Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan 303134555X, 9783031345555

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Nisha Varghese Sukhdeo Singh Burark K.A. Varghese   Editors

Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan

Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan

Nisha Varghese · Sukhdeo Singh Burark · K.A. Varghese Editors

Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan

Editors Nisha Varghese School of Extension and Development Studies Indira Gandhi National Open University New Delhi, Delhi, India

Sukhdeo Singh Burark Department of Agricultural Economics and Management Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

K.A. Varghese Department of Agricultural Economics and Management Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

ISBN 978-3-031-34555-5 ISBN 978-3-031-34556-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Foreword

Natural resources are foundations of support to life, i.e. human beings, animals, plants birds (fauna & flora), etc. and, in turn, plants and livestock support human life. On the other hand, all human activities (even a simple barefoot walk on the soil), in one way or the other, disturb the natural resources. Obviously, while survival of human life depends on natural resources, conservation or rational management of natural resources is essential for sustainable human livelihoods. In arid regions, this relationship is very fragile, which makes the management of natural resources extremely important in such regions like Thar Desert. In this context, the present efforts to brainstorm and bring out this compendium assume added importance. Deserts cover more than one fifth of the Earth’s land area and are home to one sixth of the world population. Deserts, either hot or cold, are spread over all the continents of the world. By definition, deserts are moisture deficient areas with less than 250 mm rainfall per year implying that moisture loss through evaporation is more than the precipitation rate. Based on temperature level, location and other causes of dryness, the deserts are classified as subtropical, coastal, rain shadow, interior and polar. Low or no humidity or water vapour in air and extreme temperatures make the life hostile in desert areas. The Thar Desert or the Great Indian Desert is a large arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is rated as the world’s 17th largest desert and 9th largest hot subtropical desert. About 85 per cent of its area is in India which is spread over the Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Areaspecific strategies for development are pertinent for sustainability of natural resources for any region and it is more relevant for eco-fragile regions like desert areas. Moreover, the developmental activities must have adequate interface with the natural resources like land, water and others. The demographic factors and culture also play a crucial role in determining the gravity of problems of any region. As compared to other regions, the Thar Desert has relatively more pressure of human population whose livelihood is mainly centred on animal rearing and dry land agriculture. A proper balance between economic activities and natural resources is of paramount importance for fragile areas like deserts.

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Desertification is a process that converts productive land into unproductive one which is a threat in the semi-arid regions bordering deserts due to excessive human activities, overgrazing by animals, deforestation, poor water retention practices and many others. Overexploitation of natural resources for survival or for short term gains by neglecting the long-term sustainability is obviously a matter of great concern. The issue of maintaining a balance between conservation of natural resources and improving the livelihoods of the people was faced by almost all countries at one stage or the other. This assumes a critical importance in underdeveloped or developing countries, especially when and wherever food insecurity and poverty levels are very high. India also faced this situation at the time of independence. India attempted convergence of natural resource concerns and food security objectives and was adequately successful. India’s approach has been prioritizing food security and poverty alleviation at initial stages of development, which subsequently created conditions for sustainable human use of natural resources and protection of the environment. However, it needs to be noted that arid region or Thar Desert accounts for only around 5 per cent of India’s total geographical area. In India, many parts of the country are well endowed with irrigation, fertile soils and very good rainfall. Nevertheless, convergence of natural resource concerns and livelihoods of the residents/ inhabitants of arid areas continues to be matter of concern for all. This compendium as an edited book, aimed at various facets of Thar Desert in Rajasthan, is the need of the time. The chapters are contributed mostly by the experienced scholars who either hail from Rajasthan or have wide experience of working in the respective field in the state of Rajasthan. The temporal changes and current status on various aspects like people and culture, land use and land management systems, crop production patterns, livestock management practices, agro-forestry activities, soil conservation and water management systems, community land management patterns, potentials of agri-business, women empowerment efforts and other multidimensional aspects are of considerable significance for sustainability of natural resources and improved livelihoods of the people of the region. It is also seen that all the chapter writers have followed a well-articulated systematic pattern by highlighting importance of each of these aspects with special reference to Thar Desert, changes over time, the current status, the emerging issues and possible remedial measures for sustainability of natural resources of this desert region. Area-specific developmental policies, strategies and interventions have their role in the sustainable development of any region or ecosystem. However, for eco-fragile desert ecosystem these assume critical significance. This book may serve the dual purpose of identifying the best practices, which may be continued and promoted for environmental sustainability and those practices that make the ecosystem more fragile, which need to be restricted. I congratulate the coordinators-cum-editors for conceiving and editing this volume and express my compliments to the team of Springer Publishers for bringing out this book. Of course, major credit goes to the contributors of different chapters for their efforts and scholarly work. The volume will be a good reference material for students,

Foreword

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researchers and faculty members in various disciplines, development functionaries, planners and policymakers having interest in development and improving the lives of the people in desert areas of Rajasthan. S. S. Acharya Former Chairman, Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), Govt. of India Honorary Professor and Former Director, Institute of Development Studies Jaipur (India) Former Professor and Head, Dept. of Ag. Economics, Rajasthan Agri. University, Udaipur Founder Chief Editor, Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing Former President, Agricultural Economics Research Association (India) Former Member-Secretary, Zonal Planning Team, Zone XIV (Western Dry Region), Planning Commission, Govt. of India

Preface

The Thar Desert is the 17th largest desert out of all deserts and 9th largest subtropical desert of the world. It has a geographical area of more than two lakh sq.km. About 85 per cent of Thar Desert is in India and is spread over Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat states of India and the remaining 15 per cent area falls under Pakistan. Rajasthan alone accounts for about 60 per cent area of Thar Desert. In Rajasthan, major area of Thar Desert is covered by the four districts viz. Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur and the nearby districts like Jalore, Pali, Nagaur, Sikar, Churu, Jhunjhunu, Sriganganagar and Hanumangarh also have partial coverage of area falling under Thar desert. With the emergence of the Gang, Bhakra and IGNP canal systems, the districts of Sriganganagar and Hanumangarh have emerged as a specific agro-ecosystem. Hence, the chapter writers have focused on the remaining 10 districts with special attention to the first four districts having major area under Thar Desert. Unlike most of the deserts in the world, the Thar Desert is relatively more diversified in terms of biological, social, economic and cultural parameters. The present book is the outcome of an effort to document all these aspects about Thar Desert by different authors having exposure and experience about this peculiar ecosystem of the world. In all, there are 14 chapters in this manuscript. Chapter 1, Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, covers an overview of global desert scenario—hot and cold deserts of the world, location and spread of Thar desert, salient features of Thar Desert in general and its geographical part in Rajasthan including the challenges and opportunities of Thar desert. Chapter 2 on people and culture of the region covers the general demographic features—population growth, density, sex ratio, etc. in the region. Importance of the people and their culture with respect to desert area in general and Thar Desert of Rajasthan in particular is also covered. Chapter 3 covers the shift in land use over time with respect to Thar Desert of Rajasthan; the logics behind current fallow/permanent fallow, the shift in area from other land uses to crops, meagre coverage of area and marginal hike in forest area and temporal changes in land use pattern using Markovian analysis and its implications. Chapter 4 on land and water management practices covers the importance of land and water management for sustainable development of the region, characteristics of ix

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agricultural land in the region and the institutional backing for land management practices. The involvement of community in addressing the emerging problems and its consequences, threat of increased efforts for sand stabilization and the linkage of man and animal are also included in this chapter. Chapter 5 on crop production practices in the region describes the existing crop production practices, current status of the crop production especially the crop mix to meet the farm and family needs; mixed cropping practices with cereals, pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, fruits to meet food-fodder-nutritional security and also to harness the available moisture. Chapter 6 on livestock and its management practices describes the importance of livestock for household economy in Thar Desert, the current status of different livestock population, temporal changes, existing breeds, livestock feeding practices, grazing pattern, livestock yields, diseases, system of livestock migration to cope with drought and various fodder species indigenous to the region. Chapter 7 on arid agro-forestry for Thar Desert elaborates on the importance of the agro-forestry with respect to desert area, components of agro-forestry systems in Thar region; current status of the agro-forestry in Thar Desert, deforestation issues, institutional support by CAZRI, AFRI, SAUs, scope for area expansion and problems in area expansion under arid forest Chapter 8 discusses current status of soil conservation and water harvesting systems for sustainable agriculture in Thar Desert, surface and groundwater status and issues, rain fall pattern, river systems, groundwater problems, occasional occurrence of flood and emerging drainage issues, etc. Chapter 9 highlights aspects of community land management in the Thar Desert, current status of community land management in Thar Desert, community land/ common property issues, sacred forests and pastures attached to deities and their management, rules for the use of common property resources, orans/gauchars, community land problems and diversion of community land for non-agricultural purposes. Chapter 10 on women empowerment issues in Thar Desert Region covers current status of women empowerment in Thar Desert, role of women in desert households and agriculture, role of micro-financing institutions including scope for various SHGs for women, drudgery reduction and economic empowerment of women. Chapter 11 elaborates various options for livelihood in Thar Desert and covers current status of livelihood options available in Thar Desert like agriculture, animal husbandry, industries; eco-tourism, domestic and export market promotions, agribased industries, solar energy, salt production, gypsum and other minerals, and emergence of oil refinery in Barmer. Chapter 12 on potential agri-business elaborates current status of agri-business options available in Thar Desert like wool industry, pulse processing, milk products, seed spices potential, Naguar ki mehti, Bikaneri Bhujia, etc., also the role of the AEZ for cumin production, and one district one crop for export scheme initiated by GoR.

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In Chapter 13 on multi-dimensional development in Thar Desert region, efforts have been made to delineate districts covered under Thar desert according to development indicators using composite indices covering multiple dimensions of development like demography, social development, health, economy and environment. Chapter 14 covers the sustainable NRM issues in Thar Desert region by consolidating emerging problems, remedial measure, future strategies/interventions and other suggestions made by each chapter writers. We hope that the book will act as a good source of reference for students, faculty members, researchers, planners, policymakers and other stakeholders associated with research and development of desert areas in general and that of Thar desert of Rajasthan in particular. Delhi, India Udaipur, India Udaipur, India

Nisha Varghese Sukhdeo Singh Burark K.A. Varghese

Contents

1

An Overview of World Deserts with Special Reference to Thar Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K.A. Varghese

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People and Culture of the Thar Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alka Swami, Rajni, and Pragati Hemrajani

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3

Shift in Land Use Pattern of Thar Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nisha Varghese

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4

Land and Water Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deepesh Machiwal, Amal Kar, D. C. Joshi, and K. K. Yadav

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Crop Production Practices in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Latika Sharma and Arjun Singh Rajput

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Livestock and Its Management Practices in Thar Desert, Rajasthan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 G. L. Meena, Kailash Chand Bairwa, and Hari Singh

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Arid Agroforestry for Thar Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 V. Subbulakshmi, K. R. Sheetal, M. B. Noor Mohamed, P. S. Renjith, and S. Kala

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Soil Conservation and Water Harvesting for Sustainable Agriculture in Arid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 S. P. S. Tanwar, R. N. Kumawat, and P. C. Moharana

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Community Land Management in the Thar Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Anju S. Vijayan

10 Women Empowerment in Thar Desert Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Rajshree Upadhyay and Dhriti Solanki

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11 Livelihood Opportunities in the Thar Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Purnima Rao Mundel 12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 K. C. Gummagolmath and Anupam Anand 13 Multidimensional Development in Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Nisha Varghese 14 Sustainable Natural Resource Management in Thar Desert-Way Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 S. S. Burark, K.A. Varghese, and Nisha Varghese

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors Dr. Nisha Varghese is an experienced academician, development professional and a researcher. She is currently working with the School of Extension and Development Studies at IGNOU where she co-ordinates Post Graduate Diploma in CSR and MA in CSR. An agricultural economist by training, she has a keen interest in working on issues related to agriculture and development on which she has published several research papers in national and international journals and presented papers in several international conferences. Her areas of interest include agriculture and development, desertification and development and labour migration. Dr. Sukhdeo Singh Burark Ex-Emeritus Professor of Agricultural Economics (ICAR), retired as Director Research, MPUAT, Udaipur and Head, Department of Agricultural Economics & Management, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan. His field of specialization is agricultural economics. He has 40 years of experience as teacher, researcher and extension specialist. He was visiting Associate Professor at AIT, Bangkok. He has to his credit 5 books, 7 chapters in edited books, 111 research papers, 15 popular articles and has worked as Principal Investigator in five research projects including Cost of Cultivation Studies, GoI, MoA, New Delhi and World Bank project on market intelligence. He has supervised 6

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doctoral and 18 master’s students in their research in Agricultural Economics and has supervised 8 MBA (Agri business) students’ project work. Presently he is Board Member of Rajasthan Kisan Ayog, Government of Rajasthan. He is also Board member of CEDS, Jaipur and VAAGDHARA, Banswara. Dr. K.A. Varghese holds Ph. D degree in Agricultural Economics, Post- graduate degree in Statistics and Economics and Graduate degree in Mathematics. He has 50 years of experience in education and research in different disciplines including Agriculture and Health Sciences. He held various academic and administrative positions in the State Agricultural University system. Post his superannuation as Professor of Statistics in 2009, he is still pursuing his academic and research activities in different disciplines. He has successfully formulated and implemented more than 20 research projects sponsored by different national and international agencies He has long experience in planning, monitoring and evaluation of projects. He was associated with FAO experts in developing FARMAP approach for farm level studies in India. He has been working as a consultant with different national and international agencies. He is recipient of many awards and recognitions in higher education and research including best teacher of the University. He has 195 publications to his credit which includes research papers in national and international referred journals, chapters in books, research articles, research reports and research bulletins.

Contributors Anupam Anand National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad, India Kailash Chand Bairwa College of Agriculture, Baytu-Barmer, Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India S. S. Burark Maharana Pratap University of Agricultural Technology (MPUAT), Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

Editors and Contributors

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K. C. Gummagolmath National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad, India Pragati Hemrajani Independent Researcher, Budapest, Hungary D. C. Joshi Division of Natural Resources, ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India S. Kala ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation Research Centre, Kota, Rajasthan, India Amal Kar Division of Natural Resources, ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India R. N. Kumawat ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India Deepesh Machiwal Division of Natural Resources, ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India P. C. Moharana ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India G. L. Meena Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, MPUAT, Udaipur, India; College of Agriculture, Baytu-Barmer, Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India Purnima Rao Mundel OSD (Tribal Welfare) to the Governor of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India; OSD (Handicrafts), Rajasthan Small Industries Corporation, GoR, Jaipur, India; Regional Manager (Rajasthan), TRIFED, GoI, Jaipur, India M. B. Noor Mohamed ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Pali-Marwar, Rajasthan, India Rajni University College of Engineering and Technology, Bikaner Technical University, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India Arjun Singh Rajput Department of Agricultural Economics & Management, MPUAT—Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, India P. S. Renjith ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Bhuj, Gujarat, India Latika Sharma Department of Agricultural Economics & Management, MPUAT—Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, India K. R. Sheetal ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Bhuj, Gujarat, India

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Editors and Contributors

Hari Singh Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, MPUAT, Udaipur, India Dhriti Solanki College of Community and Applied Sciences, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India V. Subbulakshmi ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India Alka Swami University College of Engineering and Technology, Bikaner Technical University, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India S. P. S. Tanwar ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India Rajshree Upadhyay College of Community and Applied Sciences, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India Nisha Varghese SOEDS, IGNOU-Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi, India K.A. Varghese Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, Maharana Pratap University of Agricultural Technology (MPUAT), Udaipur, Rajasthan, India Anju S. Vijayan College of Horticulture and Forestry Jhalawar, Agriculture University, Kota, Rajasthan, India K. K. Yadav Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, MPUAT, Udaipur, India

Abbreviations

ACRP ACU ACZ AD AFRI AI AICRP AMC APEDA APLM APMR AWiFS BCM BIP BMC CAGR CAZRI CCA CFB CGL CGR CGWB CHC CIAH CMIE COVID CPC CPR CSO CSR

Agro-Climatic Regional Planning Adult Cattle Unit Agro-Climatic Zone Anno Domini Arid Forest Research Institute Artificial Insemination All India Coordinated Research Project Agricultural Market Committee Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Agriculture Produce and Livestock Marketing Agricultural Produce Market Regulation Advanced Wide Field Sensor Billion Cubic Meter Bureau of Investment Promotion Biodiversity Management Committees Compound Annual Growth Rate Central Arid Zone Research Institute Canal Command Area Complete Feed Block Community Grazing Land Compound Growth Rate Central Ground Water Board Community Health Centre Central Institute of Arid Horticulture Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Coronavirus Disease Centre for Perishable Cargo Common Property Resource Central Statistics Office Corporate Social Responsibility xix

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CVB CWC DAS DDP DES DFC DGFT DM DMIC DSC FAO FCI FDI FMD FYM GDP GIS GSDP GST GW Ha HDI ICAR ICD IFS IGNP IRSS ISFR IT ITeS ITI KVK LULC LUS MAD MANREGA MCM MCX MFI MNB MNC MNIT MNM MoEF MPUAT

Abbreviations

Contour Vegetative Barrier Central Warehousing corporation Days After Sowing Desert Development Programme Directorate of Economics and Statistics Dedicated Freight Corridor Director General of Foreign Trade Dry Matter Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor District Skill Centre Food and Agriculture Organization Food Corporation of India Foreign Direct Investment Foot and Mouth Disease Farm Yard Manure Gross Domestic Product Geographic Information System Gross State Domestic Product Goods and Services Tax Ground Water Hectare Human Development Index Indian Council of agricultural Research Inland Container Depot Integrated Farming Systems Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana Indian Remote Sensing Satellite India State of Forest Report Information Technology Information Technology Enabled Services Industrial Training Institute Krishi Vigyan Kendra Landuse/land cover Land Use Statistics Minimum Absolute Deviations Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employability Act Million Cubic Metres Multi-Commodity Exchange of India Limited Micro Finance Institution Multi Nutrient Block Multi-National Companies Malaviya National Institute of Technology Multi Nutrient Mixture Ministry of Environment and Forests Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology

Abbreviations

MSDE MSME NCDEX NCR NCW NGO NITI NMCE NRCAF NRSA NSDP NTFP NWFP ODOP OECD OTJ PDS PET PHC PMFME PPP PPR PRI RAPCC RICCO RIPS RKVY RMC RMOL RSC RSLDC RSWC RWC SAC SBLP SDG SEZ SHG SKRAU SWCS TE TRIFED TWPR

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Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises National Commodity & Derivatives Exchange Limited National Capital Region National Commission for Women Non-Governmental Organisation National Institution for Transforming India National Multi-Commodity Exchange National Research Centre for Agroforestry National Remote Sensing Agency Net State Domestic Product Non-Timber Forest Product Non-wood Forest Product One District, One Product Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development On-The-Job Public Distribution System Potential Evapotranspiration Public Health Centre Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises Public Private Partnership Paste Des Petit Ruminant Panchayati Raj Institutions Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change Rajasthan State Industrial Development and Investment Corporation Rajasthan Investment Promotion Scheme Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna Regulated Market Committee Mission for Skill Development and Livelihood (RMOL) Residual Sodium Carbonate Rajasthan Skill and Livelihoods Development Corporation Rajasthan State Warehousing Corporation Relative Water Content Space Applications Centre Self-Help Group-Bank Linkage Programme Sustainable Development Goal Special Economic Zone Self-Help Group Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agriculture University Single Window Clearance System Triennium Ending Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation Total work participation rate

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UAE UNCCD UNEP UNESCO URMUL USA WD&R WPR WTO WUE

Abbreviations

United Arab Emirates United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Uttari Rajasthan Cooperative Milk Union Limited United States of America Warehouse Regulation & Development Authority Work Participation Rate World Trade Organization Water Use Efficiency

Chapter 1

An Overview of World Deserts with Special Reference to Thar Desert K.A. Varghese

Abstract The deserts are found on every continent on the earth and cover about one fifth of the land area and one sixth of population on the earth. The types of desert include polar and tundra, cold winter, mild coastal, subtropical, etc. The major deserts in India include the cold mountain desert of Trans-Himalayas, the Thar Desert areas spread over Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab and the White salt desert of Kutch in Gujarat. The Thar Desert region of Rajasthan forms a major part of the 14th Agroclimatic region of the country named as the Western Dry Region which is delineated within the state of Rajasthan. In all, 60% of the Indian Thar Desert is found in the 12 administrative districts in the north-western part of Rajasthan. The Thar Desert also known as the Great Thar Desert or Great Indian Desert has an area of 200,000 square km and is spread over Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Rann of Kutch in Gujarat in India and Sindh and part of Punjab province of Pakistan. The area coverage of Thar Desert in India is 170,000 km2 and that in Pakistan is 30,000 km2 . It is the 17th largest of all deserts of the world and the 9th largest subtropical desert. The share of area of the Thar Desert in Indian subcontinent is about 85% of the total area of the Thar Desert. The Thar Desert accounts for about 5% of the geographical area of India. It extends up to Aravalli Hills in the north-east, in the west it touches the Arabian Sea coast and, in the north-west, it goes up to the alluvial plains of the Indus River. The Thar Desert extends between the Aravalli Range of hills in the north-east and stretches to Punjab and Haryana to the north, to the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast and to the alluvial plains of the Indus River in the west and north-west. Most of the desert area is covered by huge, shifting sand dunes that receive sediments from the alluvial plains and the coast. This chapter gives the salient features of major world deserts along with geography, demography, natural resources, major economic activities, NRM institutions and challenges of Thar Desert region in Rajasthan. Keywords World deserts · Thar Desert · Salient features

K.A. Varghese (B) Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, Maharana Pratap University of Agricultural Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_1

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K.A. Varghese

1.1 World Deserts A desert is a dry region that receives very little precipitation, generally less than 250 mm a year. Hence, it is generally a barren and empty landscape. Deserts have been found on Mars also. Except on Earth and Mars, deserts are not reported to exist on any other planet in the Solar System. Most deserts have a considerable amount of specialized vegetation, as well as specialized vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Soils often have abundant nutrients because they need only water to become very productive and have little or no organic matter (UCMP, 2019). The deserts are found on every continent on the earth and cover about one fifth of the land area and one sixth of population on the earth.

1.1.1 Desert Types The deserts world over can be categorized under following types: • Hot and dry deserts: These types of deserts remain warm and dry round the year. These are also known as arid or subtropical deserts. While the average temperature hovers around 20–25 °C, the day temperature can go up to 50 °C or even more. During winter seasons, the night temperature can fall below freezing. The high atmospheric heat prevents rainfall to reach the grounds in these deserts. The rains are not only rare but also separated by long and dry spells. The gravity of solar radiation is also relatively high in this type of deserts. The soils are coarse and gravelly which do not support free plant and animal life in such regions. Sahara Desert in African continent and Mojave Desert in the south-west of United States fall under this category of desert. • Semi-arid deserts: The semi-arid deserts are also known as cold winter deserts. Except that these deserts are not as hot as arid or subtropical deserts; the others features are comparable to the hot and dry deserts. These deserts are relatively less warm as compared to hot deserts. Long and arid summers are followed by a short winter season in this type of deserts. Varying span of winter and rainy seasons are found in such deserts. The tall mountain ranges prevent precipitation to reach these drier regions. The sandy and rocky land allows the cactus type plant to grow at places. Such deserts are found in North America, Europe and Asian continents. • Coastal deserts: Coastal deserts are located along coasts of large water bodies and are humid or sub-humid types with low precipitation though heavy fogs blow in from the sea coasts. The location of such deserts prevents the temperatures go as high as in hot or semi-arid deserts. Winters are relatively cooler in such type of deserts. The rainfall is scarce as wind prevents moisture moving from one place to the other. The plant life is supported by the more absorbent soils and plant spices such as saltbushes and rice grasses are grown on these deserts. Various types of

1 An Overview of World Deserts with Special Reference to Thar Desert

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birds and reptiles are found in such deserts. The Atacama Desert of South America falls under this category of deserts. • Cold deserts: These deserts are dry with low temperatures. The freezing temperatures keep such regions colder over the year. The Antarctica and Arctic are a cold desert. As these deserts are located at the northern and southern poles of the planet these are called polar deserts. These two are the largest deserts of the world in terms of the geographical area. Antarctica by itself forms a desert continent. The Arctic stretches countries including Canada, Greenland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, etc. Though these two are dry regions in a different sense as these are covered with layers of ice and snow. The average temperature is around freezing and below in negative degree Celsius. These regions receive rains. While few plants survive in this condition, it is home for animals like bears, penguins and seals. The Antarctic and Arctic deserts fall under Polar Ice and Tundra (non-vegetative) type deserts and are the largest deserts in area coverage. The major subtropical deserts include Sahara (North Africa covering Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Eritrea, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan and Tunisia), Australian Desert, Arabian Desert (West Asia covering Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen), Kalahari Desert (South Africa covering Angola, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa), Syrian Desert (West Asia covering Iraq, Jordan and Syria), Chihuahua Desert (North America covering Mexico and the United States), Sonora Desert (North America covering Mexico and United States), Thar Desert (South Asia covering India and Pakistan), Dasht-e Margo (Afghanistan), Registan Desert (Afghanistan), Mojave Desert (United States), Dasht-e Kavir (Iran) and Dasht-e Loot (Iran). The Cold Winter Deserts are Gobi Desert (East Asia covering China and Mongolia), Patagonian Desert (South America covering Argentina and Chile), Great Basin (United States), Karakum Desert (Turkmenistan), Colorado Plateau (United States), Kyzyl-kum Desert (Central Asia covering Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), Taklamakan Desert (China) and Columbia Basin (United States). The Atacama Desert of South America falls under Mild Coastal and Namib Desert of South Africa falls under Cool Coastal categories of Deserts. The salient features of major deserts of the world are given in Table 1.1.

1.2 Deserts in India The major deserts in India include the cold mountain desert of Trans-Himalayas, the Thar Desert areas spread over Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab and the White salt desert of Kutch in Gujarat. The Thar Desert region of Rajasthan forms a major part of the 14th Agro-climatic region of the country named as the Western Dry Region which is delineated within the state of Rajasthan (Varghese, 2001). The Western Dry Region includes the districts of Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Churu, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Sikar and Jalore districts of Rajasthan. The average temperature

Name of the desert

Antarctica

Arctic

Sahara

Australian Desert

Arabian Desert

S.No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Subtropical

Subtropical

Subtropical

Polar Ice and Tundra

Polar Ice and Tundra

Type

2330

2700

9000

13,985

14,000

Area (000 km2 )

Table 1.1 Major deserts of the world at a glance

Largest of all deserts; a frozen desert; coldest, windiest and driest desert; covered with thick layer of ice; surrounded by water and massive icebergs; animals include penguins, shore birds, seals and whales

Salient features

West Asia (Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Omen, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Yemen)

Australia

North Africa (Algeria, Chal, Egypt, Eretria, Libya, Mali, Niger Mauritania, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia

(continued)

4th largest among specific deserts; covers most part of the Arabian Peninsula; extension of Sahara; extremely hot and one of the most inhospitable landscape on planet; less than 2 inches at places; desert with least biodiversity; endemic plants exist; wild life species include Arabian oryx, fennec fox, sand cat, sand gazelle, lizards, etc.

Deserts like Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Tanami, Simpson, Gibson, Little Sandy, Strzelecki, Strut Stony, etc., together form Australian desert; scant to moderate rains in different desert regions; known for wild life eco regions; human life exists, animals include skink, dingo, monitor lizards, mole, frog, bearded dragons, feral camels, goannas, red kangaroo, etc., wet land at places in Tanami desert, Simpson is a sand dune desert

Covers 31% of Africa, largest subtropical hot and dry desert; diverse array of flora and fauna; human life since long back; about 2800 species of plants; animals include fox, gazelles, antelopes, cheetah, African wild dog, monitor lizards, hyrax, African ostriches, desert crocodiles; domestic animals are camel and goat

Greenland, 2nd largest in size; all-day dark in winter and all-day light in summer; human life Iceland, Norway, and animal life exists; animal species include polar bears, moose, caribou, beluga Russia and Sweden whales, narwhals, muskox, foxes, hares, owls, ptarmigan, etc.

Antarctica

Location/ Countries covered

4 K.A. Varghese

Kalahari

Patagonian

Syrian Desert Subtropical

7.

8.

9.

Cold winter

Subtropical

Cold winter

Gobi

6.

Type

Name of the desert

S.No.

Table 1.1 (continued)

520

620

900

1295

Area (000 km2 )

West Asia (Iraq, Jordan, Syria)

South America (Argentina, Chile)

Central South Africa (Angola, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa)

East Asia (China, Mongolia)

Location/ Countries covered

(continued)

Home to some of the world’s most stunning archeological sites; during Roman times the city of Palmyra was a vital trade centre; Dura-Europos on the Euphrates River was a major link between Mediterranean and Mesopotamian trade; tourism has vital scope for its resurgence after it becomes peaceful

Major part of it is in Argentina; bounded by Andes mountains to the west and Atlantic ocean to the east; inhabited by indigenous hunter gatherers, sparsely populated; livestock rearing main occupation of people, includes famous Torres del Paine national park of Chile, iconic Paine Massif, stunning lakes, Patagonians ice fields, etc.

World’s 6th largest desert; inhabited by Hunter-Gatherer San people; semi desert at places with 5–10 inches of rainfall; mostly arid land having salt pan at places; Okavango River flows through it; wild life includes African wild dogs, giraffes, leopards, cheetahs, spotted hyenas, etc.; mass tourism due to wild life safari, Kalugadi trans-frontier park, Central Kalahari game reserve and other game reserves

5th largest desert; rain shadow desert; precipitation coming from Indian Ocean is blocked by Tibetan plateau; dominant inhabitants are descendants of nomadic Mongols; warm in summer and very cold in winter; Home for diverse array of animal life including riding horses, cattle herds, bactrian camels, black tailed gazelles, wild horses, brown bear snow leopard, etc.

Salient features

1 An Overview of World Deserts with Special Reference to Thar Desert 5

Name of the desert

Great Basin

Chihuahua

Karakum

Colorado Plateau

S.No.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Table 1.1 (continued)

Cold winter

Cold winter

Subtropical

Cold winter

Type

337

350

450

492

Area (000 km2 )

It covers about 70% of Turkmenistan and its name means black sand a reference to dark soil just beneath sandy surface; the desert is crossed by karakum canal, the world’s 2nd largest irrigation canal which transports water from Amu Darya river in the north to cities in the south of the country; these areas are oases known for growing cotton and melon. The important place of tourist attraction is Darvaza gas crater meaning door to hell or gates to hell (It is not to be confused with Kazakhstan’s much smaller Aral Karakum desert)

Densely populated desert; has many cities; a rain shadow desert as the precipitation from the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico is blocked by ranges of hills; annual rainfall is about 9 inches mostly in summer months; summer is mild and winter is cold; most biologically diverse region but many endemic spices are threatened due to overgrazing; home to animal array like prairie dog, kit fox, mule deer, pronghorn black tailed jackrabbits and Mexican wolf

Largest desert in USA with diverse ecosystem; located between Sierra Nevada and Wasatch mountain ranges; covers much of Nevada and stretches to southern Idaho and Oregon, western Utah and eastern California; includes more than 30 peaks with summits of more than 9800 feet, wide high elevation valleys salt dry lakes and forests filled with pine and juniper trees; places of importance include Great Basin National Park, Humboldt—Toiyaba national forest, many wilderness areas and national wildlife refuges; animal array includes greater sage grouse, kit fox, Ord’s kangaroo rat, desert horned lizards, etc.

Salient features

(continued)

USA (Northern Consists on nine National Park Service units and 18 national monuments; known as Arizona, Western Red Rock Country; tourists come for hiking, camping and rafting the Colorado river Colorado, North-western new Mexico, South and Eastern Utah)

Turkmenistan

North America (Mexico, USA)

USA

Location/ Countries covered

6 K.A. Varghese

Name of the desert

Sonora

Kyzyl-Kum

Taklamakan

Thar Desert

S.No.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Table 1.1 (continued)

Subtropical

Cold winter

Cold winter

Subtropical

Type

200

270

300

310

Area (000 km2 )

South Asia (India, Pakistan)

China

Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan Uzbekistan)

North America (Mexico, USA)

Location/ Countries covered

(continued)

Also known as Great Indian Desert; Natural boundary between India(85% area) and Pakistan (15% area); Most heavily populated desert in the world (83 persons/ sq.miles); about 40% population of Rajasthan live here; agriculture is important for livelihood; crops like cluster bean, pearl millet, moth bean grown; has protected areas like Indian Desert National park, Sundha Mata conservation reserve in India and Nava desert wildlife sanctuary in Pakistan; biodiversity-based ecotourism is vital and desert camel safari and Pushkar camel fair are very famous

It is located in north-western part of China and lies west of Gobi desert; It is surrounded by mountains in other three sides; The word taklamakan has come from Persian words for place of no return or place of ruins; area has very little rainfall; archaeologists have recovered 4000 year old mummies from here indicating ancient human civilization here, there are two cross desert highways passing through it

Also known as Red Sand desert; many fossils discovered from exposed rock formations; has many tourist destinations in the form of nature reserves in Bukhara region of Turkmenistan; the Kyzyl-kum nature reserve is home for animals such as Bukhara deer, desert monitor lizards and golden eagle

It straddles the US- Mexico border and is located the west of Chihuahuan desert covering several small deserts; despite harsh climate this desert is home for many flora and fauna; it has two rainfall seasons making it possible to grow many tree species like saguaro cactus and many other colourful cactus; it has potential for wildlife including birds, reptiles, mammals, amphibious, bees, etc.

Salient features

1 An Overview of World Deserts with Special Reference to Thar Desert 7

Name of the desert

Dasht-e Margo

Regis tan

Atacama

Mojave

Columbia Basin

S.No.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Table 1.1 (continued)

Cold winter

Subtropical

Mild coastal

Subtropical

Subtropical

Type

83.1

124

140

146

150

Area (000 km2 )

Located below Dasht-e Margo bordering with Iraq and Pakistan; severe drought added nearby agricultural land to this desert over the years; it is a remote rugged region where drug smugglers and armed militants are found

Located in south Afghanistan bordering Iran; the translation of this Persian names reads as desert of death; a place where opium growers and armed tribals hunt for their living

Salient features

USA

USA

(continued)

Situated in the Pacific north-west region; it is an arid sagebrush steppe and grassland; surrounded on all sides by mountainous ecological regions

Bordered by Great Basin Desert to the north and Sonoran desert in south and east; has border with cities such as Las Vegas, Nevada in California; Interior area is sparsely populated; often referred as ‘high desert’; is the most popular tourism hotspots in US; home for many parks and reserves; has incredible wildlife including variety of snakes

South America Situated between two massive chains of the Andes and Chilean coast range having (Northern Chile average altitude of 7900 feet; it is the driest non polar place on the planet; some spots and Southern Peru) have no rain at all while at other places rainfall is very meagre; Climate is very harsh and hence human and animal presence is limited; Humboldt penguins are found on the desert cliffs along the coast

Afghanistan

Afghanistan

Location/ Countries covered

8 K.A. Varghese

Namib

Dasht-eKavir

Dasht-e-Lut

23.

24.

25.

Subtropical

Subtropical

Cold Coastal

Type

52

77

81

Area (000 km2 )

Iran

Iran

South Africa (Angola and Namibia)

Location/ Countries covered

Source Compiled from Wikipedia, List of Deserts by area

Name of the desert

S.No.

Table 1.1 (continued)

It is a salt desert located in the provinces of Kerman and Sistan and Baluchestan, Iran; In Persian language Lut means devoid of water and vegetation; In the east, it rises in the form of great chain of dunes and in the west one can find high ridges separated by wind swept corridors. It was included on UNESCO’s World Heritage List in July, 2016

A desert lying in the middle of Iranian plateau; It is also known as the Great Salt Desert as strong surface evaporation has created a crust of salt over the marsh and mud lands. Kavir means salt marshes and because kavirs are similar to quick sand, it is very dangerous to travel in this desert

It is Namibia’s most important ecotourism attraction; Sparsely populated; home to numerous wired animals like desert elephants, darkling beetle; Namib-Naukluft national park is in this desert

Salient features

1 An Overview of World Deserts with Special Reference to Thar Desert 9

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of this region varies from 45 °C in May–June to 2 °C in December–January. The annual rainfall in this region is around 400 mm with very high year to year variation. The cropping intensity (ratio of net sown area to total cropped area) is higher in districts which receive higher rainfall. The average size of holdings in this region is higher than the state average of 2.78 ha in seven out of nine districts (Varghese & Singh, 2016).

1.3 Geography of Thar Desert The state of Rajasthan is situated in the north-western part of India between 23°30– 30°11N and 69°29–78°17E, occupying an area of 342,239 km2 . The Aravalli Range roughly divides Rajasthan diagonally into two climatological zones, arid zone namely the Thar Desert in the west and the semi-arid to sub-humid zone in eastern and south-eastern Rajasthan. In all, 60% of the Indian Thar Desert is found in the 12 administrative districts in the north-western part of Rajasthan (Dookia et al., 2008). The Thar Desert also known as the Great Thar Desert or Great Indian Desert has an area of 200,000 square km and is spread over Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Rann of Kutch in Gujarat in India and Sindh and part of Punjab province of Pakistan. The area coverage of Thar Desert in India is 170,000 km2 and that in Pakistan is 30,000 km2 . It is the 17th largest of all deserts of the world and the 9th largest subtropical desert. The share of area of the Thar Desert in Indian subcontinent is about 85% of the total area of the Thar Desert. The Thar Desert accounts for about 5% of the geographical area of India. More than 60% area under Thar Desert is in Rajasthan. It extends up to Aravalli Hills in the north-east, in the west it touches the Arabian Sea coast and, in the north-west, it goes up to the alluvial plains of the Indus River. The Thar Desert runs from the north-eastern Aravalli mountain range to Punjab and Haryana to the north, to the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast and the Indus River’s alluvial plains to the west and north-west. Massive, shifting sand dunes that receive sediment from the coast and alluvial plains cover the majority of the desert area (Fig. 1.1).

1.4 Demography Populations (caste, communities and tribes) are influenced by the physical environment and by various biological, social, cultural and economic factors (Kshatriya et al., 2010). With a population density of 83 people per km2 , the Thar Desert is the most widely populated desert in the world. In India, the inhabitants include Hindus, Jain, Sikh and Muslim communities. In Pakistan, inhabitants include both Muslims and Hindus. There are small villages known as ‘Dhanis’ spread over the Thar Desert which makes Thar Desert as the most populous desert in the world (Fig. 1.2). The Thar

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Fig. 1.1 Shifting sand dunes of Thar Desert

Desert is home to almost 40% of Rajasthan’s entire population. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the people’s primary sources of income. This desert has a vibrant and tradition-rich culture. Folk poetry and music are loved by the people of this region. Jodhpur is a major city in the area. The cities of Bikaner and Jaisalmer are also important destinations for tourists. Due to its residents’ diversity in terms of religion, sect and caste, Pakistan’s desert region also has a rich, diversified culture, heritage, traditions, folktales, dances and

Fig. 1.2 A small village in Thar Desert region

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K.A. Varghese

music. Low density coupled with higher growth of population is observed in most parts of Thar Desert in Rajasthan. Low density is attributable to vast area coverage, large inter village distances and rural dominance of population in the area (Kothiyal, 2016). The high population growth is due to migration from other areas for service and business purposes.

1.5 Natural Resources The Luni River of Rajasthan passing through the desert belt is the natural drainage for rainfall which is scanty and erratic. The south-west monsoon rainfall is limited to 100–500 mm in different parts of Thar Desert. There are many salt water lakes in the Thar Desert region which collect rainwater in rainy season and evaporate during summer producing salt for various uses. The soils remain dry in most part of the year. The Thar Desert region is mostly covered with shifting sand dunes.

1.5.1 Fauna The area is home to over 25 species of snakes and 23 species of lizards. The desert is home to many animal species that are quickly going extinct in other regions of India. These include the chinkara (Gazella bennettii), the Indian wild ass and the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) (Equus hemionus khur). They have evolved excellent survival strategies; their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal (Kaarthik, 2014). The survival of these creatures in the desert is due to a few different causes. Firstly, the process of converting the grasslands into agriculture has been quite gradual in this area because of the scarcity of water. Another element is the protection offered to them by the local Bishnoi community. Long-legged bustards, a subspecies of red fox, caracal cats and other mammals can be found in the Thar Desert (Tyagi, 2005). There are 141 species of migratory and resident birds which are found in the Thar region. The great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) is a critically endangered species of this region. McQueen’s bustard (Chlamydotis mcqueenii) and florican (Eupodotis indica) are also found in the Thar Desert. The Thar is also home to many varieties of raptors. These include the critically endangered red-headed vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis) and Indian vulture (Gyps indicus). Other scarce or near threatened species of raptors is the steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis), imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), pallid harrier (Circus macrourus), laggar falcon (Falco juggar), the short-toed (Circaetus gallicus), tawny (Aquila rapax) and spotted eagles (Aquila clanga). Several species of larks, finches, wheatears and tits can be found in the region. While the rufous-tailed lark (Ammomanes phoenicura) is an endemic lark, the trumpeter finch (Bucanetes githagineus) and greater hoopoe-lark (Alaemon alaudipes) often travel in from neighbouring Pakistan. Cream-coloured

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13

courser (Cursorius cursor) and chestnut-bellied sandgrouses (Pterocles exustus) often go unnoticed as they blend into the sandy-coloured landscape (Saigal, 2017).

1.5.2 Flora This region’s native vegetation is classified as north-west thorn scrub forests, which grow in sparse, more or less open clusters. Following an increase in rainfall, the density and size of these clusters increase from west to east. The natural vegetation of the Thar Desert is composed of trees and shrubs including acacia grown naturally on farmlands and wastelands and jojoba plantations (Fig. 1.3). The type of vegetation in the Thar Desert region varies depending on the locale of the region. For example, in sandy habitats which constitute sand dunes and gravel plains, one can find dominant perennials like Crotalaria burhia, species of Aerva (bui or desert cotton), Cympopogan martini (motio grass) and Leptadenia pyrotechnica (khimp). The crests of the sand dunes are colonized often by Lasiurus sindicus (sewan), which is a nutritive quick-growing perennial grass. Stabilized dunes are covered mainly by Capparis decidua (kair), Calotropis procera (aakado), alligonum polygonoides (phog), Acacia Senegal (kumatiyo), Lasiurus sindicus (sewan) and Aristida adescensions. The gravel plains one can find desert trees and shrubs like Prosopis cineraria (khejari), Salvadora oleoides (kharo jaal), Acacia Senegal (kumatiyo), Maytenus

Fig. 1.3 Natural vegetation of Thar Desert region comprising of trees and shrubs

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K.A. Varghese

emarginata (kankero), Capparis decidua (kair), Tecomella undulata (rohira) and species of Zizyphus (bordi). In the rocky hills, plants like Euphorbia caducifolia (thor) along with Balanites and Anogeissus grow. Commiphora wightii (guggal) is another common plant here. The saline tracts support grasses like Eleusine compressa, Eragrostis ciliais and Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Suaeda fruticosa, Tamarix troupii, Sesuvium sesuvioides, Trianthema triquetra, Zaleya redimita, Zygophallum simplex, Salsola baryosma, Cressa cretica, Haloxyon recurvum, Haloxylon salicornicum and Portulaca oleracea. The tanks and natural lakes support aquatic vegetation like Najas welwitschii, Hydrilla verticalata, Vallisneria spiralis and P. crispus. On the margins and dry beds are found Heliotropium supinum, T. (Saigal, 2018).

1.6 Agriculture Agriculture and animal husbandry are the primary occupation in the Thar, one of the world’s densely populated desert regions. Agriculture alone is not a viable source of livelihood in the Thar Desert as after the rainy season, at least one-third of crops fail. A mixed farming system consisting of animal husbandry, trees and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable crop models for this region (Chandra et al., 1992). The region faces frequent droughts. It also faces the challenge of land degradation due to increasing pressure on land to meet the food and fodder security of the increasing human and animal population, wind and water erosion and mining. Crops are generally grown in the Kharif or rainy season for which the seed sowing is done in the month of June and July and harvesting is done in September and October. Some of the important kharif crops of this region include pearl millet (bajara), pulses, guar, sorghum, sesame and groundnut. Increased access to irrigation facilities from the Indira Gandhi Canal has also helped the farmers to take up Rabi or winter crops like wheat, mustard and cumin. However, injudicious use of water from source to fields has resulted in the ill effects of waterlogging and soil salinization; and therefore, need urgent attention (Faroda et al., 2007). Crop production is nevertheless a risky proposition in this area owing to erratic and scanty rains. Over the years, farmers have evolved their own risk minimizing strategies like mixed cropping and farming practices. Various combinations of mix cropping with pearl millet, cluster bean, sesame, moth bean, melons, etc., are practiced with resource conservation techniques like zero tillage and no input or minimum input approach.

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1.7 Livestock The Rajasthan desert has undergone significant changes recently, including a vast rise in both the human and animal populations. Due to the challenging farming conditions, animal husbandry has gained popularity. At present, 10 times more animals than people are in Rajasthan, and overgrazing is also a factor affecting climate and drought conditions (Roy & Roy, 2019). A large number of farmers in the Thar Desert depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood. Both large ruminants like cattle and buffaloes and small ruminants like sheep and goat are reared by the farmers. Camel rearing, though on a decline over the recent past, is a popular livestock activity in Thar Desert area. The camels are dual purpose animals used for milk and draught animal power for farm and non-farm operations. Barmer district has the highest livestock population, out of which sheep and goats are in majority. Cattle from the desert region include some of the best breeds, including Kankrej (Sanchori) and Nagauri. The majority of India’s wool is produced in the Thar region of Rajasthan. The region is home to the sheep breeds Chokla, Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra, Malpuri, Sonadi, Nali and Pungal. 40–50% of India’s total wool production originates from Rajasthan. For the carpet-making industry, Rajasthani sheep’s wool is regarded as the best in the world (Fig. 1.4). The Chokla sheep breed is known for producing highquality wool. Breeding centres have been developed for Karakul and Merino sheep at different places. Some important mills for making woollen thread established in the desert are: Jodhpur Woollen Mill, Jodhpur; Rajasthan Woollen Mill, Bikaner and India Woollen Mill, Bikaner. Bikaner is the biggest mandi (market place) of wool in Asia (Roy & Roy, 2019). The village common lands are used for grazing the livestock. During famine years, the nomadic animal rearers move with large herds of sheep and camels to the forested areas of south Rajasthan or nearby states for grazing their livestock (Prakash, 2019). Livestock plays an important role in the desert economy. They are used for milk, meat, wool and leather and can even be sold to meet the immediate cash requirements. The numerous cattle fairs in the area provide insight into the significance of raising animals. Typically, cattle fairs are named after local deities. Some of major cattle fairs held are Mansar (Ramdevi), Parbatsar (Tejaji), Merta (Baldev) cattle fairs of Nagaur district and Tilwara cattle fair of Barmer district. They are an important place of market for live animals. All arrangements of the cattle fairs including food, stay, security, etc., are taken care of by local authorities.

1.8 Forestry Role of forests in improving the conditions in semi-arid and arid lands cannot be undermined. Though, deserts are generally lacking in forest lands, if the land use is planned properly, forests can play an important role in the general welfare of the people living in the deserts. In the absence of access to clean energy, firewood is the

16

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Fig. 1.4 Sheep rearing—a common practice among people in Thar Desert

major source of fuel for the people living in the deserts. Firewood is their main fuel; of the total consumption of wood, about 75% is firewood. Rajasthan has a forest area of 31,150 km2 , which is about 9% of the geographical area. Churu district has the smallest area under forest, at only 80 km2 . Consequently, the forest cannot meet all of the grazing and fuel demands of desert region. This diverts the much-needed cattle dung from the field to the hearth as people use cow dung cakes as fuel in absence of firewood. This, in turn, results in a decrease in agricultural production. Numerous conventional and non-traditional crops and fruits, including Ber trees (similar to plums), that produce much larger fruits than before and can thrive with little rainfall, have been successfully developed and improved by scientists at the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) and State Agricultural Universities in Bikaner and Jodhpur. Another national-level institution in the area is the Arid Forest Research Institute in Jodhpur. It is one of the institutions managed by the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests and a part of the Indian Council of Forestry and Education. It is one of the institutes of the Indian Council of Forestry and Education working under the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests. The institute conducts scientific researches towards developing technologies for increasing the vegetative cover and to conserve the precious biodiversity in the hot arid and semi-arid region of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Prosopis cineraria locally known as Khejri is considered native to India and is serving as a livelihood source in the Thar Desert (Fig. 1.5). The trees are a part of agricultural systems and provide fodder, fuelwood and vegetable to the poor people of Rajasthan and adjoining arid areas of Gujarat and Haryana. The land having more number of Khejri trees fetches premium price in Rajasthan (Singh, 2021).

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Fig. 1.5 Prosopis cineraria tree

Prosopis cineraria is one of the most significant tree species in terms of sustaining populations in the Thar Desert. It is known for its wood which is of construction grade and is used by the people of this region in the construction of different parts of a house like doors, windows, scantlings posts, etc. It is also used for construction of wells, posts of Persian wheels, agricultural implements, cart yokes, etc. It is also used in the manufacturing of containers by the industries. The lopped branches of this tree also form a good fencing material. P. cineraria is also used as animal fodder. In winter, when no green fodder is available in the desert, these trees are lopped to add green fodder to the livestock feed. Even the pods of this tree are used as fodder for the livestock. It makes a highly nutritious and palatable fodder for camels, sheep, goats and cattle. This tree is locally called Khejri and its pod is called sangri. P. cineraria has potential for much valued animal fodder. The trees are heavily lopped, particularly during the winter when the dry tracts lack availability of green fodder. It is a common belief that having a P. cineraria, a goat and a camel will help a man survive even the most hard circumstances, thus death won’t come to him even during a period of famine. Each tree’s fodder output varies greatly. When a full-grown

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tree is completely lopped, leaving only the central leading shoot, 30 kg is expected as the yield of green forage, 30 kg is expected when the lower two-thirds of the crown are lopped and 20 kg is expected when the lower one-third of the crown is lopped. The leaves are very nutrient-dense. In rain-fed places, feeding leaves throughout the winter months when no other green fodder is typically available is very beneficial. The pods are used as livestock feed and contain a slightly sweet pulp. P. cineraria is the most significant top feed plant, producing nutrient-dense, highly appealing dry and green fodder that is readily consumed by camels, cattle, sheep and goats and meets a significant portion of the feed requirement of desert livestock. The term used locally is khejri. Pods are referred to as sangar or sangri locally. The dried pods locally called kho-kha are also consumed. All cattle enjoy the nutritious animal feed made from dried pods. Drying the young, boiled pods yields a nutritious animal feed that is used as animal feed. During the severe famines of 1899 and 1939, even the bark, which has an astringent, bitter flavour, was reportedly consumed. Nearly, 1.4 quintals of pods are produced per hectare, with variations of 10.7% in dry areas. According to reports, P. cineraria wood has a high calorific content and makes for excellent fire wood. The branches that have been cut off make good fence posts. Additionally, its roots promote nitrogen fixation, which increases agricultural yields. Another economically significant species is the Tecomella undulata tree, also known as rohida locally, and is found in the north-west and western Indian districts of the Thar Desert. It has several applications in agroforestry, yields high-quality wood and serves as the primary supply of wood among native desert tree species. The tree species is known commercially as desert teak or Marwar teak. Timber from T. undulata is mostly utilized in construction. Its timber is robust, long-lasting and powerful. It gives a polished finish. Quinoid is found in its heartwood. The timber is perfect for making charcoal and fuel. Goats and cattle consume the tree’s leaves. Flowers and pods are eaten by camels, goats and sheep. T. undulata is crucial to the ecology of the desert. It performs the function of a soilbinding tree by laying a network of lateral roots on the soil’s top layer. Additionally, it serves as a windbreak and aids in keeping sand dunes from shifting. It serves as a haven for other desert wildlife and is regarded as the home of birds. Cattle, goats and sheep can find shelter under the shade of a tree crown during the summer. The species has medicinal properties, as well.

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1.9 Industries Rajasthan is pre-eminent in mining and quarrying in India. The white marble of Makrana in Nagaur district is internationally famous for monuments and other structures. Rajasthan state in general and western Rajasthan in particular is a major source of Portland cement. The Sambhar salt deposits are quite popular. The sand stone of Jodhpur is mostly used in monuments, important buildings and residential buildings. Additionally, the district of Jodhpur features red stone quarries used for construction, locally referred to as ghatu patthar. The sandstone is found in Jodhpur and Nagaur districts. The district Jalore has large reserves of granites. The districts of Barmer, Bikaner and Nagaur have lignite coal deposits at different places. A lignitebased thermal power plant has been established at Giral in Barmer district. In the Barmer district, Reliance Energy is attempting to build power generation through an underground gasification method. In the Jaisalmer and Barmer districts, there is a significant supply of high-quality petroleum. The commercial extraction of petroleum has begun in the Barmer district. Due to its vast oil basin, the Barmer district is in the headlines. This has been India’s largest oil discoveries in 22 years. The local economy, which has for a long time suffered from the arid climate, is expected to change as a result. The Thar Desert seems an ideal place for generation of electricity from renewable energy sources like wind power. According to an estimate, Rajasthan has a potential for 5500 megawatts of wind power generation. Rajasthan State Power Corporation has built its first wind-powered facility at Amarsagar in Jaisalmer. The districts of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner are being targeted for the installation of wind turbines by some of the industry’s top corporations. Given that the region does not have clouds most of the year, solar energy has a lot of promise. Thar Desert region being the largest wool producing area of India, there are many wool processing units in this region. The region is known for the pulse-based food industries and milk-based sweets.

1.10 Salt Water Lakes There are several saltwater lakes are in the Thar Desert, where sodium chloride salt is extracted from salt water. Salts made of sodium sulphate are produced in the Didwana lakes near Nagaur. Sambhar and Didwana lakes have yielded ancient archaeological habitational evidence, demonstrating their antiquity and historical significance.

1.11 Tourism The period of winter months October to February is the peak period of tourism in the Thar Desert region. Desert tours are a fascinating experience for the tourists with camel ride during day time and night stay in luxury tents set for the tourists.

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Jaisalmer known as the ‘Golden City’ with the huge sandstone fortress has unique yellow sandstone architecture is the gateway to the Thar. Sand dunes with heights of 20–30 m, camel safari, jeep safari, dune bashing, night camping paragliding, etc., add to the exciting experiences of desert tour in Rajasthan. Some of the famous sites of sand dunes are: • • • • • •

Sam and Khuri desert sand dunes of Jaisalmer Osian desert sand dunes of Jodhpur Mahabar desert sand dunes of Barmer Khimsar desert sand dunes of Nagaur Bikaner desert sand dunes Phuskar desert sand dunes of Ajmer.

The traditional life style of the local inhabitants with passion for music, dance and singing makes the tours lively for the tourists. The folklore museum on the banks of Garisar Lake in the Mehra Bagh Garden is a place of tourist’s importance. Domestic and foreign travellers frequently visit the desert in search of adventurous camel rides. This ecotourism sector includes anything from budget backpacker hikes to luxurious campsites modelled after Arabian nights, complete with banquets and cultural shows. Tourists may witness the Thar Desert’s delicate and stunning ecology while on the treks. Many business owners and camel owners in Jaisalmer receive revenue from this type of tourism, and many camel trekkers in the adjacent desert settlements also find work as a result.

1.12 Institutions for Natural Resource Management Development Institutions: There are two State Agricultural Universities at Bikaner and Jodhpur, one Veterinary and Animal Science University at Bikaner, one Arid Forest Research Institute of Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India at Jodhpur and ICAR Research Institutes like Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) Jodhpur, Agricultural Technology Application Research Institute at Jodhpur, one National Research Centre on Camel at Bikaner, National Research Centre on Equines at Bikaner and Central Institute of Arid Horticulture at Bikaner.

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1.13 Issues and Challenges and Their Remedial Measures in the Thar Desert Region Over exploitation of fragile land resources due to human and livestock population pressure is a major challenge of the Thar Desert in the context of sustainability of natural resources. Some of the major issues and challenges and their remedial measures are listed below: 1. In the desert regions of western Rajasthan, desertification, groundwater salinity and soil nutrient loss are the main ecological hazards. The environmental countermeasures to the continuing territorial aridification include the construction of facilities for the irrigated agriculture-based water management in the form of artificial discharge channels and rainwater pond storage systems called khadins (Chlachula, 2021). 2. Over time, however, ever increasing anthropogenic activities have been accompanied by changes in the traditional pattern of land use, resulting in substantial alterations of habitats. In more recent years, this has been due to the major impact associated with the construction of the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar Project, IGNP). Species most sensitive to these habitat alterations have become extinct; those better able to adapt have survived (Sharma & Mehra, 2009). 3. Thar Desert region has the lowest coverage of forest land. As per the national environment policy, the recommended share of forest coverage should be 33.33%. However, Thar region has forest coverage of less than 10% which is a challenge for sustainable development of the region. 4. The human population growth in the Thar Desert region is more than the national average. This is a challenge in terms of providing food security to this increasing population. 5. The livestock population of this region has been growing considerably. Due to extreme climatic conditions and uncertain rainfall, people cannot solely depend on agriculture for livelihood and practice a mixed farming approach and depend on both crop and livestock for their sustenance. Ensuring fodder security for the increasing livestock population amidst declining grazing lands is another challenge. 6. There has been an increase in the use of machine power for various agricultural activities including ploughing. Using tractor during ploughing not only loosens the soil thus leaving it exposed to soil erosion but also destroys the naturally regenerated seedlings of different plants, specially khejri. 7. Another important challenge in this region is of shifting sand dunes due to erosion of the loose soil causing land degradation and nutrient loss in the region (Dhir et al., 2018).

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1.14 Emerging Opportunities 1. Tourism Development: Tourism is an important source of livelihood for the people of this region. The main tourist attractions in this region are the Desert National Park, camel safari, camping in the desert 2. Renewable Energy Sources: The desert abounds in solar energy which can easily be harnessed. Besides the strong winds also make it possible to harness the wind energy. The wind park in Jaisalmer is considered as India’s wind farm. 3. Arid Forestry: plays a crucial role in land management in the Thar Desert region. Plantation of dryness resistant xerothermic trees helps control wind erosion and sand dune mobilization. 4. Agro-processing: With the increased availability of irrigation water, commercial arable farming has become viable in Thar region. Processing of the agricultural produce provides immense opportunity for increased job and income generation.

1.15 Need for the Book The deserts of different types cover more than one fifth of land area of the earth and exist on all the continents. It forms major part of dry lands of the world. Moisture deficit is the common feature of all deserts as this region’s loss of evaporation is more than the precipitation. The sand covered subtropical deserts have less than 20% of the total desert area in the world. The Thar Desert is the 17th largest desert of all types and 9th largest subtropical desert of the world spread over India and Pakistan in south Asia. About 60% area of Thar Desert area is in Rajasthan State of India alone. Thar Desert being the most populated desert of the world assumes great significance for sustainable development especially in the context of climate change and climatology. While some of the facets associated with sustainable development of Thar Desert has been briefly mentioned in this chapter the detailed description of aspects like people and culture, land use and land management, crop production management practices, livestock management practices, agroforestry practices, soil conservation and water harvesting practices, community land management issues, livelihood options, women empowerment issues, multi-dimensional development and other natural resource management issues are covered in subsequent chapters of the book. Occurrence of occasional floods at places in this region and lack of developed natural drainage system, implication of fast expanding desert tourism, expansion of irrigated area through both ground water and canal water sources and increase in under plough in some areas, biodiversity conservation of plant and animal species which can survive under adverse and hard climatic conditions are some of the ensuing challenges of this eco-fragile region. The institutional efforts through Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Arid Forest Research Institute, Central Institute for Arid Horticulture and other scientific organizations including State Agricultural/Veterinary Universities in

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the region are making efforts for location specific technologies in respective areas. The chapters of this book have made all efforts to enlist the issues and challenges and also remedial measures being evolved to combat the emerging challenges.

References Chandra, A., Chandra, A., & Gupta, I. C. (1992). Date Palm Research in Thar Desert. Scientific Publishers. Chlachula, J. (2021). Between sand dunes and hamadas: Environmental sustainability of the Thar Desert, West India. Sustainability, 13, 3602. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073602 Dhir, R. P., Joshi, D. C., & Kathu, S. (2018). Thar Desert in retrospect and prospect. Scientific Publisher. Dookia, S., Rawat, M., Jakher, G., & Dooki, B. (2008). Status of the Indian gazelle (Gazella bennettii Sykes, 1831) in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India. In C. Sivaperuman, Q. H. Baqri, G. Ramaswamy, & M. Naseema (Eds.), Faunal ecology and conservation of the Great Indian Desert. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-87409-6_15 Faroda, A. S., Joshi, N. L., Singh, R. A. J., & Saxena, A. (2007). Resource management for sustainable crop production in arid zone—A review. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 52(3), 181–193. Kaarthik, N. (2014). The Indian Desert. Retrieved on June 27, 2022 from https://prezi.com/qjrnb9 lnuseu/the-indian-desert/ Kothiyal, T. (2016). Nomadic narratives: A history of mobility and identity in the Great Indian Desert. Cambridge University Press. Kshatriya, G., Gautam, R., & Kapoor, A. (2010). Population characteristics of desert ecology: Demographic indicators in a disadvantaged district of Rajasthan, India. VDM Verlag Dr. Prakash, I. (2019). Mammals of the Thar Desert. Scientific Publisher. Roy, M. M., & Roy, S. (2019). Biodiversity in Thar Desert and its role in sustainable agriculture. Flora and Fauna, 25(2), 103–120. Saigal, M. (2017). Flora and fauna in the Thar Desert. Retrieved on June 27, 2022 from https:// www.sahapedia.org/flora-and-fauna-the-thar-desert Saigal, M. (2018). The vegetation of Thar Desert: Geography, history, culture and conservation. Retrieved on June, 27, 2022 from https://www.sahapedia.org/the-vegetation-of-the-thar-desertgeography-history-culture-and-conservation Sharma, K. K., & Mehra, S. P. (2009). The Thar of Rajasthan (India): Ecology and conservation of a desert ecosystem. In C. Sivaperuman et al. (Eds.), Faunal ecology and conservation of the Great Indian Desert (pp. 1–11). Springer-Verlag. Singh, G. (2021). Role of Prosopis in reclamation of salt affected soils and soil fertility improvement. In M. C. Puppo & P. Felker (Eds.), Prosopis is a heat tolerant nitrogen fixing desert legume— Prospects of economic development in arid lands. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/ C2020-0-00062-9 Tyagi, B. K. (2005). Changing faunal ecology in Thar Desert (p. 9788172334024). Scientific Publisher. UCMP. (2019). The desert biome. University of California. Retrieved on June 25, 2022 from https:/ /ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/deserts.php Varghese, N., & Singh, N. (2016). Linkages between land use changes, desertification and human development in the Thar Desert region of India. Land Use Policy, 51(2016), 18–25.

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Varghese, K. A. (2001). Environmental economics of desert agriculture in relation to natural resource management in Rajasthan. Final report of A study under World Bank aided India: Environmental resource management capacity building technical assistance project.

Chapter 2

People and Culture of the Thar Desert Alka Swami, Rajni, and Pragati Hemrajani

Abstract The people and culture of the Rajasthan state have made Thar Desert as ‘the Most Colourful Desert in the World’. People of various faith, castes, languages and culture peacefully co-exist in this state, and hence, it is a perfect example of unity in diversity. Rajasthan state is the gem of folk culture, it is the ocean of folk beliefs and vast universe of folk experiences. The cultural tradition here has not deviated from its originality even today. It is a joyous state that embraces its bright culture with a slew of fairs and festivals that continue throughout the year. People here strongly believe in living life to the fullest. Faith and respect for social institutions are still present in the folk culture of Rajasthan. Here the joint family system is still respected. The geography of this state has contributed significantly in creating the physical identity of the residents of Rajasthan, i.e., a bundle of courage, tolerance and generosity. The adversity of nature has made the residents here lively and courageous and also gave the Marwari community an opportunity to show their professional talent in every nook and corner of India. Some of India’s key business families of the twenty century hail from Rajasthan. Thar Desert region of Rajasthan faces significant socio-economic issues and challenges despite rising earnings from several industries including agricultural, mining, services, transport, and tourist industry, etc. Livestock rearing has been the most vital source of income for a significant portion of the inhabitants. Besides this, the tourism business has thrived in this state, with famous attractions like Forts, Palaces, Havelies Chhatris, Jharokhas, Bawaris, fair and festivals, etc. Growing population, depleting ground water and rising temperature negatively impact the sand stabilization posing problem of increased sand mobility and more atmospheric dust. Due to modern lifestyle, the younger generation is losing connect with the rich traditional heritage and knowledge evolved by the people of this area over time. Preservation of traditional culture for protection of natural resources assumes great significance. A. Swami (B) · Rajni University College of Engineering and Technology, Bikaner Technical University, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] P. Hemrajani Independent Researcher, Budapest, Hungary © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_2

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Keywords Marwari Community · Folk Culture and tradition · Adverse Climatic Conditions · Fairs and festivals

2.1 Introduction The Thar Desert is the 17th largest desert of all deserts and 9th largest subtropical desert of the world. It has a geographical area of more than two lakh sq. km. About 85% of Thar Desert is in India and spread over Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat states of India and the remaining 15% area falls under Pakistan. Rajasthan alone accounts for 60% area of Thar Desert (Anoop et al., 2017). In Rajasthan, major area of Thar Desert is covered by the four districts of Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur and the nearby districts like Jalore, Pali, Nagaur, Sikar, Churu, Jhunjhunu, Ganganagar and Hanumangarh also have partial coverage of area falling under Thar Desert (Khan, 2019). Rajasthan is located in the Indian map between 23 to 30 latitude and 69 to 78 longitudes. It shares its borders with West Pakistan, Punjab and Haryana on its northern borders, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh in the east, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat in the south. Its area is 3 lakh 96 thousand 270 km (Maps of India, 2012). It is the largest state in India in terms of area. If its past has been full of bloody valour, devotion and court culture, then the present modernity can be said to be development oriented. Before the year 1947, it was an organisation of many princely states, of which Jodhpur, Jaipur, Udaipur, Bikaner were main. After independence, in the great sacrifice of national integration, the ‘Rajasthan Sangak Unified State’ was born. Rajasthan has a glorious hoary past and historical significance; the people and culture of the state has marked Thar Desert of Rajasthan as ‘the Most Colourful Desert in the World’. Geographically, this region is divided into vast deserts waving for hundreds of miles and green Aravalli ranges running across the state. Scorched by the flames of desert heat and swaying by the cool, gentle and pleasant winds of Aravalli; Rajasthan not only keeps its unique natural shade, but also has its own uniqueness from the cultural point of view. This state has been continuously moving with the current. The Thar Desert is known for its undulating sand dunes, which vary enormously in height all across desert. Although sand dunes can be found in desert areas all over the globe, the Thar’s dunes are notable for their perpetual movement (New World Encyclopedia, 2020).

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2.2 The Geographical Division of Rajasthan There are 12 districts which come under the Thar Desert area of Rajasthan, namely Barmer, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jalore, Pali, Nagaur, Churu, Jhunjhunu and Sikar. About 62% of the Thar Desert is in Rajasthan and about 61.11% of the state is sandy plain or desert. The general slope from east to west and north to south and the line dividing the sandy arid plain and the semi-arid plain is 25 cm rain line. On the basis of which it is divided into two parts. The western sandy plains are divided into two major regions and 6 sub-regions (Fig. 2.1). They are: A. Sandy Arid Plain • The annual average rainfall is 20 cm • Due to less rainfall—This region is also called ‘Sandy Arid Plain’. This plain is divided into two parts: A1. Desert (Marusthal) • District—Bikaner, Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Churu • Area—120,500 km2 (Thar Desert)

Fig. 2.1 Division of western sandy plains. Source Geography of Rajasthan by VC Mishra, NBT New Delhi (1967)

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• Height of sand dunes—6 m to 60 m • Here the sand dunes are in abundance and Length of sand dunes ranges from 3 to 5 km • These regions are the result of wind erosion and deposition. A2. Dune free Tract (Balu Mukt Maidan) • Districts—Barmer, Jaisalmer • Area—65 km2 • Limestone and Sandstone rocks exposed here belong Jurassic and Eocene formations • Small hills are found • Dry beds and banks could easily be tapped for ground water. B. Semi-Arid Basin or Rajasthan Bangar • • • •

District—Jaipur, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, Jalore, Barmer Area—7500 km2 Rainfall—20 cm It lies in the eastern part and is drained by the Luni in its south-eastern part.

B1. Luni Basin • District—Jodhpur, Jalore, Pali, and Sirohi • Area 34,866.4 km • Basin is drained by the Luni River. B2. Shekhawati Region • District: Churu, Sikar, Jhunjhunu and some part of Nagaur • Livestock, Milk production and dairy are the main occupation of this region • There is one seasonal river ‘Kantli’. B3. Nagaur Upland • • • • •

District: Nagaur Average Height this region from sea level—300 m to 500 m Rainfall—25 cm west to 50 cm in east This region is full of sand hills and low depressions The temperature being High, the evaporation of the saline flood-water results in the deposits the salt and soda in these depressions.

B4. Ghaggar Plain • Districts-Hanumangarh and Sriganganagar (75% district) • No existing river or stream except ancient Ghaggar and region is known as Ghaggar plain • It is a sandy plain interspersed with sand dunes (6–30 m high) and small sand hills (Misra, 1967).

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2.3 The People of Rajasthan The culture of Rajasthan is unique in itself due to its multifaceted bright aura which is the aura of valour, love, devotion, benevolence, purity of mind and conduct and safe haven for refugees. The philosophy of life of Rajasthan is as simple as it appears; it is equally magnetic, thoughtful and full of detail from the point of view of interpretation.

2.3.1 People of Western Rajasthan The men and women of Rajasthan have their own fundamental characteristics. This land of simplicity and virtues has seen many great people in the history of India like Rana Hamir, Rana Kumbha, MahaRana Pratap, Veer Durgadas, Pabu and Teja ji, Baba Ramdev, Hadbu ji, Gogaji, etc. The women of this region have also made a mark in the history of Rajasthan for their sacrifice and bravery like Mumal, Rani Padmini, Panna dhai, Meera bai and Karni mata.

2.3.2 Demographics of Western Rajasthan (Arid Districts) According to the 2011 census of Government of India, the 10 arid districts of Rajasthan comprising of Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jalore, Pali, Nagaur, Sikar, Churu and Jhunjhunu have a population of around 23 million. The highest population and population density is in Jodhpur district followed by Nagaur district (Table 2.1). Jodhpur is also first in Literacy rate followed by Sikar, whereas sex ratio is highest in Pali, followed by Jhunjhunu and Sikar of Shekhawati region. Table 2.1 Demographics of Western Rajasthan (arid districts) S.No.

District

Areaa (km2 )

Populationb

Literacyb (in %)

Sex ratiob

1.

Barmer

27,755.64

2,603,751

56.53

902

2.

Bikaner

22,611.13

2,363,937

65.13

903

3.

Jaisalmer

43,583.94

669,919

58.04

849

4.

Jodhpur

17,660.10

3,687,165

79.38

916

5.

Jalore

12,208.56

1,828,730

71.08

921

6.

Pali

12,387.00

2,037,573

68.2

934

7.

Nagaur

11,132.70

3,307,743

70.64

951

8.

Sikar

7,765.80

2,677,333

72.98

947

9.

Churu

16,806.12

2,039,547

67.46

938

10.

Jhunjhunu

5879.82

2,137,045

86.90

950

Source Locust Control & Research

(2016)a ,

Census of India

(2011)b

30 Table 2.2 Religion in 10 desert districts of Rajasthan

A. Swami et al.

Religion

2011

Hinduism

87.79

Islam

11.22

Sikhism

0.13

Jainism

0.69

Christianity

0.07

Buddhism

0.01

Others

0.09

Source Census of India (2011)

The major population of Rajasthan follows Hinduism, followed by Islam; the other religions are in minority (Table 2.2). The people of various faiths reside together in Rajasthan. People of various faith, castes, languages and culture peacefully co-exist in this state, and hence, it is a perfect example of unity in diversity. Rajasthan has been home of number of demographic groups including Scheduled Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Jats, Gurjars, Rajputs, Brahmins, Meenas and others (Table 2.3). The Scheduled Tribes of Rajasthan have its unique identity in the state. Schedules Tribes of Rajasthan Many tribal and nomadic cultures have roots in Rajasthan; according to the 2011 Census, 13.4% of Rajasthan’s population is made up of these groups. According to the number of tribes, Rajasthan is ranked sixth in India (Madhya Pradesh has 1st place). Udaipur district of Rajasthan has the largest percentage of these indigenous people, while Bikaner has the lowest (Fig. 2.2). Under Article 342 of the Constitution defined Scheduled Tribes as having primitive characteristics, a distinctive culture, shyness towards the general public, geographic isolation, and social and economic backwardness. Some of them include the Bhil, Mina, Garasia, Baldias (Banjaras), Gadias Lohar, Jogi Kalbelia, Damor, Koli Dhor Kokna and Seharia tribes. The two tribes that make up the majority of Table 2.3 Demographic groups of Rajasthan

Demographic groups

Percentage

Scheduled Caste (SC)

18

Scheduled Tribes (ST)

13

Jats

12

Gurjars

9

Rajputs

9

Brahmins

7

Meenas

7

Source Handa (2018)

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Fig. 2.2 Distribution of Scheduled Tribes in Rajasthan. Source https://www.rajras.in/rajasthan/tri bes/

Rajasthan’s population are Bhils and Minas. These tribes can all be recognised by their unique cultures, traditions, trades, fairs and festivals. One tribe, i.e., Kalbelia tribes are originally snake charmers; their famous folk Kalbelia dance is part of India’s UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG)—Some Scheduled Tribes were designated as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG) by the Indian government because they are more economically behind than other Scheduled Tribes and have extremely low literacy rates. Their populations are falling or remaining unchanged. Rajasthan’s Saharia tribe has been incorporated into PVTG. Scheduled Area in Rajasthan—Article 244 of the Constitution provides for the declaration of Schedule V in order to guarantee the preservation of indigenous practises, tribal cultures and the prevention of the alienation of their lands and natural resources to non-tribals. In Rajasthan, Schedule V has been proclaimed to include Banswara, Dungarpur, Pratapgarh (wholly tribal districts), Udaipur, Rajsamand, Chittorgarh, Sirohi and Pali (partially tribal territories) (RAJ RAS, n.d.).

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2.3.3 Language The state is commonly described as one where ‘har choubis kos pani aur boli badalti hai’ (here every 24 miles the water and the language change) (Purohit, 2020). The language of Rajasthan region is Rajasthani. All the dialects spoken in Rajasthan are included under Rajasthani language. Marwari, Dhondadi, Hadoti and Mewati are the major dialects in which written literature is also found (Kalla, 2000). Rajasthani is a powerful and rich language in terms of literature. Folk literature in the form of folk songs, folktales, folk dance, folk festivals and folk entertainments has nurtured the cultural heritage of this state.

2.4 Rajasthani Folkculture Culture is the soul of any nation. Civilisation gives geographical identity. Culture makes sense of its consciousness. Culture has two sides— 1. The physical side—The physical plane of culture satisfies our bodily appetites, so its intimacy gratifies our soul. 2. The inner side—Literature, religion, art, various means of entertainment are enumerated in the inner side of culture (Rathore, 1996). Rajasthan state is the gem of folk culture. It is the ocean of folk beliefs and vast universe of folk experiences. In this culture, without any kind of animosity, malice, prejudice or blatant discrimination, there exists the essence of ‘Sarva Dharma Sambhav’, ‘Sarvajanhitaya’ ‘Sarvajan Sukhay’ (respect for all religion, well-being for all, happiness for all). The vast landscape of Western Rajasthan’s folk culture is in Suryanagari (golden city) Jodhpur, golden sandy Bikaner and Jaisalmer, the gold-plated Barmer and other areas.

2.4.1 The Physical Beauty of Rajasthani Folk Culture 2.4.1.1

Sand Dunes

This land is divided into ‘Dhoran’ (sand dunes) and ‘Magra’ (hill). The entire western zone is waving in a vast sea of sand, while the eastern land is covered with greenery. The extension of the desert to hundreds of kilometres has saved this region from foreign invasion for centuries. This is the reason that the cultural tradition here has not deviated from its originality even today. Heat waves and ‘Kali-Peeli aandhi’ (sand storms) made the residents of this place a companion of famine and also gave the Marwari community an opportunity to show their professional talent in every nook and corner of India.

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The geography of this state has contributed significantly in creating the physical identity of the residents of Rajasthan, i.e., a bundle of courage, tolerance and generosity. Natural calamities have been eternal here. Scanty rainfall and famine have been a permanent feature here. The adversity of nature has made the residents here lively and courageous. The shade of this natural beauty has played an important background in the structure of Rajasthani folk culture (Kalla, 2000).

2.4.1.2

Dressing

Rajasthani Dress for Men The dress of the residents of Rajasthan is very simple. Due to the traditional nature of the residents of Rajasthan, there has not been much change in their dress even today. High dhoti (a loose piece of cloth wrapped around the lower half of the body, worn by men) up to the knees and tunic above the waist—this simple dress is the hallmark of the residents here. The ‘Pachhewda’ (shawl) is also worn with dhoti and tunic. It is not considered good keep the head bare. Hence, the practice of wearing turban is present even today (Fig. 2.2). ‘Safa’, ‘Pecha’ and ‘Paag’ are also a form of turban. The turban is a symbol of self-respect and pride. Here ‘Angrakhi’ is also called by names like Mirzai, Tansukh, Kano, etc. White ‘safa’ or turban is worn on auspicious occasions like ‘Panchrangs’, ‘Laharis’, ‘Saffron’ and on mourning occasions. The style and pattern of turban varies depending on the community, season and occasion. Among the Swarnakar Samaj (Goldsmith), Pagri (turban) has nodes; the Banjare (Tribal) wear turbans with thick stripes (also called ‘pattedar’), Mothde turban is worn on marriage, Lahariya turban in Shravan month or the fifth month of the Hindu year; Madil (single colour with silver threads) is worn on the festival of Dussehra and turban with colourful flowers and leaves are worn on the festival of Holi (Kalla, 2000).

Rajasthani Dress for Women There is variety in the costumes of women in Rajasthani folk society. The practice of veil still exists here. The whole body of women is covered with clothes (Fig. 2.3). Their main clothes are chundro, lehariya, odhani, sari, while the ‘Assi Kalighagra’ (eighty pleats skirt) is important. There are many forms of Odhnis (chuniri or shawl). The women of Rajasthan are very ornamental. They wear jewellery made of gold, silver, copper, oysters and coral. Females in Rajasthan wear nathanis or naths (nose pins), Bajuband or armlet and bichua or toe rings. They also wear a chain popularly known as Kardhanior Tagdi on their belly or waist, maang tikas or Borla on their forehead, Timaniyaan, a choker necklace and Chura, which is worn on the wrists. Rajasthani women adore gold and ivory tones in their chura. The Bangles are made of Lac. Rajasthani women’s footwear is known as jooti or mojari (Kalla, 2000).

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Fig. 2.3 Rajasthani costume for men and women. Photo courtesy Sh. Shailendra Kachchhawa, Tourist Guide, Bikaner

2.4.1.3

Food

The climatic conditions of Rajasthan, and also the periodic wars, have had a significant impact on the cuisines/culinary of western Rajasthan. Long lasting food that did not require any heating/cooking was chosen due to insufficient water, scarcity of green vegetables and other climate-related issues. Western Rajasthani cuisine evolved its very own unique style to accommodate circumstances such as the wars, climate and the scarcity of resources in a parched or arid environment. Rajasthani cuisine depends heavily on millet, grains and pulses. The folk society is used to living a life without pomp and show about food and drink. The main food here is bajri. “Bajaria Tharo Khichado Lage Ghanoon Savad”

—a folk song appreciating the taste of khich of bajra mostly prepared on Akshay Tritiya in Rajasthan. Corn ‘sogre’, curd, khichado ‘dariyo’, whey, jaggery, ghughari, raab, madi and pudding in sweets, ladoo, kheer, lapsi, badi and papad in vegetables, Kachra, Matira, kharabooja (cantaloupe) and onion, garlic, rice, Meat, etc., is also used here. Rotis or flat breads made of bajra (pearl millet), makka (maize) and jowar (Sorghum) are also prevalent, in addition to the conventional wheat rotis, pooris, kachauris and parathas. Besan (gram flour) is a commonly consumed ingredient in Rajasthani cuisine/food. Perhaps the most popular and adored culinary dish in Rajasthan is ‘dal baati churma’, which itself is a complete dinner. Bikaneri bhujia, badi, Pyaaj kachori, papad and Mirchi bada are among some of the famous munchies. Dal Baati, thandai, Lashun ki chutney (hot garlic sauce), malaidar lassi, Mawa lassi

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from Jodhpur, Ghevar, Rasgullas, Imarti, moong dal halwa, malpua and other sweets from Bikaner are among the other well-known foods (NDTV Cooks, 2018). Butter, milk and buttermilk are utilised as substitute for limited/scarce water resources in the arid belt cities of Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Barmer. Mango powder is also utilised widely in Maheshawari cookery as a substitute for limited tomatoes. Also, for preparing Rajasthani cuisine, pure ghee is commonly utilised (Travel to India—Rajasthan—Rajasthan Culture, n.d.). The dietary preferences vary from one community to the other. For instance, Rajputs here favour a non-vegetarian diet, while the Brahmins, Jains and others embraced a vegetarian diet. As a result, the state offers a wide range of both kind of vegetarian and non-vegetarian delicacies. Rajasthan has 74.9% vegetarians, as per a 2014 poll conducted by the Registrar General of India, making it India’s largest vegetarian state (Team Express Foodie, 2016).

2.4.2 Inner Beauty of Rajasthani Folk Culture The inner beauty of folk culture is enriched by society, language, art, fair, festivals, songs, dance, folklore, literature and philosophy. Culture is an artistic display of the best sublime tendencies of the people. Culture continues to make sense of its power even though it remains intangible.

2.4.2.1

Rajasthani Folklore, Folk Songs, Dance and Puppets

The folk psyche of Rajasthan swings in songs and dances is also engrossed in folklores and rejoices in folk festivals, fairs and rituals. People of Rajasthan love traditions, are fond of customs, have faith in deity and believe in omens. Folk songs and dances are the lyrical gift of the melodious expression of joyful and sad feelings of the people prevailing in the culture. They are, in true sense, a representative of folk culture. Even though they are ancient, they are always new. In them, the colour of antiquity and novelty is reflected. Folklore is the soul of the folk songs, dance and puppet acts and the expression of the culture. Resonating from one heart to another, these are being passed down from generation to generation.

Folklore and Folk Tales Stories of valiant kings and queens, wildlife, farmers, nobility, sacrifice and compassion are all woven into Rajasthani tradition. The daily challenges of Rajasthani residents are shown in these folk stories/tales. These people live down in the deserts, where they face daily struggles amidst the sand dunes. These act as both a portal into the other civilisations and a mirror or reflection of their own heritage. Initially, everywhere, the folk literature was oral literature but in Rajasthan it appeared in written form at a very early date. Story telling in Rajasthan turned professional and

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The Kalbelia dance is an extremely popular folk dance from Jaisalmer performed by the Kalbelia tribe of Rajasthan. The dance traditionally involves both men and women. The men play various folk instruments, such as the drums or a variation of the flute. The female members of the tribe perform the actual dance. The dance is skilfully done like the movement of a serpent to impress the viewers. One more striking thing about this folk dance is the incredible amount of jewellery and the colourful costumes dancers wear (Atal, 2016). Kalbelia folk songs and dances are also inscribed in 2010 (5.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, UNESCO. (UNESCO, 2010)

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Ghoomar, also known as ghumar, is a Rajasthani traditional dance. It was first practised by the Bhil community to honour Goddess Sarasvati, and it was then adopted by several other Rajasthani clans. (Kumar, 2014). As per the Rajasthani rituals or traditions, when a newly-wed bride is warmly welcomed to her new marital house, she is encouraged to dance ghoomar. Apart from this, festivals, wedding ceremonies and religious gatherings are also some of the occasions where Ghoomar is performed (Bhandari and Kale, 2009).

Fig. 2.4 Folk dances of Rajasthan. Photo courtesy Sh. Vipul Goswami, Bikaner and Sh. Shailendra Kachchhawa, Tourist Guide, Bikaner

became hereditary occupation of many people like the Bhat, the Charan and the Bandi (Chaudhary, 1972). Some of the famous folklore of western Rajasthan are Dhola-Maaru, Mumal, Baite sain baiti bhali, je koyi hoye sapoot.

Folk Dance Rajasthani folk dances play a very vital component of the state’s cultural legacy. Folk dances are an integral part because they are not just elegant, but they also convey tales in a distinctive and intriguing way. Ghoomer, Kathputli dance, Kachchhi Ghodi, Bhavai, Kalbelia, Gair, Chakri and Chari are among the most famous Rajasthani folk/traditional dances that have captivated audiences all across the globe with their elegance (Fig. 2.4). Each type of folk dance has cultural and historical value. The various types of traditional dances practised in Rajasthan were initially developed with the intention of entertaining royalty. Every form perfectly portrays fascinating movements that captivate the audience (Nihalini, 2020).

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Folk Song Rajasthani folklore is extremely renowned and well-liked throughout the world. The fundamentals of the melodies and methods/techniques have captivated music enthusiasts all over the world. Rajasthani traditional instruments/devices of the stringed genre include the Rawanhattha, Morchang, Ektara, Sarangi and Kamayacha which have a primitive appearance. Poongi, Tarpi, Been, Algoza, Bankia and Shehnai are just some of the instruments that the state specialises with. The Daf and Chang can be seen at occasions such as Holi. Most notably, music ‘Gharanas’ (community of musicians who share a distinct musical style that traces to a particular region) make a big impact in this state, for example, Allah Jilai Bai of the Bikaner Gharana is a well-known Rajasthani Maand singer. The scope of folk songs is very wide. They belong to Gods and Goddesses, different festivals, family relations, historical character songs, etc.

Puppeteers Rajasthani puppet show is among the state’s most famous methods of entertainment. The art of puppetry is practised by the Bhats, a clan of Rajasthani agricultural or farm labourers. They are basically from the Nagaur district of the Marwar region, but they go all over the country to demonstrate their abilities. They are also referred to as ‘kathputliwalas’, and their puppet exhibitions are frequently held in the evening hours. Puppets are dummy/fake dolls made of wood clothed in a variety of vivid and colourful outfits. The puppeteer moves these wooden dolls (puppets) around using strings tied to them. A tiny stage/platform is created using a cot which is stretched out lengthwise. The puppeteer buckles his puppets to a string attached to the cots’ upper legs. The puppeteer’s cots are shrouded with sheets or curtains to keep him hidden from the audience eye (Joshi, 2020). He manipulates the puppets’ hinged limbs with the use of strings/ropes tied to each of them. The commencement of the puppet act is marked by loud dholak (a type of drum).

2.4.2.2

Folk Art

Folk art is an important aspect of folk culture. Rajasthani folk art has the warmth, eternity and purity of the desert. Painting, Handicrafts, Architecture, etc., are the subjects related to this. Rajasthani folk culture is spontaneous and lively, simple and pleasant, and the expressions are expressed in their best form.

Handicrafts of Rajasthan Various handicrafts of Rajasthan are the hallmark of the rich culture here. Modernisation, however, has caused considerable damage to the handicrafts. Ever since the

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introduction of machine, the livelihood of the handicraftsmen has also been adversely affected; yet, the effective development of the tourism industry is largely dependent on the handicraft products. Tourists come to Rajasthan from distant countries to buy handicraft products.

Wooden Art and Work The work of ivory on wood has been done in Rajasthan since its inception. The entire doors of the houses of Bikaner-Shekhawati are full of this work and excellent work of wood can also be seen on the roofs of the houses. Various items produced from wood are very famous in Jodhpur. Keeping pace with modernisation, various articles of wood with traditional design are made to cater to the new age consumers. The wood art and items made here are famous throughout the country. Gangaur is an idol made of wood of Shiva and Parvati; the first statue of Gangaur was made by Shri Prabhat Ji Suthar about 350 years ago, which is a life-size statue of Shiva Parvati, at present this statue is safely kept in Bassi (Chittorgarh) (Sharma, 2016).

Famous Usta Art of Bikaner The work of Gold Meenakari and Munawwati (work done on camel skin) in Bikaner is known as ‘Usta Kala’. Artworks made by Usta artists are very famous in the country and abroad. In this, the artistic work of rare gold enamel is done on the flasks made of camel skin, which is very attractive and charming. This art is engraved on vials, flasks, mirrors, cans, earthen jars, etc., (Fig. 2.5). The development of this unique art of golden meenakari on camel’s skin was done by the eminent artist of Bikaner, Hisamuddin Usta, who was honoured with Padma Shri in 1986. Even today many artists are doing the work of Usta art in Usta Mohalla of Bikaner. Usta Kala has been exhibited in many international and national art exhibitions (Government of Rajasthan, n.d.). The artists of the Usta caste have kept this art form alive for several generations and they still continue to provide the enchanting colourful painting to the palaces, havelis, temples, etc. Later on, this Usta painting developed in the form of golden enamel on camel skin and it took the form of a new style of handicraft.

Lac Work Jaipur and Jodhpur in Rajasthan are world famous for the work of lac. The fame of lac bangles and bracelets, palate, toys, idols, carousels and objects made by coating lac has spread all over the world. Various designs are made and decorated on lac bangles like glass and pearls (Sharma, 2016).

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Fig. 2.5 Usta art work of Bikaner. Photo courtesy Usta Heritage Arts, Bikaner

Printing on Textile Bandhej—Bandhej art is a technique of dyeing cloth and is famous in places like Jodhpur, Jaipur, Sujangarh, Kaladera, Bagru, Ladne and Shekhawati areas of the state. In Bandhej art, clothes are tied in various desired designs and then dyed in different colours. Lahariya—The cloth is tied at different places and then dyed, to form wavy on it called Lahariya. Married women wear Lahariya sarees and odhanis during the festival of Teej. Mothda—When the wavy stripes of the waves intersect each other, it is called Mothda. Jodhpur’s Mothda is most famous in the state (Datt & Marriya, 2018). Ajrak Print—Ajrak print of a place called ‘Balotra’ of Barmer district is famous throughout the country. Malir Print—Malir Print of Barmer is another famous printing work on textiles (Kothari, 1995). Jatkatarai By shearing the hair grown on the body of the camel, to make different shapes and designs is called JatKatarai (Fig. 2.6). This work is done by the people of Raika/ Rebari caste, the foster caste of camels. It should be noted that the work of making jatpatti is done from goat’s hair, which are exported to Arab and European countries. Jatpatti is also used to make the carpets. The work of making Jatpatti is done by the Maru Gotripotters of Jassol (Barmer) (Sharma, 2016).

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Fig. 2.6 Jatkatarai (shearing art on camel). Photo courtesy Sh. Vipul Goswami, Bikaner

Fig. 2.7 Rajasthani Haveli. Photo courtesy Sh. Vipul Goswami, Bikaner

2.4.2.3

Unique Architecture

Havelies Rajasthani havelies are colourful, spectacular and majestic, and they evoke the splendour and beauty of bygone eras with their attractiveness and magnificence. These Havelies, which were formerly the residences of Maharajas or Thakurs, today remain as majestic monuments in the heartland of Rajasthan’s desert state. Right from the Mughals to the Hindus, the Shekhawats to the rich Goenkas, each and every Haveli symbolizes the owner’s social standing and affluence. The Rajputs were outstanding architects, as is evident from the havelies in Rajasthan, and their architectural style differed significantly from those of the Mughals. The Rajasthani Havelies (Fig. 2.7) are known for their architectural splendour, beauty and grandeur, and many of them have now been restored as heritage hotels. The antique elegance and architecture of these Havelis has been preserved, and the mediaeval feel can be found throughout (Tiwari & Parashar, 2017).

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Fig. 2.8 Fort and palace showing a mix of Indian and Mughal architecture. Photo courtesy Sh. Vipul Goswami, Bikaner

Some of the famous havelies of this region are Rikhji Bagri ki Haveli, Rampuria Group of Havelies, Haveli of Bhairondan Kothari, Haveli of Poonam Chand Kothari, Sampatlal Agarwal Haveli and Daga Chowk Havelis. Rampuria havelies of Bikaner, Patwaon Ki Haveli, Nathmal Ki Haveli, Saalam Singh Ki Haveli of Jaisalmer Singhvi’s haveli, Pal haveli, Jhankar haveli, Ummed Haveli of Jodhpur, Char Chawk haveli Laxmangarh, Anandilal Poddar Haveli Nawalgarh, Modi Haveli Jhunjhunu, etc.

Forts and Palaces Forts and palaces here have a mixture of Hindu and Mughal architecture (Fig. 2.8). Forts are constructed with big four walls, deep trenches, large grounds for training and beautiful carvings are very much visible. In the history, the forts were built on inaccessible hills and deserts and tell tales of war, love, separation, sacrifice, joy, grief, etc. (Upadhyaya, 2017). Although there are forts on every step of the way, but now some of them have completely disappeared due to lack of protection and some have changed their nature. Many forts of historical importance are still alive with their presence, some of them are—Anupgarh Fort, Barmer Fort and Garh Temple, Bhatner Fort, Jaisalmer Fort, Jalore Fort, Junagarh Fort, Bikaner, Khejarla Fort, Khimsar Fort, Laxmangarh Fort, Nagaur Fort, Ratangarh Fort, Kuchaman Fort, Laxmi Niwas Palace, Bikaner, Umaid Bhawan Palace, Jodhpur, Bal Samand Lake Palace, Jodhpur, etc. (Vyas, 2019).

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Fig. 2.9 Jharokha. Photo courtesy Sh. Vipul Goswami, Bikaner

Chhatris, Jharokhas and Bawaris (Stepwell) Chhatris—Chhatris are high, dome-shaped pavilions which originated in Rajasthan and yet are prominent part of Rajasthani architecture, wherein they represent emblems of dignity and respect. Chhatris are made on the crematorium of wealthy or notable persons in Rajasthan’s Shekhawati area. In Shekhawati, chhatris are often made up of a single dome supported by four pillars in a building with multiple domes and a basement with many rooms. Cities such as Jodhpur, Haldighati, Bikaner, Jaipur and Udaipur have numerous famous chhatris. Jharokhas—It is a form of overhanging covered balcony that can be found in Rajasthan’s havelies, temples and palaces. Usually, this balcony is a kind of window made of stone. Jharokhas are located in such a way that they protrude forward from a wall and can be employed to enhance the building’s architectural attractiveness or serve a particular purpose (Fig. 2.9). In the medieval eras, ladies could view what was going on outside without being seen themselves. The Jharokhas, which is an important part of Rajasthani architecture, was used as both a decorative and a vantage platform. Many Jharokhas are also accompanied by chhajjas. Bawaris (stepwell)—A stepwell (also known as a bawari) is a well or pond where the water can be accessed by descending a set of stairs. These bawaris can be found throughout Western India, particularly in the state of Rajasthan and Gujarat. For centuries, people have used stepwells. In the medieval period for stable, yearround groundwater, builders used to dig deep holes into the earth. Stone blocks were used to line the trenches’ walls, but no mortar was used and stairs heading downward to the water were built. Most of the existing stepwells were once used as rest stops and also as a water source. In Rajasthan, Bundi district is home to more than 60 stepwells.

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Major Fairs and Festivals of Rajasthan

The treasure of folk cultural wealth of any society can be seen radiating its aura in fairs and festivals. The ritualistic tendencies of the people play a decisive role in the planning of folk festivals. The folk culture of Rajasthan is very rich and diverse from this point of view. The cultural significance of these fairs on different seasons and festivals is undeniable. In these Lokotsavs (folk festivals), the people feel the supernatural joy of energy filled with extraordinary enthusiasm. Among these Lokotsavs, ‘Gangaur’ festival, which is celebrated by young girls and married women, has a special place. Basically, it is the worship of Shiva Parvati which lasts for fifteen days with the worship of ‘Isar-Gavar’. During this period, women fast and offer prayers for good fortune and happiness. Women also celebrate Kajali Teej, Shravan Shukla Tritiya (third lunar day of lunar cycle) and Akhatij (Akshay tritya) with pomp. Festivals like Holi, Shukla Purnima (full moon), Dussehra, Diwali and Paryushan are celebrated by Hindus, Muharram, Idul fitur and Idul Juha by Muslims and Christmas and Easter are celebrated by people of Christian faith. The fairs sponsored by Rajasthani folk include Kesaria ji, Mahavir ji’s fair, Tejaji’s fair, Ramdev ji Pir’s fair, Chaitra Shukla from Pratham (first bright moon day) to Navami (ninth bright moon day), Karni Mata, Pabuji’s fair, Gogaji fare, etc. Apart from this, the fare of ‘Karni Mata’ Pushkar and Galtaji is also considered to be virtuous. These fairs and festivals have played an important and inspirational role in preserving the Rajasthani culture. Rajasthan is a joyous state that embraces its bright culture with a slew of fairs and festivals that continue throughout the year, bringing a rainbow of colours to the state’s parched landscape. Rajasthan is a place where people strongly believe in living life to the fullest. They also love their culture very much, therefore, in Rajasthan, celebration is an important part of life. The people of Rajasthan are affable, kind and nature loving. The Rajasthani people follow different religions but follow same culture. All people of all religion dwell in peace and Harmony and celebrate life together. Many types of festivals and fairs are held every year, so that enthusiasm remains in the life of the people.

Some of the Major Fairs and Festivals of Western Rajasthan Are 1. Desert Festival (Jaisalmer)—It is a 3-day festival, celebrated in the month of February every year. Various events and contests, such as turban tying competitions, camel racing, Mr. and Miss. Desert competitions are held during this festival. The major attractions of the desert festival of Jaisalmer includes snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats, camel decoration, people with traditional attire, folk performers, folk music, fire dancers and various other things that shows the vibrant culture of Rajasthan. 2. Camel Festival (Bikaner)—It is a 2-day festival, celebrated in the month of February every year. The Bikaner camel festival or carnival displays people’s

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Fig. 2.10 The famous camel festival. Photo courtesy Sh. Shailendra Kachchhawa, Tourist Guide, Bikaner

creativity via events such as camel ornamentation, camel hair trimming, camel milking and camel dancing (Fig. 2.10). People are often seen donning brightly coloured clothes and sporting lengthy moustaches. Apart from this, by the end of the day, there will be an enlightened celebration. The Department of Tourism, Art and Culture of Bikaner, Government of Rajasthan, hosts this festival every year. Visitors are entertained by ecstatic performances/acts. On the last day of the festival, there is a spectacular firework display that illuminates the entire city of Bikaner. 3. Cattle Fair (Nagaur)—It is an eight day festival, celebrated in the month of January–February every year. Nagaur Fair is India’s second-largest livestock/ cattle fair. The largest venue for selling cattle, camel, cows, bullocks, oxen and horses is provided by this fair. Every year, the town transforms into a sea of animals, with over 70,000 bullocks, camels and horses traded. Nagaur Fair, which attracts a large number of people every year, embodies the essence of Rajasthan and blends it with its wonderful culture. Traditional and cultural competitions continue to take place concurrently. To keep tourists entertained, various events such as camel race, tug-of-war and cock fights are held. 4. Gangaur Festival (Bikaner)—It is a famous Bikaner event that takes place every year, after the 18 days of Holi festival. In the term ‘Gangaur’, Gan denotes Lord Shiva and Gaur denotes the Lord’s celestial companion Gauri, the Gangaur festival is held to commemorate the divine bliss of Goddess Parvati, which is the alternative name of Gauri. In this festival, the women have a unique role/function to perform. Gangaur is commemorated for 18 days by the inhabitants of Bikaner, in which they carry on a beautiful parade/procession wherein the city’s girls and women take part. It is believed that those girls who pray to Goddess Parvati for a suitable groom during the Gangaur festival; their wishes are fulfilled in the near future. Hence, womenfolk from adjoining places of Bikaner come in large numbers to the city during the 18 days of the festival. Apart from the devotees of Goddess Parvati, thousands of spectators are also found enjoying the spirit of the Gangaur festival in Bikaner. Both married and unmarried women participate enthusiastically in the festivities by carving wood idols/statues of Shiva and

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Parvati, dressing them elegantly, praying to them, keeping a day-long fast for marital bliss and preparing delectable delicacies for the family (Gupta, 1966). 2.4.2.5

Folk Beliefs and Ethics

Each society has its own beliefs and ethics which reveal their culture. Rajasthani society also has its own beliefs and ethics, on the basis of which it has its own special identity. These beliefs include omens, rituals, enchantments, folk-belief, etc. These beliefs and ethics are prevalent even today in the society of simple people who believe easily. Sometimes these are far from rationality. Even the growing systemic knowledge and science could not break their beliefs because their roots are deeplyseated in the public mind. The omens of Rajasthan have been very interesting. In it, after studying animals, birds, vegetation, nature and vibrations of human organs and parts, etc., future predictions are made on famine, drought, excessive rain, epidemics, natural wrath, achievement, profit, loss, success-failure, good and bad, etc. For example, on Akshaya Tritiya, Sukal (good harvest) and Dukaal (bad harvest) are estimated by the direction of the wind. If the south wind blows on that day before the four-hour day, then there is a possibility of damage to the crops and locust infestation. The north wind is considered auspicious and the east wind is considered inauspicious. Even while leaving the house, auspicious time is observed. If, at the time of leaving the house, flour, milk, ghee, empty trunk appears, then the journey is postponed considering it inauspicious. On the contrary, if curd, utensil filled with water, honey and coconut appear in front, then it is considered good omen.

Some Important Places of Religious Importance 1. Shri Kapil Muni’s Temple (Bikaner)—Kolayat (Bikaner) is the pilgrimage site of Kapil Muni, the founder of Sankhya philosophy. There are 52 ghats and 5 temples on the banks of the lake located here, where every year a fair is held on the full moon day of Shukla Paksha of Kartik month. The programme of offering lighted lamps in the lake during this fair is worth seeing (Gupta, 1966). 2. Khatu Shyam Ji Temple (Sikar)—The famous temple of Shri Khatushyamji is situated in Khatu village of Sikar district. Shri Khatushyamji Falgun Fair, which lasts for about 7 days in the Shukla Paksha of Falgun month (between February and March), is one of the biggest fairs of Rajasthan. Every year lakhs of devotees from all over the country and abroad come to attend this fair. The newly wed couples come to take blessings from the deity and newly born babies are also brought for their Mundan (first hair shearing). On this occasion, the entire Khatu city is in a festive spirit (Structwel Designers & Consultants Pvt. Ltd. and ANB Consultants, 2016). 3. Salasar Balaji Temple—In 1803, a temple of Hindu God Hanumanji was built at a place called Salasar. There is a net of khejri (Shami) tree in the centre of the

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temple, on which devotees tie coconuts and threads to fulfil their wishes. Special fairs are held here on the full moon days of Bhadrapada, Ashwin, Chaitra and Vaishakh months of the Hindu calendar (Directorate of Census Operations, 2011). 4. Charbhuja Temple, Merta City (Nagaur)—The huge temple of devotee Shiromani Meera Bai is located in Merta city (Nagaur). This temple is also known as Charbhuja Nath Temple. Which was built by Meera Bai’s paternal grandfather (Grandfather) Rao Duda. The temple has life-size statues of Meera Bai, Sant Tulsidas, Raidas, etc.; Jhulotsav fair is organised every year in the temple from Shravani Ekadashi (eleventh moon day) to Poornima (full moon day) (Sharma, 2016). 5. Karni Mata Temple (Deshnok, Bikaner), Rat Temple—It is the only temple in the world where there are more than 20 to 25 thousand Rats. The sighting of white rats here is considered auspicious. According to public opinion, when a white rat is seen, the desired wish gets fulfilled. It is believed that if a deity dies; he is born as a rat in the Karni Mata temple (Gupta, 1966). 6. Lokdevta—There are several fold deities who represent a symbol of public welfare, commitment and help. Local people of Rajasthan are sincere devotees of Lokdevta. Among these folk deities, Tejaji, Pabuji, Hadbuji, Mallinathji, Gogaji, Ramdevji, Devnarayanji, etc., are notable. Even today, before starting any auspicious work in the villages, remembering these folk deities, the devotee take the names of these deities and say “Pavu, Hadbu, Ramdev, Mangalia Meha. Panchu Pir Padharjyo, Gogaji Jeha.”

Similarly, Ramsa Pir, who gives light to the blind, feet to the handicapped, children to the barren, wealth to the poor and Fearlessness to the refugees, is equally revered in Hindu and Muslim society. Similarly, Karni Mata, Bhatiyani ji Mata are revered among the folk goddesses. Though the Rajasthani folk deities do not find a place in any Vedic or mythological stories, but the simple people of this state with simple beliefs, continue to offer their devotion to these deities (Sharma, 2016).

2.5 Joint Family System—Rajasthani Faith Towards Social Institutions Faith and respect for social institutions is still present in the folk culture of Rajasthan. Here, the joint family system is respected. Even today in this region, that family is considered revered and prosperous, where ‘Ek Chulha Roti Varnam’ or single kitchen concept is realised; where the grandfather sits with his sons and grandsons, being happy and doing ‘Vyalu’ (dinner) in the evening; where the daughter-in-law ignites the Devjyoti (worship lamp) in the morning and evening and touches the feet of the mother-in-law (Kalla, 2000). There are very rare cases where the family is nuclear owing to livelihood concerns or family disagreements, otherwise families in Rajasthan prefer living ‘jointly’ as a

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family custom. In Rajasthan, the joint family arrangement is patriarchal, with people from the same ‘male’ lineage living under the same roof and eating food cooked over the same stove. When it comes to taking decisions, holding property and serving in the public sector, women’s position is deemed inferior to that of men. When any special events/occasion arise in the family such as wedding, all the members unite together to help each other monetarily, psychologically and commemorate the occasion. Crucial judgments in the family concerning property as well as other issues are made in discussion with all the male members of the family, wherein the head of the family plays a key role in making and carrying out the decisions. Property is divided equally among all male members of the household and passed down from fathers and forefathers. The family embraces love and affection, so as to nurture the children of the family, and also provides support to the elderly and sick members. A family’s resources/assets are shared among its members. During the initial years of a child’s development, the process of socialisation offered by the parents and other members of the household helps to transfer family norms/standards and values across generations. The young ones are encompassed with societal concepts and moral attitudes. From time to time, the concepts of righteousness and wrongdoing are strongly emphasised. Elderly, members of the family teach ritualistic practices specific to the family and explain their relevance as well. The emotional and cognitive involvement with family members aids in the formation of basic personality attributes/traits. Family plays an important role in terms of new experiences, provides security, acknowledgement and responsiveness. Every person learns how to fulfil his or her desires for the first time in his or her family (Sarda, 2016). Rajasthan is an agricultural state, with over 70% of the population living in remote areas and relying heavily on agriculture for their subsistence. Farming is the mainstay of the state’s GDP and accounts for 22.5% of the state’s GDP. The state has a total farmed area of over 20 million hectares, however owing to unforeseen conditions, only 20% of that area is cultivated/irrigated. In most of the regions, the ground is dry. Droughts are quite prevalent in Rajasthan, and the area has seen several extreme droughts in past few decades. Farmers have to rely on both rainfall and ground water for crops due to inclement weather (Sharma & Basotia, 2018). Because of this, the joint family system works as a cushion to combat drought. With this transformation of the household from joint to nuclear, individualism has increasingly manifested in familiar relationships. This has resulted in increasing fragmentation of land, uneconomic but unavoidable duplication of assets and excessive pressure of livestock on land (Malhotra, 1977).

2.6 Marwari Community as Business Community Some of India’s key business families of the twentieth century hail from Rajasthan. Names such as Birla, Dalmia, Poddar, Morarka and Jhunjhunwala emerged from this region (Mint Lounge, 2008). In the nineteenth century, a small group/community

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from Rajasthan’s desert moved across the country. By the First World War, the Marwaris had seized control on most of the country’s inland commerce. They subsequently moved into industry, and by the 1970s, they had amassed majority of India’s private—sector assets/resources. Currently, Marwari entrepreneurs make up a 25% of the Indian billionaires on Forbes’ list (Timberg and Das, 2015).

2.6.1 Reasons of Marwaris’ Success in Business The Marwaris depend on an age-old system of capital preservation and growth that has served them well, as well as a great sense of commercial ethics/values that has gained them recognition and respect over time (Timberg & Das, 2015). The Marwaris start grooming their heirs at a very young age in the joint family, so that they learn all the tricks of the business till they reach the right age. They didn’t spend the money they made on themselves but invested it back in the business (Ganguly, 2014). They invest money by investing it in a business where it will be most profitable in the future and they keep a careful eye on the finances of the companies in which they own a stake. They not only know to delegate the responsibility to others and expand the business but also know how to gently move out the ineffectual executives and family members to cushy and uncritical positions (Management & Leaders, 2016). One of the factors for their achievement is their capacity to accommodate with the changing circumstances. Agility of mind is unquestionably a key factor of their amazing accomplishment. The Marwaris have integrated mindsets, skills, capabilities and support systems which results into great success for them. They have a strong network, creative instincts, business credibility, sense of community and contingency aptitude, all of which contribute to the effectiveness (Your Money, 2014).

2.7 Nature Loving Rajasthani Community 2.7.1 Pathmeda Godham Mahatirth Situated at Sanchore in Jalore district of Rajasthan is the largest cowshed of the World. The institution started in 1993 with 8 mother cows. In the year 1999, the number of cows was 90,000, in 2001 and this number touched 284,000, in 2004. Each year, tens of thousands of highly useful cow descendants are supplied to cow raising/rearing people (Srivastava, 2016).

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2.7.2 Chipko (Tree-Hugging) Movement Dates back to 1730 AD, when 363 Bishnois sacrificed their lives to save Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) trees. The movement was led by a women Amrita Devi. She and her family hugged the trees in order to save them from the soldiers of king of Jodhpur, Maharaja Abhay Singh. This movement led the other similar kind of movements later in twentieth century (Jain, 2011).

2.7.3 Water Conservation The western region of the state is nearly rainless desert. In many areas, the rainfall is less than 120 mm in a year. This is sufficient only for four to six months domestic needs, after which the villagers have to bring water from other villages 20–30 km away. Therefore, the people of desert are largely dependent on rain water harvesting systems, like pond, well and underground tanks, where, in good monsoon season, sufficient water is collected for remaining months (Saxena, 2017).

2.8 Means of Living in the Thar Surprisingly, the Thar Desert has a sizable population of people who rely for their living on various means. Farming does not appear to be a very viable source of income due to unfavourable ecological factors. The Kharif harvest, which includes maize, jowar, guar, bajra and sesame are the main crops cultivated here. Sowing of the seeds is carried out usually in the summer season and in September–October the crop is harvested. Other crops such as wheat, cumin and mustard are also cultivated in this region owing to the water availability from tube wells and canals that provide water for irrigation. Livestock farming contributes substantially to the region’s economic growth. Cows, buffaloes, camel, goats, oxen and sheep make up the livestock population. The area is home to a large number of sheep, rendering it India’s most important wool-producing region. Tejaji cattle fair, Baldeo cattle fair, Ramdevji cattle fair and Mallinath cattle fair are among the several livestock fairs held here. As livestock farming has been the most vital source of income for the inhabitants here, it becomes essential to grow trees and meadows on which the cattle can graze. As a result, a number of tree plantation projects have been implemented in the area, resulting in the growth of forests including a variety of tree species. Several research institutes and organisations have stepped forward to conduct agroforestry, promoting the growth, progress and advancement of the region while also boosting living conditions for human and cattle. Besides this, the tourism business has thrived in this city, with famous attractions on display. In the last two decades, the Thar Desert has changed dramatically (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

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2.9 Emerging Problems and Its Consequences with Respect to Preserving the Culture of the Region 1. Cultural Problems—The local community, particularly the new generation, is in jeopardy of losing connect with their rich traditional heritage as a result of growing interaction with people in cities and the intrusion of modern lifestyle via mass media. Youngsters consider knowledge or learning passed on by their forefathers and mothers to be inferior compared to the knowledge received from formal schooling. 2. Environmental Problems—In conjunction to socio-cultural limitations, conventional systems of fighting desertification are threatened by a number of external variables or factors. A variety of Israeli Babool species was introduced as a part of the Social Forestry Project to help local residents earn more money. This species does not allow any other plants to grow or flourish beneath it. Local people’s fundamental needs sometimes push them to engage in practices that result in biodiversity depletion. As a result, it becomes very crucial that biodiversity conservation efforts take into consideration locality’s basic subsistence/livelihood systems. Furthermore, indigenous learning can be utilised to meet socioeconomic concerns while also conserving biodiversity (Gaur & Gaur, 2004). Rajasthan, India’s biggest and driest state (342,239 km2 ), faces significant socioeconomic issues and challenges despite rising earnings from several industries (agricultural, mining, services, transport and tourist industry) indicating improved living standards for citizens. The improved transportation system has made it easier to reach the state’s remote pristine arid areas for growth, development and trade, along with new towns that have relocated from the state’s highly inhabited eastern regions. Owing to the expanding population (from 1 to 30 million in the last 50 years, with a present population density of 130 people/km2 ) in the once less inhabited western desert area, this progress creates major ecological concerns. As a result, natural resources are gradually exhausting (majorly agricultural land and ground water) (Chlachula, 2021). Irrigation resulted in a massive rise in agricultural production, particularly in the winter harvests, which brought in a lot of money for the farmers. Since groundwater was indeed a natural and free resource and farmers were attracted by the profitability of irrigation, over-irrigation of farms became frequent. In several portions of Hanumangarh, Bikaner and Ganganagar water logging and salinity resulted due to overuse/ misuse of water in canal command areas (Kar, 2014). Scarcity of water, soil condition and dust emissions are the top three ecological challenges in the desert presently. While depleting water supplies necessitate immediate focus to water management, risks from rising temperatures and growing population are negatively impacting a lot of factors such as; the soil condition, boosting sand mobility and the increasing dust in the atmosphere (Kar, 2014). These are the problems and its consequences with respect to preserving the culture of the region.

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Acknowledgements I would like to record my gratitude to Sh. Javed Hassan Usta, Usta Heritage Arts Bikaner for sharing the photos of their unique piece of art and to Mr. Vipul Goswami, Bikaner and Sh. Shailendra Kachchawa, Tourist Guide, Bikaner for providing photos of different event and heritages of Rajasthan.

References Anoop, K. R., Bhardwaj, G. S., & Shekhawat, R. S. (2017). Management plan for Desert National Park wildlife sanctuary plan period 2017–2027. Rajasthan Forest Department, Jaipur. https:// forest.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/raj/forest/. Accessed on 22 February 2022. Art and Craft/leather, Usta Art. (n.d.). Industries. Govt. of Rajasthan. https://industries.rajasthan. gov.in/content/industries/handmadeinrajasthandepartment/artandcraft/leather/ustakala.html. Accessed on 4 March 2022. Atal, S. (2016). A musical success story spanning several generations: The Kalbelia gypsy group who “never collaborated with any musician”—Rajasthan. Indian Express. Pune. https://indian tribalheritage.org/?p=21638. Accessed on 16 March 2022. Bhandari, L., & Kale, S. (Eds.). (2009). Indian states at a glance 2008–09: Performance, facts and figures—Rajasthan. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. Licences of Pearson Education in South Asia. ISBN: 9788131723463, 8131723461. Bhardwaj, P. (2021). Allah Jilai Bai: Allah Jilai Bai: Because of whom ‘Kesariya Balam’ became the invitation of Rajasthan to the world. Satyagrah. https://satyagrah.scroll.in/article/104671/ allah-jilai-bai-profile. Accessed on 14 March 2022. C-1 Population by Religious Community. (n.d.). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/ C-01.html. Accessed on 23 February 2022. Chaudhary, B. R. (1972). Folk tales of Rajasthan. Sterling Publishers. https://archive.org/details/in. ernet.dli.2015.547180/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater. Accessed on 2 March 2022. Chlachula, J. (2021). Between sand dunes and hamadas: Environmental sustainability of the Thar Desert, West India. Sustainability, 2021(13), 3602. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073602 Datt, S., & Marriya, K. (2018). Documentation of the motifs used in tie and dye of Rajasthan Bandhani. International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, IX(1), 13–20. ISSN: 0975-6272. https://doi.org/10.31786/09756272.18.9.SP1.153 District Census Handbook Churu. (2011). Village and town directory. Series-09, Part XII-A, Directorate of Census Operations, Rajasthan, Census of India 2011. https://censusindia.gov.in/201 1census/dchb/DCHB_A/08/0804_PART_A_DCHB_CHURU.pdf. Accessed on 5 March 2022. Ganguly, D. (2014). Decoding the Marwari model of business success. ET Bureau. https://econom ictimes.indiatimes.com/decoding-the-marwari-model-of-business-success/articleshow/451569 20.cms. Accessed on 25 March 2022. Gaur, M. K., & Gaur, H. (2004). Combating desertification: Building on traditional knowledge systems of the Thar Desert communities. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 99, 89– 103. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. Gupta, C. S. (1966). Census of India 1961 fairs & festivals Rajasthan (Vol. XIV, Part VII-B). http:// lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2311/1/23370_1961_FAI.pdf. Accessed on 5 March 2022. Handa, A. (2018). Rajasthan Assembly Polls 2018: The caste dynamics in the state and the race for reservations. Moneycontrol. Accessed on 10 March 2023. Intangible Cultural Heritage. (2010). Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kal belia-folk-songs-and-dances-of-rajasthan-00340. Accessed on 16 March 2022.

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Jain, P. (2011). Dharma and ecology of Hindu communities: Sustenance and sustainability. Ashgate Farnham. ISBN: 978-1-4094-0591-7. Joshi, P. (2020). Strings and stories: Katha Kathputli ki, Jaipur. Discover India Program 2019–20, Flame University. https://dip.flame.edu.in/pdfs/reports/2019-20/Kathputli-Jaipur.pdf. Accessed on 3 March 2022. Kalla, N. L. (2000). Rajasthani Lok Sahitya evam Sanskruti [Folk literature and culture of Rajasthan]. Rajasthani Granthagaar. Kar, A. (2014). Agricultural land use in arid Western Rajasthan: Resource exploitation and emerging issues. Agropedology, 24(2), 179–196. Khan, S. (2019). Thar Desert expanding since last 20 years. The Times of India. https://timesofin dia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/. Accessed on 25 February 2022. Kothari, G. (1995). Rajasthan ki Bahurangi Vastra Parmpara [Multicolored clothing tradition of Rajasthan]. Jaipur Printers Pvt. Ltd. Kumar, A. K. (2014). Inquisitive social sciences. S. Chand Publishing India. ISBN: 9789352831098. Locust Control & Research. (2016). Scheduled desert area of India. Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage, Govt. of India. http://ppqs.gov.in/divisions/locust-control-research/sch eduled-desert-area-india. Accessed on 23 February 2022. Malhotra, S. P. (1977). Socio-economic structure if population in arid Rajasthan (Technical Bulletin No. 2) (pp. 1–22). Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. http://www.cazri.res.in/publications/KrishiKosh/36-(SOCIO-ECONMIC%20STRU CTURE%20OF%20POPULATION%20IN%20ARID).pdf. Accessed on 8 March 2022. Management & Leaders. (2016). 7 secrets that make Marwaris so good in business. The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/management-leaders/7-secrets-that-make-mar waris-so-good-in-business/what-makes-marwaris-so-successful-in-business/slideshow/552234 94.cms. Accessed on 25 March 2022. Maps of India. (2012). Rajasthan location map India. https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/rajast han/rajasthanlocation.htm. Accessed on 23 February 2022. Mint Lounge. (2008). Shekhawati: The art of life. Mint. https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/hTCkTi yWuQRxpugTQGimXP/Shekhawati-The-art-of-life.html. Accessed on 28 March 2022. Misra, V. C. (1967). Geography of Rajasthan. National Book Trust. https://www.indianculture.gov. in/ebooks/geography-rajasthan. Accessed on 26 February 2022. NDTV Cooks. (2018). Regional platter: The royal thali of Rajasthan. Regional Platter, NDTV Food Eng. https://food.ndtv.com/food-drinks/regional-platter-the-royal-thali-of-rajasthan-696 246?amp=1&akamai-rum=off. Accessed on 3 March 2022. New World Encyclopedia Contributors. (2020). Thar Desert. New World Encyclopedia. https:// www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Thar_Desert. Accessed on 27 February 2022. Nihalini, B. (2020). Love folk dances? List of Rajasthani folk dances for you. Yeh hai India. https:// yehaindia.com/love-folk-dances-list-of-rajasthani-folk-dances-for-you/. Accessed on 16 March 2022. Purohit, S. (2020). How Vijaydan Detha ‘Bijji’ celebrated the timelessness of Rajasthani folklore. https://www.sahapedia.org/how-vijaydan-detha-bijji-celebrated-timelessness-rajasthanifolklore. Accessed on 28 March 2022. RAJ RAS. (n.d.). Tribes of Rajasthan. https://www.rajras.in/rajasthan/tribes/. Accessed on 10 March 2023. Rathore, V. S. (1996). Marwar ka Sanskrutik Itihas [Cultural heritage of Marwar]. Rajasthani Granthagaar. Sarda, C. (2016). Organization of kinship and family in Marwari community: The case of Chickpet in Bengalur (Dissertation). Christ University Bengaluru, India. http://archives.christuniversit y.in/. Accessed on 12 March 2022. Saxena, D. (2017, October). Water conservation: Traditional rain water harvesting systems in Rajasthan. International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT), 52(2). https:/ /doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V52P215

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Sharma, N. M. (2016). Ujjval Rajasthan: Vruhat Kala Evam Sanskruti Sachitra [Large arts & culture illustrated]. Shikhwal Publications. Sharma, P., & Basotia, N. (2018, January). Agrarian crisis in Rajasthan: Impact on agricultural economy of state. Inspira—Journal of Modern Management & Entrepreneurship (JMME), 8(1), 101–106. ISSN: 2231-167X. https://inspirajournals.com/uploads/Issues/1543027938.pdf. Accessed on 8 March 2022. Srivastava, B. (2016). Shri Pathmeda Godham Mahatirth: World’s largest cowshed. India TV. https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india-shri-pathmeda-godham-mahatirth-worlds-largest-cowshed-323837. Accessed on 29 March 2022. Structwel Designers & Consultants Pvt. Ltd. and ANB Consultants. (2016). Khatu Shyam ji. Development and Management Plan of Temple Town (Final Report). The Devasthan Department, Govt. of Rajasthan. https://devasthan.rajasthan.gov.in/DPR_Reports/Khatu_Development_Plan.pdf. Accessed on 5 March 2022. Team Express Foodie. (2016). Indians love meat of all kinds: That’s what an RGI survey says. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/food-wine/indians-love-meat-of-allkinds-thats-what-an-rgi-survey-says-2850992-foodie/. Accessed on 3 March 2022. Timberg, T. A., & Das, G. (2015). The Marwaris: From Jagat Seth to the Birlas (The story of Indian business). Penguin Books. ISBN-10: 0670084980, ISBN-13: 978–0670084982. Tiwari, M., & Parashar, R. (2017, November). Jargons of traditional architecture in India. IJCRT, 5(4). ISSN: 2320-2882. https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT1704197.pdf. Accessed on 5 March 2022. Travel to India—Rajasthan—Rajasthan Culture. (n.d.). Rajasthan Cuisines. Bharat Infoline. http://www.bharatonline.com/rajasthan/rajasthan-culture/rajasthan-cuisines.html:~:text=Cui sines%20of%20Rajasthan%20have%20been,own%2C%20to%20suit%20the%20conditions. Accessed on 3 March 2022. Upadhyaya, V. (2017). Transformation in traditional havelis: A case of walled city Jaipur, Rajasthan. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR), 3(2). ISSN: 2454-1362. Vyas, R. K. (2019). Sanskrutik Rajasthan [Cultural Rajasthan]. Rajasthan Hindi Granth Academy. ISBN: 9793776387. Your Money. (2014). What makes Marwaris successful in business. NDTV Profit. https://www.ndtv. com/business/what-makes-marwaris-successful-in-business-697204. Accessed on 25 March 2022.

Chapter 3

Shift in Land Use Pattern of Thar Desert Nisha Varghese

Abstract Classification of land use is an essential part of understanding an ecosystem. Land use classification provides information on the land use and the type of human activity involved in the land use. It also provides an assessment of the environmental impact of the human activity to which the land is subjected. The land use classification also tells about the purposes and uses of land for various purposes. It also helps in formulating policies and programmes for planned and sustainable development of a region. The time series data on the land use and land cover also helps in monitoring the changes occurring in the environment. The continuous pressure of providing food to the ever-increasing population can lead to deforestation and putting more and more forest area to cultivation. Hence, data on land use can be used for natural resource management, baseline mapping, determination of legal boundaries for tax evaluations, etc. It helps in getting a better understanding of the interactions among human activities, climate systems and ecosystems. The probability of shift in land use classes was assessed using Markov chain analysis. In the Thar Desert region, though there is marginal increase in area under forest over the years, the share of forest area to geographical area is still very low. Low forest cover, diversion of non-agricultural land for agricultural purposes and large area going under plough limits the scope for balanced land use especially to have more area under arid forestry. With the increased urbanization and diversion of land for infrastructural development for housing, roads, railway lines and so on the land area under non-agricultural uses has gone up many folds with decline in area under barren land, cultivable waste land, etc. Location specific land use planning to minimize shifting sand dunes and also to ensure sand stabilization assumes importance in the Thar Desert area. Keywords Markov chain analysis · Shifting land use · Probability of change · Land use planning

N. Varghese (B) SOEDS, IGNOU-Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_3

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3.1 Introduction Classification of land use is an essential part of understanding an ecosystem. Land use classification provides information on the land use and the type of human activity involved in the land use. It also provides an assessment of the environmental impact of the human activity to which the land is subjected and other potential land uses the land may be put to (OECD, 2001). Land use classification tells us about the purpose the land serves or is put to use. It also helps in formulating policies and programmes for development of a region. For instance, the information on land use can be used for putting a check on the disorganized development of urban areas and targeting a planned and sustainable development of urban areas. A time series data on the land use and land cover also helps in monitoring the changes occurring in the environment. For instance, the continuous pressure of providing food to the everincreasing population can lead to deforestation and putting more and more forest area to cultivation. Hence, data on land use can be used for natural resource management, baseline mapping, determination of legal boundaries for tax evaluations etc. It helps in getting a better understanding of the interactions among human activities, climate systems and ecosystems. Different organizations have different classifications for land use. For example, the Economic Commission of Europe classified land use in 7 main categories like agricultural land, forest and other wooded land, built-up and related land, excluding scattered farm buildings, wet open land, dry open land with special vegetation cover, open land without, or with insignificant, vegetation cover and waters.

3.2 Land Use Classification in India The reporting area of India is 304.6 million hectares which is put to different land uses. During the time India achieved its independence in 1947, the land use was broadly categorized into five categories namely, area under forests, area not available for cultivation, uncultivated lands excluding current fallow, area under current fallow and net sown area. Post-independence, as the country entered the planning phase, it was realized that this classification did not give a clear picture of various land uses needed for planning purposes and the land use was reclassified in 1950 and is in use till date. Under this system, the land use is now classified into nine major categories viz. (i) forests, (ii) barren and unculturable land, (iii) land put to nonagricultural uses, (iv) culturable wastes, (v) permanent pasture and other grazing land, (vi) miscellaneous tree crops and groves not included in the net area own, (vii) current fallows, (viii) other fallows and (ix) net area sown. The Ministry of Communication and Information Technology has defined these land uses as follows: Forest Area: This includes all lands classified as forest in administrative records or legal enactment. The land may be private or state owned. The part of the forest

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land which is either put under cultivation or grazing land is also included as forest area. Barren and Unculturable Land: Any land which cannot be brought under cultivation without incurring exorbitant cost is called unculturable land. This includes land covered by mountains deserts, etc. Area under non-agricultural Uses: Land put to use other than for cultivation, e.g., land occupied by buildings, roads, railways, underwater, etc., is included in area under non-agricultural uses. Culturable Waste Land: Land which is available for cultivation but for the past five years or more has not been put to cultivation for some or the other reason is classified as culturable waste land. These culturable waste lands may are not put to any use and may either be fallow or may be covered with shrubs and jungles. Permanent Pasture and other Grazing Land: All grazing lands including permanent pastures and meadows and village common grazing lands come under this land use. Land under Miscellaneous Tree Crops, etc.: All cultivable lands which do not come under net sown area but are put to other agricultural uses including casuring trees, thatching grasses, bamboo bushes and other groves for fuel, etc., come under this land use. Fallow Lands other than Current Fallows: Any land that used to be under cultivation but has been out of cultivation for not less than one year and not more than five years comes under this land use. Current Fallows: The land which is kept fallow during the current year comes under this land use. Net Area Sown: Total area put under cultivation of crops or orchards comes under this land use. Double counting of area sown more than once is not done and it is counted only once. Table 3.1 gives the area under various land uses in India from 1950–51 to 2017– 18. Though, the area under forest in the country has consistently increased over the years, this increase can more be attributed to the increase in area demarcated as forests than actual increase in forest cover. India is still way off the target of bringing 33% of its geographical area under forest cover as envisaged in its National Forest Policy, 1988. Among the various land uses, India has witnessed maximum increase in the area under non-agricultural uses post its independence. The structural changes brought about in the Indian economy have relied greatly on the service sector and to some extent on the industrial sector. The expansion of related infrastructural facilities has led to increase in area under non-agricultural uses. The reduction in barren and unculturable land and culturable waste land over the years has majorly shifted towards building of infrastructural facilities like buildings, roads and railways needed for this structural shift. The expansion of area under human settlements in both rural and urban areas which had to accommodate the increasing population has also contributed to increase in area put to non-agricultural uses. The importance of land use and cover change data is particularly important for vulnerable ecosystems like the desert ecosystems from the point of view of ecosystem service assessments, desertification monitoring, forest inventories and so forth (Ge, 2020).

40,482

54,052

63,830

67,460

67,702

69,843

71,593

72,047

1950–51

1960–61

1970–71

1980–81

1990–91

2000–01

2010–11

2017–18

27,326

26,400

23,752

21,220

19,596

16,478

14,840

9357

Area under non-agricultural uses

16,992

17,175

17,483

19,509

19,958

28,128

35,911

38,160

Barren and unculturable land

Source Land Use Statistics at a Glance, July 2021

Forests

Year

10,338

10,305

10,662

11,406

11,989

13,261

13,966

6675

Permanent pastures and other grazing lands

Table 3.1 Decadal change in land use of India from 1950s (Thousand Hectares)

3167

3200

3445

3813

3578

4367

4459

19,828

Land under Misc. tree crops and groves (not incl. in net area sown)

12,287

12,647

13,631

15,000

16,744

17,500

19,212

22,943

Culturable waste land

11,621

10,323

10,267

9663

9720

8728

11,180

17,445

Fallow lands other than current fallows

14,809

14,277

14,777

13,840

14,826

10,598

11,639

10,679

Current fallows

139,181

141,563

141,336

142,870

140,288

140,863

133,199

118,746

Net area Sown

58 N. Varghese

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3.3 Past Practices and Current Status of the Land Use in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan The Great Indian Desert or the Thar Desert occupies around 4.5% of the total geographical area of the country and more than 60% of the state of Rajasthan. Some portion of the desert also extends to Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana. While the livestock population has doubled over the last five decades, human population has registered a four-fold increase. To cater to the needs of these increasing populations, especially for cropping, wood collection and grazing, significant land use decisions have been taken by the stakeholders with environmental consequences (Kar, 2014). Thar Desert is undergoing land transformation mainly due to changes in land management, irrigation facility and mining/industrial activities (Pathak, 2015). To cater to the food and fodder requirements of this increasing population, several changes in the land uses have been made by the stakeholders which are not free from environmental consequences. Some such impactful changes include deep tractor ploughing of sandy plains, dunes and hummocks which were otherwise used as rangelands or left fallow, replacement of agroforestry followed by land fallow systems with crop alone and unregulated use of pastures for fuel wood and grazing of animals, etc. Such activities are leaving the fragile desert land more vulnerable to soil erosion and land degradation. Other threats due to increased human activity in these regions include reactivation of semi-stabilized old dunes, water logging and salinization in areas with canal irrigation, gully erosion in ground water irrigated sandy plains, etc. It is therefore important that the land use management decisions are taken based on a proper understanding of the vulnerabilities of desert region to induced pressures. Traditionally, the desert dwellers are used to the land use practices and cropping systems which helped them in sustaining the livelihood activities without increasing the land use intensity. The people in Thar follow a crop and livestock-based mixed farming approach. The animal products add to the household income of the farmers. In case of crop failures, the animals can be sold to meet the cash requirement of the farmers. The people of Thar practice the agro-pastoral system which is a mainly rainfed crop-tree-livestock-based production system in which millets and legumes are the major crops which provide food and fodder to the people and livestock. The main sources of fodder in this region include common pastures, rangelands and fallow lands. The livestock and tree component together provide stability to the system. Off farm income is also one major source of livelihood. Resource scarcity, frequent droughts and fewer income and employment opportunities in this region result in inter-region and intra-region mobility of the people in search of livelihood alternatives (Bhati et al., 2017). The forest cover in the state of Rajasthan is only 8%. All the districts covering the Thar Desert have forest area less than the state average (Table 3.2). The area is abysmally low in Jaisalmer and Jodhpur (30 km h-1 during sandstorms in summer) are the perpetual climatic problems to reckon with in this area especially for agriculture. 2. Low and Untimely Rainfall: “The annual average rainfall is very low, varying from 100 mm in the west to 500 mm in the east, but pan evaporation (a measurement that integrates the effects of temperature, humidity, rainfall and wind) is a high 1,800 mm, making the desert water-scarce” (Moharana & Yadava, 2019). The risk associated with untimely and scanty rainfall is a major constraint for agriculture in this region. Due to high water stress both crops and livestock are affected adversely. 3. Recurrent Droughts: Drought is a perpetual companion of Thar. “Frequency of drought comes to once in 2–3 years in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts and once in 3–4 years in Bikaner and Churu districts” (Narain et al., 2006). Hence drought is also one of the major constraints for agriculture in Thar Desert Region. 4. Short Length of Crop Growing Periods: In irrigated agriculture, the length of growing season may be decided by temperature, day length, etc. “But in rainfed areas, the length of growing season is determined mainly by moisture availability, which in turn depends on rainfall amount and distribution, the soil’s moisture retaining properties and Evapotranspiration (ET) and Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)” (Bhati et al., 2017). As crops require different thresholds of temperature and day light to survive, changes in length of seasons also impact crop production. It alters the sowing and harvesting time and also viability of crops.

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5.6.2 Edaphic Constraints Soil is an integral part of any ecosystem which nurtures and supports its biological components. Soil texture indicates moisture and nutrient availability while depth determines moisture storage capacity. The region is endowed with a variety of soils ranging from dune sand to medium and fine textured alluvial/ colluvial soils, shallow hard pan and salt affected soils. 1. Poor Quality of Soil with Low Water Retention: “Soils of Thar desert are rocky sands, dunes and saline soil with approximate temperature range of 4–50 °C and soil characteristics of pH: 7.9–8.1, organic carbon (%) 0.3–0.4, nitrogen (%) 0.02–0.06 and phosphorous and potassium availability is also medium to low” (Makhalanyane et al., 2015). Thus, the soils are poor in fertility and have low water retention capacity. 2. Soil Salinity: Soil salinity is a major problem in Thar. They are poor in organic matter. Irrigating the crops with saline water leads to formation of a crust of salt on the surface of soil. The moisture in soils is low and the temperatures are high in this region which aggravate the problem of salinity. 3. Dune Topography and Wind Erosion: Sand dunes have uneven topography. These sandy soils are highly prone to wind erosion. The sand dunes soils are predominantly under silvi-pasture land use.

5.6.3 Water Constraints Water is the most important constraint in these zones as “total available water in these zones is 4.7 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) (2.85 BCM from surface water and 1.85 BCM from ground water)” (CGWB, 2011, 2014). “Out of this, water available for agriculture is 4.14 BCM. In contrast to this, the present water use is 7.52 BCM” (CGWB, 2016) which is well above the sustainable level of water use. Arid climate of the region along with rain fed conditions results in frequent crop failures. 1. Surface Water: “Central Arid Zone Research Institute has determined that the total surface water resources to be 1361.21 Million Cubic Meter (MCM) and identified 550 storage tanks (ranging from less than 1.51 to 208 × 106 m3 capacity) in 12 districts of western Rajasthan. Mean surface water resources in the region are estimated to be 2846.32 Mm3 /year” (Beg & Ahmad, 2015). “Western Rajasthan has 2 major dams (Jawai and Sardar Samand), 33 medium bunds and 62 small bunds with total capacity of 811.963 MCM” (Water Resources, Govt. of Rajasthan, 2019). “Luni river and its tributaries are main source of water but the volume of water varies from year to year” (Venkateswarlu et al., 1990, Water 2000 AD). 2. Ground Water: In Thar region, ground water table is as low as 150–250 m below ground level. “Total annual Ground Water (GW) recharge comes to 4.01 BCM, total annual extractable GW resources were 3.63 BCM and current annual GW

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extraction was 5.59 BCM, respectively. The stage of GW extraction comes to 161.6 per cent” (CGWB, 2019).

5.7 Crop Production Practices in the Thar Region The systems in western Rajasthan fall under pastoral and agro-pastoral arid farming systems as classified by Dixon et al. (2001). From age-old experiences, farmers of Thar have developed a system of diversified agriculture, based on mixed cropping and animal husbandry that depended on the optimum utilization of the scanty monsoon rainfall and the management and care of the region’s fragile land resources. The mixed cropping ensured at least some production for their survival in years of drought, while animal husbandry cushioned them from risks, through sales of animal products and live animals. A host of practices for land care and water conservation were in-built in the traditional customs and agricultural practices of the rural population. “Practices like keeping the land fallow for some seasons to regain the soil nutrients, erecting fences around fields to protect from the high wind speed, lopping of trees for fuel and fodder, maintenance of common grazing lands and pastures for grazing, rotational grazing practices etc. have helped in building resilience of people living in the Thar desert” (Kar, 2011). Sustainable management of land and water resources is important in arid and semi-arid regions of Thar. “Below are mentioned some of the cropping practices prevalent in the Thar area which have helped the farmers to sustain their livelihood with the meager resources at their disposal” (Karuppan & Nguyen, 2010).

5.7.1 Mixed Cropping System To cushion the adverse effect of weather aberrations and drought and meet the food needs of the family, mixed cropping of dryland crops is common in western Rajasthan. Seeds of rainy season pulses like green gram or moth bean are mixed with pearl millet and scattered in the field after onset of monsoons. Cluster bean is also a very important crop of this region which may be grown either as a sole crop or mixed with pearl millet. Sesame and groundnut are also cultivated as mixed with pearl millet and rainy season pulses. Mixed cropping systems are peculiarities of Thar region which provide much needed diversification and risk coverage against the onslaught of draught or long dry spells.

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5.7.2 Intercropping or Strip Cropping Systems In the traditional cropping practice, farmers use to scatter the seeds after mixing them together and crops were not planted in defined rows. In most of the study area, farmers were still using the scattering method for sowing. This leads to low productivity and poor crop management. “Studies on cereal/legume intercropping have indicated that it offers considerable yield advantage over sole and mixed cropping because of more efficient utilization of plant growth resource” (Bhati et al., 2017). “Experiments carried out on intercropping of some small millets in India and abroad clearly indicated numerous benefits like enhancement of crops productivity, greater resource use efficiency, checking soil erosion due to runoff, prevention of loss of soil nutrients, improvement of soil health, insurance against crop failure under aberrant weather conditions, higher monetary return and benefit–cost ratio” (Maitra, 2020).

5.7.3 Traditional Runoff Farming Systems-Khadin Cultivation For conservation of moisture and for rain water harvesting, farmers of Thar region have been using special and unique practice of Khadin cultivation. “Khadin” is a land-use system developed centuries ago in western Rajasthan. Khadins are made at a suitable place where runoff water from the surrounding areas can be collected. The water arrested is used for irrigation in kharif (rainy season) crops and even after water from the khadin is used completely, still some water stands below the surface and makes possible the cultivation of another crop in rabi (winter) season. “The khadin is, therefore, a land-use system which prevents soil deterioration” (Kolarkar et al., 1983). “However, the productivity from khadin cultivation remains low due to many factors” (Prasad et al., 2004). “The water holding capacity of khadin soils ranges from 200 to 250 mm/m depth. The khadin has great promise for enhancing crop production in hyper arid regions like Jaisalmer” (Goyal et al., 2018).

5.7.4 Integrated Farming Systems Integrated farming system is a system-oriented multicomponent agriculture. The system is expected to meet the food and economic needs of the farming community by providing multiple crop commodities and animal products (Rao, 2018). Integrated farming system with two or more of its components like crops, livestock, goatery, sheep rearing is an integral part of Thar agri-eco system. “IFS involving integration of different enterprises (crop, livestock, horticulture, forestry, poultry and fish) enhanced productivity, profitability, resource use efficiency, generated more employment and minimized resources degradation and risks. IFS, therefore, could be a key form of

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farming intensification needed for achieving future food security and environmental sustainability in arid and semi-arid regions” (Rathore et al., 2019).

5.7.5 Nomadic Animal Husbandry-Based Agricultural Systems Animal husbandry is the most important component of the agro-pastoral system in Thar. Common village lands, Panchayat lands and fallow lands are the main sources of fodder for livestock. Dry fodder is the main source of energy for cattle while goat and sheep are fed on leaves of trees and grass. Presence of animal husbandry provides stability to the system. In years of draught, farmers shift to semi-arid or sub-humid regions with their herds of sheep for survival and return with the onset of rains. Sale of animals and milk are the major source of income during the lean period. The Thar Desert is known for nomadic animal husbandry from ancient time. Many nomadic tribes are engaged in animal husbandry, particularly the Raikas/Rabaris (with camel, sheep and goats) and the Gujjars (with buffalo and sheep).

5.7.6 Agroforestry-Based Systems Recognizing the importance of trees in mitigating dry conditions, the local people have identified indigenous multipurpose trees such as Prosopis cineraria (khejri) and Tecomella undulata (Marwar teak) for cultivation in the agroforestry system (Fig. 5.2). Under silvi-pastoral system the crops, grasses and legumes are integrated with woody perennials on the same unit of land to improve the productivity per unit area and increase the period of fodder availability. “Prosopis cineraria (khejri) and Ziziphus nummularia (jharberi) are the most important multipurpose woody components in silvipastoral agroforesty system of arid areas of Rajasthan. Cenchrus ciliaris, C. biflorus, C. setigerus, Lasiuruss indicus, Aristida spp. and Eluxine spp. are dominant grasses available for grazing during monsoon period” (Soni et al., 2016). With the intervention of silvi-pastoral system on marginal lands a greater number of cattle, buffalo and sheep can be sustained along with crop cultivation. Similarly, under horti-pastoral system horticultural tree species like Ziziphus mauritiana (Gola ber) are prevalent on culturable wastelands and fallows.

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Fig. 5.2 Agroforestry-based crop production system in Thar Desert

5.8 Sustainable Crop Management Practices in the Thar Region 5.8.1 Water Resource Management Strategies in Thar Region Since rainfall is low and erratic, efforts are needed to enhance the total water supply available to crops. Some of these include tillage, mulching, soil moisture barrier, contour bunding and in-situ water harvesting. “Mechanical structures like contour bunding, terracing etc. are the pre-requisite for water conservation on sloppy agricultural lands” (Beg & Ahmad, 2015; Saxena et al., 2014).

5.8.2 In-Situ Rainwater Conservation Strategies In many arid areas, water harvesting is used to increase the total water supply to crops. It is practiced in variety of ways depending upon topography, soil and rainfall. For this purpose, tillage of soil is done across the slope of land. Mulching with grasses or dry stalks of crops is done to reduce the rate of evaporation. Making bunds and sowing in troughs is done to make optimum use of available water. “Water harvesting technique with 3 m cropped area and 1.5 m catchment area (catchment to crop area ratio = 0.5) with 5 per cent slope on both sides has been developed by CAZRI” (Saxena et al., 2014; Yadav et al., 2017) (Fig. 5.3).

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Fig. 5.3 Inter-plot water harvesting system (Source Yadav et al. 2017)

5.8.3 Construction of Tankas for Drinking Water The local communities have developed some ingenious methods by which Tankas are constructed for the storage and conservation of water. These are small underground water tanks for drinking water purpose. Tankas are circular pits dug in the ground and lined with fine lime are cemented and polished, in which the rainwater is collected (Fig. 5.4). Collected water is used to meet their drinking requirement. The tanka system has been in use for centuries, and is still used in public and private residential areas. Another system of rainwater harvesting and storage was the traditional stepwell, called “Baoli” or “Bavadi” in Rajasthan. These were used both for drinking and limited irrigation purposes.

Fig. 5.4 Tanka—indigenous water storage system

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5.8.4 Cultivation of Drought Resistant and Short Duration Crops In Thar region the rainfall season is only for two months (July and August). This allows only a very short duration for crop cultivation in Thar. In rainy season, pearl millet and sorghum are the main cereals grown with the onset of rains. Besides being drought resistant, these crops serve the purpose of food security for both human and animals. Several short duration composite and hybrid varieties of pearl millet like MBC-2 (Mandor Bajra Composite-2), RHB-223, RHB-273 with crop duration of 70–74 days and yield of 25–30 qh−1 are being cultivated by farmers. Major rainy season legumes grown are short duration varieties of green gram, cowpea, moth bean and cluster bean with minimum application of inputs and based only on soil moisture. “Some farmers prefer oilseed crops and pulses to pearl millet” (Rathore & Gupta, 1991). As only one crop per year is feasible, farmers sometimes keep the land fallow during rainy season and take wheat crop in winter season. Forage crops are also widely grown. The traditional practices have been further improved through scientific researches like ley farming where field is alternately seeded for grain and left fallow.

5.8.5 Land Preparation Strategies in Arid Regions Land preparation for rainy season crops is started in May and June. Sowing is done with the onset of the monsoon in June–July in the region (Fig. 5.5). Normally, one plowing is done for millets, pulses and oilseed crops. Winter crops are usually grown only in areas where water is available. Water-holding capacity of the soils also varies from place to place as per the texture of soil. Farmers follow certain management practices, which help to maintain the soil fertility to some extent. For example, allowing herds of sheep in the field for one or two days and growing khejri trees, which help in nitrogen fixation, in the field are some of the practices followed to increase/sustain soil fertility.

5.8.6 Sowing Time Management More than 85% of the total rainfall in the arid region is received during the south-west monsoon between July and mid-September. Farmers through their experience and traditional wisdom have learnt to grow those crops or varieties whose growing period matches with the probable dates of rainfall. Short growing period crops like pearl millet, cluster bean, moth bean, mung bean and sesame are in cultivation in these regions. “With the early onset of monsoon, pearl millet and sesame get preference while in the case of delayed onset, cluster bean, mung bean and moth bean get

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Fig. 5.5 Land preparation in Thar Desert region

preference. However, the performance of cluster bean under late-sown conditions was invariably the best over other legumes in the arid regions” (Henry et al., 2003).

5.8.7 Managing Planting Densities In the desert region crop failure is a regular feature. Farmers try to manage plant population by using seed rates for crops almost double the seed rates recommended as standard package of practices for that crop. In case of good germination due to rains, extra plants are removed from the field to maintain a healthy plant population.

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5.8.8 Selection of Crops According to Soil and Water Resource Availability Based on generations of experience, the farmers of Thar Desert have devised criteria for judging the suitability of land for cultivation of a particular crop and cropping systems. Selection of crops and the amount of fertilizer or manure to be used depends upon the quality of land. In less fertile or sandy soils moth bean is preferred. Pearl millet, green gram or cluster bean is sown where soils have more moisture with application of farmyard manure. Cluster bean is cultivated both as a fodder crop and cash crop for “guar gum” which replaces pearl millet in Thar.

5.8.9 Management of Salt Affected Soils and Water An integrated approach is used for crop cultivation in salt affected soils. Cultivation of fodder crops is possible on salt affected soils along with shrubs or trees as intercropping. Choice of salt tolerant hardy crops like forage crops and halophytes can be used both for animal consumption and human consumption. Crop cultivation is undertaken with application of cow dung manure by the farmers in such soils. Appropriate surface and sub-surface drainage systems are developed to leach the salt from the soil. Usually, one or two lifesaving irrigations are given at crucial stage of crop using fresh water along with the use of saline water. Gypsum is applied for effective management of salt affected soils. “Application of green manure enhances the reclamation of saline and sodic soils by decreasing soil pH and increasing organic carbon content” (Shirale et al., 2018). “Some important green manuring crops used in arid Thar region are, dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea)” (Shirale et al., 2018).

5.9 Conclusion The agriculture-based economy of Thar Desert region is faced with severe agroclimatic conditions in terms of degraded lands, scanty and untimely rains, high temperatures, scarce water resources and low productivity of crops and livestock due to heat stress. But the choice of crops, appropriate sowing time, diversified and mixed cropping practices, rearing of livestock and small ruminants as supporting enterprises combined with traditional wisdom of farmers in conservation of water resource has given rise to several cropping practices to sustain the farm households in this region. Support of government research and extension activities in developing package of practices for crops and need-based varieties has also improved the condition of farmers in Thar region.

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References Agricultural mechanization guide for Rajasthan. Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. https://farmech.dac.gov.in/FarmerGuide/RJ/ind ex1.html Beg, M., & Ahmad, S. (2015). Water resources management in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan: A case study. Proceeding of the 8th International Conference on Recent advances in Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Engineering for Sustainable Development, conf. no. 8. Bhati, T. K., Kumar, S., Hailaslassie, A., & Whitbread, A. M. (2017). Assessment of agricultural technologies for dryland systems in South Asia: A case study of western Rajasthan (p. 68). International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid & Tropics. Dixon, J., Gulliver, A., & Gibbon, D. (2001). Farming systems and poverty: Improving farmer’s livelihoods in a changing world. FAO and World Bank. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi, 2020. Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India. (2011, 2014, 2016, 2019). Central Ground Water Board, Faridabad, Haryana. Goyal, R. K., Singh, J. P., & Gaur, M. K. (2018). Khadin system of runoff farming for crop production. Indian Farming, 68(9), 26–28. Guhathakurta, P., Surendran, D., Menon, P., Prasad, A. K., Sangwan, N., & Advani, S. C. (2020). Met Monograph No.: ESSO/IMD/HS/Rainfall Variability/22(2020)/45. Climate Research and Services, India Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India. Henry, A., Kumar, D., & Singh, N. B. (2003). Advances in arid legumes research. Scientific Publishers. Kar, A. (2011, March–April). Caring for the Thar. Geography and You, 66–69. Karuppan, S., & Nguyen, M. L. (2010). Extent, impact, and response to soil and water salinity in arid and semiarid regions. Advances in Agronomy, 109, 55–74. Kolarkar, A. S., Murthy, K. N. K., & Singh, N. (1983). Khadin—A method of harvesting water for agriculture in the Thar Desert. Journal of Arid Environment, 6(1), 59–66. Maitra, S. (2020). Intercropping of small millets for agricultural sustainability in drylands: A review. Crop Research, 55(3–4), 162–171. Makhalanyane, T. P., Valverde, A., Gunnigle, E., Frossard, A., Ramond, A., & Cowan, D. A. (2015). Microbial ecology of hot desert edaphic systems. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 39(2), 203–221. Moharana, P. C., & Yadava, O. P. (2019). What it takes to reclaim Thar. https://www.downtoearth. org.in/blog/climate-change/what-it-takes-to-reclaim-the-thar-66485 Narain, P., Rathore, L. S., Singh, R. S., & Rao, A. S. (Eds.). (2006). Drought assessment and management in arid Rajasthan (p. 64). CAZRI. Prasad, R., Mertia, R. S., & Narain, P. (2004). Khadin cultivation: A traditional runoff farming system in Indian desert needs sustainable management. Journal of Arid Environments, 58(1), 87–96. Ram, B. (2021). Watershed development and management in arid western Rajasthan. The Journal of Global Resources, 7(1), 88–96. Rao, P. V. (2018). Integrated farming system—A key to sustainable agriculture development. Conference Paper, Integrated Farming Systems Livelihood Security, PJTSAU, Hyderabad. Rathore, S. S., & Gupta, I. N. (1991). Crops and cropping system in India. In L. L. Somani, K. L. Totawat, & D. Kumar (Eds.), Dryland resources and technology (pp. 41–75). Scientific Publishers. Rathore, V. S., Tanwar, S. P. S., Kumar, P., & Yadav, O. P. (2019). Integrated farming system: Key to sustainability in arid and semi-arid regions. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 89(2), 181–192. Saxena, A., Goyal, R. K., Singh, R. K., & Roy, M. M. (2014). Water management for climate resilience in arid region (p. 52). Central Arid Zone Research Institute.

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Shirale, A. O., Meena, B. P., Biswas, A. K., Gurav, P. P., & Kamble, A. (2018, July–December). Green manuring: A panacea for the reclamation of saline and sodic soils. HaritDhara, 1(1). Soni, M. L., Subbulakshmi, V., Yadav, N. D., Tiwari, J. C., & Dagar, J. C. (2016). Silvo-pastoral agroforestry systems: Lifeline for dry regions. In Agroforestry research developments. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. United Nations. (n.d). United Nations Decade for the Deserts and the Fight Against Desertification. http://www.un.org/en/events/desertification_decade/value.shtml Venkateswarlu, J., Sen, A. K., Dubey, J. C., Joshi, N. L., Kar, A., & Kolarkar, A. S. (1990). Water 2000 AD: The scenario for arid Rajasthan (49 pp.). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. Yadav, O. P., Singh, D. V., & Mishra, A. K. (2017). Enhancing climate resilience of farming in arid regions of North-West India. Proceedings Twelfth International Dryland Development Conference “Sustainable Development of Drylands in the Post 2015 World” 21–24 August 2016, Alexandria, Egypt. http://cgwb.gov.in/Documents/Dynamic%20GWRE-2013.pdf https://cgwb.gov.in/Documents/Dynamic-GW-Resources-2011.pdf http://cgwb.gov.in/Dynamic-GW-Resources.html

Chapter 6

Livestock and Its Management Practices in Thar Desert, Rajasthan G. L. Meena, Kailash Chand Bairwa, and Hari Singh

Abstract This chapter highlights the livestock management practices in the Thar Desert. It also examines the temporal changes in the composition of livestock, gap between demand and supply of feed and fodder, marketing of livestock animals, system of livestock migration to cope with drought and livestock management practices followed by the inhabitants. The authors of this chapter employed simple descriptive statistical tools to examine changes in various livestock parameters in districts within the Thar Desert Region. The livestock management practices are discussed on the basis of earlier works and surveys. The findings show that cattle, buffalo, and goat populations have increased in the Thar Desert between the livestock censuses of 1997 and 2019. The population of sheep and camels, on the other hand, has plummeted. The gap between demand and supply of feed and fodder was estimated to be 17% in the Thar Desert. The emerging results of livestock management practices suggested that overall scientific practices were well-accepted. There was still a substantial difference in the implementation of certain livestock practices. The feed and fodder scarcity and major livestock management practices are also presented along with their possible solutions. The rapid growth in cattle and buffalo population indicates a paradigm shift in farmers’ perceptions of the role of bovine population leading to increased demand for fodder which prompts for increased area under crops which supplements fodder supply and thereby the burden on land goes up. The fodder demand–supply gap is widening in the area as a result of competing land pressures, acreage shifts from cereals to other crops, and diversified use of agricultural residues. The stocking rate in terms of Adult Cattle Unit (ACU) per hectare of pasture and grazing indicates that subsistence on these resources is under severe stress as a result of poor-quality herbages on common property resources (land of G. L. Meena · H. Singh Department of Agricultural Economics and Management, MPUAT, Udaipur, India e-mail: [email protected] G. L. Meena (B) · K. C. Bairwa College of Agriculture, Baytu-Barmer, Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] K. C. Bairwa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_6

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Thar Desert). The animal fair-wise analysis of arrivals and transaction of animals in Thar Desert showed a decreasing trend in number of animals brought to fairs as well as transactions of animals in all the cattle fairs posing the need to have alternative strategies for animal buying and selling. There is a continuous and increasing prevalence of many important epidemiological animal diseases in the Thar Desert area that poses a serious threat to animal production. The orans and gochars are under threat of severe degradation due to the massive rise in livestock pressure and high animal stocking rates. Currently, pasture/grazing lands are severely degraded, which calls for its better management through effective community participation. Herd planning of animals at household level to minimize the burden on land with breeds and species befitting to the area also assumes importance. To address the issue of demand–supply gap of feed and fodder, there is a need to develop silvi-pastoral model that incorporates grasses and fodder trees, creation of fodder banks/storage facilities in collaboration with user groups, strengthening extension system and to create a mechanism for participatory management of CPRs (Common Property Resources). Keywords Livestock species · Fodder demand–supply gap · Cattle fairs · Animal diseases

6.1 Introduction Rajasthan is the largest state of the country with geographical area of 3.42 lakh Square Kilometre. About 55% of the total area of Rajasthan state is under Thar Desert. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan state is characterized by low and erratic rainfall, high evapo-transpiration, low levels of economic activity, and high incidence of land degradation, high temperature and poor fertility of the soil resulting in low biomass producing conditions. In addition to frequent droughts, extreme cold and heat triggered by climatic change may pose serious threat to survival of living beings in Thar Desert. However, land resources and demographic structure make animal husbandry dominant in the agriculture system of the Thar Desert. Next to agriculture, animal husbandry plays an important role in livelihood security in Thar Desert and livestock farming acts as the major source of supplementary income (Mishra et al., 2002). Livestock in Thar Desert helps to moderate risks, provide resilience, diversify livelihood and can be liquidated during calamities. The crop and livestock production are complimentary to each other in minimizing risks and enhancing sustainability. Nearly half of the livestock in the state of Rajasthan (73% sheep, 52.73% goats, 50.81% cattle, and 27.98% buffaloes) are concentrated in the Thar Desert and are the major source of livelihood of resource poor farmers. However, the livestock productions in these areas are characterized by low productivity, low fertility, shortage of feed resources, and low uptake of technologies by the farmers. Resource poor farmers depend heavily on livestock as a major source of income. The importance of the livestock sector, especially in the arid areas including Thar Desert can easily be appreciated from the data on annual employment generation (Kalla & Goyal,

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1986). They also estimated that cropping activities provided only 16 standard days per annum per household whilst livestock rearing accounted for nearly 300 standard days per annum per household.

6.1.1 Status of Agriculture and Livestock in Thar Desert Table 6.1 shows the status of agriculture and livestock in Thar Desert. Livestock in Thar Desert contributes significant share of production in terms of milk (41.80%), wool (65.09%), and meat (46.47%) in the total production of the state. Sizeable variations have been observed in the livestock density in different districts of Thar Desert. The livestock density was 166 heads per square kilometre in Rajasthan and 151 in Thar Desert. The density of livestock is the highest in Sikar district (256) followed by Jhunjhunu district and lowest in Jaisalmer district. The land availability per unit of livestock is more in Thar Desert region. Considerable variations have been observed in the human density. The human density was 174 persons per square kilometre in Thar Desert which varied from 18 persons (Jaisalmer district) to 361 (Jhunjhunu district). The man to livestock ratio is much higher in Thar Desert as compared to the state as a whole. There are 116 heads of livestock per 100 persons in Thar Desert as against 83 heads in Rajasthan state. It was highest in Jaisalmer district (356 heads of livestock) to lowest in Jhunjhunu district (57 heads of livestock) in Thar Desert. Further, cropping intensity and annual rainfall are quite low in Thar Desert in comparison to Rajasthan state as a whole. The per capita availability of milk in Thar Desert is 451 gm/day against 345 gm/day in the Rajasthan (Government of Rajasthan, 2019–2020). The breeds of cows, buffaloes, and goats in Thar Desert have better adaptability, which reflects in their better average milk yield per head of 4.13, 5.60, and 0.87 L/day, respectively, compared to overall average productivity of 3.53, 5.25, and 0.68 L/day, respectively in the state of Rajasthan (Bhati et al., 2017; Patil et al., 2009).

6.1.2 Breeds of Animals in Thar Desert The Thar Desert of Rajasthan has three native cattle breeds viz., Rathi, Tharparkar, and Nagauri, having a great deal of survival capacity. Rathi cattle breed is reared for dairy purposes in the districts of Sri Ganganagar, Bikaner, and parts of Jaisalmer district which are irrigated or partially irrigated arid zones with alluvial or loamy soil. The Tharparkar cattle breed is native of the Jodhpur and Jaisalmer districts. Tharparkar is also known as ‘White Sindhi’, ‘Cutchi’, or ‘Thari’ cattle breed reared for the dual purpose i.e. draught and milk production, as it can produce milk under rigorous feeding and unfavourable environmental conditions. The Nagauri cattle are powerful and used for ploughing, cultivation, withdrawing water from wells as well as transportation of farm produce to markets. In addition to native breeds, Gir, Malvi,

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Table 6.1 Status of agriculture and livestock in Thar Desert Particulars

Milk Wool production (000 kg.) (000 tonnes)

Meat Livestock Human Man to Cropping Rainfall (000 density density livestock intensity (mm) tonnes) (Per Sq. (Per ratio (%) Km.) Sq. Km.)

Barmer

623.19

970.94

15.09

Bikaner

1033.96

1380.93

7.58

Churua

–

–

Sri Ganganagar

628.43

Hanumangarh

913.61

Jaisalmer

371.85

Jalore

740.85

Jhunjhunu

180

92

1:1.97

114

273

90

78

1:1.15

126

287

–

117

148

1:0.79

119

375

628.27

7.19

126

179

1:0.70

163

253

529.64

4.99

126

184

1:0.68

150

312

1.5

62

18

1:3.56

133

184

475.72

3.27

156

172

1:0.91

141

431

751.15

350.06

9.41

207

361

1:0.57

155

487

Jodhpur

1793.04

625.33

10.87

160

161

1:0.99

126

311

Nagaur

1116.25

981.01

20.61

157

187

1:0.84

121

397

Pali

627.74

1199.51

4.09

173

165

1:1.05

128

489

Sikar

1292.96

736.53

4.46

256

346

1:0.74

136

466

Thar Desert

9893.04

9452.54

89.06

151

174

1:1.16

134

355

14,521.84 191.66

166

200

1:0.83

140

468

–

–

–

–

Rajasthan Share of Thar Desert (%)

23,668.10 41.80

1574.6

65.09

46.47

–

Note a Data not available Source Commissionerate of Agriculture (2020)

Kankrej, and Hariana cattle are also found in large numbers in the Thar Desert. In case of Buffalo, there is no native breed. However, an enormous number of Murrah, and Surti buffaloes are reared by the farmers. Marwari, an important dual-purpose (mutton and milk) goat breed, is found in Jodhpur, Pali, Nagaur, Bikaner, Jalore, Jaisalmer, and Barmer districts of Thar Desert. This breed is also known as Barmeri or Black Desert goat of Rajasthan. Eight different breeds of sheep have been identified in Rajasthan. These are: Magra, Chokla, Pungal, Nali, Jaisalmeri, Marwari, Malpura, and Sonadi. Out of these eight, six breeds are concentrated in the Thar Desert. The Marwari breed is concentrated in Barmer, Jodhpur, Pali, Jalore, and Nagaur, Chokla or Shekhawati in Churu, Jhunjhunu, and Sikar districts, Jaisalmeri breed i.e. exclusively found in Jaisalmer district, Magra and Pungal in Bikaner district, and the Nali breed in Sri Ganganagar, Sikar, and Jhunjhunu districts (Sen et al., 1981).

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6.1.3 Indigenous Fodder Species The desert has a wide variety of grasses and shrubs that provide excellent fodder. Table 6.2 summarizes some of the commonly available forage grasses, shrubs, and trees used to feed animals during drought and fodder scarcity. The leaves of some plants like Khejri tree leaves were stored and used for feeding animals by people. Major genera exhibiting forage biodiversity include legumes and cereals like P. aconitifolius, C. arietinum, A. hypogea, C. tetragonoloba etc.; grasses like L. sindicus, C. setigerus, C. ciliaris, T. terrestris, D. sindicus, C. dactylon, P. antidotale, D. aegyptiacum, A. tomentosa, D. annulatum, etc., and shrubs and trees such as H. salicornicum, A. Arabica, C. polygonoides, F. religiosa, Zizyphus spp., Acacia spp., C. procera, C. decidua, C. phlomidis, C. burhia, L. pyrotechnica, etc. Shrubs and trees are very important for animal diet due to their palatability and higher nutrient content. These genera contribute significantly to the feed and fodder resources of Thar Desert, along with many other fodders. According to the floristic survey, there were a total of 62 families, 157 genera, and 206 species of shrubs and trees in Thar Desert of Rajasthan (Charan & Sharma, 2016). The Thar Desert also has a rich heritage of traditional know-how for raising, maintaining, and utilizing forage, feed, and livestock resources.

6.2 Methodology 6.2.1 Study Area The state of Rajasthan lies between the longitudes of 69°30, and 78°17, East and the latitudes of 23°30, to 30°12, North, covering an area of approximately 342,239 km2 (or around 10.40% of India’s total land area). The Thar Desert in Rajasthan’s Northwest and the Aravalli Mountains in the state’s Southwest and Northeast go almost end-to-end for more than 850 km each. Rajasthan’s Thar Desert covers 12 of the state’s 33 districts, mostly in the West and Northwest. These districts are (1) Barmer, (2) Bikaner, (3) Churu, (4) Hanumangarh, (5) Jaisalmer, (6) Jalore, (7) Jhunjhunu, (8) Jodhpur, (9) Nagaur, (10) Pali, (11) Sikar, and (12) Sri Ganganagar. The study area is depicted as a darkened part in Fig. 6.1.

6.2.2 Data and Data Sources The present study is based on secondary data and review of earlier studies. The secondary data were collected at two points on various aspects such as composition of livestock, human population, animals bought and sold in cattle fairs, rangeland degradation, crop production, breeds of animals, indigenous fodder species,

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Table 6.2 Common Thar Desert fodders and their role in animal feeding Fodders

Availability

Useful parts

Moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius)

Rainy season

Leaves

Gram or chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

Winter season

Leaves

Groundnut (Arachis hypogea)

Rainy season

Leaves

Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba)

Rainy season

Leaves

Sewan grass or also called king of desert grasses (Lasiurus sindicus)

Round the year (rainy season)

Leaves

Birdwood grass (Cenchrus setigerus)

Round the year

Leaves

Buffel/Anjan/Dhaman grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)

Round the year

Leaves

Gokhru (Tribulus terrestris)

Round the year

Leaves

Dub or Bermuda (Cynodondactylon)

Round the year

Leaves

Gramna or Blue panic (Panicum antidotale)

Round the year

Leaves

Makra (Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum)

Rainy season

Leaves

Legume and cereal straw

Grasses

Bui (Aerva tomentosa)

Leaves

Marvel or Karad (Dichanthium Round the year annulatum)

Leaves

Shrubs, herbs, and trees Lana (Haloxylon salicornicum)

December–March

Succulent twig or flower

Babool (Acacia arabica)

March–June

Pods

Phog (Calligonum polygonoides)

Flower: February–March Fruit: March–April

Young branches, buds, flowers, and fruits

Peepal/sacred fig (Ficus religiosa)

Throughout the year

Leaves

Khejri (Prosopis cineraria)

Leaves: throughout the year Leaves and pods Lopping: November–January and May–July Pods: April–June

Jharberi (Zizyphus numularia)

Leaves fall in January–March

Leaves known as ‘pala’

Bordi (Ziziphus mauritiana)

November–January

Leaves (continued)

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Table 6.2 (continued) Fodders

Availability

Useful parts

Kikar (Acacia nilotica)

November–January

Leaves and pods

Khair (Acacia catechu)

Leaves: January–February Leaves renew: April–May Fruiting: September–October Pods collection: October–December

Leaves and pods

Akra (Calotropis procera)

October–January

Leaves

ker or karira or kerda (Capparis decidua)

October–January

Young branches

Urni or Arna or Aarni (Clerodendrum phlomidis)

August–February

Tender twigs

Shinia (Crotaaria burhia)

Throughout the year

Leaves

Khimp (Leptadenia pyrotechnica)

September–November

Young branches and leaves

Badh/Indian banyan (Ficus bengalensis)

Round the year

Leaves and twigs

Lasura/risalla/Indian cherry (Cordia myxa)

October–January

Leaves

Safedkikar (Acacia leucophloea)

February–March

Leaves and pod

Source Singh and Saini (2002), Khan (2005), and Kumar et al. (2017a)

Fig. 6.1 Location map of the study area (modified with Pinterest)

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common property resources, animal diseases, livestock migration, droughts, management practices, etc. The secondary data of 22 years were collected at two points (1997 and 2019) on composition of livestock, animals bought and sold in cattle fairs, and degradation of rangelands. Moreover, data were also collected on land utilization pattern and crop production from the year 2018–2019 to assess feed and fodder requirements for livestock. The secondary data were collected from various publications of Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Jaipur and Directorate of Animal Husbandry, Government of Rajasthan, Jaipur. The sources of published data are: i. ii. iii. iv.

Statistical Abstract of Rajasthan Basic Statistics of Rajasthan Agricultural Statistics Other published records of the state and central government agencies such as livestock and human census.

Other key parameters, such as animal diseases, a system of livestock migration to cope with drought, animal migration, and livestock management techniques, were reviewed from previous studies.

6.2.3 Estimation of Supply, Demand, and Gap of Livestock Feed and Fodder Crop residues, green roughages, and concentrates are amongst the livestock feed and fodder resources. Their availability was calculated by employing appropriate extraction ratios, also known as conversion factors (Jain et al., 1996; Ramachandra et al., 2007; Varghese et al., 1990). Based on their ratios, crop residues and concentrates from various cereals, pulses, and oilseed crops were estimated. For estimating the availability of residues and concentrates, the following methodology (Thirunavukkarasu et al., 2011) was developed. n Σ

Q i = Yi ∗ C Fi

1

where, Qi , quantity of crop residues/grains/oil cakes/bran and polish obtained of crop ith; Y i , yield of crop ith, and CF i , estimated conversion factor for crop ith. Crop residue production does not always match the availability of crop residues for livestock feed because it is either put to other uses like for residences, packing, fuel, or due to the practice of burning of residues in the fields. As a result, it was thought that nearly all of the crop residue could be used as livestock feed (CSO, 2012). Crushed legumes, wheat, rice bran, and rice polish are all components of the concentrates. Oilseed cake production was estimated using real-world ratios. Since Rajasthan’s

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net export of oilcakes via rail and water channels accounted for 13% of state production (DES, 2011), only 85% of the state’s oilcake production was projected to be accessible for its cattle population. The rangeland was assumed to include 50% of the forest area, complete barren and uncultivated land, permanent pastures and other grazing land, land under various trees and grooves, culturable wasteland, and fallow land. The availability of cultivated green roughages was estimated by multiplying 5% of gross cropped area for cultivated fodder crops by their average biomass production potential of 40.93 tonnes per hectare per year (Ramachandra et al., 2007). In order to convert the quantity of green fodder, dry fodder, and concentrate feed into Dry Matter (DM), factors of 0.25 and 0.90 were applied separately for green fodder and dry fodder and concentrate feeds. To reduce variations in body size and feed and fodder requirements in terms of dry matter (DM). The state’s livestock population (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, horse, mule, ponies, pigs, and camels) was converted into Adult Cattle Units (ACUs) using a standard weight/conversion ratio (Tyagi, 1999). The daily dry matter requirement (7 Kilo gram per adult cattle unit) was calculated using the norms of 2% of the animal’s body weight (Chand & Sirohi, 2012; Tyagi, 1999).

6.3 Results and Discussion 6.3.1 Temporal Changes in the Composition of Livestock in Thar Desert Rajasthan is the largest state of India endowed with huge livestock population which is at present 56.94 million (Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, 2019) and Thar Desert of Rajasthan harbours 28.02 million of animal heads. Rajasthan had 13.94 million cattle, 13.69 million buffaloes, 7.90 million sheep, 20.84 million goats, 0.56 million other animals including horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, pigs, and camels. Thar Desert of Rajasthan had 7.08 million cattle, 3.83 million buffaloes, 5.77 million sheep, 10.99 million goats, and 0.36 million other animals. Cattle in Rajasthan and goat in Thar Desert always dominated the livestock production systems. The distribution of major livestock species across Thar Desert is given in Table 6.3. The share of individual species of animals in major livestock has much changed during the last two decades at both the Thar Desert and state level, though the regional variations in concentration of different livestock species are clearly visible. Some interesting features have emerged in the changing dynamics of livestock population in Thar Desert and Rajasthan. The share of livestock in total livestock population of Thar Desert has increased between livestock census 1997 and 2019 from 16.30 to 25.27% in case of cattle, from 11.04 to 13.67% in case of buffaloes except Sri Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, and Sikar districts, from 33.35 to 39.22% in case of goats barring a few exceptions of Bikaner, Churu, Hanumangarh, Jalore, and Jhunjhunu districts. The share of sheep has sharply declined between livestock census 1997

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and 2019 from 36.72 to 20.60% in whole Thar Desert and also across the districts. In the past two decades, the number of bovines (cattle and buffaloes) and goat has increased, whilst the population of sheep and other animals, especially camels has declined in Thar Desert as well as in state. The drastic decline in sheep population is due to the severe drought during the 2002–2003 and 2008–2009. The rapid increase in cattle and buffalo populations may indicate a paradigm shift in farmers’ perceptions of the role of bovine population in farm economy. In terms of average milk yield and saleable quality, bovines are thought to be superior to small ruminants. Between livestock census 1997 and 2019, cattle and buffalo population have increased in Thar Desert. It is evident that farmers are interested in rearing those species of livestock, which do not need to be taken for long distances in search of feed and fodder and are adopting stall fed livestock rearing. Sheep rearing is rapidly losing share as a result of insufficient grazing resources, poor quality of wool, stiff competition from synthetic wool, and issues during animal migration. Sheep had lost importance in business because sheep herder does not find them economically viable. Moreover, the next generations of herders are not interested in sheep rearing. Sheep are more susceptible to environmental stress, whereas goats, which are browsers, can adapt to a wide range of adverse conditions. As a result, decline in grazing/browsing resources have less of an impact on goat populations than on sheep populations. In addition, market for goat is also increasing due to high demand for meat. Hence, share of goat is increasing over the years. Apart from sheep, camel population is also declining due to automobiles replacing camel carts as the primary mode of rural Table 6.3 Temporal changes in livestock population (per cent share) Districts

Cattle 1997

Buffalo

Sheep

2019

1997

2019

1997

2019

12.98 17.58

2.23

4.33

36.20 19.68 44.73 57.23 3.86

1.18

Bikaner

22.11 43.45

4.24

7.57

45.35 24.08 25.38 22.80 2.92

2.09

Churu

15.65 26.95

9.88 17.04 30.59 17.31 39.81 36.51 4.07

2.18

Sri Ganganagar

28.81 45.76 22.83 14.38 24.58 16.81 21.12 21.81 2.66

1.24

Hanumangarh

25.01 44.21 26.69 24.55 23.39 13.81 19.48 14.66 5.43

2.77

Jaisalmer

12.52 16.99

48.75 34.93 36.05 46.08 2.63

1.81

Jalore

15.85 17.96 17.41 35.27 39.15 24.99 25.74 21.14 1.84

0.63

Jhunjhunu

9.81

0.19

2019

1997

Others

Barmer

0.06

1997

Goat 2019

21.89 28.25 28.23 17.85 12.44 40.97 35.96 3.13 5.53

8.66

1.47

Jodhpur

17.64 29.12

41.18 16.87 34.21 44.69 1.44

0.66

Nagaur

15.08 20.66 13.55 19.63 36.30 16.08 33.74 43.05 1.33

0.58

Pali

15.19 16.76 11.45 15.32 50.00 35.53 22.12 31.70 1.24

0.68

Sikar

11.91 19.35 25.53 24.67 17.05

8.85 43.23 46.45 2.27

0.68

Thar Desert

16.30 25.27 11.04 13.67 36.72 20.60 33.35 39.22 2.57

1.24

Rajasthan

22.37 24.48 17.95 24.05 26.33 13.88 31.16 36.60 2.18

0.99

Source Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (1997, 2019)

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transportation, dwindling land for camel grazing, and high demand for camel meat in Middle Eastern countries. Many animal keepers, particularly the Raikas, who have historically kept large herds of camels, have to sell their camels in animal fairs only as there are no other choices.

6.3.2 Feed and Fodder Scarcity in Thar Desert A sufficient supply of feed and fodder is critical for the growth of the livestock sector. Crop residues and by-products, as well as grazing, are primarily the main sources of feeding livestock. Grazing of livestock such as cows, sheep, and goats is a common practice in Rajasthan’s Thar Desert (Fig. 6.2). The available grazing lands have productivity of about 300–400 kg/ha of grass. This low productivity is the result of soil deterioration and overgrazing. Droughts are also common in the Thar Desert region, affecting agricultural and forage production. This, combined with degraded grazing lands, results in a feed and fodder shortage for large livestock population in Thar Desert. The availability of feed and fodder is seasonal, uncertain, and limited. Moreover, the quality of fodder is also not enough nutritious. The demand, supply, and gap of feed and fodder have been depicted in Table 6.4. It is evident from the table that the state’s total annual potential supply of dry matter is 51.09 million tonnes. The total annual demand of dry matter is 80.29 million

Fig. 6.2 Grazing of sheep in Thar Desert region

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tonnes. The annual potential supply of dry matter from all sources, including crop residues, green roughage, and concentrates, was only 63.63% of total dry matter demand in 2017–2018, implying a net deficit of 36.37%. In Rajasthan, feed and fodder were recorded 39.82, 24.87, and 21% deficits against its demand for the year 2007, 2009, and TE 2013–2014, respectively (Chand et al., 2013; Meena et al., 2013, 2018). The fodder deficit of western Rajasthan is estimated to be as high as 60% of the demand, ranging from 55% in western districts to 69% in central districts and 72% in eastern districts (Narain & Kar, 2005). Historically, the Thar has experienced a 62% forage supply deficit, ranging from 30.9% in Zone IV to 71% in Zone III (Venkateswarlu et al., 1992). Due to an increase in animal populations, similar shortages were recorded in field surveys from 1997 to 2003 (Rahmani & Islam, 1997). The fodder demand–supply gap is widening as a result of competing land pressures, acreage shifts from cereals to other crops, and diversified use of agricultural residues. The annual demand for livestock feed and fodder in Thar Desert was estimated to be 34.49 million tonnes on a dry matter basis based on adult cattle units and per unit intake capacity. Feed demand varied greatly across Thar districts due to variations in the livestock population and its composition. The highest demand exists in Barmer, Table 6.4 Supply, demand, and gap of livestock feed and fodder (dry matter) Particulars

Units

Feed and Fodder Demand

Livestock Population Pressure

Adult cattle unit

Demand

Supply

Gap

Grazing lands

Net area sown

Grazing lands and NSA

‘000’ No

Million tonnes

Million tonnes

%

(ACU/ ha)

(ACU/ ha)

(ACU/ha)

Barmer

1838.39

4.70

1.77

−62.31

9.06

1.10

0.98

Bikaner

1546.67

3.95

4.03

+1.88

31.14

0.97

0.94

Churu

856.52

2.19

1.91

−12.81

23.04

0.75

0.73

Sri Ganganagar

867.46

2.22

3.50

+57.21

6196.14

1.14

1.14

Hanumangarh

866.56

2.21

3.05

+37.84

187.57

1.03

1.02

Jaisalmer

784.79

2.01

1.00

−50.01

9.11

0.94

0.85

Jalore

990.82

2.53

1.16

−54.08

20.92

1.48

1.38

Jhunjhunu

702.95

1.80

1.67

−7.09

17.91

1.78

1.62

Jodhpur

1709.42

4.37

3.20

−26.69

13.71

1.22

1.12

Nagaur

1367.81

3.49

2.59

−25.82

19.27

1.09

1.03

Pali

932.13

2.38

1.49

−37.52

10.21

1.44

1.26

Sikar

1034.90

2.64

1.93

−26.97

25.93

2.04

1.89

Thar Desert

13,498.42

34.49

27.98

−18.88

17.00

1.15

1.08

Rajasthan

31,424.78

80.29

51.09

−36.37

18.80

1.74

1.59

Source Author’s own computation

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followed by Jodhpur, Bikaner, Nagaur, and Sikar due to the higher population of dairy animals in these districts. In the Thar Desert, the percentage gap between feed demand and supply was estimated to be 18.88%. In Thar districts, the shortage is less severe than in the state. The shortfall was not distributed evenly across the Thar Desert districts. It was highest in the district of Barmer (62.31%) followed by Jalore (54.08%), Jaisalmer (50.01%), Pali (37.52%) and lowest in Jhunjhunu (7.09%) district. The supply of livestock feed exceeded demand in Hanumangarh, Sri Ganganagar, and Bikaner districts of Thar Desert. It might be either due to the availability of well-irrigated facilities as a result of the Indira Gandhi Canal in these districts or having low livestock density as compared to other Thar Desert districts. Table 6.4 depicts the livestock population pressure on feed and fodder resources, particularly regarding permanent pasture and grazing lands, and net area sown in terms of area available per Adult Cattle Unit (ACU). The overall pressure on livestock feed resources, including grazing lands and net area sown, was calculated to be 1.59 ACU per hectare for the state and 1.08 ACU per hectare for Thar Desert. The pressure of livestock animals in terms of stocking rate in adult cattle unit of animals per hectare of grazable land was calculated to be 18.80 ACU per hectare for Rajasthan state and 17 ACU/hectare for Thar Desert for pasture and grazing lands. In comparison to states with wide inter-district variability, livestock population pressure on feed and fodder resources was comparatively lower in the Thar Desert. The livestock pressure on feed resources in Rajasthan state was 1.43 ACU per hectare (Chand et al., 2015). The livestock population pressure was greatest in Sikar and Jhunjhunu districts as opposed to Churu and Bikaner districts of Thar Desert of Rajasthan. The stocking rate in terms of ACU per hectare of pasture and grazing indicates that subsistence on these resources is under severe stress as a result of poor-quality herbages on Thar Desert common property resources land.

6.3.3 Cattle Fairs and Marketing of Livestock Animals The cattle fair is an important trading platform for livestock. Organizing a large number of cattle fairs in Thar Desert demonstrates the importance of animal husbandry. Cattle fairs are usually named after local deities. In Thar Desert, five major cattle fairs are held each year at traditionally popular locations such as Ramdeo cattle fair at Manasar in Nagaur district, Veer Tejaji cattle fair at Parbatsar in Nagaur district, Baldeo cattle fair at Merta city in Nagaur district, Mallinath cattle fair at Tilwara in Barmer district, and Gogameri cattle fair at Nohar in Hanumangarh district. In addition to Rajasthan cattle breeders, animal breeders from neighbouring states of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab also participate in these cattle fairs. These fairs primarily bring together large ruminants such as cattle, buffalo, camels, and horses. A fair-wise analysis of arrivals and transaction of animals in Thar Desert and Rajasthan during the period 1996–1997 and 2018–2019 is given in Table 6.5. Cattle fairs organized in Thar Desert by Department of Animal Husbandry in the state,

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a decreasing trend in number of animals brought to fairs was observed in all the fairs. Further, similar decreasing trend in number of transactions of animals was also observed in cattle fairs. The percentage of transactions to arrivals of animals showed an improvement in Gogameri and Veer Tejaji cattle fair. The details on arrival and transaction of animals in cattle fairs in Thar Desert and state during the period 1996–1997 and 2018–2019 are given in Table 6.5. The percentage of total animals transacted to total arrivals in Thar Desert varied from 37.07% in Veer Tejaji cattle fair to 65.08% in Baldeo cattle fair during 1996–1997 and from 15.14% in Baldeo cattle fair to 44.03% in Gogameri cattle fair during 2018–2019. The percentage of transactions to arrivals of animals showed an improvement in Gogameri and Veer Tejaji cattle fair only. The percentage of total animals transacted to total arrivals in Thar Desert as well as in Rajasthan has drastically fallen over a period of time. Similar findings of a decline in the number of livestock animals brought and sold at cattle fairs in Rajasthan were seen in various studies (Das et al., 2014; Meena et al., 2017; Varghese & Sharma, 1996). Possible reasons for the decline in arrivals include inadequate human and animal infrastructure, difficulties in animal transportation, higher marketing costs, a lack of feeds and fodder at the fairgrounds, and a ban on selling male cattle less than three years of age to buyers from other states. A fair-wise analysis of arrivals and transaction of animals in Thar Desert and Rajasthan showed a decreasing trend in number of animals brought to fairs as well as number of transactions of animals in all the cattle fairs. It is very clear from the study that less than one-third of the animals brought to cattle fairs were sold. As a result, the animals were mostly traded amongst itinerant traders or local buyers at the village site. The number of animals brought and sold at cattle fairs has been declining over time, indicating that the scope of such fairs has become increasingly unpopular. Breeders are discouraged from participating in such fairs due to the large difference between animals brought and sold. With respect to species-wise arrivals and transactions of animals in cattle fairs in Thar Desert, the percentage of transactions to arrivals of animals in Thar Desert was lower in the case of horses, camels, and cows than in the case of buffalo and goats. The low proportion of animals sold to animals brought for draught, such as camels and cattle, illustrates the falling demand for draught animals in the Thar Desert. The camel is an icon of Thar Desert, a part of the state’s cultural identity, and an economically important animal for desert communities. Camels are known as the ‘Ship of the Desert’ because they can withstand the harsh conditions of desert life. Camel transport has long been an important part of Thar Desert life and culture. Camel related shows are organized in the desert festival of Jaisalmer as well as the Marwar festival in Jodhpur. This festival includes camel dances, neck shaking camel rides, camel races, camel polo and other activities. Thousands of locals and tourists witness a camel show. The camel festival’s tourist attractions include delightful special sweets and tea made from camel milk. The camel is still used by the Border Security Force’s Bikaner Camel Corp to patrol Rajasthan’s long international border with Pakistan. In response to the continued decline in camel population in Rajasthan, the state government launched a Camel Development Scheme on October 2, 2016 under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna (RKVY) to create positive economic incentives for the traditional

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Table 6.5 Arrivals and transactions of animals across different cattle fairs Cattle fairs

Particulars

1996–1997

2018–2019

Change over base year (%)

Gogameri

A

21,930

8070

−63.20

T

9435

3553

−62.34

%

43.02

44.03

A

37,126

2529

−93.19

T

13,762

968

−92.97

%

37.07

38.28

A

29,683

5802

−80.45

T

14,390

1262

−91.23

%

48.48

21.75

A

36,473

4210

−88.46

T

16,675

793

−95.24

%

45.72

18.84

A

9736

634

−93.49

T

6336

96

−98.48

%

65.08

15.14

A

134,948

21,245

−79.72

T

60,598

6672

−86.14

%

44.90

31.41

A

201,139

40,795

−84.26

T

90,144

12,491

−88.99

%

44.82

30.62

Veer Tejaji

Ramdeo

Mallinath

Baldeo

Thar Desert

Rajasthan

Note A = Arrival (No. of Animals), T = Transacted (No. of Animals), % = Percentage of transacted to arrived animals Source Authors own computation

guardians of the camel, particularly the Raika, but also for other camel breeding communities.

6.3.4 Epidemiology of Animal Diseases The major diseases are plaque, pneumonia, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), Peste des Petit Ruminant (PPR), bottle jaw, Enterotoximia, Enterotoxin, skin disease, vitamin deficiency, and ecto-parasites (mites, bugs, and pica) etc. There is a continuous and increasing prevalence of many important epidemiological diseases in the Thar Desert area that poses a serious threat to animal production. Diseases like Foot and Mouth Disease, rabies, contagious ecthyma, sheep and goat pox, tuberculosis, Johne’s disease, enterotoxaemia, mycoplasmal infections, coccidiosis, brucellosis,

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anthrax, rickettsial and chlamydial diseases, nematode infestations, pica (Kishore, 1998), deficiency of Vitamin A and D (Fakhruddin, 1987), B-1 (Tanwar et al., 1983, 1994) etc., deficiencies of calcium, phosphorus, zinc, iron etc. not only prevail but have an upward trend. Thar Desert area has also reported high incidence of subclinical mastitis (Singh et al., 1999). A number of nutritional and mineral deficiencies in animals of Thar Desert area including energy, protein, copper,cobalt, selenium, zinc, iron and iodine, etc. have been reported that generally lead to anaemia, delayed development, reproductive disorders and pica (Dongre, 2000; Kishore, 1998; Singh et al., 1994). In addition, deficiencies of vitamin A, B, C, D-3, and E were also observed in the Thar animals (Tanwar et al., 1983, 1994).

6.4 System of Livestock Migration to Cope with Drought 6.4.1 Drought Frequency in Thar Desert of Rajasthan Table 6.6 shows the frequency of meteorological and agricultural droughts in Thar Desert areas of Rajasthan. The Thar Desert experienced droughts in 52% of the years in Bikaner district and Hanumangarh district and 62% in Nagaur district between the years 1901 and 2005 with overall 58%. Thar Desert experienced re-occurrence of drought at least once in four years. The chances of occurrence of drought are least in Churu district (once in 5 years), whilst the occurrence of drought in Jaisalmer and Barmer districts is highly likely (once in 2 or 3 years). The re-occurrence of droughts in consecutive years has had a greater impact on animal populations. In the beginning of twenty-first century, the Thar Desert experienced 4 droughts in the years 2000, 2002, 2004, and 2009. Drought occurred in the year 2002 was extremely severe and could be considered as unique in terms of magnitude, spacing, dispersion, and duration, as all records of past years since 1918 were broken. In year 2002, Thar Desert of Rajasthan was worst affected by this drought. All 88 tehsils of Thar Desert were affected by the 2002 drought. Previously, it was estimated that about 10 million hectares land in arid region of Rajasthan were available for grazing to about 11.28 million ACUs (Narain et al., 2006). The dry fodder requirement was about 28 million tonnes to feed the animals. Under normal situation, about 11 million metric tonnes of fodder was available, meaning a deficit of 60% during the normal years. The deficit under drought condition has increased by about 80–95%. About 1.39 million metric tonnes of fodder was distributed at subsidized rates through opening of 2807 fodder depots in Thar Desert of Rajasthan during 2002–2003 which benefited 250,312 animals (Narain & Kar, 2005). The cattle mortality in Rajasthan remained within the normal limit of 12–14% as a result of the free veterinary care in cattle camps and distribution of loans of about US$222.2 million to farmers to purchase fodder through cooperative banks (Samra, 2004).

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Table 6.6 Frequency of droughts in Thar Desert and western Rajasthan (1901–2005) District

Number of droughts

Per cent of total drought year

Number of tehsils affected by severe drought of 2002

Barmer

61

58

9

Bikaner

54

51

7

Churu

56

53

7

Sri Ganganagar 47

45

9

Hanumangarh

51

49

7

Jaisalmer

60

57

3

Jalore

62

59

7

Jhunjhunu

56

53

6

Jodhpur

61

58

7

Nagaur

64

61

10

Pali

58

55

9

Sikar

58

55

7

Thar Desert

60

57

88

Source Narain et al. (2006) and Singh and Singh (2002)

6.4.2 Migration of Animals The scarcity of fodder in Thar Desert of Rajasthan could have adverse effect on livestock health and productivity. Animal migration from Rajasthan is an age-old drought-relief strategy. The migration of animals from resource-deprived states like Rajasthan to resource-rich neighbouring states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Gujarat was a well-established way of living and coping mechanism during periods of shortage of fodder. Animal migration is usually monitored by some castes who graze animals in Thar Desert. The dominant castes are Bhil, Muslim, and Rabari in Barmer district, Raika, Rebari, Gujjar, and Bhil-Raika in Bikaner district, Raika, Rebari, Gujjar, and Bhil-Raika in district of Pali and Jalore, and Jat, Rajput, and Meghwal in Churu district (Narain & Kar, 2005). For the various communities, the animal migration period was found to be different. Typically, animal out-migration begins each year between September and December and they return to their villages by July next year.

6.4.3 Animal Management During Drought Agriculture is not a reliable source of income due to low and erratic rainfall and frequent droughts. Nearly 28 million livestock, including a large population of sheep and goats (more than 60%), help to sustain the Thar Desert and cope with drought.

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Because animals are the first casualties during a drought, animal management issues are critical. The traditional coping mechanisms of pastoral nomads (Raika, Sindhi, and others) are surviving on sale of animals and animal products such as milk, ghee, wool, and mutton in the border areas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, and Bikaner districts (Narain & Kar, 2005). During draughts, unproductive animals are either left to their fate or sent to Gaushalas (animal shelter house) because there are social taboos against culling or slaughtering the animals. Cattle are cared for by philanthropists in Gaushalas, but this is not a long-term and permanent solution. Traditional coping system relied more on drought-resistant and well-adapted animal breeds like Rathi, Tharparkar, Malvi Kankrej, and Nagauri cows, Magra, Marwari, Nali, Chokla, Malpura, and Sonadi sheep, and Jakharana, Marwari, and Sirohi goats. People also relied on traditional medicine and native breed management.

6.4.4 Traditional Coping Systems During Droughts (Orans and Gochars) The Thar Desert’s native people have a long history of protecting village pasture/ grazing lands known as gochars (sacred forests) and green woodlands (orans). The village pasture lands allotted to deity are also known as gochars and orans. The creation and management of oran is delegated to a trust or the village community at the local level. There is restriction on cutting of trees or branches from the orans (Fig. 6.3). Only grasses and palatable grass herbs can be collected from gochars and orans for animal feeding. Tree felling is traditionally prohibited in orans and gochars, but it is now being encroached upon (Narain & Kar, 2005). Orans and gochars are considered as beautiful mini biosphere reserves in Thar Desert that maintain ecological stability as well as biodiversity (Tewari & Arya, 2005). Orans and gochars are great traditional coping systems during droughts in Thar Desert. There are 3017 orans spread over 5 lakh hectares of land across 9053 villages in Rajasthan’s Marwar region (Vaishnav & Acharya, 2021). The single largest oran, measuring 27,848 hectares, is in the Bhadariya Maataji area of Jasailmer district of Rajasthan. According to a remote sensing estimate, orans and gochars cover 62,158 hectares in the Jodhpur district. However, the orans and gochars are under threat of severe degradation due to the massive rise in livestock pressure and high animal stocking rates. One of the most serious issues with orans is the increasing number of undesirable and less palatable plants and palatable grasses.

6.4.5 Management of Water Resources in the Thar Desert The supply of water in the Thar Desert is precious and a valued environmental resource. Water scarcity plays an important role in shaping life in all parts of the Thar

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Fig. 6.3 Oran in Baytu Bhimji of Barmer, Rajasthan

Desert. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan is extremely vulnerable to water resources due to its geographical location and recurring droughts. The drinking water for the animal and human population becomes a big problem in the Thar Desert area. Increasing demand for water and shortfall in surface water resources has put tremendous pressure on groundwater resources. Groundwater is the principal source of water in Thar Desert. This region faces a serious shortage of drinking water and women in rural villages have to collect water from walking several kilometres in order to meet their domestic needs (Navada, 1999). In many places, the groundwater is brackish or saline. Indirect recharge through wadis (river channels) could be an important mechanism for groundwater recharge in Thar Desert areas (Darling et al., 1987). The current rate of annual exploitation of ground water is higher than its annual recharge (Table 6.7). About 87.04 and 19.96% of water is used for irrigation and domestic including industrial uses in Thar Desert which at par with Rajasthan state use. In the face of drought, the Thar Desert has traditional water management practices in the combat against drought. Traditional water harvesting systems include Kunds or Kundis (circular underground wells with a saucer-shaped catchment area), Kuis or Beris (kutcha earthen structures), Jhalaras (human-made tanks), Baoris or bers (community wells), Nadis (ponds), Tobas (natural catchment area), Taankas (small underground tanks), Khadin (dhora), baolis or bavadis (traditional stepwells), Johads (man-made ponds), and Talabs (permanent ponds) are still viable and cost-effective in the Thar Desert for many centuries. Modern rainwater methods such as anicut, percolation tanks, injection wells, and subsurface barriers are also available and very effective in replenishing depleted groundwater aquifers.

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Table 6.7 Scenario of annual water recharge and extraction of groundwater S. No.

Districts

Extractable groundwater after recharge (Million cubic metre)

Groundwater extraction (Million cubic metre)

Extracted water used for Irrigation (%)

Domestic (%)

Stage of groundwater extraction (%)

1

Barmer

339.74

426.01

84.89

15.11

125.39

2

Bikaner

344.84

486.40

83.55

16.45

141.05

3

Churu

116.11

134.10

80.19

19.81

115.49

4

Sri Ganganagar

446.12

173.86

99.81

0.19

38.97

5

Hanumangarh

200.81

127.09

93.31

6.69

63.29

6

Jaisalmer

85.04

270.99

89.88

10.12

318.63

7

Jalore

539.34

950.76

95.60

4.40

188.04

8

Jhunjhunu

223.47

470.51

75.60

24.40

210.54

9

Jodhpur

343.03

871.54

82.04

17.96

254.07

10

Nagaur

488.24

962.08

85.52

14.48

197.05

11

Pali

296.12

443.64

92.92

7.08

149.81

12

Sikar

353.28

607.09

81.20

18.80

171.84

Thar Desert

314.68

493.67

87.04

12.96

164.51

Thar Desert (%)

34.10

35.61

11,073.63

16,634.72

Rajasthan

– 86.76

– 13.24

– 150.22

Source Central Ground Water Board, Government of India (2020)

6.5 Degradation of Rangelands The rangeland management assumes great significance in the supply of forage for the ever-increasing livestock population especially in Thar Desert part. Rangelands are semi-natural ecosystems, where people seek to obtain a productive output just by adding domestic livestock to a natural landscape (Harrington et al., 1984). The main assets of the Thar Desert dwellers are large herds of livestock that roam over the rangeland area. Each farm family holds 15–20 herds of animals in arid areas of Rajasthan that live on crop residues and fallow land grazing (Gupta, 2000). Plants that grow in the desert have evolved a variety of mechanisms to deal with aridity, erratic rainfall, and extremely high temperatures. These plants are unable to cope with overgrazing, and hence, overgrazing causes losses to vegetation cover, grassland and pasture species, soil structure, organic matter, and fertility. Moreover, it also leads to lower infiltration and higher runoff through extensive soil erosion. Desertification caused by grazing in degraded rangelands is a stepwise process (Milton et al., 1994). Desertification occurs directly as a result of human mismanagement activities such

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Table 6.8 Degradation of rangelands in Thar Desert of Rajasthan Districts

Rangeland 1997

Percent of rangeland to geographical area 2019

1997

2019

Barmer

1239

1048

43.99

37.19

Bikaner

1272

1117

46.47

36.72

Churu

239

173

14.17

12.51

Sri Ganganagar

241

232

22.01

21.22

Hanumangarh

68

61

6.99

6.33

Jaisalmer

3393

2787

88.36

72.60

Jalore

390

332

36.91

31.37

Jhunjhunu

117

154

19.75

25.96

Jodhpur

917

773

40.64

34.24

Nagaur

451

406

25.59

22.87

Pali

527

482

42.70

39.06

Sikar Thar Desert Rajasthan

189

200

24.37

25.88

9041

7764

43.43

37.27

14,642

12,894

42.76

37.61

Source Author’s own computation from secondary data

as overgrazing and excessive land tillage, and indirectly as a result of climate change (White, 2000). The extent of rangeland in Thar Desert of Rajasthan is presented in Table 6.8. It is evident from table that total rangeland has decreased from 43.43% (9041 thousand hectares) of total geographical area in 1997 to 37.27% (7764 thousand hectares) in 2019 in Thar Desert and from 42.76% (14,642 thousand hectares) to 37.61% (12,894 thousand hectares) in Rajasthan state during the same period. Further, rangelands as a percentage of total geographical area were highest in Jaisalmer district and lowest in Hanumangarh district during both periods.

6.6 Livestock Management Practices Animal domestication methods and livestock keeping practices are linked to the ecosystem, economy, and ethos of individual locations and their inhabitants. There are also risks associated with livestock management as a result of changing weather patterns, environmental conditions, and anomalies. These risks include diseases, food, and fodder scarcity. An animal’s productivity is essentially determined by the interaction of its genetic structure and the environment in which it grows. Increasing animal productivity through better livestock management practices will help to improve overall economic and social benefits for the community (Yadav et al.,

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2014). Feeding, breeding, healthcare, and housing management practice, all play important roles in realizing the true potential of dairy animals. Feeding and housing at their best is a necessary condition for milk production, but feed scarcity is the most difficult obstacle to increasing milk production in India (Jain et al., 1996; Saha et al., 1997). Better nutrition utilization and milk production arise from balanced and proper feeding. Housing management becomes a critical aspect in maximizing the use of feeding material (Dubey & Singh, 1975). Here are some of livestock management practices that farmers use to make livestock management simple and efficient. These management practices can be grouped into, feeding, breeding and reproduction, housing and healthcare, milking, ethno-veterinary, and stress. They are briefly discussed here as follows.

6.6.1 Breeding and Reproduction Management Practices Of the various mating methods, the livestock rearers in this region prefer natural mating to Artificial Insemination (AI), primarily due to lack of awareness about artificial insemination and also due to lack of AI services near them. Indigenous bulls are preferred over non-descript or crossbred or exotic breeds for insemination/ natural mating of their animals. Large herd size farmers primarily keep their own breeding bull, whereas majority of small and medium farmers rely on community bull (Gurjar et al., 2007; Tanwar & Rathore, 2017; Tanwar et al., 2008). Most farmers mate their female animals with breeding males from their own herd (Dhawal et al., 2020; Tanwar & Rathore, 2017). For treating anoestrus and repeated breeding problems, less than half of those who do so take the support of a veterinarian and stockman (Rathore et al., 2010). Due to illiteracy and a lack of veterinary services in their locality, the majority of animal keepers rely on quacks for treatment (Mahla, 2013; Rathore et al., 2010). Because veterinarians are not readily available when parturition occurs, farmers rely on age-old practices of handling animals themselves during parturition or take help from their neighbours to assist them in parturition (Kumar et al., 2017b).

6.6.2 Feeding Management Practices Livestock animals are generally fed on locally available crop residues, tree-based fodder, and agro-industrial by-products at the household level, in addition to grazing/ browsing (Bohra, 2012). Scientific animal feeding practices include fodder preservation, balanced rationing, concentrate feeding, mineral mixture, watering frequency, fodder chopping, and the use of feeding trough, and so on. A farmer can feed animals more cheaply, raise their efficiency, and increase the profitability by selecting adequate feeding standards, feed composition, feed level, feed form and the perfect combination of feeding, and appropriate quantity with other relevant practices.

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Generally, the animal keepers prefer to let their animals graze. When grazing becomes insufficient, stall feeding is used. Owners of large herds and farmers with extensive land holdings have a practice of using a piece of their land as pasture for their livestock for 3–4 years. After this, the pasture land is then used for cultivation of crops and another piece of land is left for pasture. Pearl millet stover (bajra karbi) along with some grass gathered during weeding constitutes the dry feed of animals. During the monsoon season (July to September), the majority of animal keepers feed green fodder, which is limited for only 2–3 months. Green fodder feeding is less common, which could be due to the lack of irrigation infrastructure (Lavania et al., 2014; Rathore et al., 2010). Due to its availability throughout the year, dry fodder is the most common type of feed given to the livestock. The farmers generally collect the grass during weeding their fields which is dried to use as dry feed. Plants such as Dhaman grass (Garuga pinnata), Safed kikar (A. leucophloe), Khejri (P. cineraria), Ber (Pala) (Z. mauritiana), Sewan (Lasiurus scindicu), and others are harvested and stored by animal keepers. They used it for animal grazing after milking in the morning and evening (Kumar et al., 2017b).

6.6.3 Housing Management Practices A well-planned and suitable housing system is essential for successful dairy farm management. A well-designed house with adequate ventilation, lighting, and flooring creates a comfortable environment for animals, which has a significant impact on dairy animal production. Most of the livestock rearers of this region keep their animals inside their dwellings. However, most farmers who keep the animals in cattle sheds build the sheds with locally available material which are less permanent in structure (Fig. 6.4). Cattle shed roofs are constructed from locally available resources like grass and straw, including saniya grass and bajra straw, which are readily available in their area (Kumar et al., 2017b). Regarding direction of cattle housing, animal keepers generally keep their cattle in a north–south direction to escape cold air from the west during the winter, avoid direct sunshine, and provide good ventilation in the summer by using the north side of their sheds (Kumar et al., 2017b). Generally, livestock rearers of this region lack knowledge about scientific animal grooming practices and rely more on the indigenous practices.

6.6.4 Milking Management Practices Methods of milking (full hand, knuckling, and stripping), place of milking, frequency of milking, type of milking pail, practices for milk letdown, washing of udder before milking, drying of udder after washing, cleanliness of milkman, removal of hairs surrounding udder and teats, and removal of the initial stream of milk from each teat are all indications of basic hygienic milking (Abdessemed et al., 2016). In Thar

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Fig. 6.4 Roofs for cattle sheds made from locally available materials, Baytu Bhimji, Barmer

Desert, majority of animal keepers prefer the knuckling method for milk letdown (Choudhary, 2017; Kumar et al., 2017a; Mahla, 2013; Mathur, 2001; Mohan et al., 2018). It demonstrates that most animal keepers are unaware about the benefits of full-hand method of milking. Milking activities are mainly carried out by women at household level (Kumar et al., 2017a). Though most of the animal rearers wash their hands, the udder and teats of the animal to be milked before milking, removing hair from the udder, and removal of the initial stream of milk from each teat are generally not practiced. Majority of animal rearers use intermittent milking to dry pregnant animals (Mohan et al., 2018; Rathore et al., 2010). They begin intermittent milking 2.5–3 months before the next cattle calving period. Some animal keepers practice self-drying of animals in order to increase milk production during the next calving season (Kumar et al., 2017a). A large number of animal keepers allow suckling for milk letdown (Kumar, 2016; Kumar et al., 2017a; Mahla et al., 2015; Rathore et al., 2010). Few animal caretakers also use oxytocin injection for milk letdown following the death of the calf.

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6.6.5 Health Care Management Practices Healthcare practices such as vaccination, deworming, and sick animal treatment are all critical to dairy farm improvement. Animal health care ensures that dairy animals are as comfortable as possible, which is required for quality and quantity production. Proper sanitation and animal healthcare practices reduce the risk of diseases and increase the profitability of dairy farming. In order to treat sick animals, the majority of animal keepers contact a veterinarian and/or a stockman (livestock helper) (Kumar et al., 2017b; Tanwar & Rathore, 2017). Village gunni (local person expert in treatment) is consulted by some of them. Whilst Rathore et al. (2010) and Maharia (2013) found that animal owners first seek treatment from quacks for their sick animals, and if the sick animals do not recover or the condition of the sick animal worsened, they seek treatment from a veterinary doctor or stockman. Vaccination against diseases is not a common practice (Choudhary, 2017; Mahla, 2013; Mathur, 2001; Rathore et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2007; Tanwar & Rathore, 2017). Majority of livestock keepers clean the animal sheds, water trough, and manger on a weekly basis (Rathore et al., 2010). Many livestock keepers use waste grass/fodder/neem leaves smoke to keep flies/mosquitoes at bay (Choudhary, 2017; Mahla, 2013; Rathore et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2007, 2018). To control lice and ticks, the majority of cattle keepers use chemical dusting, followed by manual picking (Malik & Nagpaul, 2000; Rathore et al., 2010).

6.6.6 Calf Rearing Management Practices At the time of calving, all of the animal keepers attend to the pregnant animals as well as the young ones (Mahla et al., 2015; Rathore et al., 2010). The majority of the animal keepers clean the calf soon after delivery, trim the hooves, and allow the mother to lick her young immediately. Cattle keepers believe that trimming the hooves of a newborn calf would prevent the hooves from growing in size (Maharia, 2013; Mahla et al., 2015; Rathore et al., 2010). Cutting of the naval cord after birth is not a common practice. However, after the placenta is shed, the animal keepers provided colostrum to their calves by allowing suckling of colostrum to newly born calf as adlib (Kumar et al., 2017a; Mahla et al., 2015). The majority of animal keepers allowed their calves to suckle up to 6 months of age (Mahla et al., 2015; Rathore et al., 2010). Most of the cattle rearers seek the advice of quacks and some of veterinarians if the placenta is not shed in time. The placenta is disposed off by burying it around milkweeds plant (Calotropis procera) as there is a common belief that if they did so, a female calf will be born in the subsequent calving (Rathore et al., 2010). Weaning of calves and dehorning are not commonly practiced by the cattle rearers of this region. Most of the goat keepers however castrated the male kids so as to fetch higher prices (Tanwar & Rathore, 2017).

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6.6.7 Ethno-Veterinary Practices Ethno-veterinary practices include people’s knowledge, skills, methods, practices, and beliefs about animal care (McCorkle, 1986). Ethno-Veterinary Medicine (EVM) including traditional animal health care offers low-cost alternatives to allopathic medications (McCorkle, 1986; Punniamurthy, 2010). Plants and plant-based products have long been utilized in veterinary medicine to treat a variety of disorders and diseases (Sarswat & Purohit, 2020). This information was compiled from that provided by a traditional healer from the Godwar area of Pali district in Rajasthan. A healer’s treatment inventory typically includes different types of diseases such as diarrhea, after birth retention, poisoning, uterus prolapse, constipation, liver problems, bloat, pneumonia, rheumatism, cough, fever, indigestion, anorexia, and blood in urine. Ved (Local healers) makes medicines on the spot from plants that grow in the village surroundings and other common ingredients that are readily available in the area, such as ghee, oil, and buttermilk. Some of the spices/seeds used by healers in the preparation of medicines include mustard (Brassica species), red pepper (Capsicum annuum), turmeric (Curcuma longa), asafoetida (Ferula asafetida), black cumin (Nigella sativa), poppy seed (Papaver somniferum), and black pepper (Piper nigrum). The cultivated plants that are used by healers in Rajasthan to prepare their medicines are onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum), mustard oil (Brasica spp.), tea leaves (Camellia theifera), pomelo (Citrus maxima), cotton flowers (Gossypium indicum) and old henna leaves (Lawsonia alba), tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum), Jaggery (Saccharum officinale), Sugar (Saccharum officinarum), sesame oil (Sesamum indicum), and sesame flowers (S. indicum). Healers in Rajasthan also used uncultivated plants such as Deshi babool (A. nilotica), Satyanashi (Argemone mexicana), Hingota (Balanites aegyptiaca), Palas bark and flower (Butea monosperma), Aak wood (C. procera), kair or karril (Capparis deciduas), Custard apple leaves (Annona reticulata), Sickle bush (Dicrostachys cinerea), Common milk hedgeor Thor (Euphorbia nerrifolia), Banyan (F. bengalensis), Gengchi (Grewia villosa), drumstick (Moringa concanensis), Karanj leaves (Pongamia glabra), Safed Mushli (Portulaca tuberosa), and danchi or dunchi or dhaincha (Sesbania bispinosa) to make medicines. Deshi ghee (butterfat), Chach (buttermilk), Dahi (curd), donkey dung, and human urine are some of the products utilized by healers in Rajasthan to make medicines. Red alum, white alum, red salt, and silt from wells are the mineral materials utilized by healers in Rajasthan in the production of medicines. The most prevalent therapies for ecto-parasitic infection in Thar Desert of Rajasthan were neem bark (Azadirichta indica), Kheenp leaves (L. pyrotechnica), kali jeeri (Centratherum anthelminticum), and tobacco leaves (N. tobacum) with water (Garg et al., 2019). In the Pushkar animal fair of Rajasthan, (Galav et al., 2010) reported 43 ethno-veterinary medicinal herb species that are used to cure 30 animal diseases. Some traditional healers feed 50–100 g crushed neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves with either jaggery or wheat (Triticum aestivum) flour to easily eradicate end parasite (Yadav & Rajput, 2015). Geerlings (2001) found that topical application of various oils, juice of c. procera and Euphorbia spp in the case of Nimji, drenching sheep with

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tea made from the flowers of the palas tree (B. monosperma) in the case of Haldariya (haematuria), use of tobacco (Nicotianum tobacum) and chilli (Capsicum annum) in case of diseases caused by Brucella abortus or Brucellosis agalactia were effective.

6.6.8 Indigenous Fodder Storage Practices Karai and Pachawa are two indigenous techniques of storing fodder (Singh, 2006) in the Thar Desert. Karai (also called churiyaa or bhuggi) is one of the indigenous techniques of fodder storage. Fodder can be safely stored up to 10 years by using this technique. The karai is made away from the village with the help of locally available material. Karai (Fig. 6.5) is constructed in such a way that the stored fodder is protected from the sun, rain, and high wind storms, as well as human and animal attack. The karai is usually conical in shape, with a base diameter of 3–4 m and a height of 8 m. To protect the stored fodder from termite, the pearl millet ‘bhani’ and mustard straw are kept at the base of Karai. Jhumpi made of pearl millet stalk is used to cover the Karai, which is renewed once in every three years. Pachawa is one of the indigenous techniques of storing fodder. The pachawa has a storage capacity up to 1000 quintals. The base of pachawa can be circular, square, or rectangular. The square/rectangular shape pachawa can be consumed slowly over Fig. 6.5 Karai—traditional storage method of cereal straw

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time, whereas the circular shape pachawa must be chafed in pieces and stored in a room or covered space before being sold or consumed. The pachawa is constructed on a raised floor to protect against rain and is located away from the hutments to reduce the risk of fire. To avoid overturning, the pachawas are erected in such a way that the longest side is parallel to the commonly blowing winds. The stalks of mustard and sesamum, along with other dry grasses (1–1.5 m thickness) are spread over raised floor to protect against termites. The pachawa is made up to a height of 6–8 m and a width of 4–5 m. After reaching a height of 6–8 m, the top surface is shaped like an inverted ‘V’ and covered with a thatched roof made of pearl millet stalks and other locally available materials. This roof is replaced once in every three years. The roof cover is extended to prevent contact between the stored fodder and the rain water. The pachawa is surrounded by an open trench 0.5 m wide and 1–1.5 m deep and is surrounded with dry branches of thorny plants up to 2–3 m in height to protect pachawa from domestic and wild animals.

6.6.9 Shelter Management Practice of Livestock in Thar Desert Although livestock breeds of Thar Desert are well adapted to desert vagaries, their production potential is undeniably influenced by harsh environmental conditions. Extreme weather conditions can have a massive impact on animal productivity (Burke, 1998). The primary goal of the shelter is to provide animals with comfort and a sense of well-being so that they can produce to their full genetic potential. It has been observed in the Thar Desert that the majority of farmers provided thatched roof houses for large ruminants (bovines), but not for small ruminants. The majority of farmers have access to basic shelter, but they prefer to keep their animals outside during normal climatic conditions throughout the year. No proper attention is paid to animal shelters, and only low-cost or no-cost local materials are used to build the animal houses. Farmers are more concerned about animal housing in the winter than other seasons. The majority of livestock shelters are oriented in east to west direction. For protection from cold winds from the north, sometimes they are also oriented in north to south direction. A variety of local materials made up of branches and twigs from shrubs and trees that grew abundantly in the Thar Desert are used for the construction of thatched roofs, side walls, and other parts of the animal shelter. The material used, however, differs from one area to another in Thar Desert. Khimp (L. pyrotechnica) and Shinio (Crotalaria burhia) are commonly used in Jodhpur and Nagaur districts and Bui (Aerva pseudotomentosa) in Barmer district. Twigs from bushes such as Aak (C. procera), Bordi (Ziziphus nummularia), and Vilayati Babul (Prosopis juliflora) are used to build the side walls of houses. In the rural areas of the Thar Desert, three types of livestock shelter viz., an open housing system, thatched housing system, and pucca house are found. An open housing system (barbed enclosure without a roof) is prepared by simply covering

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an open space near a tree with thorny bushes and a fenced wire. A thatched housing system (kutcha house) is an enclosed space surrounded by stone slabs and topped with a thatched roof made of local plant materials. The pucca house (closed type pucca house) is a traditional bricked structure with thick stonewalls and a stone slab roof. This system also includes a free-moving area for the animals.

6.7 Future Strategies Livestock is a very important and integral part of lives and livelihoods of people in Thar Desert. Some of the strategies and interventions for sustenance of livestock sector in this region are discussed below. • The gap between the demand and supply of feed and fodder will continue to widen if appropriate strategies are not implemented to increase biomass and forage production substantially. To address this issue, there is a need to develop silvi-pastoral model that incorporates grasses and fodder trees, create fodder banks/storage facilities in collaboration with user groups, strengthen extension system and to create a mechanism for participatory management of CPRs. Acacia senegal, A. tortilis, Albizzia lebbek, Tecomella undulata, Colophospermum mopane, Dychrostasis nutans, Hardwickia binnata, Z. nummularia, and Z. rotundifolia are highly compatible with grasses. Two pasture legumes viz., Clitoria ternatea and Lablab purpureus show good compatibility with L. sindicus and C. ciliaris. A silvi-pastoral system containing A. tortilis and C. ciliaris produces more feed than a pure pasture. • During good rainfall years, excess fodder of pearl millet, wheat, barley or any other crop is stored for adverse years. The cereals are stored in huge structures called ‘Karai’ or ‘Pachawa’, which are made up of crop stalks/branches, either in conical shape with a circular base, or as a rectangle at base and top like a hut shape. Chaffed stover is tightly packed in such structures. As animals are first casualties during drought due to fodder scarcity, fodder banks are the best coping mechanism in Thar Desert region. These have to be integrated with ‘Gaushalas’ or Panchayat Samities for collection and distribution. Machines are available to make compact block or bail the grass as rolls for storage. • Traditional water harvesting structures such as tanka, nadi, and khadin were created by the residents of Rajasthan’s Thar Desert, but many of them became dysfunctional for a variety of reasons. Recognizing the need to improve these traditional structures, CAZRI has modified the designs of tanka in order to store 10,000–630,000 L of water for domestic and community use, as well as nadis with LDPE liner to avoid seepage loss. Likewise, khadin designs have been improved with inlet structures for efficient water intake and spillway systems for draining excess water. Adequate strategies to improve water use and its sensible and sustainable use are urgently needed in order to make water available to growing human and livestock population of this region.

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• In Thar Desert areas, agro-forestry is a way of life. Adoption of many alternative land use systems, based on land capabilities as well as farmer preference, is one of the effective land management strategies in the Thar Desert. • Trees, grasses, and legumes intercropped with crops not only provide some guaranteed yields during bad years, but they also help to improve soil health. Research has shown that pearl millet and cluster bean are extremely compatible and remunerative in terms of grain and fodder productivity when grown with grasses L. sindicus and C. ciliaris between rows of A. tortilis and Z. Rotundifolia. Strip cropping of grasses and kharif legumes in a 1:2 ratio with a strip width of 5 m is recommended by CAZRI. • Pasture lands are community lands that are used to sustain the animal population. Uncontrolled grazing on cultivated pastures can cause significant degradation, negating the gains of extensive research and development efforts. Currently, pasture/grazing lands are severely degraded, but they can be managed with effective community participation. The proper management and utilization of pastures is just as vital as the expansion of pasture lands or the introduction of new grass species. Consideration should be given to certain practices such as rotational grazing, and staggered grazing advocated by CAZRI to reduce rangeland degradation. However, the success of grazing technique is dependent on widespread community participation. A special work plan is also required to integrate the outcomes of scientific research on pasture development with a system of oran and gochar management practices at the level of elected village bodies such as Panchayats, as well as temple trusts, NGOs, and other organizations. CAZRI is continuously striving to develop improved rangeland management practices. A number of new varieties of grasses and legumes with higher dry matter and seed yields have been developed by CAZRI and supplied to stakeholders. These include Marwar Anjan (CAZRI-75), C. ciliaris (CAZRI-357 and CAZRI358), Marwar Dhaman (CAZRI-76), C. setigerus (CAZRI-1 and CAZRI-296), L. sindicus (CAZRI-318, 319), and P. antidotale (CAZRI-347). • The emerging results of various livestock management practices used by animal keepers in the study area revealed that adoption of overall scientific practices was quite satisfactory. There was still a wide gap in the adoption of certain practices, such as artificial insemination, pregnancy diagnosis, treatment of anoestrus/ repeat breeding, measures to control ecto- and endo-parasite, naval cord disinfection, mineral mixture and concentrate mixture feeding, water trough and mangers, scientific cattle shed, quacks treatments, method of milking, etc. To encourage farmers to adopt these practices, larger and much more concentrated efforts are needed. Furthermore, there is a need for extension activities to spread improved management practices, institutional intervention for scientific management practices, and improved veterinary services to increase animal production and productivity. Animal keepers should use full-hand milking, allow the calf to suckle only before milking to prevent teat injury, milking should be done in a clean and separate location, wet hand milking should be avoided for clean milk production as well as to prevent teat injury, and teat canal sealed with proper ointment should be done at the end of lactation to ensure prevention of any infection during dry

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period, following modern control measures of parasite, seeking the services of a qualified veterinarian for treatment, etc.

6.8 Policy-Oriented Recommendations The following are some policy-oriented recommendations gained from this study: • The number of bovines (cattle and buffaloes) and goat has increased, whilst the population of sheep and other animals, especially camels has declined in Thar Desert. There is a need for policy intervention to prevent declining number of sheep and camel. • Due to competing land pressures and acreage shifts from cereals to other crops, the feed and fodder demand–supply gap is widening. In order to fill this gap, there is a need to develop drought-resistant and high-yielding varieties, cultivate dualpurpose crops to increase grain and fodder and use technologies for Complete Feed Block (CFB), Multi Nutrient Block (MNB), Multi Nutrient Mixture (MNM), and urea treatment to supplement nutrients to livestock for maintaining their health and productivity at sustained levels. • The orans and gochars are in grave danger of extinction due to increased livestock pressure and excessive animal stocking rates. Proper policy is required for protection of orans and gochars. • Overall, scientific practices in livestock management are adopted satisfactorily. However, larger and more concentrated efforts are needed to encourage farmers to adopt practices such as artificial insemination, pregnancy diagnosis, treatment of anoestrus/repeat breeding, naval cord disinfection, importance of mineral mixture and concentrate mixture, method of milking, and sealing of the teat canal at the end of lactation, and so on.

6.9 Conclusion Thar Desert covers approximately 55% of Rajasthan’s geographical area. Low precipitation, high evapo-transpiration, and arid climate conditions characterize it. During the period (1997–2019), the share of cattle in total livestock population of Thar Desert increased from 16.30 to 25.27%, whilst the share of sheep decreased from 36.72 to 20.60%. Despite the unfavourable conditions, the Thar Desert region contributes the most to Rajasthan’s dairy and other livestock-based products, including milk (41.80%), wool (65.09%), and meat (46.47%). The human and livestock population density in this region is 151 and 174 heads per square kilometre, respectively. The man-to-livestock ratio in Thar Desert (100:116) is substantially greater than in the state as a whole (100:83). Native cattle breeds, such as Rathi, Tharparkar, and Nagauri, are flourishing in the Thar region for milk and draught work. Marwari goat is an important dual-purpose (meat and milk) breed in the districts of Jodhpur, Pali,

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Nagaur, Bikaner, Jalore, Jaisalmer, and Barmer. The Marwai sheep breed contributes the most to wool production in the Thar region. Thar Desert is home to both large and small ruminants. However, due to drought, low productivity, soil deterioration, overgrazing, and inadequate grazing land management, feed and fodder are frequently scarce. Feed, fodder, and even foliage are all very seasonal and unpredictable. During droughts, traditional agro-forestry methods of P. cineraria, T. undulata, and Salvadora oleoides provide vital livelihood assistance. With the exception of Bikaner, Sriganganagr, and Hanumangarh districts, the feed and fodder availability falls short in all the districts of Thar Desert. This scarcity of fodder in Thar Desert may have a negative impact on livestock health and productivity. Diseases like pneumonia, FMD, PPR bottle jaw, Enterotoximia, skin disease, vitamin deficiency, and ecto-parasites (mites, bugs, and pica) have an adverse impact on the Thar Desert’s animal production and reproduction system. As a result, animal migration from Thar Desert is an age-old drought-relief strategy as well as an annual ritual in many Thar Desert villages. In Thar Desert, the majority of animal keepers routinely check their animals for heat symptoms on a regular basis and choose natural breeding over artificial insemination services. Animal keepers graze their animals on harvested/ fallow fields. Stall feeding is the next best option when grazing becomes insufficient. Livestock rearers prefer to feed home-prepared concentrate mixture to their animals in stall feeding. For drying hay or fodder, majority of livestock rearers use traditional hay preparation methods. In the Thar Desert, most livestock rearers use indigenous techniques such as Karai and Pachawa to store feed. Majority of farmers in the study area keep their animals in kuccha houses, which were made of grasses and locally available materials and could be moved periodically. Livestock is an important component of livelihood of the people in Thar Desert. Future strategies and policy-oriented recommendations which can be adopted have been discussed for sustainable development of human and livestock population of this region.

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Mohan, K., Goswami, S. C., Jhirwal, A. K., Kumar, V., Singh, V., Choudhary, P., Manohar, D. S., & Meel, S. (2018). Housing and milking management practices followed by Rathi cattle owners for conservation of Rathi cattle in Bikaner district of Rajasthan. Ruminant Science, 7(1), 113–116. Narain, P., & Kar, A. (2005). Drought in western Rajasthan: Impact, coping mechanism and management strategies (pp. 1–123). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. Narain, P., Rathore, L. S., Singh, R. S., & Rao, A. S. (2006). Drought assessment and management in arid Rajasthan (pp. 1–71). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. Navada, S. V. (1999). Groundwater problems studies in the Thar Desert, India using isotope. Water and Environment News, Quarterly no. 7. https://doi.org/10.5455/vetworld.2013.470-47 Patil, N. V., Mathur, B. K., Khan, M., Bohra, H. C., Patel, A. K., Patidar, M., Rohilla, P. P., Saha, D. K., Khem Chand, K., Mathur, A. C., Kachhawaha, S., Kaushish, S. K., Karim, S. A., Shinde, A. K., Pathak, K. M., & Lal, L. (2009). In A. Kar, B. K. Garg, M. P. Singh, & S. Kathju (Eds.), Improvement of livestock productivity in arid region. Central Arid Zone Research Institute. Punniamurthy, N. (2010). Ethno-veterinary medicine for primary health care of livestock. Heritage Amruth, 6(3), 11–14. Rahmani, A. R., & Islam, M. Z. (1997). Prioritisation of the Indian grasslands for conservation of biodiversity. Bombay Natural History Society. Ramachandra, K. S., Taneja, V. K., Sampath, K. T., Anandan, S., & Angadi, U. B. (2007). Livestock feed resources in different agro-ecosystems of India: Availability, requirement and their management. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology. Rathore, R. S., Singh, R., Kachwaha, R. N., & Kumar, R. (2010). Existing management practices followed by the cattle keepers in Churu district of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Animal Science, 80(8), 798–805. Saha, R. C., Singh, R. B., Saha, R. N., & Choudhury, A. B. (1997). Feed resources and milk production in the eastern states (Publication No. 282). National Dairy Research Institute. Samra, J. S. (2004). Review and analysis of drought monitoring, declaration and management in India (Working Paper 84, pp. 1–31). International Water Management Institute. Sarswat, S. S., & Purohit, G. N. (2020). Use of ethno-veterinary medicine for therapy of reproductive disorders in cattle. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 8(2), 1006–1016. Sen, A. K., Ghosh, P. K., Gupta, K. N., & Bohra, H. C. (1981). Sheep in Rajasthan. Central Arid Zone Research Institute. Singh, A. P., Netra, P. R., Vashistha, M. S., & Sharma, S. N. (1994). Zinc deficiency in cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Science, 64, 35–40. Singh, A. P., Vyas, S. K., Tanwar, R. K., Sharma, S. N., & Gahlot, A. K. (1999). Studies on diagnosis and therapeutic aspects of subclinical mastitis in cattle by using ampicillin and cloxacillin combination (AC-VET). Intas Polivet, 1, 13–19. Singh, G. P., & Saini, N. (2002). Role of anaerobic fungi in fibre digestion and its special significance of Camel nutrition. Indian Dairyman, 54, 64–68. Singh, H. (2006, November 1–10). Processing and conservation of feed resources for livestock feeding during drought and its impact. Short course on feeding of livestock during drought and scarcity, Division of Agricultural Engineering and Energy, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur. Singh, M., Chauhan, A., & Garg, M. K. (2007). Studies on housing and health care management practices followed by dairy owners. Indian Journal of Animal Research, 41(2), 79–86. Singh, R. S., & Singh, B. (2002). Comparative study of severe climatological droughts (in Hindi). Maru Krishi Chaynika, 6(1–3), 1–9. Singh, V., Goswami, S. C., Choudhary, V. K., Choudhary, P., Jhirwal, A. K., Choudhary, M. L., & Nirwan, S. S. (2018). Housing and health care management practices followed by Gir cattle owners for conservation of Gir cattle in Ajmer district of Rajasthan. Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 6(6), 265–270. Tanwar, P. S., & Rathore, R. S. (2017). Adoption of breeding and health management practice for Marwari goat in arid region of Rajasthan. The Journal of Rural and Agricultural Research, 17(2), 1–5.

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Tanwar, P. S., Vaishanava, C. S., & Sharma, V. (2008). A study on socioeconomic aspects of goat keepers and management practices prevailed in the tribal area of Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Animal Research, 42(1), 71–74. Tanwar, R. K., Kumar, A., Sharma, S. N., Yadav, J. S., & Mathur, P. D. (1983). Clinical findings and therapy of polio encephalomalacia in goats. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 3, 112–114. Tanwar, R. K., Malik, K. S., & Gahlot, A. K. (1994). Polio encephalomalacia induced with amprolium in buffalo calves: Clinico-pathological findings. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 41, 396–404. Tewari, V. P., & Arya, R. (2005). Degradation of arid rangelands in Thar Desert, India: A review. Arid Land Resource Management, 19(1), 1–12. Thirunavukkarasu, M., Sankaran, V. M., Kathiravan, G., & Karunakaran, R. (2011). Estimating dry fodder availability and requirement for bovines. Indian Journal of Animal Science, 81(7), 744–750. Tyagi, R. K. (1999). Forage supply-demand analysis for Rajasthan state, arid ecology-resources, hazards and rural development polices. Pointer Publishers. Vaishnav, D. D., & Acharya, N. (2021). Oran means the land of god. Dainik Bhaskar. Retrieved on July 18, 2022 from https://www.bhaskar.com/local/rajasthan/news/oran-means-the-land-ofgod-3017-devavans-spread-over-5-lakh-bighas-in-9053-villages-of-marwar-far-from-cuttingtrees-here-picking-up-a-broken-twig-is-also-a-sin-128560966.html Varghese, K. A., & Sharma, P. M. (1996). Retrospect of cattle fairs and prospects of livestock market in Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing, 10(1), 1–11. Varghese, K. A., Sharma, R., & Jain, D. S. (1990). Estimates of grain-straw ratios of major crops in Rajasthan. Research Bulletin, Department of Agricultural Economics, RCA. Venkateswarlu, J., Anantha Ram, K., Purohit, M. L., Khan, M. S., Bohra, H. C., Singh, K. C., & Mathur, B. K. (1992). Forage 2000 AD—The scenario for arid Rajasthan. Central Arid Zone Research Institute. White, D. H. (2000). Drought policy, monitoring and management in arid lands. Annals of Arid Zone, 39(2), 105–129. Yadav, M. L., & Rajput, D. S. (2015). Ethno-veterinary practices by tribals of Banswara district of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources, 6(3), 237–240. Yadav, M. L., Rajput, D. S., Chand, S., & Sharma, N. K. (2014). Constraints in livestock management practices perceived by Tribal livestock owners of Banswara district of Rajasthan. Indian Research Journal of Extension Education, 14(4), 37–41.

Chapter 7

Arid Agroforestry for Thar Desert V. Subbulakshmi, K. R. Sheetal, M. B. Noor Mohamed, P. S. Renjith, and S. Kala

Abstract Agroforestry is a sustainable land use system which involves woody components such as trees and shrubs along with agriculture crops; including pasture and/or animals all together or sequentially, on the same unit of land, to meet the ecological as well as socio-economic needs of the people. When compared to agricultural crops alone, agroforestry systems are beneficial in maintaining soil productivity at optimal levels over a long period of time because the leguminous trees included in agroforestry systems fix nitrogen. Agroforestry-based cropping system is now considered to be the most ideal strategy to provide food, nutrition and income security to the people. Integration of annual crops with tree yields multiple outputs ensures production and income generation in a sustainable manner. In addition, these combined systems help for efficient usage of natural resources as well as socioeconomic inputs. The scarcity of water from both surface and ground water sources is the biggest challenge in afforestation programmes in the hot arid regions. Extreme temperatures also attract insects and pests, such as termite that are present in large quantities owing to easy infestation in wooden material in arid environment. High biotic pressure is another problem as the Thar Desert is one of the most populated deserts in the world. Despite being given key roles in local-level planning and management, in reality, there may be low actual involvement of local communities in participatory decision-making processes. Threat for afforestation also arises from extraneous factors like extensive growth of Israeli babul species for conventional methods for fighting desertification and conservation of biodiversity. In situ water

V. Subbulakshmi (B) ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] K. R. Sheetal · P. S. Renjith ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Bhuj, Gujarat, India M. B. Noor Mohamed ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Pali-Marwar, Rajasthan, India S. Kala ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation Research Centre, Kota, Rajasthan, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_7

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conservation for promotion of more agroforestry practices with eco-friendly multipurpose tree species, conservation of indigenous biodiversity through promotion of agroforestry practices and enhancement of biomass productivity through promotion of agroforestry system are vital for the region. Adoption of many alternative land use systems, based on land capabilities as well as farmer preference, is one of the effective land management strategies in the Thar Desert. Agroforestry practices can be developed for economic benefits along with secured livelihood and employment to the people. Keywords Afforestation · Agroforestry · Perennial trees · Shrubs · Crops · Desert

7.1 Introduction Agroforestry is a sustainable land use system which involves woody components such as trees and shrubs along with agriculture crops; including pasture and/or animals concurrently or sequentially, on the same unit of land, to meet the ecological as well as socio-economic needs of the people. When compared to agricultural crops alone, agroforestry systems are beneficial in maintaining soil productivity at optimal levels over a long period of time because the leguminous trees utilised in agroforestry systems fix nitrogen. Agroforestry-based cropping system is now considered to be the most ideal strategy to provide food, nutrition and income security to the people. Integration of annual crops with trees yields multiple outputs that ensure production and income generation in a sustainable manner. In addition, these combined systems help in efficient usage of natural resources (land, solar radiation, water, soil) as well as socio-economic inputs (labour, credit, power, market infrastructure). Agroforestry covers 1020 million ha worldwide and it is expected to be 28.03 million ha in India. The area covered by agroforestry is expected to grow in the future and reach 53.32 million ha in 2050 (Keerthika & Parthiban, 2022).

7.1.1 The Indian Hot Arid Zone—Location and Distribution The seven states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka and Maharashtra make up 31.70 million hectares of India’s hot, dry regions. They are located between 24° and 29° N latitude and 70° and 76° E longitude. Table 7.1 shows a breakdown of hot arid regions by area. 11.8% of the nation is covered by a hot arid environment. The Great Indian Desert, often known as the Thar Desert, is made up of the arid areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana. Western Rajasthan is regarded as the primary hot desert region, accounting to 61% of the territory classified as a hot arid zone (Bhandari et al., 2014).

7 Arid Agroforestry for Thar Desert Table 7.1 Distribution of hot arid regions in different states of India

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State

Area (million hectares)

Per cent of total

Rajasthan

19.61

61.00

Gujarat

06.22

19.60

Punjab and Haryana

02.73

09.00

Andhra Pradesh

02.15

07.00

Karnataka

00.86

03.00

Maharashtra

00.13

00.4

Total

31.70

–

Source Bhandari et al. (2014)

7.1.2 Constrains in the Hot Arid Zone In the Thar Desert region of the hot Indian arid zone, the production and life support systems are restricted by climatic factors such as: low annual precipitation (100– 300 mm); extremely high summer temperatures (mean maximum temperature of 41 °C), reaching a maximum of 48° to 50 °C; brief (December to mid-February) cool and dry winters (the mean winter season temperature differs from 10° to 14 °C); high evapotranspiration; and high wind speeds (30–40 km/hour) and overall low humidity (an aridity index of 0.045–0.19) (Sharma & Tewari, 2005). The most noticeable landform in the arid region is a sand dune. The majority of the land is made up of sand, and the size of the dunes varies from place to place. Extremely poor soil fertility exists in arid areas. Light textured soils can be found in the north-western arid region in the soil orders viz., “Aridisols”, “desert soils” and “grey brown soils”. In general, soils comprise 63.7–87.3% fine sand, 11.3– 30.3% coarse sand, 0.4–1.3% silt and 1.8–4.5% clay. They have low to medium levels of phosphorus (0.05–0.10%) and have poor organic matter (0.04–0.12%) (Dhir, 1997). The nitrogen content is generally low, ranging from 0.20 to 0.07%, and the infiltration rate is extremely high, at 7 to 15 cm/hour (Dhir, 1997). The soils are extremely susceptible to erosion due to lack of any aggregation. The soil’s ability to retain water is also low and largely saline. Although soils are typically poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and micronutrients like copper, zinc and iron, they are typically high in total potassium and boron. Because of inadequate surface and subsurface drainage, groundwater is scarce. Surface wells, seasonal rivers and streams, rain water harvesting and storage facilities (such as khadins, tankas and nadis), as well as canal irrigation, are a few of the irrigation water resources available in the arid region. Because of this, just 4% of the arid region’s land can be irrigated due to limited water resources. From the hot north-western sector of Jaisalmer to the eastern limit of Rajasthan have very low annual average rainfall, which ranges from 100 to 450 mm. Approximately, 19–21 rain spells make up the majority of the precipitation in the north-western dry region between July and September. Due to low and irregular rainfall patterns, the arid region needs the right technologies to increase productivity. In the arid part of the country, water is a valuable input, so using a micro-irrigation

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system is recommended to conserve water and increase productivity. Frost is another regular wintertime occurrence in some desert regions, which has an impact on plant productivity and vegetative growth.

7.2 Importance of Agroforestry in the Hot Arid Zone The development of agriculture in Rajasthan’s hot desert area is a difficult task. Arid conditions result in low and unpredictable crop yield. The biotic pressure is high, the climate is harsh and the soils are poor and infertile. As a result of inconsistent and little rainfall, agriculture is uncertain. The production of crops in about 95% of the land in the arid western Rajasthan region depends on monsoon rainfall. Growing trees and shrubs in dry areas safeguard against drought because of production of wood, leaves, pods or fruits despite the challenging conditions. In these conditions, cultivating fruit trees or other types of forest trees alongside crops can provide desert inhabitants with a balanced diet, fire wood, fodder and other important goods. Tree management in hot dry climates is mostly focused on conservation and limited production needs, including as wood for fuel, poles and fencing material; leaves for animal fodder; and pods/seeds for a range of human nutritional applications. It is widely acknowledged that trees play a vital role in protecting the delicate ecosystems of hot, arid climates (Mann & Muthana, 1984). The trees also provide a variety of services to the human population, making them an integral element of the cycle of man, agriculture and animals that sustains hot, desert climates.

7.3 Components of Agroforestry in Hot Arid Zone The major components of agroforestry in arid regions are perennial trees, fodder crops, grasses and livestock. I. Perennial Tree Component Crop productivity is enhanced due to improved soil fertility and the ameliorative effects of shade, which lower understorey temperatures and evapotranspiration under the tree canopy (Bunderson et al., 1990). When crops and trees are grown together, the cropping system is more profitable and becomes more resilient over time. It helps to: i. more effectively use resources by considering various interactions and direct, residual and cumulative effects that occur in the soil–plant-atmosphere continuum; ii. increase system productivity on an annual basis; iii. intensify input use in relation to environmental quality; and

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iv. promote sustainability of farm resources and the environment over the long term. Selection of Tree Species The development of agroforestry in the desert region of India depends on careful selection of trees. Trees should have the following attributes: • • • • •

Quickly spreading species Water-taking deep tap roots that have access to a deeper soil profile Summer leaf shedding aids in moisture conservation. Water-binding mechanism Additional xerophytic characteristics, including as hairy leaves, waxy coatings and sunken and covered stomata that can help restrict water loss through transpiration. • Salinity tolerance, a feature of dry zones. Various important agroforestry perennial tree components (Fig. 7.1) are given below. 1. Indian Jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) It belongs to the family Rhamnaceae and commonly called as Indian jujube. It grows well on marginal lands and inferior soils. The plant performs well where other fruit trees give poor performance. 2. Indian Mesquite—Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce It is commonly called as Indian mesquite (khejri), wonder tree and king of the desert. It belongs to the family Leguminaceae. It grows in the arid and semi-arid parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Delhi and some parts of southern India. It plays a significant role to improve the livelihood of farmers and main component of farming system mainly in the desert. It provides leaves which are fodder and pods which are used as vegetables. The immature pods are rich in crude protein, carbohydrates and minerals. Besides, it is frost, heat and drought tolerant and also helps in protecting the soil and protecting it from strong winds (Shiran et al., 2020). 3. Indian Gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) The trees can grow under different climatic and soil conditions as it is hardy. It is a crop with a good return on investment because it bears fruit profusely even with less management. The fruits have high medicinal and nutritional values. 4. Indian Cherry (Cordia myxa L.) It belongs to the family Boraginaceae and commonly called as Indian cherry or Lasoda. It provides various ecological services viz., preventing soil erosion, providing vegetative cover, promoting biodiversity, etc. During April–May when availability of conventional vegetables is scarce, unripe green fruits of these plants are used as pickles and fresh vegetable. 5. Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) The Lythraceae family’s commercially significant hardy fruit crop in dry and semi-arid environments is the pomegranate (Anar). Due to its preference for arid

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Prosopis cineraria

Salvadora oleoides

Capparis decidua

Acacia senegal

Fig. 7.1 Tree components of hot arid zone. Source Self-clicked

climates, commercial pomegranate plantations can be found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Because of its xerophytic traits and hardiness, it is an excellent crop for dry, rainfed pastures and undulating ground, where other fruit crops cannot thrive. 6. Kair (Capparis decidua [Forsk.] Edgew) Kair is a woody perennial shrub or small tree with many uses. It is a member of the Capparaceae family. Because to its xerophytic origin, it flourishes well in harsh

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climate conditions, especially in the Thar Desert of western Rajasthan. It is ideal for preventing soil erosion and stabilising sand dunes. 7. Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) Karonda is an evergreen, spiny shrub or small tree that can grow to a height of 3 m. It thrives in arid tropical and subtropical climates. The plant can also be used to create a beautiful, dense, thorny hedge around any fruit orchard (Sharma & Banyal, 2010; Shiran et al., 2020). It produces attractive edible fruits that resemble berries. The fruits are abundant in minerals, particularly iron, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium, as well as vitamin C. Fruit that is mature are appropriate for making pickles, jams, jellies, syrup, squash and chutney, all of which are highly sought-after on the global market. Its primary flowering period is from March to April, and the fruits mature from August to September, allowing the plants to benefit the most from monsoon rain. Certain plant varieties, meanwhile, also bloom in October and November. 8. Bengal Quince (Aegle marmelos [Linn.] Correa) It is a resilient native fruit tree that is popularly cultivated in arid regions. It is often known as “bael” and is a member of the Rutaceae family. It is well known for its medicinal and dietary benefits. Unripe fruits are recommended for use in traditional medical systems like Ayurveda while ripe fruits are diuretics. Alkaloids, coumarins and steroids are some of the chemical components that have been separated and identified from various sections of the bael tree, including the leaves, root, wood and bark. 9. Kumat (Acacia senegal [L.] Willd.) Kumat is an important component of the conventional agroforestry system and is primarily found in the arid western Rajasthan, where it inhabits rocky hills, sandy plains and sand dunes. The A. senegal-based cropping system produces highly demanded product Gum Arabic which possess medicinal properties. This is an important agroforestry system in arid region which is having high potential of livelihood improvement and it gives high returns to the farmers without much effort in management (Tewari & Pareek, 2016). The system fulfils both human and animal needs for food by grains and straw from the crops. Additional income can also be generated by farmers from gum collection during the non-cultivating season. Besides, the tree fixes nitrogen into the soil and produces prolific fodder through its leaves which can be fed to the farm animals. 10. Anjan (Hardwickia binata Roxb.) Hardwickia binata belongs to Fabaceae family is a moderate to large sized leguminous tree and is reported to enhance land use efficiency and fulfil multiple demands (timber, fodder and fuel) in arid and semi-arid regions. The leaves are fed to goats as

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a source of food, and stall feeding helps growing lambs maintain their body weight (Patil et al., 2009; Shiran et al., 2020). 11. Ardu (Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.) It is a deciduous tree widely distributed in semi-arid and arid areas of the nation. The leaves are fed to sheep and goats as a highly tasty and protein-rich fodder. A typical tree produces 5 to 7 quintals of green leaves every two years. While leaves from other trees can be lopped, dried and kept for feeding at a time of famine, leaves from this species are lopped for their green leaves. The leaves are abundant in calcium, calcium ether extract and crude protein. Matchwood boxes, match splints and plywood are frequently made from wood. The species has been widely utilised for soil conservation. 12. Pilu (Salvadora oleoides Decne) It can be found in the deserts of Gujarat and Rajasthan. In mixed xeromorphic woodlands, it is an evergreen, small to medium-sized, twisted and bushy plant. It is a good camel fodder. The edible pilu fruit and the non-edible oil that the pilu seed produces (40–50%) are both used to make soap and candles. The wood is used to produce tools for farming. 13. Guggul (Commiphora wightii) It is cultivated in Rajasthan as a boundary plant because of its spiny character, which keeps other grazing animals from accessing the land. Guggal-based agroforestry models were developed on wastelands at KVK Jhabua, where traditional agriculture is not practicable due to a severe drought and poor soils (Upadhyaya & Sharma, 2007). 14. Cordia gharaf It is mostly found in the districts of Jaisalmer, Barmer and Bikaner in Western Rajasthan. The fruits are edible. 15. Hingota (Balanites aegyptiaca) Balanites aegyptiaca Del., often known as the ‘desert date’, is a thorny shrub or tree that may reach a height of l0 metres and is native to the wide, sandy plains of Osian, Jodhpur and the entire north-western region of the nation. Cooking oil can be made from the edible (30–60%) oil that was taken from the seeds (Abdalbasit et al., 2017). II. Fodder crop component 1. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) Sorghum is the most important cereal fodder crop grown in summer/rainy season. It has high tolerance to drought and excessive rainfall. 2. Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum) Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum) is the most widely grown type of millet. It is well adapted to production systems characterised by drought, low soil fertility and high

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temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. It is an important forage crop of the arid and semi-arid regions of the country. 3. Thornless cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) It was introduced in Indian arid region for its fodder value as maintenance feed and was observed that if it is fed along with dry roughages; it reduces the water requirement in goats, sheep and growing cattle (Fig. 7.2). In addition, its high mineral content may reduce the mineral requirement as arid animals often suffer from mineral imbalance (Shiran et al., 2020; Mathur et al., 2009; Meghwal et al., 2010). 4. Other potential fodder crops Fodder Beet (Beta vulgaris) is a plant that has been recently introduced in Rajasthan. The crop has potential to produce more than 200 tonnes/ha of green biomass within 4 months, between January and April, when other fodder sources are meagre. It is also adapted to give economic returns with poor quality of water and soil. In addition, 5–6 kg tubers are also produced, which can also be fed to animals. Drumstick tree or moringa (Moringa oleifera L.) is another fodder species. Native to Indian subcontinent, this tree can grow in wide temperature ranges, is drought tolerant, fast-growing and easy to establish, adaptable to different soil types and tolerates poor quality water. Its leaves are rich in protein and other essential amino acids. It

Thornless cactus

Cenchrus ciliaris

Haloxylon salicornicum

Calligonum polygonoides

Fig. 7.2 Fodder crop, grass and shrubs of hot arid region. Source Self-clicked

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is known for multiple uses as food for humans, fodder for livestock and also for its medicinal values. III. Grass and shrub component 1. Motha Dhaman/Bird wood Grass (Cenchrus setigerus) Cenchrus setigerus is adapted to sandy and light-textured soils. It is adapted to arid and semi-arid climates (annual rainfall as low as 200 mm) with a long dry season. Also, it is more drought tolerant than Cenchrus ciliaris. It can be cut every 30 days at 10 cm. Once established, it can withstand heavy grazing even by sheep. It is moderately palatable and readily accepted by stock. 2. Anjan/Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) It commonly referred to as “Dhaman” in Rajasthan and “Anjan” in other regions of India. It is very resistant to drought and widely distributed in hotter and drier parts of India as well as open bush and grassland in its natural habitat. It is widely distributed in the plains of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Western UP extending up to foot hills of Jammu (an altitude of 400 mm). 3. Lasiurus scindicus It is a major grass species in the Great Indian Desert also referred to as “Sewan”. It thrives on rocky terrain, gravel soil, well-aerated alluvial soils or light sandy soils with a pH of 8.5 and arid areas with annual rainfall of less than 250 mm. It is extremely highly drought resistant (Sharma et al., 2017) (Fig. 7.2). 4. Napier/Elephant Grass (Pennisetum purpureum) It is most susceptible to frost. The crop becomes ready for first cutting about three months after its planting and thereafter each subsequent cutting may be taken at about two months interval. However, it depends upon the vegetative growth of the crop. On an average 6–8 cuttings can be taken which gives about 400–600 quintal of green fodder per hectare (Shiran et al., 2020). 5. Hybrid napier It is an inter-specific hybrid between napier grass and pearl millet (Pennisetum purpureum × Pennisetum typhoides). It is a type of perennial green fodder that improves milk production and supplements cattle’s diet. It is a potential fodder species, where there is access to some type of irrigation system. 6. Phog (Calligonum polygonoides Linn.) It is a shrub that is utilised as feed for sheep, goats and cattle, especially during times of famine. It is also a helpful species to plant in strips in agroforestry systems since it is an effective soil binder, resists wind erosion, stabilises sand dunes and is said to enhance agricultural yield, water regime and soil biological activity (Fig. 7.2). 7. Lana (Haloxylon salicornicum) It is a desert plant found in north-western Rajasthan and belongs to the Chenopodiaceae family (Fig. 7.2). The species has evolved to be able to thrive in dry locations

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with limited supply of water and poor environmental conditions. It is used as feed for animals in lean season emergency food, medicine and in restoration of degraded arid lands (Singh et al., 2015). 8. Khara-lana (Haloxylon stocksii syn. H. recurvum) It is a halophyte plant thrives naturally in arid and semi-arid salty environments. The species has been exploited for a number of other advantageous purposes, including the production of “Saji”, traditional medicine and the use of plant ash as a cleaning agent. Historically, it has been used as camel feed (Rathore et al., 2012). IV. Livestock components Crop-livestock production has served as the sustainable livelihood resource option for people living in the arid and semi-arid regions. Goat and sheep with its multi-facet utility for wool, meat, milk, skin and manure, form an important component of rural economy particularly in the arid, semi-arid and mountainous areas of the country. Milk is a major part of their diet in arid and semi-arid region and the main objective of keeping cattle is for draught purposes and as source of fuel and manure (Mathur, 2018). Major livestock breeds in arid region of Rajasthan are: Cattle: Sheep: Goat: Camel:

Tharparkar, Rathi, Nagori and Kankrej. Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Chokla, Nali, Magra, Pugal and Sonadi. Marwari, Sirohi, Kutchi and Parbatsari. Bikaneri and Jaisalmeri (Mathur, 2018).

7.4 Traditional Agroforestry Systems in Thar Desert The hot dry regions have traditionally been a place of low-yield, short-duration crops, with a significant reliance on livestock and traditional agroforestry. The farmers of this region have a long history of preserving trees on their farms and have a conviction that these trees not only help the environment, but also improve the soil’s fertility and general productivity. According to Tewari (1997), large plots of land in Rajasthan’s Thar Desert region with widely spaced trees/shrubs of different species along with food grain crops and fodder are the ideal example of traditional agroforestry. Excellent “multipurpose” species like Prosopis cineraria, Ziziphus spp, Acacia nilotica and others are part of these systems and provide a number of end products. According to Boffa (1999), traditional agroforestry systems are essential for food security and income generation in rural areas. On the land owned by farmers, these systems also actively maintain a large reservoir of forest genetic diversity. However, conventional land use system has been under a lot of biotic and abiotic burden for the past 40 years due to multiple reasons. The key regulating factor for the evolution of various agroforestry systems in the area is rainfall. Harsh et al. (1992) described the major woody, crop and grass species that are widely used in agroforestry systems being practiced in different

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districts of Thar Desert region (Table 7.2). In western Rajasthan, the Prosopis cineraria-based agroforestry system dominates with 47% of the total area, followed by the Ziziphus nummularia-based agroforestry system with 28% of the total area. Acacia nilotica, Tecomella undulata and Acacia tortilis-based agroforestry system occupy about 26% (Tewari et al., 2007). The crops grown with trees include pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides), moth (Vigna acontifolia), cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) and green gram (Vigna radiata) in rainfed condition and wheat (Triticum aestivum), cotton (Gossypium arboreum/hirsutum), mustard (Brassica juncea/nigra), rice (Oryza sativa), chillies (Capsicum annuum), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), sorghum (Sorghum sp.), isabgol (Plantago ovata) and green gram in irrigated conditions.

7.5 Improved Agroforestry Systems in Thar Desert In general, indigenous tree species are scarce in the hot Indian dry region, and those that do exist are slow-growing. Moreover, much required natural regeneration of trees is not supported by the prevailing in hospitable environmental conditions. A number of improved agroforestry practices have been developed and standardised in order to enhance overall productivity and economic returns of the farming communities. Following improved practices have been found promising and remunerative, and easy to fit in existing traditional agroforestry systems. A. Agrisilviculture system Agrisilviculture is a land use system that involves the integration of trees and other woody perennials with agricultural crops. Trees growing in the crop lands minimise the risk of crop failure during drought and famines by providing fodder and fuel wood (Shankarnarayan et al., 1987). However, the degree of effect depends on the crop and tree species, in addition to management and environmental factors. Harsh et al. (1992) reported enhanced green gram, cluster bean and forage sorghum production in conjunction with established Acacia tortilis trees, but with pruning of roots by digging trenches to avoid competition. Sharma et al. (1994), however, reported fall in yield of pearl millet and cluster beans grown in conjunction with four-year-old Acacia tortilis planted in 5 m × 5 m spacing. In another study, green gram, cluster bean and sorghum were effectively grown with Acacia nilotica var. cupressiformis planted at 5 m × 5 m spacing without reducing production at Pali (Gupta, 2000). Singh and Rathod (2016) investigated the effect of 23-year-old P. cineraria and Tecomella undulata trees on the grain and fodder yield of cluster bean crops under rainfed conditions. The reduction was lesser (by 15.1% in grain and 3.0% in straw) in P. cineraria than in T. undulata plots. This indicates that P. cineraria trees are more beneficial by maintaining greater soil water availability and yield in arid region. Patel et al. (2008) demonstrated that Ailanthus excelsa and Azadirachta indica-based agrisilvicultural system gave 26% and 59% higher income than sole cropping in arid regions of Gujarat.

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Table 7.2 Components of traditional agroforestry practices in various districts of arid Rajasthan (Thar Desert region) District

Main tree/shrub species

Main crops

Prominent grass

Ganganagar & Hanuman

Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Acacia tortilis

Pearl millet, green gram and cluster bean (rainfed). Wheat, cotton, rice and green gram (irrigated)

Lasiurus scindicus

Bikaner

Prosopis cineraria, Ziziphus nummularia, Calligonum polygonoides, Acacia jacquemontii

Green gram, moth bean, cluster bean and pearl millet

Lasiurus scindicus

Jaisalmer

Calligonum polygonoides, Ziziphus nummularia, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia senegal, Capparis decidua

Green gram, pearl millet, clusterbean

Lasiurus scindicus

Barmer

Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella Pearl millet, green gram undulata, Ziziphus nummularia, and cluster bean Capparis decidua

Lasiurus scindicus, Cenchrus ciliaris

Jodhpur

Prosopis cineraria, Ziziphus Pearl millet, green gram nummularia, Capparis decidua, and cluster bean (rainfed). Acacia senegal Wheat, chilli, mustard and green gram (irrigated)

Cenchrus ciliaris

Churu, Jhunjhunu and Sikar

Prosopis cineraria, Gymnosporia montana, Ziziphus nummularia

Pearl millet, green gram and clusterbean

Lasiurus scindicus, Cenchrus ciliaris

Nagaur

Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica

Pearl millet and green gram (rainfed). Wheat, green gram and mustard (irrigated)

Cenchrus ciliaris

Jalore

Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora persica, Salvadora oleoides, Acacia nilotica

Pearl millet, green gram, Isabgol, Sorghum and cumin

Cenchrus ciliaris

Pali

Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Acacia nilotica var. cupressiformis, Acacia leucopholea, Acacia catechu, Salvadora spp.

Sorghum, pearl millet, green gram and cluster bean

Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus

Source Harsh et al. (1992)

Boundary plantation where trees are raised on the field bunds offer alternate and reliable sources of income to the farming communities. When the trees are allowed to grow on the field boundary, they interact with the adjoining crops either in positive or in negative ways for basic crop growth resources like light, water and nutrients (Gill & Burman, 2002). Different types of boundary plantations (A. excelsa, P. cineraria and

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mix of A. excelsa + P. cineraria) established around the farmlands at research field at Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Bikaner, Rajasthan were evaluated in a study by Subbulakshmi et al. (2020). It was found that the 2-year-old boundary plantation had no negative effects on the cluster bean crop yield. In the arid region of Haryana, the effect of Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulata, Acacia albida and Azadirachta indica on the productivity of Hordeum vulgare (barley) was found to be positive. Grain yield was noted to increase by 86, 48.8, 57.9 and 16.8% when grown in association with P. cineraria, T. undulata, A. albida and A. indica, respectively, over the control (Kumar et al., 1998). B. Agri-silvi-horticulture system Growing fruit trees in farm lands provide sustainable income to the farmers. Agriculture crops provide money during the early years of tree development, whereas silvicultural species provide income later on, preserving long-term production and providing advantages from carbon sequestration (Kaushik & Kumar, 2003). A combination of Z. mauritiana + P. cineraria grown in an agri-silvi-horticulture system in arid western Rajasthan were found the best combination with minimum wheat yield reduction and production of more fruit, fodder and fuel wood, in addition to enhancing soil fertility (Singh et al., 2014). The agri-silvi-horticulture system proved more remunerative in arid region, while the trees provide natural fertiliser to restore soil health. Integration of A. senegal with pearl millet gave 61% higher net return than sole pearl millet in hot arid region of Rajasthan (Harsh & Tewari, 2007). C. Silvopastoral system There are 89 grass species reported in Rajasthan’s arid region. The species like Lasiurus scindicus is an efficient builder of biomass with energy use efficiency of 1.4–2.0% (Harsh et al., 1992). Table 7.3 shows the important trees, shrubs and grass combinations for silvopastoral systems in western Rajasthan. Table 7.3 Important trees, shrubs and grass combinations for silvopasture development in western Rajasthan Rainfall (mm)

Trees/shrubs

Grasses/pasture legumes

150–250

Acacia tortilis, Ziziphus nummularia, Prosopis cineraria

Lasiurus scindicus, Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum antidotale

250–350

Acacia tortilis, Ziziphus nummularia, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia senegal, Calligonum polygonoides, Ziziphus rotundifolia, Hardwickia binata

Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Lasiurus scindicus

350–500

Acacia nilotica, Ailanthus excelsa, Holoptelea integrifolia, Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta indica, Hardwickia binata, Ziziphus rotundifolia

Cenchrus ciliaris, Dicanthium annulatum, Lablab purpureus, Clitoria ternatea

Source Modified from Soni et al. (2016)

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In an improved silvopastoral system, Hardwickia binata was taken as tree component at 3 m × 3 m spacing with Cenchrus ciliaris grass. Results of 9 years study revealed that average carrying capacity of the system was 4.1 sheep ha−1 yr−1 against 3.7 for sole C. ciliaris pasture and 1.6 for sole H. binata plantation (Harsh et al., 1992). In this improved silvopastoral system, 3.06 t ha−1 yr−1 of grass and top feed as well as 0.26 t ha−1 yr−1 of biomass and fire wood were also produced. Through the incorporation of trees and grasses in a silvopastoral system, a significant portion of deteriorated pastures found in arid Rajasthan can be recovered. It has been observed that these systems work best in areas with less than 200 mm of yearly precipitation or in stony, gravelly terrain (Soni et al., 2016). During the rainy season silvopastoral systems respond strongly to fertiliser application, with 40 kg N/ha being found to be optimal for increased biomass production and water-use efficiency in the Hardwickia binata + Cenchrus ciliaris system (Patidar & Mathur, 2017). In an established silvopastoral system (eleven years), leaf fodder from Colophospermum mopane and H. binata trees produced 15% and 9% of the system’s overall yield, respectively; however, the animals preferred H. binata leaves over C. mopane leaves (Patidar & Mathur, 2017; Patil et al., 2011). Understory grasses had various degrees of negative impact on tree growth throughout the establishment phase, whereas trees had no consistent impact on understory grasses. Trees, on the other hand, compete with grasslands at a later period (Harsh et al., 1992). D. Agri-horticulture system Studies carried out at Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) in Jodhpur revealed that even under conditions of extremely low rainfall, a 3-year-old-budded ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) plantation (400 plants/ha) performed very well in conjunction with moong bean. The yield reduction reported in intercrop was compensated by the fruit production from the ber trees. The system was rather found to be more profitable than raising the sole crop of moong. Another tree, called Bordi (Zizyphus rotundifolia), is protected and is allowed to grow in farmer’s fields because it provides fruit, fodder (known locally as pala), and prickly wood for use as firewood and as a fence. The results of a study of raising pearl millet and cluster bean with 4-yearold plantation in 5 m × 5 m spacing indicated only a slight drop in crop yields and the tree was found highly compatible with crops (Sharma et al., 1994). When compared to a single planting, the inputs used for ground storey crops during the establishment phase increase the vegetative vigour of ber plants. However, it was found that cultivating wheat in ber orchards was not profitable (Saroj et al., 2003). E. Horti-pastoral systems An effective drought coping mechanism in arid locations is the horti-pastoral system, where livestock is a significant part of the farming system. Nearly, every portion of the key top feed species of the arid region, Ziziphus nummularia, has some utility. It typically has a relative dominance of 75–90% in the common village grazing fields of the districts of Bikaner, Barmer and Jaisalmer (Tanwar et al., 2018). Growing of grasses or grass-legume mixtures in the interspaces of ber orchard was found suitable in Class IV and V type of land (Tewari et al., 2001). In later years, there

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was no evidence of a negative impact of grasses on the growth and yield of ber (Vashistha & Prasad, 1997). Introduction of Cenchrus ciliaris grass in a 16-year-old ber orchard grown at spacing 6 m × 6 m, gave an additional 1.55 t of grass fodder annually per ha of land (Tewari et al., 1999). F. Shelterbelts/wind breaks The establishment, growth and output of crops in arid region are severely hampered by critical issues such as wind erosion, a high thermal regime and hot desiccating winds. A single or numerous rows of trees or trees and bushes planted across the wind direction to protect the soil, environment and the crops are referred to as shelterbelts (Fig. 7.3). The results of studies conducted at CAZRI, Jodhpur revealed that during the summer and monsoon seasons, a three-row shelterbelt made of Cassia siamea, Albizia lebbeck and Cassia siamea was most effective (36% and 46%) in reducing wind speed at 2H distance on the leeward side of the shelterbelts. At greater distances, the reduction in wind speed was 12–24%. Shelterbelts were found to reduce evaporation from the sheltered region. The efficiency was higher (8–12%) at 2H distance as compared to those at 10H distance. The moisture status of sheltered fields was typically 2–4% higher than those without shelter due to reduced evaporation (Gupta & Ramakrishna, 1988). Pearl millet production increased by 20–30% as a result of these changes in the soil environment. A 20–40% boost in the production of vegetable crops cultivated with irrigation has been observed when micro-shelterbelts of tall growing plants are used as protection.

7.6 Role of Agroforestry in Income Generation (NTFP) Natural forests, plantations, woodlands and trees outside of forests are all sources of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which are biological resources of plant and animal origin. Growing NTFP trees domestically in agroforestry systems has enormous promise for improving the food and financial security of the underprivileged in arid areas (Gupta, 2004; Uma Shanker et al., 2001). Unlike to agriculture, which is solely dependent on rain and limited to a short period of time, agroforestry systems would undoubtedly provide rural youth with more employment alternatives during the majority of the months. These systems include pruning, thinning, watering, grading, managing agricultural farm goods for compost preparation, marketing, growing nurseries, educating, grafting trees, executing silvicultural and tree protection measures and collecting top feed from trees and fodder from grass. These multifunctional agroforestry systems not only deliver goods and services but also safeguard the social wellbeing of the rural community. Because lush forests are unusual in arid conditions, mankind have been practising agroforestry since the dawn of time. Many tree species provide fodder, edible fruits, flowers and vegetable pods in arid areas. Each year, these tree branches are lopped off to provide essential food during times of scarcity or famine. Because the production of NTFPs does not alter greatly when annual crops fail due to drought, trees offer a

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Dalbergia sissoo

Acacia tortilis

Fig. 7.3 Shelterbelts/wind breaks. Source Self-clicked

source of food security (Fig. 7.4). The majority of farmers in dry places are marginal farmers, and some trees give additional products like gum, edible and non-edible oils, resins, etc., that help them increase their revenue (2000) Sharma. Some other important NTFPs in these arid regions include medicinal plants. The dried pods of Prosopis cineraria, known as sangri, are sold to help the local economy. Market prices for a kilogramme of sangri range from Rs. 500 to Rs. 700. In the Thar region, the green fruits are consumed like vegetables. Sangri, fruits of ker (Capparis decidua),

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gonda (Cordia myxa), seeds of kumat (Acacia senegal) and kachri (Cucumis melo sp. agrestis) are all components of the traditional Rajasthani cuisine ‘Panchkutta’. The ingredients are crushed, mixed, then fried after seasoning to taste (Panwar et al., 2014). Ziziphus nummularia (Bordi) berries are consumed both fresh and dried. Fruit powders can be consumed as such or combined with jaggery. Both young and elderly appreciate the delectable native paste called ‘Borakuti’ (Mala, 2009). Prosopis cineraria can be grown alongside millets, legumes and oil seeds in arid areas. Micro-windbreaks are also established by planting of these species around farm lands. Farmers can earn Rs. 13,000 per hectare per year from a Salvodora sp.based agroforestry system as opposed to Rs. 10,000 per hectare per year from growing just one type of crop, if the fruits of Salvodora oleoides are used appropriately to produce squash (Harsh & Tewari, 2007; Subbulakshmi et al., 2019). Ripe Karonda (Carissa carandas) fruits are known as ‘Imitation cherries’ when candied because they resemble canned cherries (Mandal et al., 1992). Acacia senegal

Prosopis cineraria fruits

Carissa carandas fruits

Capparis decidua fruits

Cordia myxa fruits

Fig. 7.4 Non-timber forest products of hot arid region. Source Self-clicked

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trees’ edible gum provides farmers with an additional source of income. The stem of the guggul tree (Commiphora wightii), which produces a yellowish gum-resin, is used to create lacquers, varnishes, fragrances, incense and medicines. Capparis decidua produces about 7000 tonnes of fruits annually in Rajasthan (Chandra et al., 1994). Fruit and flower buds that have not fully developed are pickled, cooked and consumed like vegetables (Pareek et al., 1998). One kg of fresh fruit, which is sold for Rs. 20–25 per kg and, can be converted into around 200 g of processed, dried fruit which costs Rs. 150–200 per kg (Meghwal & Tewari, 2002). Fruits and gum of Cordia gharaf are edible. Up to 52 kg of fruits can be produced by a single Balanites roxburghii tree (Chapagain et al., 2009). In addition to being consumed raw, ripe fruits can also be fermented to produce alcoholic beverages, juiced and combined with cereal, sun-dried and kept in storage like dates and sweetmeats (Burkill, 1985; Storrs, 1982; Subbulakshmi et al., 2019). Locally, silk is washed with the saponin present in the fruits. Marketers sell de-bittered seeds as salted or roasted nuts. Animal feeds also made with leaves and oil. Table 7.4 shows the list of fodder producing trees/shrubs, optimum spacing for agroforestry and their production capacity in arid Rajasthan. Calligonum polygonum Linn often known as phog is an excellent fodder shrub. In addition, it checks wind erosion, stabilises sand dunes due to its superior soil binding abilities and is thought to enhance agricultural crop production, soil biological activity and water regime. It is an excellent species to plant in agroforestry systems in strips. In the northwest of Rajasthan, Haloxylon salicornicum is a commonly used feed for small ruminants and camels. The plant’s green twigs and flower heads are collected, saved for use during famines and then mixed with straw and other leftovers before being fed to animals. Haloxylon stocksii (Khara-lana) a desert plant is used as a reserve source of fodder for camels during dry spells. The manufacturing of soda ash, or “saji”, from burning the air-dried leaves is the shrubs’ primary source Table 7.4 Important fodder trees/shrubs and their fodder production in arid Rajasthan Tree/shrub

Optimum spacing (m)

Green fodder yield and availability after plantation

Prosopis cineraria

10 × 10

About 100 kg 8–10 years

Colophospermum mopane

8×8

5–7 kg leaves 3–4 years

Zizyphus nummularia

5×5

3–5 kg leaves 3–4 years

Salvadora oleoides

12 × 12

80–100 kg leaves 8–10 years

Cordia gharaf

8×8

5–8 kg leaves 3–4 years

Acacia senegal

8×8

8–10 kg leaves 7–8 years

Source Sharma (2013)

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of income. Choa is the refined version of Saji. By producing saji and choa, a farmer might earn up to Rs. 11,700 per acre (Rathore et al., 2012).

7.7 Impacts of Agroforestry Systems in Hot Arid Region 7.7.1 Environmental Impact Compared to agroforestry systems, many traditional agriculture methods are more susceptible to weather extremes. In contrast to monocultures, agroforestry practises make use of perennial vegetation and a variety of species to give a higher level of plant diversity with less sensitivity to climatic stress. The regional microclimate is also influenced by the perennial woody plants. The understorey and surrounding plants are protected from temperature extremes and damaging winds by the trees and bushes, which also affect airflow and sunlight absorption patterns. Deep roots enable perennial plants to use more water and nutrients from deeper depths of the soil than more shallowly rooted annual crops, increasing their tolerance to drought. Their improved efficiency in water consumption and nutrient cycling is a fundamental characteristic of agroforestry systems that increases their effectiveness in the face of climate change uncertainty. By biological nitrogen fixation, effective nutrient cycling and deep uptake of nutrients and water from soils, trees in agro-ecosystems can increase soil productivity. According to reports, a system based on P. cineraria will significantly enhance soil biological activity. Moreover, P. cineraria has been found to maintain sand dunes in Rajasthan and can tolerate periodic burial (Gates & Brown, 1988). A three years of establishment of P. cineraria plantation-based model in a 24 m × 4 m × 4 m field with three rainfed cluster bean crops showed effectiveness for higher soil fertility building. The analysed data clearly showed that P. cineraria plantings and three crops of cluster beans could significantly improve a virgin sand dune landscape that had been created as fields for crop development in a hot, dry agroclimate (Kumar et al., 2017). In arid regions, agroforestry improved the green cover by planting trees outside of forests. There have also been reports of increased agricultural output in arid regions as a result of windbreaks and shelterbelts. Traditional agroforestry systems reduce longterm vulnerability in the drought-prone climate of arid western Rajasthan by acting as an insurance against risks like insect-pest outbreaks and drought (Rathore, 2004). When tree rows are planted at a right angle to the wind, shelterbelts on agricultural fields are a sort of agroforestry practise that is very successful at reducing soil erosion, which is the most harmful abiotic stress in arid climates (Gupta et al., 1984). In agroforestry systems, tree canopies catch rainwater and lessen runoff (Khan et al., 1995). A research at the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) in Jodhpur found that canopy interception of rain increased agricultural productivity by 21.4% in Acacia tortilis silvopastoral stands and by 13.1% in Colophospermum mopane silvopastoral stands.

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With sustainable agroforestry techniques, it is possible to efficiently provide a variety of products and ecosystem services (such as improved air and water quality, carbon sequestration, habitat for wildlife and others) by increasing output on currently used lands. Raising the biodiversity index by the planting of several native species ensures environmental sustainability. An increase in greenery fosters the development of the natural ecosystem, establishing a natural habitat.

7.7.2 Social and Economic Impact While 65% of the nation’s timber needs are satisfied by trees grown outside of forests, agroforestry practises not only benefit the environment but also the economy. Due to the system’s wide range of alternatives and products, this may also contribute to the creation of rural employment and rural development opportunities. The output of non-timber products from trees does not significantly reduce when annual crops fail due to drought, maintaining food security during the drought. Furthermore, some trees produce extra products like gum, edible and non-edible oils, resins, etc., that increase the income of the marginal farmers, who make up the majority in this hot, arid region (Sharma, 2000). Traditional arid western Rajasthan’s agroforestry systems’ economic analysis revealed that their net benefit-to-cost (B:C) ratio is typically on the positive side (Table 7.5). In addition to the current agroforestry practises, the 25.4 Mha of agroforestry area has the potential to create 943 million person days of employment yearly with improved agroforestry systems (NRCAF, 2007). These are a few examples Table 7.5 Economics of some traditional agroforestry systems of arid western Rajasthan Agroforestry system

Expenditure Returns (INR ha−1 ) (*INR ha−1 ) Crops Fuel Leaf wood fodder

Gross returns (INR ha−1 )

Net returns (INR ha−1 )

Net B:C ratio

P. cineraria-A. nilotica based

1,850

1,230

4,103

870

6,203

4,353

2.3

P. cineraria based

1,550

3,670

600

420

4,690

3,140

2.0

Ziziphus spp - P. 1,550 cineraria based

1,506

620

600

2,726

1,176

0.7

Ziziphus spp - P. 1,500 cineraria Salvadora spp. based

1,400

500

500

2,400

900

0.6

INR = Indian National Rupee (1 US$ = 54.34 INR in January, 2013) Source Tewari et al. (2014) *

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of the socio-economic effects of some simple techniques and interventions in the agroforestry sector of the dry, arid western region: a. CAZRI gum inducer: The localised agroforestry system based on Acacia senegal in some of the Jodhpur and Barmer districts of Rajasthan (15 villages) provided the most impressive evidence of the livelihood development potential of agroforestry in arid regions. The source of gum Arabic, which has a very high commercial value, is Acacia senegal which grows in arid regions. Since conventional methods required more effort, caused more damage to plants and produced less gum, researchers at Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, devised an improved gum tapping approach. With this method, the farmers also gathered a sizable amount of gum Arabic in addition to crop grain for food and crop straw for cattle feed (Roy et al., 2011). Ethephon, a synthetic chemical composed of ethylene, phosphate and chloride ions, is used in the method. This was based on the hypothesis that gum exudation is a tree’s stress reaction, and that ethephon use could speed up the tree’s response to stress and result in more gum exudates (Pareek et al., 2017; Subbulakshmi et al., 2019). The suggested dose of CAZRI Gum Inducer per tree is 4 ml, but it can vary from 4–5 ml depending on the structural characteristics of the tree. 12,000 trees were treated with CAZRI gum inducer in the year 2008–2009, producing 5.4 t of gum Arabic and earning farmers Rs. 27 lakhs from the selling of the gum. After that, 21,000 and 22,600 trees were treated in 2009–2010 and 2010–2011, respectively, yielding 10.5 t and 7.6 t of gum and earning Rs. 52 and 38 lakhs of revenue for the two years. Thus, the selling of gum Arabic at an average modest price of Rs. 500/kg in the local market brought in Rs. 117 lakhs for the farmers of 15 villages. Farmers have created their own cooperatives to purchase gum inducer and sell their produce in the market because this technology has been so effective (Tewari et al., 2014). b. In situ budding in ber: CAZRI, Jodhpur, has improved the existing Zizyphus spp.based agroforestry system in an attempt to improve yields. Improved ‘Gola’ and ‘Seb’ cultivars were budded on a few of the Zizyphus trees. In their first year, these budded Zizyphus trees start producing fruit, and each succeeding year they increase it to 30 kg per tree. In addition to the Zizyphus that grows naturally, farmers can produce gross returns of 12,000–15,000 ha−1 if they keep 50 such budded plants per hectare (Faroda & Harsh, 1999). c. Salvodara squash: Technology for making squash was developed by the CAZRI, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, adding the fruit’s value and boosting farmers’ income. For one kilogram of pilu fruits, pilu squash processing costs Rs. 32. One kilogram of fruit processed into 1.5 L of squash. Farmers can make Rs. 13,000 ha−1 yr−1 from an agroforestry system based on Salvodora sp., as opposed to Rs. 10,000 ha−1 yr−1 from a single agricultural product, if the fruits are exploited properly to manufacture squash (Harsh & Tewari, 2007; Subbulakshmi et al., 2019). d. Vegetable pods from Prosopis cineraria: For the local farmers in arid regions, landrace vegetables are an important source of income. Under diverse agricultural

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systems, the farmers grow these plants in significant quantities all year long for their own needs; the surplus is then sold on the market for a profit. Tender green pods and dehydrated pods from Prosopis cineraria are important local vegetables that may be purchased in the market for Rs. 70–100 and Rs. 500– 750 per kg, respectively (Samadia, 2013). For uniform tender pod harvesting for vegetable consumption, the ‘Thar Shoba’ high producing cultivar from the ICAR-Central Institute of Arid Horticulture (CIAH), Bikaner, Rajasthan, has been recommended. It has a yield potential of up to 4.25 kg of tender pods and 6 kg of dry fodder annually (Samadia, 2015). The farmers have benefited from agroforestry not only financially, but also in terms of livelihood security due to its commitment to sustainability and long-term employment. By using the identified agroforestry techniques, agricultural activity has increased which has increased employment possibilities and reduced poverty. Women’s empowerment has resulted in fostering gender equality because they are now permitted to work on their own farms and contribute to the family’s additional revenue.

7.8 Institutional Support Many organisations and programmes have been trying to develop the hot, arid regions and many new technologies have been developed and employed for mitigating the problems faced by people in this region. Some of these technologies are highlighted here: i. Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI) The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change of the Government of India founded the Arid Forest Research Institute to meet the forestry research requirements of the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The institute has been tasked with evolving the proper technology to improve the environment in the arid region of Rajasthan’s climate. In the areas of soil and water management, sand dune stabilisation, species selection and planting techniques in salt-affected areas, site-specific agroforestry models, use of industrial effluents in plantation raising, tree improvement, non-timber forest products and value additions, use of bio-fertilisers and their use in enhancing growth and productivity, management of plantations and integrated pest management, it has made significant advancements. Urban afforestation work was done in Jodhpur, which not only improved the microclimate of the city but also added to its aesthetic appeal. While using sewage water, a select group of species, including Cassia siamea, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Pongamia pinnata and Alstonia scholaris outperformed all others. A status report on the pasture lands (Orans and Gauchers) in the Jodhpur district of Rajasthan has been created, and models for increasing pasture production have been built in the villages of Ostran and Tulesar (Parihar, 2015). In western Rajasthan, efforts have been undertaken to

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discover Prosopis cineraria mortality, and measures to control it have been suggested. For the purpose of managing eucalyptus and shisham plants in the IGNP region as well as neem plantations in Gujarat, growth and yield models have been created. Furthermore, cultivation and silvicultural management techniques have been established for some significant arid zone medicinal plants. The institute is currently engaged in a number of significant research projects, such as growing bamboo plantations in mandated states, developing suitable technology for afforestation in saline-alkaline lands in Kutch, biofuels, evaluating the potential of non-timber forest products in southern Rajasthan and their impact on the rural economy, integrated Rohida plantation management, demonstrating water conservation methods in the Aravali region, ensure that people participate in forestry-related activities, produce salt-resistant plants through gene transfer and identify criteria and indicators for successful joint forest management and bio-drainage, in order to address the issue of waterlogging in the IGNP area—a problem that has arisen as a result of the injudicious use of water(Chaudhry & Tewari, 2017). ii. The Desert Development Programme (DDP) It began in the hot desert regions of Rajasthan in 1977–1978 with the goal of integrating the development of the desert region by raising the income level, productivity and employment prospects for its inhabitants through the best use of land, livestock, water and human resources. The primary focus has been on halting desertification through initiatives that would stabilise sand dunes and restore ecological balance. Afforestation activity is crucial for stopping desertification and soil saline incursion. The many projects carried out in Rajasthan under the DDP include the planting of shelterbelts, the planting of village fuel wood and fodder, the rehabilitation of degraded forests, farm forestry, the development of pastures, the stabilisation of sand dunes and the creation of nurseries (Sinha et al., 1997). Since 1999–2000, special programmes have been implemented in eleven districts in Rajasthan: Barmer, Churu, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jhunjhunu, Jalore, Jodhpur, Pali, Nagaur and Sikar to counteract desertification through sand dune fixing, shelterbelt plantation and afforestation. The programme was designed as a long-term strategy for restoring ecological balance through conservation, development and harnessing all resource. Its objective is to aid in the expansion and prosperity of the local community’s economy as well as the improvement of the economic circumstances of the society’s underprivileged and resource-poor groups in rural areas. Although all districts are included in the DDP, development planning in Rajasthan’s hot arid state was anticipated to be done on a watershed basis whenever possible (Chaudhry & Tewari, 2017). iii. IGNP Area Plantations The Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana (IGNP) was created to address the issues of poor agricultural growth and desertification issues in the drought-prone dry regions of Rajasthan. Stage-I of the IGNP canal system covers the north-eastern portions of the command area, while Stage-II covers the south-western portions. The StageI afforestation project was successful in turning vast green belts out of barren

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desert areas and changing the local microclimate (ISFR, 2009). Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora persica, Acacia senegal, Acacia nilotica and Zizyphus jujuba were used as indigenous species for Stage-II afforestation in addition to the creation of 80,000 hectares of pastureland. The canal system and agricultural areas are shielded from shifting sand dunes and wind-borne sand deposition by the created green belts. The canal system turned out to be a boon for the locals as it facilitated tree growth for improving the microclimate of the area and made wood available for local needs, provided water for drinking purposes, irrigation, and electricity generation, and thus enhanced crop (grain & fodder) productivity for life sustenance. Waterlogging and secondary salinity have, however, developed in many areas as a result of indiscriminate water usage. The biodiversity of the area has also been somewhat impacted (Chaudhry & Tewari, 2017). The increase in forest cover between 1999 and 2019 demonstrates unequivocally that the districts around the Indira Gandhi Canal in western Rajasthan have had a greater amount of forest cover. Rajasthan has 16,630 sq. km. of forest cover in 2019, accounting for 4.85% of the state’s total land area. This rise in forest cover may be attributed to afforestation efforts under the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area (Imam, 2020). iv. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) The institute has made significant advancements in both the promotion of indigenous techniques and the creation of new land use technologies, some of which involve agroforestry techniques in Rajasthan’s desert regions. To name a few, silvopastoral and agrisilvicultural systems, the introduction and enhancement of fruit trees and other indigenous plants, stabilisation of sand dunes, tree planting techniques in difficult land types, shelterbelt plantations and so forth. International acclaim has been accorded to CAZRI for its contributions to assessment, monitoring and the fight against desertification. The institute is a significant contributor to the mapping and monitoring of the status of desertification, work on agroforestry and organises efforts to conserve soil and prevent desertification in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions. These efforts are supported by UNCCD initiatives in India. The reduction of wind erosion, the shifting of sand dunes and the reduction of poverty are all indications of the overall impact. Between 1966 and 2000, dust and sand storms decreased by 82%, with wind speeds falling from 11 to 4 km h−1 . In addition, the amount of dust in the air has also been reduced. The success was a result of land rehabilitation methods that CAZRI developed and disseminated with the help of the Government of Rajasthan, particularly for shelterbelt plantation (about 800 km length) and sand dune stabilisation (approximately 0.4 million hectares). Several of the methods have been widely adopted by farmers in India’s arid region, and other dry areas of the world have taken perceive of them. Technologies developed by the CAZRI have significantly improved the arid zone’s ecology. The stabilisation of sand dunes has been accomplished by: a. CAZRI—checker board technique for sand dune stabilisation: CAZRI, Jodhpur has taken many actions, notably in western Rajasthan, to combat wind erosion and deposition that causes sand movement and dust storms. Sand dune stabilisation

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in the Thar Desert has been made possible by CAZRI’s afforestation technique known as checker board technique. These were naturally stabilised old sand dunes that had formed about 10,000 years ago and had modest movement of up to 3–5 m every year. The technique includes 3 steps: • Fencing of dune areas: Due to the large population of people and cattle, any vegetation that does grow on the dunes is either harvested by the locals or grazed by animals, leaving the dunes bare. Fencing is necessary to protect these places from biotic pressure. • Creating micro-wind breaks: In order to build windbreaks before the monsoon, locally accessible brushwood materials, such as senia (Crotalaria burhia), bui (Aerva persica), kheep (Leptadenia pyrotechnica), bordi (Ziziphus nummularia), and khejri (Prosopis cineraria) are buried upside down in parallel rows or in a chessboard pattern. • Afforestation on dune slopes: On the leeward side of the micro-wind breaks, direct sowing of suitable grasses and creepers or transplanting of seedlings of 5 month-old trees or shrubs at 5 m × 5 m spacing are done. Some of the grasses, plants and creepers that are good for dunes include: Grasses: Anjan (Cenchrus ciliaris), Murat (Panicum turgidum), Sewan (Lasiurus scindicus). Creepers: Kachri (Cucumis sp.), Tumba (Citrullus colosynthes). Trees/shrubs: Acacia tortilis, A. nubica, A. senegal, A. jaquimontii, Prosopis juliflora, A. bavenosa, Ziziphus nummularia, Clerodendrum phlomoidis, Calligonum polygonoides. After the trees have established, the understorey of grasses and creepers will start to regenerate and, after 15 years, will produce 33–53 t ha−1 of Acacia tortilis wood. This approach for community participation in management and sand dunes stabilisation was approved by the State Government Forest Department, and sand dunes covering around 0.4 million ha were stabilised (Kumar & Santra, 2015). b. Shelterbelt plantation: In locations without sand dunes, these were employed to restrict sand migration. The negative impacts of winds are minimised by vegetative barriers like trees, shrubs and bushes. Trees like A. tortilis, E. camaldulensis, D. sissoo and T. undulata were planted in some 800 km in Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Churu, Nagaur, Jhunjhunu, Ajmer and Pali districts; 100 km along the railway tracks in Sikar-Fatehpur, Sikar-Loharu and Palsana-Deshnoke sections; and, 250 km in the IGNP area. Such plants have decreased wind velocity on the leeward side of the shelterbelt in extremely arid regions like Jaisalmer. Moreover, it decreased soil loss by 76% (Malhotra, 1977). c. Jaltripti technology: By assuring a continuous water supply, this technology allowed for the widespread planting of trees for feed and fuel wood in deserts. The Jaltripti consists of a double-walled pot; the inner pot holds the soil in which the tree is placed, while the impervious outer pot can store up to 20 L of water. When compared to the traditional way of growing trees, water is saved by roughly 80–90% as water from the outer pot penetrates into the inner pot (CAZRI, 2007).

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d. Aerial seeding: In locations with low rainfall and that are unreachable for sand dunes restoration on the ground, aerial seeding by aircraft can be very helpful. In Bikaner, soil pellets containing grass seeds, shrub, tree and creeper seeds, and FYM, clay and sand mixture were aerially dispersed across sand dunes during the post-monsoon season of 1982–1983. Higher germination and growth rates were seen in Lasiurus sindicus and Acacia tortilis. This method had issues with wind-blown seeds drifting during the broadcast, burying seeds in sand to impede germination, unequal sapling distribution and grazing of newly emerged saplings. Later, a polymer known as “Jalashakti” was used in place of the soil pellets. Several species of seeds were treated with “Jalashakti” at a rate of 2 kg/ 100 kg of seeds. After three years, Colophospermum mopane had a survival rate in Jodhpur conditions of 25%, Acacia tortilis of 20%, A. bivenosa of 15%, and all other species had a survival rate of 5–10%. Seeds left untreated had a 1–10% survival rate. In addition to preventing sand drift, stabilising dunes can also be used as a source of income by producing 15–20 t ha−1 of wood after five years of planting. Advantages in terms of fuel wood and pods at various plantation densities and locations are guaranteed (Kumar & Santra, 2015). e. Pasture management: The pastures and grasses are precious resources that increase animal productivity and aid in the reclaiming and development of the area. Depending on the inherent soil conditions, studies showed that simple enclosures to keep animals out at critical times of grass development enhanced grassland output from 116.3 to 148.3% within a period of 2 years of their establishment. Around 30% more fodder was produced as compared to control using techniques like pitting in the pre-monsoon on level lands and contour furrowing (30 cm cross section) in areas with slopes over 5%. Forage yields from reseeding grasslands with perennial grasses including Cenchrus spp., Lasiurus scindicus, and Dicanthium annulatum that are suitable for the agroclimatic conditions have been encouraging (Malhotra, 1977).

7.9 Temporal Changes of Arid Agroforestry in Thar Desert For a sustainable way of life in the dry zone, agroforestry has been practised from the beginning of time. The hot Indian desert was notable for its sand dunes. Crotalaria burhia, Cympopogan martini, Aerva spp. and Leptadenia pyrotechnica are some of the dominant perennials. On the crests of sand dunes, Lasiurus sindicus, a fastgrowing nutritive perennial grass, is common. Formerly, the hot, arid regions were characterised by shifting sand dunes and significant wind erosion. Hence, utilising fast-growing tree and shrub species, the afforestation programmes concentrated on stabilising the dunes and stopping soil erosion loss. One of the most popular species used for afforestation by the forest and other departments was Acacia tortilis, which served as a supply of limited fuelwood for the residents in addition to stabilising the dunes. Agroforestry systems, which may one day, be able to create the conditions for a sustainable way of life in the hot,

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arid regions, have been forced to be created as a result of recent changes. Below, we discuss about a few of these modifications. • Heavy biotic pressure: The population of the Thar Desert region increased by 490% between 1901 and 1991, according to an analysis of the data from the available censuses. In the past, communities relied on limited pastoralism and hunting to survive. Yet, as a result of increased population strain on alreadyexisting vegetation systems, agroforestry systems that can accommodate a range of needs are needed. • Cropping on marginal lands: The net cultivated area increased by 54.1% from 1915 to the beginning of the 1980s, and then by 11.7% from the 1990s to the present. As a result, there are much fewer permanent pastures, fallow fields, arid, arable and uncultivable wastelands (Dhir, 1997). Due to the Thar Desert’s low, erratic and transient precipitation, just one crop-the monsoon season crop-is sown in the majority of the area each year. A sizable amount of the potential agricultural area has been brought under the plough by 1951. Since then, the trend in already established agricultural tracts has been intensification of farming and the expansion of agriculture into uncharted, environmentally marginal areas. • Unsustainable development policies: In an effort to increase productivity in the arid region, efforts have been made to promote science and technology. Several technologies, such as dune stabilisation techniques, windbreaks and agrihorticulture, have been successful (people and vegetation) because they were developed in conjunction with indigenous and the environment. It was revealed that other technologies, the majority of which were brought from regions with superior environmental conditions, were not viable. For instance, using a tractor worsens wind erosion and prevents local trees like Prosopis cineraria from regenerating naturally. • Indira Gandhi Canal network: In some areas of the arid region, the agricultural and forestry systems took on a new look as water began to flow through the canal network in 1983. The intensification of agriculture caused the native species to be replaced by ones that were more profitable for farmers, converting previously desert-like landscapes into farmed areas. • Exotic species: Many alien species that either quickly spread and became invasive, like Prosopis juliflora, or did not produce much money, such as Faidherbia albida and Simmondsia chinensis, were introduced. In terms of biodiversity loss, increasing desertification, a drop in native species and other negative effects, these technologies’ combined effects, together with biotic pressure and a fragmented strategy to combat desertification, are now becoming apparent. The cornerstone of a sustainable living in the arid zone, agroforestry, requires a broad perspective and comprehensive planning for the future.

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7.10 Emerging Problems and Its Consequences i Challenges in promoting afforestation The hot arid desert ecology presents several challenges to afforestation such as: • The ecology of the hot, arid desert, poses a number of challenges to afforestation, including: Water scarcity: This is the main obstacle to afforestation programmes in the hot, arid regions. The water resources are unevenly dispersed, have little potential for groundwater and are largely salty. Afforestation is difficult due to the low, erratic rainfall, frequent droughts and high evapotranspiration. • Problems with insects and pests include termites, which are prevalent in huge numbers because they can easily infest wood in arid environments and are attracted to extreme temperatures. It has been noted that these termites can seriously harm grasses, trees, shrubs and crops, which will have a significant negative economic impact on small-scale farmers. • High biotic pressure: One of the most populous deserts in the world is the Thar. The demand on land and water resources is exacerbated by the high human density. • Traditional systems in place: Due to widespread and long-standing traditional practices, increasing green cover by enlisting the local population and planting trees using agroforestry techniques was difficult at first. The western region of Rajasthan has seen a number of projects in the past intended to encourage afforestation and greenery, but these have largely been restricted to the planting of Acacia tortilis with little benefit to the accompanying populations. Villagers were hesitant to change and adopt agroforestry procedures to grow native species due to their previous experiences and the Acacia tortilis plantation’s invasive nature. • Less participation from the community: Due to the community’s past failures, the locals had little faith in the afforestation programmes and expected them to fail quickly. This resulted in the lowest possible participation needed to continue and maintain the afforestation programmes. • Despite being assigned important roles in local planning and management, there may not be much actual local community participation in participatory decisionmaking. • Executing afforestation programmes on the ground was difficult since clear property rights laws were crucial. ii Invasive alien species Naturalisation is the initial stage of biological invasions. A naturalised species is an imported (non-native, alien, exotic) species that can breed and maintain populations over a number of generations without (or despite) direct human intervention, according to Pysek et al. (2002). After a successful local establishment, some naturalised species move on to produce viable progeny in places far from where they were first introduced. Species that have naturalised are referred to be invasive species (Richanrdson et al., 2000). The presence of invasive alien species causes a

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significant ecological and economic imbalance because they change the composition of the local community, alter microclimates and reduce species diversity. Humans frequently introduce new species for ornamental, commercial and other reasons, but occasionally invasive species do so unintentionally via trade activities. An exotic invasive weed known as mesquite, Prosopis juliflora, is prevalent in the Indian Thar Desert (Harsh & Tewari, 1998). To help lower the temperature in the Desert, the King of Jodhpur was the first to bring it in 1913. The Rajasthan State Forest Department then planted it in deteriorating scrub jungles (Harsh & Tewari, 1998; Walker, 2011). P. juliflora invaded croplands, scrub woodlands, common property resources (CPRs), degraded regions and community grazing lands (CGLs) in the Indian Thar Desert due to low rainfall and high temperatures that led to a thin vegetative cover of native flora (Tewari et al., 2000). The Rajasthan government recently chose to have the plant eradicated from the forests due to its invasive nature; however, research has showed that after a partial uprooting, and the species’ expansion was more vigorous due to its coppicing ability (Abdulahi et al., 2017). The species provides low-income people with 70% of their fuel needs (Harsh & Tewari, 1998). In order to properly avoid P. juliflora invasion, the shrub is cut down every five years, and its seeds are burned in the kiln during the carbonation process. Also, due to the fact that it employs people from low-income backgrounds, it is the most popular business in the desert. As the species’ ripe pods are ground into pod-flour, some flour mill owners combine it with additional ingredients to make animal feed. If it becomes established in CGLs, sheep herding in grasslands might be another strategy for preventing the spread of P. juliflora (Pandey et al., 2019). The list of invasive plant species that are present in the Bikaner division was provided by Charan and Singh (2018). The study found that the invasive plant species in this area are native to 15 different geographic areas of the world, with tropical America and Africa contributing the most species (64.6% and 13.5%, respectively). Herbs make up 76% of the four habitat types, followed by shrubs with 16% (Fig. 7.5). The dominance of herbaceous vegetation in the Bikaner region may be due to its greater biological richness and resistance to harsh climate conditions (Charan & Singh, 2018). Fig. 7.5 Habitat-wise classification of invasive alien species of Bikaner division. Source Modified from Charan and Singh (2018)

4% 4% Climbers

16%

Herbs Shrubs 76%

Trees

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The monitoring programmes on invasive alien species must be carried out on regular basis. A better planning is needed for early detection and reporting of infestations of new weeds. Public awareness campaigns against invading alien species at national and local levels, environmental education, biological, chemical and mechanical means for eradicating invasive alien flora, etc., are the need of the hour to lessen the negative effects of such invasive plant species. Regular monitoring programmes for invasive alien species must be conducted. For the early detection and reporting of new weed infestations, improved planning is required. To decrease the detrimental consequences of such invasive plant species, national and local public awareness campaigns against invasive alien species, environmental education, chemical, biological and mechanical measures for eradicating invasive alien flora, etc., are the need of the hour.

7.11 Required Future Strategies Every ecosystem has the ability to buffer overuse to some extent, allowing it to function normally for a while. While the arid zone also falls within this category, its ability to act as a buffer is constrained by its fragility. Policymakers and scientists need to be aware that the degree of synergy with the ‘3Ns’-Nature, Native vegetation and Native people-determines the sustainability of agroforestry in dry zones. This is especially true for ecosystems that are delicate, such those found in dry regions. Future strategies for arid zone agroforestry should focus on non-wood forest products (NWFPs) as the keystone for a sustainable livelihood, re-evaluate research priorities and strengthen policy. In arid areas, there is also a need to investigate the possibility of natural ecosystem regeneration and rehabilitation.

7.11.1 In Situ Rainwater Conservation for Establishment of Trees Water is the greatest impediment to sustainability and productivity in the arid environment. The ecosystem’s incapacity to sustain itself has been caused by attempts to fill this water deficit by bringing in more water through canals or ground water. The only remaining choice is to conserve rainwater. Trees are the foundation of dry zone conservation, and once they are in established, other conservation processes, such the development of vegetative cover and the preservation of rainwater, start without any additional effort (Sharma, 2000).

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7.11.2 Conservation of Biodiversity Through Agroforestry The need for biodiversity protection is more essential in the hot, arid region, because it is assumed that this ecosystem is more fragile. Any ecosystem’s primary safety mechanism is its biodiversity. Developmental and biotic activity leads to decreased populations of certain species and the degradation of their natural habitats. In order to save these species, ex situ conservation and protection is the easiest strategy. This is made feasible by arid zone agroforestry, which combines domestication and conservation for increased productivity and it permits the integration of all plant species, including trees, shrubs, climbers, etc.

7.11.3 Exploitation of Carbon Sequestration Potential On arid region, trees and shrubs can be grown to check further desertification and soil deterioration and for biofuel production. These trees also increase the soil’s organic carbon content, which boosts soil storage of carbon. The global greenhouse gas problem can be significantly reduced by rehabilitating arid regions. In the dry zone, silvopastoral systems are widespread, and good management of both the tree and grass components can boost net carbon storage.

7.11.4 Enhancement of Biomass Productivity of Agroforestry System By raising awareness about the utilisation of inputs in the form of improved seeds, plant nutrition management, plant protection measures and value addition processes, the incorporation of research innovations in traditional systems can be scaled up. One way to improve soil fertility is through agroforestry, which is one of the alternatives for improving biomass productivity. This can be accomplished by choosing trees that can improve microclimate, fix atmospheric nitrogen, increase understory agricultural productivity, etc.

7.11.5 Improvement in Animal Component of Agroforestry Animals in dry zones contribute to economic stability by boosting income and creating gainful employment. The increase in animals has led to a fodder scarcity. Launching breed improvement programmes, processing and marketing of animal products, and veterinary treatment must take precedence in order to combat this issue. The native animal breeds have a great tolerance for harsh environments and

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are well adapted to desert areas. The best breeds of cattle, sheep and goats can be found in Rajasthan’s western arid region. These breeds can withstand drought and are highly productive. To harness the most benefits, it is important to preserve native breeds of various animals and expand help services (Prasad & Dhyani, 2010).

7.11.6 Exploitation of Underutilised, Unpopular Potential Traditional Species Domesticating and improving native plant species offers considerable potential and opens up new possibilities for agroforestry. This is more important for lesser-known indigenous species that may exist and are already being exploited for a variety of purposes. Agroforestry models should also encourage the potential of numerous species, including Capparis decidua, Commiphora wightii, Cassia angustifolia, Acacia jacquemontii, Azadirachta indica, Haloxylon salicorncum, Calligonum polygonoides, Ailanthus excelsa, Phoenix spp., Zizyphus mauritiana, etc. Additionally, there are numerous other un-studied species that require the attention of the scientific community since they have the potential to produce fruits, medicines, fibres and fodder. Prioritisation exercises are necessary for these underutilised species to determine which ones are most deserving of preservation and commercial exploitation (Prasad & Dhyani, 2010).

7.11.7 Scaling up Technology Adoption The adoption of agroforestry technology among smallholders needs to be scaled up in order to realise the theme of agroforestry as a global land use. Strategies and techniques must be founded on an understanding of the dynamics of adoption and the important elements that affect whether farmers accept innovations fully or in part in order to enhance the scale of adoption and the impact of innovations.

7.12 Conclusion The ecosystems in hot arid region of the country are highly fragile and large liabilities cause severe impediments in development programmes. Agroforestry systems, which combine tree/shrub, crop, grass and livestock, have a lot of potential for increasing land productivity and protecting the environment, especially in the light of climate change. The Indian hot arid zone is better placed in terms of tree and agricultural biodiversity when compared to other similar regions of the world. Majority of trees

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and shrubs in this region are multipurpose and have the ability to satisfy the expectations and aspirations of rural folk for meeting basic needs viz., fuel, fodder, timber, food (fruits/ pods/ seeds) and other products like exuded gum, products of medicinal value, etc., for the inhabitants. Agroforestry with appropriate tree species in various arid land forms thus becomes extremely important for desertification management and ecosystem functions. For the region’s production and sustainability to be maintained, more agroforestry adoption is required. The ability of trees to use incoming solar radiation throughout the year, to enrich micro-sites by depositing litter in the topsoil for future use by crops/grasses, and to modify the microclimate, which can have a beneficial effect on the soil and associated plant species, are all characteristics that are generally considered to be environmentally beneficial. In view of the region’s emerging climate change issues, the proper combination and management of tree/ shrub (both for timber and fruit), crops, grasslands and animal units (in mixed herds) will make agriculture a viable and less uncertain proposition. Agroforestry should be viewed as a tool of improving the socio-economic situation of rural poor, and it should be a central component of integrated rural development programmes. Agroforestry programmes should be implemented on a wide scale to boost fuel, timber and feed output. This method will ensure that rural areas have a balanced economy of woodlots. Agroforestry programmes should be undertaken by the concerned departments viz., forest department, agricultural department, forest research institutes, NGOs, village panchayats and extension organisations. Time-bound and goal-oriented programmes are essential. People’s participation should also be ensured, as it is a key component of success of these programmes.

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Chapter 8

Soil Conservation and Water Harvesting for Sustainable Agriculture in Arid Regions S. P. S. Tanwar, R. N. Kumawat, and P. C. Moharana

Abstract Moisture and nutrients deficits are the key characteristics of agriculture in arid regions. This is mainly due to scarce and erratic rains, very high evapotranspiration, inherent nature of soil and its erosion through wind and water. The Indian arid zone has annual rainfall of 100–500 mm and potential evapotranspiration is as high as 1400–2000 mm. The higher rainfall variability results in frequent droughts. The intensity, characteristics and duration of droughts vary from year to year. There may be early season droughts due to late onset, terminal droughts due to early withdrawal and mid-season droughts due to monsoon breaks. Hence, traditionally diversified agriculture with low input is followed. This includes integration of trees, shrubs and animals with the drought hardy crops. In order to increase the production levels, modern agriculture is now being followed that is resulting in second generation problems. The indiscriminate use of tractors on fields having agro-forestry and farm forestry practices pose the problem of uprooting perennial plants growing on crop fields which adversely affect the sand stabilization process. Over exploitation of ground water resources as evidenced by innumerable tubewells causing depleting water table. In canal irrigated area, excessive irrigation leads to water logging and secondary salinization at some places. Scientific interventions in further upgrading the traditional water harvesting and moisture conservation practices is far more sustainable strategy for greening the deserts. Fruitful efforts are on in improving and expansion of traditional Nadis, Khadins, sod waterways, vegetative barriers, improved seeds and conservation of existing native vegetation would make the developments in Thar Desert more sustainable. Keywords Arid agriculture · Drought · Erosion · Traditional water harvesting

S. P. S. Tanwar (B) · R. N. Kumawat · P. C. Moharana ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_8

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8.1 Introduction Despite the inhospitable weather conditions, arid region of India has an agrarian economy. Moisture and nutrients deficits are the key characteristics of agriculture in this region. This is mainly due to scarce and erratic rains, very high evapotranspiration and highly erosion prone less fertile soils. The Indian arid zone receives annual rainfall of 100–500 mm but has a potential evapotranspiration as high as 1400–2000 mm per annum. Further, the higher rainfall variability results in frequent droughts. The intensity and duration of droughts vary from year to year and parts of the drought affected region. They may be early season droughts due to late onset, terminal droughts due to early withdrawal and mid-season droughts due to monsoon breaks. Different constraints of climate, soil, vegetation, agriculture and land are mentioned in Table 8.1. Even then the agriculture is being practiced in the region since immemorial as evidenced from archeological remains of a tilled field in Banwali village of Hanumangarh district belonging to pre-historic times. There is a vast acreage under cultivation and only this region in India has the potential for putting more area under cultivation in acreage in near future. Indian arid zone is distributed through 19.6 million ha area in the state of Rajasthan (62%) and rest in north-western Gujarat (6.22 m ha, 19.6%), Punjab and Haryana (2.75 m ha, 8.6%), Karnataka, (2.7%), Maharashtra (0.4%) and Andhra Pradesh (6.8%). The North West part of it is a constituent of the Great Thar desert. Its boundary is defined by calculated moisture availability index value of −66.6 in the east near Aravalli mountain ranges to a maximum (~90) in the western most part. The Indian hot arid region has very scarce water resources. The total surface water resources excluding IGNP (Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojna) of arid zone of Rajasthan is only 1361 × 106 m3 . Large numbers of tanks, reservoirs, minor irrigation dams and check dams have been constructed to store runoff water during monsoon period. The major reservoirs are Jaswantsagar, Sardar Samand, Jawai, Hemawas, Ora and Bankali. The quantity and quality of groundwater (moderate to highly saline) in this region is deplorable. Despite inhospitable and harsh climate, Indian arid zone is full of life and has 682 species belonging to 352 genera and 87 families. It is one of the most densely populated (by human & livestock) deserts of the world. Between 1961 and 2011 census, human population has increased by > 250% while between 1956 and 2012 census, the animal population has increased by about 125.2%, thus indicating a liveable environment for humans, livestock and vegetation.

8.2 Spatial and Temporal Variability of Resources in Arid Zone A major part of this region is under various types of sand dunes along with a variety of climatic situations and resources. The physiography/micro-climatic variations have contributed to the development of a variety of soils derived from the alluvial and

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Table 8.1 Natural resources, constraints and potential of arid region Natural resource

Constraints

Potential

Climate

Low and erratic rainfall, Extreme temperatures, Long sunshine duration, High wind velocity, High evapotranspiration, Frequent drought

Immense scope of harnessing wind and solar energy and with the available water there is scope for growing a variety of high value crops including horticultural crops

Soil

Poor water and nutrient retention, High erodibility, Salinity and alkalinity, Low fertility and less biological activity

Higher capacity to absorb small amount of rainfall, good aeration, supportive for perennials based systems

Vegetation

Poor vegetation cover, Over-exploitation, Slow growth and poor yield, Establishment difficulties

Rich biodiversity, Special adaptive features, Harnessing economic potential of species having product of higher economic, nutritional value as well as medicinal values

Agriculture

Meagre rainfall, Short growing season, Limited crop choice, Mono-cropping, Biotic and abiotic stresses

Technological interventions, Crop diversification with perennial trees/fruit trees, Organic farming, Integrated farming systems, Value addition

Land

Poor capability land, Less vegetation cover, Vast waste and degraded lands

Production from waste land, Area expansion with fruit trees based systems

aeolian parent material with paedogenic characteristics. River Luni forms the only hydrological unit which has an organized drainage system. Surface water resources are limited due to low and scanty rainfall. However, from driest to wetter part of the desert area, people have constructed water storage structures like Nadis (village ponds) and Khadins (runoff harvesting systems). The vegetation pattern also varies from east to west and their distributional patterns follow rainfall gradients. Droughts are frequent but desert dwellers cope up with such situations using their traditional knowledge. Despite limitations in water resources, the region has a dominant agricultural economy that has been changing dramatically in recent past. An analysis of land use statistics of western Rajasthan for 2018–2019 compared to 2005–2006 showed net sown area increased by about 3.88% (823,000 ha), area sown more than once increased by about 7.19% (1,523,000 ha) and forest area by 0.18% (37,863 ha). The area under current fallow by 0.33% (71,238 ha), culturable waste by 3.29% (2,981,000 ha) and older fallow lands by 0.8% (168,050 ha) (Table 8.2).

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Table 8.2 Major land use changes in western Rajasthan

Land use (ha)

1957–1958

2005–2006

2018–2019

Net sown area

7,394,502 (35.52%)

10,657,154 (50.33%)

11,480,265 (54.21%)

Area sown more than once

145,766 (0.70%)

2,074,550 (9.80%)

3,597,778 (16.99%)

Forest area

143,684 (0.69%)

455,012 (2.15%)

492,875 (2.33%)

Culturable waste

5,035,175 (24.18%)

3,678,757 (17.37%)

2,981,711 (14.08%)

Current fallow

1,888,711 (9.07%)

1,533,467 (7.24%)

1,462,229 (6.91%)

Old fallow

2,965,297 (14.24%)

1,707,894 (8.07%)

1,539,844 (7.27%)

Source District Agriculture Statistics, Government of Rajasthan

8.2.1 Scenario of Land Use/land Cover in Different Agro-Climatic Zones In order to understand the changing scenario of land use in western Rajasthan, it is necessary to analyse the pattern of changes in respect to different agro-climatic zones (ACZ). This is because of the fact that these units are the recognized planning unit for agricultural /land and water developmental operations. The physiographic set up, topography, soils and drainage vary from one ACZ to another as rainfall pattern is a significant variable. The four ACZ are mentioned in Table 8.3. The ACZ-I region is the driest and the largest zone in area with annual rainfall ranging between 150 to 300 mm. This region has a dominant sandy upland landscape where sand dunes occur in 59.4% area. Agriculture is typically the rainfed type but today’s scenario of agriculture is witnessing radical transformation due to availability of water through Indira Gandhi canal especially in Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts and Narmada Canal in Barmer. Vast areas of marginal lands and culturable wastelands Table 8.3 Agro-climatic zones of western Rajasthan ACZ No.

Agro-climatic Zone

Area covered (Sq. Km.)

Districts covered

I

Arid Western Plain Zone

133,073.6

Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner, Churu and Jodhpur;

II

Rajasthan NW Canal Irrigated Plain Zone

20,556.6

Sri-Ganganager and Hanumangarh

III

Transitional Plain of Inland Drainage Zone

31,329.3

Nagaur, Jhunjhunu and Sikar

IV

Transitional Plain of Luni Basin Zone

22,951.1

Pali and Jalore

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are being put under cultivation. Even such expansion in irrigated area has been witnessed in tubewell irrigated tehsils or blocks like in Dungargarh, Bikaner, Kolayat, Ratangarh, Sardarshahar, Jaisalmer tehsils. A remote sensing-based temporal change in the extent of rabi crop area showed that in Jodhpur district, such areas have increased from 7.56% in the year 2000 to 21.26% during 2020. Use of drip and sprinklers for irrigation and mechanization in agricultural operations has helped farmers to grow crops on sandy plains with minimum use of ground water. Another significant aspect of this zone is the ongoing sand dune stabilization programmes. CAZRI’s role in the sand dune stabilization is manifested at many sites in western Rajasthan, where locally available shrub/grass species have been used by natives to curtail effects of drifting sands using techniques. Recent mapping of tree plantations in GIS environment showed that during 2019–2020 about 11,500 ha of dune areas have been put under large scale tree plantation in Jaisalmer district and in about 17,000 ha dune area in Barmer district. Thus, due to cropland expansion and tree plantation, vegetation cover has increased in many parts of these desert districts. In ACZ-II (Rajasthan NW Canal Irrigated Plain Zone) comprising Sri Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts, the terrain is mostly a levelled plain which is an outcome of mechanized farming. This zone is known for irrigated agriculture through major canal systems (Gang, Bhakra and IGNP). The vast patches of alluvial plains and fluvial sediments are the contribution of Ghagghar River and other Himalayan river systems. This has helped about 78% area in both districts to be under net sown category and 30–35% area under double crop. The ACZ III (the transitional plains of Inland drainage) is a zone of progressive agriculture in the districts of Sikar, Jhunjhunu and Nagaur. Much of the success in irrigated agriculture is due to ground water irrigation, mostly through wells and tube wells. The natural drainage systems are ephemeral despite being a higher rainfall zone. Non-judicious withdrawal of groundwater has caused water level to reach up to 600–700 ft below ground level at many places. The situation of agriculture in ACZ IV (Pali and Jalore districts and part of Sirohi) is precarious. This zone is basically a part of Luni river basin, however, some part of Luni river is saline, thus its water is not usable for drinking or agriculture, mainly in the lower parts, i.e., Tilwara onwards. Much of the agriculture is due to bigger water reservoirs like Hemawas, Jawai and also due to agriculture under conserved moisture.

8.3 Managing Soil and Water Resources for Agriculture The availability of surface water is very limited in arid regions. Underground water is very deep, limited and mostly brackish in nature. Under such situations, the only option available is to harness the precipitation to its fullest. The crop experience moisture stress during early or late stages of growth. Soil moisture availability can be improved by minimizing runoff, deep percolation and evaporative losses. Various techniques have been tested and developed to improve moisture storage in the soil

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Fig. 8.1 Vegetative contour bunding in Thar Desert region

and runoff is harvested through different methods. An attempt has been made to review these techniques.

8.3.1 Bunding and Vegetative Barriers Bunding has been an age old practice to reduce runoff and improve moisture storage in the soil (Fig. 8.1). Bunding was found effective in reducing runoff and thereby increased infiltration of this water improved soil moisture storage as observed in Pali district, i.e., 11.4 mm in a soil core of 100 cm during the sowing of succeeding winter season crops, i.e., mustard, taramira (Eruca sativa) and chickpea (CAZRI, 1998; Regar et al., 2007). In slopy landscape (1–6%), contour bunding is extensively recommended for controlling soil erosion and moisture conservation. Earlier bunds of 30–60 cm height were recommended in arable land (Kanitkar, 1944). In grasslands of Western Rajasthan, contour bunding of 75 cm height and 80 cm vertical spacing combined with contour furrowing of 10–15 cm depth and 100–125 cm vertical spacing. This system had recorded higher forage yield than control/bunding. Wasi Ulah et al. (1972) compared performance of contour furrows and contour bunds and observed that contour furrows alone stored more soil moisture (39%) than the contour bunds alone (27%) and the combination of contour bunds and furrows (26– 32%). Highest soil moisture was recorded at the centre of furrow and middle of ridges throughout the season (Verma et al., 1977; Sharma et al., 1980; Sharma,

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1983). This led to recorded highest population, dry matter production and precipitation use efficiency when plants were grown in the middle of ridges (Sharma et al., 1983). Sharma et al. (1997) further innovated contour vegetative barriers (CVB) where locally available fast growing perennial grasses with extensive root system such as Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Cenchrus ciliaris and Cenchrus setigerus are transplanted 30 cm apart on contours at 60–100 cm vertical distances to form a dense hedge. This improved model reduced ruoff volume by 28–97% resulting in 2.5 times higher soil moisture thereby enhancing the yield of clusterbean and pearl millet by 37–51% and 19–40% over control, respectively. “A combination of bunding and vegetative barriers of Cenchrus ciliaris improved profile moisture in a field having 1–2% slope and resulted in 40% increase in yield of mungbean and mothbean” (CAZRI, 2000a). The farmers readily adopt this technology as they are easy to raise, less expensive and can provide fodder during lean period.

8.3.2 Tillage and Soil Cultivation Deciding the optimum tillage has always been a tug of war between its beneficial impact on soil moisture storage, root growth, etc., and the risk of it being prone to soil erosion. Soil type is the main factor in determining kind and level of tillage. “Studies on preparatory tillage suggested that one sub surface cultivation once in three years has been advocated widely in Western Rajasthan” (Gupta & Gupta, 1986). At Pali, deep tillage during monsoon increased the yield of taramira and mustard by 26.9 and 54%, respectively, compared to deep tillage before monsoon (CAZRI, 1999). At Jodhpur, deep tillage resulted in increased yield of pearlmillet over conventional and minimum tillage due to improved soil moisture storage providing relatively better moisture conditions throughout the crop growth period (Gupta, 1987; Saxena et al., 1997). Soil moisture profiling in 9th year of a long-term experiment revealed that the initial rainwater has moved to greater depth under tillage (one harrowing and planking) over no tillage (CAZRI, 2007). One preparatory tillage seems to be the minimum requirement for satisfactory harvest of pearl millet in light soils of arid zone (Fig. 8.2). Sandy soils have a tendency to get compacted mainly due to less soil organic matter and high silica content and thus impede percolation of rain water. Hence, post planting cultivation is recommended. It also breaks the capillaries thus protecting moisture from evaporation and removes weed thereby saving the moisture to be utilized by weeds. A comparison of uncultivated (weeds removed with weedicide) and once cultivated plots showed that even in the absence of weeds; cultivation was found useful in increasing average yields by 24% (Gupta & Gupta, 1981). The optimum depth of cultivation varied between 5 and 10 cm.

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Fig. 8.2 Preparatory tillage in Thar Desert region of Rajasthan

8.3.3 In Situ Water Harvesting Two in situ water harvesting systems were devised at CAZRI, Jodhpur during late seventies and eighties (Singh, 1988b). “In inter-plot water harvesting, microcatchment is prepared in one or both sides of cropped area and 2/3rd of area is cropped, leaving 1/3rd as catchment (1.5 m or 0.75 m area is used as catchment on both sides, respectively) with a slope of 5% towards the cultivated area increase soil moisture and yield of many crops (Singh, 1985, 1988a; Singh et al., 1973a, 1973b). It has also resulted in saving of 1/3 of inputs. In semi-arid part (Pali), catchments with 4–8% slope provided 50–80% runoff to the cultivated area and enhanced the yield of crops like castor, sunflower and green gram” (Jain & Singh, 1982). In heavy textured and deep to moderately deep soils, ridge and furrow method was found an improvement over Inter-plot system as it doesn’t require to allot the area for catchment purpose (Faroda et al., 2007; Singh, 1988b). The specifications for this method are: inter row distance of 60–90 cm having furrow of 30–40 cm width and 15–20 cm depth laid out against the prevailing wind direction of south-west to north-west in the arid region (Singh & Bhati, 1988). Planting may be done on ridges in heavy soils and in furrows in light soils. In a comparative study, ridge and furrow system improved pearl millet yield by 210% and micro-catchment system by 120% over regular flat planting (Singh & Saxena, 1998). This can further be improved by adjusting row spacing and making conservation furrows at the time of inter-cultivation. “In Jodhpur and Barmer districts planting of pearl millet at 60 cm and making ridge—furrow afterwards during interculture (30 DAS) in wider row spacing (60 cm) with 50% N through FYM gave significantly higher grain (49.7 and 53.41%) and fodder yield (40.36 and 43.14%), respectively, over conventional planting at 30 cm row spacing.

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In sorghum, inter pair row conservation furrow improved grain yield by 63.0% over control (Regar et al., 2006). In henna inter row and inter paired row water harvesting (conservation furrow) provided 8.6 and 7.0% higher leaf yield over inter triplet row water harvesting and control” (CAZRI, 2006; Regar et al., 2005).

8.3.4 Sub-Surface Moisture Barriers Higher rate of infiltration in coarse textured sandy soils cause heavy loss of moisture and nutrients. Sub-surface barrier placement offers a solution but it has cost prohibitions if applied over larger areas. Hence, localized applications were tried, e.g., bentonite spray on the walls of pit measuring 50 cm diameter and 75 cm depth improved yield of round gourd (Citrullus vulgaris) by 49% over conventional system (Singh, 1980; Singh et al., 1975). Other materials like pond sediments, asphalt and vermiculite were also tried. “Bentonite clay and pond sediments applied at 60 cm depth in 5 mm thickness were found 60–70% and 50–60% effective in retaining total rainfall in the root zone, respectively (Singh et al., 1979). Use of Asphalt as a sub-surface barrier (2 mm thick at 60 cm depth) restricted deep percolation loss to 24 mm compared to 120 mm from un-barriered soil profile” (Gupta & Aggarwal, 1978, 1980).

8.3.5 Soil Amendments Water retention capacity of soil improves significantly using pond sediments. The mixing of pond silt in plough layer @ 76 t/ha increased available water storage capacity from 6.5 to 6.9%, reduced infiltration rate from 15 to 13.2 cm/ha and hence increased the yield of pearl millet by 40–50% and green gram by 35–40% over control. “vermiculite @ 20 t/ also improved eased 0.1 bar moisture retention from 10.3 to 12.4%, reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity from 8.6 to 6.5 cm/hr and bulk density from 1.62 to 1.57 g/cm3 ” (Gupta et al., 1979). Manures have also been known to maintain physico-chemical properties of soil.

8.3.6 Mulches Mulches helps in conserving soil moisture by favourably modifying the hydrothermal regimes of soil and weed suppression (Gupta, 1978, 1980; Gupta & Gupta, 1985; Parihar et al., 1977). The effect of mulches becomes highly evident in drought years as mulches delay the drying of soils and promote better establishment of crop (Daulay et al., 1979). However, in normal years, the effect of mulches may not be visible

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because top surface of sandy soil act as self-mulch after drying for few centimetres. Organic mulches found more effective in arid regions. “Grass mulch applied @ 6 t/ha decreased the maximum temperature of soil by 1 to 9 °C, reduced the evaporation loss and increased the seedling emergence of pearl millet. On the contrary, polyethylene mulch raised the soil temperature by 1 to 3 °C but suppressed weed growth and improved soil moisture status”. Mulching increased the yield of green gram, mothbean, clusterbean and chickpea by 178, 90, 71% and 12.6% over control, respectively (Gupta & Gupta, 1983). Combined use of straw mulch and antitranspirant (kaoline) recorded significantly higher yield of sorghum (Bhaskar, 1985). Hence, plant materials like grass, straw, etc., available at the farm can be profitably used as mulch for general field crops and the polyethylene mulch can be used for high cash crops like vegetables.

8.3.7 Water Harvesting Structures 8.3.7.1

Tankas

Underground circular water storage tanks with a small catchment for collection of rain water commonly known as “tankas” are very popular structures in arid Rajasthan. It is generally used for drinking purposes; however, bigger tanka can be used for providing supplemental/lifesaving irrigation to horticultural plants. CAZRI has designed underground tanka of 10 m3 to 600 m3 capacities for different rainfall and catchment conditions (Goyal & Issac, 2009). To fill a tanka of one lakh litre, approximately 300 m2 area is needed as catchment under assured minimum rainfall of 180 mm with a runoff coefficient of 0.4.

8.3.7.2

Diggies

Diggie or small farm pond structure is found to be an alternate ways of both canal water and ground water use and management. Recent interpretation of satellite images of the region revealed that about 34,000 number of such farm water structures have been constructed in the canal irrigated commands of IGNP in Bikaner district alone. It is assumed that timely utilization of diggie water may have brought in more areas under croplands impacting reduced sand movement.

8.3.7.3

Nadis

In arid, Rajasthan Nadi system of water harvesting is the oldest practice and still the principal source of water supplies for human and livestock consumption. Nadis are village ponds used to store runoff water from adjoining natural catchments during the rainy season. The capacity of Nadis is generally 1,200 to 15,000 m3 with the water

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availability ranging from 2 to 12 months after the rains. Since Nadis received runoff from sandy and eroded rocky basins, large amounts of sediments used to deposit regularly in them, resulting in quick siltation. High evaporation and seepage losses through porous sides and bottom, heavy sedimentation due to biotic interference in the catchment and contamination are the major bottlenecks. Evaporation losses ranged from 55 to 80% of the total losses in various environments.

8.3.7.4

Khadins

In the fifteenth Century, farmers (particularly Paliwal Brahmins) of Jaisalmer District of Rajasthan developed a unique system of rainwater harvesting called “Khadin” that ensures at least one crop in a year despite vagaries of monsoon. This system is similar to some irrigation methods used in the Middle East and in Negev desert of Israel. Khadin system is essentially a runoff agricultural system based on the principles of rain water harvesting from a rocky/gravelly catchment; diverting and collecting the runoff right on the farm land by making an earthen embankment, inundating the land during rainy season. On withdrawal of monsoon, the accumulated water starts receding due to seepage and evaporation. After recession of accumulated water, khadins are cultivated to grow kharif or rabi season crops depending upon depth of impounded water. Khadin system can be practiced in entire arid Rajasthan because of its viability of cultivation under conserved soil moisture to improve crop productivity but is more common in Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur and Pali districts. The system can be developed at locations that have two essential land component units in proximity: (1) suitable catchment with steep slope on the high land comprising of compact gravelly or rocky areas have high runoff generation potential and (2) gently sloping relatively low plains in the proximity of the above area where soils are deep enough for crop production. Many khadins have been developed on private lands by farmers themselves and NGOs in Jodhpur district. Some khadins are also developed by the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur on the private lands in the district. The khadin system is based on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this water-saturated land for crop production. The embankment not only helps to increase moisture in the submerged land, but also prevents the washing away of the top soil and the manure added to it. Depending upon the amount of rainfall and consequent runoff received during the monsoon, one or two crops are grown. The continuous seepage of water from the higher altitude catchment to lower khadin bed crops, higher water holding capacity due to higher content of alluvial silt and slower infiltration rate beyond crop balanced by the shallow depth of soils in the beds are helpful in supporting the moisture supply to the crops during entire growing season. Salt contents in the soils are low owing to leaching (Goyal et al., 2018). Salinity is often a problem in dry land irrigation; however, this system avoids it due to the intermittent flushing of salts from the Khadin area. Earlier works on the khadins were mainly concentrated on the physical–chemical characteristics of the catchment and khadin soils. Later on research was done on

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the improvement in the design of the khadin and treatment of catchment area for higher runoff generation. First systematic reported scientific work in Roopsi khadin of Jaisalmer was done by Kolarkar and Singh (1990). Natural resource appraisal of some khadins in Jaisalmer district was carried out for sustainable development (Chatterji & Kar, 1992; Singh & Kar, 1995). Prasad et al. (2004) emphasized the need for sustainable management of khadin cultivation. The productivity of the crops in the khadins varied widely. Low crop productivity was found to be the result of poor management both in terms of utilization of water and selection of suitable crops in khadins (Balak et al., 1995). The proper management of kahdins resulted in 3-4 fold increase in agriculture production, in comparison with non-Khadin conditions depending upon rainfall quantity and distribution. This system assures the farmers of at least one crop even in very dry tracts. Other than improving socio-economic conditions of desert dwellers, Khadins also have created positive impact on the ecology of the region, effectively checking soil erosion and increasing vegetation cover. There is no doubt that the nature-based solution of khadin helps secure people’s human rights to water, food, health, livelihoods and development. It also offers a good model for climate resilience since it brings protection against drought as well as flood which can be a substantial risk in the desert, as the speed of the runoff gets checked, it is allowed cascading space in the fields to settle down, followed by infiltration underground which produces long-term water treasure. It undoubtedly enables integrated development of the local desert communities considering all the three dimensions of sustainability—social, economic and ecological, thereby even supporting several of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

8.4 Conclusion There are innumerable indigenous techniques used by the inhabitants for their survival and water being the focal point. These tools and techniques though sustainable but at lower production levels are becoming out of use in the present scenario. Considerable research efforts have been made to further improve them as well as to develop newer technologies for moisture storage in soil. However, considering the pressure of increasing the production of arid zone for nation’s food security, the efforts need to be intensified. There is a need to refine these techniques to ensure their widespread adoption. As the size of holdings in the arid zone is large and farm operations are needed to be completed in very short span, mechanization of these techniques is a must. Economic utilization of stored moisture is also equally important. Hence, it may be concluded that a strong foundation has been laid, over which more intensified research needs to be carried out to at least double the production of arid zone in the near future.

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References Balak, R., Nepal, S., & Chauhan, J. S. (1995). Mapping of khadin-a typical farming system of Thar Desert. Indian Cartography., 15, 45–49. Bhaskar, K. S. (1985). Effect of straw mulch and anti-transpirant on growth and yield of sorghum ‘SPV-233’—A note. Annals of Arid Zone, 24, 171–174. CAZRI. (1998). Annual report (p. 71). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. CAZRI. (1999). Annual report (p. 84). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. CAZRI. (2000a). Annual report (p. 48). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. CAZRI. (2000b). Annual report (p. 72). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. CAZRI. (2006). Annual report (p. 52). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. CAZRI. (2007). Annual report (p. 57). Central Arid Zone Research Institute. Chatterji, P. C., & Kar, A. (1992). Integrated natural and human resources appraisal of Jaisalmer district. Publication-39, CAZRI. Daulay, H. S., Singh, H. P., Singh, R. P., & Singh, K. C. (1979). Effect of different mulches on yield and moisture use of pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoids). Annals of Arid Zone, 18, 108–115. Faroda, A. S., Joshi, N. L., Singh, R., & Saxena, A. (2007). Resource management for sustainable crop production in arid zone—A review. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 52(3), 181–193. Goyal, R. K., & Issac, V. C. (2009). Rainwater harvesting through tanka in hot arid zone of India (33 pages). Central Arid Zone Research Institute, CAZRI Bulletin. Goyal, R. K., Singh, J. P., & Gaur, M. K. (2018). Khadin system of runoff farming for crop production. Indian Farming, 68(09), 26–28. Gupta, J. P. (1978). Evaporation from a sandy soil under mulches. Annals of Arid Zone, 17(3), 287–290. Gupta, J. P. (1980). Effect of mulches on moisture and thermal regimes of soil and yield of pearlmillet. Annals of Arid Zone, 19(1&2), 132–138. Gupta, J. P. (1987). Effect of tillage and mulch on soil and growth and yield of cowpea in arid tropics. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation, 1, 161–172. Gupta, J. P., & Aggarwal, R. K. (1978). Effect of asphalt subsurface barrier on water characteristics and productivity of sandy soils. In Abstracts, International symposium on arid zone research and development, CAZRI, Jodhpur, p. 70. Gupta, J. P., & Aggarwal, R. K. (1980). Use of Asphalt subsurface barrier for improving the productivity of desert sandy soils. Journal of Arid Environments, 3, 215–222. Gupta, J. P., Aggarwal, R. K., & Kaul, P. (1979). Effect of applications of pond sediments on soil properties and yield of pearl millet and greengram in arid areas of western Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 49, 975–979. Gupta, J. P., & Gupta, G. K. (1986). Effect of tillage and mulching on soil environment and cowpea seedling growth under arid conditions. Soil and Tillage Research, 7, 233–240. Gupta, J. P., & Gupta, G. N. (1981). Effect of post emergence cultivation on weed growth, nutrient uptake and yield of pearlmillet. Annals of Arid Zone, 21(4), 241–247. Gupta, J. P., & Gupta, G. N. (1983). Effect of grass mulching on growth and yield of legumes. Agriculture Water Management, 6, 375–383. Gupta, J. P., & Gupta, G. N. (1985). Effect of mulches on hydrothermal environment of soil and crop production in arid western Rajasthan. Annals of Arid Zone, 24, 131–142. Jain, B. L., & Singh, R. P. (1982). Crop yields as influenced by runoff and soil moisture storage. Annals of Arid Zone, 21, 19–23. Kanitkar, N. V. (1944). Dry farming in India (Scientific Monograph No. 15). ICAR, New Delhi, p. 42. Kolarkar, A. S., & Singh, N. (1990). Runoff farming in arid tract of India-a review. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 18(3), 31–41.

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Parihar, S. S., Singh, N. T., & Sandhu, B. S. (1977). Response of crops to soil temperature changes induced by mulching and irrigation. In R. Lal & D. J. Greenland (Eds.), Soil physical properties and crop production in tropics (pp. 305–315). Wiley. Prasad, R., Mertia, R. S., & Narain, P. (2004). Khadin cultivation: A traditional runoff farming system in Indian desert needs sustainable management. Journal of Arid Environments, 58, 87–96. Regar, P. L., Rao, S. S., & Joshi, N. L. (2007). Effect of in-situ moisture conservation practices on productivity of Rainfed Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). Indian Journal of Agronomy, 52(2), 148–150. Regar, P. L., Rao, S. S., & Singh, Y. V. (2005). Integration of rain water harvesting and planting geometry to improve henna production on gravelly wastelands. In Abstracts, National symposium on efficient water management for ecofriendly sustainable and profitable agriculture. December 1–3, 2005 held at IARI, New Delhi, p. 154. Regar, P. L., Rao, S. S., & Singh, Y. V. (2006). Effect of in situ moisture conservation techniques and row configuration on sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) productivity. In Extended summaries of National symposium on conservation agriculture and environment, October 26–28, 2006 held at BHU, Varanasi, p. 84. Saxena, A., Singh, D. V., & Joshi, N. L. (1997). Effects of tillage and cropping systems on soil moisture balance and pearl millet yield. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 17(8), 251–257. Sharma, K. D. (1983). Soil moisture depletion from contour furrows. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science, 31(4), 596–597. Sharma, K. D., Vangani, N. S., Singh, H. P., Bohra, D. N., Kalla, A. K., & Joshi, P. K. (1997). Evaluation of contour vegetative barriers as soil and water conservation measures in arid lands. Annals of Arid Zone, 36(2), 123–127. Sharma, K. D., Verma, C. M., & Kalla, A. K. (1980). Studies on soil moisture storage under contour furrows during the growing season of Cenchrus ciliaris. Annals of Arid Zone, 19(1&2), 37–42. Sharma, K. D., Verma, C. M., & Shankarnararayan, K. A. (1983). Soil moisture storage under contour furrows. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science, 31(2), 110–114. Singh, H. P. (1980). Improving the moisture storage in sandy desert soils by sub-surface moisture barrier. In H. S. Mann (Ed.), Arid zone research and development (pp. 245–261). Scientific Publishers. Singh, H. P., & Bhati, T. K. (1988). Ridge-furrow system for planting dryland crops for soil and rain water management in the Indian arid zone. In Challenges in dryland agriculture—A global perspective (pp. 575–577). Singh, H. P., Singh, R. P., & Singh, K. (1979). Effect of bentonite subsurface barrier and runoff concentration on soil moisture storage and yield of round gourd in sandy soils. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 49, 880–885. Singh, R. P., Singh, H. P., & Singh, K. C. (1975). A note on the use of Bentonite clay as a sub-soil moisture barrier for vegetable production on drylands of Rajasthan. Annals of Arid Zone, 14(1), 63–66. Singh, S., & Kar, A. (1995). Report on natural resource appraisal for sustainable development of Bharamsar village. CAZRI Publication. Singh, S. D. (1985). Potentials of water harvesting in dry regions. Annals of Arid Zone, 24, 9–20. Singh, S.D. (1988a). Using pond sediment treated catchments. In S. D. Singh (Ed.), Water harvesting in arid tropics (pp. 11–21). Singh, S.D. (1988b). Run off utilization for increasing crop yield. In S. D. Singh (Ed.), Water harvesting in arid tropics (pp. 21–32). Singh, S. D., Singh, R. C., Vyas, D. L., Misra, D. K., & Bhati, N. S. (1973a). Studies of tillage, fertility on pearl millet in sandy arid plains of Rajasthan. Annals of Arid Zone, 12, 145–154. Singh, S. D., Daulay, H. S., & Muthana, K. D. (1973b). Runoff farming making the best use of available water. Indian Farming, 23, 7–8. Singh, Y. V., & Saxena, A. (1998). Management of limited water resources for crop production. In A. S. Faroda & M. Singh (Eds.), Fifty years of arid zone research in India (pp. 189–213) Central Arid Zone Research Institute.

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Ullah, W., Chakravarti, A. K., Mathur, C. P., & Vangani, N. S. (1972). Effect of contour furrows and contour bunds on water conservation in grasslands of western Rajasthan. Annals of Arid Zone, 11(3&4), 170–182. Verma, C. M., Paroda, R. S., & Sharma, K. D. (1977). Effect of sowing time, seed treatment and methods of sowing on establishment of Cenchrus ciliaris. Forage Research, 3, 149–152.

Chapter 9

Community Land Management in the Thar Desert Anju S. Vijayan

Abstract Common property resources (CPRs) play multiple roles in maintaining ecological and socioeconomic sustainability of the population. Factors such as socioeconomic, biophysical, and external factors influencing the management of CPRs vary from village to village. Some of the village communities have developed their own rules and regulation for managing and harvesting their CPRs in a sustainable way to meet their day-to-day demands. Land management, on the other hand, is the process of using land by citizens for their maximum benefit within the prescribed policy and legislative framework set down by the government to ensure that land resources are used in an orderly and sustainable fashion and in ways that the environment is protected. In the Thar Desert, animal-human linkages and their involvement in desertification are crucial. Overstocking, which leads to overgrazing, is frequently the result of the population expansion that exceeds the habitat’s basic productive capability. Despite the fact that local residents are fully aware of the negative repercussions of deforestation, their socioeconomic interests encourage tree cutting. The local community, particularly the younger generation, is in danger of losing touch with their rich cultural history as a result of growing contact with people in cities and the invasion of Western lifestyles through mass media. This perception has created a communication gap and affected the flow of traditional knowledge from the older to the younger generations. Destruction of the forest ecosystem has placed people in an extremely vulnerable situation. The threats in effective management of community land include sociopolitical inequities, insecure tenure, developmental threats, lack of recognition and support, governance indifference, conflicting ownership issues, etc. A full inventory of community conservation areas and studies on their sociopolitical dynamics, wildlife and biodiversity values, economic and social benefits, and threats is needed. Existing statutory rules and regulations governing protection and management of community land should be critically reviewed and amended. Under the current development paradigm, the local communities, their efforts, knowledge systems, and technological innovations remain unrecognized. There is need to document and refine indigenous technologies and practices for community land management. It is extremely important to orient regional planning toward the ecological and A. S. Vijayan (B) College of Horticulture and Forestry Jhalawar, Agriculture University, Kota, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_9

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cultural dimensions of the area, including community conservation efforts. Local people should be actively involved in the planning as well as execution of works undertaken for the rehabilitation of the community land areas. The long-term natural sustainability priorities of the arid western Rajasthan may include land recovery/ protection measures against water shortage and land-erosion risks; environmental remediation and regional ecology stability with balanced land use; socioeconomic awareness aimed at the sustainable exploitation of natural resources; protection of geo-ecosystems with endemic flora and fauna along with the current and predicted biodiversity threats; and monitoring of geo/ecotourism and geo-heritage promotion. Keywords CPR · Human-animal linkages · Over grazing · Traditional knowledge

9.1 Introduction A basic definition of community will help the professionals to understand how people are organized in relation to utilization of land and its associated resources. According to the sociological definition of community, there has been three general approaches. First approach is community as locality—a human settlement with a fixed and bounded local territory. This definition suggests that there is a relation between geographic location and social life. Another approach is community as local system involving inter-relationships among people living in the same geographic region. Third approach is community as a type of relationship, especially a sense of shared identity (Hillary, 1955). Community, however defined, provides scholars and forest managers an opportunity to understand the direct linkage between humans and their natural environment. Community land is largely prevalent among indigenous community of particular society. Their rights to land and natural resources are recognized by international laws and even violated at national level (Gilbert, 2017). Most of the writing on community land and resource tenure recognition to date has focused on the experience with customary land tenure. There is no commonly agreed or standard legal definition of common land in India, though many types of common lands are recognized locally, though there are revenue classification and legal interpretations. Common property land resources (CPLR), as per NSSO, 1998, are the lands situated within the boundary of the village and are formally (i.e., by legal sanction or official assignment) held by village panchayat or community of the village including village panchayat grazing land/pasture land, village forest and woodlot, village sites, and threshing floor. Areas of land or water that are used and managed collectively by a community or a group of communities for their livelihood are termed as common property resources (CPR) (Gaur et al., 2018). In most part of the country, the common property is frequently managed by local community of the particular region. Common property resources are renewable natural resources where current excessive extraction reduces future resource availability, and the use of which is de facto restricted to a specific set of agents, such as inhabitants of a village or members of a community (van Soest,

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2013). “Another definition of Common Property Resources are those resources in which a group of people have co-equal use rights, specifically rights that exclude the use of those resources by other people. Individual membership in the group of co-owners is typically conferred by membership in some or the other group, such as village or tribe etc.” (Magrath, 1989). CPRs are lands without any exclusive individual ownership or rights of tenure, to which many social groups, sedentary and migratory, claim access. CPRs are local resource base which comprise assets such as ponds, stream, woodland, range land and pasture land, unreserved forests, fallow lands, uncultivable wastelands, village tanks, wetlands, and fisheries. The common property resources may be placed within three property right regimes, i.e., open access, communal property, and state property. In open access, rights are owned in common, but access is open to everybody. In case of state property, ownership and management control is held by the nation, state, or crown. Communal property means community-based resource management system. In this management, use rights for the resource are controlled by an identifiable group and are not privately owned or managed by governments (Berkes et al., 1998). Common property resources continue to be a significant component of the livelihood resources base for rural communities in developing countries such as India. In the arid areas of India, common property resources provide both tangible and intangible livelihood to their dependent (Shyhendra, 2002). It mainly contributes to land used for cultivation, income generation, NTFP collection, food, and water supply, grazing by the cattle and other livestock. Other social and economic contributions include drainage, recharge of ground water, improvement of micro-climate in the village, and sustainability of the farming systems. In Africa, indigenous reserves are legal, social, and political entities with a collective title that conveys full private property and resource rights, and are administered in accordance with traditional indigenous laws (Barume, 2010).

9.2 Community Land and Sustainable Development Indiscriminate and unsustainable use of natural resources to meet the demands of an increasing human population depletes the biological resources of fragile ecosystems. Global risk of biodiversity extinction has been made worse by the significant contribution that land use and land cover have made to climate change (Houghton et al., 2012). In the effort to preserve biodiversity for future sustenance, human society faces enormous threats and challenges. Therefore, society must rethink how to develop and conserve bioresources in a sustainable manner. During India’s pre-British era, a sizable portion of the nation’s natural resources was still freely available to the rural inhabitants (Muhnot, 1968). A situation known as the “tragedy of the commons” (Hardin, 1968) arises when people exploit shared or common property resources to the point that demand exceeds supply, the resource eventually becomes unavailable, or it would be unable to meet the demand. In this context, the term “shared” refers to the right of an individual to use a piece of a

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resource for his or her own benefit without having any claim to the entire resource (Ponce, 2010). Common property resources (CPRs) have a range of roles in preserving the population’s socioeconomic and ecological sustainability. Environmental, social, and economic sustainabilities are three interconnected factors that are normally balanced in sustainable development (Klarin, 2018). Sustainable forest management aims to preserve multiple forest services and products in a balanced manner over the long term. The global sustainability of ecosystem depends on the conservation, preservation, and judicious use of forests. The ultimate objective of sustainable forest management is to maintain balance between three pillars of sustainability such as social, economic, and environmental values of the forest ecosystems for the benefit of current and future generations (Food & Agriculture Organization, 2015). However, one of the major challenges to accomplishing this goal is the disparity between state development goals and the views of local people and communities. A collaborative, integrated management strategy with the local community is necessary for forest conservation. Local and community-based forest management is a multifaceted strategy for sustainable forest management (Haji et al., 2020). In India, different villages have different approaches to the management of common property resources depending on socioeconomic, biophysical, cultural, and environmental conditions (Topal, 2015). Traditional societies place a high value on socioeconomic and cultural considerations, and multicaste village groups supported communally managed common property resources until the colonial conquest (Gadgil, 1987). Traditional approaches, whether philosophical or social, have been effective in managing common property resources (Chopra et al., 1990).

9.3 Importance of Community Land Management According to Thornthwaite’s classification, more than two-thirds of India’s land area are classified as arid, semiarid, and dry sub-humid land and are subject to various forms of land degradation. Despite these ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional limitation, dryland communities have traditionally shown extraordinary resilience, resourcefulness, and adaptations which aid in coping with high climate variation and sustaining livelihoods (Safriel & Adeel, 2008). The implementation of informal community by laws to control grazing and the gathering of non-timber and timber products reduced rangeland degradation throughout the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa (Gari, 2006; Hussein, 2011). Pastoralists in Mongolia developed indigenous classifications of pasture resources which facilitated ecologically optimal grazing practices (Gimenez, 2000). Deforestation in the tropics accounts for nearly all of the 18% of greenhouse gas emissions caused by land-use change (Stern, 2007). Some Central African nations changed their forestry laws to permit the possibility of community management. These include the traditional forests and grazing areas that are controlled by the pastoralists of that area, as well as the traditional

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sacred groves known as Khayas in Kenya. Protecting vital communal resources like water sources and seasonally significant grazing reserves is one of these management strategies’ key goals (Roe et al., 2009). With co-benefits for eradicating poverty and ensuring food security, policy initiatives supporting the adoption of contemporary methods in drylands can mitigate desertification. These initiatives can also increase the availability of alternative livelihood possibilities outside of agriculture (Cowie, 2018).

9.4 Sustainable Resource Management in Thar Desert The Thar Desert is the most populated hot desert in the world, occupying 385,000 km2 and 9% of the country. It extends from Punjab through Haryana and Rajasthan to Gujarat, with the Aravalli Mountains forming the eastern boundary (Chlachula, 2021). Strong disparities in topographic, geomorphological, climatic, edaphic, and physiographic factors cause the drylands of western Rajasthan to exhibit a diverse spectrum of ecosystems (Sharma & Mehra, 2009). Communities here fight with severe food and water shortages, poor health, and acute poverty due to the region’s extremely low rainfall. Despite its limited vegetation, Thar Desert contains a variety of habitats and biodiversity that have adapted to the extreme weather conditions (Gaur et al., 2018). Animal husbandry generates additional income and meets basic needs in Rajasthan, where the economy is largely dependent on animals. Since overgrazing and land degradation are the main contributors, this has resulted in significant biotic stress on the ecosystem and natural resources (Gaur, 2015; Gaur et al., 2016). The Indian Thar Desert’s bioresources must be characterized, conserved, and used sustainably. This requires the adoption of both conventional and modern scientific approaches. Based on their traditional knowledge and wisdom, the local communities in the Thar Desert have revealed that they are stronger custodians of their natural resources. The sustainable property resources management in the drylands of western Rajasthan include community-led water management (like talabs, tanka, nadis, ponds, tanks, rivers, etc.), village Gauchars, community forests, wasteland, Orans, community conserved and protected areas, agroforestry land, etc. The percentage of the village’s total area that was covered by commons frequently fluctuated from 9 to 28% (Gaur, 2014; Jodha, 1994). The native people of Thar Desert have very unique system of conserving natural resources (Gaur et al., 2018). Livestock rearing mainly sheep and goats is a traditional livelihood in western part of Rajasthan, especially Thar Desert region. In order to protect desert environment from the persistent threat of famine and drought, community grazing areas are maintained through systems created by the locals of this arid region and conserved over millennia. According to Hedge (2004), communal pasture management in Rajasthan boosted the amount of fodder and fuel wood produced, which in turn increased the amount of cattle produced.

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9.5 Ethnic Communities and Biodiversity Conservation in Thar Desert of Rajasthan In desert areas, there is a complicated and multifaceted connection between ethnic communities and biodiversity preservation. Indigenous and local communities in many desert areas, especially in developing nations, focus primarily on natural resources for their survival, including food, water, and medicinal plants. In Indian subcontinent, ethnic community is known as scheduled tribe. For biodiversity utilization and its management, ethnic people play a significant role in Thar Desert of Rajasthan (Parihar, 2013). These communities have also evolved traditional skills and ways of life that have given them the ability to coexist peacefully with their local ecosystems for many years. These methods may involve agroforestry, water gathering and management strategies, and the use of traditional medicines made from native plants and animals. Traditional communities of the Thar Desert are custodians and stewards of their land and environment, and have been entrusted with this responsibility by ancestral charters through successive generations.

9.5.1 Bishnoi Community The Bishnoi are a particular caste group that live in northwest India and are regarded as India’s first environmentalist society. Bishnois have a long history of defending the ecosystem, protecting wildlife, and preserving trees. The sense of the environment and religious sensibility in this society is uniquely merged. The basic tenet of Bishnoi recommended maintaining environmental balance, such as the ban on cutting down trees and animal slaughter (Jain, 2011). A dham is a sacred place for the Bishnois. Each dham has its own story to tell about conservation, which can include planting trees or revitalizing existing ones, maintaining holy groves, building ponds, using water wisely, or reserving areas for feeding and sheltering animals and birds. This group has continued to preserve the regional beliefs and customs (Gehlot & Moolaram, 2017). Studies have shown that Bishnois maintain the sacred groves in their communities very well. There is a community grain bank among the Bishnoi Orans, some of whom have been dated to be between two and four hundred years old. One-tenth of the grains from each Bishnoi family’s annual harvest is donated. These profits go toward feeding wild animals and birds. In an Oran’s corner, a large bowl of grains and a water trough are typically stored. They believe that since animals were also created on the same planet as humans, they should be allowed to share resources like food and water with us (Reichert, 2015). With an emphasis on the preservation of black buck, the Bishnoi community has been engaging in community-based ungulate conservation. Chinkara, Great Indian Bustard, and Khejri tree are also given particular protection by them. They consider Khejri trees to be a representation of virtue, prosperity,

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and fortune. An example of self-sacrifice for the preservation of nature is Bishnoi’s sacrifice to safeguard the Khejri tree (Gehlot & Moolaram, 2017).

9.5.2 Bheel Community Bheel group of western Rajasthan comprises of various sub-castes like Dagla, Bochia, Joling Devra, Lirdia, Kalinda, Malkhat, Waghela, Parmar, Gundhi, Chuddi, Makvana, Sundia, etc. Each sub-caste has a particular God or Goddess to whom they are dedicated in order to preserve the biodiversity. Rohida (Tecomella undulata), a tree used for furniture and firewood, was never cut by the Bheel people in the Lunu village. They claim that timber from the Rohida tree was used to construct the goddess statue. They believe that if they take it from the tree or utilize it as normal, the Goddess will curse them (Kumar et al., 2017). As a result of this devoted behavior, the Rohida flower, the state flower of Rajasthan, is conserved. Also, this species is necessary for nesting and feeding in the variety of birds. The faunal and floral biodiversity in these regions is improved by these kinds of tribal community ethnic behaviors (Meena & Singh, 2012).

9.6 Traditional Systems for Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in Thar Desert 9.6.1 Pastoralism in Thar Desert Animal-human relationships and their role in desertification are essential in the Thar Desert. It is frequently emphasized in pastoral economics that pastoralists are highly focused on subsistence. Livestock owned by the inhabitants is a valuable resource that significantly boosts the local economy. Livestock raising is the region’s customary functional specialization among the various castes and communities. In western Rajasthan, Raika community, a traditional farming livestock community, is most prevalent (Kohler-Rollefson, 1994). Other communities like Gujjars, Jats, Malis, Rajputs, Sirvi, and Kumhars also engage in animal husbandry in addition to crop cultivation. Overpopulation that exceeds the habitat’s fundamental productive capacity frequently results in overstocking, which then causes overgrazing. Livestock has proven to be a useful tool during times of scarcity, particularly the hardy native animals like goats and sheep (Fig. 9.1).

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Fig. 9.1 Goats and sheep—valuable asset during scarcity in Jaisalmer region of Rajasthan

9.6.2 Settlement in Thar Desert of Rajasthan Despite its harsh climate, Thar Desert has a long history of human settlement. In Thar Desert of Rajasthan, major settlements or dhanis (Fig. 9.2) found in Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jalore, and Nagaur were nomadism on the one hand and agronomical practices and ethno-engineering variety of water conservation methods on the other hand. Desert communities use indigenous scarcity response methods such as indigenous agroforestry, crop-fallow rotation, common property resources, folk agronomy emphasizing crop production, and crop-pasture-based mixed farming to increase productivity and combat harsh climate. These provisions primarily help traditional communities achieve their many targets, such as ensuring a consistent supply of pasture and fodder (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.6.3 Fallow Land and Agroforestry System Crop-fallow rotation and traditional agroforestry are two key approaches employed by populations in the Thar Desert. Crop-fallow rotations have helped to improve soil fertility while also allowing for grazing and the collection of fodder, fuel, and minor forest products (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

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Fig. 9.2 Small settlement of a desert community in Jalore region

In drier part of Rajasthan, Prosopis cineraria (Khejri), Acacia nilotica, Tecomella undulata, Acacia tortilis, Capparis decidua, and Ziziphus nummilaria (ber) are the important models of traditional agroforestry system (Tewari & Singh, 2006). Prosopis cineraria-based agroforestry systems dominate western Rajasthan, accounting for approximately 47% of total area. Agroforestry based on Ziziphus nummularia covers approximately 28% of the total land area in western Rajasthan. Prosopis cineraria-based agroforestry model is the most accepted agroforestry model in western Rajasthan. Acacia nilotica is another agroforestry model of dry region and that is associated with rainfed crops like sorghum, pearl millet, groundnut, black gram, maize, and green gram during kharif season and irrigated crops like barley, wheat, gram, mustard, and so on during rabi season. Pods of Acacia nilotica are mostly preferred by pastures like goats and sheep (Tewari et al., 2007). Green or dried leaves of Capparis decidua (Kair) used as diet supplement for livestock during scarcity period in Thar Desert region (Fig. 9.3). Agroforestry is not constrained to farmland; it also has the potential to enhance rangeland, wasteland, eroded areas, and degraded land, as long as access to people and stock could be managed. Several people in arid areas depend on animal rearing to support their families. However, the availability of pasture lands has decreased over time to nearly 0.11 ha and 0.31 ha in semiarid and arid regions, respectively (Gaur et al., 2016). The Sewan (Lesiruss indicus) grassland, a nutritious fodder, is a significant gift of nature to the desert. Sewan rangelands are located in low rainfall part of Thar Desert regions like Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Barmer districts. The root of Sewan is rich in protein (7–11%). Villagers cut and store for long time even up to 10 years and used it for animal fed during times of drought and famine (Gaur & Gaur, 2004). Forage production in arid areas can be raised from 0.50 to 3.6 t ha−1 by growing grasses

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Fig. 9.3 Leaves of Capparis decidua (Kair) used as diet supplement for livestock in Jaisalmer region of Rajasthan

like Lasiurus sindicus, Cenchrus spp., legumes such as Clitoria ternatea, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Lablab purpureus, and trees like Prosopis cineraria, Azadirachta indica, Ziziphus nummularia, Prosopis juliflora, and Acacia tortilis in appropriate combinations with improved management techniques (Ramana, 2013).

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9.7 Water Harvesting Systems in Community Land of Thar Desert In Thar Desert region of Rajasthan, there are various water source systems such as khadin, nadi, tanka, baori, and aagore (Amirthalingam, 2014; Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.7.1 Khadin Khadin, also called a dhora, a small, low earthen dam, is a land-use system in which runoff from a catchment is retained in lower-level fields behind a bund. Any excess is discharged through a spillway. Throughout the rainy season, the water is held in the khadin. It may subside beneath the soil by the first week of November, leaving the surface moist. If standing water remains, it is drained through the sluice or spillway before sowing. It has long been customary to collect rainwater by building khadins for cultivation in the Thar Desert’s harsh conditions (Kolarkar et al., 1983). It aids in groundwater recharge while also allowing for the cultivation of kharif and rabi crops, based on the rainfall and subsequent runoff. The khadins are an arid oasis hidden behind a single massive bund. During the rainy season, fields directly behind the bund are frequently drowned, whereas those at higher levels have ensured moisture for a rainy season crop. During arid conditions, a post-rainy season crop is grown on stored moisture. A more profitable post-rainy season crop is feasible in a good year. Soil moisture and nutrient conditions differ based on where a field is located within the khadin (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.7.2 Tanka The Thar Desert has a long tradition of collecting rainwater. In this region, there is rainwater harvesting structure in an underground cistern called tanka in local language, which are constructed with huge masonry walls on four sides (Amirthalingam, 2014). The people in this area have scattered settlement so tanka is an important component of the integrated rural water supply system in western Rajasthan. The water was only used for consumption. If there was less than usual rainfall in a given year and the tankas were not filled, water would be obtained from neighboring wells and tanks to fill the household tankas. Tankas of various shapes and sizes, from rectangular to circular, with capacities varying from 1000 litres to 500,000 litres, are common in this area. Every home had at least one tanka for storing rooftop rainwater and other sources of water. Central and Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, has developed improved design of tanka in which the capacity ranges from 5000 litres for a single family to 600,000 litres for a community (Goyal & Isacc, 2009).

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9.7.3 Johad Johad also called as pokhar or percolation pond is a small earthen check dam that captures and conserves rainwater, improving percolation and recharging groundwater. During the monsoon, the water gathered in a johad percolates into the subsoil. This replenishes groundwater and improves soil moisture in large regions. The water in the johad can be used directly for irrigation, animal drinking water, and other household uses (Hussain et al., 2014). Animal rearing being the sustenance of local communities of Thar Desert region, higher water and fodder availability has improved their economic condition (Sharma, 2006).

9.7.4 Nadi and Baori A local man-made pond is called nadi. Construction of a nadi for rainwater gathering is a typical practice in the Thar Desert. Excess water drainage outlet called pachaur and catchment area called augaur are well maintained (Gaur & Gaur, 2004). The water stored in a nadi is generally used for drinking by livestock and human beings. Baoris/Bers are Rajasthan village wells that are primarily used for drinking. The majority of them are very ancient and were constructed by banjara communities for drinking purpose. This traditional water-gathering technique requires no artificial catchments and can hold up to 500,000 liters of water. Nadis and baoris were once built with the active involvement of the village community. For the first six months of the monsoon season, rainwater gathered in the ponds was used. The baoris beneath these pools were used for the next six months. The pond water was collected in the baori, which is used to trickle across the top of the pond. The villagers used to clean the nadis and baoris of debris and silt on a daily basis. The water from the nadi is consumed by both humans and animals (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.7.5 Aagore Aagore is the pond catchment area. It is a fully protected region of the pond. People clean that area during rainy season to collect pure water in large amount in ponds and traditional tankas.

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9.8 Soil and Water Conservation Strategies Changes in land use and management methods have resulted in irreversible land deterioration on a global scale by accelerating soil erosion (Guo et al., 2019). Erratic pattern of rainfall in arid part of Rajasthan results in higher runoff and soil erosion. Due to the inadequate storage of moisture in soil profile, crop grown during rainy season suffers moisture stress. Soil erosion is the main cause of land degradation which needs appropriate adoption of soil and water conservation measures so that crop productivity and soil productivity could be maintained in this region. Agronomic measures reduce the impact of raindrops through the covering of soil surface and increasing infiltration rate and water absorption capacity of the soil which results in reduced runoff and soil loss through erosion (Food & Agriculture Organization, 1984). The important soil and water conservation strategies in Thar Desert region are explained below.

9.8.1 Mulching Mulching is accomplished by collecting locally available brushwood and burying it vertically, crown-downward, in segments two to five meters apart on the dune surface to reduce wind velocity. Traditional conservation techniques were used to mulch the fields with crop residues, manures, and plant leaves. Growing legumes and fodder products reduces soil erosion. Another important technique is stubble mulching, which is used to track sand movement. Stubble mulching and plant roots serve to keep the soil together and prevent erosion. This ancient ritual is now being used to fight desertification (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.8.2 Med-Bandhi One of the most important practices in the Thar Desert is minimizing sand erosion from field to field. A mud wall is constructed on the field boundary to prevent human and animal trespassing and to reduce wind velocity, and a different variety of plant species is planted over it. Species like Crotolaria burhis, Leptodenia spartum, Panicum turgidum, and Calliogonum polygonoides are planted for this purpose (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

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9.8.3 Kana Bandhi This is one of the oldest techniques in the Thar Desert for controlling sand movement in the field. Bush twigs and limbs are fixed in a rectangle to stabilize the field’s fertile topsoil, stopping erosion and desertification in situ (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.8.4 In-Situ Manuring An essential farming technique known as “in-situ manuring” is anchoring livestock to the ground in the fields itself (Lumle, 1996). In-situ manuring enhances soil fertility by improving soil aeration and water retention, as well as transforming complex materials into simpler forms. Because agricultural residues and livestock manure are successfully incorporated into soils without nutrient loss, the in-situ system is also an effective means to recycle organic residues (Rivera-Ferre et al., 2013). The collection of organic manure in the Thar Desert area is aided by the night penning of animals such as goats, cattle, camels, and sheep in the fields. The addition of humus to the soil enhances its fertility. It improves soil quality by increasing aeration, water retention, and the breakdown of complex chemicals into simpler forms, resulting in increased fertility. Large field owners provide a safe refuge for herds of sheep and goats, enabling the animals’ excrement to persist in their fields and to provide organic material (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.8.5 Tillage Practice Sandy soils are tilled to receive more moisture at the start of the rainy season. During field clearing, all weeds are removed manually or mechanically, but shrubs like Zizyphus nummularia (Bordi) and trees like Prosopsis cineraria (Khejri) are left to prevent soil erosion and add to soil fertility. Mixed cropping and farming improves community stability (Gaur & Gaur, 2004).

9.9 Religious Practices in Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan In India, religious beliefs and cultural values have been conserving our faunal and floral biodiversity. Informally protected areas still exist in India, including sacred groves, sacred corridors, temple forests, and sacred gardens (Pandey & Samar, 1995). These groves are relic forest patches maintained in the name of faith and culture that stretch from Asia, Africa, and Europe to America, with the majority of them in Africa and Asia. Groves can be found in India’s north-east Himalayan area, Western and

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Eastern Ghats, Coastal region, Central Indian Plateau, and Western desert (Malhotra et al., 2001). The sacred grove conservation practice in India is thought to have begun around the same time as settled agriculture (Hughes & Chandran, 1998). Indian sacred forests date back to the Vedic period. They are usually linked with indigenous/tribal communities that believe in the divinity of nature and its resources. There are over a lakh of these sacred groves in the country, which go by various names in different states, such as Devrai, Devban, Devbhumi, Gumpa, Kavu, and so on. They are known as Orans in Rajasthan. Since time immemorial, this has been regarded as one of the religious practices used to prevent desertification processes in Rajasthan’s Thar Desert region (Agarwal, 2016).

9.9.1 Gauchars and Orans The economy of Rajasthan’s hot arid area is primarily livestock based, with animal husbandry being one of the main occupations of the people. Farmyard manure improves soil fertility and crop yield. Animal husbandry is also an effective tool for fighting droughts by supplying extra income and other requirements such as milk, meat, fiber, and manure (Rivera-Ferre et al., 2013). Since time immemorial, a significant portion of land has been set aside especially for grazing in almost every village in western Rajasthan in order to maintain animal husbandry. These grazing lands, known as Gauchars, also serve as catchment regions for community ponds. Gauchar word is derived from Gau which means “cow. So, this land is used for grazing of cows in Thar Desert region (Chaudhary et al., 2011). Any individual can donate land to Gauchar based on his or her devotion and capacity. The land can be given for a year and then returned for farming during the rainy season, or it can be provided permanently as Gauchar. In some villages, native people occasionally leave their territory as Gauchar area. They usually abandon their land permanently for Gauchar. This traditional method conserves biodiversity while increasing land productivity through livestock dung and urine, as well as natural activities. Gram panchayat is in authority of Gauchar land. To discourage tree cutting, some Gauchars have been pledged to local deities or legendary warriors and are known as “Orans,” a type of community forest. The villagers and their animals are meant to be protected by the local deity. Villagers continue to connect religious significance with trees on the Oran (Gaur et al., 2019). Orans and Gauchars are considered as the most valuable common property resources in the rural areas of western Rajasthan (Fig. 9.4). Orans were developed by local landowners or landlords to safeguard the villages’ common lands. A part of the common lands was given to a temple by the local ruler. The deities created under the cover of trees include Than or Majisa, Jog Maya, Pabuji, Harbuji, Bhomiaji, Ramdeoji Jamboji, and Mamaji. Orans are unique examples of gene pool conservation based on the socio-cultural value system of Rajasthan. Tanot Devi Oran of Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan supports a diverse range of vegetation and this Oran provides protection to the Godavan (Great Indian Bustard) and Chinkara

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Fig. 9.4 Gauchar land and Oran in Jalore region of Rajasthan

(Indian Gazelle). The non-timber forest products collected by locals only for selfconsumption and commercial use are banned (Chaudhry et al., 2011). These Orans not only play a major part in community-based biodiversity conservation, but they also provide food security to fight poverty in the Thar Desert area during the harshest periods of prolonged drought. The rural mindset of “Ahimsa” is manifested and incorporated into the very fabric of faiths that forbid the killing of animals. Due to religious beliefs, members of the Bishnoi group abstain from killing animals or cutting down green trees. Since very early times, customs of planting trees around temples, religious sites, fields, wells, and gathering places have been observed to slow the spread of desertification around communities. Orans in the Indian Thar Desert area maintain endangered, rare, and threatened plants as well as animal species of the region (Meena & Singh, 2012; Mukhopadhyay, 2008). The Orans are governed by ancient laws based on a shared belief in a deity, and everyone in the society has an equal interest in the exploitation of the available resources (Singh et al., 2016). Local people follow natural rules and believe in the local deity, so the Oran is free of encroachment and over-exploitation (Dagla et al., 2007). Traditional methods to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use should be acknowledged by policymakers. In many areas of arid Rajasthan, Oran-dependent communities still rely on an unwritten constitution to manage Orans. These lands should be protected for present and future generations. Orans are merely categorized as “Cultivable Waste Land” in the State Government’s revenue records because they are not properly categorized and characterized. As a result,

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the State Government allocated Gauchar and Oran lands to businesses and landless individuals in several locations without the locals’ permission. The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 was not followed when these lands were forcibly converted into “revenue” allotments and encroachment on revenue land was made legal. All types of forest lands that are diverted for non-forestry purposes are subject to this act, and such a diversion requires central government approval (Mukhopadhyay, 2008). Even though Orans and Gauchars sometimes resemble forest areas, they are exempt from this act’s requirements because most revenue documents do not recognized them as forest land. The communities no longer feel a deep sense of being robbed of a traditional entitlement, because of reasons mentioned above. Thus, in many locations throughout the state, the people have started plundering the sacred groves due to badly depleted grazing areas and water sources.

9.10 Diversion of Community Land for Non-Agricultural Purposes Many communities in India’s Thar Desert area depend on agriculture for their subsistence. But there has been a growing tendency in recent years to divert community land for non-agricultural uses like industrial development, mining, and urbanization. The loss of agricultural land, one of the main effects of land diversion, can result in a decline in food production and revenue for the communities that are affected. Diversion of community land may also result in community displacement, loss of traditional heritage, and environmental harm. The industrial and mining activities often require huge amount of water which leads to the depletion of water resources in that region. In order to address this problem, it is crucial to make sure that the use of community land for non-agricultural purpose is done in a sustainable and responsible approach.

9.11 Threats of Community Land in Thar Desert Some of the threats in effective management of community land are discussed below.

9.11.1 Change in Land-Use Pattern A significant portion of Gauchar and Oran community lands was privatized in order to be redistributed to local peasants (Varghese & Singh, 2016). Green revolution policies encouraged farming community to increase their pastures, increase cultivated land area by cutting down trees, and abandon indigenous agricultural techniques. This

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profit-driven agriculture led to an increase in mechanization of agriculture (Jodha, 1974), introduction of different varieties of hybrid seeds and use of inorganic fertilizers (Bandyopadhyay, 1987), and replaced traditional water harvesting practices such as aagore, johad, and tanka with use of tubewells as a source of irrigation. These newly adopted farming practices in this region have caused soil erosion, deforestation, and depletion of natural resources for increasing farming acreage and depletion of groundwater levels due to increasing number of tubewells. In Jodhpur region of Rajasthan during twentieth century, there is a major shift in land-use pattern due to increase in human population and livestock population, but there was no alarming change in climatic conditions which were recorded (Rao, 1996; Rao & Miyazaki, 1997).

9.11.2 Encroachment With the rapid rise in human population, a number of landless people encroach on Oran and Gauchar lands. Local residents usually do not object to such encroachments due to poverty, a lack of education, and a lack of awareness about their significance (Gaur, 2015; Gaur et al., 2016). Encroachment of community land areas by local communities or various other government agencies, as well as migration and immigration of people, has all contributed to the extinction of SGs. The most recent danger to community land such as sacred groves is the process of industrialization, modernization, greed of land mafias, and construction of building structures, which results in a loss of cultural and ecological significance among the younger generation of local people (Kandari et al., 2014).

9.11.3 Developmental Threats With the state and central government keen to take the state to a process of rapid economic growth, many community land areas and their surroundings have been threatened with industrialization, fragmentation, shrinkage and degradation of community land, clear felling, mining, quarrying, and activities such as Special Economic Zones (Agarwal, 2016; Gaur et al., 2019).

9.11.4 Increase in Human and Livestock Population Pressure One of the main causes of desertification in Thar Desert region is the degradation of natural vegetation due to increased human and livestock population pressure (Fig. 9.5). This has resulted in greater pressure on land for food security and fodder

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Fig. 9.5 Grazing Pressure in grazing land of Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan

security for livestock and has serious implications for the sustainability of livelihoods and the extent of poverty in the region (Varghese & Singh, 2016).

9.11.5 Gender Inequality The traditional prejudice against women is also very visible in most parts of Rajasthan, as is the near absence of women in decision-making processes, including those connected to community conservation. Women’s participation in communitybased activities and decision-making is highly limited. This region has an exceptionally low female literacy rate (Varghese & Singh, 2016).

9.11.6 Inadequate Local Support The pressure of an expanding population, the desire to increase income levels at the expense of sustainability, and the lack of adequate representation of all beneficiaries

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in the management and decision-making processes with regard to common property resource have frequently made the local community’s members indifferent to the need to conserve their CPRs. Additionally, this causes problems with the administration of these resources (Murty, 1994).

9.11.7 Lack of Recognition and Support Most community conservation efforts remain neglected by the government and by the media except some initiatives of Bishnoi community of Thar Desert. NGOs have increasingly stepped to document and support them, but even their abilities and commitments are limited.

9.11.8 Conflicting Ownership Issues There has always been a dispute over ownership between several government organizations, such as the Forest Department, Watershed Department, Wildlife Department, and Panchayat Raj bodies, who all assert ownership over the community land. Therefore, no single organization is keen to develop, protect, and preserve common property resource biodiversity. The Indian Forest Act (1878), Forest Conservation Act 1980, and Cattle Trespassers Act of 1871 are the several acts implemented to regulate grazing in public and forest lands. The laws provide provisions for custodianship of these lands. The ownership rights to CPRs are currently unclear, and there are several owners including the revenue department, the forest department, and municipal authorities (panchayats). To guarantee a sustainable utilization of grasslands, a national grazing policy is also necessary. There is currently no clarification regarding ownership or use rights over pastureland (Gaur et al., 2019).

9.11.9 Poverty Poverty, food insecurity, and inadequacy all add significantly to habitat degradation and land fragmentation because they result from the loss of farming community areas and pressure from human activity. Poor farmers and pastoralists depend on CPRs for a living. Poverty has been a scourge on natural resources because poor people depend heavily on them for survival as well as utilization of CPRs ecosystem services. Equal access and effective use of CPRs at the grassroots level are vital for rural poor livelihood sustainability (Gaur et al., 2018).

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9.12 Future Recommendations Community land conservation initiatives in Rajasthan need urgent support. Some of the future recommendations for better management of community lands are listed below.

9.12.1 Proper Rangeland Management The intensive grazing pressure on Orans and gauchar lands diminishes the natural regeneration of palatable grasses, shrubs, and tree species. For the purpose of promoting the adoption of sustainable rangeland management techniques such as rotational grazing, deferred grazing, and deferred rotational grazing, Orans and Gauchars lands were divided into small compartments using fencing (Chaudhry et al., 2011). This reduces the livestock pressure in the area.

9.12.2 Documentation A complete documentation of community land and studies on their sociopolitical dynamics, flora and fauna values, ecological, economic and social benefits, and challenges is needed. Recording and documentation of traditional knowledge on common property resource management help in the sustainable utilization of natural resource management in future.

9.12.3 Legal and Policy Backing Critical evaluation and, if necessary, appropriate amendments should be made to the existing statutory norms and regulations governing the protection and management of Orans and Gauchars. More strict and effective laws and regulations should be put in place to remove unauthorized occupants from the Orans and Gauchars. The Convention of Biodiversity 2002 as well as National Biodiversity Act (2002) highlighted the importance of community-level management practices and carved a way to create Panchayat-level Biodiversity Management Committees. Other relevant laws, such as the Wild Life Act, the Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest Dwellers Rights Act 2006, and the Environment Protection Act 1996 could also be useful in providing legal support (Chaudhry et al., 2011).

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9.12.4 Social Recognition and Awareness The local communities, their efforts, knowledge networks, and technological innovations continue to go unappreciated and unrecognized under the present development scenario. Local innovators and knowledge holders feel inferior as a result of a lack of acknowledgment and support. The local communities’ conservation efforts frequently attract the focus of the national and international community, resulting in social recognition of their efforts. The media and other channels can be used to raise awareness of community conservation areas among the state’s people, particularly among its urban residents. Initiatives that provide rewards can also be very effective at inspiring communities. Shri Gangaram Isharwal of Jodhpur’s Charai village sacrificed his life to save the Blackbuck. After his death, the governments of Rajasthan and India awarded him with the Amrita Devi Pariyavaran Puruskar and the Shauraya Chakra, respectively (Gehlot & Moolaram, 2017). This type of honor would encourage communities to work with commitment.

9.12.5 Ensuring Gender Equality Women are frequently ignored in the society and are the most vulnerable to water scarcity. It is critical that women participate actively, effectively, and in large numbers in local organizations attempting to deal with common property resources. They should make an effort to bring in leadership positions. As a result, they should be given equal chances in decision making and resource sharing (Rawat & Dookia, 2017).

9.12.6 Detailed Survey and Boundary Demarcation The present problem of encroachment toward community land should be prevent by detailed survey and boundary demarcation through erection of suitable marked boundary pillars, construction of a boundary wall, barbed wire fencing, or planting of a live hedge (Chaudhry et al., 2011).

9.12.7 Governance and Decision-Making Prior to Indian independence, there was a system of informal panchayats and caste panchayats (a type of village organization) that defined social behavior standards and guided the behavior of villagers, mainly Orans and Gauchars, in terms of resource utilization (Jodha, 1990). Many of the regulations lost their relevance and force over

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time (Jodha, 1985). By issuing patta, the Sarpanch or Gram Sabha can allot a plot of land within Orans or Gauchars to any individual or group. Such actions by elected officials, which are not governed by any laws, encourage the invasion of Orans and Gauchars. The laws and regulations regulating the eviction of unauthorized residents from the Orans and Gauchars need to be stringent and more effective (Chaudhry et al., 2011).

9.13 Conclusion In the Indian hot arid zone, drought and famine are a regular phenomenon, owing to very hostile climatic conditions and high temperature, coupled with high population pressure. Community land resources have played a significant role in natural resource management and substantial economic role for the sustenance in rural communities of arid and semiarid regions of India. There is an indivisible link between communities of Thar Desert and sustainable natural resource management. These communities have a vast knowledge of traditional management of natural resources and capacity for developing innovative practices and products from their environment. Breakdown of traditional institutions, coupled with loss of collective community wisdom, has resulted in destruction of the fragile ecosystem of western Rajasthan. Since many of these systems are eco-friendly and sustainable, efforts should be made to restore them with modern approaches to combat desertification.

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Chapter 10

Women Empowerment in Thar Desert Region Rajshree Upadhyay and Dhriti Solanki

Abstract Women have a multidimensional role in the society. The largest number of rural women is engaged in farming operations either as cultivators or supervisors or agricultural labourers. Almost all women suffer physical drudgery in various operations like hard physical work in livestock care and management, harvesting by bending, threshing/processing, marketing and bartering of produce, weeding with conventional implements by hand in hot sun, rain and cold for long hours, de-husking/ shelling, pounding, grinding of cereals and pulses by hand and collecting and carrying fuel over long distance. Most of these tasks performed by women are tedious as well as time consuming. Women of the Thar Desert have to spend all their energy bringing water for food and crops; struggling for subsistence agriculture; and tending to the livestock. The plight of rural women in Thar Desert is alarming as they are constrained by illiteracy, poor health, unemployment and low technical knowhow and skill. In order to improve the condition of women in Thar Desert, it is very important to create opportunities for their social, economic, technical and political empowerment. All the programmes, whether it is in health sector or education sector or economic sector or are meant for providing protection from adverse situations, are to be planned and executed in integrated and holistic manner for the empowerment of women. Keywords Farm work · Domestic work · Drudgery · Social development

10.1 Introduction The Great Indian Desert or Thar Desert covers portions of four western States of India viz. Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat and the adjoining portions of Sind and Punjab in Pakistan. The bulk of it lies in Rajasthan, majorly covered by the four districts viz. Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The nearby districts like Jalore, Pali, Nagaur, Sikar, Churu, Jhunjhunu, Ganganagar and Hanumangarh also R. Upadhyay (B) · D. Solanki College of Community and Applied Sciences, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_10

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have partial coverage of area falling under Thar Desert. The desert is characterised by high temperature in summer and low, freezing temperature in winter, low rainfall, large sandy treeless areas often formed into high shifting sand dunes. The way of life of the people in the region and their sources of livelihood has chiefly been conditioned by disturbances in ecological balance due to the severity of the arid climate. To help support their families, many of the men had to migrate to cities, and this means that a number of women have been left to feed their families alone, confronting drought and conjuring food from poor soil. In an arid and inhospitable Thar Desert, women have taken the struggle against poverty into their own hands. Recurrent failures of rainfall cause droughts and create extreme water scarcity. Socially, the biggest impact of water scarcity could be seen on the female population. Procuring water is considered to be a household task, and the women and girl child are involved in procuring water for the household needs for which they need to walk miles every day in the hot and harsh climate. The Thar thus makes the lives of women even complex. Sex ratio is one of the important indicators of gender equality. Against the sex ratio of 928 in Rajasthan state, the districts in Thar region have comparatively lesser sex ratio, i.e., 852 in Jaisalmer, 902 in Barmer, 905 in Bikaner and 916 in Jodhpur district. This indicates poor feminine status in terms of the demographic composition. Any development is incomplete without educational upliftment. As against the female literacy rate of 52.12% in Rajasthan state, the districts located in the Thar Desert region are having lower literacy rates with 39.71% in Jaisalmer, 40.63% in Barmer and 51.83% in Jodhpur. The reason is desert constraints which require female involvement in water collection from remote areas that hampers their educational upliftment. However, on the positive side, improvement in the female literacy rate could be noticed in Bikaner district (53.23%) due to the concerted efforts of URMUL Trust in the villages. Generally, the higher work participation rate (WPR) is a good indicator for the economy as well as a healthy society. The lower WPR is a hurdle not only for the economy but also for the society. There are wide variations in the percentage of work participation rate within the districts of Rajasthan in relation to the spatial changes in working population. Total work participation rate (TWPR) of Rajasthan is 43.60% and total male WPR is 51.50% and total female WPR is 35.10%. This figure is alarming in Thar region where female work participation rate is as low as 29.80% in Jodhpur, 30.80% in Bikaner and 34.50% in Jaisalmer district. However, the situation is relatively better in Barmer district with 41% female work participation rate (Census of India, Rajasthan, 2011a). Social status of female is equally important to determine the level of development. The way females are treated by society is very important. It means she should be given proper respect and treated as human being. Thus, crime against women becomes an important parameter which includes rape, kidnapping, dowry death, torture, molestation and eve teasing. According to State Crime Record Bureau, Rajasthan (2020), the total number of incidence of crimes against women recorded in Rajasthan were 34,535 of which 988 cases were recorded in Bikaner, 1593 in Jodhpur, 249 in Jaisalmer and 1204 in Barmer district.

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10.2 Women in Agriculture Women have a multidimensional role in the society. Besides their usual domestic work, majority of the rural women are engaged in agricultural operations either as cultivators or supervisors or agricultural labourers. They participate in various agricultural operations like seed sowing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, threshing, application of manure, storage of seeds and food grains and post-harvest home level processing and also play an important role in decisions related to these activities. Besides, they are also involved in bringing fodder from field, chaff cutting, feeding and cleaning of cattle, maintaining cattle shed, compost making, etc. Inspite of their active involvement in agricultural activities, their contribution go unaccounted as they are not directly paid. The contribution of female labour is always more than the male labour in agricultural production. “Inspite of water shortage, the population living in the Thar claim agriculture as their primary occupation. Crops generally include bajra (pearl millet), moong (green gram), moth (moth bean), guar (cluster bean) and til (sesame). A number of trees grow natively in the Thar including khejri, babul, bordi, goonda (a citrus fruit), aonla (Indian gooseberry), anaar (pomegranate), nimbu (lemon) and ber (desert plum). Unfortunately, with pressure to produce higher crop yields of grains, these trees are becoming less and less common” (GRAVIS, 2022). Due to low yields farmers are forced to migrate, resulting in stress on the women and children of the family who are left behind at home. According to Data Book on Women in Agriculture (AICRP, 2003), rural women in Thar Desert area were mainly involved in weeding (98.78%), harvesting (97.36%), plant protection (90.24%) and seed selection activities (83.37%). Besides, women were actively involved in almost all post-harvest operations viz. shelling, processing, grading, drying and storage, threshing, cleaning of grains and de-husking (80.49– 99.80%). Participation of the women in livestock management activities highlighted their active role in procurement of fodder, care of animals, cattle shed management, care of sick animals and feeding (78–79%).

10.2.1 Rural Women and Drudgery Almost all women suffer physical drudgery in various operations like hard physical work in care and management, harvesting, threshing/processing, marketing and bartering of produce, harvesting by bending, weeding with conventional implements by hand in hot sun, rain and cold for long hours, de-husking/shelling, pounding, grinding of cereals and pulses by hand, collecting and carrying fuel over long distance, fetching of water from cooking and drinking from distant places (Tiwari & Vyas, 2017). Most of these tasks performed by women are tiresome and time consuming. As most of these operations are done manually or by using traditional tools, they cause fatigue and drudgery. The farm women put in hard physical labour beyond

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their capacity for long hours resulting in body pain. All these factors cause physical and mental fatigue, monotony, hardship, economic stress, etc. The predicament of the women in this regard is alarming as they are impeded by illiteracy, poor health, unemployment, lack of technical knowhow and skill neglecting women’s needs for comfortable work participation.

10.3 Women’s Role in Water Management The Thar makes the lives of women complex. Among their many duties, one is to fetch water for drinking and cleaning which they need to do every day. Since most villages do not have drinking water available, girls have to walk for 3 to 5 h each day to fetch water for their families. Women of the Thar Desert have to spend all their energy bringing water for food and crops; struggling for subsistence agriculture; and tending to the livestock. Due to lack of water, hygiene is another serious problem. They cannot use free-flowing clean water to bathe themselves or even drink, further putting their health at risk. The continuous decrease of water access, indeed, can provoke series of negative consequences for women that go beyond the responsibility of collecting water. From a women’s perspective, the problem of lack of water manifests itself on three different but interconnected levels:

10.3.1 Water Collection Many women hailing from desert villages bear the burden of fetching water for their families. They spend a significant amount of time everyday commuting in search this scarce but essential resource from distant sources (Fig. 10.1). In case of drought, desertification and water shortage, the distances to reach accessible water source increases even more. Therefore, women are often forced to move away from their village and walk for hours before finding clean water. These long daily journeys for water collection can be very dangerous and physically demanding. In order to transport water, women carry heavy vessels weighing up to 20 kg. These heavy loads over long distances can cause damages such as health issues, back and chest pain, arthritic diseases and may develop deformities. Moreover, getting away from the village before or after daylight hours can make these women very vulnerable to rape and sexual violence. In addition, spending most of their day in collecting water, the women lose the opportunity to be engaged in other working activities and earn some money. Moreover, their young daughters, having no time to go to school, are eventually excluded the educational system.

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Fig. 10.1 Women carry water from distant sources

10.3.2 Water Contamination The problem of water in dry areas is not only related to its difficult and distant access but also its contamination, caused by the progressive environmental degradation due to desertification. Women living in these geographic contexts are not only responsible to meet their family water needs, but they also must ensure that it is clean. Indeed, dirty and contaminated water can cause serious diseases, sometimes even deadly ones. Therefore, women are not only at risk of sickness, but are also responsible for the health and well-being of their entire family members, especially their children. Children are particularly vulnerable to water contamination and lack of access to clean and drinkable water is very dangerous for them which may result in child mortality due to water borne diseases such as diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera and dysentery. Contaminated water can provoke several diseases for mothers, increasing the rates of maternal mortality. It also impacts their capacity to cope with pregnancy and childbirth.

10.3.3 Sanitation Without a water supply system, the sanitation system also becomes dysfunctional. Improper access to toilet and sanitation facilities creates other problems as well. The lack of sanitation systems (essential to maintain good health and hygiene) indeed harms women very severely. Having to urinate, defecate and deal with menstrual hygiene in public open spaces, they often have to wait for very long time in order to reach remote places. This aspect can cause serious risks for women safety. Urinating and defecating in public can be extremely humiliating, because of the lack of privacy, also it can provoke serious health diseases related to delay and long waiting hours

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before night fall. Moreover, moving during the night in isolated zones, they can be exposed to sexual harassment and wild animals’ assaults (such as snake). All these consequences often trigger psychological stress and thereby affect their mental health as well. Furthermore, the lack of sanitation facilities and latrines can have a negative impact on girls’ education. The women’s responsibilities related to water management and collection can turn into negative consequences in terms of health, safety, education and life opportunities. This contributes to wide range of health problems among women particularly affecting reproductive health and disables girls to attend schools.

10.4 Women in Panchayati Raj Institutions For the development and progress of the nation, everyone including women should be an active participant of the democratic affairs. One of the landmark decisions in this direction of women’s participation in the decision-making bodies is the 73rd and 74thAmendment of Constitution in the year 1993 which secured one-third position for women in local governance. The unique feature of the 73rd Amendment is that it brought new life to these institutions by making it compulsory that women should be adequately represented in these bodies because they should be active partners in the process of development. This has given women a greater opportunity for participation and of performing role in the matters of local administration. We can look into women’s representation at three levels; one is at governance level, i.e., their role in identifying the needs of the village, financing, distribution of work, and tender call, etc., second level is the role of women in implementing the development work of the villages such as road construction, water, sanitation, hospital, school and need of women within the jurisdiction of their panchayat and thirdly their own development and empowerment after becoming panchayat members viz. reconciling domestic, productive and political duties, gaining self-confidence, voice against injustice, express their demand and get support from the people and family. But the actual situation is different, women have not exercised their franchise to the full extent. Their turnout in the election is discouraging, because they hesitate to vote, being traditional bound and largely illiterate, they do not exercise their discretion and just behave as “rubber stamp” of men and vote for the person or party their husbands/fathers/brothers tell them to vote for. The women, who enter public life, are relatives of male public figures and their acts are directed by them. Often, they degenerate into party spokeswomen and hardly voice their own opinion on the floor of the house. Most of them remain as silent spectators to the proceeding of the house and rarely participate in its works. Approximately 1,45,3973 women are elected as representatives in different levels of PRIs in India. In Rajasthan, there are about 64,802 women representatives working in Panchayati Raj (Ministry of Panchayati Raj, 2020). Bringing these women into politics was an act of positive discrimination. It was the pressure of law, combined with the political imperative of winning elections that changed political parties’

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perception of women’s limited capacity for public office. Women usually keep away from taking part in politics and their effective participation is barred by the deeply rooted patriarchal attitude. Women in PRIs face certain problems in the discharge of their responsibilities. Besides the traditional barriers to women’s role in public life, there is prejudice and lack of cooperation on the part of male colleagues in the PRIs as well as the government machinery. Often caste and other forms of discrimination act as an added dimension to the problems. PRIs have helped to change women’s perception of themselves. Women empowerment is not only measured or ascertained by their political representation in local or national politics, but it can also be expounded on the basis of their freedom and liberty where they can decide on their own. Women will have to improve themselves through education, take an interest in public and social affairs and become popular leaders themselves, if they have to perform active role in PRIs. It is imperative that they come up by their own merit and not with the help of their male relatives. Only then, they can stand up for the problems of the people in general and of women in particular.

10.5 Issues and Problems of Women in Thar Desert The Rajasthan state has a population of about 68 million people; almost 48% of the population is female (Census, 2011b). The position of women in Rajasthan is precarious due to a number of factors. In Rajasthan, child marriage and dowry system are the still continued customs. Other problems faced by rural women include health and malnutrition, wage-based discrimination and gender-based prejudice. Female foeticide, sexual assault and domestic violence are all common; however, many of these crimes go unreported to the police or the media. The state also has India’s lowest female literacy rates. The state of Rajasthan has created a policy paper for women’s empowerment, but it hasn’t succeeded in allowing women to participate in various decision-making processes. Incidences of female foeticide, sexual abuse and domestic violence are high; many incidents never get reported to neither authorities nor the media. The state also has lowest rates for female literacy in India. Rajasthan state has made policy document for empowerment of women; however, it has failed to enable the participation of women in various decision-making processes. Women of Rajasthan want to live with dignity; they don’t want to be left in a helpless position where there is no respect for them. This was explained further by Ramachandran (1999) that dignity means meeting the basic needs such as clean water, toilets, fuel, food and a roof over head; freedom from violence; justice—a society where right and wrong is recognised; equity between men and women and between people; not be dependent for essentials on the outside world; opportunity to know the world outside—mobility, exposure and information; society where every girl and woman experiences good health; a clean environment and a say in decisions which affect their lives. One of the age-old customs which complicates the problems of women is child marriage. “Child marriage is a very common custom where children, even

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infants, are married away on an auspicious day called Aakha Teej. Child marriages contribute to virtually every social problem that keeps Rajasthan behind in women’s rights” Mishra et al. (2014). This evil is extensively practised in the state despite numerous attempts by the state administration. The inability to properly implement government programmes is the main reason why the position of women in terms of poverty and suppression has not improved. It has also been influenced by the tradition of the patriarchal feudal society. Women’s choices to marriage were limited as a result of their lack of access to education and apprenticeships in business or trade. Women are not allowed to forbid sex or prevent pregnancy within the marriage. However, patriarchal religious ideologies also have a part to play, as they promoted high birth rates and forbade infanticide, both of which are likely factors in the demographic increase. “The National Commission for Women received 1130 complaints of crime against woman from Rajasthan in 2021, out of which maximum cases were of child marriage, followed by cases of dowry and domestic violence” (NCW, 2021). The majority of women in Rajasthan work in the unorganised sector. Women are disproportionately employed in agriculture in rural areas, which is largely unorganised in nature. Women’s employment in agriculture is significantly influenced by a number of cultural factors, regional norms, beliefs and traditions that collectively provide the framework for gender construction. Due to unstable employment, lack of training, education, and livelihood insecurity, a sizable portion of rural women who are illiterate or semiliterate are forced to work in the unorganised sector of the economy. The majority of their activities are manual. Their job in the unorganised sector is primarily characterised by (a) physical ability to work and (b) a lack of adequate laws and regulations to safeguard the workers. According to Sinha (2006) the other important issues related to women are as under: • There is lack of title to productive assets, access to “inputs” (land, credit, water, fertiliser, seeds, information, technology, training, etc.) and access to markets. • Inadequate gender-differentiated and disaggregated data, as well as data gaps with regard to rural women, which results in overlooking gender issues for macro (national and regional) and micro (intra-household, farm, community, etc.) planning. Chronically biased data cause skewed policies in favour of male farmers and men in general. Policy statements addressing gender issues are often vague or ambiguous, and easily overlooked. • Lack of appropriate methodologies that recognise and value women’s contribution, actual and potential, to productive activities and which result in women’s marginalisation in projects and programmes. • Women are treated as welfare recipients in many employment and incomegenerating projects rather than as assets developing their own productive potential. Mandates in regard to women are either absent, weak or not enforced. Women also suffer from low self-perception and self-esteem, and there are very few positive role models. • Low technical and management skills among rural females. • There is lack of access to credit facilities particularly to women entrepreneurs.

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• Human rights documents are not explicit on women’s rights. There is little monitoring of human rights protocols and instruments, and even less accountability. There are a number of issues relating to rural women that require attention, including limited political participation, limited access to credit or resources, low literacy rates, a lack of skills to earn a living, poor health and nutritional status, high maternal mortality, lack of title to productive assets, access to inputs, access to the market, poor roads for quick transportation and scarcity of water and fuel. It is true that rural women continue to be the most marginalised and undervalued group in society. As a result, the government and civil society must make it possible for this vulnerable group of people in society to improve their quality of life.

10.6 Empowerment of Women “The concept of women’s empowerment in the modern context can be traced to the latter half of the 1970s when it was increasingly discussed and promoted by third world feminists and women’s organizations” (Koteeswar et al., 2007). Empowerment of women has become a relevant issue due to the magnitude of women’s powerlessness and subordination in the contemporary social context. “Empowerment literally means making someone powerful, facilitating the weak to attain strength, to increase one’s self-esteem, to help someone to be assertive/self-confident, to enable someone to confront injustice and oppression and to support someone to fight for rights. Empowering women actually means strengthening them to confront family, community, caste, religion and traditional forces, patriarchal forces and biases working within government departments” (Arya, 2000). Different perspectives on women’s empowerment exist. One perspective sees it as a process that helps women recognise their identity and power in all spheres of life. It means increasing the political, social, technical or economic strength of women. Having the ability to make decisions on one’s own, having access to information and resources to make informed decisions, having a variety of options from which to choose, exercising assertiveness in group decision-making, believing in one’s ability to effect change, having the capacity to learn skills to increase one’s personal or group power and having the capacity to democratically change others’ perceptions are the probable capabilities. Empowerment, therefore, is a process of awareness and capacity building leading to greater participation, enhanced decision-making power and more control. The political, social, economic and technological aspects of empowerment must all be the focus of empowerment facilitation strategies.

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10.6.1 Process of Empowerment Changes occur in women’s education, awareness, self-esteem and leadership abilities as a result of the empowerment process. There are four parts to the process of empowering women: • Gaining knowledge and understanding of gender/power relations and the means by which they can be altered; • Growing in self-worth; believing that one has the power to effect desired changes and the right to control one’s life; • learning how to make decisions and thereby gaining leverage and bargaining power; and • learning how to organise and/or influence social change in order to create more equitable social and economic systems. The objectives of women’s empowerment are to: • change patriarchal ideology (male dominance and women’s subordination); • transform the structures and institutions that support and uphold social inequality and gender discrimination (the family, caste, class, religion, educational processes and institutions, media, health practises and system, laws and civil codes, political processes, development models, and government institutions); and • enable poor women to participate in the political process. The process of empowerment has five dimensions, viz. cognitive, psychological, economic, political and physical: • The cognitive dimension refers to women’s awareness of the micro- and macrolevel conditions and factors that contribute to their subordination. Making decisions that may go against cultural expectations and norms is part of it. • The economic aspect is the belief that women have access to and control over productive resources, providing some degree of financial autonomy, and • The psychological aspect is the belief that women can act on a personal and societal level to improve their individual realities and the society in which they live. • The political component calls on women to be able to organise, plan and mobilise for social change. “The process of empowerment involves establishing physical control over one’s body and sexuality as well as the capacity to defend oneself against sexual aggression. In the process of empowerment one can notice visible and invisible changes in the lifestyle of the people. The phenomenon of empowerment has both manifest and latent aspects. Some of the manifest aspects of empowerment are ownership of property and increased consumption of resources, better exercise of the right to avail facilities, rights over one’s own body and life, the fight for decision-making on crucial issues, greater mobility outside the family, reduction of infant mortality and female foeticide, reduction of morbidity and achievement of greater life expectancy,

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and right to exercise family planning methods and limit the number of children. Some of the latent aspects of empowerment are feeling better sense of social security and improvement of self-image or profile” (Koteeswar et al., 2007).

10.6.2 Economic Empowerment of Women in Thar Region “Undeterred by displacement from Pakistan throughout the 1971 war and settled within the Thar Desert in 1988, several of the villagers had earlier stayed at expatriate camps in Barmer and Jaisalmer for 17 years. For these people living in desert region, handicrafts are the main source of livelihood. There is a high population of women who are skilled in many handicrafts. They are involved in preparation of items from spun cotton and wool, stitching and embroidery. The women of Barmer are pioneers of kashidakari, a kind of embroidery used to decorate shawls, handkerchiefs, bed covers, cushions, and bags, among a host of other items. They are also making textile articles using patchwork and quilting. Brands such as Fabindia, Ikea, and Rangsutra get much of their material from them” (Bose, 2017). Bikaner is the key location for producing leather goods from camel hide. Shoes (juttis), coats, bags, belts, small pouches, lampshades and other leather items are wonderfully embroidered using vibrant threads to enhance their beauty. The women who work as artisans earn a living, despite this, they have relatively low social and individual status. They don’t actually have the authority to spend their own money the way they like. They are not involved in making decisions, do not play a significant role in the community, are unable to advocate for their own rights and are not given access to knowledge that could help them improve themselves personally. They are unable to comprehend market dynamics and customer expectations. By succeeding in the field of handicraft, the women of Pokhran Tehsil in Jaisalmer have provided a classic example of how to achieve financial independence. The women in the area have transformed the regional handcraft into a significant source of revenue, which has helped the economy of the area recover. This is providing the area a new identity in addition to boosting the economy. The Urmul Trust has made a significant effort to develop skills among rural women by training them in operating khadi and handlooms as well as cutwork embroidery. One of the most laudable aspects is that the ladies who wear the ghunghat (veil), came forward to showcase their traditional embroidery and weaving crafts. Now that Pokhran’s traditional weaving is available globally, women are becoming more independent and earning more money (ANI, 2022). The Urmul Trust in Bikaner assisted the female artisans in the district of Bikaner in modernising their traditional trades, offered technical assistance and connected them to domestic and foreign markets. Additionally, the non-profit organisation released them from the shackles of greedy intermediaries. Women artisans in Dandkalan, Gokul, Bhaloori Bijeri, Bikendri and other villages of Kolayat and Pugal blocks of Bikaner first organised themselves into self-help groups and then further developed their skills (Bose, 2017). SURE, a Barmer-based NGO has stepped in to promote handicrafts with the goal of maximising the profit of the

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female workers and inspiring them to become respectable entrepreneurs rather than merely casual wage-workers. Through SURE, women artisans have been able to participate in the creation of handicrafts and earn higher and more consistent wages. Most of them are able to make Rs. 3000 and Rs. 4000 per month. These female artisans have been exposed to the working of handicraft markets. Their involvement in exhibitions held in several Indian cities has boosted their self-esteem and instilled a sense of respect for their cultural abilities (sure.org.in). “Sunder Rang, a project by Chandelao Vikas Sanstha (Chandelao Development Organization) in partnership with Basecamp Foundation of Norway, is enabling many women in Chandelao, a village located 40 kms east of Jodhpur, to earn a living by producing traditional arts and crafts and promoting regional Rajasthani crafts. Sunder Rang has been successful in providing sustainable revenue and boosting women’s entrepreneurship with the goals of preserving regional craft traditions and creating premium goods with distinctive Rajasthani designs. Sunder Rang offers a variety of goods, including clothing, handicrafts, furniture, and accessories. The goods maintain a traditional feel, and each pattern and design is specific to Rajasthan. Through beadwork, weaving, embroidery, and sewing, the women develop complex patterns and motifs. They exhibit finished goods in mud huts constructed from local materials, showing the range of “real Rajasthan’s” culture and artistic expression. These women now have more influence at home thanks to their work and income. They now wish to send their daughters to school, and some of them have elevated to the position of group leaders in their communities, inspiring other women to take their example. The traditional embroidery used to create custom trousseau is now preserved and market-linked (Ruttkowski, 2017). These women were given instruction by well-known designers and National Institute of Design and National Institute of Fashion Technology graduates, which enabled them to perfect their skills. Now, these women are able to earn Rs 3500 to Rs 6000 per month” (Bose, 2017). In addition to handicrafts, women in the Thar region also work in agriculture to support their families. Due to the extreme weather and ongoing water shortage, majority of them are subsistence farmers. Majority of the agricultural output comes from kharif crops, such as bajra, guar, jowar, maize, sesame, and groundnut, which are sown in June and July and cultivated during the summer. “Most of the processes such as sowing, weeding, watering, harvesting are dominant by women’s workforce while role of men is limited to preparation of land, ploughing and marketing the produce. In addition to various agricultural processes, livestock management is also done by women. However, though the women have a dominant share in labour, it does not get translated to empowerment or decision-making authority” (Sharma et al., 2016).

10.6.3 Role of Microfinance in Empowerment of Women As women in Thar Desert pursue number of economic activities, they need finance to expand the enterprise for increased income. Here, microfinance institutions can

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be quite helpful in providing women with the credit they need at reasonable interest rates. Microfinance is the delivery of financial services to low-income clients, such as consumers and business owners, who often do not have access to banking and related services. Microcredit, also known as microfinance, enables millions of people who are too poor to be served by traditional banks—typically because they are unable to provide adequate collateral security—to access credit, savings and other essential financial services. Microcredit, also known as microfinance, is banking for the unbankable. In India, microfinance scene is dominated by Self-Help Group (SHGs) because they are a successful method for delivering financial services to the “Unreached Poor” and for enhancing their group self-help capabilities, which results in their empowerment. Rapid SHG formation has now given rise to a national movement for women’s emancipation. Microfinance is essential to help the rural poor, especially rural women, overcome exploitation and build confidence for economic self-reliance. These programmes have the potential to start a series of “virtuous spirals” of economic empowerment, as well as broader social and political empowerment, by helping women be able to earn a living. The outcomes of these selfhelp groups (SHGs) are encouraging since they are demonstrating that they are a successful strategy for reducing poverty and promoting economic empowerment. Chawla and Bhati (2013) stated that among the rural women members of the SHGs of Sri Ganganagar district of Rajasthan, 80.83% had improved their economic status, 77.33% were not exploited by the moneylenders, 77.33% witnessed easy access of money in emergency situations and 73.33% have been noticed as the empowered women. In addition to the informal sector of finance, the formal and semi-formal sectors, such as commercial banks and NGOs, are interested in lending money to women since they see it as a profitable business. By using the microfinance services offered by the various financial channels, women are taking part in the microfinance movement as well. Microfinance’s primary goal is to empower women. A sizable portion of microloan recipients are women. This multiplier effect boosts the influence of a microfinance institution’s activities and benefits future generations when women have access to microcredit loans. “Self-help groups intermediated by microcredit have been shown to have positive effects on women, with some of these impacts being ripple effects. They have played valuable roles in reducing the vulnerability of the poor, through asset creation, income and consumption smoothing, provision of emergency assistance, and empowering and emboldening women by giving them control over assets and increased self-esteem and knowledge” (Zaman, 2001). Several recent assessment studies have also generally reported positive impacts (Simanowitz & Walker, 2002). Both the MFI-led microfinance programme and the Self-Help GroupBank Linkage programme (SBLP) are effectively assisting the needy in Rajasthan. This encourages women to come together to join a group of 10 to 15 members, with all the women from economically disadvantaged classes contributing by giving the group regular instalments of their own money. Loans are provided to the members of the group by their contributions. Later on, Self-help groups also provide loans for income-generating activities.

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According to Cheriyan (2015), CUTS Centre for Human Development has been successful in implementing SHG projects with the support of the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and Department of Women and Child Development (DWCD), Government of Rajasthan, and other funding agencies and formed more than 1000 SHGs in Chittorgarh and Bhilwara districts of Rajasthan. It has let women identify and nurture their hidden skills and powers and at the same time has brought a boost in their confidence levels and communication skills. The women, who never leave their homes, have begun going to the banks and interacting on their own. Women now have the ability to protest collectively against social ills that are pervasive in society. Women are beginning to believe in themselves and realise that only they are capable of ensuring their own welfare. The women started financially supporting their family after joining SHGs. Women used to borrow money at high interest rates in the past. The women were able to understand the concepts of interest rate, principal amount, etc., after learning about the SHG loan process. It has reduced the transaction costs for lenders as well as borrowers and freed its members from the grip of moneylenders. The women have gained so much influence that they no longer feel shy about speaking their minds. Women have been more involved in decision-making and have begun to lead their families as a result of understanding the leadership concept in SHGs. Their leadership qualities and capabilities have grown as a result, and they have been empowered.

10.6.4 Strategies/Interventions for Women Empowerment It is commonly acknowledged that no transformation is conceivable unless women’s potential is adequately realised. Therefore, it is crucial to give rural Indian women opportunities for socioeconomic development and empowerment in order to hasten the country’s growth and prosperity. In order to empower women, there may be resistance from their families, society or the mental state of unempowered women. Hence, women’s empowerment agenda needs special consideration. Education, entrepreneurial training programmes, the creation of self-help organisations, social and legislative activities, etc., are a few of the several options. In view of the condition of women in Thar, following strategies for empowerment of women are suggested: • Gender concerns in agriculture need to be mainstreamed. Strengthening appropriate structural, functional and institutional measures to enable women and increase their capacity is necessary. • Policies should specify the precise laws and programmes of action that will grant women access to productive assets, markets and inputs (such as land, credit, water, fertiliser, seeds, information, technology and training). • When developing sustainable development policies, efforts should take into account how unsustainable institutions and practices affect women and households headed by women, particularly in respect to marginalised populations’ access to

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food. Food distribution within households should be looked into and, if necessary, rectified. In order to reduce the displacement of female labour, improve economic efficiency, pay women more for their time spent working, and remove drudgery, agricultural policy and technologies must be developed. Policies that guarantee an equal growth in income, wages and other advantages for women must be implemented with productivity-boosting measures. Agricultural policymakers should be aware of the social and cultural barriers that prevent women from participating equally in agricultural and rural development programmes, such as the triple burden of women and the male predominance in decision-making, and they should work to address these barriers. To recognise and value women’s contributions to productive activities in the economy, both existing and potential, appropriate procedures and guidelines are required. It is also important to construct indicators to measure how gender issues are addressed in programmes, projects and policies. Women’s issues must be taken into account during planning, project conceptualisation and design, monitoring and assessment. At each of these steps, a feedback mechanism should be included, and gender-responsive individuals should be involved in the planning processes. Goals or targets related to gender issues should be fully mentioned in policies and programmes, together with the necessary procedures and guidelines. Prioritising policies and programmes should take gender issues into account, and the planning process should show commitment by allocating resources appropriately. Effective forward and backward linkages between micro and macro-planning and policies are required. Recognising women’s needs and potential as partners in development, women’s development should be prioritised as an essential component of human resource development. The problem of women’s low self-esteem must be addressed through agricultural and rural development policy through initiatives in education, reorientation and mobilisation of the media, extension and training and support services for women farmers. Governments should provide a policy framework to capitalise on the positive experiences of NGOs to facilitate a coherent, collaborative approach to NGO programmes, which assist vulnerable groups, such as poor rural women. All involved in development activities, including female clientele, should be made aware of the policies already in place on gender equity and women’s empowerment. Training programmes for panchayat leaders in local planning and genderintegrative participatory methodologies should be developed. For rural women to effectively use development inputs and develop leadership abilities for managing community-based development initiatives, economic and political literacy programmes must be developed.

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• Information exchange and collaboration between the organisations that concentrate on women’s issues and technical operations related to agriculture require appropriate institutional procedures. • In order to expand ground water resources through bore wells and tube wells wherever practicable, it is necessary to implement appropriate technologies, such as underground storages and bunds in the fields. • Need-based skill upgradation training programmes should be organised for rural women with emphasis on learning by doing for generating self-employment among them. In order to promote entrepreneurship among women small start-up funds and grants should be encouraged. • The working conditions for women employed in the unorganised sector need to be greatly improved. This can be accomplished by improving infrastructure, providing better essential services to all unorganised workers, particularly women, and enacting laws. For the proper implementation of the policies for all-around development of the women working in the unorganised sector, there is a need for an integrated approach from all the agencies, joint functionaries consisting of government, concerned departments, management, labour unions, local bodies, voluntary organisations and women’s organisations. • The numerous rural development programmes of the central and state governments should be made known to the elected women leaders in the Panchayati Raj Institutions. Additionally, a forceful campaign for fundamental changes will need to be started in order to alter the perspectives of all the stakeholders involved in these institutions of grassroots democracy that form the cornerstone of the Indian political system. All those who are devoted to it must work together to complete these responsibilities because they are both challenging and crucial.

10.7 Conclusion The women in Thar have a multidimensional role in the society with active participation in agricultural activities with their contribution unrecognised. They exert themselves physically beyond their capacity. Another major issue is obtaining water by fetching it from far-off locations. Because of their limitations due to illiteracy, poor health, unemployment, and a lack of technical knowledge and competence, rural women’s predicament is worrying. In a nutshell, it could be said that although a lot has been done to solve the problems of rural women and overcoming their drudgeries, still there are miles to go. Therefore, it is crucial to make efforts for the social, economic, technical and political empowerment of women in Thar in order to better their position. Focus is required on organisation of specialised trainings, promoting women’s involvement in decision-making, access to resources, credit, market information, connecting them digitally to global market and mobilising women through SHGs. The challenges lie not only in searching for alternatives but strategies need to be sharpened to make them effective and result oriented. It is therefore essential that all programmes, whether in the health, education or economic sectors, or those intended

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to safeguard women from unfavourable circumstances, are developed and carried out in an integrated and comprehensive manner to promote their empowerment.

References AICRP. (2003). Data Book on Women in Agriculture (2003). Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi ANI. (2022). Handicraft skills of rural women set epitome of women empowerment in Pokhran. Retrieved on March 10, 2022 fromhttps://www.aninews.in/news/lifestyle/culture/handicraft-ski lls-of-rural-women-set-epitome-of-women-empowerment-in-pokhran20200425172540/ Arya, A. (2000). Education and empowerment. Indian Women, Vol.11, New Delhi. In R. M. Lakshmipati (Ed.), Women empowerment challenges and strategies (p. 408). Regal Publications. Bose, T. K. (2017). Women artisans of Thar Desert overcome adversity through embroidery. Retrieved on May 5, 2022 from www.villagesquare.in/women-artisans-thar-desert-overcomeadversity-embroidery/ Census of India. (2011a). Rajasthan. Registrar General & Census Commissioner of India. New Delhi. Retrieved on April 23, 2022 from http://censusindia.gov.in/ Census of India. (2011b). Women and Men in Rajasthan, 2018. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Statistics Department, Rajasthan, Jaipur. Retrieved on April 23, 2022 from https://plan. rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/planning-portal/Directorate%20of%20Economics%20and%20S tatistics/Publication/Other%20publication/women%20and%20men%20in%20rajasthan%202 018.pdf Chawla, S., & Bhati, D. S. (2013). Empowerment of rural women through self help groups. Journal of Progressive Agriculture, 4, 139–143. Cheriyan, G. (2015). Self help group—A catalyst for women empowerment (p. 23). CUTS International. GRAVIS. (2022). Agriculture and animal husbandry. https://www.gravis.org.in/index.php/ourwork/agriculture-animal-husbandry. Accessed on 5 July 2022. Koteeswar, R., Satyanarayana, K., & Ramakrishna, Y. (2007). Women empowerment: Challenges and strategies (M. Lakshmipathiraju, Ed.). Regal Publications. Ministry of Panchayati Raj. (2020). Representation in Panchayats. Press Information Bureau, Delhi. Ministry of Panchayati Raj. Retrieved on March 15, 2022 from http://pib.gov.in/PressRelease IframePage.aspx?PRID=1658145 Mishra, N., Ahmed, A., & Mariam, T. (2014). A study on issues and problems of women in rural Rajasthan. National Journal of Professional Social Work, 15, 13–26. NCW. (2021). Statistical overview of complaints. National Commission for Women, Government of India. Retrieved on May 7, 2022 from http://ncwapps.nic.in/frmComp_Stat_Overview.aspx Ramachandran, V. (1999, October 7). Needed: A Life of dignity. The Hindu. Ruttkowski, S. (2017). How Women in a Rajasthan village are boosting local tourism by showcasing their exquisite crafts. Retrieved on March 15, 2022 from www.thebetterindia.com/100828/sun der-rang-rajasthan-chandelao/ Sharma, N., Kumar, S., Ravula, P., & Tyagi, P. (2016). Mainstreaming gender and empowering women in agriculture in the Thar region of India. Research Report No. 69, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). Simanowitz, A., & Walker, A. (2002). Ensuring impact: Reaching the poorest while building financially self-sufficient institutions and showing improvement in the lives of the poorest women and their families. In S. Loomba (Eds.), Role of microfinance in women empowerment in India (2013). Retrieved on May 4, 2022 from https://www.google.com/search?q=role+ of+micro+financing+institutions+in+women+development&rlz=1C1CHBD_enIN917IN917& sxsrf=APq-WBv-D5ZCOeediy9EhuDYIU8G

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State Crime Record Bureau, Rajasthan. (2020). Crimes in Rajasthan 2020. Retrieved on April 6, 2022 from http://police.rajasthan.gov.in/CrimeBook/cir2020.pdf Sure.org.in/Women Livelihoods. Retrieved on May 5, 2022 from www.sure.org.in/Women-Liveli hoods.php Sinha, A. (2006). Rural women in dynamics of agriculture and food security. In S. B. Verma, S. K. Jiloka, & K. J. Kushwah (Eds.), Rural women empowerment. Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd. Tiwari, N., & Vyas, J. N. (2017). Technological empowerment of farm women in terms of gain in skill of selected animal husbandry technologies related to drudgery reduction. In 4th International Conference on Multidisciplinary Research & Practice (4ICMRP-2017). http://www.rsisinternat ional.org. Accessed 15 July 2022. Zaman, H. (2001). Assessing the poverty and vulnerability impact of micro-credit in Bangladesh: A case study of BRAC. Unpublished background paper for World Bank, World Development Report 2000/2001 (Washington, World Bank). In S. Loomba (Eds.), Role of microfinance in women empowerment in India (2013). Retrieved on May 4, 2022 from https://www.goo gle.com/search?q=role+of+micro+financing+institutions+in+women+development&rlz=1C1 CHBD_enIN917IN917&sxsrf=APq-WBv-D5ZCOeediy9EhuDYIU8G.

Chapter 11

Livelihood Opportunities in the Thar Region Purnima Rao Mundel

Abstract Livelihood, encompasses a wider spectrum of the activities that may help people to have a continuous and sustainable source of living and, hence, takes on a significant administrative role for economic, social, cultural as well as intellectual growth of society. The land-based crop production and livestock rearing continue to be the major source of livelihood in the Thar Desert belt. The inadequate social development activities, especially low literacy level and also availability of scarce opportunities limits the scope for diversification of livelihood towards non-landbased activities. However, there has been a gradual shift from land-based livelihood options to nonland based activities like tourism, arts and crafts, solar energy conservation, agro-processing, etc. Skill development of rural youth for job opportunities in these and other up coming non-conventional sectors such as oil refinery and natural gas resources hold substantial scope of livelihoods in the Thar region. Keywords Land-based activity · Non-land based activity · Skill development · Diversification in livelihood patterns

11.1 Introduction (Chambers & Conway, 1992) proposed the definition of livelihood as: A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels, both in the short and long term.

P. R. Mundel (B) OSD (Tribal Welfare) to the Governor of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India e-mail: [email protected] OSD (Handicrafts), Rajasthan Small Industries Corporation, GoR, Jaipur, India Regional Manager (Rajasthan), TRIFED, GoI, Jaipur, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_11

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Livelihood is not limited to a single trade and may involve engagement in one or more activities, without the mandate of a formal agreement between the parties. It may or may not entail payment in return for work engaged in. In other words, livelihood may not necessarily involve monetary transactions for carrying out the activities. Livelihood becomes ‘sustainable’ when: (a) It can cope and recover from stress and shock (natural calamities, trends, seasonality, war, etc.); (b) It can maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base; (c) Is capable of providing sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and (d) It contributes and benefits other livelihoods at local and global level, in short and long terms.

11.2 The Thar Region and Its Livelihood Characteristics Livelihood is an essential element of not just the existence of the human kind but more so for a holistic growth, development and even survival of each generation to come. Livelihood activities and skills are fundamental to upscaling the livelihood options and opportunities, thereby becoming instrumental in decreasing poverty, enhancing employability and ultimately, promoting sustainable development. In the desert State of Rajasthan, however, for a long time means of livelihood were relegated largely to animal husbandry and limited agricultural activities owing to its typical geographical topography. The largest State in terms of size, Rajasthan, is one of the least densely populated states in India, with roughly three-fourths of its residents living in rural settlements (232/km2 ) (Census of India, 2021). The difficult geographical terrain coupled with the conservative cultural and social environment, constrain expansion of livelihood opportunities, particularly in the rural areas of the desert region of the Thar. Topographically, the Thar, also known as the Great Indian Desert, covers an expanse of about 200,000 kms and is made up of very dry sand in the west, a semi-desert region, with fewer sand dunes and slightly more precipitation in the east. Rajasthan has varying topographic features, a major part of the State being dominated by parched and dry regions. The extensive topography includes rocky terrain, rolling sand dunes, wetlands, barren tracts of land filled with thorny scrubs, river-drained plains, plateaus, ravines and wooded regions. It’s diversified habitat and ecosystem is interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year, so is prone to wind erosion. The region is characterised by poor natural resource base, perpetual drought, very high temperature, very low precipitation, scarcity of water, low content of organic matter and presence of soluble salt in the soil. Rajasthan has less than 10% forest area; its predominant vegetation being jungle shrubs. All of these make everyday life of the inhabitants rather difficult.

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The social structure of the desert State is a mix of communities and castes (Find Easy, 2021), predominantly the ruling clan popular as Rajputs, the farming communities of Jats and Yadavs, the herdsmen—Meenas and Gurjars, the nomadic tribes of Gadariya Lohars and Banjaras and the tribal communities of Bhils, Garasiyas and Sahariyas. Further divided into many more sub-castes, the communities are characterised by their distinctive culture and traditions, which make the State among the most multifariously vibrant regions across the globe. The desert terrain of Rajasthan is what actually gave it the special feature of an interesting inter-communal mix, accounting for the varied hues of culture and traditions. Spread across the Thar in small pockets, communities thrived in their individual epicentre, developing their own survival mechanisms through their livelihood patterns and socio-cultural formations. However, scarcity of water, fuel and fodder, which is distinctive to any desert land, allowed for restricted economic activity, until of late. Sparse forest area, virtually no source of perennial water, vast expanse of arid land posed limitations of commercially viable economic activity for a long time. The people depended on the limited natural resources in their vicinity due to practically no infrastructure in terms of motorable roads and other convenient means of transportation. Post-independence, however, with the spotlight on industrialisation, Rajasthan, too witnessed accelerated growth in the sector. Its rich mineral sources such as copper, zinc and wollastonite, mines of marble and granite, textile, gems and jewellery and handicrafts helped the State to find a place on the industrial map of the country (RAJRAS, nd.). Over the period of time several manufacturing activities surfaced, with some leading MNCs choosing Rajasthan as their industrial destination. Rich sources of solar and wind energy proved an advantage for the empty arid land. Unfortunately, the industrialisation remained largely confined to the urban regions, with the far-flung desert areas being restricted to the traditional and limited means of livelihood. The handicrafts sector was the only saving grace for these neglected regions, where too the rural folks were capitalised upon by the better-off private sector which encashed the rich culture to their benefit. Thus, the rural population more or less continues to remain socially and economically backward in most drought prone border areas.

11.3 Sources of Livelihood in the Desert Regions In India as a whole, agriculture is the source of livelihood for two-thirds of its population, followed by other farm-based activities. Tourism and tourism-related activities form the non-farm-based livelihood option. While the conventional livelihoods include agriculture, animal husbandry, dairy, fishery and indigenous natural resource-based handicrafts, subsequent diversification in livelihood has laid out a wide palette of non-conventional occupations. The distinctiveness of the rural structures, in terms of resource endowments and factors of production, also greatly influence the livelihood and well-being of

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the people. Being dependent solely on farming activities, however, has revealed that it constrains improvement in the economic conditions of farm households. Studies and surveys over the recent years are almost unanimous in their findings that blending farming operations with the non-farm economic activities are instrumental in improving the livelihood security and well-being of the rural populace. Such diversification in rural livelihood, in turn, positively impacts the farm efficiency. To begin with, some critical highlights about the Thar Region include: • • • • • • • •

Geographically the largest State in the country (Area 342,239 sq. kms). Comprises 5% of the country’s population and 1% of its water resources. 70% of the area is single crop and rainfed. 66% of the area is desert and tribal land. 66% people depend on agriculture and animal husbandry for their livelihood. 22% of the population lives below poverty line. Livestock population is more than the human population. Has low level of literacy as well as low female to male ratio

The challenges posed by the geo-cultural characteristics of the desert regions get exacerbated by the limitations and complexities of livelihood patterns specific to the areas. However, with the expansion of the infrastructure, particularly in the transport and communication sector, the livelihood patterns are gradually getting diversified. From the earlier limited conventional occupations, the rural populace now have their doors open to many more options beyond the farm sector. Infrastructure development has also led to migration of the rural population, mainly the males. Due to the constraints of livelihood opportunities in the far-flung areas of the desert region, people are forced to test new pastures outside their villages. Most of them find engagement as daily wage earners, owing to want of domain skilling. The women workforce, however, has been among the most impacted by migration. While the males moved to the urban vicinities in search of more paying works, the womenfolk were expected to stay at home; but with the squeeze in the agricultural activities, they found no alternative activity to employ themselves in. The far-flung desert region of Rajasthan, however, is still riddled with inadequate infrastructure, thus limiting the livelihood options of its people. The difficult terrain and weather conditions, combined with limited natural resources, restrict their options even within their regions. The major source of livelihood continues to be farming and animal husbandry, thus, depriving them of growth in terms of education, employment, skilling, exposure to and choice of other financially and emotionally fulfilling livelihood activities. Large parts of arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan have long been characterised by a tradition of migration during years of drought, for as crops dry up and fail, everyone is forced to look for work outside their regions. In years of extreme drought, locally known as ‘mahakaal’, entire households and villages would migrate in search of food and fodder. However, with the growth in the welfare measures, migration is no longer simply a drought induced phenomenon and has increasingly become integral to the work cycle of thousands of rural males, who migrate to augment household incomes and to exploit the improved opportunity cost of their labour

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(female workers comprise less than four per cent of total migrants). Over the years, the livelihood profile of the rural population of the State indicates declining importance of agriculture, with opportunities for diversification in non-farm activities. In the last decade and a half, with the growing significance of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), from legal as well as marketing point of view, the livelihood patterns in the desert State have been undergoing a paradigm shift with quite a few business houses actively engaging the local communities in their outreach projects and extension programmes, e.g., Jindal Steel Words, Birla Group of Companies, Adani Group, etc.

11.4 Overview of the Current Livelihood Scenario in the Thar Region The post-independent decades witnessed an extensive shift in the landscape of the erstwhile desert State of Rajasthan, not just in terms of the topography but also the economic activities and accompanying interrelated spheres. From a primarily agrarian State, and one which once figured among the BIMARU states, Rajasthan has come a long way. Until the 1960s, Rajasthan was virtually an insignificant dot on the industrial map of India, with barely 8% workers employed in industries and mines; by the onset of 2000 this had gone up to 64% (RAJRAS, 2018), (even though the percentage share of industries in employment is still not significant enough). However, Rajasthan has achieved greater reduction in poverty than any lowincome State in the country thanks to various policy interventions at the government level and active collaboration of various private business houses. This is reflected in the broad-based efforts towards policy reform across sectors that resulted in a more productive and diversified agriculture sector, higher investments in manufacturing and substantial improvements in public service delivery. The income poverty has declined significantly from 34% in 2004–05 to 15% in 2011–12, a near 20 percentage-point reduction compared to a national level drop of 15 percentage points (Bhandari & Chakraborty, 2015). However, the social indicators of the desert State still remain among the worst in India and, even among low-income states, rank near the bottom (World Bank, 2018a, 2018b). Rajasthan is also among the lower performers in womens’ and girls’ education and gender gaps have shown little improvement over the years. Erratic water crisis is making traditional agricultural practices increasingly unsustainable, while growing fiscal pressures, partly due to deficiencies in the electricity sector, are narrowing the fiscal space available to implement comprehensive policy actions. Simultaneously, a dearth of high-quality jobs and stagnant social indicators, especially for women, have struck a blow to the sustainability and inclusiveness of growth, which if not addressed on a mission mode may become critical in reversing Rajasthan’s road to sustained progress. In recent years, especially with the post-COVID-19 drastic repercussions, Rajasthan has witnessed slowed growth rate,

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with its most critical tourism sector being majorly impacted adversely. The growing unemployment scenario in the urban and rural sectors compounded by persistent geographical and social disparities could threaten the welfare deliverables in the State. While job growth in Rajasthan was among the highest in India after 2005, it did not keep up with the expanding working age population that is not in school. While the population increased rapidly, creating a demand for new jobs, the working population (those with formal sector jobs) increased only marginally. The services sector added about a million new jobs with the early boom in the construction sector which managed to absorb the workers from the agricultural sector, but the manufacturing sector failed to create a proportionate number of new jobs for the growing unemployed populace. Thus, the supply demand gap in livelihood continued to remain skewed. The unemployment rate in the State fluctuated rapidly in the last few months of 2020, it decreased around the beginning of 2022 at 18.95% (Konema, 2022). On the flip side, many of those who were non-job seekers were the school going children who chose to continue their studies; in other words, the potential manpower of the State. Given Rajasthan’s relatively low secondary enrolment rates and the shortage of qualified labour in the manufacturing sector, this increase in school attendance can actually be turned into a boon by bridging the mismatch between the acquired and required skills of these students. Even though the cottage industry earlier was relatively active and employed a substantial women workforce, over the years with the advent of mechanisation and growth in the export sector which demands finesse in products, the rural crafts industry has had to take a beating. Also, while some major hubs of handicrafts, such as Barmer, Jodhpur, Jaipur and Udaipur, have managed to retain their positions in the domestic and export market, the majority of the remote areas with good potential have continued to lag behind (Fig. 11.1). This is largely owing to lack of government intervention and want of a comprehensive socio-economic policy that would capture the skill potential of these craft-rich areas and develop a pragmatic ecosystem where training is taken up to correspond with the skills and needs of this sector. The growing awareness and the need to tap the natural resources that the Thar region is abundantly blessed with—sun and wind—has opened new avenues of livelihood for the previously agri-dependent population. With big business houses venturing into the arena of wind and solar energy generation in the State, there is optimism about drawing more youth into acquiring new job-oriented skills.

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Fig. 11.1 Traditional handicrafts have huge export demand

11.5 Growth of Non-Conventional Livelihood Options in the Thar The literal meaning of livelihood is the existence of employment, work opportunities or occupation as a means of support. This type of support refers to physical sustenance of individuals’ families and households. Until a few decades ago the major sources of livelihood, particularly in a desert agrarian region were restricted to farming, animal husbandry, dairy, wage labour and traditional handicrafts, (Fig. 11.2) which were also confined to the immediate personal needs or limited commercial bargains. Sustainability back then meant the time period required to meet the immediate family and household needs for physical sustenance, whether on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. There were no long-term thoughts for factors such as quality of life, socio-economic growth, employable livelihood opportunities and definitely no consideration for preservation or protection of the natural environment. With sustainability and inclusiveness becoming the new buzz words, the emphasis has been on long-term integrated strategies for skilling and upskilling and capacity enhancement through on-job training and placements. Rajasthan was the first State in the country to come up with a distinctive Mission for Skill Development and Livelihood (RMOL) in 2004, subsequently rechristened

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Fig. 11.2 Tribal woman making basket with locally available raw material

the Rajasthan Skill Development and Livelihood Corporation (RSLDC) in 2012, with the specific aim of designing and implementing livelihood strategies for benefitting the rural youth, with emphasis on girls and women, the poor and vulnerable and the physically challenged across the State, laterally and vertically (Government of Rajasthan, nd). Operating on the PPP model, RSLDC is engaged in providing skill development training in varied non-conventional vocations, such as aviation, hospitality, nursing, banking and financial services, insurance, construction, product processing and green jobs, through its District Skill Centres (DSCs) along the Common Norms (CNN) laid down by the Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE). At the village level, sustainable integrated farming systems adopted in some districts have helped create new livelihood sources, fostering food security to the indigenous communities, particularly in the tribal dominated areas. The 649 km long Indira Gandhi Canal which was constructed in order to halt the spreading desert, has brought about a perceptible transformation in the agricultural economy of catchment areas and has now become central to the diversified sustainability of livelihood in the desert land as it has allowed for the flourishing of numerous employment opportunities. With the diversification of the economic base and establishment of functional linkages between villages, agro-service centres and market centres, the canvass of the livelihood opportunities has also widened.

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Realising the urgent need to conserve the natural environment, which Rajasthan is well endowed with, and also in compliance of the UN’s SDG for climate change action, the State Government launched its Ecotourism Policy with a two-pronged strategy of conserving the natural resources and linking it to income generation and employment options for the local communities. The emphasis on community-based ecotourism along with infrastructural development brings together related government departments, private sector, academic institutions, NGOs and local communities as the major stakeholders in complimentary roles, which augment well for the economic growth of the State. Under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employability Act (MANREGA), which came as a considerable relief as a livelihood option to the rural populace (Fig. 11.3), Rajasthan was able to provide livelihood to about 9,572,420 persons, covering 68,434,509 households during 2020–21 (Mnregaweb2, 2022). Spread of education and supporting infrastructure, including establishment of ITIs at district level, became a major catalyst in changing the dynamics of livelihood and employment in the rural areas of the desert land. Emphasis on self-employment and entrepreneurship by the State Government through various departmental schemes facilitated the sprouting of local mini-enterprises and small shops started by the rural youth. Auto repair, mobile repair, electric repair, carpentry, plumbing and fitting, etc., soon became the new sources of livelihood in the Thar.

Fig. 11.3 Rural women employed in MGNAREGA scheme in Rajasthan

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Easy availability of business loans by financial banks and public sector undertakings have also opened up numerous opportunities for the youth, women and the physically challenged to start their own enterprises and expand their livelihood options beyond the local settings. The State Government’s IT Policy promoting start-ups along with the Central government’s push to technical institutions on setting up Incubation Centres are actively changing the non-conventional livelihood scenario in the State (Government of Rajasthan, 2015).

11.6 Temporal Changes in the Economy Affecting Employment in the Thar Given the social and cultural backdrop of its history along with the natural topography, there are reasons to comprehend the comparatively slow economic growth of the desert State and that too in limited sectors. Traditionally an agrarian State, it was endowed however with a rich culture which provided a conducive environment for the mushrooming of varied arts and crafts. Yet unexplored in the initial years, these were confined to limited pockets and also within the family for a relatively long period. Post-independence, however, with the emphasis on industrialisation, Rajasthan made rapid strides in several sectors. Discovery of rich minerals across the desert land, stepped up government policies encompassing major growth sectors, most importantly education and infrastructure, became instrumental in taking Rajasthan forward. In the mid-1960s, the erstwhile village and cottage industries began to come together to form SHGs, with more and more rural women engaging themselves in local arts and crafts. Soon the NGOs also entered the rural handicraft sector, value adding through design interventions and helping the local communities to develop market linkages and thereby integrating the traditional with the non-traditional. Three major sectors of economy of Rajasthan which have impacted the skill development and livelihood scenario in the State in the recent years can be broadly divided into: Agriculture Sector, comprising the crops, livestock, forestry and logging and fishing. Industry Sector, encompassing mining, manufacturing, electricity, gas, water supply and other utility services and construction. Services Sector, covering trade, hotels and tourism related activities, transport and communication, financial services, real estate, professional services, public administration and other services.

As per the GSDP/NSDP estimates for 2019–20 Rajasthan ranks 7th among the states in the country, even though its economy was expected to decline by 6.1% in 2020– 21 as per the advanced estimates due to the COVID-19 pandemic situation which

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has impacted the economies worldwide (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Rajasthan, 2021). Primarily an agrarian State, agriculture and allied sectors of Rajasthan accounted for 25.56% contribution of its GSDP in 2019–20. Animal husbandry accounts for one-third share in agri-sector GSDP. The desert region is also one of the largest states in India engaged in organic farming, with over 81 hectare area registered under organic farming activities. In the manufacturing sector, Rajasthan has not only maintained its position among the top five fastest-growing states, but has also increased its share in India’s overall manufacturing output, some sectors even showing exceptionally strong performance over the years, such as automobiles, electronics and wood and wood products (IBEF, 2022). Unfortunately, however, Rajasthan still ranked 25th at the all-India level in terms of employment generation, contributing a meagre 7.5% of the total jobs as against the SDG target of 20% as per the NITI Aayog (Niti Aayog, 2019). The reasons attributed to such poor performance are low level of value addition in the manufacturing sector, with virtual absence of innovation, thereby perpetrating low employment generation. Even though Rajasthan was the pioneer in establishing the Mission for Livelihood (RMOL) in 2004 in order to address the challenges of unemployment and ensure gainful and sustainable employment by formulating appropriate and innovative strategies for the poor and vulnerable people, the efforts have failed to fructify in keeping with the mission targets. Despite having 464,000 workers during the financial year 2019, an increase over the previous year, as per the CMIE monthly data the unemployment rate in Rajasthan had hit a record high at 28.2% in December, 2020 after touching 24.1% in October (Statista, nd.). In February, 2021, it again shot up to 25.6%, the second highest in the country after Haryana’s 26.4%, against a national average of close to 7%. According to NSC data, the number of registered unemployed persons in Rajasthan is 6.03 lakh, with the State capital Jaipur alone accounting for 58.893 per cent (Dutta, 2019). The situation is even more dismal in the rural areas which have been severely impacted by factors such as loss of agricultural land due to squeezing fertile lands and subsequent migration to cities in search of jobs, inadequate education infrastructure, disappearing traditional arts and craft owing to depleting raw material and capacity building among the new generation. Above all, despite scattered instances of a handful of big business houses investing in projects, industrial and social (largely as part of their CSR mandate) that have opened avenues for employment in the rural areas of the State, skill development and training continue to remain restricted to basic routine job profiles. Even the programmes being run by the State Government under the PPP model have failed to meet the skill gap in keeping with the needs or capacity of the employable rural populace. Fortunately, with the mandate on the business houses to invest 2% of their profits into CSR activities, the private players have become more forthcoming as active training partners. Moving beyond the shareholders concept, they are reaching out to varied stakeholders through a triple bottom line approach. Companies have recognised the gains in training the local communities in skills that can work at an advantage

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to both, the business as well as the trainees. Companies like Jindal Steel, Bhilwara Suiting, Advani Group, etc., are increasingly investing in the State. The Adani Power Rasjasthan Limited is in the process of setting up a 1320 kw coal-based thermal power plant in village Kawai, Atru Tehsil of Baran district, opening livelihood opportunities in the six immediate surrounding villages.

11.7 Potential Avenues for Expansion of Livelihood Opportunities Rajasthan, the 7th most populated State, is home to 6% of the country’s total population at 68 million, with an urbanisation rate of 25%. Over 62% of Rajasthan’s population is in the working age group of 15–59 years. It has a sex ratio of 928/1000. With 11.6% annual growth in GSDP between 2011–12 and 2017–18, it is among the largest producers of edible oils in India and the second largest producer of oilseeds. It is also the biggest wool-producing State in India and the main opium producer and consumer. Rajasthan is among the largest producers of cotton in India (second largest producer of silk, polyester and fibre in the world) and with a wide network of forward and backward linkages; it is the second largest employment provider in the textile sector in the country, after agriculture. Today, the State offers substantial investment opportunities in leading sectors such as social infrastructure (education, medical, sports and affordable housing) (Investindia, nd.). A national leader in the production of a large variety of agro crops (number one in mustard, bajra, guar gum, medicinal and aromatic crops, horticulture and animal products (second largest producer of milk) having potential for processing and value addition, Rajasthan offers livelihood opportunities in the rural as well as urban areas (Invest Rajasthan, nd.). The Indian food processing industry is gathering momentum across the globe and Rajasthan is already much sought after for its dry, safe to preserve, range of food products. The village and cottage industries in the State have captured the taste buds of the domestic and international tourists for items such as papads and pickles, mandgodies and masalas and bhujias and bedwiens. The Bikaneri bhujia made from locally produced mothbean is famous worldwide as a savoury snack. Rajasthan accounts for 90% of the country’s marble, sandstone and slate produce, besides being among the top three producers of other metals and ores, such as ceramics and crude oil. The increasing demand in the infrastructure industry, such as housing, railways, roads, industries, rural electrification, etc., holds immense potential for livelihood opportunities in a mineral rich desert State. Construction of the Delhi-Mumbai-Industrial Corridor offers income generation options for the rural populace along its vicinity. The tourism industry is a significant economic multiplier in the State which is home to a varied wildlife sanctuaries, be it tigers, leopards, panthers, a variety of deer and migratory birds. Rajasthan also offers a colourful palette of regional history

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and traditions, folk culture and crafts, paving the way for a potentially rich rural tourism sector and the employment avenues associated with it. Many tourists come to see the Thar Desert and enjoy various experiences the desert has to offer like camel rides, night camping in the desert, the folk dances, local festivals, colourful costumes and hospitality of the people living in Thar Region. As per a study conducted by the World Bank: “Rajasthan’s creative industries generate employment opportunities, particularly for vulnerable communities, and have the potential to drive tourist visitation – and benefits—beyond urban centres to rural communities” (World Bank, 2018a, 2018b). Additionally, the private sector too has been evincing increased interest in taking on an active role in the sector along Public Private Partnership (PPP) model, which is a good indicator of rapid job creation and employment generation opportunities in the urban as well as rural areas of the State. With India accelerating in the automotive market on the global pathway, Rajasthan too has picked up speed as it boasts of the presence of almost 150 autocomponent industries, largely in the NCR, that has created a vibrant ecosystem for the automotive and ancillary units. Major private players such as Hero Motors, Honda Cars and Two Wheelers and Ashok Leyland add to the direct and indirect livelihood options. The Maintenance, Repair and Operations (MRO) and drone manufacturing with regard to the defense sector are the latest buzz words in the industrial directory of the desert state which will fling open vast employment opportunities to the youth. The Electronics System, Design and Manufacturing Industry (ESDMI), is the fastest-growing industry in the world, radically and speedily transforming lives, businesses and the economies. Driven by ascending local demand and a blooming electronics ecosystem, incentivised by missions such as ‘Make in India’ and ‘Digital India’, the sector is a storehouse of potential employment opportunities pan India. The Thar Desert region with its vast expanse has no dearth of land for setting up such industries with an added advantage of being able to use renewable sources for their energy requirements. Perhaps the most popular and fastest-growing sector is that of Information Technology (IT) and IT Enabled Services (ITeS), wherein the State capital leads as the most preferred destination for first time IT investors. With the State Government’s IT Policy incentivising innovation and start-ups and some of the top global IT companies having their operations in the State, making the once barren desert land is a growing storehouse of self-employment and livelihood generation opportunities for its youth.

11.8 Emerging Problems and Consequences “India has a paradoxical situation—on one hand, young men and women with higher education are entering the market seeking jobs, on the other, industries are facing challenges of unavailability of appropriately skilled personnel” (Pathak, nd.). India has a demographic dividend of the young population facing a skill mismatch with respect to industry-specific demand and supply. The situation is compounded in

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the desert State of Rajasthan owing to the demography given its socio-cultural conditions. Ability to build resilient livelihoods and cope with external factors beyond human control (the most recent one being the prolonged and continued aftermath of COVID-19) are some of the most fundamental challenges being faced globally today. However, the ability to spring back from the situation lies in the effective policy frameworks and the strength of supporting infrastructure. The primary challenge comes from the natural climatic conditions of the State. Comprising of almost 55% desert land and the depleting limited forest cover, creating alternate livelihood options, particularly in the tribal areas, in order to keep pace with the rate of migration of the rural populace, poses a critical problem. Despite having achieved substantial success initially, the industrial slowdown in the State in the past few years, compounded by the severe blow dealt by the COVID19 situation, is another major challenge for the government. Majorly impacting the job scenario in the urban areas, the situation has only worsened in the rural areas. With private companies laying off its employees and the government not hiring new employees, the youth are at a cross-road as regards their future livelihood options. Access to basic education in the remote areas of the desert, low standard of education in the rural areas and almost negligible inputs of technical education, not to mention the lack of adequate and conducive infrastructure, is a formidable challenge the government needs to work upon on a war footing as it directly impacts the socio-economic development of the region. While it is heartening to see more and more girls in the villages opting for studies, unfortunately the available corresponding infrastructure is neither conducive for their safety nor for their holistic academic growth or skill development. More importantly, there is a dearth of trained and dedicated teaching and hostel staff. The initiatives of a few business houses, largely under their CSR interventions, in the field of education in some rural areas of the State continue to be limited. Inability of the bureaucratic machinery to develop and promote training programmes beyond the stereotyped likes of beauty parlours, stitching, mehendi (henna) application, etc., for women and mobile repairs and basic IT skills for boys has stunted the livelihood canvass in the State. In fact, irrespective of the gender, skill development needs to be in-built into the curricula right from the school level. The State Government has announced that Saturdays are to be “no bag days” in the government run school, but its execution seems to be another story altogether. The NITI Aayog has identified five ‘Aspirational Districts’ in the State (Baran, Dholpur, Jaisalmer, Karoli and Sirohi) along certain indicators which have a formidable impact on the human development index (HDI); skill development is one of these indicators. However, as per the reports, Rajasthan is still lagging behind in the desired performance in these districts (Niti Aayog, nd.). Imbalanced approach to the growth impetus in different regions and to different genders is a bane in the vision of Skill India, nationally and federally. The tribal areas under Schedule VII of the Constitution, at least in the Thar region, continue to be treated by and large as non-priority areas on ground reality. Even though TRIFED, a Government of India organisation with the objective of providing market linkages for tribal crafts, has branches in almost all the states of the country, its efforts to capitalise

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on the inherent skills and traditional arts of the tribals in the State continue to remain partial (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, nd). Despite training modules of handicrafts operated along the framework of the Development Commissioner (Handicrafts), the skills identified are the regular conventional ones, with little attempt on delving deeper into more innovative ones based on the needs and capacity of the tribals of the region. The growing scarcity of water and electricity in the State is beginning to impact industrial development in the State, which in turn will have a ripple effect on the employment avenues and the efforts being made towards skilling. With narrowing absorption of trained manpower will erupt in a skewed demand supply gap. Rapid technological changes pose another challenge to a State which does not rank high in education, let alone in IT literacy. The businesses today are becoming increasingly tech-dependent and, thus, call for tech savvy manpower. Unfortunately, the training curricula in most of the skill development programmes, currently confined to the basic IT knowledge is far from adequate to match the latest job requisites, thus, undermining gainful livelihood opportunities. The immediate challenge would, however, be to create a strategy to level-up as well as to contain the damage wrought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. With a virtual shut down of almost all activities driving a major blow to the economy of the State, the skill development ecosystem has taken a huge setback. In fact, there is an urgent need to go beyond skill development to define career paths as skill-matched employment, a big challenge which exists in today’s ecosystem. In a desert land where climate is critical to livelihood options, addressing the impacts of climate change, given its unique vulnerabilities, is a daunting task on its own which requires a range of strategies to be deployed for an effective response and for better preparedness. The Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) has, fortunately, prioritised urgent areas of action in a phased and timebound manner, along with risk reduction and adaptation measures, which is expected to mitigate the challenges to agro-based employment opportunities.

11.9 Remedial Measures and Government Interventions Skilling is an ongoing, open-ended activity, with no closing date, necessary in today’s fast-moving economic environment. It is, therefore, essential to understand the changing nature of livelihoods in the process of adaptation and to respond to the underlying structural issues within the livelihood ecosystem, drawing from traditional knowledge and integrating it with the latest technologies. As already brought out, the Thar Desert is richly endowed with distinctive natural resources. Rajasthan is the largest producer in the country of non-ferric metals such as copper and zinc, besides having good deposits of silver ore, lead, gypsum, feldspar, mica and asbestos. In fact, its desert lands provide an ideal layout for harnessing non-conventional sources of energy—both wind and solar, which is the need of the hour in view of the growing impact of rapid climate and environment changes.

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Efforts towards empowering the potential beneficiaries through training and skill development, however, needs to be translated into real time outcomes as the gap between policy formulation and its implementation continues to remain unabridged. Designing training curricula in the rural sector requires out-of-box thinking, going beyond the monotonous and run of the mill courses. With the urban counterparts venturing into new and bold arenas, like defence services, police force, IT, entrepreneurship and the likes, it is imperative that the skill development training structure of the rural youth too encompasses new and innovative avenues specific to their needs and aspirations. One of the most colourfully and prolifically endowed region in India in terms of a vast palette of art and craft, with many national awardee craftsmen to its name, the stakeholders in the region can well begin by capitalising on it for a win–win situation. The State Government can start by formulation and grass root level implementation of a bottom-up pragmatic policy for the handicraft and handloom industry, which it has failed miserably in implimenting, with zero outcome until date. There is a need to gather real time data for preparing (and regularly updating) an inventory of the artisans and craftsmen across the State and working out a strategy for providing financial support on liberal terms to help them sustain their tradition based livelihood. Interestingly, Rajasthan is the only State to have a dedicated Craft Institute (IICD), being run on a PPP model. The Institute can prepare a panel of artisans and craftsmen to advise and lead the training programmes/courses for skill development activities not only of its own students but also of the potential youth in their local communities. In fact, it has now become imperative that the government machinery reaches out to the local communities with incentives to preserve the dying arts and crafts. Craft Skill Centres, with the awardee craftsmen as head and mentors, can be developed at district level for local craft-based skill training on a regular basis utilising the local resources, both in terms of material and manpower. The State Government needs to converge the overlapping departments created for different sub-sectors of crafts (such as RSIC and Industries Department separately for handicrafts promotion, RHDC for handloom, Bunkar Sangh for weavers, RUDA for non-farm activities, RAJIVEEKA for rural livelihood, etc.) for focused and concentrated efforts towards unified promotion and development instead of scattered and nullified initiatives resulting in wasteful government expenditure and a confused employable rural populace. The State of Rajasthan, through consistent and sustained efforts, is fast becoming a haven for wildlife enthusiasts the world over. With a growing population of the big cats, tigers, leopards and panthers, it has successfully developed wildlife sanctuaries which are a major attraction for the tourists, domestic and international. It also has forest areas dedicated to a variety of birds and other wild animals, equally sought after by wildlife photographers and bird watchers. The Thar region has an edge in terms of capitalising on ecotourism as well as rural tourism. This opens up avenues for non-conventional job opportunities in the service sector, such as hospitality, catering, logistics and tourist guides, for which the manpower can be sourced and skilled at the local level (India Investment Grid, nd.).

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Rajasthan is among the few states which can vouch for a labour friendly environment. The industries should leverage this opportunity for developing on-the-job (OJT) training modules for the local youth to enrich their livelihood. With the State Government incentivising IT and ITes and the Central government promoting incubation centres and start-ups, the academia in the State should encourage scouting of latent potential among the rural youth and providing them a conducive end-to-end climate for building upon their capacity-based livelihood options. Some established institutes, such as Manipal University, Lakshmipat Singhania University, MNIT, are already running well-established Incubation Centres, but the need is to encourage and support the rural youth exhibiting potential. The State’s road connectivity and power infrastructure have improved significantly in recent years. However, there is still much need for improving the overall quality of life index, in terms of better communication (uninterrupted internet availability), electrification, education and health centres in the last-mile villages, essential for creation of quality and sustainable livelihood. Above all, the State’s nodal agency for identifying latent talent and promoting employment based skill development opportunities, the Rajasthan Skill and Livelihood Development Corporation (RSLDC) needs to look beyond the number game and ensure effective, measurable and sustainable training programmes. The State Government needs to restructure the Corporation so as to man it with officials experienced in and passionate about skill development, instead of allowing it to become an easy pit-stop for anyone and everyone wielding political clout and wanting to evade a transferable posting, irrespective of the area of expertise they come from.

11.10 Conclusion For a primarily agrarian State, Rajasthan needs to focus on balanced rural development by bringing together a diverse set of stakeholders that have traditionally operated largely in isolation from each other (government, civil society, communitybased organisations, private businesses and not-for-profit organisations, etc.) on a common platform. Inter-linkages between environmental conservation and creation of livelihood options focused on the manner in which the livelihood means and economic opportunities can be optimally converged, need to be planned keeping in mind the natural environment and prevailing socio-cultural practices. Issues such as protection of the environment, promotion of developmental programmes and creation of employment opportunities are not only integral to but also imperative for any long-term livelihood strategy. There is no ‘closure date’ for skill development and livelihood interventions as it is an ongoing natural progression towards a holistic development process. The need is to make a shift from the standard approach which has defined funds, guidelines, resources and timelines, to a more pragmatic and real time approach which would set in motion a paradigm shift in understanding as well as implementing a dynamic skill development ecosystem. This calls for a radical change in policy intervention

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at the government level and expansion of welfare and development focused business horizon, keeping pace with the need to reap the demographic dividend—a switch from pure project management approach to adoption of knowledge, technology and subject matter front. There is virtually a vast ocean of potential in Thar region, especially among its rural populace; all it requires is someone to fine-tune its skill development machinery to give it an impactful direction.

References Bhandari, L., & Chakraborty, M. (2015). Some elements of spatial poverty in Rajasthan. Retrieved on December 20, 2022 from https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/NnbnMlJYLlPoehSEpepbFL/ Some-elements-ofspatial-poverty-in-Rajasthan.htmlss Census of India. (2021). Rajasthan population 2021 census, sex ratio, density, literacy. Retrieved on December 20, 2022 from Rajasthan Population 2021 census, sex ratio, density, literacy (censusofindia2021.com). https://censusofindia2021.com/rajasthan-population-2021-census-data/ Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1992). Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st Century. IDS Discussion Paper, Issue 296. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Rajasthan. (2021). State domestic product 2020–21. Retrieved on January 15, 2022 from https://plan.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/planning-portal/ Directorate%20of%20Economics%20and%20Statistics/Publication/Regular%20Publications/ state%20domestic%20product%20rajasthan/State_domestic_product_2020_21.pdf Dutta, S. (2019). Rajasthan has over 6 lakh unemployed persons, Jaipur on top. Retrieved on January 21, 2022 from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/68456336.cms?utm_sou rce=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst Find Easy. (2021). Rajasthan population by religion 2021. Retrieved on December 20, 2022 from Rajasthan Population by religion 2022 | Find Easy. https://www.findeasy.in/rajasthan-popula tion-by-religion/ Government of Rajasthan. (2015). Rajasthan E-Governance IT & ITeS Policy 2015. Retrieved on January 15, 2022 from https://static.investindia.gov.in/E-Governance%2C%20IT%20%26%20I TeS%20Policy%202015.pdf Government of Rajasthan. (nd). Rajasthan skill and livelihood development corporation. Retrieved on December 28, 2021 from https://livelihoods.rajasthan.gov.in/rsldc IBEF. (2022). Rajasthan. Retrieved on July 15, 2022 from https://www.ibef.org/states/rajasthanpresentation India Investment Grid. (nd.). Social infrastructure. Retrieved on February 21, 2022 from Invest in Social Infrastructure Sector in India | IIG (indiainvestmentgrid.gov.in). https://indiainvestment grid.gov.in/sectors/social-infrastructure Invest Rajasthan. (nd.). Agri and agro-processing. Retrieved on December 28, 2021 from https:// invest.rajasthan.gov.in/en/agri-and-agro-processing Investindia. (2019). Rajasthan, 2nd largest mineral producing state. Retrieved on January 29, 2022 from https://www.investindia.gov.in/state/rajasthan Konema (2022). Rajasthan—Total unemployment rate. Retrieved on December 28, 2022 from https:/ /knoema.com/atlas/India/Rajasthan/Unemployment-rate Ministry of Tribal Affairs. (nd.). Home | TRIFED—Tribes India | PMVDY (tribal.gov.in). https:// trifed.tribal.gov.in/home Mnregaweb2. (2022). Employment generated during the year 2021–22. Retrieved on August 22, 2022 from https://mnregaweb2.nic.in/netnrega/citizen_html/demregister.aspx?lflag=local& state_code=27&state_name=%e0%a4%b0%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%9c%e0%a4%b8%e0%a5% 8d%e0%a4%a5%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%a8&page=S&fin_year=2021-2022&Digest=7/PjzrCx iDLGa/7XjVhDyw

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Niti Aayog. (2019). SDG India—Index and dashboard 2019–20. Niti Aayog. Niti Aayog. (nd.). Aspirational districts programme. Retrieved on February 12, 2022 from https:// www.niti.gov.in/aspirational-districts-programme Pathak, A. N. (nd.). Challenges of skill development in India. Press Information Bureau, Government of India. RAJRAS. (2018). Industrial profile of Rajasthan. RAJRAS. Retrieved on December 20, 2022 from https://www.rajras.in/industrial-profile-rajasthan/ RAJRAS. (nd.). Minerals in Rajasthan. RAJRAS Retrieved on December 20, 2022 from Minerals in Rajasthan—RajRAS. https://www.rajras.in/rajasthan/geography/minerals/ Statista. (nd.). Number of workers across Rajasthan in India from financial year 2012 to 2019. Retrieved on January 15, 2022 from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1123770/india-numberof-workers-rajasthan/ World Bank. (2018a). Rajasthan playing to its strengths a strategy for sustained and inclusive growth. Retrieved on December 28, 2022 from https://plan.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/pla nning-portal/planning-dpt/reports/Rajasthan-Report/Rajasthan_Report_2018.pdf.#rajasthan--a-strategy-for-sustained-and-inclusive-growth World Bank. (2018b). Rajasthan playing to its strengths a strategy for sustained and inclusive growth. Retrieved on December 28, 2021 from https://plan.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/pla nning-portal/planning-dpt/reports/Rajasthan-Report/Rajasthan_Report_2018.pdf.#rajasthan--a-strategy-for-sustained-and-inclusive-growth

Chapter 12

Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert K. C. Gummagolmath and Anupam Anand

Abstract Agri-business, in a nutshell, entails numerous supply and value changes that span operations ranging from production to distribution, marketing, and consumption. Agri-business includes all profit-seeking or non-profit organizations that are involved in or rely on, production, processing, marketing, or the use of resources from other organizations. Despite great strength arising from diversified product mix in the area, the Thar Desert has a limited presence in the processed food segment, which presents a case for capacity building and horizontal diversification in the higher value-added areas of ready-to-eat food, processed food, and healthy food. The agri-product mix of the Thar Desert region with many seed spices, cluster beans, wool, pulses, and others makes the Thar Desert a potential export zone. The export promotion schemes of Government of India when fully tapped can be a potential means to diversify employment opportunities in the desert belt. Keywords Value chain · Value addition · Processed food · Agri-product mix · Export promotion

12.1 Introduction Farm to fork concept in agri-business assumes greater significance for a variety of reasons, ranging from providing safe food, nutrition, and the role it may play in combating climate change. The words “Agri-Business”, “Agripreneur”, “Agripreneurship”, and “Innovation” have created a buzz in the agriculture community in the past decade. Although the word agri-business was first used by John H. Davis in his speech on 17 October 1955 at the Boston Conference on Distribution entitled “Business Responsibility and the Market for Farm Products” (Fusonie, 1995). Davis defined agri-business as “the sum of all farming operations, plus the manufacture and distribution of farm commodities” in that speech. In a nutshell, agri-business refers to “all operations involved in the production and distribution of K. C. Gummagolmath (B) · A. Anand National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_12

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food and fibre” (Davis, 1955). However, the advent of social media and the promotion of agri-business by both public and private entities have taken the agriculture community by storm, spawning a new wave of budding agripreneurs who are taking the lead in solving farmers’ problems and providing them with better market opportunities. A large proportion of resources are used in agriculture operations to meet the demand for agricultural commodities through improved technology and practices, but little attention is paid to the product’s market development. Here comes the role of agri-business, which plays a significant role not only in the development of the marketing aspects of the product but also in the development of the organized supply chain and value chain in the food system (Connolly & Phillips-Connolly, 2012).

12.1.1 The Concept of Agri-Business in India: An Overview Agri-business, in a nutshell, entails numerous supply and value changes that span operations ranging from production to distribution, marketing, and consumption. Agri-business includes all profit-seeking or non-profit organizations that are involved in or rely on, production, processing, marketing, or the use of resources from other organizations (Edwards & Schultz, 2005). In layman’s terms, agri-business simply refers to the application of business administration theories and practices to organizations engaged in agriculture and related products and services (Ng & Siebert, 2009). Despite the fact that government plays a critical role in crop market development, little has improved under their control (Sonka & Hudson, 1989). With the economic reforms initiated across the globe during the 1980s and 1990s, sectors other than agriculture were able to leverage the provisions in them. However, especially, in India, the agriculture sector was left out of the ambit of these reforms (Ahluwalia, 2002a, 2002b). Until this point, the agricultural marketing system was by and large controlled by the state through Agricultural Market Regulation Act (APMR Act), and the whole system was governed through public-owned wholesale markets known as “Mandis” or APMCs or AMCs or RMCs in different regions. This APMR act was a century-old initiative, thought during the colonial period. No doubt it gave some good practices to the agri-business environment of the country, but was fraught with some challenges such as a monopolistic approach, lack of infrastructure, govt. control, oligopolistic nature of markets, and so on. Hence, it was only during the early 2000s, the Government of India came up with the reforms in the agricultural sector. The first of its kind was the setting up of “Task Force on Reforms in the Agricultural Marketing” during 2001 (Anonymous, 2017d). This task force, after several rounds of deliberations, came out with a report during 2002 and led to a “Model Act for Reforms in Agricultural Marketing”. This Model Act, 2003 document was circulated to all the States and Union Territories across the country. The Model Act provided for several reforms, such as provision of alternative marketing channels like contract farming, retail chain linkages, direct marketing, farmers market, spot & futures market. Besides, the Model Act also provided for free movement of goods and services waving of market fee, setting up of private markets, direct purchases from

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the farmers field, etc. On the other hand, the “Warehouse Regulation & Development Authority (W (D&R) Act, 2007)” has brought about a new reform and was established in 2007 as a result of an Act by the Government of India. All these reforms initiated were aimed at improving the agri-business ecosystem of the country (Anonymous, 2018). Different state governments have adopted these provisions of Model Act, 2003 in whole or in part. It was not, however, consistent among the states. Looking into the poor response from the States, Government of India during 2013 constituted a Committee of Agricultural Marketing Ministers. The committee tried to persuade the state governments for speedy implementation of the provisions of Model Act, 2003 (Anonymous, 2019a). But the exercise went in vain. As a result, the Indian Government enacted another reform, the “Agriculture Produce and Livestock Marketing Act, 2017 (APML Act 2017)”. The APML Act 2017 also could not see a light of the day. Hence, Government of India came up with laws relating to agriculture sectors, including The Farmers’ Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Act, The Farmers’ (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement of Price Assurance and Farm Services Act, and The Essential Commodities (Amendment) Act, have been amended in the meantime (Singh, 2021). All these initiatives, no doubt, have been able to create a conducive environment for promotion of agri-business in the country, but remained non-conclusive due to poor response from the state government. Many low-income countries are now opening their crop markets to agri-business firms by proposing changes to seed, land, contract farming, and taxation of commercial farm operations. These large agri-businesses are equipped with modern technologies, standardized quality control methods, and market access that can directly uplift the rural economy and lift millions out of poverty while also cementing better agricultural opportunities in the area. With the increase in export crops and the development of more small-related agri-businesses, such as supermarket chains, agro-industrial complexes, and export-oriented companies offering attractive perks to farmers, countries that have adopted the agri-business model have seen significant change. However, much agricultural work, particularly in the poorest parts of the world, has shown few signs of the hoped-for radical transformation, raising concerns about the current model’s ability to transform agriculture (Collier & Dercon, 2014). There are numerous plans for new policies and anecdotal evidence on the role of agribusinesses in smallholder farming. However, systematic examination of the subject is remarkably limited (Dillon & Dambro, 2017). The importance of agriculture in the growth of the Indian economy and general development is self-evident. However, in order to address new difficulties and capitalize on new possibilities, this function must be re-oriented in light of changing environments and requirements. This will necessitate a shift in our agricultural approach and mindset from “pushing for incremental change” to “transformational change”. Furthermore, agriculture is at the crossroads of three of the twenty-first century’s most pressing challenges: sustaining food and nutrition security, adapting to and mitigating climate change, and ensuring the sustainable use of vital resources, such as water, energy, and land. Agriculture is also regaining importance for meaningful employment as a result of the manufacturing sector’s inability to draw labour away

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from agriculture and keep up with population increase. The current government has a vision for New India that includes “Sabka Saath Sabka Vikas”. The transformation of the agriculture sector is critical for accomplishing this vision, as agriculture employs 48.2 percent of the country’s workforce (NSO, 2019), and many people rely on agriculture for their living (NSO, 2019). There is a significant pay disparity between agricultural and non-agricultural workers (Chand, 2019; Chand et al., 2015). Poverty and malnutrition are concentrated among agricultural labourers and small and marginal farmers in the country. There is a lot of worry about rural suffering. If existing agricultural trends do not alter, there will be little progress in closing the income gap between agriculture and non-agriculture income and addressing rural suffering. Agriculture growth has been empirically proved to be considered good for reducing poverty and boosting per capita income (Virmani, 2008). Aside from inclusive growth, agriculture is important for the country’s health and nutrition, sustainability, climate change, and quality of life. All of these reasons highlight the need for a new agricultural vision as we enter the twenty-first century. Agriculture continues to be a major contributor to India’s economic growth, and this is unlikely to change in the near future. Agriculture directly employs 58 percent of the population, compared to 75 percent during the country’s independence. The only significant change since independence is the agricultural and allied sector’s contribution to the country’s GDP, which has decreased from 61 to 19 percent. India currently supports 16.8 percent of the global population on 4.2 percent of the world’s water resources and 2.3 percent of the world’s land. This scenario is expected to deteriorate further as the population grows and land is diverted for non-agricultural uses. In comparison with the global average of 11 percent, around 51 percent of the country’s geographical area is under cultivation. The current cropping intensity of 136 percent has only increased by 25 percent since independence, indicating that policy changes are needed (Anonymous, 2012). Rainfed drylands make up 65 percent of all cultivable land. At the same time, there is an unprecedented degradation of land (107 million acres) and groundwater resources, as well as a drop in total factor productivity. These alarming factors necessitate a policy shift to halt the deceleration and increase agricultural productivity in order to meet the population’s growing demands by 2050. The most viable option for increasing production is through efficiency-mediated productivity improvement. Following the introduction of the Green Revolution in the late 1960s, the country achieved remarkable agricultural achievements over the next three decades. The revolution allowed the country to overcome widespread hunger and starvation, achieve food self-sufficiency, reduce poverty, and bring economic transformation to millions of rural families. These achievements, however, began to backfire for the sector in the late 1990s, with a slowdown in output growth rate, resulting in stagnation or decline in farmer income, leading to agrarian distress, which is spreading and becoming more serious (Anonymous, 2022).

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert

277

12.2 The Need for Agri-Business Development in India Since the implementation of new economic reforms such as privatization and globalization, as well as the arrival of the World Trade Organization in 1992–93 in India, agriculture has been expected to grow in tandem with these reforms and urban areas. Agriculture’s performance in the first phase of economic reforms until 1998 remained a driving force for this notion in academia, administration, and government sectors. However, things went awry in later years, and agricultural performance has not been at par with what was envisioned with the economic reforms and has only remained satisfactory. The most common perception of agriculture was that it consisted primarily of land tilling and crop harvesting (Srinivasan & Tendulkar, 2003). However, the growing area of wasteland, depleting and limited natural resources, increasing population, migration of rural youth to urban areas in search of meagre jobs, negative perceptions of farming as a career option, and emerging technologies have forced agricultural activities to be redefined as a profit-generating business rather than a subsistence activity. This redefining of Indian agriculture can be accomplished by promoting agri-business and agripreneurship on a much larger scale than is currently being done. The application of entrepreneurship in agriculture can result in drastic changes in terms of increased agri-productivity, the creation of more supporting business firms, more employment, innovative products and services, the development of rural areas, the reduction of youth migration from rural to urban areas, and an increase in farmer’s income. The integration of small and marginal farmers into local, national, and international markets is another tangible benefit that agri-business can provide (Kolte & Simonetti, 2018; Mathew, 2006; Panagariya, 2004). It will also help to reduce food inflation and supply uncertainties. It has the potential to be a good catalyst for generating growth, increasing and diversifying income, and providing entrepreneurial opportunities in both rural and urban areas. The country is home to vast agro-ecological diversity, with the highest mountain range in the world, the Himalayas in the north, the Thar Desert in the west, the Gangetic Delta in the east, and the Deccan Plateau in the south. India is the world’s largest producer of milk, pulses, and jute, and ranks second in rice, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut, vegetables, fruit, and cotton production. It is also a major supplier of spices, fish, poultry, livestock, and plantation crops. India’s climate ranges from humid and dry tropical in the south to temperate alpine in the north, with a wide range of ecosystems. A need-based and location-specific technology must be developed in order to make use of the available resources and prevailing climatic conditions. The classification of agro-climatic zones based on soil, water, rainfall, temperature, humidity, and other factors is the first and most important step in developing technology that promotes sustainable production. The Planning Commission of India decided to divide the country into fifteen broad agro-climatic zones based on physiography, soils, and geographical formation in order to achieve appropriate technology development that meets all prerequisite criteria. Climate, cropping patterns,

278

K. C. Gummagolmath and A. Anand

and irrigation and mineral resource development are all important factors in agricultural planning and strategy development. The division’s main goal was to integrate agro-climatic region plans with state and national plans so that policy could be developed based on techno-agro-climatic considerations. The 15 agro-climatic zones divided by the erstwhile Planning Commission and followed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) are Western Himalayan, Eastern Himalayan, Lower Gangetic Plains, Middle Gangetic Plains, Upper Gangetic Plains, Trans Gangetic Plains, Eastern Plateau & Hills, Central Plateau & Hills, Western Plateau & Hills, Southern Plateau & Hills, East Coast Plains & Hills, West Coast Plains & Hills, Gujarat Plains & Hills, Western Dry Region, and Islands. In this chapter, we turn our attention to the agriculture scenario in the western dry region, as well as the scope and potential for agri-business development in this region.

12.3 Profile of Thar Desert The Thar Desert (the Great Indian Desert), located in the centre of the hot arid zone of NW India, is one of the major deserts in the subtropical belt (196,000 km2). Most of the desert, geographically delimited by the Aravalli Hills in the east and the Indus River in the west, belongs to India (85%) and a lesser part to Pakistan (15%). In India, the dry wastelands occupy most of Rajasthan (60%); the remaining portions expand into the neighbouring Haryana and Gujarat states in the north and south, respectively. The controlling continental climate is determined by very high aridity and the seasonal precipitation regime of the eastern (Indian Ocean) monsoons (June–September). Depending on the relief and geographical area, the average annual precipitation ranges from 150 to 500 mm. The westernmost arid region receives only 130 mm of rain per year. Increased wind velocity correlates with seasonal rising and falling temperature fluctuations, with maxima during summer months (June– August) (average 5–6 km/h) and minima (average 2–3 km/h) during winter months (December–February). The Thar Desert is the world’s most populous desert, with a population density of 83 people per square kilometre. The Thar Desert is home to approximately 40 percent of Rajasthan’s total population. The primary occupations of the residents are agriculture and animal husbandry. This desert is dominated by vibrant, traditional culture. Folk music and poetry are particularly popular among the locals. Rajasthan has 12 districts that are covered by the Thar Desert. These are the districts of Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jhunjhunu, Jodhpur, Jalore, Nagaur, Pali, and Sundergarh. The region’s largest city, Jodhpur, is situated on the outskirts of the desert, in the scrub forest zone. Bikaner and Jaisalmer are the two largest cities entirely in the desert. In true desert areas, small, scattered ponds—some natural (tobas) and some man-made—are the only sources of water for animals or humans (johads). The majority of permanent human settlements are located near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar Hills. Potable groundwater is also scarce in the Thar Desert. Much of it tastes sour due to the dissolved minerals. The majority of potable water is found deep underground. People

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert

279

tend to settle near wells that produce sweet-tasting water, but digging such wells is difficult and dangerous, and it is not uncommon for those who work on them to perish (Anonymous, 2017a). The area is distinguished by an arid landscape dotted with various types of sand dunes. It is parched and arid, unkind to all forms of life, both animal and plant. The Thar region has a desert climate with extreme temperatures and erratic rainfall. This region is deficient in water, biotic resources, and infrastructure, and it has a low human development index. Because of the lack of a population threshold, it is difficult to provide all infrastructural facilities at the village level due to scattered settlements and greater spacing between them. The Thar Desert region of Western Rajasthan is extremely backward, owing to peculiar physical features of the area, a traditional society, and a stagnant economy in previous years.

12.3.1 Agriculture in the Thar Desert The vast and inhospitable Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) dominates the north-western side. Because of climatic constraints, the agriculture production system in Rajasthan’s north-western region is mostly rainfed, monocropped, and subsistence-oriented. The North-Western region of Rajasthan is further subdivided into two major Agro-Climatic Zones: the Arid Western Plain, which includes the districts of Barmer and Jodhpur, and the Hyper Arid Partial Irrigated Western Plain, which includes the districts of Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Churu. Desert soils and sand dunes aeolian soil, which are loamy coarse in texture, and calcareous, characterize both agro-climatic zones. The main Kharif crops grown in the Arid Western Plain are Pearl millet, Moth bean, and Sesame, while the main Rabi crops grown are Wheat, Mustard, and Cumin. Similar to the Arid Western Plain Zone, the major Kharif crops are Pearl millet, Moth bean, and Clusterbean, while the Rabi crops grown in the area are Wheat, Mustard, and Gram for the Hyper Arid Partial Irrigated Western Plain zone (Anonymous, 2017b).

12.3.2 Livestock in the Thar Desert In the Thar, livestock outnumbers people by a factor of ten; the number of livestock per capita is ten times that of the national average. Thar’s spatial constraints, combined with a proclivity for drought and high biotic pressure, resulted in overgrazing, deforestation, and intensive agricultural practices. Thar villagers raise a significant number of sheep and goats, which they sell for meat. Their wool is collected and sold as well. Even with a small amount of rain during the monsoon, the desert sprouts a lot of grass, especially sewan grass (Lasiurus scindicus), which provides excellent animal food. They also consume thorny bushes and leafy branches from khejri trees (Prosopis cineraria) when there isn’t enough water (Anonymous, 2006).

280

K. C. Gummagolmath and A. Anand

12.3.3 The Thar Desert Offers Development Potential Despite its harsh climate, the Thar Desert can present prospects for development. These are some of them: 1. Mining: Minerals such as feldspar, phosphorite, gypsum, and kaolin are abundant in the desert. These minerals are precious because they are used to make everything from cement to fertilizers. The area also has limestone and marble quarries. Marble and limestone are both utilized in construction and in the production of cement. 2. Energy generation: Solar panels are used to generate energy in the Thar Desert. This energy is utilized to purify salt-contaminated water supplies (desalination). Electricity is also generated using wind energy. A wind farm with 75 turbines has the capacity to generate 60 megawatts of power. 3. Farming: Irrigation has made commercial arable cultivation possible in the Thar Desert. Crop production, such as wheat and cotton, has resulted in the creation of several jobs and revenue for the local economy. 4. Tourism: The Thar Desert National Park attracts a large number of people who want to observe some of the 120 species that can be found there. Tourists ride camels through the desert with native guides. Tourism is a significant source of revenue and provides many jobs for the local population. Tourism’s multiplier impact opens up numerous growth prospects (Anonymous, 2016a).

12.3.4 Developmental Challenges There are numerous obstacles to development in the Thar Desert, including: 1. Extreme temperatures: In the summer, temperatures in the Thar Desert can reach 50 °C. During these months, it is difficult for individuals to farm, work in mines, or serve as tour guides since it is simply too hot. This makes development challenging. 2. Water supply: The Thar Desert’s water source is valuable and restricted. Water must be managed wisely and responsibly in the desert, which receives only 120– 240 mm of rain per year. Mining, farming, and tourism, as well as the economy, would be impossible to flourish without water. Over-irrigation has resulted in waterlogging in some regions of the desert. The surplus water has evaporated, leaving a coating of salt on the surface that makes growing crops difficult. 3. Inaccessibility: The desert covers a massive 200,000 square kilometres. Due to terrible natural conditions and limited infrastructure, the majority of the desert is inaccessible. Development is minimal outside of the city of Jaisalmer. This has become a tourism hotspot in Jaisalmer, but not elsewhere. Because many portions of the desert are inaccessible, the gap between rich and poor has widened (Anonymous, 2016b).

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert

281

12.3.5 Agri-Business Opportunities in the Thar Desert The following are the major strengths of Rajasthan’s food processing industry in terms of agri-business and value chains: (a) nutri-cereals, such as pearl millet (Bajra) and other small millets, (b) pulses: green gram (Moong), chickpeas, moth beans, etc., (c) seed spices (cumin, coriander, fenugreek, ajwain (carom seeds), and fennel) Psyllium (Isabgol), (d) medicinal plants like Indian Ginseng (Ashwagandha), Shatavari, Aloe Vera, Senna (Sonamukhi), Indian Gooseberry, (e) oilseeds (mustard, soybean, groundnut, etc.), (f) cluster bean is a commercial crop (guar), (g) livestock: droughttolerant milch breeds (Rathi, Gir, Sahiwal, and Tharparkar; the latter’s population has plummeted), (h) fruits: Mandarin and Kinnow, and (i) vegetables (tomato, green chilies, peas, onion, potato, cauliflower, carrot, cabbage, garlic) (Tables 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 and 12.7). Despite this strength, Thar Desert has a limited presence in the processed food segment, which presents a case for capacity building and horizontal diversification in the higher value-added areas of ready-to-eat food, processed food, and health.

12.4 Export Promotion Policy of Rajasthan and Potential in Thar Desert Rajasthan’s contribution to India’s total exports is now minor, but the state’s export potential is enormous. To realize this potential, Rajasthan must develop an export policy and give incentives tailored to the state’s sectors, while also aligning these policies and schemes with those of the federal government. Rajasthan needs to recognize its core strength in export and create item-specific incentives for better results. In India, simultaneous policy formulation at the state level is not unusual. Few states have yet to introduce incentives targeted at increasing their share of national exports. Given Rajasthan’s diverse export portfolio and landlocked location, the government should be more aggressive in providing support for the development of the country’s logistical network and connections to ports. The most immediate form of assistance could be the provision of government-owned property. Land acquisition is frequently highlighted as a major stumbling block in the completion of many of the country’s infrastructure projects. Other essential components of boosting competitiveness that the state may focus on include value addition, a solid standard and regulatory framework, access to medium and long-term funding, branding, and human resource capacity building. All of these measures must be incorporated into the state’s overall export promotion policy (Anonymous, 2017c). It is vital to have a vision that sets quantifiable targets in place in order to measure the efficacy of any export strategy. In this context, the Government of Rajasthan (GoR) may explore increasing the value of the state’s exports by at least 2.5 percent by 2022, through consolidation, diversification, and enhanced value addition of exports,

DISTRICT

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

GANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

S.No

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

–

–

43

182

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

122

182

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

6

–

–

1

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

6

–

–

0

–

–

–

–

Prod

Area

–

Prod

Area

–

Genda (Marigold)

Hajara (Marigold Hazara)

–

–

–

9

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Area

–

–

–

9

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Prod

Mogara (Jasmine)

30

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Area

206

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Prod

Phulwari (Portulaca)

Table 12.1 Area and production of flowers for the Year 2019–20 in districts covered under the Thar Desert

–

–

113

82

–

–

7

40

–

–

–

Area

Rose

–

–

319

82

–

–

13

13

–

–

–

Prod

–

67

65

–

–

3

–

–

–

–

–

Area

Others

–

67

85

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Prod

30

67

221

279

0

3

8

40

0

0

0

Area

Total

206

67

526

279

0

0

13

13

0

0

0

Prod

282 K. C. Gummagolmath and A. Anand

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRIGANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

–

65

3970

487

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

95

2819

322

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

1

3

–

–

–

4

–

–

–

–

1

1

–

–

–

4

–

–

–

Prod

Area

Area

Prod

Ashwagandha (Indian Ginseng)

Suwa (Dill seed)

1983

3772

43,129

28,514

5

40,726

47

202

7463

35,083

125,606

Area

Isabgol (Psyllium)

1367

3237

34,798

21,984

0

27,934

45

134

3529

10,504

76,772

Prod

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Area

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Prod

Kalonji (Black Cumin)

DISTRICT

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRIGANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

S. No

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

26

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

9

–

–

3

–

–

–

–

8

–

–

–

–

–

1

–

–

–

–

13

–

–

–

Prod

Area

Area

Prod

Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum)

Opium

20

–

43

12

55

7

23

789

112

–

Area

Aleo Vera

686

–

42

40

35

220

166

3149

77

–

Prod

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

333

12

7456

–

61

–

–

–

62

–

Area

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

322

5

3508

–

61

–

–

62

Prod

–

38,954

–

554

Prod

Sonamukhi (Senna)

–

39,120

–

1386

Area

Mehandi (Henna)

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MEDICINAL & AROMATIC PLANTS FOR THE YEAR 2019–20 (Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

DISTRICT

S. No

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MEDICINAL & AROMATIC PLANTS FOR THE YEAR 2019–20 (Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

–

–

5

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Area

2003

43,291

47,165

37,855

60

40,787

54

237

8252

35,257

125,632

Area

Total

–

–

2

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Prod

Tulsi (Holy Basil)

Table 12.2 Area and production of medicinal and aromatic plants for the Year 2019–20 in Districts covered under Thar Desert

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Prod

2053

42,609

37,668

26,408

35

27,995

265

317

6678

10,643

76,781

Prod

Area

Lemon grass

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert 283

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

GANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

0

35

2

1

–

–

–

0

4

18

136

45

692

81

2

–

4

–

131 20

136 18

346

41

1089 2178 53

3

3

3

1

0

–

20

12

2

–

29

–

–

–

0

3

17

7

48

849

1

6

–

0

27

164

3

Area Prod Area

10

Area Prod

16

6

30

1274

0

3

–

0

17

160

2

Prod

Prod

–

68,462

0

1

792

4733

–

875

–

–

205

163

28

198

Area

281

55

33

– 3973

523

–

–

83 5893

Garlic

Ginger

10

16,432

83,976 7

2

2 4817

15,665 3403 3275 1823

35,982 7123 6801 4438

233

4

14

31

–

3

–

Turmeric

– 6

3 –

464 –

15 –

22 –

5771

2614

5491

15

5

61

92 –

12 –

837 –

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

27

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Area Prod Area – –

620 –

Area Prod

10,889 2798 41,970 –

3155

224

42

44

12,372

11,680

205

Prod

Fenugreek

163 9736

20

Area Prod

Fennel

191,073 145,880 3321 3974 7271

–

137,619

1

3

1481

23,666

208,691 122,358

Area

Cumin

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Prod

Prod

3661

71,434

64

700

13,293

16,740

4879

21,826

95,709

5892

21,723

49,289

206,006 204,335

4288

139,927

73

70

7615

33,733

208,934 122,588

Area

Total

Coriander

Ajwain (Carom Seed)

S. DISTRICT No

Chilli

Area in Ha., Prod. in MT

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF SPICES CROPS FOR THE YEAR 2019–20

Table 12.3 Area and production of spices for the Year 2019–20 in districts covered under Thar Desert

284 K. C. Gummagolmath and A. Anand

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRIGANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

DISTRICT

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRIGANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

S. No

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

(Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

DISTRICT

S. No

(Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

88

35

59

85

309

75

30

10

89

20

6

700

76

230

3486

142

86

148

2306

76

6

31

32

90

9

220

14

40

266

97

7

5

11

Area

33

Okra

747

368

59

217

119

380

51

25

0

37

12

Area

Prod

380,040

1242

125,963

436,690

24,196

888

740

3180

7576

510

Brinjal

14,507

261

8259

20,000

3555

200

37

109

333

480

61

Area

Area

Prod

Tomato

Onion

176

93

21

1090

14

70

4360

1734

7

5

14

Prod

18,004

3629

333

3277

293

1598

1114

174

0

36

13

Prod

1

1

6

14

5

50

323

159

2

11

0

Area

Potato

441

15

245

0

118

2

112

121

2

27

0

Area

Pea

25

1

90

280

4

194

7528

4209

60

14

0

Prod

3551

29

870

0

118

2

1568

84

9

29

0

Prod

50

36

9

90

30

26

109

165

23

275

0

Area

0

0

1235

46

24

819

109

60

2558

4207

117

295

0

0

0

0

10,766

0

127

384

24

23

Prod

Prod

Bottle gourd

0

0

0

645

0

35

24

3

5

0

0

Area

Cabbage

554

84

466

345

237

61

143

331

25

30

2

Area

21

0

17

0

34

3

0

2

2

41

0

Area

500

0

81

0

146

11

0

25

8

41

0

Prod

Cauliflower

Watermelon

Table 12.4 Area and production of vegetables (Part I) for the Year 2019–20 in districts covered under Thar Desert

2

11,983

105

1791

1322

474

173

2820

4574

118

33

Prod

15

0

122

81

9

163

0

0

0

51

5

Area

Muskmelon

284

60

48

61

17

82

52

49

18

42

27

Area

300

0

258

365

9

408

0

0

0

51

5

Prod

2508

297

91

393

61

143

928

963

80

44

41

Prod

Tinda (Indian Squash)

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert 285

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRIGANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

DISTRICT

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRIGANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

S. No

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

(Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

DISTRICT

S. No

(Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

0

0

8

0

0

0

20

131

0

1

0

0

34

0

0

0

493

1483

0

1

0

28

1

8

7

10

5

6

130

9

13

12

Area

0

Radish

106

131

187

134

58

106

26

138

23

179

40

Area

Prod

529

10

25

9

2

0

0

558

8

132

0

Pumpkin

24

5

16

1

2

0

0

37

2

118

0

Area

560

1

21

140

18

5

144

5118

41

16

12

Prod

711

152

658

717

171

191

708

3866

95

190

550

Prod

Long melon (Kakri)

Area

Prod

Cucumber (Khira)

65

0

9

11

24

0

14

159

3

12

0

Area

Carrot

1

12

193

122

4

3

32

23

3

12

17

Area

Spinach

1625

0

110

275

24

0

367

3242

14

14

0

Prod

1

10

321

93

7

4

512

457

14

12

16

Prod

9013

19

48

52

164

3

72

0

0

1

0

1

Area

38

39

460

74

437

1608

303

0

5

5

Prod

152

49

100

814

6

112

0

0

3

0

1

Prod

Cluster Bean

863

39

19

52

77

253

134

16

0

4

5

Area

Green Chilli

Table 12.5 Area and production of vegetables (Part II) for the Year 2019–20 in districts covered under Thar Desert

1

1

4

15

3

0

8

8

1

12

0

Area

Bitter gourd

561

3

69

41

0

51

0

0

0

0

46

Area

5

1

16

15

4

0

120

48

1

14

0

Prod

16,830

3

139

83

0

317

0

0

0

0

46

Prod

Sweet Potato

0

10

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

Area

Colocasia

46

16

41

81

21

7

19

51

7

49

5

Area

0

113

0

0

0

0

90

0

0

0

0

Prod

460

11

81

573

56

11

271

817

18

72

7

Prod

Ridge Gourd

286 K. C. Gummagolmath and A. Anand

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRI GANGANAGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

DISTRICT

(Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

5

31

80

4

6

2

6

4

2

12

3

2

531

98

680

44

298

4

121

9

0

13

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Area

Area

Prod

Banana

Aonla (Indian gooseberry)

0

1

0

0

7

0

0

0

0

0

0

Prod

2

43

26

59

21

26

77

71

2

40

96

Area

Ber

26

52

208

327

206

89

1307

771

0

45

712

Prod

1

9

1

3

3

0

22

36

1

7

3

Area

Guava

1

9

7

24

6

0

379

346

0

26

0

Prod

2

10

1

0

23

14

0

10

0

0

1

Area

Mango

5

67

15

0

748

71

0

100

0

0

1

Prod

Table 12.6 Area and production of fruits (Part I) for the Year 2019–20 in districts covered under the Thar Desert

2

11

3

14

3

65

3

0

0

0

6

Area

Papaya

13

39

36

65

166

127

0

0

0

0

7

Prod

20

38

60

263

6

3522

4

26

38

287

5562

Area

283

174

420

384

51

17,972

46

200

78

265

40,930

Prod

Pomegranate

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert 287

BARMER

BIKANER

CHURU

SRIGANGANGAR

HANUMANGARH

JALORE

JHUNJHUNU

JODHPUR

NAGAUR

PALI

SIKAR

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

DISTRICT

(Area in Ha., Prod. in MT)

2

439

26

22

15

71

10

55

2

8

12

6893

208

72

261

222

108

1748

0

6

208

0

19

0

9

3

0

0

0

0

6

1

Area

Prod

Area

63

Orange

Lime

0

12

0

15

1

0

0

0

0

9

1

Prod

0

0

0

0

18

0

1986

9009

1

56

0

Area

0

50

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

48,393

215,308

Prod

Kinno (Mandarin)

0

0

0

0

13

0

10

101

0

0

2

Area

0

0

0

0

46

0

80

9362

0

0

5

Prod

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

Area

2

0

0

0

0

12

0

0

0

0.00

0

Prod

Mausmi Jamun (Sweet Lemon) (Java Plum)

Table 12.7 Area and production of fruits (Part II) for the Year 2019–20 in districts covered under the Thar Desert

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

Area

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

72

0

0

0

Prod

0

0

0

0

0

0

14

68

0

0

0

Area

Phalsa Malta (Black Currant) (Sweet Orange)

0

0

0

0

0

0

167

553

0

0

0

Prod

288 K. C. Gummagolmath and A. Anand

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert

289

as well as creating significant job opportunities. An Export Promotion Policy based on the following building components can be developed for this purpose: • leverage and establish adequate infrastructure to meet targets; • promote collaboration and a united approach to exports among the relevant departments and functions; • strive for worldwide quality and standards to ensure that Rajasthan’s products and services are amongst the finest; and • create a pipeline of qualified human resources who can help

12.4.1 Export Targets Rajasthan’s export targets, based on the State’s Vision for Exports, are estimated to be Rs. 1.2 lakh crore in commodities and services. This aim was created using a bottom-up method and was drilled down to the sectoral level. Table 12.8 shows the exports in 2016 and targets for 2022.

12.4.2 Interventions in Policy to Reach Targets Rajasthan’s export strategy has been constructed around the following six primary dimensions in order to reach the aims and realize the vision: • Institutional Streamlining: This refers to institutions adjusting their emphasis and increasing their efficiency in order to streamline their functions and improve their export performance. • Focus on Growth and Markets: This dimension adds to the value by focusing on specific markets and sharpening the export target growth. • Infrastructure Leverage and Strengthening: This refers to methods that aim to improve export performance by leveraging and utilizing existing infrastructure as well as developing new infrastructure. • Human Resource Capacity Building: This component addresses the necessity for human resource capacity building in order to boost exports. • Facilitating Access to Finance: This component emphasizes the importance of exporters having simple access to finance choices at reasonable rates. • Export Promotion Campaign: The goal of this intervention is to raise awareness of branding and promotion tactics (Anonymous, 2017c).

12.4.3 Special Economic Zone (SEZ) for the Thar Desert A special economic zone (SEZ) is a part of a country that is subject to different economic rules than the rest of the country. The economic laws of SEZs are generally

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K. C. Gummagolmath and A. Anand

Table 12.8 Export targets for Rajasthan (Rs. Cr.) Segments

Rajasthan’s export 2016

Rajasthan’s export 2022 baseline

Rajasthan’s export 2022 target

Textile and Readymade Garments

6392

11,104

12,131

Dimensional Stones Marble, Granites and Articles of Stone, Mica, etc

2904

7454

9528

Gems and Jewellery

5345

10,933

14,556

Engineering

4754

10,806

12,943

Chemical and Allied Products (including Tyres)

4145

7585

10,599

Handicrafts

3343

5946

6520

Carpet (Durries)

569

908

1260

Animals Agro and Food Products

3094

4695

9261

Metals-Ferrous and Non-Ferrous

1777

3451

6903

Plastics and Linoleums

636

640

1106

Drugs and Pharmaceuticals

398

847

937

31

982

1965

230

240

419

Wool and Woollens

78

119

378

Others

68

68

68

Tourism

10,236

15,181

24,939

IT/ITES

Minerals—Mineral Fuels, Mineral Oils and Products, Bituminous Substances, Mineral Waxes, Ores, Slags, and Ash Leather and Leather Products

2305

4184

8369

Rajasthan’s Exports—Merchandise 33,764

65,779

88,571

Rajasthan’s Exports—Services

12,541

19,366

33,308

Rajasthan Total Exports

46,305

85,145

1,21,879

Source IMaCS analysis. Data inputs from the Ministry of Commerce, UN Comtrade, DGCIS, and the Government of Rajasthan

favourable to foreign direct investment and attract it (FDI). Any investment made by a company or individual in one country for commercial interests in another country is referred to as FDI. When a country or individual conducts business in a SEZ, they often benefit from additional economic benefits such as tax breaks and the ability to pay lower tariffs. SEZs are often established to aid rapid economic growth in certain geographic areas. This economic expansion is achieved by the use of tax incentives to attract foreign capital and technical advancement. SEZs have the potential to boost exports

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert

291

for both the implementing country and the countries that provide it with intermediary products. However, there is a possibility that countries will take advantage of the system to maintain protectionist barriers (in the form of taxes and fees). Because of their regulatory constraints, SEZs can also create a lot of bureaucracy. This could cause money to flow away from the system, making it less efficient. While there are advantages for enterprises, individuals, or entities working within an SEZ, the macroeconomic and socioeconomic advantages for a country employing a SEZ model are debatable. The Rajasthan Special Economic Zone has been established with the goal of initiating infrastructural development and creating a hassle-free environment that is best suited for export trade from the state, with a primary concentration on gems and jewellery, woollen carpets, handicrafts, and other items. The state government intends to construct a Rajasthan special economic zone in order to create a nontaxable territory that will be treated as a foreign territory within the state. The main goal of the SEZ in Rajasthan is to create a completely tax-free operation in the industrial, service, and commerce sectors, as well as more liberal regulations in terms of levies, foreign investments, and other transactions. Rajasthan is a good site for large-scale export-oriented industrial growth due to its closeness to the Delhi International Airport and western coast ports. Rajasthan will be home to 40% of the proposed Delhi-Mumbai freight corridor, opening up huge opportunities for the development of industrial belts and special economic zones along the corridor. Six SEZs have already notified, with an estimated investment of Rs. 165.15 billion. These are the following: 1. Mahindra World City (Jaipur)Ltd—Multi-Product SEZ at Jaipur 2. RIICO Ltd (Phase-I)—Multi-Product SEZ at Sitapura, Jaipur 3. RIICO Ltd (Phase-II)—Multi-Product SEZ at Sitapura, Jaipur Along the lines of the above-mentioned SEZs, one SEZ can be proposed to be established in the area of Thar Desert for the agro-products seeing the potential it can add with some of the products such as wool, cumin, dates, etc.

12.5 Rajasthan—Agri-Infrastructure, Processing, and Export • With over 60 percent of the State’s people reliant on agriculture for a living, it is critical that agriculture be profitable and long-term. • In Rajasthan, a lack of agri-based industries for various commodities is robbing the state of its production edge. As a result, a paradigm shift from simply harvesting and selling products in the local mandi to a demand-driven supply activity with a greater emphasis on processing and value addition is required.

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• Different agro-climatic conditions have resulted in the creation of some cropspecific areas, allowing for the adoption of a cluster-based holistic approach to the sector’s growth. This strategy will assist crop growers in locating post-harvest solutions within or near the production belt. • In the state, roughly 300 lakh tonnes of various crops such as cereals, pulses, oilseeds, guar, Isabgol, and others are produced. Out of the total warehouse capacity of 28.70 lakh tonnes, FCI, CWC, and RSWC are primarily utilized for storing PDS supplies, leaving relatively little storage space for other crops in the public sector. • In the private sector, warehouses are based on corporate considerations rather than farmer needs. As a result, the establishment of a proper network of warehouses in higher-producing areas will allow farmers to hold their agricultural goods until they are ready to sell them, with the option of pledging finance against warehouse receipt to meet their immediate needs. • To avoid qualitative and quantitative losses, increased production of vegetables and seed spices necessitates cold storage facilities. In Rajasthan, there are only 161 cold storages with a total storage capacity of 5.27 lakh tonnes, despite the fact that a considerable number of stores are required to support state produce as well as satisfy off-peak season fruit supplies. Because of the extensive coverage of the NCR and the higher land costs in neighbouring states, Rajasthan is a desirable location for developing logistic infrastructure to meet the needs of the NCR. • Expanding the milk procurement and processing network in underserved areas has a lot of potentials. This will enable equitable distribution of technology advancement to remote locations, as well as the regular substantiation of farmer revenue. • Rajasthan accounts for only 15 percent of the country’s agri-exports of APEDA products. APEDA products account for around 52 percent of the country’s total agricultural exports. The state’s leading position in some State-specific crops, as well as a sizable production of many other crops, have not been reflected in exports (Anonymous, 2019b).

12.5.1 Advantage Rajasthan—Infrastructural & Procedural • Rajasthan covers 8,380 square kilometres or 24.50 percent of the whole National Capital Region (NCR). This is an opportunity to create a fresh and processed food supply hub for the NCR. Similarly, the possibility of building logistic parks near the NCR in other districts might be investigated. • Rajasthan spans five major Indian states in the north, west, and centre. It’s a natural corridor that makes the state a major trade and business hub. • The state has the country’s second-largest network of national highways, providing excellent connectivity from most of the state’s potential agri-business areas to all of the country’s major cities and ports in Gujarat and Maharashtra.

12 Potential Agri-Business in the Thar Desert

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• The state’s railway network connects the state to all of India’s major cities and links the state to ports in Mumbai, Kandla, and Mundra in Gujarat. • The state’s international airport in Jaipur is fully functioning, with direct flights to Sharjah, Muscat, and Bangkok. • A Centre for Perishable Cargo (CPC) in Jaipur, as well as eight inland container depots (ICDs) in Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Kota, facilitates trade within and outside India. The Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) in Rajasthan accounts for over 39% of the Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) connecting Mumbai’s Jawaharlal Nehru Port to Delhi’s Dadri. Because a band of 150 kms has been chosen on both sides of the 1493 km long DFC to be developed as the DMIC, there are several potentials for industrial development along the route. • Land Availability: The Rajasthan Industrial Development and Investment Corporation Ltd. (RICO) has created 338 industrial areas around the state, totalling over 82,000 acres. • Rajasthan, India’s largest state by area, has lots of lands available at reasonable prices. This opens up a lot of opportunities for the public and commercial sectors to develop new locations near-production surplus clusters. • Single Window Approval: The Bureau of Investment Promotion (BIP) in Rajasthan has implemented a Single Window Clearance System (SWCS) as a single point of contact for entrepreneurs seeking statutory permissions for their projects. The entire application and monitoring procedure is done through webenabled software called the Single Point Electronic Monitoring and Clearance System, in keeping with the times. • Agriculture Market Reforms: The State APMC Act includes provisions for contract farming, direct purchasing outside of market yards, and uniform licensing, among other things. Rajasthan is also one of the few states that have abolished the Mandi Fee/user charge on perishable goods such as fruits and vegetables (Anonymous, 2019b).

12.5.2 Rajasthan Agro-Processing, Agri-Business & Agri-Export Promotion Policy 2019 The state’s agro-processing, agri-business, and agri-export promotion policy, which was issued in 2019, emphasizes on agricultural exports, and aims to boost farmer incomes. The strategy includes a $500 million fund in the Rajasthan State Cooperative Bank to provide loans to farmers, as well as a subsidy of up to $20,000 per year for the export of organic farm products. A well-developed agro-processing sector is projected to raise farm gate prices, reduce wastages, ensure value addition, encourage crop variety, and provide employment opportunities for unskilled, semiskilled, and skilled workers, as well as produce export earnings. Given the importance of agro-processing in the overall development of agriculture, the state government is committed to accelerating the development of agro-based industries, supply chains, and value-added infrastructure in the

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state. A crucial government initiative would be to transform supply chain infrastructure, which would have a multiplier impact on the agricultural industry and greatly boost the sector’s overall effectiveness. All financial benefits available under various Central and State Government programmes would be combined in order to maximize incentives and would take precedence over the benefits available under this Policy. In any of the schemes, the overall rewards must not exceed the ceilings set for each activity separately. Rajasthan’s Agro-processing, Agri-business, and AgriExport Promotion Policy, 2019, aim to cover the full value chain in agro-processing, marketing, and exports.

12.5.2.1

Scope and Coverage

• The Policy will apply to new agro-processing and agro-business firms that are established in the State, as well as existing agro-processing and agrobusiness enterprises that are modernizing, expanding, or diversifying. In the Rajasthan Investment Promotion Scheme, the terms modernization, expansion, and diversification have the same meaning. • In addition, the Policy aims to promote and support value addition and loss reduction in agriculture, including horticulture and animal husbandry, as well as the development of agro-processing infrastructure and people resources. • The purpose of this policy is to encourage the export of agricultural products produced in the state. By offering markets for farm goods and raw materials on a long-term basis, the strategy intends to create an ecosystem and establish synergy between farmers and industry. 12.5.2.2

Duration

Under this Policy, all agro-processing and agri-businesses that begin commercial production/operations and meet all other requirements/obligations will be eligible for incentives. The policy will be in effect until March 31, 2024. The policy aims to aid in the development of infrastructural facilities, provide capital investment subsidy and interest subsidy, help boost exports, formation of agro-industrial parks, food parks, agro-processing clusters through cluster development approach, promotion of FPOs/FPCs, promotion of livestock products, promotion of quality produce, contract farming, adoption of “Zero Defect Zero Effect” policy, focus on traceability, widening of markets, setup online mandis, promotion of state brand, promotion of geographical indication, employment generation, skill development, electricity facility, providing a conducive atmosphere for setting-up agro-processing industry and agri-business, and creation of credit facilitation fund (Anonymous, 2019b).

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12.6 Promising Areas of Agri-Business Growth in the Thar Desert 12.6.1 Guar: Current Scenario and Future Prospects Guar or cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.) is a self-pollinated leguminous crop produced primarily in arid and semi-arid countries with limited resources. Because it is a leguminous crop, it promotes soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere. Guar seeds are high in galactomannan, a type of gum that is useful in a variety of industrial applications. Guar gum has properties like easy solubility in hot and cold water, water binding due to hydrogen bonding, resistance to oils, grease, and solvents, better thickening action, physiological inert nature, and nonionic character. Guar gum’s industrial applications are growing every day as a result of its characteristics and adaptability for derivation. Food processing, the petroleum sector, explosives, mining, pharmaceutical, medicine, printing, and textile industries all employ guar derivatives. Guar has emerged as a key industrial crop with a high export value due to its diverse uses. Guar is grown in India, Pakistan, the United States, Italy, Morocco, Germany, Spain, Australia, Bangladesh, Myanmar, South Africa, and Brazil. India is the world’s leading guar producer, accounting for over 80% of global production. The majority of India’s guar originates from rainfed agriculture in arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, followed by Haryana, Gujarat, and Punjab. Being one of the few crops capable to endure harsh climate, its cultivation in Rajasthan is much higher (82.1%) mostly confining to western drier parts. Guar crop is grown in Churu, Nagaur, Barmer, Sikar, Jodhpur, Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Hanumangarh, and Jhunjhunu districts in Rajasthan (Anonymous, 2016d).

12.6.1.1

Status of Indian Guar Industry

Farmers sell all of their guar seeds to industries, either directly or indirectly through traders. In Rajasthan alone, there were only 55–60 guar processing plants before to 2011, but growing demand for guar gum in the international market and higher pricing have led in the creation of more processing units. In 2012, the market price of guar seeds grew to Rs. 3600 per quintal, rising to roughly Rs. 4000–7500 per quintal between 2013 and 2015. Guar processing industries can be found mostly in the guargrowing districts of Rajasthan (Jodhpur, Bikaner, Ganganagar, Alwar, and Jaipur), Haryana (Bhiwani and Sirsa), and Gujarat (Bhiwani and Sirsa) (Deesa and Ahmedabad). Guar split and guar gum powder are the major products of these businesses. Guar gum products (split and powder) dominate the export market in India, which has over 600 guar processing units (Rai, 2015). Following the shift in demand, Indian businesses began producing and marketing more crushed gum powder; nonetheless, about 20% of Indian exports are still refined splits (Rai, 2015). The ban on the export of entire guar seed boosted guar seed processing even further, encouraging India’s industrial development. The profitability of the guar gum industry is determined by

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a number of factors, including acreage and output (which is dependent on rainfall), demand from the food industry and associated food safety concerns, and demand from petroleum and other industries. Falling natural gas and oil prices have a negative impact on shell gas and oil output, as well as guar gum demand and costs. All of these factors combine to cause price swings in guar seed and guar gum products, causing the gum business to become unstable. In the oil and gas business, where guar gum is a vital commodity and will remain so until a replacement is found, it has been amply established in recent years that prices are primarily determined by demand. In April 2004, the NCDEX platform launched a futures trading for guar seed to help with price risk management and price discovery. Future contracts have since been made available for trading on the NCDEX, MCX, NMCE, and Bikaner Commodity Exchange platforms. Future contracts for guar seed and guar gum are sufficiently liquid and offer enough options to reduce price risk.

12.6.1.2

Future Thrust in Guar Industry to Be Boosted in the Thar Desert

Because of the presence of gum (galactomannan) in the seeds, cluster bean is a significant industrial crop in India. It has the potential to generate extremely significant economic returns, not only for the farmer, but also for the country in terms of foreign exchange. • The development of early maturing climate-resilient cultivars with inbuilt plasticity and disease resistance potential, as well as high gum content and viscosity for improved export potential and industrial applications, must be prioritized. • Creation of genotypes with sufficient ground clearance for mechanized harvesting and intercultural activities. • Farmer engagement in the development of a seed chain network from production to marketing. • Research and development to remove antinutritional components and harmful chemicals found in germs containing more than 50% protein. This will make it easier to tap into this abundant resource for human consumption. • To reduce losses during seed processing to separate endosperm, germ, and hull, improved processes and machinery are still needed. • At the worldwide level, there is a lot of opportunity for marketing valueadded products, guar-based health foods, and pharmaceuticals like dietary fibre, slimming aids, fat replacers, and so on. • Cooperative-level development of small-scale guar seed processing units to provide optimum benefit to farmers for direct export. • Focus on increasing local demand to ensure the long-term viability of the guar business in India by using guar products as food components in the Indian food processing industry. • Develop skilled workforce for the sector through developing human resources at various clientele levels involved in guar cultivation, marketing, and processing.

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• Farmer-industry collaboration to promote farmer-to-farmer direct marketing.

12.6.2 Wool and Carpet Industry in Rajasthan and Thar Desert Bikaner is located in the heart of Rajasthan, which is noted for its high-quality yarn and wool manufacturing. Wool was first traded 100 years ago, when shepherds traded the golden fibre for their daily necessities and sustenance. Following then, the wool trade became profitable. Bikaner market is the world’s largest wool market, supplying wool to towns all throughout Rajasthan and the world. Apart from the typical kinds of wool of 30–38 micron that are used for weaving durries and carpets, Bikaner and the neighbouring areas offer good quality magra and chokla wool. The quality of the wool produced is sometimes said to be comparable to that of New Zealand.

12.6.2.1

Wool Trading in Bikaner

Wool pressing and balling began in the 1950s, creating a new market for dealers in the city. Wool was washed, sorted, and graded in preparation for shipment to Russia, the UK, and other countries. Exporters developed communications with the international woollen market via post, telegram, telex, and other means. The dealers travelled to Delhi or Bombay to speak with buyers, which aided in growing wool production. The Rajasthan Government created a separate market for wool after that. Many traders moved their focus to the well-known woollen sector.

12.6.2.2

Wool-Spinning Plant in Bikaner

Previously, wool was spun by hand, which was a time-consuming process. A woolspinning plant was later built in Bikaner, signalling the start of a new era of industry. During the 1960s and 1970s, further plants were built, resulting in a remarkable expansion of the industry. Some organizations took the lead and established wool sourcing plants, as well as Semi Worsted Plants for fine wool spinning and raw wool procurement.

12.6.2.3

Carpet Industry of Bikaner

Before independence, carpet weaving began in Bikaner. Exports quality carpets were made. The royal family of Rajasthan were also big fans of the carpets. Some industrialists and exporters intend to install massive machinery in carpet manufacturing plants. Apart from wool, the plants want to manufacture artificial fibres, such as Acrylic, Rayon, Polypropylene, and Polyester. Bikaner is predicted to become an

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industrial hub for the manufacturing of various types of carpets, woollen yarns, and wool in the coming years.

12.7 Agri-Export Zones Through EXIM Policy 1997–2001, the concept of an Agri-Export Zone (AEZ) was created in 2001 to take a thorough look at a certain produce/product located in a contiguous area for the goal of developing and sourcing raw materials, processing/packaging, and final exports. The concept was based on the convergence of existing Central and State Government schemes to address financial interventions required at various stages of the value chain; collaboration among various stakeholders, including the Central Government, State Governments, farmers, processors, exporters, and others; and a focus on specific products and areas to identify policy interventions.

12.7.1 Measures to Promote Exports from Agri-Export Zone: A. Financial Assistance • Both the Central and State Governments, as well as their agencies, provide financial help to various agri-export-related operations. • These include financial assistance for training and extension, research and development, quality improvement, infrastructure, and marketing, among other things. • Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), the National Housing Board, the Department of Food Processing Industries, and the Ministry of Agriculture all give help, and a number of state governments have also provided comparable services. • All of these facilities are linked and expanded in order to enhance agricultural exports from the designated zones in a coordinated fashion. • Funding from the Market Access Initiative fund. B. Fiscal Incentives Benefits granted to service exporters in Agri-Export Zones under the Export Promotion Capital Goods Scheme include: • Even services given to ultimate exporters will be eligible for capital goods imports with a reduced tariff for the establishment of shared facilities. • Exporters of value-added agri products will be eligible for duty-free fuel for power generation if the cost component of power in the ultimate product is 10% or more and the input–output norms are set by the DGFT’s advance licensing committee.

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• Due to the power-intensive nature of the majority of value addition, practically all value-added agriculture exporters will be qualified for this facility. • Similarly, input–output criteria can be established for obtaining duty-free fertilizer, insecticides, and other agricultural inputs. Benefits • Using a market-oriented approach, strengthen backward linkages. • Product acceptability and competitiveness in both the domestic and international markets. • Adding value to basic agricultural products. • Reduce production costs through economies of scale. • A more favourable price for agricultural products. • Product quality and packaging have improved. • Encourage research and development in the field of trade. • Create more job opportunities. There are two Agri-Export Zones in Rajasthan, one for cumin and one for coriander. The districts covered under Agri-Export Zone of Cumin include Nagaur, Barmer, Jalore, Pali and Jodhpur most of which are the Thar Desert Districts. The Agri-Export Zone of coriander does not include districts from Thar Desert region.

12.7.2 Cumin The state of Rajasthan is a major player in the Indian spice bowl. Seed spices include the crops coriander (Coriandrum sativum), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), ajwain or carom seeds (Trachyspermum ammi), and dill (Anethum graveolens). They are becoming more popular due to their profitability, short-run period, and enormous potential to grow in low rainfall acreage. Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) is the most important of these crops because it is valuable in the international market. It is a winter crop that is harvested in the middle of the year (October to November). The aroma and flavour of cumin took over the Indian kitchen. It’s also used to make seasonal bakery products like bread and biscuits. Seed spices are primarily grown in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, with a small contribution from Madhya Pradesh, Assam, and West Bengal. In 2018–19, Rajasthan produced about 6.29 lakh tones of total seed spices from an area of 8.33 lakh hectares, accounting for 48 percent of the country’s area and 38 percent of its production. Cumin cultivation and cumin production in India were 10.27 lakh hectares and 6.99 lakh tonnes, respectively, in 2018–19. Only Rajasthan contributed about 54 percent of the area and 66 percent of the cumin production (Anonymous, 2021). Jodhpur district alone contributes about 25% of total cumin area and 37% of total cumin production in Rajasthan (DES, Rajasthan, 2019–20). In Rajasthan, the Jodhpur district has the highest cultivated area and cumin output. Cumin is grown

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for commercial purposes in the state’s arid and semi-arid regions. The good returns and higher cash value attract all cultivators to produce cumin. However, because of the greater fluctuation in climatic conditions, it is a highly perilous crop that attracts insect pests and diseases. As a result, average farmers are unable to take significant risks in their farming operations.

12.7.2.1

Export of Cumin

India is the world’s leading producer, exporter, and consumer of cumin seeds, with Syria, Turkey, and Iran as its main competitors. Cumin accounts for 12–15 percent of India’s total spice exports. In the global market, India is up against Syria, which exports almost 80% of its produce. Turkey and Iran are also fierce competitors, as the majority of their output is exported and their prices are substantially cheaper than India’s. Cumin yield, production, and area under cumin are all increasing over time. As a result, promotional activities/schemes to expand the cumin market should be prioritized. The increase in yield is primarily responsible for the crop’s variability in production. This yield effect aids in the expansion of the cumin-growing area. However, in the Indian market, its price is extremely volatile. As a result, the Central and State Governments should take appropriate measures to stabilize the price and protect the interests of cumin growers, such as announcing a minimum support price, schemes, and processing development programmes. According to the Spice Board of India, the total spice production in Rajasthan in 2016–17 was 1.5 million MT, with Cumin accounting for around 207 thousand MT. Barmer, Jalore, Nagaur, Pali, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Tonk, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Sirohi, Sikar, and Bikaner are the key growing areas in Rajasthan. Cumin output in the state has been inconsistent over time, but it still accounts for 40% of India’s total cumin production and is the second-largest cumin farming state after Gujarat. Rajasthan produces 1,056,170 MT of spices, accounting for 12.27 percent of all spice production in the country. Rajasthan is the leading producer of cumin, accounting for 19.6% of overall spice production and 41.36 percent of total national cumin production, followed by Gujarat (Anonymous, 2016c).

12.8 One District One Product Scheme The Ministry of Food Processing Industries launched the “One District, One Product” (ODOP) programme to assist districts in reaching their full potential, fostering economic and sociocultural progress, and creating employment possibilities, particularly in rural areas. It intends to accomplish this by identifying, promoting, and branding a product from a single district. The One District, One Product initiative aims to transform every area in India into an export centre by promoting the product in which the district specializes. The project intends to accomplish this by scaling

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production, promoting local firms, identifying prospective overseas customers, and other means, all of which will contribute to the realization of the “Atmanirbhar Bharat” vision (Anonymous, 2022b). The following are the ODOP identifying criteria: • • • • • • • •

Percentage of ODOP produce relative to total agricultural produce of the district Perishable nature ODOP presence in the district relative to other districts Recognizability of the district with the ODOP product Processing level for ODOP in that district, other districts and states Number of workers engaged in ODOP production and processing Marketing linkages ODOP processing infrastructure in the district.

Benefits to Districts • Capital Investment: Capital investment would be made available to existing micro-enterprises. Preference is given to companies that manufacture ODOP goods. New units, on the other hand, would only be compatible with ODOP products. • Marketing and Branding: Infrastructure support for marketing and branding is offered. Other items would be encouraged if marketing and branding were done at the state or regional level. • Subsidy: The Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME) Scheme with the ODOP approach may give a credit-linked capital subsidy of up to Rs. 10 lakhs (US$ 13,379.7) of the qualified project cost. The beneficiary may be required to contribute at least 10% of the total sum, with the remainder funded by a bank loan. • Credit-Linked Grant: A credit-linked grant of 35% would be granted to assist organizations such as self-help groups (SHGs), producer co-operatives, and others with their operations, such as sorting, grading, storage, packing, and processing. • Seed Capital: Seed money of Rs. 40,000 (US$ 535.2) is offered to each SHG member working in food processing. The funds will be used for working capital and the purchase of small tools. • Branding and Marketing: Grants of up to 50% of total spending are offered for the state or regional level ODOP product, to SHGs, co-operatives, and other organizations. Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) rely heavily on branding and marketing to thrive (MSME). • Training: Entrepreneurship development, operations, marketing, accounting, FSSAI norms, GST registration, Udyog Aadhaar, Geographical Indication (GI) registration, and other topics are covered in training. Furthermore, training for ODOP goods is provided, including cleanliness, storage, packaging, and the

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development of new items. This type of training enables entrepreneurs to run their businesses more efficiently and to increase the quality of their products. The list of 12 products from 12 districts of Thar Desert region are as follows: • • • • • • • • •

Barmer—Pomegranate Jalore—Isabgol Jaisalmer—Nutritious xerophytic fruits Carr, Sangri Jhunjhunu—Fruit-based product, Lemon Bikaner—Moth (Bhujia, Namkeen, Papad) Churu—Groundnut Product Nagaur—Fenugreek, poly-milk products Hanumangarh—Wheat Grain-Based Products—Noodles, Pasta Jodhpur—Cumin—(Cleaning, Grading, Classifying, Packing, Roasting, Cumin based drink) • Sikar—Onion • Sri Ganganagar—Kinnu.

12.9 Subsidy on Food or Agro-Processing Industry in Rajasthan—RIPS, 2019 The state of Rajasthan features different agro-climatic conditions that allow for the production of a wide range of crops. Rajasthan is the leading producer of fenugreek, mustard, bajra, cumin, coriander, guar, and other spices. It produces more than 10% of the nation’s milk and has one of the largest cattle populations in the country. These elements combine to make Rajasthan an ideal location for the food or agro-processing business (RIPS, 2019).

12.9.1 Subsidies on Food or Agri-Processing Industry in Rajasthan The Rajasthan government is actively supporting investment in the food processing/ agro-processing business. The Agro/Food processing industry has been designated as a priority sector under the Rajasthan Investment Promotion Scheme, 2019. As a result, specific subsidies and incentives are available for companies looking to set up a food or agro-processing unit in Rajasthan. A list all of the advantages announced for food and agro-processing units in Rajasthan under RIPS, 2019 is given below (Tables 12.9 and 12.10):

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12.9.2 Rajasthan Investment Promotion Scheme, 2019 (RIPS, 2019) 12.10 Major Strength of Rajasthan for Food or Agro-Processing Industry Some of the factors which are favourable for food and Agro-processing industry in Rajasthan are discussed below: 1. Raw Material Availability: Psyllium, fenugreek, mustard, bajra, cumin, coriander, guar, and other raw materials are abundant in Rajasthan. It produces more than 10% of the nation’s milk and has one of the biggest cattle populations, making it excellent for food processing plants. 2. Basic Infrastructure: Rajasthan is ranked first in the Landlocked States category in the Export Preparedness Index, 2020. To give excellent connectivity to major cities, the state boasts a wide network of national highways and railways. It is well connected to Gujarat and Maharashtra ports. 3. Power availability: Rajasthan’s unique climatic circumstances allow for a diverse range of solar and wind power generation. The state government makes every effort to guarantee that industries have access to power 24 h a day, seven days a week. Table 12.9 General and special incentives under RIPS, 2019 General Incentives under RIPS, 2019

Special incentives under RIPS, 2019

Following incentives are granted to a • 5% interest subsidy on term loan taken by manufacturing unit under RIPS, 2019: enterprises from any Financial Institutions or State Financial Institutions or Banks • Investment Subsidy of 75% of State tax recognized by RBI for making an investment (SGST) due and deposited, for 7 years; • Employment Generation Subsidy in the form in plant & machinery, for a period of of reimbursement of 50% of employer’s 5 years subject to a maximum of Rs. 25 contribution towards employees EPF and Lakhs per year; OR ESI, for 7 years; • Capital subsidy equivalent to 25% of the • Exemption from payment of 100% of investment made on the plant & machinery, Electricity Duty for 7 years; subject to a maximum of Rs. 50 Lakhs • Exemption from payment of 100% of Land Tax for 7 years; • Exemption from payment of 100% of Market Fee (Mandi Fee) for 7 years; • Exemption from payment of 100% of Stamp Duty on the purchase or lease/ sub-lease of land and construction or improvement of such land; and • Exemption from payment of 100% of conversion charges payable for change of land use and conversion of land

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Table 12.10 Subsidies for food processing sector in Rajasthan General incentives under RIPS, 2019

Special incentives under RIPS, 2019

• 5% interest subsidy on term loan taken by Following incentives are granted to a enterprises from any Financial Institutions or manufacturing unit under RIPS, 2019: State Financial Institutions or Banks • Investment Subsidy of 75% of State tax recognized by RBI for making an investment (SGST) due and deposited, for 7 years; • Employment Generation Subsidy in the form in plant & machinery, for a period of of reimbursement of 50% of employer’s 5 years subject to a maximum of Rs. 25 contribution towards employees EPF and Lakhs per year; OR ESI, for 7 years; • Capital subsidy equivalent to 25% of the • Exemption from payment of 100% of investment made on the plant & machinery, Electricity Duty for 7 years; subject to a maximum of Rs. 25 Lakhs • Exemption from payment of 100% of Land Tax for 7 years; • Exemption from payment of 100% of Market Fee (Mandi Fee) for 7 years; • Exemption from payment of 100% of Stamp Duty on the purchase or lease/ sub-lease of land and construction or improvement of such land; and • Exemption from payment of 100% of conversion charges payable for change of land use and conversion of land

4. Workforce availability: Agriculture and related activities account for 24 percent of the state’s GDP, with 62 percent of the state’s entire working population relying on them for a living. As a result of this feature, there is no shortage of trained and cost-effective labour in Rajasthan’s agro or food processing sectors. 5. Agri-Infrastructure Support: (a) Rajasthan has six food parks. Ajmer has one mega food park, and the other five are in Alwar, Kota, Jodhpur, and Sri Ganganagar. (b) Two Agri-Export Zones: one for coriander (Kota, Baran, Jhalawar, and Chittorgarh) and one for cumin (Nagaur, Barmer, Jalore, Pali, and Jodhpur). (c) According to RIICO, there are 26 industrial areas designated as suitable for the food processing industry out of 344 existing industrial zones. (d) Rajasthan has eight inland container depots. (e) The food processing clusters are given in (Table 12.11).

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Table 12.11 Food processing clusters in Rajasthan Spices and Condiments Processing Kota, Jodhpur, Bikaner, Jaipur Milk Processing

Alwar, Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner

Pulses Processing

Jodhpur, Bikaner, Jaipur

Snacks Processing

Jodhpur, Jaipur

Mustard & Soyabean Processing

Kota, Bundi

Barley Processing

Jaipur, Sikar, Dausa, Tonk, Bundi

Maize Processing

Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Banswara

Prepared Foods

Alwar, Jaipur, Ajmer

Wheat Processing

Jaipur, Alwar, Sri Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Kota, Bundi, Baran

Oil Processing

Alwar, Sri Ganganagar, Bharatpur, Bundi, Kota

Fruit & Vegetable Processing

Sikar, Ajmer, Banswara, Chittorgarh

12.11 Emerging Problems and Consequences 12.11.1 Thar Desert—Traditional Wisdom The Thar Desert has its own set of traditional wisdom, with the themes of water conservation, mixed farming of crops and cattle, agroforestry, and land care at its heart. This contrasts with the history of settlement in many other deserts, where animal husbandry and migration were major notions. Proximity to Harappan towns and cities, many of which grew in the then-drying Saraswati River valley (present-day Ghaggar River, which once carried the waters of the Sutlej as well, but long before the Harappans settled), meant that the desert population had an added opportunity for trading in crop and animal products, and thus an impetus to develop technologies for water conservation and dryland agriculture. Since then, a system of agriculture based on mixed cropping and animal husbandry that relied on the optimum use of the volatile monsoon rainfall and the management and care of the country’s vulnerable soil resources has become a valuable asset to the region. In years of monsoon anomalies, mixed cropping helped to ensure grain production, whereas animal husbandry assisted the most during droughts, not only through sales earnings of live animals, but also animal products. Traditional customs and agricultural practices of the rural community incorporate a variety of measures for land maintenance and water conservation. Long fallow for 2–5 years; short fallow for a year), erecting fences around fields during summer to trap the suspended silt that blows in from the fertile plains during sandstorms (aandhi) or to prevent the soil from blowing away, lopping of trees (rather than felling) for fuel and fodder, management of permanent pastures for grazing, rotational grazing practices, and so on. Not to mention some areas of the Thar are nearly always prone to drought. Because of these conditions, “the living” in the desert is filled with “harsh realities”.

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The Indian Thar has experienced one of the country’s fastest demographic growths over the last thirty years. This rapidly growing human population, together with an increasing quantity of cattle, is dispersed over vast swaths of land. More than 80% of this population lives in rural areas. The desert’s dispersed nature is an unusual element of its demographics. Despite such rapid expansion, most of these districts have population densities ranging from 7 to 15 people per square kilometre. This overcrowding of the Thar has not been supported by a corresponding upgrade of infrastructure for supplying vital services such as primary health care, education, and drinking water, banking expansion, or agriculture and animal-related services. Nonetheless, as a result of globalization and its localization, conditions have evolved dramatically during the previous decade and more. The economy, the terrain, and society have all been subjected to tremendous unpredictable reconfiguration. Government, media, business, and civil society actions have a significant impact on the village, its culture, economy, community relations, lifestyles, and aspirations. Money flows have shifted from local circulation loops to uneven leaking out of the village level system; modern technology has emerged as a valuable resource for rural communities in terms of communication and connecting to the larger world. Worryingly, this is also leading in a lot of money leakage as these utilities gradually transform into lifestyle goods. Opportunities for those with means to earn a living have expanded as communication and infrastructure have improved the market and linkages significantly. Increased connections to the “outside” world are altering economics as well as societal structure. The Thar’s rural economy is still essentially pastoral, reliant on livestock husbandry and localized handcraft manufacture. However, their operations and market connections have improved dramatically. NREGA and local self-governance (Panchayati Raj), two recent important achievements, have created several prospects for new local financial loops. These have simultaneously complicated the dynamics and are proven to be a definite game-changer in this fluid social arrangement, boosting the local while also facilitating the global through direct and indirect bursts of spendable wealth.

12.11.2 Modernization’s Impact on the Traditional Wisdom in Thar Desert Unfortunately, the situation has begun to change as a result of population expansion and modernization. The system of land fallowing was the first casualty as the rate of change increased. Permanent pastures have become practically devoid of ground flora, and browse-worthy shrubs have become scarce, allowing non-browsable plant species to proliferate. Sparse natural woody vegetation atop sand dunes and low sandy hummocks has steadily been the target of fuel wood collectors, loosening the structure of the sand and making the dunes more vulnerable to wind during the dry summer months. Following the Green Revolution, major changes began to occur

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in the neighbouring fertile plains of Punjab and Haryana, where science-mediated crop production technologies demonstrated the path to agricultural self-sufficiency, particularly through the use of improved seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, mechanization of tillage and harvest, and irrigation facilities. The Green Revolution’s echo soon began to be heard in Rajasthan’s desert western areas as well. Farmers first chose diesel pump sets to power their wells, particularly during the winter cropping season. Farmers began sinking their own wells for irrigation as rural electrification progressed and the state groundwater department moved in to sink tube wells for drinking purposes. The overall sown area grew from 7.8 million hectares in 1950–51 to 10.09 million hectares in 1980 and 10.94 million hectares in 2005 and 15.08 million hectares in 2019–20. At the same time, irrigated land increased from 0.363 million hectares in 1950–51 to 1.39 million hectares in 1980 and 2.77 million hectares in 2005, and 6.77 million hectares in 2019–20 with canal networks (primarily the Indira Gandhi Canal system) accounting for 43% of the irrigated area and electrified wells accounting for the remaining 57 percent (Kar, 2011). Tractors quickly followed, and their numbers increased from 14.5 thousand in 1980 to 200 thousand by 2005 and have continued. This increase is supported by the necessity for fast tillage and planting activities following rains in sandy terrain, which must be finished within 2 days of a 30 mm rainfall event at the monsoon break (usually early July). Otherwise, the hot sun evaporates the moisture in the soil, and the opportunity is lost. Tractor action, on the other hand, is detrimental to the random distribution of trees and shrubs in a field. As a result, uprooting the trees and shrubs in the fields was the simplest option. As a result, the fields’ distinctiveness as traditional agroforestry models was lost. With greater irrigation, agricultural demand increased, and tractors gradually began to ascend the sand dunes, which had previously served mostly as natural rangelands and had been brought under crops mainly during good rains. Gradually, practically the entire sandy tract in the desert was deep ploughed by tractors, resulting in sand destabilization over a vast area. Many sand dunes in the desert’s eastern half are now under crops, with tractors ploughing the ground and sprinkling irrigation aiding in the growth of winter crops for cash. Irrigation resulted in a massive boost in agricultural production, particularly in winter crops, which brought in a lot of money for farmers. Groundwater was a free commodity, and farmers were encouraged by irrigation’s success; as a result, overirrigation of fields became frequent. Misuse of water in canal command regions caused waterlogging and salinity in various sections of Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, and Bikaner districts. Simultaneously, the government’s efforts to supply drinking water to all villages continued. The pipeline networks for drinking water relieved residents of the arduous task of carrying water from great distances, but they also resulted in a disregard of traditional water harvesting systems, many of which silted up and their catchments were disrupted and encroached upon. The Shekhawati tract, particularly the districts of Sikar, Churu, and Jhunjhunu, has some of the worst examples of neglect. Groundwater is mostly used for irrigation (more than 80%), rather than drinking (15%). The discharge from numerous wells began to diminish as groundwater

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pumping grew, and the aquifers began to dry up. The afflicted farmers began to travel deeper for water, which not only increased the cost of lifting water, but in many cases the lifted water was also of low quality. The soils were harmed, and yields were lowered. Irrigated farming became unprofitable or difficult to undertake as a result of the depleted aquifers. This drove many farmers to switch from irrigated winter planting to rainfed subsistence farming during the monsoon, resulting in additional sociocultural challenges for the afflicted. Meanwhile, the sandy soil, devoid of vegetation and disturbed by years of tractor ploughing, proved more vulnerable to high summer winds from March to June. Fortunately, the average wind speed has been decreasing since its high in the mid1980s for much of the 1990s and 2000s. Despite this, the atmospheric dust load has increased in recent years, owing mostly to fundamental changes in land use and land cover. Water availability, land quality, and dust emission are currently the top three environmental challenges in the desert. While depleting water sources necessitate immediate attention to water management, global warming and population pressure are not only degrading land conditions, but also increasing sand mobility and air dust load. In fact, there is now a potential of double vulnerability—to natural process acceleration and human resource usurpation—which might have a significant impact on soil quality deterioration and the performance of current plant species, including crops. Unless corrective measures are taken, yields of some crops may fall by 20– 30%. Some high-value crops, such as cumin and wheat, are already suffering as winter temperatures rise. Summer crop production (kharif) is becoming more speculative due to changes in rainy days and rainfall intensity. Previously, the rainfall distribution from June through September resembled a bell curve, with the highest concentration occurring in July and August. This pattern is gradually shifting towards a double peak, one in May–June and another in August–September, forcing farmers to either speculate for July rain or rush for out-of-season purchases of inputs like seeds and fertilizer, and then gamble on a good distribution of rain during crop growth stages. There is a good chance that the summer wind strength will steadily grow over the following few decades as well. When seen in the context of changes in land tillage and the influence of empty aquifers, this may result in a significantly higher potential for sand mobilization than has been witnessed in the previous fifty years. If this occurs, there is a good likelihood that wind-blown sand will begin to expand beyond the Thar Desert’s eastern border. This process could be aided by the reactivation of the now stable sandy environment to the east and north of the Thar desert, which formed sections of a Mega-Thar 10–20 thousand years ago. When rainfall rose 5–8 thousand years ago, and the desert area receded to the west of the Aravalli Hills, these eastern sandy patches organically stabilized. Because population pressure in this sandy terrain is currently quite strong, the aquifers are virtually empty, and the land surface temperature is rising, a sufficient trigger could remobilize the dense sandy sections.

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12.12 Conclusion Steps must be made quickly to prevent the Thar Desert and the surrounding area from a potentially devastating situation. These should include increasing green cover in sandy terrain to reduce wind erosion and soil nutrient loss; improving crop water use efficiency and developing heat and drought tolerance in them; management strategies to address the challenges of increased drought and flood frequencies; improving the livestock production system as a strong alternative to crop-based economy; a thorough understanding and close monitoring of land surface processes; and, above all, wading through the mud.

References Ahluwalia, M. (2002a). Economic reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16(3), 67–88. Ahluwalia, M. (2002b). India’s vulnerability to external crises. In Ahluwalia, M., Y. V. Reddy and S. S. Tarapore, Macroeconomics and Monetary Policy: Issues for a Reforming Economy, Oxford University Press, Chapter, 9, 183–214. Anonymous. (2006). Livestock management in Thar Desert. Retrieved on June 18, 2022 from https:/ /www.dawn.com/news/174246/livestock-management-in-thar-desert. Anonymous. (2012). India: Issues and priorities for agriculture. Retrieved on June 14, 2022 from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/05/17/india-agriculture-issues-priorities. Anonymous. (2016a). Development opportunities—Thar Desert, India. Retrieved on June 14, 2022 from https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zscch39/revision/6. Anonymous. (2016b). Value chain analysis: Coriander. Rajasthan agricultural Competitiveness project. Agri-business promotion facility, Grant Thornton International Ltd. Retrieved on June 14, 2022 from https://www.tourism.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/agriculture/Rajasthan%20A gricultural%20Competitiveness%20Project/valuechainreport/RACP_VC_Coriander.pdf. Anonymous. (2016c). Detailed project report on cumin powder processing unit. Rajasthan agricultural competitiveness project. Agri-business promotion facility, Grant Thornton International Ltd. Retrieved on June 20, 2022 from https://agriculture.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/agricu lture/Rajasthan%20Agricultural%20Competitiveness%20Project/Disclosure_of_Reports/Bor rower_Completion_Report_BCR/Agribusiness/RACP_ABPF_Tech%20DPR_Cumin%20P owder.pdf. Anonymous. (2016d). Value chain analysis: Guar. Rajasthan agricultural competitiveness project. Agri-business promotion facility, Grant Thornton International Ltd. Retrieved on June 20, 2022 from https://agriculture.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/agriculture/Rajasthan%20Agricultural% 20Competitiveness%20Project/valuechainreport/RACP_VC_Guar.pdf. Anonymous. (2017a). Profile of the Thar Desert. Retrieved on June 15, 2022 from https://www.ind iaonline.in/about/profile/geography/physiographicregions/thar-desert. Anonymous. (2017b). Case study—The Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India. Retrieved on June 15, 2022 from https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zctymnb/revision/3. Anonymous. (2017c). Promoting exports from Rajasthan: Insights and policy perspectives. Occasional Paper No. 181, Export-Import Bank of India. Retrieved on June 18, 2022 from https:// www.eximbankindia.in/Assets/pdf/research-on-states/Rajasthan.pdf. Anonymous. (2017d). Report of Task Force on Agricultural Marketing Reforms. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. Retrieved from https://dmi.gov.in/Documents/ReportTaskForce AMR.pdf.

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Anonymous. (2018). Brief history of agricultural marketing regulation, its constraints and reforms in the sector. Retrieved on June 14, 2022 from https://dmi.gov.in/Documents/Brief%20History% 20of%20Marketing%20Regulation.pdf. Anonymous. (2019a). Report of the committee to identify the central acts which are not relevant or no longer needed or require repeal/re-enactment in the present socio-economic context. Retrieved on June 14, 2022 from https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/member_commit tee/VOLUME-I(PART-II).pdf. Anonymous. (2019b). Rajasthan Agro-processing, Agri-business & Agri-export promotion policy 2019. Retrieved on June 18, 2022 from https://agriculture.rajasthan.gov.in/content/agriculture/ en/RSAMB-dep/rajasthan-agro-processing--agri-business-and-agri-export-promoti.html. Anonymous. (2021). Agriculture at a glance in Rajasthan. https://agriculture.rajasthan.gov.in/con tent/agriculture/en/Agriculture-Department-dep/Departmental-Introduction.html. Anonymous. (2022). India at a glance. Food and agriculture organization of the united. Retrieved on June 20, 2022 from Nations. https://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/india-at-a-glance/en/. Anonymous. (2022b). India’s ‘one district, one product’ programme. Retrieved on June 14, 2022 from https://www.ibef.org/blogs/india-s-one-district-one-product-programme. Chand, R. (2019, June). Innovative policy interventions for transformation of agriculture sector. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 32(1), 1–10. Chand, R., Saxena, R. & Rana, S. (2015, May 30). Estimates and analysis of farm income in India, 1983–84 to 2011–12. Economic & Political Weekly, 50(22), 139–145. Collier, P., & Dercon, S. (2014). African agriculture in 50 Years: Smallholders in a rapidly changing world? World Development, 63, 92–101. Connolly, A. J., & Phillips-Connolly, K. (2012). Can agribusiness feed 3 billion new people and save the planet: A glimpse into the future. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 15, 139–152. Davis, J. H. (1955, October 17). Business responsibility and the market for farm products. Address to Boston Conference on Distribution. JDP, NAL. Dillon, B., & Dambro, C. (2017). How competitive are crop markets in Sub-Saharan Africa? American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 99(5), 1344–1361. Edwards, M. R., & Schultz, C. J., II. (2005). Reframing agribusiness: Moving from farm to marketcentric. Journal of Agribusiness, 23(1), 57–73. Fusonie, A. E. (1995). John H. Davis: Architect of the agribusiness concept revisited. Agricultural History, 69(2), 326–348. Kar, A. (2011). Caring for the Thar Desert. Retrieved on June 20, 2022 from https://geographyand you.com/thar-desert/. Kolte, A., & Simonetti, B. (2018). A contrary view on Indian economic crisis of 1991. International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts, 6(1), 54–64. Mathew, E. T. (2006). Employment and unemployment in India. Sage Publications Inc. Ng, D., & Siebert, J. W. (2009). Toward better defining the field of agribusiness management. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 12(4), 123–142. NSO. (2019). Periodic labour force survey: July 2017-June 2018. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, GOI. Panagariya, A. (2004). Growth and reforms during 1980s and 1990s. Economic and Political Weekly, 39(25), 2581–2594. Rai, D. K. (2015). Trends and economic dynamics of Guar in India. Working Paper 311, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations. RIPS. (2019). Rajasthan investment promotion scheme—2019. Retrieved on June 20, 2022 from https://industries.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/industries/CI/pdf/Programmes%26S chemes/RIPS2019.pdf. Singh, S. (2021). Food security and markets: Understanding the protests over India’s changing social contract with farmers. Retrieved on June 10, 2022 from https://www.thehinducentre. com/the-arena/current-issues/article34060554.ece. Sonka, S. T., & Hudson, M. A. (1989). Why agribusiness anyway? Agribusiness, 5(4), 305–314.

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Srinivasan, T. N., & Tendulkar, S. D. (2003). Reintegrating India with the world economy. Institute for International Economics. Virmani, A. (2008). Growth and poverty: Policy implications for lagging states. Economic and Political Weekly, 43(2), 54–62.

Chapter 13

Multidimensional Development in Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan Nisha Varghese

Abstract Development is a multidimensional process and its impact cannot be fully captured by a single indicator. A number of indicators when analyzed individually do not provide an integrated and easily comprehensible picture of reality. Hence, there is a need for building up of a composite index of development based on optimum combination of all the indicators. Composite indices of development have been obtained for different districts by using the data on the multi-sector developmental indicators. The hyper arid districts like Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner, and Jodhpur are found at the bottom strata of overall development as evidenced by the composite indices mainly due to the bottom position of demographic, health, social, and environmental indicators for these districts. The dismal forest coverage and increasing share of irrigated area through ground water resources in almost all desert districts are issues limiting the scope for sustainable development of Thar Desert region. The diversion of economic activities from crop and livestock-based activities to mining for potential products in the region; solar energy conservation practices, desert tourism, etc., may be promoted. Minimizing intensive agriculture based on ground water resource-based irrigation and limiting the same in canal irrigated areas may help to have better environmental sustainability in the Thar Desert region. The demographic factors like high population growth rate, low literacy rate, and poor female literacy could be reversed by initiating more women empowerment programs in the Thar Desert region. The low work participation rate is indicative of the need for diversification of employment through non-land-based activities. The high share of irrigated area through ground water resources for irrigation warrants stringent ground water exploitation policy in this eco-fragile region. Keywords Composite indices · Multi-sector indicators · Environmental sustainability

N. Varghese (B) SOEDS, IGNOU-Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_13

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13.1 Introduction Rajasthan is the largest state in India in terms of area and occupies 10% of the geographical area in the country. Dividing the state into two distinct regions are the Aravali ranges running from Khetri in the north-east to Khed Brahma in the south west of Rajasthan, about 550 km. The Thar Desert comes between the Aravalli hills in the north-east and the Runn of kutch along the coast in north-west (Sharma et al., 2017). The Aravali ranges not just divide the state into two parts, they also abound in minerals, are home to several species of flora and fauna and also serve as a check to the spread of the Thar Desert. To the west of the Aravali ranges are 11 districts which constitute the Thar Desert (Fig. 13.1). In our discussions in this chapter, we will be excluding Ganganagar district as, even though this district lies in the Thar Desert; the canal irrigation from Indira Gandhi Canal has changed the face of this district with production of wheat, cotton, rice, groundnut, sugarcane, citrus fruits, etc. This district is also known as the food basket of Rajasthan. The ten districts in the Thar Desert region which will be considered for analysis and discussion of this chapter are Bikaner, Churu, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jalore, Pali, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Sikar, and Jhunjhunu.

Fig. 13.1 The Thar Desert of Rajasthan

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315

13.1.1 Thar Desert: An Overview The Thar Desert receives around 80% of its rainfall from the southwest summer monsoon. In this region, the maximum temperature reaches up to 45 to 50 °C during summer months and the minimum temperature remains at 3 to 10 °C during winter months. The average annual rainfall in this region is around 400 mm which varies from year to year. Agriculture in this region is predominantly rainfed. Kharif is the important cropping season where the seeding is done in the month of June-July and harvested in September–October. The main crops grown in this region during this season include bajra, guar, jowar (sorghum), maize, sesame, and groundnut. However, in recent decades, due to improved irrigation facilities like canal and tubewell irrigation, the desert districts have also started producing rabi crops like wheat, mustard, cumin, and other cash crops. Depending on the availability of irrigation facilities, the cropping intensity in the region ranges from 113 in Pali to 160 in Jhunjhunu. The forest cover in this region is very low, ranging from 0.47% in Churu to 6.77% in Jhunjhunu. The percentage net sown area in this region varies from 21.59% in Jaisalmer to 83.07% in Churu. The rate of population growth in this region is higher than the national average. As per 2011 Census, the decadal growth rate of India has been 17.64% while that of Rajasthan was 21.44%. The overall literacy rate in the state is very low (66.11%) and female literacy is even lower (52.12%). The average total literacy rate (63.76%) and female literacy rate (49.29%) is even lower in the Thar Desert region. The livestock population of the state is second highest in the country. The Thar Desert region has 69% of the state’s camel population and 68% of state’s sheep population. More than 50% of goat and donkey population is also in this region. However, overall the livestock population has declined in Rajasthan by 1.66%. In 2012 livestock census, the livestock population of Rajasthan was 57.7 million which has declined to 56.8 million in 2019 livestock census. In the Thar Desert region, the population of all kinds of animals except cattle, buffalo, and poultry has declined considerably. Considered to be a backbone of the rural economy, the decline in livestock population is alarming as dependency on animal husbandry is high in western Rajasthan (Kulshrestha, 2019). The people in Thar practice a mixed farming system growing a mix of crops and livestock. Livestock acts as a buffer to supplement household income in times of crop failures. Sheep, goat, and camel are desert hardy animals which can withstand physiological stress caused due to high temperatures and lesser intake of food and water. These animals are of much use to the residents of this region in terms of contributing to the nutritional security of the people through meat, milk, and milk products. The hides of the animals are used for making water storage bags and bones are used for making carved products. During financial stress, it is easier to get money by selling these animals.

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13.2 Multidimensional Development in the Thar Desert Region Development is a multidimensional process and its impact cannot be fully captured by a single indicator. A number of indicators when analyzed individually do not provide an integrated and easily comprehensible picture of reality. Hence, there is a need for building up of a composite index of development based on optimum combination of all the indicators. Composite indices of development have been obtained for different states by using the data on the following developmental indicators. Demographic Indicators 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Percent rural population Percent female population Percent decadal growth rate of population Population density Sex Ratio

Health Indicators 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Under five mortality rate Percent children under five stunted Percent children under five wasted Percent institutional birth Full immunization (children aged 12 to 23 months)

Social Indicators 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Percent female literacy Percent households with access to electricity Percent households with access to safe drinking water Percent households with access to sanitation Percent households with access to clean cooking fuel

Economic Indicators 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Per capita NDDP Percent contribution to GDP at 2011–12 constant price Average land holdings Livestock density Work participation rate

Environmental Indicators 21. Percent irrigation by well 22. Cropping intensity 23. Percent forest area

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317

24. SDG score 25. Percent departure (in 2020) from average rainfall (of 2011–19) A total of twenty eight development indicators have been included in the analysis. These indicators may not form an all inclusive list but these are the major interacting components of development. These indicators have further been classified into five major heads namely demographic, health, social, economic, and infrastructure/ resource indicators.

13.2.1 Calculation of Multidimensional Development Index The composite index developed by (Narain et al., 2009) was used for analysis in this study. There are several statistical methods which are used for estimating the level of development but most of these methods have their own limitations. The major limitation arises from the assumptions made about the development indicators themselves and their weightage in aggregate index. Keeping in view the limitations of different methods in estimating the level of development, the following statistical procedures are used in this study. Variables for different development indicators are taken from different population distributions and these are recorded in different units of measurement. The values of the variables are not quite suitable for combined analysis. Hence, the variables are transformed for the combined analysis as given below. Let [Xij] be data matrix giving the values of the variables of ith state, i = 1, 2, … n (number of states) and jth indicator, j = 1, 2, … k (number of indicators). For combined analysis [X ij ] is transformed to [Z ij ] as follows: 

 Xi j − X j Zi j = sj

where X j = mean of the jth indicator s j =standard deviation of jth indicator. Z i j is the matrix of standardized indicators. From [Z ij ], identify the best value of each indicator. Let it be denoted as Z oj . The best value will be either the maximum value or the minimum value of the indicator depending upon the direction of the impact of indicator on the level of development. For obtaining the pattern of development C i of ith state, first calculate Pij as follows: Pi j = (Z i j − Z oj )2 Pattern of Development is given by Ci =

1 k  Pij  2 j=i (CV)j

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(CV)j = Coefficient of Variation in X ij for jth indicator. Composite index of development is given by. Di = C i / C Where C = C + 3S Di C = Mean of C i SDi = Standard Deviation of C i Smaller value of Di will indicate high level of development and higher value of Di will indicate low level of development. The best value of each developmental indicator of the model states will be taken up as the potential target of that indicator for state A.

13.3 Level of Development of Districts The composite indices were calculated for various dimensions of development viz. demographic, health, social, economic, and environmental, on the basis of the identified indicators. The districts were ranked on the basis of the indices for each of these sectors. The indices along with the ranks of districts are given in Table 13.1. Since independence, India has undergone a demographic transition. Demographic transition is the change societies undergo from a pre-modern regime of high fertility and high mortality to a postmodern regime of low fertility and low mortality as observed in the case of European and American population history during 1930s. This shift is typically seen from short lives and large families to where people tend to live longer lives and raise smaller families. In demographic trends, the performance of southernmost states is noteworthy. Among the different districts of the Thar Desert Region, Pali, Churu, Nagaur, and Sikar are in the topmost tier of demographic development. Among the five demographic indicators considered for working out the demographic development index, these districts are characterized by comparatively lesser percentage of population living in rural areas, higher female population (close to 50% of the population in Pali are females), and higher sex ratio. The values of demographic indicators are given in Table 13.2. Development is a consequence of good health. Good health allows people to reach their full potential; children to learn better and a district with a healthy population are more likely to experience sustained growth and development. The districts which have better health indicators will be better developed because when the health of the people is good; they are able to engage themselves in better and more productive activities. It would seem ‘obvious’ that a healthier labor force will suffer less debility and disability and will work more effectively and more steadily resulting in increased productivity and rising per capita income (Grosse & Harkavy, 1980). The health indices varied from 0.18 in Jhunjhunu to 0.70 in Jaisalmer. Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Pali, and Sikar fare better than other districts in terms of health indicators. As is evident from Table 13.3, these districts have the lowest under five mortality rates; lesser percentage of children under five in these districts are stunted and wasted and there

Districts

Pali

Jhunjhunu

Sikar

Nagaur

Churu

Bikaner

Jalore

Jodhpur

Barmer

Jaisalmer

S.No

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0.83

0.59

0.40

0.35

0.47

0.27

0.30

0.32

0.39

10

9

7

5

8

2

3

4

6

1

0.70

0.46

0.56

0.60

0.59

0.56

0.21

0.45

0.18

0.26

CI

0.08

Health

CI

Rank

Demographic

10

5

7

9

8

6

2

4

1

3

Rank

0.59

0.75

0.34

0.49

0.16

0.20

0.38

0.14

0.08

0.15

CI

Social

9

10

6

8

4

5

7

2

1

3

Rank

0.48

0.25

0.60

0.51

0.53

0.64

0.62

0.78

0.69

0.63

CI

Economic

Table 13.1 Multidimensional indices and ranks of the districts in the Thar Desert Region

2

1

5

3

4

8

6

10

9

7

Rank

0.59

0.79

0.62

0.51

0.42

0.52

0.55

0.34

0.20

0.59

CI

7

10

9

4

3

5

6

2

1

8

Rank

Environmental

0.85

0.73

0.62

0.60

0.55

0.52

0.49

0.49

0.39

0.37

CI

Composite

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Rank

13 Multidimensional Development in Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan 319

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N. Varghese

Table 13.2 Demographic indicators of Thar Desert Region S. No

Districts

% Rural population

%Female population

% Decadal growth rate of pop

population density (persons/Sq. Km)

Sex ratio

1

Barmer

93

47.42

32.52

92

902

2

Bikaner

66.1

47.51

41.19

78

905

3

Churu

71.7

48.45

6.01

147

940

4

Jaisalmer

86.7

46.01

31.81

17

852

5

Jalore

91.7

48.78

26.21

172

952

6

Jhunjhunu

77.1

48.72

41.19

78

905

7

Jodhpur

65.7

47.82

27.74

161

916

8

Nagaur

80.7

48.72

19.2

187

950

9

Pali

77.4

49.67

11.94

164

987

10

Sikar

76.3

48.64

17.03

346

947

Table 13.3 Health indicators of Thar Desert Region S. No

Districts

Under five Mortality Rate

Percent Children under five Stunted

Percent Children under five Wasted

Percent Institutional Birth

Percent Children aged 12 23 months fully vaccinated

1

Barmer

85

39.1

11.5

93.3

92.8

2

Bikaner

67

22.8

25.6

90

81.3

3

Churu

62

27.1

16.5

87.8

82.4

4

Jaisalmer

71

25.5

25

90

74.7

5

Jalore

94

44.3

12.1

95.5

82.4

6

Jhunjhunu

69

20.9

13.9

97.1

88

7

Jodhpur

63

32.6

13.3

90

77

8

Nagaur

68

31.5

16.2

97

93.4

9

Pali

71

35.9

18.3

98.8

89.2

10

Sikar

74

23.1

12.8

95.8

71.3

are relatively much higher percentage of institutional births taking place in these districts. The desire to produce social indicators has been prompted by a growing feeling that economic statistics alone do not portray a complete picture of a country’s development (King, 1974). Most of the variables taken for analyzing social development represent the indicators that have a direct or indirect impact on the well-being of women and children in the society. Other than female literacy and institutional delivery which is an indicator of the status of women in the society, the other indicators taken for measuring social development include access the clean drinking water,

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321

sanitation, and cooking fuel. These indicators also have a great bearing on the wellbeing of women. In the absence of drinking water, women in Thar Desert region have to walk miles to carry clean drinking water for household purposes. Fetching wood which is used as fuel for cooking also is done by women and absence of clean cooking fuel adds to the drudgery of women. Women are also greatly affected by the access to sanitation. Many girls are forced to dropout from schools after the start of menstruation due to lack of proper toilet facilities in school. Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Pali, and Bikaner are in the top four ranks in terms of social development index. Female literacy is higher in these states. More than 90% households in these states have access to electricity and more than 85% households have access to clean drinking water. Access to clean cooking fuel and sanitation is low in almost all the districts of the Thar Desert region (Table 13.4). Animal husbandry and crop production are important economic activities of the people living in Thar Desert. Tourism is also one of the important income generating activities. Hence, average land holdings, livestock density and work participation rate have been taken as economic indicators for developing the economic development index. Other indicators taken include percentage contribution to GDP and per capital net district domestic product. Barmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner and Nagaur contribute maximum to the GDP of the state. With the exploration of oil reserves in Barmer by Cairn India Pvt. Ltd., the per capital income in Barmer has increased by 650% in 10 years (Bhatia, 2019). Barmer is contributing 24% oil to the country and there are possibilities of more oil reserves here. The sectoral composition for Jodhpur in the year 2020–21 at current prices is estimated to be 38.63% in agriculture and allied activities, 17.22% in industry sector, and 44.15% in service sector (DES, 2021). Between 2005 to 2016, Nagaur has the third highest improvement in the industry to GDP ratio, the ninth highest improvement in the percentage of workers employed in industry, and the third highest improvement in industry GDP per capita (Jha, 2017). Table 13.4 Social indicators of Thar Desert Region S. No

Districts

Percent Female literacy

Percent Households with access to electricity

Percent Households with access to safe drinking water

Percent Access to sanitation

Percent Access to clean cooing fuel

1

Barmer

40.63

65.6

70.1

20.2

14.7

2

Bikaner

53.23

91.5

86.2

64.8

39.7

3

Churu

48.01

95.3

83.6

73.3

30.3

4

Jaisalmer

54.04

76.4

56.7

36.8

17.1

5

Jalore

38.47

82.8

79

39.4

27.1

6

Jhunjhunu

58.23

96.2

88.3

66

51

7

Jodhpur

39.71

91.3

76.9

52.6

44.8

8

Nagaur

51.83

90.6

66.1

53.8

24.4

9

Pali

60.95

95.1

80.3

50.9

40.8

10

Sikar

47.82

96

90.9

61.2

42.8

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N. Varghese

The average land holdings in the Thar Desert region are more than the national average of 1.08 hectares. However, as the land is mostly sandy, the productivity per hectare would be generally low in this region. The more the district lies in the desert; the more is the size of the average holding. Hence, the average holding is more in Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Barmer, Jodhpur, and Churu. Livestock is an important source of livelihood in the Thar Desert region. The animals are used for milk, meat, hides, bones, and manure. When there is an extreme cash crunch or the in times of crop failure, animals are also sold to get quick cash. The livestock population in this region is very high. Except for Jodhpur and Jalore, the livestock density is more than the population density in all the other districts (Table 13.5). The indicators taken for environmental index are those which have a direct bearing on the environment of this eco-fragile region. The five indicators taken for the environmental index include percentage irrigation by well, cropping intensity, percentage forest area, SDG score, and departure from average rainfall in the year 2020. The ground water level in this region is very low. Irrigation by well will further deplete the already low ground water table, and hence, is not an environment friendly and sustainable option. In 5 out of 10 districts, more than 95% of the irrigation is by well. The availability of irrigation facilities is also associated with increase in cropping intensity. The human population of this region has been increasing at a rate higher than the national average. To meet the food security needs of this increasing population, it is important that crop production is also increased. However, considering the fact that the desert region is low in water availability and the soil is low in nutrient availability, the increase in cropping intensity may not be a sustainable solution. The National Forest Policy recommends that 33% of the land cover should be forests. In 2021, the total forest and tree cover in India is 80.9 million hectares, which is 24.62% of the geographical area of the country (FSI, 2022). The forest cover in India is lower than the recommended cover of 33%. The Thar Desert region has much Table 13.5 Economic indicators of Thar Desert Region S. District No

Per capita Percent Contribution in Average Livestock Work NDDP GDP at 2011–12 constant land density Participation price holdings Rate (hectares)

1

Barmer

121336

5.87

6.44

182

46.20

2

Bikaner

113897

3.68

7.29

90

41.70

3

Churu

81683

2.06

5.46

161

44.30

4

Jaisalmer

132680

1.17

7.89

47

43.10

5

Jalore

80295

1.81

4.47

158

49.00

6

Jhunjhunu 87562

2.36

1.66

397

41.90

7

Jodhpur

104422

4.96

5.82

106

40.40

8

Nagaur

89746

3.65

3.85

210

43.10

9

Pali

105072

2.74

3.47

272

41.30

10

Sikar

98092

3.19

1.86

369

37.60

13 Multidimensional Development in Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan

323

lower forest cover than the national average. The lowest forest cover is in Churu with only 0.47% of its geographical area under forest. The Thar Desert region has seen rapid development in the past decade. However, development is meaningful only if it is sustainable. Government of Rajasthan released the Rajasthan Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) INDEX 2021. The goals were calculated using 55 indicators across 13 goals. For each goal, the SDG score ranges between 0 and 100, where 0 being the worst among the group and 100 signifying that all the targets for that goal/all goals have been achieved. Districts have been classified into 4 categories: Achiever (score equal to 100), Front runner (score greater than 65 but less than 100), Performer (greater than 50 but less than 65), and Aspirant (score less than 50), where the ‘Achiever’ category represents the highest rank and the ‘Aspirant’ category represents the lowest rank (GoR, 2021). In the Thar Desert region, three districts (Barmer, Jaisalmer, and Jalore) less than 50% of the targets of the SDGs have been achieved. This puts them in the ‘Aspirant’ category with score less than 50. The remaining districts come under the ‘Performer’ category (Table 13.6). In order to identify which districts have performed and which have not performed that well in terms of overall indicators, an average of each of the ranks was calculated (Table 13.7). Considering all the dimensions combined, Pali, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, and Nagaur are the best performing districts while Jalore, Jodhpur, Barmer, and Jaisalmer are the worst performing districts. It is pertinent here to note that the districts which have maximum area under desert are the ones that are worst performing. They are vulnerable in terms of harsh climatic conditions, lesser opportunities for economic activities, lesser access to infrastructure, and other facilities. It is important that the development strategies for these districts focus on various demographic, health, and social indicators so that overall development of this region can take place. The main socio-economic problems of the region are illiteracy, uncontrolled animal grazing, Table 13.6 Environmental indicators of Thar Desert Region S. No

District

Percent irrigation by well

Cropping Intensity

Percent forest area

SDG score

Departure (%) in 2020 from Average rainfall (2011–19)

1

Barmer

92.17

115

1.19

44.51

8.8

2

Bikaner

53.18

129

3.43

54.75

−6.4

3

Churu

90

125

0.47

58.6

4

Jaisalmer

49.5

132

0.71

41.69

6.5

5

Jalore

77.76

140

2.24

49.56

−2.3

6

Jhunjhunu

100

160

6.77

58.34

20.2

7

Jodhpur

97.77

127

0.37

51.65

8.7

8

Nagaur

99.95

120

1.06

55.72

28.1

9

Pali

99.95

113

7.04

54.11

16.8

10

Sikar

100

140

7.89

58.19

17.1

2.6

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Table 13.7 District wise average rank for all indicators Demographic Health Social Economic Environmental Composite Average Pali

1

3

3

7

8

1

4.4

Jhunjhunu 6

1

1

9

1

2

3.6

Sikar

4

4

2

10

2

3

4.4

Nagaur

3

2

7

6

6

4

4.8

Churu

2

6

5

8

5

5

5.2

Bikaner

8

8

4

4

3

6

5.4

Jalore

5

9

8

3

4

7

5.8

Jodhpur

7

7

6

5

9

8

6.8

Barmer

9

5

10

1

10

9

7

Jaisalmer

10

10

9

2

7

10

7.6

subsistence farming, poor economic base, and nomadism. Mining, tourism, handicrafts, and outsourcing are becoming major sources of employment. Negative impacts of some of these factors on the fragile arid ecosystem get magnified due to very high population pressure. Consequently, the natural resource base is fast degrading and if continued unchecked may accentuate desertification (Bhati et al., 2017).

13.4 Opportunities of Development in Thar Desert Despite being an eco-fragile region, the Thar Desert region provides several opportunities for development. Some of the important opportunities for development are discussed below: 1. Mining: In the Thar Desert region, mining is the second most important economic activity next to agriculture. The desert region abounds in minerals like gypsum, feldspar, phospherite, Kaolin, etc., which are used in the production of cement and certain fertilizers. Limestone and marble are stones that are quarried in this region. These are used for construction purposes. India’s steel industry gets its requirement of limestone from Jaisalmer. Marble used in the construction industry is quarried near Jodhpur. As Thar desert abounds in mineral resource, mining is an important opportunity to boost the economy of the region 2. Energy: Thar Desert is one of the best destinations to invest in solar energy in the country. Rajasthan with an installed capacity of 8,644 MW is the biggest solar energy hub in India. Rajasthan has emerged as the best destination for investments in the solar sector and the state has signed agreements worth Rs 2.59 lakh crore which is the highest investment proposal for any state in the country in this field. The Thar Desert is the world’s ninth-largest hot subtropical desert which was once a curse and unfit for human habitation. But it is now thriving with not only solar energy but also with variants of renewable energy. Thar Desert is the most

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promising solar hotspot in India, notwithstanding the recently discovered large hydrocarbon reserves of more than 3.6 × 109 barrel oil and oil equivalent in the Barmer basin. (Bhandari, 2021). 3. Farming: The increased availability of irrigation in the Thar Desert has revolutionized farming in the region. The main source of irrigation in the desert is the Indira Gandhi Canal. The districts of Jodhpur and Jaisalmer have benefitted immensely from the water available for irrigation from the canal which has promoted commercial cultivation of cotton and wheat in this region. 4. Tourism: Tourism is another flourishing source of livelihood in the Thar Desert. Every year thousands of tourists come to visit Jaisalmer and also the Sariska National Park which is home to several species of flora and fauna. Tourism has a multiplier effect on the region’s development. Many local people are engaged as tourist guides and depend on tourism for their livelihood. Also, several other service sectors like the hotel industry, transport, and other services related to tours and travels have come up in the region. With the stabilization of the COVID-19 situation, this region is bound to see more influx of tourists in the coming years.

13.5 Challenges in the Development of Thar Region Thar Desert has several natural factors which make development of the region challenging. Some of them include: 1. Extreme Temperatures: One of the major challenges in the Thar Desert region is extreme temperatures especially during summer months. The temperature in this region can exceed 500 C in many of the desert districts. This makes it very difficult for people to work, especially for those engaged in outdoor activities like farming, mining, tourism, etc. 2. Availability of Water: Water is essential for all production activities. With average annual rainfall of 332 mm in Western Rajasthan, supply of water in this region is both precious and limited, and hence, water should be conserved and used judiciously. Another issue related to water in the desert region is of excess irrigation leading to salinization of soil, rendering it unfit for cultivation. Besides, drinking water is also very scarce in this region and collection of water for household purposes adds to the drudgery of women living in this region. Another important challenge related to water is that of the source of irrigation. Wells and tubewells are the most important source of irrigation in this region. This leads to fall in already low water tables of the region. 3. Difficult Terrain: The desert region has a difficult terrain. The sand makes it difficult to build infrastructure like roads in this region, thus rendering it inaccessible. Development is limited only to the cities and this also creates greater inequalities among people. 4. Population Pressure: The Thar Desert is the most densely populated desert in the world. Besides human population, the livestock population of this region is also very high. In some of the districts, the livestock population density is even

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higher than the human population density. This adds to the pressure on land for food and nutritional security of both humans and livestock. 5. Soil Erosion: The natural vegetation of the regions gets lost due to overcultivation and overgrazing. This leads to soil erosion due to both wind and rain. The top soil thus lost takes years to form again.

13.6 Required Future Strategies The growth rate of population is very high in Thar Desert. It is one of the most populated deserts in the world. Another important demographic characteristic of this region is that most of the population lives in rural areas and sex ratio of this region is skewed in favor of men. The adverse climatic conditions along with low literacy status of women add to the woes of women living in this region as they have to walk several miles to fetch water for cooking and drinking purposes and do not have access to proper health facilities. Improving the literacy of the population residing in this region, specially the female population is needed to empower the female folks of this region. Thar Desert is an extremely drought prone and impoverished region. Due to scarcity of water, the communities in this region live in deep rooted poverty and have poor health. Lack of nutritious food leads to malnutrition among women and children and lack of water leads to several sanitation issues. There is a need to create awareness among the people on dietary nutritional requirements. The number of CHCs/PHCs/Sub-centers in the study area is not adequate to meet the health needs (medical advice or treatment) of entire the population (Chauhan, 2012). The distance of nearest Primary Health Centre from the villages is more than 10 kms in most places. People prefer to go to untrained and unqualified quacks for primary medical care. Government intervention for effective management of public healthcare delivery systems is needed. Thar Desert lags behind in terms of several social indicators including availability of clean drinking water, sanitation, and clean cooking fuel. Women still have to fetch drinking water by traveling long distances; fuel wood is the major source of cooking fuel and majority of households lack proper toilet facilities. Most of these indicators require government intervention and policies so as to improve the standard of living of the people living in this region by providing them with the basic amnesties needed for their overall well-being. The work participation rate is very low in Thar Desert region. Low and uncertain rains, frequent droughts, and lack of irrigation renders agriculture non-profitable most of the times. Mixed farming system of crops and livestock does help the farmers to get additional income be selling the livestock products but taking care of fodder requirement of the livestock is another challenge. It is important for people to engage themselves in non-farm employment as well. Lack of education and skills is a major hindrance in fetching employment in non-farm sector for the people of Thar. Many people of this region are traditional artisans skilled in pottery, making iron tools and

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implements, making ornaments of lac, etc. Many people are also engaged in block printing on textiles. Several top brand companies source their products from these local artisans. If such companies come forward for skill development and livelihood promotion as a part of their CSR activities in this region, it will help the people to fetch gainful non-farm employment. Most of the irrigation in this region is through wells and tubewells. This results in depletion of the already low ground water levels. With increase in cropping intensity, the water drawn for agricultural purposes exceeds the water replenished in the ground through rains. Rain water harvesting which is traditionally practiced in this region is a sustainable production alternative.

References Bhandari, P. (2021). Solar energy in Rajasthan: Sun shines in the Thar Desert. National Herald, 25th December, 2021. Solar energy in Rajasthan: Sun shines in the Thar Desert (https://www. nationalheraldindia.com Bhati, T. K., Shalander, K., Amare, H., & Whitbread, A. M. (2017). Assessment of agricultural technologies for dryland systems in South Asia: A case study of Western Rajasthan, India (p. 68). International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. Patancheru. Bhatia, V. (2019). Barmer’s per capita income has risen by 650% in 10 years. The Times of India, August 30, 2019. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/70900748.cms?utm_source= contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst Chauhan, A. (2012). High dependency on quacks—is there a gap in the public health care delivery system? reflections from a district located in the Thar Desert (India). The Journal of Sustainable Development, 8(1), 128–141. DES, (2021). Estimates of District Domestic Product of Rajasthan 2011–12 to 2020–21 (AE). Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Statistics Department, Jaipur, Rajasthan. FSI, (2022). India State of Forest Report 2021. Forest Survey of India. Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change Government of India. GoR, (2021). Rajasthan Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) INDEX 2021. Centre for SDGs implementation, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Rajasthan, Jaipur Grosse, R. N., & Harkavy, O. (1980). The role of health in dsevelopment. Social Science & Medicine, 14C, 165–169. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/71861018.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest& utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst Jha, A. K., (2017). Rising Rajasthan: The success story of a former BIMARU state. India Today, ISSUE DATE: July 10, 2017 King, M. A. (1974). Economic growth and social development: A statistical investigation. Review of Income and Wealth, 20, 251–272. Kulshrestha, P. (2019). Livestock population in Rajasthan dips ss new crisis hits rural economy. Times of India, Nov 2, 2019. Narain, P., Bhatia, V. K., & Rai, S. C. (2009). Evaluation of Variation in socio-economic development in the states of Eastern Region. Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 63(3), 229. Sharma, K. M., Singh, S., & Jain, H. (2017). Reasons for the expansion of Thar desert and methods to control its spread. CPUH-Research Journal: 2017, 2(1), 12–17

Chapter 14

Sustainable Natural Resource Management in Thar Desert-Way Ahead S. S. Burark, K.A. Varghese, and Nisha Varghese

Abstract This chapter aims to recapture the concept and types of natural resources and the importance of sustainable development with special focus on Thar Desert region. The authors have tried to identify the major challenges and suggested strategies for sustainable development of Thar Desert region discussed by the chapter writers. Similar concerns have also been raised by other experts who worked in the same area. Hence, the ensuing challenges and strategies to combat those challenges are presented in this chapter. The aspect/topic-wise challenges and strategies are presented in two different sections in this chapter. The aspects/topics include people and culture, changing land use, land and water resources management practices, crop production practices, livestock management practices, arid agro-forestry practices, soil conservation and management practices, community land management practices, women empowerment, livelihood options, agri-business/agro-processing and multi-faceted development with special reference to Thar Desert area. Keywords Natural resources · Sustainable development · Constraints · Strategies

14.1 Natural Resource Management The natural resources include all of earth’s natural components including environmental factors that are not man-made. The natural resources of any region may include agricultural land, forest land, other land and also other resources like all

S. S. Burark · K.A. Varghese Maharana Pratap University of Agricultural Technology (MPUAT), Udaipur, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] K.A. Varghese e-mail: [email protected] N. Varghese (B) SOEDS, IGNOU-Indira Gandhi National Open University, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 N. Varghese et al. (eds.), Natural Resource Management in the Thar Desert Region of Rajasthan, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34556-2_14

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forms of water, mineral resources including mineral fuels and non-fuels, all renewable energy sources of solar, tidal, wind and geothermal systems and the wasteassimilative capacities by all parts of the environment. The natural resources generally fall into four categories: firstly, basic natural resources such as land, water and air; secondly, natural resource commodities such as timber and forest products; thirdly, environmental amenities like scenic views and landscape; and fourthly, environmental processes like pollution, soil erosion, groundwater recharge and species regeneration process. All these natural resources, by and large, have biological and physical characteristics. The human and animal population constitutes the major direct beneficiaries of all natural resources. The structure, composition and growth of the population have direct bearing on economic growth and sustainable development. The capacity of earth to provide inputs and to assimilate waste generated during the process of production is limited. In other words, it is not possible to go on using natural resources for human needs forever. There are ecological and natural limits to economic growth and hence cannot be sustained forever. The indiscriminate use of natural resources without acknowledging its potential may lead to various issues like land degradation, depletion of groundwater, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, climate change, ozone layer depletion and many others. The environment including the natural resources as well as economic activities of the people of a region is very much interlinked. The externalities of such economic activities can have harmful implications on natural resources. The close nexus between economy and natural resources prompts for the wise use and management of natural resources like land, water, forests, minerals and others.

14.2 Sustainable Development Sustainability is the characteristic of a system or a resource to remain intact or better for all the time. Hence, the World Conservation Strategy of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources focused deeply on the concept of sustainability of natural resources. While the economic sustainability calls for longterm stability of economic parameters like income, consumption and production, the ecological sustainability relates to long-term preservation of the biosphere. Ever since the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, and Worldwide Fund for Nature and United Nations Environment Fund came up with the “World Conservation Strategy” for sustainable development, the concept of sustainability and sustainable development gained importance world over. It has paved way for utmost priority in conservation of natural resources, management of these for human needs and use, judicious use of nature and natural resources, inter-generational equity, living in harmony with nature, living within the “carrying capacity” of the nature, treating nature as a borrowed capital from future generations and hence the need to give back to the nature more than what is taken from it. The

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desert regions with fragile natural resources deserve more importance and attention so that the conditions are further improved and not allowed to go from bad to worse.

14.3 The Thar Desert Region The Thar Desert region of Rajasthan is a unique region in the country as well as in the state of Rajasthan. This region appeared as the “Western Dry Region” at the time of Agro-Climatic Regional Planning (ACRP) launched in 1988 by the government of India. The Western Dry Region included Barmer, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Churu, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur, Sikar and Jalore districts of Rajasthan. In all the ago-climatic zoning exercises made by various agencies for development planning at state level, the Thar Desert region always remained as distinct region which very well indicates the peculiar nature of this region. The Thar Desert region of Rajasthan formed major part of the 14th Agro-Climatic region of the country named as the Western Dry Region which is delineated within the state of Rajasthan. The average temperature of this region varies from 45zC in May–June to 2zC in December–January. The annual rainfall in this region is very low and erratic with very high year-to-year variation. The overall cropping intensity (ratio of net sown area to total cropped area) is low in this region compared to the state average. However, it is marginally higher in the districts which receive higher rainfall. The average size of holdings in this region is higher than the state average of 2.78 hectare in seven out of nine districts. The recurrence of drought is frequent in this area. Looking to the special feature of the Thar Desert region of Rajasthan, efforts have been made to identify various issues and also the suggested strategies made by various chapter writers and also those emerging from available literature.

14.4 Emerging Problems for Sustainable Development of Thar Desert 14.4.1 People and Culture • Higher growth rate of human population leading to high density of population puts more pressure on fragile land and scarce water resources. • Low literacy rate, especially low female literacy poses problem for diversion of workforce from land-based economic activities to other economic activities. • Losing connect with the rich traditional heritage evolved by the people over time by the younger generation due to modern lifestyle is a threat for preserving traditional knowledge evolved over the years.

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• Growing population, depleting groundwater and rising temperature negatively impact sand stabilization posing problem of increased sand mobility and atmospheric dust.

14.4.2 Land Use and Shift Over Time • Though there is marginal increase under forest area over the years in the region, the share of forest area to geographical area is still very low. • Low forest cover, diversion of non-agricultural land for agricultural purposes and large area going under plough limit the scope for balanced land use especially to have more area under arid forestry. • With increased urbanization and diversion of land for infrastructural development for housing, roads, railway lines, etc. the land area under non-agricultural uses has gone up many folds with decline in area under barren land, culturable wasteland, etc.

14.4.3 Land and Water Resource Management Practices • Over a period of 4–5 decades (1956–57 to 2010–11), the districts located in the central part of Thar namely Churu, Nagaur, Jodhpur and to some extent Barmer showed considerable expansion in cropped area. • The conversion of non-agricultural use classes, mostly fallow lands, to cropped area has led to enhanced water requirements for irrigating crops in areas brought under cultivation. • Area under open rangeland consisting of barren, unculturable land having permanent pastures, culturable waste and fallow lands have seen a striking decline over the years. • There were many traditional practices like growing of trees on farmland, keeping land fallow for one to five years, etc. that were adopted for land management in Thar region in the past. However, these practices are not currently being fully adopted in the region due to the pressure of human population for food and animal population for feed fodder. • Human as well as livestock population has been increasing in the region for the past several years, which have resulted in rising water demands for drinking and sanitation purposes. • It is a serious concern that area under the traditional low water-demanding or rain fed crops is declining in the region. • Thar region is highly dependent on groundwater resources as surface water resources are not available in adequate quantities to meet the domestic, agricultural and industrial water requirement of the region. Of the total rainwater volume received in the region, about 80% is lost through evaporation and seepage

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due to arid climate and only less than seven per cent contributes to the recharge of groundwater. • On rapidly declining groundwater levels, farmers have become helpless and are forced to dig deeper tube wells for extracting groundwater with high cost involved in energy use and groundwater withdrawal. The wells going out of use also cause overall diseconomy at household level. • Variable surface water resources, fast-depleting groundwater reserve, everincreasing population pressure and global warming are creating hurdles in sustainable agricultural production and sustainable development in the region.

14.4.4 Crop Production Practices • High risk in crop farming as evidenced by large inter year variations in the productivity of major rain fed crops. • With the advent of irrigation, the mixed cropping pattern evolved over the years to meet household food, and fodder security is getting reduced priority as famers are shifting towards monocropping practices. • The major constraints for sustainable agriculture in Thar region may be classified as climatic (high temperature and wind speed, erratic and scanty rains, recurrent drought, etc.); edaphic (poor-quality soil with low fertility and low capacity for water retention, dune topography with wind erosion, etc.); and water related (inadequate surface water, depleting groundwater, etc.).

14.4.5 Livestock Management Practices • Rapid growth in livestock population, especially for cattle and buffalo population, may indicate a paradigm shift in farmers’ perceptions of the role of bovine population leading to increased demand for fodder which prompts for increased area under crops which supplement fodder supply and thereby the burden on land goes up. • The fodder demand–supply gap is widening in the area as a result of competing land pressures, acreage shifts from cereals to other crops and diversified use of agricultural residues. • The stocking rate in terms of Adult Cattle Unit (ACU) per hectare of pasture and grazing indicates that subsistence on these resources is under severe stress as a result of poor-quality herbages on Thar Desert common property resources (land). • The animal fair-wise analysis of arrivals and transaction of animals in Thar Desert showed a decreasing trend in number of animals brought to fairs as well as number of transactions of animals in all the cattle fairs posing the need to have alternative strategies for animal exchange markets.

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• There is a continuous and increasing prevalence of many important epidemiological animal diseases in the Thar Desert area that poses a serious threat to animal production. • The orans and gochars are under threat of severe degradation due to the massive rise in livestock pressure and high animal stocking rates as well as human encroachment on such lands. • Currently, pasture/grazing lands are severely degraded, which calls for its better management through effective community participation.

14.4.6 Arid Agro-Forestry Practices • Scarcity of water is the biggest challenge in afforestation programmes in the hot arid regions. The water resources are heterogeneously distributed, with low groundwater potential which is mostly saline. The low, variable rainfall, frequent droughts and high evapotranspiration further add up to make afforestation challenging in the Thar Desert area. • Extreme temperatures also attract insects and pests, such as termite that are present in large quantities owing to easy infestation in wooden material in arid environment. It is observed that these termites cause substantial damage to grasses, shrubs, trees and crops, which will render a huge economic impact on marginal farmers. • High biotic pressure as the Thar Desert is one of the most populated deserts in the world. The high population density intensifies the pressure on the land and water resources. • Given the communities past experiences, locals lacked confidence in the afforestation programmes and expected it to fail at an early stage, generating minimum participation to sustain and maintain afforestation programmes. • Despite being given key roles in local-level planning and management, in reality, there may be low actual involvement of local communities in participatory decision-making processes. • Threat for afforestation arises from extraneous factors like extensive growth of Israeli babul spices for conventional methods for fighting desertification and conservation of biodiversity.

14.4.7 Soil Conservation and Water Management Practices • Increasing rate of farm mechanization limits the scope for sand stabilization. • The mechanization in agriculture is on a rising trend in desert belt. The indiscriminate use of tractor on fields having agro-forestry and farm forestry practices pose the problem of uprooting perennial plants growing on crop fields which adversely affect the sand stabilization process and results in economic losses.

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• Over-exploitation of groundwater resources as evidenced by increased use of oil engine and electric motors and depleting water level is a serious problem. • Excessive irrigation practices lead to water logging and secondary salinization at some places.

14.4.8 Community Land Management Practices • In the Thar Desert, animal-human linkages and their involvement in desertification are crucial. Overstocking, which leads to overgrazing, is frequently the result of the population expansion that exceeds the habitat’s basic productive capability. • Despite the fact that local residents are fully aware of the negative repercussions of deforestation, their socio-economic interests encourage tree cutting while also putting pressure on already depleting land resources, resulting in the abolition of the ancient desertification-fighting mechanism. • The local community, particularly the younger generation, is in danger of losing touch with their rich cultural history as a result of growing contact with people in cities and the invasion of western lifestyles through mass media. This perception has created a communication gap and affected the flow of traditional knowledge from the older to the younger generations for sustainable development of the area. • The orans and gochars community lands are encroached by people for their vested interests causing threats to livestock grazing. • Destruction of the forest ecosystem has placed people in an extremely vulnerable situation. In addition to the socio-cultural constraints, certain outside factors are also unfavourable to the survival of traditional desertification combating systems. • The threats in effective management of community land include sociopolitical inequities, insecure tenure, developmental threats, lack of recognition and support, governance indifference, conflicting ownership issues, etc.

14.4.9 Women Empowerment in Thar Desert • The plight of rural women in Thar Desert is alarming as they are constrained by illiteracy, poor health, unemployment and low technical knowhow and skill. • Despite several legislative measures for women empowerment, the women in the area are in a miserable state. • The women folk in the area are still struggling to fetch water for drinking and domestic purposes from faraway places.

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14.4.10 Livelihood Options in Thar Desert • The land-based crop production and livestock rearing continue to be the major source of livelihood in the Thar Desert belt. • The inadequate social development activities, especially low literacy level and also availability of limited opportunities, limit the scope for diversification of livelihood towards non-land-based activities. • The traditional cottage industries based on wool and others are hampered due to shortage in supply of raw materials.

14.4.11 Potential Agribusiness • Despite great strength arising from diversified product mix in the area, the Thar Desert has a limited presence in the processed food segment, which presents a case for capacity building and horizontal diversification in the higher value-added areas of ready-to-eat food, processed food and healthy food.

14.4.12 Multi-Dimensional Development in Thar Desert • The hyper-arid districts like Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur are found at the bottom strata of overall development as evidenced by the composite indices mainly due to the bottom position of demographic, health, social and environmental indicators for these districts. • The dismal forest coverage and high share of irrigated area through groundwater resources in almost all desert districts are issues limiting the scope for sustainable development of Thar Desert region.

14.4.13 Other Emerging Problems • The occurrence of flood at places in Thar Desert areas of Rajasthan in recent years has been reported in 1967, 1975, 1979 and 1983. During August 2006 the district of Barmer received more than 600 mm rainfall, resulting in flood and causing loss of life of human and animal population in the villages affected by flood. The continuous rain in Jodhpur during August 2022 also posed problem of flood in city and surrounding areas. • The extreme temperatures in summer and winter make survival of human beings and plants and animal population very hard.

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14.5 Remedial Measure for Sustainable Development of Thar Desert 14.5.1 People and Culture • Promotion of social development programmes including that for higher education and skill development so as to divert workforce from land-based activities to those in other sectors to minimize population burden on land. • Preservation of traditional culture for protection of natural resources. • Promotion of ecotourism in desert area.

14.5.2 Land Use and Shift Over Time • Location specific land use planning to minimize shifting sand dunes and also to ensure sand stabilization.

14.5.3 Land and Water Resource Management Practices • Assessment of water resources of the region under climatic change and water budgeting mechanism to minimize over-exploitation of water resources. • More focus on scientific intervention for location specific varietal improvement of crops, balanced application of soil nutrient, intercropping practices with cereals and legumes, mixed farming, mixed cropping, focus on low water requiring horticultural crops especially, seed spices and arid fruit crops. • Development and promotion of short duration crop varieties to alleviate the adverse impact of high temperature during crop growth stages. • Promotion of low-cost protective cultivation in greenhouses for production of vegetable crops. • Support for construction of “diggis” in canal-irrigated desert areas to promote conjunctive use of water as per crop water requirements. • Promotion of conjunctive use of canal water with groundwater in suitable proportion to combat poor-quality groundwater at places. • Generation and storage of solar energy from abundant sunlight for productive uses.

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14.5.4 Crop Production Practices • Promotion of mixed crop production with cereals, pulses, oil crop, fodder crop and others may be encouraged with adequate technological support to avert risk and also to ensure food for the people and fodder for animals. • Focused agricultural technologies and management practices to reduce inter year yield instability. • Promotion of low water requiring and high value spices crops such as cumin, fennel, fenugreek, etc. and medicinal and aromatic plants such as sonamukhi, henna, isabgol to have a large share of their cultivated area in the region.

14.5.5 Livestock Management Practices • Herd planning of animals at household level to minimize the burden on land with breeds and species befitting to the area. • To address the issue of demand–supply gap of feed and fodder, there is a need to develop silvi-pastoral model that incorporate grasses and fodder trees, creation of fodder banks/storage facilities in collaboration with user groups, strengthening extension system and to create a mechanism for participatory management of CPRs. • The number of bovines (cattle and buffaloes) and goat has increased, while the population of sheep and other animals, especially camels has declined in Thar Desert. There is a need for policy intervention to prevent declining number of sheep and camel. • In order to enhance supply of feed and fodder, there is a need to develop droughtresistant and high-yielding varieties, cultivate dual purpose crops to increase grain and fodder production. • Proper policy is required for protection of orans and gochars as these are in grave danger of extinction due to increased livestock pressure, excessive animal stocking rates and human encroachment. • More concentrated efforts are needed to encourage farmers to adopt practices such as artificial insemination, pregnancy diagnosis, treatment of anoestrus/repeat breeding, naval cord disinfection, importance of mineral mixture and concentrate mixture, method of milking and sealing of the teat canal at the end of lactation, etc. to enhance animal productivity in the area.

14.5.6 Arid Agro-Forestry Practices • In-situ water conservation for promotion of more agro-forestry practices with eco-friendly multipurpose tree species.

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• Conservation of indigenous biodiversity through promotion of agro-forestry practices • Enhancement of biomass productivity through promotion of agro-forestry system. • Adoption of many alternative land use systems, based on land capabilities as well as farmer preference, is one of the effective land management strategies in the Thar Desert. • Multiple products and ecosystem services (air and water quality, wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration and so on) can be efficiently provided by intensifying production on existing lands, utilizing sustainable agro-forestry technologies. • Agro-forestry practices have to be developed for economic benefits along with secured livelihood and employment to the farmers.

14.5.7 Soil Conservation and Water Management Practices • Judicious water use planning to avoid over-exploitation of groundwater resources and optimum use of rainwater resources. • Selective farm mechanization especially tractor to prevent uprooting of plants and shrubs naturally growing on land to improve sand stabilization. • There are innumerable indigenous techniques used by the inhabitants for their survival, water being the focal point. There is a need to refine these techniques to ensure their widespread adoption. • Selective farm mechanization as the size of holdings in the arid zone is large, and farm operations are needed to be completed in a very short span. • Economic and rational utilization of stored water. • More intensified research is to be carried out for a strong foundation for soil and water conservation practices.

14.5.8 Community Land Management Practices • A full inventory of community conservation areas and studies on their sociopolitical dynamics, wildlife and biodiversity values, economic and social benefits, and threats is needed. • Existing statutory rules and regulations governing protection and management of community land should be critically reviewed. If required, they should be suitably amended to make them more effective and stringent. • Under the current development paradigm, the local communities, their efforts, knowledge systems and technological innovations remain unrecognized. There is need to document and refine indigenous technologies and practices for community land management. • It is extremely important to orient regional planning towards the ecological and cultural dimensions of the area, including community conservation efforts.

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• Local people should be actively involved in the planning as well as execution of works undertaken for the rehabilitation of the community land areas. • The long-term natural sustainability priorities of the arid western Rajasthan may include: land recovery/protection measures against water shortage and landerosion risks; environmental remediation and regional ecology stability with balanced land use (including innovative crop cultivation, agriculture diversification, traditional pastoral economy avoiding grasslands, overgrazing and artificial plantation); socio-economic awareness aimed at the sustainable exploitation of natural resources; protection of biotically the most significant geo-ecosystems with endemic flora and fauna along with the current and predicted biodiversity threats’ monitoring; and geo/ecotourism and geo-heritage promotion of the Thar Desert area rich in unique paleontological sites, geosites, cultural monuments and historical places.

14.5.9 Women Empowerment in Thar Desert • In order to improve the condition of women in Thar Desert, it is very important to create opportunities for their social, economic, technical and political empowerment. • All the programmes, whether it is in health sector or education sector or economic sector or are meant for providing protection from adverse situations, are to be planned and executed in integrated and holistic manner for the empowerment of women.

14.5.10 Livelihood Options in Thar Desert • Gradual shift from land-based livelihood option to non-land-based activities like tourism, artwork, solar energy conservation, agro-processing, etc. • Skill development of rural youth for non-land-based economic activities including artwork, wool carpet and other product making, cloth printing, etc. • Skill development of rural youth for job opportunities coming up in the oil refinery and natural gas resources.

14.5.11 Potential Agribusiness • The agri-product mix of the Thar Desert region with many seed spices, cluster bean, wool, pulses and others makes the Thar Desert a potential export zone. The export promotion schemes of Government of India when fully tapped can be a potential means to diversify employment opportunities in the desert belt. • Promotion of agro-processing industries based on local products.

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14.5.12 Multi-Dimensional Development in Thar Desert • The diversion of economic activities from crop and livestock-based activities to mining for potential products in the region, solar energy conservation practices, desert tourism, etc. may be promoted. • Minimizing intensive agriculture based on groundwater resource-based irrigation and limiting the same in canal-irrigated areas may help to have better environmental sustainability in the Thar Desert region. • The demographic factors like high population growth rate, low literacy rate and poor female literacy could be reversed by initiating more women empowerment programmes in the Thar Desert region. • The low work participation rate is indicative of the need for diversification of employment through non-land-based activities. • The high share of irrigated area through groundwater resources for irrigation warrants stringent groundwater exploitation policy in this eco-fragile region which needs to be implemented.

14.6 General Strategic Interventions • Scientific interfacing of crop and livestock-based activities with the fragile land and water resources and erratic climatic factors, especially the quantum and distribution of rainfall. • Scientific support to the community-based resource conservation practices like growing of multipurpose and eco-friendly tree species like “Khejri” and indigenous water storage systems like wells, baories, jhalara, etc. for groundwater and tanks, ponds, khadims, etc. for surface runoff. • The animal grazing on land and small ruminant browsing on trees and bushes are common practices in the Thar Desert belt. The plant species struggling for survival under arid condition are further weakened from overgrazing of animals. The sand stabilization process through natural growth of grasses and bushes is adversely affected by indiscriminate animal grazing and browsing. Animal herd planning strategy at household/local level by balancing feed fodder demand–supply may help to overcome this problem. • The excessive growth of prosopis juliflora locally known as “vilaythi bubul” at places despite its potential for vegetative cover is a threat for fighting desertification and conservation of biodiversity as it does not allow any other plants to grow under it or even its neighbourhood. Hence, identification of areas for growing trees like “vilaythi bubul” assumes importance. • The externalities of agricultural and livestock activities leading to overexploitation of groundwater by digging more wells and tube wells and many of these wells going out of use posing problem of diseconomy, excessive mechanization especially tractor use for agricultural operations, uproots many shrubs

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and trees growing on farmlands posing problem for sand stabilization are issues for sustainable development in the desert region. Steps must be taken up to prevent the Thar Desert and the surrounding area from a potentially devastating situation by increasing green cover in sandy terrain to reduce wind erosion and soil nutrient loss; improving crop water use efficiency and developing heat and drought tolerance in them; management strategies to address the challenges of increased drought and flood frequencies; improving the livestock production system as a strong alternative to crop-based economy; a thorough understanding and close monitoring of land surface processes; and by promoting more non-land-based economic activities to minimize the burden of increasing human and animal population on the fragile land resources. High risk in crop production prompts for more dependence on livestock. Increased animal power availability and increased number of tractors lead to underutilization of both the sources of energy. Increased growth of human population widens the demand for food for which area under plough goes up. Groundwater exploitation also goes up. All these together pose the challenge for sustainable development for the desert area. The occurrence of flood like situation at places covered under Thar Desert during recent past which may be due to climate change or due to the better ecosystem being developed through expanded forest area, calls for the attention of policymakers to have advanced planning for natural drainage system and also the need to prevent all such developmental interventions that block formation of natural drainage system in the area. The refinery and petrochemical complex being developed near Pachpadra block of Barmer district of Thar Desert to process crude oil indigenously produced in Rajasthan and other crude oil as well as natural gas, though basically land-based activity in a limited area, could facilitate jobs for many people which in turn may help diversion of rural youth from agricultural activities.

14.7 Sustainable Natural Resource Management in Thar Desert The development goals for the desert belt must take into account the fragile land resources, scarce water resource as well as high growth of human and livestock population in the desert area. Diversification of livelihood towards non-land-based activities through social development especially skill development of the people for nonland-based activities is warranted. Location specific policy needs to be implemented for groundwater exploitation, farm mechanization and other environmental degradation activities. Strengthening of the ecosystem with agro-forestry and bringing more area under arid forest should get priority approach.