing 1 f o r a M i s s ing v a lue s a r e t r ea ted i n o fJ a cca rd , i . e , m i sma tche s a r e 2 7

B ecau se t h i s c oeff ic ien t w a s n o t a n o p t ion i n a n a va i lab le c omme rc ia l s of twa re p a ckage , ac u s tom FORTRAN p rog ram w a s u sed . T h i s p rog ram w a s o r ig ina l ly w r i t ten i nt h e 1 970 s

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s b y E . H agme i r , t h en U n ive r s i ty o f V ic to r ia .

o f t h e D epa r tmen t o f B io logy , I tw a s s ub sequen t ly mod if ied b y

s co re s i s u nde s i rab le d ue t o t h e l o s s o f i n fo rma t ion , e spec ia l ly o n k ey c ha rac te r i s t ic s s uch a s s hape . S econd ly , t h e re m u s t b e ap r ior i r e a son s t h a t s ugge s t w ha t t h e n umbe r

S tephen C ro s s o fA quame t r ix C on su l t ing , S idney , B .C . , a nd e x ten s ive ly r ev ised a ga in f o r t h i s p ro jec t b y R icha rd

o fc l u s te r s s hou ld b e . T he se m ay b e t h eo re t ica l ly d e r ived , o r b a sed o n e mp i r ica l e v idence , s uch a s ap r ev iou s h i e ra rch ica l c l u s te r ing s o lu t ion , i n w h ich c a se t h e a r gumen t b ecome s c i rcu la r . O r , t h e o p t ima l n umbe r o f c l u s te r s m ay b e e s t ima ted b y c a lcu la t ing a s e r ie s o f o p t ima l p a r t i t ion s f o r v a r iou s n umbe r s o f c l u s te r s , a nd t h en p l o t t ing t h e se a s t h e p e r cen tage e r ro ro fa ve rage OTU f i tw i th in t h e i rs t age -c lu s t e r m embe r sh ip v e r su s t h e i r f i t a ga in s t t h e s amp le a s aw ho le ( c once ived o fa so ne s i ng le c l u s te r ) . Ad i s t inc t e l bow i nt h i s g raph s hou ld i n d ica te t h e b e s t n umbe r o f c l u s te r s ( O r ton 1 980 :53 ) . L ack o f a n e l bow i n d ica te s t h a t t h e re i sn o b e s t s o lu t ion , m u l t ip le e l bow s i n d ica te m o re t h an o ne a ccep tab le s o lu t ion . T he g raph ing a pp roach , w h ich c an b e d one b y h and f o r s ma l l s amp le s i ze s , i s i mpo s s ib le o n l a rge r s amp le s w i thou ta pp rop r ia te s o f twa re .

C hadw ick o f t h e C o rne t t C ompu t ing C en t re , U n ive r s i ty o f V ic to r ia . T he f i na l mod if ica t ion e nab led av e ry l a rge m a t r ix t o b e c a lcu la ted , w h ich c au sed d a ta p roce s s ing d i ff i cu l t ie s . I n ac l u s te ra na ly s i s , t h e d a ta se t m u s t b e m an ipu la ted i nt o to , r a the r t h an r e ad o n a nd o f f ad i sk d u r ing p rog ram e xecu t ion . When t h i s i sc omb ined w i th t h e l a rge n umbe r o f i t e ra ted c a lcu la t ion sa nd t h es i ze o ft h ep roduced m a t r ix , i tm ean s t h a t t r emendou s d a ta p roce s s ing c apa c i ty i sr e qu i red . I nf a c t , t h e c u r ren t s t udy r ep resen t s t h e l a rge s t n umbe r o f c l u s te red OTU s i n aQ type a na ly s i s e ncoun te red i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re r e v iew . m a in

C ompu te r c apa c i ty h a s b een o ne o f t h e

i mped imen t s

t o c l u s te r

a na ly s i s

i n g ene ra l ,

t h e

c a lcu la t ion sf o rw h ich w h i le n o tc omp lex , a r e n ume rou s . T he p rocedu re w a s p e r fo rmed o n t h e U n ive r s i ty o fV ic to r ia ' s

H ierarch ica lA lgor i thm s

I BM 3 090 m a inf rame c ompu t e r , o pe ra t ing u nde r VM /XA . T he m a t r ix w a s r e ad i n to t h e S t a t is t ica l P ackage f o r t h e S oc ia l S c ience s ( SPSS -X ) u nde r t h e s im i la r i ty m a t r ix i n pu t o p t ion , a nd t h e c l u s te r ing a l go r i thm s UPG MA a nd CL INK

H ie ra r ch ica l a l go r i thm s t a ke t wo f o rm s , a gg lome ra t ive a nd d i v i s ive . I n b o th , a l t h e c a se s a r e g rouped t o ge the r i n a h i e ra rch ica l t r ee o f c l u s te r s , w i th a l l c a se s i no ne c l u s te r a t o ne e x t reme , a nd e ach c a se r ep re sen t ing a u n ique c l u s te r a t t h e o t he r . S omewhe re b e tween t h e se e x t reme s w i l l l i e t h e c l u s te r ing s o lu t ion t h a t i s mo s t a pp rop r ia t e f o r t h e s t a ted p u rpo se o ft h e r e sea rch i nq ue s t ion . T he d ef in i t ion o f" mo s t a pp rop r ia te " i s ac r i t ica l a nd d i ff icu l t s t ep i nc l u s t e r a na ly s i s ,

( me thod=bave rage a nd m e thod=comp le te , i n S PSS -X l a nguage ) w e re a pp l ied , p roduc ing as ca led d end rog ram a nd a n a gg lome ra t ion s chedu le . S e lec t ion a nd u se o f t h i s c l u s te r ing a l gor i thm i sd i scu s sed i nt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion .

CHOICE OF A CLUSTER ING ALGOR ITH M

a nd i sb e s td i scu s sed l a te r , i nr e la t ion t ot h e a c tua l r e sea rch i n q ue s t ion .

H av ing c r ea ted as u i tab le ma t r ix o fr e semb lance s , an umbe r

D iv i s ive a l go r i thm s s t a r t w i th a l l c a se s i n o ne c l u s te r , a nd

o f c l u s t e r ing a l go r i thm s a r e a va i lab le t oj o in t h e i n d iv idua l c a se s t o ge the r . T he se f a l l i n to t wo b road g roups , h i e ra rch ica l a nd p a r t i t ive ( Shennan 1 988 :196 ) . B o th s ha re a c ommon f e a tu re : c l u s te r s a r e f o rced o n to t h e d a ta r ega rd le s s o f w he the r t h e m a t r ix o f r e semb lance s i ss o s t ruc tu red . T he c en t ra l c ha l lenge o f i n te rp re ta t ion i s t h u s t o d ef ine " r ea l " c l u s te r s .

b r eak t h e se i n to s u cce s s ive ly l a rge r n umbe r s o f c l u s te r s c on ta in ing s u cce s s ive ly f ewe r n umbe r s o f c a se s ; a gg lome ra t ive a l go r i thm s d o e xac t ly t h e o ppo s i te . I n b o th a l go r i thm s , o nce a c a se h a s j o ined a c l us te r , i tc anno t b e s epa ra t ed a nd r e jo in a no the r c l u s te r a t al a te r s t age i n t h e c l u s te r ing s e quence . T he c l u s te r s a r et h e refo re s a id t ob e n on o ve r lapp ing , u n l ike t h e o ve r lapp ing , i t e ra t ive k -mean s a pp roa ch ( Shennan 1 988 :220 -225 ) . I nh i e ra rch ica l c l u s te r ing t h e r ec an b en or e t icu la ted b ranch ing o ft h ed end rog ram .

P ar t i t ive A lgor i thm s P a r t i t ive a l go r i thm s b a sed o n r e semb lance m a t r ice s a r e c ommon ly u sed , b u t h ave m e thodo log ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l c on s t ra in t s . T he g ene ra lp rocedu re i sa sf o l low s :

D iv i s ive h i e ra rch ica l a pp roache s b a sed o n ar e semb lance m a t r ix a r er e la t ive ly r a re i na r chaeo logy ( Shennan 1 988 :220 ) . I ti sw o r th n o t ing , h oweve r , t h a tt h et r ad i t iona l a r chaeo log ica l t y po logy u s ed o n t h e N o r thwe s t C oa s t i s m ono the t ic a nd

Ad ec i s ion i sm ade a s t oh ow m any c l u s te r s a r e a pp rop r ia te f o r ag i ven s amp le . T he r e semb lance m a t r ix i st h en d i v ided

h i e ra rch ica l , b a sed o n as imp le d iv i s ive a l go r i thm ( p re sence o r a b sence o f c er ta in q ua l i ta t ive t r a i t s ) . T he d e sc r ip t ive t y po logy p r e sen ted i nC hap te r4 .i sa l so m ono the t ic -d iv i s ive h i e ra r ch ica l . S ince n e i the r i n vo lve t h e c r ea t ion o f a r e semb lance m a t r ix b a sed o n mu l t ip le a t t r ibu te s , n e i the r c an b ec on s ide red s t r ic t ly a s ac l u s te rs o lu t ion .

i n to t h e o rda ined n umbe r o f c l u s t e r s , u nde r t h e g u idance o f v a r iou s o p t im iz ing r u le s w h ich e n su re t h a t t h e c l u s te r s f o rmed a r e a si n c lu s ive ly c ohe ren t a nd e x te rna l ly i s o la ted a s p o s s ib le . O bv iou s ly , t h e re a r e a n e no rmou s n umbe r o f p o s s ib le c omb ina t ion s o f OTU s a nd s o t h e a l go r i thm t of o rm a nd o p t im ize c l u s te r s mu s t b e v e ry e ff ic ien t . T he u sua l p rocedu re i s t o make i t e ra t ive p a s se s t h rough t h e d a ta , a l loca t ing a nd r e a l loca t ing c a se s t o c l u s te r s . T he m o s t

O f t h e a va i lab le a gg lome ra t ive h i e ra rch ica l c l u s te r ing a l go r i thm s , o n ly t h ree a r e s u i tab le f o r u se w i th a m a t r ix r e p re sen t ing n on -euc l idean s pace , s u ch a s t h e G owe r ' s m a t r ix . T he se a r e , w i th t h e i r s ynonym s i n b racke t s , s i ng le l i nkage ( n ea re s t n e ighbou r , S L INK ) , c omp le te l i nkage

f am i l ia r s uch t e chn ique i s k -m ean s c l u s te r ing ( Shennan 1 988 :226 ) . T he p rob lem s w i th t h i s t e chn ique a r e v a r iou s . F i r s t ly , i tc an o n ly d ea l w i th am a t r ix o fE uc l idean d i s tance s , w h ich c anno t b e c a lcu la ted f o r q ua l i ta t ive v a r iab le s .

( f u r the s t n e ighbou r , CL INK ) a nd t h e u nwe igh ted p a i r -g roup m e thod u s ing a r i thme t ic a ve rage s ( a ve rage l i nkage ,

E l im ina t ion o fq ua l i ta t ive a s se s smen t s a nd p resence /ab sence 2 8

C lu s t er A na ly s is : Me thod a nd P rocedur e

P a irw i se a nd L i s tw i se d e le t ion

UPGMA ) .

T he s im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t mu s t d ea l w i th m i s s ing v a lue s i na l o g ica l m anne r . O ne w ay i s t o a l low t h e i r p a i rw i se c ompa r i son w i th o t he r m i s s ing v a lue s ( wh ich w ou ld r e su l t i n

S ing le l i nkage , i nw h ich t h e u n i t s a r e j o ined t o ge the r i nt h e r a nk o rde ro fs im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t s , a nd u n i t sj o in c l u s te r s b y b e ing mo re s im i la r t o o ne m embe r o f t h a t c l u s te r ( by d ef in i t ion t h e n ea re s t m embe r ) , i sp rone t o t h e p rob lema t ic p henomenon o fc ha in ing . C ha in ing o ccu r s w hen as e r ie s o f

au n i ty s co re f o r t h a t p a i r ) , t h u s i g no r ing t h e p rob lem . H oweve r , t h i s w ou ld t e nd t or e su l t i nh i ghe r s im i la r i ty s co re s f o r p a i r s w i th mo re m i s s ing v a lue s , a l e l se b e ing e qua l , t h u s b l u r r ing t h e d i f f e rence s b e tween t r ue a nd a r t if ic ia l h igh s co re s . T h i s w ou ld b e am a jo rp rob lem s i nce i tm ay b e t h e se m o s t s im i la r u n i t s w h ich a r e t h e m o s t i n te re s t ing . A n

o b jec t s w i th s im i la r c oeff ic ien t s s equen t ia l ly j o in o n to a n o t he rw ise w e l l -def ined c l u s te r w h ich i s n o t p a r t icu la r ly s im i la r t ot h e n ew m embe r s , a nd b ecome s l e s s s o w i th t h e i r a dd i t ion . T he c l u s te r e f f ec t ive ly b ecome s e l onga te i n

a l te rna t ive a pp roach i st od e le te m i s s ing v a lue s i no ne o ft wo w ays : " l i s tw i se " o r" pa irw i se " .

a t t r ibu te s pa ce , r a the r t h an t h e i d ea l " s phe r ica l " ( mu l t id imen s iona l ly h ype r spher ica l ) c on fo rma t ion , a nd t h e i n te rna l c ohe s ivene s s i d ea l o f ac l u s te r i s c omp rom i sed . U l t ima te ly , o fc ou r se , t h e e n t i re s amp le i sj o ined i n to as i ng le

" L i s tw i se " d e le t ion o ccu r s w hen a ny OTU w i th e ven o ne m i s s ing v a lue i sd i sca rded f r om t h e a na ly s i s . T he a dvan tage o f t h i s m e thod i st h a t t h e s im i la r i ty c oe ff ic ien t f o r a l l c a se s

c ha in , b u t w i thou t c ha in ing t h e o u t l ie r s w i l l f u se a t al owe r

w i l l b e b a sed o n a l l t h e a t t r ibu te s , a vo id ing t h e m i s s ing v a lue p rob lem a l toge the r , a nd t h e s e t o fa t t r ibu te s t h a t p roduce t h e s im i la r i ty c oef f ic ien t f o r e ach c a se w i l l b e t h e s ame , t h u s r e su l t ing i np e r f ec tr e levance a mong a l t h ec a se s ( Snea th a nd

d eg re e o f s im i la r i ty t h an c an o ccu r w i th t h i s m e thod . I n i t s f a vou r i st h e m a thema t ica l l o g ic t h a t u nde r l ie s i t s a pp l ica t ion ( J a rd ine a nd S ib son 1 971 :56 ) , a nd t h e d i s tor t ion -f ree w ay i t i lu s t r a te st h er ank o rde ro ff u s ion c oe f f ic ien t s .

S oka l 1 973 :181) F u r the rmo re , a s d i scu s sed b e low , t h e m a t r ix w i l l b e p o s i t ive s em i -def in i te , a nd t h u s a menab le t o f u r the r t r an sf o rma t ion , s c a l ing , o r o rd ina t ion . T he p ra c t ica l

F u r the s t n e ighbou r c l u s te r ing , i n w h ich a n o b jec t c an o n ly j o in ac l u s te r i fi tp a s se s a n o rda ined t h re sho ld o fs im i la r i ty

d i sadvan tage o fl i s tw i se d e le t ion i st h a t o n ly c a se s f o r w h ich a l a t t r ibu te s a r e c oded o rc odab le c an b e i n c luded , m ean ing t h a t a r t if ac t s w h ich a r e o n ly m a rg ina l ly i n comp le te a r e

w i th t h a tc l u s te r , p roduce st i gh tc l u s te r s , a nd i sv e ry r e s i s tan t t oc ha in ing . C ha in s a r e b roken w heneve r t h e re a r e u nequa l l i nk s ( J a rd ine a nd S ibson 1 971 :54 -55 ) . T he c o re a r ea s o f t h e c l u s t e r s a pp roach s phe r ic i ty , b u t m any OTU s a r e l e f t o u t o f t i gh t c l u s te r s , s ca t te red i n i n te r -c lu s te r a t t r ibu te s pace ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 971 :228 ) . S o , o ne c an h ave c onf idence i nt h e c l u s te r s i d en t if ied , b u t o ne m u s t a ccep t ap o ten t ia l ly

t r ea ted t h e s ame a s s eve re ly b roken o r f r agmen ta ry o ne s . G iven t h e n a tu re o f t o o l u se l if e a nd a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t ion , s l igh t ly b roken a r t if ac t s t e nd t ob e t h e r u le r a the r t h an t h ee xcep t ion , a nd t h e i rd e le t ion w i l l l e ave f ew c a se s l e f t

l a rge n umbe ro fu nc la s s if ied o b jec t s .

t o c l u s te r . F u r the rmo re , t h e o ne s t h a t a r e l e f t m ay n o t b e r ep re sen ta t ive o f t h e p opu la t ion a s aw ho le , d ue t o n on -

A ve rage l i nkage s t r ike s ac omp rom i se b e tween t h e se t wo a pp roache s . When ap a i ri sf u sed , o r an ew m embe ri sa dded t o ac l u s te r , an ew r e semb lance c oe ff ic ien t i sc a lcu la ted .

r a ndom b r eak ing p a t ter n s . " Pa i rw i se " t r ea tmen t o fm i s s ing v a lue s c on s i s t s o fs imp ly n o t c ompa r ing t h e m i s s ing a t t r ibu te o n a ny c oup le t o f OTU s f o r w h ich t h e a t t r ibu te i sm i s s ing o n o ne o rb o th . E l im ina t ion i s

T h i s n ew c oeff ic ien t i st h e a ve rage o ft h e c oeff i c ien t s o ft h e c l u s te rm embe r s . C lu s te ra dm i s s ion i st ot h e o b jec to rc l u s te r t h a th a st h el e a s te f f ec tu pon t h ee x i s t ing a ve rage o fs im i la r i ty c oeff i c ien t s o ft h e a dm i t t ing c l u s te r . T h i s r e duce s t h e m a t r ix

p a i rw i se w hen t wo c a se s a r e c ompa red o n ly o n t h o se p a i r s o f a t t r ibu t e sf o rw h ich r e a l v a lue s a r ec oded . T hu s a r t if ac t s w i th m is s ing v a lue s m ay b e i n c luded , u p t o at h re sho ld o f r e levance When t wo a r t if ac t s a r e c ompa red o n t h e b a s is o f a n i d en t ica l s e t o f na t t r ibu te s , t h en t h a t c ompa r i son i s

i ns i ze a te ach f u s ion s t ep , a st h ea l go r i thm n i bb le s a way , c e l l b y c e l l , u n t i l j u s t a2 X 2 m a t r ix r ema in s . T h i s l i nkage m e thod r educe s t h e e f f ec t o f c ha in ing b y t h e r e -ave rag ing p roce s s , w h ich h e lp s k eep t h e c l u s te r s phe r ica l . Y e t , o t he rw i se , t h e c r i t e r ia f o rm embe r sh ip a r e n o t s o s t r ingen t a s

c omp le t e ly r e levan t . S hou ld e ach a r t if ac t , b ecau se o fm i s s ing v a lue s , o n ly b e r e p re sen ted b y 0 . 5n a t t r ibu te s , a nd s hou ld t h e re b e n o o ve r lap b e tween t h e s e t s , t h en t h e r e semb lance

i nf u r the s t n e ighbou r l i nkage , a nd s o e xce s s ive s t ruc tu re i s n o ti mpo sed o n to t h em a t r ix ( Rome sbu rg 1 984 ) .

c oeff ic ien t w ou ld b e c omp le te ly i re levan t a nd m ean ing le s s . T he q ue s t ion i s : h ow m any s ha red a tr ibu te s a r e n ece s sa ry i f t h e c ompa r i son r ep re sen ted b y t h e s im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t i st o b e a n a c cu ra te r e f lec t ion o f t h e t r ue s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e

TREAT MENT OF MISSING VALUES I mpo r tan t

a r chaeo log ica l

a r t if a c t s

m ay

b e

t wo a r t if a c t s? S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1 971 :180 -181) s ugge s t t h a t e ven 5 0% s ha red a t t r ibu te s g i ve s as im i la r i ty c oeff ic ien t t h a t w i l l r e su l t i n c l u s te r s t h a t a r e s i gn if ican t ly c o r re la ted t o c l u s te r sd e r ived f r om p e r f ec t ly r e levan tc ompa r ison s .

r e la t ive ly

u ncommon o r f o r tu i tou s ly f ound , a nd w hen f ound t h ey a r e f r equen t ly b roken . T aken t oge the r , t h i s m ean s t h a t o ne w i l l o f t en h ave t h es i tua t ion o fc e r ta in a t t r ibu te so f as pec imen n o t b e ing r e co rded o r r e co rdab le , w h i le a s t rong d e s i re t o u se w ha t i n fo rma t ion i se mbod ied i n t h e a r t if ac t o r s pec imen r ema in s .

T he P o s i t ive S em i -def in i te Ma tr ix When m i s s ing v a lue s a r e i n c luded i nt h e c a lcu la t ion o f t h e s im i la r i ty c oeff i c ien t , t h e m a t r ix p roduced m ay l a ck t h e m a thema t ica l p rope r ty o f p o s i t ive s em i -def in i t ion ( Gowe r 1 971 :865 ) . T h i s i s as t a temen to ft h eo rde rw i th in t h e m a t r ix , r e la ted t o t h e t r an s i t ive l o g ica l s t a temen t a =b a nd b =c

M i s s ing v a lue s p o se t wo d i s t inc t p rob lem s i n

c l u s t e ra na lys i s , d i scu s sed b e low .

2 9

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s t h e refo re a =c . I n t h e c a se o f as im i la r i ty m a t r ix , i fG owe r ' s

s t udy b ecau se i ti sb e l ieved t ob e as upe r io r , m o re i n c lu s ive

c oeff ic ien t f o r a r t if ac t s aa nd b ( SGab )=0 .9 a nd S Gbc=0 .9 ,

t e chn ique w hen m any o b jec t s a r e s l igh t ly b roken . A s l o ng a s o ne i sa wa re o ft h e l im i ta t ion s i mpo sed o n t h e m a t r ix b y t h e

t h en t h e p o ten t ia l r ange o f SGac i sn ece s sa r i ly c on s t ra ined . H ence , e ach c e l l i n as im i la r i ty m a t r ix i sn o t i n dependen t .

l o s s o fp o s i t ive s em i -def in i t ion t h e re a ppea r s t ob e n o r e a son n o tt od e le te p a i rw i se .

C on s ide rt h ee xamp le o f ah ypo the t ica l s e t o ft h ree c a se s a nd t h i r ty a t t r ibu te s , ad i f f e ren t 1 5 o fw h ich a r e m i s s ing o n e ach c a se . A r t if a c t ai sd e sc r ibed b y a t t r ibu te s 1t o 1 5 , a r t if a c t b

V a l ida t ion A d end rog ram i st h e o n ly p rac t ica l w ay t o a s se s s al a rge m a t r ix o f s im i la r i t ie s w i thou t a n a l geb ra ic r e duc t ion i n a t t r ibu te s pace , a r educ t ion i mpo s s ib le b ecau se o f t h e

b y a t t r ibu te s 1 0t o2 5 , a nd a r t if ac t cb ya t t r ibu te s 1 ,a nd 1 7t o 3 0 . Saab a nd SGbc a r e b a sed o n ad i f f e ren t s ub se t o f t h e p o s s ib le a t t r ibu te s : t h ep a i rw i se c ompa r i son a c tua l ly i n vo lve s

r e la t ion sh ip , i st h e refo re i log ica l , a nd t h e a c tua l S Gac ( b a sed o n as i ng le c ommon a t t r ibu te ) i sg ua ran teed t ob em i s lead ing .

p a i rw i se d e le t ion o fm i s s ing v a lue s . Un for tuna te ly , b ecau se i tr e p re sen t s am u l t id imen s iona l s pace i nt wo d imen s ion s , a nd b ecau se o f t h e u sua l d i s to r t ion s ( c ha in ing , r ound ing e r ro r ) a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c l u s te r ing a l go r i thm s , t h e re i s o f t en a

T he f u s ion a l go r i thm i t se lf m ay m ake u se o f t h e p o s i t ive s em i -def in i te n a tu re o ft h e m a t r ix i ni t s c a lcu la t ion s , a nd b e

d i sc repancy b e tween t h e r e semb lance c oeff ic ien t a nd d end rog ram l e ve l s o f s im i la r i ty a t w h ich t wo u n i t s f u se

m i s led i ni t sc l u s ter ing s o lu t ion . O r , t h ef u s ion a l go r i thm w i l l j o in p a i r s b a sed o n t h e se i log ica l ly d e r ived c oe f f ic ien t s o f

( Soka l 1 965 :113 ) . T he u sua l m e thod o f m ea su r ing t h i s d i sc repancy i sw i th t h e C ophene t ic C or re la t ion C oeff ic ien t

s im i la r i ty . A p o s i t ive s em i -def in i te m a t r ix i sc ruc ia l ly i mpo r tan t w hen

( CPCC ) , a n i n t im ida t ing n ame t h a t d i sgu i se s a f am i l ia r s t a t i s t ic ( Pea r son ' s r )i n ar e ad i ly u nde r s tandab le a pp l ica t ion ( s ee R ome sbu rg 1 984 ) . S imp ly p u t , ama t r ix o fa c tua l f u s ion

t h e m a t r ix i ss ca led o r t r an sformed a s p a r t o f ap r inc ipa l

l e ve l s , d ef ined a st h e s im i la r i ty l e ve l a tw h ich t wo o b jec t s a r e

c omponen t s o rf a c to r a na ly s i s ( Gowe r 1 971) . Ma t r ice s u sed

a c tua l ly j o ined b y l i ne s o n t h e d end rog ram , i sc a lcu la ted . T h i s m a t r ix a nd t h e o r ig ina l m a t r ix a r e t h en " un s t rung " i n to a

o n ly 5 a nd 8 a t t r ibu te s i n c ommon , r e spec t ive ly . T he p red ic ted p o s s ib le r ange o f SGac , b a sed o n t h e a b a nd b c

i ns uch a na ly se s c anno t b e b a sed o n d a ta s e t s w i th m i s s ing v a lue s d e le ted p a i rw i se , b ecau se t h e a l geb ra ic t r an sfo rma t ion s w i l l d i s to r t a nd m agn if y t h e l o s s o f o rde r c au sed b y al a ck o f s em i -def in i t ion .

s e r ie s

o f

s im i la r i ty

c oe ff i c ien t s ,

e ach

s t age

o f

w h ich

c o r re spond t o t h e s ame c e l l i n te rcep t . T he t wo o rde red s t r ing s o f c oeff ic ien t s a r e t h en c ompa red u s ing P ea r son ' s r ,

H oweve r , s imp le

h i e ra rch ica l a gg lome ra t ive c l u s te r ing , i n w h ich a m a t r ix i s m an ipu la ted o n ly a r i thme t ica l ly , i sr e la t ive ly i mmune t ot h i s

w h ich i st h eC PCC . V a lue sa pp roach ing 1 . 0d emon s t ra te t h a t d i s to r t ion c au sed b y t h e d end rog ram i s m in ima l .

k i nd o f d i s to r t ion . T he w o rk r e po r ted i n S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1973 :181) r ega rd ing r e levance h a s t e s ted f o r t h i s p rob lem .

U n fo r tuna te ly , t h e C PCC h a s t h ree l im i ta t ion s . I t i s i n he ren t ly b i a sed i n f a vou r o f a ve rag ing m e thod s

A h i gh c o r re la t ion b e tween c l u s te r ing s o lu t ion s b a sed o n

( A ldende r f e r 1 981 :62 ) , t h e re i sn o l o g ica l ly d e r ived t h re sho ld l e ve l a tw h ich ri ss i gn if ican t , a nd i ti sn o t a n o p t ion i na ny a va i lab le c omme rc ia l s t a t i s t ica l p ackage . R eg re t tab ly , i t s c a lcu la t ion w a s n o tp o s s ib le .

c omp le te r e levance a nd t h o se w i th u p t o5 0% m i s s ing v a lue s s ugge s t s t h a t , m a thema t ica l s uppo r t a s ide , p a i rw i se d e le t ion o f s ome m is s ing v a lue s c an b e s hown e mp i r ica l ly t o h ave l i t t le e f f ec to nt h ec l u s ter ing s o lu t ion .

O the r m e thods o f v a l ida t ion a r e s ugge s ted b y A ldende r f e r ( 1981) . H oweve r , t h e se a l l h ave b i a se s e qua l t o o r g r ea t e r

T he s imp le c ho ice w a s b e tween r e jec t ing a m a jo r i ty o f t h e a r t if ac t s o r f o rgo ing a l geb ra ic t r an sforma t ion s o ft h e m a t r ix . G iven t h e n a tu re o f t h e a r t i f ac t s , a nd t h e p u rpo se o f t h e

t h an , t h e C PCC . F o re xamp le , Mo jena ' s s t opp ing r u le i ss a id b y A ldende r f e r ( 1981 :64 ) t ob e b i a sed t owa rd s t h e c omp le te

t a xome t r ic a pp roach a s a pp l ied i n t h i s r e sea rch , i t w a s d ec ided t oa l low p a i rw ise d e le t ion o fm i s s ing a t t r ibu te s . T he t h re sho ld a tw h ich ac a se w a s d e le ted w a s s e t c on se rva t ive ly a t f i ve m is s ing o f t h e f o r ty -one a t t r ibu te s w h ich i n i t ia l ly

a nd Wa rd c l u s te r ing a l go r i thm s . O the r s , s u ch a s p lo t t ing d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion s co re s , e f f ec t ive ly p l a ce t h e b u rden o f v a l ida t ion o n a no the r p rocedu re , w h ich c omp l ica te s t h e

e n te red t h e c l u s te r a na ly s i s . T h i s g i ve s ap o s s ib le r a nge o f r e levance f r om 0 . 88 t o 1 . 00 , a cco rd ing t ot h e s imp le f o rmu la ( d iv ide t h e n umbe r o f m i s s ing v a lue s b y t h e n umbe r o f

t h e e xe rc i se i tw a s d ec ided t h a t as imp le i n tu i t ive m e thod o f v a l ida t ion w a s a pp rop r ia te . C lu s te r s w i l l b e v a l ida ted i ft h ey c an b e d emon s t ra ted t o h ave c u l tu ra l o r a r chaeo log ica l m ean ing , e x terna l t ot h ep rocedu re t ha tp roduced t h em .

p rob lem w i thou t s o lv ing i t . G iven t h e e xp lo ra to ry n a tu re o f

m i s s ing a nd v a l id c ompa r i son s , b e tween t h e t wo o b jec t s b e ing c ompa red ) s ugge s ted b y S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1 973 :181) .

CONCLUSIONS

T he p red ic ted P ea r son p roduc t -momen t c o r re la t ion c oeff ic ien t , r ,b e tween c l u s te r ing s o lu t ion s f o r t h i s l e ve l o f r e levance , w e re o ne r epea ted ly t o r un t h e a l go r i thm w i th m i s s ing v a lue s r a ndom ly r ed i s t r ibu ted t h rough t h e m a t r ix , i s i n e xce s s o f 0 . 98 , a cco rd ing t o t h e r e su l t s p ub l i shed b y

I n s umma ry , i t w a s d ec ided t h a t a h i e ra rch ica l , n on o ve r lapp ing , a gg lome ra t ive c l u s te r ing a pp roach w a s au s e f u l m e thod f o r m a thema t ica l ly d e sc r ib ing t h e s im i la r i ty

S nea th a nd S oka l ( 1973 :181) . P ea r son ' s ri si n te rp re ted o n a s ca le o f1 ( i nve r se c o r re la t ion ) t h rough 0 . 0 ( no c o r re la t ion ) t o1 . 0( c omp le te c o r re la t ion ) .

r e la t ion sh ip s a mong t h e a r t if ac t s . G owe r ' s G ene ra l C oe f i c ien t o f S im i la r i ty , c a lcu la ted a l low ing t h e p a i rw i se d e le t ion o f m i s s ing v a lue s , w a s c ho sen a s t h e m o s t a pp rop r ia te w ay o fb u i ld ing ar e semb lance m a t r ix . A ve rage l i nkage w a s c ho sen a s t h e mo s t a pp rop r ia t e c l u s t e r ing a l go r i thm , a l though c omp le te l i nkage i sa l so t h ough t t ob e a

P a i rw i se d e le t ion o fm i s s ing v a lue si sn o tt h e u sua lp rocedu re i n c l u s te r a na ly s i s , a nd i sn o t a va i lab le a s a n o p t ion i nt h e c omme rc ia ls t a t i s t ica lp ackage se xam ined . I tw a su s ed i nt h is 3 0

C lus ter A na ly s i s : Me thod a nd P rocedure u sefu lo p t ion . O nce d ef ined , t h e o pe ra t iona l c l u s te r s c an t h en b e u sed i n s eve ra l w ay s , d epend ing o n t h e r e sea rch g oa l ( wh ich h a s

3 . T o t e s t a n a l ready f o rmu la ted h ypo the s i s i nt h e s o -ca l led h ypo the t ico -deduc t ive m e thod . I n t h i s k i nd o f a pp l ica t ion , t h e f o rm o f t h e t r ee ( ob jec t r e la t ion sh ip s a nd g roup m embe r sh ip s ) m u s tb ep red ic tab le . I fi tw e re n o tp red ic tab le , t h e re w ou ld b en oc r i te r ia f o rr e je c t ing t h en u l lh ypo the s i s .

b een w e l l d ef ined f r om t h e o u t se t ) . R ome sbu rg ( 1984 ) e mpha s ize s t h a t ac l u s te r a na ly s i s m u s t m a tch t h e r e sea rch g oa l . R e sea r ch g oa ls w e l ls u i ted f o rc l u s t e ra na lys i si n c lude :

4 . T o c r ea te a c l a s s if ica t ion o f u n i t s o n t h e b a s is o f t h e i r a t t r ibu te s , o r v i ce v e r sa ; t h i s c l a ss if ica t ion b e ing e i the r g ene ra l u se f o r o t he r r e sea rche r s , o r s pec if ica l ly d i rec ted

1 . C rea t ing w e l l f o rmu la ted q ue s t ion s b a sed o n t h e c l u s te r r e su l t s , q ue s t ion s w h ich m igh t t h en b e b e t te r a n swe red b y s ome o t he r a pp roach t o t h e d a ta , o r b y g a the r ing d i f f e ren t d a ta . I no t he rw o rd s , a ne xp lo ra to ry o r" h eu r is t ic " a pp roa ch .

t owa rd s ap u rpo se o r q ue s t ion . T he g oa l i st a xonom ic , t o i d en t if y a nd d e sc r ibe l og ica l s t ruc tu re w i th in t h e v a r ia t ion a t h and .

2 . C r ea t ing ah ypo the s i s b y r e t roduc t ion , a f te r t h e d e tec t ion o f s u rp r i s ing o r a noma lou s r e su l t s f r om ac l u s te r p rocedu re . T he n u l l h ypo the s i s w ou ld b e n ega ted b y t h e r e su l t s a l ready g a ined . T he c ruc ia l p o in t i s , t h e h ypo the s i s m u s t b e f a l s if iab le o n t h e b a s i s o f s im i la r i t ie s o r d i s s im i la r i t ie s

I n t h e f o l low ing c hap te r s , c l u s te r a na ly s i s w i l l b e u sed i n p u r su i t o ft h e l a s t g oa l , b u t t h e f i r s t , t h a t o fi d en t if y ing b e t te r a na ly t ic p rocedu re s , w i l la lway sb ek ep ti nm ind .

b e tween o b je c t s ,a nd n o tm e re ly b e ap o s th oc r a t iona l iza t ion .

3 1

C hap ter 6

R ESULTS OF T HE C LUSTER ING P ROCEDURES I NTRODUCT ION

PROCEDURE I . GENERAL PURPOSE TAXO METR IC CLASSIF ICATION

Ac l u s te r -de r ived c l a s s if ica t ion i se i the r " s pec ia l p u rpo se " o r " gene ra l p u rpo se " , b u t i s n eve r " a l l p u rpo se " ( Rome sbu rg 1 984 ) . Ag ene ra lp u rpo se c l a s s if ica t ion i su sed g ene r ica l ly a s

A t tr ibu te s e lec t ion a nd man ipu la t ion A sd i scu s sed i nt h ep r eced ing c hap te r , t h e g r ea te rt h e n umbe r o fa t t r ibu te s e mp loyed i n ac l u s te ra na ly s i s , t h e b e t te r ag i ven c l a s s if ica t ion i s l i ke ly t o b e . Wh i le t h i s a rgue s f o r t h e i n c lu s ion o fm any a t t r ibu te s , i td oe s n o t a r gue f o r ab l ind ly i n c lu s ive a pp roach . G iven t h a t a n a l l -pu rpo se c l a s s if ica t ion

ar e sea r ch a i d ( pe rhap s t o h e lp f o rmu la te n ew q ue s t ion s o r s imp ly t o h e lp o rgan ize o ne ' s t h ough t s ) w h i le a s pec ia l p u rpo se c l a s s if ica t ion i s u sed t o h e lp s o lve a p a r t icu la r r e sea r ch p rob lem . T he b a s ic m e thod a nd t h eo ry o fn ume r ica l t a xonomy a nd c l u s te ra na ly s i s w a sr e v iewed i nt h e p r eced ing

i si mpo s s ib le ( Dunne 1 1 1 986 :190 ) , a l l c l a s s if ica t ion s mu s t b e d i rec ted t o ap u rpo se ( r emembe r ing t h a t o ne s uch p u rpo se i s " gene ra l p u rpo se " ) , a nd i ti sp ref e rab le t ob e e xp l ic i t a bou t

c hap t e r . T h i s c hap te r d i scu s se s t h e r e su l t s o f a pp ly ing v a r iou s t a xome t r ic t e chn ique s t o t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion d a ta , w i th t h e i n ten t o f c r ea t ing b o th g ene ra l a nd s pec ia l p u rpo se c l a s s i f ica t ion s .

t h a t p u rpo se f r om t h e o u t se t . I tf o l low s , t h en , t h a t s e lec t ion o ft h e a t t r ibu t e s f o r t h a t c l a s s if ica t ion m u s tb e m ade w i th t h e p u rpo se i nm ind .

I ft h e p urpo se o f t h e c l a s s if ica t ion i st o

o f t h e p o ten t ia l s cope o r u t i l i ty o f d e r ived c l u s te r s , a s

d i sc lo se p hene t ic r e la t ion sh ip s t h en a t t r ibu te s w h ich r e co rd n on -mo rpho log ica l i n fo rma t ion a r e i re levan t , i f n o t m i s lead ing . A t t r ibu te s w h ich c oded f o r t ime , s pa ce a nd a r chaeo log ica l c on t ex t w e re t h e refo re r emoved p r io r t o

e xemp l if ied b y C h r i s ten son a nd R ead ' s ( 1977 ) i n f luen t ia l p ape r( Hod son 1 982 :23 -24 , A ldende r f e r 1 981) . H oweve r , a s i n a ny s t a t i s t ica l p rocedu re , r e a l d if i cu l t ie s a nd p i t f a l l s d o e x is t . Among t h e se , w h ich t h e c u r ren t s t udy r e cogn ize s a nd w i l l a t temp tt om in im ize , a r e :

c ommenc ing t h e c l u s te r a na ly s i s . S ince t h e p u rpose w a s t o c r ea te ag ene ra l c l a s s if ica t ion t oh e lp g ene ra te q ue s t ion s , a s s ugge s ted b y R ome sbu rg ( 1984 ) , s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l a t t r ibu te s w h ich d o n o t c ode m o rpho log ica l i n fo rma t ion a r e i n app rop r ia t e f o r c r ea t ion o f ar e semb lance m a t r ix . T he se

C lu s t e r a na ly s is i s o n ly p rob lema t ic f o r a r chaeo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion i ft h e p rocedu re a nd r e su l t s a r e n o td i scu s sed i n f u l l . Mo s tc r i t ic ism s o fi th ave c ome f r om m i s in te rp re ta t ion s

c an b e i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e s pec ia l p u rpose t y po log ie s , d e r ived f r om o r w i th t h e a i d o f , t h e g ene ra l p u rpo se

1 .B y i t se lf , c l u s te r a na ly s i s d oe s n o t d ef ine as e t o fc l a s se s : t h e r e su l t s o f ac l u s te r ing p rocedu re a r e u sua l ly e xp r e s sed a s ah i e ra r ch ica l s e r ie s o fc l u s te r s . T he d ec i s ion o n w he re ( o r

c l a s s if ica t ion .

i f ) t o c u t ad end rog ram , w h ich s imu l taneou s ly d e l im i t s t h e o pe ra t iona l c l u s te r s , i se x te rna l t o t h e c l u s te r ing p rocedu re , a nd o f t en h a s s ub jec t ive e l emen t s . 2 .B e ing d ef ined o n t h e b a s i s o f al a rge n umbe r o f a t t r ibu te s m ean s t h a t e x t reme ly s t rong u n iva r ia te o r b i va r ia te p a t te rn s m ay b e s wamped b y

O the r a t t r ibu t e s w e re m od if ied o r d i sca rded a cco rd ing t o t h e i r a pp rop r ia t ene s s f o r ap a i rw i se c ompa ra t ive p roce s s . S ome a t t r ibu te s ( s uch a sX SL , X SR ) w e re o r ig ina l ly c oded a s " l ef t " a nd " r igh t , " " f ron t " a nd " back , " b a sed o n s t anda rd a r t if ac t o r ien ta t ion r e la t ive t o t h e s kew o f t h e b eve l .

t h e o ve r lay o f many o t he r , p oo r ly c o r re la ted a t t r ibu te s . 3 . T he d end rog ram i sv e ry s t rong ly i n f luenced b y t h e c ho ice o f r e semb lance c oeff i c ien t a nd c l u s te r ing a l go r i thm , m ean ing t h a tt h es ame d a ta c an b e man ipu la ted i n to ma rked ly d i f f e ren t

H oweve r , n o t a l t h e a r t if ac t s w e re a b le t ob e f u l ly o r ien ted b ecau se t h ey h ad s ymme t r ica l b eve l s . F o rt h e se , t h e s i de a nd f a ce d e s igna t ion s w e re a r b i t ra ry . T h i s m ake s t h e se a t t r ibu te s u n su i tab le f o r ap a i rw i se c ompa r ison b ecau se a c od ing o f

r e su l t s , d epend ing o nt h ep rocedu re f o l lowed .

( 1 ,2 ) a nd ( 2 ,1 ) w ou ld s co re ap e r f ec t m i sma t ch , i log ica l i f o ne o r b o th w e r e a r b i t ra ry a s t os i de . T hu s , ar e cod ing a nd c o l lap se o ft h e s i ded v a r iab le s w a s p e r f o rmed . I n a dd i t ion , s ome u no rde red , q ua l i ta t ive , m u l t i s ta te a t t r ibu te s c on ta ined l a rge n umbe r s o fs l igh t ly r e p re sen ted c ha ra c te r s . T he se w e re l umped i n to " o the r " c a t ego r ie s , i n o rde r t o i n c rea se t h e b a lance b e tween c a tego ry m embe r sh ip . F ina l ly , s ome a t t r ibu te s , s u ch a sb ody g roov ing ( GRV ) , w e re p re sen t o n s o

F o rt h e l a s tr e a son , i ti sc ruc ia l ly i mpo r tan tt od i scu s sf u l ly a l t h ed ec i s ion st a ken , a nd t h e a s sump t ion s i n vo lved , s ot h a tt h e r e ade r i sa b le t os ee t h e g ene s i s o fa ny c l u s te r . R ome sbu rg ' s a dv ice h a sb een t a ken t oh ea r t : S ome o ft h e se [ r epo r t ing ] s t ep s w i l lb e d if i cu l tb ecau se t h ey a r es ub jec t ive . Y ou m ay f e e lt ha t ag iven d ec i s ion w a st h e b e s t o ne ,b u ty ou may n o tb e a b le t ot e l l y ou r se lf o ry ou ra ud ience w hy . D ot h eb e s t y ou c an ,h oweve r( Rome sbu rg 1 984 :195 ) .

f ew a r t if ac t s a st ob e u se le s s f o r d i sc r im ina t ion . T he se w e re d i sca rded f o r t h i s p ha se o fr e sea rch ; t h e i r v a lue l i e s i nm o re s pe c if ic l i ne so fi n qu i ry . S ome o t he r v a r iab le s w e re r e coded i n o rde r t o m ake t h em mo re s u i tab le f o r m o rpho log ica l c ompa r ison . F o r e xamp le , s awn s i de s w e re o r ig ina l ly c oded i n to e i gh t c a tego r ie s , w i th t h e i n ten t ion o fu s ing t h e s ub t le ty o fi n fo rma t ion g a ined f o r a m anuf ac tu r ing s t age s t udy . F o r am o rpho log ica l s t udy , i tw a s f e l t t h a t t h e m any m isma t che s w h ich w ou ld i n ev i tab ly r e su l t 3

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s w ou ld b e u n rea l i s t ic . T he d i f f e r ence b e tween " one s awn s i de , f r a c tu re r i dge s moo thed " a nd " one s awn s i de , f r ac tu re r i dge c oa r se " i sn o t g rea t e nough t ow a r ran t as co re o fz e ro , e spec ia l ly i f a m i sma tch w ou ld a l so b e s co red w hen

m any o ft h em e t r ic v a r iab le sh ave f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion st h a t a pp rox ima te t h e l o g -no rma l d i s t r ibu t ion ( s kewed t ot h e l e f t , w i th l o ng r i gh twa rd t a i l s ) , t h e r ange i sv e ry l a rge r e la t ive t o t h e m ea su re s o fc en t ra l t e ndency , a nd t h e m ed ian a nd m ean a r e s ub s tan t ia l ly d i f f e ren t . T he r a nge , i nt h e c a se o f af ew o u t l ie r s , i s av e ry p oo rm ea su r e o fd i s t r ibu t ion . I nc a lcu la t ing ac o r r e la t ion c oeff ic ien t u s ing r ange s t anda rd iza t ion , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c o r re la t ion c oeff ic ien t s t e nd s t o r e f lec t t h e

c ompa r ing t h e l a t te r w i th " no s awn s i de s . " T he se r e cod ing s a r en o ted i nt h ev a r iab le d ef in i t ion s ( Append ix 1 ) . 8 65 c e l t s w e re i n c luded i n t h e a na ly s i s . T he se w e re d e sc r ibed u s ing 4 0 a t tr ibu t e s , 1 9 q uan t i ta t ive ( LCL , LMX ,

m e t r ic d imen s ion s b e ing c ompa red . W i th a l o ng ta i led d i s t r ibu t ion , t h e re i s al o to f" emp ty s pace " , a nd t h e s im i la r i ty o f t h o se i n t h e m id sp read o f t h e c a se s i sd i s to r ted b y t h e o u t l ie r s , s o t h a t t wo c en t ra l c a se s a ppea r r e la t ive ly mo re s im i la r t o e ach o t he r . F u r the rmo re , b y c omp r e s s ing t h e s im i la r i t ie s , ad i s to r ted s ca le b e tween t h e q ua l i ta t ive a nd t h e q uan t i ta t ive v a r iab le s i sc r ea ted . I ne f f ec t , t h e f o rme r , w h ich c an s co re o n ly a s 0o r 1 ,c a r ry g rea te r w e igh t t h an as e r ie s o f q uan t i ta t ive v a r iab le s s co r ing b e tween 0 . 4 a nd 0 . 6 . T h ree r emed ie s a r ep o s s ib le .

WPO , W MX , WB I , WVC , TMX , T PO , TVC , VAP , BAC , GRM , DAC , F RT , LWR , L TR , W WR , WTR , TTR ) a nd 2 1 q ua l i ta t ive ( VTN , VAS , S SD , S LX , S TX , X SS , P SP , P CC , P LX , B SP , VLX , VTX , BCB , S AW . F PF , S PF UPO , RA W , F IN , VBF , QMF ) . N o mo re t h an f i ve ( 12% ) o ft h e a t t r ibu te s w e re a l lowed t ob e m is s ing d ue t ob r eakage f o r a ny a r t if ac t , i na cco rdance w i th t h e " r e levance " c r i te r ia d i scu s sed i nt h e p rev iou s c hap te r . A r t if ac t s w e re c ompa red u s ing G owe r ' s C oeff ic ien to fS im i la r i ty . T he r e semb lance m a t r ix w a s s t o red i nt r iangu la r f o rm , t h en l o aded i n to S PSS -X a nd p rocedu re

T he f i r s t i st o a l te r t h e w ay i n w h ich G owe r ' s c oeff ic ien t w e ld s t o ge the r t h e t h ree s ca le s o fm ea su remen t i n to as i ng le

CLUSTER w a sr un , u s ing a ve rage l i nkage .

R e su l t sa nd d i scu s s ion

s ub sequen t ly f u sed t oe ach o t he r a th i gh l e ve l s o f s im i la r i ty .

c oeff i c ien t o f s im i la r i ty . R ome sbu rg ( 1984 :172 -176 ) d esc r ibe s t h e c r ea t ion o f a" comb ined r e semb lance m a t r ix " s im i la r t oG owe r ' s C oe ff ic ien t . C a lcu la t ion o f t h i s i n vo lve s w e igh t ing o ne o ra no the rs ca le o fm ea su remen t s s oi tm ake s a g r ea te r c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e c omb ined c oe ff ic ien t . I n as t r ic t s en se , t h i s c on t rad ic t s P r inc ip le 2 o f n ume r ica l t a xonomy , t h a t a l c ha rac te r s a r e o f e qua l w e igh t ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :6 ) . T i l t ing t h e e qua t ion i nf a vou r o f t h e q uan t i ta t ive v a r iab le s w ou ld r e qu i re mo re j u s t if ica t ion t h an t h e s imp le

T he d end rog ram s ugge s ted t h a t t h e g roup a ve rage s w e re mo re a l ike t h an a ny o b jec t s w i th in t h e g roup s w e re t oe ach

r e cogn i t ion t h a t t h e re i s a p rob lem w i th t h e p roduced c l u s te r s . E x te rna l r e a son s w ou ld h ave t o b e g i ven f o r t h e

o t he r . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e g r oup a ve rage s a r e c onve rgen t , w h ich w ou ld n o t b e t h e c a se i ft h e re w e re w e l l d ef ined c l u s te r s . T he c l u s te r s d i d n o t m ee t as ub jec t ive t e s t o f

a s s igned w e igh t s , a nd n os uch r e a son se x i s t .

A h i e ra rch ica l d end rog ram w a s p roduced b y t h e c l u s te r ing a l go r i thm a nd p r in ted , s pann ing 2 1 p age s . N o o bv iou s c l u s te r s w e re a ppa r en t i nt h e d end rog ram , as amp le o fw h ich w a s r ep roduced i n Mack ie ( 1 992 :f ig 6 . 1) . Wh i le s ome a r t if ac t st h a tw e re s ub jec t ive ly q u i t e s im i la rw e re j o ined , t h ey f u sed a t al ow l e ve l o f s im i la r i ty . L a rge n umbe r s o f t h e se a r t if ac t s w e re t h en l i nked i n to m ac ro -c lu s te r s , w h ich

T he s e cond i s t o a pp ly a no the r k i nd o f s t anda rd iza t ion a l toge the r , s u ch a sd iv i s ion i n to t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion . T h i s w a s r e jec t ed f o r t h ree r e a son s . O ne , i tw ou ld e f f ec t ive ly m ean o ne w a s f o rmu la t ing a n ew c oeff i c ien t o f s im i la r i ty , w i thou t t h e b enef i t o f s t a t i s t ica l e xpe r t i se . Two , t h e re i sn o

i n te rna lc ohe s ion a nd e x te rna li s o la t ion ( Cowg i l l 1 982 ) . T h i s a ppa ren t l a ck o f s t ru c tu r e w a s as u rp r i se . I ti s n o t d i ff icu l t s ub jec t ive ly t o g r oup d ozen s o f s im i la r c e l t s t oge the r . F u r the rmo re , c e l t s " s hou ld " f a l l i n to d ef inab le c l a s se s : t h e g r ea t r a nge i n s i ze a nd s hape m ean s d i f f e ren t f unc t ion s c an b e a s sumed , t h e c on t ro l o ve r s hape i n he ren t i n

r e a son t o b e l ieve t h a t i tw ou ld p roduce a ny b e t te r r e su l t s . T h ree , t h e s t anda rd iza t ion m u s t p roduce v a lue s b e tween z e ro a nd o ne t o b e c ompa rab le w i th t h e q ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s , w h ich e l im ina te s mo s tp opu la rs t anda rd iz ing t e chn ique s .

t h e g r ind ing t e chn ique m ean s s hape i sn o t a r b i t ra ry , a nd t h e c on s t ra in t s i mpo sed b y t h e h a f t s hou ld i mpo se s ome s t anda rd iza t ion . I n a ny p rocedu re o f t h i s n a tu re t h e re i sf e edback b e tween s ub jec t iv i ty a nd o b jec t iv i ty . T h i s i sd e s i rab le , a s i tp reven t s t i dy , b u t o bv iou s ly w rong , s o lu t ion s f r om b e ing a ccep ted . H oweve r , t h e f e edback p roce s sm u s tb e c on t ro l led s o t h e re i s

T he t h i rd r emedy i s t o m an ipu la te o r t r an sf o rm t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c a se s w i th in t h e d a ta , f o l lowed b y r ange s t anda rd iza t ion . T h is m e thod w a s s e lec ted . T he re w e re t wo p o s s ib i l i t ie s w i th in t h is o p t ion . T he f i r s t w a s t o t r im t h e u ppe r e nd o ft h e r a nge b y a s s ign ing a l c a se s a bove ac e r ta in t h re sho ld t o a" g rea te r t h an " c a tego ry . T h is w a s r e jec ted ,

n o s ugge s t ion o f d e l ibe ra te m an ipu la t ion t o a ch ieve d e s i red r e su l t s . T he s t a r t ing p o in t t oe xp la in t h i s s u rp r i s ing r e su l t i s t oe xp lo re p o s s ib le f l aw s i nt h ec l u s te r ing m e thodo logy .

b ecau se i tw ou ld c r ea te a g roup o f l a rge c e l t s t h a t w ou ld p roduce c on s i s t en t ly p e r f ec t m a tche s o n t h e m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s , b y v i r tue o fb e ing l a rge i na l d imen s ion s , e ven t h ough t h e i r i n te rna l v a r iab i l i ty i ns i ze a nd s hape w ou ld s t i l l b e v e ry g r ea t . T he c ho sen m e thod i st ot r an sfo rm t h e s co re s o n t h e s kewed d i s t r ibu t ion s i n to t h e i r b a se 1 0 l o ga r i thm s . T h i s r e duce s t h e e f f ec t o f t h e o u t l ie r s , w h i le r e ta in ing t h e f u l l s e t o f r e la t ion sh ip s i n t h e f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion . L oga r i thm ic c o lumn t r an sf o rma t ion o f v a r iab le s i n c l u s te r a na ly s i s i s e x t reme ly u ncommon , b u t p o se s n o m e thodo log ica l p rob lem s

PROCEDURE I . RECOGN IT ION OF PROCEDURAL FLA WS A t tr ibu te s e lec t ion a nd man ipu la t ion O ne p o s s ib le f l aw w a s t h e w ay i nw h ich G owe r ' s c oe ff ic ien t s t anda rd ized t h e s c a le o f t h e q uan t i ta t ive v a r iab le s .

S ince 3 4

R esu l t so ft h e C lus ter ing P rocedur e s

PROCEDURE I I .S PECIAL PURPOSE CLASSIF ICAT ION

( Rom e sbu rg 1 984 :91) . I ti sn o t o f ten u sed b ecau se t h e re i s u sua l ly n o n eed t on o rma l ize af r equency d i s t r ibu t ion , c l u s te r a na ly s i sb e ing an on -pa rame t r ic d e scr ip t ive s t a t i s t ic .

A t tr ibu te s e lec t ion a nd man ipu la t ion H av ing f a i led t od i scove r p l au s ib le t y pe s b a sed o n t h e e n t i re s e to fd e sc r ip t ive a t t r ibu te s , i tw a s d ec ided t os e lec ta t t r ibu te s

T he s ame s e lec t ion o f4 0 a t t r ibu te s w a s u sed a si nP rocedu re I .I n a dd i t ion , b o th a ve rage a nd c omp le te l i nkage m e thod s w e re u sed t o s e e i fc omp le te l i nkage , k nown t o p roduce

w i th f unc t iona l s i gn if icance , a nd c l u s te r o b jec t s b a sed o n t h e se . F unc t iona l a t t r ibu te s w e re c ho sen b ecau se o f

e x t reme ly s phe r ica l c l u s te r c o re s , c ou ld f o rce e ven s ma l l c l u s te r s t h a ta ppea red r e a l .

s u sp ic ion t h a t ( a ) t h e se a r t if ac t s a r e h i gh ly c on s t ra ined b y t h e n eed f o r t h em t o f unc t ion w e l l ; ( b ) t h e re a ppea r t o b e f ew d e l ibe ra te s t y l i s t ic a t t r ibu te s ; a nd , ( c ) t h e re i ss u ff i c ien t p r io r r e sea r ch a nd e t hnog raph ic m a te r ia lt os ugge s t ad ef en s ib le s e t o f a t t r ibu te s . T he re fo re , i fa ny s pec ia l p u rpo se c l u s t e r ing

R e su l t sa nd d i scu s s ion I tw a s h oped t h a tr e duc t ion o ft h e r a nge e f f ec t , c oup led w i th t h e u s e o f c omp le te l i nkage , w ou ld i s o la te c l u s te r s .

I n i t ia l

a s se s smen t o f t h e d end rog ram s s howed s ome s t rong , w e l l d ef ined c l u s t e r s o f a r t if ac t s , w h i le o t he r a r t if ac t s f l oa ted i n t h e g ap s b e tween t h e se c l u s te r s . When t h e a r t if a c t s w e re

p rocedu re i sp roduc t ive , i ti sl i ke ly t ob e b a sed o n f unc t iona l

m a tch ed w i th t h e i rp l ace o n t h e d end rog ram , h oweve r , i tw a s f o und t h a te ven t h e s t rong c l u s te r s m ade n o s en se i n tu i t ive ly .

T he f o l low ing e l even f unc t iona l a t t r ibu te sw e re c ho sen .

Mo s t o f t h i s s ub jec t ive r e ac t ion w a s t o t h e p a i r ing o f l a rge a nd s ma l l a r t if a c t s , w hen i tw a s a ppa ren t t h a t t h e re w e re m any c l o se ri ns i ze ,a nd q ua l i ty , t of u se w i th . T h i ss u rp r i s ing r e su l t , e v iden t i n b o th t h e c omp le te ( Mack ie 1 992 :f ig 6 . 2 )

1 .

a t t r ibu te s .

VAP : P r ima ry B eve l A ng le .

D ick son ( 1981) h a s

d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e p r ima ry b eve l a ng le i s c r i t ica l i n s epa ra t ing d i f f e ren t f unc t ion s f o r A u s t ra l ian s t one a xe s . A dm i t ted ly , t h e se h ave a s omewha t d i f f e ren t f o rm a nd u s e -

a nd a ve rage ( Ma ck ie 1 992 :f ig 6 . 3 ) l i nkage d end rog ram s , c an b e m o s t r e ad i ly e xp la ined b y a n o ver compen sa t ion a ga in s t

p rof i le t h an t h es t udy c o l lec t ion a r t if ac t s .

s i ze b ecau se o ft h e l o ga r i thm ic t r an sfo rma t ion .

2 . VBF : D eg ree o f b eve l s kew , o r s ymme t ry .

D if f e rence s

T h is i sa n

o bv iou s f e a tu re o f t h e c e l t s w h ich a ppea r s t o h ave s ome r e la t ion t o f u nc t ion . B e s t ( 1977 ) h a s e xpe r im en ta l ly d emon s t ra ted t h a t d eg ree o f b eve l s kew ( t he c on t inuum b e tween s ymme t r ica l b i f ac ia l b eve l l ing a nd u n if a c ia l b eve l l ing ) i s am a jo rf unc t iona l c on s t ra in tf o r Mao r i a dze s . I t

o f3 0 mm , f o re xamp le , w e re m in im ized i nt h ec en t ra l p a r t o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion b ecau se t h e r a nge w a s c omp re s sed . T he f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o f m o s t o f t h e v a r iab le s w a s m o re r e s i s tan t t ol o ga r i thm ic n o rma l iza t ion t h an e xpec ted , a nd s o s t i l l c on ta ined o u t l ie r s . T he se o u t l ie r s h ad a s ub s tan t ia l e f f ec t , k eep ing t h e c en t ra l p a r t o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion m o re c omp res sed t h an e ve r ,a nd s os i ze d if e rence s w e re t r iv ia l ized

i sn o ted b y a tl e a s t o ne e t hnog raphe r , Twana c h ise l s w e re u n i la te ra l ly ( un if a c ia l ly ) b eve l led ( E lmendo r f 1 960 :177 ) .

w h i le s hape d i f f e rence s w e re e mpha s ized . L oga r i thm ic t r an sf orma t ion o f m e t r ic c o lumn s , a l o g ica l a t temp t a t o ve r com ing a p e rce ived w eakne s s o f G owe r ' s C oeff ic ien t ,

A l so , a tl e a s t o ne s t udy a r ea c e l t t y po logy ( Bu r ley 1 989 ) i s b a sed o nb eve l s kew .

w a s af a i lu re .

3 . UPO : P o l l b a t te r ing . N o e t hnog raph ic r e f e rence s s uppo r t t h e i n c lu s ion o f t h i s a t t r ibu te , b u t i t i s a r e a sonab ly u namb iguou s i n d ica to r o f w he the r t h e c e l t w a s e ve r u sed u nha f ted , w i th l i t t le o r n o p o l l p ro tec t ion . T he p r ec i se f unc t ion i mp l ied i sn o t c l ea r , b u t i ti sr e a sonab le t o a s sume

D i scu s s ion o ft he A t temp ta tG enera lP urpo se C la s s if ica t ion T h i s m a thema t ica l a t temp t t o p roduce m ean ing fu l , d e sc r ip t ive , g ene ra l -pu rpo se c l u s te r s b a sed o n a l l m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s w a s u n succe s sfu l . T he i mp re s s ion w a s g a ined o f ad a ta se t w i th v e ry l i t t le i n he ren t s t ruc tu re . B ecau se o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e r e semb lance m a t r ix ( non p o s i t ive s em i -def in i te , b a sed o n s ome q ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s ) ,

t h a te i the r ac h i se l l ing o rw edg ing a c t ion i s mo s tl i ke ly . 4 . LCL : L eng th a l ong t h e c en t re l i ne . L eng th i s ag ood i n d ica to r o f o ve ra l l s i ze , w h ich i s af unc t iona l c on s t ra in t : g ro s sd i f f e rence s i nl e ng th mu s th ave i mp l ica t ion f o r f unc t ion o rh a f t ing m e thod . V e ry l o ng o ne s a r e u n l ike ly t ob e h af t ed

l o g ica l s t ep s o ne c ou ld t a ke t oc onf i rm t h e l a ck o f s t ruc tu re w e re m ade i mpo s s ib le . K -mean s c l u s te r ing , s c a l ing a nd

i na n t le rs l eeve s , f o re xamp le , a st o o much u n suppo r ted b l ade w ou ld i n c rea se t h e l i ke l ihood o f a t r an sve r se s nap , a s i n d ica ted i n o t he r t o o l c l a s se s ( e .g . , G r ime s a nd G r im e s

o r d ina t ion m e thod s w e re t h u s n o t a pp l ied . ( I n a ny c a se , g ene ra l ly s peak ing , t h e se m e thod s r e qu i re s ome s o r to fg roup m embe r sh ip a s a n i n pu t ) . T he re i s n o w ay , o t he r t h an

1 985 ) .

r e pea ted f a i lu re , t o s how t h a t n o c l u s te r s e x i s t i n ag i ven 5 . WVC : W id th a tt h e b eve l c h in . W id th a tt h e b i t h a s b een s hown t o b e ag ood f unc t iona l d i scr im ina to r b y O 'Ha re ( 1 990 ) f o r I t a l ian N eo l i th ic g rounds tone c e l t s . W id th a tt h e b eve l c h in i su sed i n t h i s s t udy b ecau se i ti sv e ry h i gh ly c o r re la ted w i th t h e w id th a tt h e b i t , b u t i s mo re f r equen t ly a n i n tac td imen s ion . I ti sa l so l i ke ly t ob ec on s t ra ined b y h a f t ing m e thod .

d a ta se t . I tw a s d ec ided t h a t t h e b e s t a pp roach a tt h i s s t age w ou ld b e t oc hange t h e g oa l o f t h e t y po logy , a nd l im i t t h e i n c lu s ion o f a t t r ibu te s t o t h o se w h ich a r e d emon s t rab ly r e levan t t o ap a r t icu la r p u rpo se . T he m o s t o bv iou s o ft h e se a r e f u nc t iona l ly r e la ted a t t r ibu t e s .

6 . 3 5

WPO : W id th a t t h e p o l l .

T h is a t t r ibu te w a s c ho sen

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s i n to an a r row r a nge . Mo s tc e l t s w i l l s co re s omewhe re a r ound t h e h i ghe r l e ve l s o f s im i la r i ty o n a n a t t r ibu te b y a t t r ibu te

b ecau se t h e f r equency h i s tog ram o fa l l p o l l w id th s s how s a n a ppa ren tp ref e rence f o r an a r row r ange o fw id th s , f r om 2 5 t o 3 5 m i l l ime t re s . T h i s m igh t i n d ica te s ome c on s t ra in t s

b a s i s . O n ly t h o se c e l t s w i th am e t r ic s co re c l o se t o ar a nge l im i t w i l l s c o re a s d i s s im i la r t o o t he r c e l t s mo re m ed ia l ly

i mpo sed b y h af t ing me thod , i n p a r t icu la r , b y a n t le r s l eeve h af t s w h ich m igh th ave h ad f unc t iona l s i gn if icance .

p l aced o n t h a t a t t r ibu te . T hu s , w hen t h e re a r e t wo o r t h ree a t t r ibu te s w h ich mu s t s co re a se i the r 0o r 1 ,i ti se a sy t os e e t h a t t h ey w i l l h ave a n u ndue i nf luence u pon t h e s umma ry S G f o r e ach c e l t . T h i s w ou ld n o t b e ap rob lem i ft h e re w e re

7 . TVC : T h ickne ss a t t h e b eve l c h in . T h i s a t t r ibu te w a s i n c luded u nde rt h ea s sump t ion t h a tt h e r obu s tne s so f ac r uc ia l u se -s t r e s sed a r ea mu s t b e o f s ome f u nc t iona l r e levance . A l so , i tw a s d e s i red t o h ave t h e t h ree m a in d imen s ion s

s t rong m e t r ica l ly d ef ined c l u s te r s , w h ich w ou ld r e s i s t t h e s way ing e f f ec to ft h e q ua l i ta t ive s co r e s . Wi th n o s uch r obu s t c l u s te r s p r e sen t , t h e c l u s te r s a cc re te a r ound t h e q ua l i ta t ive 0 a nd 1s co re s .

r ep re sen ted i nt h ef unc t iona l a na lys i s . 8 . VAS : S econda ry b eve l a ng le . T he p r e sence o f af a ce ted b i t ma rg in a l te r s t h e a c tua l c u t t ing e dge a ng le a nd a f f ec t s t h e s t reng th o f t h e

e dge .

FURTHER ATTE MPTS TO D ISCOVER CLUSTERS

B o th o f t h e se a r e l i ke ly f u nc t iona l

a t t r ibu te s . A s af u r the rc heck o n t h ea ppa ren tl a ck o fi n he ren tc l u s t e r s i n t h e d a ta se t , t h e n on -func t iona l a t t r ibu te s ( t ho se u sed i n t h e g ene ra l p u rpo se c l u s te r ing p rocedu re m inu s t h e f unc t iona l

9 . B SP : B i t s hape i np lan . Whe the r ac e l th a s as t ra igh t a nd s qua re b i t o r ad eep ly c u rved b i t i s al i ke ly f u nc t iona l

a t t r ibu te s ) w e re u sed t od e sc r ibe t h e a r t if ac t s t ob e c l u s te red , u s ing a ve rage ( Mache 1 992 :f ig 6 . 6 ) a nd c omp le te l i nkage a l go r i thm s . T he d end rog ram s p roduced s howed n o w e l l d ef ined c l u s te r s , b u tr a the r ah omogenou s c o l lec t ion o f" l ong

a t t r ibu te ( Be s t 1 977 ; O 'Ha re 1 990 ; A rca s A s soc ia te s 1 986b ) . A ga in , i ti s d i ff icu l t t o a s sume w ha t f unc t ion w ou ld b e i mp l ied ,a nd t h e re i sn oe t hnog raph ic i n fo rma t ion . 1 0 . LWR : L eng th t o w id th r a t io . L ong b a r shaped c e l t s p robab ly h ad a d i f f e ren t u se p rof i le t h an f l a t , t a bu la r o ne s .

s t a lk s "j o ined a tv a ry ing d eg ree so fs im i la r i ty .

T h i s p ropo r t ion w a s c ho sen b ecau se i tg i ve s ag ood i n d ica to r o fs hape .

F ina l ly , i tw a s d ec ided , w i th m uch r eg re t c on s ide r ing t h e

1 . WTR : W id th t ot h ickne s s r a t io . T h i s w a s c ho sen f o rt h e

m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s ( LCL , WVC , WPO , TVC , T PO , VAP , GRM , BAC , LWR , WTR ) a nd o ne r anked q ua l i ta t ive

l a bou r i n ve s ted i n o pe ra t iona l iz ing G owe r ' s c oeff ic ien t , t o u se ad i f f e ren t r e semb lance c oeff ic ien t . Ad i sc re te g roup o f

s ame r e a son sa s LWR .

R e su l t sa nd d i scu s s ion o ft he s pec ia lp urpo se p rocedure

a t t r ibu te ( VBF ) w e re c ho sen . T he l a s t w a s t r ea ted a s q uan t i ta t ive f o r t h i s p rocedu re . A c on se rva t ive c l u s te r ing p rocedu re f r om S PSS -X w a s r un , u s ing o n ly t h e se a t t r ibu te s .

T he s amp le s i ze f o r t h e f unc t iona l ly m o t iva ted c l u s te r ing p rocedu re w a s 8 64 . Two ( 16% ) m i s s ing a t t r ibu t e s p e r

T he r e semb lance m a t r ix w a s c a lcu la ted u s ing E uc l idean d i s tance a nd a d end rog ram w a s c r ea ted u s ing t h e a ve rage

c ompa r i son w e re a l lowed . A r e semb lance m a t r ix w a s c a lcu la ted u s ing G owe r ' s c oeff ic ien t , a nd d end rog ram s w e re p roduced u s ing b o th a ve rage ( Mack ie 1 992 : f i g 6 . 4 ) a nd

( Mack ie 1 992 :f ig 6 . 6 ) , a nd c omp le te m e thod s . N o a r t if ac t s w i th m is s ing v a lue s w e re a ccep ted , a nd s o s amp le s i ze w a s s l igh t ly r e duced , t o7 57 . T he r e su l t ing d end rog ram s s howed o n ly w eak c l u s te r s , e xcep t f o r s ma l l g roup s o ft wo o rs eve ra l a r t if ac t s w h ich c l u s te r t i gh t ly . P lacemen t o f t h e a r t if a c t s i n t h e o rde rs ugge s ted b y t h ed end rog ram s howed t h a t " l ik e w a s p l aced w i th l i ke , " b u t t h a t t h e re w e re n o c l ea r d i v i s ion s

c omp le te ( Ma ck ie 1 992 :f ig 6 . 5 ) l i nkage . B o th d end rog ram s , b u t p a r t icu la r ly t h e l a t te r , c on ta ined o bv iou s , d i sc re te c l u s te r s . H oweve r , w hen t h e se c l u s te r s w e re i s o la ted , a nd t h e i n te rna l v a r ia t ion c hecked , a n u n su spec ted l a ck o f i n te rna l h omogene i ty w a s n o ted . P uzz l ing ly , t h e re a ppea red t o b e d up l ica t e

c l u s te r s :

l a rge ,

s ub jec t ive ly

c ohe s ive

b e tween t h eg roup s . T h i s i si mpo r tan tb ecau se i ts howed t h a t t h e a l go r i thm w o rked , b u t t h a t t h e c l u s te r s h ad v e ry " f uzzy " s i de s . T hu s , a n i n dependen t , " t r ied a nd t r ue " p rocedu re p roduced r e su l t s e s sen t ia l ly s im i la r t o t h o se o f t h e l e s s

c l u s te r s

s e emed t o h ave b ecome s ubd iv ided i n to t wo o r m o re s ubc lu s te r s , w h ich f u sed a t af a i r ly l ow l e ve l o f s im i la r i ty . When c l u s te r m embe r sh ip w a s b roken d own a t t r ibu te b y a t t r ibu te , i tw a s i mmed ia te ly c l ea r w ha t t h e p rob lem w a s : t h e t h ree q ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly d e te rm ined t h e

f am i l ia ra pp roa ch u s ing G owe r ' sc oeff ic ien t .

CONCLUSIONS

c l u s te r m embe r sh ips . T hu s , af a i r ly h omogeneou s c l u s te r i n t e rm s o f q uan t i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s w a s b roken d own i n to s ubc lu s te r s b a sed o n p re sence o r a b sence o f aq ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu t e . T he i n f e r red w ay i n w h ich t h i s h appen s i s a s

R epea ted f a i lu re s t o i s o la te c l u s te r s u s ing a v a r ie ty o f p rocedu re s i s n o t p roof t h a t n o c l u s te r s e x i s t . I t d oe s , h oweve r , s t rong ly s ugge s tt h e r e i sa tm o s t aw eak s t ruc tu re t o

f o l low s .

t h ed a ta .

I f t h e re i s af a i r ly p oo r ly d ef ined s t ruc tu re a mong s t t h e

T he c omb ined r e su l t s i n d ica te t h a t G owe r ' s c oeff ic ien t i s

q uan t i ta t ive v a r iab le s , t h en G owe r ' s c oeff ic ien t w i l l e f f ec t ive ly g rade s moo th ly a c ro s s i t s r ange . T he p r e sence o f af ew r a d ica l o u t l ie r s o n mo s t o f t h e m e t r ic d imen s ion s e xace rba te s t h i s f e a tu re , b y c omp re s s ing t h e v a lue s o f S G

u n su i tab le f o r a na ly s i s o fd a ta se t s w h ich h ave p oo r ly d ef ined m e t r ic c l u s t e r s . I n a n i n d i rec t w ay , b y i lu s t ra t ing t h e d i sp ropo r t iona te i nf luence s ome q ua l i ta t ive v a r iab le s h ad , G owe r ' s c oe ff i c ien t h e lped i d en t if y t h e w eak c l u s te r 3 6

R e su l t so ft h e C lus t er ing P rocedur e s s t ruc ture .

I t i s t h i s m a l leab le b ehav iou r o f t h e r e semb lance m a t r ix u nde r c hang ing s ubse t s o f a t t r ibu te s , a s m uch a s t h e a c tua l l a ck o f s t rong c l u s te r s , w h ich p o in ted t h e w ay t o an ew q ue s t ion : w ha tc ou ld a ccoun tf o r al a ck o fc l ea r c l u s te r ing i n af u nc t iona l ly c on s t ra ined , d e l ibe ra te ly s haped a r t if ac t c l a s s? T h i si sd i scu s sed a tl e ng th i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r .

3 7

C hap te r7

BACKGROUND TO TOOL USE -L IFE H ISTOR IES I NTRODUCT ION

m od if ied b ea ch p ebb le s ( l a rge ly f r om t h e Noo tkan a r ea ) , a nd m a s s ive , h eavy -du ty c e l t s , s ome w i th h af t ing g roove s ( ma in ly n o r th c oa s t ) . I no t he r w o rd s , t h e re i sm o re d i ve r s i ty a nd d i s t inc t ion o fc e l tt y pe s o n ac oa s t -w ide s ca le t h an w i th in

T he p rev iou s c hap te r s r e vea l t h e l a ck o f s u cce s s i nf i nd ing c ohe ren t g r oup s o fo b jec t s u s ing c l u s te r a na ly s i s . H oweve r ,

a ny o ne a r ea . T he v a s t m a jo r i ty o f t h e C oa s t S a l i sh c e l t s w ou ld b e c l a s s if ied i n as i ng le m a jo r t y pe i ft h e s cope o ft h e p ro jec t h ad b een b roade r , i n w h ich c a se t h e c l u s te r

c els a ppea r t o b e ac l a s s o f a r t if a c t s a menab le t o t h e f o rma t ion o ft y pe s : t h ey a r e t i gh t ly c on s t ra ined f u nc t iona l ly , t h ey a r e m ade w i th a h i gh ly c on t ro l lab le m anuf ac tu r ing t e chno logy , a nd a s m a in ly h af t ed t o o l s , t h ey s hou ld b e s ub jec ted t o s t anda rd iza t ion p re s su re ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , G r ime s a nd G r ime s 1 985 :40 ; J e ske 1 989 :36 -37 ) . T he l a ck o f s ucce s s i ni s o la t ing " em ic " t y pe s i sr a the r s u rp r i s ing , s o i ti s w o r thwh i le t o s pecu la te a bou t w ha t m igh t a c t a ga in s t t h e

m e thodo logy m ay w e l lh ave b een s ucce s sfu l . T he t h i rd p o s s ib i l i ty , t h a t s ome s y s tema t ic p roce s s h a s a c ted o n t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion t o r e duce t y po log ica l s t ruc tu re , i s d i scu s sed i nt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion s .

d i scove ry o r e x i s tence o f d i sc re te t y pe s w i th in t h e s t udy

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SYSTE MAT ICS AND HU MAN BEHAV IOR

c o l lec t ion . T he f i r s tp o s s ib i l i ty i st h a tt h e re a r e n ot y pe s , o r , r a the r , t h e re i so ne l a rge t y pe t ow h ich a l m embe r s o ft h es t udy c o l lec t ion

I n t h e b ackg round c hap te r o n a r chaeo log ica l s y s tema t ic s i t w a s n o ted t h a t m o s t e xp lana t ion s o f t y po log ica l v a r ia t ion

b e long . T h i s i su n l ike ly . T he o bv iou s c on t ro l t h a t s l ow g r ind ing g i ve s o ve r s hap ing , t h e c a ref u l s hap ing o f s ome

w e re f unc t iona l a nd s t y l is t ic . T he r e cogn i t ion o ft y pe s i st h e r e cogn i t ion o f s t anda rd iza t ion o f f o rm : t h e d eg ree o f t y po log ica l s t ruc tu re r e f lec t s t h e d eg ree o f s t anda rd iza t ion . Whe the r t h e s t anda rd iza t ion r e su l t s f r om f u nc t iona l c on s t ra in to rs t y l i s t ic c ho ice , i ti so f ten e xp la ined a st h er e su l t o fi n ten t iona lp a t te rned b ehav io r :

s pec imen s ,a nd t h et ime n ece s sa ry f o rf i nd ing a nd s hap ing t h e r a re a nd i n t rac tab le r aw m a te r ia l , s ugge s tt h a t t h e se w e re n o t e xped ien t ly m ade , c a re le s s ly f o rmed o r r e ad i ly d i sca rded t o o l s . T he o b se rved v a r ia t ion c anno t b e d ue t o s l oppy m anuf ac tu re o f as i ng le g roup o f f unc t iona l a nd s t y l i s t ic e qu iva len t s . S uppo s ing t h e re w e re o n ly o ne t y pe , t h en h uge d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e i d ea l f o rm m u s t h ave b een p e rm i t ted t o F o r e xamp le , t h e

T he i d ea o ft h ep rope rf o rm o fa no b jec t e x i s t s i nt h em ind o ft h em ake r , a nd w hen

l a rge s t c el i s3 20 t ime s t h e w e igh t o ft h e s ma l le s t , t h e e dge a ng le v a r ie s f r om 2 0 t o 9 0 d eg ree s , t h e b eve l c h in s a r e s haped i ns i x d i s t inc t w ay s , a nd s o o n . S o t h e re a r e l i ke ly s ome m ean ing fu l d i s t inc t ion s b e tween s ome a r t if a c t s , y e t t h i s w a s n o tt i d i ly e xpo sed b y t h ec l u s te ra na ly s i s .

t h i si d ea i se xp re s sed i nt a ng ib le f o rm i n r aw m a te r ia l , a na r t if ac tr e su l t s . T he i d ea i st h em en ta lt emp la te f r om w h ich t h e c r a f t sman m ake st h eo b jec t . T he f o rm o f a n a r t if ac ti s ac l o se a pp rox ima t ion o ft h i s

c r ea te t h e o b se rved r ange o f v a r ia t ion .

t emp la te , a nd v a r ia t ion s i n ag roup o f s im i la ro b jec t sr e f lec tv a r ia t ion i nt h e i d ea s w h ich p roduce t h em ( Dee tz 1 967 :45 -46 ) .

T h is i n t roduce s t h e s e cond p o s s ib i l i ty : t h a t i n he ren t t y pe s e x i s t , a nd a wa i t d i scove ry , b u t w e re n o t f o und b ecau se o f i n adequa t e m e thodo logy . F o r e xamp le , t h e c l u s t e r m e thod s m ay h ave b een i n app rop r ia t e , t h e a t t r ibu te s c ho sen m ay h ave

B u t , t h e s hape o f a n a r t if a c t d oe s n o t s o le ly d epend o n t h e g r ea te r o r l e s se r d eg ree o f a ch ievemen t o f t h e m en ta l

b een i n e s sen t ia l o r p oo r ly c oded , o r t h e s ub jec t ive c l u s te r i d en t if ica t ion m ay h ave b een b ad ly t h ough t o u t . T he n u l l h ypo the s i s o f " no t y pe s " c an n eve r b e p roven , o n ly f a l s if ied

t emp la te , a l though t h i s m ay w e l l b e a n i mpo r tan td e te rm inan t o ft y po log ica l s t ruc tu re . R ecen t ly , s ome i n te res th a s c en te red o n t h e c au se s o f v a r iab i l i ty b e tween a r t if ac t s w i th in ac l a s s . T he se c an b e o t he r t h an r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e d eg ree o f a ch ievemen t o f a n i d ea l , o r a n i n ev i tab le r e su l t o f r e la t ive c on t ro l o ve r t h e m anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s ( Dee tz 1 967 :48 -49 ) . B roade r c u l tu ra l b ehav io r r e a lm s c an p roduce n on s ty l is t ic , n on -func t iona l v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a n a r t if ac t c l a s s a s a n u n in t en t iona l b yp roduc t :

b y t h e d i scover y a nd e xp lana t ion o f t y pe s . T he p l iab le r e semb lance m a t r ix , a b le t o b e d om ina t ed b y a f ew d i cho tomou s v a r iab le s , a l so a r gue s a ga in s t t h e re b e ing u nd iscove red r obu s t t y pe s . T he c omp rehen s ive , r i go rou s a pp l ica t ion o f h i e ra rch ica l c l u s te r a na ly s i s f a i led t od o t h i s , a nd t h is r e su l t o fl ow o r n o t y po log ica l s t ruc tu r e i sp robab ly r e a l .

H uman b ehav io rc l ea r ly d oe s n o tc on s i s t

I n c iden ta l ly , h ad t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion e ncompa s sed a l c u l tu ra l a r ea s o f t h e N o r thwe s t c oa s t , i ti sv e ry l i ke ly t h a t s eve ra l d i s t inc tt y pe s w ou ld h ave b een e xpo sed , o ne o fw h ich

o n ly o ft h ep roduc t ion o ff i n ished o b jec t s w i th s t y l i s t ic o rf unc t iona l s i gn if icance . T h i si se spec ia l ly t r ue w i th l i t h ic m a te r ia l s , w h ich c an b er emod if ied c on t inuou s ly a nd r epea ted ly.. .( Ro l land a nd D ibb le 1 990 :482 ) .

w ou ld b e " t abu la rn eph r i t e c e l l s m ade b y s aw ing , f l ak ing a nd g r ind ing " , f ound m a in ly f r om t h e C oa s t S a l i sh a r ea . O the r t y pe s m igh t h ave b een f l aked a nd g r ound r ound s ided g , r een s tone c e l t s ( mo s t ly c en t ra l c oa s t ) , g round a nd f l aked 3 9

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s t o o l ' s b ehav io ra l e nv i ronmen t a nd u se l i f e , a nd d i s t ingu i sh t h i s f r om " a r chaeo log ica l c on t ex t " ( Sch if f e r 1 987 ) . Mo s t o f

V a r iab i l i ty w i th in f l aked s t one a r t if a c t c l a s se s h a s b een d emon s t ra ted t o b e as i de -ef f ec t o f b r eakage a nd r e pa i r p roce s se s ( e .g . , T owne r a nd Wa rbu r ton 1 990 ) ; o f r ou t ine m a in tenance a nd r e sha rpen ing o f d u l led t oo l s ( e .g . , D ibb le

t h e se s t ud ie s w o rk w i th e x i s t ing a r t if ac t t y pe s , w he rea s C oa s t S a l i shan c e l t s h ave n eve r b een c l a s s i f ied i n to a w ide ly a ccep ted t y po logy . H oweve r , o ne p r ev iou s l i f e -cyc le

1 988 ) ; o f i n i t ia l b l ank m o rpho logy ( Kuhn 1 992 ) ; o f t h r if t ine s s a nd e conomy o f u se o f s c a rce r aw m a te r ia l ( e .g . , R o l land 1 981) ; o r o f s ome c omb ina t ion o f t h e se a nd o t he r c u l tu ra l p roce s se s ( e .g . , R o l land a nd D ibb le 1 990 ) . F laked

a na ly s i si sp a r t icu la r ly r e levan t . " F lake shave r s " a r e , l i ke c e l t s , ap rev iou s ly u nc la s s if ied , e l onga te h af t ed w oodwo rk ing t o o l w i th u se c oncen t ra ted a t

s t one a r t if ac t s o f ten f o s s i l ize a m anuf ac tu r ing a nd u se l if e , w he rea s r e sha rpen ing e ven t s i n g round s t one t e nd n o t t o

o ne e nd ( G r ime s a nd G r ime s 1 985 ) . U n l ik e c e l t s , t h ey a r e m ade o n l o ng f l ake s s e lec ted f r om l i t h ic d eb i tage , a nd s o

l e ave c umu la t ive t r ace so nt h eb ody o ft h et oo l .

l a bou r i n ve s tmen t a nd r aw m a te r ia l c on s t ra in t s w e re n o t p a r t icu la r ly h i gh ( G r ime s a nd G r ime s 1 985 :41) . Two k i nd s

T he o b se rved m o rpho logy o f as i ng le a r chaeo log ica l a r t if ac t i st h er e su l to fm any f a c to r s , i n c lud ing :

o f mo rpho log ica l c hange f l ake shave rw e re i n f e r red .

( a ) T he a c tua l f o rm w hen n ew , i . e . , t h e i d ea l f unc t iona l a nd s t y l i s t ic f o rm , s ubve r ted b y t h e c on s t ra in t s o fs k i l l , t e chn ique

o ve r

t h e

u se -h is to ry

o f t h e

1 . G radua l m o rpho log ica l c hange o ccu r red m a in ly a s t h e r e su l t o f b i t a t t r i t ion t h rough u se . B i t a t t r i t ion t h rough r e sha rpen ing w a s n o t d emon s t ra ted , b u t w a s c on s ide red

a nd m a te r ia l . ( b ) T he i n i t ia l f o rm i d io sync ra t ica l ly ( b u t , a t ag roup l e ve l , p red ic tab ly ) a l te red b y t h e e x igenc ie s o f t h e t o o l ' s u se l if e .

l i ke ly ( G r ime sa nd G r ime s 1 985 :41) .

T he u s e l i f e i s ac on t inuou s p roce s s , t h e i n ten s i ty a nd l e ng th o fw h ich i sd e te rm ined b y s uch f a c to r s a st h e " va lue " o ft h e t o o l , t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l , a nd t h e t a sk s t ow h ich

2 . E p i sod ic mo rpho log ica l c hange o ccu r red m a in ly a s t h e r e su l t o fb r eakage . S ome b r eak s w e re t e rm ina l , a nd r e su l ted i nd i sca rd o rr e cyc l ing i n to o t he r u se s . O the r b reak s a lowed r e touch ing t oa n a pp rop r ia te s hape f o ru se a s af l ake shave rt o

t h et o o li sp u t .

c on t inue . ( c ) T he a c t ive u se l if ee nd s w hen t h et o o lp e rmanen t ly e n te r s t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd , b u td e te r io ra t ion i nt h e g round w i l l

T he se t wo k i nd s o f mo rpho log ica l c hange , a nd t h e r e su l tan t e f f ec t s o n d i sca rd p roce s s a nd r e cyc l ing , a r e s a id t o b e

a l so i nf luence t h e mo rpho logy .

i nf luenced b y b ehav io ra l v a r iab le s i n c lud ing a n t ic ipa t ed f u tu re n eed s a nd r e p lacemen t c o s t s ( G r ime s a nd G r ime s

O bv iou s ly , n o s i ng le t y po logy c an a dequa te ly d e sc r ibe t h e v a r iab le r e su l t s o f t h e se " behav io ra l p a thway s " ( Sch if f e r

1 985 :41-44 ) . T hey t e rm t h i s i n f e r red s e t o f s i tua t iona l b ehav io r s a" l i f e -cyc le m ode l , " d i ag rammed a s af l ow c ha r t

1 987 ) :

( G r ime s a nd G r ime s 1 985 :4 1 ,51) . T he g oa l o fa r chaeo logy i sn o tt oa ccoun t f o rt h et ypo log ica l ly d ef ined c on t ra s t s

Mo s ti mpor tan t , t h ee f f ec to ft o o l u se l if e h i s tory o n t y po logy i se xp l ic i t ly r e cogn ized :

b e tween a s semb lage s ,b u tt og a in i n s igh t i n to t h eb ehav io ro fp r eh i s to r ic h om in id s ( Kuhn 1 992 :126 ) .

p reh i s to r ic b ehav io r , b u t i t c an a l so h inde r s u ch u nde r s tand ing b y i mpo s ing s t a t ic t h ink ing . T h i s c an t a ke t h e f o rm o fv i ew ing t h e u n i t s o f a na ly s i s f r om ap a leon to log ica l

...w eh ave r e f ra ined f r om r e f e r r ing t o f l ake shave r s a s a" t ype " i nt h et e rm ' su sua l m ean ing . Wha tw eh ave d e sc r ibed i s n e i the r[ a ni mpo sed t y pe ] , s i nce i ti sa c a tego ry o fp re sumed c u l tu ra l s i gn if icance , n o ri si ta" d i scove red " t y pe , t ot h ee x ten t

p e r spec t ive , i . e . , a s i mmu tab le , n a tu ra l c l a sse s ( Ro l land a nd D ibb le 1 991 :480 ) . T h i s i g no re s t h e b ehav io ra l p roce s se s w h ich g i ve r i se t oa n a r t i f a c t , g ove rn t h ec ond i t ion s o fi t su se ,

t h a tt h e l a t te ri mp l ie s k now ledge o fa s pec if ic m en ta lt emp la te . I n s tead w e w ou ld s ugge s tt h a tt h et e rm " f lake shave r s " b e

a nd a ccoun t f o r i t s e ven tua l d i spo sa l i n to t h e a r chaeo log ica l

r e ga rded a s ad e s igna t ion f o r ah ypo the t ica l

r e co rd .

b ehav iora lt y pe w h ich w ed ef ine a s as e to f i n t e r re la ted t e chno log ica l b ehav io ra l p a thways , i n tended t of u lf i l l ap a r t icu la r n eed , a nd t h e i ra r t if ac tua lc o r re la te s , p a s t a nd p re sen t [ empha s i si no r ig ina l ] ( G r ime s

T ypo logy c an a i d i n r e con s t ruc t ing d ynam ic p roce s se s o f

E f f ec t ive ly , i ti s a s t h ough p a leon to log is t s w e re

u nawa re o f o n togeny , e co logy o r s e xua l d imo rph i sm , a nd t h en t r i ed t or e c rea te p a s t e nv i ronmen t s w i thou tk now ing t h a t e gg s h a tch , f i sh s w im , o rm a le s e a l ion s a r e l a rge r t h an t h e i r f ema le c oun te rpa r t s .

a nd G r ime s 1 985 :44 ) . Many o ft h e se p roce s se s h ave b een a b s t rac t ly f o rma l ized f o r a r chaeo log ica l p u rpo se s i nM ichae l S ch i f f e r ' s ( 1976 , 1 987 ) a na ly se s o f s i te f o rma t ion , o r i nr e la ted a t temp t s t o e xp la in t h e f r equency o f s ome t o o l c l a s se s w i th in a n a s semb lage ( e .g . , Amme rman a nd F e ldman 1 974 ; S ho t t 1 989 ) . T he se a na ly se s u se t h e c oncep t o f " s y s tem ic c on tex t " t od e sc r ibe a

T he l i f e -cyc le m ode l f o r c e l t s w h ich i sp r e sen ted b e low a nd i ns ub sequen tc hap te r s w a s i n dependen t ly i n f e r red , b u t s ha re s s ome k ey f e a tu re s o fG r ime sa nd G r ime s 'a na lys i s .

4 0

B ackground t oT oo l U se -L if eH i s tor ies

USE -L IFE H ISTORY OF CELTS

a t t r i t ion o r d i sappea r s t h rough b reakage , t h e t o o l m ay e n te r t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he refo re , t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l c on ta in s c e l t s f r om a l s t age s o ft h e i r u se l if e , b u t mo re e xhau s ted o ne s t h an " new " o ne s . ( 8 ) T he e nd r e su l t i st h e b l u r r ing o fa ny d i sc re te t y pe s t h a t m ay h ave

T he re a r e t wo p r em ise s o ft h is u se l if e m ode l f o rc e l t s w h ich mu s t b e , a nd c an b e , s uppo r ted b y e t hnog raph ic a nd o t he r e v idence . T he se a r e :

e x i s ted w hen t h ec e l t s w e re n ew ly m ade . 1 .T he r aw m a te r ia l s u i tab le f o rg round s t one c e l t sh ad v a lue . F igu re s7 . 1 a nd 7 . 2 s chema t ica l ly i lu s t ra te t h es ugge s ted l i f e 2 . Mak ing a c e l t f r om s u i tab le r aw m a te r ia l a dded mo re v a lue t ot h er aw m a ter ia lt h rough l a bou ri n ve s tmen t .

c yc le f o rc e l t s o ft wo b a s ic b ody -p lan s : t h e " adze " ( f la t c r o s s s e c t ion , s kewed b eve l ) a nd t h e " ch i se l " ( s qua r i sh c r o s s s e c t ion , s ymme t r ica l b eve l ) . P la te s 7 . 1 a nd 7 . 2 . i lu s t ra te a c tua l s pec imen sa pp rop r ia te ly p la ced w i th in au se l if ec yc le .

T he se p rem i se s w i l l b e d i scu s sed a t l e ng th i n t h e n ex t c hap te r . T he s ugge s ted u se l if e t r a jec to ry o f c e l t s w i l l b e d e sc r ibed i n t h e c hap te r s ub sequen t t o t h a t . F o r o r ien t ing p u rpo se s , as k e le ton o ft h el i f e -cyc le m ode l i sa sf o l low s .

THE NEED FOR AN EXPER I MENTAL PROGRA M

T h rough n o rma l u se , ac e l t w i l l b ecome d u l l a nd i n ef i c ien t , a nd r egu la r r e sha rpen ing w i l l b e n ece s sa ry . A t e ach r e sha rpen ing t h e c e l t w i l l c hange s hape a nd s i ze s l igh t ly : i t

W i thou td i rec to b se rva t ion o ft h e l i f eu se -h i s to ry o f ac e l ti ti s

w i l lb es ho r te r , a nd t h el e ng th t ow id th r a t io w i l l b el owe r . I f i tt a pe r s f r om t h e b i t t ot h e p o l l i ne i the r t h ickne s s o r w id th , t h e se s i ze sa nd r a t io s w i l l a l so c hange . T he se c hange s w i l l b e g radua l , b u tt h e re w i l l a l so b e " s udden , " e p isod ic c hange .

f o l lowed b yu se u n t i l e xhau s t ion , w ou ld b e o fg r ea tb enef i t i n f o rmu la t ing s pec if ic p ropo s i t ion s w h ich c ou ld b e t e s ted

i mpo s s ib le t ob ec e r ta in w ha ta c tua l mo rpho log ica l c hange s i t w i l l u nde rgo . A n e xpe r imen ta l p rog ram o f m anu f ac tu re ,

a ga in s t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . E xpe r imen ta l p rog ram s a r e c ommon i n f l aked s t one s t ud ie s , i n w h ich t h e m anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s i sf a i r ly q u ick ( m inu te s p e r t o o l ) , a nd t h e e xped ien t ly p roduced l i t h ic d eb i tage i so f ten t h e f o cu s o f i n te re s t ( e .g . , Magne 1 985 ) . G round s t one e xpe r imen t s a r e m uch l e s s c ommon ly d one f o r av a r ie ty o fr e a son s , i n c lud ing t h e l e s s w ide sp read a r cha eo log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f g round

S qua r ed c o rne r s b reak o f fe a s i ly ( O lau s son 1 983 ) ; r eg r ind ing m ay p roduce r ounded o r i regu la r o ne s . I fo n ly o ne c o rne r b r eak s , as ymme t r ica l c e l tm ay b ecome a symme t r ica l . Ma jo r b reakage , s u ch a s at r an sve r se s nap o rb i t -co rne r d e s t ruc t ion , i sf a i r ly c ommon i n t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion . R epa i r o f l a rge f r agm en t s , m o re l i ke ly o n t h e m o re r e ad i ly u se fu l b i t e nd ,

s t one t oo l s , t h e g r ea te r a mb igu i ty o ft h e u se w ea r t r a ce s , a nd t h e a b sence o fd eb i tage a nd r educ t ion s t age s w h ich e nab le a f u l l p i c tu re o f m anuf ac tu re a nd u se t o b e i n f e r red d i rec t ly f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .

w i l l s i gna l am a jo r c hange i nm o rpho logy f o r t h e c e l t . S uch r e u se i sp robab le b ecau se o ft h e u ncommon , v a luab le n a tu re o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l , t h e l a bou r i n ve s tmen t s t i l l p r e sen t i na s haped f r agmen t , a nd t h e r e ady u se se ven f r agmen t s c ou ld b e p u t t o . A cco rd ing t oS ho t t ( 1989 ) at o o l w h ich i si ns t o rage a wa i t ing r e pa i r t o am a jo r b r eak i s a t i n c rea sed r i sk o f a cc iden ta l l o s s . E ven tua l ly , o f c ou r se , a l c e l t s n o t a l ready l o s tw i l l b ee xhau s ted o ri repa rab ly b roken a nd d i sca rded .

B ecau se

t h e

b eav iou ra l

mode l

s ugge s t s

m o rpho log ica l

c onve rgence f r om i n i t ia l m anuf ac tu r e t od i sca rd , as i gn if ican t n umbe ro fa r t if ac t s o fv a r iou s s i ze s a nd s hape s w ou ld h ave t o b e m anuf ac tu red . F o r t h e s ake o fa r gumen t , p r e sume t h a t5 0 g round s t one c e l t s w ou ld h ave t ob e made . I tw ou ld b e p r ef e rab le t o m anuf ac tu re t h e se i n at r ad i t iona l m anne r : t h e re m ay b e s t re s se s i n vo lved i nm anu f ac tu re t h a t c hange t h e i n teg r i ty o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l . O r , i n t r in s ic b yp roduc t s o f t r ad i t iona l m anuf ac tu re , s uch a s f r a c tu re r i dge s , m igh t t u rn o u t t ob e u sefu l h a f t ing a i d s o ro t he rw i se a f f ec t t h e u se o f t h e t o o l . A lso , a n a u then t ic m anuf ac tu r ing p rog ram w ou ld a i d d e te rm ina t ion o f t h e r e la t ive l a bou r i n ve s tmen t , w h ich h a s b ea r ing o n t h e u se l if e o ft h e a r t if ac t . Manu fac tu re o f5 0 n eph r i te c e l t s b y t r ad i t iona l m ean s c ou ld e a s i ly o ccupy 5 0f u l l d ay s .

T hu s , Ip ropo se t h e f o l low ing b ehav io ra l mode l o ft o o l u se l i f e : ( 1 ) T he c e l t s a r e p redom inan t ly m ade o f ar a re , l o ca l ized r aw m a te r ia l . ( 2 ) L abou r i n ve s tmen t a nd t ime i n p rocu r ing r aw ma te r ia l a nd m anu f ac tu r ing t h e c e l t s i s g ene ra l ly h i gh . ( 3 ) At o ugh r aw m a t e r ia l a nd ag r ound s t one c u t t ing e dge m ake f o ra n e f f ic ien t , d u rab le t o o l . T he i n he ren t v a lue o f t h e c e l t s w a s t h e u t i l i ty t h ey r e p re sen ted , a nd t h i s w a s l i ke ly t o b e max im ized b y l o ng t e rm u se a nd c a ref u l c u ra t ion . T he refo re , t h ey a r e n o t at o o l l i ke ly t ob ed i sca rded o r l o s t . ( 4 ) L ong t e rm u se w i l l h ave m ean t r epea ted r e sha rpen ing s , w h ich g radua l ly a nd p r ed ic tab ly c hange t h e s hape a nd s i ze o f t h e t o o l . ( 5 ) T he d emand ing t a sk s t h ey p e rf o rmed o ve r al o ng u se l if e w i l l a c t t o i n c rea se t h e l i ke l ihood o f e p i sod ic b r eakage , s a lvage g r ind ing o f w h ich

U se l if e w ou ld h ave t ob e m on i to red f r om " c rad le t og rave " , a nd t h e t a sk s m u s t b e r e a l i s t ic . S o , t h e a r t if ac t s w ou ld b e h a f ted i nt r ad i t iona l h a f t s , u sed t om ake t r ad i t iona l p roduc t s i n t h e t r ad i t iona l m anne r , a nd p e r iod ica l ly r e sha rpened o n s and s tone s l ab s . S ince e ach t oo l m igh t g o h ou r s b e tween r e sha rpen ing , a nd t h en o n ly b e r educed b y o ne o r t wo m i l l ime t re s , i tw ou ld t a ke d ay s o r w eek s t oe xhau s t as i ng le c e l t , a nd mon th s o ry ea r s t oe xhau s t t h e s amp le . T h i s i sa f te r w eek so fm anuf a c tu r ing .

w i l l c hange t h e s hape a nd s i ze o ft h e t o o l . ( 6 ) T oo l s w h ich b ecome t o o w o rn o u t o r b reak i repa rab ly m ay b e r e cyc led i n to o t he r t o o l t y pe s , o r m ay h ave t h e i r s hape d e l ibe ra te ly a l te red ( once o r p er iod ica l ly ) t or e f r e sh t h e i r u t i l i ty . S ome r e cyc l ing m e thod s a r e i n f e rab le , a nd c an b e c hecked a ga in s t t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion d a ta . ( 7 ) A t a ny p o in t i nt h e u se c yc le , b u tm o r ec ommon ly a st h eu t i l i ty o ft h ec e l td w ind le st h rough 4 1

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s F igure 7 . 1 S ugges ted u se l i fe c yc le f o r a n " adze " .

R esharpen ing r educes l eng th wh i le w id th a nd t h ickness r ema in c ons tan t .

" NE W '

" EXHAUSTED"

I fc e l tt oo s tubby f o r h a f tt hen b isec ted .

d

L :W r a t io h i ghe r a f ter u n i la tera l s awcu t .

T he e xhaus ted r emnan t i s mos t l i ke ly t o e n ter t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord .

X -Sec t ion a

> (-- --

Y

X -Sec t ion b> ry

P la te 7 . 1 . C e l ts c o r respond ing t of i gure 7 . 1. A scend ing , l ef tt o r i gh t : D hRs 1 2 :1 ; D hRx 2 :51; D gRs 1 :4580 ; D iR j 1 3 :1 ; D gRs 1 :2303 ; D hRp 1 :660 . C en t re r i gh t : D gRw 1 9 :25 . L owe r r i gh t , l e f tt o r i gh t : D jR i Y :255 1cs ; D gRs 4 :21 ; DR Y :214 ; D fRu 8 :4477 .

B ackground t oT oo l U se -L if eH i s tor ies F i gure 7 . 2 S ugges ted u se l i fe c yc le f o r a" ch ise l " .

P la te 7 .2 . C e l ts c or respond ing t oF i gure 7 .2 . A scend ing , l e f tt o r i gh t : D dRu Y :17 ; D cRv 1 :745 ; D cR t 8 :4 10 ; DR Y :16 ; D cRu Y :202 ; D cRu 2 :497 ; D cR t y :201 ; D gRw 4 : 3206 . R igh t C en t re , l ef tt o r i gh t : D hRx 1 6 :2183 ; D hR lm Y :1509 . R igh t L owe r , l ef tt o r i gh t : D eR t Y1 21 ; D hR lm Y :1294 ; D cRu Y :34 ; D dRu 1 :2 .

4 3

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s a lmo s t a ny s t reambed , m o ra ine o r b each , a nd m anuf a c tu re t a ke s m inu te s , a t mo s t . T hey w e re p robab ly n owhe re n ea r a s e ff ic ien to rd u rab le a s ag round s t one c e l t . T hey s hou ld h ave

I nt h e e nd , o ne w ou ld s t i l l b e l e f tw i th q u e s t ion s s u ch a s , w a s t h e c e l th a f ted i na n a pp rop r ia te m anne r? Wa s i tu s ed f o r a n a pp rop r ia te t a sk? We re t h e m echan ic s o f u se a pp rop r ia te , s uch t h a t w ea r a nd b reakage a r e c ompa rab le t o a r chaeo log ica l s pec imen s? Wha t e f f ec t d o t r ad i t iona l p a t te rn s o f r e newa l , l o s s a nd d i sca rd h ave o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ion? N a tu ra l ly , s hor tcu t s c ou ld b e

ar e la t ive ly l ow c o s t , al ow v a lue , a nd ah i gh r a te o fd i sca rd . O the r f l aked s t one a r t if ac t s w ho se f u nc t ion may o ve r lap s l igh t ly w i th g round s t one c e l t s a r e c o r tex s pa l l t o o l s , r e touched f l ake s , p i&e s e squ i l l6e s , a nd o t he r s imp le t y pe s . A l l o f t h e se a r e s im i la r i nu se l if e a nd f u nc t iona l p rof i le t o

t a ken . B u te ach s ho r tcu t( e .g . , r e p l ica t ion o fo n ly af ew , o ro f as i ng le t y pe o n ly , d i amond s aw m anu f ac tu re , u s e o f a n a u toma ted c hopp ing m a ch ine , h i r ing u n sk i l led l a bou r t o d o

p ebb le t o o l s .

t h e c hopp ing ) w ou ld r e duce t h e c onf idence i n t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined . T he u se l if e o f e ach i si d io sync ra t ic : o n ly i n a l a rge g roup d o p a t te rn s o fl i ke ly r e duc t ion b ecome a ppa ren t , a nd o n ly b y e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion o f as i gn if ican t n umbe r o fc e l t sc an t h e se p a t te rn sb er e p roduced

2 .

T he re a r e t wo m a te r ia l s a pa r t f r om s t one w h ich w e re

A l l t h a t i sl e f t , t h en , i sp r ed ic t ing i n ag ene ra l w ay t h e t r end a r e d e r ived f r om t h e b ehav io ra l m ode l o fu se , w h ich i t s e lf i s s uppo r ted b y t h e s c an ty e t hnog raph ic a nd e xpe r imen ta l e v idence . N eve r the le s s , i ft h em ode l i sa n a ccu ra te r ef lec t ion

Q u i leu te i s w e l l d e sc r ibed b y D en smo re ( 1939 ) . I t i s a ppa ren tt h a tt h ey r equ i re s ome e f fo r tt om ak e a nd s t o re ( t hey w e re s oaked i no i l w hen n o t i n u se ) , a nd t h a t t h e e l k b one f a vou red f o r t h e i r m anuf ac tu re i sn o t a lway s a va i lab le . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h i s a nd o t he r b one w ou ld b e ab y -p roduc t o f

o ft h e a c tua l b ehav io r s w h ich p roduced t h e o b se rved p a t te rn

as ub s i s tence a c t iv i ty , a nd s ot h e l a bou ri n ve s tmen ti nh un t ing

o fv a r ia t ion i nt h e s t udy c o l lec t ion , t h en t h a tv a r ia t ion s hou ld b e c on s i s ten t w i th t h e e xpec ted m o rpho log ica l c o r re la te s o f t h e b ehav io r . A s G r ime s a nd G r ime s ( 1985 :42 ) n o te w hen

a nd g r ind . I tm ake s as ha rp t oo l , r e a sonab ly d u rab le , b u t p robab ly o n ly u sefu l a s ac h ise l b ecau se t h e t e n s i le f o rce s

c ommon ly g r ound i n to w oodwo rk ing t o o l s : b one a nd s he l l . G round b one c h i se ls a r e af a i r ly c ommon a r t if ac t t y pe i nt h e s t udy a r ea ( Monk s 1 973 :47 ) . T he i r m anu f a c tu re a mong t h e

o fc hange o ve r t h e l i f e h i s to ry o ft h e t o o l . S uch p r ed ic t ion s

s hou ld n o t c oun t . B one i sf a i r ly s imp le a nd q u ick t os e c t ion

p roduced i nt h e a dze s t roke w ou ld p l ay a ga in s t t h e t e ndency o fb one t os p l i t . B one c h i se ls a r e a n a t t ra c t ive a l ter na t ive t o n eph r i te c h i se l s , p a r t icu la r ly i n a r ea s w i th l e s s a cce s s t o a s u i tab le l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l . T hey h ave b een r ep l ica ted a nd f ound t o b e e f ec t ive f o r a ng led " ch i se l " c u t s i n to c eda r ( A rca sA s soc ia te s 1 986b : 1 26 -130 ) .

f a c ing as im i la rp rob lem o fp o s th oc d educ t ion : ...w ed on o tp r ed ic tt h a to u rs amp le w i l l p r ec i se ly m a tch t h ee xpec ta t ion so fo u r mode l , ...b u tr a the rt h a tt h es amp le w i l l g enera l ly r ef lec tt h eb ehav io ra lp a thway s w eh ave p o s i ted [ empha s i s i no r ig ina l ] .

G round s he l l c h i se l s a r e c ommon ly k nown f r om s i te s o n t h e w e s t c oa s t o f V ancouve r I s land ( M i tche l l 1 990 ) a nd t h e c en t ra l c oa s t o f B r i t i sh C o lumb ia ( Hob le r 1 990 ) . T he

FUNCT IONAL ALTERNAT IVES TO CELTS

p ref e r red s h e l l w a s t h e C a l ifo rn ia m u s se l ( My t i lu s c a l if or r z ianu s ) , w h ich r e qu i res h i gh e ne rgy s ho re -f ron t s n o t c ommon ly f o und i n t h e s t udy a r ea . T hey a r e p re sen t a t s eve ra l s t udy a r ea s i te s ( M i tche l l 1 971 :143 -144 ) , a nd a r e

B efo re e s tab l i sh ing t h e n a tu re o ft h e r aw m a te r ia l a nd l a bou r i n ve s tmen ti ng round s t one c e l t s , a nd t h e s ub sequen t u s e l if e t r a jec to r ie s , i ti sw o r thwh i le t o n o te b r ief ly t h e a l ter na t ive t e chno log ie s a va i lab le . T he se f a l l i n to t wo g ene ra l t y pe s :

l i s ted a s ad i s t inc t ive f e a tu re o f t h e L oca rno B each c u l tu re t y pe ( M i tche l l 1 971 :57 ) , a l though Monk s ( 1 973 :23 ) t a bu la t e s t h e i r p r e sence a mong l a te r a s semb lage s . Mu s se l s he l l c e l t s

c e l t s m ade o ff l aked s t one , a nd c e l t s g round f r om s ome o t he r m a te r ia l .

h ave b een f o und t o b e mode ra te ly e f f ec t ive w hen u sed a s c h i se l s i n ar e p l ica t ion e xpe r imen t ; o t he ra pp l ica t ion s s u ch a s a dz ing w e re n o t a t temp ted ( A rca s A s so c ia te s 1 986b :130 1 32 ) . I n t h e se e xpe r imen t s , e ach o ft h e 5m u s se l s he l l c e l t s b roke i nl e s s t h an 2 0 m inu te s o f u se , p e rhap s b ecau se t h ey

1 . T he m o s t c ommon a r t if ac t f r om t h e C oa s t S a l i shan a r ea t h a t f a l l s i n to t h e f o rme r c a tego ry i s t h e p ebb le too l o r c obb le -choppe r . T he se a r e w a t e r -wo rn p ebb le s , u sua l ly h and s i zed o r s omewha t l a rge r , w h ich h ave h ad o ne o r s eve ra l l a rge f l ake s u n if ac ia l ly o r o cca s iona l ly b i f ac ia l ly d e ta ched . T hey a r e w ide sp read ( e s sen t ia l ly g l oba l i n d i s t r ibu t ion ) , c ommon i n e a r ly a s semb lage s f r om t h e c oa s t , a nd l e s s c ommon b u t p re sen t i nl a te r o ne s i n c lud ing t h o se c on ta in ing g round s t one c e l t s . T hey a r e p r e sumed t o h ave b een u sed u nha f ted a s c oa r se w oodwo rk ing t o o l s , b u t t h i s f u nc t ion i s n o t c e r ta in . I ti sp robab ly s a f e r t ot e rm t h em am u l t ipu rpo se t o o l , u sed f r equen t ly f o r w o rk ing w ood . Wh i le t h e i r

w e re n o t s oaked i n d ogf i sh o i l f o r t h e r e qu is i te t wo y ea r s p r io r t ou se . O the r r aw m a te r ia l s o ve r lap o n ly s l igh t ly i nu se w i th g round s t one c e l t s . T he se i n c lude a n t le r a nd w ood w edge s , a nd r oden ti n c i so r" ch ise l s . " I ng ene ra l , t h ea pp rop r ia te v a lue o f at o o lm u s tb ec on s ide r ed i nr e la t ion t ol a bou ri n ve s ted i ni t ,i t su t i l i ty , i t sc o s to f r e p lacemen t , a nd t ot h el a bou ri nve s tmen ta nd u t i l i ty o ft h e a l te rna t ive t e chno log ie sa va i lab le . When m e ta l t oo l sb ecame

t empo ra l , s pa t ia l a nd f u nc t iona l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s m ay o ve r lap w i th g round s t one c e l t s , i ti sd i ff icu l tt oi mag ine al e s s s im i la r s t one t o o l . T he i r r aw m a te r ia l -u sua l ly a n i g neou s r o ck o f m ed ium t of i ne g ra in , s u ch a sd i o r i te -i sr e ad i ly a va i lab le i n

a va i lab le , t h ey w e re v ery q u ick ly a dop ted ;b e f o re t h ey w e re a va i lab le , av a r ie ty o fo p t ion s w e re p u r sued .

4 4

Chap ter 8

RA W MATER IAL AND MANUFACTURE OF CELTS I NTRODUCT ION

d u rab i l i ty i se nhanced t h rough t h e e x t ra w o rk o f p o l i sh ing . I nm any o ft h e f i b rou s n eph r i te a nd s em i -neph r i te s pec imen s t h e re i s ad i s t inc t g ra in . S aw ing d own t h e g r a in , l e av ing e nd g ra in a t t h e c u t t ing e dge a nd p o l l , w ou ld l i ke ly b e a n a dvan tage : s aw ing i sq u icke r w hen a l igned t o t h e f i be r , a nd t h ee nd g r a in i t se lf c an b ec on s ide rab ly h a rde r( 1t o 2"Moh s " i n te rva l s )t h an t h ee dge g r a in ( Beck 1 981) .

T h i s c hap te r d i scu s se s t h e p hy s ica l n a tu re o f n eph r i te a s a r aw m a t e r ia l f o r mak ing g round s t one t o o l s , a nd i t s d i s t r ibu t ion r e la t ive t ot h e s t udy a r ea . I ta l so o u t l ine s m a jo r m e thods o fm anuf a c tu r ing n eph r i t e c e l t s i nt e rm s o f l a bou r i n ve s tmen t , t ime i n ve s tmen t , e conomy o f r aw m a te r ia l u se , a nd t h e r e su l t ing e f f ec t u pon t y po log ica l v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion . I th e lp s s uppo r t t h e t wo p r em i se s o f t h e

T oughne s s d e sc r ibe s t h e d eg ree t o w h ich t h e c ry s ta l s o f a m ine ra l , o r t h e m ine ra l m a c ro s t ruc tu re s , a r e t e na c iou s r e la t ive t oe a ch o t he r , a nd i st h e o ppo s i te o fb r i t t lene s s . I na q uan t i ta t ive t e s t o f t oughne s s , n eph r i te r e qu i red 2 26 ,000

u se l if e m ode l o u t l ined i nt h e p r eced ing c hap te r , a nd l a y s t h e g roundwo rk f o r t h e m o re d e ta i led e xpo s i t ion o f l i f e -cyc le h i s tory i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r .

e rg /cm 2 t of r a c tu re , c ompa red t o1 21 ,000 e r g / cm 2 f o rj ade i te a nd o n ly 4 , 320 e r g / cm 2 f o r q ua r t z i te ( Lea rn ing 1 978 :5 ) .

THE SUITABIL ITY OF THE RA W MATERIAL

Mo s t d e sc r ip t ion s o f t h e t o ughne s s o f n eph r i te a r e n o t q uan t i ta t ive , b u t a l l s t re s s t h e e x t reme t e nac i ty o f t h e ma te r ia l . F o re xamp le :

Mechan ica lp roper t ie so fn ephr i te D ef in i t ion o fs u i tab le r aw m a te r ia l f o r m anu f a c tu r ing g round s t one c e l t s i sd e term ined b y b a lanc ing t r adeof f s b e tween t h e

N eph r i te i s av e ry t o ugh r o ck . I tr e s is t s b r eakage t os uch a ne x ten tt h a ti tm ay b e

manu f ac tu r ing a nd m a in t enance c o s t s w i th t h e d u rab i l i ty b enef i t s . C a lcu la t ion o fs u ch c o s t s a nd b enef i t s i sc u l tu ra l o r s i tua t iona l , b u t mu s t l a rge ly s t em f r om t h ree f undamen ta l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l : h a rdne s s , r e s i s tance t o

i mpo s s ib le t ot a ke as amp le ...w i th a n 8 l b . s l edge h amme r... t h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue o fm o s tr ounded s t ream b ou lde r s

a b ra s ion ,a nd t oughne s s .

( Lea rn ing 1 978 :7 ) . N eph r i te i s , i n f a c t , s o h a rd a nd t o ugh t h a t i th a s b een c on s ide red a s a n a l te rna t ive f o r j ewe l s i nw a tch movemen t s a nd o t he rp rec i s ion b ea r ing s( F ra se r 1 972 :20 ) .

H a rdnes s i s t h e r e s i s tance a m a te r ia l h a s t o p l a s t ic d efo rma t ion o r t o c r u sh ing ( D ick son 1 981 :27 ) . L ea rn ing ( 1978 :7 ) r e po r t s t h a t n eph r i t e c an e xh ib i tc r u sh ing r e s i s tance u p t o 7 , 759 k g /cm2; a no the r s t udy d emon s t ra ted s u ch r e s is tance t of o rce o fu p t o 1 , 115 k g /mm 2 ( F ra se r 1 972 :48 ) . ( P re sumab ly t h ese f i gu re s s hou ld h ave b een e xp re s sed a s p res su re s : t h e a pp rop r ia te c onve r s ion s a r e 7 . 60*10 8 N ew ton s /m 2 a nd 1 . 09*10 1° New ton s /m 2 r e spec t ive ly ) .

I n m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion t h e n eph r i te i ss e en t o c on s i s t v e ry l a rge ly o f b und le s a nd s heave s o f m inu te f i b re s o f t r emo l i te i n te rg rown i n ah i gh ly c ha rac te r is t ic f e l t l ike t e x tu re ( Ho l land 1 962 : 1 2 1) . T h i s n eph r i t ic f a b r ic i sr e spon s ib le f o r t h e t o ughne s s o f n eph r i te . I tv a r ie s t h rough a r ange f r om

T he se a r e " c ru sh ing s t reng th s ...g r ea te rt h an s t ee l ( Lear n ing 1 978 :7 ) . " A h igh r e s i s tance t o c r u sh ing g i ve s t h e c u t t ing

a c t ino l i t ic a ngu la r c r y s ta l s , t h rough p a r t ia l ly f eled s em i n eph r i te , t of u l ly f e l ted n eph r i te ( Bra i l sfo rd 1 984 ; B rad te ta l . 1 973 ) .

e dge o f an ephr i te t o o lg r ea td u rab i l i ty . N eph r i t e s c o re s f r om 5 t o o ve r 7 o n t h e Moh s s c a le ,

S u i tab i l i ty o fn ephr i te f or g round s t one t oo l s

d epend ing o n t h e s amp le a nd t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e f i be r s ( F ra se r 1 972 , T u rne r 1 935 , L ea rn ing 1 978 ) . T he Moh s s c a le i s as l igh t ly m i s lead ing m ea su re o f h a rdne s s b ecau se t h e a ppa ren ts c ra tch m ade o n t h e m a t e r ia l m ay a c tua l ly r ep re sen t as e r ie s o f b roken c r y s ta l s , a nd s o m ea su re s s t reng th o f

Ar aw m a te r ia l m u s tb e b o th h a rd a nd t ough i no rde rt om ake ad u rab le s t one t o o l , b u t t h e h a rde r i ti st h e mo re r e s i s tan t i t w i l l b e t og r ind ing o rp eck ing , a nd t h e t o ughe r i ti st h e m o re d i ff icu l t i tw i l l b e t o r e duce i n to a s t anda rd s hape t h rough p e rcu s s ion . F o re xamp le , i tc an t a ke 3t ime s a sl o ng t og r ind

c rys ta l l ine b ond ing o r t e na c i ty ( L ea rn ing 1 978 :7 ) . T hu s s and s tone a nd f l in t a r e b o th s im i la r i nc r u sh ing h a rdne s s a t

q ua r tz i te r e g i s te r ing Moh s h a rdne s s 7t h an t h e s ame a moun t o f d i o r i te r eg i s te r ing Moh s h a rdne s s 6( D ick son 1 981 :106 1 07 , s e e a l so S emenov 1 964 :69 ) . Many m a te r ia l s a r e h a rd b u tb r i t t le , s uch a sf l in t , w h ich m ake s f l ak ing o ft h e ap r ef o rm aq u ick , l a bou r sav ing t a sk , b u tt h e i n he ren t b r i t t lene s s o ft h e f l in t i n c rea se s t h e l i ke l ihood o f f r equen t e dge c h ipp ing a nd mo re s e r iou s f a i lu re s , a nd s o m a in tenance t ime a nd r i sk a r e i n c rea sed ( O lau s son 1 983 ) . O r , am a te r ia l m ay b e t o ugh , y e t l a ck h a rdne s s o r b e u n re s i s tan t t o a b ra s ion , i n w h ich c a se e a se o f m anuf ac tu re i so f se t b y as ho r t l i f e span . N eph r i te

t h e c r y s ta l l e ve l , b u t t h e Moh s s c a le g i ve s a much l ow e r v a lue t o s a nds tone b ecau se i ti sf r iab le . N eve r the le s s t h e Moh s s c a le i s au sef u l m ea su re , f o r a b ra s ion o f t h e b i t w i l l i n crea se f r i c t ion a nd i n c rea se t h e l i ke l ihood o f b i t f a i lu re ( D ick son 1 981) . I n t h i s r e ga rd , t h e h i gh ly p o l i shed b i t s o f s o me c e l t s m ay b e w o r th t h e e x t ra e f f or t e xpended b ecau se p o l i shed n eph r i te h a s a g r ea t e r f unc t iona l h a rdne s s ( r es i s tance t o a b ra s ion ) t h an r o ugh n eph r i te ( Lea rn ing 1 978 :7 ) . P o l i shed b i t s w i l l t h u s b e l e s s l i ke ly t ob e s t r ia ted b ecau se t h ey a r e b o th s moo the r ( l e s s f r ic t ion ) a nd h a rde r , s o

h a s 4 5

a n

u nequa l led

c omb ina t ion

o f

Moh s

h a rdne s s ,

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s c omp re s s ive h a rdne s s ,a nd t e na c i ty .

T a lc C reek v i c in i ty a l so h a ss uch p o ten t ia l .

1 , 075 ( 7 3 .4% ) o ft h ec e l t s f r om t h es t udy c o l lec t ion a r e m ade o u to fr aw m a te r ia l c oded a sv a r ie t ie s o f" neph r i te , " a l though i ti sl i k e ly t h a ts ome o ft h es pec imen sa r ei nf a c ts e rpen t ine o r

A l though " g r een s tone " b ou lde r s a r er e po r ted f o rt h em ou th o f t h e " Noo t sack " ( Nook sack ) R ive r , o n t h e Wa sh ing ton S t a te c oa s t n ea r L umm i I s land ( Sm i th 1 900 :407 ) , a nd a r e s a id b y h im t o b e " common ly " d i s t r ibu ted i n av ague ly d ef ined c oa s ta l a r ea , Emmon s ( 1923 ) n o tes t h a t c oa s ta l b ou lde r s o r

s em i -neph r i t e . Af u r the r 1 58 ( 10 .8% ) o f t h e c e l t s a r e m ade o u t o f u n iden t if ied , u sua l ly e xo t ic r aw m a te r ia l , m uch o f w h ich i sl i ke ly n eph r i te o rs e rpen t ine . O n ly 2 31 ( 15 .8% ) a r e

c obb le s a r e a lway s w o rked , a nd p re sumab ly o r ig ina t e f r om t h e i n te r io r . Sm i th ' s N oo t sack r e fe rence i so ne o f o n ly t wo r e f e rence st on eph r i te s ou rce s o n t he s ou th c oa s to fB .C . T he

m ade o f r e la t ive ly c ommon , i d en t if iab le r aw m a te r ia l s s u ch a s s l a t e o r p o rphy ry . I den t if ica t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l w a s

o t he r i sa n u nconf i rmed " j ade q ua r ry " n ea r R am say A rm ,

h ampe red b y t h e v a r iou s p a t ina s , w ea the r ing s , r i nd s a nd p o l i she s n a tu ra l ly o ra r t if ic ia l ly p re sen t o n m any o ft h e c e l t s , a nd b y t h e v a r iou s c o lou r a nd s u r f ic ia l t r an sf o rma t ion s i n f e r red t ob et h er e su l to fh ea tt r ea tmen t . F o re xamp le , s ome

D e so la t ion S ound ( Ba rne t t 1 955 :108 ) . Mo s te a r ly r e f e rence s a c tua l ly s t re ss t h e r a re a nd c on s t ra ined n a tu re o f t h e m a te r ia l . D aw son , f o r e xamp le , s t a te s u nequ ivoca l ly t h a t t h ej ade i mp lemen t s f o und i nt h e s ou the rn

o ft h e c e l t sc oded a s" ba sa l t " m ay a c tua l ly b e b l ack p a t ina ted n eph r i te .

i n te r io r o fB .C . a l o r ig ina te f r om t h e L y t ton a r ea ( 1 891 :18 1 9 ) . P l ace r m in ing d u r ing t h e g o ld r u sh r e po r td ly u ncove red

D ISTR IBUTION OF NEPHR ITE RELATIVE TO THE S TUDY AREA

h und red s o fn eph r i te b ou lde r s i nt h e L y t ton -L i l looe ta r ea , b u t f ewe r d own s t ream t owa rd s H ope ( Emmon s 1 923 ) . N eph r i te c obb le s i n t h e F ra se r a nd C oqu iha l la r i ve r s n ea r H ope a r e p re sen t b u t u ncommon , t h e l i ke ly s ou r ce i sH ozameen F au l t , 1 0 m i le s u p s t ream o n t h e C oqu iha l la R ive r ; t h e re a r e a l so

T he n eph r i te a nd s e rpen t ine l i ke ly c ame f r om t h e o n ly m a jo r k nown s ou rce w i th in r e a sonab le d i s tance : t h e l owe r F ra se r R ive r , r e ache so fw h ich a r e i nt h ee x t reme e a s te rn e dge o ft h e s t udy a r ea .

r e po r ted s ou r ce s o fc obb le s a tS k ih is t ( Bo s ton B a r a r ea ) , a nd p e r iod ica l ly a l ong t h e F ra se r f r om C h i l l iwack ( r a r e ly ) t o

P ebb le s , c obb le s a nd b ou lde r s , r ang ing f r om a

t y p ica l 1 0 k i log ram s t oa n e x t r eme o f 1 0 t o nne s , w e re f a i r ly c ommon p r io rt ot h e 1 950 s a l ong t h e 1 25 m i le s o ft h e F ra se r R ive r n o r th o f H ope . B e tween 1 952 a nd 1 962 a bou t 1 35 ,000kg o f n eph r i te b ou lde r s w e re t a ken f r om t h i s s t re tch o fr i ve r , a nd f i nd s h ad b ecome much l e s s c ommon ( Ho l land 1 962 :119 ) . P r io r t ot h e 1 950 s t h e re w a s l i t t le i n te re s t i nt h e m ine ra l , a l though a n o f t r epea ted , u n sub s tan t ia ted s t o ry

L i l looe t ( Lea rn ing 1 978 :19 ) . T he c obb le s d ec rea se i n a ve rage s i ze a nd f r equency f r om L i l looe t d own s t ream ( Lear n ing 1 978 :21) . O cca s iona l n eph r i te c obb le s a nd b ou lde r s m ay h ave b een g l ac ia l ly t r an spor ted t o t h e c oa s t f r om t h e m id -F ra se r s ou rce , b u t i ti sv e ry l i ke ly t h ey w e re a lway s e x t reme ly u ncommon a nywhe re i nt h e s t udy a r ea w e s t o f t h e C oqu iha l la -F ra se r c on f luence .

r e la te s t h a t C h ine se p l ace r m ine r s d u r ing t h e g o ld r u sh e ncoun te red h und red s o f t h e se b ou lde r s a nd s h ipped t h em h om e ( Ho l land 1 962 :120 , L ea rn ing 1 978 :2 ) . T he re m ay b e s ome t r u th i n t h i s s t o ry a s Emmon s ( 1923 ,P la t e Ma ) i lu s t ra t e s a l a rge u t i l ized n eph r i te b ou lde r t h a t w a s d i scove red b y p l ace r m ine r s 1 2 f e e td own a n a luv ia l d epo s i t

t h es t udy a r ea .

VALUE OF THE CELTS AS I ND ICATED BY TRADE

n ea rY a le . Sm i th r e po r t s t h a t " t on s " o f g r een s tone b ou lde r s w e r e s e en a l ong t h e r i ve r a round L y t ton ( 1 899 :132 ) . P e t ro log ica l s t ud ie s i d en t if ied t h i s " g reen s tone " a s t r ue n eph r i te , a nd i n s ome c a se s , s e rpen t ine ( Sm i th 1 899 :131-132 ) . T he se t wo m ine ra l s f r equen t ly c o -occu r ( Lea rn ing 1 978 ) . A no the r

T he p r e sence o f n eph r i te a r t if a c t s t h roughou t t h e s t udy a r ea d e sp i t e t h e c on s t ra ined , r a re d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l s ugge s t s t r ade o f e i the r r aw m a te r ia l o rm anuf ac tu red c e l t s . T ho se c oa s ta l g roup s w h ich h i s to r ica l ly m ay h ave i n c luded t h e n eph r i te b ea r ing a r ea s i nt h e i r a nnua l r ound ( s uch a st h e N ana imo , C ow ichan , a nd S quam ish ) m igh th ave g a the red t h e

p e t ro log ica l s t udy o f f ou r s amp le s f r om t h e L y t ton a r ea d e te rm ined t h a t t h ey w e re a l l n eph r i te , a nd d i f f e red l i t t le i n c ompo s i t ion a nd p rope r t ie s f r om n eph r i te s f ound i nA la ska ,

r aw m a te r ia l t h em se lve s . N eve r the le s s , t h is d oe s n o t l e s sen t h e r e la t ive v a lue o f t h e m a te r ia l , d e sp i t e B info rd ' s ( 1 979 ) t h eo ry t h a t p rocu remen t e mbedded i nt h e a nnua l r ound w a s a c o s t e ff ic iency a nd t h u s s hou ld r e su l t i n " cheape r " r aw

A s ia , N ew Z ea land a nd Sw i tze r land ( Ha r r ing ton 1 890 ) . T he s ou rce w a s s a id t o b e t r ibu ta ry o f t h e F ra se r s ome m i le s a bove L y t ton ( Sm i th 1 899 :132 ) ; s eve ra l o u tc ropp ing s o f

m a t e r ia l .

n eph r i te h ave s i nce b een l o ca ted i nt h e B r idge R ive r v a l ley a nd o n t h e s l ope s o f S hu lap s P eak ( Ho l land 1 962 , L ea rn ing 1 978 ) . N eph r i te i sa l so r e por ted a tS pence s B r idge o n t h e T homp son ( Sm i th 1 900 :407 ) , a l though t h i s i s l i ke ly o n ly w o rked b ou lde r s o b ta ined f r om t h e F ra se r . Wh i le Emmon s ( 1923 ) s t a te s t h a t t h e T homp son -F ra se r a r ea i st h e s ou r ce o f a l j ade o n t h e s ou the rn c oa s t , t h e T homp son R ive r i t s e lf c anno t b e c onf i rmed a s a n eph r i te s ou r ce , a l though B onapa r te C reek ( n ea r C ache C reek ) h a s s u i tab le u l t ramaf ic r ock f o rma t ion s ( Lea rn ing 1 978 :20 ) .

T he re a r e n o k nown

c oa s ta l d epo s i t s o f u l t ramaf ic r ock w i th w h ich n eph r i te i s a lway s a s soc ia t ed ( Lea rn ing 1 978 :18 ) . F igu re 8 . 1 s how s k nown d epo s i t s o fn eph r i te o ru l t ramaf i c b od ies i nr e la t ion t o

Emmon s ( 1923 :14 ) r e po r t s t h a t " j ade i nb o th t h e r ough a nd f i n i shed s t a te w a s t h em o s tv a luab le a r t ic le o ft r ade p o s se s sed b y t h e n a t ive s " o ft h e L y t ton a r ea . T e i t , h oweve r , d oe s n o t i n c lude n eph r i te o rc e l t s i n al i s t o fi t em s t r aded t ot h e c oa s t b yt h eL i l looe t( Te i t 1 906 :232 ) .

T he H a r r i son L ake4 6

N eph r i te i sm o re l i ke ly t oh ave b een t r aded o u t o ft h e a r ea o f r e la t ive a bundance a l ong e s tab l ished t r ade r ou te s . O n t h e

R aw Ma t er ia la nd Manuf ac tur eo fC e l t s w ho le , t h e se d i d n o t p a s s t h rough t h e F ra se r C anyon , w h ich p ose s o bv iou s d i ff icu l t ie s t o t r an spo r t o f g ood s , i n c lud ing

r e g iona l s c a rc i ty o fn eph r i te , i ti sn o t l i ke ly s u ch av a lue w a s c u r ren t o n t h e s ou th c oa s t a l though B a rne t t ( 1955 :108 )

i mpa s sab le r a p ids a nd t r a i l s i n co rpo ra t ing c l if f s ide s c af fo ld ing . ( T rad i t iona l t r ade r ou te s w e re u sed b y t h e e a r ly f u r t r ade r s , b u t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e f u r t r ade f o r t s p robab ly d i s tor ted t h eo r ig ina l p a t te rn s ) . S om e g ood s , s uch a sc anoe s , w e re t r aded u p r ive r , b u t d i rec t t r ade r ou te s f r om t h e L i l looe t

r e co rd s as l ave b e ing t r aded f o r ah and -mau l . T he s ou rce f o r n o r the rn c oa s t j ade i s s ugge s ted t o b e e i the r N o r thwe s t A la ska o rt h eL owe rF ra se r ( Emmon s 1 923 ) , i tw ou ld a ppea r e qua l ly l i ke ly t o c ome f r om t h e a l luv ia l d epo s i t s n ea r t h e

R ive ra r ea t ot h ec oa s tw e re mo re l i k e ly t ob e d own H a r r i son L ake t o t h e F ra ser , a nd o n t o t h e D e l ta a nd t r ade f r om t h e L i l looe t -F ra se r a nd S e ton L ake a r ea w a s t o S quam i sh , a nd

h eadwa te r s o f t h e S t ik ine a nd S k eena R ive r s , n ea r D ea se L ake , a sd e sc r ibed b y L ea rn ing ( 1978 ) . C e r ta in ly t h e T l ing i t a nd T s im sh ian h ad t r ade n e two rk s t h a t e ncompa s sed t h e se d epo s i t s . Emmon s , i nt r ave l l ing t h i s a r ea e x ten s ive ly , r e po r t s

h ence d own H owe S ound , a s d e sc r ibed b y T e i t ( 1906 :232 ) . W ickw i re ( 1992 :74 ) s ugge s t s o n t h e b a s i s o fw eak e v idence

c e l t s ( 1 923 :13 ) .

s e e ing n o n eph r i t e b ou lde r s a nd n o te s as c a rc i ty o f n eph r i te

t h a t t h e m o s t l i ke ly r ou te f o r t r ade w a s u p t h e S t e in R ive r t o M t . C u r r ie , t oa vo id t h es caf f o ld ing o ft h eF ra se rC anyon . I n

I n s umma ry , c e l t s o r n eph r i te w e re p robab ly t r aded o r t r an spo r ted f r om a l o ca l ized a r ea o f a bundance t h roughou t

a ny c a se , t h e L i l looe t -F ra se r R ive r b and o fL i l looe t I nd ian s , w ho se t e r r i to ry e ncompa s sed t h e l owe r B r idge R ive r a nd s t re tche s o f t h e F ra se r R ive r ( Te i t 1 906 :201) p robab ly c on t ro l led t h e mo s t n eph r i te . T o r e a ch t h e c oa s t , t h i s

t h e s t udy a r ea . Wha teve r t h e m echan i sm s o ft h is movemen t o f g ood s , i ts e em s r e a sonab le t o s ugge s t t h a t e ve rywhe re n eph r i te w ou ld h ave h ad a tl e a s tm ode ra te v a lue , a nd t h a tt h i s v a lue w ou ld i n c rea se a cco rd ing t o t h e d i s tance f r om t h e s ou rce . T he u p r ive r H a lkome lem p robab ly h ad t h e g r ea te s t

n eph r i te w ou ld p robab ly h ave t ob e t r aded t h rough L i l looe t m idd lemen , o re l se c a r r ied d i rec t ly . O fc ou r se , c on s ide rab le n eph r i te r e sou rces w e re a cce s s ib le f r om t h e F ra se r i nC oa s t S a l i sh t e r r i to ry b e low Y a le .

a cce s s t o t h e m a te r ia l , b y v i r tue o f i t s n a tu ra l o ccu r rence w i th in t h e i r t e r r i to ry a nd w i th in T homp son a nd L i l looe t t e r r i to r ie s i mmed ia te ly u p r ive r . T he d own r ive r H a lkome lem p robab ly h ad l e s s a cce s s , n eed ing t ot r ade f o r t h e m a te r ia l , b u ts ome g roup s ( s uch a st h e S quam i sh ) w e re i nc l o se t r ad ing

O u t s ide t h e s t udy a r ea , a mong t h e T l ing i t a" j ade a dze -b lade t wo t o t h ree i n che s i nl e ng th " w a s w o r th f r om o ne t o t h ree s l ave s ( Emmon s 1 923 :18 ) .

T h i s h i gh v a lue m ay r e f lec t a

F igure 8 . 1 . K nown b od ies o fu l t rama f ic r ock a nd k nown s ources o fn eph r i te r e la t ive t ot he s t udy a rea . A f te r L ea rn ing 1 978 .

1 1 1 Tert ia ry r 77 Mesozo ic ic I n trus ives E E E Mesozo 1 2 '6•

C ass iar / / S e ment

t N e lson ,

M an , i

P a leozo ic

L : 3

P roterozo ic

o r

U l trama f ic B od ies T hrust F au lt

. 1 6-4 1 1 .

S tr ike F au lt o r t ,St . o hn

Geo log ica l C ontact N ephr i te

D awson C reek

P r ince* R uper t

/

Ca lga ry

M i les 1 00

0

1 00

2 00 4 9 "

1 00

0 1 00 2 00 3 00

+ N ephr ite -

K i lomet res S TUDY AREA

4 7

V ictor ia

B ear ing B e lt

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s

r e la t ion sh ip sw i th t h eL i l looe t . T he V ancouve rI s land g roup s

p e rcu s s ion , f o l lowed b yg r ind ing a nd s aw ing . T h i s m e thod i s l i ke ly t ob e u sed w hen r educ ing s ma l l c obb le s o rp ebb le s . I n

h ad e ven l e s s a cce s s , b u t t h e I s land H a lkome lem a r e e xpec ted t oh ave s l igh t ly mo re b y v i r tue o ft h e i r c l o se t i e s t o

t h e a u tho r ' s e xpe r ience , t h e re i s s ome r e s is tance a mong a r chaeo log i s t s t ot h e i d ea t h a t n eph r i te o r s e rpen t ine c an b e

t h e F ra se r H a lkome lem , a nd t h e i r f i sh ing r i gh t s w h ich t o ok

l a s t r e la t ion sh ip i sa r guab le , b u t w i l l b e u sed i n t h i s s t udy b ecau se m any o f t h e c e l t s f r om t h e n o r th g u lf a r e a c tua l ly

s haped b y p e rcu s s ion , a l though H an son ( 1970 ) e xp l ic i t ly d i scu s se s i t . G round s tone c e l t s a r e u sua l ly i n c luded i n a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage d e sc r ip t ion s u nde r t h e h ead ing " g round s t one " o r " s awn a nd g round s t one " , b u t n o t u nde r " f laked a nd g r ound s t one " . I ti st r ue t h a tc oncho ida l f r ac tu r e s a r e h i gh ly i mp robab le i nt h e se m ine ra l s b ecause t h e e l onga te f i b rou s a nd f e l ted c r y s ta l l ine s t ruc tu re t e nd s t o d if u se

f r om af o rme rC oa s tS a l i sh s e t t lemen ta tP o r tA lbe rn i . B e ing o n t h e w e s t c oa s t o f V ancouve r I s land , t h i s r e p re sen t s a no the r o rde r o f m agn i tude o f d i s tance f r om t h e s ou rce .

f r a c tu re e ne rgy a nd f o rce t h e p ropaga t ing c r ack s t o m ake m any c hange so fd i rec t ion ( Brad te ta l1 973 : 7 31) . Howeve r , m any o f t h e n eph r i te a nd o the r c e l t s s how u nm i s takab le

T he se r e la t ion sh ip s a r e u sed i nt h e c r ea t ion o f F igu re s 9 . 2 9 . 5 , i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r .

e v idence o f p e r cu s s ive s hap ing , a nd n ephr i te d e t r i tu s i s

t h em u p r ive ro n ar e gu la rb a s i s . T he s t udy -a rea S t ra i t s S a l i sh g roup sh ad g ood r e la t ion sh ip s w i th t h e H a lkome lem a nd w i th m a in land S t ra i t s g roup s o u t o f t h e s t udy a r ea ( e .g . , t h e L umm i ) a nd s o w e re p robab ly s l igh t ly c l o se r t o t h e s ou rce t h an t h en o r the rn g u lf p eop le ( e .g . , P en t la tch , C omox , ) . T h i s

c ommon f r om a tl e a s tf ou r a r chaeo log ica l s i tes : D iR i 1 ,D iR j 1 ,D iR i 3 8 a nd D iR i 3 9 , a l l n ea rH ope . A tt h e l a s tt h ree s i te s , t h e m anuf ac tu r ing c yc le o f c e l t s i s c omp le te ly a nd u nequ ivoca l ly r e p re sen ted , i n c lud ing s awn a nd b a t te red n eph r i te r i ve r c obb le s ; f l aked , t a bu la r g r ound a nd s awn c e l t p r ef o rm s ; f l aked a nd g round c e l t s ; s awn a nd g round c e l t s ;

LABOUR I NVEST MENT I N CELT MANUFACTURE L abou r i n ve s tmen t i n m anuf ac tu r ing a g round s t one c el i s

c e l t s m ade o n f l ake s a nd o t he r b i t s o fd e t r i tu s ; m isce l laneou s p i ece s o f f l aked , s awn o r g round n eph r i te s e lvage ; a nd m i sce l laneou s n eph r i te f l ake s ( Han son 1 973 ; A r che r

h i gh , e s pec ia l ly c ompa red t o t h e f unc t iona l a l te rna t ive s o f f l aked s t one , g round b one , o r g round s he l l c e l t s . E xa c t ly h ow m uch l a bou r i tt a ke s t o s hape a nd g r ind as t one c e l t i s n o t k nown , b u t w i l l d epend o n t h e r aw m a te r ia l , m e thod o f

1 980 :292 -297 ; V on K rogh 1 980 :182 -192 ) . A n e nd -ba t te red , b u t o t he rw i se u nmod if ied , n eph r i te c obb le w a s r e cove red a t t h e C a r ru the r s s i te , D hRp 1 ( C rowe -Swo rd s 1 974 :91) ; s u ch

m anuf a c tu re a nd d eg ree o f f i n i sh . A s d i scu s sed i n t h e p r ev iou sc hap te r , t h i s w ou ld b e s tb em ea su red i n ar ep l ica t ive e xpe r im en t . Wh i le n o c e l t s f r om t h e s t udy a r ea h ave b een

b a t te red c obb le s p robab ly r ep re sen t h a rd -hamme r s . F laked a nd s l igh t ly g round n eph r i te p refo rm s w e re a l so i d en t if ied

r e p l ica t ed u s ing t r ad i t iona l t e chn ique s , a nd n o s pec if i c e t hnog raph ic m a te r ia l i s a va i lab le , i ti sp o s s ib le t o u se a

f r om t h e S a rd i s a r ea . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t m any f l aked p refo rm s , p i ece s o f w a s te s e lvage , a nd n eph r i te d e t r i tu s w e re n o t

c omb ina t ion o f o t he r e t hnog raph ic a nd r e p l ica t ive i n fo rma t ion t oe s t ima te h ow much w o rk w a s i n vo lved . G iven t h e e xcep t iona l ly h a rd , t o ugh n a tu re o f n eph r i te , e f fo r t e xpended i n o t he r e xpe r imen t s i s l i ke ly b e o n ly a c on se rva t ive e s t ima te o ft h e w o rk t a ken t om anu f a c tu re m any o ft h e s t udy s amp le c e l t s . A l so , t h e re m ay b e m o re t h an o ne s equence o f o f m anuf ac tu re . A s t h e se m ay c on s t i tu te

i n c luded i n t h e s t udy s amp le , a s t h e m e thod u sed i n a s semb l ing t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion w a s o n ly i n tended t o l o ca te s haped g round s t one s pec imen s . I ti sc l ea r t h a t p e rcu s s ion i nt h e f o rm o fc h ipp ing o rp eck ing w a s u sed a s ap r ima ry r e duc t ion s t ra t egy i nt h e m anuf ac tu re o f m any n eph r i te c e l t s , a nd t ho se o f o t he r r aw m a te r ia l .

d i f f e ren t l e ve l s o f l a bou r i n ve s tmen t , t h ey a r e d i scu s sed s epa ra t e ly i nt h ef o low ing s e c t ion s .

P e rcu s s ion w a s a lway s f o l lowed b y g r ind ing a nd o cca s iona l s aw ing o ft h es i de s .

C e l t s made o np ebb le sa nd f l ake s T he m o s t e xped ien t m e thod o f m anu f ac tu re i st o r e -u se a

O ther a rea s

b roken p i ece o f as haped c e l t , o rt op a r t ia l ly g r ind t h ee dge o f ab ou lde r s pa ! ! , f l ake o rp i ece o fw a s te s e lvage . T he se c e l t s w i l l h ave l i t t le s t anda rd iza t ion o f f o rm a nd f ew m ean ingf u l

N o e t hnog raph ic r e f e rence s f r om t h e s t udy a r ea r e f e r t o f l ak ing n eph r i t e , b u t e v idence f r om N ew Z ea land c onf i rm s t h i sp rac t ice i sv i ab le a nd c ommon .

q ua l i ta t ive a t t r ibu te s . E xamp le s o f t h e se a r e i lu s t ra ted i n Sm i th ( 1 899 :142 ; 1 900 : 4 17 ) . A no the r o ppo r tun i s t ic m e thod i s t o m od ify a c obb le o r p ebb le t h a t a l ready h a s a n a pp rop r ia te s hape . Manuf ac tu r ing i su sua l ly l im i ted t ob eve l

N eph r i te b ou lde r sw e re s a id t ob e r educed b yt h e Mao r i u s ing o t he r , p a r t icu la r ly " kno t ty " n eph r i te c obb le s -o bv iou s ly , t h e h amme r h ad t ob e t o ughe r t h an t h e b l ank ( Bra i l sfo rd 1 984 : 2 6 ) . F u r the r r ough s hap ing b y p e rcu s s ion w a s f o l lowed b y

g r ind ing o ft h eu nmod if ied f l ak e o rp ebb le , a l though t h e s i de s

" hamme r d r e s s ing " o r " b ru i s ing " ( p eck ing ) t o r emove t h e i regu la r i t ie s o ff l ake s ca r s , a nd t h e p i ece w a s t h en f i n i shed

a r e o cca s iona l ly s t ra igh tened w i th p e rcu s s ion o r s aw ing . L abou r i n ve s tmen t a nd s k i l l a r e l ow i n t h e se m ode s o f m anuf a c tu re .

b y g r ind ing ( Chapman 1 891 ; B e s t 1 9 12 :228 -235 ) . S eve ra l a r chaeo log ica ls i te si nN ew Z ea land c on ta in n eph r i te d e t r i tu s , f l aked p r e fo rm s , b a t te red c obb le s , e t c . ( Bra i lsfo rd 1 984 :170 ) .

C e l t s made o nf l aked o rp ecked p re form s S tudy a rea

Af l aked n eph r i t e p r efo rm w h ich i ss upe rf i c ia l ly v e ry s im i la r t o t h o se f r om t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion ( e .g . , DgR 1 Y :6769 ) i s

A m o re l a bou r i n ten s ive , a nd a ppa ren t ly mo re c ommon , m e thod o f m anuf ac tu re i si n i t ia l s hap ing o f ap r efo rm u s ing

i lu s t ra ted f r om N ew Z ea land ( B ra i l sfo rd 1 984 :177 ) . M 'Gu i re ( 1 892 :167 ) w o re o u t 4 0 h amm e r s b efo re h e f ound 4 8

R aw Ma ter ia la nd Manuf ac tur eo fC e l t s o ne ( made o f j a spe r ) w h ich c ou ld p eck n eph r i te w hen m anuf ac tu r ing ac e l to u to fN ew Z ea land n eph r i te b yp eck ing

A no paque w h i te r i nd r e semb l ing b one i s

a nd g r ind ing , ap roce s s w h ich t ook 6 6 h ou r s o f w o rk a nd p roduced ap i ece i n f e r io ri nw o rkman sh ip . B yc ompa r i son , a n on -neph r i te c e l tt o ok h im t wo t os i xh ou r s t op eck a nd g r ind ( M 'Gu i re 1 891 :303 ;M 'Gu i r e 1 892 :167 ) .

o f ten s e en o n n eph r i te a r t if a c t st h a th ave b een s ub jec ted t ob urn ing . T he o r ig ina l s hape o ft h eo b jec ti sn o tc hanged i na ny w ay . T h i sf a c t may b eo fu se t o a r chaeo log i s t s ,e spec ia l ly i nB r i t i sh C o lumb ia . . ( F ra se r 1 972 :46 ) .

Am anuf a c tu r ing s equence o f f l ak ing , p eck ing a nd g r ind ing h a s b een n o ted o fn eph r i te a nd o t he r s pec imen s i nt h e s t udy

B eck ( 1984 :98 -99 ) n o te s i np a s s ing t h a t "...q u i te a l a rge n umbe r o f I nd ian n eph r i te a r t if ac t s f r om B r i t i sh C o lumb ia

c o l lec t ion ( e .g . , D cRv Y :6 1) . C lea r ly , t h e t o ughne s s o f n eph r i te m ake sf l ak ing d i ff icu l t , b u tb ecau se t h e b l ank i sa b le t or e s i s te x t reme ly h igh i mpac tf o rce s , c on t ro l led s hap ing c an

s how t h e se t y p ica l h ea t ing c ha rac ter i s t ic s a l so " , b u t h e i sn o t m o re s pec if i c . P re l im ina ry e xpe r imen t s i n N ew Z ea land f ound t h a t 2 0 t r ea ted s pec imen s b ecame , o n a ve rage , 5 0% h a rde r a f t e r h ea t ing t o 6 50 d eg ree s C e ls iu s ( Beck 1 981) . H oweve r , t h ey a c tua l ly b ecame s l igh t ly l e s s t o ugh .

b e a ccomp l i shed . Mo reove r , t h e re i s s ome e v idence , p r e sen ted i nt h e f o l low ing s e c t ion , w h ich s ugge s t s f l ak ing o f n ephr i t ic m a te r ia l i sn o ta lway ss od i ff icu l t .

N eve r the le s s , B eck ( 1981 :26 ,28 ) c on s ide r s t h i s t o b e a s i gn if i can t i mp rovemen t i n t h e r aw m a te r ia l , s i nce t h e m a te r ia l i s v e ry t ough t o s t a r t w i th , c ompa red t o t h e a l te rna t ive s . U se o f g round f l in t a xe s i n many c u l tu re s i n d ica te s t h a t s ome b r i t t lene s s o f r aw m a te r ia l m ay b e

H ea tt r ea t ing A s n o ted i n t h e p rev iou s s e c t ion , s i t e s i n t h e l owe r F ra se r C anyon a nd u ppe r F ra se r V a l ley t e nd t o h ave c on s ide rab le n eph r i te m anuf ac tu r ing w a s t e . S uch w a s te i sl i t t le k nown , o r n o tr e co rded , a t ma jo rs i te s o nt h ec oa s to rV ancouve rI s land . Wh i le a s imp le n eph r i te f l ake o r c h ip m igh t n o t a ppea r

a ccep tab le , i fc ompen sa ted f o rb yh a rdne s s .

c u l tu ra l i fo u t o f c on tex t , a nd t h u s n o t b e r e co rded f r om a c oa s ta l s i te , much o f t h e m anu f ac tu r ing w a s te i s r e ad i ly r e cogn izab le r andom f r agmen t s o f g round n eph r i te , n e i the r

C e l t s w h ich h ave o bv iou s ly b een b u rn t , a cco rd ing t o t h e

p o l ls n o r b i t s , o f ten r e p re sen t ing s e lvage p i ece s f r om e dge t r imm ing . M i sce l laneou s g round n eph r i te a nd s e rpen t ine f r agmen t sa r ep re sen ta tt h ree o f2 4 G u lf o fG eo rg ia a r ea s i te s a na ly sed b y Monk s ( 1973 :19 ) . S uch f r agmen t s a r e p r e sen t , b u t u ncommon , i n t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion f r om s ome c oa s ta l s i te s s uch a sD hR s 1a nd D cRv 1 . N eve r d o t h ey a pp roach t h e f r equenc ie s f ound i nu p r ive r s i te s , i nw h ich t h e se s c rap p i ece s o rd ina r i ly o u tnumbe rf i n i shed c e l t s . T h i s m ay i n d ica te

d e sc r ip t ion s i nB eck ( 1981) a nd F ra se r ( 1972 ) , a r e p re sen t i n t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion , b u t n o t a l l o ft h e b u rn t c e l t s a r e e n t i re ly o bv iou s . F o r e xamp le , B eck ( 1981 :26 ) d i scu s se s a nd i lu s t ra te s ac ha rac te r i s t ic " c i rcu la rf e a the rf r ac tu re " p roduced b y l o ca l ized h ea t ing o r p a r t ia l q uench ing i nc o ld w a te r . A t l e a s t o ne c e l t f r om t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion ( DhR lm Y :1378 , P l a te 8 . 4 ) s how s s uch a p a t te rn . F u r thermo re , B eck ( 1 981 :23 ,28 ) d e sc r ibe s o t he r e f ec t s o f h ea t ing s uch a s t h e f o rma t ion o f ab rown o r b lack r i nd ( wh ich c an b e g round o f f ) , t h e p roduc t ion o f ab l ack a nd g r een v enou s s t ruc tu re , a nd t h e c r ea t ion a nd i n ten s if ica t ion o f r e d a nd y e l low h ue s . W i thou t b e t te r q ua l i ty p ho to s t h an t h o se i n t h e p oo r ly

a mo re p ro f l iga te a t t i tude o r al o ca l ized m anuf ac tu r ing s pec ia l ty - o r m ay b e b ecau se t h e l e s s t e nac iou s s em i n eph r i te s f ound i n t h e C oqu iha l la w e re mo re o f ten f l aked , t h en h ea tt r ea ted .

r e p roduced a r t ic le b y B eck , a nd mo re d e ta i led g eochem ica l i n fo rma t ion , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t od e te rm ine i fh ea t t r ea t ing i s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e a ppea rance o f t h e n um e rous c e l t s w h ich s upe rf ic ia l ly f i t t h e se l a t te r d e sc r ip t ion s , b u t f r om t h e d e sc r ip t ion , i ts e em s l i ke ly .

H ea t t rea t ing o f l i th ic r aw m a te r ia l w a s p rac t iced b y m any N o r th Ame r ican a nd o t he r e t hn ic g roup s . H oweve r , t h e g oa l w a s u sua l ly t o a nnea l h i dden f l aw s , o r i mp rove t h e f l ak ing c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o f ac r yp to -c ry s ta l l ine r o ck s uch a s f l i n t o r

S om e c e l t s a r e , h oweve r , v e ry o bv iou s ly p a r t ia l ly o r c omp le te ly b u rn t , w h i le o the r s h ave b een a lmo s t c omp le te ly

c her t . S em i -neph r i te c on s i s t s l a rge ly o ff u l ly f e l ted n eph r i te , w i th o cca s iona l l am ina ted z one s o f n on f e l ted t r emo l i te a nd o t he r t r a ce m ine ra l s . T he se m ake i ts omewha t m o re f i s s i le t h an n eph r i te , a nd s of te rf r om c e r ta in a ng le s o fa t ta ck ( F ra se r

i n c ine ra ted . O ne c e l t ( DhR lm Y :1334 , P la te 8 . 4 ) v e ry c l o se ly a pp rox ima te s h i s d e sc r ip t ion a nd i lu s t ra t ion o f t h e e f f ec t s o f o ve rhea t ing t o 1 , 000 d eg ree s C e l s iu s : " an o u t e r r u s ty c o lou r ing , o paque g rey i n s ide , a nd t h e s t ruc tu re d e s t royed w i th c r az ing ( Beck 1 981 :23 ,24 ) . " I fo ne c oun t s a s b u rn t o n ly t h o se w i th a w h i te , b ony a ppea rance a nd t h o se w i th o t he r o bv iou s s i gn s o fb e ing i n af i re , t h e re a r e 1 08 , o r 7 . 4% o f t h e t o ta l . A dd ing t h e o t he r p o s s ib le c o lou r t r an sfo rma t ion s m en t ioned b y B eck ( no t i n c lud ing b rown o r b l ack r i nd ing ) , s u ch a s t h e v iv id d eep y e l low o range , t a l l ie s 1 98 c e l t s , o r 1 3 .5% o f t h e t o ta l . N ew Z ea land n eph r i te i s

1 972 :25 ; B e ck 1 981) . T he p u rpo se o fh ea t t rea t ing n eph r i te i st oh a rden t h e s of te r s em i -neph r i te a nd m ake i tl e s s f i s s i le . S o , e a sy f l ak ing c an b e f o l lowed b y q u ick g r ind ing t os hape , a nd af i n i shed , b u ts of ta nd l e s s d u rab le , t o o lc an t h en b e h ea t t r ea ted i n to ah a rde r , mo r ed u rab le o ne . H ea t t r ea t ing o fn eph r i te w a s at e chn ique k nown t ot h e Mao r i ( Beck : 1 981 :27 ) a s w e l l a s i n t r ad i t iona l C h ine se j ade w o rk ing , w he re t h e b u rn t w h i te t e x tu re p roduced b y t h e f i re

f r om a l im i t ed n umbe r o f d i s t inc t ive s ou rce s . T he t r an s fo rma t ion o fc o lou r a nd t e x tu re b y h ea t i ss ugge s ted t o b e r e spon s ib le f o r o b scu r ing t h e r aw m a te r ia l o r ig in o fm any

w a s k nown a s " ch icken b one " ( Savage 1 964 :7 ) . H ea t t r ea t ing o f n eph r i te i sn o t e t hnog raph ica l ly k nown t o h ave b een p ra c t iced i n B r i t i sh C o lumb ia , o r e l sewhe re i n N o r th

a r t if ac t s ( Beck 1 981) . T h is i sp robab ly e ven mo re r e levan t f o r t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion , a s t h e s ou rce s a r e much l e s s w e l l

Ame r ica . F ra se r , h oweve r , n o te s :

4 9

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s k nown .

E xamp le s

o f p robab le

h ea t t rea ted

c e l t s

d ive r se a s M 'Gu i re ( 1892 ) , B e s t ( 1 9 12 : 5 9 ) a nd S avage ( 1964 :8 ) . T he a c tua l s awn a r ea i s r e nde red r ema rkab ly s moo th b y t h e g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing a c t ion o ft h e s aw . I ti s o f ten s l igh t ly c oncave b ecau se a st h e s aw cu t d eepen s , l a te ra l movemen t s o ft h e s aw w iden t h e t op o ft h e c u tm o re t h an t h e b o t tom , w h ich i si nt h e s hape o f a" V " . T he se s awcu t s a r e u nm i s takab le : e ven s ub sequen t g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing o f t h e

a r e

i l u s t ra ted i nP la te 8 . 4 . A l so i n te re s t ing i st h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fb u rn tc e l t s . 5 5% a r e f r om e a s t o fF o r tL ang ley , m a in ly f r om t h e C h i l l iwa ck t o H ope z one , w he rea s o n ly 3 0% o fa l c e l t s a r e f r om t h i s a r ea . P e rhap s n o t c o inc iden ta l ly , t h e c l o se s t c onf i rmed n eph r i te

f r ac tu re r i dge d oe s n o t a lway s o b scu r e t h e c ha ra c te r is t ic p a t te rn . S aw ma rk s a r e v i s ib le o n b o th q ua r ry b ou lde r s a nd c e l t s . O n c e l t s , t h ey a r e m uch mo re c ommon o n t h e s i de s t h an o n t h e f a ce s , i n d ica t ing t h a t i tw a s m o re c ommon t oc u t

s ou rce i s t h e C oqu iha l la R ive r , c obb le s i n w h ich a r e c ha rac te r ized b yF ra se r( 1972 :30 ) a s" s em i -neph r i te " ,t h er aw m a te r ia l B eck s ugge s t s b enef i t s m o s t f r om h ea t t r ea t ing . ( The re i sa n u nconf i rmed , b u t l i ke ly , s ou rce o n H a r r i son L ake ; i ti sn o t k nown i ft h i s w a s t r ad i t iona l ly e xp lo i ted . ) I n a ny c a se , g ood q ua l i ty n eph r i te c an b e f ound o cca s iona l ly a s

t h rough t h e t h in d imen s ion . I ns ome c a se s , t h i s m igh t b e t h e r e su l t o fb i sec t ion o ft h e e xhau s ted c e l t , w h i le i no t he r c a se s s awn f a ce s m igh t n o t b e v i s ib le b ecau se t h e f r a c tu re r i dge w a s c l o se t o o ne e dge . A l so , s aw ing m ay h ave s e rved t o s t ra igh ten t h e e dge s o fs awn c obb le s o rp ebb le s , o ro ff l aked

f a r a s C h i l l iwack , b u t i ti si ni n c rea s ing ly s ma l le r a nd r a re r p i ece s . S o , i ts e em s p l au s ib le t h a t t h e a va i lab le , l ow e r q ua l i ty ,s em i -neph r i te w ou ld h ave b een e xp lo i t ed

b l ank s : I t s eem s em inen t ly p o s s ib le t h a t t h e b u rn t c e l t s w e re d e l ibe ra te ly p l aced i n f i re s t o i mp rove t h e i r c ha rac te r i s t ic s .

S eve ra l o ft h e a dze s o rc h ise l s s how t h a t t h es ame m e thod [ s and s tone a b rade ra nd g roove ] o fs aw ing w a s a dop ted t ot r im t h e e dge so f ft h ef l a tp i ece sf i r s to b ta ined , a nd t or e nde rt h em p a ra l le l s i ded ( Dawson 1 887 :369 ) .

T he o p t ima lt empe ra tu re o f6 50 d eg ree s i se a s i ly a t ta inab le i n ac ampf i re ( Beck 1 981 :23 ) . T he t r ad i t iona l m e thod o f c ook ing w i th b o i l ing s t one s w ou ld g i ve a mp le o ppo r tun i ty t o d i scove r t h e t o ugh n a tu re o f t h e m a te r ia l ( wh i le l e s s t o ugh t h an n eph r i te , s em i -neph r i te i ss t i l l r ema rkab ly t o ugh ) . I n f a c t , a ny b o i l ing s t one w h ich l a s ted t h rough r e pea ted h ea t ing s a nd q uench ing sm ay h ave d rawn a t ten t ion .

S uch s e lvage p i ece s , a s i lu s t ra ted b y D aw son , c omp r ise a l a rge p o r t ion o f t h e u n reco rded n eph r i te w a s te i nt h e s t udy

I fh ea t t rea t ing o f B r i t ish C o lumb ia n eph r i te w a s p rac t iced t r ad i t iona l ly , i tw ou ld b e c r uc ia l t o a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e

c o l lec t ion , a nd a r e , a s d i scu s sed , m uch m o re c ommon f r om t h ea r ea u p r ive ro fC h i l l iwa ck . C rea t ion o f ab l ank l a rge ly o r

c e l t p roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion ,

w ho l ly t h rough s aw ing i sp r e sumab ly am o re t ime c on sum ing p roce ss t h an f l ak ing , b u ti td oe s h ave c e r ta in a dvan tage s :

a nd u se c yc le .

I t w ou ld

i n t roduce a p rev iou s ly u n su spec ted s oph i s t ica t ion i n to t h e c oa s ta l g round s t one i n du s t ry . Mo s t i mpo r tan t , i tw ou ld g o f a r t o e xp la in h ow a nd w hy a ppa ren t ly t e nac iou s s t one w a s s haped b yf l ak ing .

F i r s t , l o nge r , t h inne r , a nd n a r rowe r s l ab s o fn eph r i te c ou ld b e s awn f r om l a rge b ou lde r s t h an c ou ld b e f l aked o rf o r tu i tou s ly f ound , m ak ing p o s s ib le t h e p roduc t ion o f a c e l t b o th i mp re s s ive i na ppea rance , a nd w i th ap o ten t ia l ly l o ng u se l if e b ecau se o ft h e h i gh l e ng th t ow id th r a t io . T he v a lue o f ac e l t i nt h e L y t ton r eg ion d epended l a rge ly o n i t s l e ng th ( Emmon s

C e l t s made o ns awn p re form s G enera ls aw ing me thod w i th in t he s t udy a rea ( i nc lud ing L y t ton a nd L i l looe t )

1 923 :22 ) , w h ich m ake s s en se i nt e rm s o ft h e p o t en t ia l u se i t e mbod ied . L a rge , e l onga te c e l t s w e re r e f e r red t o i n t h e

T he m o s t l a bou r i n ten s ive w ay o f m anuf ac tu r ing c e l t s i sb y

L y t ton a nd S pence s B r idge a r ea a s" p rope r ty c e l t s " a nd w e re

s aw ing ab l ank f r om t h e p a ren t r o ck o r ab ou lde r , f o l lowed b y g r ind ing ( s ee F igu re 8 . 2 , p age 5 6 ) . T h i s m e thod , a s t r ad i t iona l ly p rac t iced i n B .C . i s d e sc r ibed b y Sm i th ( 1 899 ,1900 ) , Emmon s ( 1923 ) D aw son ( 1 887 , 1 891) a nd H i l l -Tou t ( 1899 ) , a mong o t he r s . S ands tone s aw s , t h in s l ab s o f g a rne t s ch is t , a nd p i ece s o f c ha lcedony o r o t he r h a rd m a te r ia l s w e re u sed , i n c on junc t ion w i th g r i t , i n as aw ing m o t ion t o g r ind a d eep g roove p a r t ia l ly t h rough t h e r aw

s a id n o t t oh ave b een u sed , o ru sab le , a sa dze s b ecau se t h e i r l e ng th p r ec luded h a f t ing ) , a l though Emmon s n o te s t h a ts ome s uch s pec imen s h e e xam ined h ad c l ea r u s e w ea r ( Emmon s 1 923 ) . T he o t he r s m ay h ave b een b rand n ew , o r s e ldom u sed , a nd t h u s a r e u nma rked . Emmon s i n c lude s ap e r sona l c ommun ica t ion f r om t h e r e spec ted p i onee r -e thnog raphe r J ame s T e i t , t ot h e e f f ec tt h a tt h e se l o ng c e l t s w e r e " p rope r ty ' o r' wo rk s o fa r t ' , a si tw e re , e xchang ing f o r h i gh v a lue s ( Te i t i n Emmon s 1 923 :27 ) . " T e i ta l so s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se p rope r ty c e l t s w e re m ade f o r n o p a r t icu la r p u rpo se b u t w e re u sed a s f o rg ene ra l t a sk s i n c lud ing s k in d re s s ing a nd " wa rt omahawk "

m a te r ia l f r om o ne o r b o th s i de s . When p a r t i t ion w a s a pp roa ched , w edge s w ou ld b e i n ser ted a nd t h ep i ece s napped o f f , l e av ing ad i s t inc t ly r ough , l i nea r f r a c tu re r i dge . Sm i th ( 1900 :4 16 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e n eph r i te b ou lde r s w e re s e c t ioned u s ing s ands tone o r s l a te s l ab s , o r q ua r tz . T he g roove w ou ld b e s t a r ted w i th h o r se ta i l r u she s ( wh ich h ave a h i gh s i l ica c on ten t ) o r b eave r t e e th , a l though Sm i th s ugge s t s t h is m igh t b e am i s taken r e f e rence t os aw ing s of te r s t ea t i te . S emenov s ugge s t st h a tf l in t s aw s w e re u sed o ne a s i ly a b raded m a te r ia l s , b u t s t a te s t h a t a l p rog re s s i nt h e s aw ing o f h a rd a nd t o ugh r o ck i sd ue t oi n t roduced o re r oded a b ra s ive g r i t i n t h e g roove ( 1964 : 7 1-73 ) , av i ew c onf i rmed b y s ou rce s a s

h ead s .

O ne c an s pecu la te t h a t t h i s i st h e r e su l t o f t h e i r

t r ad i t iona l t a sk b e ing r e p laced b y i r on b l ade s : i mp re s s ive c e l t s o f t h i s n a tu re ( b a sed o n c ompa r ison t o Emmon s 1 923 ,p la t e V Ia ) a r e f ew i n t h e s t udy s amp le , b u t t h o se p re sen t ( e .g . , D hRp X :6 , D hR s 1 2 :1 , D hRk 2 : 51 ) s how u se w ea r t h a t i s ,s ub jec t ive ly , n o d i f f e ren tt h an t h a t o ft h e o t he r s . T he l a t t e r e xamp le h a s u n ifa c ia l p a ra l le l l o ng i tud ina l s t r ia t ion sh i gh ly d i agno s t ic o fh eavy u se a sa n a dze ( S emenov 5 0

R aw Ma t er ia la nd Manuf ac ture o fC e l t s 1 964 :2 1 , R oodenbe rg 1 983 :180 ) . Wha teve r t h e f unc t ion o f t h e l o ng b l ade s d e sc r ibed f r om L y t ton , w h ich i so u t s ide t h e s t udy a r ea i na ny c a se , t h e l o ng , s awn b l ade s i n t h e s t udy

a ccoun t ing f o r t h e f r ac tu re r i dge . M 'Gu i re e xpe r imen ted i n s aw ing " Yukon j ad i t e " , f i nd ing t h a t a" j ad i te " s aw w i th g r i t a nd w a te rc ou ld d eepen ag roove o fu n spec if ied l e ng th b y 1 / 4

s amp le w e re n o tj u s td eco ra t ive b u t f unc t ioned a st o o ls . T he

i n ch ( 6 mm ) p e r h ou r ( M 'Gu i re 1 892 :175 ) . I ts e em s l i k e ly , h oweve r , t h a t t h e m a te r ia l i nq ue s t ion w a s n o t t r ue n eph r i te

e x t ra e f f o r tp u ti n to t h e i rp r ima ry r educ t ion s t age , a nd t h a t o f a l s awn p r efo rm c e l t s , mu s t b e a ccoun ted f o r a t l e a s t p a r t ia l ly b yu t i l i ty a nd c o s t -benef i t . T he s e cond b enef i to fs aw ing ap refo rm i st h e s moo th g round s u r f ace o ft h e s awcu t , w h ich m ake s l e s s w o rk n ece s sa ry t o f i n ish t h ec e l t . I no the r w o rd s , as awn p r efo rm i s mo re w o rk t o make , b u t l e s s w o rk t o f i n i sh . Many c e l t s b a sed o n a f l aked p r e f o rm w e re i n su f i c ien t ly g round t o o bscu re t h e d eepe s tf l ak es ca r s . A sw i l l b ed i scu s sed , t h i sr e su l t s i n al e s s a t t rac t ive p i ece o fw o rkman sh ip , a nd p o s s ib ly al e s s d u rab le o ne a l so . S emenov ( 1964 :71) n o te s t h e l a ck o fs p l i t t ing a nd c r ack ing o ft h ep refo rm s u r f ace a s ab enef i to fs aw ing . T h i rd , t h e r e i sp robab ly l e s s c hance o f a cc iden ta l b reakage w hen s aw ing a p ref o rm s o t h e re i s l e s s w a s te , g r ea te r t h r if t ine s s o fr aw ma te r ia l u se , a nd g r ea te r c on t ro l o ve r t h e

T he se e s t ima te s i n d ica t e af a s te r r a te o f p rog re s s t h an t h e b e t te r d ocumen ted N ew Z ea land c a se , w he re t r ad i t iona l m anuf a c tu re o f n eph r i te c e l t s p e r s i s ted i n to t h e m id 1 9 th c en tu ry ( Bra i l sfo rd 1 984 :24 ) . B e s t ( 19 12 : 6 9 ) , f o r e xamp le , s t a te s t h a t ap i ece o fn eph r i te m ea su r ing 1 8 " X 1 6 " X8 " w a s c u t i n to t h ree p i ece s o ve r am on th o f f a i r ly s t eady l a bou r i n vo lv ing s eve ra l p eop le . H e c i te s a no the rc a se o f an eph r i te s l ab o fu n spec if ied s i ze ( b u ts ma l l e nough t on eed s t ak ing f o r s t ab i l i ty ) w h ich w a s s awn u p w i th g r i t a nd a s t ee l c ro s scu t

p refo rm s h ape ( Semenov 1 964 :71) . N eph r i te i s an o tab ly t e nac iou s m ine ra l , s o f l ake r educ t ion i so n ly p o s s ib le w i th e x t reme ly h i gh e ne rgy h a rd -hamm e r p e r cu s s ion . T h i s r i sk s b r eak ing t h eb l ank , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce s ome n eph r i te i sf a u l ted o rh a s c l eavage p lane s ( Lea rn ing 1 978 ) . S uch f a u l t s a r e l e s s c ommon i na luv ia l m a te r ia l t h a t h a s b een n a tu ra l ly s t re s s t e s ted . S aw ing i s am o re c on t ro l led m e thod o f r educ t ion , a l though t h e f i na l a c t ion o f s p l i t t ing t h e p refo rm f r om t h e

s aw b yt h ree p eop le w o rk ing " f a ri n to t h e n i gh t " , w ho c u tt h is s l ab i n to a dze p ref o rm s o ve r t h e c ou r se o f a n e n t i re w in te r ( Be s t 1 912 :69 ) . I n s t i l l a no the r e xamp le , h e d i scu s se s t h e m anuf ac tu re o f as i ng le m er e( as ho r tc l ub , s im i la ri ns i ze t oa

b ou lde ri sr i sky . Emmon s( 1923 :22 ) o b se rve s f a i led s nap s ; a t l e a s t o ne c e l t i nt h e s t udy c o l lec t ion ( DdRu 1 8 :17 ) s how s a f a i led l o ng i tud ina l s e c t ion b a sed o n b i f ac ia l s aw ing . S aw ing i sa l so l e s s a p t t o p roduce w a s te s i nce d eb i tage i sm a in ly

l a rge a dze b u t b e t te r f i n i shed ) f r om a n " o c tavo b ook " s i zed s l ab o fn eph r i te :

l im i ted t o d u s t , n o t w a s te f l ake s . I n te re s t ing ly , H i l l -Tou t s t a te s t h a t s aw ing w i th a " r ock c r y s ta l " ( i . e . , c he r t o r

W i th p r e t ty c on s tan tw o rk tha ti s ,w hen n o tt a lk ing ,e a t ing ,d o ing n o th ing , o r s l eep ing -a m an w i l l g e t as l ab i n to ar ough t r iangu la rs hape , a nd a bou t 11 / 2i n che s t h ick , i n amon th ,a nd , w i th t h ea i do fs ome b l ock s o fs ha rp s a ndy g r i t ted l i me s tone ,

c ha lcedony ) w a s p ref e r red b ecau se i tp roduced a n a r rowe r c u tw i th l e s sw a s tage o fm a te r ia l : .a l though t h e re i sn os c a rc i ty o f g r een s tone b l ock s ,t h ey a r en o ta l o fj ade o ro ft h ef i r s tq ua l i ty , a nd t h i sf a c t may h ave w e ighed w i th t h e c u t te ra ta l t ime s

w i l l w o rk d own t h ee dge so fi ti n to p rope r s hape i ns i xw eek s mo r e ( Be s t 1 9 12 :65 ) .

( H i l l -Tou t 1 899 :61) .

C hapman a l so d e sc r ibe s t h e m anu f ac tu re o f t h i s s ame m er e , o r ig ina l ly w i tne s sed i nt h e 1 840 s w hen g r een s tone w o rk w a s

T ime a nd e f for ti ns aw ing a nd g r ind ing : e thnograph ic a nd e xper imen ta le v idence

" a ti t sp eak , " b u te l abo ra te st h a t :

H i l l -Tou t ( 1 899 :61-62 ) d i d s ome s aw ing o n a n a dh oc b a s i s , b u t h i s p ub l i shed o b se rva t ion s a bou t t h e e f fo r t r e qu i red a r e l im i ted t os u rp r ise a th ow r e ad i ly t h e m a t e r ia l c ou ld b e c u t ,

An a t ive w i l l g e tu pa tn i gh tt oh ave a p o l i sh a t af a vo r i te m er e , o rt a ke o ne d own t ot h eb ea ch a nd w o rk a way b yt h e s u r f . A p i ece o fg r een s tone a nd s ome s l a te w i l l b e c a r r ied w hen t r ave l l ing ,a nd a te ve ry h a l ta r ub w i l lb et a ken a ti t . P oo rF e l low s ! T hey h ad n ot o ba cco , a nd ag r ind a t ap i ece o f h a rd i n anga [ s i lve rg r een n eph r i te ] s e emed t ob e as t imu lan t( Chapman 1 891 :499 ) .

p a r t icu la r ly w i th r o ck -c ry s ta ls ( i . e . , c ha lcedony o r a ga t e ) ( 1899 :6 1 ) . F i rm e v idence o ft h e a moun to fw o rk i n vo lved i n t r ad i t iona l s aw ing o f n eph r i te i sr a r e . H ayden ( 1987 :212 ) r epo r t s t h a ts aw ing o fj ade ( j ade i t e ) i nC en t ra l Ame r ica u s ing t r ad i t iona l b amboo a nd s t r ing t e chn ique s p rog re s sed a t t h e r a te o f 1t o 2 mm p e r h ou r .

a s v ery l i t t le n eph r i t e a nd n o j ade i te r e po r ted ly o f Y ukon o r ig in h a s b een s ub s tan t ia ted ( L ea rn ing 1 978 :37 ) . C h ine se j ade c a rve r s , w o rk ing i n t h e t r ad i t iona l m e thod u s ing c a rborundum g r i t , w e re o b se rved t o t a ke s eve ra l w eek s t o s aw a s i ng le c u t t h rough a o ne f oo t c ube ( T i l l a nd Swa r t 1 986 :11) , ar a te o f 2 . 5 t o 3 . 8 mm /h r , b a sed o n a4 0 h ou r w o rk w eek . T h i s w a s a t at ime w hen m o s t C h ine se j ade c a rv ing w a s i nj ade i te , am ine ra l o f d i f f e ren t s t ruc tu re , l e ss t e nac i ty a nd r e s i s tance t o c r u sh ing , b u t s im i la r o r s l igh t ly g r ea te rh a rdne s st h an n eph r i te . L ea rn ing n o te s t h a td i amonds i n mode rn 3 / 4 i n ch d r i l l s a r e p o l i shed a nd m u s t b e r ep laced a f t e r e i gh t h ou r s o r 1 . 5 m e t re s o fc u t t ing n eph r i te ( Lear n ing 1 978 :41) .

Wood s l ab , s t r ing a nd g r i t

s aw ing h a s b een s ugge s ted f o r S a l i shan p r ef orm m anuf ac tu re ( Daw son 1 887 :368 ) , b u t H i l l -Tou td i spu te s t h is ( 1899 :61) . A

T he g r ind ing o f as t one i mp lem en t w a s s o l a bo r ious a nd l e ng thy a o ne t h a t i tw a s d eemed a s e r iou s m i sfo r tune

t y p ica l s awn c e l t o f 3 . 5 c m b r ead th w ou ld r ep re sen t ( a t H ayden ' s r e por ted r a te ) a bou t 2 4 h ou r s o f s aw ing p e r f a ce , 5 1

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s a mong s t t h e Mao r i t ob r eak o r g ap t h e e dge o fa n a dze , a nd m isch ievou s c h i ld ren w e re g i ven t h e e p i the t " adze -b r eak e r s "

p r ef o rm i s amo re l a bo r iou s m e thod t h an f l ak ing , b u t c ou ld g i ve al a rge rt o o l w i th mo re i n he ren tu t i l i ty , l e s s w a s tage , a nd

( Be s t 1 9 12 :109 ) .

am o re c l ean ly f i n ished s u r f ace . T he c o s t s a nd b ene f i t s o f s aw ing v e r su s f l ak ing p robab ly e ven o u t , o ne t e chn ique o r a no the r b e ing u sed a cco rd ing t o t h e t o ughne s s o f t h e i n d iv idua l c obb le , a nd t h e g ene ra l a va i lab i l i ty o f t h e r aw

Mo re g ene ra l ly , a xe s m ade o f g r eywa cke t o ok a bou t t h ree w eek s t o g r ind a mong t h e D an i o f N ew G u inea ( Ph i l l ip s 1 979 :110 ) . H i l l -Tou t ( 1 899 :62 ) w a s i n formed t h a tt h ep o l i sh

m a te r ia l . T he se m anuf ac tu r ing t y pe s w i l l t h e r e fo re b e c on s ide red a s a s i ng le c l a ss w hen c on s ide r ing l a bou r i n ve s tmen t .

p u t o n to s ome o f t h e h i gh ly f i n i shed s t one p e s t le s a nd h amme r s ( hand m au l s? ) b y t h e T homp son c ou ld t a k e m o re t h an a p e r son ' s l i f e t ime t o p roduce , w h i le D rucke r i st o ld

THE I NFLUENCE OF MANUFACTUR ING METHOD ON VAR IABILITY WITH IN THE S TUDY COLLECT ION

t h a t i tt o ok t h ree y ea r s o f p a r t t ime w o rk f o r t h e N uu -cha n u l th t om anuf ac tu re as im i la ru t en s i l ( D rucke r 1 951 :78 ) . O n t h e o t he rh and , m anuf ac tu re o f a" j ade " h andmau l a mong t h e Makah t o ok o n ly a f ew mon th s u s ing a f l ak ing -peck ing g r ind ing t e chn ique ( Swan i n D en smo re 1 939 :16 ) .

At o o l o f ac e r ta in s hape w hen n ew w i l l h ave al im i ted r a nge o ff u tu re mo rpho log ica l s t ep s o pen t oi t . O bv iou s ly i tc anno t b ecome a ny b i gge r . T o s ome e x ten t , i tw i l l b e c on s t ra ined i n

E xpe r imen ta l m anuf ac tu r e o f a6c m n eph r i te a mu le t u s ing t r ad i t iona l Mao r i t e chn ique s t ook 3 50 h ou r s ( Ba r row i nB eck 1 984 ) , w h i le g r ind ing t h e f i na l s hape t o an eph r i te a dze o r w eapon

w a s

e mp loymen t "

r ega rded ( Be s t

b y

t h e

1 912 :71)

Mao r i

w h ich

a s

c ou ld

a n

i t s e vo lu t ion b y i t s o r ig ina l s hape , a nd b y t h e s hape o f i t s p r efo rm . T h i s i n i t ia l mo rpho logy i sl i k e ly t ob e t h e r e su l t o f

" e nd le s s

o ccupy

t wo

g ene ra t ion s ( Be s t 1 912 :108 ) .

b o th a dhe rence t o am en ta l t emp la te a nd t h ee x igenc ie s o ft h e

T he d e s i re t oc on se rve r aw m a te r ia l i sg i ven a st h er e a son f o r s aw ing c e l t p ref orm s i no t he r a r ea s o f t h e w o r ld , i n c lud ing G u inea

r aw m a te r ia l : w i th e nough e f for t , s t one c an b e g r ound t o a lmo s t a ny s hape . T h i s e f ec t o f b l ank -de te rm ina t ion h a s b een o b se rved f o r f l aked s t one t oo l s ( e .g . , K uhn 1 992 ) . U n fo r tuna te ly , i ti s v e ry d if i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween

( Chappe l l 1 966 :104 ) . N eph r i te d e t r i tu s i s m uch m o re c ommon i n a r chaeo log ica l s i te s c l o se t o t h e r aw m a te r ia l

s t age s o fu se o f ac e l t s i nce p reform s i ze w a s v e ry v a r iab le , a nd o ne c anno tk now e xac t ly h ow r educed ag i ven c e l ti s .

N ew

Z ea land

( Bra i l sfo rd

1 984 :23 )

a nd

N ew

s ou rce i nN ew Z ea land : O ne w ay o f d e te rm in ing i n i t ia l p re fo rm s i ze w ou ld b e t h rough e xam ina t ion o ft h e s ca r s l e f t o n t h e s awn c obb le s . I t w ou ld b ed i ff icu l tt oc l a im t h a tt h er e su l t sw e re r ep re sen ta t ive o fa l s awn c e l t s , h oweve r . F i r s t , as ma l l m ino r i ty o ft h ec e l t s

I ts e em st h e Mao r i o nt h e We s tC oa s tw e re p r epa red t ow o rk g reens tone b yf l ak ing a nd h amme r -d re s s ing t e chn ique sd e sp i te t h e r i sk s o ft h es t one g e t t ing o u to fc on t ro l . W i th t h es t one i nt h e i ro wn b ackya rd ,t h ey

i n t h e s amp le a r e d emon s t rab ly b a sed o n c omp le t e ly s awn p r efo rm s , a nd t h e se a r e l i ke ly , i nv i ew o ft h e manu f a c tu r ing p roce s s d i scu s sed , t o b e d if e ren t f r om t h e c e l t s m ade o n a f l aked p refo rm . S econd , t h e l ong , e ven b l ank s c r ea ted b y s aw ing m igh t b e s ub jec t t o s e c t ion ing . T h i s w ou ld , i nf a c t , b e n ece s sa ry i f Emmon s ' v i ew , c i ted a bove , i s c o r rec t i n a s sum ing p rope r ty c e l t s c ou ld n o t b e h af ted . Sm i th

c ou ld a f fo rd t ot a ke t h a tr i sk ...T he b ru ta l h amme r ing t e chn ique w a s f a s ta nd t h e refo re a ccep tab le w hen w a s te w a sn o r e a lp rob lem ( Bra i l sfo rd 1 984 :26 ) . T he i mpor tance o f t h i s o b se rva t ion f o r t h e u se reduc t ion mode l i s o bv iou s : t h e re s hou ld b e m o re w a s tage o f r aw

( 1 900 :416 ) i lu s t ra te s al a rge c e l t f r om t h e N ico la l a ke a r ea t h a t h a s b een t r an sve r se ly s e c t ioned . Emmons a l so p i c tu re s

m a te r ia l c l o se rt ot h e s ou rce , a sa ppea r st ob e t h e c a se w i th in t h e s t udy a r ea . T h i s w i l l a l so b e d emon s t ra ted i n a no the r w ay -pa t te rn s o fr e s idua l u t i l i ty o ft h e t o o l w hen d i sca rded -

( 1 923 ,p la te XXV ) al o ng c e l t t h a t h a s b een t r an sve r se ly s e c t ioned . O n ly 1 9 ( 1 .3% ) o f t h e s t udy c o l lec t ion h ad u nequ ivoca l s awn p o l ls , a l though t h e a c tua l n umbe r i sl i ke ly

i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r .

t ob e h i ghe r c on s ide r ing t h a t m a jo r p o l l d amage i sf r equen t , a nd t h a t m any p o l l s a r e f i ne ly f i n i shed . A lso , 1 89 h ave b i f a c ia l ly b eve l led p o l l s , 1 8 .3% o f t h o se f o r w h ich t h e a t t r ibu te c an b e c oded ) ; s ome o f t h e se a r e a lmo s t c e r ta in ly

CONCLUSIONS ON MANUFACTURE T he N ew Z ea land e v idence , c on s i s t ing l a rge ly o f a c tua l

s moo thed s e c t ion ing s awcu t s .

o b se rva t ion o f af l ou r i sh ing t r ad i t iona l i n du s t ry , s ugge s t s t h a t m anu fa c tu re o f as i ng le p reform b y s aw ing w a s am a t t e r o f w eek s o ff a i r ly s t eady w o rk f o r s eve ra l p eop le . T h i s i sn o t e n t i re ly i n con s i s ten t w i th t h e s can ty m a te r ia l f r om C h ina a nd c en t ra l Ame r ica , o r t h e e xpe r imen ta l w o rk r e po r t ed , w h ich s ugge s t s as l igh t ly l e s s l e ng thy t a sk . G r ind ing t o af i na l

p r e fo rm s . H oweve r , o n ly t h ree p r e fo rm s a r ei nt h e s t udy c o l lec t ion .

B ou lde r s ca r s c ou ld a l so b e c ompa red t ou n f in i shed f l aked u nque s t ionab le

f l aked

T he o n ly a va i lab le r e cou r se i s ac rude c ompa r i son o fa c tua l

s hape w a sa ne qua l ly l a bo r iou s t a sk .

c e l t s m ade b y t h e d i f f e ren t p roce s se s , i g no r ing t h e u s e l if e e f f ec t . T he d a ta f o r s awn , f l aked , a nd p ecked p re f o rm s i s

T he c omp le te m anuf ac tu re o f an eph r i te c e l t o n e i the r as awn

l i s ted i nT ab le 8 . 1 . C e l t s w i th n o d i sce rn ib le p ref o rm s a r e a l so i n c luded , b u t n o t t h e l a rge n umbe r w i th a mb iguou s p r e fo rm m anuf ac tu re o rt h o se e xped ien t ly m ade .

o r f l ak ed p refo rm w a s at a sk t h a t c an c on se rva t ive ly b e e s t ima ted t ot a ke f r om af ew d ay s t o af ew w eek s . S aw ing a 5 2

R aw Ma t er ia la nd Manuf ac ture o fC e l t s

T ab le 8 . 1 . D i mens ions o fc e l ts made o n v a r ious k i nds o fp re fo rms ( exc lud ing e xped ien t ly made c e l ts ) . V a r iab le

Mean

S t d . D ev .

M in imum

Max imum

N umbe r

_ P re fo rm c l ea r ly f l aked o nb o th f a ce s :

L CL ( nun )

8 5 .39

3 5 .96

3 8 .00

1 72 .00

6 2

WVC ( mm )

4 2 .38

1 3 .79

1 6 .00

8 3 .00

6 3

TVC ( rmn )

1 2 .56

4 . 7 1

3 . 00

2 7 .00

7 0

LWR

2 . 05

. 7 8

. 4 9

4 . 56

5 4

L TR

7 . 32

3 . 57

2 . 7 1

2 2 .29

6 0

WTR

3 . 71

1 . 42

1 . 72

8 . 30

6 3

5 2 .39

1 0 .79

2 5 .10

7 7 .70

6 7

2 9

VAP ( d eg . )

P r ef o rm c l ea r ly s awn o na tl e a s to ne f a ce :

L CL ( mm )

7 8 .55

4 4 .67

3 5 .00

2 65 .00

WVC ( mm )

3 5 .34

1 2 .83

1 4 .00

7 1 .00

3 8

TVC ( mm )

1 2 .56

4 . 13

4 .00

2 0 .00

3 9

LWR

2 . 36

1 . 11

1 . 16

5 . 52

2 7

L TR

6 . 39

3 . 77

2 . 57

2 0 .38

2 8

WTR

3 . 02

1 . 33

1 . 28

7 . 75

3 7

5 3 .38

1 0 .74

3 5 .70

7 7 .70

3 9

2 2

VAP ( d eg . )

P re f o rm c l ea r ly p ecked o nb o th f a ce s :

LCL ( mm )

8 2 .64

2 9 .12

4 1 .00

1 36 .00

WVC ( mm )

4 5 .17

9 . 14

2 6 .00

6 4 .00

2 3

TVC ( nun )

1 3 .87

4 . 31

7 .00

2 5 .00

2 3

LWR

1 . 87

. 5 6

1 . 02

2 . 79

2 2

L TR

6 . 2 1

2 . 48

3 . 18

1 2 .86

2 2

WTR

3 . 50

1 . 16

1 . 88

6 .40

2 3

5 2 .51

8 . 97

3 2 .30

VAP ( d eg . )

7 7 .00 •

2 2

P re fo rm m e thod u nknown o ne i the rf a ce :

L CL ( nun )

6 4 .32

2 9 .10

2 0 .00

2 85 .00

4 35

WVC ( mm )

3 4 .19

1 2 .52

6 .00

7 7 .00

5 10

TVC ( mm )

1 .93

3 . 60

2 . 00

2 4 .00

5 34

LWR

2 . 00

. 9 4

. 7 6

1 0 .25

4 20

L TR

5 . 69

2 . 8 1

1 . 93

2 7 .33

4 29

WTR

3 . 05

1 . 25

. 8 3

9 . 14

5 07

5 0 .66

1 0 .03

1 4 .50

8 5 .20

5 26

VAP ( d eg . )

K ey : LCL : l e ng th o f c en t re l i ne ; WVC : w id th o f b eve l c h in ; TVC : t h ickne s s o f b eve l c h in ; LWR : l e ng th t o w id th r a t io ( LCL / WVC ) ; LTR : l e ng th t ot h ickne s sr a t io ( LCL /TVC ) ; WTR : w id th t ot h ickne s sr a t io ( WVC /TVC ) ; VAP : b eve l a ng le .

p =0 .02 ) b e tween s awn a nd f l aked c e l t s . T h i s c an b e i n terp re ted a s a t e ndency n o t t o s aw t h rough l a rge d imen s ion s . T he s im i la r i ty i np r ima ry b eve l a ng le s s ugges t s

T h is t a b le s ugges t s t h a t p ecked c e l t s t e nd t o b e l a rge r a nd m o re ma s s ive , w h i le f l aked c e l t s a r e b roade r a nd s awn c e l t s a r e n a r rowe r . Ad i f f e rence o fm ean st e s t , u s ing t h e S tuden t s td i s t r ibu t ion , b e tween c e l t s w i th o bv iou s ly s awn f a ce s a nd c e l t s w i th o bv iou s ly f l aked f a ce s r e vea led t h a t t h e d i f f e rence i nl e ng th t ow id th r a t io i sh i gh ly s i gn if ican t ( t =3 .03 , d f =105 ,

n o s y s tema t ic f u nc t iona l d i f f e rence s . T he d if e rence s i ns i ze w ou ld p robab ly b e e ven g r ea te r w e re i tn o t f o r t h e u se l if e e f f ec t , w h ich w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n g r ea te r d e ta i l i n t h e f o l low ing c hap te r . B lank s hape w i l l p r e sumab ly i nf luence t h e u se l if e h i s to ry o f t h e c e l t b y d i c ta t ing t h e mo s t e conom ica l t r a jec to r ie s o fr e sha rpen ing a nd r e too l ing , a sh a s b een o b se rved a mong f l aked s t one t o o l s( Kuhn 1 992 ) .

p =0 .00 1) . E xamp le s o f c e l t s w i th p ecked p r e fo rm s a r e s hown i nP la te 8 . 1 . D if f e rence s b e tween m e t r ic d imen s ion s o f t h e v a r iou s f o rm s a r e m a in ly m in ima l , e xcep t d i f f e rence s i n w id th a tt h e b eve l c h in a r e s i gn if i can t ( t =2 .17 , d f = 132 , 5 3

T he T a xonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s

P la te 8 . 1 . E xamp les o fc e l ts made o n p ebb les a nd f l akes . T op : c e l ts made o n p ebb les , l e f tt o r i gh t : D hR lm Y :1288 ; D hRq 2 1 :26 1 ; D eR t Y :30 ; D iR i 1 : 111 . B o t tom : c e l ts made o n f l akes : D iR i 3 9 :3005 ; D hRq 2 1 :163 ; D jR i Y :99 ; D iR j 1 4 :1085 ; D hR lm Y :1523 ;

P la te 8 _2 . E xamp les o fc e l ts made o n p ecked p re fo rms . L e f tt or i gh t : D deRu Y :82 ; D hRs 1 :9471 ; D eRu -Y 6 1 ; D hRs 1 : 10 ,47 1 .

R aw Ma t er ia la nd Manuf ac tur eo fC e l t s P la te 8 .3 . E xamp les o fc e l ts made o n f l aked p re fo rms . L ef tt or i gh t : D fRu 1 2 :71 ; D hR t 2 :MuE3215 ; D hR t X :A 193 ; D fR tu Y :24 .

P la te 8 .4 . E xamp les o fp robab le h ea tt r ea ted c e l ts . T op r ow , l e f tt o r i gh t : D hR lm Y :1378 ( f ea the rf r ac tu re ) ; D hR lm Y : 1 326 ; D jR i Y :86 ; D hRs 1 :Ma564 1 . B o t tom r ow , l e f tt o r i gh t : D hR lm Y :1402 ; D hR I 8 :32 ; D hR lm Y :1334 ( c razed ) .

5 5

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s F i gure 8 .2 . N eph r i te s aw ing . A . I l us t ra t ion o fs aw ing t e chn ique , s how ing s aw i ng roove a nd f r ac tu re r i dges . B . S aw ing s eve ra l b l anks f r om at h in b ou lde ro rs l ab . C . S aw ing as i ng le b l ank f r om at h ick b ou lde r . A f te r B eck 1 984 ) .

P la te 8 .5 . S awcu t n eph r i te c obb le , D hRk Y :1 .

R aw Ma ter ia la nd Manuf ac tur eo fC e l t s P la te 8 .6 . E xamp les o fc e l ts made o n s awn p re fo rms . L e f tt o r i gh t : D iR i 1 : 1 ; D cRu 6 3 :9 ; D hSb Y :1 ; D iSe Y :1 .

5 7

C hap ter 9

ASSESSMENT OF THE BEHAV IOURAL MODEL H av ing

e s tab l i shed

t h a t

t h e

p r em i se

t h a t

c e l t s

w e re

s i de s w i l l s how l e s s d i f f e rence i n v a r ia t ion b e tween l e ng th a nd w id th o rt h ickne s s , a nd c e l t s w i th s t ra igh ts i de s w i l l s how mo re d i f f e rence i n t h i s v a r ia t ion . T ab le 9 . 2 s how s t h e

l a bo r iou s ly manuf ac tu red f r om ar a re , l o ca l ized r aw m a te r ia l i sl i ke ly t ob e t r ue , ap robab le s e t o fb ehav io r s a nd a t t i tude s c once rn ing t h e i r u se c an b e s ugge s ted . T he se a r e b a sed o n t h e a s sump t ion o f ah i gh p e rce ived v a lue a nd u t i l i ty , a nd f o l low t h es ke le ton mode l o u t l ined a tt h ee nd o fc hap te r7 .

v a r ia t ion i n t h e se d imen s ion s f o r c e l t s w h ich h ave e i the r p a ra l le l s i de s o r p a ra l le l f a ce s f r om b eve l c h in t o p o l l .

EXPECTED CORRELATES OF THE U SE -REDUCT ION MODEL

a r e d ef ined a s l e s s t h an 2% s l ope i n t h ickne s s , a nd a r e c ompa red t o t h o se w i th 2 10% t a pe r . T he se d iv is ion s a r e a r b i t ra ry a nd d if e r b ecau se t h e l owe r a ve rage s o f t h e t h ickne s s d imen s ion m ean s t h a t ad i f f e rence o f 1mm i sm o re l i ke ly t o p roduce a l a rge r a ppa ren t t a pe r t h an s uch a d i f f e rence w ou ld i nt h e w id th d imen s ion . A n u ppe r l im i t i s

P a ra l le l s i de s a r e d ef ined a s l e s s t h an 1 0% s l ope i n w id th , a nd a r e c ompa red t ot h o se w i th 1 0 -20% t a pe r . P a ra l le l f a ce s

I n t h e f o l low ing d i scu s s ion s , c e l t s t h a t w e re e xped ien t ly m anuf ac tu red o n p ebb le s o r f l ake s h ave b een om i t t ed . T he p r inc ip le s o f c u ra t ion a r e l e s s l i ke ly t o a pp ly t o t h em , a nd t h e i r e x t reme ly i r regu la r m o rpho logy m ake s t h em d if i cu l t t o i n c lude . I n a ny c a se , t h ey n umbe r l e s s t h an 2% o ft h e t o ta l s amp le . F o r s imp l ic i ty , t h e t e rm " a l l c e l t s " w i l l r e f e r t ot h e

p l aced o n t h e t a pe r ing g roup s b ecau se t h o se w i th e x t reme t a pe r l i ke ly h ave m any o t he r f a c to r s a c t ing o n t h e i r v a r iab i l i ty . T ab le 9 . 2 d emon s t ra te s t h a t p a ra l le l s i ded o r f a ced c e l t s h ave ah i ghe r l e ng th C .R .V . t h an t a pe r ing o ne s ,

9 8% o fc e l t s m ade o n m anuf ac tu red p r ef o rm s . A l so , d a ta o n 3 2 s pec imen s , a l l m i sce l laneou s f r agmen t s , w e re a cc iden ta l ly

w h i le t h e p o l l w id th a nd t h ickne s s C .R .V . a r e r e la t ive ly s t ab le .

e r a sed f r om t h e d i sk . T a l cn t o ge the r , o ve ra l l s amp le s i ze f o r t h is p a r to ft h ea na ly s i s w a sr e duced f r om 1 , 496 t o1 , 438 .

Ef ec to fl ong i tud ina lb i sec t ion

Ef ec to fr e sharpen ing o nl e ng th

A t s ome u ndef inab le p o in t i nt h e u se l if e c yc le , ac e l t w i l l b ecome t o o s t ubby f o r i t s h a f t . T he re a r e t h ree o p t ion s i f c on t inued e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e t o o l i sd e s i red : u se t h e c e l t u nha f ted , p u t i ti n ad if e ren t h a f t , o r c hange i t s s hape t o m ake i t l e s s s t ubby . T he mo s t o bv iou s m ean s o f

T he c u t t ing b i t o f t h e c e l t w i l l b e p e r iod ica l ly r e sha rpened o ve r i t s u se l if e . T he b i t i sa to ne e nd o f t h e c e l t , a nd s o r eg r ind ing i sl i ke ly t or educe t h e l e ng th m o re t h an e i the r t h e w id th o rt h e t h ickne s s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , p l a te s 7 . 1 a nd 7 . 2 ) .

i mp lemen t ing t h e l a s t o p t ion i st os aw t h e s t ubby c e l t i nh a lf l o ng i tud ina l ly . T h i s w i l l p roduce t wo c e l t s , e ach w i th af r e sh

T he d im en s ion " l eng th " s hou ld t h u s b e mo re v a r iab le t h an t h e d imen s ion s " w id th " o r " t h ickne s s . " T ab le 9 . 1 i lu s t ra te s t h e v a r iance i n t h e se t h ree d imen s ion s f o r a l l c e l t s . T he C oeff ic ien t o fR e la t ive V a r ia t ion i st h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f e a ch v a r iab le d iv ided b y i t s m ean , m ak ing t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion i n dependen t o f m ea su remen t r a nge a nd s o c ompa rab le a c ro s sm e t r ic v a r iab le s . T ab le 9 . 1 s how s t h a tt h e c en t ra l l e ng th m ea su remen t i s1 . 23 t ime s a s v a r iab le a s t h e b eve l c h in w id th , a nd 1 . 44 t ime s a sv a r iab le a st h e b eve l c h in t h icknes s .

u n i la te ra l

s awcu t ,

a nd

e ach

w i th

n ew ,

p red ic tab le ,

p ropo r t ion s . L ong i tud ina l b i sec t ion w i l l l e ave t h e l e ng th a nd t h ickne s s r e la t ive ly u nchanged , b u t w id th , w he reve r m ea su red , w i l l b e r e duced b y a pp rox ima te ly 5 0% . ( No t a l l c e l t s t h a t h ave b een b i sec ted w i l l h ave v i s ib le s awma rk s , w h ich w i l l l owe r t h e a ve rage a ppa ren t d ec rea se i n w id th . ) P ropo r t iona l ly , t h en , c e l t s w i th a u n i la te ra l s awcu t s hou ld h ave a h i ghe r l e ng th t o w id th r a t io a nd a l owe r w id th t o t h ickne s s r a t io t h an c e l t s w i th n o l a t e ra l s awcu t s , b u t t h e l e ng th t ot h ickne s sr a t io s hou ld b er e la t ive ly c on s tan t .

Many o ft h ec e l t s t a pe r i nw id th a nd t h ickne s s f r om t h e b eve l c h in t o t h e p o l l . Wi th r e sha rpen ing , t h e se d imen s ion s w i l l a l so c hange . I tc an t h u s b e s ugge s ted t h a tc e l t s w i th t a pe r ing

T ab le 9 . 1: V a r iance i nl e ng th , w id th a nd t h ickness o fa l c e l ts . Mean ( mm )

S td . D ev . ( mm )

C .R .V .

N umb e ro fc a se s

D imen s ion .

L CL

6 7 .67

3 0 .31

0 . 448

9 63

WVC

3 6 .78

1 3 .38

0 . 363

122

WPO

2 8 .77

1 0 .94

0 . 380

1 069

TVC

1 2 .04

3 . 76

0 . 312

177

T PO

1 0 .23

3 . 59

0 . 351

118

K ey : L CL : l e ng th o f c en t re l i ne ; WVC : w id th o f b eve l c h in ; WPO : w id th o f p o l l ; TVC : t h ickne s s o f b eve l c h in ; t h ickne s so fp o l l ;C .R .V . ,c o -ef f ic ien to fr e la t ive v a r ia t ion ( S td . d ev . /mean ) . 5 9

T PO :

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s T ab le 9 .2 : V a r iance i nl e ng th a nd t h ickness o fc e l ts wh ich t ape rt owa rds t he p o l l v s . o nes wh ich a re p a ra l le l f a ced o r s i ded . Mean ( mm )

S td . D ev . ( mm )

C .R .V .

N umbe ro fc a se s

LCL

7 3 .31

3 6 .90

0 . 503

2 17

T PO

1 0 .55

3 .47

0 . 328

2 17

V a r iab le

P a ra l le lf a ce s :

,

.

F ace st a p e rt op o l l : L CL

6 9 .77

2 8 .52

0 . 409

4 19

T PO

9 . 77

3 . 02

0 . 315

4 19

, P a ra l le ls i de s : L CL

7 0 .85

3 4 .76

0 . 49 1

3 50

T PO

2 8 .74

1 0 .43

0 . 362

3 50 _

S ide st a p e rt op o l l : LCL

6 4 .84

2 4 .82

0 . 383

4 70

T PO

2 8 .85

1 0 .97

0 . 380

4 70

K ey : LCL : l e ng th o fc en t re l i ne ; WPO : w id th a tp o l l ;T PO , t h ickne s s a tp o l l ; CRY ,c o -ef f ic ien to fr e la t ive v a r ia t ion ( s td . d ev /mean ) . S ome c e l t s w i th a u n i la te ra l s aw cu t w i l l b e t h e r e su l t o f

4 .L eng th t ow id th r a t io ( LCL / WVC ) :

s aw ing a s ap r ef orm -manuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique . T o p a r t ia l ly c on t ro l t h i s r e la t ive ly m ino r s kew ing e f f ec t , o n ly c e l t s t h a t a r e l i ke ly c and ida te s t ob e b i sec ted w i l l b e i n c luded . T he se

H o : t h es awn LWR 5t h eu n sawn g roup LWR . H 1 : t h e s awn g roup LWR > t h e u n sawn g roup LWR .

c and ida t e s a r e d ef ined a s c e l t s f a l l ing w i th in t h e r a nge o f l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h ickne s s f o r t h e c e l t s f r om t h e s amp le w h ich h ave a l o ng i tud ina l s awcu t b u t h ave n o t b een f u l ly p a r t i t ioned . T he se r ange s a r e : L CL 3 9 -117 mm , WVC 2 0 -

5 .L eng th t ot h ickne s sr a t io ( LCL /TVC ) : H o : t h e LTR m ean s a r ee qua lb e tween g r oup s . H1:t h eL TR m ean s a r en o te qua l .

6 7 mm a nd TVC 7 16 mm . At o ta l o f5 14 c e l t s a r e i n c luded . S ub jec t ive ly , n o ta l o ft h e se c e l t sa r ee ven c l o se t ot h e e nd o f t h e i r u s efu l l i f e : t h e l e ng th t ow id th r a t io r a nge s f r om 0 . 73 :1 t o 4 . 56 :1 , a ve rag ing 1 . 67 :1 , a nd t h eo re t ica l ly c ou ld b e a s

6 .W id th t ot h ickne s sr a t io (WVC /TVC ) . H o : T he s awn WTR t h eu n sawn g roup WTR . H I : T he s awn g roup WTR 50

1 06

DR

A ppend ix I

REG : R eg ion w he re c e l tf ound o re xcava ted . V a lue L abe l

V a lue

F requency

S t ra i t s , V ancouve rI s land . S t ra i t s , G u lf I s lands .

1 2

2 10 1 78

1 4 .3 1 2 .2

V ancouve rI s land H a lkome lem G u lf I s land H a lkome lem . F ra se rD e l ta H a lome lem L owe rF ra se rR ive r Ha lkome lem D hR lm -Y ( Ch i l l iwack a r ea ) C anyon H a lkome lem N o r th G u lf o fG eo rg ia

3 4 5 6 6 . 5 7 8

18 4 9 3 90 13 1 73 1 47 2 8

8 . 1 3 . 3 2 6 .6 7 . 7 1 .8 1 0 .0 1 . 9

8 . 5

3 1

2 . 1

1 9 8

1 . 3 . 5

S hoemake rB ay ( Po r tA lbe rn i ) W i th in S t udy A rea S a l t sp r ing I . s land

9 1 0 .0 T o ta l

V a l id c a se s

1 464

M i s s ing c a se s

1 464 0

1 07

P e rcen t

1 00 .0

APPEND IX I I . ART IFACT L IST ING T h i s a ppend ix l i s t s t h e a r t if a c t s a na ly sed i nt h i s s t udy , a l phabe t ica l ly ( no t a l phanume r ica l ly ) b y B o rden U n i t , s i te n umbe r a nd a r t if ac tn umbe r . C e l t sl i s ted a s DR - a r ef r om t h es t udy a r ea , w i th n oo t he rp roven ience k nown . T he l e t te ri nb racke t sa tt h ee nd o fe ach a cce s s ion n umbe ri n d ica te st h ei n s t i tu t ion w h ich h o ld st h ea r t if a c t : ( U ) =U n ive r s i ty o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia , Mu seum o fA n th ropo logy ,V ancouve r , B .C . ( R ) =R oya lB r i t ish C o lumb ia Mu seum ,V ic to r ia , B .C . ( C ) =V ancouve rC i ty Mu seum ,V ancouve r ,B .C . . ( S ) =S imon F ra se rU n ive r s i ty , Mu seum o fA r chaeo logy , B u rnaby , B .C . ( V ) =U n ive r s i ty o fV ic to r ia , D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy , V ic to r ia , B .C . ( A ) =A lbe rn iV a l ley Mu seum ,P o r tA lbe rn i ,B .C . D bRv -1 :2 (R ) D bRv -2 :5 (R ) D cR t -10 :526 (R ) D cR t -10 :75 (R ) D cR t -10 :784 (R ) D cR t -13 :110 (R ) D cR t -13 :420 (R ) D cR t -15 :1144 (R )

D cR t -9 :32 (R ) D cR t -9 :358 (R ) D cR t -9 :38 (R ) D cR t -Y :10 (R ) D cR t -Y :10 (R ) D cR t -Y :135 (R ) D cR t -Y :18 (R ) D cR t -Y :180 (R )

D cRu -2 :497 (R ) D cRu -23 :10 (R ) D cRu -23 :8 (R ) D cRu -32 :4 (R ) D cRu -32 :5 (R ) D cRu -38 :155 (R ) D cRu -46 :19 (R ) D cRu -62 :1(R )

D cRv -1 :423 (R ) D cRv -1 :480 (R ) D cRv -1 :582 (R ) D cRv -1 :657 (R ) D cRv -1 :745 (R ) D cRv -1 :884 (R ) D cRv -1 :885 (R ) D cRv -1 :886 (R )

D cR t -15 :117 (R ) D cR t -15 :1525 (R )

D cR t -Y :19 (R ) D cR t -Y :197 (R )

D cRu -63 :9 (R ) D cRu -65 :2 (R )

D cRv -1 :887 (R ) D cRv -1 :888 (R )

D cR t -15 :1639 (R ) D cR t -15 :1693 (R ) D cR t -15 :2347 (R ) D cR t -15 :2364 (R ) D cR t -15 :258 (R )

D cR t -Y :199 (R ) D cR t -Y :20 (R ) D cR t -Y :200 (R ) D cR t -Y :20 1 (R ) D cR t -Y :202 (R )

D cRu -7 :11(R ) D cRu -72 :69 (R ) D cRu -78 :11(R ) D cRu -8 :126 (R ) D cRu -9 :4 (R )

D cRv -1 :890 (R ) D cRv -1 :891 (R ) D cRv -1 :892 (R ) D cRv -1 :896 (R ) D cRv -1 :896 (R )

D cR t -15 :259 (R ) D cR t -15 :260 (R ) D cR t -15 :26 1(R )

D cR t -Y :203 (R ) D cR t -Y :74 (R ) D cR t -Y :77 (R )

D cRu -92 :2 (R ) D cRu -Y :14 (R ) D cRu -Y :1 64 (R )

D cRv -1 :899 (R ) D cRv -10 :1 (R ) D cRv -2 :69 (R )

D cR t 15 :262 (R ) D cR t -15 :263 (R )

D cR t -Y :91 (R ) D cR t -Y :98 (R )

D cRu -Y :1 66 (R ) D cRu -Y :168 (R )

D cRv -80 :1(R ) D cRv -81 :59 (R )

D cR t 15 :265 (R ) D cR t -15 :266 (R ) D cR t 15 :267 (R )

D cRu -116 :13 (R ) D cRu -12 :1175 (R ) D cRu -12 :1352 (R )

D cRu -Y :1 78 (R ) D cRu -Y :184 (R ) D cRu -Y :198 (R )

D cRvw -Y :18 (R ) D cRw 1 :3 (R ) D cRw -12 :6 (R )

D cR t -15 :268 (R ) D cR t -15 :269 (R ) D cR t -15 :270 (R ) D cR t -15 :6 18 (R ) D cR t 15 :638 (R )

D cRu -12 :1754 (R ) D cRu -12 :1896 (R ) D cRu -12 :1963 (R ) D cRu -12 :2377 (R ) D cRu -12 :2504 (R )

D cRu -Y :202 (R ) D cRu -Y :203 (R ) D cRu -Y :204 (R ) D cRu -Y :2 10 (R ) D cRu -Y :244 (R )

D cRw -15 :1(R ) D cRw -2 :13 (R ) D cRw -2 :14 (R ) D cRw -8 :3 (R ) D cRw -Y :11(R )

D cR t 15 :676 (R ) D cR t -15 :920 (R ) D cR t -15 :934 (R )

D cRu -12 :264 1(R ) D cRu -12 :2764 (R ) D cRu -12 :2869 (R )

D cRu -Y :248 (R ) D cRu -Y :250 (R ) D cRu -Y :255 (R )

D cRw -Y :32 (R ) D cRw -Y :34 (R ) D cRw -Y :43 (R )

D cR t -15 :965 (R ) D cR t 16 :2 (R )

D cRu -12 :3028 (R ) D cRu -12 :3268 (R )

D cRu -Y :53 (R ) D cRu -Y :55 (R )

D cRw -Y :49 (R ) D dRu -1 :415 (R )

D cR t -16 :3 (R ) D cR t -35 :4 (R )

D cRu -12 :3495 (R ) D cRu -12 :3520 (R )

D cRu -Y :8 (R ) D cRv -1 :1436 (R )

D dRu -1 :456 (R ) D dRu -1 :457 (R )

D cR t -64 :8 (R ) D cR t -64 :9 (R ) D cR t -8 :230 (R ) D cR t -8 :268 (R ) D cR t -8 :4 10 (R ) D cR t -8 :625 (R )

D cRu -12 :4172 (R ) D cRu -12 :4 178 (R ) D cRu -12 :4227 (R ) D cRu -12 :432 1(R ) D cRu -12 :4360 (R ) D cRu -12 :6390 (R )

D cRv -1 :1750 (R ) D cRv -1 :1889 (R ) D cRv -1 :250 1(R ) D cRv -1 :2503 (R ) D cRv -1 :2509 (R ) D cRv -1 :2510 (R )

D dRu 10 :1(U ) D dRu -11 :2 (R ) D dRu -18 :16 (R ) D dRu 18 :17 (R ) D dRu -2 :1(R ) D dRu -21 :7 (R )

D cR t -8 :671(R ) D cR t -8 :716 (R ) D cR t -9 :174 (R )

D cRu -123 :30 (R ) D cRu -13 :232 (R ) D cRu -2 :157 (R )

D cRv -1 :2525 (R ) D cRv -1 :2526 (R ) D cRv -1 :2527 (R )

D dRu -30 :1(R ) D dRu -4 :145 (R ) D dRu -4 :7 (U )

D cR t -9 :2 1 (R )

D cRu -2 :35 (R )

D cRv -1 :284 1(R )

D dRu -4 :8 (U )

1 09

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s D dRu -5 :48 (R )

D eR t -1 :675 (S )

D eRu -1 :2562 (R )

D fR t -1 :101(R )

D dRu -6 :1(U ) D dRu -6 :2 (U )

D eR t -1 :77 (S ) D eR t -16 :3 (R )

D dRu -6 :3 (U )

D eR t -18 :109 (R )

D dRu -6 :30 (R ) D dRu -Y :102 (R ) D dRu -Y :105 (R )

D eR t -18 :110 (R ) D eR t -18 :111(R ) D eR t -18 :113 (R )

D dRu -Y :11(R ) D dRu -Y :114 (R )

D eR t -2 :119 (R ) D eR t -2 :120 (R )

D eRu -1 :2 640 (R ) D eRu -1 :2676 (R ) D eRu -1 :2958 (R ) D eRu -1 :52 (R ) D eRu 1 :53 (R ) D eRu -1 :54 (R ) D eRu -1 :55 (R )

D fR t -11 :5 (R ) D fR t -8 :10 (R ) D fR t -8 :11(R ) D fR t -X :23 (U ) D fR t -X :24 (U ) D fR t -X :25 (U ) D fR t -Y :8 (R )

D dRu -Y :12 (R )

D eR t -2 :12 1(R )

D eRu 1 :56 (R ) D eRu 1 :57 (R )

D fR tu -Y :24 (R ) D fR tu -Y :28 (R )

D eRu -1 :58 (R ) D eRu -1 :59 (R )

D fR tu -Y :29 (R ) D fR tu -Y :31(R )

D eRu -18 :5 (R ) D eRu -22 :2 (R ) D eRv -29 :1(R ) D eRv -Y :10 (R ) D eRv -Y :12 (R ) D eRv -Y :31(R ) D eRv -Y :32 (R )

D fR tu -Y :33 (R ) D fRu -1 :47 (R ) D fRu -1 :48 (R ) D fRu -12 :33 (V ) D fRu -12 :36 (V ) D fRu -12 :71(V ) D fRu -13 :1116 (U )

D eRv -Y :33 (R ) D eRv -Y :34 (R )

D fRu -13 :478 (R ) D fRu -13 :492 (R )

D eRv -Y :35 (R ) D eRv -Y :36 (R ) D eRv -Y :37 (R ) D eRv -Y :38 (R ) D eRv -Y :39 (R ) D eRv -Y :52 (R ) D eRv -Y :60 (R ) D eRv -Y :6 1(R ) D eRv -Y :62 (R ) D eRv -Y :63 (R )

D fRu -13 :587 (R ) D fRu -13 :991(R ) D fRu -23 :9 (R ) D fRu -24 :1052 (R ) D fRu -24 :108 (R ) D fRu -24 :1117 (R ) D fRu -24 :1273 (R ) D fRu -24 :1450 (R ) D fRu -24 :1458 (R ) D fRu -24 :1489 (R )

D dRu -Y :17 (R )

D eR t -2 :144 (R )

D dRu -Y :96 (R ) D dRu -Y :97 (R ) D dRv -Y :1(R )

D eR t -2 :150 (R ) D eR t -2 :155 (R ) D eR t -2 :156 (R )

D dRv -Y :20 (R )

D eR t -2 :2154 (S )

D dRv -Y :21(R ) D dRv -Y :22 (R )

D eR t -2 :2235 (S ) D eR t -2 :2265 (S )

D dRv -Y :23 (R ) D dRv -Y :24 (R )

D eR t -2 :3590 (S ) D eR t -2 :3673 (S )

D deRu -Y :10 (R ) D deRu -Y :11(R ) D deRu -Y :110 (R )

D eR t -2 :5 (S ) D eR t -2 :925 (S ) D eR t -20 :28 (R )

D deRu -Y :113 (R ) D deRu -Y :114 (R ) D deRu -Y :117 (R )

D eR t -27 :1(R ) D eR t -27 :2 (R ) D eR t -27 :3 (R )

D deRu -Y :12 (R ) D deRu -Y :121(R ) D deRu -Y :122 (R ) D deRu -Y :13 (R )

D eR t -27 :4 (R ) D eR t -59 :2 (R ) D eR t -59 :3 (R ) D eR t -9 :101(R )

D deRu -Y :2 (R ) D deRu -Y :22 (R )

D eR t -9 :195 (R ) D eR t -9 :229 (R )

D deRu -Y :23 (R ) D deRu -Y :25 (R ) D deRu -Y :32 (R ) D deRu -Y :33 (R ) D deRu -Y :48 (R ) D deRu -Y :8 (R ) D deRu -Y :82 (R ) D deRu -Y :9 (R ) D eR s -Y :3 (R )

D eR t -9 :236 (R ) D eR t -Y :106 (R ) D eR t -Y :112 (R ) D eR t -Y :120 (R ) D eR t -Y :129 (R ) D eR t -Y :130 (R ) D eR t -Y :131(R ) D eR t -Y :131(R ) D eR t -Y :132 (R )

D eR s t -Y :10 (R ) D eR s t -Y :15 (R )

D eR t -Y :133 (R ) D eR t -Y :134 (R )

D eR s t -Y :16 (R ) D eR s t -Y :17 (R ) D eR s t -Y :3 (R )

D eRv -Y :64 (R )

D fRu -24 :149 1(R )

D eRv -Y :65 (R )

D fRu -24 :1615 (R )

D eR t -Y :29 (R ) D eR t -Y :30 (R ) D eR t -Y :43 (R )

D eRv -Y :7 (R ) D eRv -Y :75 (R ) D eRv -Y :76 (R ) D eRv -Y :78 (R ) D eRv -Y :79 (R ) D eRv -Y :80 (R ) D eRw -Y :4252 (R ) D eRw -Y :4788 (R ) D eRw -Y :5697 (R ) D e fRuv -Y :10 157A (R ) D e fRuv -Y :10 157B (R ) D e fRuv -Y :5685 (R )

D fRu -24 :1681(R ) D fRu -24 :17 (R ) D fRu -24 :1789 (R ) D fRu -24 :1790 (R ) D fRu -24 :18 (R ) D fRu -24 :1874 (R ) D fRu -24 :190 1(R ) D fRu -24 :1991(R ) D fRu -24 :20 11(R ) D fRu -24 :2049 (R ) D fRu -24 :2239 (R ) D fRu -24 :2257 (R )

D eR s t -Y :7 (R ) D eR s t -Y :8 (R ) D eR s t -Y :9 (R ) D eR t -1 :10 1(R ) D eR t -1 :102 (R ) D eR t -1 :104 (R )

D eR t -Y :68 (R ) D eR t -Y :73 (R ) D eR t -Y :94 (R ) D eR t -Y :96 (R ) D eRu -1 :1325 (R ) D eRu -1 :1372 (R )

D e fRuv -Y :7979 (R ) D e fRuv -Y :7980 (R ) D e fRuv -Y :7981 (R ) D e fRuv -Y :7982 (R ) D fR s -3 : WH14 (U ) D fR s -3 : WH 177 (U )

D fRu -24 :2258 (R ) D fRu -24 :35 (R ) D fRu -24 :43 (R ) D fRu -24 :501 (R ) D fRu -24 :51(R ) D fRu -24 :578 (R )

D eR t -1 :1085 (S ) D eR t -1 :1183 (S )

D eRu -1 :2417 (R ) D eRu -1 :2554 (R )

D eR t -1 :1322 (S ) D eR t -1 :141 (S )

D eRu -1 :2555 (R ) D eRu -1 :2 556 (R )

D eR t -1 :187 (S )

D eRu -1 :2 557 (R )

D fR s -3 : WH 18 (U ) D fR s -3 : WH25 (U ) D fR s -3 : WH304 (U ) D fR s -3 : WH518 (U ) D fR s -3 : WH521(U )

D fRu -24 :66 (R ) D fRu -24 :722 (R ) D fRu -24 :751(R ) D fRu -24 :89 (R ) D fRu -26 :1(R )

D eR t -1 :394 (S ) D eR t -1 :427 (S ) D eR t -1 :489 (S ) D eR t -1 :626 (S )

D eRu -1 :2558 (R ) D eRu -1 :2559 (R ) D eRu -1 :2 560 (R ) D eRu -1 :2 561(R )

D fR s -3 : WH568 (U ) D fR s -3 : WH62 (U ) D fR s -3 : WH628 (U ) D fR s -Y :3 (R )

D fRu -27 :12 (R ) D fRu -27 :4 (R ) D fRu -7 :147 (R ) D fRu -7 :167 (R )

10

A ppend ix H I D fRu -8 :1 0 (U ) D fRu -8 :1030 (R ) D fRu -8 :1051(R ) D fRu -8 :1 052 (R )

D gR 1 -X :18 (U ) D gR 1 -X :19 (U ) D gR 1 -X :2 0 (U ) D gR 1 -X :7 (U )

D gR s -1 : 3 064 (U ) D gR s 1 :312 1(U ) D gR s -1 : 3 50 (U ) D gR s -1 :353 (U )

D gRw -4 :1471(R ) D gRw -4 :1 472 (R ) D gRw -4 :1473 (R ) D gRw -4 :1481(R )

D fRu -8 :1054 (S ) DfRu -8 :1 (U ) DfRu -8 :1112 (S )

D gR 1 -X :9 (U ) D gR 1? -Y :6768 (R ) D gR 1? -Y :6 769 (R )

D gR s -1 :4091 (U ) D gR s -1 :4139 (U ) D gR s -1 : 4 15 ( U )

D gRw -4 :1 655 (R ) D gRw -4 : 1 765 (R ) D gRw -4 :1776 (R )

D fRu -8 :1195 (R ) D fRu -8 : 1 245 (R )

D gRm -1 :181(U ) D gRm -Z :QAA634 (C )

D gR s -1 :4502 (R ) D gR s -1 :4503 (R )

D gRw -4 :179 (R ) D gRw -4 : 1 819 (R )

D fRu -8 :13 (U )

D gRn -5 :6 (U )

D gR s -1 : 4 504 (R )

D gRw -4 :1834 (R )

D fRu -8 :14 (U ) D fRu -8 : 1 62 (R ) D fRu -8 : 1 67 (R ) D fRu -8 :2 167 (S ) D fRu -8 : 2 23 (R ) D fRu -8 :228 (S )

D gRn -5 :8 (U ) D gRn -Y :12 (R ) D gRn -Z :QAA63 (C ) D gRo -Z :QAA20 13 (C ) D gRpo -X :A7561(U ) D gRpo -X :A7568 (U )

D gR s -1 :4505 (R ) D gR s -1 :4506 (R ) D gR s -1 :4580 (R ) D gR s -1 :466 (U ) D gR s -1 : 6 30 (U ) D gR s -1 :759 (U )

D gRw -4 : 2 022 (R ) D gRw -4 :2 155 (R ) D gRw -4 :2429 (R ) D gRw -4 :2 492 (R ) D gRw -4 :252 (R ) D gRw -4 :2 700 (R )

D fRu -8 :260 (R ) D fRu -8 : 3 02 (R )

D gRpo -X :A7569 (U ) D gRpo -X :A7571 (U )

D gR s -1 :8202 (R ) D gR s -1 :8246 (R )

D gRw -4 :2883 (R ) D gRw -4 :2976 (R )

D fRu -8 :3131 (R ) D fRu -8 :3671 (R ) D fRu -8 :4055 (R )

D gRpo -X :A7572 (U ) D gRq -8 :4 (S ) D gRq -Z :QAA1074 (C )

D gR s -1 :8271(R ) D gR s -11 : 12 (U ) D gR s -11 :413 (U )

D gRw -4 :3 205 (R ) D gRw -4 :3206 (R ) D gRw -4 :3342 (R )

D fRu -8 : 4 477 (R )

D gR r -1 :10 (U )

D gR s -11 :414 (U )

D gRw -4 : 3 348 (R )

D fRu -8 : 6 33 (R ) D fRu -8 :709 (R ) D fRu -8 : 9 (U )

D gR r -1 : 1 2885 (U ) D gR r -1 :1 753 (S ) D gR r -1 :1 992 (S )

D gR s -2 :1448 (U ) D gR s -2 :2706 (U ) D gR s -2 :2743 (U )

D gRw -4 :509 (R ) D gRw -4 :513(R ) D gRw -4 :514 (R )

D fRu -8 : 9 25 (S ) D fRu -Y : 10 (R )

D gR r -1 : 4 2 (R ) D gR r -2 :3176 (C )

D gR s -2 :5650 (U ) D gR s -2 :5666 (U )

D gRw -4 :930 (R ) D gRw -Y :1 4 (R )

D fRu -Y :19 (R ) D fRu -Y :20 (R )

D gR r -2 :3234 (C ) D gR r -2 :359 (C )

D gR s -2 :73831(U ) D gR s -4 :1 7 (U )

D gRw -Y :1 5 (R ) D gRw -Y :1 6 (R )

D fRu -Y :2 1(R ) D fRu -Y :22 (R ) D fRu -Y :25 (R )

D gR r -2 :3898 (C ) D gR r -2 :4960 (C ) D gR r -2 :4962 (C )

D gR s -4 :1 8 (U ) D gR s -4 :1 9 (U ) D gR s -4 :20 (U )

D gRw -Y :2 1(R ) D gRw -Y :3 (R ) D gRwx -Y :5640 (R )

D fRu -Y :7 (R ) D fRu -Y :8 (R ) D fRu -Y :9 (R )

D gR r -2 :5550 (C ) D gR r -2 :5727 (C ) D gR r -2 :5849 (C )

D gR s -4 :2 1(U ) D gR s -4 :22 (U ) D gR s -4 :29 (U )

D gRwx -Y :5642 (R ) D gRx -5 : 1 494 ( R ) D gRx -5 : 1 58 (R )

D fRv 11 :3 (R ) D fRw -3 1 :1 (U ) D fRw -Y :21(U ) D fRw -Y :4429 (R )

D gR r -6 :1 026 (U ) D gR r -6 :1 068 (U ) D gR r -6 :1 304 (U ) D gR r -6 :1 323 (U )

D gR s -5 :1 2 (U ) D gR s -5 :1 3 (U ) D gR s -X :1(U ) D gRv -15 : 1 (R )

D gRx -5 : 1 65 (R ) D gRx -5 : 1 785 ( R ) D gRx -5 : 2 00 (R ) D gRx -5 :47 (R )

D fRw -Y :4430 (R ) D fRw -Y :4431(R )

D gR r -6 :1 383 (U ) D gR r -6 :1 388 (U )

D gRvw -Y :5591(R ) D gRw -1 :16 (R )

D gRx -5 :51(R ) D gRx -5 :53 (R )

D fRw -Y :4432 (R ) D fRw -Y :4433 (R ) D fRw -Y :4434 (R ) D fRw -Y :4547 (R ) D fRw -Y :6342 (R )

D gR r -6 :1 442 (U ) D gR r -6 :2 260 (U ) D gR r -6 :2315 (U ) D gR r -6 :379 (U ) D gR r -6 :6 067 (U )

D gRw -19 :24 (V ) D gRw -19 :25 (V ) D gRw 19 :42 (V ) D gRw -23 : 1 (V ) D gRw -26 :3 (R )

D gRx -Y : 1 0938 (R ) D gRx -Y :1 0939 (R ) D ghRx -Y :10937 (R ) D hRk -2 :46 (R ) D hRk -2 :47 (R )

D fRw -Y :6343 (R ) D fRw -Y :7 (R )

D gR s - 1: 114 (U ) D gR s -1 :1116 (U )

D gRw -34 :1(R ) D gRw -4 :1020 (R )

D hRk -2 :48 (R ) D hRk -2 :49 (R )

D fRw -Y :7869 (R ) D fRw -Y :7870 (R )

D gR s -1 :1389 (U ) D gR s -1 : 1419 (U )

D gRw -4 :1 049 (R ) D gRw -4 : 116 (R )

D hRk -2 :51 (R ) D hRk -5 : 1( U )

D fRw -Y :7871(R ) D fRw -Y :7872 (R ) D fRw -Y :7873 (R ) D fRw -Y :7874 (R ) D fRw -Y :7875 (R )

D gR s -1 :1453 (U ) D gR s -1 :1797 (U ) D gR s -1 :180 1(U ) D gR s -1 : 1 866 (U ) D gR s -1 :2 114 (U )

D gRw -4 : 13 (R ) D gRw -4 :1 20 1(R ) D gRw -4 :1 315 (R ) D gRw -4 : 1 316 (R ) D gRw -4 :1317 (R )

D hRk -5 : 2 (U ) D hR 1 -1 0 :2 (U ) D hR 1 -10 :6 (U ) D hR 1 -16 :6 (R ) D hR 1 -17 : 3 1(R )

DgR 1 -X :10 (U ) D gR 1 -X :11(U ) DgR 1 -X :14 (U )

D gR s -1 :2279 (U ) D gR s -1 : 2 303 (U ) D gR s -1 :2391(U )

D gRw -4 :1 337 (R ) D gRw -4 :1344 (R ) D gRw -4 :1392 (R )

D hR 1 -1 7 :32 (R ) D hR 1 -17 : 3 3 (R ) D hR 1 -17 :593 (U )

D gR 1 -X :15 (U ) D gR 1 -X :16 (U )

D gR s -1 :3046 (U ) D gR s -1 :3048 (U )

D gRw -4 :1419 (R ) D gRw -4 :1420 (R )

D hR 1 -1 7 :594 (U ) D hR 1 -1 7 :595 (U )

11

T he T axonomy o fG round S t one T oo l s D hR 1 -17 :722 (U ) D hR 1 -1 7 :767 (U ) D hR 1 -17 :768 (U )

D hR lm -Y :1 305 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1307 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1308 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1368 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 369 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 370 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 442 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 443 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 444 (R )

DhR 1 -17 :769 (U ) D hR 1 -17 :770 (U ) D hR 1 -17 :771(U ) D hR 1 -17 :772 (U )

D hR lm -Y :1309 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1310 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1311(R ) D hR lm -Y :1312 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1 371(R ) D hR lm -Y :1372 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 373 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1374 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 445 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 446 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 447 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 448 (R )

D hR 1 -17 :773 (U ) D hR 1 -17 :774 (U ) D hR 1 -17 :775 (U )

D hR lm -Y :1313 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1314 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1315 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1 375 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 376 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 377 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 449 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 450 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 451(R )

D hR 1 -17 :779 (U ) D hR 1 -7 :1(U )

D hR lm -Y :1316 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1317 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1378 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 380 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 452 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 453 (R )

D hR 1 -8 :12 (U ) D hR 1 -8 :13 (U ) D hR 1 -8 :28 (U )

D hR lm -Y :1318 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1319 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1320 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1381(R ) D hR lm -Y :1382 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1383 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 455 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 456 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 457 (R )

D hR 1 -8 :44 (U ) D hR 1 -Y :1(R ) D hR lm -Y :1261(R ) D hR lm -Y :1262 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1263 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1264 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1265 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1321(R ) D hR lm -Y :1322 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1323 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1324 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1325 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1326 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1327 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1384 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1385 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 386 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 387 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 389 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 390 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1391(R )

DhR lm -Y :1 458 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 459 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 460 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 461(R ) DhR lm -Y :1 463 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 464 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 465 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 266 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1328 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1393 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 466 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 267 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1329 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 394 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 467 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1268 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1269 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1270 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1271(R ) DhR lm -Y :1272 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1330 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1331(R ) D hR lm -Y :1332 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1333 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1334 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1396 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 397 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1399 (R ) D hR lm -Y :140 1(R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 402 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 469 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 470 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 471(R ) DhR lm -Y :1 473 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 474 (R )

DhR im -Y :1274 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1275 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1335 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 337 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1403 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1404 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 475 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 476 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1276 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 277 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1278 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1279 (R ) DhR lm -Y : 1 280 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 338 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1339 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1340 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 341 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1342 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1405 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1406 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1407 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 408 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1409 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 477 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 478 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 480 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 483 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 484 (R )

DhR lm -Y : 1 281(R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 282 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1343 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1344 (R )

D hR lm -Y :14 10 (R ) D hR lm -Y :14 11(R )

DhR lm -Y :1 486 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 487 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1283 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1345 (R )

D hR lm -Y :14 12 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 488 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1284 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1285 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1346 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1347 (R )

D hR lm -Y :14 13 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 4 15 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 489 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 490 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1286 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 287 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1348 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1349 (R )

D hR lm -Y :14 16 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 4 17 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 491(R ) DhR lm -Y :1 504 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1 288 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1289 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1290 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 291(R )

D hR lm -Y :1350 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1351 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 352 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1353 (R )

D hR lm -Y :14 18 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 42 1(R ) D hR lm -Y :1422 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1423 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 505 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 506 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 507 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 508 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1292 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1354 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 424 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 509 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 293 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1294 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 295 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1355 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 356 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1357 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 425 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1426 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1427 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 510 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 511(R ) DhR lm -Y :1 512 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 296 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1297 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 298 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1358 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1359 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1360 (R )

DhR lm -Y : 1 432 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1433 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 434 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 513 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 514 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 515 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 299 (R )

D hR lm -Y :136 1(R )

D hR lm -Y :1 435 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 5 16 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1300 (R ) D hR lm -Y :130 1(R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 362 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1363 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1436 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1438 (R )

DhR lm -Y :1 520 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 522 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 302 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 303 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1304 (R )

D hR lm -Y : 1 365 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1366 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1367 (R )

D hR lm -Y :1439 (R ) D hR lm -Y : 1 440 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1 441(R )

D hR lm -Y :1 523 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 524 (R ) DhR lm -Y :1 525 (R )

12

A ppend ix I I D hR lm -Y :1526 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1852 (R )

D hRq -21 :1508 (R ) D hRq -21 : 1 534 (R )

D hR s -1 :3915 (U ) D hR s -1 :98 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma3586 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma3803 (U )

D hR lm -Y :1853 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1856 (R )

D hRq -21 : 1 575 (R ) D hRq -21 :163 (R )

D hR s -1 :A 1277 (U ) D hR s -1 :A 1282 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma3818 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma4181(U )

D hR lm -Y :1857 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1883 (R ) D hR lm -Y :1884 (R )

D hRq -2 1 :189 (R ) D hRq -21 :20 (R ) D hRq -21 :2125 (R )

D hR s -1 : EB 2 241(U ) D hR s -1 : EB513 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA10 11(U )

D hR s -1 : Ma4530 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma4699 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma494 (U )

D hR lm -Y :1885 (R ) D hRp -11 :264 (S ) D hRp -11 :273 (S )

D hRq -21 :2134 (R ) D hRq -21 :220 (R ) D hRq -21 :2495 (R )

D hR s -1 : MA1070 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA1214 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA1459 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma499 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma 5565 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma 5641(U )

D hRp -11 :274 (S ) D hRp -11 :290 (S )

D hRq -2 1 :261(R ) D hRq -21 :3305 (R )

D hR s -1 : MA1571(U ) D hR s -1 : MA1738 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma 565 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma5793 (U )

D hRp -11 :338 (S ) D hRp -11 :542 (S )

D hRq -21 :379 (R ) D hRq -21 :54 / 179 (R )

D hR s -1 : MA2027 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA2986 (U )

D hR s 1: Ma5798 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma5875 (U )

D hRp 11 :554 (S ) D hRp -11 :655 (S )

D hRq -5 :2 (U ) D hRq -X :1(U )

D hR s -1 : MA3276 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA3333 (U )

D hR s 1 : Ma6430 (U ) D hR s 1: Ma6627 (U )

D hRp -11 :660 (S ) D hRp -11 :685 (S )

D hR r -17 : 1 11(S ) D hR r -17 :112 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA3584 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA3587 (U )

D hR s 1: Ma6655 ( U ) D hR s 1: Ma6677 (U )

D hRp -11 :695 (S ) D hRp -11 :899 (S ) D hRp -11 :G l (S )

D hR r -17 :136 (S ) D hR r -17 :217 (S ) D hR r -6 :113 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA3798 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA424 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA537 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma6710? (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma6969 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma7117 (U )

D hRp -11 :G 120 (S )

D hR r -6 :1135 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA5547 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma7383 (U )

D hRp -11 :G 128 (S ) D hRp -11 :G 129 (S ) D hRp 11 :G223 (S )

D hR r -6 :1194 (S ) D hR r -6 :1236 (S ) D hR r -6 :1605 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA5652 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA5710 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA5786 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma7444 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma7450 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma7455 (U )

D hRp 11 :G26 (S ) D hRp -11 :G260 (S )

D hR r -6 :1 640 (S ) D hR r -6 :242 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA6107 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA6222 (U )

D hR s 1 : Ma7479 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma7480 (U )

D hRp -11 :G420 (S ) D hRp -11 :G485 (S )

D hR r -6 :284 (S ) D hR r -6 :296 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA6540 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA6567 (U )

D hR s 1 : Ma7895 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma7924 (U )

D hRp -11 :G6 14 (S ) D hRp 15 :7 (R ) D hRp -33 :570 (R )

D hR r -6 :690 (S ) D hR r -6 :767 (S ) D hR r -6 :768 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA7067 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA7533 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA7727 (U )

D hR s 1 : Ma8005 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma8074 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma8144 (U )

D hRp -? :7994 (R )

D hR r -6 :880 (S )

D hR s -1 : MA7762? (U )

D hR s 1 : Ma8285 (U )

D hRp -FL :11324 .1(R ) D hRpFL :11324 .10 (R ) D hRp -FL :11324 .7 (R ) D hRp -FL :11324 .8 (R ) D hRp -FL :11324 .9 (R ) D hRp -HY :3140 (R )

D hR r -8 :639 (R ) D hR r -8 :??? (R ) D hR s -1 :10 139 (C ) D hR s -1 :10390 (C ) D hR s -1 :10391(C ) D hR s -1 :10392 (C )

D hR s -1 : MA7859 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA7952 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA8687 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA8834 (U ) D hR s -1 : MA?? (U ) D hR s -1 : MA??? (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma8358 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma8363 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma8606 (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma8681(U ) D hR s -1 : Ma8687? (U ) D hR s 1 : Ma8692 (U )

D hRp -HY :314 1(R ) D hRp -HY :3142 (R )

D hR s -1 :10394 (C ) D hR s -1 :1 0395 (C )

D hR s -1 : Ma 109 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma 1112 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma871(U ) D hR s -1 : Ma93 (U )

D hRp -HY :7664 (R ) D hRp -X :1(U ) D hRp -X :6 (U ) D hRp -X :A 11771C (U ) D hRp -Y :10 (R ) D hRp -Y :11 (R ) D hRp -Y :12 (R ) D hRp -Y :22 (R ) D hRp -Y :23 (R ) D hRp -Y :3 (R )

D hR s -1 :10396 (C ) D hR s -1 :10397 (C ) D hR s -1 :10398 (C ) D hR s -1 :10399 (C ) D hR s -1 :10411(C ) D hR s -1 :10471(C ) D hR s -1 :10473 (C ) D hR s -1 :10502 (C ) D hR s -1 :10535 (C ) D hR s -1 :10536 (C )

D hR s -1 : Ma 1177 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma 1308 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma 1469 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma 1676 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma l8 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma 1812 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma 193 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma2310 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma2744 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma2756 (U )

D hR s 1 : Ma9470 (R ) D hR s 1 : Ma9471(R ) D hR s -1 : Ma9472 (R ) D hR s -1 : Ma9473 (R ) D hR s -12 :1(U ) D hR s -19 : 103 (U ) D hR s -19 :1107 (U ) D hR s -19 :1141(U ) D hR s 19 :1181(U ) D hR s -19 :1448 (U )

D hRp -Y :9 (R ) D hRq -1 :15 (U ) D hRq 19 :2 (R ) D hRq -2 1 : 1 070 (R ) D hRq -2 1 :1032 (R ) D hRq -2 1 :1068 (R ) D hRq -2 1 :1186 (R ) D hRq -2 1 :1237 (R )

D hR s -1 :10539 (C ) D hR s -1 :10560 (C ) D hR s -1 :1056 1(C ) D hR s -1 :10562 (C ) D hR s -1 :13644 (C ) D hR s -1 :13810 (C ) D hR s -1 :3882 (U ) D hR s -1 :3905 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma2778 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma278? (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma292 1(U ) D hR s -1 : Ma2965 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma3275 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma3277 (U ) D hR s -1 : Ma3281(U ) D hR s -1 : Ma3290 (U )

D hR s -19 :318 (C ) D hR s -19 :77 (U ) D hR s -23 :3 (R ) D hR s -X :1 (U ) D hR s -X :A240 (U ) D hR s -Y :2 (R ) D hR s -Y :3 (R ) D hR t -11 :83 (U )

D hRq -2 1 :1490 (R )

D hR s -1 :3906 (U )

D hR s -1 : Ma3583 (U )

D hR t -14 :1 0 (U )

13

T he T axonomy o fG round S tone T oo l s D hR t -2 : ML TE2030? (U ) D hR t -2 : ML TE2031(U )

D hR t -4 :587 (U ) D hR t -4 :5926 (U )

D hRx -16 :2248 (R ) D hRx -16 :2389 (R )

D iR i -1 :2787 (R ) D iR i -1 :2790 (R )

D hR t -2 : MUE2032 (U ) D hR t -2 : MUE229 (U )

D hR t -4 :7325 (U ) D hR t -4 :8324 (U )

D hRx -16 :2833 (R ) D hRx -16 :39 (R )

D iR i 1 :4404 (R ) D iR i -1 :4406 (R )

D hR t -2 : ML TE2588 (U ) D hR t -2 : MUE2589? (U )

D hR t -5 :114 (U ) D hR t -5 :124 (U )

D hRx -16 :663 (R ) D hRx -16 :667 (R )

D iR i -1 :4413 (R ) D iR i -1 :4416 (R )

D hR t -2 : ML TE2616 (U ) D hR t -2 : MUE2717 (U ) D hR t -2 : MUE3199 (U )

D hR t -5 :136 (U ) D hR t -5 :28 (U ) D hR t -5 :35 (U )

D hRx -16 :78 (R ) D hRx -16 :952 (R ) D hRx -6 :1065 (R )

D iR i -1 :4419 (R ) D iR i -1 :4422 (R ) D iR i -1 :4423 (R )

D hR t -2 : MUE3215 (U ) D hR t -2 : MUE3326 (U )

D hR t -5 :561(U ) D hR t -5 : 5 89 (U )

D hRx -6 :395 (R ) D hRx -6 :399 (R )

D iR i -1 :4424 (R ) D iR i -1 :4425 (R )

D hR t -2 : MUE3345 (U )

D hR t -5 :62 (U )

D hRx -6 :517 (R )

D iR i -1 :4426 (R )

D hR t -2 : MUE3536 (U ) D hR t -2 : ML TE3537 (U ) D hR t -2 : MUE3888 (U )

D hR t -5 :81(U ) D hR t -6 :1174 (U ) D hR t -6 :236 (U )

D hRx -6 :548 (R ) D hRx -6 :748 (R ) D hRx -6 :972 (R )

D iR i -1 :4442 (R ) D iR i -1 :4446 (R ) D iR i -1 :4447 (R )

D hR t -2 : MUE4253 (U ) D hR t -2 : ML TE4677 (U )

D hR t -6 :699 (U ) D hR t -6 :73 (U )

D hSb -Y :1(R ) D hSe -2 :1321 '973 (A )

D iR i -1 :4448 (R ) D iR i -1 :4453 (R )

D hR t -2 : ML TE477 (U ) D hR t -2 : MUE521(U )

D hR t -6 :857 (U ) D hR t -8 :31(U )

D hSe -2 :1 490 :973 (A ) D hSe -2 :1539 :973 (A )

D iR i -1 :4456 (R ) D iR i -1 :579 (U )

D hR t -2 : ML TE642 (U ) D hR t -2 : ML TE814 (U )

D hR t -8 :81(U ) D hR t -X :8 (U )

D hSe -2 :1589 :973 (A ) D hSe -2 :1595 :973 (A )

D iR i -1 :595 (U ) D iR i -1 :601(U )

D hR t -2 : MUE940 (U ) D hR t -3 :1685 (U ) D hR t -3 :1789 (U )

D hR t -X :A 18 1(U ) D hR t -X :A193 (U ) D hRx -16 :145 (R )

D hSe -2 :1598 (A ) D hSe -2 :1 616 :973 (A ) D hSe -2 :1651 :973 (A )

D iR i -10 :98 (R ) D iR i -14 :290 (R ) D iR i -3 : 2 6 (R )

D hR t -3 :1800 (U ) D hR t -3 :1867 (U ) D hR t -3 :1910 (U ) D hR t -3 :20 15 (U )

D hRx -16 :1522 (R ) D hRx -16 :1523 (R ) D hRx -16 :1524 (R ) D hRx -16 :1525 (R )

D hSe -2 :1747 (A ) D hSe -2 :1811 (A ) D hSe -2 :1940 (A ) D hSe -2 :2250 (A )

D iR i -38 :3112 (R ) D iR i -38 :3113(R ) D iR i -38 :3114 (R ) D iR i -38 :3115 (R )

D hR t -3 :452 (U ) D hR t -3 :707 (U ) D hR t -3 :784 (U )

D hRx -16 :1543 (R ) D hRx -16 :1544 (R ) D hRx -16 :1939 (R )

D hSe -2 :2374 (A ) D hSe -2 :2468 (A ) D hSe -2 :2622 (A )

D iR i -38 :3116 (R ) D iR i -38 :3117 (R ) D iR i -38 :3118 (R )

D hR t -3 :801(U )

D hRx -16 :201(R )

D hSe -2 :2682 (A )

D iR i -38 :3119 (R )

D hR t -3 :809 (U )

D hRx -16 :2 02 (R )

D hSe -2 :2750 (A )

D iR i -38 :3134 (R )

D hR t -3 : MuN148 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN227 (U )

D hRx -16 :2 03 (R ) D hRx -16 :2 04 (R )

D hSe -2 :2993 (A ) D hSe -2 :3071(A )

D iR i -38 :3136 (R ) D iR i -38 :3138 (R )

D hR t -3 : MuN23 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN255 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN303 (U )

D hRx -16 :2 05 (R ) D hRx -16 :206 (R ) D hRx -16 :207 (R )

D hSe -2 :3086 (A ) D hSe -2 :3105 (A ) D hSe -2 :3175 (A )

D iR i -38 :3150 (R ) D iR i -39 :3005 (R ) D iR i -Y :3 (R )

D hR t -3 : MuN39 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN449 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN450 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN451(U ) D hR t -3 : MuN490 (U )

D hRx -16 :2 08 (R ) D hRx -16 :2 09 (R ) D hRx -16 :210 (R ) D hRx -16 :211(R ) D hRx -16 :2116 (R )

D hSe -2 :3264 (A ) D hSe -2 :437 :973 (A ) D hSe -2 :46 :973 (A ) D hSe -2 :520 :973 (A ) D hSe -2 :523 :973 (A )

D iR i -Y :4 (R ) D iR i -Y :702 1(R ) D iR j -1 : 1 2078 (U ) D iR j -1 :12107 (U ) D iR j -1 :12911(U )

D hR t -3 : MuN560 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN700 (U )

D hRx -16 :212 (R ) D hRx -16 :2120 (R )

D hSe -2 :54 :973 (A ) D hSe -2 :666 :973 (A )

D iR j -1 :13181(U ) D iR j -1 :13531(U )

D hR t -3 : MuN744 (U )

D hRx -16 :2124 (R )

D hSe -2 :70 1(A )

D iR j -1 :15634 (R )

D hR t -3 : MuN759 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN773 (U ) D hR t -3 : MuN8 (U )

D hRx -16 :213 (R ) D hRx -16 :2130 (R ) D hRx -16 :2131(R )

D hSe -2 :728 (A ) D hSe -2 :869 :973 (A ) D hSg -1 :2 (R )

D iR j -1 : 1 5636 (R ) D iR j 1 :15638 (R ) D iR j -1 :3212 (U )

D hR t -3 : MuN9 (U ) D hR t -4 :10748 (U )

D hRx -16 :214 (R ) D hRx -16 :215 (R )

D iR i -1 :1 (U ) D iR i -1 :106 (U )

D iR j -1 :3316 (U ) D iR j 1 :3345 (U )

D hR t -4 :3380 (U )

D hRx -16 :216 (R )

D iR i -1 :1116 (U )

D iR j -1 : 3 49 ( U )

D hR t -4 :3646 (U ) D hR t -4 : 3 692 (U ) D hR t -4 :4718 (U )

D hRx -16 :217 (R ) D hRx -16 :2 183 (R ) D hRx -16 :219 (R )

D iR i -1 :117 (U ) D iR i -1 :120 (U ) D iR i -1 :121 (U )

D iR j -1 :351(U ) D iR j -1 : 5 27 ( U ) D iR j -1 :6 150 (U )

D hR t -4 :4919 (U ) D hR t -4 :534 (U ) D hR t -4 : 5 375 (U )

D hRx -16 :220 (R ) D hRx -16 :2200 (R ) D hRx -16 :221(R )

D iR i -1 :122 (U ) D iR i -1 :1224 (U ) D iR i -1 :1225 (U )

D iR j -1 :9539 (U ) D iR j -1 :993 (U ) D iR j 13 :1(U )

D hR t -4 :5424 (U ) D hR t -4 :5760 (U )

D hRx -16 :222 (R ) D hRx -16 :223 (R )

D iR i -1 :1588 (R ) D iR i -1 :2777 (R )

D iR j -14 :1085 (U ) D iR j -14 :1091(U )

•

14

A ppend ix I I D iR j -14 : 1 102 (U ) D iR j -14 :1148 (U ) D iR j -Y :2485 (R ) D iR j -Y :8488 (R ) D iR t -X :A182 (U )

D jR i -Y :2552 (R ) D jR i -Y :2553 (R ) D jR i -Y :2554 (R ) D jR i -Y :2556 (R ) D jR i -Y :65 (R )

D iRu -X :A6403 (U ) D iSc -1 :423 (R ) D iSd -1 :24 (R )

D jR i -Y :82 (R ) D jR i -Y :83 (R ) D jR i -Y :84 (R )

D iSe -7 :1257 (R ) D iSe -7 :1326 (R ) D iSe -7 :1527 (R )

D jR i -Y :85 (R ) D jR i -Y :86 (R ) D jR i -Y :87 (R )

D iSe -7 :1529 (R ) D iSe -Y :1(R ) D jR i 14 :27 (U ) D jR i -24 : 1 76 (U . )

D jR i -Y :88 (R ) D jR i -Y :90 (R ) D jR i -Y :91(R ) D jR i -Y :92 (R )

D jR i -3 :1039 (U ) D jR i -3 :1 0485 (U ) D jR i -3 :1 07 (U )

D jR i -Y :93 (R ) D jR i -Y :94 (R ) D jR i -Y :95 (R )

D jR i -3 :1161(U )

D jR i -Y :96 (R )

D jR i -3 : 190 (U ) D jR i -3 :1273 (U ) D jR i -3 :1 98 (U ) D jR i -3 :2684 (U )

D jR i -Y :97 (R ) D jR i -Y :98 (R ) D jR i -Y :99 (R ) D jSf 13 :507 (V )

D jR i -3 :3063 (U ) D jR i -3 :3099 (U ) D jR i -3 :428 (U ) D jR i -3 :4299 (U ) D jR i -3 :4349 (U )

D jSf -13 :532 (V ) D kSf -Y :15 (R ) D kSf -Y :16 (R ) D kSf -Y :60 (R ) E aSe -X :5272 (R )

D jR i -3 :4403 (U ) D jR i -3 :4777 (U ) D jR i -3 :5632 (U ) D jR i -3 :6 113 (U )

E aSe -X :5454 (R ) E aSf -2 :1(R ) E aSf -X :4612 (R ) E aSf -X :4613 (R )

D jR i -3 :9575 (U ) D jR i -3 :9764 (U ) D jR i -3 :9942 (U )

E aSf -X :5453 (R ) E cSg -7 :4 (R ) E cSg -7 :5 (R )

D jR i -5 :10284 (U ) D jR i -5 :10285 (U ) D jR i -5 :11071(U )

E cSg -Y :2 (R ) DR -Y :11(R ) DR -Y :12 (R )

D jR i -5 :1958 (U ) D jR i -5 : 2 425 (U ) D jR i -5 : 2 608 (U ) D jR i -5 : 4 650 (U ) D jR i -5 : 4 746 (U ) D jR i -5 :7 (U )

DR -Y :13 (R ) DR -Y :14 (R ) DR -Y :149 (R ) DR -Y :15 (R ) DR -Y :150 (R ) DR -Y :151(R )

D jR i -8 :87 (R ) D jR i -Y :100 (R ) D jR i -Y :10 1(R )

DR -Y :152 (R ) DR -Y :153 (R ) DR -Y :154 (R )

D jR i -Y :102 (R ) D jR i -Y :103 (R ) D jR i -Y :104 (R ) D jR i -Y :108 (R ) D jR i -Y :2542 (R ) D jR i -Y :2543 (R ) D jR i -Y :2544 (R ) D jR i -Y :2545 (R ) D jR i -Y :2546 (R )

DR -Y :155 (R ) DR -Y :156 (R ) DR -Y :158 (R ) DR -Y :16 (R ) DR -Y :160 (R ) DR -Y :16 1(R ) DR -Y :164 (R ) DR -Y :A 1285 (U ) DR -Y :A6062 (U )

D jR i -Y :2547 (R ) D jR i -Y :2548 (R ) D jR i -Y :2549 (R ) D jR i -Y :2551(R ) 15