Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt's Desert (Springer Water) 303073160X, 9783030731601

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Springer Water

Ahmed A. Elkhouly Abdelazim Negm   Editors

Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert

Springer Water Series Editor Andrey Kostianoy, Russian Academy of Sciences, P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Moscow, Russia

The book series Springer Water comprises a broad portfolio of multi- and interdisciplinary scientific books, aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in water-related science. The series includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference proceedings. Its volumes combine all kinds of water-related research areas, such as: the movement, distribution and quality of freshwater; water resources; the quality and pollution of water and its influence on health; the water industry including drinking water, wastewater, and desalination services and technologies; water history; as well as water management and the governmental, political, developmental, and ethical aspects of water.

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Ahmed A. Elkhouly · Abdelazim Negm Editors

Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert

Editors Ahmed A. Elkhouly Desert Research Center Cairo, Egypt

Abdelazim Negm Faculty of Engineering Zagazig University Zagazig, Egypt

ISSN 2364-6934 ISSN 2364-8198 (electronic) Springer Water ISBN 978-3-030-73160-1 ISBN 978-3-030-73161-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Egyptian deserts forms about 96% of the total area of Egypt. These vast deserts could represent a vital part of the future of the development of Egypt to meet the challenges facing Egypt to satisfy increased demand of food and economic growth while the population is rapidly increasing. Therefore, this volume focuses on the natural and agricultural resources in Egypt’s deserts and the means of their sustainable management and development. The book consists of 20 chapters divided into eight parts and contributed by more than 18 scientists, experts specialists and researchers in the field of natural and agriculture resources. The first part is an introduction to the volume, and it consists of one chapter. The editors covered and present a comprehensive overview of almost all topics related to the natural and agricultural resources in Egypt’s deserts to provide a background for the volume subject. The second part consists of eight chapters dealing with the soil resources and their management in Egypt’s deserts. The chapter “An Overview of Lakes and Depressions’ Environments in the Egyptian Deserts” focuses on the land resources status of Egypt’s deserts’ lakes and depressions where Egypt’s deserts are divided to three zones from the point of view of lakes and depressions. Also, the challenges facing the sustainable development of these lakes are identified. The second chapter which is titled “Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt” provides unique knowledge on Egyptian calcareous soils as follows: definition of calcareous soil, types and distribution, the particle size distribution of carbonate, physical and chemical properties, mineralogy, fertility status and their management practices and using saline water in irrigation and soil management. In the third chapter “Re-inviting Mining for Egypt—A Framework for Small and Artisanal Mining,” the author defines the small-scale mining as any activity capable of extracting 10 tons per hour or less, where many of the potential mining sites need infrastructure such as bringing water and power. Consequently, the author discusses the establishment of pilot projects for cooperative mining and to adopt regulations on tax and royalties exemptions to foster small-scale mining and mineral processing in an Egyptian context. The fourth chapter titled “Assessment of Microbial Biota in Some Localities in the Egyptian Desert Soils” comprises determination of total microbial counts in the different regions in v

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the Egyptian deserts. It also includes the determination and existence of beneficial microorganisms and determination of CO2 evolution as an indicator to microbial activities in these soils. The next chapter is titled “Incidence and Impact of Some Heavy Metals Pollutants in Some of the Different Newly Developed Regions, Egypt.” It briefly provides sufficient information on the environmental heavy metal pollution in different newly developed regions in Egypt’s deserts. The authors summarize the knowledge of higher plant responses to cadmium, lead, chromium and aluminum which act as vital environmental pollutants. Knowledge concerning metal sources, metal toxicity, presence in Egypt’s plants and soils. Also, the factors affecting metal behavior in soil and soil remediation including traditional and evaluation of some biological remediation are discussed. The third part consists of three chapters and deals with development and sustainability of Egypt’s deserts’ soil resources. The chapter “Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion Hazards in Egypt” presents general lights on erosion types and their processes as well as focuses on the activities of soil including indicators, drivers, water and wind erosion modules applied. In addition, it includes the rate of soil erosion and management practices with emphasizing on the sustainable for controlling soil erosion for mitigating soil erosion hazards. In the chapter titled “Sustainable Development of Microbial Community in Some Localities in the Desert Soil of Egypt,” the authors explain the use of wide variety of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and its associates, and PGPR benefits plant and soil through different mechanisms to improve soil properties and stimulating microbial community in rhizosphere of cultivated plants. On the other hand, the chapter titled “Bio-fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture Development Under Salinity Stress” illustrates a variety of mechanisms that efficient microorganisms used for stimulating the plant growth in salt-affected soils and focuses on the findings of the most recent research studies on the use of biological fertilizers in salt-affected regions to facilitates and enhance the development of the agricultural sector. The fourth part consists of two chapters dealing with the weeds in the Egypt’s deserts and their management. The first chapter is titled “Multi-task of Weed Plants in Desert Environment.” It presents the opportunities of weed plants in various fields that facilitate the social–ecological life of desert settlers and has a great impact in the future as renewable resources for food and fodders. It also provides an overview of weed plants roles in sand dune fixation, protecting desert fertile soil from degradation. The important role of weed plants to increase soil fertility and its impact on growing of the crops and their productivities is presented. The second chapter which is titled “Ecological Management of Weeds in Desert Regions” presents an overview of sustainable management of weeds species in cultivated and non-cultivated desert lands. It stresses on the problems facing weeds in Egypt’s deserts, especially in the newly reclaimed lands and the concerns of weed biology and various ecological characteristics included, factors affecting weed seed production and dispersion as well as spreading over desert cultivation. The fifth part consists of two chapters to investigate the insects in the Egypt’s deserts and their management. The chapter titled “Entomofaunal Communities in Desert Ecosystems” is divided into two parts. It briefly sheds light on the natural

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desert ecosystem at the first part with emphasizing on the interactions among entomofaunal communities in its second one. The intention beyond such reviewing study is to clarify the adaptive and resilient interactions of desert insect communities with the surrounding components to conserve their diversified state that is considered as a vital and significant principle in the desert ecosystem biodiversity conservation as well. The second chapter titled “Sustainable Management of Insect Communities in the Cultivated Desert Regions” focuses on the returned impact of desert cultivation on insect communities including the deterioration of insect diversity as species and functional groups following the agriculture expansion and the extended negative impact on the outputs of the cultivation process as well. Also, the chapters briefly highlight the concepts of both desert eco- and agroeco-systems, the degree of similarities between them and the environmental practices that should be considered under the umbrella of “agro-ecology” approach to simulate the natural hierarchy levels in the ecosystem under the desert agro-ecosystem. The final part of this chapter spots on the efforts that had been exerted to fulfill the sustainable management of entomofaunal communities at the Egypt’s deserts areas. The sixth part consists of three chapters to explore the diversity and development of wild plants in the Egyptian deserts. The first chapter “Microhabitats Supporting Endemic Plants in Sinai, Egypt” classifies, assesses and analyzes the microhabitats supporting the globally significant species and their characteristics, as well as the threats, facing the conservation of the endemic plants in Sinai Peninsula. The second chapter titled “Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert” discusses the plant diversity of seven oases in the Western desert of Egypt including the diversity of habitats, floristic composition, life form of plants, distribution of phytogeographical regions and the vegetation diversity. These oases are Siwa, Moghra, Bahariya, Wadi El Natrun, Kharga, Dakhla and Dungul. The third chapter focuses on “Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts as Economic Plants” to evaluate the potential of Egyptian halophytes for wide economic use in arid regions in light of the progressive shortage of fresh water resources and soil salinization. Major topics are to identify and select plant species tolerant to salt stress to evaluate the possible use of nonconventional water such as seawater and severe saline water of wells. It also highlights the potential importance of the halophytes in the field of human or animal nutrition, medicine, fiber materials, oil and their other uses in bioremediation wastewater and salt-affected soil. The seventh part consists of three chapters to cover the development of plant food resources. The chapter titled “Olive Oil and Rural Development in Egyptian Deserts” explains the means of maximizing the economic value of olive oil by improving the oil yield and quality through the application of good manufacturing practices and paying attention to the factors affecting olive oil yield and quality. The chapter titled “Food Processing of Date Palm Fruits in Sinai” describes the appropriate drying method of Hayany and Amry dates. It also discusses how to improve the nutritional and caloric values by fortification date paste with different protein sources to produce high-quality products of date.

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The third chapter in this part deals with the development of animal resources in the Egypt’s deserts. It is titled “Feeding Camels on Halophytic Plants and Their Effects on Meat Quality Characteristics and Products.” It sheds light on the effect of feeding camels on some halophytic plants (Acacia, Atriplex) and their relationship with the physical, chemical, organoleptic properties of camel meat under Egyptian conditions. It also presents the impact of feeding such forage on daily gain rate, feed conversion efficiency in addition to the economic evaluation. The dressing percentage, edible and non-edible parts and wholesale cuts of camel carcass are also discussed. The volume ends with the conclusions part which includes one chapter to present an update of the literatures related to the topics of the book and briefly summarizes the most significant conclusions and recommendations of the volume. The editors would like to express their great thanks and their special appreciation to all authors who have contributed to this volume. Without their patience and effort in writing and revising the different versions of the chapters to satisfy the high-quality standards of Springer, it would not have been possible to produce this volume and make it a reality. All appreciation and thanks must be extended to include all the members of the Springer team who have worked long and hard to produce this volume and make it a reality for the researchers, graduate students and scientists around the globe. We must thank all the reviewers and experts who contributed to the review processes of the volume chapters. The editors acknowledge the support of the Science, Technology, and Innovation Authority (STIFA) of Egypt in the framework of the grant no. 30771 for the project titled “a novel standalone solar-driven agriculture greenhouse—desalination system: that grows its energy and irrigation water” via the Newton–Mosharafa funding scheme. The volume editors would be so pleased to receive any comments and feedback to improve future editions. Comments, feedback, suggestions for improvement or new chapters for the next editions are much welcomed and can be sent directly to the volume editors. Zagazig, Egypt Cairo, Egypt May 2019

Abdelazim Negm Ahmed A. Elkhouly

Contents

Introduction Introduction to “Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Deserts” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ahmed A. Elkhouly, El-Sayed E. Omran, and Abdelazim Negm

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Soil Resources and Their Management An Overview of Lakes and Depressions’ Environments in the Egyptian Deserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . El-Sayed E. Omran and Abdelazim Negm Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohamed M. Wassif and Omnia M. Wassif Re-inviting Mining for Egypt—A Framework for Small and Artisanal Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baha E. Abulnaga

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Assessment of Microbial Biota in Some Localities in the Egyptian Desert Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Amr M. Abd El-Gawad Incidence and Impact of Some Heavy Metals Pollutants in Some of the Different Newly Developed Regions, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Reham K. I. Badawy and Yasmin I. E. Aboulsoud Development and Sustainability of Soil Resources in Egypt’s Deserts Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion Hazards in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Mohamed M. Wassif and Omnia M. Wassif

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Sustainable Development of Microbial Community in Some Localities in the Desert Soil of Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Amr M. Abd El-Gawad and Mona M. El-Shazly Bio-fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture Development Under Salinity Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Amal M. Omer Weeds in the Egypt’s Deserts and Their Management Multi-task of Weed Plants in Desert Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Mohamed Abdelaziz Balah Ecological Management of Weeds in Desert Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Mohamed Abdelaziz Balah Insects in the Egypt’s Deserts and Their Management Entomofaunal Communities in Desert Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Imam I. Ahmed and Amany N. Mansour Sustainable Management of Insect Communities in the Cultivated Desert Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Imam I. Ahmed and Amany N. Mansour Diversity and Development of Wild Plants Microhabitats Supporting Endemic Plants in Sinai, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Abdel-Hamid A. Khedr Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Ahmed A. Elkhouly Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts as Economic Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Ahmed A. Elkhouly Development of Plant Food and Animal Resources Olive Oil and Rural Development in Egyptian Deserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Fouad Omer Fouad Abou-Zaid Food Processing of Date Palm Fruits in Sinai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Abd El-Hameed A. Ibraheem Feeding Camels on Halophytic Plants and Their Effects on Meat Quality Characteristics and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 M. F. Shehata

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Conclusions Conclusions and Recommendations for “Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Ahmed A. Elkhouly, El-Sayed E. Omran, and Abdelazim Negm

Introduction

Introduction to “Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Deserts” Ahmed A. Elkhouly, El-Sayed E. Omran, and Abdelazim Negm

Abstract Egypt is almost a desert area. It is divided into four major agro-ecological zones, three of which are in the desert. These zones include, North Coastal zone, the Eastern Desert and the Western Desert. Such areas have unique resource base features, major differences in each zone’s environmental characteristics including climatic characteristics, landscape and geomorphic characteristics, patterns of land use, and socio-economic characteristics. The agricultural resources in the Egyptian desert are investigated and their potentiality for development are evaluated. These resources include, (i) soil resources including soil types, soil minerals, soil microorganisms and soil pollution, (ii) plant diversity, (iii) weeds potentiality, (iv) food resources and, (v) animal resources. Keywords Egypt · Desert · Agroecological zones · Climate · Water · Soil · Biodiversity · Livestock · Resources · Halophytes · Agriculture

Egypt’s Deserts Egypt is located between Latitude 22° and 32° N and Longitude 25° and 35° E in North Africa and its eastern borders located in continental Asia (Fig. 1). Egypt’s total A. A. Elkhouly (B) Plant Ecology and Range Management Department, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] E.-S. E. Omran Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt Institute of African Research and Studies and Nile Basin Countries, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt E.-S. E. Omran e-mail: [email protected] A. Negm Water and Water Structures Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_1

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Fig. 1 Map of Egypt focusing on desert areas

area is about one million km2 , where the desert represents about 96% of its area. The Nile divided the Egyptian area into two nearly similar divisions of the desert, the Western desert and the Eastern desert, and the Sinai Peninsula East of the Suez Canal (Fig. 1). Most of the Egyptian people inhabit in the Nile valley and Nile Delta. Only Five desert governorates of 27 total governorates in Egypt inhabited by about 10% of the total population of Egypt. Egypt is divided into four major agro-ecological zones with specific resource base attributes, significant environmental characteristics variations in each zone including climatic characteristics, terrain and geomorphic characteristics, land use patterns and socio-economic characteristics (Fig. 2). These zones include, North Coastal zone;

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Fig. 2 The four main agro-ecological zones in Egypt [1]

including inland Sinai, the North-West Coastal region and North Coastal area. Additionally, the Eastern Desert with its elevated southern regions, the Western Desert; comprising oases and remote southern regions (East Uweinat, Tushka and Drab ElArabian areas, and Nile Valley and Delta); encompassing the fertile alluvial land of Middle and Upper Egypt, the Delta and the reclaimed areas on the Nile Valley fringes.

The Main Geomorphic Features of the Agro-ecological Zones in the Egyptian Deserts Northern Coastal Belt This comprises the Northwest Coast and Northern Coastal Areas of Sinai geomorphic unit.

Northwestern Coast Egypt’s North-western coast forms a belt about 20 km wide, extending for about 500 km between Alexandria and El-Salloum near the Libyan border. This belt

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can be separated into five physiographical zones, each with its own topographical characteristics as follows [1, 2]: • Alexandria to Alamein: The coastal plain is huge and contains three major ridges running parallel to the coast namely: recent oolitic coastal dunes, and two old consolidated ridges with flat depressions in between. At an elevation of 5–40 m asl the coastal plain rises up to the plateau. • El Alamein to Ras El Hekma: It is an irregular series of alternating low hills and closed depressions, sloping from the South (60 m asl) to the North (coastline). A nearly continuous series of dunes lies along the coast. • Ras El Hekma to Ras Abu-Lahu: Libyan Plateau’s cliffs pass parallel to coastline. A series of discontinuous dunes develop at distances ranging from 200 m to 3 km from the coast. In the lower parts of the plain, there are some saline depressions, and some exits to the sea. The plateau’s escarpment is deeply cut by wadis. • Ras Abu-Lahu to Sidi Barrani: Uniform topography is characteristic of this region. The coastal belt is small and intermittent with alluvial soils. A wide area of gentle, smooth slopes extends south of the coastal belt up to the Libyan Plateau. • Sidi Barrani to El Salloum: South of the dunes, starting some 10 km east of El Salloum, is a flat coastal band with a width of 2–4 km. A few large depressions occur along the Libyan Plateau at a height of 200 m asl. The escarpment is dissected by some important wadis, especially southwest of Sidi Barrani. Northern Coastal Areas of Sinai The northern zone at a distance of about 5 km North wards the shore line has a very straight slope in the south/north direction reaching around 20 m asl in the south. A medium slope then grows inland, reaching an altitude of 90 m asl. The physiography of the sub-zone of North Sinai is distinguished in the West by the Tina Plain, which consists of alluvial deposits of Nile in the lowest lying regions. The Bardaweel lagoon (Shallow Lake) lies in the middle. Large areas of sand dune belts and sand sheets extend south of which desert plains. The Coastal region is however dissected by the largest Wadi of Sinai, Wadi El Arish, which rises from high gravel plains and southern terraces about 20 km away from the Mediterranean coastline.

Western Desert The Western Desert covers a vast area extended from the Libyan border (25° E) to the Nile in the east (31° E) and from the Mediterranean coast inland (34° N) to the border of Sudan at latitude 22° N and occupying about 681,000 km2 about two-third of the total country area. It consists of a large, rocky surface in the southwest corner where Gebel (mountain) Uweinat is found with the highest portion. The plateau of Gilf el-Kebir (100 m above sea level) formed of Nubian Sandstone took place north

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of Uweinat. This plateau is described by sharp slopes toward the great depressions in the East and North; depressions in Kharga and Dakhla. Some other plateau spreads in many directions in the north of the Western desert with arms spreading. This plateau consists of calcareous stone and is lower in elevation than the plateau of Gilf el-Kebir and is the main landform feature of the Nile Valley West. Farafra Oasis with an area of more than (3000 km2 ) and Bahariya Oasis with an area of around 1800 km2 are the two major depressions in this plateau. The Qattara—Siwa depression is seen as part of a major depression in the Western Desert’s northern region. The inhabited oases and depression in the Western Desert include are Siwa, Moghra, Qara, Bahariya, Farafra, Wadi Natrun, Kharga, Dakhla and Baris. There are a few others that are uninhabited: Qattara Depression, East Uweinat, Kurkur, Dungul and some other smaller oases [1, 2].

The Inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert The Eastern Desert The Eastern Desert is located at the East border of the Nile Valley and at the West of the Suez Canal, the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea to Mersa Halaib in the South (Lat. 22° N) at the Sudano-Egyptian border with an area about 223,000 km2 . Most of this desert occupied the area adjacent to the Red Sea coast which distinguish by series of mountain chains (Red Sea mountains), extend parallel to the Red Sea and separated from it by a narrow coastal plain. This plain extends from 8 to 35 km in width between the shoreline and the highlands. Most of this desert occupied the area adjacent to the Red Sea coast which distinguish by series of mountain chains (Red Sea mountains), extend parallel to the Red Sea and separated from it by a narrow coastal plain. This plain slopes gently from 8 to 35 km in size between the shoreline and the highlands. The coastal plain which is covered with sand over has drainage systems that is consisted of wadis with shallow courses that are meandering. These wadies discharge their waters in the Nile River at the west and to the Red Sea at the east. There are parallel lines of coral reefs between 50 and 100 m long along the Egyptian Red Sea coast. They expand southward in density and width and reach 250 m wide south of Mersa Alam (675 km south of Suez) [1, 2].

Sinai Peninsula Sinai Peninsula is situated in the northeastern region of Egypt, and covers a very small portion of the Asian continent’s highly SW section with a total area of 61,000 km2 . The southern portion of Sinai is composed of an igneous and metamorphic rock complex [1, 2].

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The Climate in the Egyptian Deserts Northern Coastal Belt The Northwestern Coast The NWC is characterized by a dry Mediterranean climate with an average high and low temperature of 18.1 and 8.1 °C in winter and 29.2 °C and 20 °C in summer seasons, respectively. Precipitation ranges from 105.0 mm/yr. In Salloum and for 199.6 mm/yr. In Alexandria. The rainy season during the period between October and February, with a mean annual of about 171.4 mm, where most rainfall occurs during December and January. The NWC region has the highest average wind speed in Egypt, reaching 5.14 m/s in winter and gradually dropping inland [1, 3].

The North Coastal Areas of Sinai Climate station data showed that the maximum mean annual precipitation was 157.11 mm in the rainy months when the highest rainfall in Egypt (300 mm/yr) occurred in Rafah, far north-east of North Sinai. The mean monthly temperature ranged between 12.6 °C in January and 26.5 °C in August and the most humid months were October, November, December and January during which the recorded values were above 73%. There is a wide variation in wind velocity throughout the whole year where it ranged from 2.06 to 5.14 m/s.

The Western Desert The climate is characterized by hyper-arid conditions with rare rainfall and occurs in the oases lie north of latitude 28° N, and extremely high temperature (>40 °C). Furthermore, the climate is characterized not only by the differences between maximum and minimum air temperature between the two seasons summer and winter, and also between day and night. The maximum temperature during summer often exceeds 40 °C, whereas minimum temperature during winter may decline close to freezing. The wind velocity differs according to the season, in winter from November to January increase relative to the summer season. It is low in August and reaches a peak from March to May causing sandstorms, erosion and deposition by the wind as well as sand dunes mobilization. Because of the extreme aridity, erosion and deposition by the wind as well as sand dunes mobilization represent the main causes of desertification and land degradation in the oases of the Western desert.

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The Inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert The hyperarid environments describe this zone; with a mild winter and a hot summer. The coastal zone along the Suez Gulf and South Sinai highlands describes a hyper-arid province with a cold winter and dry summer.

Water Resources in the Egyptian Deserts Northern Coastal Belt The Northwestern Coast With regard to water resources; there are no credible groundwater potential figures available. Some tourist resorts are dependent on the use of desalination technology in these areas.

The North Coastal Areas of Sinai Concerning the groundwater potential in Sinai, the shallow groundwater exists in the Quaternary aquifer while the deep groundwater exists in the fissured carbonate and Nubian sandstone aquifer. On the other hand, the quantity of rainwater and floods range between 90 and 235 million m3 per year. Rainwater has been collected in surface dams were built on its valleys to collect these water such as the Ruwafa dam (21 million m3 ), 50 km from El Arish coast. The overall existing utilization is approximately 90 million m3 /yr, 20% from the shallow aquifer in the northern part of Sinai and 80% from the deep water. Most of the groundwater is slightly brackish, while the fresh groundwater is predominantly found in the sand dunes, recharged from direct rain. The salinity of groundwater demonstrates good values, sometimes approaching 1000 ppm (TDS). Water use has indeed surpassed the potential at El Arish and Rafah, led to a steady increase in salinity. On the other hand, small reserves are still available in Bir el Abd and Sahl el Qaa provided the wells are adequately sited. It is possible to grow both the carbonate and sandstone aquifers, based on the amount of water in storage and rainfall recharge [1, 2].

The Western Desert The Nubian sandstone aquifer’s groundwater and carbonate aquifer is the only source of water supply. The water salinity, in general is marked by low (150 ppm) and moderately saline (about 2000 ppm). Many hundred deep artesian wells irrigate

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cultivated land. Some wells are dated back to the Pharaonic era, some from the Roman era, but most of them dated back to the mid-twentieth century, using modern technologies in small areas, but the traditional method of surface irrigation. Most wells are over-flowing and cultivated lands have poor drainage, leading to not only the formation of severing salt-affected soils but also the formation of salt marshes and abandoning the land to other areas [1, 2].

The Inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert Regarding to Inland Sinai, there are four water resources; (i) shallow wells dug in Wadi aquifer system, (ii) the Nubian sandstone aquifer through deep wells, (iii) desalination of groundwater and, (iv) Springs with varying qualities of water and vary in their discharge between 3 and 80 m3 per hour, the largest of these Springs are Ain Farthajp Spring in Watair Valley, Jdirat Spring in Qusima Valley and Taba Spring in Taba Valley. In the Eastern Desert, the groundwater exists in the Nubian sandstone aquifer through deep wells (200–500 m depth) and in the large Wadis, which drain in the Nile Valley and Lake Nasser. The hydrogeology of the Red Sea coastal area and its surrounding were studied by several authors such as [4–7]. The main aquifers are: Quaternary alluvial aquifer, Middle Miocene sandstone aquifer, Oligocene sandstone aquifer, Lower Eocene limestone aquifer, Nubian sandstone aquifer and Fractured Precambrian basement aquifer. In the area between El-Quseir and Marsa Alam, the main aquifers are: Quaternary alluvial aquifer, Middle Miocene sandstone aquifer and Fractured Precambrian basement aquifer.

Soil Resources in the Egyptian Deserts Northern Coastal Belt The northwestern coastal soils could be classified into four groups, namely (i) old coastal bare soils (foreshore strip and lagoon depression) or (Typic Aqui-Psamments, Typic Haplosalids), (ii) Soils of the old coastal plains (calcium and quartzite dunes and interdune depressions) or (Typic Haplosalids, Typic Gypsids, Calcic Haplogypsids and Typic Torripsamments), (iii) Soils of the alluvial fans (Typic Torriorthents) and (vi) Soils of the plateaux (Lithic Torriorthents). The soils in the Sinai northern coastal areas are group into two classes according to the origin: (I) locality-related which include (i) Wadi El Arish constitutes of loamy sediments (or Typic Torriorthents), (ii) El Tina area is defined by fine-textured soils and (II) the transitional areas that are covered by coarse-textured soils, that are graded

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into 17 soil-classes according to their effective soil depth and soil texture (Typic Aquisalids, Typic Haplosalids and Typic Petrogypsids).

The Western Desert The soil in the depressions (Oases) is struggling from salinity and erosion due to inadequate drainage, the existence of hardpan, which makes the water level to rise and bring salty groundwater close to the surface of the soil, and poor water management of non-saline water irrigation. The composition of this soil varies depending on the processes of erosion, the origin of parent products, the sedimentation environment and salt, carbonate and gypsum deposition solution. That soil could be classified according to Soil Taxonomy into Lithic or Typic Torripsamments and Torriorthents, Typic Haplosalids, Aquic Torriorthents, Aquic Calciorthents, Salorthic Calciorthents, Gypsic Haplosalids, Vertic Torriorthent, Typic Calcigypsic and Leptic Haplogypsids [1].

The Inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert According to Soil Taxonomy, the soils of inland Sinai identified to: Lithic and Typic Torriorthents, Torrifluvents, Torripsamments, Haplosalids, Gypsic Haplosalids and Aquisalids [1, 2]. There are numerous, often dark, very steep soils in Eastern Desert Wadis, and their soils indicate young phases of development. The soil in the most significant Eastern Wadis is characterized by shallow to deep coarse profile or moderately fine-textured with variable gravel content profile, (Typic Torripsamments, Typic Torriorthents and Typic Torrifluvents) with six subgroups between Lithic and Typic [1, 2]. NRC [8], showed that there are two main soil types in the southeastern part of the Eastern desert, the coarse-textured fluvial sediments are prominent, while the second is the salt Sabkha soils along the coastal strip.

Biodiversity in Egypt Egypt is situated in Africa’s northeast corner at the intersection of four biogeographic zones, Irano-Turanian, Mediterranean, Saharan-Sindian, and tropical Afro. At the same time, it is in the middle of the great Saharo-Sindian desert belt that stretches from Morocco on Africa’s northwestern corner to Central Asia’s high, cold deserts. Egypt’s biodiversity represents its ecosystems, its location and its environment. Egyptian flora consists of at least 800 non-flowering plant species, 2302 flowering plants and subspecies [9]. Egyptian flora is restricted in their number of genus to family

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Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Liliaceae, respectively. The number of endemic taxa in the Egyptian flora ranged from 53 taxa [10], 60 taxa [11, 12], 62 taxa [13], 69 taxa [14]. Flora of Egypt is rich in the economic plants, which have been used since ancient times in the treatment of a large number of diseases or as a source of fiber, oil, wood and energy or used as food and forage. The Egyptian fauna includes 116 species of mammals (13 threatened), 447 species of birds (14 threatened), 109 species of reptiles (6 threatened), 9 amphibians and over 1000 species of fish. Invertebrates are very varied, for example insects range from 5 to 10 thousand species, more than 200 coral species, 800 molluscs, and more than 1000 crustaceans [9].

Livestock Animal production systems in Egypt vary from zone to zone, depending on availability of local resources, local community activities, and level of investment in the area. Sheep, goats and camels raised under comprehensive production systems are dominant in the desert areas. Thus, due to the scarcity of cows and buffaloes, in general, where most bedouins rely on goat milk production for local consumption, these zones are low in milk production [1].

Potential Uses of Agricultural and Natural Resources Egypt is home to some food crops’ wild relatives, as well as many pastoral and medicinal plants. There are still many species in the wild. Many of these plants could be used in some varieties of crops being produced and improved. Many of the indigenous plants available incorporate genes used in the treatment of a large number of diseases and insect resistance, resistant to soil salinity, heat and drought, or possess other desirable traits that may be required in national and international crop improvement programmes. Quite a lot of these animals are either gone or at the verge of extinction. Mechanisms to protect essential indigenous plants need to be placed in place greatly. Weeds are an essential part and have naturalized the Egyptian desert ecosystem, playing very important roles and contributing many values to the desert environment. The interaction between insect communities and desert is of reversible nature, where each of which can show its impact or influence on the other, their characters or actions can affect the system either positively or negatively. Olive and Date Palm are the two important crops in the Egyptian deserts. Olive trees can thrive well in semi-arid lands where it can be used for agricultural horizontal expansion. Actually, in arid lands, with the exception of dates and olive only a few other fruit trees can survive. The two crops have high economic value as food crops, medicinal crops, feed crops and conventional manufacturing. Improving certain olive oil qualities, producing ethanol, and producing mushroom and S.C.P. as another

Introduction to “Management and Development of Agricultural …

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source of added value for the production of olive oil. Date fruit has a high content of sugar, while its content of protein and fat is very low, so some natural nutrient substances add to the date fruit from different sources of protein (dried skim milk, sesame, peanut and soybean) to improve the nutritional and caloric values. Soil resources are diverse in the Egyptian deserts either in their properties or in their microorganisms. These soils are exposed in the desert to the hazards of either wind or water salinization and erosion, which is a negative reflection of their potential as agricultural soil. Soil is one of the agricultural resources and is formed several thousand years ago; particularly, the soil is considering a nonrenewable resource. To achieve a sustainable approach, policies must be designed to mitigate the problems faced the sustainable use and management of soil resources. On the other hand these strategies is using the biological organic fertilizers as an eco-friendly approach alternative to agro-chemical for improving crop productivity under salinity conditions. This book is highlighted the biological approaches for alleviating salinity in salt-affected soil and briefly described the mechanisms used by different microbial groups used as bio-fertilizers for enhancing the stress tolerance in plants toward salinity stress. Also, the application of biofertilizers in different localities of the desert soil gave synergistic effects with beneficial microorganisms in soil by stimulating their activities which have been reflected in increasing soil fertility and productivity. Egypt, also has a wealth of dispersed mineral resources in the Eastern Desert, and some in the Western Desert and on the shores of Lake Nasser. Many sites are considered uneconomical by most mining experts for large investors. These minerals need government policy to encourage small scale mining. Camels are adapted to the conditions of arid and semi-arid areas, compared to other animal species. Camels have the ability to utilize feed resources available in these areas such as halophytes and convert them into meat and milk and other products. Feeding halophytes to camels has a role in the enhancement of feed shortage in the Egyptian deserts, where desert represents about 96% of the total area of Egypt. One of the main objectives of the agricultural strategy in Egypt is promoting sustainable use and management of natural and agricultural resources. This book will present a review of some agricultural natural resources and discuss the management and sustainable development of their potentialities as economic resources. Acknowledgement Elkhouly and Negm appreciate the support provided by the Science, Technology and Innovation Funding Authority (STIFA) under grant (30771) for the project entitled “A novel standalone solar-driven agriculture greenhouse - desalination system: that grows its energy and irrigation water” via the Newton-Mosharafa funding scheme.

References 1. ENAP (2005) Egyptian national action program to combat desertification 2. DRC (Desert Research Center) (1984–2002) Project reports of Desert Research Center. Cairo 3. Anonymous (1979) Climatological normals for the Arab Republic of Egypt up to 1975. Ministry of Civil Aviation, Cairo

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4. Thabet HS, Abd Ellah Khaled M, Hassan IH (2016) Geomorphologic and hydrogeologic studies for some basins in the area between Abu Ghusun and Bernice, South Eastern Desert, Egypt. Egypt J Aquat Biol Fish 20(2):123–144 5. Abdalla MA, Mekhemer HM, Mabrou WA (2016) The hydrogeological conditions in Sahel Hasheesh, Eastern Desert, Egypt. NRIAG J Astron Geophys 5(1):238–246 6. Misak RF, Abdel Baki AA (1991) Classification of phanerozoic aquifers in the Eastern Desert with emphasis on the newly explored one. Bull Fac Sci Assuit Univ 20(2):19–38 7. Goma MA (1992) Hydrogeological studies of the area between Safaga and Quseir. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University 8. NRC (National Research Center) (2000) Study of land resources agricultural capabilities of south eastern. Final report. NRC, Cairo 9. Ministry of Environment (2016) Egypt national biodiversity strategy and action plan to 2030 (2015) 10. El Hadidi MN, Fayed A (1994/95) Materials for excursion flora of Egypt. Taeckholmia 15:1– 283 11. Boulos L (1995) Flora of Egypt. Checklist. Al Hadara Publishing, Cairo, 287 pp 12. Boulos L (2009) Flora of Egypt. Checklist, revised annotated edn, Al Hadara publishing, Egypt 13. El-Hadidi MN, Hosny HA (2000) Flora aegyptiaca, vol 1, part 1. Cairo University Herbarium, The Palm Press, Cairo, 187 pp 14. Täckholm V (1974) Students’ flora of Egypt, 2nd edn. Cairo University, 888 pp

Soil Resources and Their Management

An Overview of Lakes and Depressions’ Environments in the Egyptian Deserts El-Sayed E. Omran and Abdelazim Negm

Abstract Lakes and depressions are among the most significant features of Egypt’s desert. It’s unusual to see a similar region where such big lakes and depressions exist. These depressions are spread on the surface of the plateau in the far north near the sea, and the far south and west of the border. The degrading situation of these lakes was observed, however, and studies were initiated to hit su for getting sustainability. Its environmental damage is serious. Water scarcity problem is a part of climate change, which is a growing problem with Egypt. As temperature increases and rainfall decreases, lakes of critical value are drying. This chapter centred on the status of Egypt’s desert lakes and depressions in terms of land resources. The obstacles that these lakes face in their sustainable growth have also been established. Egypt’s desert is divided to three zones related to lakes and depressions. The Western Desert has a string of depressions and lakes. Among the well-known, inhabited depressions are those of Siwa, Qattara, E1-Natrun, and Toshka. Most forms of land degradation of Wadi El-Natrun area are based on human resource (mismanagement and misuse); some physical and chemical environmental factors are still considered. Dominant active land degradation features are; waterlogging, salinity, alkalinity, and compaction. However, Wadi El-Rayyan receives agricultural drainage water more than what is Lake Qarun absorbed. Lakes of the inland of Sinai and the Eastern Desert include Bitter Lakes and El-Temsah Lake. Pan layers are among the most common land-use biggest drawbacks in the Suez Canal zone. It is important to note that much of the farmland deterioration in the Suez Canal area is the result of the emergence of pan layers. Because of their induration and hardness, they could limit the chances for agricultural practices, root growth, and penetration. The most popular pans at different sites are claypans, gypsum pans and caliche in the Suez Canal E.-S. E. Omran (B) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt Institute of African Research and Studies and Nile Basin Countries, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt A. Negm Water and Water Structures Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_2

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region. Different types of pans were distinguished namely; indurated or cemented pans, claypans, and fragipans. Keywords Egypt · Lakes · Depressions · Land resources · Desert · Climate change · Sinai

Introduction Environmental and resource conditions in Egypt’s desert are very different from those in the valley and delta. Egypt is as yet endeavoring to reclaim the desert, to offer work and living space for its increasing population and their growing settlements. In any case, firm economists and environmentalists dread that the country’s endeavors to green the desert could be less than ideal. This has encouraged authorities in Egypt to create plans—among other things—for large-scale resettlement. It is expected that about six million Egyptians will move from the Nile Valley to reclaimed land in Egypt’s desert over the next decade. Egypt needs to utilize the desert to deal with the great rise in population. With the worries about climate change and potential environmental effects, human interference and construction practises have undoubtedly had adverse fingerprints on preserving a safe environment in Egypt’s Lakes [1] and depressions. Water scarcity problem is a part of the climate change, which is a growing worldwide issue, with Egypt hit especially hard. Rainfall has gradually declined over the last thirty years, and temperatures have risen. As temperatures rise and rainfall, critical lakes are desiccating [2]. Increasing population density in Egypt and predicting increasing problems of water scarcity calls for innovative approaches to water resources and agriculture. Owing to their vulnerability to climate changes, the inland lakes have gained interest in recent years. To effectively extract water by evaporation, climatic conditions must exceed a certain degree of aridity and thus create increasingly concentrated brine [3, 4]. Changes in evaporation and precipitation rates can affect the physical and chemical properties of those lakes [4, 5]. Numerous sites in the Western Desert are located below sea level such as the Qatara depression (−134 m), which is the largest and deepest Egyptian depression, Wadi El-Rayyan depression (−64 m) of El-Faiyum and Siwa (−17 m). Depressions and lakes are among the most significant features of the desert in Egypt. Finding a similar region where such large numbers of depressions and lakes exist is uncommon. These depressions are dispersed on the surface of the plateau in the far north by the sea, and on the border of the far south and west. Both of these depressions are uninhabited, and they are eternal. Egypt’s Desert can be viewed as Egypt’s potential territory. Nevertheless, its expansion must be founded on a profound understanding of its resources. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to shed light on the land resources of the lakes and depressions of Egypt.

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How Deserts of Egypt Form and Evolve in Space and Time The desert is as regions with an average annual precipitation of less than 500 mm/yr, or as regions where evapotranspiration causes more water to be lost than precipitation falls. The deserts are often created from the surfaces of sand and rock. Sand dunes, ergs (sandy sea or dune sea, or sand layer if the dunes are lacking), and stony surfaces called Hamada surfaces cover a small region of the desert. Because of the low chemical weather the soil is rocky. Rocky terrain exposures are common, and show negligible soil growth and vegetation scarcity. Therefore, first, it is important to define the term “desert” and to determine how deserts are created and how they develop in time and space. The term desert emerged as a pronounced tesert in ancient Egyptian hieroglyph, which means a place left behind or forsaken [6]. The Latin verb deserere derived from this, to leave. A waste place or wasteland, and desertus meaning uninhibited or surrendered, originating from that latter desertum. This in itself means the desert was a better place. There were life in it. There was a lot of vegetation grass and trees, lots of animals and people. Then, something happened, and the area became a wasteland; it was abandoned. Geomorphic and pedogenic factors influence soil types in desert regions, and their characteristics. Soil of the new land is short of fertility nutrients (especially micro-nutrients), very low in organic matter, alkaline (high pH), and has inferior physical properties and properties for moisture. Other harmful characteristics in several areas have included a high percentage of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ), high salinity content and, in some cases, gypsum. In the main, physical constraints are hard pans, which are shaped under the influence of many cementing agents at varying depths in the soil profile. Due to their mode of formation, the attributes of these resources vary considerably from one location to another-mostly wind deposition of varied sediment, and the effects of terrain characteristics. A desert is an ad hoc, aggressive, possibly deadly climate. High temperatures in hot deserts cause swelling to cause rapid water loss and the lack of water sources can lead to thirst and death within a few days. However, exposed humans are also at risk of heatstroke. This is why desert areas are populated by only small numbers of people. Notwithstanding this, several cultures, including the Bedouin, have prepared hot deserts for their home for thousands of years. The desert of Egypt can be split into three zones (Fig. 1), including the Western desert, Eastern desert, and Sinai.

Western Desert Egypt’s Western Desert is a portion of Eastern Sahara, Earth’s driest large desert expanse. This desert is formed during the Quaternary through a sequence of alternating wet and dry environments, in particular, the large depressions. This consists of several plateaus, the highest of which is the Eocene calcareous plateau which occupies 135,000 km2 , i.e., about 20% of the Western Desert [7, 8]. Many of these plateaus

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Fig. 1 Main zones of Egypt’s desert; the Western Desert, the inland of Sinai, and the Eastern Desert

stretch between the eastern Nile Valley and Western Desert depressions including Kharga Oasis, Dakhla Oasis, Farafra Oasi and Bahariya Oasis, in the west. Now the Eocene calcareous plateau is affected by a hyperarid climate. Wind action and thermal weathering are therefore the most dynamic geomorphic processes which affect their current surface. The calcareous plateau of the north western desert had been plagued by depressions and brought down below sea level. From then on there emerged springs and natural lakes. However, in the past geological ages, this plateau has undergone pluvial peripheries, particularly the period of the “Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Early Holocene” [9, 10]. Several paleokarst features come from these periods, such as caves, karst cones, karst depressions, shafts, karren and red soil [11–13]. Many of these characteristics have been eroded or altered by wind action and thermal weathering, and some others remain in the host rock. “Several paleodrainage systems were formed during the previous wet periods” [10, 11]. The Western Desert could be considered a possible Egyptian region. Its development must therefore be followed by a detailed understanding of the dry and severe desert environment, the challenging wind resulting from the movement of sand and dunes (Fig. 1), and non-replaceable groundwater resources [14].

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Eastern Desert In addition to the Eastern Desert is separated from the rest of the world. The topographic characteristics of the east Nile region vary significantly from those of the west desert (Fig. 1). Moderately mountainous Eastern Desert emerges suddenly from the Nile and extends over an area of approximately 220,000 km2 . The upward sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 km to arid, defoliated, rocky hills that stretch north and south between the Sudanese border and the Delta. The hills cross rises of more than 1900 m. The most notable characteristic of the area is the Eastern chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which stretches eastward from the Nile Valley to the Suez Gulf and the Red Sea. This mountainous area has a typical drainage system that is rarely used due to inadequate rainfall. There is no agricultural oasis in the area due to the difficulty of maintaining any sort of farming. There are no permanent settlements other than a few villages overlooking the Red Sea coastline. The Eastern Desert’s significance lies in its natural resources, particularly the oil.

Sinai Peninsula Compared to the desert, the peninsula is a triangular area covered by the Red Sea Hills (Fig. 1) about 61,100 km2 includes mountains in its southern sector. Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah) is the highest point, at 2642 m. The Red Sea could have been named after those red mountains. The peninsula’s southern side has a sharp ridge, which subsides after a thin coastal shelf dropping into the Red Sea and Aqaba Gulf. The southern edge of Sinai has an elevation of about 1000 m. Moving north, this plateau of limestone decreases in elevation. Sinai’s northern side is a flat, sandy coastal plain that extends into the Gaza Strip from the Suez Canal.

Lakes and Depressions of the Western Desert The Western Desert is riddled with a number of depressions, some of which have been inhabited oases for a long time that, if properly irrigated, would be able to provide major greenery in the midst of the separate desert. Among the best-known, occupied depressions are those of Siwa, Qattara, E1-Natrun, and Toshka. Its topography maintains a regular pattern, with every depression lying 50–300 km away from the next. The potential limit of the depressions of the Western Desert is about 1200 billion m3 , from Toshka all the way north to Qattara. It is almost the same as 20 years of Egypt’s annual Nile Water allocation, which is 55.5 billion m3 [15]. Toshka is just one among many such possible outcomes, and it has now proved critical in 1998, when the country encountered one of the notable floods in recorded history, and nearly 12 billion m3 of water was diverted into the Depression.

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Qattara Depression Qattara Depression which is known as “Munhafad. al-Qat.t.a¯ rah” (in Arabic) is a ˘ depression in the north-west of Egypt (Matruh Governorate) and a part of the Western Desert. It occurs below sea level, and includes salt pans, sand dunes and salt marshes. The area spreads between latitudes of 28°35 and 30°25 N and longitudes of 26°20 and 29°02 E [16]. The Qattara Depression climate is extremely arid with annual precipitation varying between 25 and 50 mm on the northern rim to about 25 mm on the south of the depression. In the summer and winter months the average daily temperature ranges from 36.2 to 6.2 °C. The Qattara depression (Fig. 2) is in the shape of an oval triangle extending about 300 km from the Magra Oasis, south of El Alamein, about 53 km to the Siwa Oasis in the west. The maximum area is about 19,516 km2 . The Qatara depression is the largest land depression below sea level in the world. The low topography contributes to the transformation of the lake to an enormous man lake, which has not been seen in the world. The depression is surrounded on the north by a natural wall of limestone rocks at 200 m height above sea level (amsl) and increases this rise in the west to about 350 m. In addition to the main depression, there is several subsurface-related depression with a total area of about 853 km2 and three sub-depressions with a total area of 719 km2 , only thin walls or lowlands of 5.0–5.0 m, and thus easy to connect to the main depression. Thus, the total area of the main depression and its annexes of the sub-depressions is 21,088 km2 , of which 20,695 km2 is less than zero (mean sea level) with a maximum of 139.0 m below the sea level. There are also some temporary salt marshes with an area of 300 km2 around the northern and northwestern walls of the depression. Other small swamps along the

Fig. 2 The Qattara Depression is in the shape of an oval triangle

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southern edges are also filled with desert dust. It is an uninhabited oasis with a lake of mixed water of about 4 km2 (Fig. 2). There are also two other permanent lakes in the far south depression on the sand sea which separates the depression from the desert, namely Bahrain and Sarta, and in the extreme southwest of the depression some natural eyes such as Ain Tabgbh, Iraq, and Wattieh.

Wadi El-Natrun Lakes Wadi El-Natrun is an extended depression about 90 km northwest of Cairo, with its saline alkaline freshwater lakes. Wadi El-Natrun Lake is a salt-alkaline water lake (Natron salt) in Wadi El-Natron Governorate, near El-Qattara Depression. It stretches between Latitudes 30° 15 N and Longitude 30° 30 E in a southwesterly direction (Fig. 3). The average length is about 60 km and the average width is about 10 km. The bottom of the wadi is 23 m below sea level and 38 m below the Nile branch of Rosetta [17]. The lowest portion of the depression, surrounded by contour zero, is around 272 km2 . “Inland salt lakes and adjacent salt crusts form zero contour” [18]. Many authors have studied geology of Wadi E1-Natrun (Fig. 4) [18, 19]. Overall the region is surrounded by deposits of quaternary lakes. Old alluvial deposits of sand and gravel were laid down as the sea invaded the region, and the Nile flooded through it. The deposits of the lake and alluvium are emphasized by calcareous age of Miocene, Oligocene and Pliocene. Drainage is mostly confined to small fills and streamlets. Because of rain shortage and sand accumulation, which cover most parts of the Wadi, it is hard to identify the drainage pattern. Wadi E1-Natrun Lakes lacustrine deposits fall into three groups [19]: (i) Freshwater wetlands formed in the northern portion of the lakes, in general where the freshwater table intersects with the depression. Surface deposits contain a complex of dark clay material from gypsum clay weathering, Aeolian sand, and decayed organic matter. (ii) Salt deposits that are mainly below the salt lakes shallow water. Such deposits are particularly rich in natural soda, as well as Natrun, Thenardite and Halite. (iii) Wet salt marshes that cover areas entirely east of the reservoirs, i.e. areas impacted by seasonal water-level fluctuations. Surface deposits of these salt marshes are generally quartz grains (originally Aeolian deposits) cemented by salt content originating from the evaporation of lake water during the season (spring and summer). Given the rising population, the food gap puts more pressure on Wadi El-Natrun land, causing serious forms of land degradation. These are viewed as permanent processes especially with the serious and continual abuse and poor management. The intensification of agriculture combined with poor management quickens the rate of land degradation. The second zone is the Western Desert, which encompasses Wadi El-Natroun Lake, Qattara Depression, and Siwa Oasis. Most land degradation forms of Wadi El-Natrun area are of human-based (mismanagement and misuse); some physical and chemical environmental factors are still considered. Quantitative assessment of land degradation and monitoring the changes in land quality in Wadi

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Fig. 3 Wadi El-Natrun, with its alkaline inland saline lakes

El-Natrun (Fig. 5) is studied by Aqrawi et al. [20]. “The results indicated that the dominant active land degradation features are; water logging” (https://www.naun. org/main/NAUN/geology/19-082.pdf), salinity, alkalinity, and compaction. Food supply circumstance will be more regrettable later on if the present pattern of land degradation does not change definitely. The following is the main soil [21] in the area, which is located north of Wadi El Natroun and extends northward on both sides of the Cairo-Alexandria Desert Road. A.

The soil of the old deltaic plains: characterized by a wavy surface to almost flat, and the surface covered with desert pavement, and the textures are generally coarse. 1. 2.

Sandy gravel soil. Calcareous sandy soil with calcium carbonate horizons (Calcic horizon).

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Fig. 4 Geological map of Wadi El-Natrun and its vicinity [18]

3. B. C.

Sandy soil with calcium carbonate horizon and Gley horizon.

Loamy soil in most locations, the salinity is high and rich in gypsum. Soil of the depressions. 1. 2. 3.

Soil with successive layers of silt and clay, covered with layers of sand. Soil mixed with sand, clay, and gypsum. Sandy soil, salinity is high and affected by groundwater.

The soil of Wadi El-Natrun is generally divided into two main types: the soil of the river terraces and the main depression. The river terraces mostly covered with the desert pavement, while the depression soil is dominated by sandy soil, some of which are deep sand, some sand mixed with gravel, gypsum deposits. There are scattered areas with high saline clay layers at different depths. Soil parent materials include the following:

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Fig. 5 Image of the area located north of and its extended northward on both sides of the CairoAlexandria desert road

1. 2. 3.

4.

Aeolian sand deposits, which occupy the low part of the depression. Lacustrine deposits, mostly gypsum salt, which occupies the plains and low terraces. Ancient Nile sediment (sand and gravel), which occupy the northern and northern parts of the east of the depression, and extends southward in the direction of the Tahrear area. Tafla and sand deposits with a limestone.

In general, most of the soil are characterized by a deep, sand-to-sandy, muddy surface, and may be clayey in some locations, especially in the subsurface layers of depression and gravel plain in the slopes. Calcium carbonate and gypsum are low in most soils except some Lacustrine deposits where salinity is low to high [22].

Siwa Oases: Salt Lakes and Soils In New Valley Governorate, Siwa Oasis in the Western Desert is freshwater springs (Fig. 6) and salty lakes alike, most notably Birket Elmaraqi (Elmaraqi Pond) and Birket Siwa (Siwa Pond). These lakes are so salty to the point that no marine life would survive in them. The salt crystals are observable through the water. Siwa is located southwest of the Mediterranean Sea and west of the Nile Valley with about 450 km, thus making it the farthest distance from the Nile Valley (Fig. 6). The name of Siwa is taken from “Sioch,” one of the gods of the ancient local temples. Siwa and Jagoub shared a single closed basin. Most of the Siwa are below sea level. The

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Fig. 6 Siwa Oasis springs and saline lakes. a The freshwater in the middle of the Great Sea of Sand. b The hot springs in Siwa that is part of Bir Wahed. c Saline lakes of Siwa rival that of the Dead Sea in Jordan. d Hand sample from the bottom of the lake, which is largely comprised of crystallized salt

deepest point of 17 m, about 75 km long, has an average width of about 15 km. It narrows from the west to less than half, while in the east it is greater than doubled. The northern edge of the Oasis is high and steep, intersected by numerous valleys and passageways. The depression is almost open to the east, while much of the rim is buried south of the Great Sand Sea. Sand dunes spread from east to west, sandy hills from north to south. The lake level ranges from 12 to 18 m below sea level, the most important of which are Lake Elmaraqi, Lake Khamisa, Lake Siwa, Lake of Olives, Lake Modern, Lake Tamira, Lake Aguri. Water resources are available where there are hundreds of springs and eyes (Fig. 6). Quite a few of which can be exploited in irrigation of agricultural land. Agricultural drainage is one of the biggest problems for Siwa. The increase in water level in the land has led to poor drainage and increased soil salinity. Of the Oasis soil, there is little to the total area suitable for agriculture. Siwa is famous for its great wealth of palm trees and olives. The Oasis has the temple of Amun, which is considered one of the most important pharaonic monuments in Al-Waha. Some studies [23] have shown that the soil profile varies from shallow to deep. The soil texture varies with location, and the predominant texture is sand to sandy loam. There may be heavy subsurface layers. The sandy soil may be shallow or medium depth, due to the high level of groundwater. There is also deep sandy soil and medium soil texture to shallow to medium depth. Groundwater is close to the surface resulted in highly saline soil. Calcium carbonate is very low but may reach more than 80% especially the soil near the limestone plateau. There is gypsum in

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small quantity and may reach more than 20% in some locations. Based on estimates of groundwater, it is possible to reclaim 8000–10,000 feddans1 in the eastern part of the depression, solve agricultural drainage problems before the start of reclamation and dig 66 wells [24].

Qarun (Moeris) Lake El-Faiyum Oasis is a natural depression in Egypt’s Western Desert and occupies more than 12,000 km2 . In the context of the lake [25], El-Faiyum is derived from the Pharaonic (Phiom) source. Oasis encompasses a depressed area, enclosed in the south by hills and in the north by a 300 m escarpment (Fig. 6): the elevation is 40– 45 m below sea level. It is a depression in the calcareous plateau of the Eocene and is situated southwest of Cairo, the Nile Valley’s nearest Western Desert depression. Tablelands surround the eastern, western, and southern depression of Faiyum and distinguish it from neighbouring depressions, the Nile Valley and Wadi El-Rayyan. The Faiyum Depression is outlined by Middle Eocene rocks, which make up the area’s oldest exposed beds and consist mainly of gypsum shale, white marl, calcareous and sand [26, 27]. Quaternary deposits are widespread in the Faiyum region in the form of Eolian, Nilotic and Lacustrine deposits (Fig. 7). Prehistorically a freshwater lake, the ancient Lake Moeris is at present a smaller brackish lake frequently referred to as Birket Qarun (Arabic for Qarun’s Pond). It places in the northwest of the Fayyum Oasis. Lake Qarun (−45 m) occupies the lowest northwestern part of El-Faiyum depression. Lake Qarun is considered the third largest lake in Egypt and the second well-known lake following the largest manmade Nasser Lake in the Southern part of Egypt. This depression is distinguished from the rest of the desert depressions connected to the Nile Valley by the Sea of Joseph, which enters the water into the depression through a natural opening in its eastern edge known as the Lahore opening, and its soil formed from the Nile deposits. ElFaiyum depression has been placed within the Nile River basin because parts of it are covered by Nile deposits and connected to the Nile. The greater part of the cultivated land in the Faiyum territory is profound alluvial loam or clayey, resulting basically from Nile flood alluvium. The depression creates a more or less flat plain from which the plateau slopes gradually away from the northern side towards Lake Qarun and towards the Wadi El-Rayyan to the south west. It has a compact network of canals and drains for the irrigation. Calcareous clayey and some sandy soils are also present in areas to the edge of the depression [29, 30]. There are three theories among scientists about how and where the depression was created: “tectonic movements and water and wind erosion.” Some have a tendency to prefer water and wind erosion of tectonic theory. As for how depression is connected to the Nile, some assume that the Sea of Joseph is a branch of the Nile, and this is 1A

unit of land area, approximately 1 feddan = 4200.833 m2 (about 1.038 acres).

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Fig. 7 (Upper) El-Faiyum Oasis occupies a depressed area, surrounded by hills in the south and (lower) geological map of El-Faiyum area [28]

unacceptable to others. Hamdan [31] argues that if the Sea of Joseph was a branch of the Nile, it would mean that the Nile Delta would start near Asyut, so half of the entire lower Egypt would be part of the Nile Delta. Moreover, the Sea of Youssef itself was small. Nile water began to enter the depression through the Lahore opening during the fourth geological era. The most predominant myth is that the lake and the temple are named after a person that was believed to have stayed in the area and who is mentioned in both the Bible (Numbers 16) and the Qarun (Al-Qasas 76). He appears in the Bible as Korah, who challenges Moses and is immediately punished by Allah, being swallowed up in the world along with all of his family and possessions. He shows up in the Qarun

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as a man exulting in his riches [31]. It’s an extraordinary story in Egypt that this guy was capable of touching anything and converting it into gold. Others believe his secret will still be concealed somewhere under the lake’s surface. This man finally experiences God’s wrath, by being swallowed up into the earth again. The Qarun says the exultant is not accepted by God. Qarun ruled this area for a while earlier of what is now desert, but which then crowed several towns and over three thousand villages. This region had the best atmosphere and the most prolific terrain in the world around that time [31]. Ball [9] believes that El-Faiyum Basin was first discovered in the early Pleistocene period by wind erosion and the erosion of the Nile side gulley led to the breakdown of the Nile flood water into what is today the Lahun Gap (70,000 years ago). During low season the depression is filled with water that flows into the lake. Thereafter, various dimensional changes occurred, linked to climatic variations, Nile level changes, or Nile course shifts. Changes in Neolithic occasions caused the attainment or death on the lakeshore of various early agriculture or fishing groups. Overall recession set in around the beginning of Dynastic times, whilst the lake could be as low as 2 m below sea level through the Old Kingdom (Fig. 8) and never again in free communication with the Nile. In the 12th Dynasty, Amenemhat I, recognized the king known to the Greeks as Lamarres or Moeris, re-overwhelmed the lake, bringing its level quickly up to 18 m amsl (Fig. 8). He did so by expanding and improving the new channel linking El-Faiyum to the Nile, currently known as Bahr Yousef cal, and by constructing a five-kilometer bank at Al-Lahun from the northern side of the Lahun Gap. Upon excavation of the channel, the lake most likely took four or five years to fill. An ultimate goal in clearing the canal may have been

Fig. 8 Lake Qarun as low as 2 m below sea level and no longer in free communication with the Nile. It re-flooded the lake, conveying its level quickly up to 18 m amsl

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Fig. 9 Prehistorically a freshwater lake. Ancient Lake Moeris is a now a smaller brackish lake commonly referred to as Birket Qarun

to drain the low-lying swamps along the Nile Valley’s western desert side, but the net result, and probably the underlying purpose behind the gigantic project, was to allow the Nile flood water overflow, thus protecting Lower (Northern) Egypt from the unnecessary flood catastrophe. At that point, the lake would go to as a store in the midst of the low season after the Nile flooded and restore the water to the Nile Valley. What Amenemhat I did in turn was to restore the free contact between Lake El-Faiyum and the Nile. Sandford and Arkell [32] reported that the depression did not begin to dig until after the Pliocene era, while Ball explained that the depression had begun to be drilled in the late Pliocene. Eocene limestone rocks are scattered in the north and in the south where they are covered by sand deposits. Olegosin deposits are found on top of the Eocene rocks at the palace of the Qasr al Sagha, and the basalt rocks appear at Mount Qatrani. The area of El-Faiyum is one of the most important areas of the world in the studies of ancient life (remnants of plants and animals). Where it is one of only a handful couple of regions of the world, which saved in ancient rocks of large numbers of marine life, for example, the remaining parts of the bones of the teeth of sharks and some whales on the island of the century in Lake Qarun and in the cliff of the Palace of Sagha to the north of the lake, in addition to the discovery of large numbers of large mammal remains, Elephants [33]. In reality (Fig. 9), Lake Qarun is a big body of salty water which keeps it unsafe for drinking. While its southern and eastern shores are settled where it is possible to bring fresh water from irrigation systems, the north shore is bare desert, unrestrained and hard to reach. Lake Qarun is a shallow salt lake, whose salinity changes from time to time and from place to place where the agricultural drainage water is dumped, and its salinity constantly rises due to the evaporation loss.

Wadi El-Rayyan Lakes A low-lying depression is known as Wadi El-Rayyan, in southwestern El-Faiyum. They are separated by a thick fence from El-Faiyum. Wadi El-Rayyan Valley is a unique nature reserve in south-western El-Faiyum. This includes not just one but two freshwater lakes-one upstairs and one downstairs with a waterfall running through.

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Wadi El-Rayyan Depression is located in the Western Desert, 40 km southwest of El-Faiyum Province and has an approximate 703 km2 of land. It is located between 28° 45 and 29° 20 N latitudes, and 30° 15 and 30° 35 E longitudes. Depression Wadi El-Rayyan was mainly generated in carbonates of the Middle Eocene (Fig. 9). The Middle Eocene sedimentary pattern comprises of 2 formations which underlie it, the Qaret Gehannam Formation and the Wadi El-Rayyan Formation. The Qaret Gehannam Formation has a depth of around 50 m and contains Nummulitic calcarette intercalated with calcarette, besides shale, gypsum, and marlstone. Wadi El-Rayyan Formation is situated in the south of the depression and contains a lot of very hard calcareous with nummultic and occasionally argillaceous alternating calcareous sandstones. The calcareous nummultic is intercalated with real limestone at its base. Wadi El-Rayyan is thought never to have been linked to El-Faiyum. That means it’s clean of sediment to the Nile. The Depression is divided into two parts: the southern Wadi El-Rayyan (Al-Kabeer), and the northern Wadi El-Rayyan (Al-Saghir). The first lake (upper lake) is in the Masakhat Valley, with an area of approximately 65 km2 and a 22 m deep. The second lake has an area of 110 km2 and is 34 m deep [34]. Compared to whale fossils the region named the whales’ valleys. The capacity of the Wadi El-Rayyan reservoir is around 2 billion m3 below sea level by 18 m. To act as a bank, the channel was cut in from El-Faiyum to Wadi El-Rayyan. At the end of the southwestern tip of El-Faiyum, the channel is extended to 9.5 km to the edge of the desert, and tunnels are tunneled below the low rock barrier for between 8 km and around 3 m in diameter [35]. The Wadi El-Rayyan project does not receive all the water from El-Faiyum but only part of it. The land drainage north of El-Faiyum Governorate flows to Qarun Lake and the southern land drainage is transferred to Wadi El-Rayyan. Water drainage in Wadi El-Rayyan transforms the surrounding mountains into an industrial lake where they are called the second industrial lake (Egyptian man) after Lake Nasser. Since 1973 the depression has been used as an industrial water reservoir for irrigation. Generally, about 200 million m3 of drainage water from agricultural land is supplied through El-Wadi Drain to the Wadi El-Rayyan lakes in every year [36]. Two synthetic lakes (i.e., upper and lower) were created along with a path at two different altitudes (Fig. 9). The upper lake has “an area of approximately 53 km2 at an altitude of 10 m below sea level. The upper lake is full of water and bordered by dense vegetation” [37]. “This lake’s surplus water flows through a shallow connexion channel into the lower lake” [38]. It is known that the lower lake has an area larger than the upper lake and has an area of at least 110 km2 at 18 m below sea level [39]. “The maximum water depth recorded at the bottom lake is 33 m” [40]. The water flow to the lower lake ranged from 17.68/106 m3 (in March 1996) to 3.66/106 m3 (in July 1996), with an average cumulative inflow of 127.2/106 m3 /year [40]. The area between the two lakes is used for fish rearing (Fig. 10).

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Fig. 10 Location map of the Wadi El-Rayyan upper and lower lakes, El Wadi drain

Sustainable Land Resources of El-Faiyum Soils of El-Faiyum Depression El-Faiyum soil was divided into the following [41]: (A)

Soils have diagnostic horizon such as the salic horizon, Gypsic horizon, Calcium horizon and include: 1. 2. 3.

(B)

Alluvial soil, characterized by the horizon of the accumulation of calcium carbonate. Soil has gypsum and calcium carbonate horizon, located near the eastern edge of the depression. Soil with the horizon of salt accumulation, most of which are located on the shores of Lake Qarun, the most prominent sites in El-Faiyum. It consists of Fulivo marine deposits, high water table, salt crust on the surface, most of which are uncultivated.

Soil does not have a diagnostic horizon, and include: 1. 2.

3.

Sandy soil, which is located on the depression edges and most of them are not implanted to raise their level. Alluvial soil, occupying relatively large areas in the center of the depression, whose texture varies from silty clay to silty sand, very little salinity, a large area is planting of citrus orchards and other fruit. Heavy clay soil, followed by most of the depression soil, consisting of river deposits and salinity varies from one area to another.

Abdel Aal [42] researched the soil of the El-Faiyum region with specific geomorphic characteristics. There were 4 major El-Faiyum depression geomorphic units, namely (a) El-Faiyum fan, (b) El-Faiyum plain with flood and elevated features, (c) El-Faiyum lake terraces like new, older, and (d) El Gharak basin. There is a common

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relationship between the geomorphic elements, and either geogenic or pedological processes. Many soil attributes in both Pleistocene and Holocene can be viewed through the climatic fluctuation between humid and arid environments. As a consequence, due to the dominance of deposition processes, some areas are characterised by freshly developed and weakly developed soil without any diagnostic horizons, producing additions of new Aeolian or aqueous sediment under arid and humid circumstances. Most soils are formed from aqueous media, along with the Aeolian roots, which were obviously noticeable in some places on the middle part (Faiyum fan) or on the edges of the depression (old terraces of the lake). Except for soil, soil formation is poor or not so pronounced, which produces some pedological diagnostic horizons. Hanna and Labib [43] demonstrated that soil near the desert fringes of ElFaiyum depression are derived from river-colluvial-aeolian sediment, whereas those near Qarun Lake are mainly derived from saline lacustrine deposits. They continued that these soils have a sandy clay loam to loamy sand and clay texture for the desertic formations and those near the Lake respectively. Three geomorphic units next to Qarun Lake involve alluvial deposits of the Nile, dessertic formation, and disturbance zone between lacustrine and desert deposits. Drainage was influential in soil formation through the effect on soil salinization. In addition, Shendi [44] indicated that soil forming processes in these soils includes salinization, calcification, alkalinization, illuviation, and glacialization. Parent material, climate, and topography are the principal soil-forming factors in this region. Studies of Kassem and Elwan [45] on these soils revealed that such soils were either formed under stratified or multidepositional conditions. They also suggested that the quantity and form of mineral assembly indicated the origin of these soil, which could be linked to deposits of lacustrine and Paleolithic Nile. The geographical positions of the different soil types can be attributed to “the northwest distance to Qarun Lake and thus the frequency and severity of the flooding” [27]. Figure 11 shows El-Faiyum Soil Map [46]. Vertic Torrifluvents are the largest ElFaiyum soil subgroup covering an area of 760 km2 (43% of the study area). Further main subgroups are Typic Haplocalcids (421 km2 , 24%) and Typic Torrifluvents (141 km2 , 8%). The rest of the soil subgroups (Typic Haplogypsids, Typic Haplosalids, and Typic Torripsamments) is noted in small areas and covers approximately 11% of the area. Most of the cultivated soils in El-Faiyum province are deep Nile alluvial loam to clayey soils. Furthermore, in the edges of depression, calcareous clayey and a part of the sandy soils are found as patches. Shendi [44] gave a brief debate of these types, classifying the soil types in this area into five main units; Soil of fluvio-lacustrine deposits, Soil of fluvio–desertic deposits, lacustrine soil and desert soil. The lacustrine plain in the southern part of Qarun Lake is the main landscape; it contains lacustrine terraces of different elevations (Fig. 11). The Wadi El-Rayyan project includes two villages: Sidna Al-Khader village and the village of Sidna Musa. The following is the two soils of the two villages [41]: A.

The soils of the village of Sidna Al-Khader, including: 1. 2.

Shallow soils with a medium texture. Medium-depth soil with a coarse texture.

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Fig. 11 Soil map of El-Faiyum and the Lacustrine plain in the southern part of Qarun Lake [46]

3. 4.

B.

Medium-depth soil with coarse to average roughness. Deep soils have coarsely rough to average roughness, others smooth to medium smoothness. The quantity of calcium carbonate in the soil varies from 10 to 46%, salinity from 2 to 47 dSm−1 .

The soil of the village of Sidna Musa. 1. 2. 3.

Very shallow soils, with a coarse texture. Medium-depth soil and coarse texture, medium smoothness and smooth surface, medium smoothness. Deep soil with coarse texture to average roughness, coarse to medium roughness with sub-surface layers of soft medium.

The quantity of calcium carbonate in the soil of the village of Sidna Musa ranges from 9 to 45% and the salinity ranges from 5 to 245 dSm−1 .

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Limitation of the New Reclamation Area The total area that was reclaimed in the Wadi El-Rayyan project is about 4575 feddans, of which about 3875 feddans cultivated, of which about 2200 feddans in the village of Sidna al-Khader, 1675 feddans in the village of Sidna Musa [41]. Various types of fruit, such as olives, are common in the region, including grapes, guava, figs, pomegranates, palm trees, citrus and mangoes in small areas. Annual crops such as wheat, onions, clover, sunflower, sesame, cowpea, etc. are also grown. Wadi El-Rayyan is one of the first areas selected for the reuse of agricultural drainage water for irrigation. This was started in 1964 with the aim of disposing of agricultural wastewater in El-Faiyum Governorate and reusing it in new lowlands with the aim of reclamation of 12,000 feddans. Some 4575 feddans have been reclaimed west of the third lake in the depression. The reclaimed areas have been distributed to farmers and graduates [35]. The capacity of the El-Rayyan Valley is 2 billion m3 at 18 m below sea level. Wadi El-Rayyan receives agricultural drainage water in excess of what Lake Qarun absorbs. Wastewater is transported through an open channel and a tunnel. The tunnel water flows into the Masakhat Valley (the first lake) in the north of the depression, then crosses the first plateau, flows into the valley of the second lake, then penetrates the second plateau and finally reaches the third lake. Related to the disposal of industrial and agricultural waste and even domestic waste, Qarun Lake suffered from different types of pollution, which influences the fish and animal life in the lake with the great harmful impact on human health. In comparison, there are some sand dunes facing Qarun Lake and accumulation of sandy areas shift from north and northwest direction. The effect of these deposition sand forms invades the lake’s water and moves the lake’s water in a south direction. Therefore, with the same volume of water, the arriving sand from the north to drive the water body towards the south to fill the low areas mainly the agricultural land and these have somehow a position to degrade the arable land by raising the salinization of the groundwater table and waterlogged areas. While the input of multispectral satellite data was studied in the soil analysis [47], use of hyperspectral satellite data for the estimation of soil mineralogy remains poorly studied. Omran [48] studied the area, which is located between 30°16 –30°35 E and 28°52 –29°49 N, using Hyperspectral sensors (image path 177, row 039) in part of El-Faiyum Governorate. Hyperspectral sensors, assessing hundreds of contiguous images both spatially and spectrally, offer additional distinctive spatial/spectral databases for surface mineralogy analysis [49]. Hyperspectral bands have a complete spectral pattern for each pixel which can be obtained with great precision and accuracy for object identification, filtering, and classification [50]. Such an image sets out precise spectral signatures for each pixel. Such signatures provide ample information for identifying and evaluating materials that may be present in a particular pixel [51]. Hyperspectral sensors therefore offer a considerably improved ability to classify the objects in the scene based on their spectral characteristics [52]. Hyperion is a hyperspectral sensor that operates in invisible (V) ranges (400–700 nm), near-infrared (NIR) ranges (700–1300 nm) and short-wave (SWIR) ranges (1300–2500 nm), providing the opportunity to map soil mineralogy directly. Figure 12 demonstrates El-Faiyum’s

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Limestone

Sand

Fig. 12 Footprints of hyperion image for part of El-Faiyum shows all spectral profiles of pixels corresponding to limestone and sand [48]

hyperion subset, displaying sand dunes, elongated in the Wadi El-Rayyan area on the limestone. Spectral discrimination between sand and calcareous is not as straightforward as anticipated. As illustrated in Fig. 12, the two spectral profiles, in character, are similar. Main differences can be found in the visible region, where the sand displays a significantly lower albedo, and in the short wave infrared, where the CaCO3 absorption band is lower. Smectite, kaolinite, and ilite are the principal dominated clay minerals in these soils.

Lakes of the Inland of Sinai and the Eastern Desert Lake Timsah As a vital navigational path between east and west, the Suez Canal is a major gateway for the exchange of fauna and flora between two ecologically diverse ecosystems, the Indo-Pacific-Red Sea and the Atlanto-Mediterranean. Besides the various salinities

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along the Canal, its water volume is exposed to stress from several sources on the part of human activities. At the north end of Lake Manzalah, Canal receives polluted brackish water. Polluted brackish water from Lake Timsah affects the middle part, which collects agricultural, industrial, and domestic waste. Located on the Suez Canal, midway between Port Said and Suez. Lake Timsah is a small and shallow lake. It is between 30° 33 and 30° 35 N latitude and 30° 16 and 30° 19 E longitude. The area can be divided exactly into three basins: Lake Timsah, the west lagoon and the Suez Canal Route (Fig. 13). The lake plays a vital role in most of the activities of Ismailia City such as tourism, fishing, shipping, etc. The form of Lake Timsah is roughly triangular, with elongated sides extending nearly east–west. It has an area of at least 8 km2 and occupies about 34 × 106 m3 of water and an average depth of 4–5 m [53]. The lake’s shores are sandy, with only the minimal hard beach-rock style bottom. It also has salinity stratification where it gathers brackish water from the western lagoon overtoping its extremely saline water. Lake Timsah is significantly

Fig. 13 Map of Lake Timsah

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polluted [53]. Waste sources are primarily urban raw sewage, industrial pollution from shoreline factories, domestic sewage from separate areas parallel to the shore, agricultural irrigation water and potentially marine pollution.

Bitter Lakes Salt-water lakes between the northern and southern parts of the Suez Canal involve Greater Bitter Lake, Lesser Bitter Lakes and El-Temsah Lake (the crocodile lake), in the Ismailia province. Great Bitter Lake (Al-Buhayrat Al-Murrah) is among lakes connecting the eastern Mediterranean and Red Seas along the Suez Canal. As the canal is only built to allow ships to pass in a solitary route, the Great Bitter Lake (Fig. 14) is a place where ships can change their position in line (such as the highway lane) before proceeding either north to Port Said or south to the port of Suez. Great Bitter Lake was a massive salt flat prior to the construction of the Suez Canal in 1869; in the arid climate, basins seldom accumulate sufficient water to turn out to be real lakes. Vast areas of white and tan sandy sediment at the left and top of the image (Fig. 14) show the desert surroundings adjacent to the lake. Located at the Suez Canal’s approximately midpoint, Great Bitter Lake is presently filled with water from both the Red and Mediterranean Seas and this steady flow of water balances the water lost to evaporation.

Fig. 14 Great Bitter Lake astronaut photograph acquired on October 2, 2009 https://earthobserva tory.nasa.gov/images/40884/great-bitter-lake-egypt

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Fig. 15 Simplified geological map of Great Bitter Lake area and its vicinity [10, 53, 55]

Suez Canal region’s regional geology (Fig. 15) and surrounding area have been the subject of several investigations [54–58] as it forms a hydro-morphological environment; geomorphological; tectonic setting and framework as well as a structural unit. Inland depression defines the sediment that fills the shallow depressions, as well as Lake El-Temsah and Lake Bitter. The sediment in these depressions’ upper horizons consists of bands of sand, clay, and gypsum. The sub-surface geological and geophysical research indicates two distinct sedimentary units lower than a sand unit for the deeper horizons at the area. It contains coarse-grained sand, while the upper sediment displays intercalations of clay with fine sand and grains of silt [56]. The area is covered by thickly evaporating deposits of Quaternary sediments (Fig. 16) which may mask earlier tectonic deformations. Natural hydrogeological characteristics of the “region are weak due to the saline water quality of the sediment surrounding it, defined by poor hydraulic properties and high salt content” [54]. In particular, groundwater is mainly saline in the region and its surroundings and has low recharge levels especially in the area’s northern zone. The origin of recharge for the shallow groundwater is usually attributed to a steady flow from the neighboring irrigated soil and surface water supply [45]. The north-southwestern region of the Suez Canal faces a wide range in the groundwater

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Fig. 16 Contour map shows the area of East Bitter Lakes, which is relatively flat to undulating and the elevation increases toward the east

table in regards to the topographical gradient [57]. Hydro-morphological situations in the northern, western surroundings of the Suez Canal region, represented by relatively lowland area less than 10 m above sea level (amsl) and low water table at approximately 4–5 m above sea level, and deltaic loamy sand deposits (Fig. 16). Southwestern environments of the Suez Canal region are distinguished by a high topographic gradient highland landscape. The water table is relatively high. It is more than 10 m amsl.

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Sabkhas are formed in the light of diverse environmental factors, e.g. deflation of water surfaces, accumulation of sediment in a lagoon or a combination of the two procedures [58]. The region’s Sabkhas deposits reveal a wide variety of minerals, including: abundance of quartz and carbonates (usually calcite and dolomite, then aragonite), sulphates (primarily gypsum and anhydrite, and then bassanite and bloedite) and chlorides (mainly halite and bischofite). The salt and the sabkha sediments have extreme, damaging effects of new projects in the region on agricultural land, village houses, and infrastructure. There are various factors correlated with the setup of salt influencing sediments at sabkhas sites including parent rocks, texture or lithology, subsurface structure and topography or surface relief, different physiographical characteristics, salty subsoil water, and shallow depths of water. The sabkha sediments are composed of a mixture of clay, muddy scale and carbonate with minerals like evaporite. In addition, two basic procedures were noted, namely dolomitization and the increase in secondary evaporation.

El-Temsah and Bitter Lakes Pollution El-Moselhy [59] confirms the volume of total mercury collected from Lake Timsah and Bitter Lakes (Suez Canal) in various marine species, as well as with the factors affecting its concentration. They found that the amounts of Hg in the species examined indicate the ranges 2.62–25.45 and 0.94–7.94 ng/g wet weight (nanogram/gram) in fish, 16.02–117.26 and 9.86–64.18 ng/g wet wt. in crab, 4.55–14.67 and 5.76– 15.58 ng/g wet wt. in shrimp, and 1.06–36.31 and 5.38–69.59 ng/g wet weight in bivalves from Lake Timsah and Bitter Lakes, respectively [59]. High concentration of Hg has been reported in species in Lake Timsah that get wastewaters from various contaminated sources. A high concentration of Hg was also found in the organisms’ internal organs, particularly liver, contrasted with the lower for edible tissues. The order in which mercury is amplified in edible tissues was the following: Fish < shrimp < bivalve < crab. The results suggested that the existing investigation could subject the accumulation of mercury in aquatic organisms to some inputs such as pollution sources, organism growth rate, sex, size and species variation.

Soils of East Bitter Lakes The area of East Bitter Lakes is relatively flat to undulating, and elevation to the east is growing (Fig. 16). At low elevations, numerous depressions are found at the water table, less than 2 m away from the surface of the soil. Soils of East Bitter Lakes (Fig. 17) were studied [60–62]. With regards to the succession of layers and intrinsic properties of each layer, the soils were found to vary considerably. The main groups of soil are deep sandy soils, clay soils and various types of soil (Fig. 17). Analysis showed the existence of alkalinity, and high salinity. Permeability and infiltration

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Fig. 17 East Bitter Lakes soils

testing provided high values for sandy soils while impermeable clay soils. Analysis of X-rays showed the existence of “hectorite” type clay, which is a montmorillonite component rich in magnesium. With respect to land use classification, the soil must meet the Class 4 requirements, and sandy soils as priority. Miscellaneous land types are Class 5 like non-farmland. Most soils are sandy soils except some clay soils which emerge as patches between sandy soils. For the most part, soils are high in salt, relatively low in CaCO3 , high in gypsum and poor in organic matter. There are many serious soil constraints, such as pan layers at different depths, salinity, wet depressions, sand dunes and rocky outcrops [62]. Large areas of agricultural land are polluted and have become unfit for cultivation due to the pan layers (claypan,

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gypsipan, and calcipan). The induration and hardness of pan layers could restrict the possibilities of farm use. Their existence causes a shallow water table, poor drainage and high salinity.

Hardpan Hazard in East Bitter Lakes Soil Given the large pan layers, such as claypans, caliche, and gypsum pans, surprisingly little knowledge is available in broad areas of agronomic significance in the Suez Canal region [63]. In the past, most of the staff had only been dealing with the surface soil layer. Insignificant importance was attached to the role of pan layers in crop production. Pan layers are among the most common land-use major constraints in the Suez Canal zone. It is worth noting that the degradation of agricultural land in the Suez Canal area is largely due to the occurrence of pan layers [62]. Because of their induration and hardness, they could limit the chances for agricultural practices, root growth, and penetration. Claypans, gypsum pans and caliche are the most common pans at various sites in the Suez Canal region. Different types of pans were distinguished in the literature [62] namely; indurated or cemented pans, claypans, and fragipans. Moreover, pan layers are classified into the natural pan and anthropic pan [62]. Depending on the form of cementation, natural pan is subdivided into different types; claypans, fragipan, indurated layers, cemented by iron, silica, lime, sulphate or humus. Anthropic pans are classified into tillage pan, surface crust and finally the pasture pan formed as a result of packing action of grazing animals. Not all these primary classifications of pan layers are suitable to minimize their hazards on land use because little information is available. Thus, intensive characteristics, geographic distribution, and classification of these pan layers are necessary to overcome their hazards in agricultural production. Most of the area which lies between the eastern branch of the Delta River Nile and the Suez Canal as well as a relative strip of land in the East Bitter Lakes area located at a low topographic position growing from zero to about 100 m above sea level. The present arid climatic conditions which evaporation exceeds precipitates have its imprints on the soils and landforms. This is clear in the formations of sabkhas and saline soils, desert pavement, evaporite deposits of gypsum, and sand dunes. Contrary to land features related to aridity, there are also important features related to the wet paleoclimatic conditions [63]. There are represented by the dry wadis and the occurrence of reddish soils of old terraces. The region of the Suez Canal is essentially occupied by sedimentary rocks belonging to the Quaternary deposits resting uncomfortably on the different rock units of the Tertiary [64]. The rock exposures (sandstone, limestone, shale, and gypsum) are essentially covered with young unconsolidated deposits of the varying mode of formation including; faluviatile, lagoonal and Aeolian. These deposits form most of the soil parent materials in the Suez Canal region.

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The foremost soil sub-groups, which associate with pan layers, namely; Typic Hapolgysides, Aquic petrogyspids, Typic petrogypsids, Typic calcigypsids, Calci petrogepsids, Typic Hoplosalids, Typic petrogypic Haplosalids, Typci petrocalcids, Typic Torripsamments and Typic Torriorthents [62]. Pan layers are divided into petropan and nonpetropan groups (Fig. 18) based on slaking in water [62]. Each pan group is subdivided into subgroups according to

Fig. 18 Representative soil profiles and associated pan layers (upper) and hand samples (lower) from East Bitter Lakes [62]

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nature and cementing materials. Each subgroup could be classified into different pan families. 1.

2.

3.

Petropan group. These pan layers are indurated and do not slake in water. Petropan group is subdivided according to the type of cementing material into three main subgroups; petrogyspipan, petrocalcipan and petrogypsiferromanganipan. Nonpetropan group. These pan layers are slaked when immersed in water. Nonpetropan subgroup contains several kinds of pan such as Ferropan, Ferromanganipan, and Gypsipan. Clay pans. These pans are the most widespread pans in the Suez Canal region. These pans are found at 15–360 cm depth, and their thickness varies from 15 to 130 cm (Fig. 18). They are variable in certain properties such as depth, thickness, unconfined compressive strength, and salinity. Most of the claypans are associated with soils of Typic Haplosalids and Typic Torriorthents. The bulk density densities ranged from 1.8 to 2.3 × 103 kg m1 . They have a low content of gypsum and CaCO3 . Cation exchange capacity varies between 30.0 and 49.9 mol(+)kg−1 , Mn content is low, and salinity varies from saline to extremely saline. The air-dry unconfined compressive strength of calypans mainly ranged from 321 to 557 psi. Some claypans show the presence of manganese oxides as localized black granular segregations with dentritic growth (Fig. 18). Identification of stress-oriented argillans and illuvial clay remains a problem particularly in montmorillonitic clay soils where shrinking-swelling characteristics modify the clay coatings. In general, most of the studied claypans in the Suez Canal region are of geogenic rather than pedogenic origin. The reason for this conclusion is the present arid climate and their formation from stratified sediments or from parent material in which there is a marked unconformity within the profile. The most common features of the pan layer are the presence of stress argillan formed as a result of shrinking-swelling process, common joint and skewplanes, mangan and ferran, high clay content, high salinity high swelling potential and high compacting.

Conclusions and Outlook The Western Desert encompasses Wadi El-Natroun Lake, Qattara Depression, Siwa Oasis and Toshka Lakes. Most land degradation forms of Wadi El-Natrun area are of human-based (mismanagement and misuse); some physical and chemical environmental factors are still considered. Dominant active land degradation features are; waterlogging, salinity, alkalinity, and compaction. Wadi El-Rayyan receives agricultural drainage water more than what is Lake Qarun absorbed. Inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert include Great Bitter Lake and El-Timsah Lake. Pan layers are one of the most common limiting factors for land use in the Suez Canal region. It is of interest to note that much of the degradation of agricultural lands in the Suez Canal region is the result of the occurrence of pan layers. Because of their induration

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and hardness, they could limit the chances for agricultural practices, root growth, and penetration. Claypans, gypsum pans and caliche are the most common pans at various sites in the Suez Canal region. Different types of pans were distinguished namely; indurated or cemented pans, claypans, and fragipans.

References 1. Abayazid H, Al-Shinnawy I (2012) Coastal lake sustainability: threats and opportunities with climate change. J Mech Civ Eng Int Organ Sci Res (JMCE/IOSR) 1(5):33–41 2. Collins J (2017) Vital lakes disappearing around the world. https://www.dw.com/en/vital-lakesdisappearing-around-the-world/a-37401645 3. Lent RM, Lyons WB (1995) Pore water geochemistry and recommendation for ground water investigations, Wadi El-Natrun, Western desert of Egypt. General Desert Development Organization, Egypt 4. Sayed MF, Abdo MH (2009) Assessment of environmental impact on Wadi El-Natrun Depression Lakes water, Egypt. World J Fish Mar Sci 1(2):129–136 5. Williams WD (1981) Inland salt lakes. An introdiction. Hydrobiologia 81:1–14 6. El-Baz F (1988) Origin and evolution of the desert. Interdisc Sci Rev 13(4):331–347 7. Mostafa A (2013) Paleokarst shafts in the Western Desert of Egypt: a unique landscape. Acta Carsol 42(1):49–60 8. Elbasiouny H, Elbehiry F (2019) Geology. In: El-Ramady H, Alshaal T, Bakr N, Elbana T, Mohamed E, Belal AA (eds) The soils of Egypt. World Soils Book Series. Springer, Cham 9. Ball J (1939) Contributions to the geography of Egypt. Egypt Survey Department, Cairo, 300 pp 10. Said R (1962) The geology of Egypt. Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, New York 11. Embabi N (2004) The geomorphology of Egypt: landforms and evolution. In: The Nile Valley and the Western Desert, vol 1. The Egyptian Geographical Society, Cairo, p 447 12. Kindermann K et al (2006) Palaeoenvironment and Holocene land use of Djara, Western Desert of Egypt. Quatern Sci Rev 25:1619–1637 13. Mostafa A (2007) Karst geomorphology of the Farafra Depression, the Western Desert, Egypt. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, Ain Shams University, Cairo, p 374 14. EL-Baz F (2000) Potential of economic development in the Western Desert of Egypt. In: The International Conference on the Western Desert - January (17–21) Cairo Egypt, 200I 15. Al-Ahram Weekly (2014) https://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/5647.aspx. 13–19 Mar (1188) 16. El Bassyony A (1995) Introduction to the geology of the Qattara Depression. In: International Conference on the Studies and Achievements of Geosciences in Egypt 69(85-eoa) 17. Abd el Malek Y, Rizk SG (1963) Bacterial sulphate reduction and the development of alkalinity. III. Experiments under natural conditions. J Appl Bacteriol 26:20–26 18. Abu Zeid KA (1984) Contribution to the geology of wadi El Natrun area and its surroundings. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Science, Cairo University 19. El Fayoumi IF (1964) Geology of ground water supplies in Wadi E1Natnm area. Msc. thesis, Faculty of Science, Cairo University 20. Aqrawi PM et al (2013) Assessment of land degradation in Wadi El Natrun area, Western Desert. Egypt J Soil Sci Agric Eng Mansoura Univ 4(9):811–826 21. Hassan AS (1974) Origin and formation of the soils of the area north to wadi El-Natrun. M.Sc., Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University 22. Ashmay AS (2003) Peolological studies bearing on genesis morphology and classification of soils of wadi El-Natrun. Ph.D., Faculty of Agriculture, Moshotor, Zagazig University 23. Abdel Samie AKM (2000) Classification and evaluation of Siwa oasis soils. Ph.D., Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University

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24. Hefny K, Shata A. Groundwater in Egypt. In: Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (ed) 25. Soliman M (2008) Water, environment and nature in the Arab World. The story of water in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Modern Book House 26. Hammad M, Abo-El-Ennan S, Abed F (1983) Pedological studies on the Fayoum area, Egypt, landscapes and soil morphology. Egypt J Soil Sci 23(2):99–114 27. Said R (1993) The river Nile; geology, hydrology and utilization. Pergamon Press, Oxford 28. Abdel Wahed M et al (2014) Geochemical modeling of evaporation process in Lake Qarun, Egypt. J Afr Earth Sci 97:322–330 29. Ghabbour TK (1988) Soil salinity mapping and monitoring using remote sensing and a geographical information system (some applications in Egypt). Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Sciences, State University of Ghent 30. Shendi MM (1990) Some mineralogical aspects of soil sediments with special reference to both lithology and environmental conditions of formation in Fayoum area, Egypt. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Agriculture at El-Fayoum, Cairo University, Egypt 31. Hamdan G (1984) The personality of Egypt. Dar Al Hilal 32. Sandford KS, Arkell KJ (1929) Paleolithic man and the Nile—Fayum divide, vol 1. Chicago University Press, Oriental Institute Publ, 77 p 33. Said R (2002) Truth and illusion in Egyptian reality. Dar Al Hilal 34. Al-Thamami A (2008) The features and civilization of Fayoum Coptic and Islamic. Family Library 35. DRC (2004) D.R.C. Project of the use of low quality water and its impact on the characteristics of low quality water and its impact on the characteristics of land and vegetation in Wadi Al Rayyan. First progress report 36. El-Shabrawy G (2001) Ecological studies on macrobenthos of Lake Qarun, El-Fayum, Egypt. J Egypt Acad Soc Environ Dev 2:29–49 37. Saleh M (1985) Ecological investigation of inorganic pollutants in El-Faiyum and El-Raiyan aquatic environment. Supreme Council of Universities, FRCU, Rep., pp 1–54 38. Sayed M, Abdel-Satar A (2009) Chemical assessment of Wadi El-Rayan lakes, Egypt. AmEurasian J Agric Environ Sci 5(1):53–62 39. Mansour S, Sidky M (2003) Ecotoxicological Studies. 6. The first comparative study between lake Qarun and Wadi El-Rayan wetland (Egypt), with respect to contamination of their major components. Food Chem 82:181–189 40. Abd-Ellah R (1999) Physical limnology of El-Fayoum depression and their budget. PhD Thesis. Faculty of Science, South Valley University, p 140 41. Hammad MA (2011) Soil associationmap of Egypt. Updated legend. The Soil Survey Institute, Wageningen and Digitized by A. A. Abd El-Ghany, SWER, ARC, Giza, Egypt 42. Abdel Aal TS (1990) Cyclic formation of soil on different geomorphic features of Fayoum area. Egypt. Ph D Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture at Fayoum, Cairo University, Egypt 43. Hanna FS, Labib FB (1977) The soils of the Fayoum depression. Egypt J Soil Sci 17(1):33–43 44. Shendi MM (1984) Pedological studies on soils adjacent to Qarun lake, Fayoum Governorate, Egypt. M.Sc. thesis, Cairo University, Egypt 45. Kassem Y, Elwan A (1980) Origin and uniformity of the soils adjacent to Qarun lake, Fayoum Governorate. Egypt J Soil Sci 20(1):57–63 46. USDA (2010) Keys to soil taxonomy, 3rd edn. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) 47. Nanni MR Demattê JAM (2006) Spectral reflectance methodology in comparison to traditional soil analysis. Soil Sci Soc Am J 70:393–407 48. Omran ESE (2017) Simplified imaging spectroscopy for rapid spectral discrimination of soil minerals. Eurasian Soil Sci 50(5):597–612 49. Kruse FA, Boardman JW, Huntington JF (2002) Comparison of airborne hyperspectral data and EO-1 hyperion for mineral mapping. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 41(6):1388–1400 50. Zadeh MH, et al (2013) Sub-pixel mineral mapping of a porphyry copper belt using EO-1 Hyperion data. Adv Space Res 53:440–451

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51. Gomez RB (2000) The power of hyperspectral technology. In: 2nd International Conference on Earth 52. Plaza A et al (2009) Recent advances in techniques for hyperspectral image processing. Remote Sens Environ 113:110–122 53. El-Moselhy K, Yassien M (2005) Accumulation patterns of heavy metals in two venus clams, Paphia undulata (Born, 1780) and Gafrarium pectinatum (Linnaeus, 1758), from Lake Timsah, Suez Canal, Egypt. Egypt J Aquat Res 31(1):13–28 54. El Shazly E et al (1975) Geological investigations of the SuezCanal zone. Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, Cairo, p 54 55. Geriesh H (1999) Improvement of drinking water quality in the new villages, east of Suez Canal navigation route Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Using artificial ground water recharge techniques. Al-Azhar Bull Sci 15:37–54 56. Abdallah A, Abdel Aal M, Hussein M (1998) Integrated surface and subsurface structural study of the area between Mediterranean and Eastern Desert, Egypt. In: EGPC’s exploration & production conference, Cairo, pp 1–12 57. Geriesh H (1989) Hydrogeological investigations of West Ismailia area, Egypt. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 210 pp 58. Hansom J, McGlashan D (2004) Scotland’s coast: understanding past and present processes for sustainable management. Scott Geogr J 120(1–2):99–116 59. El-Moselhy K (2006) Bioaccumulation of mercury in some marine organisms from Lake Timsah and Bitter Lakes (Suez Canal, Egypt). Egypt J Aquat Res 32(1):124–134 60. Abd El-Hady AM (1981) Pedological studies of gypsiferous soils, east of the Bitter Lakes, Suez Canal region.M.Sc. thesis, Suez Canal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Soil and Water Department 61. Abdel-Salam MA (1962) East bitter lakes project. Desert Institute, Cairo 62. Omran ESE (1996) Mineralogical and chemical properties of indurated layers in soils of Suez Canal region. M.Sc. thesis, Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 63. Shata AA, Shata AA (1997) Regional geogenetic soil processes in Egypt. Egypt J Soil Sci I:37 64. Said R (1990) The geology of Egypt (ed). Balkema, Rotterdam, 734 pp

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt Mohamed M. Wassif and Omnia M. Wassif

Abstract The calcareous soils cover a considerable portion of agricultural desert lands in Egypt, particularly in the north western coastal zone (NWCZ) and Sinai. The accumulation of carbonates in these soils is closely connected to soil genesis and formation. These soils can be defined as the soils which contain more than 14– 17% total CaCO3 or more than 4–7% active CaCO3 in relation to the whole soil hydraulic properties. Some of these soils show the presence of caliche horizons. The particle size distribution of CaCO3 among the soil mechanical separates follows the textural class. These soils have variable texture sandy, loamy sand to sandy loam sandy, clay loam, silty clay loam and clay loam. The CaCO3 content varies from 10 to more than 83%. It is generally slightly and moderately to a strongly alkaline reaction where pH values of soil paste ranged from 7.4 to 9.2; organic matter content is generally low and mostly decreases with depth. Soil salinity is varies affected by agriculture system either rainfed or irrigated. In case of rainfed agriculture, it is nonsaline to slightly saline, when supplemental irrigation with saline groundwater carried out the soil salinity reached to moderately saline. In case of irrigated agriculture with saline groundwater in some areas, the soil salinity reached to strongly saline. Cation exchange capacity of the soils depends on the clay percent and the CaCO3 percent in the clay and the range of 4.2 and 19.29 m.e./100 g soil. The average available soil moisture differ according to textural classes, and the value of sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, sand clay loam, and clay loam is 5.8, 7.95, 11.9, 16.33, and 24.1% respectively. The surface crust is a marked property of calcareous soils. Field observations indicated that natural crusts were quite distinctive from the soil underneath. It was massive and easily separable from the underlying soil due to the presence of relatively very thin coarse textured layer in between crust thickness, under field conditions, it varied from about 0.2 to about 1.0 cm. Seedling emergence was found to be inversely related to crust strength as well as crust moisture content. The mineral compositions of calcareous vary according to the particles size. The presence of CaCO3 and high pH level results in unavailability of phosphate and affects directly or indirectly, availability of other nutrients. Soil texture, CaCO3 , are the most important factors that correlate with the total available content of the nutrients. Good M. M. Wassif · O. M. Wassif (B) Soil Conservation Department, Desert Research Center (DRC), P.O. Box: 11753, Cairo, Egypt © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_3

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soil management makes a calcareous soil produce an abundance of high quantity and quality crop yields. Poor soil management makes it unproductive. Also the selection of suitable crop for this soil is essential and vital to obtain the optimum and sustainable productivity. Appropriate management of calcareous soils requires a combination of soil and water management practices in addition to other management practices such as crop management, control weeds, pests and plant diseases. The combinations of different management practices application significantly affected the yield of most crops. Keywords Calcareous soil · Calcareous · Soil · Management · Practice · Irrigation · Particle size · Distribution · CaCO3

Introduction Egypt lies between latitudes 22° and 32° and between longitudes 24° and 37° to the east of Greenwich. Egypt is bounded to the north, by the Mediterranean, red sea from the east, from the northeast by Palestine and Israel, from the west long borders with Libya and bounded from the south with Sudan. The total area of Egypt is about 1 million km2 , only about 4% of that land is arable. The remaining 96% of the country’s area is desert. The country has been distinguished into four Agro-ecological zones. These zones on the basis of climate in combination with physiographic, natural resources, agriculture and other factors affecting the socio-economic activities. These zones are as follow: • North Coastal Zone (North Western Coastal, North Coastal area of Sinai, inland of Sinai), • The Eastern desert with their elevated southern areas, • Western desert including oases and southern remote areas (East Uweinat, Tushka and Drab El-Arabian areas and Nile Valley), • Delta; envolving the fertile alluvial land of Middle and Upper Egypt, the Delta and the reclaimed areas in the fringes of the Nile Valley [1]. Calcareous soils constitute one of the important areas for the first three zones and the most reclaimed areas of the fringes of the Nile Delta and Valley. Calcareous soils are relatively alkaline with high pH. The cause of high pH for these soils are very weak acidity of carbonic acid, presence of calcium carbonate in the parent material and may have a calcic horizon; a layer of secondary accumulation of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg). In Egypt, the soils of the Nile Valley and the Delta are non-calcareous (calcium carbonate does not exceed 3.1%), and lower values characterize the soils of eastern fringes where the parent material is sandy and is almost devoid of calcium carbonate. Soils of the western fringes are rich in calcium carbonate; they are derived from highly calcareous parent material [1]. The calcium carbonate content in the fringe zone of the Nile Valley is about 15–30%. It can consider as medium to high calcium carbonate content. In addition,

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beyond the fringes zone of the Nile Valley and Delta eastward and westward the calcium carbonate content is 30–80% and it is considered high calcium carbonate content [2]. The calcareous soils cover a considerable portion of agricultural desert lands in Egypt, particularly in the northwestern coastal zone and Sinai. The accumulation of carbonates in these soils is closely connected to soil genesis and formation. Undoubtedly, the high content of CaCO3 and its forms affect soil physical, chemical and nutritional properties and consequently reflected on cropping pattern and productivity [3]. This chapter contains different subheading on Egyptian calcareous soils as follows: Definition of calcareous soil, Types and distribution, the particle size distribution of carbonate, physical and chemical properties, mineralogy, fertility status and their management practices and using saline water in irrigation and soil management.

Definition of Calcareous Soil Calcareous soil is has high levels of both magnesium and calcium carbonate, but it has calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) in abundance that reduces acidity in the soil. These abundance of CaCO3 presences in dry environments where the carbonates can’t be leached from the soils. It also presence in the parent material and/or may have a calcic horizon. It defined as these soils containing amounts of calcium carbonate more than 15–17% total CaCO3 content or more than 5.4 and 7% active CaCO3 content in their relation to basic infiltration rate (BIR), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and the soil moisture constants; which in turn to affect distinctly the soil properties related to plant growth, whether they are physical, such as the land and water use for crop production, and crusting, or chemical such as the availability of plant nutrients [2, 4, 5]. Consequently, calcareous soils can be defined on the base of containing calcium carbonate that impacts on their physical and chemical properties related to plant growth. Moreover, such calcium carbonate is very important for reclamation and cultivation of calcareous soils. Considering the critical level of calcium carbonate, [6] studied the effect of the various amount of calcite mixtures with Maryut free CaCO3 clay on copper retention. He indicated that retained Cu percent increased progressively with increasing amounts of CaCO3 up to 6%, followed by slightly increase by increasing CaCO3 after this percent. Consequently, the efficiency of CaCO3 percent greatly reduced above 6–10%. Not only the CaCO3 content is considered as an important constituent of calcareous soil, but also its particle size distribution is very important as it reflects the influences of CaCO3 on the calcareous soil properties. Using 32 P, the reduction of 32 P uptakes by decreasing CaCO3 particle size particularly at 8.3% CaCO3 [7]. Therefore, the proportion of the active CaCO3 is an effective parameter. Calcareous soil can have a coarse to fine texture as well as differing levels of sand, silt or clay. A chemical reaction occurs effervescence form bubbles when the hydrochloric acid added to the calcareous soils because it gives off carbon dioxide.

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Table 1 Measures to identify calcareous classes [9]

Calcareous classes

CaCO3 equivalent (%)

N Non-calcareous

40

The size distribution of the carbonates and their mineralogy effects of the amount and expression of effervescence. Consequently there is a classification of effervescence and bubbles as follow No effervescent No bubbles form, Very slightly effervescent few bubbles form, Slightly effervescent numerous bubbles form, strongly effervescent a low Bubbles form and violently effervescent Bubbles quickly form thick foam [8]. Terms used to identify calcareous classes according to calcium carbonate equivalent express the carbonate contents of soils area (see Table 1) [9]. Degree of effervescence (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

N Non-effervescent no bubbles observed. V Very weak few bubbles. W Weak bubbles readily observed. M Moderate bubbles form low foam. S Strong bubbles form thick foam.

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soils in Egypt The main cultivated soils lie in the Nile Valley and Delta. Such alluvial soils are non-calcareous. The soils of the major agricultural projects located at the border the fringe zone of the Nile Valley and Delta are calcareous contain more than 10% calcium carbonate. Beyond the fringe zone of the Nile Valley, Delta eastward and westward; the calcium carbonate content in soil increase to a range of 30–80%. The higher of the CaCO3 content is the most significant constituent of the soils in the North Western Coast region. That is considered as one of the important regions for rainfed agriculture development. Also, the CaCO3 content is the most significant constituent of the soils in some areas of South and North Sinai and Western Desert where the major agriculture projects are located. The most types of calcareous soil of Egypt are in some areas of Wades in Eastern desert, North Western Coast region and the reclaimed areas of the Western fringes of Nile Delta. Application of the 7th approximation to the soils of the Western Coastal Littoral had been undertaken [10]. They reported that the main soils characterizing the major geomorphologic units were described. The soils of the area are characterized by their

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high CaCO3 content. Some of these soils show the presence of caliche horizons. The soils of the plateau are placed into the sub-group calcic Terriorthents, while those of the coastal plain as OoliticCalcipsamments. The soils of the frontal plain, however, are placed into the Aridisols-Haplargids. In addition, calcareous soils of the Northwestern Coast and the western fringes of Nile Delta were classified [11]. They classified such calcareous soils according to the subsurface diagnostic horizons, soil texture and depth of soil profile. On this basis, the important soil groups of calcareous soils in such areas can be presented as follows: 1.

Deep soils without diagnostic subsurface horizons (Entisols) 1.1.

Coarse-textured soils (Psamments) include: • Soils of coastal dunes. • Soils of sand plains.

1.2.

2.

Deep soils with diagnostic subsurface horizon (a) (b) (c)

3.

Loamy soils include: (a) Soils of coastal depression. (b) Uniform textured throughout. (c) Stratified textured throughout. (d) Loamy soils lacustrine intrusions. (e) Loamy soils enriched with indurated Siliceous Lime nodules.

Loamy soils with calcic horizon. Loamy soils with Gypsic horizon. Coarse to loamy textured soils with subsurface lime accumulation.

Shallow soils

The details properties of these different soil groups are as follows: 1.

Deep soils without diagnostic subsurface horizons (Entisols) 1.1.

Coarse textured soils (psamments) include (a) Soils of coastal dunes The profiles of these soils consist of Oolitic Sand that characterized by very high percent of CaCO3 constitute more than 90% of soil mineralogy. These sands exist as loose, single grains and in the form of coastal dunes along the sea up to about 10 m high with a steady slope in the sea direction and to the south, where there are coastal depressions with deep loamy soils. (b) Soil of sandy plains All of these soils group with affected by sand deposition which covers a narrow strip along the north coast and large areas in south “El-Almin and El-Daba” areas also, south of “El-Amria Maryut” area. This is apparent in the area lie at km 75 Alexandria-Cairo Desert Road (Nobaseed Agriculture Company once upon a time)

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where it is characterized with coarse texture ranges from sand to sandy loam to the depth ranges from 25 to 100 cm inside the profile. In general, this soil group is characterized by the following: • • • • • 1.2.

The leveling of Topography Surface There are no rock crops on the surface The soil profile is deep and without diagnostic horizon Soil texture ranges from sand to sandy loam CaCO3 percentage is ranged from 10 to 25%.

Loamy soils (a) Coastal depression soils The soils of this group located in the area between coastal sand dunes and Lagoonal depression and it is characterized by flat to slightly flocculate topography have a high content of CaCO3 . Soil depth affected by water table vibration. The general properties of the soil profile are as follow: • The deep soil profile and without diagnostic horizon. • Soil texture is coarse in dominated in the surface layers, and the subsoil layers are often loamy. • CaCO3 percentage varies between 30% and more than 60% according to its affected by the deposition of oolatic sand within the profile. • Some primary gypsum formations rise from the effect of Lagoonal conditions on the limestone parent material in the form of individual crystals either small or accumulated, especially in sub-surface layers. It is worth to mention that this soil group did not receive enough attention from the agriculture point of view on the contrary with the other groups because their soils are affected by the shallow water table level and high salt concentration. (b)

Uniform textured throughout the soil depth This type of soils is associated with the local depressions surrounded by earth barriers in both of Abo Mina basin in Mariout area and Burg El-Arab, in ancient times, these areas called Kroomlands. It is exploited in the Roman era for the product the best kinds of the vine and exported to Europe. It is worthy to mention that, this dike and barriers earth was constructed to direct more rainwater for rainwater to these depressions, but most of them completely neglected removed in 1965. In general, the properties of these soils can be summarized as follows: • The soil profile is very deep and without sub surface diagnostic horizons.

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• Soil profiles mostly homogeneous in the color, texture and CaCO3 percent. • Calcium carbonate represented about 35–40% of soil minerals. • Soil layers are low to medium consistency with good porosity. • The soil structure is massive in place and broken to medium sub angular blocky. (c)

Loamy soils stratified textured throughout soil depth These soils are spread in many areas where the topography situation allows deposition of the suspended parent material during rainy seasons; consequently, they occupy large areas in the coastal depression, Abu Mina basin and the delta of the Wadis. Most of the soil profiles are characterized by the following: • The soil profile is moderately deep to very deep and without sub surface diagnostic horizons. • Soil textures within soil profile layers differ from sandy loam to clay loam. • Soil profile is compacted and increased with depth. • Calcium carbonate percentage ranged between 35 and 55% and increased with depth in most cases. • The soil structure is massive and broken to medium or large angular and sub angular blocky. • Sometimes there are some layers rich in Oolitic sand that change the soil texture of these layers to loamy sand with increasing calcium carbonate percentage.

(d)

Loamy soils with lacustrine intrusions This group of soils is located in the south eastern part of Abu Mina basin and characterized by subsurface lacustrine deposits with greenish blue and mostly is rich with gypsum and the presence of loamy horizon in between surface horizon and lacustrine deposits horizon and it is rich with morphological formations rich in iron oxides. The general characterizes of profiles of these soil as follow: • The soil profile is very deep (more than 2 m). • Calcium carbonate percentage in root zone distribution ranges between 25 and 35%. • The lacustrine clay layer exists at depth from 30 to 90 cm. • The presence of gypsum veins through the profile layers, particularly the subsurface layer, and it’s percent significantly decrease in the surface layers.

(e)

Loamy soils enriched with indurated siliceous lime nodules This soils group is spread in high leveling areas in both of Abu Mina basin and Maryut plateau, and it has a sloping surface in both

58

M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

directions of north and north east. The soil profiles of this group characterized by the following: • The soil profile is deep and without subsurface diagnostic horizons. • Soil texture id almost loamy and ranged from sandy loam to clay loam. • Hardness increased with depth, and it varies depending on the soil texture. • Soil structure massive and sometimes weakness surfaces appear to show the surfaces of weakness distinguish to sub angular blocky with different degrees and sizes. • Calcium carbonate percentage is high and ranged between 25 and 50% without a specific horizon of lime accumulation, but there is a distinct indurated siliceous lime nodule. • In uncommon cases, it is possible to have a petrocalcic horizon in about 100 cm depth or more from the surface. 2.

Deep soils with diagnostic subsurface horizons 2.1.

Loamy soils with calcic horizon This group represented large areas of calcareous soils in north western coastal zones and the most important features of this group are the presence of calcic horizon in depth ranges between 25 and 70 cm from the surface. This horizon is characterized by the following: • Calcium carbonate percentage increased by a third of the surface layer and increased by 5% more than the next horizon. • The horizon is characterized by its bright white color, and the bounders between it and the upper horizons as clear boundary. • Calcium carbonate percentage is more than 40%. • Its thickness ranges between 30 and 50 cm. • The soft materials proportion increases from its upper horizons and soil texture are almost clay loam. Usually, this horizon is more hardness than the other horizons of the profile. • Usually, it contains soft limestone pockets. The general properties of this soils group are as follow: • • • •

2.2.

Soil profile depth is ranged from deep to very deep. Calcium carbonate percentage is ranged between 30 and 60%. The profile is hardness and its hardness increase by depth. Soil texture is sandy loam to clay loam or clay with depth.

Loamy soils with gypsic horizon This soils group is located in separate areas in El-Amrya–Mariout and El-Hamam area–Borg El Arab. These soils are formed under Lagoonal

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt

59

conditions where the salts rich in gypsum were deposited in some subsurface horizons. The gypsum exists in these soils at distance of 25–65 cm from the surface in one or more forms either as gypsum crystals interspersed through soil granules or as concentrated gypsum accumulation through some layers of the profile. This soil group is characterized as follow: • The soil profile is often deep to very deep with a Gypsic horizon under the surface. • The proportion of calcium carbonate through the soil profile ranges from 15 to 40%. • Soil texture is sandy loam to loam. • The subsurface layers enriched with gypsum are very hardness. 2.3.

Coarse to loamy soil texture with subsurface limestone accumulations The soils of this group spread in the east of Alexandria–Cairo desert— road and it is characterized by flat to slightly wavy with a general northward slope. Soil texture is sandy or loamy sand in the surface layer on the other hand, in sub surface layers is relatively finer textured. Also, there is sometimes an accumulation of calcium carbonate horizon. The general properties of the soil profile are as follows: • Soil profile depth is very deep more than 2 m, and there is not rocky or sub rocky layers. • Soil color is light brown on the surface and dark brown in the sub surface layers in most cases. • The average of calcium carbonate percentage ranged between 10 and 40%, and it is concentrated in lime accumulation horizon in the form of white concentrations with some remnants of the shells. • Soil structure is massive and sub angular blocky in the subsurface layers. • The hardness degree is increased with depth. • Sometimes there are some non-continuous gypsum formations in the form of crystals.

3.

Shallow soils The presence of these soils is associated with the rocky crops parallel to the Mediterranean coast as well as the sloping areas or medium slope areas between the coastal plains and the upper Libyan plateau. Most of these soils are not currently cultivated, but part of it is used as rangeland areas. The properties of these soils are as follow: • The depth to the rocky layer ranged between 50 and 60 cm or less. • The proportion of calcium carbonate reaches more than 50%. • Soil texture is sandy loam to clay loam. The profile is affected by some of the lacustrine deposits.

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M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

Table 2 Classification of the studied area [13] Order

Suborder

Great group

Sub-group

Mapping unit

Entisols

Psamments

Torripsamments

TypicTorripsamments

Soils of the coastal sand dunes Soils of the sandy plains

Orthents

Torriorthents

TypicTorriorthents

Soils of the coastal depression Deep uniform loamy soils Deep stratified loamy soils Deep loamy soils with lacustrine deposits Deep loamy soils enriched with siliceous lime nodules Deep coarse to loamy soils with some subsurface lime accumulation

Lithic torriorthents

Shallow loamy soils “3 phases”

Calciorthids

Typiccalciorthids

Deep loamy soils with calcic horizons

Gypsiorthids

Typicgypsiorthids

Deep loamy soils with gypsic horizons

Aridisols

Orthids

• The soil profile is hardness, and the hardness increased with depth. • In some parts, the soil profile enriches with different sizes of limestone blocks. • In some parts, the surface is covered with a thin layer of aeolian sand sheet, and rock outcrops appear others in the others. There are three types as follows: (a) (b) (c)

Shallow loamy soils. Shallow phase, stoniness and saline. Shallow phase, with lacustrine deposits.

Both (a) and (b) units are located in outcrops on the slopes parallel to the sea coast, and the third unit (c) is located on the top of the Libyan plateau. Table 2 includes a statement of the soil mentioned above groups according to the [12], started with sub group until order level.

Particle Size Distribution of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3 ) The dominant CaCO3 size in the soil differs according to soil texture. The particle size distribution of CaCO3 among the soil mechanical separates follows the textural class. In other words, when the texture is sand, CaCO3 dominates the sand fraction.

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt

61

Furthermore, [14] reported that CaCO3 is found to dominate the sand fraction where textural classes are sand and loamy sand. However, the loamy textured soil, CaCO3 dominates the silt fraction. The coarse-textured soils (sand and loamy sand) CaCO3 dominate the sand fraction, but it dominates the silt fraction in a loamy texture soil. The CaCO3 size in silt and clay is the active fraction and responsible on the effect on the specific properties of calcareous soil and its effect on plant growth, increasing CaCO3 percent from 4.5 to 8.3% caused a sharp significant decrease in sorghum dry matter, exception being the size of >0.2 mm where dry matter was not significantly affected with increasing CaCO3 content [15]. They added that dry matter production significantly decreased with decreasing the particle size of CaCO3 from >0.2 to 0.2– 0.04 of particularly at 8.3%, but the difference the finer fractions, i.e., 0.2–0.04 and Ca++ > Mg++ > K+ in the soils of the Wadies located at North Western Cost.

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt Table 3 Cation exchange capacity values (clay-free CaCO3 and clay including CaCO3 ) [26]

Soil clay

63 Clay-free CaCO3 (m.e./g clay)

Clay including CaCO3 (m.e./g clay)

Maryut clay

0.41

0.37

Ras El-Hekma clay

0.43

0.32

Sidi Barrani clay

0.49

0.42

Also, the soluble anions show a general distribution pattern following the order, Cl− > SO4 − > HCO3 − .

Cation Exchange Capacity Cation exchange capacity of the soils depended on the clay percent and the CaCO3 percent in the clay and ranged from 4.2 to 19.29 m.e./100 g soil. The cation exchange capacity values of separated CaCO3 free soil clay are greater than clay including CaCO3 as given in Table 3.

Soil Moisture Characteristics Availability of water to plants is affected by the presence of calcium carbonate during soil moisture retention. Soil moisture retention is highly due to weak surface forces and soil texture (clay + silt). The average available moisture differ according to textural classes and the value of sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, sand clay loam, and clay loam is 5.8, 7.95, 11.9, 16.33, and 24.1% respectively. About 50 and 75% of the available moisture is depleted at tensions of 1 and 5 atm, respectively [19].

Soil Crusting Soil surface crust is a marked property of calcareous soils, and the degree of its problems differs according to the textural class. Soil crusts are defined as hard layers formed on soil surfaces. Two groups of factors; these are internal factors (mechanical composition, type of clay and level of cementing agents) and external factors (irrigation, rainfall, temperature, management practices and fertilization) influence soil crusting capacity. Field observations indicated that natural crusts were quite distinctive from the soil underneath. It was massive and easily separable from the underlying soil due to the presence of relatively very thin coarse textured layer in between. Crust thickness, under field conditions, varied from about 0.2 to about 1.0 cm. Its thickness

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M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

seems to be influenced by agricultural practices particularly excessive irrigation and leveling of the soil surface. Table 4 shows that surface crusts are generally heavier in texture and higher in bulk densities than underlying soils. In Burg El Arab the textural class is of the surface crust is silty clay. Its clay and silt contents are higher than the loamy underplaying soil by 18.2% and 4.3% respectively. In Maryut loamy soil, the surface crust is clay in texture having clay and silt content higher than the underlying soil by 25% and 3.5%, respectively. There are different factors affecting soil crusting such as soil texture, CaCO3 distribution, bulk density, moisture content, rate drying, and others. There is a highly significant negative correlation between sand content and crust strength, while both silt and clay have a highly significant positive correlation with crust strength. Furthermore, both silt and clay significantly increased crust hardness. The hardest crust was associated by the presence of a large amount of particles less than 0.001 mm in diameter [27, 28]. The data showed that CaCO3 distribution in natural crust indicated that it dominates the fine fractions. He added that about 90% of the total CaCO3 in the natural crust is in the silt plus clay fractions, whereas they constitute about 75% of this grain size in the sub crusted soil [14]. It is also found that the total CaCO3 level is higher in the surface crust than the underlying soil by about 5%. Calcium carbonate present in the clay fraction is more effective than other fractions in increasing crust strength. This due to CaCO3 in clay size could be considered as a cementing agent, therefore, increase crust hardness. On the other hand, crust strength linearly increased by increasing bulk density. As mentioned before the bulk density of the crust is greater than the bulk density of the underlying soil. Soil moisture is very important for crust hardness. During the formation, moisture acts somewhat like a lubricant, therefore, allows soil particles to slide over one another. The result is a decline in the ability of soil aggregates to withstand and, in turn, plug soil pores by the sliding particles forming undesirable surface. Consequently, soil moisture affects crust strength either at time of formation and/or at time of rupture. Crust strength was inversely related to crust moisture content at the time of rupture. Consequently, the soil surface layer must be kept at high moisture levels. Slow drying favored the formation of the hardest crust while Table 4 Particle size distribution, CaCO3 content, bulk density and textural class of the investigated natural crusts and the soils underneath [24] Location

Burg El-Arab

Maryut

Sample

B.D (g/cm3 )

Total carbonate (%)

Particle size distribution (%) Coarse sand Fine sand

Silt

Clay

Texture class

Surface crust

1.62

44.1

0.2

14.5

40.6

44.7

Silty clay

Soil underneath

1.38

38.3

1.6

35.6

36.3

26.5

Loam

Surface crust

1.67

35.6

0.3

14.20

36.4

50.9

Clay

Soil underneath

1.40

31.5

2.1

39.10

32.9

25.9

Loam

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt

65

faster drying did not. Calcium ion sharply increased crust hardness by increasing its concentration while sodium and potassium ions significantly decreased crust strength by increasing their concentration. The impact of soil crust on soil properties can be summarized in prevent germination of seeds and retards root growth, results in poor infiltration and accelerates surface runoff, creates poor aeration in the Rhizosphere and affects nodule formation in leguminous crops. However, Seedling emergence was found to be inversely related to crust strength as well as crust moisture content.

Mineral Composition of Calcareous Soils The mineral compositions of calcareous vary according to the particles size. The mineralogy of the sand fraction classified into light and heavy minerals. The mineral composition of the fine sand of Burg El-Arab and El-Hamam soils using the petrographic microscope and showed that the light fraction was dominated by sand mostly calcium carbonate form, while quartz was present in rare amounts [9]. The heavy mineral composition was dominated by iron ores, amphiboles, pyroxnes, and epidotes followed by rutile and saussurite. On the other hand, the light fraction is generally dominated by quartz which constitutes 93–96.7%. Other associated minerals are feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase and microcline) which are detected with less pronounced amounts. Opaque minerals are the most common heavy minerals. The non-opaque’s are mainly dominated by parabolas (pyroxene and amphiboles), followed by ultra-stable minerals (zircon, rutile and tourmaline) and par metamorphic minerals (garnet, sturolite, kyanite and silimanite), while the rest of minerals are detected in less pronounced amounts. The data of the frequency distribution of resistant minerals and weathering ratios leads to the conclusion that the calcareous soils are heterogeneous either due to their multi-origin or due to multi-depositional regimes [17]. Concerning carbonate minerals, X-ray had been carried out to determine crystalline soil carbonate minerals of some calcareous soils North and South Sinai, [3]. The soil samples used were characterized by total soil carbonates varies widely from 2.98 to 50.21% and 32.49 to 59.85% in El-Arish and Ras Sudr soils, respectively. The carbonate mineralogy revealed the dominance of calcite, ankerite and monohydro calcite in both soils with the slight occurrence of other eleven crystalline carbonate minerals, of which gaudefroyite was identified in both soils forming about 4–6% of carbonate minerals. Several investigators studied mineralogical identification of the clay fraction separated from the calcareous soils. The predominance of palygorskite is in some of the soils in the western desert and proposed that the mineral had formed from calcareous argillaceous material in a saline lagoon [4]. X-ray diffraction and chemical analysis showed that clay minerals of Burg El Arab and El-Hamam areas are dominated by palygorskite and hydrous mica and other associated minerals in small amounts, as kaolinite, quartz and feldspars [9]. They added that montmorillonite exists only in the lagoons. Palygorskite is a major component of the clay fraction in caliche crusts in the

66

M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

coastal plain of north-western Egypt and considered that the palygorskite had formed authigenically in that environment [29]. The flocculated fraction of calcareous soil is suspensions after ultrasonic treatment for mineralogical study [30]. They showed that X-ray diffraction traces of the clay kaolinite > smectite. Minor amounts of quartz, feldspars and interstratified minerals (smectite-illite and illite-chlorite) are noticed. Titration curves of two clay samples separated from calcareous soil of Maryut and Burg El-Arab areas [30]. They compared the titration curves of separated clay with those obtained for some pure clay mineral. They found that the titration curves of those separated clay resemble those of palygorskite clay mineral.

Soil Fertility Status Calcareous soils tend to be low in organic matter that contrasts on the reduction of soil fertility status and nutrient availability. The presence of CaCO3 and high pH level results in unavailability of phosphate and affects directly or indirectly, availability of other nutrients. Concerning micronutrients, the data of [31] for El-Nobariya area selected to represent the Western Desert and Wadi Sannur area representing the Eastern Desert indicate that soils are characterized by the highest content of total and DTPA-extractable Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu, while the lowest content are found in Wadi Sannur soils. Also, soil texture and CaCO3 are the most important factors that correlate with the total and available content of such elements. Furthermore, statistical measures revealed the role of parent material and soil forming processes in affecting trace elements distribution [32]. The values of chemically available nutrients extracted according to [33, 34] for available N and available P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu, respectively. The chemically available forms of such nutrients of the surface soil layers of different mapping units for some representative Wadis at Northwestern Coast are given in Table 5, to shed light on their status of availability. The values of available nitrogen of all mapping units indicate that this level of nitrogen concentration is insufficient for applying the crops requirements during the growing season. Therefore, applying nitrogen fertilizers with appropriate rates based on crop type is essential for the cultivated crops. The chemically available phosphorus ranked in low and moderate categories. Generally, phosphate fertilization is important either to supply the growing crops with their phosphorus requirements or to correct soil crusting problems. Chemically available potassium values differ from Wadi to another. In Ramla and El-Afrit Wadis the values are adequate for all soil mapping units, however, in either Wadi Maged

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt

67

Table 5 Chemically available macro and micro nutrients of mapping unit for some Wadis at northwestern coast region after [24, 25] Macro and micro Mapping unit nutrients (mg/kg) Deep moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils, or moderately coarse over finer soils

Moderately deep moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils

Shallow moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils

Very shallow moderately coarse—textured soils

(45.9–70.2)

(46.1–60.4)

(50.3–72.3)

(a) Ramla Wadi N

(49.1–84.9)

P

(3.10–11.88)

(4.28–8.81)

(4.61–8.36)

(4.52–6.32)

K

(162.0–594.8)

(228.1–400.8)

(157.8–296.3)

(250–305.3)

Fe

(3.45–9.41)

(3.07–12.15)

(4.45–11.57)

(4.23–8.33)

Mn

(1.43–6.4)

(2.25–11.4)

(1.78–12.6)

(1.59–3.74)

Zn

(0.27–4.28)

(1.55–2.64)

(>0.9)

(0.65–0.91)

Cu

0.35–1.98

0.56–2.16

0.46–1.14

0.49–0.74

Macro and micro nutrients (mg/kg)

Mapping unit Deep moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils

Moderately deep coarse Shallow moderately to coarse—textured coarse to soils coarse—textured soils

N

34.5–85.6

23.4–76

31.4–80.4

P

0.75–8.75

0.78–3.88

0.95–8.75

K

51.2–161.1

73.9–190.8

76.2–194

Fe

3.56–7.46

3.27–9.27

2.92–6.41

Mn

2.336–6.794

1.75–5.16

1.652–5.281

Zn

1.085–2.416

1.034–3.410

0.927–2.505

Cu

0.963–0.563

0.575–1.726

0.128–0.794

Macro and micro nutrients (mg/kg)

Mapping unit Deep moderately coarse—to coarse—textured soils

Moderately deep moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils

Shallow moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils, sometimes with finer-textured layers

N

41.3–63.0

42.7–71.2

27.8–68.8

P

0.91–11.78

1.11–8.32

0.85–12.1

K

72.8–155.3

60.2–147.9

83.6–166.9

Fe

4.59–7.76

2.72–6.37

1.69–5.33

(b) Maged Wadi

(c) Abu Emera Wadi

(continued)

68

M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

Table 5 (continued) Macro and micro nutrients (mg/kg)

Mapping unit Deep moderately coarse—to coarse—textured soils

Moderately deep moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils

Shallow moderately coarse to coarse—textured soils, sometimes with finer-textured layers

Mn

1.88–3.49

1.11–2.89

1.62–3.95

Zn

1.177–1.92

0.90–1.54

0.55–1.2

Cu

0.69–1.79

0.55–0.84

0.3–0.6

Macro and micro nutrients (mg/kg)

Mapping unit Deep coarse—texture soil

Shallow and very shallow coarse to moderately coarse—texture soil

(d) El-Afrit Wadi N P K

34.1 5.88 165.5

51.6 2.45 131.4

Fe

4.772

2.925

Mn

3.129

2.018

Zn

1.419

0.427

Cu

0.294

0.094

or Wadi Abu Emera of all mapping units the values ranked in three categories low, marginal and adequate. Concerning micronutrients availability, the value of chemically available Fe is ranked in low, marginal and adequate categories according to the soil mapping units, for instance in case of Ramla Wadi the values are ranked in low and adequate categories in two mapping units and lie in marginal and adequate categories in the other two units. More or less the same trend was obtained in the other Wadis. The categories of chemically available Mn varied from Wadi to another and in the same Wadi varied according to mapping units. Generally, the values of chemically available Mn ranked in marginal and adequate categories. The values of chemically available Zn ranked in the marginal category in most cases. Chemically available Cu ranked in the marginal and adequate categories in all mapping units except El-Afrit Wadi where the values either in low or marginal categories in both mapping units. Regardless of mapping units of some Wadis at Northwestern Coast, Table 6 shows that in ElShebite Wadi the values of available N and K ranked in low category and Pin low and moderate categories. Micronutrients, except Zn, ranked in marginal and adequate categories, however, Zn ranked in low and adequate categories. In Herga Wadi the level of nutrients differ compared to their level in El-Shebite Wadi, N ranked in low and high categories, P is in low, K in low and marginal, Fe and Zn in low, Mn in adequate and Cu in marginal categories. This variation in nutrients level may be due

Types and Distribution of Calcareous Soil in Egypt

69

Table 6 Chemically available macro and micro nutrients regardless of mapping units for some Wadis at northwestern coast region after [24] Wadi name

Macro and micro Nutrients (mg/kg) N

P

K

Fe

Mn

Zn

Cu

El-Shebite

45.4

(1.30–5)

46.40

>3

>0.5

(0.2–2.5)

0.3–2.7

Herega

(40–80)

smectite. The presence of CaCO3 and high pH level results in unavailability of phosphate and affects directly or indirectly, availability of other nutrients. The values of available nitrogen indicated that its level is insufficient, the reverse is true for K. The chemically available phosphorus ranked in low and moderate categories. However, the chemically available micronutrients ranked in different categories according to the agriculture system, soil texture, the period of cultivation and the management practices. In most cases, the crops grown on calcareous soils suffer from Fe and Zn deficiency and in some times Cu. In contrast, the level of available Mn is more than adequate category in all cases. But the integrated application of these nutrients and macronutrients is essential to achieve the balance between them for achieving the optimum crop yield. The problems of use and management of calcareous mainly include their water relation, low organic matter content, the formation of surface crusting and low levels of some available nutrients such as N, P and some micronutrients as a result of their high CaCO3 that caused high pH levels. As we have focused in this chapter on the integration practices of calcareous soil between soil and water management for different crops. Also, using suitable measure for seedbed preparation and selecting the appropriate irrigation schedule as well as the balanced fertilizers application for achieving the optimum yield. In rainfed agriculture conservation agriculture should be put under consideration. Under good and low water quality, application of isolated practice has an advantage on crop yield, but applying integrated management practices is necessary and vital to achieving the optimum quantity and quality of the crop yield.

Conclusion In Egypt, calcareous soil is covering a considerable portion of the new reclaimed areas. It differs in their morphological feature, texture and calcium carbonate percent either total or active. Some of these soils show the presence of caliche horizons. Generally, calcareous soils classified according to the subsurface diagnostic horizons,

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M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

soil texture and depth of soil profile. On this basis, the important soil groups include; (i) deep soils without diagnostic subsurface horizons, that classified into coarse and loamy textured soils, (ii) deep soils with diagnostic subsurface horizon that classified according to soil texture and the type of diagnostic subsurface horizon either calcic horizon or gypsic horizon and subsurface lime accumulation and (iii) shallow soils. Concerning the physical and chemical properties of Egyptian calcareous soil, the soil texture varies between sandy to clay loam. The total CaCO3 percent range between 10 and >83% and active CaCO3 percent range between 15 cm thick has a CaCO3 equivalent of >150 g kg−1 , and has at least 50 g kg−1 more CaCO3 equivalent than the underlying C horizon

Caliche

A zone or layer near the surface, more or less cemented by secondary carbonates of Ca or Mg precipitated from the soil solution. It may occur as a soft thin soil horizon, as a hard thick bed, or as a surface layer exposed by erosion

Manure

The excreta of animals, with or without an admixture of bedding or litter, fresh or at various stages of further decomposition or composting

EDTA

Ethylene diamine tetra acetate

IWUE

Irrigation water use efficiency is the ratio between irrigation water utilized by growing crops and water diverted from a source (as a stream) in order to supply such irrigation water

Water use efficiency (WUE)

Dry matter or harvested portion of crop produced per unit of water consumed

Conservation tillage

Any tillage sequence, the object of which is to reduce loss of soil and water; operationally, a tillage or tillage and planting combination that leaves a 30% or greater cover of crop residue on the surface

Conventional tillage

Primary and secondary tillage operations normally performed in preparing a seedbed and/or cultivating for a given crop grown in a given geographical area, usually resulting in Co > Cd. This series of contaminants was expressed in the soil content of metals that accompanied the same series of wastewater irrigation. Both flax and kenaf are powerful phytoremediators in which heavy metals accumulate more than shooting tissues in measurable contents, especially within their roots. In

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R. K. I. Badawy and Y. I. E. Aboulsoud

Table 5 FTIR wavenumbers for raw and metal loaded algal biomasses [73] Algal form

Wavenumber (cm−1 ) C–N–S

C–O alcoholic

S=O

Carboxylic group C–O

C=O

NH

OH

Gelidium latifolium Raw Al3+

474

1114

1284

1411

1635

3417

3645

loaded

459

1076

1280

1384

1637

3421

3971

Fe3+ loaded

462

1076

1253

1384

1639

3417

3969

Zn2+ loaded

472

1072

1280

1384

1639

3421

3973

Raw

470

1114

1280

1404

1631

3414

3749

Al3+ loaded

459

1114

1280

1384

1627

3421

3749

Fe3+

loaded

478

1114

1261

1384

1627

3414

3749

Zn2+ loaded

474

1114

1280

1384

1627

3421

3749

Ulva lactuca

Colpomenia sinuosa Raw

532

1114

1280

1411

1631

3444

3749

Al3+ loaded

578

1114

1280

1384

1635

3421

3961

Fe3+ loaded

597

1114

1203

1384

1635

3444

3961

Zn2+

567

1114

1280

1384

1635

3421

3946

loaded

the case of Cr, Co and Cd, kenaf proved to be a more effective phytoremediator than flax, while flax only proved more effective in the case of Mn. Phytoremediation efficiency for the double season followed the order of Cr > Mn > Co > Cd [74]. Treatment of wastewater before irrigation may help to protect soil from further contamonation. Dried biomasses of Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) and Azolla pinnata were examined for the removal of metal ions from Bahr El-Baqar drain wastewater. The removal percentage for Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, V and Zn reached 94.76, 96.66, 90.40, 95.26, 75.51, 86.51, 47.98, 89.10, 93.44 and 88.63%, respectively using Azolla pinnata biomass. The removal percentage in case of neem leaves reached 93.60, 98.06, 89.27, 90.95, 60.47, 79.61, 68.91, 36.70, 86.88, 72.03% and 59.76, respectively. However, it was highly advised that neem leaves biomass be used in water treatment due to the release of Mn from Azolla pinnata biomass during the water treatment process [75].

Discussion Cadmium, lead, aluminium and chromium Cr(VI) have no biological function and induce various noxious effects inside the environment especially plants. These metals have negative morphological, physiological and biochemical effects in plant tissue

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and represent a serious health risks to human. The continued use of them in many industrial processes has increased its concentration to toxic levels in all environmental compartments especially the desert areas adjacent the new industrial areas. The fate and the behavior of heavy metals in soil is affected by its form, solubility, mobility, and bioavailability and is controlled by many parameters, such as pH, EC, CaCO3 , organic matter, clay and silt contents and etc. Newly urban areas contain many natural plants having biological, medical and economic importance to the human societies. There are many sources of pollution in Egyptian desert areas including cement factories, oil refineries companies, fertilizer, mines, brick kilns, lime factories, quarries, which make a negatively effect on plant communities and natural vegetation. Improved phytoextraction may be the main element for enhancing phytoremediation application, though growing crop accumulation rates can optimise the removal of pollutants. Algal biomasses are natural, low-cost, reusable and eco-friendly tools showed promising results in remediation of contaminated water from heavy metals. Algal biomass biosorption of heavy metals accompanied by their removal from algal cell walls has many benefits, such as enhancing the quality of water supply, reducing environmental pollution, recycling the extracted metals, reusing algal biomass and secure the final getting rid of the algal biomass after exhaustion, as metals will not released again into the environment after the decomposition of died algal biomass [73].

Conclusions The authors highlight the following conclusions: • Heavy metals have a significant effect on the aquatic flora and fauna which through bio-magnification enters the food chain and consequently produces significan negative impact on the human beings as well. • High availability of heavy metals in soil resulted in some abnormalities of plants anatomical structure. • The exposure of human to certain heavy metals concentrations leads to several diseases and may cause the death. • Screening of some heavy metals pollution in many locations in Egypt (Suez Gulf, Sahl El-Hessania, Abou-Zabal, Helwan, Tushka, 10th of Ramadan, Borg El-Arab, Bahr El-Baqar and El-Menufia) showed that Egyptian environment, plants and soils in particular, suffers from pollution with cadmium, lead, aluminum and chromium at different levels that affects all living biota. • Phytoextraction and biosorption are very efficient remediation techniques able to sequester heavy metals from soil and water bodies.

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Recommendations Based on the above, the authors could provide the following recommendations: Regulation and minimization of pollutants by controlling them in their source is a must to avoid the destructive environmental impact. Spot the light on applying the low cost, eco-friendly and efficient plant materials in the bioremediation and biosorption of heavy metals aiming to reduce their hazards on human health.

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Development and Sustainability of Soil Resources in Egypt’s Deserts

Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion Hazards in Egypt Mohamed M. Wassif and Omnia M. Wassif

Abstract Egypt is divided into three rainfall belts some regions are subjected to both soil erosion types and others are subjected to only wind erosion. The hazards of soil erosion take a variety of forms. In the Northwestern Coast Region (NWCR), few effective events are characterized by high rainfall intensity causing excessive runoff and soil loss. The annual runoff and soil loss were related to the number of them. Runoff also occurred when individual rainfall storm exceeds 10 mm/h. There are different indicators for rainfall erosivity differed in their significance. Concerning soil erodibility indicator for water erosion, there are different classes for it depend on the region. The power function is the best fitted relationship between soil erodibility indicator and estimated soil loss by USLE model. In NWCR, measured soil loss varied according to slope percent and increased with increasing the slope steepness, at the same rainfall erosivity. The enrichment ratios for some nutrients and clay fraction and organic matter were greater than 1. USLE model is the best for the assessment of annual soil loss and used as indicator of soil erosion by water under NWCR. Both climatic factor and soil erodibility indicated that about 80% of the studied areas suffer from wind erosion. Estimated soil loss characterized to three classes low, moderate and severe. These variations are dependent upon the land use. RWEQ could be used to estimate wind erosion rate under NWCZ conditions. Laboratory studies using Rainfall simulator and wind tunnel were used to study some parameters such as slope percent and threshold wind velocity affecting on water and wind erosion respectively. The strategies for soil erosion control mainly depend on different applications which consider some of the principles of sustainable soil management. Such as tillage to a depth of 30 cm with broadcast planting and perpendicular tillage across the slope was efficient for reducing the amount of soil loss. Combined application of organic matter with perpendicular tillage increased the reduction rate of soil loss by different percentage according to rate of organic manure. In addition, using contour tillage for consolidated soil reduced soil loss as a result of water erosion by 73.7, and 51.7%, as compared to the bare soil, and tillage of consolidated soil in up and down slopes, and consequently reduces its carrying capacity. The combination of two or three management measures for controlling soil M. M. Wassif (B) · O. M. Wassif Soil Conservation at Desert Research Center (DRC), P.O. Box: 11753, Mataria, Egypt © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_7

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erosion decreased the magnitude of soil loss likewise the yield of crops increased. From the economical point of view these measures could be used. Keywords Water erosion · Wind erosion · Tillage erosion · Erodibility · Erosivity · Erosion control · Erosion modeling · Flash flood · Erosion hazards

Abbreviations and Some Basic Definition (Buzz Words) Buzz word WEQ RWEQ

USLE Erodibility Runoff Arable land Clod Aggregate Accelerated erosion Detachment

Enrichment ratio (ER) Erosion potential (EI) Erosivity NAPCD

Quick explanation Wind erosion equation—an equation for predicting the average annual soil loss due to wind Revised wind erosion equation it predicts mass transport of soil by wind based on weather factor (WF), erodible fraction of the soil (EF), soil crust factor (SCF), soil roughness factor (K ), and combined crop factors (COG) Universal soil loss equation—an equation for predicting the average annual soil loss by water The degree or intensity of a soil’s state or condition of, or susceptibility to, being erodible That portion of precipitation on an area that does not infiltrate without entering the soil is called surface runoff Land so located that production of cultivated crops is economical and practical A compact, coherent mass of soil varying in size, usually produced by plowing, digging, etc. A group of primary soil particles that cohere to each other more strongly than to other surrounding particles Erosion in excess of natural rates, usually as a result of anthropogenic activities The removal of transportable fragments of soil material from a soil mass by an eroding agent, usually falling raindrops, running water, or wind; through detachment, soil particles or aggregates are made ready for transport The ratio of a compound’s concentration in the eroded soil to the non-eroded soil A numerical value expressing the inherent erodibility of a soil or maximum potential erosion The measured or predicted ability of water, wind, runoff, or any other erosion agent to cause erosion National Action Program to combat desertification

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Introduction Egypt can be considered African/Asian/Mediterranean country, most of its area (94%) occupies the northeastern corner of Africa and 6% is the Sinai Peninsula which is part of Asia. Egypt has been distinguished into four Agro-ecological zones on basis of climate in combination with physiographic, natural resources, agriculture and other factors affecting the socio-economic activities. These zones include; North Costal zone (NCZ); including North-Western Coastal Region (NWCR) and North Costal Area of Sinai (NCAS), The Nile Valley Zone (NVZ); encompassing the fertile alluvial land of Middle and Upper Egypt, the Delta and the reclaimed areas in the fringes of the Nile Valley and Delta, the Inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert Zone (ISEDZ) with their elevated southern areas, and the Western Desert Zone (WDZ); including oases and southern remote areas (East Uweinat, Tushka and Darb El-Arbian areas [1, 2]. Egypt lies in the arid, Mediterranean arid and hyper-arid regions, where the problems of soil erosion are considered a real threat for the development activities and environmental quality in the arable land of the country. Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water, the removal of soil by wind or water erosion or both, is one of the most damaging effects of three agro ecological zones (WDZ, ISEDZ, and NCZ) due to the distribution of rainfall in the country. Soil erosion is the major problem of the sustainable use and management of the soil in these zones. In addition, Soil erosion is an important part of the desertification process and considered as a key factor in the irreversibility of land degradation. At times, the problem of soil erosion has become so severe that it has contributed to, if not caused, the decline of great Roman civilizations in the North Western Coast Region [3–6]. In Egypt, Population numbers have increased substantially and with this increase have come much more pressure on the land to produce food and fiber. Such increment has led to an increasing use of coastal and desert areas of high soil erosion risk for grazing, agriculture, and urban and industrial development. All these activities accelerate soil erosion. In these areas soil erosion is one of the worst environmental and human disasters [7]. One of the main objectives of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation strategy is promoting sustainable use and management of natural agricultural resources. Soil is one of these resources and is formed several thousand years ago; particularly, soil is considering nonrenewable resource. To achieve sustainable approach, policies must be designed to mitigate the problems faced the sustainable use and management of soil resources. Sustainability and sustainable agriculture have many different definitions and meaning. In a farming context, a sustainable system for farming systems can produce adequate quantities of food and fiber at a profit without environmental degradation for a long time or indefinitely. In contrast, the farming systems will not be sustainable [8]. The work on soil erosion was started in eighties of the previous century in some regions of Egypt. The occurrence of soil erosion is function of weather events interacting with some soil properties and the past and recent practices of land management

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through their effect on soil structure and tilth, as well as type and intensity of vegetative cover. The damage of water and/or wind erosion come from when rainfall intensity and/or wind speed increase greater than certain threshold intensity of rainfall or wind velocity. Human interference with the natural environment is the main reason of accelerated soil erosion [9]. This chapter presents general lights on erosion types and processes. Egyptian regions subjected to soil erosion as well as focuses on the activities of soil. It carried out in Egypt include indicators, drivers, water and wind erosion modules applied. In addition, it is include rate of soil erosion and management practices with emphasizing on the sustainable for controlling soil erosion for mitigating soil erosion hazards.

General Knowledge on Soil Erosion Several textbooks, compilations and publications have been widely discussed soil erosion considered its types, processes, principles and factors affecting on it, such as. In brief, the following presents some knowledge about soil erosion. There are two main types of erosion, geologic erosion and accelerated erosion.

Geologic Erosion Erosion or Normal Erosion or Natural Erosion is a normal process of weathering that generally occurs at low rates in all soils as part of the natural soil-forming processes. It has always taken place and always will. The surface of the earth is constantly changing under the force of nature and erosion is one aspect of this constant process of change. It is the starting point for the formation of sedimentary rocks and alluvial soils. Geologic erosion occurs over long geologic time horizons results only from the force of nature and its rate depends on climate, topography, geologic and other physical parameters. Hence, it varies greatly across the world as well as it is not influenced by human activity.

Accelerated Erosion The accelerated erosion is when erosion process influenced by man and its rate is exceeds a certain threshold level and becomes rapid. The accelerated erosion is effect on soil by physical force by wind or water which has become vulnerable, usually because of man interference with the natural environment. For this reason, soil erosion can be considered as a symptom of bad land use and management. Then, accelerated erosion can be reviewed as manmade erosion this type of erosion is causes human activities such as overgrazing, mismanagement (intensive plowing,

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up and down cultivation on sloping land, slash the plant residue during harvesting, deforestation, and biomass burning). Soil erosion is the physical loss from an area by water or wind or tillage, and the improper land use and/or management can be accelerated dramatically of soil loss rate. In other words, human activities can exceed erosion rates many times than natural rates. Soil erosion has a three-phases (detachment–transportation–deposition) the first phase is detachment of individual particles from the soil mass then it is transported, second phase, by erosive agents such as running water and wind. Third phase occurs when sufficient energy is no longer available to transport the particles then the particles deposit. Soil erosion classified to three types water erosion, wind erosion and tillage erosion. These occur because the main agents for soil erosion are water, wind and tillage. The causes and factors affecting on it are frequently similar and the principles of their control are mostly the same. The Causes of soil erosion can be summarized in over grazing and over cultivation; removal of natural vegetation; misuse of soil and water resources; deforestation and firewood. The major factors affecting soil erosion are climate, soil properties, topography, and vegetation and management practices such as continuous plowing to the same depth leads to the development of a plough pan which reduces infiltration capacity and consequently higher runoff and erosion. The kinds of damage caused by erosion either by water or wind appears as pictures in the newspapers, although some remain invisible. Erosion of topsoil has been the single largest threats a soil’s productivity and consequently, to farm profitability.It is worth to mention that the focus of this chapter is on accelerated soil erosion.

Water Erosion Water erosion is removal of soil from one part to another usually downhill, by the action of water. The dislodged of soil particles in the form of runoff occurs when the raindrops falling on bare soil and breaks down the structure of the surface soil and detaches particles. Then, the water moves off down the slope when the soil has a slope in the form of runoff when the soil can’t absorb the water. Runoff alone cannot remove soil from the land surface unless soil particles are suspended in the runoff water. Soil erosion by water has been classified into five classes [10, 11]. a.

Splash erosion

When raindrops strike the ground surface without plant cover, the soil particles become loose and splashed due to its impact force. Momentary buildups of the pressure gradients towards the edge of the slope disintegrate the soil and shoot some particles out. The amount of damage done by falling raindrops is proportional to their kinetic energy that influenced by rain drop mass and velocity, the soil properties (such as roughness), moisture content, particle size, and sloping degree. b.

Sheet erosion

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It is the removal of more or less uniform layers of soil. It caused by raindrop splash and the flow of sheets of water over entire surface. Sheet erosion may appear to be a slow process because only a few millimeters of soil are removed annually, but relative to total soil removed (Mg ha−1 ) and geographical extent, it is the most serious form of erosion. More particles will naturally be washed from a bare soil than from a bare soil than from those protected by vegetative. One of the worst aspects of sheet erosion is its insidiousness. c.

Rill Erosion

It is erosion occurring along shallow channels that can be obliterated by normal cultivation. The soil eroded from upland areas from these small channels, called rills, and from inter-rill between them. It is common in newly-tilled land, on steep slops and both detachment and transport of soil occur along the rills due to concentrated flow of runoff water. d.

Gully erosion

It is erosion occurring in channels too large to by tillage. Here rills become so deep that the ground cannot be smoothed out by ordinary tillage tools. Gullies act as major lines of transport out of a catchment for sheet erosion, rill-eroded and gully-eroded soil—a high velocity flash flood may do this. e.

Stream or Stream bank erosion

It is erosion of soil from banks by water in permanently flowing streams. Stream erosion is not triggered directly by rainfall, but is increased by higher rainfall. It is often increased by the removal of vegetation, overgrazing or tillage near the banks. The major factors affecting water erosion are precipitation, vegetative cover, topography, and soil properties as well as the type of management practices carried out by man in any specific area. Precipitation includes amount, intensity and duration. Important topographic factories are slope (degree and length) and soil shapes. Soil properties include permeability, texture and structure. Surface vegetative cover improves soil’s resistance to erosion by stabilizing soil structure, increasing soil organic matter, and promoting activity of soil macro- and micro-organisms. The effectiveness of vegetative cover depends on plant species, density, age, and root and foliage patterns. Two main agents affecting soil erosion by water are: erosivity of both rainfall and runoff. Rainfall erosivity refers to the intrinsic capacity of rainfall to cause soil erosion Properties affecting rainfall erosivity are: amount, intensity, terminal velocity, drop size, and drop size distribution. However, runoff erosivity known as overland flow or surface flow is the portion of water from rain, snowmelt, and irrigation that runs off the field and often reaches downstream water courses or bodies such as streams, rivers, and lakes. Similar to the rainfall erosivity, runoff erosivity is the ability of runoff to cause soil erosion. Raindrops impacting soil surface loosen up, detach, and splash soil particles, while runoff carries and detaches soil particles. Interaction among rainfall, runoff, and soil particles results in erosion. Generally, the rainfall erosivity has more erosive power than, runoff erosivity [12].

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Wind Erosion Wind erosion is removal soil surface by wind. It contributes of soil degradation and it is seriously threatens any area of low, variable precipitation, where drought is frequent. It is accelerated wherever temperature and evaporation are high or in arid and semi-arid regions. It will be strong when the soil surface is relatively smooth, absent of vegetative cover. Wind erosivity refers to the capacity of wind to cause soil erosion. Wind in interaction with precipitation and air temperature is the driving force of wind erosion. Wind is dynamic and composed by eddies that change rapidly in intensity and direction. The wind erosion process is similar to the water erosion process. It can describe as the wind takes up soil particles from one place (detachment) and transported from the loose soil surface by lift, rolled or bounced along the ground to another place (deposition). These actions depend on wind velocity and protection or unprotecting of soil surface. When the wind velocity is increased and the soil surface unprotected the results of this action lead to more erodible and less productive soil. It is worth to mention that wind erosion is the result of a combination of many factors associated with climate, soil, land surface, and management conditions. Some of these factors are as follows [13]; Soil clodness: soil clods are form by tillage. Its stability depends on soil moisture, organic matter, compaction, clay content, lime and microbial activity. The benefit of soil clods is preventing from wind erosion because they are large enough to resist the forces of the wind and because they shelter other erodible materials. When the soils have 20–30% clay content and silt ranging from 0.005 to 0.01 mm in size are more resist to erosion and breakdown. In the contrast, the soils have coarse texture (sandy loam, loamy sands and sands) are most susceptible to erosion. Soil erodibility is proportion of soil aggregate that are more than 0.84 mm in diameter. It is affected by the size and bulk density of clods and the proportion of clods. Soil erodibility changes dynamically on a spatial and temporal basis due to tillage and residue management, cropping systems and their interaction with climate [14]. • Surface roughness: It is formed by tillage which its effect of wind speed by absorbing and deflecting part of the wind energy away and it can considered as a trap for salting particles in erodible soil. Optimum roughness for wind erosion is 5–10 cm. • Soil moisture: There is an inverse relationship between soil moisture and wind erosion. For example, air-dry soil erodes about one and third times more than soil with moisture at the approximate wilting point for plants. • Field length: Erosive wind vary highly in direction and seldom follow field boundaries. The distance across the field along the direction of the prevailing wind must be used. Also, if any barrier is present on the windward side of the field, the distance it fully shelters from the wind must be subtracted from the total distance across the field along the prevailing direction.

170

M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

• Vegetative cover: the most important factor effect on wind erosion. Good vegetation cover on the land is the most permanent and effective way to control wind erosion. It protects the soil surface from wind erosion by reducing wind speed and by preventing much of the direct wind force from reaching to erodible soil particles and it considered as trap of soil particles. Which, Protection depends on the quantity and size of residue and how the residue is oriented in relation to prevailing wind direction. The finer residue more reduce wind erosion which meaning the size of residue is control of wind erosion rates. For example, wheat stubble is more effective than sorghum or corn stubble. The higher the residue stands above ground, the more it slows the wind speed and lowers the rate of erosion.

Soil Erosion in Egypt Soil erosion either water or wind or tillage is one of the main factors of soil degradation in most of the agro-ecological zones of Egypt. Since it impoverishes the place of origin of erosion and pollutes the environment outside of that place in most of the agro-ecological zones. Despite the soil erosion damaged the Roman civilization in different Egyptian regions such as North Western Coast and Kharga Oasis in the western desert, and the growing realization of its problems to present; their related studies have begun since the last thirty five years. Such studies include determining soil erosion indicators of regional variations in soil erosion. It is potential to pinpoint areas of high risk such as soil erodibility, erosivity of rainfall or wind and determining the loss of organic matter and nutrients by water or wind erosion. In addition, measuring soil loss as a result of water or wind erosion under field conditions and estimating soil erosion rate using the appropriate models. In addition laboratory studies using wind tunnel or rainfall simulator were carried out to evaluate the threshold of wind velocity, and to evaluate some rainfall and topography characteristics as well as some soil properties. Soil erosion by tillage or tillage erosion is also a critical cause of soil erosion in sloping landscapes. Recently tillage erosion considers one of the drivers of land degradation. Consequently, tillage erosion put under consideration in the Egyptian studies in the field of soil erosion and evaluated under sloping agriculture.

Distribution of Soil Erosion in Egypt According to aridity index calculated by Penman’s formula and FAO classification [15], three climatic provinces in Egypt are distinguished to Hyper-arid (1 in most selected areas. This means that about 80% of the studied areas have highly erosive climatic factor. Soil erodibility, as wind erosion indicator, have determined in different sites on basis of the percentage of non- erodible soil fraction (aggregate > 0.84 mm in diameter) where 19, 11 and 40 samples were collected form bare soils in NWCZ, ISEDZ and WDZ, respectively. The soils under study varied in their texture, organic matter content and calcium carbonate percentage. These studies showed that soil erodibility indicator of the studied soils ranged from 0.00 to 560 t/ha/year (Table 4). The studies have dealt using various wind erosion models for estimating soil loss and develop appropriate measures for wind erosion control. As to the soil loss in NWC and Shalatin—Halaib district, it was found that wind erosion rate using Wind Erosion Equation (WEQ) reached 27.75 and 19.35 t/ha/year in Sidi Barrani and Matruh area, respectively. In case of oases of western desert the estimated wind erosion rate ranged between 10 and 105 t/ha/year. It is clear that these values exceed the tolerable limits. The studies classified the wind erosion rate in the area on the

Site

CaCo3 (%)

Negm El-Din Zafer, Barrani

Abo-Marzouk, Barrani

El-Halzein, Barrani

Abou-Lahu North

Abo-Lahu South

El-Qasr, Matrouh 18.5

Fuka

El-Dabaah(1)

El-Dabaah(2)

Sidi Abd El-Rhaman (1)

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

30.8

19.6

8.9

21.8

30.7

20.5

25.7

30.5

35.9

28.5

El-Azizia, Barrani

2

55.9

El-Salum

1

A. North Western Coast Region

Sample No.

65.9

15.7

33.4

23

15.1

14

3.5

2.5

8.3

12.2

17.8

29.9

C.Sand

5.9

13.5

13.9

8.3

17.2

13.2

20.8

17.9

47.1

49

43.2

46.1

F.Sand

5.9

14

14

8.3

17

13

21

18

22

18

21

7.8

Silt

Particles size distribution (%)

3.2

11.6

20.2

18.9

18.2

37.5

14.2

21.7

23

21

17.8

16.2

Clay

S

SL

SCL

SL

SL

SC

SL

SCL

SCL

SCL

SL

SL

Texture class*

Table 4 Some properties of the surface layer and erodibility index for the investigated soils [47]

0.15

0.3

0.25

0.42

0.2

0.79

0.38

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.07

Organic matter (%)

7.8

25.5

35.5

22.3

30.3

59.5

27.8

40.7

49.4

41

27.1

21.5

335

185

142

206

166

47

175

122

89

122

180

206

(continued)

Non-erodible fraction Soil erodibility > 0.84 mm (%) index (t ha−1 year−1 )

Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion … 185

Sidi Abd El-Rhaman (3)

El-Omayed

El-Hammam (1)

El-Hammam (2)

Burg El-Arab (1) 16.8

Burg El-Arab (2) 25.9

14

15

16

17

18

19

Gelebana

Balouza

Bir El-Abed

Wadi El-Arish (1)

20

21

22

23

13.5

20.4

0.8

1.8

B. Sinai and Eastern Desert Regions

8.2

42.8

48.9

29.9

3.4

Sidi Abd El-Rhaman (2)

13

CaCo3 (%)

Site

Sample No.

Table 4 (continued)

65

45.9

59.5

64.2

15.4

25.4

20.9

63.3

50.5

73.9

55.4

C.Sand

24.8

43.9

38.8

34.2

15.6

10.8

31.8

3.8

10.9

4.7

8.4

F.Sand

6

5.9

1.4

1.3

14

11

32

3.8

11

4.7

8.4

Silt

Particles size distribution (%)

4.2

4.3

0.3

0.3

18.5

23.3

28.3

11.7

18.2

15.5

13.7

Clay

S

S

S

S

SL

SCL

CL

LS

SL

SL

SL

Texture class*

0.15

0.2

0.02

0.05

0.25

0.3

0.28

0.17

0.1

0.2

0.33

Organic matter (%)

8.5

8.9

7.4

9.8

31.5

37.9

69.7

17.6

28.5

19.9

20.6

315

378

356

300

162

134

27

236

170

220

213

(continued)

Non-erodible fraction Soil erodibility > 0.84 mm (%) index (t ha−1 year−1 )

186 M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

El-Sheikh Zouaid

El-Maghara

Ras Sudr

New Meet Abo El-Koom

Shalatin (1)

Shalatin (2)

Wadi El-Natroun 5.9

North El-Tahrer

Wadi El-Rayan (1)

Wadi El-Rayan (2)

Siwa (1)

Siwa (2)

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

15.9

6.1

12.5

0.3

0.1

0.5

0.3

4.5

47.8

13.6

1.5

23.5

Wadi El-Arish (2)

24

CaCo3 (%)

Site

Sample No.

Table 4 (continued)

35.5

49.8

50.4

78.5

61.1

5.6

49.5

78.4

71.5

8.5

15.9

13.9

35

C.Sand

45.7

45.9

29.9

21.2

18.1

12.4

30.4

20.3

16.6

68.7

67.9

81.9

32.9

F.Sand

10

3.9

17

0.2

12

18

14

1

6.9

16

7.4

2.9

14

Silt

Particles size distribution (%)

8.9

0.4

2.8

0.2

5.4

3.9

6.2

0.3

5

7

8.8

1.3

18.6

Clay

LS

S

LS

S

LS

LS

LS

S

S

LS

LS

S

SL

Texture class*

0.1

0.05

0.15

0.01

0.09

0.33

0.3

0.1

0.4

0.47

0.07

0.12

0.1

Organic matter (%)

18.8

7.3

12.8

3

13.7

15.9

18.6

7.8

8.7

14.5

11.5

2.8

22.9

228

150

278

378

270

254

228

335

313

262

285

493

200

(continued)

Non-erodible fraction Soil erodibility > 0.84 mm (%) index (t ha−1 year−1 )

Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion … 187

El-Dahariya Oasis

El-Loaa Sobah (1)

El-Loaa Sobah (2)

El- Nadin (1)

El- Nadin (2)

Qarween Plain (1)

Qarween Plain (2)

El-Kefah (1)

El-Kefah (2)

Well 4 El-Farafra 77

Abo Monkar

West El-Mawhoub

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

9.4

10.8

19.4

22.5

4.9

7.8

7.5

36.4

37.7

34.7

3.1

30.5

Siwa (3)

37

CaCo3 (%)

Site

Sample No.

Table 4 (continued)

1.3

24.1

7.5

48.2

25.1

79.5

74.4

87.1

1.1

2.9

28.8

40.3

45.7

C.Sand

4.9

26.3

27.8

25

19.6

15.5

18.2

8

1.8

7

38.2

46.2

38.7

F.Sand

13

25

38

25

32

2.8

5.9

2

31

33

7.8

7

8.9

Silt

Particles size distribution (%)

80.4

24.2

32.5

2.1

33.6

2.2

1.5

2

66.6

57.3

25.5

6.5

6.7

Clay

C

SCL

CL

LS

CL

S

S

S

C

C

SCL

LS

LS

Texture class*

1.28

1.74

0.18

0.16

1.2

0.19

0.13

0.15

1.02

0.44

0.38

0.12

0.3

Organic matter (%)

99.7

45.2

68

11

79

7.2

1.5

6.9

95.2

99.5

39.5

12.3

11.5

0

108

11

292

5

356

560

356

0

0

126

278

285

(continued)

Non-erodible fraction Soil erodibility > 0.84 mm (%) index (t ha−1 year−1 )

188 M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

Site

Ezbe El-Mwhoub

Ezbe El-Qasr (Mat.)

Ezbe El-Godayida (Mat.)

El-Nashawnoy (Mat)

Ain-Hamada (Balal)

El-Shosh (Balal)

El- Zayat Plain

El-Kharga (1)

El-Kharga (2)

Germashen (1) (Paris)

Germashen (2) (Paris)

Sample No.

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

Table 4 (continued)

4.1

5.8

5.8

8

1.4

7.2

8

2.5

6.7

7.2

5.2

CaCo3 (%)

57.2

22.2

41.9

33.9

21.9

29.5

40.8

25.7

46.2

10.9

11.9

C.Sand

11.5

55.8

13.8

25.2

29

33.9

20.3

26.3

25.2

30.1

15.5

F.Sand

12

5.9

22

21

26

17

18

10

11

22

40

Silt

Particles size distribution (%)

19

16.1

22.6

10

23.3

20

21.3

38

17.9

28

29.4

Clay

SL

SL

SCL

SL

SCL

SL

SCL

SC

SL

SCL

CL

Texture class*

0.14

0.52

0.82

0.09

0.29

0.87

0.06

1.25

2.65

1.86

1.91

Organic matter (%)

29.3

20.8

53.7

32.6

46.3

30.3

45

58.2

35.9

55.4

79.1

170

213

65

154

104

166

108

52

146

61

5

(continued)

Non-erodible fraction Soil erodibility > 0.84 mm (%) index (t ha−1 year−1 )

Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion … 189

Ain-Lebnes (Paris)

Ain-Gammal (Paris)

El-Qasr (Paris)

El-Max (Paris)

Darb El-Arbien

Nasser lake area

East El-Oweinat (1)

East El-Oweinat (2)

East El-Oweinat (3)

East El-Oweinat (4)

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

5.4

7

2

0.5

2.8

7.2

7.2

3.6

8.2

8.3

CaCo3 (%)

52.5

43.5

66.8

57.5

53.7

47

41

33

88.2

29.7

C.Sand

32.9

37.3

27.3

36.5

38.9

17.2

8.5

20.8

10.2

16.6

F.Sand

9.4

6.7

4.2

4.5

4.7

14

5.3

10

6.1

3.3

Silt

Particles size distribution (%)

5.2

12.5

1.7

1.5

2.7

21.8

45.2

18.2

15.5

48.4

Clay

LS

SL

S

S

S

SCL

SC

SL

SL

SC

Texture class*

0.07

0.07

0.09

0.09

0.05

0.15

0.17

0.58

0.38

0.38

Organic matter (%)

11.8

20.4

5.9

2.8

1.9

37.5

65.7

28

22.1

63.6

285

220

378

493

560

138

35

175

206

39

Non-erodible fraction Soil erodibility > 0.84 mm (%) index (t ha−1 year−1 )

*Texture class: S sand, LS loamy sand, SL Sandy loam, SCL sandy clay loam, SC sandy clay, CL clay loam and C clay

Site

Sample No.

Table 4 (continued)

190 M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion …

191

Fig. 14 Estimated and measured transport mass from Foka site [51]

bases of the amount of soil loss estimated by WEQ, to three categories severe (21.57 to 309.39 t/ha/year) in 47% of the area, moderate (10.14–19.62 t/ha/year) in 21% from the area and low (0.1–9.87 t/ha/year) in 32% of the area. However, the average annual wind erosion rate using WEQ reached 100 t/ha. In Fuka villages the estimated wind erosion rate ranged between 5.2 and 71.3 t/ha/year dependent upon the land use. In Fig. 14 showed statistical coefficient of determination was r2 = 0.93, RWEQ will work in Egypt. Therefore, both WEQ and RWEQ could be used to estimate wind erosion rate under NWCR. The results in [52] were collect materials from 52 events in NWCZ. The samples were collected by use big spring number Eight (BSNE) traps to verify RWEQ for control wind erosion. The samples were analyzed to determine the transport mass over three years period for fields at Fuka and Abu Lahu NWCZ. In such sites data on weather, soil roughness, rock, cover and vegetative cover were collected to provide input to the revised wind erosion equation (RWEQ). In case of Shalatin—Halaib district, the potential of soil erosion by wind was estimated, when the equivalent vegetation cover is zero, using basic form of wind erosion equation according to [47], E4 = f(I C K L), where f is the function relationship; I is the soil erodibility, t/ha/year; C is an index of climatic factor, Erosivity, dimensionless; K is the surface roughs factor, dimensionless; L is the unsheltered travel distance (m) along the prevailing wind direction. The soil loss ratio (SLR) was calculated according to the relationship from the equation SLR = 1.81e−0.072 (SC %) where SC is the average percent of soil cover. Then the annual potential of wind erosion (E5 ) was determined using the equation of E5 = E4 .SLR. The annual potential of wind erosion varied from 145 t/ha/year at Wadi Shallal to 358 t/ha/year at Wadi Safera. The average potential of wind erosion rates for wadis of El-Shalatin and Halaib areas reached 278 and 204 t ha−1 year−1 , respectively. Consequently, the average potential of wind erosion for Shalatin-Halaib district is 241 t/ha/year. Evidently, the differences in soil erodibility, climatic erosivity factor and soil surface conditions between the wadis of both locations are probably the prime cause for the

192

M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

large differences in the annual potential of wind erosion. The basic potential rate of wind erosion for different Wadis in such area could be arranged in the following descending orders follows 358 > 316 > 260 > 241 > 236 > 226 > 224 > 218 > 184 > 145 > t/ha/year for Wadis Saera, Ain Abo Saafa, Ibib, Sermatai, Hodin, Ikowan, Audaib, Shaab, Kraft, and Shallal, respectively. It is clear that the average potential rate of wind erosion exceeds the tolerable levels and very severs, according to [49]. Therefore, this area is very susceptible to wind erosion due to the fact that most wind erosion damage comes from relatively few severe events. DRC’s wind tunnel was used to determine the threshold wind velocity using twelve soil samples varied in their texture. The soil samples were collected along El Nasr and El Hammam extension canals, from kilometer 75 Alexandria—Cairo desert road until El-Dabaa area, Northwestern Coast. The threshold wind velocity reached between 5.42 and 6.6 m s−1 . The relation between threshold velocity and either soil clay content or CaCO3 content was evaluated using different best-fit models, i.e. logarithmic, linear, power, and exponential. Insignificant correlation coefficients were obtained between threshold velocity and CaCO3 , however, highly significant correlation coefficients between soil clay and threshold velocity were obtained (r ranged between 0.75 and 0.79), [39] showed that the values of threshold velocity ranged between 6.1 and 6.6 m/s and varied according to the particle size distribution of the soil. Moreover, the increment of the percentage of particles moving by saltation facilitates the soil drift and decrease the threshold velocity. The increase of percentage of particles that perform transportation by creep or by suspension increases both the resistance to soil erosion by wind and threshold velocity. In this respect, the obtained experimental results of soil loss using DRC’s wind tunnel, during time period of 10 min. for different wind speeds are plotted in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15 Regression analysis for soil loss experimental data of Sidi Barrani soil [39]

Sustainable Soil Management to Mitigate Soil Erosion …

193

Linear, polynomial and power regression analyses were run on these data. This figure shows that all regression curves are in agreement with the measured points, for wind speed values higher than the threshold velocity. The power expression curve is the only one that describes most perfectly the process of soil erosion even in the range of wind speeds lower than that the threshold velocity. At high values of wind speeds (V > 11 m s−1 ), all curves lose their correspondences to the experimental data points, and the linear expression seems to provide better fit through these points. Consequently, the proper description of the soil loss-wind speed relation consists of two curve segments: a power curve followed by a straight line at a high wind speeds. Accordingly, there is a critical speed at which transition from the power portion of the curve to the linear segment occurs. Certainly, the transition indicates the occurrence of change in the mechanism by which the sand is transported. Therefore, these results could be described, with good precision, by two segments curve. The lower segment is a power expression, while the upper one is a linear. The plotting of this relation in Simi-log form changes the curve into a continuous shape enables the direct determination of the threshold velocity. To measure wind erosion rates, (BSNE) traps were used. These traps were installed in WDZ (El-Khaga, El-Dakhala and Elfrafara Oasis); NCZ (Sidi Barani, Abu Lahu, El-Qasr, Fuka and El-Sheik Zowied) and In land Sanai (ElMaghara,Ras Sudr). In case of the Oases in Western desert, obtained results showed that the average rate reached 5.5 t/ha/year indicated that the wind erosion rate is of moderate class. Meanwhile the rate of deposition by wind varied from 4.5 to 66.9 t ha−1 year−1 , concerning NWCR the soil loss at El-Qasr, Fuka and Sidi Barrani reached 9.0, 11.5 and 17.3 t ha−1 year−1 for bare soil respectively. In the Wadis of NWCR the annual soil loss reached 4.71, 5.03, 17.99 and 17.27 t ha−1 for Wadis Hashem, Habs, Herqoa and El-Shebaty. Nevertheless under North Sinai conditions, the quantity of airborne materials reached 3.2 ton/100 m width at El-Sheik Zoweid over 193 days. However in case of inland Sinai the quantity of eroded material reached 86.2 ton/100 m width over 193 days at El-Maghara area and 30.7 ton/100 m width over 83 days at Ras Sudr area. One of the major hazards of wind erosion is the selectiveness of the erosion process which transport fine particles (silt, clay, and soil organic matter) and their content of plant nutrient. The ER of fine particles < 100 µm, soil organic matter, total nitrogen, available potassium reached 2.2, 1.96, 2.38, 4.0 and 1.7 respectively. Also, the annual loss of organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphor and available potassium reached 12.3, 18.0, 0.01 and 29.5 kg/ha, respectively. At Wadi Safera, Shalatin area, the ERs of organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium of bare soil reached 1.27, 1.16, 1.38, and 1.15, respectively. Therefore windblown materials had ERs greater than 1. This may lead to soil degradation and decrease its productivity over a period of several years. For example in South Sinai, the quantity of eroded material by wind erosion had an enrichment ratio greater than 1 for organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium. Therefore, for the long period of years the cumulating loss of such components will tend to degrade the soil. Water and wind erosion has been considered the only drivers of total soil erosion in Egypt. Both erosion types occur in NCZ, however, other agro-ecological zones

194

M. M. Wassif and O. M. Wassif

suffer only from wind erosion. Comparing between erosion rate and deposition rate by wind in the areas which both rates were determined, Comparison between the rate of soil erosion by water and wind as well as the rate of deposition by wind in some cultivated areas is evaluated, Table 5. It is clear that the water erosion rate is affected by slope percentage and the its rate increase by increasing slope percentage and in some times water erosion is more pronounced as compared to wind erosion, but in low slope percentage wind erosion rate is greater than water erosion rate in NWCR. It is clear that the rate of depositions greater than 2.7, 8.1, 2.03, 10.0, 2.29, 1.96 2.45 times for Paris, Balat, Mut (oases of western desert), El-Sallum (NWCR), El-Maghara, South El-Quantra Sharg and Delta Wadi El-Arish (Sinai peninsula), respectively. In contrast, erosion rate is greater than deposition rate by 2.09 times in El-Kharga oasis.

Tillage Erosion in Egypt Various definitions for tillage erosion are given by different researchers [53–57]. Tillage erosion is the redistribution or gradual translocation as the movement of soil or displacement downhill or down slope by mechanical implements of tillage. Recently, in sloping cultivated soils tillage erosion has become an important component of total soil erosion and has been considered one of the drivers of land degradation. In Egypt, very little studies were carried out on tillage erosion. Landstorm [55] studied the effect of some factors on net soil displacement and the associated tillage erosion rates for chisel tillage of a loamy sand soil under two soil conditions; consolidated soil with stubble vegetation (primary pass) and freshly tilled, loosened soil (secondary pass) under NWCR. They showed that up and down slope tillage operations are far more erosive than contour tillage operations, consequently, the applied of contour tillage operations reduced the value of tillage transport coefficient k by 30% at least as compared to up and down slope tillage operations, where the tillage transport coefficient ‘k’ (kg m−1 per tillage operation) reached 256, 454, 105, and 179 for consolidated soil up and down slope tillage, loosened soil up and down slope tillage, consolidated soil contour tillage, and loosened soil contour tillage, respectively. The effect of chisel tillage systems on soil displacement depends largely on the direction of tillage. Moreover, tillage erosion was 3 times more erosive when tillage is done on a freshly tilled, loose soil than on a soil under stubble vegetation. Therefore, tillage operations should be conducted only on a soil under stubble vegetation to reduce tillage erosion rate. Slope gradient is also most important of tillage erosivity factor. In addition, the model of [54] can use for predating mean displacement distance of the tracers in the direction of tillage under the prevailing conditions in the NWCR of Egypt. It can be occluded that tillage erosion rates are much greater for loosened soil than for consolidated soil. At the same time, tillage erosion rates are much greater for up and down slope tillage than for contour tillage.

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Table 5 Soil erosion rate by water and wind in some agro-ecological zones of Egypt [49] Cultivated area (km2 )

Wind erosion rate (t ha−1 year−1 )

1. El-Maghara

–

13.2

2. El-Tina Plain

226

15.1

Area

water erosion rate (t ha−1 year−1 )

A. Sinai

3. South El-QantraSharq 3. Romana

16.7 28

15.4

4. Bir El-Abd

26

12.8

5. El-ShiekhZeioud

288.42

8.9

6. Rafah

10.7

7. Delta Wadi El-Arish

275.24

11.22

8. West El-Arish

139.64

11.4

9. RasSuder

38.29

15.2

10. South Sinai

6

13.4

11. East Bitter Lakes

80

13.7

B. Northwestern Coast Zone 1. El-Hammam

198.7

2. El-Alaalman

34.05

10.62 22.4

3. SidiAbd El-Rahman

62

11.29

4. El-Dabaa

112.71

30.7

8.1 (6% slope)

5. Fuka

40

11.5

10.2 (3% slope) and 16.8 (6% slope)

6. Borg El-Arab

93.91

25.2

7. Ras El-Hekma

60

23.81

8.6 (3% slope)

8. East Mtrouh

31.52

10.6

10.5 (5% slope)

9. Matrouh

215.9

9.0

11.95 (3% slope) and 39.3 (10% slope)

10. El-Negla

42

8.22

11. Sidi-Barani

47.62

17.3

13.1 (3% slope) and 25.7 (6% slope)

12. El-Sallum

18.62

36.1

8.2 (5% slope)

12. Siwa

76

16.01

C. New Valley Oases, Western Desert 1. Paris

32.14

11.10

2. El-Kharga

126.82

9.2

3. Balat

46.66

6.3

4. Moat

20.89

8.4 (continued)

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Table 5 (continued) Area

Cultivated area (km2 )

Wind erosion rate (t ha−1 year−1 )

5. El-Dakhla

124.32

10.4

6. El-Farafra

198.96

13.36

7. El-Baharia

32

12.6

8. South El-Baharia

80

13.26

9. Qarween Plain

40

73.17

–

240.8

water erosion rate (t ha−1 year−1 )

D. Eastern Desert Shalatin-Halaib District

Measures of Soil Erosion Control in Egypt There are several criteria indicate a soil that functions effectively today and will continue to produce crops long into the future. Not only soil erosion either by water or wind is key factor in the irreversibility of land degradation but also it is considered a real threat for agriculture sustainability, the development activities and environmental quality in the areas previously mentioned. The hazards of soil erosion takes a variety of forms including; removal of fertile topsoil (Fig. 16), textural change, nutrients losses, destruction of growing crops, water pollution, reduced productivity, increased atmospheric dust, reduced visibility, blocking of roads and railways lines as well as problems of human and livestock health, etc. In other words soil erosion is an

Fig. 16 Water erosion cause loss of fertile surface soil [49]

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important part for soil and productivity, where topsoil is the capital reserve of every farm. The relationship between soil loss by water erosion and soil productivity is given in Fig. 8. It is clear that the values of correlation coefficients between barley yield and soil loss by water erosion was significantly negative. Protecting soil from erosion is the first step toward a sustainable agriculture. The strategies for soil erosion control base on some of the sustainable soil management principles which include application of organic matter, soil covering, and appropriate tillage operation. The studies concerned with water erosion control and sustainable soil management practices under field conditions included different measures such as application of organic matter, soil mulching, and tillage operations. When these measures were applied, the results obtained revealed that runoff and soil loss decreased by varying percentage according to the type, level and method of application compared to without application under the same conditions. In case of applying organic manure at levels 4 and 8 ton/acre the surface runoff decreased by 53 and 63.5% and soil loss decreased by 35.5 and 44.72% relative to bare soil. Also applying 0.2 and 0.3 L/m2 of bituminous emulsion reduced surface runoff by 50.5 and 54.7% and soil loss by 39.63 and 49.59% compared to bare soil. Soil coverage with gravels, as available resources in the desert areas, was also practiced throughout two seasons, the application levels were 5, 10 and 20%. The results indicated that soil loss via water erosion decreased by 40.1, 54.2, and 66.0 for the first season and by 44.7, 56.8, and 68.9% for the second season, respectively, as compared to without gravel cover. Mulching by wheat straw of 0.5 and 1.0 ton/acre reduced soil loss by 76.0 and 84.85% as compared to without soil mulching. The work on water erosion control has also been considered the impact of tillage operations on soil loss. In brief the obtained results showed that tillage to a depth of 30 cm with broadcast planting decreased soil loss via water erosion by 18.15, 35.7, 26.5, 49.3, 40.8 and 56.3% as compared to tillage to 30 cm with row planting, tillage to 15 cm with rows planting, tillage to 15 cm with broadcast planting, minimum tillage with rows planting minimum tillage with broadcast planting and bare soil respectively. In addition tillage direction was tested in three successive years, perpendicular tillage across the slope was efficient for reducing soil loss, (Fig. 17),where the values decreased by 22, 25.8 and 23% relative to parallel tillage and decreased by 25.1, 33.7 and 28.9% as compared to bare soil for first, second and third winter seasons, respectively. Combined application of organic manure with perpendicular tillage increased the reduction rate of soil loss by different percentage according to rate of organic manure. In addition, using contour tillage for consolidated soil reduced soil loss as a result of water erosion by 73.7, and 51.7%, as compared to the bare soil, and tillage of consolidated soil in up and down slopes. Using contour tillage for loosened soil also, reduced soil loss due to water erosion by 52.6% as compared to tillage of loosened soil in up and down slopes. With regard to wind erosion control, number of soil management practices were applied, some of them applied individually and others in combination. It was evident that the annual soil loss rate by wind erosion of the different sites along the NWCR,

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Fig. 17 Planting furrows follow contour guide and across the slope can reduce soil loss by water erosion from sloping agriculture [49]

exceeds the tolerable level under rainfed agriculture (>10 t/ha/year). The WEQ equation was used to assess the appropriate field length for controlling wind erosion. Where field length (L) = 100 m, it was evident that the annual soil loss rate by wind erosion of the different sites along the NWCR. It predicts a mean reduction of 80% in wind erosion rate if field is shortened to about 20 m (an adequate distance to operate with the current farming machinery), through using strip cropping that alternating narrow strips of cereal crops with fallow, could also be a viable technique to reduce L. Perpendicular tillage to the erosive wind direction reduced soil loss as a result of wind erosion by 39.09% as compared to parallel tillage with the erosive wind direction, In addition, strip cropping (wheat and broad bean) reduced wind erosion rate by 38.63%, as well as addition a sufficient amount of crop residues (such as rice straw V = 2700 kg ha−1 ) could provide a good soil protection. Combined management practices could be applied to reduce wind erosion hazards. For example, Application of conservation agriculture included reduced tillage either zero or minimum with 50% soil covering by rice straw and addition 10 m3 of farmyard manure led to reduce the potential wind erosion to tolerable level(1 in most selected areas. Moreover, the values remained very high in NWCR (>1.5), [41]. Because of the climate in this region is arid Mediterranean that characterized by low precipitation and high temperature and evaporation rate during the year. In this respect, Ref. [47] indicated that the differences in climatic erosivity indicator among areas of Egypt are substantially dependent on wind velocity, temperature and rainfall. In addition, Ref. [50] showed that the bare soils in NWCR were susceptible to slight to severe wind erosion risk, depending on the active wind erosivity and properties of the field surface. This means that about 80% of the whole areas of Egypt have highly erosive climatic factor. Concerning threshold wind velocity, wind tunnel studies showed that the value ranged between 5.42 and 6.6 m s−1 . This variation may be due to the particle size distribution of the soil. Moreover, the increment of the percentage of particles moving by saltation facilitates the soil drift and decrease the threshold velocity. Soil erodibility indicator for wind erosion of the studied soils ranged from 0.00 to 560 t ha−1 year−1 , the average value of NWCR reached 195 t/ha/year The soils under study varied in their texture, organic matter content and calcium carbonate percentage. In this respect, [47] illustrated that soils contain less than 3% organic

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matter content were considered erodible. In addition on the lowest soil erodibility values are observed in the soils have >55% clay. The studies classified the wind erosion rate in NWCR, estimated by WEQ, to three categories severe (21.57–309.39 t ha−1 year−1 ) in 47% of the area, moderate (10.14 to 19.62 t/ha/year) in 21% from the area and low (0.1 to 9.87 t/ha/year) in 32% of the area. However, the annual wind erosion rate using WEQ reached 100 t ha. In Fuka village the estimated wind erosion rate ranged between 5.2 and 71.3 t ha−1 year−1 dependent upon the land use. Using RWEQ to estimate transport mass the values reached 285.9 and 649.8 kg/m-width at Abu Lahu and Fuka, respectively. Consequently, Egypt could divided into three categories regarding wind erosion hazards; slight such as El-Qasr area (6.4 t h−1 year−1 ), moderate, >10 to 20 t/ha/year such as the east and west of NWCR. In case of Shalatin—Halaib district, the potential of soil erosion by wind was estimated, and the values varied from 358 t/ha/year at Wadi Safera to 145 t/ha/year at Wadi Shallal. The average potential of wind erosion for Shalatin-Halaib district is 241 t ha−1 year−1 . Evidently, the differences in soil erodibility, climatic erosivity factor and soil surface conditions between the wadis are probably the prime cause for the large differences in the annual potential of wind erosion. It is clear that the average potential rate of wind erosion exceeds the tolerable levels and very severs, according to [52]. Therefore, this area is very susceptible to wind erosion. Amounts of soil loss by wind erosion were measured by Big Spring Number Eight (BSNE) traps as described by [52]. The obtained amounts were 5.5, 9.0, 11.5, 17.3, 4.7, 5.03, 17,99, 17.27, and from 145 to 358 t/ha/year for oases in WD, EL-Qasr, Fuka, Sidi-Barani, Wadis of Hashem, Habs, Herqoa and El-Shebaty.in NCWR, and Shalatin-Halaib district, respectively. Evidently, the differences in soil erodibility, climatic erosivity factor and soil surface conditions between such areas are probably the prime cause for the large differences in the annual potential of wind erosion. It is worth to mention that the estimated amounts of soil loss by WEQ or RWEQ and measured amounts of soil loss have highly significant correlations. Therefore both equations can be used under Egyptian conditions. One of the major hazards of wind erosion is the selectiveness of the erosion process which transport fine particles (silt, clay, and soil organic matter) and their content of plant nutrients. The enrichment ratio of these components is greater than 1. Therefore, the cumulating loss of such components will tend to degrade the soil over a period of several years. On the other hand the concentration of these components in deposited material is lower than that of eroded material because of the ordinary source of deposited material are sand dunes or sand sheet which are poor in fine particles, organic matter and plant nutrients. Comparison between the rate of soil erosion by water and wind, in NWCR, dependent on the slope percentage of the land, If the slope percentage is about 10% the soil loss of water erosion is greater than that of wind erosion, however, decreasing slope percentage, soil loss by wind erosion is more pronounced. With regard to tillage erosion, up and down slope tillage operations are far more erosive than contour tillage operations, consequently, the applied of contour tillage

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operations reduced the value of tillage transport coefficient k by 30% at least as compared to up and down slope tillage operations. It is clear that up and down slope tillage operations are far more erosive than contour tillage operations;, this reduction may be contour tillage creates obstruction to water flow over the land, slowing down the runoff velocity, and consequently reduce its carrying capacity. Consequently the effect of chisel tillage systems on soil displacement depends largely on the direction of tillage. In addition a combination of control measures are most effective such as application conservation agriculture system that mainly include minimum or no tillage, to conserves plant residue and reduces pulverization, and soil mulching to protect soil surface with organic matter application and planting in the rows perpendicular to the erosive wind direction may be more effective than either measure alone. One of the bases of sustainable farming system is improve profitability, for ensuring the sustainability of the above mentioned measures, economic analyses was calculated and illustrated that the used measures increase the benefit at farming level for different crops (wheat, pearl millet, fodder bean, alfalfa, watermelon, tomato, corn and broad bean).Therefore, from the economical point of view these measures are profitable and easy to use.

Conclusions Water and, wind erosion have been considered the only drivers of soil erosion but recently tillage erosion is a serious soil erosion process in sloping cultivated soils in Egypt. Soil erosion affects the properties, productivity, and constraints of the soils and ecosystems in the country. Soil erosion either water or wind or tillage is one of the main factors of soil degradation and impoverishes the place of origin of erosion and pollutes the environment outside of that place in most of the agro-ecological zones. Some regions are subjected to both soil erosion types (NCZ) and others are subjected to only wind erosion as a result of Egyptian rainfall belts. The drivers of soil erosion include overgrazing, removal of natural vegetation, shortage of water as a result of intensive cultivation, and mismanagement practices such as cultivation up and down the slope. The annual runoff water and soil loss due to water erosion in NWCR were found to be related to the number of effective events (>10 mm). √ I30 ARo indicator can be used as an indicator for rainfall erosivity. Moreover, the largest and lowest estimated soil loss values, 5.5 and 0.51 t ha−1 year−1 (moderate to low water erosion category) is in aligned with the values of soil erodibility, 0.31 and 0.05. The amount of soil loss and runoff values increased by increasing simulated rainfall intensity, rain drop diameter and increasing both percentage and length of slope. However, runoff values increased and soil loss decreased by increasing clay content.

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Measured amounts of soil loss by water erosion, using bounded runoff plots, in some areas of NWCR, ranged from 1.23 to 39.3 t ha−1 year−1 depending on slope percentage. The selectivity of water erosion appear in the enrichment ratios, ERs of organic matter, clay, silt, N, P, P, and K which is >1 in the eroded material. The climatic factor, as wind erosion indicator, was calculated and the values varied between 0.4 and 21.6, and about 80% of the studied areas have climatic factor >1, consequently lie in highly erosive climatic factor. Soil erodibility, as wind erosion indicator also determined in NWCR and other agro-ecological zones and greatly depends on clay content. The NWCR classified according to estimated soil loss by wind erosion using WEQ, to three categories severe (21.57–309.39 t ha−1 year−1 ) in 47% of the area, moderate (10.14 to 19.62 t/ha/year) in 21% from the area and low (0.1 to 9.87 t/ha/year) in 32% of the area. Using RWEQ, highly significant correlation coefficients were obtained between estimated transport mass by RWEQ and measured values. In case of Shalatin—Halaib district the average potential of wind erosion rate reached 241 t ha−1 year−1 . Both WEQ and RWEQ can be used in Egypt. The comparison between the rate of water and wind erosion in NWCR was evaluated and dependent on the land slope. Tillage erosion rates are much greater for loosened soil than for consolidated soil. At the same time, tillage erosion rates are much greater for up and down slope tillage than for contour tillage. Protecting soil from erosion is vital and necessary to achieve sustainable agriculture. The strategies for soil erosion control base on some of the sustainable soil management principles such as application of organic matter, soil covering, and appropriate tillage operation, beside putting under consideration the principles of control soil erosion such as planning in rows perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction or the slope, strip cropping establish wind barriers and shelterbelts. The most effective measures applied to control soil erosion included soil cover, such as a mulch of crop residue either standing or flattened or using bitumen emulsion, application of organic matter, perpendicular tillage either across the slope or across the direction of erosive wind and strip cropping. Moreover the combination of application organic matter with perpendicular tillage increased the reduction rate of soil loss by different percentage dependent on site conditions, and rate of organic matter. Conservation agriculture as example the combination of some management practices that mainly includes minimum or no tillage, and soil mulching with organic matter application could be more effective for control wind erosion. The positive effect of these measures not only on productivity of different crops but also mitigates soil degradation through reducing significant amounts of soil loss. Farmers favor all of these wind erosion control interventions that are economically benefit, simple to implement and perpendicular planting rows across erosive wind direction probably comes closest to farmer expectation. Wheat residue and rice straw as soil mulching are indeed occasionally used by the farmers in the oases of WD for wind erosion control. Both WEQ and RWEQ could be used to estimate the efficient measure for controlling wind erosion under NWCR. It is clear that soil erosion should be given the highest priority among the drivers of land degradation in Egypt. Besides scientific research that should be carried out

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to use and verify a model of deposition by wind. The key challenge is to rationally manage soil resources in Egypt to achieve sustainable agriculture development.

Recommendations The human activities and climatic factor are the main drivers of soil erosion. The first one can be controlled. However, the other cannot be controlled. Also, the major problems can be summarized as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Loss of topsoil through nutrients, organic matter and fine particles loss. Reduction of soil quality and soil moisture retention. Crop damage. Reduction of soil productivity. Pollution of air and water.

To mitigate the above mentioned problems and developing appropriate control strategies, it can be recommended that; 1.

2.

Emphasis should be placed on adopt appropriate soil conservation measures such as application of organic matter, soil mulching, appropriate tillage operation regarding perpendicular tillage across the slope or erosive wind direction and sprinkler irrigation as well as the application of conservation agriculture. To improve the soil productivity, emphasis should be placed on the development of policies encourage integration application of soil conservation measures.

Priority should be gives for applying low coast measures such as tillage across the slope or erosive wind direction.

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49. Ali AA, Ashour IA, Sharkawy SFT (2011) Studies on soil erosion in some Wadis of SouthEgypt. J Appl Sci 26(7):296–312 50. Wassif MM, Sharkawy SFT, Ali AA (2012) Evaluating wind erosion risks in some wadis of Northweatern coast zone—Egypt. Egypt J Appl Sci 27(11):893–908 51. Sharkawy SFT (2014) Evaluating wind erosion hazards in some areas of noerthwestern coast of Egypt using wind erosion equation. Egypt J Appl Sci 29(9):893–914 52. Fryrear DW (1986) Mechanics of erosion: measurement, prediction and control. In: Soil, water and crop/livestock management systems for rainfed agriculture in the near east region. Proceedings of the workshop, 18–23 Jan 1986, Amman, Jordan, pp 136–146 53. Govers G, Lobb DA, Quine TA (1999) Tillage erosion and translocation emergence of a new paradigm in soil erosion research. Soil Till Res 51:167–174 54. Van Muysen W, Govers G, Van Oast K, Van Rompaey A (2000) The effect of tillage depth, tillage speed, and soil condition on chisel tillage erosivity. J Soil Water Conserv 55:355–364 55. Landstorm MJ, Lobb DA, Schumacher TE (2001) Tillage erosion an overview. Annu Arid Zone 40:337–349 56. Lobb DA, Kachaporki RG (1999) Modeling tillage erosion in the topographically complex landscapes of southwestern Ontario, Canda. Soil Sci. Tillage Res 51:261–277 57. Centeri C, Pataki R, Barezi A (2001) Soil erosion, soil loss tolerance and sustainability in Hungary. In: 3rd International conference on land degradation and meeting of IUSS Subcommission C-soil and water conservation, 17–21 Sept 2001, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Sustainable Development of Microbial Community in Some Localities in the Desert Soil of Egypt Amr M. Abd El-Gawad and Mona M. El-Shazly

Abstract Cultivation of desert is considered as great challenge because it’s characterized by its poor organic matter, lower in microbial population and subjected to different stress like drought and salinity. By increasing in world population, the cultivation of desert soils became essential to keep food security. Extensive applications of mineral fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture had led to pollution, land degradation and reducing soil fertility. So research has been directed for improving crop yield and sustainable development of desert soil using bioorganic agriculture as safe and effective means. Biofertilizers improve nutient contents in soil by increasing the availability of some macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous. Biofertilizers improve soil health, reduce environmental pollution due to excessive use of chemicals in agriculture, Biofertilizer application improve soil structure, and help achieve cleaning agriculture or biorganic agriculture. Application of biofertilizers to desert soil in different localities through several types of research gave synergistic effect with beneficial microorganisms in soil by stimulating their activities which have been reflected on increasing soil fertility and productivity. Keywords Biofertilization · Desert · Soil microorganisms · Pollution · Sustainable development · Agriculture

Introduction Organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium contents, and other biotic and abiotic factors controlling and affecting soil composition. Nevertheless, extensive use of mineral fertilizers, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, most desert soil are slightly alkaline thus, the making these nutrients unavailable to lead soil pollution with these chemical and reduction of crop yield [1]. FAO states that although 38.47% of the world’s land area has agriculture cover, about 28.43% of the land is arable, while 3.13% is used for crop production. At the same time globally nearly about 20–25% of soil is being degraded every year [2]. A. M. A. El-Gawad (B) · M. M. El-Shazly Soil Fertility and Microbiology Department, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_8

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Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes, were detected in soil which acts as natural habitat for wide variety of microorganisms. Synergistic interactions between soil, inorganic and organic compounds are secreted by plants root, encourage the growth and multiplication of microorganisms [3]. Plant microbial interaction in the rhizosphere are useful in (a) increase nutrient availabilities by nitrogen fixation, phosphate and potassium solubilization; (b) biological control for plant pathogens; and (c) treatment of soil pollution through bioremediation process. Microorganisms in soil such as bacteria and fung have always been in a synergistic association with plants throughout their growth and development. Soil microorganisms (symbiotic and a symbiotic) have various beneficial impacts on the host plant and rhizosphere of many plant species through their biochemical activities such as Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) and nitrogen fixers [4, 5]. PGPR and their positive association with plants have scientific applications for sustainable agriculture commercially [6]. PGPR have several activities in soil ecosystem that make soil energetic for turnover and sustainable for crop production [1]. PGPR stimulate plant growth by colonization of root system, phosphate solubilization, nitrogen fixation, phytohormone production such as production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), siderophores and 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase [7–10]; elimination of pollutants and lytic enzymes production. Also, PGPR has an important role allivating salt stress induce plant to migitate negative effect of salinity, heavy metal detoxification, and biological control of plant pathogens and insects [11, 12].

Nitrogen Fixers Nitrogen is an energetic macronutrient for growth and crop yield. Even though nitrogen is available in the atmosphere and represent about 78%, it is not available for plant needs [13]. Conversion of atmospheric N2 gas from insoluble to soluble form by soil microorganisms is known as biological N2 fixation [14]. Nitrogen fixation changes nitrogen to ammonia by nitrogen fixing microorganisms by nitrogenase enzyme [15]. Nitrogen fixers are commonly regarded as as symbiotic and asymbiotic nitrogen fixers. Symbiotic N2 fixers forms association with leguminous plants such as Bradyrhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Frankia, and Mesorhizobium. The nonsymbiotic free-living nitrogen which fixed bacteria such as Azotobacter, Corynebacterium, Alcaligenes, Acetobacter, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas, Beijerinckia, Bacillus, Clostridium, Klebsiella, and Xanthobacter [16–19]. Bio-nitrogen fixation (BNF) is a significant process on earth, needed for agricultural sustainability as a major nitrogen source for plants. BNF represents an ecological approach of decreased external nitrogen inputs, therefore being ideal for agriculture [17].

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Phosphate Dissolving Microorganisms Phosphorus is macronutrient and second main nutrient after nitrogen, mineral nutrient for plant growth [20]. P is important in most of the major metabolic reactions, viz., photosynthesis, signal transduction, energy transfer, biosynthesis of macromolecules, and respiration [21]. P in soil mostly presents in insoluble mineral complexes some of them appearing after frequent application of mineral fertilizers. Plants cannot absorb these insoluble, precipitated forms [22]. Nevertheless the most of this phosphorus is insoluble which present in organic and inorganic forms. Therefore it is not available for plant growth. Only phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can solubilize insoluble phosphate form making it available and usable by the plant for its growth and development, and hence PSB are widely used in biofertilizers inoculants. PSB plays an important role in providing plant with available form of phosphorus [16]. The mechanisms of inorganic P solubilization are secretion of H+ ; organic acids like acetate, lactic acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, succinic acid, citric acid, gluconic acid, ketogluconate, and glycolic; and biosynthesis of acid phosphatase [23, 24]. Which have and important role in lowering pH, competing with P for adsorption sites on the soil, forming soluble complexes with metal ions associated with insoluble P (Ca, Al, Fe), and thus releasing P [25]. Plant growth promotion by PGPR and phosphate solubilization has been reported by many author [26–29].

Microbial Phytohormone Production Plant growth regulators (PGRs) or phytohormone are essential for plant growth and development. PGPR are known to produce phytohormone, namely, auxins, cytokinin, and gibberellins [16, 30, 31]. Phytohormone promotes plants growth, even at very low concentrations which has been stated by several workers [32, 33]. Indole acetic acid (IAA) is an auxin, most studied phytohormone secreted by 80% of rhizospheric bacteria [34, 35]. Function in cell division and germination of tuber; increase the rate of xylem and root development; formation of adventitious root; mediates responses to the light, and affects photosynthesis, pigment formation, biosynthesis of the various metabolites, furthermore resistance to stressful conditions [36–38]. PGPR known to produce other phytohormones [18], which includes cytokinin, that induces the division of the plant cells in the presence of auxins; the root or shoot differentiation depends on the balance between the cytokinin and auxin, [30]. Gibberellin (gibberellic acid) are basically involved in the cell division and elongation of the cells within the subapical meristems and hence plays a key role in elongation of both of seed germination, internode, flowering in the plants, and the pollen tube growth. Such as auxins and cytokinin, gibberellic acids also act in combination with other hormones [30].

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Biochemical Activities of Soil Microorganisms Some PGPR have the ability to produce ACC deaminase (1-aminocyclopropane1-carboxylate), enzyme which cleaves ACC, precursor in the biosynthetic pathway for ethylene in plants (Ethylene is known as the stress hormone in plant) [39]. So, these bacteria, produce ACC deaminase indirectly, promoting the plant root growth and protecting plant from stress, viz., Salinization, flooding and organic toxicants, drought, heavy metals, toxic organic compounds, and pathogens through inhibiting biosynthesis of ethylene [40–42]. ACC deaminase producing bacteria such as Acinetobacter, Achromobacter, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, etc. [43–46]. ACC deaminase-producing bacteria, which lower the ethylene content in the plants, can increase both nodulation and mycorrhizal colonization in pea and cucumber, respectively [41, 47, 48]. Duan et al. [49] reported that 12% of isolated Rhizobium sp., produced this enzyme.

Biological Control Applications of beneficial PGPR or their metabolites that counteract the negative impacts caused by pathogens and thus promote positive responses by the plant [50]. Biological control of plant diseases using PGPR has emerged in recent years in agriculture as greater step toward sustainability, and public concern about the risk from using hazardous chemical fungicides. Disease suppression by PGPR is the best possible alternative of reducing use of pesticide and fungicides [50].

Background Biodiversity is negatively affected by desertification, desert soil reclamation and cultivation is a worldwide vision to overcome problems of climatic change and food scarcity [51, 52]. At the present time, with increasing populations, need for desert farming increased to meet feeding requirements of the population. For example, cultivation of desert in Egypt is estimated to increased up to 40% till 2017, however this require approximately 5 billion m3 of water per year [53]. Desert soils considered as life-threatening environments for soil microbes. Even though the great variation of these conditions in different regions of the world, all of them are characterized by a combination of they comprises thrilling drought, extreme temperature, high soil salinity, low nutrient levels, physical instability caused by strong winds and high UV radiations during summer [54].

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Traditional agriculture has an important role in increasing food production to meet human needs, increasing food production accompanied by extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides [55]. Mineral fertilizers are commercially used, consist of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in definite quantities, and their misuse causes pollutions for ground water and air [56]. Recently efforts have been directed for production of ‘high quality food nutritive riched food’ to safeguard bio-safety. In this regards great needs for bio- organic fertilizers as promising alternate to mineral fertilizers to increase nutrient quantity and keep the field management [57, 58]. Organic agriculture has a main role in maintain biodiversity of soil and ensure food safety [59]. Biofertilizers characterized by extended shelf life causing no adverse effects to ecosystem [60]. Bioorganic farming is mostly dependent on the natural microflora of the soil which set up all kinds of beneficial bacteria and fungi including plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Biofertilizers application maintain the availability of micro- and macro-nutrients in soil via their biochemical activities such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate and potassium mineralization, secretion of phytohormone and antibiotic production [61]. Biofertilizers inoculations to seed or soil inoculants causes stimulation to number of microorganisms in soil, nutrient cycling and enhancing crop productivity [62]. Commonly it as known that 60–90% of added chemical fertilizer is lost and only about 10–40% available to plants. In this respect, microbial inoculants have significance in improving agricultural productivity [63]. PGPR and AMF increase nutrient use efficiency of added fertilizers. Integrated effect of PGPR and AMF recorded with 70% fertilizer in addition to AMF and PGPR for uptake of phosphorus. The same was noted with N uptake, 75%, 80%, or 90% fertilizer with biofertilizers inoculations were significantly similar to 100% mineral fertilizer [64]. Rhizosphere biodiversity has an important role in plant growth and productivity. On contrast traditional agricultural have a negative impacts on biodiversity. Application of bio-filmed biofertilizers (BFBFs) to the soil has been more effective than liquid biofertilizers. BFBFs positively break dormancy of microbial seeds in the soil, resulting in emergence of a diverse microbial community that causes biological control for pathogens in soil [65]. Various beneficial soil microorganisms has been known for their stimulating effect on plant growth [66]. These soil microorganisms carry out different biochemical activities. Also, their positive interactions with root system play key roles in numerous functions, such as organic matter decomposition, pathogen suppression and, conservation of soil structure [67]. Consequently, biodiversity of soil microorganisms is known as indicators in soil quality [68]. Microbial biomass increment and enhancement of biodiversity is a significant factor for soil quality and productivity [69], through useful functions such as mineralization [70]. Two of the main forms of biofertilizers rhizobia and mycorrhizae are used universally as single or mixed culture [71]. BFBFs inoculation has been recently used, and more effective than biofertilizers [72]. BFBFs application with low levels of nearly about 50% of mineral fertilizers

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produce the same yield with 100% mineral fertilizers [72]. Also, other studies using BFBFs for maize exhibited positive effects on nitrogenase activity, seed growth and photosynthesis [73, 74].

Sustainable Development of Microbial Communities at Different Localities in Egyptian Desert Soils Desert farming is a global vision, and is a strong growing area of agriculture worldwide. Köberl et al. [75] reported that, long-term agriculture impact desert soil causing greater variation in the microbial population which showed a higher diversity and a better ecosystem function for plant health. Remarkably, we detected that indigenous desert microorganisms promoted plant health in desert agro-ecosystems. Oases and along the northern coast Rainfall in Egypt ranges between 120 and 150 mm per annum on the north coast area during winter. Recently Egypt is being faced by the problem that, local edible oil production rate is lower than consumption. To meet these gab 90% between production and consumption these is a need for importation. Also, agricultural extension in newly lands out of Nile Valley and Delta is of great importance.

Siwa Oases To achieve sustainable development in siwa oasis desert soil using different biofertilization treatments several researches have been conducted at siwa in order to improve crop production and stimulate microbial communities at siwa rhizosphere soil. Application of bio fertilization treatments (Azotobacter chroococcum as nitrogen fixers and Bacillus megatherium as phosphate solubilizes) to improve canola productivity under siwa oasis condition. Abd El-Gawad et al. [76], reported that mixed treatment with both microorganisms gave the highest response followed by single treatment with Azotobacter chroococcum or Bacillus megatherium but the lowest effects were recorded with control (Fig. 1). Mixed inoculation treatment increased oil content in all canola genotypes. Also, significant differences in the number of pods per plant were observed amongst the different biofertilizer treatments and genotypes. 1000seed weight was significantly increased especially with mixed inoculation treatment for all genotypes under study. Microbial biotechnology has a beneficial role in recycling of organic wastes and improving crop production. Abd El-Gawad [77], studied the influence of different biofertilizers types (cellulose decomposing, N-fixing and P-dissolving bacteria) on the composting process of plant residues, weeds and grasses to enrich the compost with nutrients, eliminate plant pathogens and nematodes from resulted compost,

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% of increase

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Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 1 Effect of biofertilization treatments on % of increase in microbial counts than initial at canola line 56/16 rhizosphere soil second season (Abd El-Gawad et al. [76]). Az: Azotobacter, PDB: Phosphate Dissolving Bacteria, Mix: Az + PDB

overcome the problem of accumulation of plant residues, weeds and grasses with ecological and economical investments and reduce composting time. Abd El-Gawad [77], carried out a field experiment during two successive seasons on Mentha viridis L. at Tagzarti Farm, Siwa Oasis, Matruh, Desert Research Center, to study effect of organic matter type (without or sheep manure or produced compost) and biofertilizers (Azotobacter chroococum, phosphate dissolving bacteria Bacillus megatherium and Saccharomyces cervisiae (Yeast) on vegetative growth, herb yield, volatile oil content and its components. Obtained results revealed that, the application of compost as an organic matter with mixed treatment with the three biofertilizers used gave the maximum figures for the microbiological activities in plant rhizosphere, fresh and dry weights of Mentha viridis and volatile oil percentage and volatile oil yield compared with all other treatments. Treatments including phosphate dissolving bacteria showed increase in oil contents and oil yield whereas treatments received Azotobacter chroococum showed increase in fresh and dry weights thus the three tested biofertilizers showed a synergistic effect when mixed (Fig. 2). Obtained results clearly showed that Biofertilizers application stimulate microbial communities at siwa rhizosphere (Fig. 3) represent the % of increase in microbial communities at siwa oasis total microbial counts, Azotobacter densities, Phosphate dissolving bacterial counts and yeast counts.

New Valley To evaluate the importance of marine algal extract, micronutrients and bio fertilization in improving growth and productivity of faba bean under New valley conditions.

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Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 2 Effect of biofertilization treatments and compost application on the percentage of increase of microbial counts than initial counts in rhizosphere of mint (Abd El-Gawad [77]). TC Total microbial counts

Y Az 21% PDB 19%

Mix 33% Yeast 27%

Fig. 3 Percentage of increase in microbial communities at siwa oasis total microbial counts, Azotobacter densities, Phosphate dissolving bacterial counts and yeast counts (Abd El-Gawad [77])

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Abd El Gawad et al. [78], conducted a field experiment for two successive seasons of 2012 and 2013 at the agriculture experimental station at El-Kharga Oasis, New Valley Governorate, Egypt. Rhizobium leguminosarum was used to inoculate seeds of all treatments and control as base application. Experimental factors were: marine algal extract (MAE) foliar application (1 and 3%), Micro-nutrient (MN) foliar spray (0.25 mM/L) and Biofertilizers (Azotobacter chroococcum and Bacillus megatherium either single or mixed application against control). Obtained results revealed that, biofertilizers application increased significantly all studied traits; MAE foliar spray at two concentrations proved to be more effective than MN foliar spray and significantly increased faba bean growth and yield. Synergistic effects were observed when mixture of microorganisms was combined with MA|E and MN foliar spray. Interaction of mixed biofertilization treatment with MAE and MN gave maximum enhancement for microbial activity in faba bean rhizosphere, Macro and Micronutrients contents, growth parameters and increase seed yield 170% over control during the two successive seasons (Fig. 4). To study the effect of sowing dates, salicylic acid application, and biofetilization on yield and its components, and the chemical composition of peanut (Giza, 6 variety), Maamoun and Abd El Gawad [79] carried out two field experiments were carried in El Kharga Experimental Farm of Desert Research Center, New Valley, Governorate. Mixed biofertilization treatment had significant effect on yield and its components compared to the single biofertilization treatments. Also, higher values of soil microbiological properties resulted from treatment of biofertilization, i.e. total microbial counts, counts of phosphate dissolving bacterial (PDB) [79], and Pseudomonas count (see Fig. 5).

Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 4 Percentage of increase in microbial communities at El kharga oasis total microbial counts, Azotobacter densities, Phosphate dissolving bacterial counts and CO2 evolution (Abd El Gawad et al. [78])

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Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 5 Percentage of increase in microbial communities at El kharga oasis total microbial counts, Phosphate dissolving bacterial and Pseudomonas counts in peanut rhizosphere (Maamoun and Abd El Gawad [79])

The effect of biofertilization (Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megatherium (PDB) and mixture of two isolates) and silicon spraying rates on the productivity of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus, L.),by using cultivar Sakha 53 have been studied by Abd El-Gawad and Salem [80], conducted two field experiments were at Desert Research Center (D.R.C.).Agriculture Experimental Station at EL-Kharga, New Valley Governorate. Results showed that both spraying silicon and biofertilization treatments had enhancement effect on plant height, number of leaves, leaves surface area, fresh and dry weight of leaves/plant and stem diameter, also head diameter, seeds number/head and 100-seed weight as well as seed and straw yields (Fig. 6). Moreover, seed oil percentage and oil yield. The enhancement effect of all abovementioned traits with inoculation of Azotobacter chroococcum, PDB individual or mixed compared with the control treatment (without biofertilization). Also, remarkable influence of the interaction between silicon foliar application and biofertilization treatments on all yield and its components. Results also indicated significant microbial activity in rhizosphere soil expressed by total microbial counts, CO2 evolution, Azotobacter densities and Phosphate dissolving bacterial counts and Enzymatic activities (Dehydrogenase, Nitrogenase and Phosphatase) exhibited positive response in all treatments compared to uninoculated control. The effect of biofertilization using Pseudomonas fluorescens and cobalt on growth and productivity of guar (Cyamposis tetragonoloba L.) under desert soil conditions are investigated by Abd El-Gawad [81]. Bradyrhizobium spp. was used to inoculate seeds of all treatments and control as base application. Pseudomonas fluorescens was used as seed inoculant. The obtained results indicated that, interaction treatment between P. fluorescens inoculation and cobalt foliar application (20 ppm) had the

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Microbial determinations Fig. 6 Percentage of increase in microbial communities total microbial counts, Phosphate dissolving bacterial counts, Azotobacter densities and CO2 evolution in sunflower rhizosphere at El Kharga oasis Abd El-Gwad and Salem [80]

highest record for guar plant growth parameters, yield and its components as well as mineral contents of seeds (N,P,K as macronutrients) and (Zn, Mn, Fe and Cu as micronutrient).Cobalt content in plant and seed, nodulation and its efficiency and microbial activity in guar rhizosphere (Fig. 7).

Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 7 Percentage of increase in microbial communities total microbial counts, Pseudomonas counts and CO2 evolution in Guar rhizosphereat El Kharga oasis (Abd El-Gawad [81])

224 Fig. 8 The percentage of increase in microbial communities and CO2 evolution in rhizosphere soil at El Kharga oasis (Abd El-Gawad [81])

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CO2 10%

Ps 15%

PDB 22%

Tc 28%

Az 25%

Biofertilizer application stimulates microbial communities at El Kharga rhizosphere soil. Percentage of increase in microbial communities represented at Fig. 8. Mixed biofertilization treatment enhanced microbial communities in rhizosphere of different plants (Peanut, Sunflower and Guar) and increase Total microbial counts (546%), Azotobacter densities (497%), PDB counts (436%), Pseudomonas counts (307%) and CO2 evolution (205%) as shown in Fig. 8.

Maruit (West Alexandria) The field studies are conducted in Maruit experimental station of DRC, west Alexandria. Abd El-Gawad et al. [82], studied the effect of Azospirillum inoculation on some plants of Gramineae family (Wheat and Maize). Azospirillum brasilense characterized by its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and produce plant hormones like indole acetic acid (IAA). Also, Azospirillum brasilense has the ability to transform tryptophan into IAA. Azospirillum was inoculated into wheat and maize to show its effect on growth and development of these plants (Fig. 9). Obtained results reported that, wheat and maize inoculated with Azospirillum cause an enhancement effect on growth, yield and formation of tumor like structures which are called paranodules on roots of treated plants. In order to evaluate three faba bean genotypes for some biofertilization treatments (Rhizobium leguminosarum alone, Phosphate dissolving bacteria (PDB) (Bacillus megatherium) alone, and Rhizobium leguminosarum + PDB as mixed inoculation treatment) under two levels of soil humidity (40 and 60%) from field capacity, [83] conducted a field experiment at Maruit station. Obtained results indicated that mixed inoculation treatment with Rhizobium leguminosarum + PDB under soil humidity 60% of field capacity gave the highest promotion effects toward all tested parameters for growth, yield, yield components, microbial determinations (total microbial counts and PDB counts) as shown in Fig. 10 and nodule characteristics (number of nodules/plant, dry weight of nodules/ plant and nitrogen %) for all tested faba bean genotypes.

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Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 9 Percentage of increase in total microbial counts and Azospirillium densities in rhizosphere soil at Maruit soil (Abd El-Gawad et al. [82])

Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 10 Percentage of increase in microbial communities in rhizosphere soil at Maruit soil (Abd el-Gawad et al. [83])

The promoting effects of Rhizobia were due to biological nitrogen fixation, plant growth hormones production whereas PDB secrete organic acids which facilitate absorption of nutrients from soil to plants and availability of phosphate compounds for plant nutrition thus mixed treatment with both of rhizobia and PDB leads to synergistic effects and improving of plant growth, yield, soil microbial community and soil fertility.

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Sinai Pensiula North Sinai Abd El-Gawad [85], conducted field experiment at El Qantara sharq, North Sinai Governorate, to evaluate the effects of bioagents (Pseudomonas fluorescens, Azotobacter chroococcum and Aspergillus flavus) on controlling sesame diseases (wilt and root rot diseases). Bioagents were added directly to soil or foliar or both of them. Bioagent used had antagonistic action against pathogenic fungi (Fussrium oxysporum and Macrophomina phaseolina), where, P. fluorescens was most powerful for growth reduction % of two pathogenic fungi. Mixed treatment of biocontrol agents (Bio 3) applied as soil dernch + foliar spray, reduced the harmful effect of M. phaseolina and F. oxysporum, increased the number of surviving plants, stimulate microbial activity in sesame rhizosphere (Fig. 11), increase plant growth, increase seed yield (112.8 and 64.5% of increase over control) and Oil% (70 and 48% of increase over control). This behavior extended to mineral contents in sesame seeds and straw. Cultures of Rhizobium leguminosarum (base treatment), Azotobacter chroococcum, Bacillus megatherium and mixture of Azotobacter chroococcum and Bacillus megatherium and foliar application of compost tea were investigated for their promotive action to improve faba bean production and their biocontrol potential against the faba bean diseases. El-Shazly [86] conducted field experiment at El-Qantra Sharq area, North Sinai. Mixed treatment was the best treatment compared with single treatment. Maximum enhancement was recorded with the combination between mixed biofertilization treatment and compost tea which gave 122% increase than control in seed yield. Under field conditions, all PGPR strains individually or combined with compost tea significantly improved plant growth

Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 11 Percentage of increase in microbial communities in rhizosphere soil at El-Qantra Sharq North Sinai (Abd El-Gawad [85])

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parameters (plant height, plant dry weight, number of pods/plant and weight of pods/ plant), yield parameters (100 seed wt. and seed yield kg/fed). Nodulation, mineral contents of faba bean plant and microbial community (total microbial counts, Azotobacter densities, PDB counts) and dehydrogenase enzyme in both studied growing seasons which were reflected on healthy state of plant, increase its immunity and reduced faba bean diseases.

Middle Sinai Badawy and Abd El-Gawad [87] studied the effect of biofertilizers (yeast as base treatment, brasilence, Azotobacter chroococcum and Bacillus megatherium) and rock phosphate, on growth and oil production of Ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi L.) plant. The experiment was conducted at El-Maghara Research Station (Middle Sinai), Desert Research Center. The results showed that adding the yeast by soil drench led to a significant increase in plant height, number of umbels/plant and volatile oil percentages. As far as the biofertilizers, using Azospirillum brasilence + Bacillus megatherium var. Phosphaticum (treatment B2 ) led to the best results from plant height, number of umbels/plant, fruit weight/plant andfruit yield/feddan. Meanwhile, Azotobacter chroococcum + Bacillus megatherium var. Phosphaticum (treatment B1 ) caused increase in fresh and dry weight/plant, volatile oil percentages and oil yield/feddan (Fig. 12). Effect of biofertilization with free living nitrogen fixing bacteria Azotobacter chroococcum and phosphate dissolving bacteria Bacillus megatherium applied as soil inoculation or foliar spray on growth, yield and essential oil of Thymus vulgaris, L. in sandy soil using dripping irrigation system at El-Maghara, middle Sinai was studied

Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 12 Percentage of increase in microbial communities in rhizosphere soil at Maghara soil, Middle Sinai (Badawy and Abd El-Gawad [87])

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Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 13 Percentage of increase in microbial communities in Thymus rhizosphere soil at El-Maghra (Abd El Azim and Abd El-Gawad [88])

by Abd El Azim, and Abd El-Gawad [88], they reported that mixed inoculation with A. chroococcum and B. megatherium applied as foliar spray and soil inoculations recorded highest yields, essential oil/feddan, total microbial counts (Fig. 13). In addition, phosphate solubilization by B. megatherium inoculation was more effective in increasing phosphate solubilization than inoculation with A. chroococcum. They concluded that, biofertilizers application enhanced the essential oil antagonistic activity of Thymus vulgaris against some tested pathogens.

South Sinai Abd El-Gawad et al. [89] studied the effect of different biofertilization treatments with soil microorganisms (Azotobacter chroococcum, Lactobacillus lactis and Sacchromyces cervisiae) on the growth and productivity of five genotypes of quinoa plant, as a new crop in Egypt under saline conditions. The results indicated that, Quinoa genotypes were varied greatly in their response to biofertilization treatments in yield and in their biochemical constituents (see Fig. 14). Biofertilization treatments either single or mixed inoculation enhanced quinoa genotypes growth and yield and stimulate microbial activity in quinoa rhizosphere, which reflected on improvement of all quinoa genotypes. Abd El-Gawad and Omar [90], studied the effect of different biofertilization treatments (Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum brasilensce and Bacillus megatherium), under three water irrigation intervals. on the productivity of some forage. Results indicated that, all forage crops differed significantly in their responses to biofertilization treatments. Mixture of biofertilizers application recorded the highest mean values for all the studied traits under the first and the second irrigation interval treatments (see Fig. 15).

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Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 14 Percentage of increase in microbial communities in Quinoa rhizosphere soil at Ras Sudr, South Sinai (Abd El-Gawad et al. [89])

Biofertilization Treatments Fig. 15 Percentage of increase in microbial communities in Sorghum rhizosphere soil at Ras Sudr, South Sinai (Abd El-Gawad et al. [89])

Discussion Biofertilization is promising technique in sustainable agriculture development especially in desert soil. Many researches have been conducted to explain this effect. A mixed inoculation treatment with A.chroococcum and B. megaterium gave a synergistic effect on increasing Azotobacter densities and phosphate dissolving bacterial counts which increased the availability and mobility of phosphorous and other plant nutrients from soil to plant through production of organic acids these effects revealed an increase of plant growth, yield quantitatively and qualitatively. This agree with [26, 28].

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The importance of bio fertilization using compatible effective microorganisms with micronutrients in increasing number of beneficial microorganisms in root environment, has been discussed by Abd El-Gawad et al. [78]. He reported that, application on B. megatherium to soil stimulates its population density. The PDB inoculation stimulated the organisms and increased their density with other treatments and improved plant growth via increase of availability of nutrients for plant growth. The highest counts were associated with mixed treatment (A.chroococcum and B. megatherium) and silicon foliar application at 1000 mg/L to be 154 and 161 × 105 cfu/g dry soil at flowering stage of Sunflower during two seasons respectively. These results are compatible to those obtained by Ashrafuzzaman [91] who reported that, inoculation with the plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (Azotobcter, Bacillus megaterium) had stimulation effect on the population of rhizosphere microorganism and increased their numbers by more than 50% at the end of the experiment comparing with the number recorded before planting. Application of Azotobacter as nitrogen fixing bacteria has other beneficial roles like production of plant growth regulators, organic acids and siderphores. Phosphate dissolving bacteria increase phosphorus content by production of organic acids Rhizobia save about 40% of chemical nitrogen fertilization added and secreting phytohormones beneficial to plant.

Conclusion Biofertilization technology has great effective roles in sustainable agriculture, through different biochemical activities in soil ex. Bio-nitrogen fixation (BNF), improving availability of nutrients, production of enzymes, phytohormone and antibiotics. Future challenge is large scale application of recent techniques for biofertilizers application that will help to achieve sustainable agriculture, improving soil fertility, induce plant tolerance, Plant productivity, avoid soil degradation and conserving a balanced nutrient cycling.

Recommendations Sustainable development of microbial community in Egyptian desert soil require isolation and screening of highly efficient microbial isolates with ability to grow and secret their metabolite under desert soil conditions. Soil microorganisms have an important role in increasing availability of nutrients to plant and enhancement of plant growth, increase productivity, improve some soil physical properties and stability of ecosystem.

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Bio-fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture Development Under Salinity Stress Amal M. Omer

Abstract Agriculture is considered as a crucial sector for Egyptian social and economic sustainable development as a majority of the country’s population depends on it. Essential scope of sustainable agriculture is the development of land productivity which faces many constraints. One of these constraints is a soil salinity which causes high reductions in cultivated land area, crop productivity and quality. Bio-fertilization is an innovate strategy of sustainable agricultural development to be emerge for development of salt-affected land. This eco-friendly technology is becoming vital in modern agricultural practices for their potential role in alleviating biotic and abiotic stress on plants, sustainable crop production, reduction the use of chemical fertilizers and mitigation the adverse impacts on soil. Bio-fertilizers including different plant growth promoting endophytes, rhizobacteria and fungi can alleviate the adverse effects of salinity by certain direct and indirect specialized functional traits. Under this stress conditions, bio-fertilizers can stimulate the plant growth and induce plant resistance against salinity stresses at the same time. This chapter illustrates a variety of mechanisms that efficient microorganisms used for stimulating the plant growth in salt-affected soils and focuses on the findings of the most recent research study on the use of biological fertilizers in salt affected regions to facilitates and enhance the development of the agricultural sector. Keywords Alleviating salinity · Bio-fertilizer · Microorganisms · Rhizobacteria · Endophytes · Fungi · Salt-affected soils

Introduction The two prominent challenges to achieve agricultural sustainability in Egypt are the high rate of human population growth on the one hand and the limitation in lands available for cultivation on the other. As expected, almost the entire increase in future population will occur in developing countries, and in Egypt, the population will reach 117 million in 2030 with an increase of 32.7% from 2015 [1]. One of A. M. Omer (B) Soil Microbiology Unit, Desert, Research Center (DRC), P.O. Box 11753, Cairo, Egypt © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_9

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the constraints that negatively affect the sustainable productivity of crops is abiotic stress including salinity, the reduction in soil productivity due to salinity is about 30% having a significant negative impact on the livelihoods of the poor farming and food production of Egypt as whole. For these reasons, new strategies should have to be adopted to face the food demands and increase agricultural production sustainably especially under environmental stresses. One of these strategies is using the biological organic fertilizers as an eco-friendly approach alternative to agrochemical for improving crop productivity under salinity conditions. The development of the agriculture sector includes the adoption of recent technologies based upon the usage of bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticides which achieved positive effects in this sector and reduced the environment risks [2]. This chapter is highlighted the biological approaches for alleviating salinity in salt affected soil and briefly described the mechanisms used by different microbial groups used as bio-fertilizers for enhancing the stress tolerance in plants toward salinity stress. The knowledge gained from this chapter could help the readers to understand what is the bio-fertilizers, their physiological functioning in reducing the problems associated with the soil salinity towards sustainable agriculture and consequently their impact on the plant and soil for development of agricultural sustainability.

Background on Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt Sustainable agriculture can be defined as a system, which should aim to maintain production in the long run without degrading the resources base, by using lowinput technologies that improve soil fertility, by maximizing the recycling, enhancing biological pest control, diversifying production, and so on [3]. Since land available for cropping will be decreased to only 2.3 thousand hectares in Egypt by 2025; innovate strategies will have to be improved to meet the food demands for this expected population increase [4]. In Egypt, the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) had adopted a strategic plan to identify ways and methods for agricultural sector development. By 2006, there are dramatic shifts in availability of food and increased in prices due to different internal and external factors make it is important to review this strategy periodically to enable the agricultural sector to be developed with these changes. Consequently, a new Strategy for Sustainable Agricultural Developments (SADS) towards 2030 will be developed for responding to new global and domestic challenges facing the Egyptian agriculture. The first strategic Objective of SADS is a sustainable use of natural agricultural resources in Egypt by the sustainable expansion of reclaimed areas and sustainable development of land and water productivity. This production has to be achieved in an environmentally friendly way that minimizes the external effects of traditional agriculture related to the emission of greenhouse gases, the release of nitrogen and phosphorous to the environment and accumulation of harmful pesticides in nature. However, Egypt has a lot of sustainability constraints such as soil salinity and alkalinity, shortage in water resources and others which considered as great challenges to achieving developments in the

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agriculture sector. The impacts of salinity include soil erosions, low agricultural productivity, and low economic returns [5]. Later in this chapter, innovate strategies will be discussed to improve the Sustainable development of salt-affected land.

Salinization as Critical Abiotic Stress and Its Impact Soils Salinization in Egypt It is known that agriculture land in Egypt depends mainly on the irrigation water from the Nile River. However, in the recent years, water recourses are decreased and limiting factors for cultivating lands due to the demand food production increased. All things considered, extreme salinity problems in Egypt is primary due to irrigation with low quality water and poor drainage systems [6]. Unsuitable irrigation administration, as the utilization of salty sea and lake water is a fundamental reason for increasing soil salinity in which the sodium chloride is the dominant salt [7]. In Egypt, nearly 35% of the agricultural lands which comprises only 3% of total land area in Egypt now suffer from salinity where the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil saturation extract exceeds >4 dS m−1 (40 mM NaCl approximately) and has exchangeable sodium of about 15% [8]. This salinization is basically due to the low precipitation (1

–

–

–

>1

>1

Soil moisture (%)

–

–

–

–

–

>50

Soil pH

7.4 (6.9–8.1)

7.5 (7.0–8.1)

7.6 (6.9–8.3)

7.6 (6.6–8.4)

7.6 (7.2–8.2)

6.8 (6.7–7)

EC (µS/cm)

316 (99–1920)

312 (107–917)

589 (103–2900)

254 (90–1060)

440 (160–1203)

1022 (817–2147)

Organic 2.00 matter (%) (0.25–3.41)

2.54 (0.75–3.12)

3.01 (0.67–3.46)

2.35 (0.76–4.73)

2.32 (1.29–3.96)

3.57 (2.35–5.01)

Nitrogen (ppm)

92 (67–45)

101 (59–261)

105 (80–158)

96 (79–163)

102 (82–143)

102 (62–188)

Slope

Gorge

Farsh

Cave

Microhabitats Supporting Endemic Plants in Sinai, Egypt

373

Distribution of Endemic Plants in Sinai The information about endemic plant species in Egypt is little including the percentage of species loss, taxonomic diversity, genetic diversity, species exploitation, threats and species potentialities. Investigation and management of the endemics in Sinai need more taxonomic, ecologic and molecular studies. Out of the 36 endemic taxa of Sinai Peninsula, 22 taxa were occurring in South Sinai, e.g. Bufonia multiceps, Silene leucophylla, Silene schimperiana, Euphorbia obovata, Ballota kaiseri, Origanum syriacum subsp. sinaicum, Phlomis aurea, Polygala sinaica, Primula boveana, Rosa arabica, Anarrhinum pubescens, Hyoscyamus boveanus, Astragalus fresenii and Veronica kaiseri (Table 2). Eight endemic taxa are known from the isthmic desert (Di) namely Origanum isthmicum, Euphorbia puncata, Pterocephalus arabicus, Rorripa integrifolia, Scorzonera drarii, Lotus deserti, Brassica deserti and Fagonia boulosii. Six endemic taxa are reported from the Mediterranean coast of Sinai (Mp) namely, Zygophyllum album L. var. album, Salsola sinaica, Vicia sinaica, Asteragalus camelorum, Bellevelia salah-eidii, and Muscari salah-eidii. Origanum isthmicum is geographically isolated to hard limestone cliffs of Gebel El-Halal. It is considered as relic species due to its association with Juniperus phoenica [31].

Endemic Plants-Altitude Relationship The distribution of species richness of both endemic and non-plants in the different microhabitats of south Sinai along an elevation gradient is presented in Fig. 1. The number of endemic species increased with increasing the altitude from 1200 to 2200 m (amsl). This pattern of endemic species was associated with an increase in the number of non-endemic plants. This is in part may be due to the tremendous geological complexity of the mountains and habitat heterogeneity. The elevation of the mountains of south Sinai is much higher, and there are various rock types including: limestone, dolomite, sandstone, and granite which constitute, under certain conditions, smooth-faced outcrops which create different microhabitats. These microhabitats support the rarest plant species in the desert including most of the desert endemics of Israel, Sinai, and Jordan [32].

Spatial Overlap Among Endemic Plants in Sinai The degree of spatial overlap among endemic taxa in the different microhabitats of south Sinai is expressed by Jaccard coefficient (Table 3). The highest value of species overlap (56%) was recorded between Phlomis aurea and Origanum syriacum ssp. sinaicum. Phlomis aurea showed higher overlap values with both Nepeta septemcrenata (38%) and Anarrhinum pubescens (37%). Also, Origanum syriacum ssp.

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A.-H. A. Khedr

Table 2 Distribution of 36 endemic species in three sub-regions of Sinai (Mp = Mediterranean coast, Di = Isthmic desert and SS = southern Sinai) Species

Mp

Di

SS

Anarrhinum pubescens Fresen

+

Arabidopsis kneuckeri (Bornm) O.E. Schulz

+

Asteragalus camelorum Barbey

+

+

Astragalus fresenii Decne

+

Ballota kaiseri Täckh Bellevelia salah-eidii Täckh. & Boulos

+ +

Brassica deserti Danin& Hedge

+ +

Bufonia multiceps Decne

+

Centaurium malacinum Maire Euphorbia puncata Delile

+

Euphorbia obovate Decne

+

Fagonia boulosii Hadidi var.boulosii

+

Hyoscyamus boveanus (Dunal) Asch. & Schweinf

+

Hypericum sinaicum Boiss Juncus bufonius L.

+ +

+

Kickxia scariosepala Täckh. & Boulos

+

Lotus deserti Täckh. & Boulos Muscari salah-eidii (Täckh. & Boulos) Hosni

+

+ +

+

Nepeta septemcrenata Ehrenb. ex Benth

+

Origanum isthmicum Danin

+

Origanum syriacum L. subsp. sinaicum (Boiss.) Greuter&Burdet

+

Phlomis aurea Decne

+

Polygala sinaica Botsch. var. sinaica

+

Primula boveana Decne. ex Duby

+

Pterocephalus arabicus Boiss

+

Rorripa integrifolia Boulos

+

Rosa arabica Crép

+

Salsola sinaica Brullo

+

Satureja serbaliana Danin & Hedge

+

Scorzonera drarii Täckh

+

Silene leucophylla Boiss

+

Silene schimperiana Boiss

+

Veronica islensis E. Gamal-Eldin

+

Veronica kaiseri Täckh

+

Vicia sinaica Boulos

+

Zygophyllum album L. var. album

+

Microhabitats Supporting Endemic Plants in Sinai, Egypt

375

12 10

Non-endemic Endemic

8 6 4 2 0 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,600 1,700 1,800 1,900 2,000 2,100 2,200

Altitude (m)

Fig. 1 The relationship between site elevation and species richness of both endemic and nonendemic plant species in South Sinai Table 3 Percentage overlap among 14 globally significant plant species of priority conservation in the different microhabitats of South Sinai Species

Os

Origanum syriacum ssp. Sinaicum

Pa

Phlomis aurea

56

Anarrhinum pubescens

35

37

Ap

Nepeta septemcrenata

34

38 19

Ns Ps

Polygalla sinaica

10

11 9

2

Silene leucophylla

15

21 21

17

6

Silene schimperiana

7

8

4

2

0 4

4

Sl Ss Ks

Kickxia scariosepala

11

18 8

8

0

Bufonia multiceps

21

26 26

10

20 17 5

1 3

Bm

Hypericum sinaicum

16

5

7

5

1

0

1

3

0

Hs Es

Euphorbia obovata

5

7

4

1

0

4

1

0

1

1

Ballota kaiseri

5

2

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Bs

Rosa arabica

2

4

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

Primula boveana

3

4

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

Ra Pb 0

The overlap was calculated with Jaccard coefficient [no. of quadrats shared /(no. of quadrats specific for taxon A+ no. of quadrats specific for taxon B)/100] × 100. A total number of quadrats examined is 200

376

A.-H. A. Khedr

sinaicum showed higher overlap values with both Nepeta septemcrenata (35%) and Anarrhinum pubescens (34%). Primula boveana, Rosa arabicaand Ballota kaiseri have restricted distribution to few sites in South Sinai. They showed a very low overlap distribution (40 °C). These oases have special ecological conditions and characteristics vegetation. The flora of the Egyptian oases are investigated comprises 187 species including 77 annuals plants, including hydrophytic and reed swamps plants, halophytes and xerophytes. The plant life of these oases and depressions comprises four main types of vegetation namely: reed swamps vegetation, salt marsh vegetation, sand formation vegetation and desert plain vegetation. Halophytic plants are among the most species dominated in these habitats are halophytic plants e.g. Juncus rigidus, Cyperus laevigatus, Juncus acutus, Suaeda aegyptiaca and S. monoica, Cressa cretica, Aeluropus lagopoides, Imperata cylindrica and Tamarix nilotica. Recently, these oases have attracted the attention of government authorities as a possible addition to the cultivated area of Egypt. Keywords Oases · Vegetation · Life forms · Annuals plants · Halophytes · Hydrophytes · Salt marshes · Reed swamps · Sand formation · Gravel desert

Introduction Western Desert (WD) occupying about 681,000 km2 about two-third of the total area of Egypt. It is extends from the Libyan border (25 °E) to the Nile in the east (31 °E) and from the Mediterranean coast inland (34 °N) to the border of Sudan at A. A. Elkhouly (B) Plant Ecology and Range Management Unit, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_15

383

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A. A. Elkhouly

latitude 22 °N. The WD includes inhabited oases and depression which are Siwa, Moghra, Qara, Bahariya, Farafra, WadiNatrun, Kharga, Dakhla and Baris. There are a few others are uninhabited: Qattara Depression, East Uweinat, Kurkur, Dungul and some other smaller oases (Fig. 1). Recently, oases have attracted the importance of the Egyptian government authorities as a potential addition to the cultivated regions in Egypt. Where oases represent unique regions of prosperous and promising lands

Fig. 1 Map of the Egyptian Oases in the Western Desert [2]

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

385

in the desert wasteland [1]. The oases are characterized by special environmental conditions and plant properties. In this chapter, the plant diversity of seven oases will be discussing. These oases are Siwa, Moghra, Bahariya, Wadi El Natrun, Kharga, Dakhla and Dungul. Siwa Oasis is located in the northern part of the Egyptian Western Desert, 65 km east of the Libyan border and 300 km south of the Mediterranean coast. It is located between longitudes 25 ° 18 –26° 05 E and latitude 29° 05 –29° 20 N [3]. Kharga Oasis (24° 30 –26° N, 30° 07 –30° 47 E) is one of the main oases of the Egyptian Nubian Desert (El Hadidi, 2000), with a total area of about 7200 km2 . The Dakhla Oasis is situated ca. 120 km west from the Kharga Oasis and around 300 km west of the Nile Valley, within longitudes 28°48 –29°21 E and latitudes 25°28 –25°44 N [2]. The Moghra Oasis is a small uninhabited oasis located on the northeastern of the edge of Quttara Depression in Western Desert and bounded by a 4 Km2 brackish water lake (38 m below sea level) and a swamp [4]. Wadi al-Natrun depression is located in the Beheira governorate, in the Western Desert, west of the Nile Delta, and is a narrow depression, around 110 km northwest of Cairo and 90 km south of Alexandria. It is an oasis compared to a “wadi”. The name wadi was come from its longitudinal shape. Approximately 23 m below sea level, it feeds by water that reaches it by leaking from the Nile Delta. The flow covers large portions of the cliffs On the northeast side of the lakes, resulting rise to unique marshes on water-logged earth, encrusted with salt as a result of the great evaporation rate. Unlike this scene, the opposite beach on the western side is most empty of the transition zone where it meets the desert. Excluding for Lake Al-Gaar, the lakes are famous for their highly saline water, attributable to the existence of great salt concentrations. This salty groundwater contains various salts as a result of its leakage through various layers containing salt. Tectonic forces played a vital role in the formation of Natron Valley depression. Numerous the cracks and defects caused from these forces as easy passages of groundwater that carry soluble components in the rocks beneath them, leaving residues on the surface, principally sodium carbonate. (natron, therefore the name Natroun). Until the mid-nineteenth century, this neutron was the basis for soap production in Europe, when the technique used by the French LeBlanc, who revealed how to manufacture it industrially, became well-known [5]. Bahria oasis is sited in the Egyptian Western Desert about 370 km west south of Cairo. Bahariya Oasis (27° 48 –28° 30 N, 28° 35 –29° 10 E) has an oval form of ca 1800 km2. The Oval Valley extends approximately as of the northeast to the southwest, with a length of 94 km, and a maximum width is 42 kms. The valley is bordered by mountains and several springs. Dungul oases are uninhabited small oases within the great slope of the Nubian land to the Lower Nubian Plain in southern part of Western Sahara It is located on the edge of the Sinn El-Kaddab Plateau. Dungul is situated in a lower location in the Dungul Valley. It receives their water from the blockage of drainage lines of an artesian aquifer [5]. Date palms are the main cash crop for these oases, along with olives and further fruit trees. Date palm not only produces dates, but also fibers, leaves and trunks

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which exploited locally or exported to out of the country for making baskets, chords, mats, sandals, furniture, building materials, agricultural tools and various further industries. It is a culture based on and promoting the date palm. Some vegetables are also cultivated for local consumption. Rice is grown on a small area, also some cereals for instance wheat, millet and sorghum) [5].Some further grasses are grown as fodder, such as Sudan grass. In spite of flora of the Egyptian oases is “rich in the plants, which have been used since ancient times in the treatment of a large number of diseases or as a source of fiber, oil, wood and energy or used as food and forage. Nowadays, we can observe the spread out of the new tourism villages and new building town at the desert areas of the oases, beside the randomized gathering of the economic desert plants for using in folk medicine, which may destroyed the plant community and our genetic resources, hence we may lost our valuable plants resources. In the same time anticipated climate change will greatly amplify land degradation risks and destroyed wild plants” https://ipbes.net/capacity-building-project/sustainablemanagement-natural-resources-combating-land-degradation. The Oases are severely affected by various types and processes of desertification and land degradation that resulting from the climate variations and human activities and their interaction (soil salinity, erosion and deposition by wind, depletion of groundwater and sand dunes mobilization). These activities affecting on the biodiversity in these oases.

The Ground Water The groundwater of the Nubian sandstone aquifer and carbonate aquifer represents the sole source for water supply in these oases. The water salinity, in general is marked by low (150 ppm) and moderately saline (about 2000 ppm). Cultivated Land irrigate by several hundred deep artesian wells. Some wells date back to the Pharaonic era, some to the Roman era, but most date from mid of Twenty Centaury onwards, was using modern technologies in small areas but the traditional irrigation is surface method. Most wells are over-flowing and cultivated lands have poor drainage, leading to not only the formation of sever salt affected soils but also the formation of salt marshes and abandoning the land to other areas.

Climate The climate of the Egyptian oases in the western desert belong to the hyper arid climate which is characterized by mild winter and hot summer in the northern oases or very hot summer in the southern oases (Table 1). In addition the climate is characterized by the differences between maximum and minimum air temperature not only between summer and winter but also between day and night. Maximum temperature

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

387

Table 1 Mean annual of metrological data of the Egyptian Oases during the years 1965–1975 [6]* Oasis

Temperature °C Max

Min

Mean

Relative humidity %

Evaporation Mm/day

Rainfall Mm/year

Wind velocity Km/h

Siwa

34.1

17.4

25.8

22.0

19.5

0.7

8.5

Moghra

30.1

13.6

21.9

33.3

16.4

2.8

5.3

Wadi El Natrun

28.8

14.3

21.6

54.0

9.5

41.4

8.7

Bahriya

29.7

14.2

22.0

40.0

9.8

2.7

4.9

Kharga

32.2

15.9

24.1

31.0

16.3

0.8

15.2

Dakhla

31.3

14.4

22.9

29.0

16.4

0.5

8.1

Dungul

34.1

17.1

25.6

22.0

19.5

o.7

8.5

* Measured

according to, Anonymous (1979). Climatological Normals for the Arab Republic of Egypt up to 1975. Ministry of Civil Aviation, Cairo

during summer often exceeds 40 °C, whereas minimum temperature during winter may decline close to freezing. Siwa and Dungul oases have the highest means of temperature (25.8 °C and 25.6 °C) respectively. Wadi El Natroun has the highest quantity of rainfall (41.4 mm/year), while most of the other oases are almost rainless. Mostly, the northern oases are characterized by high relative humidity and low evaporation on the contrary with the southern oases. Kharga Oasis have the highest wind velocity followed by wadi El Natroun (15.2 and 8.7 km/h) respectively. The wind velocity differs according to the season, the average of wind velocity increases during winter and autumn reaches a peak causing sandstorms, erosion and deposition by wind as well as sand dunes mobilization. Wind velocity decreases in summer and spring [6].

Habitats The main habitats in the Egyptian oases at the western desert of Egypt comprises from: (1) reed swamps, (2) wet salt marsh, (3) dry salt marsh, (4) sand dunes, (5) sand bars, (6) sand flats, (7) sand slops, (8) saline fallow land, (9) wet saline flat, (10) gravel desert, (11) main stream of wadi, and (12) cultivated lands [4, 7–18]. The salt marsh habitat of the Oases is represented in areas neighboring to lakes where water source is from the lateral infiltration of lakes water and ground water and in inland regions around springs where the water-table is very shallow. Under the predominant climatic aridity, there is great evaporation of soil water and increase of salts in the top layers of soil. Also, the salt marshes are occurred in the lands adjacent to the drains. These habitats are characterized by high mean values of EC and the water table. The reed marshes vegetation is well signified in the shallow water or in the land borders e lakes. Also, reed swamps vegetation is occurred in the reservoirs

388

A. A. Elkhouly

of the springs and the artasien wells, where the water is fresh to slightly brackish [19]. These habitats are characterized by low values of soil salinity. The habitats of sand flats or plains is characterized by high value of EC and moderate content of sand, silt and clay. On the other hand, the habitats of sand bars are distinguished by high levels of EC, sand and organic carbon. Meanwhile, the habitat of sand dune is characterized by high percentage of sand and low amount of gravels, EC and CaCO3 . The gravel desert habitat is characterized by high amount of gravel and pH, intermediate content of sand and soil moisture, and low amount of silt, clay and CaCO3 , While the main streams of wadi which cutting the gravel desert is distinguished by high content of clay, gravel and soil moisture, and low content of sand. The cultivated land is characterized by a high content of sand, and a high level of CaCO3 . The contents of sand, salinity, organic carbon and CaCO3 increase in saline wasteland habitats in comparison with cultivated land. The Moghra Oasis is a small, uninhabited oasis on the northeastern edge of the Qattara Depression, and is bordered by a lake with low salinity water., which represents the lowest part of the oasis (−38 m), and its area is about 4 km2 . The lake is bordered by salt marshes in several parts. The predominant sand formations at the western and southern ends of the lake form sand dunes adjacent the lake or in the form of deep sand sheets away from it [5]. There are two main ecosystems in Wadi Natroun: (1) Saline Marsh Depressions and (2) the Pebbles Desert. These include: (a) reed marsh vegetation and (b) salt marsh vegetation, which in turn is allocated into dry salt swamp vegetation and wet salty marsh vegetation, and (c) halfa vegetation. This difference is attributed to salinity of soil and ground water level. According to the relief, the following environment circumstances are recognized: The areas with minimal relief contain continuous ground water supply, and prevailing swamp conditions. These areas denote the typical habitat of reeds. Where the water level is shallow, the soil is dark brown and high content of organic matter. High evaporation and reduced precipitation leads to increased salinity. Under these circumstances the wet salt marsh environments formed. When the sandy soil is comparatively dry and with low salinity and organic matter, the habitat of dry salt swamp is formed. Pasture of halfa (Imperata cylindrica) grassland, the species of vegetation in this environment are sand dunes or sandy terraces. The pebbly desert habitat, neighboring the Wadi Natroun Depression, is considered portion of the gravelly Western Desert landscape dismembered through drainage runnels differing in size. Plant species in this sand-gravel environment depend principally on the scarce quantity of rainfall [5].

Floristic Compositions The families of the Angiosperma are recorded in the seven Egyptian oases comprise 153 genera including 187 species, 110 perennials and 77 annuals. Fifty families are

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

389

120 100 80 60 40

Perennials Annuals Total No. of Species

20

Total No. Of Families

0

Fig. 2 Total number of species and families in the Oases

recorded in these oases, only seven families Asteraceae, Poacea, Fabaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cyperaceae, Brasicaseae and Zygophyllaceae dominated the flora of these oases and contribute more than half (53.5%) of of the total number of recorded species, while seven families each of them represents 2.1%. The most common annuals belong to the family Poaceae and Asteraceae (Appendix Table 2). The highest numbers of families are recorded in Kharga, Siwa, and Dakhla oases (35, 34 and 34 family) respectively (Fig. 2). The genus Cyperus have the highest number of species are recorded (five species/ genus), while five genera (Acacia, Convolvulus, Tamarix, Zygophyllum and Senecio) have three species, meanwhile, twenty six genera have one species (Appendex Table 2). Figure 2 showed that, Siwa oasis has the highest number of the species are recorded (105 species) followed by Kharga and Dakhla oases (77 and 75 species) respectively, while Moghra oasis has the lowest number of species are recorded (10 species). On the other hand, Kharga and Dakhla oases have the highest number of perennials (57 and 55 species), while Siwa oasis has the highest number of annuals (53 species).

Life Forms According to life forms classification of [20], seven life forms were recorded in the oases. Figure 3 showed that, Therophytes were recorded frequently in all oases, where they scored (43%). The percentages of Chaemephytes and Hemicryptophytes have almost equal in percentage (18%). Also, Geophytes and Aquatic plants have almost equal percentages (6%). The highest number of phanerophytes and chaemephytes species are recorded in Kharga and Dakhla oases (9 and 21species) followed by Siwa oasis (7 and 19

390

A. A. Elkhouly

-1% 6%

9% Phanerophytes 18%

Chaemephytes Hemicryptophytes Geophytes

43%

Therophytes 17%

AquaƟc Parasite

7% Fig. 3 Life form spectrum of the species recorded in the Oases

species). Dungul oasis ranked the third in phanerophytes (6 species). On the other hand, Siwa oasis has the highest number of hemiciptophytes (14 species) followed by Kharga, Dakhla and Wadi El Natroun oases (11 species). The highest number of geophytes (14 and 13 species is recorded in Kharga and Dakhla oases respectively followed by (9 species) in Siwa and Wadi El Natroun oases. Almost equal number of aquatic plants (5 species) are recorded each in Kharga, Dakhla, Wadi El Natroun and Siwa Oases, while the aquatic plants are not recorded in Moghra and Dungul oases. Prasitic plant (Cistanche phelypaea) is recorded only in Siwa oasis. Therophytes were recorded frequently in all the oases, where the highest number is recorded in Siwa oasis (53 species), while in Bahria and Dungul are decreases to (one species) and are not recorded in Moghra oasis.

Distribution of Phytogeographical Regions The results of the geographical distribution of plants shows that most of species belong to combination of two or three phytogeographical regions, where, Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian chorotype represent 10.2% of the total species(Appendix Table 2). Palaeotropical region and Mediterranean region ranked second (9.6%) followed by cosmopolitan and Saharo-Arabian (7%) each, followed by combination of Saharo-Arabian and Sudano-Zambezian and combination of Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and Euro-Siberian chorotypes (6.4%) each. Five of combination chorotypes represented by (1.6%) each, while three chorotypes represented by (1%) each and six chorotypes represented by (0.5%) each (Fig. 4).

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

391

COSM

PAL

PAN

ME

SZ

ER-SR

SA-SI

IT

SA

SA-SI

SA-SZ

IT-SA

ME+IT

IT+SA-SI

ME+IT+ER-SR

SA-SI+SZ

ME+IT+SZ

ME+IT+SA-SI

ME+IT+SA-SZ

ME+SZ

ME+PAN

ME+SA-SZ

ME+SA-SI

ME+IT+SA-SI+SZ

ME+SA

ME+SA-SI+SZ

SA-SI+SZ

SA-SI+SA-SZ

SA-SI+SA-SZ+ER-SR

SA-SI+SA-SZ+IT

Pl

0% 0% 2% 3%

2%

2%

1%

0%

1% 0%

1% 0% 2% 2%

0% 0% 7% 9% 3%

6% 9% 4% 4%

10% 5% 6% 6%

7%

2% 0%

4%

Fig. 4 Floristic categories of plant species in the Oases: COSM—Cosmopolitan, PAL— Palaeotropical, PAN—Pantropical, ME—Mediterranean, S-Z—Sudano-Zambezian, SA-SZ— Saharo-Arabian-Sudano-Zambezian, ER-SR—Euro-Siberian, SA-SI—Saharo-Sindian, IR-TR— Irano-Turanian, SA—Saharo-Arabian, SM—Somalia–Masai, Pl—pluriregional

Chorological analysis in Siwa oasis revealed that mono-regional represented by 41 species which 12 species were Irano-Turanian (11.4%), the bioregional represented by 37 species which the combination of Irano-Turanian and Mediterranean is the largest number of chorotype group represented by 15 species (14.3%). On the other hand, the tri-regional chorotype was represented by 23 species (21.9% of the total flora) formed by combination of the five different phytochoria: Mediterranean, Saharo-Arabian, Sudano-Zambezian, Irano-Turanian, and Euro-Siberian. Cosmopolitan (8 species), palaeotropical (11 species) and pantropical chorotypes (3

392

A. A. Elkhouly

species) have comprised 22 species, or about 21% of the recorded flora (Appendix Table 2). The chorotypes in both Kharga and Dakhla are mostly similar. The largest number of chorotype groups is palaeotropical (7 species) in each of the oasis with a percentage of 9.2%, then Cosmopolitan (7 and 6 species) in Kharga and Dakhla respectively. mono-regional represented by 19 species in each oasis which 12 species were IranoTuranian (15.6%), the bioregional represented by 18 species each which the combination of Irano-Turanian and Mediterranean represented by 9 species (11.7%) of the recorded flora. The tri-regional chorotype was represented by 6 species (7.9% of the total flora (Appendix Table 2). Chorological analysis in Wadi El Natroun depression revealed that palaeotropical (7 species), Cosmopolitan (4 species), and pantropical chorotypes (2 species) have comprised 13 species, or about 25.5% of the recorded flora. The mono-regional represented by 14 species which 6 species were Mediterranean (11.8%), the bioregional represented by 14 species which the combination of Irano-Turanian and Mediterranean and Saharo-Arabian- Sudano-Zambezian represented by 4 species each (7.8%). The tri-regional chorotype was represented by 9 species (17.6% of the total flora) formed by combination of the five different phytochoria (Appendix Table 2). The largest of chorotype groups in Bahria oasis is the palaeotropical with a percentage of 20.0%, then Saharo-Arabian and combination of Irano-Turanian and Mediterranean with a percentage of 10.0% each. The other chorotype groups are bioregional and tri-regional chorotype represented by one species each (Appendix Table 2). Also, in Moghra oasis the largest of chorotype groups is the palaeotropical with a percentage of 33.3%. The other chorotype groups are bioregional and tri-regional chorotype represented by one species each (Appendix Table 2). The largest of chorotype groups in Dungul oasis is the Saharo-Arabian with a percentage of 25%. The other chorotype groups are bioregional and tri-regional chorotype represented by one species each (Appendix Table 2).

Vegetation Diversity Alhagi graecorum is the dominant species recorded in all the oases, it has presence (100%). Four species have presence (85.7%), Phragmites australis, Tamarix nilotica, Juncus rigidus and Phoenix dactylifera. Three species have presence (71.4%), Cyperus laevigatus, Imperata cylindrica and Typha domingensis. Also, three species have presence (57.1), Cressa cretica, Sporobolus spicata and Hyoscyamus muticus. Thirty species have presence (42.9%) followed by 48 species have presence (28.6%), while 98 species have the lowest presence (14.3%)in the oases. Ammi majus, Chenopodium murale, Echinochloa crusgalli, Kochia indica, Melilotus indica and Polypogon monspeliensis are the most common annual species in these oases. These species have presence (42.9%) (Appendix Table 2).

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

393

Seventeen dominant halophytic species in the seven oases are recorded by [17]. These species are Suaeda aegyptiaca, Aeluropus lagopoides, Alhagi graecorum, Cressa cretica, Juncus rigidus, Tamarix nilotica, Phragmites australis, Desmostachya bipinnata, Imperata cylindrica, Sarcoccornia fruticosa, Cyperus laevigatus, Phragmites australis, Sporobolus spicata, Nitraria retusa, Cressa cretica, Salsola imbricata, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, and Zygophyllum album. Also, aquatic Vascular Plants Urticulariagibba and Potamogeton pectinatus dominated in freshwater (wells, reservoirs), Ruppiamaritima and Zannichelliapalustris, dominated in brackish waters of shallow ponds, often associated with Najusgraminea and N. minor, in shallow irrigation canals, Lemnagibba and L. aequinoctialis, free floating in most water bodies. Seventy eight species are dominant, very common and common in Siwa oasis represent (74.3%), while 27 species are rare and very rare represent (25.7%) (Appendix Table 2). Four vegetation types in the wetlands of Siwa Oasis identified by [15]. These types are dominated by 7 plant species namely: Juncus rigidus, Alhagi maurorum, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Phragmites australis, Scirpus litoralis, Typha domingensis, and Ceratophyllum demersum. The vegetation in the drylands of Siwa classified by [16] into seven groups dominated by Fagonia arabica, Salsola tetrandra, Achellia fragrantissima, Nitraria retusa, Zygophyllum coccinum, Atriplex leucclada, Alhagi graucorum and Cornulaca monocantha. Forty six species are dominant, very common and common in Kharga oasis represent (60.7%), while 31 species are rare and very rare represent (40.3%) of the recorded species. In Dakhala oasis 41 species represent (54.7%) are dominant, very common and common, while 34 species are rare and very rare (45.3%) of the recorded species (Appendix Table 2). Four communities are described mainly after [19] are recognized in Kharga and Dakhla oases in wet and dry salt marshs habitat, these communities are: Juncus rigidus, Cyperus laevigatus, Cressa cretica, Alhagi maurorum, Aeluropus lagopoides, and Imperata cylindrica. Eleven communities are recorded in Kharga and Dakhla oases dominated by Zygophyllum coccinum, Hyoscyamus muticus, Tamarix nilotica, Calotropis procera, Acacia nilotica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Citrullus colocynthis, Chrozophora obliqua, Lagonychium farctum and Salsola imbricata. plants found in these oases are Urticularia gibba and Potamogeton pectinatus in freshwater (wells, reservoirs), Ruppia maritima and Zannichellia palustris, in salty waters of shallow ponds, related to Najus graminea and N. minor, in shallow watering irrigation canals, Lemna gibba and L. aequinoctialis, free floating in most water of bodies. Reed marsh vegetation type is the most grown nearby ditches, rice areas, wells, and in pools. The most plant species in this respect are: Typha domingensis and Phragmites australis, regularly related to Cyperus rotundus, C. laevigatus and Pycreus mundtii. Further associates who mayt grow on the fringes comprise: Panicum repens, Desmostachya bipinnata, Conyza bonariensis, Alhagi graecorum, Ambrosia maritima and Prosopis farcta [5]. Two halophytic vegetation types may be known in the salt marshes. Under wet salt marshes habitat, the predominant species are Cyperus laevigatus, Juncus acutus, Suaeda aegyptiaca and S. monoica. At dry salt marshes, the dominant species are Cressa cretica, Aeluropus lagopoides, Imperata cylindrica and Tamarix nilotica. Psammophytic plants occupy great areas of sandy

394

A. A. Elkhouly

plains and sand dunes, at different stages of growth. The plains are rich in vegetation [5]. The prevailing species is Alhagi graecorum, related with “Stipagrostis scoparia, Calotropis procera, Aerva javanica, Tamarix nilotica, Hyoscyamus muticus, Suaeda vermiculata, Reaumuria hirtella, and Zygophyllum album” (https://whc.unesco.org/ en/tentativelists/6067/). On the older settled sand dunes, Tamarix nilotica and Alhagi graecorum grows abundantly and may cover the sand dunes peaks and slopes. At the southernmost end of the Depression, Balanites aegyptiaca, and Hyphaene thebaica trees are found in thickets between the dunes. Numerous hundred deep artesian wells in Kharga and Dakhla offer the only source of water for irrigation the cultivated zones. Most of the wells flow excessively, creating salt marshes and abandoning the land to other zones. The most plants of this environment are: Zygophyllum coccineum, Tamarix nilotica, and Alhagi graecorum, that reflect the somewhat salty soil. Among the associated species spread are Hyoscyamus muticus, Sporobolus spicatus, Fagonia arabica, Cyperus laevigatus, Aeluropus lagopoides, and Polypogon monspeliensis [5]. There are a few endemic species that are representative of Kharga and Dakhla Oases for example: Ducrosia ismailis Asch. and Pimpinella schweinfurthii Asch., everyone belongs to a family Umbelliferae, in Kharga. Melilotus serratifolius Täckholm and Boulos (Poacea) is settlement in the Dakhla Oasis [21]. Four species are prevailing in Moghra oasis represent (40%), whereas three species are infrequent and very rare represent (60%) of the registered species (Appendix Table 2). The plant vegetation in Moghra Oasis is a combination of reed marshes, salt marshes, and sand formation vegetation. The saline flats are distinguished by the presence of Juncus rigidus between the lake and the sand formations, related to Phragmites australis, Tamarix nilotica, Limbarda crithmoides, Nitraria retusa, Cressa cretica, and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum. “Sand formations are dominated by Zygophyllum album, Nitraria retusa, Tamarix nilotica, Alhagi graecorum, and Sporobolus spicatus” (https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1808/). These are accompanying with Artemisia monosperma and several neglected date palms appearing in groves of different sizes [4]. Thirty seven species are dominant, very common and common in Wadi El Natroun depression represent (72.5%), while 14 species are rare and very rare represent (27.5%) of the recorded species (Appendix Table 2).Vegetation of Wadi El Natroun depression classified by [22] into five groups, representing five different types of communities belonging to four habitats: croplands, orchards, wastelands, and saline lakes. These communities are: Senecio glaucus subsp. coronopifolius-Chenpodium murale-Chenopoium murale occupied mainly the croplands, Melilotus indicus-Sonchus oleraceus-Digitaria sanguinalis occupied the croplands and orchards, Cynodon dactylon-Beta vulgaris-Conyza bonariensis was found mainly in the orchard habitats, Tamarix nilotica-Cyperus laevigatus-Phragmites australis prevailed in the wastelands, and Juncus rigidus-Desmostachya bipinnataTypha domingensis was dominated mainly assigned to the lakes. Twelve species are dominant, very common and common in Bahria oasis represent (60%), while four species are rare and very rare represent (40%) of the recorded species (Appendix Table 2). Two communities are recorded in the swamps habitat by

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

395

[14], Typha domingensis and Pharagmitis australis as the dominant species, where Juncus rigidus is codominant species. The vegetation of wet salt swamps dominated by Cyperus laevigatus, Juncus rigidus and Salicornia fruticosa. In the dry salt marshes, there are four species dominated by Sporobolus spicatus, Alhagi graecorum, Desmostachya bipinnata and Tamarix nilotica [14]. Ten species are dominant and common in Dungul Oasis represent (83.3%), while two species are very rare represent (16.7%) of the recorded species (Appendix Table 2). Dungul Oases is rich in biodiversity. Palm groves (three species) and extensive growth of Acacia groves form the main framework of the permanent vegetation. The focus of the floristic characteristics is the existence of the long forgotten palm Medemia argun, that was abundant in Ancient Egyptian periods however is now found only in Dungul and elsewhere in northern Sudan. It can thus be expressed in recent times to be endemic for the Nubian Desert, and it is threatened with extinction, although some individuals still growing there [5].

Discussions A total of 187 species belonging to 153 genera in 50 families of the vascular plants were recorded in the Egyptian Oases are studied. In terms of floristic and vegetation composition in the oases are studied Asteraceae, Poacea, Fabaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cyperaceae, Brasicaseae and Zygophyllaceae dominated the flora of these oases and contribute more than half of the species (53.5%). The contribution percentage of Poacea, Chenopodiaceae, Cyperaceae and Zygophyllaceae was high due to the species belong to these families grow in the saline habitats and most of them are halophytes, where most of habitats in the in the Egyptian Oases are saline habitats. Poaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Chenopodiaceae were also reported as most frequent in the reclaimed areas in other parts of Egypt in Tahrir area [23]; in the reclaimed areas of Salhiya [24]; in the farmlands of Upper Egypt[25] and; in the agroecosystems of the oases [26]. Moreover, Poaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae were found to be the most frequent families containing many weed species in other studies of the tropics [27, 28]. These families represent the most common plants in the Mediterranean and North African flora [29]. The life form of desert vegetation is closely related with rainfall, topography and land type [7, 22, 30]. The life-form variety in the current study is characteristic of an arid desert area with the prevalence of Therophytes (43%), followed by Chaemephytes and Hemicryptophytes (18%). Therophytes formed the main bulk of the total flora, which was attributed to the climatic features of these oases which is the extremely arid type [23]. Repeated occurrence of therophytes can be due to their short life cycle, availability of the water and the prevailing environmental conditions [32]. Dominance of annuals and shrubs reveals a typical desert flora, where it is closely associated with topography [30, 31]. Chamaephytes are the main abundant life form in the halophytic species in Egypt [33].

396

A. A. Elkhouly

The largest number of chorotype groups in the oases studied are palaeotropical, Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and combination of chorotypes Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian chorotypes, followed by cosmopolitan and Saharo-Arabian may be as a result of increase the cultivated areas in most of oases at the recent decades that causes increase of the alien species, also, may be such invasion of the desert plant species can be attributed to urbanization and other human activities, including livestock grazing or other household purposes in addition to fragmentation by road network and urban sprawl in the area [32]. Trees and shrubs were represented best by the Saharo-Arabian chorotype and they are known as a good indicator for desert environmental conditions, while the Mediterranean species stood for more mesic environments [23]. Kharga, Siwa, and Dakhla oases are more diverse than the other oases are investigated. They have the highest number of species (105, 77 and 75 species) in Siwa, Kharga and Dakhla oases respectively, number of families (35, 34 and 34 family) in Kharga, Siwa, and Dakhla, respectively comparing with the other oases which are investigated. Also, the percentage of dominant, very common and common species were 74.3%, 60.7% and 54.7% in Siwa, Kharga and Dakhla oases respectively. These oases more diverse in the life forms and chorotype regions comparing with the other oases which are investigated. The areas of Siwa, Kharga and Dakhla oases are more diverse than the other oases as a result of their breadth comparing with the other oases. The vast areas of Siwa, Kharga and Dakhla oases lead to more diverse in their habitats and more potentiality for species diversity in these oases than the other oases. Also, these oases including more of cultivated areas than the other oases, the cultivated areas are rich by weed species that are grew between the cultivated crops and represent high percentage of annual species. According to [1, 8–10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19] most of habitats in the seven oases are investigated are saline habitats, so most species dominated in these habitats are halophytic plants, that is explain the high presence of these species more than 50%. The vegetation distribution pattern in the study areas was mainly related to gradients in salinity which is agreement with [13]. Changes in hydrology and the increase in the number of lakes and lake area together with the agricultural development in the Egyptian Oases in the last few decades may be responsible in vegetation changes due to increase of the saline habitats and disappear of the non saline resistant species. In Siwa oasis, the wetland species Cladium mariscus and Cyperus lavigatus were included as dominant species in the list of [13] were not found again in the list of [15].

Conclusions From 187 species were recorded in the seven Egyptian Oases are studied, 110 species were perennials and 77 species were annuals. Siwa oasis has the highest number of the species are recorded followed by Kharga and Dakhla oases.

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

397

Seven families Asteraceae, Poacea, Fabaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cyperaceae, Brasicaseae and Zygophyllaceae dominated the flora of these oases and contribute more than half of the total number of recorded species. The highest number of families are recorded in Kharga, Siwa, and Dakhla oases respectively. More than fourth of the total species belong to the Mediterranean chorotype, Irano-Turanian chorotype, Palaeotropical region, cosmopolitan and Saharo-Arabian region. The highest number of dominant, very common and common species were recorded in Dungul Oasis (83.3%) followed by Siwa oasis (74.3%), while the lowest number are recorded in Moghra oasis represent (40%). Alhagi graecorum is the dominant species recorded in all the oases, it has presence (100%). Four species have presence (85.7%), Phragmites australis, Tamarix nilotica, Juncus rigidus and Phoenix dactylifera. Kharga, Siwa, and Dakhla oases are more diverse than the other oases are investigated. They have the highest number of species, number of families, life forms and chorotype regions comparing with the other oases are investigated.

Recommendations Regarding to the impacts of human activities e. g. overgrazing, over collection of medicinal plants, cultivation and civilization expanding in the Egyptian Oases on the biodiversity, it is recommended: 1. 2. 3.

Establishment Gene bank specializing for the plant species in the Egyptian oases. Protect some habitats which have endemic and very rare species especially in Kharga and Dakhla Oases. Management the flow of water which led to increase in the number of lakes and lake area together with the agricultural development in the Oases causing vegetation changes and the loss of plant species diversity.

Acknowledgements This chapter is based upon work supported by Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STIFA) under grant (30771) for the project entitled “A novel standalone solar-driven agriculture greenhouse—desalination system: that grows its energy and irrigation water” via the Newton-Mosharafa funding scheme.

Appendix See Table 2.

Chenopodiaceae

Poaceae

Poaceae

Fabaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Atriplex leucuclada L.

Aristida scoparia

Asthenatherum forsskalii (Vahl) Nevski

Astragalus trigonus DC

Balanitis egyptica Del

Poaceae

Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thwaites

Chenopodiaceae

Amaranthaceae

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) K. Koch

Asteraceae

Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch.Bip

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Acacia raddiana Savi

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile

Artemisia monosperma Delile

Fabaceae

Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne

Alhagi graucorum Boiss

Malvaceae

Family

Abutilon pannosum (G. Forst.) Schltdl

Perennials

Species

Ph

Ch

He

He

Ch

Ch

Ch

He

He

Ch

Ch

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ch

Life Form

SA–SI

–

–

–

IT + SA SA – SZ

R

IT

VC

D

ME + SA–SI IT

–

SA

D

–

IT + SA PAL

–

C

C

VR

–

–

Siwa

IT

IT

SA–SI

SA–SZ

SA–SI

IT

chorotype

–

–

–

–

–

–

R

C

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Moghra

–

–

C

–

–

–

C

C

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

D

C

–

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

C

VR

–

–

R

–

–

D

D

VR

–

–

C

–

VR

Kharga

C

VR

–

–

C

–

–

D

–

VR

–

–

C

–

VR

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

D

–

–

–

–

–

VR

–

28.6

28.6

14.3

14.3

42.9

14.3

28.6

100

28.6

28.6

14.3

14.3

42.9

14.3

28.6

P%

(continued)

Dungul

Table 2 Floristic Composition of the Different Plant Species in the Egyptian Oases Including the Classification, life forms, Chorotypes, Dominance and Presence

398 A. A. Elkhouly

Family

Umbelliferae

Cyperaceae

Polygonaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Capparaceae

Capparaceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Asteraceae

Ceratophyllaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Orobanchaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulaceae

Species

Berula erecta (Huds.) Coville

Bolboschoenus glaucus (Lam.) S.G. Smith

Calligonum comosum L’Her

Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T Aiton

Capparis aegyptia Lam

Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew

Cassia italica (Mill.) Lam. Ex Fw.Andr

Centaurea glomerata Vahl

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Chrozophora obliqua (Vahl) A.Juss. ex Spreng

Cistanche phelypaea (L.) Cout

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Convolvulus lanatus Vahl

Convolvulus pilosellifolius Desr

Table 2 (continued)

He

Ch

Ge

He

Par

Ch

Aq

He

Ch

Ph

Ch

Ph

Ch

Geo

Aq

Life Form

–

SA + IT

VR –

SA–SZ

PAL

–

SA–SI + SA–SZ

–

ME + IT

VR

–

ME + SZ

IT + SA–SI

–

SA + SZ

–

VR

IT + SA

C

–

SA + SZ

IT + ME

–

IT + SA

COSM

VR

–

Siwa

COSM

COSM

chorotype

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Moghra

–

R

–

–

–

–

–

R

–

–

–

–

R

–

C

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

VR

–

–

–

Bahriya

VR

–

R

C

–

R

–

–

R

VR

VR

C

–

–

–

Kharga

VR

–

R

C

–

C

–

–

R

VR

VR

R

–

–

–

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

28.6

14.3

42.9

28.6

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

28.6

28.6

42.9

42.9

14.3

14.3

14.3

P%

(continued)

Dungul

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert 399

Frankeniaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Echinops spinosissmus Turra

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Umbelliferae

Diverra tortousa (Desf.) DC

Frankenia hirsuta L

Poaceae

Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf

Apiaceae

Cyperaceae

Cyperus papyrus L.

Ferula marmarica Asch. & Taub. ex Asch. & Schweinf

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus L.

Zygophyllaceae

Cyperaceae

Cyperus laevigatus L.

Zygophyllaceae

Cyperaceae

Cyperus articulatus

Fagonia indica Burn F

Poaceae

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers

Fagonia arabica L.

Convolvulaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Cynanchum acutum L.

Conyza disoscoridis (L.) Desf

Cressa cretica L.

Chenopodiaceae

Asteraceae

Cornulaca monocantha

Family

Species

Table 2 (continued)

Ph

Ch

He

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

He

He

Ge

Ge

He

Ge

Ph

He

Ch

Ch

Life Form

VR –

SA + SZ IT + SA–SI

VR

VR

ME + IT ME

R

–

ME

SA

VC

–

SA–SI

–

SZ–SA + SA–SI + IT

–

C

–

C

PAL

PAN

PAL

ME

PAN

C C

PAL

–

VC

Siwa

ME + IT

SA –SZ

IT

chorotype

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

VR

–

–

Moghra

–

–

–

–

–

R

–

D

R

–

VC

C

–

–

–

–

R

WadiEl Natrun

–

R

–

–

–

–

–

D

–

–

D

–

–

–

R

–

–

Bahriya

–

–

–

VR

–

–

–

–

–

R

VC

–

C

–

R

VR

–

Kharga

–

–

–

VR

–

–

–

–

–

R

C

–

C

–

R

VR

–

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

14.3

28.6

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

14.3

28.6

14.3

28.6

71.4

14.3

42.9

14.3

57.1

28.6

28.6

P%

(continued)

Dungul

400 A. A. Elkhouly

Family

Rutaceae

Cistaceae

Cistaceae

Boraginaceae

Palmae

Solanaceae

Poaceae

Asteraceae

Juncaceae

Juncaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Lemnaceae

Poaceae

Species

Haplophyllum tuberculatum

Helianthemum stipulatum (Forssk.) C.Chr

Helianthemum vescarium Boiss

Heliotropium bacciferum Forssk

Hypheane thebaica (L.) Mart

Hyoscyamus muticus L.

Imperata clyndrica (L.) Raeusch

Inula chrithmoides L.

Juncus acutus L.

Juncus rigidus Desf

Lagonychium farctum (Banks & Sol.) Bobr

Launaea capitata (Spreng.) Dandy

Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f

Lemna gibba L

Lolium perenne L.

Table 2 (continued)

He

Aq

He

He

Ch

He

He

Ch

He

Ch

Ph

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ch

Life Form

D

ME + IT + SA–SI

– –

ME + IT + ER–SR

R

–

–

R

VR

–

D

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Moghra

PAN + Me –

IT

SA–SZ

–

–

IT

C

ME + IT

D

ME + SZ ME

VR

–

SA–SI

SZ

–

–

SA–SI + SZ SA

–

–

IT + SA–SI SA

Siwa

chorotype

R

C

–

–

–

–

D

–

–

–

–

–

VR

R

–

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

–

–

–

D

C

–

C

R

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

–

D

–

VR

VR

D

–

R

VC

C

C

VR

–

–

VR

Kharga

–

C

–

VR

VR

D

–

R

VC

C

C

VR

–

–

VR

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

–

D

–

–

D

–

C

–

–

–

–

28.6

42.9

14.3

42.9

28.6

85.7

28.6

42.9

71.4

57.1

42.9

28.6

14.3

14.3

28.6

P%

(continued)

Dungul

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert 401

Family

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Capparaceae

Boraginaceae

Najadaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Poaceae

Poaceae

Poaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Lamiaceae

Arecaceae

Poaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Loranthaceae

Salicaceae

Species

Lotus corniculatus L.

Lotus glaber Mill

Maerua crassifolia Forssk

Moltkiopsis ciliata (Forssk.) I.M.Johnst

Najas pectinata (Parl.) Magn

Nitraria retusa (Forssk.) Asch

Panicum repens L.

Panicum turgidum Forssk

Paspalidium germinatum

Pergularia tomentosa L.

Phlomis floccosa D.Don

Phoenix dactylifera L.

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. & Steud

Polycarpaea repens (Forssk.) Asch. & Schweinf

Polygonum equisetiforme Sm

Populus euphratica Oliv

Table 2 (continued)

Ph

He

He

Ge

Ph

Ch

Ch

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ch

Aq

Ch

Ph

He

He

Life Form

VR VR C

ME + IT IT + SA–SI

D

PAL

PAL

VC

–

IT + ME SA

–

–

SA + SZ VR

–

ME + IT ME

VC

SA + IT

SZ + SA

R

–

PAL

SA

–

VR

SZ

–

ME + IT + ER–SR

Siwa

COSM

chorotype

–

–

–

C

–

–

–

–

–

–

D

–

–

–

–

–

Moghra

–

–

C

R

R

VR

–

VC

C

C

C

–

R

–

–

–

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

–

C

VC

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

–

R

–

D

VR

R

–

–

–

–

–

D

–

VR

–

VR

Kharga

–

R

–

D

VR

R

–

–

–

–

–

D

–

VR

–

VR

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

C

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

14.3

42.9

28.6

85.7

85.7

42.9

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

42.9

42.9

14.3

28.6

14.3

28.6

P%

(continued)

Dungul

402 A. A. Elkhouly

Asteraceae

Caryophyllaceae

Poaceae

Sporobolus spicata (Vahl) Kunth

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola tetrandra Forssk

Spergularia media L

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola imbricata Forssk. subsp. imbricata

Sonchus maritimus L.

Chenopodiaceae

Salicornia fruticosa L.

Malvaceae

Poaceae

Saccharum spontaneum v. aegyptiacum

Sida alba L.

Zannichelliaceae

Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grand

Primulaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Ricinus communis L

Cyperaceae

Cyperaceae

Pycreus mundtii Nees

Scirpus littoralis Schrad

Asteraceae

Pulicaria undulata (L.) Kostel

Samolus valerandi L.

Family

Species

Table 2 (continued)

Ge

He

He

Ch

Ge

He

Ch

Ch

Ch

Ge

Aq

Ph

Ge

Ch

Life Form

– C – –

ME + IT IT + ME + SI SZ + SA–SI + ME

C

PAL

COSM

VR

C

SA + IT PAL

–

–

SA + ME SA

–

R

ME + IT + ER–SR ME

VR

PAL

–

VR

SZ + SA–SI PAN

Siwa

chorotype

R

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

C

–

–

–

–

–

Moghra

C

–

–

–

–

C

–

–

–

VR

–

–

C

–

WadiEl Natrun

D

–

–

–

–

–

–

D

D

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

C

R

–

VR

–

–

–

C

–

VR

D

–

R

R

Kharga

–

R

–

VR

–

–

–

C

–

VR

D

–

R

R

Dakhla

C

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

71.4

28.6

14.3

28.6

14.3

28.6

14.3

42.9

28.6

42.9

42.9

14.3

42.9

42.9

P%

(continued)

Dungul

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert 403

Ph Ph Ch

Poaceae

Poaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Tamaricaceae

Tamaricaceae

Typhaceae

Typhaceae

Lentibulariaceae

Potamogetonaceae

Stipagrostis vulnerans (Trin. & Rupr.) De Winter

Suaeda aegyptiaca (Hasselq.) Zohary

Suaeda monica Forssk Ex J.F.Gmel

Tamarix amplexicaulis Ehrenb

Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst

Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge Tamaricaceae

Papilionaceae

Stipagrostis scoparia (Trin. & Rupr.) De Winter

Tephrosia apollinea (Delile) Link

Typha domingensis (Pers.) Poir. ex Steud

Typha elephantina Roxb

Utricularia gibba ssp.exoleta L.

Zannichellia palustris L.

Aq

Aq

Aq

Ge

Ph

Ch

He

He

He

Ge

Poaceae

Stipagrostis plumosa (L.) Munro ex T. Anderson

Life Form

Family

Species

Table 2 (continued)

VC

SA–SI + SZ

–

ER–SR + ME –

–

PAN + ME

PAL

VR

PAN

–

–

SA + IT

ME

–

SA–SZ

–

R

SA–SI + SZ SZ

–

–

IT + SA–SI SA

R

Siwa

IT

chorotype

–

–

–

–

–

D

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Moghra

–

–

D

D

–

VR

–

–

–

–

–

–

C

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

–

D

–

D

–

–

–

–

–

C

–

Bahriya

D

D

–

VC

VR

D

R

–

VC

D

–

–

–

Kharga

D

D

–

VC

VR

VC

R

–

C

D

–

–

–

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

–

–

C

D

–

–

D

–

–

28.6

28.6

14.3

71.4

28.6

85.7

42.9

14.3

28.6

42.9

14.3

14.3

28.6

P%

(continued)

Dungul

404 A. A. Elkhouly

Rhamnaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Ziziphus spina–christi (L.) Desf

Zygophyllum album L.f

Zygophyllum coccineum

Poaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Brassicaceae

Avena fatua L.

Bassia muricata (L.) Asch

Beta vulgaris L.

Brassica nigra (L.) Koch

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Fabaceae

Astragalus corrugatus Bertol

Aristida mutabilis Trin. & Rupr

Th

Th Th

Apium graveolens (L.) Lag Th

Apiaceae

Anastatica hierochuntica

Th Th

Poaceae

Brassicaceae

Anagallis arvensis L.

Th

Ch

Ch

Ph

Life Form

Asphodelus fistulosus v.tenuifolius Liliaceae

Apiaceae

Primulaceae

Ammi majus L.

Astraceae

Ambrosia maritima L.

Annuals

Family

Species

Table 2 (continued)

–

+

COSM

COSM

–

– –

+ –

COSM IT + SA –

–

IT

+

– –

–

ME

–

+

ME + IT SA

–

+

SA –

–

+

–

–

–

ME

–

ME + IT + ER–SR

ME

VC

SA–SI + SZ –

D

C

ME + IT + SA–SI + SZ

Moghra –

Siwa

ME + SA – + IT + SZ

chorotype

–

– –

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

+ –

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

+

–

C

–

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

+

–

–

– +

–

–

–

–

+

–

R

–

VR

Dakhla

+

–

–

–

+

–

C

–

R

Kharga

14.3

–

–

–

–

(continued)

14.3

28.6

28.6

14.3

14.3

28.6

+ –

14.3

14.3

14.3

42.9

14.3

42.9

42.9

42.9

P%

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

VR

Dungul

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert 405

Family

Poaceae

Brassicaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Gentianaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Capparaceae

Asteraceae

Malvaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Convolvulaceae

Cyperaceae

Poaceae

Species

Bromus diandrus Roth

Cakile maritima Scop

Calendula arvensis (Vaill.) L.

Calendula officinalis L.

Centaurea calcitrapa L

Centaurium spicatum (L.) Fritsch

Chenopodium murale Linn

Cleome amblyocarpa Barratte & Murb

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist, Bull

Corchorus olitorius L.

Cotula anthemoides L.

Cotula cenaria Delile

Cuscuta campestris Yunck

Cyperus difformis

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd

Table 2 (continued)

Th

Th

Par

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Life Form

PAL

PAN

PAN

SA–SZ

SA–SI

SZ

ME

SA–SI

COSM

– –

+

–

–

+

– –

+ + –

–

+

–

–

–

+

+

ME + ER–SR

–

–

–

+

ME + IT

–

–

ME + IT

–

+

+

ME + ER–SR

–

Moghra

–

+

ME + IT + SZ

ME

Siwa

chorotype

–

–

–

–

–

–

+ –

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

–

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

WadiEl Natrun

–

+ –

– +

–

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

–

+

–

+

+

+ +

–

–

+

–

–

Dakhla

–

–

+

–

–

Kharga

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

42.9

28.6

14.3

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

P%

(continued)

Dungul

406 A. A. Elkhouly

Family

Poaceae

Poaceae

Loranthaceae

Brassicaceae

Geraniaceae

Brassicaceae

Brassicaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Boraginaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Scrophulariaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Species

Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop

Echinochloa crus–galli (L.)P. Beauv

Emex spinosa (L.)

Enarthrocarpus strangulatus Boiss

Erodium malacoides (L.) L, Her ex Gordon

Eromobium aegyptiaca (Spreng.) Asch. & Schweinf

Eruca sativa Mill

Euphorbia granulata (Sprengel) Asch. & Schweinf

Euphorbia peplus L.

Heliotropium ovalifolium Forssk

Herniaria hirsuta L.

Hippocrepis multisiliquosa L.

Iflogo spicata (Forssk.) Sch.Bip

Kickxia elatine (L.) Dumort

Kochia indica Wight

Table 2 (continued)

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Life Form

–

+ –

IT + SA–SI SA–SI + ME IT

SA

– –

– +

–

–

–

+

PAL

+

–

+

ER–SR

COSM

–

–

–

–

–

ME + IT SA– SZ

–

+

SA + SZ + SA–SI SA

–

+ –

–

–

–

–

Moghra

ME

+

ME

–

ME + IT

Siwa

PAL

chorotype

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

+

–

+ –

–

–

–

–

+ –

–

–

+ –

Bahriya

WadiEl Natrun

+

+

+ +

–

–

–

–

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

+

–

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

+

–

+

–

–

–

–

+

–

Kharga

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

42.9

28.6

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

42.9

14.3

P%

(continued)

Dungul

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert 407

Malvaceae

Fabaceae

Geraniaceae

Aizoaceae

Brassicaceae

Neuradaceae

Poaceae

Poaceae

Poaceae

Portulacaceae

Resedaceae

Loranthaceae

Monsonia nivea (Decne.) Webb

Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L

Melilotus indicus (L.) All

Neurada procumbens L.

Phalaris paradoxa L.

Poa annua L.

Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf

Portulaca oleraceae L.

Reseda lutea L.

Rumex dentatus L.

Poaceae

Lolium rigidum Gaudin

Melilotus indica (L.) All

Asteraceae

Lactuca serriola L.

Malva parviflora L.

Family

Species

Table 2 (continued)

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Life Form

– –

– + + + +

+

ME + IT + ER–SR ME + IT IT + SA SA–SI ME + SA–SI + ER–SR ME + IT

– –

+ + + –

PAL ME + IT ME + IT + SZ

COSM

–

+

ME + IT + ER–SR

–

–

–

–

ME + IT

–

–

COSM

–

–

–

–

–

+

ME + IT + ER–SR

Moghra

Siwa

chorotype

+

–

–

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

–

–

+

–

–

–

–

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

–

+

–

+

–

–

–

–

+

–

–

–

Kharga

–

–

–

+

–

+

–

–

–

–

+

–

+

–

Dakhla

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

28.6

14.3

14.3

42.9

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

14.3

28.6

42.9

14.3

14.3

14.3

P%

(continued)

Dungul

408 A. A. Elkhouly

Family

Loranthaceae

Brassicaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Poaceae

Poaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Brassicaceae

Solanaceae

Asteraceae

Poaceae

Species

Rumex vesicarius L.

Schouwia thebaica Webb

Scorpiurus muricatus L.

Senecio aegyptius L.

Senecio glaucus L.

Senecio vulgaris L.

Setaria verticillata (L.) P. Beauv

Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv

Silene gallica L.

Sisymbrium irio L.

Solanum nigrum L.

Sonchus oleraceus L.

Sorghum virgatum (Hack.) Stapf

Table 2 (continued)

CH

Th

He

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Th

Life Form

– –

– –

+ + + + + + + + +

ME + IT + SA–SI ME + IT + SA–SI ME + IT + ER–SR COSM ME + IT + SA–SI ME + ER–SR ME + IT ME + IT + ER–SR COSM

–

–

+

ME

COSM

–

+

ME + SA–SI

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

+

ME + IT + SZ

Moghra

Siwa

chorotype

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

WadiEl Natrun

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

+ +

+

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Dakhla

+

+

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Kharga

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

28.6

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

P%

(continued)

Dungul

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert 409

Fabaceae

Urticaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Trigonella stellata Forssk

Urtica urens L.

Vaccaria pyramidata Medik

Zygophyllum simplex L.

Th

Th

Th

– + + + +

IT + SA ME + ER–SR ME + IT + ER–SR SA–SI + SZ 105

–

+

ME + ER–SR ME + IT + ER–SR

+

ME + IT + ER–SR

SA–SZ

Siwa

chorotype

10

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Moghra

51

–

–

–

–

+

–

–

–

WadiEl Natrun

20

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Bahriya

77

–

–

–

–

75

–

–

–

–

–

+

+ –

–

–

Dakhla

–

–

Kharga

12

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Dungul

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

14.3

28.6

14.3

14.3

P%

Dominance D dominant, VC very common, C common, R rare, VR very rare; Life Forms Ph Phanerophytes, Par Parasite, Ch Chamaephytes, He Hemicryptophytes, Ge Geophytes, Aq. Aquatic, Th Therophytes; Chorotypes COSM Cosmopolitan, PAL Palaeotropical, PAN Pantropical, ME Mediterranean, SZ Sudano-Zambezian, SA-SZ Saharo-Arabian-Sudano-Zambezian, ER-SR Euro-Siberian, SA-SI Saharo-Sindian, IT Irano-Turanian, SA Saharo-Arabian, SM Somalia–Masai, Pl pluriregional; Presence + = Present, – = Absent

Total of Species

Th Th

Th

Th

Fabaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Stellaria media (Dumort.) Murb

Th

Trifolium resupinatum L.

Caryophyllaceae

Spergularia marina (L.) Griseb

Life Form

Trichodesma africanum (L.) R.Br Boraginaceae

Family

Species

Table 2 (continued)

410 A. A. Elkhouly

Plant Diversity in the Egyptian Oases of Western Desert

411

References 1. Abu-Ziada ME, Al-Shamy MMA, Jalal MJ (2016) Ecological Study on Vegetation of Abu Tartur Plateau, the New Valley. Egypt J Environ Sci Technol 9(1):88–99 2. Mohammed SHI (2021) The Egyptian Western Desert: water, agriculture and the culture of Oases communities. In: Iwasaki E et al (eds) Sustainable water solutions in the Western Desert. Dakhla Oasis, Egypt Earth and environmental sciences library. Springer Nature, Switzerland AG 20213. Abd. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64005-7_2 3. El-Ghani M (2000) Vegetation composition of Egyptian inland saltmarshes. Bot Bull Acad Sin 41:305–314 4. Shalaby EEE (2016) Cultivation of some promising Halophytes in North of Qattara Depression. Final report, Academy of Scientific Research and Technology 5. Egyptian National UNESCO Commission (2003) Southern and Smaller Oases, the Western Desert. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1808/ 6. Anonymous (1979) Climatological normals for the Arab Republic of Egypt up to 1975. Ministry of Civil Aviation, Cairo 7. Kassas M, Girgis WA (1965) Habitat and plant communities in the Egyptian Desert: VI. The units of a desert ecosystem. J Ecol 53(3) 8. Zahran MA (1966) Ecological studies of Wadi Dungul Bull of Desert Inst. Tom XVI 1:127–141 9. Zahran, M.A. & Girgis, W.A. (1970). On the ecology of Wadi ElNatrun Bull Inst Désert Égypte, 20(1): 229–267 10. Kassas M, Zahran MA (1967) On the ecology of the Red Sea littoral salt marsh. Egypt. Ecol Monogras 37(4):297–315 11. El-Hadidi MN (1971) Distribution of Cyperus paprus L. and Nymphaea lotus L. in inland waters of Egypt. Mitt Bot Sataatssamml Munchen 10:470–475 12. Girgis WA, Zahran M, Reda KA, Shams H (1971) Ecological notes on Moghra Oasis. Egypt J Bot. 14:145–155 13. Zahran MA (1972) On the ecology of Siwa Oasis. Egypt J Bot 15:223–224 14. Girgis WA (1977). An ecological survey of Bahariya Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt. Bull. Soc. Geog. Egypt. (C.F. Abu-Ziada, M.E. (1980). Ecological studies on the flora of the Kharga and Dakhla oases of the western desert of Egypt. Ph.D. Thesis, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt 15. El-Khouly AA, Khedr AA (2000) Species diversity and phenology of the wetland vegetation in Siwa Oasis, western desert. Egypt. Desert Inst Bull Egypt 50(2):325–343 16. El-Khouly AA (2001) Plant diversity in the dryland habitats of Siwa Oasis, Western Desert. Egypt. J Environ Sci 22:125–143 17. EL-Khouly AA, Zahran MA (2002) On the ecology of the halophytic vegetation of the Oases in Egypt. In: International symposium on optimum resources utilization in salt-affected ecosystems in arid and semi-arid regions. Cairo, Egypt, 277–286 18. El-Khouly AA (2004) Effect of human activities on vegetation diversity in Siwa Oasis. J Environ Sci 28:191–213 19. Zahran MA, Willis AJ (2009). The vegetation of Egypt. In: Werger MJA (ed) Plant and vegetation 2nd edn., vol 2. Springer 20. Raunkiaer C (1937) The plant life forms and statistical plant geography. Clarendon Press, Oxford 21. Abu-Ziada ME (1980) Ecological studies on the flora of the Kharga and Dakhla oases of the western desert of Egypt. Ph.D. Thesis, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt 22. Abd El-Ghani M, Hamdy RS, Hamed Azza B (2015) Flora and vegetation of Wadi El-Natrun Depression, Egypt. Phytol Balcan 21(3) 23. Soliman A (1989) Studies on plant life in the area of South Tahrir. MSc Thesis. Univ. Cairo, Egypt (unpubl.). 24. Shehata MN, El-Fahar RA (2000) The vegetation of reclaimed areas in Salhiya region. Proceedings of the 1st international conference biology science (ICBS). Faculty of Science, Tanta University 1:315–332

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25. Mustafa G (2002) Some aspects of the biodiversity of the weed flora of the farmlands in Upper Egypt. MSc Thesis, Univ. Cairo, Egypt (unpubl.). 26. Abd El-Ghani MM, Fawzy AM (2006) Plant diversity around Springs and wells in Five Oases of the Western Desert. Egypt. Int J Agricul Biol 8(2):249–255 27. Åfors M (1994) Weeds and weed management in small-scale cropping systems in northern Zambia. Crop Production Science 21, Department of Crop Production Science, Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci., Uppsala. Sweden 28. Tamado T, Milberg P (2000) Weed flora in arable fields of eastern Ethiopia, with emphasis on the occurrence of Parthenium hysterophorus. Weed Res 40:507–521 29. Quézel P (1978) Analysis of the flora of Mediterranean and Saharan Africa. Ann Missouri Bot Gard 65:479–534. El Hadidi, M., N 2000 Flora Aegyptiaca 1 Palm press Cairo, Egypt 30. Zohary M (1973). Geobotanical Foundations of the Middle East. vols 1–2. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. 31. Orshan G (1986) The sesert of the Middle East. In: Evenari M, NoyMeir I, Goodall DW (eds) ecosystems of the world, vol 12B. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1–28 32. Shaltout KH, El-Fahar R (1991) Diversity and phenology of weed communities in the Nile Delta region. J Veg Sci 2:385–390 33. Zahran MA (1982) Ecology of the halophytic vegetation of Egypt. In: Sen DN, Rajpurohit KKS (eds) Tasks for vegetation Science, vol 2. Dr. W. Junk Publisher, The Hague, 3–20

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts as Economic Plants Ahmed A. Elkhouly

Abstract Forty eight halophytic species are reported in this chapter to evaluate their potentialities as economic plants. These species distributed in the salt marshes and saline land of Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea coasts as well as in the Egyptian Oases. Of 48 halophytes species are reported, 26 species represent (54.2%) have can be providing more than four economic potentialities and services for the ecosystems. Twenty nine halophtic species represent (60.4%) of total halophytes are reported uses as either in forage or fodder production many of them are of great interest to grazers because of their long production period which can be closes the gap of fodder deficiency in Egypt especially in Summer season. Eight halophytic species represent (16.7%) of total halophytes are reported are as very important as medicinal and aromatic plants, it contain all the phytochemical constituents are screened (flavonoids and/or phenolics, carbohydrates and/or glycosides, amino acids, protein, unsaturated sterols and/or triterpenes alkaloids and/or nitrogenous bases, tannins, oil, and saponin). Fourteen species represent about (30%) of the total halophytic species are reported in this study can be propagated by more than three methods. Some of halophytes seeds propagated by sea water or by sever salinity water. These halophytes can be cultivated by using sea water and/or sever salinity water, which prove their high potentiality as economic crops distinguish by less cost in cultivation as well as decrease the use of fresh water in cultivation. These findings support the importance of development these halophytes in the future planning for development in Egypt and other countries in the arid regions. Keywords Halophytes · Habitats · Distribution · Forage · Edible · Medicin · Bioremediation · Fiber · Propagation · Development

Introduction Now, the world population is more than 7 billion barriers, which requires an enormous amount of food. On the other hand, extensive agricultural practices have destroyed A. A. Elkhouly (B) Department of Plant Ecology, Desert Rearch Center, Cairo, Egypt © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_16

413

414

A. A. Elkhouly

the arable areas of the world as a result of salinity, water logging, chemical pollution etc. The situation is more hazardous in arid and semi-arid countries with low rainfall and high evapotranspiration. With scarce or limited freshwater resources, traditional irrigation practices, and flood irrigation without any regard for the leaching portion, all cause a steady increase in soil salinity in many areas [1]. According to FAO [2] estimates, 25–30 million ha from 255 million ha of irrigated land in the world were strictly degraded due to accumulation of salts. A further 80 million ha were recorded to be influenced by salinization and water logging [3]. Based on [4], every year, a million hectares of fertile lands lose their potency as a result of salt accumulation, which causes an increase in the problem of soil salinity worldwide. Different information and statistics display that at least 3 ha of arable lands every minute in the world are deteriorated by salinity [5]. Although salinity at the present time is mainly regionally important, advanced technologies in agriculture help reduce the problem and provide food, but if this trend continues in the future it will lead to a decrease in crop production needed for human and animal consumption [1]. So, it has become vital tofind out appropriate alternatives and develop environmentally sustainable and economically sound biological schemes that can use water with low quality and drought-saline and affected lands in agriculture for production plants of economic importance. An enormous number of halophytes can be utilized as animal forage or fodder without infringing on arable land and irrigation water [1]. A major aim of this study is to evaluate the potential of Egyptian halophytes for wide economic purposes in arid areas in the light of the progressive scarcity of fresh water resources and the salinity of the soil. Major topics are to recognize and select crop species tolerant to saline stress to evaluate the potential use of non-conventional water for example sea water and sever saline water of wells, to throwing the light on the halophytes which had possible importance in human or animal nutrition, medicine, fiber materials, oil and their other uses in bioremediation wastewater and salt affected soil.

Background A halophyte is defined as a plant which grows normally and completes its life cycle as it is influenced by salinity in the root zone or by salt spray, as is the case under saline semi-regions, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs, and seashores. Mechanisms of tolerating or avoiding salt are important in adaptation to salty environments. Plants that evade the effects of great salt (e.g. completes its life cycle through rainy season) even although they live in a salty condition might be revealed as facultative halophytes in comparison with obligate halophytes. Obligate halophytes (xerohalophytes are the desert plants of halophytes) are species that prosper when given water having more than 0.5% NaCl [6]. Halophytes are often categorized as secretor/receptor against succulents or as excluders against includes. The development of phenological, physiological, and biochemical mechanisms are important characteristic of plant

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts …

415

strains in many plant families to tolerate salt [7]. Many Egyptian scientists studied the ecology and physiology of halophytes, in recent time, some of them tried to maximize their uses for local people and as economic plants.

Floristic Composition of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts Fourty eight halophytic species are reported in this study are distributed in the Egyptian deserts (Table 1). These halophytic are distributed in fifteen families of the Angiospermae. Only one of these families—family Chenopodiaceae contributes more than one-third (36.2%) of the total number of the reported species, followed by family Poaceae which represented by (19.1%) (Fig. 1). These families comprise33 genera including 47 species. Genus Salsola represented by the highest number of species are recorded (5 species), followed by genus Atriplex and Suaeda represented by 4 species, while 6 species represented by two species and 13 genus represented by one species (Table 1).

Distribution of the Economic Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts The halophytic species are distributed in most of the phytogeographical zones in Egypt. The coasts of the Mediterranean (west and east of the Mediterranean) including the highest number of halophytic species are recorded, followed by the coasts of the Red Sea including Suez Gulf and Aqaba Gulf in Sinai Peninsula, followed by the oases (Table 1). Some of halophytic species distribute in all the Egyptian deserts e.g. Aeluropus lagopoides and Nitraria retusa, while some of them districted in one phytogeographical zone e.g. Aeluropus littoralis, Atriplex nummularia and Lygeum spartum in the west of Mediterranean sea or Juncus acutus in the Oases.

Habitats of the Economic Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts The habitats of Most of halophytes in the Egyptian deserts are spread in salt marshes habitats (wet and dry) at the coasts of Mediterranean, Red Sea and/or at the Oases and depressions. Also, some of these plants grow in the coastal sand formations habitats e.g. Limonium axillare,Salsola kali and Silene succulenta. Two species inhabited the sea shore line, Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata. Some of Egyptian halophytes have wide ecological amplitude e.g. Cyperus rotundus in Reed Swamps, dry and wet salt marshes and Zygophyllum album in habit dry and coastal salt marshes

Chenopodiaceae

Avicennaceae

Convolvulaceae

Poaceae

Poaceae

Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh

Cressa cretica L

Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pres

Cyperus laevigatusL., Mant. Alt. var. laevigatus

Chenopodiaceae

Atriplex halimus L. Gr

Atriplex farinosa Forssk

Chenopodiaceae

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.)K.Koch

Chenopodiaceae

Fabaceae

Alhagi graecorum Boiss

Chenopodiaceae

Poaceae

Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl

Atriplex nummularia Lindl

Poaceae

Aeluropus lagopoides (L.)Trin.exThwaites

Atriplex leucoclada Boiss

Family

Species

Table 1 Potentialities of economic halophytes in Egypt*

IS, DSM

WSM, DSM

SHL

CSF

IS

DSM, IS

DSM, IS

WSM, CSF

IS, DSM

CSF

DSM

Habitats

WM, NS, RSC, WSM IN

DMC, O, WM, NS

O, WM

RSC, SS

RSC

WM

WM, SS, O

WM, DMC

WM, O, DMC

O, DMC, NS, SS, WM

WM

O, WM, RSC, NS, SS, Wd, DMC

Distribution

S

R, S

Method of Propagation

M, FF, RM, Han, E, B

FF, M, Fu, Ss

M, Fu Ss

M, FF, Pb. Nf, Pe, Nb

M

FF, M, Fu Ss, Wb, B

FF, M

FF, M, E, Fu,Or, Wb, Ss, B, Su

FF, M, Fu, Su, Wb, Or, Ss

S, R

R, S

S

S

S

S, TC

S

S, TC

C

FF, M, E, Fu S, TC Ss, Wb, Sf

M, FF

FF, M, E, Fu, Ss

Economic Value

[18, 19, 50, 64, 65]

[33, 50, 51, 62, 63]

[11, 14, 50, 60, 61]

[18, 19, 59]

[18, 19]

[36, 37, 40–49, 57, 58]

[13, 36, 37, 40–56]

[14, 35–53]

[14, 18, 19, 31–34]

[20–30]

[12, 13, 15, 17–19]

[8–16]

References

(continued)

416 A. A. Elkhouly

Juncaceae

Juncaceae

Poaceae

Juncus acutus L

Juncus rigidus Desf

Lygeum spartum L

WM

WM, DMC

O

WM

Mesembryanthemum crystallinum Aizoaceae

WM

NS, SS, RSC, WM

Plumbaginaceae

Asteraceae

Inula crithmoides L

O, NS, SS

Limonium pruinosum (L.) Chaz

Poaceae

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch

CSM

IS

WSM, DSM, RS

Habitats

IS, CSF

IS, CSF

CSF

CSM

CSF

CSM

WSM

WSM

WSM, IS

RSC, WM, NS, CSM, SS WSM

RSC

Chenopodiaceae

Halopeplis perfoliata (Forssk.)

WM, DMC

Plumbaginaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Halocnemum strobilaceum (Pallas)M.Bieb

O, RSC

Limonium axillare(Forssk.) Kuntze

Poaceae

Desmostachyabipinnata (L.) Stapf

O

DMC, WM

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus L

Distribution

Limnoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Plumbaginaceae Boiss

Family

Species

Table 1 (continued) Method of Propagation

M, Ss, Su

FF

M

FF, M

F, B

FF, Wb, F, M, Han

F, FF, Han, Ss, Wb, M

E, M

FF, F, Han, Fs

M, FF

FF, M, Ss, Wb

F, FF, Han, M, Pe, E

S

S

S

TC

S

S, R

S

S

R

S

S, TC

R

FF, M, Ss, B S, R

Economic Value

[13, 111, 112]

[50–52, 75

[18, 19, 110]

[14, 52, 53, 74, 105–109]

[16, 99–104]

[13, 14, 18, 19, 85, [96–98]

[13, 96, 97]

[13, 91–95]

[70, 74, 83–90]

[13, 18, 19, 29, 79–82]

[13, 14, 33, 65, 75–78]

[67–74]

[65, 66]

References

(continued)

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts … 417

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola imbricate subsp gatetula (Maire) Boulos

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola baryosma. Roem.& Schult

Sarcocornia fruticosa (L.)A.J.Scott

Chenopodiaceae

Salicomia fruticosa L

Chenopodiaceae

Rhizophoraceae

Rhizophora mucronataLam

Salsola villosa Schult

Poaceae

Phragmites australis (Cav.)Trin.exSteud

Chenopodiaceae

Poaceae

Panicum turgidum Forssk

Chenopodiaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Nitraria retusa (Forssk.) Asch

Salsola tetrandra Forssk

Aizoaceae

Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum

Salsola kali L

Family

Species

Table 1 (continued)

IS, CSF

IS, CSF

Habitats

IS, SW

WSM

SHL

WSM, RS

DMC

O, NS, SS, DMC

WM, O, NS, SS,

DMC

WSM

IS, SW

DSM, SW

CSF

O, NS, SS, WM CSF, IS, SW

RSC, O, NS, SS, GE

WM

RSC

DMC, O, NS, SS

RSC, NS, SS, O CSF, IS

O, WM, RSC, NS, SS, Wd

WM, DMC

Distribution

S, R, C

S, R

S, TC

S

Method of Propagation

S

S

C

FF, Fu, M, Ss, Wb, Ss, RM, Su

M, FF

FF, M, Ss, Wb

TC

S

S

E, M, FF, Su S

M

M

Ss, Wb

M, FF, T, Pb, S Nf, Pe, Nb

FF, M, Ss,Wb, B, Han

FF, M, E, Wb, Ss, Sf, Han

FF, M, Fu, E, B, Si

M, Ss

Economic Value

[33, 133, 163–166]

[36, 37, 161, 162]

(continued)

[13, 14, 16, 29, 36, 37, 50, 157–160]

[13, 20, 33, 36, 37, 145–156]

[29, 36, 37, 137, 139–144]

[11, 29, 36, 37, 135–138]

[14, 36, 37, 50, 132–134]

[18, 19, 131]

[13, 17, 33, 50, 83, 126–130]

[18, 19, 25, 50, 119–125]

[7, 13, 113–118]

[13, 33, 113, 114

References

418 A. A. Elkhouly

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Tamaricaceae

Tamaricaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Suaeda monoica Forssk.exJ.F.Gmel

Suaeda pruinosa Lange

Suaeda vemiculata Forssk.exJ.F.Gmel

Tamarix aphylla (L.)H.Krast

Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.)Bunge

Zygophyllum album L.f

IS, CSF

DSM, IS

IS, CSF, DSM

CSF, IS

IS

IS, CSF

SW

M, Ss, Wb

FF, Fu, M, Ss, Wb, Fs

M, Wb, Ss, Or, Fs

M, Ss, Wb, Su, E, FF, T

FF, Fu, M, Ss, Wb

M

E, M

FF, E, Es

M

M

M, E, F, B, Wb, Pe

Economic Value

S

C

C, S

S

S

S

C

S

S

S

S, R

Method of Propagation

[14, 16, 18, 19, 33, 209, 210]

[18, 19, 33, 49, 209, 210]

[49, 50, 65, 204–206]

[13, 36, 37, 51, 192–203]

[33, 36, 37, 51]

[14, 18, 19, 36, 37, 186–191]

[13, 36, 57, 183–185]

[19, 180–182]

[174–179]

[50, 172, 173]

[13, 166–171]

References

in Egypt are coded as O oases; WM west Mediterranean coast; NS north Sinai; SS South Sinai; RSC Red sea coast; ED Eastern desert; Wd western desert; DMC deltaic Mediterranean coast; GE Gebel Elba; IN Iland of Nile. Habitats are coded as WSM wet salt marshes; DSM dry salt marshes; CSF coastal sand Formations; CSM coastal salt marshes; IS inland saline; RS Reed Swamps; SHL Sea shore line; SW stony wadis. Economic potentialities and services are coded as follows FF forage and odder production; M medicinal; E edible food; Fu fuel wood; T Tanning; F Fiber; B Bioremediation potential; Ss sand stabilization; Sf soil fertility; Wb windbreak; Es esthetic value; Or ornamental; RM rope making; Han used in making hand crafts, Pb provision of pollen to bees, Nf nurseries for fish species, Pe prevents erosion from waves and storms, Nb nests of Birds; Su soap substitute; Si soil indicator; Fs making of thatches and shelters. Methods of Propagation are coded as S seeds; R rhizomes; C cutting; TC tissue culture

O, WM, RSC, NS, SS, DMC

O, WM, RSC, NS, SS, DMC

O

O, WM, NS, SS, DSM

WM, NS

RSC, O, NS, SS IS, CSF

DMC

* Distribution

CSF

CSM, RS

Habitats

NS, DMC, WM CSM

NS, DMC

Chenopodiaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Spergularia marina (L.)

Suaeda aegyptiaca (Hasselq.)

Caryophyllaceae

Silene succulenta Forssk

DMC

O, WM, RSC, NS, SS, Wd

Cyperaceae

Scirpus maritimus L

Distribution

Sporobolus spicatus (Vahl) Knuth Poaceae

Family

Species

Table 1 (continued)

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts … 419

420

A. A. Elkhouly

40 35 30 25 % 20 15 10 5 0

Fig. 1 Percentage of families including the halophytic species

and in land saline. Little of halophytes grow in stony wadis e.g. Salsola imbricate subsp imbricate, Salsola villosa and Salsola tetrandra (Table 1).

Economic Values of Halophytes Halophytes have their greatest potential indirectly in contributing to the world’s food supply, and also in the development and protection, and the production of cheap biomass for renewable energy, checks land erosion and degradation, stabilization of coasts and beaches; and support to development of wild-life sanctuary and recreation areas and climate improvement and CO2 sequestration [17, 209]. The halophytic species in the Egyptian deserts reported in this study can be providing many economic potentialities and services for the ecosystems e.g. grazing, medicinal, edible food, fuel wood, tanning, fiber, bioremediation potential, sand stabilization, soil fertility, windbreak, esthetic and ornamental value, provision of biodiversity and soil protection. Some of these species have nine, eight or seven economic potentialities e.g. Alhagi graecorum, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Atriplex halimus, Rhizophora mucronata, Sarcocornia fruticosa and Suaeda vemiculata.

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts …

421

Edible Food Most of crops which consumed by human as food are not salinity tolerate. From the halophytes which are reported here, 12 species are edible food. Some of these species, the hall plant is edible e. g Salsola kali cooked as premium food with crunchy soft texture, the leaves can be used as a substitute for spinach or added in small amounts to the salads [145–149]. Other halophytes e.g. Atriplex halimus, the young leaves and shoots of have been used for vegetables and salads [4]. A sweet-tasting manna is exuded of the twigs at the time of flowering and from the pods of Alhagi graecorum, it is laxative and sweet A famine food, it is used only in periods of need [20, 21, 23]. It comprises about 47% melizitose, 26% sucrose, 12% invert sugar [22]. Spergularia marina, a native common food in South Korea, it was considered a nourishing source for amino acids, vitamins, and minerals [179].

Forages and Fodders Production From forty eight halophytic species reported in (Table 1), 29 species uses as either in forage or fodder production. The foliage species such as Atriplex spp., and Salsola spp. are used to feed cattle. Various species of Salicornia spp., Suaeda spp. and Kochia spp. are popular fodder shrubs [36]. The grasses species e.g. Aeluropus litorallis, Panicum turgidum, Phragmites australis and Impeata cylindrica are popular species found in salt and alkaline regions in Egypt and used as forages for sheeps and goats[13, 17, 35, 83]. Atriplex and Tamarix can be used as feed for livestock and wildlife [49]. Atriplex and Suaeda fruticosaare deliciously are consumed by livestock and overgrazed in their natural environments. Halocnemum strobilaceum is used as fodder due to its rich protein content [78]. During summer and autumn in the Mediterranean region, the animals face a difficult of insufficient feed available from pastures is dry grass or stubbles [210]. In Egypt summer period covers at least half of the year which is particularly dry. Therefore, summer -green fodder is a major problem in Egypt [211]. Many halophytic populations are of great interest to grazers because of their long production period. The vegetation still green during the dry season, and hence constitutes good summer grazing [211]. The forage production varied between the halophytic species recorded in the Egyptian deserts. Elkhouly and Ahmed [18] recorded that, Avicennia marina have the highest value of productivity (986 gm/indivedual) in the Red Sea coast habitat of Egypt, followed by Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (935 gm/individual), while Halopeplis perfoliata have the lowest value (180 gm/individual) (Fig. 2). Franclet and Le Houerou [212] reported that the total above ground biomass of Atriplex halimus in the Mediterranean region may reach 10–15 tones and productivity 2000–5000 kg DM ha−1 year−1 , of which 50% is forge and 50% wood. Species ij

422

A. A. Elkhouly

1200

gm/indivedual

1000 800 600 400 200 0

Fig. 2 Comparison between the Productivity of Halophytes Recorded During Winter at the Red Sea Coast Habitats

of Suaeda, Salsola, Arthrocnemum, and Salicornia may also have biomass of 2000– 5000 kg DM ha−1 year−1 and productivity may reach 500–2500 kg DM ha−1 year−1 , with 40–50% forage. The average of accessible dry matter production per mm rainfall was 7.5% Kg ha−1 in the saline depression habitats of Matruh area, Western Mediterraneancoast of Egypt [213]. The average of the annual yield of halophytes species in grazed stands, burned stands and ungrazed/unburned stands at Siwa Oasis was 7406, 1462, and 8251 kg ha−1 respectively (average of 5706 kg ha−1 . For the study area). Halophyte plant species vary considerably in their nutritive value. Most of the nutritive values of Alhagi graecorum, Phragmites australis, Juncus rigidus and Impeata cylindricawere higher in the dry season than in the wet one excluding NFE. Alhagi graecorum had the higher value of TDN and DCP followed by the old sprouts of P.australis. The average values of TDN and DCP of the halophytes species studies in Siwa Oasis were 58.67% and 3.91% respectively [83]. The TDN and DCP of the halophytic shrubs in Sinai Pininsula were 35.2% and 4.6% [214], of Atriplex nummularia were 57.3% and 8.32%, of the saline depressions of Matrouh area were 66.4 and 4.9% [214]. Heniady and Halmy [125] found that the studied Panicum turgidum populations of Wady El-Natrun region had the highest total digestible nutrients (64.91%), gross energy (4.27 Mcal kg–1 DM), digestible energy (2.85 Mcal kg–1 DM), metabolized energy (2.44 Mcal kg–1 DM), and net energy (1.22 Mcal kg–1 DM).

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts …

423

In the dry season the carrying capacity of these halophytes was approximately twice of that in the wet season. Alhagi graecorum and the new sprouts of J. rigidus had a very high palatability [85].

Oil Seeds Seeds of different halophytes, for example Suaeda fruticosa, Arthrocnemum spp., and Salicornia spp. have a adequate quantity of high quality edible oil and unsaturation varied from 70 to 80% [37]. Thus, the exploration of vital halophytes species might be an alternative source of edible oil. The oil seeds of Sporobolus spicatus and Suaeda aegyptiaca are edible [184].

Fuel Wood and Coal In Egypt and in many developing countries people use wood for cooking and warming. Fuelwood is usually produced from salt-tolerant trees and shrubs, which may include Tamarix spp., Salsola spp., Atriplex spp. and Suaeda spp. In addition Tamarix aphylla [17] and Avicennia marina [59] can give high quality wood and also contribute to coal production.

Medicinal Uses Medicinal plants are an integral component of ethno medicine in Egypt and more than 342 species of medicinal plants are collected from wild [215]. Forty four species of forty eight halophytic species are reported in this study have medicinal potentiality (Table 2). Figure 3 showed that the average density of halophytes species in South east of Egypt ranged between(1.5 individual/100 m2 ) in A. farinosa to (352 individual/100 m2 ) in A. lagopoide. Inthe Northwestern Coast of Mediterranean of Egypt, the average density of perenial halophytes species ranged between (39.5 individual/100 m2 ) in Alhagi graecorum to (139.7 individual/100 m2 ) in Juncus rigidus, while the average density ofannual halophytes species are recorded were (285.8 individual/10 0m2 ) in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum and (235.3 individual/100 m2 ) in Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum(Fig. 4). Halophyet species in the Egyptian desert characterized by their presence in various pharmaceutical chemicals (Table 2). The phytochemical screening of forty four medicinal halophytes species are reported cleared that, thirty four species of them have flavonoids and/or phenolics, 33 species have carbohydrates and/or glycosides, 32 species have amino acids, 30 species have protein, 20 species have unsaturated sterols and/or triterpenes, 27 species have alkaloids and/or nitrogenous bases, 28

Lygeum spartum

Juncus rigidus

Inula crithmoides

Halopeplis perfoliata

Halocnemum strobilaceum

Desmostachyabipinnata

Cyperus rotundus

Cyperus laevigatus

Cynodon dactylon

Cressa cretica

Avicennia marina

Atriplex farinose

Atriplex nummularia

Atriplex leucoclada

Atriplex halimus

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum

√ √ √

√

√

√

– √

√

√

– √

√

√

√

– √

– √

– √

√

– √

√

√

√

√

–

√

√

√

– √

–

√

√

– √

√

– √

√

√

– √

√

√

√

√

√

Alhagi graecorum

Aeluropus littoralis

√

√ √

– √

Aeluropus lagopoides

Amino acids

Protein

Carbohydrates and/or Glycosides

Species

Table 2 Phytochemical screening of Halophytes species are Reported

–

–

–

√

– √

– √

– √

√

– √

–

√

√

√

– √

Alkaloids and/or Nitrogenous Bases

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

– √

√

√

√

– √

√

√

√

√

Flavonoids and/or Phenolics √

–

–

–

√

– √

– √

√

– √

– √

– √

√

– √

Sap

–

–

–

√

– √

–

√

√

√

√

– √

√

√

√

√

– √

Tan

–

–

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

– √

– √

√

–

√

– √

Unsaturated Sterols and/or Triterpenes

(continued)

–

–

– √

–

√

– √

–

–

–

–

–

–

√

√

– √

–

Oil

424 A. A. Elkhouly

Silene succulenta

Sarcocornia fruticosa

Salsola villosa

Salsola tetrandra

Salsola kali

Salsola imbricate subsp gatetula

Salsola baryosma

Salicomia fruticosa

Rhizophora mucronata

Phragmites australis

Panicum turgidum

Nitraria retusa

Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum

Mesembryanthemum crystallinum

Limonium pruinosum

√

√

– √

√

√

√

– √

√

√

– √ √

√

– √

–

–

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

–

Amino acids

– √

– √

–

–

√

– √

√

√

√

√

√

√

– √

√

√

√

Limonium axillare

–

–

Limnoniastrum monopetalum

Protein

Carbohydrates and/or Glycosides

Species

Table 2 (continued)

–

–

√

√

√

√

√

√

– √

√

√

√

– √

√

√

Alkaloids and/or Nitrogenous Bases

–

√

√

√

√

– √

–

– √

–

√

–

–

√

√

Flavonoids and/or Phenolics √

–

–

–

– √

– √

√

– √

√

√

–

√

– √

–

Sap

–

–

–

– √

–

–

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

Tan

√

√

– √

√

√

√

– √

–

√

√

– √

–

–

Unsaturated Sterols and/or Triterpenes

(continued)

√

√

√

√

√

–

–

√

– √

–

√

√

– √

–

–

Oil

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts … 425

√

√

√

√ √ √ √

– √

√

√

√

√

– √

√

Protein

Carbohydrates and/or Glycosides

Zygophyllum album √ present, – absent, Sap saponin, Tan Tanins

Tamarix nilotica

Tamarix aphylla

Suaeda vemiculata

Suaeda pruinosa

Suaeda monoica

Suaeda aegyptiaca

Spergularia marina

Species

Table 2 (continued)

√

√

√

√

– √

√

Amino acids

√

– √

–

–

√

– √

Alkaloids and/or Nitrogenous Bases

√

√

√

√

√

√

– √

Flavonoids and/or Phenolics

√

√

– √

–

–

–

–

Sap

√

√

– √

√

– √

–

Tan

√

– √

– √

√

√

Unsaturated Sterols and/or Triterpenes √

– √

–

–

– √

√

√

Oil

426 A. A. Elkhouly

Potentialities of Halophytes in the Egyptian Deserts …

427

400 352 350

Indivedual/100m²

300 246.5

250

219

200

179 153

150 100 50 6

2.5 3.4 12.3 6.8 8.3

3

18

4

2.8

5

1.5

0

Fig. 3 Average Density of Medicinal Halophytes in South East of Egypt (Extracted from Elkhouly and Abo El Nasr [83])

350

N0. of Indiveduals/m²

300 285.8

250

235.3

200 150 139.7

100 50 0

61.4

39.5 A. graecorum

J. rigidus

P. australis

M. M. nodiflorum crystallinum

Fig. 4 Average Density of Medicinal Halophytes in the Northwestern Coast of Mediterranean of Egypt (extracted from Elkhouly [112] and Elkhouly and Abo El Nasr [83])

428

A. A. Elkhouly

species have tanins, 20 species have oil, and 19 species have saponin. Among the halophyic species reported as medicinal plants, Alhagi graecorum, Nitraria retusa, Rhizophora mucronataand Zygophyllum album contain all the chemical constituents which are screened in Table 1. Aeluropus littoralis, Avicennia marina, Halopeplis perfoliata and Tamarix niloticacontain all the chemical conistituents are screened except the oil compounds. Medicinal uses of halophytes plants were reported in many sources as shown below. The. Halophytic plants are used to provide relief in the following diseases: Zygophyllum album. Legum spartum, Cyperus spp: treat Flu and cough; Atriplex halimus, Desmostachya bipinnata, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum and Nitraria retusa: Antidiabetic [114, 216, 217]; Avicennia marina, Nitraria retusa: show activity against cardiovascular diseases; Limonium spp, Avicennia marina, Desmostachya bipinnata, M. crystallinum, Cynodon dactylon, Salsola kali and Alhagi graecorum: promote urination [18, 218–220]; Salsola species and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum: the alkaloid extracts have potential role in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease [154, 216]; Salsola species, Desmostachya bipinnata, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, M. crystallinum, Cynodon dactylon and Alhagi graecorum: have anti-inflammatory properties [62, 216, 218, 219]; Salsola kali, Desmostachya bipinnata, cyperus rotenusand Suaeda monoica: can act as an allergenic substance and treat skin ulcers and other skin disorders [65, 156, 186]; Juncus regidus and cyperus rotenus: treats stomach problems [65]; Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Avicennia marina, Salicornia fruiticosa and Salsola species: have antioxidant properties [132, 216]; Zygophyllum album and M. crystallinum: have antidiarheal effect [208, 218, 219]; Desmostachya bipinnata and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum: use as analgesic [216]; Alhagi graecorum and Panicumturgidum:Medic can cure infections, pain and redness of eyes [24]; Salicornia marina could be a source of functional food ingredients that improve osteoporosis and obesity, Alhagi graecorum: used as laxative as well as in the diseases of the urinary tract [218]. Zygophyllum album: the plant was shown to possess an antidiarheal effect [208]; Salsola kali used to treat dropsy and excrescences. Salsoline, one of the constituents of the plant, has been used to regulate blood pressure [145].

Bioremediation Potential Among the halophytes species are reported in Table 1 nine species have bioremediation potential, these species are Atriplex halimus, Atriplex leucoclada, Atriplex nummularia, Cyperus laevigatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lygeum spartum, Nitraria retusa, Phragmites australis and Scirpus maritimus. Cyperus laevigatus, Cyperus rotundus, Phragmites australis and Scirpus maritimususes for remediation of waste water [64, 130, 168]. Atriplex spp. and Nitraria retusaare useful for the improvement of saline soils [45]. Nitraria retusa have the ability to tolerate salinity through formation of phytogenic mounds [115]. Nitraria retusa were selected in Kuwait (the country that was subjected to heavy petroleum pollution during the second Gulf war)

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for the application of tissue culture techniques in order to restore or rehabilitate the damaged areas [117, 221]. Atriplex nummularia, Inula crithmoides accumulate Na and Cl in the leaves in a range above the saline environment (salt-includes) [7].

Fiber Six halophytic species are an important source offibers (Table 1). These species are: Desmostachya bipinnata, Imprata cylindica, Juncus acutus, Juncus rigidus, Lygeum spartum and Scirpus maritimus. Desmostachya bipinnatais characterized by a good mechanical characteristic of fiber [71].

Sand Stabilization and Windbreak Twelve halophytic species are reported in Table 1 use insand stabilization and windbreaks, while four species use for sand stabilization only and four species use in establishing the windbreaks. Tamarix aphylla,Tamarix nilotica and Alhagi graecorum are used by the farmers in Kharga oasis (Western Desert of Egypt) for decrease sand creeping and as windbreaks. Aeluropus lagopoides, Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Salsola tetrandrauses for sand stabilization [220]. Scirpus maritimus will provide protection from wind and wave erosion especially for newly exposed soil [166].

Hand Crafts Seven halophytes species uses in making hand crafts: Cyperus laevigatus, Desmostachyabipinnata, Imprata cylindica, Juncus acutus, Juncus rigidus, Panicum turgidum and Phragmites australis (Table 1).

Tanning Dyes extracted from Rhizophora mucronata and Suaeda vemiculatause in tanning (Table 1).

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Soap Substitute Five species use as soap substitute; Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Atriplex halimus, Salsola kali, Sarcocornia fruticosa and Suaeda vemiculata(Table 1).

Prevent the Erosion by Waves and Storms Four species prevent erosion caused by waves and storms:Avicennia marina, Desmostachya bipinnata, Rhizophora mucronata and Scirpus maritimus.

Others Uses of Halophytes There are other economic values of halophytes sumarized in Table 1 such as three species use as provision of pollen to bees: Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata and Scirpus maritimus. Three halophytes species uses in making of thatches and shelters: Imperata cylindrica, Tamarix aphylla and Tamarix nilotica. Peet et al. [222] stated that Imperata cylindrica is the main source of thatch material for local communities. Three species use in Ornamental and Esthetic Values: Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Atriplex halimusand Tamarix aphylla. Two species compensate for the lack of soil fertility: Alhagi graecorum, Panicum turgidum. Two species uses in rope making: Cyperus laevigatusandSarcocornia fruticosa. Two species use as nurseries for fish species: Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata. Two species use as nests of Birds: Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata. The scrubland dominated by Nitraria retusa indicates high levels of water revenue in the desert, effective storage in the soil and shallow ground water that is partially salinized [119].

Propagation and Cultivation of Halophytes There are seven halophytic species can be propagated by two methods (seeds and rhizomes), these species are Aeluropus lagopoides, Cyperus laevigatus, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, Juncus rigidus, Panicum turgidum and Scirpus maritimus. Five species can be propagated by seeds and tissue culture: Alhagi graecorum, Atriplex halimus, Atriplex nummularia, Halocnemum strobilaceum and Nitraria retusa. Tamarix aphylla can be propagated by seeds and cutting. Phragmites australis can be propagated by three methods, seeds, cutting and rhizomes.

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Propagation by Seeds Twenty six halophytic species can be propagated by seeds only. Most of these species are herby e.g. Inula crithmoides and Silene succulenta, or woody shrubs e.g. Atriplex leucoclada, Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Salsola spp., Suaeda pruinosa, S. monica, S. vericulata and Zygophyllum albumor annuals e.g. Mesembryanthemumspp. These species can be propagated directly by seeds in the field or the seeds germinated in a nursery for known time (ranged between three to ten months) and then transfer to the field and planted as seedlings. Triplex spp. communites is to use depressions generally grown to cereals with spaced (10–20 m) rows of shrubs in contour.. Rows might be spaced 10–20 m apart to permit for mechanical agriculture and harvesting of cereal species. Shrubs are secured from grazing through the six-month grain crop season, to avoid the risk of excessive overbrowning during that season [46, 47]. Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata germinated after soaking the seeds in sea water for a period of 24 h and established in nursery adjacent the seashore for 10 months until the seedling long reach to about 40 cm and then transfer to cultivate in the seashore [220]. By using filter paper as a substrate, the seeds of Netraria retusaat 25 °C start to germinate after 10 days reaching maximum germination of 14% after 25 days. Using saline soil, seeds start to germinate after 15 days: at 20 °C the maximum germination was 26% after 25 days, while at 25 °C it was 35% after the same period [223]. Seed germination percentage of Aeluropus lagopoides reaches to 100% in distilled water in 20/30 °C temperature regime and decreases to 60% in 10/20 °C. In salinity conditions (500 mM NaCl) in 20/30 °C decreases to 30%, while no seeds germinated at 10/20 °C. When seeds transferring to distilled water 20 days after salinity treatment, the germination recovery % increased with an rise of pre-transfer salinity treatments at temperature (20/30, 15/25 and 25/35 °C) except in 10/20 °C [10]. The best germination percentage of Mesembryanthemum spp. (100%) attained after seed soaking in tap water for 24 h and germinated at 15 °C [112].

Propagation by Rhizomes Many of halophytes are grasses which belong to family Phocaea, these species propagated by rhizomes. From 47 halophytic species grown in the Egyptian deserts, there are ten grasses species propagated by rhizomes represents about 21.0% of total species reported in Table 1. Cultivation by rhizomes is a very simple method and faster for crop production. Phragmites australisis reproduced by stem cuttings or rhizomes [224]. Rhizomes could be planted at a depth of 10–15 cm. Rhizome spacing varies between 30 and 46 cm, at a rate of 1 rhizome per foot of row. For shoreline soil erosion control system, at least three rows are recommended at 40 inch row spacing parallel with the shoreline [130]. Aeluropus lagopoides propagate vegetatively by rhizome growth after monsoon rains [10]. Best formation of Scirpus

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maritimus derives from planting plugs (either from greenhouse or wild transplants). Wild plants for transplant could be collected and planted directly into the desired location [171].

Propagation by Cutting Four species propagated by cutting only. Most of these species are woody shrubs. These species are Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Saliconia fruticosa, Suaeda aegyptiaca and Tamarix nilotica.A particularly efficient way of establishing and managing Using mono- branched semi- hard wood cutting (cutting length: 10–20 cm, and soaking the cutting for two minits in EAA befor planting) for propagation of Salicornia fruticosa gave best growth of shoots after three weeks of cultivation [134]. Cuts of N. retusa were grown only in saline soil + peat moss (25%). On the other hand, 25% of the tested stem cuttings of Nitraria retusa had a successful propagation [223].

Propagation by Tissue Culture The plant species which are difficult to propagate by seeds or rhizomes and cutting, they can be propagated by tissue culture technique. Two halophytic species propagated by tissue culture only from all the halophytes are reported. These species are Limnoniastrum monopetalum and Sarcocornia fruticosa. Shoot-tip explants derived from adult plants of Limoniastrum monopetalum in spring or summer were created in vitro at high % (81 and 100%, respectively). At the establishment stage supplementary shoots per explant (7.1) were formed on MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg L−1 benzyl adenine (BA) or with 1.0 mg L−1 zeatin (ZEA) (2.2 shoot explant1), rather than hormone-free medium (1.0 shoot explant-1), however shoots were lengthier in the hormone-free medium (3.3 cm). In the hormone-free and ZEAcontaining media, roots were formed in high proportions (95 and 69%, correspondingly). Through subculture on MS with various BA concentrations (0.5–4.0 mg L−1 ), shoots are formed in moderately higher % in the medium with 0.5 mg L−1 BA (100%) and in lower % with 4.0 mg L−1 BA (80%). Explants cultivated in hormone-free medium did not form axillary shoots, just elongated and formed roots in the percentage of 87%. At the medium with 0.5 mg L−1 BA, the most (8.5) and the longest shoots (0.8 cm) were formed, however the more BA concentration, the little and longer the buds formed. Microshoots cultivated on half-strength MS medium supplemented by 0.5–4.0 mg L−1 indole-3-acetic acid (IBA) rooted in the higher % (88–100%) and formed more roots per microshoot (3.4–7.6), rather than the hormone-free medium (43% and 1.6, correspondingly). But root length was greater in the hormone-free medium (2.1 cm) in comparison with IBA (0.5–0.9 cm). The results

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showed that about 90% of plantlets were good adapted to ex vitro environments on a combination of peat-perlite (1:1, v/v) [225].

Development of Halophytes The improvement of halophytes is very easy because it can propagate by numerous methods and it can be irrigated by saline water, also, it can be grown under the marginal land, which is described as salt affected soil. Halophytic plants can be playing a significant role as a source for the future to deal with the problem of water shortage. Halophytes from diverse families can give higher amount of biomass or seeds at irrigation by seawater [226]. Trials were carried out on the irrigation of potential forage crops and medicinal halophytes by using sea water or saline groundwaters. Glenn et al. [227] found that, Salicornia, Suaeda and Atriplex species were more productive species when irrigating with sea water. Propagation of Arthrocnemum macrostachyum by seeds on the Arabian Sea coast indicated that seeds were highly tolerant to salt and 3% seeds germinated in1000 mM NaCl. Germination was much higher at 15–25 °C temperature period in 600 and 800 mM NaCl. Plant growth regulators, gibberellic acid and kinetin reduced significantly the salinity-induced germination inhibition over various salinity ranges and to various degrees. Once the seeds were transferred to distilled water 20 days after being exposed to salinity, most recovered within 24 h with different recovery rates at the highest salinity varying from 72 to 86% at different temperature periods [34]. Two annual Salicornia and two permanent Sarcocornia ecotypes were studied for nutritional value and production in reaction to diverse concentrations of seawater in the irrigation solution. A harvest schedule according to a three-week cycle produces better yield over a two-week or a four-week cycle. Total yield reduced with increasing percentage of seawater more than 50% in the irrigation water, but annual plants had ca 2–threefold greater fresh biomass rather than their perennial counterparts [127]. Suaeda fruticosa give low biomass (fewer than 10% of highest growth) when cultivated under 50% sea water irrigation. Adjustment of nitrogen and phosphorus in seawater greatly increased growth and improved their content in plant tissues. So, nitrogen and phosphorus were the most determine nutrient for cultivation under sea water. Biomass production of plant species grown on sea water adjusted with phosphorus and nitrogen was analogous to those of plants grown at complete nutrient solution [228]. Aeluropus littoralis irrigated by saline groundwater (0.9 dS/m), sea water and saline drainage water (0.6 dS/m), produce yields of 12–18 t/ha of dry fodder production and 1.5–3.0 t/ha for seeds [229]. In Morocco, Avicennia marina and Limoniastrum monopetalum grew at full strength from seawater despite the little nutritional content of irrigation water [223]. In Egypt, by using different concentrations of NPK on Avicennia marina seedlings grown in the Red Sea Coast, mean height of the seedlings increase from 41.0 to 61.3 cm at treatment 500 mg/100 L NPK after two months, comparing with control, which the mean height of seedlings increase from 41.0 to 52.5 cm [220].

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Five halophytes are propagated in the nursery under Shalateen circumstance, South East of Egypt, these species are Atriplex farinose, Halopeplis perfoliata, Nitraria retusa, Suaeda monioica and Zigophllum album [230]. The seeds of these species germinated in plates irrigated by tap water day-to-day or each two days. After one month, the highest germination percentage was (90%) noticed in Nitraria retusa followed by (75%) in Halopeplis perfoliata. The faster seeds germinated is Halopeplis perfoliataseeds after 6 days from germination followed by the seeds of Suaeda monioica after 10 days, while the slowest seeds germinated after 15 days was Nitraria retusa. Atriplex farinose had the highest height of seedling (12 cm) after one month of germination followed by Suaeda monioica (10 cm), while the shortest seedling (3 cm) was in Zigophllum album. After five months, these species irrigated by saline water (2000 ppm) for 10 days and then irrigated by saline water (4000 ppm) for ten days and then irrigated by saline water (8000 ppm) for three months. The results indicated that, the highest seedlings was 49.3 cm in Suaeda monioica, followed by 39.2 cm in Atriplex farinose, while the shortest height of (Fig. 5).

Discussion In this study, most of halophytic species are registered belong to family chenopodiacea. Most species of this family grow in the saline habitats. The halophytes in Egypt are distributed mainly on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Red Sea, where the table of saline water is high as a result of leaching of water from the sea causing increase of soil salinity and comprises salt marshes. Also, high number of halophytes are dispersed in the Egyptian Oases. The salt marsh habitat in these oases is represented in areas nearby to lakes where water comes from lateral leakage from lake water and groundwater and in the interior around springs where the water surface is very shallow. Under the prevalent climatic aridity, there is significant evaporation of soil water and increase of salts in the surface soil layers [105]. Also, the salt marshes are occurred in the lands adjacent to the drains. The halophytic species in the Egyptian deserts reported in this study can be providing many economic potentialities and services for the ecosystems. From 48 halophytic species reported in this study, Atriplex halimus have nine economic potentialities, Sarcocornia fruticosa have eight economic potentialities,5 species have seven economic potentialities,9 species have six economic potentialities, 4 species have five economic potentialities, 6 species have four economic potentialities,4 species have three economic potentialities, 10 species have two economic potentialities and 7 species have one economic potentiality. These findings support the importance of development these halophytes in the future for development planning in the deserts. The average of TDN in the supplementary feed (berseem, barly and corn) was 62.7% [231]. This value almost equal to the TDN values of halophytes species recorded by [16, 83, 125, 214] in Egypt and reported in this study. Some of halophytes

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Atriplex farenosa

Zygophyllum album

Halopeplis perfoliata

Nitraria retusa

Fig. 5 Halophytes Cultivated by using Saline Water under Shalateen Condition, Egypt (From personal communications)

which have potentiality as fodder characterized by medium or low palatability to the animals because some of them have tough leaves, and plants are lignified and fibrous, rich in cellulose [16, 232–234]. It can be improve the acceptability of these species for animal through mix these species with the other acceptable species. Eight halophytic species represent (16.7%) of total halophytes are reported are very important as medicinal and aromatic plants, it contain all the phytochemical constituents are screened (flavonoids and/or phenolics, carbohydrates and/or glycosides, amino acids, protein, unsaturated sterols and/or triterpenes alkaloids and/or nitrogenous bases, tannins, oil, and saponin). These species are Alhagi graecorum, Nitraria retusa, Rhizophora mucronata, Zygophyllum album, Aeluropus littoralis, Avicennia marina, Halopeplis perfoliata and Tamarix nilotica. Based on the phytochemical screening and quantitative estimation of the percentage crude, yields of

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chemical constituents of the medicinal plants showed in the leaves, stems, spikes and fruits of the plants [235, 236]. Fourteen species represent about (30%) of the total halophytic species are reported in this study can be propagated by more than three methods. Some of halophetes seeds propagated by sea water e.g. Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata, or dialuted seawater e.g. Nitraria retusa and Aeluropus lagopoides. These findings prove the high potentiality of these species to cultivate as economic crops with less cost as well as decrease the use of fresh water in cultivation. There are numerous examples for the use of halophytes for manufacturing, environmental, or agricultural purposes. Because of their variety, halophytes have been verified as vegetable, fodder, and oilseed crops in agronomic field experiments. The most productive species produce 10–20 t ha−1 of biomass in seawater irrigation, equivalent to conventional crops. The oilseed halophyte, Salicornia bigelovii, produces 2 t ha−1 of seed having 28% oil and 31% protein, similar to soybean crop and seed quality [237]. In this study, some of halophytes can be cultivated bysea water e.g. Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata [224], Limoniastrum monopetalum [223], and some of them cultivated by diluted sea water e.g. in Aeluropus littoralis [229] and Salicorniac fruticosa [134]. Some of halophytes can be cultivated byusing sever salinity water reaches to 1000 mM NaCl e.g. in Arthrocnemum macrostachyum [34], or irrigated by saline water (8000 ppm) e.g. Atriplex farinoseand Suaeda monioica [230]. Using of growth hormones in the beginning of propagation encourage the rooting in the planted cuttings of Salicorniac fruticosa [134], also using mixture of mineral and biofertilizers increase the growth rate of Avicennia marina [220].

Conclusions and Recommendations • Of forty eight halophytes species are reported, 26 species (54.2%) have more than four economic potentialities. These findings support the importance of development these halophytes in the future of development planning in Egypt and other countries in the arid regions. • Twenty nine species represent (60.4%) of total halophytes are reported uses as either in forage or fodder production, which can be closes the gap of fodder deficiency in Egypt, when the stockholders development these species as fodder crops. • Forty four species of forty eight halophytic species are reported in this study have medicinal potentiality. It is concluded that it can be useful for maximize the sustainable use of the halophytes which are medicinal plants starts further research to detect the specific compounds responsible for the pharmacological action, and their specific mechanisms of action. • Using the halophytic species in the rehabilitation of the salt affected lands and increase their productivity.

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• Sustainable development of the Egyptian halophytes species is promising. These plants can be easy to propagate, where many of these species can be propagate through several methods (seeds, rhizomes, cutting and tissue culture). • These halophytes can be cultivated by using sea water and/or sever saliny water, which prove their high potentiality as economic crops distinguish by less cost in cultivation as well as decrease the use of fresh water in cultivation. • Sustainable development of these economic halophytes needs to decrease the threats which facing these plants e.g. overgrazing, over collection of medicinal plants as well as apply some of proceedings which mitigate the impacts of establishing Summer resorts in the Red Sea Coast and Mediterranean Coast on the habitats of halophytes. Acknowledgements This chapter is based upon work supported by Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STIFA) under grant (30771) for the project entitled “A novel standalone solar-driven agriculture greenhouse—desalination system: that grows its energy and irrigation water” via the Newton-Mosharafa funding scheme.

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Development of Plant Food and Animal Resources

Olive Oil and Rural Development in Egyptian Deserts Fouad Omer Fouad Abou-Zaid

Abstract The main aims of both sustainable agriculture and rural development are sustainable food production increasing, food security ensuring and supporting and livelihoods improving in rural areas. Value-added is recognized as the main option for the policies of both agriculture and rural development. Many procedures related to high value-added food products such offering greater quality, or different nutritional factors, or increased convenience for consumers. So olive oil and olive mill wastes could play an important role in rural development in Egyptian desserts through increasing income. Increasing economic value of olive oil could be achieved by improving the oil yield and quality through attained of the factors affecting olive oil yield and quality. These factors include agricultural practices of the olive tree, maturity stage, olive harvesting, transport of the olives to the mill. Also, time between the harvesting and the extraction of the oil, the post-harvest of mill olives, leaf removal and olive washing are another factors. In addition to olive crushing, olive paste malaxation, olive oil extraction systems, enzymes addition and wastewater recycling. On the other hand, the olive mill produced huge amounts of three wastes (olive leaves, olive mill cake or pomace and olive mill wastewater). These wastes could be utilized in several ways (pharmaceutical purposes, animal feed production, biological control, production of antioxidant and antimicrobial agents, improvement of some olive oil characteristics, ethanol production, mushroom and S.C.P. production, exo-enzyme production, Irrigation and Fertilization uses) to be another source of added value to olive oil production. Keywords Olive oil · Rural development · Added value · Olive mill wastes and Egypt

Introduction Egypt could be considerd as an agricultural country for millennia, where agricultural and peasant society represented the basis of Egyptian civilization. Even today more F. O. F. Abou-Zaid (B) Agri-industrilization Unit, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. Elkhouly and A. Negm (eds.), Management and Development of Agricultural and Natural Resources in Egypt’s Desert, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73161-8_17

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than 50% of the Egyptian people are rural. The desert represents about 97 percent of the country’s area (total Egyptian area is one million square kilometers). So, all of the population approximately, lives on 3 percent of the total area in both the Nile valley and in the Nile delta [1]. Recently, agricultural productivity decreased, but Egypt’s agriculture sector still accounts for a 14–15% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and provides about 30% of employment,and it is considered the main source of livelihood for more 50% Egyptian [2]. Olive cultivation and processing are considered one of the main agricultural sectors in Egypt, where, olive cultivation and olive oil production as well as olive mill wastes in Egypt are an additional income sources and support the population in rural areas during the winter period, which profits from summer and sea tourism activity.

Sustainable Development Development and agriculture could be described as sustainable when meet the needs of the present without any harmful effects on the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability aims to achieve economic development that takes overall human and environmental well being into consideration. The first Earth Summit was held in Rio, by the United Nations in 1992, this summit suggested an international policy that considered sustainable development as one of its main guiding principles. Agenda 21, is a plan for action on local, national and global levels in “each region where the human influenced the environment”. This Agenda was achieved by More than 178 governments of either developing or developed nations [3]. SARD (Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development) is the title of Chapter 14 of Agenda 21. In this Chapter, sustainable development is defined as “the management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations”. After Rio, a Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was established by the United Nations to watch the progress in application of Agenda 21, Also, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was selected as Task Manager of Chapter 14. Developed and developing countries are the main components of an international forum (FAO) to negotiate agreements and policies related to agriculture, forestry and fisheries. With the Rio summit as well as the resulting SARD charter, FAO efforts would focus on sustainability in rural development. The defination of SARD concept at the Rio Summit and adopted by FAO would act as an example for holistic development.

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Rural Development Rural development pointed to that process which improves the quality of life as well as economic wellbeing of the living people in relatively isolated areas with sparsely population [4]. The extraction of natural resources and agriculture are the main bases of rural development, but differs in public visions and political preferences required supplemention of these with other activities like tourism and recreation. There are many forms of Rural development as tourism [5], education [6] and care [7]. Some successful farm projects are recognized as a result of combination of agricultural and non-agricultural activites (agricultural multi-functionality), while in last period, it was undertaken that non-agricultural activites colud be considered externalities [8].

Olive Tree One of oldest planted trees in our world is olive tree. The exact progenitor of this tree is not precisely known, but it is thought to be the oleaster oleasylvestries which is still grown wild in South Europe and North Africa. Another opinion supposed that this tree is devoloved from oleachrysophylla, which grew in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and neighboring area. Others believe olive tree originated from Africa (Ethiopia, Egypt), as a result of systematically first cultivation of these trees, and from there they distributed to Cyprus, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and else-where. The cultivation of olive tree in Egypt was went back to thousands of years, approximatelt 2000 B.C., although their orchards vanished either because they were shattered for some obscure factors or because people interest tended to other crops [9]. An olive tree can thrive well in semi-arid lands where it can be used for agricultural horizontal expansion. Actually, in arid lands, except dates and olive only a few other fruit trees can survive. Beside aridity, the olive tree can tolerate high salinity levels up to 4000 ppm. For these reasons, olive may be considered the most promising crop in arid, semi-arid, hilly, deserts, saline and calcareous lands. Egypt deserts constitute a vast land, extended over all directions. The western desert in the west, the eastern desert in the east and Sinai peninsula in the north eastern region [10]. The olive tree had different important roles related to diet, religion and ornament of gold pieces, walls and pottery. Victory, wisdom and peace symbols are constituted of olive branch as well as Olympic games winner crowing wreaths [9].

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Olive Oil Olive oil is defined as the “oil obtained from the fruit of the olive tree (oleaeuropaea), to be differentiated from oils obtained using solvents or re-esterification processes as well as of any mixture with other oils [11]. Virgin Olive Oil: is the oil obtained from the fruit of olive tree (oleaeuropaea sativa hoffm. et link) by “mechanical or other physical means under conditions, particularly thermal, which do not lead to alteration of the oil. Virgin olive oil is an oil which is suitable for consumption in the natural state” [11]. Virgin olive oil must not subject to any treatments except washing, decanting, centrifugation and filtration [11]. It classifies the oil according to its acidity into: A—Extra virgin olive oil: its max. acidity does not exceed 0.8% as oleic acid. B—Fine virgin olive oil: its max. acidity does not exceed 2% as oleic acid. C—Ordinary virgin olive oil: its max. acidity does not exceed 3.3% as oleic acid. Olive oil is an inherent part of the Mediterranean diet, so that, the cardiovascular diseases in this area could be categorized as one of the lowest in the Western Hemisphere [12].

Olive Oil Industry Development The growth of the olive industry and the increasing levels of olive oil consumed around the world could be explained by the increasing health consciousness of today more cosmopolitan society [12]. Olive fruits were first crushed by stones to extract the oil. The obtained olive paste was transferred to a stone plate, during the early press, with small canals for drainage and the paste was pressed using heavy rocks on top, to release oil globules. Then olive oil and wastewater were separated by gravity. The screw press was used by Greeks (50 B.C.) and then Romans improved and disseminated it, represented major progress in olive pressing. There was no creation in olive oil extraction for a long period, which continued till the pressure exerted by a manual wooden or iron screw press. Around the end of the 1800s, the screw press was developed to produce the first hydraulic press. The researches on percolation and centrifugation systems during the 1900s, led to new possibilities for mechanical extraction of olive oil. In 1951, these creative systems were materialized with the Buendia patent for percolation system, and around the end of the 1960s, with the production of centriolive plant, the first continuous centrifugal decanter of the olive paste [13]. Since Fifty years, the press extraction was almost the only used olive oil extraction process. To rise the capacity and extraction yield of olive oil as well as to reduce labor, the continuous 3-phase centrifugal extraction was produced in 1970. A disadvantage of this process is the increased water consumption resulted in the increased amounts of produced wastewater. This disadvantage resulted in the developing of a 3-phase system to the 2-phase process.

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Olive Oil Quality Quality has been defined in many ways. However, there is, in fact, no one universal meaning of quality that will adequately apply in all situations. Most people when asked what they understood by the quality, would immediately use terms such as “the very best”. Deming, who engineered a post-war recovery in Japan, however, defines quality as Good quality does not necessarily mean high quality. Quality means the prediction of uniformity degree and dependability with a low price to be suited for the market. Other quality definitions relate to conformance to the requirement, fitness for use as judged by the customer, not by the supplier of service, and simply, fitness for purpose [2]. There are many factors affecting the yield and quality of olive oil, which could be categorized as those which act during oil formation in fruits, olive fruits collection, olive fruits storage, olive oil extraction and storage [9]. Several studies concerning these factors were achieved particularly, the effect of technological operations of olive oil extraction on yield and quality of the produced oil [14].

Olive Oil Quality and Added Value Improving food products quality, or nutritional value as well as raising consumer wllbeing could be considered the most common added values in food processing, which need profesional and trained workers for product development and marketing. Added values in food processing required maximizing utilize of inputs to get noticeable effect on the quality, yield and price of the product. In order to produce suitable food products have the ability to comitate in local and international markets, there is a need to small innovation. Geographic brands or organic products or packaging in microwaveable bunches, could create added values led to supplementation economic value of the product. There are major bottlenecks that have to be overcome in order to improve productivity, quality and added value of olive oil in Egypt. These major bottlenecks are the poor agricultural practice; issues related to technology and economic environment; quality control weakness and absence of the system of traceability monitoring throughout the chain. Also, low efficiency of agricultural extension services with low implication of olive farmers and millers in professional organization related to olive oil industry is another critical bottleneck.Increasing economic value of olive oil could be achieved by improving the oil yield and quality through illustration of the factors affecting olive oil yield and quality from olive tree to olive processing and oil production.

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Factors Affecting Yield and Quality of Olive Oil Agricultural Practices of the Olive Tree Virgin olive oil’s quality depends on olive cultivar, pedoclimatic conditions, in addition to the olive trees pruning, irrigation and fertilization. In reality, the olives with good quality at the moment of picking are an advisable procedure, but not the only factor ensuring the production of good quality olive oil. It is important, however, that during olive oil processing the quality does not deteriorate [14]. Manzanillo olive fruits were sprayed by Gibberellic acid, GA3 (as growth regulator) 10 days after fruit set as a foliar application as follows: GA3 at 50 and 75 ppm in comparison with the control sample (untreated) [15]. The chemical composition of the olive fruit (moisture, oil, crude protein, ash, fiber and total carbohydrate) treated with (GA3)as well as the quality characteristics of Manzanillo olive oil (refractive index, color, K232 and K270, acidity %, peroxide value (meq. active O2/kg), TBA value, Iodine value, unsap. matter %, total phenols (ppm), stability period (hr), chlorophyll (mg/kg) and carotenoids (mg/kg)) were determined in comparison with control samples. The results showed that insignificant differences between gibberellicacid treated Manzanillo olives and control sample in most chemical composition parameters except moisture and oil contents. Likewise the obtained oil from treated olives by (GA3) then stored for 24 months at ambient conditions had lower storage stability corresponding to the control sample. However, the previous treatmentsled to producing oil with lower quality characteristics and bad storage stability compared with the control sample. The effect of using some treatments separately on olive and oil yields, quality parameters, minor constituents and the composition of fatty acids of Picual olive during 2012–2013 seasons, was studied [16]. The studied treatments are Girdling at first week of January while both of Kaolin at rate 5%, Calcium carbonate at rate 5% and Naphthalene acetic acid at 100 ppm sprayed mid December. Also, Boric acid (17.50%) at 300 ppm in first week of March. Tree yield, fruit, seed and flesh weights, flesh/stone, flesh/fruit, oil and moisture contents (%) were measured. Quality parameters of the obtained oils (acid value, peroxide value, UV absorbance at 232 and 270 nm and k value, organoleptic parameters, phenolic compounds, tocopherol, bitter index at K225, dyes content, stability to oxidation and Fatty acid profile were measured. The findings showed that the treated olive tree by Girdling, Kaolin, Naphthalene acetic acid and Boric acid recorded higher oil content/tree. Also, the best quality parameters were recorded for the same treatments, including total phenolic compounds, tocopherol and stability to oxidation in respect to untreated and treated samples with calcium carbonate. Generally, Girdling, Kaolin, Naphthalene acetic acid and Boric acid, could have a positive effect in raising the productivity of picual olive trees and in improving the quality parameters of the obtained oil as well as in increasing the oleic acid content. The effect of supplemented irrigation on Manzanillo olive fruits productivity and quality was investigated by Attalla, et al. [17]. During two successive seasons (“On” year (2008) and “Off” year (2009)), nine irrigation treatments were used during

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the period from May to December as following: Rain fed (no irrigation), 60, 80, 100 and 120 mm once/ month as well as 30, 40, 50 and 60 mm twice/ month. The recorded rainfall in the experimental region (North-Western Coastal, Egypt) was 92.0 and 115.0 mm/year in 2008 and 2009, respectively. The result illustrated that 60 mm twice/month (the higher level of irrigation water) during May to September was more effective in the increasing the yield and improving olive fruit quality of Manzanillo cultivar in both studied two seasons.

Maturity Stage There is a general acceptance that, optimum time for harvesting good quality olive fruit was required for high olive oil quality. In Mediterranean zone, Different researches found that early ripeness of olives related to increase the olive oil yield [18]. In previous work, we investigated the effect of maturity stage of picual and chemlali on olive oil yield and quality [19]. Where olive fruits of two cultivars (picual and chemlali) were collected at three stages (green, semi-black and black stages), then the chemical composition was determined to evaluate the optimum stage for oil production. The results showed that harvesting of olive fruits at the end of semi-black stage or at the beginning of black stage or between them could be recommended to get the highest percentage of olive oil with respect to oil quality. On the other side, fully black ripe stage must be avoided, due to increase of oil acidity resulting from endogenous lipase activity within this stage. Olive oil chemical and physical parameters of Manzanilla and Kalamata cultivars in varied maturity stages were investigated to determine the optimum olive harvesting time [20]. During ripening process, the oil percentage was markedly rose as a result of cumulation of synthesized oil. There was unstable relationship between acid value of the oil and maturity stages. The peroxide and Refractive index scores in all maturity stages were under the limits of standard. The K values reduced significantly but still within standard limit. The moisture content negligible reduced with ripening progress and it could be concluded that the stages of ripening had no significant influence on the moisture content. The iodine and the saponification values were significantly reduced with maturity development. Reddish stage (S4) of maturityhad the best physicochemical quality parameters. All studied maturity stages illustrated a noticeable high content of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic. Both total phenolic compounds and flavonoids (in early maturity stages) were higher than those of late maturity stages. The highest antioxidant activity was recorded for the early stages of maturity then, significant reduction was observed by the progress of ripening. The scores of sensory characteristics reduced with developing of olive fruit maturity. Finally, they concluded that the reddish maturity stage (S4) was the best stage to harvest olive fruits in order to obtain olive oil with high-quality. Olive variety and picking date of olive fruits combine together to affect olive oil quality and yield [21]. They advised that, to obtain the best quality and quantity of olive oil, the picking must be lated.

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The sensorial quality parameters of virgin olive oil based on the maturity stage and ripeness of the fruits. Unripe and dark olives give virgin olive oil with herbaceous odor and bitter, pungent taste based on the variety. Ripped or over ripped olives led to produce olive oil with ripe flavor and sweet taste. Good quality olive oil could be obtained by using healthy olive fruits and by processing olives as soon as olive picking [13]. The best olives harvest time could be evaluated by watching fruit development in the farm and analysing the olives maturity index; the tendency is to bring forward the beginning of olive picking [22]. Improving the economic and qualitative characteristic of olive fruit could be achieved by the good recognizing of morphological, biochemical and physiological actions that occurred during olives maturity [21]. Olive oil is formed during four different stages [9]. In first stage, along with the fruit growth, a small amount of oil is formed. All olive oil synthesized during the second stage or major concentration stage. The third stage is a stable stage since the oil content of the pulp does not change along this period. A decrease in oil content is occurred due to over maturity at fourth stage, a decrease stage. Accumulation of the highest oil content within black stage for both investigated olive cultivars (picual and chemlalli) was observed by Abou-Zaid [19]. He reported that the collection of olive fruit at the end of semi-black stage or at the beginning of black stage (beginning of darken) or between them could be recommended to obtain the highest oil yield with respect to oil quality. On the other side, fully black ripe stage must be avoided, due to increase of oil acidity resulting from endogenous lipase activity within this stage. Olive fruits in the period between semi and complete black recorded the highest contents of both volatile and phenolic compounds in olive oil. Also, the highest oil percentage of olive fruit is happened at this period [9].

Olive Harvesting Methods of Harvest Olive Fruit Olive fruits are harvested by hand or mechanical devices as shown in Fig. 1. In some cases, olive fruits are collected from the ground or placed nets under the tree [14]. Olive picking is achieved by both traditional and mechanical methods [23]. Traditional methods: The ancient olives harvesting method where, olive fruits were collected from the ground in the end of season after natural fruit falling. Also, olives may be diseased or infected by some pests which accelerate falling. The abscised fruits were degraded, infected and infested fruits led to quality decrease of olive oil or table olive. Picking of fully riped fruits from the ground was common for olive pickling or oil processing in early periods then subtstituted by hand picking, this method still used extensively till now. Fruit hand picking is achieved by removing the fruits directly from the tree and put the in baskets, bags or boxes.

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Fig. 1 Olive harvesting

Laborers often wear knitted cotton gloves if the olives are destined for pickling to protect both of olive fruit and the laborer. Hand held wooden could be used to extend hand reach as well as metal toothed devices that look like coarse combs or rakes, could be used with the same downward movement. The branches could be beaten by Poles. The last method is suitable only for oil extraction ripped fruit. The previous methods of prolonging hand harvest resulted in improving harvest efficiency of fruits, but poling leads to tree harmful, and both of these methods are slow and inefficient and required fruit collection from the ground. The first picking creation technique was achieved by extending plastic nets under trees or on ground. To improve efficiency of harvest there are some picking aids were used as stands where pickers placed in [24]. Mechanical methods: Most olive harvesters could be categorized in two main groups depond depended on the principle of fruit removal. They either fastener and agitate the stem or twigs, or possess canopy contact tops with poles that prolong to the canopy [24]. Machinery harvesting led to increase olive yields, in addition to achieving the harvest process at the optimum time that differs as a result of crop variations is additional important factor for a successful harvest operation [23]. Mechanical harvesting of olives allows timely operations. In the same time, the harvesting equipment and machines can cause several hazards to the olive trees. The tied shakers to the trees resulted in peeling and even breakages. Also, shaking and raking methods led to breakages. The olive tree must be healthy to be able to give the best olives quality [25].

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Transport of the Olives to the Mill Plastic boxes are the desirable way of transporting olive as they do not cause high acidity in the olive oil. However, Research found that almost (75%) is transported in sacks or in bulk (16.7%). Only, 8.3% of the olive is carried in plastic boxes for processing leading to a situation which affects the quality of the oil negatively [26].

Time Between the Harvesting and the Extraction of the Oil Besides, the way of transporting, the waiting period before processing, is among the factors affecting the olive oil quality. The olives which are waiting the process especially in sacks or in bulk, because of the oxidation/fermentation process, the acidity of the oil increases seriously parallel to the waiting period and also the olive oil quality decreases. Mostly in hydraulic press units and super-press units, long duration period occurs. Average waiting period of the olive in these units varies between 2 and 4 days, in primitive systems this period extends to 7 days [26]. In previous work, we studied the effect of storage of olive fruits in 3% saline solution for one and two weeks on the quality of the obtained olive oil [19]. We found that storage of olives in 3% saline solution for one week could be recommended to eliminate deterioration of olive occurred during uncontrolled storage and maintain extremely the quality parameters of the produced oils. Extension of storage period up two weeks affected negatively the quality and sensory parameters of the oil. Olive may deteriorate rapidly during storage by the combined effect of microbial and internal factors which are hasted by increasing temperature as a result of fruit fermentation, and by mechanical harmful as a result of fruit compression [27]. The obtained olive oil from unhealthy fruits often possesses higher acid value, reduced stability, and musty smell. Pesticide residues based on treatments, active ingredient degradation rate, and the preharvest interval; generally, Pesticide residues resort to extend mainly in the oil [28]. Inadequate handling of olives during the period between olive collection and manufacturing led to the highest deterioration of the produced olive oil. Olives storage is achieved by heaping the fruits, waiting their manufacturing. These olives accelerate all kinds of degradation actions in a short time. The obtained oils from these fruits had high acidity, peroxide value as well as ultraviolet absorbance at 232 and 270 nm. So, decreasing the period between harvesting and processing is required to avoid this situation, this could be achieved by increasing mills capacity [29].

The Post Harvest of Mill Olives Generally, the post harvest time of olive fruit involves those processes that the olives are underwent to, from picking till its marketing or its processing transformation. So, normal operations as selecting, sorting, cleaning, grading, packaging, antifungal treatments, transportation, or storage are obviously associated with post harvest

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time. Generally, olive fruits must be treated from the harvesting moment till their processing. The physiological state of olive fruits at the beginning of its processing is considered the main factor in olive oil quality and directly related to obtain an excellent degree of virgin olive oil [29].

Leaf Removal and Washing Removing leaves and washing processes should also be achieved to separate extraneous materials that could be hazard to the machinery or contaminate the obtained oil [13]. Olive fruits may be contaminated by vegetal materials, such leaves or brunches, in addition to mineral materials (involoved soil, dust and stone). Foreign impurties, even that of natural origin, mixed with olives, has to be separate to obviate unfavorable effects on virgin olive oil quality as well as on the mechanical safety of olive oil extraction equipment. Removing of foreign matter is achieved by leaves removing and washing machine [14]. Separation the collected olives from the tree from those falled on the ground as well as any fruit has freeze, pest or hail harmful, is very important operation [22]. Removal of the leaves is necessary since leaves impart a bitter taste to the oil. Also to avoid passing of chlorophyll from olive leaf to olive oil, which induces oil deterioration [9]. Crushing olive leaves with olives during olive oil processing led to increase the green color of the obtained oil with undesirable sensory paramteres for consumers. Meanwhile, these effects strength based on olive crushing efficiency and intensity and the presence of olive leaves. The granite millstone, often used in pressure olive mills, has a slight effect on destruction of leaves and breaks them to few big pieces. In this case, sensory characteristics, colour, aroma and taste, of the obtained olive oil are not affected because the crushing process led to a partial presence of the responsible compounds of green colour and “green grass” or “green leaf” sensation. On the other hand, metallic crushers, are generally utilized in centrifugal extraction system, have a violent action leading that to decrease the olive leaves to a lot of small spieces releasing a large amount of these compounds which affect some sensory properties, like color, aroma and taste of olive oil [14]. Olive washing is generally acheived by recycling drinking water in the same machine of leaf-removal. The washing process helps in removing dust, soil, sand, stone fragments as well as any mineral or metallic contaminants (Fig. 2). The siliceous materials are harmfull for the metallic parts of either crusher or decanter that rotated at high speed. They can push them out of balance leading that to create a dangerous situation. Washing process helps to avoid this risk and considers a hygienic operation that takes place in preservation of the oil natural and nutritional characteristics [14].

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Fig. 2 Olive washing

Olive Crushing Olive crushing, using the granite millstones or the metallic crushers (Fig. 3) is a major important procedure because it leads to increase the breakage of the contained oil vegetable cells. When olive oil extraction was achieved by pressure system, olive fruits were crushed by granite millstones (for 20–30 min with 2–6 stones). The obtained olive paste is squeezed latter by hydraulic press. So, good oil extraction yields are obtained [14]. The effect of grindstone mill and metal disc crusher on the yield and quality of olive oil was investigated by [30]. Who found that olive oil output is consistently higher when grindstone mill was used with better quality than that, of metal disc crusher. Butthere are some factors affecting its use such as the capacity of industrialscale plants and therefore, processing costs. While Caponio et. Al. [31] found that hammer crushers extracted oil having greater amounts of total phenols than that produced by stone mill. While kneading of the olive paste reduced the total phenol content of oil. In olive mill centrifugal system, crushing process is achieved by metallic crushers, like mobile or fixed-hammers, serrated discs, cones or rollers. The working capacity of metalic crushers are high and have a violent effect leads to break the olive flesh cells that contained oil and gives an olive paste that after a suitable malaxation process, leads to good extraction oil yeild [32].

Olive Paste Malaxation The obtained olive paste has to be malaxed (Fig. 4) to be suitable for the following step of oil separation as well as flavor better extraction yield. The malaxation consists of a continuous slow blending of olive paste to rise free oil percentage, leading that to merge oil droplets into large drops. The malaxation efficiency depends on

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Fig. 3 Stone and metal olive crushers

Fig. 4 Olive malaxatores

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Fig. 5 Olive oil extraction systems

the rheological parameters of olive paste and on the technological characters of malaxation process, as time and temperature [14]. The effect of Malaxation process on the oil quality was illustrated [33]. He reported that to achieve good malaxation it is essential, with normal paste that, the blades move at 18–20 rpm for 20–30 min for a normal paste. An inadequate velocity of malaxators blades can lead to the formation of emulsions. Heat has an important role in the use of malaxators, due to the seasonal low temperature prevailing during milling, and to expedite the oil stream. Nevertheless, heating the oils above 25 ºC leads to deteriorate the oil quality, aroma loss, a color change (introducing reddish ones), an acidity increase and great energy consumption. When olive oil extraction was carried out by pressure system and fruit crushing is achieved by granite millstones, the olive paste malaxation is not required because i) the slow rotation velocity of millstones cause no emulsification between oil and other constitutes of olive paste (liquid and solid phases); ii) the olive paste slow movement during the granite millstones crushing process resulted in a partial malaxation. This could expalin whey the blending period of olive paste is 10–20 min in the pressure system, while the temperature is between 20–25 °C, [14]. Paste temperature during blending is effective factor, where it must be between 26.6–30 ºC (warm), which still low to the touch, to amellorate the oil viscosity and extractability. Temperatures more than 30 ºC can lead to some problems like fruit flavors loss, bitterness, and astringency increases [34]. Olive Oil Extraction Systems For many years ago, olive oil was almost extracted from the olive fruits by pressure type mills (Fig. 5). Recently, new type mills have been developed, such as those based on centrifugation or on combination process between filtration and centrifugation. In all systems, there are certain constant steps, such as Feeding, deleaves, washing, crushing, malaxation and separation of olive oil [9]. Traditional Press: One of the oldest olive oil extraction methods is traditional pressing. In thes method olive paste layer (around 1.25 cm) was placed on filter mats

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which were stacked each on other, and could be alternated with metal disks, then the filter mats were pressed. A central bore pin let pressed olive juice to go out in both trends. This method demands a lot of labor coparing with the other methods, not persistent approach, mats microbial contamination could be occurred leading that to produce olive oil with oxidation and fermentation flaws. Thus, olive oil extraction by traditional presses became outdated [34]. Selective filtration (sinolea process): The olive paste did not underwent to any pressure in this process. It depends on the principle that only oil will adhere to metal from all olive paste constitutes (oil, solid particles, and water). The equipment blades dunk in olive paste, then the adhering oil percolates off the blades into a detached vessel, and leaves the other fruit constitutes (includes solids and water). This resulted in production of a light “free-run” oil with a peerless quality parameters. This complicated machine is demanded repeated cleaning and repairing, in addition to stable heat source to get suitable paste temperature. An appearing of fruit–water in the oil could be considered as an indicator of extraction end [34]. Centrifugal Decanters: Since long time, olive oil was skimmed off when it rose to the top of special containers in which the olive juice (that contained both water and oil) was allowed to sit. This process required long time, rises oil touch with enzymes and the potential of microbial growth, resulted in production of faulty oils. Modern decanters recoginze as big, horizontal centrifuges that release olive oil in short period from olive fruit solids and water. Centrifugal power (spin at ≈ 3000 gn.) pushed the weighty solids outside, whrereas water is pushed to the middle, in addition to moving oil to the inside. Three-phase centrifugal systems need addition of water to facilate olive paste movement through the decanter, but this process led to loss some bioactive components that responsible for the flavor and antioxidants (like polyphenol). In the begaining of 1990 new large centrifugal system was produced (two-phase decanters). that posses high rotate speed on horizontal axis, but in this system splits out olive oil from fruit solids and water which go out together. Addition of water is not required, leading that to polyphenols better retention. Olive oils extracted by this system posses higher levels of bitterness, fruitiness, green flavors, pungency, and overall flavor (not as sweet). There is no wastewater approximately, comparing with three-phase system, in the same time the little wastewater has noticeable lower biological oxygen demand, in taddition, the obtained solid wastes is completely wet and its management is difficult [35, 36]. Vertical centrifugal system: Vertical centrifuges spin at two times the velocity of a decanter on a vertical axis and provide four times the separation force (22) for both solid, water, and oil phases. Another centrifugation is additional out removment of both solid particles and water from olive oil. Addition of warm water is usually achieved to “clean” the oil, making better isolation of the phases. Two centrifuges are required in three-phase system: the first is to “moistend” oil out of decanter and the second is to isolate olive oil from olives—water [34]. The extraction systems impact on virgin olive oil quality was studied by many investigators [37, 38]. They found that higher acid value, peroxide value, unsaponifiable matter and B-sitosterol and lower total phenols and hydrocarbon contents for

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the oil obtained by centrifugal system than by pressing, and they also found no differences in refractive index. They also demonstrated that no significant differences in fatty acids composition with exception of oleic (79.9 and 85.8%) and palmitic (18.97 and 13.7%) in oil obtained by pressing and centrifugation systems; respectively. The effect of extraction system on oil yield and quality was studied in previous work [39], we found that oil yield was 15 and 17% when picual olive fruits were extracted by pressure or centrifugation; respectively. Concerning the quality parameters of produced oils, the acidity and peroxide value were 0.78%, and 3.6 (mequ. O2 /kg oil) for the oil extracted by pressure whiles those of oil extracted by centrifugation, were 0.67% and 4.6 (mequ. O2 /kg oil). In the same time iodine value (IV), saponification number (SN) and unsaponification matter did not affect by extraction system. On the other hand, polyphenols content and oxidative stability were higher for the oil extracted by pressure (246 ppm and 26.1 h; respectively) than those of the centrifugal extracted oil (210 ppm and 10.9 h; respectively). While, the opposite was observed for TBA, K232 and K270 , which, were lower in the oil extracted by pressure. Fatty acid composition was slightly affected as a result of using two extraction systems, where the total unsaturated fatty acids was higher for the oil obtained by centrifugation (82.22%) than that of the oil obtained by pressure (81.65%). Results of sensory evaluation showed that the two different extraction systems had no significantly effects on scored values of color, odor and taste of picual olive oil.

Citric Acid Addition The effect of adding aqueous solution of citric acid (30%), as a new coadjuvant technological process during hydroulic press extraction of olive oil was investigated [40]. Citric acid aqueous solution was added to olive paste (Koroneiki and Coratina cultivars) during malaxation step at different levels (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% v/w). The oil yield, the oil content of total polyphenols, quality parameters, oxidative stability and composition of fatty acid of the extracted olive oil (Olea europaea L.) were determined. Results demonstrated that extraction efficiency of the oil was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased from 41.43 and 50.95% (control) to 58.81 and 64.40% as a result of addition 2% of citric acid solution to olive paste of Coratina and Koroneiki cultivars, respectively. Quality parameters (acidity, peroxide value, K232 , and K270 ) and composition of fatty acids of the obtained virgin olive oil from the two cultivars were inside the range reported by the Egyptian Standard for virgin olive oil. Also, citric acid addition significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased total polyphenols and oxidative stability of the extracted oils from both studied cultivars comparing to control oils. The obtained results showed that addition of small amounts of citric acid during the commercial production of olive oil could have a positive effect on maximizingthe oil yield and on improving the oil quality and stability.

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Enzymes Addition Efforts have been made to increase the yield of oil from olives by adding enzymes. The pectin depolymerase, papain, cellulase, hemicellulase and acid protease enzymes increased the oil yield and decreased the extraction time [41, 42]. Comparing the effect of using both of commercial pectinases (0.3 ml/ kg olive fruits) and crude fungal pectinase (6 ml/ kg olive fruits), separately, during picual olive oil extraction (either by press or centrifuge) in North Saini region was investigated [39]. Use of commercial or crude fungal pectinases led to increase oil yield by 1.5 and 1.25%, respectively, when extraction was achieved by centrifugal system, with respect to control treatment. While the yield was increased by 3.3 and 1.5% respectively when press system was used. Regarding the quality parameters of the centrifugal produced oils, use of commercial pectinase had no effect on the determined acidity, while using of crude fungal pectinase led to increase acidity from 0.67% (control sample) to 0.89%, PV was slightly increased by all investigated treatments, while the only significant change in IV was observed crude fungal pectinase. A noticeable increase in polyphenols and oxidative stability was observed for all treatments, where they increased from 210 ppm and 10.9 h (control) to 241 ppm and 17.3 h, and 250 ppm and 18.6 h for the oils produced using commercial and crude fungal pectinases, respectively. On the other hand, quality parameters of pressing produced oils showed that the only significant change in acidity and PV was noticed when crude fungal pectinase was used, where acidity decreased from 0.78% to 0.64% and the PV increased from 3.6 to 4.4%. Also, polyphenols and oxidative stability were increased from 246 ppm and 26.1 h (in control sample) to 290 ppm and 27.5 h and 305 ppm and 28.1 h for the oils extracted using commercial pectinase and crude fungal pectinase, respectively. Use of pectin-glycosidase, cellulase and hemicellulase enzymes in an industrial scale at (300 mg/kg) increased olive oil yield by 0.26–11.56%, without significant changes in its content of fatty acids, sterols and erythrodiol [43]. The enzyme olease is recommended for olive oil extraction in cold pressing at a dose rate of 0.05–0.1%. The enzyme disintegrates the intercellular connective tissues of the olive which increase the volume of the extracted oil during the cold pressing [9]. Improving the quality and yield of olive oil was the main objective of many studies, so a new processing cytolase enzyme aid was used for this objective. Enzyme formulation consisted of pectinase, cellulase, hemicellulase and some othe minor enzymes. Using enzyme mixture during olive oil extraction led to: (i) higher oil extraction outputs; (ii) slight increase in both of the natural antioxidants content, resistance to auto-oxidation, integral color index, global quality indices and sensory score; (iii) relative decrease in aliphatic alcohols, triterpene alcohols, triterpene dialcoholl, total sterols, alcoholic index, carotenoid color index. These findings could be due to the effect of enzyme formulation on degradation of cell walls of oil-bearing cells, leading that to the droplets of oil are released and gradually merge into larger droplets till forming a mass of free oil, which then extracted by mechanical means [44–46].

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Wastewater Recycling The recycling of olive oil extraction wastewaters was studied by Petruccioli et al. [47]. Suitable treated olive-mill wastewaters were used to grow Cryptococcus albidus (strain IMAT-4735) in order to generate pectic enzyme. Calathide (sunflower cultivation residues) addition to wastewaters led to improve both microbial growth and enzyme production. To recover most activity of the produced enzyme, Ultra-filtration of centrifuged fermentation broth was used. The obtaine enzyme concentrate from this process was directly recycled in olive oil extraction. Yeast pectinase produced by fermentation of olive mill wastewater, when added to the olive paste prior to extraction increased oil yield by 8–9%, improved oil quality in terms of total polyphenols and auto-oxidation stability [48]. Thetwo-phases decanter with recycling part of vegetable water of olive mill during the separation of virgin olive oil led to increase total phenols and o-diphenols [49]. Recycling of fresh vegetable water resulted in an approximate 30% rise in the total polyphenol content of olive oil and a 35–40% reduction of olive mill wastewater [50]. Recycling wastewater was applied during centrifugal extraction of picual and chemlali olive oil in North Saini. We found that this treatment led to increase oil yield (2%) and stability. Also, the polyphenol content of produced oil was increased [51].

Olive Mill Wastes and Added Value There are three wastes resulted from olive oil mills. These wastes are olive leaves, olive mill cake (pomace) and olive mill wastewater. Olive oil mill wastes could be used in improvement of olive oil productivity and quality (wastewater recycling or as a pectinases production media) in addition to its transferring to another products (such olive leave tea) or its usage as a source of some organic compounds.

Olive Leaves Pharmaceutical Purposes Olive leaves are commonly used as a folk medicine in the Mediterranean area for diabetic, vasodilatatory, antiinflammatory, hypertension, diuretic, antipyretic and antirheumatic [52]. The induced hypertensive rats by L-NAME [N(G)-nitro-L-arginine-methyl ester] for 6 weeks followed by adminstration with olive leave extract (dose of 100 mg/kg of the extract) for another 6 weeks without L-NAME discontinuation, showed normal blood pressure. These results were confirmed by previous reports illustrated the olive leaf hypotensive impacts. The antihypertensive effect of olive leave extract could be

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attributed to the different factors affected the reversal of vascular changes of induced hypertensive rats by L-NAME [53]. Induced hypertensive model by L-NAME- (for 4 weeks), was treated with different doses (125, 250, and 500 mg/kg/day for 4 weeks) of new combination of Roselle leave extract and olive leave axtract (2:1, respectively). These treatments led to reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, reversed the serum nitric oxide (NO), improved liver and kidney markers, lipid profile and oxidative status. In addition reoselle-olive combination decreased the high activity of angiotensinconverting enzyme and showed a noticeable geno-protective effect on oxidative DNA damage. These findings illustrated that Roselle-Olive is useful combination in control hypertension, where roselle and olive were acted synergistically [54]. The possible protective influence of olive leaf extract (OLE) as well as pomegranate peel extract (PPE) against hepatotoxicity that induced by oxytetracycline (OTC) in albino rats was investigated [55]. The total phenolic contents and scavenging activity to free radical of olive leaf and pomegranate peel ethanolic extracts were examined, where the two extracts have a great antioxidant activity as a result of their contents of phenolic compounds. The findings detected that the intraperitoneally(i.p.) injection of OTC (200 mg/kg b.wt), significantly enhansed ALT & AST activity in addition to total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), urea, creatinine, plasma malondialdehyde (MDA), while significantly reduced total protein (TP), albumin (Alb) and blood glutathione (GSH) levels was noticed. The changes in biochemical parameters were related to changes in liver tissue architecture. The findings detected that the single treatment of OLE or PPE showed no effect on the evaluated characters. Also, the finding showed that there was an improving and protective impact of the pre and co-treatments of the tested extracts against the undue influences of OTC. The antiviral activity of Olive leaf extract (OLE) was explored against the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 Egyptian virus [56]. In vitro and In vivo studies were achieved to explore the influence of OLE against virus growth and generation. Cytotoxicity assay was done at first to detect the concentration of the highest safe dose to be used for antiviral studies, using different dilutions of virus on MDCK cell lines. Cytopathic inhibition assay was achieved for 4 experiments named (A, B, C & D). Experiment A: MDCK cells infected with H5N1 virus then treated with OLE after one hour of incubation. Experiment B: MDCK cells treated with OLE then after one hour of incubation, they infected with H5N1 virus. Experiment C: MDCK cells infected with H5N1 virus and treated with OLE at the same time (competitive assay). Experiment D: MDCK cells treated with a mixture of H5N1 virus and OLE incubated for one hour at 37 °C. Results demonstrated that, in vivo experimental work, using of OLE 3 days before and 3 days after infection, protects 70% of birds ( Group 1) while group 2 in which the OLE is only given after infection protects also 70% of birds. But the variation appeared clinically by delaying the start of mortalities in case of pre-infection treatment. This clinical result supported by the results of group 3 in which the birds prophylactically treated with OLE in which delaying mortalities also appeared with higher percentage of mortalities than post-infection

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treated groups. These results revealed that OLE can be used as antiviral agent against highly pathogenic H5N1 infection either as prophylactic and/or treatment therapy. The possible therapeutic effect of the both olive leaf extract (OLE) and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSC) on histological and histochemical changes in lung tissue of exposed male albino rats to gamma radiation were examined. Where 5 groups of adult male albino rats (8 rats for each) were achieved as follow: • First group (C): control. • Second group (O): treated by 15 mg /kg body weight/daily of OLE. • Third group (R): treated by 15 mg /kg body weight/daily of OLE, one week before and after irradiation. • Fourth group (RS): exposed to single dose of gamma-radiation, 3 Gy. • Fifth group (RO): irradiated with 3 Gy before treating with 3 × 106 cells/ml suspension of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells ( after 5 h of radiation exposure through caudal vein). Histological and histochemical changes were appeared in Gamma radiation exposed rats. Using of either OLE or BMMSC led to improve these changes. BMMSC demonstrated more obvious therapeutic effect than OLE. These findings illustrated that either OLE or BMMSC posses lung tissue radiotherapeutic effects against whole body of male albino rats gamma radiated [57]. “In 2017, the effects of olive leaves (OL) in chicken experimentally infected with P. multocida to determine the (MIC) of (OL) water extract against P. multocida” were investigated (https://cehea.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/47-.pdf) [58]. One month-old 60 balady chicks (SPF) were divided randomly to 3 groups, control and two trial groups (20 birds / each). Chicks of group (II) and (III) were intramuscularly injected with 0.2 ml/ bird of 18 h. broth culture of P. multocida containing 3 × 108 CFU/ml. Group (III)’s birds given ration containing olive leaves (5 gm/kg of ration). Clinical signs, mortality rates, organ invasion, and some haemato-biochemical parameters were recorded. Blood samples were taken 3, 7 and 14 days after infection for measuring the following (i) RBCs count, (ii) HB concentration, (iii) total and differential leucocytic count, (iv) serum AST, (v) ALT, (vi) creatinine, (vii) urea, (viii) triglyceride and (ix) cholesterol levels. The obtained results demonstrated that feeding with OL (i) decreased signs of illness, (2) reduced the rate of mortality and (iii) invasion of lung, liver and spleen with P. multocida, at the same time illustrated significant raise in RBCs count, HB concentration and significant decrease in blood levels of AST, ALT, urea, and cholesterol. Also, water extract of OL inhibited the growth of P. multocida at (MIC) 250 mg/ml. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with OL reduced bacterial invasion and improved the haematobiochemical parameter in broiler chickens. Three triterpenoid derivatives (oleanolic acid [OA], ursolic acid [UA] and uvaol [UV]) isolated from the African wild olive leaves in addition to methyl maslinate (MM) isolated from olive Cape cultivar, were investigated for their effects as cardiotonic and antidysrhythmic [59]. The results demonstrated that the studied triterpenoid derivatives blocked the impact of adrenaline and isoprenaline. they concluded

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that the isolated oleanolic and uvaol compounds from wild olive leaves, as well as the crude extract of all components, could be considered a cheap and viable additive for treating the hypertension, with stenocardia and cardiac failure. Olive leaves collected during one year (Nov. 1988 and Oct. 1989) to investigate the hypoglycaemic effects of their extracts on Wistar rats [60]. The extracts of collected leaves during winter months recorded the highest hypoglycaemic activity, where the isolated oleuropeoside component from the extracts posses a hypoglycaemic activity and antidiabetic effects (on diabetic rats) at 16 mg/kg. Thin layer chromatography(TLC) and gas liquid chromatography(GLC) were used in quantification and fractionation, (respectively) of terpenic acids in olive leaves alcohol extract. The obtained results suggested that oleanolic acid, among others terpenic acids could be utilized in the pharmaceutical industry, for their activities as antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory and germicide [61]. Anti-alpha-amylase components were identified from olive leaf extracts [62]. Where, olive is known as a diabetes communal drug in Europe. They examined the ability of olive leaves ethanolic extract on inhibtion of human amylases activity in vitro. They found that two anti-alpha-amylase components were isolated from soluble fraction of 50% olive leaves ethanolic extract by column chromatography using Sephadex LH-20. The first was luteolin-7-O-beta glucoside and the second was luteolin-4 -O-beta glucoside.

Animal Feed Production A pellet compound feed using 50% dried crushed olive leaves, was prepared [63]. After 15 day period of adaptation to the new diet 5-month-old lambs accepted the feed readily and mean daily weight gains of 180–190 g/day were recorded. The impact of olive leaves extract (graded levels of Oleuropein) complements on layer hen performance was studied [64]. Bandarah chickens (144 hen with 24 wks) were divided randomly into four groups of three replicates (each replicate consisted of 10 hens and 2 cocks), as follow: group 1 (control), group 2, 3 and 4 were fed on fortified diets with 50.0, 100.0 and 150 mg Oleuropein /kg diet, respectively. Birds were breaded in same conditions using floored cages (open system house) up to age of 42 weeks. Findings illustrated that the production and weight of the eggs as well as feed conversion ratio recorded significant (p < 0.05) increase for all oleuropein fed groups comparing to control group. While egg mass and feed consumption did not affect by oleuropein fotification. The scored color of egg yolk recorded significant increase (p < 0.01) for the fed supplemented groups. The higher the level of oleuropein supplementation (up to 150 mg/kg diet) the higher the socred egg yolk color. oleuropein treatments led to decrease significantly (p < 0.05) cholesterol and saturated fatty acids contents of egg yolk. Whereas, omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids were significantly rose in yolk as a result of oleuropein supplementation. All added oleuropein concentrations to hens’ diets led to significant (p < 0.01) increase in plasma protein and globulin. The lipid profile of blood for the groups that fed the supplimented oleuropein diets recorded significant improve (p < 0.01)

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in comparison with the unfeded group (control). Concening to hematological characters, different levels oleuropein fortification led to significant (p < 0.01) raise in white blood cells (WBC) as well as lymphocytes count whereas heterophils count and H/L ratio recorded significant (p < 0.01) reduction. In conclusion, oleuropein supplementation up to 150 mg/kg diet led to improve lipid profile, performance, anti-oxidative and immunological statues of the studied birds. The influnce of feeding treated chemically and biologically olive leaves and twigs on nutrients digestibility of ewe lambs, performance and some blood and rumen characters was evaluated [65]. Three breeding experiments were acheived using female lambs (4 months old and about 12.8 kg) as followed: T1 (control): CFM (concentrate feed mixture) + berseem hay. T2: CFM + urea treated olive leaves and twigs and T3: CFM + olive leaves and twigs biologically treated (by T. viride + S. cerevisiae). The results illustrated that initial body weight of the different studied lamb groups was approximately the same (12.84 kg). On the other hand, the final body weight was changed as a result of the studied treatments, where, T2 (urea treatment) and T3 (biological treatment) recorded higher final body weight (38.70 and 37.77 kg, respectively) comparing to control group (37.25 kg). while, the average daily gain recorded similar trend of live body weight. Urea treatment (T2) recorded the highest economic conversion, followed by T3 (biological treatment), then control group. T3 improved slightly (insignificant) nitrogen balance (g/h/d) more than T2. T3 had the highest ruminal total volatile fatty acids (TVFA’s) value, followed by T2 then T1 (insignificant). T2 and T3 increased (P < 0.01) true protein, ruminal total nitrogen, NPN and ammonia nitrogen comparing with control group. T2 and T3 increased (P < 0.01) total serum protein, globulin, albumin, albumin: globulin ratio, creatinine, urea, GOT and GPT comparing to T1. It could be concluded that feeding sheep on biologically or chemically treated olive trees pruning by-products led to improve nutrients digestibility, rumen fermentation and blood parameters. Olive tree and olive oil extraction produced some by-products that could be utilized in goats and sheep feeding, so this required their evaluation for nutritive value [66]. These by-products (included olive mill cake, olive leaves, olive pulps and olive skins) were dried at 60 °C or at ambient temperature and then their nutrient composition was analysed. The obtained results shwed that their chemical composition was influenced by some variables such as oil extraction method, year and mill.

Biological Control olive pomace (Fresh and exhausted), milled olive leaves, raw sewage and Eufert ( commercial olive product) were added into naturally incognita infested sandy soil (32 eggs and juveniles/g soil) at the rate of 2, 1, 4 and 8% w/w in clay pots which then planted with tomato seedlings (cv. Rutgers) 6-week-old [67]. Ground olive leaves and olive pomace (fresh and exhausted) decreased gall indices and nematode reproduction, significantly, but were highly phytotoxic. While plant growth was enhanced by raw sewage, whereas, moderate effect on root gall index was achieved by Eufert.

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The effect of leave extracts from Cestrum parquii and Olea europea on longevity and growth of the locust Schistocerca gregaria was studied [68]. They found that all protein and non-protein fractions of the extract of Cestrum parqui leaves showed an acute toxicity following injections of very small doses into Schistocerca gregaria. In the olive leaf extract, only the hydro-soluble protein fraction exhibited antifeedant effects through injections of low doses into the locusts. Also, they reported that the treatment resulted in weight loss and a decrease of vitellogenin rates in the locusts’ haemolymph.

The Production of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Agents The wastes of processed guava, olive and potato, were used for bioactive substances extraction [69]. Different solvents and drying techniques were used in the extraction processes, then the bioactive substances, antioxidant capacity and antimicrobial activity were determined. Methanol was the best solvents for either olive or potato wastes while acetone was peaked solvent for guava wastes. The antioxidant activity was higher related to total phenolic compounds than other bioactive substances. Olive wastes as well as guava pomace possessed higher activities as antimicrobial and antioxidant comparing to the other studied wastes. Also, oven-drying was recommended for food wastes. The obtained results suggested that the studied sources could be applicable in food and drug as antioxidant and antimicrobial agents. The antimicrobial activity of extracts of both Sinai olive leaves and Iranian basil leaves against some selected pathogens (either bacterial or fungal strains) and to recoginze the responsible active components of their antimicrobial activity, was investigated [70]. olive leaves extract (Methanolic/chloroform) and basil leaves extract (methanolic) were prepared. Examination of the antimicrobial activity were conducted against 5 types of pathogenic bacteria(including Staph.s aureus, Staph. epidermidis, Klebsiella, E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa,) and one type of fungus, (Candida spp.) by using agar well-diffusion method. phenolic compounds were analyzed by HPLCwhile volatile compounds were analyzed by GC–MS. Antimicrobial activity of olive leave was lower than that of basil extract. The results indicated that oleuropein was the major phenolic component in leaves of olive tree while rosmarinic acid was the main phenolic compound for basil leaves. Triterpene was the main volatile compound for olive while that for basil was Linalool. The antimicrobial activity was varied between different strains where the best was against S. aureus, Pseudomonas and candida. The antimicrobial activity of both olive and basil leaves could be attributed to phenolic compounds especially oleuropein (in olive leaves) and rosmarinic acid ( in basil leaves) and caffeic acid (in both). The important antibacterial and antioxidant effects of olive leaves could be due to the richness in phenolic substances. The influence of olive leaves extract (OLE) on the shrimp (peeled undeveined [PUD]) microbial load was investigated [71]. Alcoholic olive leave extracts were prepared at different concentrations (0.5%, 1% and 2%, w/v). Samples of raw PUD shrimp were soaked for 3 h in the previous solutions at 4 C then the samples were underwent to microbial evaluation of total count (TC), as

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well as total coliforms count (TCC). olive leave extract at 1% (w/v) concentration led to significant (p < 0.01) decrease in both the aerobic and coliforms bacteria counts by minimum 1 log cycle CFU/g in comparison with the control sample. The antimicrobial activity was depended on the used concentration and usage of 2% OLE was the highest effective in microbial growth inhibation in PUD shrimp refrigerated stored (4 C). The obtained results revealed that,OLE formulations might be useful in improving the PUD shrimp microbial quality and as a natural preservative in the seafood industry. The olive leaves antimicrobial effect against some bacterial and fungal strains was investigated [72]. The tested microorganisms were inoculated with varied concentrations of olive leaf water extract. Their findings illustrated that almost all bacteria tested were killed using 0.6% (w/v) olive leaf water extract, during 3 h. while Dermatophytes were inhibited by 1.25% (w/v) olive leaves extract after 3-days whereas after 24 h of incubation in the presence of 15% (w/v) olive leaves extractCandida albicans was killed. Also, they reported that fractionation of olive leaf extract by dialysis, demonstrated that particles smaller than 1000 molecular rate are responsible for the antimicrobial activity. Concerning to notices of Scanning electron microscopic on Candida. albicans, treated by 40% (w/v) olive leaf extract, presented invigilated and amorphous cells. Regarding to E. coli cells, illustrated full destruction when subjected to only 0.6% (w/v) olive leaf extract. These results proposed possible antimicrobial activity for olive leaves. the main olive leaf polyphenols were identified and quantified [52]. flavonoid glycosides and secoiridoids were identificatied and quantified cation of varied extracts of olive leaves by tools of HPLC/DAD and HPLC/MS analysis, the last one linked to an API-Elecrospray equipment. They detected different polyphenols in olive leaf tissue as follow: oleuropein, verbascoside, hydroxythyrosol glucoside, tyrosol, hydroxythyrosol, rutin [rutoside], luteolin 7-O-glucoside, caffeic acid, luteolin 4 -O-glucoside, elenolic acid derivative, apigenin 7-O-rutinoside and apigenin 7-O-glucoside. Antioxidant activities (DPPH method in vitro) of an hydroalcoholic extract of both decoction and tea from Olea leaves, separately, were examined. All the studied extracts had scavenged efficiently the DPPH free radical, so, olive leaf could be used in pharmacological purposes.

Improvement of Some Olive Oil Characteristics In a previous work, the author studied the effect of olive leaves addition (2%) during crushing step on the quality parameters of olive oil produced by centrifugal extraction of picual and chemlali cultivars in North Saini [51]. The results showed that no mechanical problems occurred as a result of leaves addition. Also, the obtained oil was darker than control sample oil. Leaves addition had slight effect on most oil quality parameters, with desirable effect on taste and improving polyphenol content. The influence of olive leaves addition (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5% w/w) to olive fruits during crushing process on sensory attributes of olive oil extracted by centrifugation was studied [50]. Results ilustrated that no mechanical problems were caused in olive

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paste flow as a result of olive leaves addition to olive. Hammer metal crusher crushed olive leaves to small pieces which could be well amalgamated with olive paste. Olive leaves mixing had no impact on total polyphenols, o.diphenol or induction time. The presented phenolic compounds in olive leaves are mainly glycosides, which are soluble in water not in oil. Olive leaves addition by 1–2%, led to produce olive oil could be classified as “extra virgin” in addition to improving both taste and appearance. Olive leaves mixing resulted in a noticeable raise in hexanal, trans 2hexanal and some alcohols, like trans-2-hexanol, cis-3-hexanol, and 1 hexanol which could be explained as a result of chloroplasts releasing from crushed leaves. Virgin olive oil quality is directly related by the content of trans-2-hexanal content. The antioxidant effect of olive leaves phenolic extract, olive fruit phenolic extract, butylhydroxyanisol (BHA) and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) on olive and sunflower oils was investigated [73]. Both the phenolic extracts and synthetic antioxidants prevented the oxidation of olive oil and sunflower oil. Their antioxidant effect was in the order (phenolic extract of fruit > phenolic extract of leaf > BHT > BHA).

Olive Mill Cake (Pomace) Results indicated that up to 40 kg of cake is obtained from 100 kg of olives. Its characteristics depend on the process followed in the extraction of the oil and will differ according to whether pressure, centrifuging or selective filtrationwas used (https://file.scirp.org/pdf/ACES_2016101916203912.pdf). In a previous work [39], the author analyzed the olive mill cake,and the results give an average in table 1. The utilization of olive mill cake took several trends that could be summarized as follow

Animal Feed Production The possibilities of utilization of olive mill wastes in animal feeding were studied [74]. So, they studied varied biological and chemical procedures to evaluate the Table 1 Chemical composition of olive mill cake [39]

Olive mill cake (pomace) Moisture content (%)

55.67

Total lipids (%)

5.11

Proteins (%)

3.29

T. crbohydrates (%)*

34.53

Pectins (%)

1.66

Ash (%)

1.40

* Calculated

by differences

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nutritional value of by-products from olive farming and olive mill. They stated that these substances could have critical role in small ruminants nutrition using some treatments. The bio-transformation of olive pomace that produced by olive mills in Egypt, using local separated fungi (solid state fermentation) to enhance its digestibility and nutritional value in order to be adequate for ruminants nutrition, was studied [75]. Seven fungal strains (non-mycotoxin producing) namely Trichoderma reesei F-418, T. harzianumF-416, T. virdie F-520, T. koningii F-322, Aspergillus oryzae FK-923, A. fumigatus F-993, and A. awamori F-524 were cultured on olive pomace for 7 days at 36 C. The resultant substrate was subjected to further determination of chemical composition and lignocellulolytic enzyme activities. A. oryzae FK-923, was the most promising strain, where crude protein increased from 9.5% (control sample) to 17.4% (fungal treated sample), while total polyphenols were reduced from 3.1% (control) to 0.92% (fungal treated sample) and fibers decreased from 33 to 22.2%. Also, the values of both neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were decreased. Sugarcane molasses addition (at 2%)led to raise the crude protein to 18.9% and decline both of phenols and fibers to 0.69 and 21.8%, respectively. Meanwhile, active dry yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) additionby 1.5% to the growth medium increased the crude protein to 20.2% (w/ w), whereas phenols and fibers were reduced to 0.55 and 19.2%, respectively. These findings indicated that A. oryzae FK-923 could be an effective organism for the production of lignocellulolytic enzymes and in the same time improve the crude protein content and in vitro digestibility of olive pomace. The impacts of diet fortification by varied levels of olive cake (OC) on laying hens’ performance and some blood constituents under Egyptian desert conditions were investigated [76]. 150 Mamora laying hens (22 weeks old and body weight of 1461.20 ± 30.74 g) were randomly divided into five equal groups (30 hens of each). The first group was fed on a basal diet only (control), while, groups 2,3,4 and 5, were feded suplimented diets with 4, 8, 12 and 16% of olive cake (OC), respectively, until 34 week of age. The results illustrated that hens fed 12 and 16% OC recorded an increase (P