Modern Jainism: A Historical Approach 9819924847, 9789819924844

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Pankaj Jain

Modern Jainism A Historical Approach

Modern Jainism

Pankaj Jain

Modern Jainism A Historical Approach

Pankaj Jain Department of Humanities and Languages, The India Centre FLAME University Pune, India

ISBN 978-981-99-2484-4 ISBN 978-981-99-2485-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

In 2005, I attended a conference on Indian philosophy which was held in Orlando, Florida. Being, at that time, a junior professor, I was hard pressed to afford to attend the many academic conferences in which I had to participate so I could establish myself in my field. I therefore opted, as I did several times in those days, to share a hotel room with another attendee. This turned out to be another junior scholar who was also trying to save on the costs of attending the conference. We did not know one another previously, but my roommate for that conference was none other than Pankaj Jain, the author of this book. Our meeting in Orlando proved to be the beginning of a collegial friendship which I am grateful to say continues to thrive to the present day. Pankaj and I found in our conversations at the conference that we shared many values, interests, and perspectives in common, despite our hailing from opposite sides of the globe. The book you are now reading represents the culmination of many years of work on the part of Dr. Jain–my friend, Pankaj. It fills a major lacuna in the current literature on Jain thought and practice, introducing, as it does, several important modern Jain philosophers to the wider world of English-speaking readers. This book also does a wonderful job of contextualizing the teachings of these thinkers by first providing the reader with a detailed introduction to the history, central concepts, and figures of the premodern Jain philosophical tradition. This history includes not only the internal Jain conversations of the premodern era, but also this tradition’s engagement with the other dar´sanas–the worldviews or systems–of Indian philosophy, such as Buddhism and S¯am . khya. This book therefore promises to become an important resource both for professional scholars of Jainism and of Indian philosophy more broadly, as well as a great introduction for students who are just beginning their explorations in this fascinating and engaging field. Looking back upon the writing of my own book on the Jain tradition–Jainism: An Introduction, published in 2009–I wish that this volume had been available to me to consult at that time. It condenses a wide array of very complex and detailed philosophical concepts and arguments into a single clear and concise volume. Pankaj is therefore to be thanked and commended for his efforts and for this helpful contribution to the fields of Jain studies, Indian philosophy, and the philosophy of religion. The topics which it covers are relevant not only to Jains v

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Foreword

or to students of Indic traditions but have universal resonance. This book will be an aid to understanding and the global promulgation of these ideas. Elizabethtown, PA, USA March 2023

Jeffery D. Long

Preface

My birthplace, Pali, a small town in the Indian state of Rajasthan, has been a pilgrimage and business center for Jains for at least a thousand years, with the oldest Jain temple built in 912 CE. From the early 1970s to the late 1980s, I saw my grandmother practicing Jainism rigorously—walking a couple of miles daily to the nearest Jain temples at daybreak for her daily rituals. My parents planted the seeds of exploring India in my growing years with trips to Jain pilgrimage sites in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Karnataka. In the 21st century, I observed and documented Jainism in America (Jain 2019), where Jains have established dozens of temples, organizations, and academic centers at American universities. The idea for my next monograph developed as my father shared names of Jain spiritual leaders whose biographies are still missing from the academic texts in English. I am deeply grateful to friends and colleagues for their kind support and advice for this work—especially Sulekh Jain, Shugan Jain, Pravin Shah, Anant Jain, Manish Mehta, Prof. Jeffery Long, Prof. John Cort, Prof. Chris Chapple, Prof. Peter Flügel, and Prof. Paul Dundas. I thank Prof. Ashok Jain for arranging the permission to translate the Hindi book Jain Dar´san by Prof. Mahendra Kumar Jain. For the chapter on K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı, I thank Pan.d.it Hukamchand Bharill, Sanjeev Godha, Kirit Gosalia, Hemant Gandhi, Sheetal Shah, and the volunteers/staff of Jaipur’s Pan.d.it Todarmal ¯ arya Vidyanand, I am grateful Smarak Trust and Songadh. For the chapter on Ach¯ to Pankaj Kumar Jain, Anil Jain, Gaurav Jain, Prof. Veer Sagar Jain, Prof. Anekant Jain, Prof. Jai Upadhye, and the volunteers/staff at Delhi’s Kundakunda Bharati, espe¯ arya S¯ ´ antis¯agar, I thank Nirmal Sethi, Prof. cially Kamal Jain. For the chapter on Ach¯ Ashok Jain, Prof. Jaykumar Upadhye, and the volunteers/staff at Delhi’s Kundakunda ¯ arya R¯ajendra S¯ur¯ı, I am Bharati, especially Kamal Jain. For the chapter on Ach¯ grateful to the volunteers/staff at Mohankheda, especially Kailash Jain. For the ¯ arya Hast¯ımal, I thank Vinod Surana, Prof. Dharma Chand Jain, chapter on Ach¯ Prof. Sushma Singhvi, Sampat Chaudhary, and the volunteers/staff of Jaipur’s Lal ¯ arya Sagaranand S¯ur¯ı, I am grateful to Mukesh Bhawan. For the chapter on Ach¯ Bariya, Muni Vair¯agya Chandra Sagar, Muni Deepratna Sagar, Manish Modi, and volunteers/staff at Surat’s Agam Mandir. For the chapter on Muni Punyavijaya, I am grateful to Jitendra Shah and the volunteers/staff at the L. D. Institute of Jainology. vii

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Preface

For the glossary of Jain terms in the appendix, I thank Premchand Gada for permitting me to incorporate his dictionary. I thank FLAME University for the research grants in 2021 and 2022 that helped complete the manuscript. FLAME’s two students, Yatha Jain, assisted in proofreading, and Soumya Tiwari, in the design. I am grateful to the Springer editorial team of Satvinder Kaur and Kanchan Latambale. Of course, any omission or error in the book remains my own. I have uploaded the pictures of various pilgrimage sites associated with the ascetics covered in the book at Facebook.com/ModernJainism101615814575218/. I have tried to follow the standard academic diacritic conventions but have dropped the “a” at the end of most names to match the Indian English conventions. Sometimes, the author and place names do not have diacritical symbols to follow their English spellings in publications. Also, words such as Nirvana have been retained without diacritical marks because they are part of English dictionaries already. For Indian cities and states, I have used their latest names instead of their older versions. I thank my parents, my wife, and our two boys, who continue to endure my long absences, physical and mental, for research and writing. Pune, India 2 October 2022 (Mahatma Gandhi’s Birthday and International Day of Nonviolence)

Pankaj Jain

Introduction

This book’s focus is Jainism from the present to the last couple of centuries. According to Michael Carrithers (1996) and Paul Dundas (1992), little is known of Jains anywhere in India in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Hopefully, this book will help fill this gap. Peter Flügel (2005) argues that “Jainism” was invented in this period. Scholz (2011) agrees with Flügel and states “The use of the term Jain and the vernacular form Jain as a self-designation seems to be a development which started only in the 19th century.” However, Sangave (1980, 384) and Lath (1991, 28) cite the 10th-century Jain ascetic Somadeva, who wrote about Jains’ distinct community in his Sanskrit text, Ya´sastilakacampuk¯avyam (34477). Despite this centuries-old self-conscious Jain identity, Jainism became a separate religion officially with the British census in 1881 (Flügel 2006, 313) and a “minority religion” in 2014 when the then Indian government, led by the Congress Party, accorded the minority status to the Jain community.1 However, the Hindu code bills continue to apply to Jains (with Buddhists and Sikhs) for various matters such as inheritance and marriage (Flügel 2005). A search for “Modern Hinduism,” “Modern Buddhism,” or other world religions yields several books. However, a search for “Modern Jainism” yields only one monography, authored by the Presbyterian missionary Sinclair Stevenson (1910) and published by the Irish Mission Press in Gujarat. Stevenson’s volume presents the basics of Jainism based on the information shared by Jains. Certain books and YouTube videos with “modern” themes published by Jains attempt to position Jainism in modern times. Tine Vekemans (2021) and Clair Maes (2022) show Jains connecting and modifying their values, practices, and principles according to COVID-19 guidelines by the World Health Organization (WHO). Maes (2022) agrees with Aukland (2015) that Jainism is undergoing academization and scientization processes that present this ancient tradition as a universal and modern religion responding to global 1

https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jains-granted-minority-status/article5598368.ece (accessed December 31, 2020). Many unsuccessfully protested Jains becoming separate from Hindus, e.g., https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/jains-sikhs-buddhists-not-differentfrom-hindus-rss/articleshow/39495560.cms and https://www.opindia.com/2022/05/the-wire-column ist-ghazala-wahab-questions-minority-status-of-jains/ (accessed August 18, 2022).

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issues. Whitney Kelting2 argues that modern Jains in Maharashtra use their wealth to assert their masculine identity by constructing new temples. But Jains have been erecting temples and other religious structures for millennia. Similarly, Steven Vose3 theorizes that a new Jain movement headed by Rakeshbhai Jhaveri, Surpasses the individualism of the “adhyatma” tradition—which gives a space for Jain seekers to pursue personal studies of works by such figures as Kundakunda and R¯ajacandra as a supplemental or replacement spiritual path (sadhana) for traditional Jain religious life—in part by making its practices external, public, and highly visible.

However, according to Flügel (2005), “public celebrations were for millennia the only form of religiosity open to the Jain laity.” Indeed, most new Jain movements have been “external, public, and highly visible.” Significantly, the 20th-century movement by K¯anji Sv¯ami emphasized individualism and the texts by Kundakunda and R¯ajacandra. And as we note in the chapter on K¯anji Sv¯ami in this monograph later, his followers remain “external, public, and highly visible.” Another edited volume by Luithle-Hardenberg, Andrea et al. (2020) fills significant scholarly gaps about Jains during the British Raj. Still, it does not mention prominent saints that shaped or reshaped the Jain movements this monograph seeks to accomplish.

Asceticism in Contemporary Jainism As the films mentioned in Appendix 1 and various Indian news headlines show, asceticism remains a crucial feature of contemporary Jainism, both as an ascetic practice and a cherished ideal by laypeople. According to one report, Jains continue to renounce their wealth and careers to choose the life of rigorous asceticism to become “millennium monks.”4 This book’s second part has eight chapters on Jain ascetics across different sects and subsects who played a crucial role in shaping Jainism in India and beyond. Each chapter in Part II chronicles influential Jain saints in the 19th–21st centuries. These figures helped shape Jainism in the last couple of centuries through their scholarly work, sociopolitical activism, exemplary penance, or a combination of any or all three. Other leaders could be justifiably called co´ ımad R¯ajchandra5 (1867–1901), creators or co-makers of modern Jainism, e.g., Sr¯ 6 a¯ ch¯arya Tulsi (1914–1997), a¯ ch¯arya Mah¯apragya (1920–2010), a¯ ch¯arya Vidy¯as¯agar 2

https://papers.aarweb.org/paper/modern-masculine-modern-jain-0 (accessed September 4, 2022). https://papers.aarweb.org/paper/mass-self-representation-and-making-global-jain-publics-onlinetheorizing-shrimad-rajchandra-1 (accessed September 3, 2022). 4 https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking-point/meet-the-millennial-jain-monks-111645501 329484.html (accessed Jan 2021). 5 Gogri, K. V. “Guru Bhakti and Panca Parmesth¯ıs, in the thought of Srimad Rajacandra (1867– .. 1901 A.D),” in International Journal of Dharma Studies. 3, 1 (2015). 6 Reading, Michael. “Ach¯ ¯ arya Sri Tulsi, Anuvrat, and Eco-conscious Living,” in Christopher Patrick Miller et al (ed.). Beacons of Dharma: Spiritual Exemplars for the Modern Age. Lexington Books, 2020. 3

Introduction

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(1946–). However, I have intentionally avoided well-known figures since their life and works are published in other academic publications. The present volume focuses on lesser-known leaders who are not yet familiar names in Western academia. The timeline of the Jain saints in this book shows they were contemporary. R¯ajendra Sur¯ı (1827–1906) was contemporary of s´a¯ ntis¯agar (1872–1955), S¯agar¯ananda Sur¯ı (1875–1950), K¯anji Sv¯ami (1890–1980), Pun.yavijaya (1895– 1971), Hast¯ımal (1910–1991), and Vidy¯anand (1925 –2019). These charismatic figures had a mammoth task ahead of them. As Flügel (2005) notes, [I]n the early 19th century, the Jain community was (like much of India) in a dismal state. The mendicant communities were defunct, with few mendicants, dominated by often uneducated yatis who maintained strong sectarian and caste orientations and rarely followed the canonical rules of conduct, with the temples, up¯as´rayas and mathas in a state of decay, the bhand¯aras unkempt and the sacred manuscripts crumbling. The only hope for change seemed to be religious and social reform, a cornerstone of which was the revival of monastic education and the propagation of religious learning and secular education side by side for both men and for women who are the torchbearers of religion in traditional Jain families.

However, these ascetics seemed to have remained oblivious of their contemporaries, with exceptions, e.g., s´a¯ ntis¯agar’s visit to Songadh to meet K¯anji Sv¯ami, for ´ ambara counterinstance. Further, Digambara ascetics had no contact with their Svet¯ parts and vice versa. Yet, their geographical and social territories gave a new direction to what we now see as “Jainism” across India. Although Jain ascetics do not travel abroad, their influence far exceeds the geographical boundaries. Their followers can today be found in Nepal, Thailand, Japan, Kenya, Belgium, the UK, Canada, and the USA. Jain modern institutions and organizations developed in the last few centuries with ascetics, especially nuns, disproportionately in high numbers compared to their Hindu or Buddhist counterparts in India (Flügel 2006315). According to one directory of all Jain congregations published in 2019, there were 16,906 Jain ascetics, ´ et¯ambara subsect), 4175 Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı (nonincluding 10,436 image-worshiping (Sv¯ ´ et¯ambara), 1572 Digambara, and 723 Terapanthi image-worshiping subsect of Sv¯ ´ et¯ambara subsect) monks and nuns (Samagra 2019). According to another esti(Sv¯ mate, there are 715 Digambar nuns across India.7 All the ascetics in these congregations are led by senior monks or nuns who follow lineages established by charismatic figures, some of whom are described in various chapters of this book’s second part. In the first part, we delve into lesser-known aspects of Jain philosophical concepts. Jainism is widely known for its emphasis on nonviolence. However, here, we study cosmological and other related elements of Jain philosophy that are rarely found in academic books in the Western hemisphere. In my observation, these aspects of Jain philosophy are found more commonly in the Digambara Jain books. The first part is based on my translation from the celebrated monograph in Hindi, Jain Dar´san (1955),8 by Dr. Mahendra Kumar Jain (1911–1959), an eminent Digambara Jain 7

As mentioned by Dr. Jyoti Jain on October 30th, 2022, at this conferencehttps://varnisansthan. org/gvs-golden-jubilee-conference/ (Accessed November 11, 2022). 8 https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.483538 (accessed August 1, 2022).

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scholar who received his Ph.D. from Banaras Hindu University and taught there as well. The book9 became so popular that its first edition was sold out within three years of its publication in 1955. However, he passed away before the second edition of his magnum opus was published in 1966, which was also sold out. Finally, the third edition came out in 1974. Throughout his monograph, he debates, often polemically, with his Hindu and Buddhist counterparts, reminding us of such debates in Classical India (Gorisse 2021). The fourth edition was published in 2006, whose copy I saw available in Varanasi in November 2022. I am grateful to the publishers for allowing me to translate sections from this monograph.

9

Fulchand Shastri established Ganesh Varni Jain Sansthan in 1947, which was the original publisher of this monograph, https://www.VarniSansthan.org (accessed October 1, 2022).

Contents

Part I

Jain Philosophy

1

Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kinds of Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No Exception to Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material and Instrumental Causes in Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Doctrine of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Doctrine of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Doctrine of Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cause and Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Karma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Doctrine of Theism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Doctrine of Materialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Opposite Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Causality of Karma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contemporary Materialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Futility of Materialism for the Societal Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . The World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10

2

Form of the Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qualities and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generality and Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Actual Existence and Continuum of Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Hollowness of Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Blown Out” Nirvana is Inapprehensible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General and Specific Substance and Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13 13 14 14 15 15 16

3

Analysis of Six Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Six Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Living Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Doctrine of All-Pervading Soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17 17 17 18

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The Doctrine of Atomic Soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Doctrine of Matter and Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Desires Are the Properties of the Soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agent and Enjoyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qualities Such as Attachment not in the Three Bodily Humors . . . . . . . . Thoughts and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . We Reap What We Sow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Process of Obtaining the New Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The World Cycle Is Self-governed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Types of Souls: Worldly and Liberated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Matter Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kinds of Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four Divisions of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Process of Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Modes of the Pudgalas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Sound Is Not Just Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Play of Matter Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shadow As the Mode of Matter Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Only One Matter Particle Is Fundamental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Earth Is Not an Independent Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat and Light Are Also Not Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Dharma Substance and the Adharma Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Space Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Direction Is Not an Independent Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Sound Is Not a Quality of the Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space Is Not a Distortion of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Space in the Buddhist Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Time Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Time Theory of the Vai´ses.ika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time in the Buddhist Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Substance Theory of the Vai´ses.ika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Qualities Are Not Independent Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nature of the Whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qualities Are Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qualities Are Not Illusionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of the Origin of Effect: The True Effect Doctrine of the S¯am . khya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The False Effect Doctrine of the Naiy¯ayika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The False Effect Doctrine of the Buddhists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Noble True Effect Doctrine of the Jains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Response to the Objection by Dharmak¯ırti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18 19 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 32 33 34 34 35 35 35 36 39 40 40 41 42 42 42 43

Contents

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4

45 45 46 47 48 49 49 50 50 52 54 54 55 55 56 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 60 61 61 61 62 63 64 64 64 65 65 66 66 66 67

The Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Perspective of the Buddha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Soul Among the Seven Elements in Jainism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Two Forms of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Beginninglessness of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Reason for the Soul to Be Bound Eternally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Souls Have the Forms in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The State of the Soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Correct View is the Soul View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Futility of the Doctrine of Non-self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Soul is not the Form of the Five Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Three Kinds of Soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Foundation for Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Non-living Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Bondage Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four Kinds of Bondage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Influx Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wrong View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-abstinence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carelessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Passions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Influxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liberation Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liberation is not like Extinguishing a Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attributes Such as Knowledge Do not Disappear in Nirvana . . . . . . . . . . The Significance of the Description of Nirvana in Milind’s Question . . . Liberation, not Nirvana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Inhibition Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carefulness (Samiti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Righteousness (Dharma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contemplation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Endurance of Afflictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Destruction Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instruments for Liberation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part II 5

The Digambaras

¯ arya S¯ ´ antis¯agar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ach¯ Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birth and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Becoming and Being a Jain Monk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ¯ arya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Becoming and Being an Ach¯

71 71 72 73 75

xvi

Contents

Pilgrimage and Roaming for Digambara Monks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reform Work for Food and Water Consumption in Northern India . . . . . Death by Sallekhan¯a (Ritual Fasting) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quotes by Him . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quotes by Mahatma Gandhi About Him . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75 77 77 78 78 78

6

K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birth and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Renunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dreams and Prophecies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acceptance of Samays¯ar as a Turning Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Renouncing the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı Monkhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daily Routine of K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discourse Series Given by K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concluding Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79 79 80 81 82 83 83 88 88 88 89

7

¯ arya Vidy¯anand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ach¯ Birth and Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Becoming and Being a Jain Monk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planning and Celebrating the 2500th Anniversary of Mah¯av¯ıra’s Nirvana Saman.a Suttam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Views on Jain Emblem and Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Austere Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Views on Meditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91 92 93 95 98 98 99 99 99

8

M¯at¯a Jñ¯anamat¯ı . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birth and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Five-Year March Across India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

101 102 102 103

Part III The Svetambaras 9

¯ arya Hast¯ımal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ach¯ Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birth and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Monastic Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Daily Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contributions and Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

109 109 109 110 114 115 116

Contents

xvii

10 Muni Pun.yavijaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birth and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teachers of Pun.yavijaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Interviews with Pun.yavijaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contributions and Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . His Works (Excerpts with Translation from Pan.ny¯asa 1968) . . . . . . . . . . Stationery Used (Desai 2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123 123 124 124 125 127 128 130 131

¯ arya R¯ajendra Sur¯ ¯ ı ........................................ 11 Ach¯ Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birth and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Initiation into Spiritual Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ¯ arya Vijaya R¯ajendra S¯ur¯ı . . . . . . . . . . Leading the Congregation as Ach¯ His Last Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scholarly Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

133 133 134 134 135 138 138 138 139

¯ arya S¯agar¯ananda Sur¯ ¯ ı .................................... 12 Ach¯ Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birth and Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life as a Monk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

141 141 142 143

Epilogue: Ancient Modernity of Jainism Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Appendix: Jains as Portrayed in Contemporary Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

About the Author

Prof. Pankaj Jain is an internationally recognized academic leader in Sustainability, Jain Studies, Film Studies, and Diaspora Studies. He is the Head, Humanities and Languages and the Chair, The India Centre at FLAME University. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Iowa and an M.A. from Columbia University (both in Religious Studies). He has over twenty-five years of work experience in academia and industry. He has published award-winning Dharma and Ecology of Hindu Communities: Sustenance and Sustainability and Science and Socio-religious Revolution in India: Moving the Mountains. His articles have appeared in several academic journals and on the Huffington Post, Washington Post, Economic Times, Times of India, Speaking Tree, and Patheos. In addition, Pankaj Jain is widely quoted in various American and Indian media outlets, including NBC, CBS, and BBC.

xix

Part I

Jain Philosophy

Chapter 1

Cosmology

There are six elements or building blocks that constitute the entirety of the universe, j¯ıva (soul or living being), Pudgala (matter), a¯ k¯as´a (space), dharma (medium of motion), adharma (medium of rest), and k¯ala (time). Everything in the three levels of the universe is made from these elements. No element is ever destroyed, and no non-being or non-element is created. All objects continue to transform according to their attributes and modes. All beings in the universe exist in all three times past, present, and future. Their numbers remain constant in the universe. Their attributes and modes continually transform without any exception. There are countless souls, matter particles, and time particles in the universe and space, along with motion (dharma) and rest (adharma). These substances pervade the universe (loka), but the non-universe (aloka) is space beyond the universe. Space in the universe and the nonuniverse is one unbroken substance. This universe is an uncreated vast reservoir of infinite substances existing without beginning and end. Each element is completely original and independent. An element consists of origination, cessation, and permanence. It transforms in its every moment. It abandons its past mode and obtains a new one in an infinite unbroken stream of mode transformations without beginning and end. Neither living nor non-living beings are out of this origination and cessation cycle as this is their original nature. These transformations can be similar or dissimilar. They sometimes affect each other as the causes of these transformations. Unlike a flame, the stream of origination, cessation, and permanence can never extinguish. Even after infinite transformations, an object cannot cease to exist. Its substantiveness can never perish. No amount of effort can ever destroy an atom from the universe. Even the modern atomic bomb is merely an explosion of a minute cluster. An atom is indivisible and cannot be broken down. The senses cannot grasp it. The final unbreakable division of a bunch is the eternal, silent atom, with a form and shape. The universe is filled with such particles. These tiny atoms unite and form clusters of varying sizes that can be broken but not the bit itself. Matter can transform but never disappear or cease to exist.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1_1

3

4

1 Cosmology

Kinds of Transformation The substances can transform into two kinds—natural and unnatural. Motion, rest, space, and time constantly change in their original nature. The new modes replace the old ways, but the new ones are like the old ones. Each substance has a constancy attribute that maintains a balance, neither heavy nor light. This attribute maintains the stability and originality of the substance’s nature. There is infinite development in this attribute, positively or negatively, based on which a substance keeps its permanent nature and never leaves its substantiveness. The nature of transformation can hardly be distinguished from one moment to the next.

No Exception to Transformation If these substances have been transforming without beginning and end yet have been similar from moment to moment, how can they be called transformation then? How should this transformation be measured? If each element of the universe transforms and is neither permanent nor eternal, how can space elements challenge such mandatory rules? Their existence is threefold, i.e., origination, cessation, and permanence, without exception, although our words or thoughts may not apprehend their transformation. When we know the continuous transformation in a particle by its aggregate effects, when we experience the change in the soul by its characteristics such as knowledge, and when the origination, cessation, and permanence of substances in the tangible world is self-proven, it cannot even be imagined for any substance in the universe to be without the threefold existence of origination, cessation, and permanence. For instance, the mud leaves its form and becomes an earthen pot, but the clay remains the same in both states. This rule applies to all souls in the universe. The worldly souls remain pure after achieving omniscience once, but the particle aggregates become impure again in their particle stage. The pure state of matter is a particle, but its dirty form is aggregated. Just as they become aggregate, they also return to their particle state; this is how souls and matter continuously transform. A sum of hydrogen-atoms combines with an aggregate of oxygen-atoms and becomes water. This water evaporates after boiling and freezes and becomes water again. This cycle continues forever. The substance is the material cause, and the other substances are the instrumental cause of such a process. Due to their karma, all living souls attain the material bodies affected by motion, rest, time, and space. Among these elements, space extends beyond the universe. By continuously interacting with elements of the universe and through the concept of karma, worldly beings and matter undergo continuous transformations. The states of matter keep changing and evolving due to their perpetual relationships. Omniscience is the liberated state where the soul is free from defilement due to matter particles. The soul exists only in its pure form after obliterating the cycle of karma and acquiring the state of pure transformation.

The Doctrine of Time

5

In this way, all the beings in the universe undergo continuous transformations based on their material or instrumental cause. These changes happen in gradual processes. According to their internal or external substances, effects arise and perish. They control their characteristics and modes with their substances. For instance, a white piece of cloth becomes dirty after a day; this does not mean that it remained clean for 23 h and 59 min and suddenly became contaminated at the last second. The defilement process continued for the entire day—the visible dirtiness resulted from all the transformations in those 24 h. Similarly, the aging symptoms in the human body are outcomes of infinite changes occurring continuously. The time element is described in Jainism as a physical element that works upon every matter in the universe and causes aging. Time particles are distributed over every single object, living and non-living, and cause them to age. These particles are like gems spilled on the surface—they touch and do not mix but cause the physical change of aging in each. Each substance is its material cause in its transformation and can be an instrumental cause in transforming other substances. These instrumental causes occur either through coincidences or through individual efforts. For instance, an oxygen aggregate can interact with a hydrogen aggregate with air push or when a scientist brings both sums together. In both these cases, it will transform into water. Similarly, if a moist piece of coal is fallen or thrown into a fire by somebody, it will generate smoke. No being can bring about impossible transformation into other beings, as mentioned by Kundkunda in Samays¯ar (372). However, the theory that God can control other beings as a material or instrumental cause goes against the nature of all substances and is rejected in Jainism.

Material and Instrumental Causes in Hinduism The cause that transforms itself into effect is the material cause, and the cause that helps bring about transformation in other substances is the instrumental cause, as seen above. The clay in the pot is the material cause, while the pot maker is the ´ as´vatara Upanis.ad, instrumental cause. In one of the verses in the Hindu text Svet¯ the cause of the universe is discussed by raising questions. What is the cause of the universe? From where did we all come? What keeps us alive? Where are we all situated? In our sorrow and happiness, how do we behave? These questions state that time, nature, destiny, divine will, and universal consciousness are the world’s causes. Let us now look at each of these.

The Doctrine of Time According to the Mah¯abh¯arata (1.272–273), all happenings, sorrows, and joys originate based on time. Time creates and destroys all beings, generates all good and evil emotions, and evolves and dissolves the world. Everything else may fall asleep,

6

1 Cosmology

but the time remains awake. It drives all beings and is the cause of all past, present, and future emotions and thoughts. Therefore, time is the primordial cause of the universe. However, from the Jain perspective, how can one unbroken phenomenon of time be the cause of transformations with mutually opposite characteristics? With a capable and eternal cause such as time, specific effects take place sometimes but do not take place at other times. Hence, time may be an indifferent cause but never an active or exclusive cause. Even simultaneously, an arrangement such as the clay giving rise to a pot or thread giving to cloth cannot be accepted without accepting the cause-and-effect characteristics of independent beings in the universe.

The Doctrine of Nature The proponents of this doctrine explain the diverse characteristics of different beings in the universe by highlighting each being’s nature without a God that controls them. According to this view, there is no purpose behind the universe’s peculiarity, so everything is natural without purpose. Nobody’s effort is responsible for the universe, and nobody’s wish can control this. The Jain perspective can agree with the rejection of God as a universe controller. However, this naturalism leading to a universe without any purpose is to be rejected. We have scientific experiments, for instance, in which humans have successfully transformed the characteristics of several genes. Thus, purpose-based efforts can shape the transformations of different beings in the universe.

The Doctrine of Destiny The proponents of this doctrine accept the predestined life of all beings. According to this doctrine’s logic, even a sharp weapon fails to end one’s life, but others can die without reason based on predestined paths. However, the Jain perspective adds the importance of individual effort to this doctrine. To be sure, certain things have a set future. For example 1. A new substance cannot originate from all the existing substances in the universe, nor can the existing substance be destroyed. These substances are soul, matter, space, motion, rest, and time, and these substances are fixed in number forever and will remain so in the future. 2. Each substance leaves its older mode, accepts a new mode, and maintains this process according to its nature. Nothing can stop or interfere with this continuous process and destroy any substance. Every living being “dies,” and that life span ends, but the soul leaves the body and goes into another one. 3. A living being cannot transform into a non-living being and vice versa. A living being will always remain to live, and a non-living will forever remain non-living.

Karma

7

4. Two or more non-living particles can form an aggregate together. However, two or more living beings cannot create an aggregate together and will always maintain their independent transformation process. 5. Each substance has its original capabilities and powers, and neither a new ability can be added, nor an existing power can be removed. 6. Although all substances have the same powers, they also develop unique abilities based on available ingredients. For instance, each particle has all the matter qualities, but only clay can become a pot, not pebbles. Similarly, only a thread can become a piece of cloth, not clay, although pot and cloth are different modes of matter. The circumstances and available external ingredients determine the subsequent mode of a substance. For instance, clay can become a pot or a vessel, depending on the pot maker’s ability, desire, and effort. The future of all beings is predestined, and the world is moving on an eternal predetermined timeline is not the philosophy of Jainism. All beings create their fates through three mediums of karma—thought, speech, and action. Neglecting or denying the potency of defining one’s future is a misunderstanding that blocks one’s development. It discourages making an active effort to change something for oneself. Any spiritual preaching and initiation into a spiritual life can make no sense if one’s destiny is already preset. Kundkund explained in his Samays¯ar that one substance could not. It brings about transformation in another substance. All substances originate and transform according to their nature.

Cause and Effect If the cause and the ingredients are available and no unfavorable reason comes their way, the effect will happen according to its natural course. One’s efforts can decide the desired effect only to the extent that the other appropriate ingredients are also favorable. The belief in preset destiny may be based on the emotional need to explain away happenings after the fact. However, cosmology is based on the fundamental nature and transformations of substances. Jainism states that processes in the universe happen on their own accord, not due to God as the creator of the universe.

Karma The soul has always been related to matter particles. It is trapped in the physical bodily forms and is prevented from illuminating its whole nature of pure consciousness. The particles are spread throughout the universe and are attracted to a soul through its karma. The cycle of cause and effect continues to gather more karma particles. The soul is a substance that expands and shrinks depending on its karma impressions and tendencies, i.e., sam . sk¯ara. There is the soul of an ant, and there is the soul of the blue whale. Both are vessels the souls reached into due to their karma and adapted their

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1 Cosmology

size according to the received bodies. Our thoughts, words, and actions garner future karma particles. When the time comes for maturing karma particles, or in simple terms, receiving the fruits of our karma, they appear in low, medium, or extreme intensity depending on the surrounding substances, time, space, and other ingredients. The excellent fruition of karma can result in beneficial situations in social, economic, or political realms. Without promising cooperation from the external environment, the karma particles will fructify without extreme impact. For instance, a negative particle can fructify without negatively impacting a soul if that soul is putting intense efforts in a positive spiritual direction. The soul can wake up at any point, and conscious efforts can reduce or even nullify the impact of past karma particles. The soul can get liberation from its desires and pudgala particle attachments based on penance-based efforts. After its release, it does not get entangled with karma bondages and escapes the endless chain of rebirth. Once the karma-related imprints, sam . sk¯aras, are cleansed off the soul, the soul is left with the last human body’s shape that attained liberation, moks.a.

The Doctrine of Theism In this doctrine, God is considered instrumental in the creation of the universe. Without the desire of God, nothing can occur in the universe. When the infinite living and non-living beings are independent in the universe, and when God has not created any living being from a non-living substance, and they all transform according to their nature, there is no need for the doctrine of theism. If God is compassionate, why was the world full of unhappy beings? Before the world was created, there was no need for compassion, so who was the recipient of God’s mercy? As we speculate about the need for God, the futility of theism becomes clearer. Each soul is responsible for its spiritual upliftment without any need for God. Every soul is responsible for its happiness and sorrows, and no God is responsible.

The Doctrine of Materialism According to the materialists, all the world’s beings are created from the earth, water, fire, and wind. Even consciousness is made from these four elements in circumstances that disappear when those circumstances disappear. Just as a machine starts working when its parts are combined and stop working when they disintegrate, life also happens similarly. However, one can ask how desire, aversion, effort, knowledge, will, and interest in various arts develop in human beings. The faculty of memory stores the sam . sk¯aras for a long time. The theory of evolution can be accepted for the physical properties of living beings, but how can formless consciousness evolve from

The Causality of Karma

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material forms? The Buddha discouraged such cosmological questions and categorized them as unfathomable. However, the last Jain fordmaker Mah¯av¯ıra preached the continuous transformation of substances based on their natural ingredients.

Two Opposite Forces If the creative force creates the first mode in a substance in the first moment, the destructive force destroys that mode in the next moment. In other words, if the creative energy brings about a new mode, the lethal force destroys the earlier mode and thus makes a space. In this way, the two combining forces continue to create three modes origination, cessation, and permanence. There are infinite possibilities in each substance, but only one develops that finds the appropriate circumstantial ingredients. Some break this cycle with their liberation, while the rest remain stuck in this cycle.

The World From one perspective, the world is without a beginning and end. No substance can perish entirely in this theater, and no new substance can be created. Alternatively, the universe appears finite if we consider the world from the perspective of ever-perishing modes. In the origination of effects, time is a common and continuously transforming reason instrumental in every substance’s continuous transformation. The soul is imperishable and immortal, whereas the bodies it passes into keep perishing due to time and karma. Thus, circumstantial favorability is essential in determining the modes of substance that follow. For example, new scientific discoveries have allowed more recent products to develop even from old waste material.

The Causality of Karma The accumulated sam . sk¯aras of the souls are called karma over time that has no independent causality. They are instrumental in the continuous transformation of the souls, and the karma particles, in the same way as a substance, are instrumental in transforming another. In other words, for their mode-origination, they are the material cause, and for the conversion of Pudgala (non-living matter) particles, they are the instrumental cause. There is no universal element called karma controlling the management or transformation of the entire universe. In this way, time, soul, nature, destiny, God, and matter can be material or instrumental causes in a limited way, depending on the ingredients. No phenomenon can control the entire universe; only

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an individual substance can hold its characteristics and modes. What one receives in life is a combination of karma which is influenced by multiple factors.

Contemporary Materialism In his Materialism and Nontheism, Rahul Sankrityayan describes modern materialism. Every transformation in the world undergoes three stages of conflicting intermixing, qualitative change, and refusal. Contradictory tendencies accumulate inside the substance, giving rise to the most crucial impetus for the transformation. As Hegel explained, the thesis and antithesis struggle to give rise to the new qualitative change in the second stage. After we accept this process, there is no need to take any god or divine law. Every particle of the world is moving. The intermixing of two opposite forces is enough to create motion. Motion is synonymous with progress. Or, as Lenin famously stated, the struggle results in development. The effort creates a new form, movement, and unique circumstance, i.e., a fresh effect. The dual opposing forces are the two perspectives of the same non-dual reality. Robert Ingersoll, “the great agnostic,” described his thought in four points. The first point is that the substance cannot perish. The second is that motion and energy cannot expire. The third point is that substance and movement cannot remain separate, and one cannot exist without the other. The fourth point is that one that cannot perish can never originate. These four points leave no scope to consider any divine force beyond the world. The present is the effect of the past, and the present is the cause of the future.

The Futility of Materialism for the Societal Arrangement If one believes that one’s existence ends with the end of the body, one’s focus will always be on worldly pleasures, not social or national upliftment. On the other hand, by accepting the soul’s independent individual existence, the infinite potential for one’s spiritual development allows one to channel one’s efforts. If humans are only physical matter without a soul, the physical and material differences in color and race may remain essential. However, by accepting all souls’ spiritual equality, the physical differences can be overlooked, leading to better social integration based on egalitarianism. Such acceptance widens one’s perspective and teaches one to view a person beyond physical barriers like race.

The World The manifest world is made of aggregates of infinite Pudgala particles. In sum, the particles have such tight chemical relationships that they have no independent

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existence even though they undergo an individual independent transformation incessantly. Humans have successfully controlled such aggregates in giant machines in modern times. However, after understanding the rational system of continuous change of substances, there is no space for the concept of God as the controller of the universe in the cosmic system.

Chapter 2

Form of the Substance

As stated earlier, the substance has three modes origination, cessation, and permanence, especially from the perspective of transformation in them. The substance is based on several qualities and modes. These qualities exist in substance and result in the individual nature of a substance. Based on the transformations of these qualities, modifications appear in substance. For instance, each living being is said to have infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy. Depending on the origination and cessation of the substance, these qualities manifest in different modes. For instance, the knowledge attains the specific substance’s shape and mode. Bliss also attains different modes depending on various external entities. A particle of substance is based on other non-conflicting simultaneous qualities such as color, taste, odor, and touch. The ever-changing particle manifests its origination and cessation through these qualities. The transformation in these qualities leads to change in a substance. These qualities define the substance’s mode at a specific instance, and each quality manifests as a mode at each. The substance is the foundation for different attributes and modes, exemplifies each quality mode at each instance, and abandons past modes.

Qualities and Properties Qualities are limited in substance. Attributes are based on individual nature, and their appearance is irrespective of others. However, properties manifest depending on the interactions with others. Their appearance varies according to different abilities of substance. The specific qualities of beings include knowledge, perception, bliss, energy, and general attributes, including materiality, reality, and measurability. The attributes of a particle are color, taste, odor, and touch. The specific quality of dharma is motion, adharma is stability, space is movement, and time is unstoppability. Their general attributes are materiality, reality, measurability, and expressibility. In living beings, authority and experience of qualities such as knowledge are natural and

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independent of others. However, feelings such as superiority or inferiority, parenthood, childhood, or being a teacher or student depend on others. Although all living beings can have these qualities, they do not occur naturally, unlike qualities such as knowledge. Similarly, all physical substances are constituted of atoms that have natural and independent qualities such as color, taste, odor, and touch, but their sizes, whether they are small or big, their countability, and different names and labels used to indicate them are expressed differently in everyday practice. A substance can have infinite distances from other substances located at unlimited points away from it. Similarly, it has a sense of smallness and largeness compared to countless other material beings. However, since these properties appear depending on others, they are not included in independent qualities. A Jain scholar has defined a quality, “A quality is the selfidentity of substance and mode is its specific state.” Therefore, from the perspective of transformations in substance, qualities are independently changeable, but they appear in infinite properties in comparison with other material entities.

Generality and Specificity Once the external authority is established, the question arises about its fundamental nature. As stated earlier, each substance has infinite properties in general and the three modes of origination, cessation, and permanence. We can also analyze this generally and specifically. Every substance has two existences—real and illusionary. The existence that keeps a substance independent and separate from other similar or dissimilar material entities is its actual existence. This entire existence also remains present in all the modes of substance. It leads to the sense of distinctness of substance from other entities and continuity of the same substance through different modes. This actual existence is called arising, transformed in subsequent modes leading to various substances. Buddhist thought is worth considering on this topic.

Actual Existence and Continuum of Transformations Just as Jains accept the substance with actual existence, Buddhists accept the everevolving continuum of substances. According to Buddhists, a substance is transformed in different modes each second, and there is nothing permanent left in the substance to be changed in the next moment. If it is accepted that a part of a substance remains unchangeable and another piece changeable, the vices about both permanence and impermanence will be present in such a substance. Nothing can remain permanent in substance with the acceptance of continuously transforming modes in substance. Otherwise, all the parts will remain unchangeable because of their harmony with the original immutable substance. Therefore, whether the substance is permanent or continuously changing, one option must be selected so that a living

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thing can become non-living. According to Jain philosophy, the fundamental nature of the substance is in between these two extremes. The substance is neither permanent nor changeable because it will transcend its original nature to become a completely different substance. In simple terms, permanence can be defined as the quality of not changing completely into another substance, although it continues to change in different modes. This actual existence is the permanence of substance. Buddhists similarly accepted the continuum, a cause-and-effect phenomenon of one instance into another. Because of this phenomenon, an example of a living being is its material cause, not its transformation into a different kind. Thus, philosophically, Buddhism’s idea of a continuum and Jainism’s idea of substance are the same as other descriptions. Buddhists call this continuum a queue or a row. For instance, if ten people stand together without intentionally forming a line, they can still behave serially. The continuum happening from moment to moment is also not an existential truth. The condition of a substance is quite different from the continuum phenomenon. Just as there may not be an actual queue existing in ten people, yet they can behave serially, a substance is transformed in sequential modes and retains its actual existence. Without an actual true reality, modes cannot move sequentially. In a queue, somebody can leave arbitrarily, but modes can neither leave their substance nor change their position in the sequence or change entirely into a different substance.

The Hollowness of Continuum The weakness of the Buddhist continuum is proved when the Buddhists propound on the soul’s destruction at liberation, Nirvana. If the soul is completely “blown out” at Buddhist liberation, it is proven to be only a temporary substance with a long life. Even its originality is not verified to be permanent. However, to accept the destruction of an independent substance goes against shared experience and common logic. Although the Buddha kept this question inexpressible by keeping quiet about the form of Nirvana, the subsequent Buddhist scholars explained Nirvana in terms of the “blowing out” of a flame.

“Blown Out” Nirvana is Inapprehensible Since the Buddhists suggest that the soul continuum is stopped in Nirvana, based on such a false continuum, designing the worldly stages of bondage, liberation, memories, and recognition is like making sandcastles. Imagining the memory traces, sam . sk¯aras, of desires in the false continuum is as illogical as imagining a red color in the cotton seed. The cottonseeds that are irrigated with red color would be transformed to become a cotton plant. Thus, all the entities in this instance are real. But the continuum on which Buddhists want to impose memory traces and desires and the

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one that will face the consequences of karma, that continuum cannot be illusionary, nor can its destruction be accepted at the time of Nirvana. Therefore, if there can be a logical and philosophical form of Nirvana, it must be described as a state of a completely purified soul free from all desires, passions, and karma. When released from the world and its process of life and death, the soul reaches an ultimate stage of absolute and infinite energy, bliss, and omniscience. After all the transformations, if the same soul becomes clean at liberation, its continuum cannot be unreal. In its pure form, the soul transforms into a highly subtle form. It does so because of its nature as a living being. In Nirvana, the soul reaches absolute liberation and its authentic energy. It is in a permanent state that prohibits its destruction and is called its actual existence.

General and Specific Substance and Mode The nature of a substance is a subject of general and distinct properties. Origination, cessation, and permanence are related to the transformations of substance. As stated earlier, the property is general and specific and is related to general property and negation specificity. The permanence of substance is called ascending generality, and its origination–cessation is called modes specificity. The past is the material cause of the present, and the present is the material cause of the future, proving the indestructible sequence of cause and effect. This generality and specificity of substance is an epitome of its nature with infinite properties. The form based on general property is an expression of sameness dependent on others, but its fundamental substances are separate. It is not present in the different substances but distinct in them. The substance is neither only general nor only specific. It will remain monotonous, unchangeable, and uniform in the present and future if it is accepted entirely permanently. Since no transformations will happen in such a substance, all worldly affairs will be destroyed, and no activity will fructify. The system of bondage vs. liberation, spiritual reward vs. punishment, will cease. Therefore, the transformation in substance must be accepted. We usually observe that children grow, learn, and develop. Various transformations in the material world are also similarly seen. If the substance is permanent, there will not be any sequential or simultaneous activity, and its independent existence is endangered. If a substance is accepted only in its continuously transforming modes, all worldly transactions and social relationships will cease. There will not be any cause-and-effect system either. Therefore, a substance must be a permanent substance and continuously transforming modes.

Chapter 3

Analysis of Six Substances

Six Substances A substance is defined as a fundamental substance that attains its modes sequentially. As discussed earlier, the substance comprises three modes: origination, cessation, and permanence. There are six categories of substance (dravya)—living being (j¯ıva), particle (pudgala), motion (dharma), rest (adharma), space (¯ak¯as´a), and time (k¯ala).

Living Being The soul is an independent and fundamental substance in Jainism. The concept of life is defined by the soul in the body as received from its karmic activities. Its general property is sentience. Sentience is a mode of consciousness that is a unique quality of living beings, unlike non-living things. It is the power of perception and knowledge. When consciousness knows something separate from itself that is called awareness. When consciousness remains, it is called perception. The soul has infinite bondage points with karmic particles. Since the soul is forever related to a subtle karmic body, it manifests into bodies of varied sizes depending on these karmic particles’ fruition. Here Jainism explains how a soul is in an ant’s body, compared to a soul in the body of an elephant. The soul is conscious, non-material, enjoyer, and worldly. It also has agency, a self-body dimension, and the potential for liberation; by nature, it ascends upwards in the universe. If not for the karmic particles that create the body in which a soul lives, the soul would live its true nature in Nirvana. The soul does not have the atomic properties of color, taste, odor, and touch and is non-material by nature. Due to its contraction and expansion in karmic space points, it attains a small or large body. In Indian philosophy, there are three doctrines for the shape of the soul. In the Upanishads, the soul is mentioned as omnipresent, all-pervading, particle-shaped, and thumb-sized.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1_3

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The Doctrine of All-Pervading Soul In Vedic philosophy, the soul is described as non-material and all-pervading. Although all-pervading, unique qualities, such as knowledge, arise in the body’s space points separated and detached from the body due to the relationship between body and mind. Being non-material, the soul is also passive and stationary. As the body and mind move, the space points related to the soul become the medium for knowledge experience. However, the biggest question in this doctrine of the allpervading soul is non-material and forms simultaneously. If all the souls are related to their bodies, it is difficult to formulate a standard rule about their pleasure, suffering, and enjoyment. The unseen cannot be a ruler because it relates to one soul and all other souls, and it is almost impossible to prove the existence of the soul outside the body. Based on the all-pervading doctrine, one’s consumption should lead to another’s enjoyment, but this will lead to confusion. Moreover, this arrangement is difficult to establish due to the separation between mind and body. Worse, all the systems of the world and liberation are disturbed by this arrangement. The unanimously accepted rule states that their foundational substance must be present wherever qualities are observed. The area of a substance can neither be larger nor smaller than its attribute. If a soul’s qualities, such as knowledge and perception, are not available outside the body, how can the possessor of these qualities be outside the body?

The Doctrine of Atomic Soul If the soul’s size were to be that of a thumb, the pain from a thorn would not be felt in all the entire body’s space points. The soul’s rapid motion inside the body cannot explain this either because the whole body’s experience is simultaneous, not sequential. If the soul were atomic, its contact with the eyes could not be simultaneous with its connection with the tongue. However, the tongue starts salivating as soon as the eyes see a lemon. Thus, it proves that the soul has a simultaneous relationship with both senses’ space points. If the soul traveled in the body from head to toe, there would have been a time lag for different sensations, but this does not match the simultaneous everyday experiences of feelings such as thrill. Therefore, Jain philosophy has propounded the idea of contraction and expansion in the soul’s space regions, with the soul taking the body’s form. Does any question remain about how the non-material soul can fill a small or large body? Should the soul be atomic or allpervading? If the soul always had a relationship with karmic particles, is it appropriate to refer to the soul as a pure substance? More logically, the soul is a non-material substance that contracts and expands based on its nature. Therefore, we experience qualities such as knowledge and bliss. So, according to its karmic fruition, a soul will contract to become as small as bacteria or expand to become as large as a blue whale.

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The Doctrine of Matter and Consciousness According to the Ch¯arv¯aka philosophy, the body and the soul originate from a unique chemical mixture of the earth, water, fire, and wind. Just as the intoxicating wine is an automatic result of the fermentation process, consciousness also arises automatically in the mixture of the four elements. Therefore, consciousness is not a property of the soul, but the body and life continue from the womb until death. At the time of death, the body’s machine stops working, resulting in death. This doctrine of consciousness from the body is quite ancient and is even mentioned in the Upanishads. The idea of “I” is the most robust evidence to prove the soul separate from the body, which is experienced by every living being in the notions of “I am happy” or “I am sad.” People have their memory traces (sam . sk¯aras) according to which they develop in their present life. They have been many instances of people remembering their past lives, which proves that the soul abandons the current body to accept the new one. It is agreeable that the soul depends on karma and, thus, the body and its senses. For instance, an attachment can affect a mind and cause one to forget all the acquired knowledge. Similarly, high or low blood pressure can affect the heartbeat and emotions. Modern materialists have also proved that the hormones from the thyroid and pituitary glands affect the mind. All of these can happen only by accepting the independent soul with the body’s size. In worldly conditions, the soul is so dependent that it cannot develop its qualities without support from the body and its senses. These physical elements help the soul develop qualities like a window that helps a person look outside. Although in some Jain texts, the soul is described using the adjective of matter (pudgala), it merely means that the present life and development of the soul depend on the development of material substances such as food, body, senses, language, and mind. Thus, the soul is called matter only from an instrumental perspective, not to describe its nature. The Jain doctrine uniquely describes the soul as separate from the body and its size, repudiating the arguments by materialists.

Desires Are the Properties of the Soul Desire, intention, and contemplation cannot happen in a worldly mind, like a machine unable to run, fix, or reproduce. Materialism alone cannot explain growth, healing, and decay. Only a capable conscious being can invent thousands of machines, understand the cause-and-effect relationships in various worldly phenomena, develop astronomy based on mathematics, and create colorful literature with beautiful imaginations. The question about the soul’s pervasiveness, atomic size, or medium-degree transformation is upon us. Experience-proven cause-and-effect state suggests that we should accept the soul as a non-material substance with the nature of contraction and expansion. The qualities of a distinct and unbroken substance, such as the soul, cannot develop in fixed space points.

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The soul can be accepted as being body sized. The ability to see is believed only to be in the space points of the eyes, and the ability to odor is believed only in the nose’s space points. Similarly, the soul can be accepted as all-pervading and can the qualities such as knowledge develop in different space points in the body? However, the soul can smell and see not just in the eyes and nose but in the entire soul. The soul remains active in the body and acknowledges forms and fragrances through the eyes and nose. Due to its desires and memory traces (sam . sk¯aras), its infinite power manifests in distinct forms. When the subtle body’s contact with the desires is broken, it dissolves into its infinite conscious form. At that time, its soul space point remains in the final shape because the karma, which was the cause for its contraction and expansion, is destroyed. Therefore, it is quite natural for the soul to retain the final shape of the body. Its condition is so dependent that it cannot develop its ability without the body and senses in the worldly stage. Moreover, if the body instrument is destroyed, the soul cannot utilize its awakened power. Seeing, smelling, tasting, hearing, and touching cannot be done without sense organs, thinking, and intending. Desiring can also not be done without the mind, and the mind’s activities depend on the functioning of the whole-body machine. Due to this extreme dependence, many thinkers reject the independent existence of the soul. As soon as the present body is destroyed, the knowledge, skills, and emotions acquired from the entire life all perish simultaneously in their gross forms. Only their too-subtle memory traces (sam . sk¯aras) remain after death. Therefore, experience, logic, and understanding naturally lead us to conclude that the soul is not a worldly form of the four elements but separate from them. The soul is a non-material, independent, and unbroken substance that develops its ability based on the four material elements. The experience of bliss and appreciation for beauty is extraordinary evidence of its separate existence. A physical body machine cannot create attachment and aversion and indulge in violent activities. A machine cannot work, stop working, or repair itself. A machine cannot take inspiration and understanding by itself.

Agent and Enjoyer The soul is the agent of all actions and enjoyer of their outcomes. Unlike what the S¯am . khya philosophy propounds, the soul is not non-agent and non-changing. Nor is it a non-enjoyer of the activities done by nature. In this ever-changing world, each substance’s continuous transformation cycle is affected by the attainment of other substances involving others. Any intellectual, spoken, physical, or behavioral action of the soul affects the surrounding environment and the karmic body. Today, a special camera has proved this. Immediately after someone leaves, the camera can capture one’s reflection from that environment within a specific duration. Similarly, it has been proved that different thoughts and emotions imprint on the brain. Consciousness cannot be a property of the senses because consciousness disappears if the feelings continue to exist. If consciousness is accepted as a property of

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the senses, different senses cannot determine the same entity separately. However, in everyday practice, mango or tamarind simultaneously evokes reactions in the eyes and tongue. Therefore, there is a distinct controller of different senses. The body and the senses are non-living, but living cannot originate from non-living. Otherwise, color, taste, odor, and touch should exist in consciousness, just as soil qualities exist in the qualities of a pot made from the soil. The newborn babies try to naturally drink milk showing their memory traces (sam . sk¯aras) from previous lives. The existence of the eternal, infinite, omniscient soul as a distinct substance is proved by examples such as the attempts of newborn babies to drink milk, the benevolent behaviors of evil people, the memory of the other world, and the absence of physical properties in the consciousness.

Qualities Such as Attachment not in the Three Bodily Humors Distortions such as attachment, aversion, and anger arise only in consciousness. These are not the properties of physical substances such as the three bodily humors of V¯ata, Pitta, and Kapha. A v¯ata-oriented person can have a pitta-based aversion, a pitta-oriented person can have a kapha-based attachment, and a kapha-oriented person can have a v¯ata-based attachment. An increase in the three humors does not automatically result in the distortions such as attachment, aversion, or anger. Therefore, these distortions cannot be accepted as natural properties of the three humors. Otherwise, all v¯ata-oriented people should have the same distortions, which is not the case. Moreover, tendencies such as renunciation, forgiveness, and peace would not lead to the decay of those distortions.

Thoughts and the Environment Continuous transformation is the nature of the soul and the physical substance. They also affect the environment and, in turn, get affected by it. Therefore, there is no need to prove the impact our thoughts leave on the environment. Based on its velocity, our slightest word creates shallow or deep vibration in the ether. This pulsation can be heard by using radio instruments. The desired terms can be transmitted to the desired locations if a transmitter is available. These imprints (sam . sk¯aras) remain in subtle and gross forms in the environment for a long time but fade away eventually. Similarly, when a soul thinks of positive or negative thoughts, it affects its surrounding environment and evokes a counter-response. The ideas of welfare for the world make the mind light and joyous. Such views are enlightened, and they light up the surrounding environment. They attract matching matter particles (pudgalas) from within the body or outside. These particles maintain their relationship with the

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soul for a specific time. The karmic particles are responsible for creating the circumstances in each life as their fruition of these particles makes the soul experience good or bad experiences and inspirations. The matter also continues transforming with time according to their interactions with other thoughts. Finally, depending on the remaining sam . sk¯aras, the environment is available to that soul. The environment and the soul attract reflections so subtly that they continue to collect all the sam . sk¯aras from the vibrations arising from known or unknown emotions. This activity of attracting reflections is called influence, prabh¯ava. Why do we become happy or angry as soon as we meet someone? Such reactions are the subtle power of the mind to attract reflections, getting a glimpse of the other mind after transcending the gross body. The famous poets K¯alid¯asa and Tagore have explained love in these words, upon seeing somebody, the heart flows with indescribable emotions, which is love. And the beauty is that it transcends logic to explain its likeability. In other words, the mutual exchange of prabh¯ava happens continuously and cannot be interrupted by spatial, temporal, or physical differences. For instance, a wife away from her husband can be saddened upon hearing about a calamity on her husband. Therefore, all the world’s great teachers have taught, “Create a good environment and spread benevolent thoughts all over.” In the presence of great yogis, it is not surprising to see natural enemies such as snakes and mongooses behaving friendly with each other or to see the sudden flowering of plants. These result from the prabh¯ava of infinite love and nonviolence.

We Reap What We Sow The soul either attracts the matter particles from the environment based on its mental, vocal, and physical activities or influences them to make them new karmic particles. Upon contacting such karmic particles, the soul gains similar tendencies. Imagine a murderer killing somebody in a lonely place. Although the victim’s words and actions are not seen by anybody else, they are imprinted on the murderer’s mind and the surrounding environment. The murderer’s mind continues to recall the image and words of the victim for a long time. One cannot escape the aftermath of one’s actions. Every substance is like a camera that captures the others’ prabh¯ava in subtle or gross forms. The accumulation of prabh¯avas creates all kinds of environments and tendencies. A common principle states that a substance dissolves into a similar substance and struggles with its opposite. Wherever the environment is favorable to our thoughts, our mind is contented there. However, the mind becomes restless in the opposite domain. Every mind has such a capability, and it cannot be fooled. If one has a hatred for others, one cannot spread benevolent thoughts through one’s face, speech, or actions and cannot create a clean environment. As a result, one will face hatred and rejection in return. Thus, we reap what we sow.

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With their hearts full of love and nonviolence, the great souls can openly walk amidst the most dangerous and violent creatures because they are confident about their message of benevolence for everybody. It is their greatness that they always wish well for, even those who may be evil toward them. Our every action is recorded in the incredible account of nature, and we must deal with our past karmas eventually. Our thoughts, words, and actions are like boomerangs sent out as karmic particles that bring consequences in return. Sinful people remain suspicious and anxious about their tendencies, hindering their success in the world. For instance, people working in the same business achieve profits and losses differently, and their older and present tendencies become the causes of their varied successes and failures. Therefore, wise people always create an auspicious environment. Consequently, they attract others’ hearts and minds resulting in favorable conditions for their worldly affairs. One is respected everywhere based on one’s good thoughts and good character. Although old sam . sk¯aras help achieve material success, they alone are not responsible for this. The sam . sk¯aras and their representative matter particles (pudgalas) create the environment for worldly success. The cycle of favorable and unfavorable situations continues based on the sam . sk¯aras and their influence on the soul’s environment. Even though we may not discern the immediate cause of specific actions, nothing happens without reason; this is a definite law. Similarly, our life and death cycle continue based on our old sam . sk¯aras, our tendencies based on those sam . sk¯aras, and our actions.

The Process of Obtaining the New Body When any creature abandons its past body, its sam . sk¯aras, based on its thoughts, words, and actions, remain imprinted on its soul and karmic body. The representative matter particles (pudgalas) of its sam . sk¯aras get transformed in distinct colors, tastes, odors, and touches and relate with the karmic body accordingly. As soon as the old body perishes, the soul gets the next life in a new body, according to the past transformations. The tendencies and inspirations in the last moments are significant in this transition. Therefore, in the Jain tradition, sam¯adhi death is practiced by many ascetics. After attaining the new body, the situations remain almost uniform until the end of that body. According to the death time, old or new sam . sk¯aras can become more active or passive in the bonded karmas. In the Jain texts, there is a mention of a process called samudgh¯ata beyond death. In this process, some space points of the soul leave the present body, visit the next life’s space, and return to the old body. The causal body, combined with its color, taste, odor, and touch, tends toward the favorable region with the spaces. A life emphasizing religion and morality has small and clean particles and naturally moves upward toward the bright world. A life highlighting crimes and vices has dark, heavy, and dirt particles and goes down toward the murky world, as mentioned in the S¯am . khya texts. In other words, the ever-transforming soul, which would otherwise be a pure form of energy, free in eternal bliss, is trapped in the karmic particles attracted

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by one’s actions. It continues to transform into good or bad sam . sk¯aras according to their mental, physical, and vocal activities. Thus, leading to the transformation of the environment. These sam . sk¯aras connect the earlier causal body to some new karmic particles whose fruition creates excellent or evil tendencies in the soul. The soul is the agent of the sam . sk¯aras and the enjoyer of their consequences. It slowly breaks from old sam . sk¯aras and attains liberation when it focuses on its original form. Sometimes some unique souls purify themselves so intensely that the entire structure of old sam . sk¯aras dissolves instantly, becoming omniscient in their present life in the j¯ıvanmukta state. In this state, the sam . sk¯aras harmful to the soul perish. Only some non-harmful sam sk¯ a ras remain responsible for the present body . and lifespan and expire with the body’s death. Then the soul attains its final Siddha state and travels upward to the uppermost boundary of the universe. According to its bonded karmas, the soul is an agent, enjoyer, and carrier of the burden of life and death in countless births. It is never static but continually transforms into its pure or impure state. After attaining its original pure form, inevitably, it never becomes impure again, and these liberated souls break free from all their karmas.

The World Cycle Is Self-governed The great cycle of creation runs by the mutually affecting combinations of worldly creatures and matter without the need for any controller, manager, planner, or director. The conscious world naturally becomes the influencer of the material world. Moreover, every non-living materialistic transformation does not have to have a living controller. Even without a live controller, infinite physical mutations occur based on their causal properties. A time cannot be imagined when this great universe of naturally transforming substances was first created or started. This universe is selfgoverned and beginningless. It needs no driver to run it, no accountant to keep track of the karmas of all the creatures, and no judge to send them to heaven or hell. How can God be the conductor of the activities, the motivator for creatures’ good and evil actions, and the judge of these actions? The same God should inspire them for evil acts and punish them too! If such a controller God exists, he must be responsible for all the world’s injustices. Therefore, we will have to reject this confusing paradigm and analyze the world in its natural condition. Only this approach can take us toward metaphysics and true philosophy. How can God inspire somebody to commit murder and somebody else to become a victim of such a crime, and then the same God should punish the murderer for the crime? Strangely, if people do not have free will for their actions, how can they be the agent of their crimes? We should conclude that those creatures are the agent, enjoyers, and controllers of their actions, so they are their gods. From the perspective of the world’s welfare and natural transformation of materials, we can theorize that this world transforms due to its natural characteristics according to the attained properties. One imagines the world to be good or bad based on individual preference, but it continues at its own pace. The transformations

The Types of Souls: Worldly and Liberated

25

of substances are affected by living or non-living. There is no fixed rule, and the modifications happen based on the individual situation at each instance.

The Types of Souls: Worldly and Liberated As discussed earlier, the soul is bonded due to its past sam . sk¯aras and can attain liberation through its efforts. Accordingly, souls are categorized into two types. Worldly souls reach different bodies in different lives in their cycle of life and death through other species. The liberated souls are free from their karmas and remain in their pure consciousness forever. When a soul is liberated, it breaks the bonds with its body, travels upwards like a flame to the uppermost frontier of the universe, and stays there forever as a pure consciousness form. Its space points remain in the shape of its final bodily form because the karmas for its name, body, or age are destroyed forever. The expansion or contraction of souls happens according to the instrumental cause of their karmas. With the removal of this cause, they remain in their final shape. Although the soul’s nature moves upwards, the motion, i.e., dharma, exists only until the last frontier of the universe. The liberated souls can travel only until that frontier. Hence, free souls are called the residents at the universe’s edge. Since the liberated souls are purified, neither other substances can affect them nor can these souls concern themselves. Once their worldly cycle is stopped, there is no cause for their movement in this cycle, and they are called ever liberated. Although no one can tell the beginning of a soul’s journey, its ultimate point can be described. Infinite souls have attained this last point and have terminated their worldly voyages. The transformations of such liberated souls’ qualities remain pure and never polluted or destroyed. A question can be asked, “If the liberated souls remain in the same condition forever, what is the need to believe in their transformations?” But there is a simple explanation for this. If the original nature is origination, cessation, and permanence, how can any pure or impure substance be an exception to this general nature? It must transform according to its fundamental nature. Since there is no cause for its transformation into the defiled or impure mode, it transforms into its original mode. No substance can come out of this transformation cycle. Therefore, the purpose of all transformation is fundamental. Since it is the individual nature of each substance, it must remain in this transformation cycle forever. Based on its quality of being neither heavy nor light, it neither increases nor decreases. It never loses its substantiality. With continuous transformations, it maintains its unique beginningless and endless substantiality. Based on its quality of being neither heavy nor light, neither the space points nor its qualities change. Its shape and nature also remain balanced. The form of a liberated soul is mentioned as follows, “The Siddhas are devoid of eight kinds of karmas and have these qualities—righteousness, knowledge, cognition, energy, subtleness, neither heavy nor light, occupancy, and freedom from all

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troubles.” They are smaller than their previous bodies, eternal, and contain origination and cessation. They are situated at the last frontier of the universe. This way, worldly and liberated souls have the same qualities and capabilities.

The Matter Substance The specific properties of matter are color, taste, odor, and touch. It is a substance that assimilates some particles and differentiates them from others. The whole visible world is an extension of this matter, which is a particle, fundamentally. Skandhas are these matter particles in an aggregate form based on their binding energy. These aggregates are created or broken according to these particles’ bonding and differentiation energy. Every particle has one taste, one color, one odor, and two touch natures. It can have red, yellow, blue, white, or black color that continues to transform. It can have a bitter, sour, sweet, acidic, or astringent taste that continues to change. It has a pleasant or unpleasant odor. It also has a dual sensation of touch of cold or hot as well as smooth or rough. The four touch sensations of soft, hard, heavy, and light exist in aggregate form, not particle form. Matter particle consists of one space point, causing the formation of aggregates and the result of the difference between different sums. The particle form of matter is its pure natural mode, and its aggregate form is its impure mode.

Kinds of Aggregates There are six kinds of aggregates, depending on their transformations: 1. Extremely gross–gross—The aggregates cannot recombine after their disjoint state, e.g., wood, stone, mountain, and earth. 2. Gross—The aggregates can recombine after their disjoint state, e.g., milk, clarified butter, oil, and water. 3. Gross–subtle—The gross-looking aggregates cannot be broken or grasped, e.g., darkness, light, shadow, and moonlight. 4. Subtle–gross—The gross-looking aggregates that are subtle, e.g., all five subjects of the five senses, i.e., touch, taste, odor, color, and sound. 5. Subtle—The aggregates cannot be grasped by the five senses, e.g., the karmic particles. 6. Extremely subtle—The aggregates are smaller than the subtle ones. Atomic particles are tiny and unbreakable. They are the cause of the speech but are speechless themselves. They are eternal but continue to transform into origination and cessation. Thus, they transform into three modes.

The Modes of the Pudgalas

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Four Divisions of Matter The matter has four divisions. The aggregates (skandhas) are made of infinite particles called atoms; skandha-pradesh is the half of a skandha, skandha-desha is the half of a skandha-pradesh, and an atom is the ultimate indivisible particle. The senses, body, mind, subjects of the senses, and breathing are different transformations of matter.

The Process of Bonding The atoms join each other due to their natural roughness and smoothness, resulting in aggregates. There are countless kinds of smoothnesses and roughnesses, and they harmonize. Roughnesses or smoothnesses of minimum degree cannot bond with each other. Rough and rough atoms, smooth and smooth atoms, rough and smooth atoms, and finally, smooth and rough atoms will bond when their degrees differ. For instance, smoothnesses or roughnesses of two degrees will bond with roughness or smoothness of four degrees. The higher degree quality transforms the lower degree one into the former’s touch, taste, odor, and color at the bonding time. Similarly, the difference between great aggregates can create two small sums. In the aggregate condition, atoms transform so minutely that infinite atoms occupy a small space. Although iron and cotton contain the same number of atoms, iron is firm, but cotton is not based on their different bonding mechanisms. Cotton occupies more volume than iron. Because of this minute transformation of matter, its infinite space points contain infinite atoms in the universe. As mentioned before, every substance transforms, and the matter is no exception. They become new aggregates or break from the full, and these transformations continue to occur.

The Modes of the Pudgalas Sound, bonding, subtlety, grossness, distinction, shadow, light, warmness, and luster are modes of matter particles. The Vai´ses.ika philosophy considers the sounding quality of space. However, modern scientific instruments such as radio and gramophone have captured the sound and have transmitted it to the desired destinations, proving the pudgalic nature of the sound. The sound is captured, retained, stopped, and heard by its pudgalas (non-living matter particles). It creates vibrations in the pudgalic environment, so the sound is also pudgalic. The sound is created by mutual combination, friction, and separation of the aggregates. The combination of the tongue and throat creates different words in different languages. The producing material cause and the gross instrumental cause are both pudgalic.

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When the friction between two skandhas produces a sound, the surrounding aggregates sound according to their capabilities; thus, they, too, transform into the sound mode based on the instrumental cause of the original sound. For instance, the first wave produced by a pebble thrown into a pond creates new waves in its surrounding water, and this wave motion continues for a specific time according to the wave’s actual speed.

The Sound Is Not Just Power Sound is not just power but an aggregate of matter particle substances that vibrate the surrounding environment as it moves by the sums of air matter particles. Modern instruments can increase their speed and can capture it at a remote location. Each word from a speaker fills the surrounding environment with that word, moving in a specific direction and progressively creating more words. The sound movement means the movement of an aggregate with different modes, and the origin of the word denotes the basis of the word in the surrounding sums. Thus, the sound itself is a mode of substance, and the base of this mode is the aggregate of matter particles. The formless space cannot act in such ways. The amorphous substance’s quality is also formless and cannot be grasped by the substance with form. Moving atoms and their aggregates create the whole environment of the world. The mutual combinations of the matter particle aggregates are instrumental in creating and destroying the different modes, such as hotness, coldness, light, darkness, and shadow. Heat, light, and sound are not just powers because powers cannot remain independent. They reside in some base, which is a matter particle substance. An atom’s motion can be until the end of the universe, and its movement affects the surrounding environment. The speed of sound and light calculated by modern science is a fraction of an atom’s natural pace. According to their force, the aggregates of light and heat transform the surrounding environment with light and heat modes as they move from one region to the next. It is also possible that the aggregates, such as light that come out of different light devices, travel far on their own, transform other moving pudgalas in their modes of light, heat, or sound, and move them forward. Today scientists have invented the wireless telephone, and we can now see a person speak.

The Play of Matter Particle The transfer of light, heat, sound, image, shadow, and darkness happens due to fastmoving matter particle aggregates. We can imagine the destructive power of atoms by the nuclear bomb’s devastating forces. Bonding with others, subtlety, grossness, forming shapes, moonlight, and dawn are multiple modes of particle aggregates. Some natural and experimental transformations happen every moment on the world

Only One Matter Particle Is Fundamental

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stage by the mutual combination and separation of infinite moving atoms having three modes—origination, cessation, and permanence. These are not illusions or ignorance but are factual truths. They are not imaginary like dreams but are entities of actual existence. The continuous revolution of electrons and protons inside an atom, as discovered by scientists, is the same motion cycle of atoms bonded in a matter particle aggregate. Each is on an infinite journey of transformation based on the causal substances available to them. Humans, with their limited power, have affected and controlled the modifications of these substances. Only pudgalic instruments can maintain other pudgalas, and these instruments are also continuously transforming. Therefore, the philosophical reality of the world should be based on the fundamental nature of a substance.

Shadow As the Mode of Matter Particle The surrounding aggregates of matter particle aggregates become the light aggregates by the instrumentality of the light-emitting substances, such as the sun. The space taken by a gross substance to block this light takes up black aggregates, and that becomes shadow or darkness. These are all activities of matter particle substance that are neither illusion nor any action of the Brahman. These are scenes of continuous motion and transformation of the stable and actual atoms that are not an imagination but are used in chemical experiments in a laboratory. Although matter particle has equal infinite power, their power becomes different in different aggregates. For instance, although each atom has common toxicity, its manifestation’s full ability is only in some plants that manufacture alcohol and mix some special liquids. These modes are called abilities that manifest in different gross methods. And the subtle aggregate components of these gross modes attain extraordinary power in that stage.

Only One Matter Particle Is Fundamental Modern science first discovered 92 fundamental elements, determining their weight and other characteristics. An essential element means that an element cannot transform into another one. However, now only one atom can be called a fundamental element. Depending on the difference in its protons and revolving electrons, only this atom takes the forms of oxygen, hydrogen, silver, iron, copper, uranium, and radium. If individual electrons or protons of oxygen are removed or added, it becomes hydrogen. Therefore, oxygen or hydrogen is not two fundamental elements but are two stages of the same element. The essential element is only the atom.

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The Earth Is Not an Independent Substance Naiyayikas and Vai´ses.ika propound that there are four fundamental elements earth (with color, taste, odor, and touch), water (with color, taste, and touch), and fire (with color and touch), and wind (with touch). However, suppose the water inside a shell can turn into a pearl. In that case, wood can turn into fire, fire can turn into ash, ice can turn into water, and hydrogen and oxygen can turn into water. How is it proved that they have separate substantiality based on their inherent qualities? The Jain philosophy has accepted only one matter particle substance based on the mutual transformation of atoms. It is possible that at any specific stage, a quality may manifest and another one may not. For instance, the taste may remain unmanifest in the fire, color in the wind, and water odor. However, we cannot assume that these substances completely lack these hidden qualities. Common law states that there will also be color, taste, and odor wherever there is touch. Similarly, if two substances can transform into each other, they cannot be two distinct substances. Therefore, even modern science had to accept the fundamental substantiality of atoms ordinary in all the elements.

Heat and Light Are Also Not Energies Although science considers light, heat, and sound energies, these energies or qualities cannot remain independent. According to Jainism, light, heat, and sound will eventually reside in a fundamental element’s solid base, and these energies transform the medium in the form they travel. Therefore, whether any energy’s motion should instead be called a flow of power by the continuous flow of atoms in space, as mentioned earlier, sound, light, and heat can move in a specific direction and make the surrounding environment sound, enlightened, and warm. Each atom moves and accepts new modes based on its origination and cessation. Therefore, heat, light, and sound should also be considered different modes of these atoms. In the Jain texts, matter particle substances are classified into 23 types, not independent substances. These different transformations occur in the aggregates of pudgalas according to other available materials under different circumstances, and the atoms can also transform into these 23 types. Within one class of substances, transformations of substances cannot be restricted, and they can occur in all ways. Some transformations can indeed occur instantly from the gross modes of certain pudgalas and not from others. For instance, pudgalas from the soil stage alone can transform into the pot stage but not from the fire stage, although both fire and pot are two modes of matter particles. It is possible that fire atoms can become soil and then pot eventually, but fire cannot become pot directly. Fundamentally, there is no class, power, or shape distinction among pudgalas. All such differences are those of the intermediate modes only.

The Dharma Substance and the Adharma Substance

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Motion Atom is naturally active, its speed can be high, medium, or low, and its weight manifests in aggregate form. Due to the differences in stages, gross, subtle, preventable, and non-preventable transformations in the aggregates. This world of particles undergoes different manifest and unmanifest stages depending on the exterior materials. In this process, definiteness or indefiniteness, order or chaos are all self-governed. The gross effects are determined based on the study and observation of intermediate stages, which also depend on the initial capabilities of the substances.

The Dharma Substance and the Adharma Substance It is necessary to fix a dividing line in infinite space on a specific basis to determine the universe’s shape. Souls and pudgalas can move only within this enclosed universe, not outside. The space is formless, unbroken, and a substance with infinite regions. It has a consistent presence everywhere. Therefore, the restriction on pudgalas and souls’ movement cannot be exercised by space, as it does not have nature distinction despite having region distinction. Souls and pudgalas naturally move and can never stop on their own. Therefore, the Jain philosophers explain a formless, inactive, and unbroken substance called dharma that divides the universe and the non-universe. This dharma substance acts as a medium and instrumental cause for the motion of souls and pudgalas. It does not push another substance to start its movement but merely supports its movement by becoming its medium. Dharma exists in its general form inside the universe, but dharma exists as the controller of the universe’s boundaries and the non-universe. Dharma makes its presence felt on the frontiers by forcing souls and pudgalas to end their journey within the universe and not transcend beyond. Just as a general causal dharma substance is needed for motion, another substance, adharma, is required to stabilize souls and pudgalas. This phenomenon also equates to the universe’s space and is devoid of color, taste, odor, touch, and sound. It is formless, inactive, and permanent with its transformation in the modes of origination and cessation. With its naturally balanced infinite qualities of being neither heavy nor light, it continues its origination and cessation and is the general cause for the stability of souls and pudgalas. Its existence is also felt only at the boundaries of the universe and the non-universe. When souls and pudgalas cannot travel beyond the edges of the universe, their halt is made possible by adharma. Both dharma and adharma do not move but are instrumental causes for the motion and stability of souls and pudgalas. The division between the universe and the non-universe is evidence of their existence. Space cannot be the cause for stability because space is also present in the nonuniverse. Space is an unbroken substance. Since it cannot be the cause for the stability of substances outside the universe, it can also not cause the strength of

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substances inside the universe. Therefore, adharma substance has a separate existence as a general cause for stability. The dharma and adharma substances are not synonyms for pun.ya (spiritual merit) and p¯apa (sin) but are independent substances. They have infinite regions and are called extensive substances (astik¯aya).1 They are often referred to as dharm¯astik¯aya and adharm¯astik¯aya. They continually transform into pure forms. According to the original nature of substances, abandoning the past mode and accepting the next mode continues forever while maintaining permanent existence.

The Space Substance The space substance gives space to all living and non-living beings simultaneously. Pudgalas provide space to each other in various forms, and space does this simultaneously in its infinite regions. Its middle area is the universe with the height of fourteen rajjus (a unit of astrophysical distance) and a person’s shape. Space is divided between the universe and the non-universe. The universe’s space is in its infinite regions and beyond the universe is the endless non-universe that contains only space. The space is inactive, formless, and devoid of color, taste, odor, touch, and sound. Its unique quality is to provide space to others, just as dharma is motion and adharma is stability. The space is omnipresent and unbroken.

The Direction Is Not an Independent Substance We imagine the directions east and west to rise and set the sun within the space regions, respectively. However, the direction is not an independent substance. The rows of the space regions are strung everywhere like threads in a cloth. The space occupied by an atom is called a region (Pradesh), and thus there are infinite regions in the universe. Suppose the direction is considered an independent substance based on its behavior of being east or west. In that case, the country will also have to be accepted as an autonomous region based on its location in the east or the west. And that will lead to receiving even a village, city, or state being an independent substance.

The Sound Is Not a Quality of the Space Today’s scientific experiments have denied the existence of sound in space. We have already stated earlier that the sound is pudgalic. A sound grasped by pudgalic 1

Systematic ontology in Jainism began after the first century CE, according to Piotr Balcerowicz (2021).

Space Is Not a Distortion of Nature

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senses, striking the pudgalas, stopped by the pudgalas, and filled by the pudgalas, must be pudgalic itself. Therefore, the existence of space cannot be accepted based on sound quality. Nor can the transformation of the matter be the space because the same substance cannot have two opposite modifications of form and formless and pervading and non-pervading.

Space Is Not a Distortion of Nature The S¯am . khyas accept one nature substance (Prakriti) and its transformations into the earth and space. However, transforming one nature into several forms, such as pot, cloth, soil, water, fire, or wind, is illogical. It is against the ordinary experience because the endless physical activities of the world with infinite forms have distinct existences. The similarity of the three qualities of sattva, rajas, and tamas can be considered the same class but cannot be called the same. Different effects cannot be attributed to the exact cause, even if they have similarities. Therefore, the earth and the space with opposing natures of form and formless, shape and shapeless, pervading and non-pervading, active and inactive, cannot be accepted as the transformation of one characteristic of Brahman as Hindus would like to believe. Brahman’s doctrine propounds that all conscious and non-conscious substances are different modes of Brahman and the S¯am . khyas propounds that all the substances are derived from one substance called Prakriti. Suppose the continuation of three qualities is due to everything from one cause with those three qualities. In that case, a continuation of selfhood exists in all souls, and the continuation of existence is present in all living and non-living beings. Therefore, we must accept that everything originated from one cause, which is irrational and against everyday experience. Their several reasons produce several independent living–non-living and form–formless substances, and several common substances can be seen in them. However, this is not sufficient to consider them one. Therefore, space is not a mode of nature but an independent substance that is formless, inactive, pervading, and infinite. The space provided for other matter substances by substances such as water happens due to fluid transformation and relaxed bonding. Eventually, the space within the water provides space for other substances. From this space alone, we cannot conclude the dharma substance’s motion and the adharma substance’s stability. If space itself becomes an instrumental cause for the movement and strength of pudgalas, there cannot be any division between the universe and the non-universe. The liberated souls residing at the frontier of the universe will continue to fly upwards in infinite space. Therefore, space cannot be accepted as a common cause for motion and stability. This space also has the standard modes of origination, cessation, and permanence, like other substances. It maintains its unbroken existence even with its continuous transformations in different modes because of its quality of not being light or heavy. Today’s science mentions the ether as the medium for light and sound, but

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space differs from the ether. Instead, space is an aggregate of atoms permeating the entire space and undergoing continuous transformations because the base of tangible substances cannot be a formless or intangible substance. There are infinite regions of space because the space in one city cannot be the same in another town; otherwise, both these cities will come under one area.

The Space in the Buddhist Thought In Buddhist thought, space is counted among asanskrita characteristics, and it is mentioned with the property of non-covering, i.e., space neither covers others nor is covered by others. The meaning of Sanskrit in Buddhism refers to substances with the characteristics of origination. With the Buddhist doctrine of momentariness, it is not easy to refer to space as an asam . skr.ta, i.e., without origination characteristics. According to the Vaibh¯as.ika analysis, even if space is mentioned as non-covering, it has its state of being. Any such substance cannot lack the modes of origination. We may not describe its origination, but we can neither deny its modes nor accept it as non-covering. In the Abhidhammathasamgraha, the space element is considered discrimination because it knows other significant elements such as the earth, the wind, the fire, and the water. But space also has causal efficiency; therefore, it is a Sanskrit substance, i.e., a substance with origination characteristics.

The Time Substance The time substance is a cooperative cause in transforming modes such as origination for all the substances. Its quality is to change incessantly. It transforms itself and cooperates with others to convert. It is instrumental in the entire universe in various devices, durations, and units such as a watch, clock, moment, day, or night. Like other substances, the time has origination, cessation, and permanence modes. It is formless because it lacks color, taste, odor, and touch. The one-time substance is independent in one space region of the universe. Unlike the dharma and adharma substances, it is not a singular substance pervading the entire universe because of the difference in time in each space region. For instance, different New York and New Delhi behaviors occur due to the difference in their local times, which is impossible if there was only one time across the universe. The actions of self–other, new–old, and past–present–future in substances also happen because of time. The transformation of any substance, like the past, present, or future, can happen only because of time.

The Substance Theory of the Vai´ses.ika

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The Time Theory of the Vai´ses.ika The Vai´ses.ika accepts the time to be pervading everywhere. However, if there is no chronological difference between the permanent and singular substances, how can there be a chronological difference in other substances where time is the instrumental cause? The transformation of a substance happens in time, and without time, the mutations cannot be referred to as past, present, or future. In other words, different transformations happening on different substances in each space region are due to time acting as the instrumental cause. Time works in particle form, and we measure the gross time in the units of an hour or moment set of time modes. In the non-universe space, chronological behavior happens due to time in the universe. Since the space across the universe and the non-universe is an unbroken substance, any transformation in the universe occurs across the entire space transcending all boundaries. Although time is a single-region substance, it cannot be called astik¯aya since only many´ ambara tradition, some thinkers do region substances are called astik¯aya. In the Svet¯ not consider time an independent substance.

Time in the Buddhist Thought In Buddhist thought, time is imagined only for worldly affairs, and it exists nominally, not naturally proven, according to Atthash¯alini 1.3.16. However, past, present, and future behaviors cannot occur without time. Soul, matter particle, dharma, adharma, space, and time are six fundamental eternal substances with common origination, cessation, and permanence characteristics. A substance can never be an exception to this rule, and all pure and impure substances contain this common characteristic.

The Substance Theory of the Vai´ses.ika The Vai´ses.ika accepts excellent fundamental substances earth, water, fire, wind, space, time, direction, soul, and mind. The first five exist in the pudgalas and can be sensed by color, taste, odor, and touch. The direction exists in the space. The mind is not independent but merely a mode of soul and matter. The mind is of two kinds, i.e., the substantial mind and the psychic mind. The substantial mind is an aggregate of pudgalas and cooperates with the soul in thinking. Whichever parts of the body the soul focuses on, the pudgalas of those parts transform into the mind. The substantial mind resides in the heart shape of an eight-petal lotus that becomes an instrument of a soul in thinking good or bad. The soul can think, so the psychic mind is a form of the soul itself. Just as emotional senses are special abilities of the soul, the psychic mind is not a substance but a unique knowledge of the soul that manifests with the destruction and suppression of the mental karmas.

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In Buddhist thought, the heart is a separate element that may be a substantial mind’s local form. In the Abhidharmakos.a, the mind is referred to as the previous knowledge based on the six pieces of knowledge. This mind can take the place of the psychic mind because it is conscious. The senses cannot know their feelings without the mind’s cooperation, but the mind alone can act to think about merit or demerit. There is no specific subject for the mind, and it can work on all kinds of issues.

The Qualities Are Not Independent Substances The Vai´ses.ika has accepted six more substances quality, activity, generality, specificity, inherence, and absence. The Vai´ses.ika is based on cognition because quality can be perceived based on cognition. Therefore, each quality must be a substance. Similarly, activity is considered another substance due to the awareness of activity. There are many generalities based on the future’s characteristics, direct and indirect. Inherence was needed to establish relationships among distinct substances. To make them realize their mutual specialties, permanent atoms, pure souls, and the liberated souls’ minds were considered unique substances. Before the effect’s origin, an entity’s absence is noted as a state. The destruction after the origination was pointed out as a separate state. The lack of mutual forms in different substances was pointed out as a particular state, and another state was the prohibition of contact with tripartite time. Thus, the Vai´ses.ika thought has accepted all the different cognitions in substances as separate substances. It imagines the substance based on its cognitions. Quality, activity, generality, specificity, inherence, and absence are different modes of the same substance. There is no existence of qualities outside the substance, and it is the nature of substance to have other attributes and modes. Neither qualities such as knowledge exist without a soul nor qualities such as color exist without matter, and such existence would be illogical. The vaisheshikas also accept that any separation is impossible between quality and subject, activity and agent, generality, and subject, and unique and permanent. How can the substance exist without its qualities? Similarly, its qualities cannot live independently without the substance as its base. Somehow, the qualities have an inherent relationship with the substance. Just as one substance is a cluster of several qualities, the activities happening in an active substance are its modes. They are not independent, and their actions and movements do not exist without the agent. Similarly, different elements, such as the earth, are different substances with similar modes. No single pervading and permanent substance can connect with all the other substances. The commonality apparent in different substances is present in them and undergoes the three modes of origination, cessation, and permanence. Inherence is a relationship, and its presence in different substances is their mode. The significance of accepting knowledge with a relationship with the soul is that its relationship belongs to the soul and cannot exist independently without the soul. Any relationship can only be a state of the related entities combining them mutually; i.e., even a special relationship always manifests by two entities.

The Qualities Are Not Independent Substances

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There is no need to accept a particular independent substance because their specific appearance is also due to their identities if all substances have separate existences. Just as other substances are not needed to produce unique formations in particular substances because they happen naturally, there is no problem accepting special appearances based on different substances’ self-nature. Similarly, the premode of each substance is its pre-nonexistence, and its post-mode is post-nonexistence. Its predestined nature is mutual non-existence, and its non-contagious nature is ultimate existence. The absence is the nature of change and is not an independent substance, and a substance grounded in its essence is its absence from other nature. The same substance acting in the mutual absence in two different modes is the effect of selfhood and otherness, and the mutual lack of two substances is due to the ultimate existence. Therefore, the qualities are not independent substances but are modes of substance. The substances will be countless if they are arranged based on their different appearances. Similarly, to accept a substance with various parts to be separate from these parts is against the everyday experience. Various aspects, such as threads, transform into a particular shape and obtain a new cloth name. It is not acceptable in our experience to imagine a cloth entity having an inherent relationship with thread entities because a cloth entity is never separate from the thread entities. The aggregate stage is a mode, not a substance. The atoms making up a pot take the shape of the pot. The pot is a collective expression of these atoms. The pot does not appear outside but is created by the soil’s particles taking specific shapes, modes, and certain ordered transformations. After attaining the pot stage, the independent change of atoms continues incessantly. Therefore, different pot parts manifest distinct colors, touch sensations, and durability. In other words, although each atom keeps its independent existence and independent transformation, in the stream of the collective homogenous transformation, it dissolves its transformation. If this stream of homogenous changes continues in the atoms of the entity’s parts, that entity stays in the same state. As the particles begin their non-cooperation with their collective stream, their collective expression changes into mildness, relaxation, and decay. In other words, the natural basis for the qualities and modes is called substance, and its existence is considered a tangible form. The behaviors arising from the same or different transformations of the substances cannot be named independent substances. To accept that the atoms that make up the pot also contain a part called pot leads to many problems, i.e., the whole resides in one region or permeates all the aspects. There should be as many regions as pot parts if it is in only one area. If all-pervading lives are in each position, there should be as many pot parts as possible. If the whole is niransha, covering a piece of cloth should cover the whole fabric, and activity should happen in the entire whole. If the total is additional, the cloth’s weight from four units should increase, but this does not occur. When a part of the fabric is torn, a new whole should arise from those atoms, but this is against imagination and experience. If the cloth decays and accumulates continuously, it must be accepted that the whole appears in each instance. Describing the origination and destruction of the activities and the combination of atoms in eight, nine, and ten moments is merely a process. As the causes combine,

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different shapes and kinds appear and disappear by combining and separating atoms. By the origination and cessation of independent wholes from the atom to the pot, we can conclude that new substances appear and perish. However, new origination and destruction are against natural reality. It is possible and attested by common experience that the pot behavior can happen in the final stage after the preliminary stages of atoms through the behaviors of pinda, sth¯asa, kosha, and kushoola. This stage involves neither the origination of a new substance nor a weight increment. Indeed, each atom cannot contain water, but a pot can. But this does not make the pot a distinct substance. These are simply the effects of the unique organization of atoms that naturally arise in such organizations. One particle is not visible to the naked eye, but a collection of specific numbers attains a visible state. Diverse relationships among atoms are due to their smoothness and roughness that vary in their durability according to their firmness or looseness. Since particles’ independent substantiality is not destroyed in the aggregate state, transformation in qualities, such as color and taste, continues in those parts’ atoms. Therefore, for various levels of cleanliness of other pieces of cloth. It must be accepted that the soil atoms that have transformed into the effect of a gross pot have left their atomic state and have attained their aggregate form. This aggregate state is not a new substance but is a union of the states of all those atoms. If the atoms are considered distinct particles forever, they should remain invisible even after taking the aggregate form. However, after attaining the aggregate state, they must abandon their invisibility and become visible. The strength or weakness of an entity depends on the firm or loose bonds of its parts. The same atoms become rugged and long-lasting for the stage of aggregates for iron and become soft and short-lived for the stage of cotton. It all varies according to the kinds of bonds. Understandably, each atom substance has all the powers of matter that may develop in various aggregates. Only a pot can contain water, not a cloth, although both contain atoms and are made of atoms. The identical particles pacify in sandalwood but burn like any other wood when ignited. The number, type, or shape of the transformations happening due to varying bonds among matter substances is not predetermined. The uniformity and durability of any mode depend on continuous changes. If an entity’s atoms transform into the same modes, that entity will remain in the same condition. That entity will start attaining new forms and modes as uneven transformations happen. Today’s science has rescued potatoes from decaying by freezing them or sealing them. In other words, the definiteness of the shapes and kinds of pudgala atoms cannot be guaranteed. Where, when, and how they will be, depends on the circumstance and environment. If some particles of a specific part of a prominent aggregate rebel and reject the mode to maintain the aggregation, that part will immediately show some variations. Therefore, it must be ascertained while preparing a permanent aggregate that those atoms are mixed uniformly. Thus, the particles should be accepted as neither permanent, unchangeable nor independent, so they cannot develop the same mode.

The Nature of the Whole

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The Nature of the Whole If, like the Buddhists, it is accepted that the cluster of disjoint atoms manifests as a gross pot, how can the group of atoms manifest as an aggregate without attaining a gross body or having any relationship? It is not merely an illusion but an actual chemical mixture in the natural laboratory where all the atoms transform and attain a new state. Although tattvasamgraha (p. 195) has accepted that the particles having achieved the individual state can be experienced by the senses in the gross form, what relationship is prohibited; what might be the meaning of “attaining the special state?” The only purpose possible is that the disjoint and intangible atoms become bonded and tangible. Without accepting such transformation, no specialty can be explained the relationship between the soil cluster particles and the pot. When a connection is established in a sure chemical bond due to the atoms’ smoothness and dryness, they attain the aggregate state, not just the continuously fixed state relative to each other. No new substance indeed arises from that kind of bond, but the new state forms not born from a common combination originate from a unique chemical bonding with two transformations. The atoms have many combinations and relationships, such as region-based, loose, or chemical. The aggregate arises in the bonded state. For an invisible aggregate to become visible, a unique combination in other sum is required to destroy its subtleness and attain grossness. In other words, any sum of atoms that can abandon its subtle state and achieve a gross state can become tangible by the senses. Although the particles are unbreakable and inseparable, they have enough flexibility to give space to other atoms. Therefore, infinite atoms unite and occupy little space due to their subtle transformation. Grossness is not just due to many particles. Due to their gross change, several atoms become gross aggregates even with fewer numbers. Alternatively, some particles remain intangible by the subtle shift in their karmic bodies, even with large numbers. In other words, tangibility does not depend on the number of atoms, but their gross change in a particular form is needed. These various kinds of bonds occur in each instance due to the smooth and rough nature of the atoms. The new forms happen through the combinations of the transformations of particles from the aggregates. Hundreds of smaller component aggregates are included in one gross aggregate, breaking some components, joining new ones, and other assimilations and decays occur in each instance. Indeed, the aggregate state does not happen without chemical bonding. Although the gross experience happens due to common combinations and is even given a new name for general behavior, this is insufficient to form an aggregate state. For this chemical bonding, the soul’s effort also plays a role; without this, different bonds happen based on the available materials. Soul’s effort gives the process unique shape, stability, and beauty. Hundreds of kinds of physical inventions are a result of such a process. Infinite pudgala atoms can occupy the infinite-region universe due to the subtle transformation of space’s particles and accommodation. A nail can be entered even in a well-bound wood, and an elephant can similarly sink in

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water. The infinite capabilities of atoms are unimaginable, some of which are now known to us after the atomic bomb’s catastrophic destruction.

Qualities Are Substances Although each substance is indivisible, it is an inseparable basis for several similar qualities. Therefore, it can be divided based on its qualities. One pudgala atom is the basis of several attributes, such as color, taste, odor, and touch. Each quality also transforms each instance. There is some inherent relationship between the substance and its qualities. The qualities cannot be separated from the substance, so they are inseparable, but they can be described in terms of their names, numbers, and purposes, so they are separate. The number of originations and cessations in each instance of a substance is equal to its number of qualities. Each quality abandons its old mode and accepts a new mode, but all the modes exist independently within a single substance. The substance has no separate existence except its mode and quality; i.e., the substance is its quality and mode. With its transforming modes, an indivisible governing base exists, which is its quality. Qualities are functional for uniformity in their modes. When a pudgala atom undergoes a new mode, its taste, odor, and touch are also modified. In this way, each substance undergoes origination and cessation based on its qualities. These are the properties of that quality.

Qualities Are Not Illusionary An argument is sometimes made that color, taste, odor, and touch do not exist in atoms. It is an indivisible substance known as color from the eyes, the flavor from the tongue, smell from the nose, and touch from limbs, i.e., different senses experience different qualities, but the qualities do not exist. However, it is a broad principle that the senses merely know their producers’ qualities. When looking at a mango, we cannot tell if it has taste, odor, or touch. Our everyday experience suggests that mango contains a smell without our smell, a taste without tasting, and touch without touching. Similarly, knowledge, bliss, energy, trust, patience, and courage exist simultaneously in the conscious soul, and they continuously live even while transforming each instance. Consciousness develops in these different forms. Therefore, qualities are mentioned as continually coexisting. Modes are negative and sequential and are transformations or distortions of the qualities. When a specific mode happens, knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy simultaneously transform in their modes. Although the same knowledge is strung together in all the qualities, the formless consciousness does not appear in the form of different attributes. Qualities have their existence, and the substance is not independent of its qualities but is inherently related to them.

Analysis of the Origin of Effect: The True Effect Doctrine of the S¯am . khya

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Qualities are not dependent on different perspectives as if they manifest in that substance according to personal views. They also do not disappear before or after the observation by the viewer. In this way, several originations and cessations occur in each living or non-living substance as transformations of similar qualities. The substance maintains its uniform existence through them; i.e., substances are qualities and modes of indivisible existence. Quality will transform into some mode, and the inseparable existence that ties the qualities together forever is substance. Substance means to attain those sequential modes, so individual quality can also be called substance because it remains strung together in sequential modes. However, this only makes for a figurative substantiality, not the principal one. All the qualities are substances due to their inherent relationship with the substance. But that does not mean that each quality is a complete substance with its origination, cessation, and permanence; i.e., qualities can be called parts of a substance but not the substance itself. In this way, there is an inseparable and inherent basis for each substance region’s qualities and modes. This analysis concludes that a substance is a simultaneous basis for origination, cessations, and permanence. The inherent relationship between its qualities and modes cannot occur between two different substances. Therefore, atoms’ aggregate condition in separate existences at the bonding time combines similar transformations. No new substance arises, but these atoms attain a specific state and behave in different aggregates resulting from their uniformity.

Analysis of the Origin of Effect: The True Effect Doctrine of the S¯am . khya There are three principal doctrines about the origin of the effect. First is the S¯am . khya doctrine of an actual impact, second is the doctrine of false results, and third is the doctrine of true–false effect. According to the first doctrine, its impact exists because a false effect cannot arise like a weed. An appropriate seed must be planted to grow wheat. Thus, the effect resides in the material cause. Not all causes lead to all effects in the world but predestined causes lead to predestined impacts; i.e., only the effects of living for specific reasons arise from them, not others. In this way, even a capable cause can give rise to only an effect, not the impossible one. This possibility in the cause can only be the existence of the effect. And if the effect is not inherently accepted in the cause, there cannot be any reason for any effect. The tendency of the effect in the cause itself proves the existence of the effect in the cause. At the time of the cataclysm, all the effects dissolve into one cause. Their tendency remains in the cause after this dissolution. The S¯am . khyas accept the existence of effect in the causes as energy, not as an expression. Their causal element is the nature of all the differences in effects in the world.

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The False Effect Doctrine of the Naiy¯ayika The Naiyayikas propound the false effect doctrine that the aggregate arising from the combination of atoms is a new whole substance that perishes after the disintegration of atoms. Before its origination, this unique substance did not exist. If the effect is accepted in the cause, the effect should be available in that kind and form, but this is not the case. Although the component and the whole are different substances, their region is not separate but unbounded. If the total is found anywhere, it is in the parts. The whole cannot be shown separately from its components.

The False Effect Doctrine of the Buddhists The Buddhists accept the new origination. According to them, there is no relationship between the present with the past or the future. Whatever exists at whichever time, it perishes at once. The similarity is the controller of the relationship between the causes and the effects without any relationship between the two instances.

The Noble True Effect Doctrine of the Jains The noble, true effect doctrine of the Jains mentions that each object has fundamental substance-abilities and mode-abilities. The latter is not outside the former but develops fully from their conditions. For instance, substance-abilities in the soil’s pudgala atoms transform into a pot or other objects. Still, the soil’s mode-ability can only produce a pot, not various things. In other words, an effect already resides in its causal substance as the mode-ability with the substance-ability; i.e., its existence is from its substance form, not its mode form. According to S¯am . khya, the causal substance is just an originator with the power to produce all the world’s effects. In a state where all the effects are present as power, the specific effect should only arise at a particular time, and that arrangement cannot occur. Simultaneous origination of several contradictory effects is impossible due to their single cause. Therefore, this S¯am . khya statement is meaningless, “The effect is in the cause in the power-form, not in the person-form,” because all are already present everywhere in the power-form. Since the originator is all-pervading and unbroken, it is against the experience for different contradictory effects to arise in other regions from the exact originator cause; if an omnipotent cause is present everywhere, why a book or a cloth does not emerge from the soil, just like a pot. The response from the Jain philosophy is straightforward. Although the soil atoms have the basic substance-ability to transform into a cloth or a book, they do not have the mode-ability to become a book or a material. Therefore, soil cannot become a book or a cloth. Moreover, the cause-substances are also many, not one. Thus, according

The Response to the Objection by Dharmak¯ırti

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to the materials, many contradictory effects can lead to simultaneous origination. Mode-ability is crucial. According to the available causal materials, only one modeability develops from all the available causal substances. The soul’s effort helps it transform into the desired shape and kind. The material cause’s arrangement happens on this basis, not based on the substance’s ability because the substance’s ability to sprout is the same in all the seeds. Still, only the grain of wheat can grow into wheat. Therefore, varied materials are utilized to produce other effects.

The Response to the Objection by Dharmak¯ırti The Buddhist objection, “A person does not rush toward a camel upon hearing about eating the yogurt although atoms of both camel and yogurt are similar,” is inappropriate. The matter particles (pudgalas) of camel and yogurt have the same substance but differ in their gross modes and mode-abilities. Therefore, only yogurt is eaten and not the camel’s body. This explanation cannot be given based on S¯am . khya because if the same originator has developed into yogurt and camel, what is the controller of their differences? Different transformations cannot happen simultaneously in other regions of the same substance. If the atoms of the pot’s natural substance and its producer clay are mutually different, who controls whether the pot is produced? It is necessary to accept the causal ability or the effect as an energy form for the arrangement of the predestined cause and effect; i.e., the cause must have the knowledge or energy of the effect’s production. Although ability, strength, and power are similar in similar fundamental substances, their limit is fixed in different conditions. Due to this definiteness, various cause-and-effect relationships are produced that apply to the joint aggregates of matter particles. Only substance-ability alone does not determine the transformation of a substance in its various sequential modes and its mode-ability based on its causal mode. Each substance is naturally transforming in origination, cessation, and permanence modes. All the arrangements are fixed according to the noble, true effect doctrine mentioned earlier. Although the intended effect is unreal in its cause, it is fundamental in energy or ability; otherwise, the effect can never arise from the cause. The continuously flowing modes must have a special relationship based on which the previous mode can cause its next mode, not the mode. This experience-proven arrangement is neither possible in the actual effect doctrine of the S¯am . khya nor in the Buddhist or Naiyayika doctrines. In the S¯am . khya doctrine, the singularity of cause leads to extreme nonduality, unable to explain differences in effects. In Buddhist philosophy, a specific instance’s relationship with another example cannot be explained. In the Naiy¯ayika doctrine, the inherence cannot be proved between the whole and its parts because of the extreme difference between them. Thus, in the Jain philosophy, substances are of six kinds. They have generalities and specialties as well as qualities and modes. Quality and mode are natural due to their inherent relationship with the substance, but they are parts, and the substance is the whole. These many-ended substances are objects of knowledge, and modes occur in each of their qualities. From the Jain

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philosophical perspective, a substance is the only fundamental object, quality, karma, generality, or inherence. They are all modes of the substance, not independent objects.

Chapter 4

The Elements

Just as in medical sciences, understanding the disease, the cause of the illness, the treatment, and the treatment process treat a patient, liberation is attained by understanding the world, the cause for the world, liberation, and the process to achieve liberation. There are varied reasons for the arrangement of the world and the elements. Even without knowing the world’s structure, elementary philosophy can be used to seek liberation. Still, without the elementary philosophy, the world system’s complete knowledge can be insignificant and meaningless. The soul is bound, the reasons for bondage, the possibility for liberation, and the process for attaining liberation. All significant Indian philosophical systems have propounded these four fundamental topics.

The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism The Buddha preached the four noble truths of suffering, the reason for suffering, cessation of suffering, and the path for the cessation. He or his direct disciples never indulged in philosophical debates about the soul or the other world after death. There is a perfect example of this in Milind Pra´sna, “If an arrow shoots one, one’s relatives call for a doctor. The doctor does not indulge in meaningless analysis about the kind of iron used in making the arrow, the maker of the arrow, or the time of its making.” Similarly, the speculations about the permanence of the soul or the other worlds beyond death are meaningless. They are not valuable for faith or liberation. The four noble truths are as follows. The first truth is about suffering—birth, old age, death, mourning, separation from the desired, union, and with or obtaining the undesired are examples of suffering. In brief, the five aggregates are suffering. The second truth is about the origin of suffering—the desires such as the sense of pleasure, desire to be, and desire not to give all lead to suffering. The favorite objects of the senses, such as the desired forms, should remain with us forever. Such a desire by the mind is called thirst. This thirst or desire is the root cause of all suffering. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1_4

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The third truth is about the cessation—the ultimate cessation or destruction of the desire is possible. The fourth truth is about the path for such cessation, the eightfold path, with these eight limbs—right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. This path is based on the philosophy of non-self, anatt¯a, or an¯atmam. According to the Buddha, the doctrine of the soul is false. Considering the soul to be permanent or eternal, a person desires due to the soul’s attachment. Because of the desires, a person longs for a sense of pleasure, forgetting its demerits. In other words, a person is stuck in the cycle of transmigration until the perverted view of the soul exists. Due to this soul, one considers oneself to be one’s own and others, not one’s own. Due to the division of self and others, attachment and aversion arise that cause transmigration. Therefore, the destruction of the belief in the soul leads to the cessation of suffering.

The Perspective of the Buddha The Upanishadic philosophy emphasizes the soul as the supreme means for liberation and the highest goal for a spiritual seeker. However, according to the Buddha, belief in the soul is the reason for the cycle of transmigration. In the name of Upanishadic philosophy, Vedic sacrifices and other rituals were practiced. As a reaction to these, the Buddha rejected the concept of the soul. The people used to be encouraged for animal sacrifices to attain heaven for the departed soul. Due to this doctrine of the eternal soul, attachment and aversion developed. The Buddha and the Upanishads considered freedom from desires, passions, illusion, attachment, and aversion to being the supreme goal. However, their means of achieving this were different. The soul was an instrument for liberation, but the other, the soul, was the root cause of the bondage in the world. The Buddha lived more like a preacher for the masses than a scholarly philosopher. He avoided all complicated and ambiguous jargon that could lead to superstitions or false beliefs, including the term soul. In Bodhicary¯avat¯ar (p. 449), the purpose of non-self is mentioned, “If there was an object named ‘I,’ it could be afraid of this or that, but if there is no ‘I,’ who would be frightened?”. Just as the Buddha considered the eternal soul’s doctrine a peril, he also thought the other extreme of materialists to be another kind of vulnerability. He disagreed with the materialists’ principle of evolution and the Upanishads’ eternal soul doctrine. The principle of the Buddha is known as the doctrine of momentariness. He categorized topics such as the soul into the inexpressible type. He instructed his monastics, “It is not useful to discuss the soul either for attaining Nirvana or for practicing celibacy or for the right belief.” The Buddha maintained silence about the soul.

The Soul Among the Seven Elements in Jainism

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The Soul Among the Seven Elements in Jainism Like the Buddha, the great Jain ascetic Mah¯av¯ıra also considered Vedic rituals wasteful. He also regarded proper conduct as the ultimate means of liberation. However, he realized that unless the spiritual seekers understood the nature of the soul and the world system, they would not progress on their spiritual journey. The streets and corners of various cities were vibrant, with questions on whether the soul was of the body shape or if the soul was separate from the body or liberation. When other philosophers were propounding their new doctrines on these topics, it could have been appropriate to disregard such questions by the seekers once the Buddha avoided his followers’ distractions. However, by silencing such questions, seekers’ minds and intellects could not be defended from intellectual inferiority complexes. People joined spiritual congregations with all kinds of philosophical backgrounds, especially those with Vedic backgrounds. Unless the people with various opinions about the soul, the world system, and liberation were not convinced about these topics, they would not develop an egalitarian and nonviolent environment. No religion can inspire new disciples without a reliable and stable philosophical foundation. Faith can initiate somebody to explore a new thought, but its stability depends on intellectual clarity. The 24th Jain fordmaker Mah¯av¯ıra was not silent about the soul, a fundamental element, and he told his disciples that dharma is about comprehending the real nature. Dharma is about an object established in its true nature. The fire is set in its dharma when it maintains its heat. When a flame flickers in the wind, it deflects from its dharma. The water is set in its dharma when it retains its natural coolness. When it is warm from being heated, it deflects from its dharma. To remove the distortions and deflections from external contact with other objects is attaining the dharma. Similarly, based on its natural enlightenment qualities, the soul’s dharma, infinite consciousness, and endless bliss are distorted by external contacts. It develops attachment, aversion, desire, and suffering, leading to adharma. The soul must be determined and established in its real nature. How can the denatured soul even survive to attain its independent nature? If the patients do not know about good health, they cannot decide that their illness is a disease. They will accept the sickness as a distortion only when they can realize what good health is. Unless they take their illness as a distortion, they would not be interested in their treatment. When they know true nature is good health disturbed by an improper lifestyle, they will use medicine to restore good health. The treatment is just a means for good health, the end. Similarly, unless the nature of the soul is fully realized and the distortions happening due to external contacts are considered perishable, the effort to get rid of suffering cannot begin. Somebody hurt by an arrow needs immediate first aid by its instant removal. But this is not enough for the complete cure of the victim. A doctor must ensure that the arrow was covered in toxic material and what kind of metal was used to make that arrow, which is needed to understand the distortion produced in the body and the type of medicine needed to heal that injury. Moreover, it is also necessary to

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understand if someone intentionally shot the arrow or an accident and prevent such acts. Therefore, the arrow must be examined thoroughly, the shooter must be looked for carefully, and the injury must be healed. Therefore, a spiritual seeker must know and understand what liberation is. Somebody should renounce the present pleasures and be prepared for the hard life of spiritual practice. Without knowing one’s liberated nature and getting a glimpse of that blissful form, one cannot be inspired to break the bondage and practice the austerities on the spiritual path. Therefore, a spiritual seeker must know the soul’s nature to attain liberation. Thus, Mah¯av¯ıra preached about the five elements—binding (suffering), the influx of karmas (the reason for suffering), destruction of karmas (the path for cessation), inhibition of karmas, and liberation as well as the soul that is trying to cut the bondage of the world to attain liberation. It is also necessary to understand the non-living thing that distorts the soul, pollutes it with karma particles, and fills it with attachment and aversion. In conclusion, a spiritual seeker must fully understand the seven essential elements—soul (j¯ıva), non-living thing (aj¯ıva), the influx of karma (¯as´rava), binding (bandha), inhibition of karma (samvara), destruction of karmas (nirjar¯a), and liberation (moks.a).

The Two Forms of the Elements ¯ Asrava, bandha, samvara, nirjar¯a, and moks.a are of two kinds—physical and psychic. Karma particles leading to soul-distortions such as delusion, non-abstinence, carelessness, passion, and activity are called psychic influxes. Karma particles leading to material distortions are called physical influxes. The desires that cause bondage are psychic in the soul, and the bondage between the soul and the karma particles is physical. Psychic bondage is in the soul form, and physical bindings are in the matter particle form. The modes such as forgiveness that stop the influx of new karmas are called bh¯avsamvara, and the actual stopping of the karmas is called dravyasamvara. Similarly, the modes such as austerities that destroy past-accumulated karmas are called bh¯avnirjar¯a, and such destruction is called dravyanirjar¯a. The modes such as meditation leading to liberation are called bh¯avamoks.a, and breaking karma particles off the soul is called dravyamoks.a. In other words, influx, binding, inhibition, destruction, and liberation, these five elements in their psychic forms, are modes of the soul. In their physical states are modes of matter particles. The knowledge of discrimination between the self and the other that leads to liberation includes all seven elements. The elementary understanding is attained in knowing the soul seeking release and the others whose bindings are removed from the soul. Therefore, the essential means of liberation is the knowledge of the self’s discrimination and the other.

The Reason for the Soul to Be Bound Eternally

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The Beginninglessness of Elements In all the Indian philosophical systems, some objects are regarded as beginningless. The c¯arv¯akas consider the earth and other elements to be beginningless. No such moment can be imagined which is not preceded by another moment. It is impossible to mention when the time started and when it will end. Just as time is limitless, space can also be unbounded within a region without a beginning or an end. Like time and space, we can mention all the elements without the start or the finish. As mentioned in the BhG (2.16), no “real” element is produced from the unreal, and no element is destroyed. There can be neither addition nor reduction to the total number of elements, although their transformations occur continuously, as accepted as a universal principle. According to this principle, the soul is an independent reality, and so is the matter particle. The soul is bound with matter particles just as gold is with impurities from the beginningless time.

The Reason for the Soul to Be Bound Eternally The gross body and the subtle body bind the soul. The body controls all the sensations, pleasures, sufferings, and life. The mind becomes weak with the weakness in the body leading to psychopathic symptoms such as memory loss. The worldly soul acts within the body to which it is bound. If the soul is pure, there is no cause to be attached to a body. The causes for the binding with the body or reincarnation are tendencies such as attachment, aversion, and illusion. A pure soul cannot have such modes. If the soul is presently experiencing such modes and their results, it must be accepted that it is impure. In the Indian philosophical systems, questions such as when ignorance arose in Brahman when the soul and the matter combined and when the soul combined with the body are all answered with the same response—these were always present since the beginningless time. No philosophical system has speculated that all these combinations will entirely disappear, resulting in the world’s end. Individually, contact with the matter is eliminated from individual souls, and their reincarnation in the world is avoided. Alternatively, it can be mentioned that if the souls were pure, they would not have met the matter. After becoming pure, the soul no longer has any purpose for contact with nature or with the matter particles or arising of ignorance. Accordingly, if the soul is pure, there is no reason to become impure or relate with a body. If these are two independent elements, their combination can be destroyed no matter how old they might be, and they can be separated. For instance, the gold from the mine may have extremely ancient impurities but can be purified by cleansing experiments and brought to its pure form. Then the pure gold is distinguished from the contaminants. In summary, soul and matter particles are bound since beginningless time, and that binding becomes more robust due to the modes of the soul, such as attachment and aversion. When these modes weaken, the bindings cannot create new distortions in

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the soul and break instantly. Since this binding is between two independent elements, it can break or change to a state when the soul becomes pure and unattached. In the present birth, the impure soul’s condition is half physical. Without the senses, the soul cannot see or see, even with the power to see or hear. The soul cannot think without the brain, even the ability to think. With paralysis, the body lacks all sensations though it looks normal. Therefore, the impure soul’s state and development are controlled by matter particles. Similarly, the tongue’s various parts have different tasting sensations. If one-half of the tongue is paralyzed, specific tastes will be lost entirely. In this way, knowledge, perception, pleasure, attachment, aversion, arts, and sciences are controlled by life modes. One can utilize one’s ability to study religion or science for life. At an early age, numerous physical materials in the brain were strong, keeping the consciousness awake. As the brain becomes weaker in old age, thinking power becomes more vulnerable, and memory is weakened. One can even forget one’s writing from adolescence. One can lose control of one’s mind by malfunctioning just one nerve. By similar changes in specific mental portions, one can become excited, doubtful, enraged, or sad. Various parts of the brain contain materials to awaken various kinds of conscious modes. Some yogis have advanced knowledge about the different nerves of their bodies. They can press a specific nerve to generate feelings of violence and anger, press another to develop compassion, and create a sense of greed. Therefore, we can conclude that all our modes, including knowledge, perception, pleasure, patience, attachment, aversion, and passion, develop through the body. As soon as the body perishes, all the modes, including knowledge accumulated from entire life, die. Only their imprints remain for the next life.

The Souls Have the Forms in Practice In the Jain philosophy, the soul is considered to have a specific form because it has been bound with a body since beginningless time. It is attached to the subtle body even after leaving the gross body. The destruction of the subtle body is called liberation. C¯arv¯akas consider the soul to end with the body. According to the Jain thought, the soul is independent by nature but is dependent on the body due to its impure form.

The State of the Soul Today’s science tells us that thoughts create deep or shallow, straight or curved lines in the mind, and accordingly, memories and desires arise. A red-hot iron ball would absorb and vaporize many water atoms if dropped in water and will disturb the water if it is kept inside the water. It will continue to absorb some water particles and

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will vaporize others. Similarly, the body continues to be disturbed when the soul is inflicted with attachment and aversion. Anger makes the eyes red, and the nostrils breathe heavily. When sexual desire arises, the whole body starts churning and stops when the desire is fulfilled. According to the thoughts, matter particles also transform, and the excited particles are mixed in the subtle body full of desires. As the karma particles are pressed, tendencies such as attachments arise. As new karma particles arrive, new karmic trends continue to emerge as the karmas mature. This way, the cycle of attachments and karma particles continues until discrimination, and other austere practices destroy the attachments. In summary, the stream of karma bindings and the soul’s attachment and aversion have continued since beginningless time, like the cycle of a seed and its tree. Present attachments and hatred arise from past-accumulated karmas’ maturing, and from these current attachments, they create new karmas. It is not appropriate to doubt how to break this cycle by creating new karmas from present attachments and present attachments from previous karmas. New attachments bind new karmas during the consumption period of the fruits of the past karmas. Therefore, a person with the correct view destroys the past karmas while consuming their fruits by not letting new attachments arise. Still, a person with the wrong idea continues to be bound with new karmas due to new attachments. Using discrimination, a person with the correct view pacifies the new attachments from past karmas. Thus, the past karmas mature and then perish, but new karmas do not occur in their place. Thus, the rightview-person becomes lighter from karma, but the wrong-view-person is entangled in new karma from unique desires and attachments. Infinite straight, curved, deep, and shallow lines of experiences remain in our physical brain. When a strong line comes, it erases the past weak line and creates a new stronger impression in its place; i.e., if the new line is of a similar impression, it makes the older line stronger. If the new line is of a different appearance, it erases the older line and creates a unique impression in its place. Finally, only some experience lines maintain their deep or shallow existence. Similarly, the new karmas and impressions arising from present attachments and aversions are weakened or washed away by austere practices. However, if other attachments are found in the next moment, previously bound karma particles immediately bind with new ones. Such binding, destruction, decrement, increment, and transformation of karmas continue for the entire life, and the net subtle body at the time of death continues into the next life. Just as rice, lentils, and vegetables are mixed and cooked into a unique dish, at every moment, suitable modes and practices make the good karmas stronger and harmful karmas weaker. Finally, an aggregate remains by whose steady ripening, attachments, and pleasures arise. Similarly, food is digested in the stomach, excrement, urine, and sweat are rejected from the body, and the rest is absorbed as blood. The result determines if the food intake is digestible or not. Similarly, karma also transforms each moment into intense or mild forms, and the final state determines if the karmas are good or bad. Matter particles and the soul affect this physical world. When a physical cluster of karma particles, a great energy source, binds with the soul, external objects are also affected according to their subtle and intense energy. According to available

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materials, intense, medium, or mild fruit is produced for that accumulated karma. This way, the karma cycle will continue unless foundational attachments and desires are destroyed. According to the external objects and karma bindings, karmas ripen in different regions. According to intense, medium, or mild excellent or evil tendencies, the future karmas gain or lose strength at the ripening time. In other words, the maturation of karmas depends on individual efforts. In this way, in the Jain Philosophy, the soul is considered impure and purified by austere practices. After purification, there is no cause left for becoming impure again. The contraction and expansion in the soul’s regions also utilize karma. After karma removal, the soul remains in its final shape in its consciousness at the top frontier of the universe. Mah¯av¯ıra preached about the knowledge of the impure soul, karma bondage, liberation, and their causal elements. The dirty state of the soul is its distorted form. Since this impure state has happened due to forgetting its pure form and developing attachment and ego about the external objects, this impure form can also end by realizing the original pure nature. The soul realizes its nature is infinite consciousness, enlightenment, non-illusion, non-passion, peace, stability, carefulness, and knowledge. Forgetting this nature and developing ego and attachment to external objects such as the body lead to attachment, aversion, illusion, passion, carelessness, and delusion. And from the flames of these passions, the original nature becomes impure and unstable. Suppose the attachments with other objects and ego about attachments are removed, and discrimination about self and others is developed. This impure state, desires, and attachments will weaken in that case. From this knowledge, the soul weakens its distortions and becomes pure consciousness in its pristine condition. This pure state is called liberation, which cannot happen until the pure soul’s nature is realized.

The Correct View is the Soul View Buddha’s philosophy begins with suffering and ends with freedom from suffering. According to the Buddha, the intellect becomes attached to the eternal soul, as mentioned in the Upanishads. The division of attachment and aversion creates this world. Therefore, the self-centered perspective is the root cause of all the misunderstandings. The Buddha ignores that attachment does not arise due to the soul’s permanence or impermanence. It arises due to ignorance about the original nature. The cause for the attachment is an attraction to external objects. When this soul understands that its actual nature is pure indivisible consciousness and its attachment with others is distorted, it naturally develops an insight into its original pure nature. This discriminatory insight and right view remove its attachments and aversions and immerse it in its original pure form, which stops the influx of new karmas. The mind starts becoming more unadulterated with this understanding. In this continuously transforming universe with infinite objects, I am a soul and have no relationship with other souls or matter particles. I am the expert in my consciousness; I am only consciousness, this body is a cluster of infinite matter particles, but I am not their

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master because these are external objects. To have an attachment or aversion to external things creates the worldly cycle. I have tried in vain to make other items behave according to my convenience and even tried to control them. However, I am just a person and can only control my modes, i.e., my thoughts and actions. I do not have control over other objects. My attempt to control others leads to attachment and aversion. I want to become the god of the three worlds and all their objects. However, such desires do not have any power or authority over others. Just as I have these desires, others also have similar desires that lead to clashes and conflicts, which give rise to attachments, aversions, and, finally, suffering. To have one’s desires fulfilled is a pleasure, and its opposite is suffering. People always desire to only live with favorable circumstances, and unfavorable circumstances should never occur. The desires can be—the entire physical world and other living beings should act according to themselves. The body should remain healthy; death should never come, wealth should be abundant, and nature should be favorable. Desires cause the suffering described by the Buddha. Mah¯av¯ıra mentioned the cause for this desire to be “ignorance about one’s original nature.” If one knows that the objects desired are not one’s own, the desire will not arise. In summary, the cause for the suffering is desire, and that for desire, in turn, is ignorance or delusion about one’s original nature and attachment to other objects. Therefore, it can be destroyed by the proper knowledge about one’s original nature and discrimination. People have harbored wrong knowledge without knowing the limits of their rights and authentic nature. They have developed false pride by creating imaginary high and low senses using external objects. For instance, livelihood-based or birth-based social classes such as Brahmins or Kshatriyas have created high and low social walls. People are discriminated against because the so-called upper-caste people do not touch the so-called low-caste people. They regarded desires highly by giving importance to the accumulation and possession of external objects. All kinds of violence in the world are for controlling external things. Therefore, unless the spiritual seekers do not understand their original nature and desire, i.e., attachment to external objects, the foundation for attaining freedom from suffering cannot be ready. The Buddha referred to the five aggregates as suffering, and Mah¯av¯ıra mentioned its underlying philosophy. Since these aggregates do not have the soul form, their contact creates attachments and leads to suffering. To achieve permanent bliss, remove the attachment from other objects and depend on the soul only. For this, the correct view of the soul is necessary. This view of the soul does not teach hatred against external objects but shows their desire is an unauthorized attempt. One’s absolute authority is only over one’s thoughts and behavior. Therefore, without realizing the soul’s real nature, there is no possibility of suffering.

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The Futility of the Doctrine of Non-self The concern of Dharmak¯ırti is that by considering the soul as “self,” other objects will be “othered.” And those things perceived as “self” will be accumulated. The division of self and others will dislike others, and hundreds of other vices will also arise from the likes and dislikes (PV 1.221). Indeed, somebody considers the soul one’s own and will consider others, not one’s own. However, how will this lead to likes and dislikes? How can one’s nature be accumulated? Only worldly objects and materialistic things can be gathered that a soul-oriented person will only renounce, not possess. For that person, even family members are not one’s own, just as the body is also not one’s own. Attachment and aversion arise only about the body and other physical objects, not the soul. On the contrary, a soul-oriented person will only attempt to renounce such dualities of attachment and aversion. The one who has regarded the body as the soul can be misguided into developing attachment and aversion for liked and disliked objects. However, the one who considers the body itself as not one’s own and as the cause for suffering cannot have attachment and aversion for the body, or the liked or disliked objects. Therefore, the soul’s realization as separate from the body can destroy the foundation of attachment and aversion and lead to liberation. Dharmak¯ırti’s description is also delusional, “One who sees the soul loves one’s soul always. Love leads to desire. The desire highlights the merits and hides the demerits, leading to the attachment to the desired means and accumulation. Thus, the realization of the soul makes the worldly cycle continue.” A soul-oriented person considers the soul beneficent but the external objects, such as the body, maleficent. To harbor attachment or aversion to external objects causes bondage to the soul. No other means are required for the natural bliss of the soul, but the wrong view toward external things is abandoned. The realization of one’s soul will be the cause for one’s liberation, not the cause for one’s accumulation of bondage-causing external objects. The attachments toward external things, such as the body, create passions, but the soul’s realization that it is separate from the body cannot generate attachment toward the body.

The Soul is not the Form of the Five Aggregates Dharmak¯ırti and his disciples consider the soul to consist of five aggregates, which shows their confusion. They reject the soul’s creation from the five physical elements and call the soul realization a delusion. They do not accept the soul as separate from the five aggregates of form, sensation, perception, mental formation, and consciousness. The last four may be conscious from these five, but to call the form also conscious sounds, as C¯arv¯aka thought. When the Buddha categorized the soul as non-explicable, it is unsurprising that his disciples kept oscillating between the two extremes. The great scholar Rahul Sankrityayan refers to the Buddha’s thoughts with the double negative phrase of “the doctrine of non-physical non-self,” but he cannot

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talk about the soul’s nature. Are the four aggregates also independent, like the first aggregate of form? Does the soul exist independently like the aggregate of form? If the soul is destroyed at the time of Nirvana, what distinguishes the Buddhist thought from that of C¯arv¯aka? C¯arv¯aka also states that the soul is eliminated with the body’s death. Mah¯av¯ıra avoided this logical fallacy for his disciples by comprehensively describing the soul as an independent element. As stated earlier, the characteristic of dharma is to be stable in one’s nature. The soul to immerse in its original nature is dharma, and its transformation into its pure and pristine mode is liberation. This liberation cannot happen without curiosity for the soul element. The bondage of slavery is broken for the bliss of freedom. If a doctor tells a patient not to care about the future and keep taking medicine, it cannot satisfy a health sciences student. A disease cannot be identified without identifying the original health. Patients with genetic diseases may not even consider themselves sick without a glimpse of a completely healthy body. Therefore, a spiritual seeker must have comprehensive knowledge about the soul element in every respect.

The Three Kinds of Soul There are three kinds of the soul—outward, inward, and liberated soul. The extrovert beings that consider the body in its proper form and indulge in their favorite pleasures are called outer souls. Introvert beings who have developed the self and others’ discrimination and have turned their attention away from external objects such as the body are called inward souls with the correct view. The souls that are entirely pure and are immersed in their original nature forever are called liberated souls. The worldly souls realize their original character, become inward, and eventually become liberated. Therefore, to attain the soul’s original nature or attain freedom from bondage, the soul element’s realization is necessary.

The Foundation for Character Only philosophical knowledge about the soul and its limited authority can be the foundation for practicing nonviolence and for good conduct in general. We know and accept that all the world’s souls are indivisible and are elements of equal and independent authority, and just as we do not appreciate violence, just as we try to protect our lives, just as we like pleasures. Just as we try to avoid suffering, all the other souls also desire similar things and circumstances. This soul has appeared in different bodies such as one-cell, tree, plant, insect, beast, and bird. We were born among socalled low caste or untouchables and were denied fundamental human rights in the name of our political, social, and economic systems. We may be harboring similar feelings in our present birth leading to our birth again in a familiar form. Without understanding the original nature and rights of living beings, from one-cell creatures

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to humans, we can neither have emotions such as mercy and compassion nor have nonviolent emotions based on equal rights for all. When we are filled with a sacred feeling for all the souls, we also send our best wishes for their welfare, and then we can crave the liberation of all the struggling souls that may not understand the sacred dharma for attaining enlightenment. Only with such a philosophy’s fragrance can we move away from accumulating external objects and go for all’s service and welfare. Therefore, to practice the highest friendship and nonviolence for all, the prerequisite is to know all living beings’ original nature and equal rights. We should have solid faith in that. In his adolescence, Prince Vardham¯ana, even before he became Mah¯av¯ıra, had this spark of equality of all the souls that inspired him to reject the bondage of kingdom and wealth. He opened all the internal and external layers of his life and society. He created an environment in which arrogant and tyrant people were made to stop their evil activities. Through sacrifice and penance, he changed the standard of high life. He created a new congregation with equal spiritual opportunities regarding all the oppressed people as the same souls. In other words, for the various practices of nonviolence, the knowledge of the original nature of the soul and its fundamental rights and limitations is as necessary as knowledge and discrimination about the matter particles. Without the basic understanding of both, that light of right perception cannot be lit in which humanity blossoms and equality for all souls is established. The awareness and faith in the equality of all souls can be the foundation for the welfare of all. Therefore, to cease personal suffering and establish peace in the world, we must understand the original nature and rights of the people who make up the world. Even if we ignore that and show compassion, we cannot help them permanently. Therefore, Mah¯av¯ıra preached that the one bound has caused that bondage to be understood for liberation. Without that, the root cause of bondage cannot be removed, nor can there be any motivation for good conduct. Only thoughts based on this philosophy can inspire good behavior.

The Non-living Element Knowledge about the non-living elements that pollute the soul and transform its original nature is also required. We cannot determine the two elements bound together unless we know the non-living element. Among the non-living elements, general knowledge may be sufficient about dharma, adharma, space, and time because they do not directly affect the soul. However, the matter particles (pudgala) must be known in detail. The body, mind, senses, breath, and speech are made of matter particles, although they touch consciousness. All the objects of color, taste, odor, and touch are made of matter particles. The elements of earth, water, wind, and fire are also made of matter particles. They manifest specific qualities and do not manifest others, such as the fire does not have taste, the wind or the water does not have color, and water does not have an odor.

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Speech, light, shadow, darkness, cold, and heat are the states of matter particles aggregates. The knowledge of the body’s materiality is essential for a spiritual seeker because that is the focus of attachment in one’s life. The body controls the soul’s development. The soul’s knowledge is stopped as soon as the body’s organs stop working, and all the energies also disappear when the body perishes. Yet, the soul exists independently from the body. It is a unique energy that makes each body particle conscious and vibrant. According to its subtle body, the soul enters a new gross body after destroying the present gross body. All kinds of positive, negative, and neutral thoughts in the soul develop according to the subtle and gross bodies. Therefore, realizing the nature of the body’s matter particles is essential for a spiritual seeker to utilize the body in the soul’s development, not to its detriment. One cannot develop sacred thoughts if one’s daily life consists of exciting food and other habits. Therefore, their powerful instrument’s condition, i.e., the body, must be known to control and weaken evil thoughts and mental impressions. The other objects the soul must renounce and not waste time accumulating must be realized as the other, not their own.

The Bondage Element A specific relationship between two objects is called bondage, which can be psychic and physical. The distortions such as passions, aversions, and attachments create the karmic bondage called psychic bondage. The relationships of the karma particles with the soul regions are called physical bondage. Indeed, two elements can join but not dissolve into each other completely, even though they may look monolithic after their union. When the matter particles are bound together, they attain a specific union. Due to their hardness and softness, all the atoms transform inside a chemical mixture aggregate. They come to a state where all atoms remain in the same mode. The sum is not an independent element but a state of specific atoms depending on those atoms. Due to the bondage of matter particles in that state, the atoms cannot have different transformations, but they all change. However, the soul and matter particles cannot have such a chemical mixture, although the soul manifests a specific mode due to its contact with karma particles. The karma particle aggregate also transforms differently after its contact with the soul. But this is not enough to call this relationship a chemical mixture because they do not transform into the same mode in the bondage of the soul and karma. The soul’s mode is consciousness and manifests with its development. The karma particle mode is non-living and displays color, taste, odor, and touch.

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Four Kinds of Bondage The new karma particles mix to join the same aggregate. Individual particles drop at any moment, and new particles bind into the aggregate. However, they do not form a chemical mixture with the soul; it is just a combination. It is described in Tattv¯arthas¯utra (8.24), “Due to activities, subtle karma particles enter all the soul regions from all the sides and occupy the same space.” This bondage is both karmic and physical. Therefore, there cannot be any other chemical mixture except the one common region for the karma particles and soul. Chemical mixture happens only among the old and new karma particles, not with the soul. Due to the soul’s passions, activities in the various regions attract karma particles from within and without the gross body. From this activity, the nature of karma aggregates is affected. If those karma particles are attracted by an activity hindering their knowledge, their nature will cover the knowledge. They will cover the conduct if they are attracted to conduct hindering activities such as passions. In other words, activities attract the karma particles into the soul regions and cause them to develop different natures of covering the knowledge or the behavior. According to the intensity and mildness of passions, the karma particles develop the power for stability and maturity. Those are called bondage of karmic duration and bondage of karmic fruition, caused by different passions. An enlightened soul has no passions, so their karma particles drop back into the second stage without causing any bondage. This bondage cycle continues due to passions, attachments, aversions, desires, and illusions in worldly people.

The Influx Element The wrong view, non-abstinence, carelessness, passion, and activity are five causes of bondage called influxes. Influxes can be psychic or physical, and the development of karma in matter particles and entering the soul regions is also a physical influx. Since the wrong views are instrumental in attracting karma, they are called psychic influxes and become psychic bondage. Karmas are attracted and bound according to the intensity or mildness of influx.

Wrong View Among all the influxes, the wrong view is the leading cause of karma bondage, causing the soul to develop an attachment to material objects. It practices religion for worldly prestige and profit without discrimination of self or others; i.e., it does not have the right faith in the path to liberation. This wrong view can be of two kinds, natural and acquired, due to its interest in spiritual philosophy does not arise.

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It believes in superstitions, harbors false pride based on social inequality, and accepts any scripture, god, goddess, or guru based on fear, expectation, greed, or attachment. It does not have its principle or behavior, can be lured into anything quickly, and is intoxicated with pride in knowledge, rituals, lineage, caste, power, wealth, austerities, and body. It considers others low and disregards them. It is a center point for fear, selfishness, hatred, and slander. The root of all such activities is one—misunderstanding about one’s original nature. Since it has no realization of its true nature, it can be lured by external objects. This wrong view is the root cause of all the demerits that create all the bondage for the infinite worldly cycle.

Non-abstinence Indifference and passivity for proper conduct are non-abstinence. The ripening of passions is so intense that one cannot practice good behavior partially or comprehensively despite one’s wish. There are four kinds of passions (such as anger) based on their levels of intensity. 1. Extremely Severe (Anant¯anubandhi)—Leading to infinite worldly bondage, obstructs the original nature and conduct, is as permanent as a stone’s line, and stays with the wrong view. 2. Severe (Apraty¯akhy¯anavarana)—Obstructs the householder vows, as permanent as a line on the wet sand. 3. Moderate (Praty¯akhy¯anavarana)—Obstructs the ascetic vows, as temporary as a line on the dry sand. 4. Slight (Sanjvalana)—Obstructs the enlightenment, as temporary as a line on the water. In this way, karmas’ influx happens by unrestrained activities of the senses in distinct kinds of pleasures.

Carelessness Disregarding good karma leads to carelessness. Activities leading to disregard for good karmas and a situation for violence include immersing in the various pleasures of the five senses, indulging in the stories about royal heroes, thieves, opposite sex, and food, being afflicted by the four passions of anger, pride, illusion, and greed, and indulging in sleep and romance. Carelessness is the leading cause of violence. The other creature may or may not get affected by the violence, but the perpetrator gets the act’s effect. A careful person remains nonviolent even while committing violence through external activities. Therefore, carelessness is the leading cause of violence, and Mah¯av¯ıra cautioned Gautama, “Do not be careless Gautama!”.

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Passions The soul’s form is pure and peaceful by nature, but the four passions of anger, pride, illusion, and greed pollute it and deflect it from its original condition. These four are defiled modes of the soul. Anger is a form of hatred and is the cause and effect of hatred. If pride produces anger, it is a form of hatred. Greed is a form of attachment. If illusion awakens greed, it is a form of attachment. In other words, attachment, aversion, and delusion are the main passions. After removing the illusion, the attachments and aversions remain in a person with the correct view. The passion for greed afflicts even great monks with their desires for position, prestige, popularity, and congregation growth. This duality of attachment and aversion is the root cause of all the spiritual chaos, which is the main influx. In the Nyaya texts, Buddhist texts, and the Bhagavad Gita, this duality is mentioned as the root cause of all spiritual demerits. The Jain texts preach pacifying the passions and attaining enlightenment and liberation. Therefore, all Jain images and icons symbolize detachment and nonpossession. They neither display any instruments of hatred, such as weapons, nor any other basis of attachment. Instead, in their pure appearance, they preach ultimate enlightenment and detachment. In addition to the passions mentioned above, mirth, sexual pleasure, sexual displeasure, sorrow, fear, disgust, male disposition, female disposition, and hermaphroditic disposition are nine quasi-passions that distort the soul. They are also influxes.

Yoga In the space regions, the activities and vibrations arising from the mind, speech, and body are called yoga. Although yoga is well-known as the cessation of mental activities in the texts such as Yogabh¯as.ya, in the Jain tradition, the soul activities arising from mind, speech, and body yoke the soul with the karma particles, so they are called yoga, and their cessation is called meditation. The soul is active, and there are vibrations in its various regions. Activities happen due to mind, speech, and body, even in a liberated person. Just before the final enlightenment at the time of death, all mind, speech, and body activities stop entirely, and the soul becomes pure and stable. In the liberated state, the perfect pure form of the soul appears. It has neither karma impurity nor instability due to yoga (activities). Yoga itself is the influx by which karmas enter. Auspicious yoga makes the spiritual karmas enter, and inauspicious yoga makes the sinful karmas enter. To think of welfare for all, i.e., nonviolent thinking, is an auspicious mental yoga. To speak friendly and favorable words is an auspicious vocal yoga. Not causing harm to others is an auspicious bodily yoga. And the opposite kinds of thoughts, speech, and actions are inauspicious mental, vocal, and physical yogas.

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Two Influxes Influxes are of two kinds. One originates from passions and extends the cycle of rebirth. The different type arises due to the yoga described above. But without the glue of passions, it does not cause new bondage for the soul. This influx happens in the liberated souls if they have a body. This way, yoga and passion cause influx and bondage depending on the activity performed. Influx and bondage happen based on the type of activity that is dominant, ignoring the minor activities. Seven types of karmas cause influx continuously, while karma’s influx occurs in the third part of the lifespan.

Liberation Element Liberation from bondage is called liberation. Liberation is achieved after the destruction of karma due to the total removal of the causes of bondage. In the transmigration cycle, the soul transforms into the defiled mode. When the instrumental cause for defilement is removed, the soul transforms into its natural mode, and its attributes come to natural condition from their defiled state. False perception becomes the correct perception, ignorance becomes knowledge, and character becomes pure. The soul that has always been a cluster of impurities such as falsehood becomes pristine with infinite consciousness with only pure transformation in the future. It becomes a still ocean without any vibration or impurity. In this state, the soul does not cease to exist nor become unconscious. The soul is an independent substance that cannot be imagined perishing or even its attributes disappearing. It can transform each moment continuously but cannot disappear from the universe.

Liberation is not like Extinguishing a Lamp The Buddha categorized the question as inexplicable when asked about his existence after his physical death. Therefore, his disciples formulated hypotheses about Nirvana. One defines Nirvana as a state of Sopadhi´ses.a in which the soul becomes pure. Another describes it as a state of Nirupadhi´ses.a in which the soul ceases to exist, like the extinguishing of a lamp. Since the Buddhists defined the soul to consist of the five skandhas (aggregates) of form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness, the soul must also cease to exist with these five at the time of death aggregates. Surprisingly, the Buddha kept preaching about the cessation of suffering without giving conclusive advice about Nirvana and the soul’s state after death. How could the Buddha avoid the allegation of nihilism if the mind ceased existing at the time of Nirvana? He disagreed with the non-existence of the soul because

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that leads to nihilism, the position taken by the C¯arv¯akas. Philosophically, complete cessation at death is no different from that at Nirvana. The theory of C¯arv¯akas should be more acceptable to all than the Buddhist theory, which requires a series of ethical regulations and practices such as celibacy and meditation. Since the soul is not physical and travels in different forms, its total cessation at Nirvana does not seem appropriate. Therefore, its existence must be accepted in the state of liberation. ¯ arya Kamala´s¯ıla cited an ancient verse In Tattvasamgrahapanjika (page 104), Ach¯ explaining the form of Nirvana and Samsara that states that the soul with attachments, desires, and passions is called the Samsara. When it is free from these impurities, it achieves Nirvana. This definition is rational and experienceable. Samsara is the soul’s state with attachments or other contaminants, and liberation is the pure state of the soul devoid of any attachments or other impurities. Therefore, liberation is the ultimate form that is achieved by the destruction of all the karmas. The cessation of the soul or consciousness cannot be called liberation. Health is the cessation of the sickness, not of the sick!

Attributes Such as Knowledge Do not Disappear in Nirvana The Vai´ses.ika define liberation as the state in which attributes such as intellect, pleasure, suffering, desire, hatred, effort, dharma, adharma, and memory imprints (sam . sk¯aras) cease to exist. According to them, these attributes arise with the combination of the soul and the mind. In the liberation state, the mind ceases to exist, so the soul becomes devoid of any attributes. As far as the attributes such as pleasure, suffering, desire, hatred, effort, dharma, adharma, and memory imprints (sam . sk¯aras) are concerned, these states originated from karma and did not exist in liberation. However, intellect, i.e., knowledge, is the soul’s attribute and cannot cease to exist in liberation. Although the fragmented knowledge arising from the combination of mind and soul in the worldly state does cease to exist in liberation, its original form, i.e., consciousness, transcendental to mind and senses, cannot cease to exist. When Vai´ses.ika already accepts the soul’s original state in liberation, that state can only be consciousness transcendental to senses. In the worldly state, this consciousness takes different intellect shapes according to the causes of the mind, senses, and objects. With the removal of possessions, naturally, the soul returns to its original form. Jains also accept the cessation of incomplete knowledge, pleasure, and suffering but not the cessation of liberation consciousness.

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The Significance of the Description of Nirvana in Milind’s Question In Milind’s Question, Nirvana is mentioned in this way, “The cessation of desire leads to the cessation of material cause, in turn leading to the cessation of becoming, in turn leading to the cessation of taking new birth, in turn leading to the cessation of aging, dying, becoming sad, crying, and finally cessation of all suffering. This cessation is Nirvana.” (p. 85). “Nirvana does not happen due to karma, causation, or season.” (p. 329). “Yes, Sir! Nirvana is without attributes, and nobody has created it. No question arises about the creation or non-creation of Nirvana. Not even a question of whether Nirvana can be created. Nirvana transcends the past, present, and future. Nirvana cannot be seen from the eyes, heard from the ears, touched by the body, or smelled from the nose. It can be realized through the mind. Having attained the Arhat state, an ascetic experiences Nirvana with a clean, simple, and humble mind devoid of all worldly karmas.” (p. 332). “Nirvana is only bliss, not even a trace of suffering.” (p. 386). “Sir, Nirvana is beyond all labels, analogies, explanations, logic, and cause. Its form, place, time, and shape cannot be shown in any way.” (p. 388). “Sir, just as a lotus remains untouched by water, Nirvana also remains untouched by all passions. It removes the sexual desire, desire to be, and desire to become.” (p. 391). “Like a medicine, Nirvana pacifies the poison of passions, ends the disease of sufferings, and is like a nectar. It is infinite, like a great ocean. Like the sky, it is neither born, nor gets old, nor dies, nor comes and goes, is difficult to comprehend, cannot be stolen by thieves, is independent, is free, open, and eternal. Like a wish-fulfilling stone, it fulfills all wishes and is enchanting, glittering, and extremely useful. It is as rare as red sandalwood, has a rare smell, and is admired by noble people. It is high as the top of the mountain, stable, unreachable, devoid of attachment or aversion, and incapable of growing the seeds of passion. The place where Nirvana is hidden is neither eastward, westward, northward, southward, upward, downward, or diagonal. There is no place where Nirvana is found; still, it exists. It can be realized by walking on the true path and concentrating the mind in the right direction.” (pp. 392–403). The above quotations show that the Buddha did not believe in any specific place or time for Nirvana. However, the description of Nirvana with phrases such as devoid of passions of birth and death and transcendental bliss indicates a blissful experience, not nihilistic Voidness. The Buddha has compared Nirvana with the sky because both do not arise or decay, are eternal, and their beginning and end cannot be analyzed. In Saundar¯ananda, A´svaghos.a has written about the soul that has achieved Nirvana. When its oil is finished, a lamp is extinguished, and its flame stops going in any direction. Similarly, after achieving Nirvana, the soul becomes calm and does not go in any direction. This description indicates a place for Nirvana, not its form. Although a worldly soul’s name, form, and shape can be mentioned, a liberated soul cannot be described in those terms. Since the Buddha termed the question about the soul inexplicable, controversies about its state and Nirvana arose. Mah¯av¯ıra analyzed both the form and the place of liberation logically. After destroying all karmas, the soul’s obtaining a clean and

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stable consciousness is liberation. In the liberation state, the soul is free from all gross and subtle physical bondage and stays at the frontier of the universe in the shape of its final bodily form. Without the dharma substance beyond the universe, the soul cannot move outside the universe.

Liberation, not Nirvana In the Jain tradition, liberation is used, not Nirvana, and its direct meaning is liberation, i.e., to break off all the bondage of the soul, which unbound the soul, and that is liberation. However, in the Buddhist tradition, the word Nirvana means extinguishing a lamp, which signifies the cessation of the soul itself rather than the cessation of passions. In the Jain tradition, even karmas are not destroyed. They merely detach from the soul without losing their existence. No element has ever perished or will ever perish ultimately. Change in its mode is called “destruction.” The karma particles united with a soul with their karmic mode lose this mode at the time of liberation. Although liberated souls continue to contact the karma particles, they do not have their karmic mode for those souls, so they do not cause bondage. Therefore, breaking the relationship between the soul and karma particles is liberation in the Jain tradition. In liberation, both substances remain in their original form. Neither the soul is extinguished like a lamp nor karma particles are obliterated. Both merely transform their modes. The soul attains a clean slate, and the karma particles acquire their relevant state.

The Inhibition Element The inhibition element stops the influx of new karmas and secures the soul. Since the influx happens due to yoga, yogic activity’s renunciation can be defined as the inhibition element. However, stopping all mind, body, and speech activities are strenuous, and one must eat, drink, excrete, move, speak, and do other routine activities to fulfill bodily needs. Therefore, the partial cessation of physical, mental, and vocal activities is called self-control (Gupti). The three Guptis help in protecting the mind, body, and speech from unskilled activities.

Carefulness (Samiti) Carefulness helps in the inhibition of new karmas. The renunciatory aspect of carefulness helps inhibition, and the activity aspect creates auspicious bondage. ¯ asamiti), care in speech There are five kinds of carefulness care in motion (Iry¯

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(Bh¯as.asamiti), care in seeking alms (Es.anasamiti), care in laying and receiving things (Ad¯anniks.epan.asamiti), and care in excretion (Utsargasamiti).

Righteousness (Dharma) Thoughts and activities that uphold society and direct toward realizing the soul are dharmas. Ten dharmas—Supreme forgiveness means analyzing the situation using discrimination when anger arises and calms down. Forgiveness arising out of cowardice makes a soul weak and is not dharma. Supreme modesty means renouncing pride, not letting the specialties such as knowledge, rituals, austerities, family lineage, power, wealth, and body make one proud, and forgetting one’s true nature. Pride is a vice, but self-esteem is a virtue that respects others. Supreme simplicity means practicing honesty and renouncing deceitfulness. There should be harmony and transparency among one’s thoughts, actions, and speech. Being a simpleton is a vice; being a simple person is a quality. Supreme contentment means renouncing greed and purifying one’s mind. Untouchability is a vice, and cleanliness is a quality. Ultimate truth means practicing honesty. Speaking the truth is quality but criticizing others is a vice. Utmost restraint means conquering one’s senses and protecting others by practicing nonviolence. Self-control is a quality, but the mere insistence on external ritualistic activities is a vice. Supreme penance means controlling desires and directing the mind toward repentance, humility, service, study, meditation, and renunciation. Fasting, eating only one meal a day, renouncing tastes, aloneness, silence, and taking physical pain is external penance. Accepting poverty by renouncing desires is also a penance. However, practicing austerities without proper intent is childish penance. Supreme renunciation means donating food, medicines, and knowledge, assuring all beings’ fearlessness, and sacrificing body and wealth for society and nation. Any sacrifice for the sake of profit or publicity is not supreme renunciation. Supreme detachment means renouncing attachments to external objects such as a house, wealth, and physical body and remembering that consciousness attributes are the soul’s natural wealth. Supreme celibacy means dedicating all physical, mental, and spiritual energies to only spiritual development. Without mental purity, mere physical abstinence cannot benefit the body, mind, or soul.

Contemplation Noble thoughts, supreme feelings, and self-reflection are included in contemplation. Contemplation makes the mind pure and dignified. It reflects upon the world’s impermanent nature, individual helplessness, karma’s consequence, the body’s materiality, attachments, noble character, and right belief. These feelings turn the soul from influx to inhibition.

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Endurance of Afflictions A spiritual seeker should calmly endure problems such as anger, hunger, thirst, cold, hot, insects, thorns, and pebbles while walking. The endurance stabilizes one’s character, and karma’s influx stops. Even a naked ascetic should remain spiritually stable while coming across a woman. One should not disrespect austerities if no success is achieved after a long practice, nor be proud of success after austere practices, happy at honor or reward, sad at the insult, and helpless while seeking alms.

Character Character is the practice of nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, and nonpossession. There are various categories of character. Equanimity means renouncing all kinds of malicious activities and keeping a balanced mind. Reinitiating means removing distortions from one’s vows and becoming stable again in the vows. Purification means having a light body that does not cause any harm to any being, even while performing routine activities. Complete self-restraint means being ready to destroy even the residual greed after destroying other passions, such as anger. Perfect conduct means being in one’s soul after achieving omniscience by eliminating all desires. In this way, self-control, carefulness, dharma, contemplation, endurance, and character inhibit new karmas’ entrances, which is the inhibition element.

The Destruction Element A person inhibits karmas through self-control, carefulness, righteousness, contemplation, endurance, and character and destroys the past karmas in two ways, destroying them at their maturation or before their maturation. Austerities and penance eliminate karmas by forceful dissociation even before maturation. Natural maturation occurs when the karmas ripen, bear fruits on their timeframe, and are replaced by new karmas. Self-control, carefulness, and austerities destroy the karmas prematurely. Therefore, karmas can indeed be regulated by one’s efforts, and desires can be weakened instantly. Commonly, karmas are not destroyed even for eons without facing the consequences, especially for normal beings. However, ascetics achieved omniscience as soon as they renounced their worldly lives. Meditation is the top way to destroy old attachments and aversions. In this way, Mah¯av¯ıra preached about the five elements of bondage, influx (the cause of bondage), inhibition (the cause of liberation), destruction (the cause of liberation), and liberation. He also emphasized the soul element, bound or liberated, and the non-living element, causing bondage to the soul.

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Instruments for Liberation In the Vedic culture, knowledge is the chief instrument for liberation, but in the ´ Sraman . a culture, the character is the principal instrument for liberation. The Vedic culture has accepted asceticism to strengthen knowledge. However, the Jain fordmakers have preached about the correct perception, proper knowledge, and good character to be on the liberation path. The appropriate knowledge that does not nourish good character is not an instrument for liberation. The knowledge that descends into life and explores the soul is an instrument for liberation. The result of true faith and knowledge is the purity of character. Even a little knowledge that encourages purity in life is significant. Nonviolence, penance, and restraint are spiritual practices, not merely theoretical knowledge. Just knowledge is a burden if it does not purify the soul. Correct perception, i.e., the Jain philosophy’s firm belief, is the first step toward liberation. The faith distorted by fear, desire, love, and greed is within the bounds of blind faith. Living faith maintains philosophy even by sacrificing life. That strong supreme faith cannot be disturbed by any temptation. As one begins the spiritual journey, one visualizes the goal and experiences the soul in each moment. Proper knowledge is knowledge about one’s true nature and the limitation of one’s rights. The exemplary character is living life to protect one’s rights and true nature. In other words, good character is the soul’s transformation limited by one’s rights and modes without transcending the other’s rights. This practice of ´ personal independence is the supreme character. Therefore, the Sraman . a culture has established spiritual life on nonviolence and has always thought about every being’s fearlessness and survival. In conclusion, only the exemplary character nourished by the correct perception and proper knowledge is the instrument for liberation.

Part II

The Digambaras

Chapter 5

¯ arya S¯ ´ antis¯agar Ach¯

Introduction In December 2019, I heard of a conference in which around 100 scholars assembled at the village of Yarnal in Karnataka. This event celebrated the centenary of ¯ arya S¯ ´ antis¯agar from this village. This pioneering modern Digambara Jain saint Ach¯ saint revived the tradition of naked Digambara saints. As of 2019, there are more than 1500 Digambara saints in India; in 1919, he was the only naked saint roaming © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1_5

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across India. In this chapter, let us look at this first modern Digambara ascetic. The information presented in this chapter is based on Bharill (2003), Carrithers (1989, 1996), Chandabai (2003), Diwakar (2006), Jain (2003a, b, c, 2018, n.d.), Jñ¯anamat¯ı1 (2004), Kothari (2003), Sachdeva (2003), Shastri (1932), and Vis.udvamat¯ı (n.d.).

Birth and Adolescence He was born in a Patil2 family in the Belagavi District of Karnataka on July 25, 1872. According to his astrological birth chart, he was born at an auspicious time (Jain 2018:22). His mother, Satyavati, claimed to have seen a divine dream.3 She interpreted this dream as a good omen for a child’s birth destined to become a great person. Matching his calm nature, he was named S¯atagauda by his father, Bhimgauda Patil, the head of their village (in the Kannada language, “s¯ata” means peaceful, and “gauda” means the head of a town). He was the third child out of five in that family—four boys and one girl. Like other Jains in Southern India, this family was also involved in agriculture and related trade activities. He spent much of his childhood at Bhoj, a large village with two rivers, Vedgang¯a and D¯udhgang¯a. His mother, Satyavati, was a devout Jain. The disciplined and ethical lives of his parents influenced him profoundly. At age three, he became sick but recovered fast and maintained good health for the rest of his life. When he turned nine, his two older brothers were married. Amidst the festivities, he played with his aunt’s five-year-old daughter. A relative suggested their wedding, so the first three brothers were married in the same ceremony. However, after the wedding, the little girl returned to her parent’s home, and both children remained unaware of their marriage. Unfortunately, the girl passed away within six months at her father’s house (Shah 1992:251). Afterward, he remained unmarried for the rest of his life and eventually became a Jain monk. He grew up with an athletic body and expertise in farming and animals such as horses and cattle, although his formal schooling was only up to grade three. With their extensive farmland and other trading activities, his father showed no interest in continuing his formal education and instead trained him in the family business. After he was injured at his school, he took a break and eventually just left the school and slowly started taking an interest in religious education. His parents were devout Jains and used to serve local Jain ascetics (Shah 1992:251) actively. According to a memoir shared by his contemporary farmer, he used to make special provisions for feeding the birds on his farms instead of chasing them away like other farmers. He also showed similar compassion and love for 1

She was one of the earliest female nuns in Digambara tradition. A chapter later in this volume covers her life and works. 2 Pati is a widespread surname in the Kshatriya or warrior class in Maharashtra and Karnataka states of India. 3 As with birth of Buddha, Mah¯ av¯ıra, and Christ, auspicious dreams are often associated with mothers of legendary people.

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the so-called low-caste people in his village. People also recall him rescuing frogs from snakes. He used to carry Jain ascetics on his back to help them cross the local rivers in his village, indicating his immense physical strength. He would request the mendicant to help him cross the worldly life river in exchange (Jain 2003b). He was also known for his long jumps up to fifteen-foot (Shah 1992:252). He started reading Digambara texts such as Samays¯ar early and continued studying scriptures throughout his life. When he turned eighteen, his parents tried again for his marriage, but he refused to marry again since he had already taken the vow of celibacy at sixteen (Diwakar 2006:34; Jain 2003b). Although his parents did not encourage him, he started planning to become an ascetic early in his life and renounced sleeping on a bed and wearing shoes around 25. He even avoided attending the weddings of his sister and his younger brother. He used to take care of his family farms, shop for clothes in his brother’s absence, and run the business with fairness, trust, and honesty. He served his parents with complete dedication and helped them ´ antis¯agar renounced ghee attain Santh¯ar¯a, a Jain ritual death with fasting. At 32, S¯ and oil for the rest of his life during a visit to Shikharji. He also vowed to eat only one meal daily for the rest of his life after his first pilgrimage.

Becoming and Being a Jain Monk After his father passed away in 1909, he fasted intermittently for four years. In 1912, his mother died, and in 1914, he joined the ascetic order of Devendrak¯ırti as a junior monk, ks.ullak, at the age of 43.4 His first rainy season retreat5 as a monk happened at Koganoli Village in the Belagavi District.6 He visited Kumbhoj in Maharashtra, where he joined pilgrims visiting Girnar in Gujarat. As a ks.ullak, he could keep two clothing pieces and travel in a vehicle, which is how this pilgrimage happened. However, upon visiting the Girnar temple in 1919, he spontaneously renounced his 2nd piece, became ailak 7 with only one part of clothing, and stopped traveling in a vehicle. He started marching and arrived at Ainapur, where he met another ¯ agar. He showed exemplary courage, tolerance, and selfDigambara ascetic, Adis¯ control, especially during encounters with snakes, lions, mosquitoes, and ants. He ´ antis¯agara as a repentance Years later, Devendrak¯ırti took his second initiation under his disciple S¯ for his undisciplined practice of ascetic vows—a rare example of a guru becoming a disciple! 5 All Jain ascetics walk across India throughout the year without settling at any one place permanently. However, during the rainy season of four months, they halt their march and stay at one place. The lay community enthusiastically welcome such retreats for the continuous spiritual benefit it received from the ascetics. 6 Here, a lunatic attacked him with a stick with an iron nail but could not agitate his mediation. 7 According to Paul Dundas (2002:156), “The ksullaka, a term meaning ‘lesser,’ may wear a robe, . keep an alms bowl, is not obliged to pull out his hair, and may bathe, while the more advanced ailaka, a term of uncertain etymology which may mean ‘partly clothed,’ wears loincloth and eats sitting down but, like a naked monk, without a receptacle for his food. The ailaka also pulls out his hair and, according to the ancient texts, cannot wash himself.”. 4

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maintained strict discipline and reformed the alms collection process during this period. Digambara monks used to practice nakedness only while collecting alms from designated lay families, but he improved this practice. He revived the random alms collection process. Ascetics collect food based on random vows and from arbitrary families while practicing complete nakedness throughout their lives (Jain 2003b). He blamed laypeople for the ascetics’ negligent conduct and encouraged their indepth education. He emphasized the importance of Jain temples for sustaining the lay community. He believed that only devoted laypeople could support the Jain ascetics, and in turn, only disciplined Jain ascetics could ensure the flourishing of Jainism. He also encouraged supporting the lay scholars to protect and upkeep Jainism (Jain 2003b). He was eager to meet a fully naked Digambara monk, a tradition no longer practiced since the seventeenth century (Jain 2003c:6).8 He initiated to become a fully ´ antis¯agar on March 2nd, 1920. He pioneered naked monk with the new name S¯ marching across India, paving the way for future Digambara monks. Later in his life, the prominent Hindi newspaper Navbharat Times editor once asked him if ´ antis¯agar calmly responded people become ascetic to escape worldly challenges. S¯ by reminding the editor that a Digambara monk’s life is the most challenging one as he must overcome natural and social difficulties without even clothes to protect him. His only protection is his firm conviction in Jain philosophy. If somebody becomes a monk to gain cheap popularity or escape from worldly challenges, the lay community can soon expose such a charlatan. One becomes an ascetic because one is trying to escape from the cycle of karma and rebirth and bears the extreme heat, extreme cold, and rain without any clothes or permanent shelter and only one intake of limited food and water in a day. This strict discipline is one reason for only a handful of Digambara monks (Bharill 2003:62). For example, he removed an ascetic disciple from his congregation for asking for a donation for an organization in his name (Jain 2003b:139). He met a contemporary Jain guru K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı who also preached based on the Digambara scriptures such as Samays¯ar. K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s strong emphasis on the experience of the soul over rituals and pilgrimage had stirred a nationwide controversy. ´ antis¯agar accepted the importance of conduct, although he agreed with the ultiS¯ mate futility of earning merit by ethical conduct or charity. On another occasion, a Jain lay scholar asked him to invoke a god and show miracles to lure more people ´ antis¯agar brushed this aside laughingly, stating that an ascetic toward Jainism. S¯ does not worship gods or goddesses and that such practices encourage falsity in society (Bharill 2003). In another village Jainwadi in Maharashtra, local Jains were so inspired by his teachings that they immersed all the images of other gods and goddesses in water (Jain 2003a). He refused flowers from a scholar clarifying that tiny organisms inside the flowers may be hurt by the bodily heat (Jain 2003b). Once he fell sick due to polluted water, but he continued practicing strict monastic rules and recovered well after a month. On another occasion, he accidentally accepted food from a householder who had borrowed it from his neighbor. Since receiving the 8

According to one estimate, only 35 Digambara monks were known in 1939 (Kothari 2003).

Pilgrimage and Roaming for Digambara Monks

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borrowed food is inappropriate for Jain ascetics, he renounced food for eight days and survived only on milk. He also meditated on a rock in the hot sun during this period as repentance.

¯ arya Becoming and Being an Ach¯ In Samdoli, Maharashtra, he organized a congregation of Jain ascetics, and on ¯ arya. October 8, 1924, despite his reluctance, he was anointed with the title of Ach¯ After his initiation, he visited Shravanabelagola, a famous Jain pilgrimage town in ¯ arya of the twentieth century, one of his his home state. As the first Digambara Ach¯ first initiatives was establishing a committee to renovate Kunthalgiri and Baramati Jain temples in Maharashtra. He was against using funds received for temple upkeep for other non-religious charity purposes (Diwakar 2006:225).

Pilgrimage and Roaming for Digambara Monks In 1927, he led a congregation of about 200 Jains from Maharashtra for the pilgrimage to Shikharji. A wealthy donor from Mumbai supported the pilgrimage. The group of 200 pilgrims traveled across Central and Northern India and helped spread his message widely. As a ruler of the sizable portion of this route, the Nizam of Hyderabad initially prohibited the naked Digambara monk from walking on the streets. After prominent Jains protested and appealed, permission was given to Digambara monks to roam freely in their naked state. The Nizam even appointed two security guards for ´ antis¯agar. Following this approval, kingdoms in Punjab, Rajasthan, the protection of S¯ and Madhya Pradesh also approved and even protected the naked Digambara monks after their pictures were taken and submitted for identification. All these permissions were officially printed and shared with the Jain community (Kothari 2003). In 1931, ´ antis¯agar spent his rainy season retreat in Delhi for the first time since Digambara S¯ ´ antis¯agar defied that monks were prohibited from roaming fully naked. However, S¯ prohibition and convinced the laypeople accordingly. He even had his pictures taken at prominent Delhi monuments as evidence of this freedom of movement (Chandabai 2003).9 Rulers of various states in the Maharashtra region visited him and used to receive advice on how to rule nonviolently and ethically (Jain 2003d). More than 300,000 pilgrims arrived at Shikharji to join him on the pilgrimage there. A Digambara monk leading a congregation for pilgrimage had happened after centuries in North India. Katni, Madhya Pradesh, became the site for his first rainy

9

However, he renounced his milk intake for a week as repentance for permitting his photographs at Naslapur, Maharashtra (Jain 2003b:135).

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season retreat in North India10 (Jain 2003b). More than 10,000 people welcomed the congregation as it entered Katni in his leadership. Legends developed that his arrival marked the end of epidemics such as Cholera and the Plague that were continually striking Katni for years. All the donations received at the end of this retreat were passed on to local organizations, as the Jain ascetics do not accept such gifts (Shastri 2003). He fasted for long durations during his rainy season retreats at Lalitpur and continued such severe penance even when he had a high fever. At Sonagiri in 1929, he initiated four new Digambara ascetics making the number of his disciples six then. In 1930, a group of armed men attacked his congregation in Rajakhera Village in the Dholpur District in Rajasthan.11 When the police caught them, he asked the police to set them free. In 1948, when intruders forcibly entered Jain temples in Maharashtra, he took the vow to renounce grains till this problem was resolved (Carrithers 1989). For his pioneering penance, Jains honored him with the title of Ch¯aritra Chakravart¯ı (“Emperor of conduct and character”) at Gajpantha in Maharashtra in 1937. On July 24, 1951, the magistrate finally gave the verdict in his favor and facilitated the entry of only those Hindus who had been visiting Jain temples earlier. After this victory, he resumed the intake of grains after 1105 days. This long duration of his austere practice made a memorable mark. His view was that a Jain temple is a sacred place for Jain practitioners’ spiritual development, so only Jains should be allowed inside.12 He opposed another Hindu ritual of immersion of one’s ashes into rivers as such practices could harm aquatic organisms (Jain 2003b). He established images of liberated beings, such as Bahubali at Kumbhoj and Kunthalgiri. In 1944, he heard of the loss of 5000 Digambara sutras on Palm leaves at Moodabidri and inspired the engraving of Digambara scriptures on copper plates to preserve their posterity. The texts engraved were Dhaval¯a, Jayadhaval¯a, and Mah¯adhaval¯a, with the funding of Rupees 150,000. The combined weight of these 2664 plates is about 2000 kg, and they are kept at the Digambara Jain Temples at Phaltan and Mumbai. Also, 500 copies of 11 Digambara scriptures were published and donated. In 1952, when the Jain community at Phaltan celebrated his 80th birth anniversary, the copper plates, engraved with the Digambara scriptures, were kept on the elephants in a grand procession.

´ antis¯agar In a few of his discourses, the controversial guru Osho mentions meeting S¯ and asking him some uncomfortable questions. Osho also criticized his Sallekhan¯a, death by fasting https//:www.osho.com/osho-online-library/osho-talks/rebellion-jainism-birthright-e96 01228-2de?p=7549d396175b7be5207fc6d4b27927c7 (accessed August 14, 2019). 11 Jain ascetics have often been victims of attacks and accidents even in the twenty-first century as this news report shows https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/walking-jain-asceticsto-get-protection/articleshow/92217328.cms (accessed July 2, 2022). 12 A prominent Jain scholar Ganesh Prasad Varni, however, supported the entry of so-called lower caste people into the Jain temples (Bansal and Bansal 2003). 10

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Reform Work for Food and Water Consumption in Northern India As he turned his attention toward northern India, he observed the lax food and water restrictions there. He noticed that low-caste servants, who were filling the drinking water at Jain households, were not practicing Jain dietary laws. Similarly, the meals for the Jain ascetics used to be prepared without carefulness. According to the Jain scriptures, the laypeople must donate only their leftover food to ascetics and not prepare special meals for ascetics. Water being the common ingredient, he prohibited food or water intake from any household employing a low-caste servant for household chores (to avoid indirect violence by consuming food or water supplied by somebody harming animals) (Sachdeva 2003). He explained his compassion for his oppressed brothers and sisters and supported their economic progress for them. He did not appreciate eating meals or sharing their work just once for cheap publicity. Instead, he advocated their spiritual development by renouncing addictions and animal products (Diwakar 2006 132). Animal sacrifice was stopped in places such as Katni and Dhariawad. Similarly, he encouraged wealthy people to take strict vows and meditate daily. As a Jain ascetic for almost 35 years, he marched more than 20,000 miles, fasted for 26 years, and initiated ten people into asceticism. He chanted the holiest Jain mantra, N.am¯ok¯ara Mantra, 180 million times (Jain 2003b). His 42 rainy season retreats occurred from 1915 to 1924 in Maharashtra and Karnataka. From 1925 to the rest of his life, he spent those four months across India at various places in states now known as Uttar Pradesh, New Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. These stays and marches united Southern and Northern Digambara communities and spread awareness of this tradition across India.

Death by Sallekhan¯a (Ritual Fasting) In 1951, his diamond jubilee birth anniversary was celebrated with various Indian leaders and dignitaries from the UK, USA, China, Sweden, Switzerland, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Australia, and Nepal. He took the 12-year Niyama Sallekhan¯a vow to cut down food and water intake at Gajapanth, Maharashtra. After he developed cataracts in his eyes, he started Yama Sallekhan¯a at Kunthalgiri, Maharashtra, on August 14, 1955. He also chose his first disciple Virs¯agar to be his successor to the congregation. On August 18, 1955, he took his last intake of grain, and on August 28, 1955, he took his final sip of water. On September 8, 1955, people arranged a tape recorder and recorded his last discourse of 22 min. After this ritual of fasting for 36 days, when he was 84, he passed away peacefully on September 18, 1955, at Kunthalgiri, Maharashtra. Around 100,000 people witnessed his funeral rites.13 13

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=etCxYj6lExA (accessed August 25, 2019).

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Legacy Several schools, animal sanctuaries, libraries, publishing houses, hostels, hospitals, and other religious places are named after him and are carrying on his legacy. His legacy includes his 800 disciples and ten prominent monks in his lineage. After Virs¯agar, the next successors in the genealogy were Shivs¯agar, Dharms¯agar, and Ajits¯agar. Currently, Vardham¯ans¯agar is leading this congregation. Chandanamati ´ antis¯agar. was the first nun to have received ascetic initiation under S¯

Quotes by Him . Nature has blessed the world with money and wealth and made humans trusty. . Pure mind and spirituality reside in pure food.

Quotes by Mahatma Gandhi About Him The ideal condition of humans is nakedness, as practiced by Digambara monks. It is my favorite state, as well (Jain 2003:10).

Chapter 6

K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı

Introduction In his July 19, 1976, editorial in the magazine Jain Sande´sa, published in Mathura, in North India, Kailash Chand mentioned, “Whether one accepts or not, an objective historian writing the history of the last three decades of Jainism will have to call that era as K¯anj¯ı Era. K¯anj¯ı was a prominent topic in contemporary periodicals, but the criticism happens for an important phenomenon. One who remains unaffected by opposition underscores his importance.” I witnessed this K¯anj¯ı phenomenon in December 2019 when I visited Songadh in Gujarat, where K¯anj¯ı lived for decades and conducted various Jainism-related activities.1 The information presented in the chapter is based on my interviews with K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı followers. Additionally, I visited

1

https://www.vitragvani.com/ (accessed August 2, 2021).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1_6

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Pandit Todarmal Smarak Trust2 in Jaipur and collected additional information from the students and teachers there. Some of the information is also based on my translation of the Hindi and Gujarati literature received in Songadh and Jaipur, especially Bharill (1974, 1981, 2005), Bauer (2011), Bowker (2000), Dundas (2002), Jain (1999, 2018, n.d.), and Vimlaben (2004) were also helpful. Some YouTube lectures in Hindi and Gujarati, such as by Prakash (2019), were also referenced.

Birth and Adolescence K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s paternal ancestors were from Gadhada village in Gujarat. His father, ´ ımal¯ı by caste and Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı by sectarian affiliation, Mot¯ıchand Shah, a Da´sa Sr¯ was a prominent trader in cotton who worked only a couple of months and spent the rest of the year in Jain spiritual practices. He donated all his savings during natural calamities. After financial losses, he moved to his wife Ujamb¯a’s ancestral village Umrala where K¯anj¯ı was born on Monday, April 21, 1890, as the third child in the family (Jain 2018:24). A local astrologer predicted a great future for the child K¯anj¯ı, who began visiting the local Jain center with his parents. From early childhood, he became determined for his spiritual development. At ten, he renounced kite flying when he saw his disappointed friends after his kite was lost. Around the ´ ambara Jain ascetic in same time, a severe famine killed many in the village. A Svet¯ the village intrigued him. When his 11-year-old brother passed away, he was even more interested in the Jain ascetic. At 13, in 1903, when the plague started claiming many in the area, he was sent to a different village called Gariyadhar in Bhavnagar district, quitting his formal school after grade six. Here, he studied the Sanskrit language and continued visiting Jain ascetics. In total, he spent about thirteen years with his family. Meanwhile, his parents and older brother also passed away, and only his two siblings remained. He worked at his uncle’s shop in Palej in the Bharuch district for the next five years and continued studying Jain texts. Like devout Jains, he started fasting during the rainy season and the Jain festivals such as Paryus.an.a. At 17, he refused to bribe a local police officer who later framed him for selling opium. K¯anj¯ı fought this case for about seven months in Vadodara and spent 700 rupees on this lawsuit. He won this case, and the judge gave the verdict for him to claim the damages from the prosecutor, but K¯anj¯ı refused and let his 700 rupees go out of compassion. Years later, he delivered spiritual discourses in the same building in Vadodara, where he fought against this false allegation. Once, he went to Mumbai with his business partner to bring goods by train. He made sure that his partner bought an extra ticket for the luggage as required by the law. He demonstrated similar honesty while purchasing the goods in Mumbai and got the receipts for all his transactions. At that time, he watched different plays based on the Hindu mythologies and epics, e.g., R¯am¯ayan.a, Dhruva, Mir¯ab¯ai, Bhartr.hari, and Anasuy¯a, and was highly inspired by them. He 2

https://www.ptst.in/ (last accessed September 4, 2022).

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wrote verses signifying the philosophy of one’s self as the highest Supreme Being, but those pages were lost in flood. He also attended religious debates in the village. ¯ ar¯anga S¯utra, and other Jain texts at In 1909, he read Adhy¯atma Kalpadruma, Ach¯ his shop. At 19, he renounced eating pickles when he witnessed small insects inside them. Like many devout Jains, he stopped taking food or water after sunset. During a debate between two Hindu sects following Kabir Panth and Ved¯anta, the former group invoked the Jains as it rejected the idea of a creator God—Kabir Panthis knew that Jainism also rejects the idea of a creator God. This event left an impression on young K¯anj¯ı. In 1909, his spiritual tendencies were expressed when he commented on his business partner’s habits by telling him that he (the business partner) would be born into animal life next time because of his deep attachment toward worldly things. He rebuked another business colleague in Mumbai. Around 20 years of age, he attended a Bhavnagar wedding, where he decided to remain celibate.

Renunciation At 22, a marriage proposal for him became the tipping point. He rejected the proposal, left home, and started looking for a guru in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Finally, he found the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı Jain Guru Hir¯achanda in a village near the town of Botad, who gave him the vow of celibacy and trained him in asceticism. He then visited his sister’s home at Gariyadhar in 1912, where he studied the Sanskrit language, which helped him study Jain scriptures later. However, like his formal elementary education earlier, this academic pursuit also did not go much further when he realized that this linguistic study was insufficient for his spiritual development. He continued his scriptural study at Paliyad. He then visited his guru Hir¯achanda in 1913 and asked about ascetic life but did not get satisfactory answers. For the next eight months, K¯anj¯ı remained in a dilemma about the ascetic life. At 24, at his birthplace Umrala, he took the monastic ¯ arya, H¯ır¯achand. On this occasion, his family and initiation from a Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı Ach¯ about 2000 people from nearby villages attended the initiation ceremony. His brother spent 1800 rupees and called for an elephant from a nearby town on which K¯anj¯ı sat for the procession (Jain 2018:35). However, his brand-new clothes were torn while he was trying to ride on that elephant. This accident raised doubt in him about being a Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı monk. He maintained his celibacy vow from his early monastic days, which continued for the rest of his life. Early in his ascetic life, he learned that Digambara Jain monks renounced their clothes and practiced nudity. When his guru insisted and laypeople requested, K¯anj¯ı gave one of the first discourses on Bhagavat¯ı S¯utra at Lathi, Gujarat. In 1915, he declared the independence of the soul with its capability to achieve omniscience and break the transmigration cycle. He worked tirelessly and ´ ambara Jain scriptures and their commentaries. He completed the study of all the Svet¯ found references to image worshiping that contradicted Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı’s iconoclastic ideology. He also found other inconsistencies in their practices that did not match his spiritual convictions. For instance, he could not accept that the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı ascetics

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must spend time coloring their alms bowls instead of using that time to study the scriptures. His guru suggested finding another Jain sect that does not use any alms bowl when asked. Later in his life, he took refuge in the Digambara teachings, the denomination in which ascetics do not use containers for receiving alms for the food but accept it in their palms. He frequently disagreed with his senior colleagues on essential topics. After a while, his colleagues questioned the time spent studying scriptures with him. His cohorts’ indifference to the scriptures disappointed him, and he left his congregation. The next day, he rejoined the group upon persuasion by other prominent disciples from the community. At this turning point, he decided to pursue the truth without depending on any guru or congregation. In 1915, he gave fifty discourses intermittently. In 1917, after his guru passed away, upon the congregation’s persuasion, K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı started giving daily discourses. During his monkhood, he spent four months of annual monsoon retreats at various Gujrat towns, including Jamnagar, Porbandar, Rajkot, Amreli, ´ ambara scriptures with their commentaries a and Wankaner. He studied all 45 Svet¯ second time and memorized about 8000 verses from them in the city of Damnagar. His widespread popularity earned him the titles of Kohinoor of Kathiawar and Jñ¯an¯ı Dhy¯an¯ı K¯anj¯ı Muni (a wise meditator monk).

Dreams and Prophecies During 1920 and 1921, He had a unique experience at Wankaner, Umrala, and Vinchhiya when he reported listening to Om’s sacred sound with instrumental music, another contradiction from the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı ideology that rejects Om. This experience was interpreted later as a confirmation of his previous birth in Mah¯avideh, where he attended the assembly of the fordmaker S¯ımandhara Sv¯am¯ı, giving discourses in the form of the mystical sound of Om (Dundas 2002:268). Throughout his life, he shared dreams with his disciples. In the first one, he witnessed the entire sky full of marble plates carved with Jain scriptures, interpreted as the prophecy to have the Param¯agam temple built in Songadh, the temple with carved Jain scriptures. In another dream, he saw a slender, tall prince wearing shiny clothes. This dream was later interpreted by his disciple Champ¯abahen, who was believed to have an extraordinary capacity to remember past lives. She recalled that K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı used to be a prince named Fatehmand in the land of Mah¯avideh, where he saw Kundakunda, the founder of the Digambara ascetic lineage who lived over 1500 years ago in India (Dundas 2002:107). The prince also visited the assembly of the fordmaker S¯ımandhara Sv¯am¯ı. In 1933, in another dream, he saw a large amount of cash box that fell into his lap, but he could not withdraw that cash at his current location and needed to move to a different one. He interpreted this dream as indicating that the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı sect was inappropriate for him, and he was destined to convert to the Digambara sect. After moving to Songadh, he saw Kundakunda in many dreams. He used to see a large temple in another set of dreams, and he would be meditating away from a large crowd.

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Acceptance of Samays¯ar as a Turning Point His earlier interpretation of Jain philosophy already matched the Digambara perspective, so he was ecstatic upon receiving the Digambara text Samays¯ar, written by Kundakunda, from a wealthy Jain layperson in 1922. He immersed himself in its study and was convinced that this text was the means to achieve liberation. On the preface pages, he underlined the description of Kundakunda’s visit to Mah¯avidehaks.etra to witness the preaching assembly of the fordmaker S¯ımandhara. In the same year, he received other texts written by Kundakunda, such as Pravachans¯ar and As.tap¯ahud. During later years, he also read various other Digambara texts, including Moks.am¯arg Prak¯as´ak and Rahasyap¯urn.a Chitth¯ı written by Pandit Todarmal. Most of these texts “elaborate a category of ineffability to discuss the pure experience of the soul or self (¯atma-anubhava)” (Parson 2019), which K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı also emphasized in his preaching. In 1930, he spent his four-month monsoon retreat in Amreli, where he gave discourses on Samays¯ar for the first time after studying it for a decade. His philosophical convictions perfectly matched the Digambara texts, so he wanted to leave the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı congregation, although his discomfort had started long ago. He continued to expound Digambara text in all his discourses and distanced himself from his Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı colleagues. In 1931, for the first time, he shared the thought of leaving the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı congregation with his brother, who asked him to act slowly and thoughtfully instead of taking any drastic action. Meanwhile, two young ladies, 15-year-old Champ¯abahen (1918–93) (Dundas ´ ant¯abahen, started listening to K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı. The former 2002:269) and 19-year-old S¯ was born in 1913 and lost her mother when she was three. She was sent to Karachi (now in Pakistan) at her older sister’s home for about ten years, where she went to school. Four years after she heard K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s lectures in Gujarat, at 19, she ´ ant¯abahen was had the spiritual experience of the right view (Samyak Dar´san). S¯ born in 1909, whose father was a follower of K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı. Champ¯abahen claimed to remember the previous life of K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı with Kundakunda. She also claimed ´ ant¯abahen were both good friends and were with K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı and that she and S¯ Kundakunda in their earlier lives in Mah¯avidehaks.etra, as noted earlier. They both remained together and listened to all the discourses in the future. His last four-month of monsoon retreat was in Rajkot in 1934, where he received another significant Digambara text S.at.kha˙nd.a¯ gam.

Renouncing the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı Monkhood After receiving Samays¯ar and studying intensely for twelve years, in 1934, he officially announced his decision to leave his Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı congregation to join the Digambara sect. Despite his vast popularity, his leaving the present group created a widespread stir in the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı communities of the nearby villages and towns.

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People requested him not to remove the mouth shield, a requirement for Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı ascetics. He rejected that request because he wanted to live free from congregational obligations, according to his new Digambara convictions. He received threats that no one would offer him alms or come to listen to him. In 1935, he visited places such as Jamnagar and his birthplace Umrala, where Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı laypeople again tried to persuade him not to convert. But K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı firmly reiterated that he wanted to live a transparent life without pretending to belong to the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı sect, whose ideologies no longer resonated with him. A group of people started looking for a suitable place for him. A lady sought help from her brother, Hargovind Modi of Mumbai. While K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı was traveling from Umrala toward Bhavnagar, at Songadh railway station, Hir¯achand Damani met him. He requested K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı to stay at his vacant house named Star of India in Songadh. This village had no Jains, so they anticipated that there would not be any potential protests against K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı. First, he stayed at Hargovind Modi’s house in Songadh for two days and then moved to Star of India. On the 24th day of moving to this house, he formally converted to become a lay Digambara Jain on April 16, 1935, the birthday of Mah¯av¯ıra, the 24th fordmaker. A devotee named Haril¯al Bhay¯an.i of Bhavnagar brought a photograph of P¯ar´svan¯atha, the 23rd fordmaker. In front of this picture, he removed the mouth shield, the last mark of his earlier affiliation to the Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı sect (Dundas 2002:252). Meanwhile, society and the media were fuming with intense protests against this conversion. He stayed at the Star of India for three years, three months, and three days. Hargovind Mod¯ı, H¯ır¯achand Dam¯an.i, and Haril¯al Bhay¯an.i remained his supporters for initial difficult years and beyond. As he continued preaching in Songadh, slowly, his earlier supporters started trickling there. The first one to visit Songadh was Raichand Gandhi from Botad in Gujarat, with more than 100 people. With increasing visitors, his first Paryus.an.a became a massive event. His discourse had to be moved to an enormous hall at a local high school as Star of India was ´ ant¯abahen, his older brother, insufficient for the large crowd. Soon, Champ¯abahen, S¯ a well-known Gandhian attorney Ramji Doshi, and other devotees also moved to Songadh and started listening to his daily morning discourses. However, within a couple of years, his brother passed away, and from that day onward, he started giving two lectures daily, in the morning and the afternoon. After a couple of years of moving to the Star of India, the crowds started becoming more massive, and a rental house with four rooms was used for boarding and lodging ´ ı Kau´sal Jain Atithi Sev¯a Samiti. for the visitors. This house was later known as Sr¯ A large piece of land was purchased, and a building named Jain Sv¯adhy¯aya Mandir was constructed in 1938 at about 13,000 rupees. The day he moved from the Star of India to this new building, 700 people attended the inauguration function, where he gave a discourse on Samays¯ar, with its replica established in that house. He also honored Champ¯abahen with a new title Bhagavat¯ı, on that day. He lived in the southwest corner room and delivered religious discourses in the large hall for almost four decades. K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı celebrated the birthday of Mah¯av¯ıra at the Star of India each year as his conversion day, and this celebration has continued there annually ever since. Later, other temples were constructed in the complex.

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In 1939, K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı led a group of 300 people to Palitana, where for the first time, he had Dar´san of the Digambara image. The group contemplated building a similar temple in Songadh. In 1939, Mahatma Gandhi came to Rajkot, where K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı stayed for ten months. Gandhi attended K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s discourse with his wife, Kasturba Gandhi, and his assistant Mahadev Desai. While returning from Rajkot in 1940, K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı visited the Girnar temple with 300 people. Another important ´ antis¯agar, the pioneering Digambara Ach¯ ¯ arya we person to come to Songadh was S¯ discussed in the previous chapter, who was impressed with K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s work and congregation. In 1941, for the first temple in Songadh, both disciples, Champ¯abahen and ´ ant¯abahen, visited Jaipur, where they purchased the three fordmaker images for S¯ the temple at Songadh. People saw such images for the first time, so they were kept open at the Sv¯adhy¯aya Mandir for a month so that people could practice their devotion. The inauguration and installation ceremony were performed on images with great fanfare for eight days in the presence of 1500 devotees. K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı remained immersed in the devotion of fordmaker S¯ımandhara for the next year at Songadh and did not travel anywhere. A prominent scholar, Himmat Shah, translated the Prakrit and Sanskrit text of Samays¯ar into Gujarati with inspiration from K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı, a first in Jainism’s history; it was later translated into Hindi. Later, about 65 more temples were constructed with even bigger inauguration functions at multiple towns and cities across Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and one in Kenya (Africa). During this time, a hall was constructed to preserve and protect the footprints of Kundakunda at Ponnur in Tamil Nadu state, where he had written Samays¯ar. In the same year, at Kundadri (Karnataka), where Kundakunda had passed away, a similar hall was constructed for the same purpose. In 1941, forty youths participated in the first educational camp with the set syllabi and examination. K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı presented them with certificates and prizes after the completion of this camp. In 1942, another preaching assembly, Samavasaran.a Mandir, was constructed with the images of S¯ımandhara and Kundakunda. About ¯ sram, a hostel for 2000 people attended this inauguration ceremony. Brahmacharya A´ the celibate youth, was established around 1942, where a teacher Hirachand Shah taught Jain philosophy, with set curricula and syllabi, in a three-year program. In ¯ 1944, a monthly Gujarati periodical Atma Dharma was launched initially with 400 subscribers, and later 5000 copies were sent across the country. Impressed with his spiritual discourses published in the journal, a prominent Jain community leader in Indore, Sir Seth Hukum Chand Jain, dispatched the next 25 years’ subscription fees. He also sent 1001 rupees to encourage its publication in Hindi. In 1946, at the time of ¯ K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s 56th birthday, a Hindi version of Atma Dharma was launched that grew to about 7000 subscribers across the country. Over time, it was published in Marathi from 1977 onward from Mumbai, Kannada from 1978 onward from Bengaluru, and Tamil from 1978 onward from Chennai. From the year 1950–1957, there was also a daily publication on the topic of the discourse given that day by K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı, namely Sadguru Pravachan Pras¯ad. In 1960, a weekly magazine called Suvarn.a Sande´s was also launched, and it continued for about nineteen months.

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In 1945, Sir Seth Hukamchand Jain visited Songadh with his family and donated 25,000 rupees to build a large hall and publish scriptures. He also installed Samays¯ar in silver plates at the Sv¯adhy¯aya Mandira. His teacher J¯ıvandhar and later Banshidhar Shastri also visited Songadh and stayed there for some time. These visits paved the way for more wealthy and scholarly people to come to Songadh. K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s popularity shot up in Hindi regions after these dignitaries’ visits. In 1945, Bhagav¯an ´ ı Kundakunda-Kah¯an Jain S¯ ´astram¯al¯a was launched to publish more Digambara Sr¯ scriptures and K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s discourses on them. Thousands of copies of Samays¯ar were printed and sold within a couple of years; the peak of such demand for this text happened due to K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s discourses on this text. In the same year, Nihalchand Sogani came to Songadh, where he claimed to have a self-realization experience. In 1947, Sir Seth Hukum Chand Jain returned to Songadh with some people on a special train and donated 35,000 rupees. He also gave another generous sum for the new temple construction in Vinchhiya. He also inaugurated a newly constructed hall called Sri Bhagav¯an Kundakunda Pravachan Mandap. Ramji Doshi, the president of the Songadh Trust, wrote a new commentary on Tattv¯arthas¯utra. Earlier, Pan.d.it Kailash Chand Jain, the president of Digambara Jain Vidvata Paris.ada, came to know about K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı and his work at Songadh. He organized a conference in which thirty-two Jain scholars participated from across India. This conference was held at a newly constructed hall called Sri Bhagav¯an Kundakunda Pravachan Mandap. At this conference on March 3, 1947, a resolution was passed unanimously appreciating K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı to be the only person propagating Digambara philosophy widely in the last 2000 years. In the same year, a northern Jain group from Mainpuri in Uttar Pradesh proposed to open a radio station in Songadh to help broadcast K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s daily discourses. In 1949, for the first time, as he turned 59, his birthday was celebrated with three days of festivities during the annual twenty-day educational and spiritual program in Songadh. In the same year, six women of age 22 took the vow of lifelong celibacy. A new sanctuary was constructed with the funds received from the Gangwal brothers from Kolkata. In 1950, Jugal Kishore Jain, from Kota, Rajasthan, visited Songadh. With inspiration from K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı, while returning from Songadh by train, he wrote Keval Ravi Kiran. ritual verses. Till today, this hymn is exceedingly famous among Jain devotees. In the same year, the Gramophone Company of India, HMV, recorded K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s discourse for the first time on a gramophone record. Later, his lectures were recorded on an American system. Around 1960, the daily recordings started on a German system on a magnetic spool. In 1964, this was shifted to a Japanese machine. Recorded discourses were distributed with an audio cassette to benefit the enthusiastic devotees. More than 9500 h of such lectures on various spiritual topics are available online. ´ Jain Vidy¯arth¯ı Graha, was In 1952, for school-going children, a new dormitory, Sri started. The purpose was to impart vernacular as well as spiritual studies. It started with just three students that grew up to 75. In 1953, a marble M¯anastambha (“pillar of honor”) was erected with four images of fordmaker S¯ımandhara at the top and the bottom. The height was kept at 63 feet to commemorate his 63rd birth anniversary. He went with about 600 devotees for the pilgrimage of Sammet Shikhar from Mumbai

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in 1957. He traveled by Dodge car named Kaly¯an. Vardhin¯ı (Welfare Multiplier). On the way, they stopped in Indore, where Sir Seth Hukum Chand welcomed and hosted them. During this trip in Bundelkhand of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, they were provided complete protection from the dacoits for the caravan of 40 cars and eight buses. The Uttar Pradesh Police gave them a formal farewell after the trip in which he delivered a discourse based on Jainism and nonviolence. During this trip, they also visited pilgrimage centers, including Pawapuri, Rajgir, and Champapuri. In Shikharji, Bihar, he met Ganesh Prasad Varni, a prominent Digambara Jain scholar, and discussed spiritual topics. From Shikharji, they went to Kolkata and Odisha for a pilgrimage to Khandagiri and Udayagiri. Once at Jawal village in Rajasthan in 1957, he was invited but was protested by misguided people, so he avoided visiting that village and left for Mount Abu. However, over 100 embarrassed villagers of more than 25 castes followed him to Mount Abu, repented, and requested to return to their village. He obliged the request. In 1959, a temple was inaugurated in the heart of Mumbai. From here, he took a pilgrimage to South India. He visited Kundadri, where Kundakunda left his mortal body; Shravanabelagola, the pilgrim center with the 57 feet monolithic statue of Bahubali; and Ponnur, where Kundakunda was believed to write Samays¯ar and other texts. Hukamchand Bharill was a pioneering scholar who became his disciple and gave lectures in his presence. Bharill also authored books based on discourses by K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı. On the 75th birthday of K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı in Mumbai in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri (who soon became the Prime Minister of India afterward) presented him with Abhinandan Granth, containing the biography of K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı. He was invited to prison in Rajkot, where he preached to about 250 prisoners and encouraged them to realize their true nature. About 65 nuns stayed in Songadh, but he avoided contact with them, maintaining celibacy. A temple of 80 feet in height was constructed to commemorate his 80th birthday in 1969. The temple walls were decorated with 450 marble plates with 375,000 letters of five important Digambara texts written by Kundakunda. It was completed in 1974, commemorating the 2500 years of the Nirvana of fordmaker Mah¯av¯ıra. The image of Mah¯av¯ıra was kept in this temple. The ´ ı Mah¯av¯ıra Kundakunda Param¯agam Jain Mandir. Although temple was named Sr¯ this was a time of political instability in Gujarat, 25,000 devotees attended the opening ceremony. During this function, it was decided to raise funds for maintaining Digam´ ı Kundakunda bara Jain pilgrimage places throughout the country. It was named Sr¯ Kah¯an Tirtha Suraks.a¯ Trust, and about ten million rupees were collected for this purpose. In 1980, he visited Nairobi, Kenya, at the ripe age of 90. His 91st birth anniversary was celebrated in Mumbai, and at that time, his discourses in the form of a book named Pravachan Ratn¯akar (Discourse Ocean) were published. He was admitted to the Jaslok Hospital for a brief surgery. Due to ensuing complications, eventually, he passed away on Friday, November 28, 1980, spending his last few hours in deep meditation. After his death, two new temples appeared in London (2005) and Toronto (2014).

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Daily Routine of K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı 4 am—Wakeup, meditation, and recitation of 175 Jain verses 7–8 am—Rituals at the Jain temple 8 am—Warm Milk Intake 8–9 am—Discourses by K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı 9–10 am—Classes for children and seniors by other scholars 10–11 am—Morning meals and rest 1–3 pm—Study Jain scriptures and periodicals 3–4 pm—Discourses by K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı 4–4.45 pm—Attending the devotional singing at the Jain temple Around 5 pm—Evening meals 5.30–6 pm—Informal conversations with the guests 6–7.45 pm—Private meditation 8–9—Answering the spiritual questions by male devotees 9 pm—Recitation of 175 Jain verses and going to bed

Discourse Series Given by K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı During his 45 years of staying at Songadh, he delivered lecture series on the following scriptures: Samays¯ar nineteen times, Pravachans¯ar five times, Niyamas¯ar nine times, Panch¯astik¯aya four times, As.tap¯ahud three times, Parm¯atm¯a Prak¯as´a three times, Is.t.opade´sa two times, Purus.a¯ rtha Siddhi Up¯aya two times, Sam¯adhi Tantra two times, and on various other religious topics. He delivered spiritual lectures twice a day in which he discussed Samays¯ar.

His Message Based on his 45 years of relentless pursuit of bliss and his compassion for laypeople, he prescribed certain principles listed below: 1.

One substance cannot touch others, and each substance of the universe has its independent existence (Samays¯ar stanza 3).

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2.

Every substance has modes coming in sequential orders (Samays¯ar stanzas 308–311). 3. One can get enlightenment only by taking refuge in the eternal state of the soul (Samays¯ar stanza 11). 4. The motive for all four expositions is to obtain an emotion-free state (Panch¯astik¯aya stanza 172). 5. Relative pluralism (Anek¯ant) in each substance—Simultaneously, mutually different powers are present (Appendix Samays¯ar). 6. One having sinful corruption toward self-realization can obtain liberation in the future (Dar´san P¯ahud stanza 3). 7. The seven living and non-living elements are in the divisional form; therefore, they are not admirable (Niyamas¯ar stanza 38). 8. Self-realization cannot be achieved by taking refuge in the modal aspect of the soul, and it occurs only when one takes refuge in the eternal soul substance (Niyamas¯ar stanza 50). 9. The pure nature of all perceiving and all-knowing powers is represented at a given moment in the soul (Adhy¯atma Panch Sangraha). 10. A given soul, pure or impure, cannot change the occurrence of a given mode at a given time. Every mode comes at its prescribed time (K¯artikeya Anupreksh¯a stanza 211). 11. Substances of the universe were neither created nor will be destroyed, and they have their existence forever without any dependence on any other material ¯ (Atmasiddhi Pravachan and Samays¯ar stanza 2). 12. Self-realization does not come through auspicious inclinations; they are the reason for bondage. One can achieve it by going beyond the bondage of auspicious and inauspicious dispositions (Samays¯ar stanzas 145, 146, and 273).

Concluding Analysis In his paper, Tillo Detige (2014) notes the roles Bhat.t.a¯ rakas played in developing and maintaining Digambara Jainism. These roles included manuscript conservation, creating new literature, consecrating new Jain temples, and leading pilgrimages. K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı played all these roles, primarily due to his thousands of discourses on the Digambara texts, which made these texts famous in Gujarat and the rest of India. K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı’s life can also be seen as a revolt against the lax and ritualistic activities of his contemporary Jain ascetics. Detige (2014) cites Sangave and states that the Digambara subsect of Ter¯apanth had arisen as a reform movement against the corrupt Bhat.t.a¯ rakas in 1683 CE. His followers see K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı in the Ter¯apanth tradition, emphasizing spiritual realization and deemphasizing rituals. Like the funerary struc¯ aryas, there are similar structures built for tures that were erected for other Jain Ach¯ K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı in Songadh. A prominent Digambara scholar, the late Padmanabh Jaini, ´ et¯ambara (personal communication on September 15, 2019) regarded him as a Sv¯ because K¯anj¯ı never lived like a naked Digambara monk. However, with K¯anj¯ı’s

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emphasis on individualism, his followers created the most successful 20th-century Jain movement, as Paul Dundas (2002:265) has mentioned.

Chapter 7

¯ arya Vidy¯anand Ach¯

¯ arya Vidy¯anand was through the PBS documentary My first introduction to Ach¯ Ahims¯a (1987), in which he appeared as a naked Digambara Jain monk describing Jain ascetic life. Until his death in 2019,1 he remained one of the most influential 1

https://jainworld.com/2019/09/19/muni-shri-vidyanand-ji-has-performed-sallekhana/ (accessed September 5, 2022).

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Jain leaders. His location in Delhi left his mark on prominent Indian politicians who often accepted his requests or suggestions for Jainism or Jains. The information in this chapter is based on my translation of portions from Jain (2003), Jain (2010, 2012, 2013), Jain (2019), Prajñ¯amat¯ı (2005), and Premi (1969).

Birth and Childhood He was born and named Surendra Kumar in Shedbal, Belagavi district, Karnataka, on April 22, 1925. The village had devout Jain families in addition to 13 Brahmin and 500 Kshatriya families with four Jain temples. His parents were Kalappa and Sarasvati Upadhye. Coming from a family of farmers,2 he respected agriculture as crucial for India’s food sovereignty and as a representative of rural Indian culture (Premi 1969:14). He enjoyed playing and swimming in the local rivers as a young boy. His father studied Jain philosophy at Sy¯adv¯ada Mah¯avidy¯alaya, a renowned Jain institution in Varanasi (Premi 1969:9). He went to different schools in Maharashtra ´ antis¯agar Jain School in the Marathi and Karnataka. Later, he joined the local S¯ ´ medium named after S¯antis¯agar, the pioneering Digambara ascetic born in the same district, as we saw in an earlier chapter. Here, he developed well in different subjects and humanistic qualities. At nine, a Jain ascetic visited his village and blessed the young boy with his first introduction to the Jain ascetic life. After completing his formal education, he started working at a weapon manufacturing factory in Pune. He was uncomfortable working in such a violence-promoting industry, so he quit his first job within a year. He was impressed by the film Sans¯ar and thought of working in films but ended up joining a biscuit manufacturing company (Jain 2010:23). He was not satisfied with this job and was instead influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s Quit India Movement against the British Raj. Soon, he quit his job and moved back to his village, where he replaced the British flag with the Indian tricolor flag in the middle of his town. When the police started searching for him, he escaped the village and moved to Kittur, where he began working at a sugar factory disguised as a Sikh man. From Kittur, he moved to Ainapur with another family. At Ainapur, Surendra started becoming detached from worldly affairs, which later led to his renunciation and joining the Digambara ascetic order. Here, he began studying the books written ¯ arya Kunthus¯agar, who was born there. by a Digambara ascetic, Ach¯ However, Surendra had to move back to his parental home to treat Typhoid. Surendra pledged to become a Jain ascetic dedicated to spirituality and patriotism and soon recovered from his sickness. Coincidentally, within the next year, in 1946, ¯ arya Mah¯av¯ırak¯ırti visited his village for his rainy season retreat. After some days Ach¯ ¯ arya, Surendra requested initiation into the ascetic life. of discussions with the Ach¯ ¯ arya asked him to seek permission from Looking at Surendra’s early age of 21, Ach¯ ¯ his parents. As Ach¯arya was about to leave his village, Surendra followed him and 2

Although farming is not a prestigious profession for most Jains, those in southern and central parts of India depend on it for their sustenance (Dundas 2002:191).

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finally took the initiation as a novice monk ks.ullak P¯ar´svak¯ırti in 1946 (who uses two pieces of clothes as noted in an earlier chapter). He also managed his Alma Mater for ´ antis¯agar Jain School. He spent around 17 years as a ks.ullak the next seven years, the S¯ ¯ arya S¯ ´ antis¯agar, in 1955, just before (Jain 2013:130) and took the blessing from Ach¯ the latter’s death, who encouraged him to become a fully naked Digambara monk. In 1957, he spent his rainy season retreat at Humcha, an ancient Jain pilgrimage village in Karnataka, where he rejuvenated the community by reorganizing the library and other facilities. Impressed by his abilities, he was offered an authoritative position that he did not accept and continued his path to becoming a full-fledged Digambara monk. His next annual retreat was at Sujangarh, a town in Rajasthan, where he studied literature in Hindi and other languages. Although his native languages were Marathi and Kannada, he supported Hindi as India’s national language (Premi 1969:22). He facilitated one of the earliest conferences in which he and other ascetics and scholars from North and South India delivered lectures. He visited the state of Odisha, where he learned the Brahmi script and read the ancient Brahmi inscriptions in the ancient Jain caves. He concluded that Bh¯arat, India’s original name, was chosen based on ¯ atha. He moved to Kolkata in the Bharat, the son of the first Jain fordmaker Adin¯ 1959, studying intensely at the National Library. His following annual retreats were at Belagavi and Shivamogga (the last one in 1962 before becoming a full-fledged monk) in Karnataka, his home state. He delivered lectures on Samays¯ar for months, attended by thousands of devotees (Jain 2010:32).

Becoming and Being a Jain Monk ¯ arya De´sabh¯us.an.a initiated him in 1963 in Delhi as a full-fledged ascetic Ach¯ Vidy¯anand after multiple requests. Although he initially hesitated to give a discourse, he started sermonizing during his first rainy season retreat in Jaipur in 1964. Soon, the governor, chief minister, journalists, professors, and other state intellectuals became his regular listeners. Thousands attended his weekly discourses (Jain 2019:44). Notably, the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly speaker became his ardent follower (Premi 1969:29). He also played a crucial role in integrating the Jain refugees in Jaipur who migrated from Pakistan. He delivered discourses on various Hindu and Jain topics to huge gatherings at different avenues in Jaipur, including the Central Jail. Impressed by his comprehensive knowledge, the local media named him Moving University Muni Vidy¯anand. Rajasthan’s Chief Minister appointed two secret service officers who used to accompany Vidy¯anand for security (Jain 2012:13). In 1965, he visited Firozabad, a town in Uttar Pradesh, for his rainy season retreat. Later, in Agra, Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs outnumbered Jains in attending his daily discourses (Jain 2013:132). In 1966, he spent the rainy season retreat in Delhi. A prominent community leader Shanti Prasad Sahu requested his help in fundraising for the renovation of the famous Jain pilgrimage town Sammed Shikharji in Bihar. Upon his announcement, hundreds of people lined up to donate to this project, which soon started with this generous support. On Mahatma Gandhi’s birthday on October

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2nd, at Jain Youth Group’s request, he spoke on Gandhian Philosophy at a large venue where the wife of ex-Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri also attended the program. He inspired the first-ever recording and production of Jain spiritual music after he encountered film music played before his discourse at Mahavirji in Rajasthan. The recorded religious music and a part of his speech were played on All India Radio, the Indian national radio station, a first for a Jain ascetic. He also encouraged editing some ancient Jain texts on music (Premi 1969:13). His next rainy season retreat occurred at Meerut in 1967, Uttar Pradesh. When a so-called low-caste woman met him there, he asked the Jain community to respect and serve all oppressed people, following Gandhian ideals (Premi 1969:14). His four-month stay helped unify the Jain community there. Non-Jains also attended his more than 90 discourses, later published by a local Jain. He remained a champion of unity among different sects of Jainism and rejected a proposal to outcaste K¯anj¯ı Sv¯am¯ı that was signed by other ascetics and scholars (Bharill 2005). In Meerut, he also spoke on the Bhagavad G¯ıt¯a on the birth anniversary of Bhagavad G¯ıt¯a, celebrated in December (Premi 1969:33). Similarly, in 1969, his rainy season retreat occurred in Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, the first for a Jain ascetic. From 1970 to 1975, he facilitated honoring 25 scholars of musical traditions in Jainism. From Saharanpur, he started marching toward the Himalayas on May 7, 1970. His entire route was well-managed by Jain laypeople. His caravan walked dozens of miles across the high Himalayan terrain amid the dangers of wildfires and wildlife for 197 days. He became the first Digambara monk to deliver discourses at Haridwar, where he stayed for five days (Premi 1969:60). He also lectured in Rishikesh and Dehradun (Premi 1969:63–70). He was wellreceived at Badrinath, another first to his credit. After giving speeches for some days, he marched toward the village Mana, located at the India-Tibet border. After visiting other nearby Himalayan peaks, he walked toward Pauri Garhwal, where he spent his rainy season retreat in 1970. Being the first-ever Digambara monk in the Himalayan region, he renovated a Jain temple and inspired the construction of a guesthouse for pilgrims there. A group of Jains from Indore visited and invited him to their city for his next rainy season retreat. He accepted the invitation and spent four months there for his 1971 rainy season retreat. From Gwalior to Indore, he avoided taking a stopover where it was later known that a violent incident had happened. He successfully foresaw that accident and saved lives. During the 1971 Indore retreat, more than 100,000 Jains and non-Jains listened to his discourses. For his next retreat in 1972, he visited Mahavirji, where he met Hindi author Virendra Kumar Jain, the author of the novel Muktidoot. He inspired this author to draft a new book based on Mah¯av¯ıra’s life. This meeting led to the Hindi novel Anuttara Yogi Tirthankara Mah¯av¯ıra, published during the celebration of the 2500th anniversary of Mah¯av¯ıra’s Nirvana.

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Planning and Celebrating the 2500th Anniversary of Mah¯av¯ıra’s Nirvana His 1973 retreat happened in Meerut, where planning to celebrate the 2500th anniversary of Mah¯av¯ıra’s Nirvana progressed further. An old dispute between the Digam´ ambaras about Hastin¯apur, a pilgrim town, was also resolved here. As baras and Svet¯ part of the celebration in 1974, he inspired the Jain community to construct a new center in New Delhi named Kundkund Bharati. Fifteen prominent scholars were honored as part of this celebration. During this period, prominent Jain leaders from all the sects came together and chose one emblem, one flag, and one book, Saman.a Suttam, as an ecumenical exercise. Thousands of people, including Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, took part in the processions as part of the anniversary celebrations in New Delhi. During another massive ceremony, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi spoke briefly, promoting nonviolence and non-accumulation based on Mah¯av¯ıra’s teachings. ¯ arya De´sabh¯us.an.a honored him with the title On December 8, 1974, Ach¯ Up¯adhy¯aya, making him the first Digambara monk to receive this title in the twentieth century. In 1976, he released the recordings of Digambara texts. He edited, composed, and published these texts in 1977–78. In 1978, as he was about to start marching toward Karnataka, ex-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi visited him. In 1978, ¯ arya) in New Delhi. In 1978, he was honored with the title Ail¯ach¯arya (junior Ach¯ in his presence, Prime Minister Morarji Desai inaugurated the Mah¯av¯ıra Memorial in New Delhi. In 1979, Indore became the place for his rainy season retreat for the second time, where he was honored with the title Siddh¯anta Chakravart¯ı (Emperor of Doctrine). He also delivered a lecture on Jain Law and Hindu Law to about 400 lawyers and judges at the Madhya Pradesh High Court Bar Association (Prajñ¯amat¯ı 2005). During his Mumbai visit in 1980, he delivered discourses for six days attended by thousands of people. He also blessed a retired Sikh military man who embraced nonviolence and vegetarianism. From Mumbai, he went to Pune and Kolhapur and addressed large gatherings at both places. In Kolhapur, he spoke at a Hindu goddess temple and delivered a Marathi lecture on Shivaji’s contribution to Indian politics. Both these events were the first such events for any Jain ascetic. In 1980, as he entered his home state of Karnataka, he was royally welcomed by the then Chief Minister and prominent Jain leaders in Belagavi. Here, he delivered discourses for seven days to large crowds. After walking for about 3000 km for almost 20 months, he finally arrived at Shravanabelagola, where more than 30,000 devotees received him for his rainy season retreat. In 1981, he led the celebrations for the 1000th anniversary of the Bahubali image in the presence of dignitaries and about one million people (Prajñ¯amat¯ı 2005). He led the planning for this event for almost eight years and invited Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to the event. She sanctioned 120 million rupees for that grand ceremony and attended it in person. In her address, she recalled her first visit there with her father. Socioeconomic projects were also launched for the overall development of the surrounding area. Thousands of local people benefitted from the donations of sewing machines, cattle, and coconut

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trees that helped them improve their economic condition. Schools, hospitals, and guesthouses were also established to help locals and pilgrims (Jain 2013:151). From here, he moved to Dharmasthala, where a similar but smaller image of Bahubali was installed under his guidance, and a Kannada translation of Saman.a Suttam was released. Then, at Moodabidri, he facilitated the establishment of a new guesthouse and research center for Jainism. An ancient Jain temple was also renovated here. His 1982 retreat happened at Kothali village in Belagavi district, where he delivered 101 discourses to the packed halls. He also performed the Sallekhan¯a ¯ rites for Aryik¯ a Ratnamati, a Digambara nun. After Karnataka, he returned to Maharashtra in 1982. He encountered bitter conflict at Kumbhoj, near Kolhapur, where the Digambara community has a long history. Still, political forces were trying to usurp the Jain sacred land, so he fasted for weeks and convinced the Central Government to intervene for justice. The dispute continued for at least till 2014.3 In 1985, he was in Indore, where the community celebrated his sixtieth birthday by organizing events to promote vegetarianism nationwide. In 1986, a new Jain temple Gommatgiri was inaugurated in Indore, with more than 100,000 people in attendance from across the country. As promised to the President of India in Shravanabelagola, he started his march toward Delhi in 1986. On his way, he spent two days at Chandravad, in Uttar Pradesh, where he inspired another construction project for a new Jain temple with an image of Bahubali. His 1986 retreat happened at Kundakunda Bharati, New Delhi, where the Vice President of India also attended one of the events. Here, on ¯ arya in another vast gathering in the presence June 25, 1987, he was declared Ach¯ of dignitaries. In July 1987, he invited Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi to inaugurate Prakrit Bhavan, a new research center at the Kundakunda Bharati. In 1988, he invited Vice President to inaugurate the series of celebrations for the 2000th anniversary of Kundakunda. A new research journal Pr¯akrit Vidy¯a was started by Udaipur, where a seminar was organized on the contributions of Kundakunda. From 1993 onward, the journal was published quarterly from Kundkund Bharati, New Delhi. He led another workshop on Kundakunda at Kothali in Karnataka, which was attended by Hukamchand Bharill, a well-known Jain scholar, as noted in the previous chapter. Another prominent event was held at the Federation of Indian Chambers of ¯ arya Vidy¯anand Commerce & Industry (FICCI) in New Delhi in the presence of Ach¯ and the Indian Vice President. Similar celebrations were organized in other Indian cities. He also facilitated honoring of five Prakrit scholars in New Delhi. ¯ arya’s 1989 retreat happened in Kothali. In 1991, he returned to Madhya Ach¯ Pradesh to lead another celebration of the renovation of a grand image of 52 yards of ¯ atha at Bawangaja in the Barwani district. Dignitaries and the first fordmaker Adin¯ approximately 1 million people attended this event. In 1991, on the 27th anniversary of his ascetic initiation, the Indian Prime Minister released his Hindi book on secularism. In 1995, he inspired the start of the annual celebration of Prakrit Day to celebrate the ancient language of most Jain scriptures. In 1996, he encouraged the beginning of a new Prakrit Lecture Series at Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit 3

https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19840115-two-jain-sects-battle-over-con trol-of-bahubali-dongar-hilltop-in-maharashtra-803572-1984-01-15 (accessed Jan 12, 2021).

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University, New Delhi.4 In 1998–99, a new Prakrit department was also established ´ here. In 1995, he inspired the establishment of the All-India Saurasen¯ ı Pr¯akr.ta Parliament. In 2000, with his efforts, the University Grants Commission added Prakrit as a separate subject in the National Eligibility Test. Annual lectures of prominent scholars of Prakrit are also held with the help of an endowment of 100,000 rupees by Kundakunda Bharati. He underlined the usage and references to Prakrit words in the Sanskrit texts, such as the Vedas and the texts written by K¯alid¯asa and Bh¯asa. Kundakunda Bharati has published dozens of Prakrit texts, including the textbooks used at Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University. Kundakunda Bharati also established two awards in 1995 for honoring Prakrit scholars. During his 1997 retreat in Jaipur, he delivered discourses on Samays¯ar as the first Digambara monk to do so. In 1998 at Mahavirji, an 11th-century Digambara image of fordmaker Mah¯av¯ıra was renovated and reinstalled with a meditation center in its basement. In 1999, in his 75th year, he took the vow of Niyama Sallekhan¯a and appealed not to name any institution in his name. In 2001, he inaugurated an image of fordmaker Mah¯av¯ıra at Ahims¯a Sthala, New Delhi. In 2004, he inspired the foundation of a grand temple at the birthplace of Mah¯av¯ıra at Vaishali in Bihar. In 2005, with his inspiration, an image of Bahubali was included in the Republic Day celebration, winning the first prize. On the 75th anniversary of the Indian Philosophy Council, a couple of sessions were held at Kundakunda Bharati. He spoke on fire-bodied beings addressing philosophers from across India and other countries. In addition to the renovation of the Jain temples noted above, he encouraged the installation or renovation of more than 50 Jain temples, including at Najafgarh, New Delhi (2006), Ranila, Haryana (2006), Dharmasthala, Karnataka (2007), and Mathura Chaurasi, Uttar Pradesh (2008). In 2010, he inaugurated the new research center Kharavela Bhavan at the Kundakunda Bharati in New Delhi. He honored Russian Professor Natalia Zheleznova, who researches and teaches Jain philosophy at Moscow State University. Professor Zheleznova was awarded half a million rupees for translating Kundakunda’s texts into Russian. In 1968, he also welcomed another scholar Y. P. Chelyshkov, the chair of oriental studies in Russia, to Meerut (Premi 1969:24). In the same year, a Buddhist monk came from Sri Lanka. He met him in Baraut (Premi 1969:46). Another Sri Lankan Buddhist monk visited him in 1969. In May 2010, the Indian government prohibited peacock feathers, traditionally used for whisks by Jain ascetics. Upon hearing this news, his foreign followers rushed the white peacock feathers for him, and since then, he has been known as ¯ arya with white peacock feathers even after the Indian government lifted the Ach¯ the ban. He published over 50 Jain history, philosophy, and religion books in Hindi and other Indian languages. His discourses are compiled in five volumes. He has also published various articles in research journals and other periodicals. With his inspiration, eighteen new Digambara temples have been inaugurated across India, 4

From 1996 onward, Prakrit was included in the Presidential Awards, along with other classical languages of India. However, the Indian government has declared only seven languages, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, and Odia, as the classical languages of India (Prakrit is not included).

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including installing and renovating grand images of Jain fordmakers and liberated beings. On July 30, 2017, he gave his last public discourse, and on September 18, 2019, he took the Yama Sallekhan¯a vow and renounced the intake of food and water, preparing for his ritual death. He passed away peacefully on September 22, 2019, in New Delhi.

Saman.a Suttam He represented the Digambara community for the seminal text Saman.a Suttam in 1974, a book published and supported by different Jain sects. This ecumenical book was based on selected verses from more than 30 ancient Jain scriptures with extensive consultation and collaboration among Jain scholars and ascetics.

His Views on Jain Emblem and Flag The Jain flag is rectangular in a ratio of 32, with five horizontal sections of red, yellow, white, green, and blue, with the saffron swastika in the center. The white part is double of other components. The five sections represent the five groups of spiritual beings that all Jains revere—liberated ones (white area), enlightened ones (red area), heads of congregations (yellow section), teachers (green section), and ascetics (blue section). The five areas also represent the Jain vows—white representing nonviolence, red representing truth, yellow representing non-stealing, green representing celibacy, and blue representing non-accumulation. The Swastika depicts the four potential states of a soul as a human, god, demon, or tiryancha (plants, animals, or insects). Archeologists have found this symbol in Indus Valley Civilization.5 Three dots on top of Swastika represent Jainism’s three jewels, i.e., right faith, knowledge, and practice (Dundas 2002:20). The crescent (with a single dot) above the three dots represents the liberated state of Moks.a at the edge of the universe. A similar design of the Swastika, three dots, and crescent are adopted in the Jain emblem. The symbol also has a palm below the Swastika that represents fearlessness. The wheel inside the palm represents the dharma set in motion by the first fordmaker of the present time cycle. The wheel’s center represents the right faith, its 24 spokes represent the 24 fordmakers, its axis represents the five vows, and its base represents penance. The center of this wheel has the holy symbol Aum representing the five revered figures mentioned above. These symbols are enclosed in the Jain universe symbol now widely recognized, resembling a standing human posture. Under this emblem, there is a verse denoting all beings’ interdependency in the universe—Parasparopagraho Jiv¯an¯am (Vidy¯anand 2010:7–12). 5

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/swastika/ swastika.html (accessed Jan 2, 2021).

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His Austere Practices As is typical for Digambara monks, he used to have only one meal daily, not even water afterward. He used to practice silence and meditation for hours. However, he was not known to force laypeople to practice any austerity. He rejected conservative ideas and welcomed scientific accomplishments such as the human landing on the moon in 1969 (Premi 1963:14).

His Views on Meditation According to K¯artikey¯anupreksh¯a (468) and Tattv¯arthas¯utra (9.27), mental concentration for a long duration can be referred to as meditation. While the auspicious meditation is based on universal benevolence, the inauspicious one involves evil.

Conclusion He would long be remembered as one of the most influential Digambara Jain saints in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. I felt his prominent presence at Kundakunda Bharati, in New Delhi, during my visit in December 2019.

6

https://jainpuja.com/jain-puja/JainSymbol.aspx (accessed Dec 1, 2021).

Chapter 8

M¯at¯a Jñ¯anamat¯ı

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8 M¯at¯a Jñ¯anamat¯ı

Introduction On April 5, 2021, just between the two waves of COVID-19 in India, I got a chance to be in New Delhi to meet M¯at¯a Jñ¯anamat¯ı, one of the most revered female ascetics in the Digambara Jain sect and founder of a Jain pilgrim center in Hastin¯apur, Uttar Pradesh (Balbir 1990). Her volunteers asked me to visit a prominent Jain temple, Shree Agrawal Digambara Jain Mandir, near Connaught Place in New Delhi. I soon saw her with her other nuns and volunteers who were getting ready for her live discourse on one of the Indian religious television channels. After her broadcast, I bowed down to her and received the blessings. This chapter is based on my translations from Chandanamati (2003, 2004, 2006, 2010), Jain (2006), and most importantly, her memoirs Meri Smr.itiy¯an (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006).

Birth and Adolescence On October 22, 1934, she was born in the small village Tikait Nagar in Barabanki (Uttar Pradesh, India). She was the first-born child to her parents, Chhotelal and Mohinidevi Jain, and was named Maina. She started reading the Sanskrit text Padm¯anandi Panchavin´sati, her mother’s wedding gift. In her memoirs, Meri Smr.itiy¯an, she recollected instances in which she criticized rituals that strengthened blind faith in her neighborhood. Once, she watched a play Akalank Nikalank, performed by local boys. One of the play lines alluded to the worldly life as dirt to be avoided rather than getting unclean with it and washing it later. She also recalled her well-received performance in the local Jain school as noticed by her teachers, who used to teach the Digambara texts such as Chahdh¯al¯a. Although all the girls were removed from the school soon, she continued to study different Digambara books at home while helping with household chores, being the oldest child in other children’s families. She recalled that various diseases affecting her siblings and mistreating local animals troubled her. She read another Jain text, Jambusv¯ami Charit, and was further inspired to renounce worldly life. Her parents and other elders in the neighborhood tried their best to dissuade her from taking that extreme step. She also became the first female in her town to conduct rituals at the local Jain temple using the prescribed Jain texts. ¯ arya De´sabh¯us.an.a visited her village. When she tried joining his congreOnce Ach¯ gation, her family did not let it happen. Eventually, around the age of 18, she left her ¯ arya De´sabh¯us.an.a stayed for his annual home and moved to Barabanki, where Ach¯ rainy season retreat. After persuasion, her mother gave her permission for celibacy initiation in 1952, on her 18th birthday. Another widow also obtained a similar initiation and joined the same congregation soon. After his retreat, he led the community toward Lucknow and Mahavirji, where she took the initiation as a K´sulik¯a, ¯ arya. For her first retreat as a nun, the nun-under-training, also from the same Ach¯ congregation moved to her village Tikait Nagar for the annual rainy season retreat

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in 1953. Their next retreat occurred in Jaipur in 1954, where she learned Sanskrit ´ antis¯agar took Sallekhan¯a, she visited the grammar. When she heard that Ach¯arya S¯ village where he spent his last few days. When she asked him for the initiation, he ¯ directed her to approach his senior-most disciple Virs¯agar, who initiated her as Aryik¯ a Jñ¯anamat¯ı in 1956 at Madhorajpura in Rajasthan. Her first rainy season retreat as a fully ordained nun with the congregation occurred at Khaniya, Jaipur. In the summer of 1958, the community decided to make a pilgrimage to Girnar in Gujarat. Walking for almost 15 miles daily across the harsh terrain in the scorching weather caused severe health issues for her, but she avoided taking any medicines till 1959. Even after trying Ayurvedic treatments, the disease continued for her entire life in some form or another. In Ladnun, during the installation ceremony of a new Jain temple, she shared references from Jain texts prohibiting low-caste entry and some other classes of people to the Jain temples (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006, pp. 123, 126, 154). In Ladnun, she defended Digambara rituals when certain Terapanthi Digambara people started criticizing the usage of ritual materials such as flowers and fire (Cort 2002) (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006, p. 123). She also responded to similar criticism in Agra on her pilgrimage to ¯ Shikharji in 1962 (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006, p. 147). She also asserted that female nun Aryik¯ a is equally respectable to a Digambara monk by quoting various verses from Digambara texts (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006, p. 180). She also repeatedly debated with K¯anji Sv¯am¯ı’s followers (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006, p. 184). She converted non-Jains to Jainism (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006, p. 185). She defended women performing rituals in the Jain temples’ images (Jñ¯anamat¯ı 2006, p. 362). In sum, she asserted her leadership on various controversial issues.

Five-Year March Across India In December 1962, she left her leader’s congregation and started her long pilgrimage toward Shikharji, Bihar, from Nawa, Rajasthan. She visited Mahavirji in Rajasthan and towns in Uttar Pradesh, such as Mathura, Ayodhya, and Varanasi. In Bihar, she saw Champapuri, Rajgir, Kundalpur, and Pawapuri before reaching Shikharji in 1963. After staying in Kolkata for the rainy season retreat, she returned to Shikharji in 1964. Later, she visited Khandagiri and Udayagiri in the state of Odisha. In 1965, she visited Shravanabelagola in Karnataka, where she stayed for one year. In 1966, she visited other holy towns in Karnataka, such as Moodabidri, Karkala, Venur, Humcha, Dharmasthala, Kundadri, and Babanagar. Afterward, she came to Solapur in Maharashtra, where she stayed for her rainy season retreat. Then, she visited Kunthalgiri, Ter, Paithan, Kachner, Aurangabad, Ellora, Gajpantha, Mangitungi, Barwani, and Una. In Madhya Pradesh, she visited Sanawad and Indore and returned to her leader, the Shivs¯agar congregation in Rajasthan. Her annual retreats in this journey were at Kolkata in 1963, Hyderabad in 1964, Shravanabelagola in 1965, Solapur in 1966, and Sanawad in 1967.

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In 1971, her mother accepted the initiation for her ascetic life in Ajmer. In her new role, she became the pioneering Jain female ascetic to teach Jain texts to students and colleagues. She translated the grammar text K¯atantra Rupam¯al¯a from Sanskrit to Hindi and developed competency in Indian languages such as Hindi, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Marathi, and Kannada. From 1969–70, she was widely recognized for her translation of the authoritative logic text As.tasahasri. Her literary contribution includes over 250 texts in different languages, including original texts in fiction and non-fiction and some translations and commentaries. In addition to intellectual and philosophical themes, she has also contributed to her work’s devotional genre. She is honored with the title Siddh¯anta Chakre´svari for her multi-volume monumental work Siddh¯anta Chint¯aman.i. She organized an educational camp in 1969 in Jaipur on Jain Geography and Jain Cosmology. In October 1978, she organized seminars with more than 100 scholars at Hastin¯apur. In 1985, she organized an international Jain Mathematics and Cosmology conference at Hastin¯apur. In 1992, she noticed various textbooks mentioning the 24th fordmaker Mah¯av¯ıra as the “founder” of Jainism and worked with NCERT1 and other education ministries to rectify such mistakes. On February 5, 1995, Avadh University recognized her scholarly contributions and honored her with D. Litt. Degree, a first to a Digambara Jain ascetic. In 1998, she organized a conference of vice-chancellors of various Indian universities to apprise Jainism’s contributions to Indian culture. On June 11, 2000, she held a seminar with historians to improve Jainism’s portrayal in Indian textbooks published by the NCERT. She also led various construction and renovation projects at famous Jain pilgrimage places. In the 1970s, she designed and developed a Jain cosmological ´ antin¯atha, museum Jambudv¯ıpa, at Hastin¯apur, the birthplace of Jain fordmakers, S¯ Kuntun¯atha, and Arahn¯atha, that is recognized by the state government as well. Similarly, from 1993 to 95, she developed various Jain temples in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. She also inspired similar construction activities at Akluj, Shirdi, and Mangi Tungi (Maharashtra), Sanawad (Madhya Pradesh), Ahichchhatra, and Prayag (Uttar Pradesh), Kundalpur (Bihar), and New Delhi. In 2016, she received the Guinness world record certificate for having inspired the construction of the tallest Jain statue in the world, the Statue of Ahimsa.2 Digambara Jain Institute of Cosmographic Research, established with her encouragement in 1972, has managed these construction projects. This organization has also published thousands of books and a magazine, Samyakgy¯an, launched in 1974. In 1982, with inspiration from her, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi inaugurated a Jain flame that spread Jainism’s message across India for three years and was finally established permanently at Hastin¯apur. In 1998, then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee inaugurated a Jain tour from New Delhi that traveled across India and culminated in Prayag establishing another Jain center.

1

Central government’s national agency: National Council of Educational Research and Training. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/108-ft-tall-jain-teerthankar-idol-enters-guinness-records-128 4799 (accessed Jan 2, 2021). 2

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She is a regular preacher on various Indian religious channels, such as Aastha and Sanskar. She has also been the inspiration for an organization for Jain women that has branches across India.

Part III

The Svetambaras

Chapter 9

¯ arya Hast¯ımal Ach¯

Introduction ¯ arya Hast¯ımal is one of the most glaring omissions in the English literature on Ach¯ Jainism. In addition to his strict penance, he was the pioneering historian of Jainism with his several monographs and other volumes. I heard his fleeting references from family and friends growing up in Rajasthan. Researching his life and works has taken me back to my roots, as much of his territory was the towns where I grew up in India. For this chapter, I translated portions from Bhanawat (1992), Karnavat (1995), Jain (2003), and Muni et al. (2001). Flügel (2002) was also helpful.

Birth and Adolescence He was born on January 13, 1911, in Pipar town in Jodhpur district in Rajasthan, to Kevalchand and R¯upkanwar Bohr¯a. He was named after the elephant in his pregnant mother’s dream, as we noted in similar dreams in the births of other legendary people. Just before his birth, his father died due to a severe plague epidemic. In the next seven years, this epidemic took away more family members (Bhanawat 1992: 98). Both he and his mother started detaching from worldly life in such a catastrophic environment. His mother’s aunt and sister-in-law had already renounced the householder’s life to become nuns. The child Hast¯ımal turned five and was sent to the nearby school, where he performed well in mathematics and languages. He also learned Jain rituals from his mother and other elders in the town. In his diary, incidents from adolescence demonstrate his compassion and leadership (Jain 2003:84). ¯ arya Shobh¯achandra who was In 1916, a Jain nun Dhanakunvar, a disciple of Ach¯ the sixth leader of the Sth¯anakav¯asi Ratna congregation, visited Pipar for her annual rainy season retreat. Hast¯ımal and his mother took full advantage of this opportunity and regularly listened to her discourses. These visits further strengthened renuncia¯ arya Shobh¯achandra also visited Pipar, tory zeal in both. After the rainy season, Ach¯ © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1_9

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and both mother and son regularly followed him. The following year in 1917, the plague fell upon his maternal grandfather’s home and killed more people. Hast¯ımal, at the tender age of seven, saw his grandfather and all the other relatives succumbing to this epidemic. The local government took over their wealth and property, and this calamity further influenced Hast¯ımal and his mother. Next, his paternal grandmother died, who performed the Jain ritual of Sallekhan¯a and willingly welcomed death. Now Hast¯ımal and his mother were left alone. Child Hast¯ımal started selling grocery items in the surrounding areas, but his mother wanted him to continue his studies. Upon her suggestion, he sold all the existing stock from their shop, giving them enough sustaining money. After these disasters, more nuns and monks from the congregation ¯ arya Shobh¯achandra continued coming to Pipar, further spiritually influencing of Ach¯ Hast¯ımal and his mother. Hast¯ımal turned eight, and his mother expressed her desire to become a nun, which Hast¯ımal readily approved. They were soon transferred to ¯ arya Shobh¯achandra during his Ajmer for further spiritual studies as advised by Ach¯ visit to Pipar.

His Monastic Life In Ajmer, Hast¯ımal learned Hindi and Sanskrit from Pan.d.it R¯amachandra. He renounced raw water and started practicing other Jain practices when he met Sv¯ami Harakhchand there. Sv¯ami also taught him about Jain scriptures. Soon, Hast¯ımal ¯ arya memorized hymns and other texts. When Hast¯ımal and his mother requested Ach¯ Shobh¯achandra to initiate monastic life, their relatives refused to approve. Therefore, his mother permitted Hast¯ımal, and her younger brother-in-law reluctantly allowed the mother. In 1921, he, his mother, and two more people took the monastic initiation ¯ arya Shobh¯achandra in Ajmer. Although commuand became the disciples of Ach¯ nity members disapproved of a young child’s initiation, most of the community celebrated this occasion of four initiations, including a mother and her ten-year-old child (Jain 2003:34). Hast¯ımal continued his education with Pan.d.it R¯amachandra after becoming a monk. Pan.d.it Dukhmochan Jha also started teaching him during his first four-month rainy season retreat in Ajmer. From here, he marched on foot, as all Jain ascetics do, toward Jodhpur via Merta, Bikaner, Nagaur, and Bhopalgarh, a harsh terrain across the Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert. He arrived in Jodhpur in 1922, where three more women became nuns. After that, ¯ arya Shobh¯achandra decided to permanently stay in Jodhpur due to his poor Ach¯ health and old age. Hast¯ımal and two other ascetics stayed there for five years and continued their education with Pan.d.it Dukhmochan Jh¯a and Pan.d.it Sacchid¯anand. The latter made a sarcastic remark disparaging Jain ascetics’ knowledge compared to Hindu Brahmin children, motivating Hast¯ımal to become a resolute scholar (Karnavat and Bhandari 1995). He continued studying Sanskrit and Prakrit texts and soon became an expert. His sharp intellect was recognized by his guru and others when Hast¯ımal delivered his first sermon. Once his guru was in Jodhpur, a lay follower requested him to send his

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disciple Hast¯ımal to deliver a discourse. Shobh¯achandra politely declined and stated that the guru is currently benefiting from his disciple! In 1926, Shobh¯achandra took the Sallekhan¯a and passed away peacefully in Jodhpur, his birthplace. Afterward, ¯ arya, he asked for when the Jain community tried to appoint Hast¯ımal as the next Ach¯ five years in which other senior ascetics functioned as his counselors. From Jodhpur, he marched to Nagaur, Pali, then moved to Pipar, his birthplace, for the annual fourmonth rainy season retreat in 1927. His following retreats were at Kishangarh and Bhopalgarh in 1928 and 1929. ¯ arya of the In 1930, Hast¯ımal, even before turning 20, became the seventh Ach¯ Ratna congregation in Jodhpur, setting a record for the youngest person to become ¯ arya (Bhanawat 1992:52). Hemacandra S¯ur¯ı, in the 12th c. CE is another example Ach¯ ¯ arya at such an early age. After becoming Ach¯ ¯ arya, of somebody becoming Ach¯ his first four-month rainy season retreat was in Jaipur in the same year, where he marched via Pipar, Ajmer, and Kishangarh. Throughout his way and in Jaipur, thou¯ arya Hast¯ımal. During his retreat in Jaipur, sands came to listen to the young Ach¯ he studied contemporary journals and books and learned Urdu and English. After Jaipur, he started his march toward Southeastern Rajasthan’s cities such as Tonk, Bundi, and Kota. From there into the neighboring state of Madhya Pradesh, where he spent his next rainy season retreat at Rampura in 1931. Afterward, he marched through extremely tough terrain and reached Sailana, Ratlam, and Indore, where he gave initiation to his first monk disciple. He spent his next retreat in Ratlam in 1932. Inspired by the library with excellent Jain texts here, Hast¯ımal inspired establishing a similar library in Jodhpur. In 1933, a conference was held in Ajmer, to which all Sth¯anakav¯asi subsects were invited. Hast¯ımal also participated in the conference that ran for two weeks with 238 monks, 40 nuns, and 50,000 laypeople representing 26 subsects. After this conference, his next retreat was set for Jodhpur ¯ ar¯am. Both marched together from Ajmer to with another Sth¯anakav¯asi monk Atm¯ Jodhpur. Hast¯ımal’s next retreats were held at his birthplace Pipar in 1934, Pali in 1935, Jaipur in 1936, and Udaipur in 1937. Hast¯ımal avoided meeting the ruler in Udaipur and demonstrated his detachment from worldly affairs. From Udaipur, he started marching toward Maharashtra, once again walking across tough and unknown terrain full of high mountains, dense forests, and very few Jain families along the way. His next retreat was set for Anand in 1938, where 500 Jain and other nonJain families benefited from his discourses for four months. From here, he marched ´ ıgonda. At Sr¯ ´ ıgonda, he inspired one of the 70 Jain families to toward Pune via Sr¯ stop killing animals and close the slaughterhouse. In Pune, about 150 Sth¯anakav¯asi families were reenergized by Hast¯ımal’s arrival. He accepted the invitation to the next retreat at Satara in 1939, where 15 Sth¯anakav¯asi and 80 Hindu families hosted him. Others from nearby towns in Maharashtra and Karnataka also came to Satara and took Hast¯ımal’s discourses’ spiritual benefit. August 8 was celebrated as a nonviolent day on which even Muslims and the fishing community stopped consuming meat or seafood. His second disciple took initiation here, whose ceremony was attended by hundreds of people from Maharashtra’s nearby towns and Rajasthan. After Satara’s retreat, he accepted the invitation to visit Karnataka and marched to Solapur, Vijayapura, and Bagalkote. In Bagalkote, he established Sth¯anakav¯asi Jain Assembly. In

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1940, Karnataka came under the plague epidemic, but Hast¯ımal continued his march and visited Raichur, where he provided solace to people suffering from the disease. People renounced meat, fish, and alcohol because of Hast¯ımal’s discourses. The trading community, both Jains and non-Jains, decided not to open their shops before 9 am till Hast¯ımal stayed there to benefit his discourses in the morning. From here, he marched to Kalaburagi and then back to Solapur, Maharashtra, with a night’s halt under a tree in the forest on the way. In Solapur, Digambara Jains also hosted him. His next rainy season retreat took place in Anand, where he completed his editing, researching, and translating Nandi Sutra, which was soon published. Afterward, he visited Mumbai, Nashik, and Lasalgaon, where he spent four months for the rainy season retreat. At Lasalgaon, the decision to launch a new journal was taken, and in 1943, Jinav¯an.¯ı was started in Bhopalgarh. It is from Jaipur and has published various special issues focusing on Jainism’s assorted topics. In 1944, his next retreat was held at Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh. Afterward, he visited Indore, marched toward Udaipur, and then to Jaipur, where his next retreat was held. After that, he reached Jodhpur, where the next retreat was held in 1945. During that retreat, a girls’ school was established there. The next retreat occurred in Bhopalgarh, where he continued working on more Jain texts. From there, he marched to Jaipur and then stayed at Ajmer for his next retreat in 1947, around the same time when India gained its independence. ¯ aryas. The next retreat Here, Dukhmochan Jha completed the biographies of Jain Ach¯ took place in Beawar in 1948. He arrived at Ajmer, where he accepted two junior monks back into his congregation after their forgiveness and repentance rites were over. He accepted two more ex-monks from Punjab and initiated both as monks in his congregation. His next retreats happened in Pali (1949), Pipar (1950), and Merta (1951). In 1952, he attended the second conference in Sadri, where 54 ascetics from 22 Sth¯anakav¯asi subsects participated. About 35,000 laypeople were also present there. Hast¯ımal represented his Ratna congregation of eight monks and 33 nuns with another monk. All the 22 subsects merged and created a larger congregation Vardham¯ana Sth¯anakav¯asi Jain Shr¯avaka Sangh, with Hast¯ımal as one of the leaders. After this conference, he arrived at Jodhpur, where he met another image-worshiping Jain monk Pun.yavijaya who showed microfilms of ancient Jain manuscripts. With Hast¯ımal’s inspiration, three Jain libraries were established in Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Jalgaon, Maharashtra. In January 1953, the next meeting of Sth¯anakav¯asi ascetics took place in Sojat, where 14 monks participated. Hast¯ımal was designated as the coordinator for Rajasthan’s Marwar and Gorwar areas. 1953 retreat took place in Jodhpur with five other congregation leaders. Jaipur was the destination for his next retreat in 1954. Scholars occasionally attended his discourses, e.g., Professor Lothar Wendel1 came during the retreat in Jaipur and received the English translations of some of the books by Hast¯ımal. The then Chief Minister of Rajasthan, Mohan Lal Sukhadia, and other cabinet ministers also listened to Hast¯ımal on November 17, 1954 (Jain 2003:108). Ajmer became the destination for his next retreat in 1955. In 1956, the next conference of 22 subsects was held in Bhinasar, where 135 monks 1

https://jainismberlin.wordpress.com/author/jainismberlin/ (accessed Jan 20, 2021). This webpage shows his research interest in Jainism.

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and 147 nuns participated, and important decisions were unanimously taken, further strengthening the Sth¯anakav¯asi unity. In 1956 and 1957, Hast¯ımal chose Bikaner and Kishangarh for his next rainy season retreats. He played a key role in ensuring that the entire Sth¯anakav¯asi community celebrates Sam . vatsari, an important annual Jain festival of asking forgiveness, on the same date as a unified congregation. At one of his discourses during his next rainy season retreat in Delhi, a Hungarian scholar of Buddhism visited him and discussed the Jain philosophy of Sy¯adv¯ada and intellectual nonviolence. During his next retreat in Jaipur in 1959, he systematized a group of laypeople to annually visit different areas to conduct Jain rituals to spread Jainism everywhere and inspire the study of Jain scriptures. As he turned 50, he pledged to make 50 disciples. This tradition continued, and he made 51 more disciples on his 51st birthday. During the same retreat in Jaipur, he inspired the establishment of a major Jain library containing thousands of manuscripts, pictures, books, and copper scrolls. On the birth anniversary of Mah¯av¯ıra in 1960, 108 people took pledges to renounce addictions and spread vegetarianism and Jainism. Also, in that year’s retreat in Ajmer, slaughterhouses were closed for eight days during the annual Jain festival of Paryus.an.a. People around that time also renounced hunting activities. In Jodhpur, he led a ten-day Sv¯adhy¯aya study retreat to train 71 laypeople to study and spread Jainism’s message. From Jodhpur, he marched on another challenging desert terrain to Balotra and Khandap in Rajasthan, Mandsaur, Jaora, Ratlam, Ujjain, Shujalpur, and Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, and then to Kota and Bundi in Rajasthan. He visited the Jain libraries en route. Later, he arrived at Jodhpur via Pali, where he played a crucial role in uniting two rival Jain communities. Throughout his travel, he inspired people to forget their differences and live harmoniously. People renounced animal products and addictive substances. He also preached to the laypeople to continue to study scriptures and perform the contemplation ritual of S¯am¯ayika for 48 min. For his fellow ascetics, he emphasized strict conduct according to Jain scriptures. He continued his travel in Gujarat and visited Palanpur, Patan, Khambhat, and Vadodara Jain Libraries in 1967. He stayed for his annual retreat in Ahmedabad, where he visited Jain Libraries at the L. D. Institute of Indology and Gujarat Vidyapith. From Gujarat, he returned to Udaipur in Rajasthan and saw another Jain collection there. When he turned 55 in 1965, his followers wanted to celebrate his birthday, and ¯ arya agreed on a condition that 55 people should become celibate disciples on Ach¯ that occasion. From that year, every birthday was celebrated by making more celibate disciples. His hagiographers have reminisced thousands of people breaking cigarette packs and renouncing opium in his presence. During his rainy season retreat at Kosana village in Jodhpur district, he counseled an opium addict to stop consuming it for seven days. At the end of seven days, that man returned and happily renounced it for the rest of his life. Thousands of such people quit their addictions on the ¯ arya’s guru Shobh¯achandra. On the 50th anniversary of centennial celebration of Ach¯ his initiation also, laypeople took the pledges for self-control and renounced various addictions. In 1967, he decided to break away from the unified body Vardham¯ana Sth¯anakav¯asi Jain Shr¯avaka Sangh, citing its lax standards for the conduct of ascetics.

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His Ratna congregation had remained part of this unified body for fifteen years since its founding. However, Hast¯ımal wanted to maintain stricter discipline for his community, e.g., not allowing loudspeakers for ascetics. His other senior colleagues had already left the unified body, and Hast¯ımal decided to do the same. In 1980, he marched toward Tamil Nadu via Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. His retreat in 1980 happened in Chennai. From there, he marched to Bengaluru, then to Andhra Pradesh, and then to Karnataka. His 1981 retreat happened at Raichur. From there, he went to Hyderabad and Maharashtra, where he visited the ashram of Vinoba Bhave. His next retreat happened in Jalgaon, Maharashtra. From there, he returned to Madhya Pradesh and then to Rajasthan. He continued his marches until he turned 77 (ibid 54). He initiated 85 disciples in his lifetime, including 31 monks and 54 nuns. His last rainy season retreat and his last birthday were celebrated at Pali, Rajasthan. From Pali, he proceeded to Sojat and then to Nimaj, where he passed away on April 21, 1991, after Santh¯ar¯a (Sallekhan¯a) for thirteen days. Muslims closed their slaughterhouses during those thirteen days (ibid 67). His funeral became an important event with the presence of the then Chief Minister of Rajasthan, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (ibid 60).

His Daily Routine ¯ arya Hast¯ımal had a disciplined daily routine (ibid 13). His day started an Ach¯ hour before sunrise with meditation, chanting, breathing exercises (Pr¯an.a¯ y¯ama), and Pratikraman.a, an introspection exercise done with Jain mantras. Afterward, he used to chant Jain hymns, such as Bhakt¯amar Stotra.2 After sunrise, he used to go for a long walk outside the village or town. Upon returning, he used to have a liquid breakfast with milk. Afterward, he spent much of his morning writing new books or articles about Jainism’s various aspects. After his daily writing work, he used to walk to deliver spiritual discourses. Afterward, he used to take his lunch. On most days, he used to eat only one meal a day. After lunch, he practiced silence from noon to 2 pm, including counting the rosary beads from 12 to 1 pm. In case of any delays caused due to the daily discourses, he would skip his lunch but still stick to the rest of the silence schedule. In addition to the regular two hours for silence, he kept a silence vow every Thursday and on the tenth day of the Jain calendar on which he meditated upon the 23rd fordmaker P¯ar´svan¯atha, his chosen ideal. After 2 pm, he dedicated himself to studying and teaching the sacred Jain texts. Afterward, he used to discuss spiritual topics with the public or would focus on his literary work. After the evening chores, he would take his final food or water intake of the day before sunset and walk for some time. Afterward, he used to write his daily diary. Later, he used to do his evening Pratikraman.a, an introspection exercise, in the standing

2

As Vekemans (2022) shows, Bhakt¯amar is one of the most popular Jains hymns chanted by all sects for various spiritual and materialistic benefits.

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posture, followed by chanting hymns such as Kaly¯an.a Mandir and counseling the public members. Before going to bed, he used to read the Nandi S¯utra.

Contributions and Accomplishments As the seventh leader of the Ratna congregation, he traveled on foot for over 100,000 km across the Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. He facilitated or inspired schools, libraries, hostels, hospitals, and other social, religious, and charitable organizations in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. He also inspired the establishment of study circles in these states to study Jain scriptures regularly. He ensured that none of these organizations were named after him (Bhanawat 1992:68). He avoided using loudspeakers, cameras, or modern medicines. Panegyric articles in a special issue of the journal Jinav¯an.¯ı edited by Bhanawat (1992) commemorated the incredible compassion he demonstrated in rescuing a serpent in Satara, Maharashtra, and Bairat, Rajasthan. Once on his march from Vijayapura to Bagalkote in Karnataka, he saved a goat from being sacrificed. Also, at Anantpura, Madhya Pradesh, he stopped a goat from being sacrificed. On December 25, 1984, when he was in Soorsagar town in Rajasthan, the editor of the journal Pratinidhi came to meet him. The editor asked him, “What is the best dharma?” ¯ arya Hast¯ımal responded, “Nonviolence.“ The second question was, “How far Ach¯ ¯ arya replied, “Unto every living being.“ The third does your nonviolence reach.“ Ach¯ question was, “What is your perspective toward humans? You preach nonviolence toward one-sensed beings in the water and on the earth, but what should be the Jain ¯ arya kept silent on this question perspective toward orphans left on the streets?” Ach¯ ¯ until Devendrar¯aj Meht¯a arrived there. Ach¯arya told him that he could not respond to a question by a journalist that day. Mehta promised to work on this cause and established an orphanage, B¯al Shobh¯a Gr.ha, in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, in 1987 with four orphans. By 2008, the number of children had grown to 130. Prasanna and her daughter-in-law Suman Bhandari spearhead similar centers for orphans and senior ¯ arya inspired many others to practice compassion citizens in Kota, Rajasthan.3 Ach¯ and nonviolence. ¯ arya preached based on the instances and His disciples have noted the way Ach¯ ¯ analogies from daily life. Once Ach¯arya was walking through the Ram Niwas Garden ¯ arya at Jaipur with another monk who heard a lion’s roar from the nearby zoo. Ach¯ compared that roar with the call from the soul similarly caged inside the body, crying out for freedom, occasionally seeking our attention. On another occasion, ¯ arya was at the Subodh College in Jaipur, where laborers sprinkled water on Ach¯ ¯ arya compared with the need to soften one’s the construction project’s stones. Ach¯ 3

https://www.jamnalalbajajawards.org/awards/archives/2018/women-and-child-welfare/pra sanna-bhandari (accessed Jan 10, 2021).

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ego that enables one to be molded for better spiritual development. He allowed his disciples to visit other ascetics during the rainy retreat at Bhopalgarh in Rajasthan. He also served senior ascetics in different lineages and congregations.

His Works He was a polyglot with expertise in Hindi, Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Rajasthani. He is widely known for his Ny¯aya, grammar, astrology, history, and Jain scriptures. One ¯ arya was his four-volume historiography of the most scholarly contributions by Ach¯ of Jainism from the first fordmaker to c. 1500 CE and beyond. The series ran into 3500 pages and is now translated into other languages. After publishing this set’s second volume, a devotee asked him about this project. He responded, History is like the third eye. The two eyes look ahead, but this third eye looks back at the past and guides us to the future. Without the knowledge of the past, how would we pledge to make our future glorious? The Jains have sung their glory in the past but have lost some glory over the centuries. Unless we bring forth the comparative study of good and troubled times, we cannot envision our bright future. I have prepared our history with my colleagues objectively, which would serve as a mirror. We have portrayed our accomplishments and our long history of losses so that future generations can learn from our past and strengthen us. Therefore, I say that it is essential to open this third eye. (ibid 45)

His scholarly work can be categorized into five categories: 1. Jain scriptures: He translated and wrote commentaries on Uttar¯adhyayana S¯utra, Nandi S¯utra, Pra´snavy¯akaran.a S¯utra, Anantakritada´sa¯ , Br.hatkalpa S¯utra, Da´savaik¯alika S¯utra, and Tattv¯artha S¯utra. Nandi S¯utra was his first commentary in Hindi, and Sanskrit established him as an emerging scholar at an early age. Next came his commentary in Sanskrit on Br.hatkalpa S¯utra, his exposition on Pra´snavy¯akaran.a S¯utra, and then his essay on Anantakritada´sa¯ . In his last few years, he wrote poetic commentaries on Da´savaik¯alika S¯utra and Uttar¯adhyayan S¯utra. ¯ arya 1.1. Commentary on Nandi Sutra: ¯ During World War II, in 1942, Ach¯ Hast¯ımal was in Maharashtra, and this commentary was published there in ¯ arya was merely 31 years of age at the time of its publication, and Satara. Ach¯ ¯ arya as one of the foremost scholars among the contemthis established Ach¯ porary Jain scholars and ascetics. This commentary is unique, with verbatim translations from Prakrit into Hindi and Sanskrit with detailed explanations wherever needed. The translation and analysis are based on the earlier commentaries by Haribhadra and Malayagiri. Contemporary scholars were consulted, and other articles were also referenced. This was also the first critical edition of Nandi S¯utra, as the earlier versions had discrepancies ¯ ar¯ama wrote the foreword and inconsistencies. Senior scholar-monk Atm¯ ¯ to this edition, and Ach¯arya Hast¯ımal wrote the introduction. The first appendix consisted of a glossary with definitions of essential terms. The

His Works

1.2.

1.3.

1.4.

1.5.

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second appendix introduced the twelve limbs of Samav¯ay¯anga S¯utra. The third appendix analyzed Nandi S¯utra with other texts. The fourth appendix ´ ambara looked at the definition of knowledge from Digambara and Svet¯ perspectives. The fifth and last appendix provided descriptions of the terms used in Nandi S¯utra. ¯ arya edited a critCommentary on Br.hatkalpa Sutra: ¯ On this S¯utra, Ach¯ ical edition based on an unknown Sanskrit commentary that he obtained from a Jain layperson in Ajmer, Rajasthan. During his travel to Southern India, he wrote the introduction in Hindi and added five appendices to this commentary. This volume was published in Jodhpur before 1950, but the exact year of publication is unclear. In the introduction, he provided a concise summary of Kalpa S¯utra. In the first appendix, 34 pages of glossary with their definitions are presented in alphabetical order. In other appendices, various historical names and comparisons of different commentaries are provided. ¯ arya Commentary on Pra´snavy¯akaran.a Sutra: ¯ In December 1950, Ach¯ published the article on Pra´snavy¯akaran.a S¯utra in Hindi with Sanskrit explanations in Pali, Rajasthan. This work was divided into two sections. The first section explained five kinds of a¯ s´rava (influx of karma). The second section explained five types of sam . vara (protection from karma) and five great vows—truth, nonviolence, non-stealing, non-accumulation, and celibacy. A glossary, notes on various places, stories, and comparisons of different texts ¯ arya was were provided in the appendix. The 17-page introduction by Ach¯ added at the beginning of this project. This S¯utra also suffered from inconsistencies and discrepancies among various manuscripts by Abhayadeva ¯ S¯ur¯ı, Jñ¯ana Vimal S¯ur¯ı, and Palitana’s Agama Mandira, as explained in the appendix. Seventeen sections of inconsistent texts were listed in a table ¯ arya and were sent to other contemporary scholars, who all accepted Ach¯ Hast¯ımal’s critical edition. Commentary on Anantakr.tada´sa¯ : This commentary was published in 1965 and 1975 in Jaipur, Rajasthan. In the first edition, the original Prakrit text and its Hindi translation were given with a glossary of essential terms. In the second edition, its Sanskrit translation was also added. About ten different texts and manuscripts were consulted to develop this critical edition. Commentaries on Da´savaik¯alika Sutra ¯ and Uttar¯adhyayana Sutra: ¯ These scriptures are some of the most popular texts among the Jains. ¯ arya Hast¯ımal inspired another pan.d.it, Shashikant Jha, to translate both Ach¯ these texts into their poetic forms. Uttar¯adhyayana was published in three sections, with the first consisting of ten chapters published in 1983. A second section comprised chapters from 11 to 23, published in 1985, and the third comprised 24 to 36, published in 1989. All three parts have detailed introductions by the editor and an appendix with interesting tales related to those chapters. The second and third sections also contained Sanskrit translations. Texts and manuscripts were consulted to prepare this critical

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edition. Da´savaik¯alika S¯utra was published in 1983 in Jaipur in the same style. ¯ arya Hast¯ımal wrote the Jain history books in Hindi, such 2. Historiography: Ach¯ as Jain Dharma K¯a Maulika Itih¯asa (The original history of Jainism, in Hindi, four volumes), Aiteh¯asika K¯ala Ke T¯ın T¯ırtha˙nkara, Patt¯aval¯ı Prabandha Sam . graha, ¯ arya Charit¯aval¯ı (in verses). Out of the four volumes of Jain Dharma and Jain Ach¯ K¯a Maulika Itih¯asa, the first two were written by him, and his colleagues wrote the last two under his guidance. 2.1. The First Volume: He started working on the first volume in 1966 during the rainy season retreat in Ahmedabad. This volume is based on the history of the 24 fordmakers from R.s.abha to Mah¯av¯ıra, as mentioned in various ´ ambara scholars and ascetics. In texts written by both Digambara and Svet¯ Appendix, the information about fordmakers is mentioned, including their parents’ names, birthplace, date-zodiac positions-place of conception, datezodiac positions of birth, color, characteristics, body dimensions, adolescence, reign, date-zodiac locations of renunciation, fellow monastics, first penance, first food donor, first food place, incognito period, date-placezodiac positions of omniscience, the sacred tree, leading disciples, first male and first female disciples, number of monks and nuns in the congregation, number of laymen and laywomen in the community, names of enlightened people, total lifespan, the states of the parents of fordmakers, and the characters in their previous lifetimes. The various charts with such information ´ ambara texts. are based on Digambara and Svet¯ The first volume points are as follows—the number of prerequisites for becoming a fordmaker ranges from 16 to 20 in various Jain texts. The tradition of wandering mendicants, parivr¯ajaka, was started by Mar¯ıci, the son of emperor Bharata, who relaxed the austerity rules and later was reborn as Mah¯av¯ıra. In other texts, Mar¯ıci’s son Kapila is mentioned as the first ¯ arya in the parivr¯ajaka tradition. Among the 24 fordmakers, the eras Ach¯ between the 1st and 8th and the 16th and 24th were better than the period between the 8th and 16th. Because, in the latter era, the Jain community was divided, and all the parts of its sacred canon were lost. This era was filled with sociopolitical struggles. The information about the fordmakers from Ajita to Nami is sporadic. Still, the information about their birth, lifespan, coronation, marriage, renunciation, omniscience, and their disciples are ´ ambara texts, with few exceptions. similar in both Digambara and Svet¯ He situated the Jain phenomena in the broader context of Indian culture. For instance, in one place, he argued that the term n¯atha first appeared in the Jain texts such as Bhagavat¯ı S¯utra and was later used by the N¯atha sect in Hinduism. Also, the archetypal man, Manu, matches favorably in Hindu and Jain texts. Similarly, R.s.abha is noted with various references in non-Jain texts. The 22nd fordmaker Nemi, a contemporary of Kauravas, P¯an.d.avas, and Kr.s.n.a of the Mah¯abh¯arata, is described in Harivam . s´apur¯an.a

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¯ arya Jinasena. According to the Jain sources, Nemi was related to by Ach¯ the Yadu dynasty. The 20th fordmaker Munisuvrata was mentioned as the contemporary of R¯ama and Laks.man.a of the R¯am¯ayana. The 23rd fordmaker P¯ar´svan¯atha is the earliest Jain figure widely accepted as a historical fact whose disciples and principles were also mentioned in the Buddhist ¯ arya Hast¯ımal, P¯ar´svan¯atha may have influliterature. According to Ach¯ enced other characters such as Nachiket¯a, Pippalada, Bharadv¯aja, Pakudha Kacc¯ayana, Ajita Ke´sakambali, and the Buddha. 2.2. The Second Volume: The second volume of this historiography is divided into four periods, from the time of Mah¯av¯ıra to the next 1000 years. It provides us with the details of famous ascetics and laypeople of these 1000 years. Kevali K¯ala was the 64 years after the death of Mah¯av¯ıra, ´ ambara texts, but the Digambara texts limit that period according to the Svet¯ to 62 years. Out of his original eleven Brahmin disciples, Gan.adharas, only two lived longer than Mah¯av¯ıra, and they were Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharm¯asv¯am¯ı. Since Gautama became omniscient before other disciples, he could not be made the inheritor of another omniscient being, so Sudharm¯asv¯am¯ı was chosen to be the leader of the congregation after Mah¯av¯ıra. The Jain ascetics have continued to trace their lineage to Sudharm¯asv¯am¯ı for more than two millennia, but Gautama also commands ´ ambara canon was the Jains’ reverence due to his unique qualities. The Svet¯ compiled by Sudharm¯asv¯am¯ı and his disciple Jambusv¯ami, the leader of the congregation for the last four decades of this period. Jambusv¯ami was the third and final person to obtain omniscience after Mah¯av¯ıra. ´ Srutakeval¯ ı K¯ala was the period from the death of Jambusv¯ami to the ´ next 106 years in which five people were considered Sruta Keval¯ıs, i.e., people with indirect knowledge from the Jain scriptures instead of omniscience through self-realization or enlightenment. Vis.n.u, Nandi, Apar¯ajita, ´ Govardhana, and Bhadrab¯ahu are the Sruta Keval¯ıs mentioned in the ´ Digambara texts. Prabhava, Saiyamabhava, Ya´sobhadra, Sambhutivijaya, ´ ´ ambara texts. and Bhadrab¯ahu are the Sruta Keval¯ıs mentioned in the Svet¯ ¯ According to the author, Ach¯arya Hast¯ımal, Vis.n.u is barely introduced in ´ ambara texts. Also, the Digambara texts but is not mentioned in the Svet¯ ´ ambara tradition. ´Saiyamabhava’s Da´savaik¯alika is available in the Svet¯ Bhadrab¯ahu is the only familiar name in both the categories of books who knew the fourteen P¯urva texts lost entirely later. There was a drought for twelve years, during which he stayed in Nepal. According to the author ¯ arya Hast¯ımal, V¯ar¯ahamihira, the 6th c. CE Hindu polymath had a Ach¯ brother with the name Bhadrab¯ahu, but these were two different persons with the same name Bhadrab¯ahu. Da´sa Purvadhara ¯ K¯ala was the period from the death of Bhadrab¯ahu to the next 414 years in which Alexander, Chandragupta, and Ch¯an.akya are mentioned. However, Digambara texts consider this period to be of only ¯ arya Hast¯ımal, Chandragupta was coroneted in 183 years. According to Ach¯

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312 BCE. Mauryan emperors Bindusara, Ashoka, and Samprati, promoted Jainism during their respective reigns. S¯am¯anya P¯urvadhara K¯ala was the next period until 1000 years after the death of Mah¯av¯ıra. By the end of this period, the P¯urva texts are lost. Also, within the first three decades of this period, the Jain community was ´ ambara, a division that divided into two major sects of, Digambara and Svet¯ continues today. ¯ arya Hast¯ımal took the role of 2.3. The Third Volume: In this volume, Ach¯ a guide, not the author. The period from 1001 to 1475, after the death of Mah¯av¯ıra, i.e., c. 4th to 9th CE, is described based on the Jain scriptures. The tradition of Bhat.t.a¯ rakas, “the clerical heads responsible for the running of Digambara religious institutions” (Dundas 2002:83), started ¯ arya Hast¯ımal referenced about 1100 years after the death of Mah¯av¯ıra. Ach¯ Jain¯ach¯arya Parampar¯a Mahim¯a for this topic. However, Bhat.t.a¯ rakas, taking the middle way, established educational institutions and monasteries, created new sacred texts, wrote new hymns, and started new rituals. Over time, this led to a lapse in conduct that Kundakunda criticized in c. 473 CE. Earlier, Bhat.t.a¯ rakas lived fully naked; they started wearing one piece of cloth and eventually started wearing regular clothes by c. 11th CE. They began owning lands and other materials and lived like emperors ´ ambara with thrones, crowns, chariots, servants, and residences. In the Svet¯ 4 tradition, their counterparts were called Yati. According to the Digambara ´ ambara tradition, the origin of the Y¯apaniya tradition started from the Svet¯ ´ tradition. According to the Svet¯ambara tradition, the source of the Y¯apaniya ¯ arya Hast¯ımal rejects tradition started from the Digambara tradition. Ach¯ the Digambaras’ belief that all scriptures were lost. Other topics mentioned in this volume were the status of Jain tradition under the various dynasties such as Chola, Ch¯era, Pandya, Ganga, Hoyasala, R¯as.t.rak¯ut.a, and Ch¯alukya, the study of 475 years of the hitherto unknown history of Jains, and analyses of edicts. Also, various great scholar ascetics such as Harib´ hadra, Akalanka, Apar¯ajita, Silagun . a, Vappabha¸t¸ta, Udyotana, Jinasena, ´ ´ Virasena, S¯akat¯ayana, Sil¯anka, Ya´sobhadra, Gun.abhadra, Svayambhu, and Vidy¯ananda, as well as congregations such as K¯as.¸th¯a, M¯athura, S¯andera, Hathundi, and Badagachcha are described. 2.4 The Fourth Volume: This volume chronicles the period of 1475 to 2000 after the death of Mah¯av¯ıra, i.e., from c. 10th to 15th c. CE. This challenging period witnessed the invasion by Ghazani in c. 977 CE and the diminishing of Jains in southern India. Jinadutta S¯ur¯ı, around c. 1152 CE, founded Khartaragachchha. The Chaityav¯asi temple-dwelling ascetic tradition slowly diminished in this period, but it continued to influence other Jain sects over the centuries. In this volume, the pioneering iconoclast Jain layperson Lonka Shah is described in about 200 pages. 4

´ ambara cleric, often associated. According to Paul Dundas (2002), Yatis are “non-initiated Svet¯ with ritual and worldly knowledge.”

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3. Discourses: His discourses are compiled in Gajendra Vy¯akhy¯anam¯al¯a (seven ¯ ¯ ¯ volumes), Adhy¯ atmika S¯adhan¯a, Adhy¯ atmika Aloka (four books), Pr¯arthan¯a Pravachan, Gajendra Mukt¯avali (two volumes). The main points in his discourses were (Bhanawat 1992: 104) as follows: 1.

Four months of the rainy season is the time for self-reflection and repentance. During this time, one’s faults must be recollected, mistakes must be admitted, and pledges for not repeating them must be taken. 2. Knowledge and character are the two steps for Liberation, Moks.a. 3. Right knowledge cuts our bondage and makes us free. 4. Humility is the prerequisite for learning, realization, and integrity. A seeker must be humble toward the liberated souls. 5. Worldly wealth is the instrument for fulfilling desires, and spirituality is the instrument for liberation, as mentioned in Da´savaik¯alika S¯utra. 6. Purity in conduct, character, and diet is required. 7. Required spiritual actions are knowledge, realization, conduct, penance, devotion toward liberated souls, nonviolence, donation, and self-control. 8. Spiritual practices can pacify desires arising in one’s body. 9. Renunciation involves taking initiation into ascetic life, living in the company of ascetics, serving the saints, and controlling one’s desires. 10. Mental impressions and tendencies influence one’s life. 11. Materialistic accumulation can be physical and mental. 12. Knowledge can be acquired by listening to discourses or realization and is the characteristic of the soul that helps distinguish between truth and untruth. 4. Poetry: His poetic literary activities are compiled in Gajendra Pada Mukt¯aval¯ı. They can be categorized into four subcategories. Devotional poetry: He was devoted to the qualities of four fordmakers, R.s.abha, Sh¯anti, P¯ar´svan¯atha, and Mah¯av¯ıra. Didactic poetry: Through his poetry, he preached about selfrealization, social welfare, and the celebration of festivals. Hagiographic poetry: He authored 210 verses celebrating the Jain ascetics, from the first disciples of the 24th fordmaker Mah¯av¯ıra to the contemporary ones. He also wrote poetry on various characters from Jain scriptures. Translation work: While editing the Jain scriptures, he and his colleagues translated them into verses. ¯ arya Hast¯ımal feature prominently in his discourses. 5. Stories: The stories by Ach¯ Characters in the stories are relatable to the audience and work well in explaining thoughtful details in an accessible manner for the public. ¯ sa Vibhutiy¯an, 6. Miscellaneous: Kulaka Sam . graha (spiritual stories), Adar´ Amarat¯a K¯a Puj¯ari, Saidh¯antika Pra´snottari, Jain Sv¯adhy¯aya Subh¯as.itam¯al¯a ¯ adhan¯a. (two volumes), S.adadravya Vich¯ara Panch¯ashik¯a, Navapada Ar¯

Chapter 10

Muni Pun.yavijaya

Introduction Muni Pun.yavijaya spoke these words on February 26, 1968, CE, in Ahmedabad, while celebrating his publication based on the Nandi S¯utra under the series launched by Mah¯av¯ıra Jain Vidy¯alaya (Desai 2007:1), “We are preparing the scriptures, and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1_10

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other scholars are examining them. We will be pleased if they will notify us about any error in our editing or publishing process. People admire our work, but scholars that can help us by showing us our errors are rare. I wish they show us our errors so that we continue improving in our future work.” Scholars of Jainism fondly remember him for his pioneering contributions in arranging Jain manuscripts for posterity. For this chapter, I translated relevant information from Ramn.ikavijaya (1968) and S¯ur¯ı (2009).

Birth and Adolescence Pun.yavijaya was born Man.il¯ala to mother M¯an.ekaben and father D¯ahy¯abh¯ai Doshi on October 27, 1895, CE, in Kapadvanj, Gujarat. The town where two more renowned monk scholars were born, Abhayadeva S¯ur¯ı (11 c. CE) and S¯agar¯anandasur¯ı (1875– 1950 CE), both remained his role models in his scholarly work. The rest of the four children could not survive. Even Man.il¯ala had a narrow escape from the fire that engulfed their home in Kapadvanj while his mother was at a local river and his father was in Mumbai on his regular job. A local Bohra Muslim family rescued the child and later gave it back to the mother, who took Man.il¯ala to Mumbai. Man.il¯ala completed formal education till sixth grade and learned Jain hymns, mantras, and rituals. Unfortunately, his mother became a widow at the early age of 27. Soon after that, she decided to become an ascetic with her son. At the early age of thirteen, Man.il¯ala took the formal initiation and became an ascetic in February 1909 CE at Chh¯an.i village in Vadodara district, Gujarat, under Chaturvijaya as his immediate guru and K¯antivijaya as his senior guru. Two days later, his mother became a nun in Palitana under another ascetic, Mohanl¯al, and passed away in 1965 CE. Pun.yavijaya passed away on June 14, 1971, CE (S¯ur¯ı 2009:14), after leaving a treasure of scholarly work for future generations of researchers. During his 62 years of ascetic career, he spent four months during the annual rainy season retreats at various towns in Gujarat and a couple of Rajasthan cities. He stayed in Mumbai for his last retreat and three earlier ones in Mumbai (ibid., 15).

Teachers of Pun.yavijaya Pun.yavijaya was under the discipleship of Chaturvijaya in a congregation led by ¯ arya K¯antivijaya, who was a disciple of a renowned Jain Ach¯ ¯ arya Atm¯ ¯ ar¯ama Ach¯ ¯ also known as Vijay¯anand S¯ur¯ı. Atm¯ar¯ama (1837–1896 CE) was a pioneering Jain ¯ arya who established new Jain libraries at Chh¯an.i and Vadodara and renovated Ach¯ the old libraries at Limbdi and Patan. Continuing this tradition of preserving the Jain manuscripts and books, the congregation leader K¯antivijaya and Pun.yavijaya’s immediate guru Chaturvijaya introduced various Jain texts to Pun.yavijaya in his first ´ ı Atm¯ ¯ ananda Jain Grantha Ratnam¯al¯a year of discipleship. Together they launched Sr¯

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in 1909 CE to continue editing and publishing Jain scriptures. In his second year, he continued his study under a lay teacher Bh¯ail¯ala. Pun.yavijaya’s third successive ´ astri. Virchand Meghji taught him as well. Around 1914– teacher was Nity¯ananda S¯ 1915 CE, Pun.yavijaya met renowned lay scholar Sukhal¯ala Sanghvi in Patan and Vadodara. From Patan, he accompanied Sanghvi for a pilgrimage tour of Kesariyaji in Rajasthan and continued learning on that trip. Around 1921–1922 CE, during the rainy season retreats at Bhavnagar and Limbdi, Sanghvi approached Pun.yavijaya to seek his help in editing various Jain and Buddhist texts. Pun.yavijaya also prepared copies of Buddhist texts for Sanghvi that were later cataloged at Gujarat Vidyapith. They continued their collaboration for some time, and Pun.yavijaya considered Sanghvi his second most respected educational guru after his other guru Chaturvijaya (Desai 2007:12–13). Additionally, Pun.yavijaya received direct guidance from K¯antivijaya’s other ¯ ar¯ama’s successor Ach¯ ¯ arya Vallabh S¯ur¯ı, who colleague Hansavijaya as well as Atm¯ was an influential social reformer and builder of social and educational institutions. He last met Vallabh S¯ur¯ı in 1950 CE in Varkana, Rajasthan, while the latter suffered from an eye disease. During his first rainy season retreat at Dabhoi, Pun.yavijaya was inspired by another Jain ascetic, the late Ya´sovijaya, who had passed away there ´ antin¯atha Palm-leaf Library in in 1688 CE. In 1968 CE, Pun.yavijaya visited the S¯ Khambhat, where he found an incomplete manuscript written by Ya´sovijaya that inspired him to study and edit the Jain scholarly texts. Throughout his life, he did both continually (Desai 2007:9–10). ¯ arya Nemavijaya, also taught the commenL¯avan.yavijaya, an ascetic under Ach¯ tary Ava´syaka H¯aribhadri to Pun.yavijaya. In 1948 CE, in Surat, Pun.yavijaya met the senior Jain monk scholar S¯agar¯anandasur¯ı who had done the pioneering work of compiling and editing the Jain scriptures; he supported that work wholeheartedly, unlike other conservative Jains who did not. Pun.yavijaya also learned with Kunwarjibhai Anandji and surprised him pleasantly in 1942 CE during his trip to the ¯ inauguration of the Agama (Scripture) Temple in Palitana when he read a rare text written in an intelligible script.

Two Interviews with Pun.yavijaya Ratil¯ala Deepchanda Des¯ai interviewed Pun.yavijaya in 1968 CE in Khambhat (Desai 14–17, ibid., 26), which I translated below. Q. When and how did you learn the Prakrit language? A. It feels as if I have known Prakrit since the beginning. I studied the Prakrit text Paumchariyam with my guru during my second rainy season retreat in ¯ arya Patan, which introduced me to the Prakrit language. Then, I learned Ach¯ Hemachandra’s Prakrit grammar in the first half with Sukhal¯ala Sanghvi in Vadodara and prepared the text of Paumchariyam simultaneously. Q. When did your particular interest in studying the Jain scriptures arise?

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A. I developed this interest while studying the commentary Ava´syaka H¯aribhadri with Lavan.yavijaya, as well as liked studying S¯agar¯anandasur¯ı’s works. Q. How did you learn the Apabhram . s´a language? A. Merely by studying the literature written in that language. Q. How did you practice reading the ancient scripts? A. Mostly by working on their texts. During my second rainy season retreat at Patan (in my sixth year of ascetic life), a scholar Chimanal¯ala D¯ahy¯abh¯ai Dal¯al came to investigate the massive Jain libraries there. That time, I read ancient manuscripts for him. I had first to decrypt the text in the Br¯ahm¯ı script and then do the same in the Devan¯agar¯ı script by taking the help of the book Bh¯arat¯ıya Lipim¯al¯a by Gaurishankar Hir¯achanda Ojh¯a. This book provided information on the different scripts used in different eras. Q. How did you develop an interest in Buddhist and Vedic literature? A. By listening to and meeting different scholars. Besides my work with them, I learned much from academic talks on assorted topics. I would dive deeper into multiple texts if any topic interested me from such discussions, which made me study different subjects from historical, comparative, and objective perspectives. Consequently, I was drawn to their internal similarities instead of focusing on the outer differences among diverse cultures. This balanced outlook helped me develop an accepting and curious perspective that helped me in my spiritual development. Q. When did you start researching the ancient scriptures? A. It could not be said with certainty if that work started at a particular time. Both studying the texts and researching them for editing continued simultaneously. When my guru used to examine the ancient texts, I kept decrypting the scripts, translating the books, looking for alternative manuscripts, and deciding on the critical editions. This work engrossed me so much that no other activity could attract my attention. With and without my guru, I edited ancient, obscure texts. Eventually, I became the final editor of books published by my guru! During the rainy season retreat in 1938 CE, I became seriously ill, but I continued my philological work for eighteen months, which helped me ignore my pain. This must be a blessing from my immediate and senior gurus. I will continue to work on the scripture series initiated by both. Q. Did you ever try to write a new scriptural text? A. Yes, during my first rainy season retreat at Limbdi in 1921 CE, my immediate and senior gurus worked to revitalize the great libraries there. At that time, I wanted to write a new commentary on Vi´ses.an.a Vat¯ı. However, I could not work on that project later. Q. How did you develop a balanced outlook to grasp the truth? A. Naturally and by the continuous company of my senior guru. Another interview with him was published in Jain Bh¯arat¯ı’s issue on November 19, 1967, CE. This interview was with the Ter¯apanth¯ı monk Nathmal who later ´ ambara subsect with the name Ach¯ ¯ arya became the tenth head of the Ter¯apanth Svet¯ Mah¯apragya. Below is the translation of that interview (ibid., 42). Q. What are your current projects?

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A. Currently, I am researching the manuscripts of commentaries and subcommentaries. These texts have various errors, sometimes changing the intended meanings, and I consider this work of primary importance. Q. Since when have you been working on this? A. For the last twenty-five years. Q. Do you also study contemporary journals? A. No. I focus only on the scriptures. For me, they are journals. Occasionally, I may read a specific essay from contemporary journals. Q. How many hours do you work daily? A. There is no limit for me; I devote my entire time to this work. Q. How many ascetics collaborate with you? A. I work alone and worry that ascetics are not interested in such work, but there are some lay scholars with me. In this way, we are trying to serve the Jain literature.

Contributions and Accomplishments His main contributions include researching, editing, and publishing ancient manuscripts in Prakrit and Sanskrit languages. Collaborating with his immediate and senior gurus, he organized and renovated Jain libraries in several towns in Gujarat— Ahmedabad, Bhavnagar, Khambhat, Limbdi, Palitana, Patan, Surat, and Vadodara. In Rajasthan, he did the same at the Jain libraries in Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Jodhpur. Below are three notable anecdotes about his work for the Jaisalmer library for sixteen months. First, as he was departing for Jaisalmer, Kasturabh¯ai L¯alabh¯ai met him at Sabarmati, Gujarat. Later, he visited Jaisalmer and witnessed Pun.yavijaya’s work for some days there. Then, he visited Hemachandr¯ach¯arya Jain Library at Patan as well. Inspired by these visits, he wanted to do something concrete to preserve ancient texts and established the Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad in 1956 CE. Pun.yavijaya happily gifted thousands of his handwritten and edited rare manuscripts, books, artifacts, and other historical objects he had collected over the years. In 1959 CE, Dalsukh Malvania became its director and served there for the next four decades; he was awarded the Padma Bhushan, India’s third-highest civilian honor. The institute published over forty catalogs of books and manuscripts useful for researchers worldwide. Second, while marching toward Jaisalmer, Pun.yavijaya was walking early morning near a railway track. Due to insufficient daylight, he fell off about fifteen feet downhill. Fortunately, he was saved the third time just as he was rescued from the fire in his adolescence and severe disease in his later years. He thanked Gautama Sv¯ami for this protection. Third, Pun.yavijaya’s colleague Fatehchand Bel¯an.i visited New Delhi to prepare the microfilms to preserve Jaisalmer’s ancient texts. R¯ajendra Prasad, the first president of India, was impressed by this work. Eventually, the Prakrit Text Society was established to publish Prakrit and Ardhamagadhi books benefitting scholars and students worldwide.

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Pun.yavijaya classified ancient palm-leaf manuscripts into distinct categories and prepared chronological notes based on them. He developed copies and microfilms of shabby manuscripts. He also collaborated and advised emerging doctoral and senior scholars to wholeheartedly share manuscripts, books, microfilms, and photocopies. His main accomplishments include guiding students in their doctoral research and becoming the history and archeology section chair at the 20th Gujarat Literature Council’s conference in Ahmedabad in 1959 CE. In 1952 CE, he was awarded a Gold Medal in Bhavnagar, Gujarat, for his literary contributions. In 1953 CE, he ¯ was honored with the title Agama Prabh¯akara, the scriptures’ light in Vadodara, Gujarat. In 1961 CE, at the All-India Oriental Conference in Srinagar, Kashmir, he was appointed as the Prakrit and Jain section’s chair. In 1970 CE, the American Oriental Society honored him with a lifetime membership. In 1970 CE, in Mumbai, ´ he was honored with the title Sruta´ s¯ılav¯aridhi, ocean of the character of scriptures. ¯ arya on two earlier occasions. In 1944 CE, However, he rejected the label of Ach¯ Jin¯agama Prak¯as´ini Sansad was established in Patan to publish the books edited by Pun.yavijaya. But its executive team could not deliver on its plan. About two decades later, in 1969, they donated 134,000 rupees to Mah¯av¯ıra Jain Vidy¯alaya to continue the work; the Vadodara Jain community also donated 33,000 rupees for the same. Despite this delay, Pun.yavijaya continued working slowly but steadily. In 1961 and 1966 CE, Gaekwad Oriental Series at Sayajirao University Vadodara published two volumes of catalogs prepared by Pun.yavijaya. Meanwhile, in 1960 CE, the honorary director of Mah¯av¯ıra Jain Vidy¯alaya was Chandulal Shah, who offered to publish the Jain scriptures. Pun.yavijaya happily accepted this and designated Dalsukh Malvania as the editor of this publication series. Pun.yavijaya remained instrumental in fund-raising for this publication series. In 1962 CE, after 53 years of his ascetic life, he spent his first rainy season retreat at his birthplace Kapadvanj. The Jain community donated 20,000 rupees, but Pun.yavijaya passed on that money to Mah¯av¯ıra Jain Vidy¯alaya for the publication of Jain scriptures. In 1969 CE, the three Shah Brothers from Patan donated 35,000 rupees. Pun.yavijaya saw the first three publications of this series before his death in 1971 CE. Another Jain ascetic, Jambuvijaya, continued the work afterward.

His Works (Excerpts with Translation from Pan.ny¯asa 1968) (His speech at the 17th Conference of the All-India Oriental Council in Ahmedabad in 1953) In India, two kinds of libraries are owned individually or managed by a community. In the Vedic tradition, the Brahmin class held these collections. As householders, it has been the Brahmins’ practice to maintain such possessions and preserve their own families. However, ascetics manage most libraries in the ascetic traditions, such as Jainism. Still, they were not the owners of such libraries, having already renounced all kinds of possessions. Therefore, the communities of Jain householders owned such libraries. There are Buddhist libraries in Nepal, Tibet, China, Sri Lanka, and

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Myanmar. Since the Jain ascetics did not travel outside India, their texts remained in India. Across India, states such as Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Gujarat, with around 500 towns that have such libraries. However, specific collections may be small. Each city can have two to twenty libraries, and each can have manuscripts or books ranging from 250 to 25,000. Collections are diverse in their topics; others have ancient manuscripts with a vast selection of Jainism-related materials, while others have Hindu and Buddhist materials, and others have rare materials, especially Buddhist ones, unavailable elsewhere. The materials in different collections can be in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Gujarati, Rajasthani, Kannada, Hindi, Persian, Pali, and other languages. Manuscripts can be in old palm leaves, and specific libraries contain paintings. The community established all these libraries. The advantage of such communal ownership is that the community participates in their protection and development, which is why great libraries could be preserved even in periods of great upheaval and chaos. For instance, Patan and Khambhat collections were transferred to Jaisalmer in the medieval period for better protection. However, the Digambara libraries remained intact in remote locations such as Karnataka. I have been to around forty such towns in Rajasthan and Gujarat and have worked at fifty such libraries. I can attest that vast material is available for researchers inter´ ambara ested in Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. My focus has been on the Svet¯ tradition, which has the town’s most significant collections. These collections contain three materials—palm leaves, paper, and cloth. The palm leaves-based manuscripts are from the ninth to the sixteenth century, and paper-based ones are from the thirteenth century until now. I have seen about 3000 palm leaves-based texts and about 200,000 paper-based texts, and the total number of Jain texts may be over one million. Patan, Khambhat, and Jaisalmer collections are the oldest, richest, and most diverse ones, especially the palm leaves-based collection established by Khartargach Ac¯arya Jinabhadra S¯ur¯ı, where a ninth-century text was first found. Jaisalmer’s collection has the most exquisite paintings and pictorial manuscripts as well. The texts here are finely researched and critically edited. Important Vedic and Buddhist texts are also here. Khambhat and Patan collections also have critical and rare materials. Patan and Khambhat also have significant paper-based collections. Khambhat has the oldest manuscript from the twelfth century, whose paper is still in excellent condition after 800 years. Jaisalmer also has rare paper manuscripts. In Ahmedabad, there are texts by scholars who were honored by the Mughal emperor Jahangir. Only one paper-shaped cloth manuscript is found, and that is at Patan. Inks made from gold and silver were used on palm leaves and paper. All the collections were carefully preserved in wooden boxes with beautiful designs.

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Stationery Used (Desai 2007) Palm leaf and Paper—Different kinds of superior quality paper and palm leaves used to be obtained from various parts of India. As mentioned in manuscripts in Khambhat and Patan from the fifteenth century, palm leaves came from Malabar. Papers of excellent quality came from Kashmir and Southern India and were manufactured in Surat, Ahmedabad, and Khambhat in Gujarat. Traders still use the papers made at these places for their account ledger books. There is one example of a Sanskrit verse mentioning the paper made in Surat for writing purposes. There were thick, thin, soft, dry, and long palm leaves. Similarly, papers were of different thicknesses, thin, white, gray, soft, dry, smooth, or simple. Texts have survived well even after 500 years on these papers. Ink—We find a stark difference in the ink used in the first and second half of the fifteenth century. The red, black, golden, and silver ink materials have survived well. Colors of diverse kinds were needed for various pictures in the texts made from minerals, plants, and their mixtures. These colors did not harm the texts and maintained their brightness for centuries. Pen—For writing these texts, pens were made of bamboo or cinnamon, preferably black wood. Texts describe wood’s merits, demerits, design process, and measurements. Inkpot—We have various kinds of inkpots from two to three hundred years old that were made from other types of metals or alloys, such as brass. Miscellaneous—Other materials used included a compass and ruler, which were also meticulously designed. Other groups of materials used were for making corrections. Script and writers—Scholars identify the script used in these libraries as the Jain Script, but this is the same script that has evolved over the centuries based on different languages used in other parts of India. The writers were professionals as well as ascetics. Hundreds of texts written by monks and nuns are also available. Various punctuation symbols were also used in these texts.

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Conclusion His legacy continues to live at the L. D. Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, which I visited in December 2019. An adjacent museum also highlights an impressive collection of his materials and manuscripts. His scholarly work inspires ascetics and laypeople who continue the tradition of compiling and editing Jain texts in various languages across multiple sects and states.

Chapter 11

¯ arya R¯ajendra Sur¯ Ach¯ ¯ ı

Introduction

¯ arya R¯ajendra S¯ur¯ı remains conspicuously absent in English academic literaAch¯ ture on Jainism. His encyclopedic text on Jainism and his reforms of ascetic communities are two of his significant contributions to contemporary Jainism. Hopefully, this chapter fills this long-standing gap. Although some of my extended family members and friends follow his lineage, writing this chapter on his life and works unveiled an

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essential chapter of my roots. Like many prominent Jain ascetics, he spent considerable time in parts of Rajasthan where I grew up. This chapter’s information is based on my translation from Devendravijaya (1977), Gul¯abavijayopadhy¯aya (1939), Ris.abhchandravijaya1 (2003, 2006), and Vasis.t.ha (1990).

Birth and Adolescence R¯ajendra S¯ur¯ı was born as Ratnar¯aj on Thursday, December 3, 1827, in Bharatpur, Rajasthan. His father, Ris.abhd¯as P¯arakh, was a diamond trader. His mother, Kesrib¯ai, had an extraordinary dream foretelling the birth of her son. His brother was M¯an.ikchand, and his sister was Prem¯ab¯ai. Ratnar¯aj was endowed with high values and virtues since his adolescence. He used to be interested in studying spiritual texts. He also developed expertise in jewelry trading and became an asset to his father’s business. According to one legend, at the age of twelve, during his trip to Rishabhdeo, a Jain pilgrimage town in southern Rajasthan, with his brother, he miraculously saved a girl’s life and protected her family from robbers. However, he rejected the marriage proposal for that girl from her family. At sixteen, he visited Kolkata with his brother to expand their family business. From there, they boarded a ship toward Sri Lanka. When they received a message about their father’s ill health, they returned from Sri Lanka. When his parents passed away at eighteen, he turned away from worldly affairs and devoted more time to spiritual activities.

Initiation into Spiritual Life Once a Jain monk Pramods¯ur¯ı, a disciple of Kaly¯anas¯ur¯ı, visited Bharatpur, Ratnar¯aj listened to his discourses and was inspired to become an ascetic. After persuasion, his family permitted him, and in 1847 CE, in Udaipur, Rajasthan, he took the monastic (Yati) initiation under Hemavijaya, a senior disciple of Pramods¯ur¯ı. His new ascetic name was Ratnavijaya. He spent his first two annual rainy season retreats with his guru in Akola, Maharashtra, and Indore, Madhya Pradesh. He spent his initial couple of years in the intense study of Jain texts. Noticing his intellectual abilities, his guru sent him to Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, for the following three annual rainy season retreats, where he learned grammar, poetics, logic, and other aspects of Jain literature with Kharatara Gaccha monk S¯agarchandra. Although S¯agarchandra was in a different subsect, he was a close friend of Pramods¯ur¯ı and treated Ratnavijaya as his

1

He was the current leader of one of the subsects in this lineage and I met him in 2019 during my visit to Mohankheda, their central pilgrimage place. He succumbed to COVID-19 in 2021 as reported ¯ arya-Devesh-Shri-Rishabh-Chandra-Suri-Jiin https://www.contentgarden.in/news/Jain-saint-Ach¯ Maharaj-succumbed-to-COVID-19/721082;p1=721082 (accessed September 5, 2022).

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disciple. At 22, Ratnavijaya wrote his first book Karan. K¯amdhenu S¯arin.i. Ratnavijaya also learned Jain principles and other esoteric skills under a Tap¯a Gaccha guru Devendras¯ur¯ı who asked another monk Hemavijaya to award the title of Pan.ny¯asa to Ratnavijaya in 1849 CE. This ceremony took place in Udaipur, Rajasthan, in 1852 CE, in which Ratnavijaya was formally initiated as an ascetic. He spent his three annual retreats at Ujjain, Mandsaur, and Udaipur with his guru and then two annual retreats again with S¯agarchandra at Nagore and Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. In Jaisalmer, he studied the Jain manuscripts at the ancient library. His following two retreats were at Pali and Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Before Devendras¯ur¯ı passed away, he asked Ratnavijya to teach the next congregation leader, Dharanendras¯ur¯ı. After that, Devendras¯ur¯ı conducted the Santh¯ar¯a fast at Radhanpur, Gujarat, and passed away. After taking the permission of his guru Pramods¯ur¯ı, he led and taught the congregation of Devendras¯ur¯ı for the next six years. Their retreats happened at Chitrakoot, Bikaner, Sadri, Bhilwara, and other towns. Over time, however, he was disappointed with Dharanendras¯ur¯ı’s aristocratic lifestyle, inappropriate for a Jain ascetic but continued to train the new leader and his 51 other disciples. He continued serving his guru, Pramods¯ur¯ı, from 1857 to 1862. In 1864 CE, he was awarded another title Daftari and attended the ceremony by Bikaner and Jodhpur’s kings to honor Dharanendras¯ur¯ı. However, during the 1865 retreat, he renounced the position of Daftari, as he was not comfortable handling the wealth received from the donations, especially after false allegations of mismanagement against him (Shah 19922:15). At the Jalore and Ghanerao retreats, he debated with Dharanendras¯ur¯ı on the indiscipline of ascetic life. Finally, in 1867 CE, in Ghanerao, Rajasthan, these differences reached the pinnacle when Dharanendras¯ur¯ı called him to ask about purchasing perfumes. Having just delivered discourses on the highest renunciation by Mah¯av¯ıra, Ratnavijaya repudiated Dharanendras¯ur¯ı for his indulgence in materialistic objects such as perfumes. After intense arguments, Ratnavijaya left the congregation with other monks, including Pramodruchi and Dhanvijaya, in the middle of the rainy season retreat, an exceptional move by a Jain ascetic. He first came to the town of Nadole, where he completed his remaining rainy season retreat. Later, he reached Ahore, where Ratnavijaya’s guru Pramods¯ur¯ı ¯ arya Sr¯ ´ ı P¯ujya and initiated him with elevated him and awarded him the title of Ach¯ the S¯ur¯ı mantra. From that time, he was known by his new name Vijaya R¯ajendra S¯ur¯ı by the congregation.

¯ arya Vijaya R¯ajendra Sur¯ Leading the Congregation as Ach¯ ¯ ı He visited Shambhugadh and then Jaora, Madhya Pradesh, where he preached on the Bhagavat¯ı S¯utra. In 1867 CE, he counseled a Muslim Nawab Ghows Mohammad Khan and his cabinet. He agreed to accept food from the Nawab, who was pleased to send the gifts. Also, Dharanendras¯ur¯ı sent two disciples, Siddhaku´sal and Motivijaya, who held detailed discussions there. He remained committed to reforming the yati

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tradition that had become lazy, corrupt, and superstitious. He developed a reform plan that Dharanendras¯ur¯ı and others approved. The plan had the following rules: 1. To perform the congregation’s morning and evening repentance rituals, deliver the discourses daily, walk instead of using palanquins for traveling, and not keep or wear jewelry. 2. Not to cause wastage of resources by householders and not use horse carts. 3. Not to keep a sword or any other weapons and not touch jewelry. 4. Not to be alone with women, a nun or laywoman, not gossip or hang out with women. 5. Not to consume potatoes, onions, or garlic, not eat after sunset, not consume narcotics, and outcast any monk indulging in such activities. 6. Not to brush the teeth, not use water from a well or pond, and not cut any plants. 7. To limit the use of servants provided by the congregation and not hire any meateating or immoral person. 8. Not to persuade the congregation to spend money. He publicly executed the plan within five years and renounced all his titles and possessions, including his walking stick and utensil, at a local Jain temple in Jaora, Madhya Pradesh. His two prominent disciples, Pramodruchi and Dhanvijaya, and 4000 laypeople joined in that ceremony. In this way, he accepted the five great vows of Jain ascetics and paved the way for the reformation of the Tristutik Gaccha, in which spiritual study and renovation of Jain pilgrim places were emphasized. Accepting the Jain community’s invitation to Khachrod, Madhya Pradesh, he spent his first rainy season retreat as a Jain ascetic in that town in 1869 CE. During this retreat, he preached and renovated Jain temples with a budget of 5000 rupees. This educational and spiritual retreat ended with a celebration with 3000 Jains. He emphasized that in Tristutik Gaccha,2 only three verses would be recited for fordmakers, but not the fourth for other gods or goddesses. Later, he studied and preached based on Jain scriptures at Kukshi, Madhya Pradesh, for 29 days. His entry into Kukshi was a bit reluctant as the local laypeople, such as Devichand and Aso, first discussed philosophical topics to confirm his knowledge and character. Around this time, he wrote S.ad.adravyavic¯ara. At the Digambara Jain pilgrimage town Mangitungi in the Central Indian Vindhyachal mountain range, he fasted for 72 days, chanted the Jain mantra 10.25 million times, and performed austerities and meditation for six months. According to a current monk Piyushvijaya, this penance was done by fasting and standing on one leg with only water intake. His next rainy season retreats occurred at Ratlam, Kukshi, Rajgarh, and Ratlam, towns in Madhya Pradesh. At Ratlam, he debated with Javers¯agar and B¯alch, and that led to the writing of his next book Siddh¯antaprak¯as´a. The subsequent retreats happened at Jaora and Ahore. Ahore’s two consecutive retreats were exceptional and resolved local ethnic tension. He initiated three women into asceticism at Varkana. At Ahore, he healed a disabled person as his paralysis was cured, and his voice returned. Later, he was named Mohanvijaya, one of the foremost disciples. During 2

https://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=80085 (accessed Jan 30, 2021).

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the next retreat at Jalore in 1877, he converted 700 Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı and Ter¯apanth¯ı Jains to image-worshiping subsect and established 37 Jain images. The following retreats were at Rajgarh, Ratlam, Bhinmal, Sheoganj, Alirajpur, Kukshi, Rajgarh, and Ahmedabad. During the Ahmedabad retreat in 1885 CE, he corresponded with ¯ ar¯am (Ach¯ ¯ arya Vijay¯anands¯ur¯ı), another renowned image-worshiping monk, Atm¯ whose references we have seen in earlier chapters. In Gujarat, the following retreats were at Dhoraji, Dhanera, Tharad, and Viramgam. At Tharad, he preached on the Bhagavat¯ı S¯utra and had another successful retreat. In 1895 CE, he renovated the temple in Korta, Rajasthan, located on the ¯ atha, Ahmedabad-Delhi route. It has four Jain temples dedicated to Mah¯av¯ıra, Adin¯ ¯ atha) was and P¯ar´svan¯atha. The five-foot-tall white image of Kesariyanath (Adin¯ found underground while digging in 1911 CE. He renovated this temple in 1895. In 1898 CE, in Ahore, Rajasthan, 951 Jain images were established, whose ceremonies were attended by 50,000 Jains with a donation of 100,000 rupees. In 1899 CE, during his retreat at Sheoganj, Rajasthan, he developed a new code of conduct with 35 rules for Jain ascetics and laypeople, still followed by contemporary Jains in his lineage. In 1900 CE, his rainy season retreat was at Siana, Rajasthan, where he renovated the Suvidhin¯atha temple built by the emperor Kum¯arp¯al. The temple received a dona´ ı tion of about 70,000 rupees. Here, he also started writing his magnum opus Sr¯ Abhidh¯ana R¯ajendra Kos.a. In 1901 CE, in Ahore, he established 201 Jain images and a library preserving ancient manuscripts inside a marble cabinet. In 1902 CE, he did similar religious works in Jalore, where the British Raj used the Jain temple inside the fort to store weapons. He contacted the Jodhpur king Jaswant Singh and got the temple cleansed and later renovated. He also had a retreat at Nimbahera, defeating Sth¯anakav¯asi monk Nandar¯am in a debate and converting his 60 families to the image-worshiping subsect. His following annual retreats were at Surat, Kukshi, and Khachrod. Following two retreats were at Rajgarh, where he continued the work on Abhidh¯ana R¯ajendra Kos.a. At the next retreat at Jaora, the community organized a grand celebration with a budget of 20,000 rupees, and people joined the imageworshiping subsect. At the next retreat at Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh, 10,000 laypeople attended, and about 20,000 rupees were donated. His 1903 and 1904 CE retreats were at Surat and Kukshi, respectively. At Surat, after fifteen years, he completed working on Abhidh¯ana R¯ajendra Kos.a. At Kukshi, he wrote Prakrit grammar in verses, established a Vimaln¯atha image at Bagh village, established a Vimaln¯atha image at Bagh village, established the As.t¯apad temple at Rajgarh, and established a Dharman¯atha image at Ranapur. The next retreat was at Khachrod in 1905, where he unified local villages ending their animosity. He also renovated the temples in Mandawa and Swarnagiri in Rajasthan and Talanpur and Mohankheda in Madhya Pradesh. With his influence, Budhwani High Court in Madhya Pradesh gave a verdict in favor of the Bawangaja Jain Temple, Sirohi king Kesari Singh in Rajasthan (1875–1920 CE) waived the travel tax, and Jhabua king Udai Singh in Madhya Pradesh (1895–1942 CE) stopped hunting. He initiated about 250 laypeople into asceticism who could not sustain the difficult monastic life and went to other rival subsects.

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His Last Days During his various walking tours across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat, he faced lethal attacks from humans and wild animals. His 39th and last retreat was at Badnagar, Madhya Pradesh, in 1906 CE. After this retreat, he departed for Rajgarh but started suffering from respiratory disease. Amid his health concerns and forecasting his death, he transferred the responsibilities to managing the congrega´ ı Abhidh¯ana R¯ajendra Kos.a to D¯ıpvijaya tion as well as editing and publishing Sr¯ and Yat¯ındravijaya. He started his Santh¯ar¯a fast unto death and died peacefully on December 21, 1906. His funeral was performed in Mohankheda on December 22, 1906.

Scholarly Work He wrote 61 texts covering diverse topics such as linguistics, grammar, scriptures, rituals, spirituality, poetics, discourses, yoga, questionnaires, and tantra. The significant texts that he wrote are as follows. He worked on the encyclo´ ı Abhidh¯ana R¯ajendra Kos.a, for years. It was finally published as a pedic text, Sr¯ seven-volume dictionary of over 60,000 Prakrit and Magadhi definitions in more than 9000 pages with 450,000 Sanskrit verses on Jainism, Ayurveda, History, and Geography. The volumes were published from 1913 to 1934 with the support of 400,000 rupees from the Jain community from Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh. He also wrote Pr¯akrit Vy¯akaran, Kalpa Sutr¯artha Prabodhini, Jinopadesha Manjari, Prash´ ı Tattvaviveka, Sr¯ ´ ı Siddhachakra Puj¯a, Sr¯ ´ ı Mah¯avira Pancha nottar Pus. pav¯atika, Sr¯ Kaly¯anaka Puj¯a, Prabhu Stavana Sudh¯akara, Holik¯a Vy¯akhy¯ana, Akshaya Tritiy¯a Kath¯a, Svarodaya Yantr¯avali, S.ad.a¯ vashyak Akshar¯artha, and S.ad.adravyavic¯ara.

Social Work With his inspiration, organizations were established, e.g., R¯ajendrodaya Yuvak ´ ı R¯ajendra Sury¯abhudayav¯ali in Ratlam, Man.d.ala in Jaora, Madhya Pradesh, Sr¯ ´ ´ ı R¯ajendra Pravachan K¯ary¯alaya Madhya Pradesh, Sr¯ı R¯ajendra Jain Grantham¯al¯a, Sr¯ ´ in Khudala, Rajasthan, Sr¯ı R¯ajendra Jain Vidy¯alaya in Ahore and Siana, Rajasthan, Mandsaur, and Khachrod in Madhya Pradesh, and Tharad in Gujarat.

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Conclusion He remains one of the most influential Jain saints in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, even after his death over a century ago. I visited Mohankheda in Madhya Pradesh in January 2020 and was impressed by the well-organized pilgrim center that continues to attract thousands of Jains and others for its various events and activities.

Chapter 12

¯ arya S¯agar¯ananda Sur¯ Ach¯ ¯ ı

Introduction

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¯ arya S¯agar¯ananda S¯ur¯ı, also Like a few other ascetics in previous chapters, Ach¯ ¯ arya Anands¯agar, played a crucial role in organizing the Jain scriptures. known as Ach¯ I translated this chapter’s information from Sagar (2018) and Shah (2002).

Birth and Adolescence He was born in 1875 CE in Kapadvanj town in Gujarat. This town is well-known for the 11th-century canonical commentator Abhayadeva S¯ur¯ı (Dundas 2002:50). Also, Muni Pun.yavijaya was born here, as we saw in one of the earlier chapters. The local Jain community manages a center in his name that publishes and distributes books related to Jainism. The town is well-known for other historical contributions to art, architecture, trade, and culture, and such an environment may have contributed richly to his early development. He was born Hemachandra in Kachhiy¯an¯a, a trading clan that is the 17th clan out of the 32 families of a community called Vi´sa¯ Nim¯a. Overwhelmed by his birth, his parents donated a hefty sum of money for charity to celebrate the occasion, and the astrologers predicted an extraordinary future for the newborn baby. His father, Maganl¯ala Gandhi, was well-educated in Jain traditional knowledge and carried forward his father’s spiritual legacy. In his adolescence, Maganl¯ala became a devout disciple of a Jain monk Jhaveras¯agara. Both parents raised their sons with Jain spiritual values. The family regularly participated in rituals at the local Jain temple. They continued to meet the visiting Jain ascetics and invited them to their home to get their blessings. The family regularly fed animals and birds, a widespread practice of devout Jains. With his brother Man.il¯ala, he was sent to a local school for formal education, where he developed as an exceptional student. When he turned ten, he displayed excellent tolerance when suffering from painful symptoms (ibid 9). On another occasion, one of his friends accidentally broke a streetlamp while playing with a ball. When a police officer arrived at the scene and tried to capture the boys, young Hemachandra fearlessly challenged the police officer with his innocence, and the boys were soon freed. Like his father, Hemachandra was impressed with the Jain ascetic Jhaveras¯agara. By turning 14, Hemachandra was well-versed in daily rituals and Jain scriptures in the company of his father and Jhaveras¯agara. Although his older brother Man.il¯ala was married after that, their father continued to devalue worldly life, encouraging renunciation in Hemachandra. His brother Man.il¯ala lost his wife soon, turning Hemachandra further toward renunciation. When his mother tried to convince him to get married, Hemachandra resisted and asked her to wait. However, the mother forced him to get married soon and married him at twelve to a local girl M¯an.eka. When his brother turned eighteen, he went to Ahmedabad and took the monastic initiation under a Jain ascetic N¯ıtivijaya. Soon after that, despite the great protest by his mother and wife, Hemachandra followed suit, ran away from his home in the middle of the night, and became a monastic disciple of Jhaveras¯agara at a village called Limbdi in Gujarat. He was sixteen years of age at that time (Shah 2002:340). However, his in-laws forced him back by filing a complaint against him with the police. According to local laws,

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the judge instructed him to return to his family because becoming an ascetic before adulthood was illegal. He returned to his family and started fully indulging in his household life with his wife. However, his father allowed him to renounce during a trip to Ahmedabad after he turned seventeen. He returned to Limbdi and took the monastic initiation from the same guru Jhaveras¯agara. In less than a year, just before his guru passed away, Hemachandra was sent under the mentorship of another guru Siddhivijaya. His formal ascetic initiation occurred under Kamalavijaya, and his new name was Anands¯agar.

Life as a Monk Anands¯agar’s notable earliest four-month retreats were at Ahmedabad in Gujarat. He went to Udaipur, where he continued his studies under Yati Alamchand. He eventually started studying the scripture Dashavaik¯alika Sutra on his own. Meanwhile, in Pali, Rajasthan, image-worshiping Jains invited Alamchand to preach there, but he recommended Anands¯agar’s name to the Pali congregation due to his inability to move. When the community invited him to Pali, he decided to stay for his annual rainy season retreat. Despite his early age and skinny physique, his oratory skills impressed everybody. He delivered discourses on Sth¯an¯an˙ ga S¯utra and underscored the need for image worshiping to practice Jainism (Shah 2002:345). His retreat was completed without interruption from the rival subsect of non-image-worshiping Jains. As his name spread across the region, Jains from Sojat invited him for the next annual retreat, so he stayed in that town. Here, he got the news that his father, Maganl¯ala Gandhi, had become a monk, following in both his sons’ footsteps. After receiving this news, he returned to Gujarat to meet his father. The newly became monk father and his monk sons met at Petlad, Gujarat, and soon after that, the father passed away due to old age and sickness. After the funeral rites for his father, he spent his annual retreat at Petlad, where he preached on Sam . vatsar¯ı, the Jain festival of forgiveness. He visited Chhani, where he studied Jain logic with other scholars. This study sharpened the argumentative skills that helped him win debates with rival Jain and Hindu scholars. As he became renowned in the area, Jains from Khambhat invited him, where his next annual retreat happened with tremendous success (Shah 2002:348). Afterward, his next retreat was at Sanand, and the next three occurred in three other towns in Gujarat. Here, he discussed various subjects with another scholar Pan.ny¯asa Nemivijaya, also known as Vijaynemi S¯ur¯ı. He memorized 500 verses daily and became a scholar of grammar, logic, poetics, and Jain scriptures with his monastic colleague Nemivijaya. In 1899–1900 CE, Western India was under a severe drought known as Chhapaniy¯a Duk¯ala. In that tough time, he encouraged setting up a relief fund. His next retreat was in Bhavnagar, and the next was in Ahmedabad. In 1903, the Ahmedabad Jain community honored him with the Pan.ny¯asa (scholar) title with support from Pan.ny¯asa Nemivijaya. Later, he moved to Pethapur, Kapadvanj, Bhavnagar, and then back to Ahmedabad. By this time, he was well-known across Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh as S¯agar¯ananda S¯ur¯ı or S¯agarj¯ı Mah¯ar¯aj.

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His following invitation came from Surat for his next annual retreat. His stay in Surat was another significant success. Thousands of people came from distant places to attend his discourses. With the significant public demand, his next retreat also happened in Surat. He delivered daily speeches at various locations in Surat that helped spread his name and Jain teachings widely. It was in Surat that he started emphasizing the publishing of Jain scriptures for the first time. Certain Jain monks initially opposed the publication efforts but soon realized the published texts’ availability, convenience, and accuracy. The Jain society noticed his extraordinary efforts to discover and publish ancient manuscripts. In 1907 CE, Gul¯abachanda Jhaveri donated 100,000 rupees and established the Devchand L¯albh¯ai Jain Pustakoddh¯arak Fund. Anands¯agar meticulously managed the publication process of more than 175 manuscripts in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Hindi, and Gujarati. He spent six months comparing its various versions in different manuscripts and their associated commentaries (Shah 2002:355). His original works include over 125 in Sanskrit and 225 in Gujarati; a few are yet to be published. He edited 173 Jain scriptures with about 800,000 verses, translated more than 200,000 verses, and published new Jain texts with more than 70,000 verses. He wrote new commentaries with over 15,000 verses from 80 Jain scriptures with 40,000 pages of commentaries in Gujarati. He led seven discourse series based on these scriptures, each for six months. He created scriptural replicas in stone, marble, and copper. From 1914 to 1920, he shared scriptural knowledge with more than 250 Jain monks and more than 125 nuns in Patan, Kapadvanj, Surat, Ahmedabad, Palitana, and Ratlam (Shah 2002:356). For centuries, such scriptural knowledge was verbally transferred from generation to generation. Still, Anands¯agar pioneered the effort to ensure that all such knowledge should be appropriately published and preserved for subsequent centuries. He was referred to as Agama Uddh¯araka (Uplifter of the Jain Scriptures) (Flügel 2017:373; Dundas 2002:78). He was honored with the ¯ arya in Surat in 1917 CE in the presence of another Ach¯ ¯ arya Vijaykamal title of Ach¯ S¯ur¯ı and thousands of other Jains. After this ceremony, his next retreat was in Mumbai, after which he returned to Surat for his next retreat. Once he saw a torn palm-leaf manuscript and realized its fragility, he thought of preserving the Jain scriptures in the style of the edicts of Ashoka that continue to survive even after 2000 years. He pioneered the establishment of the Agama Mandir (Scripture Temple) in Palitana in 1942 CE. Unlike the Digambara scriptures that are ´ ambara scriptures permanently, so he arranged to now lost, he wanted to preserve Svet¯ carve texts and other historical information in this temple. He and his disciples stayed in Palitana for three annual retreats and supervised hundreds of artisans carving 334 ´ ambara scriptures. A total of 180 images edicts on the stone to depict all 45 Svet¯

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of the Jinas, the omniscient ones, were also established with other cosmological and genealogical details from the Jain history. The two temples there were named ´ Jain¯agam Vardham¯an Mandir and Sri ´ Siddhachakra Gan.adhar Mandir. This Sri grand temple’s inauguration was celebrated for thirteen days, with elaborate rituals attended by thousands of laypeople and ascetic Jains from across the country (Shah 2002:370). Afterward, he moved to Kapadvanj and accepted the invitation to his next retreat there. His health started deteriorating here, but he gave ample time to a scholar from Varanasi for detailed discussions. From here, he moved to Mumbai and then back ´ Vardham¯an Jain T¯amrapatr¯agam Mandir was to Surat. In 1948, another temple Sri built in Surat with 120 images of the omniscient Jinas and 334 copper-plate carvings of 45 scriptures. It had a 45-inch image of Mah¯av¯ıra with 45 stairs leading up to the image. The temple had different pictorial depictions of the life events of fordmakers and printed scriptures. The temple was completed in just nine months by more than 100 volunteers, and it contained a section introducing his scholarly contributions. Also, Jain¯anand Pustak¯alay, a Jain library, was established in Surat (Shah 2002:373). The Jain community in Surat spent more than 500,000 rupees despite World War II’s difficulties during that time. He also oversaw more temple inaugurations in the same period. In addition to the work mentioned above, he also worked for other social causes, such as helping needy people during drought and famine. He also organized the Jain community to protect the ancient Jain pilgrim center, Shikharji, Bihar, and ´ Anandji ¯ saved it from being taken over by the British Raj. Sri Kaly¯an.aji Pedhi started maintaining it with regular donations. This same organization also helped raise 120,000 rupees, and 4000 gold coins were paid for the Palitana temple’s maintenance. He was also involved in dealing with Mundk¯a Varo, the tax on pilgrims coming to Palitana imposed by the local ruler (Shah 2002:363). Responding to the Jain community’s complaint, the British Raj increased the annual fees for the pilgrims to 60,000 rupees annually. The Jains stopped their pilgrimage to Palitana until he intervened and raised 1.2 million rupees from wealthy Jains in Ahmedabad. The annual interest from this fund was used to pay for the British Raj’s yearly fees. The pilgrimage tax was abolished after Indian independence in 1947 (Shah 2002:363).

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¯ arya S¯agar¯ananda S¯ur¯ı 12 Ach¯

Around the same time, he awarded various titles to his chief disciple M¯an.ikyas¯agar S¯ur¯ı who eventually became his successor. After his next retreat in Jamnagar, he returned to Surat and organized a comprehensive meeting of various Jain organizations he had founded. After his Surat retreat, he returned to Ahmedabad, where another session of more than 425 Jain ascetics was co-led by him and his longtime colleague Vijaynemi S¯ur¯ı. When two senior monks left, he visited both and ensured they joined the meeting again in the middle of the proceedings. This meeting went on for 34 days and passed resolutions unanimously. This unity among the imageworshiping Jains helped the community, including the conduct of the ascetics and other controversial issues such as ascetic initiations to children (Shah 2002:365). To resolve the issue of child ascetic initiation, he sought a meeting with Sayajirao Gaekwad, the Maharaja of Vadodara State. However, instead of keeping the appointment, Gaekwad skipped the meeting and went away from Vadodara. He continued his ascetic life and moved to Mehsana and Palitana for his following retreats. In Palitana, he declared M¯an.ikyas¯agar to be his successor. His following two retreats occurred in Jamnagar. In addition to Ahmedabad, Surat, and Palitana, Jamnagar also emerged as a significant town where he developed socioreligious organizations. He played a crucial role in the court case about the Antarikshji Jain Temple at Shirpur in Maharashtra. He did not want any punishment for the people who had attacked him. Impressed by his kindness, the British judge honored him and met him to discuss religious topics. He moved to Yavatmal and then back to Surat for his following two retreats. In Surat, he continued publishing Jain scriptures and established Jain Tattvabodh P¯athash¯al¯a. His following retreats were at Khambhat, Chhani, ¯ and Patan. From Patan, he led pilgrims to Bhoyani, Gujarat, where Agamodaya Samiti, with local scholars, was established. This organization continued publishing Jain scriptures at a subsidized cost. He spent his following annual retreats in Ratlam and Sailana in Madhya Pradesh. In Sailana, inspired by his discourses, the local ruler Dilip Singh prohibited hunting to promote nonviolence across his kingdom and honored him with the title of Sail¯an¯a Nare´s Pratibodhak. He also renovated the Bhopavar Jain temple in Madhya Pradesh. Like other Jain ascetics, he marched widely across North India. During his visit to Varanasi, he gave Sanskrit lectures on Sy¯adv¯ada at Banaras Hindu University. He delivered discourses in cities such as Kanpur and Lucknow and then went to Shikharji, Bihar. He accepted the invitation from Kolkata and gave speeches in Hindi ´ Man.ivijayji Jain Jñ¯ana there during his next annual retreat. Here, another library Sri Bhan.d¯ar was constructed with the donation of 100,000 rupees from a layperson. His visit to Kolkata paved the way for future Jain events and visits by other saints. From here, he visited Murshidabad and then Azimganj. Here, he stayed for his next retreat and initiated two brothers into ascetic life in 1925 CE, a rare event in that region after centuries. From Bengal, he moved to Sadri, Rajasthan. He visited Kesariy¯aji, renovated that temple, visited Udaipur and Ahmedabad, and then returned to Surat after fifteen years. ´ ambara Conference challenged the ascetic pracThere a new organization Jain Svet¯ tices in Jainism. To counter their materialistic propaganda, he established three new ¯ adhak Sam¯aj, Youngman Society, and Navapad organizations, De´saviratidharma Ar¯

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Ar¯adhak Sam¯aj. In a similar vein, he protested that a drama company Navayug N¯atak Sam¯aj was mocking the Jain asceticism with their drama Ayogya D¯ıks.a¯ . Later, he started a journal called Siddhachakra to continue responding to various criticism against Jain traditions. In 1949, owing to his health, he settled down in Surat, where he authored four ¯ adhan¯a M¯arga. In 1950, in the volumes of Alpaparichit Saiddh¯antik Kos.a and Ar¯ presence of his successor M¯an.ikyas¯agar S¯ur¯ı and other ascetic disciples, more than 100 monks, and more than 300 nuns, he peacefully performed his last Santh¯ar¯a fast for almost fifteen days in the yogic lotus position and then left his body in 1950 CE. The entire Surat city was closed in mourning and joined the last procession before the funeral rites next to the Agam Mandir in the presence of hundreds of ascetics. A new Guru Mandir was built at that site with his image.

Epilogue: Ancient Modernity of Jainism Today

As I shared the manuscript of this book with an American scholar of Jainism, he was surprised to see scant academic references for the saints whose biographies I have presented in this book. Indeed, most figures are little known in Western academia, hence this book. This project comes to fruition after several visits to various Indian towns and villages associated with these Jain ascetics, including New Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Ahmedabad, Indore, Varanasi, Hastinapur, Ayodhya, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Pali, Mohankheda, Songadh, Shikharji, Rajgir, Pawapuri, Girnar, and Mangi Tungi. In the third decade of the twenty-first century, Jains and Jainism continue to appear in Indian media for various reasons. On January 25, 2023, an eight-year-old girl Devanshi Sanghvi renounced her parents’ multi-million-dollar diamond business and became a Jain nun.1 This book starts with Jain asceticism powerfully exemplified by the illustrious saints in various Jain sects and subsects. As the world leapfrogs to more technological, economic, and worldly pursuits, Jains continue to celebrate their historical and contemporary renunciatory role models. Although adolescents turning to asceticism can be criticized, Jains continue to support it, citing the infinite cycle of rebirth. The accumulated sam . sk¯aras, spiritual and psychological imprints, over previous lifetimes can put a person on a fast track to asceticism and eventual liberation. Also, in January 2023, thousands of Jains took to the streets in various Indian cities to protect their most important pilgrimage towns. In the first such massive demonstration, Jains demanded that their pilgrimage town not be defiled either by declaring them as tourist destinations, potentially entailing the sale of alcohol and meat, prohibited in Jainism. The government accepted the Jains’ demands quickly.2 Many Jain saints presented in this book also worked to protect and preserve various Jain sites in their lifetimes. Jains share various cultural and social practices with their 1

https://www.timesnownews.com/spiritual/indian-diamond-heiress-devanshi-sanghvi-renouncesher-wealth-what-taking-dikhsa-in-jainism-means-article-97301219 (accessed January 30, 2023). 2 https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/centre-stays-all-tourism-activities-at-holy-jain-site-sam med-shikharji-in-jharkhand/cid/1908031 (accessed January 30, 2023). © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1

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Hindu counterparts, as the 2021 Pew Research Report noted.3 However, many Jains continue to promote Jainism as a distinct Indian tradition needing wider attention and even protection, especially since 2014 when the Indian government granted it a minority status,4 as the recent protests demonstrate. Although Jain saints presented in this book remain unmatched in their scholarly and other contributions, contemporary Jain saints and laypeople remain steadfast in their attempts to preserve their sacred places and scriptures, following in the footsteps of the legendary fordmakers and other role models. The rigorous Jain scholarly work may have slowed down in the twenty-first century. Still, the preservation of past accomplishments remains close to the Jains’ hearts worldwide, as most noticeably seen in North America and Europe, with dozens of academic centers established to research and teach Jainism, all established with the donations of the Jain diaspora there. In India, the Jain focus is still the reverence for their ascetics and the preservation of their pilgrimage centers, as noted throughout the book, in recent movies, and the news media.

3

https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/08/17/6-facts-about-jains-in-india/ (accessed Jan 22, 2023). 4 https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jains-granted-minority-status/article5598368.ece (accessed Jan 23, 2023).

Appendix

Jains as Portrayed in Contemporary Films

Rahul Parson5 notes, “In both literary and Jain studies, there has been comparatively scant research exploring contemporary literary expression by Jain writers or works with Jain characters.” Let us survey films with characters that are either Jains or inspired by Jainism. One of the latest visual references to Jainism was in Laal Singh Chaddha (2022), the Indian adaptation of the American film Forrest Gump (1994). In the climactic sequence, the male protagonist runs across the Jain Ghat in the pilgrimage city of Varanasi, highlighting the Jain emphasis on nonviolence and vegetarianism, the two most widely known concepts and practices associated with Jainism. Another Hindi film, Baazaar (Market, 2018), starts with the protagonist stock trader taking part in the annual Jain festival of forgiveness, Sam . vatsari, as his wife helps the police arrest him for financial fraud. Many Indians would readily agree with the stereotype of wealthy Jains with a few scammers in the stock market. The most significant portrayal of modern Jainism is in the film Ship of Theseus (2012), an anthology of three plots, with the second plot showing the life and principles of a Jain monk. Here, we get an insider’s perspective of his nonviolent fight against animal testing and medicines. However, the climax has him succumbing to his severely detrimental health. How far can even the Jain ascetics avoid the pressure of modern medications, primarily based on animal testing involving violence? This film’s first part also indirectly refers to Jainism’s Anek¯antav¯ada when it nudges the audience to develop multiple perspectives instead of a unilaterality. Eight minutes into the American film New York, I Love You (2008), the camera pans away from right to left on the red neon sign 47th Street Diamond Exchange. The male protagonist introduces himself as a Jain diamond trader with a strict vegetarian diet, and his wife has returned to India to become a Jain nun. This conversation hints that most diamond traders are Jains, and that asceticism is still an accepted and respected practice within the Jain community. Although Jains rarely appear in a reel

5

https://papers.aarweb.org/paper/novelistic-anek%C4%81ntav%C4%81da-and-jains-contempor ary-hindi-literature-1 (accessed September 4, 2022). © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1

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(film), they dominate certain aspects of Indian society, e.g., the diamond trade. Let us survey references to Jains or Jainism in cinema. One of the most successful Indian films, Baahubali (2015), with its sequel (2017), is vaguely based on a Jain legend of the rivalry between the two sons of the first Jain t¯ırtha˙nkara, fordmaker.6 One of the chariots depicted in the movie with a revolving discus matches the description from the Jain texts.7 B¯ahubal¯ı is the name of one of the world’s tallest monolithic statues in Shravanabelagola in the Karnataka state of India. B¯ahubal¯ı, the strong-armed hero, is the name of the second son of the first ¯ atha).8 Rachel Dwyer (2006:141) notes Jain fordmaker R.s.abha (also known as Adin¯ that Do Aankhen Barah Haath (two eyes and twelve hands, 1957) is the earliest example of making a vague reference to Jainism. This film’s protagonist, jailer ¯ atha (another name of the first Jain fordmaker R.s.abha as seen above), reforms Adin¯ six criminals by teaching them agriculture. The Jains revere their first fordmaker, ¯ atha, not only as a teacher of spirituality and nonviolence but also as the pioneer Adin¯ teacher of seventy-two other arts and skills, including defense, writing skills, agriculture, and commerce. V. Shantaram, the filmmaker and the actor playing the role ¯ atha, may have been aware of the Jain fordmaker since he was born in a of Adin¯ Jain family (Dwyer 2009:148).9 In addition to the above films, important documentaries depict the Jain ascetics and laypeople. One such film is Ahims¯a (nonviolence), which was shown on the American channel PBS on Christmas Day in 1987. The film 6

Twenty-four legendary people who attained moks.a (spiritual liberation) and organized the Jain society into congregations of ascetics and laypeople. 7 Some Jains took legal issue with the film’s portrayal of violence being connected to Jainism known for its nonviolence. https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/baahubalijain-mutt-legal-notice-ss-rajamouli-prabhas-rana-daggubati/articleshow/28523431.cms (accessed Jan 2020). 8 According to the Sanskrit Jain text Adipur¯ ¯ an.a (Granoff 1993:208–244), R.s.abha’s oldest son Bharata wanted to rule over the entire empire. All the other 98 brothers became Jain ascetics except his youngest brother B¯ahubal¯ı who rejected this request to accept Bharata as the undisputed emperor over the whole empire. Then, Bharat invaded Bahali, the kingdom of B¯ahubal¯ı, and both armies indulged in a fierce battle. To avoid the bloodshed, B¯ahubal¯ı challenged Bharata to a decisive duel. In a series of one-on-one battles, B¯ahubal¯ı defeated Bharata. Enraged by the defeat, Bharata launched a magical discus on B¯ahubal¯ı. B¯ahubal¯ı first wanted to react angrily but avoided hurting his older brother. The discus circumambulated B¯ahubal¯ı and boomeranged back to Bharata. B¯ahubal¯ı emerged victoriously and raised his arm to strike at Bharata. However, he remembered the nonviolent legacy of his father, forced his arm to cut his hair, and became a Jain ascetic. B¯ahubal¯ı then started the extreme penance and stood for one year in meditation in a forest (depicted in statues built across India). When Bharata came and worshipped him, B¯ahubal¯ı attained omniscience and became a liberated being. Today, out of the two sects of Jains, Digambaras (sky-clad) worship B¯ahubal¯ı more ´ et¯ambara (white-clad). than the other sect Sv¯ 9 The film’s plot is inspired by a real-life scenario of an attempt to reform criminals (Mishra 2006) by a jailor who kept them in an “open prison.” V. Shantaram never referred to Jainism in his other films. Rajshri Productions and Venus movies, two other prolific film making companies owned by two different Jain families have also avoided referencing Jainism or Jains in their films. Chhupa Rustam (1973) mentions its heroine belonging to a Jain family but does not show anything else related to the religion or culture of Jainism. Other Jain film makers such as Chandulal Jain, Sanjay Leela Bhansali, and Kamal Jain also avoided showing anything related to Jains or Jainism in all their films.

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depicted glimpses from dozens of Jain temples, urban centers, and animal shelters with interviews of Jain ascetics and other leaders. Another Indian documentary, On an Express Highway (2003), portrays the life of a Jain woman who renounces her worldly life and becomes a nun. Overall, the little screen space that Jains receive in mainstream Indian films indicates little attention Jainism receives despite the prominent positions Jains continue to occupy both inside the film industry and outside. Edward Said (1979) examined Hollywood and discovered orientalist perspectives on Middle Eastern cultures. The virtual absence of Jainism in Indian cinema demonstrates that Jainism is often subsumed under Hinduism even by Jain filmmakers, e.g., V. Shantaram10 and the Barjatya family.11

10

https://www.jainsamaj.org/content.php?url=v._shantaram_:_renowned_indian (accessed September 5, 2022). 11 https://www.jainsamaj.org/content.php?url=sooraj_r._barjatya_:_trend (accessed September 5, 2022).

Glossary

A Abhavya One who is incapable of attaining moks.a Abhigraha Resolution Abhiks.n.a-Jñ¯anopayoga Ceaseless pursuit of the right knowledge Abhipsita Desirable Abhiseka Anointing ceremony Abhyasta Habituated Abhyuhana Process of understanding Acaksurdarsana Perception using the senses other than visual ¯ ara Conduct Ach¯ ¯ arya Head of a mendicant group; spiritual leader; monk-scholar Ach¯ ¯ arya-bhakti Devotion to Ach¯ ¯ aryas or Heads of the Orders of Saints Ach¯ Achetanatva Unconsciousness Adama-nirjar¯a Equanimous submission to the fruition of karma Adana-niksepana-samiti Care in the picking up and putting down of any object Adattadana-virati Not accepting something which is not given; identical to asteyavrata Adeya Impressive; an appearance that may affect others Adharma Principle of Rest Adharma-dravya The principle of rest Adhigama preaching of another Adhigamaja Grahita Adhikarana Dependence Adhikaraniki-kriy¯a having weapons of hurtfulness Adho-loka The lower world, the home of infernal beings Adhyavasaya Determinate cognition Adhyayana Lecture Advaita Non-dual; cap, the monistic school of Ved¯anta © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 P. Jain, Modern Jainism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2485-1

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Glossary

¯ Agama Scripture; canonical literature, Verbal testimony ¯ Agamika Non-repetitive Agari Householders (laypeople) Agh¯atiya Karmas that generate embodiment and particular conditions thereof, nondestructive karmas Agni Fire Agurulaghu Nor heavy light; neither too heavy to move nor too light to have stability Agurulaghutva Capacity by which one attribute or substance does not become another and the substance does not lose the attributes whose grouping forms the substance itself, Individuality, The quality of constancy in space-points Ahampratyaya Self-awareness ¯ ara Agrahya- Vargan¯a Assimilation-unreceivable-molecule Ah¯ ¯ ara-Vargan¯a Assimilation-molecule for food Ah¯ ¯ araka Assimilative, the spiritual man-like emanation from the head of a saint in Ah¯ doubt, in the sixth spiritual stage ¯ araka Mi´sra Assimilative with physical Ah¯ ¯ araparyapti Taking morsels of food Ah¯ ¯ aryaprasanjana Determinate concomitant Ah¯ ¯ aryaropa Determinate concomitant Ah¯ ¯ aniya-Agni One of the sacred fires in the Hindu Srauta ´ Ahv¯ ritual Ahims¯a Non-harming Ahims¯avrata Refraining from harming Ailak The highest state of a Digambara layman, wherein he retains only one piece of clothing Aj¯ıva Insentient, non-living, which is not a soul Ajna-vyapadiki-kriy¯a Misinterpreting the scriptural injunctions Ajñ¯ana Ignorance–nivartaka–remover, erroneous belief caused by ignorance Indiscrimination of good and bad Ajñ¯anav¯ada Agnosticism Ajñ¯anika Agnostic Everything is not knowable, which is one of the general attributes of all substances Ajnavicaya Contemplation on the teachings of Jina Akama-nirjar¯a Equanimous submission to the fruition of karma ¯ asa Space Ak¯ ¯ ashaya Quasi-passions; slight or minor passions Ak¯ Akincitkara Immaterial Akrandana weeping Akriy¯avada Doctrine of non-action Akriy¯avadi Opposite of Kriy¯av¯adi, e.g., the soul does nothing, which undermines all truth Aksa An organ of sense Aksara Alphabet Aksata Uncooked rice Akshaya-Tritiya The “immortal third,” a Jain holiday Alarikara Ornamentation

Glossary

157

Alocana Critical self-examination Intuitional cognition Aloka Non-Universe Aloka-akasa Space without any soul or living being Alokitapana-bhojana Thoroughly seeing to one’s food and drink Amanaska Without mind Amari Prohibition of animal sacrifice Amla Acid Amsavatara A minor incarnation of Vis.n.u Amudha drishtitva Free from superstitious belief Amudhadrsti Freedom from delusory notions Amurtatva Along with Achetanatva, it is familiar with Space, Motion, Rest, and Time.Along with Chetanatva is a common attribute of the class of substance Anabhoga Putting down a thing where it ought not to be put Anabhoga-kriy¯a Indifference in dropping things or throwing oneself down upon the earth, i.e., without seeing whether it is swept or not Anabhyupagata Unproved Anadeya Non-impressive; dull appearance Anadhyavasaya Indecision Anadhyavasita Neither known An¯adi Having no beginning An¯adinidh¯ana Without a beginning and end Anagara Houseless, ascetic Anagara-dharma Mendicant discipline Anaik¯antika Inconclusive Anaik¯antikatva Inconclusiveness An¯ak¯anksh¯a-kriy¯a Disrespect for scriptural injunctions out of vice or laziness An¯ak¯aropayoga Formless conscious activity Anaksara Non-alphabet Ananta-sukha Infinite bliss Anantadharma Infinite aspects Anantajñ¯ana Infinite knowledge; a synonym for Keval Jñ¯ana Anantanu-Vargan¯a Infinite-atoms-molecule Anant¯anubandhi Error feeding, right-belief preventing passions Anantanubandhi-kas¯aya Passions that “Pursue from the limitless past,” preventing the attainment of samyak-darsana Anantaviryatva Infinite energy Ananugamika Non-following Ananvaya Lacking positive concomitance Anarpitabh¯asa False unimplied point of view Anarpitanaya Unimplied viewpoint Anartha danda-vrata Taking a vow not to commit purposeless sin Anarthadandavrata Refraining from the five minor types of evil activity Ana´sana Fasting Anatar¯aya Obstructive

158

Glossary

Anek¯antav¯ada The doctrine of manifold aspects Anekatva Multiplicity Anga Limb, a group of twelve Jain canonical texts Angab¯ahya The subsidiary canon Anga Puj¯a Veneration of the limbs of the Angopanga Limbs and minor limbs Anigraha Free from defect Anindriyaja Non-sensuous, not caused by senses Anirakrta Not refuted Anisrita Independent Anitya Impermanent Anitya Anupreksh¯a Everything is subject to change or transitory transitoriness Anityav¯ada Noneternalism Anivartin That state from which there is no returning Anivrtti-Karana The process of suppressing certain mohaniya karmas Anrita Falsehood Antar-muhurta A period of up to forty-eight minutes Antara-bhava The state of existence between death and rebirth Antar¯atman The state of perceiving the self within Antar¯aya The inflow of obstructive karma Obstructive Antar¯aya-karma Karma restricts the energy quality of the soul Antarjalpa Inward repetition Antarmuhurtta For a moment Antarmuhurttika A period of fewer than forty-eight minutes Antar Vyapti Internal concomitance Antyesti-kriy¯a Funeral rites Anu Atom; an indivisible particle of matter Anu Vargan.a Atom Anu-Vratas Five minor vows Anubh¯aga Intensity of fruition Anubhava Experience, the retribution of karma, intensity Anubhaya-mana Neither true nor false Anubhaya-vachana Neither true nor false Anubhuta Cognized, felt Anugamika (Avadhijnna) Following Anug¯amin Following Anukamp¯a Compassion Anum¯ana Inference Anum¯anika Inferential Anumati-ty¯aga Preparatory to the monk’s life, gradually giving up the world and retiring to a quiet place to become fit to be a teacher of the path to liberation Anumatity¯aga-Pratim¯a The tenth stage in which a layperson refrains from all household activities

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159

Anumiti Inference Anupalambha Non-observation Anupatta Matter which is not taken in by the soul Anupayoga Not in actual use Anupayukta Without attention Anupreks¯a Reflection, twelve kinds of meditation Anupurvi Migratory form; the power of retaining the form of the last incarnation during transmigration, i.e., in the passage from one to another condition of existence

B Badara Gross (body) Badha Depriving of vitality Badhita-Visaya Subject being hindered Bahir¯atman (Perceiving) The self in externals Bahirvyapti External concomitance Bahu-shruta-bhakti Devotion to Up¯akhy¯ayas or teaching Saints Bahuvidh¯a (Matijñ¯ana) Multiplied Bala tapa austerities not based on the proper knowledge B¯alabhadra A Jain literary type, the hero and companion of N¯ar¯ayana Balatapa Austerities are not based on the right knowledge Banda Bound Bandha The attracted matter had become a part of our body, i.e., when it has become bound to the soul as the body is already bound to it; Bondage, Karmic bondage, The matter comes and binds the Soul Bandhana Bondage is molecular bondage, Energy that brings about karmic influx< Bhagavan Venerable Bhaikshya-shuddhi Purity of alms, according to the scriptures Bhajana Option Bhakti Devotion Bhanga Infractions committed intentionally, one of the sevenfold ways of statement Bh¯as¯a Language Bh¯as¯a-Samiti Care in speaking Bh¯as¯a Agrahya-Vargan.a Speech-unreceivable-molecule Bh¯as¯a-Vargan.a Speech-molecule Bh¯asya Commentary Bhat.t.a¯ raka Venerable ones; a class of Jain clerics Bh¯ava Function, Internal; states of a dravya; a synonym for pary¯aya Bhava-j¯ıva The real symbol of the soul Bhava-puj¯a The internal aspect of a devotional practice Bhava-samyaktva The internal aspect of true insight ¯ ar¯anga-Sutra Bh¯avan¯a Meditation, Practice; a section of the Ach¯

160

Glossary

Bhavanav¯asi Those (gods) who reside in mansions Bhavasruta Real functioning knowledge Bhavatmaka Real Bhavatva Real Bh¯avollasa Aroused emotions Bhavya One who can attain moks.a Bhavyatva The capability of attaining moks.a Bhaya Fear Bheda Disjunction Bheda-vivaksa Desired difference Bheda-vrtti Attitude of difference Bhedopac¯ara Secondary use of difference Bhekta-pana Mixing up food and drink Bhiksu-Pratim¯a Difficult austerities recommended for a mendicant Bhirutva Praty¯akhy¯ana Abandonment of cowardice or fear Bhoga Enjoyment; experience Bhoga Antar¯aya Obstruction of enjoyment of non-consumable things, karma restricting the enjoyment Bhoga-Bhumi Realm of enjoyment Bhogopabhaga-parimanavrata Restraint against practicing certain professions and partaking in certain foods Bhojan-Kath¯a Food Bhumi Realm Bhuta-Anukamp¯a compassion for all living beings Bhutacatustaya Division of four matters Bija Seed Bijapuraka-kataha A seed-filled fruit used for medicinal purposes Bodhi Enlightenment Bodhi Durlabha Anupreksh¯a The rarity of the right path; difficulty in attaining the right belief, knowledge, and conduct Bodhi-durlabha The rarity of enlightenment Bodhisattva One who follows the career of a Buddha Bodiya Naked Brahmacharya Celibacy Brahmach¯ari Celibate one who has reached the seventh pratim¯a Brahmacharya-pratim¯a The seventh pratim¯a, in which absolute continence is observed Brahman The unitary absolute postulated by the Ved¯anta school Br¯ahmana (Brahman) A member of the priestly caste Brahmavrata Refraining from all illicit sexual activities

Glossary

161

C Chaitanya Consciousness Chaitya Temple Chaityav¯asi Temple-dweller Chakravart¯ın Universal monarch Chandana Sandalwood paste Charitra Conduct Charitra-mohaniya Conduct-deluding karmas Ch¯aru Graceful Chetanatva Along with Amurtatva is a common attribute of the class of substance, or group of attributes, called Soul Consciousness Chyavamana Negligent

D ´ Dakshina-Agni One of the sacred fires in the Hindu Srauta ritual D¯ana Charity, almsgiving D¯ana Antar¯aya Charity-Obstructive karma Dandin One who carries a staff Darsana Indeterminate intuition, faith Intuition; a system of philosophy; insight; perception Darsana-mohaniya Insight-deluding karmas Darsana-pratima The first step on the ladder of pratima Darsan¯avarniya Perception-obscuring karmas Darsantika Thesis Dar´sana Faith Dar´sana mohaniya right-belief-deluding karmic matter Dar´sana-kriy¯a infatuated desire to see a pleasing form Dar´sana-mohaniya Right-belief-deluding Dar´sana-Vishuddhi purity of right-belief Darsan¯avarniya Vision-obscuring Da´sa-dharma Ten forms of righteousness De´sa-Virata The fifth gun.asth¯ana where de´sa-virati is attained De´sa-virati The set of restraints prescribed for a Jain layperson De´san¯a-Labdhi Obtaining instruction in the Jain teachings De´savaka´sika Limiting the area of one’s movement De´sa-Katha Scandal De´savrata Taking a vow to limit worldly activity to fixed points for a brief period, for example, for one’s weekly or daily worldly activity Deva Celestial, heavenly beings, ultimate divinity Deva Anupurvi Celestial–migratory form

162

Glossary

Deva-Ayu Celestial-age-karma Deva-brahmana Divine brahman, i.e., a Jain brahman Deva-dusya Divine cloth; an intricately woven piece of cloth Deva-mudhat¯a Delusion about gods Deva-nik¯ayas The four orders of gods Dev¯agama The arrival of gods at a holy gathering Devaj¯ıva Soul of the god Devanupurvi The power of retaining the last form, whatever it was, in going to the celestial condition of existence Devapuj¯a Worship of the Tirthankaras Dev¯ayu Celestial age Dh¯aran.a¯ Retention Dharma Attribute, Holy law in Buddhist doctrine; righteousness, ten forms of observances, the principle of motion, true religion Dharma Svakhya Tattvanupreksh¯a Nature of Right-Path as said by the conquerors The true nature of Truth, i.e., the threefold path to liberation Dharma-Dravya The principle of motion Dharma-Kath¯a Religious tale Dharma-L¯abha Increase in righteousness Dharma-Svakhyatatva The true teachings of the Jinas Dharma-tirtha Holy path Dharmadhy¯ana Virtuous concentration Dharmin Subject Dhrauvya Continuance, permanence Dhruva (Matijñ¯ana) Constant Dhruva S´ unya ¯ – Vargan¯a Fixed-indifferent-molecule Dhruva Vargan¯a Fixed molecule Dhupa ¯ Incense Dhvani The word Dhy¯ana Concentration–internal austerity Meditation Digambara Sky-clad; the name of the Jain sect whose mendicants practice nudity Digha-tapassi One who engages in extended penances Digvrata Restriction on the distances a person may travel Taking a life-long vow to limit his worldly activity to fixed points in all ten directions: East, West, North, South, South-east, East-north, North-west, West-south, and Up and Down Diksa Initiation Dipa Lamp Divyadhvani Miraculous sound Dosa Imperfection Dravya Substance; external Dravya (Niksepa) Substance ¯ arya Dravya-Carya Nominal Ach¯ Dravya-mana Mind-qua-substance The physical basis of the mind Dravya-puja Form of worship employing external objects

Glossary

163

Dravya-samyaktva The external aspect of true insight Dravyadeva Substantial symbol of the god Dravyaj¯ıva Substantial soul Dravyaj¯ıvatva Substantial soul Dravyakalpan¯a Distinction of substance Dravyakriy¯a Pseudo-action Dravyanikaramba Substance transformed into sense-data Dravy¯artha Through the substance Dravy¯arthika Of the substance Dravy¯arthikabh¯as.a¯ False point of view on substance Dravy¯arthikanaya Point of the substance Dravy¯astikanaya Material point of view Dravy¯atmaka Substantial Dravyatva Capacity by which it is constantly changing in modifications Changeability Substantial soul Dravyendra Sense qua substance Drs.t¯anta Example Drst¯anta-dos.a Fallacy of example Duh-pramrishta Putting down a thing petulantly or peevishly Duh´sruti Reading or hearing bad books Duhsvara Harsh-voiced, noisy Dukha Pain Durbhaga unprepossessing, even though beautiful Durbhik´sa Famine Durgandha Evil-smelling; Mal-odorous Du´sama Unhappy Du´sama-Du´sama Extremely unhappy Dve´sa Hatred; aversion Dvija Twice born Dvindriya Two-sensed Dv¯ıpa Island

E Eka One; unitary Eka-ks.etravagaha Occupying the same locus Eka-sataka (Eka-phalaka) A mendicant who wears a single piece of cloth Ek¯anta Taking only one aspect of a many-sided thing, e.g., man is mortal and immortal, regarded from the point of view of body and soul, respectively: taking only one view Ek¯anta-Nitya Eternal Ek¯antav¯ada Extremism; absolutist doctrine

164

Glossary

Ek¯antav¯adin One who holds an absolutist doctrine Ek¯artha-samav¯ayin Co-inherent in the same substratum Ekatva Unity Ekatva Anupreks.a¯ Loneliness, I am the alone doer of my actions and the enjoyer of their fruits Ekatva Jñ¯ana Knowledge of oneness Ekendriya A being with only one (namely, the tactile) sense faculty; a synonym for sth¯avara beings Ennui dissatisfaction Es.an.a¯ -Samiti Care in accepting alms Eva An essential term in the formula of the sapta-bhangi-naya

G Gaccha A group of monks Gajanimilika Closing of eyes like an elephant Gandha Smell Gamika (Sruta) Scriptures containing repetitions Gan.a A residence unit for monks Gan.adhara A direct ascetic disciple of the Tirthankara Gandharva Celestial musician Gan.i-pidaga Basket of the gan.adharas, i.e., the Jain canon of scriptures Gan.in Leader of the order Garbha Conception G¯arhapaty¯agni One of the sacred fires of the Hindu s´rauta ritual Gati Birth, destiny, condition of existence Gau Cow (animal) or the action of going Ghana-Ambu Humid air Ghana-vata Dense air Ghat.an¯ama Name of pitcher Gh¯atikarman Destructive karmas Ghoratavassi One who practices severe austerities Gorji A term used for yati Gotra Exogamous groups Gotra-karma Karmas that determine environmental circumstances Granthi Knot Gumma A group of monks Gun.a Attribute, quality Gun.avratas Special vows relating to daily work, food, and enjoyment limit and determination Guna-adhiks.u The path of liberation Guna-´sabda Word indicating quality Gun.asth¯ana The fourteen stages of spiritual purification

Glossary

165

Gun.avratas Restraints that reinforce the practice of the an.uvratas Guni-Desa (Kaladigata) Territory of object Gupti Preservation, restraint Guru Heavy, Spiritual teacher Guru-mudhat¯ ¯ a False beliefs about teachers Guru-upasti Listening to and venerating teachers

I Idantollekha Indication Iha Speculation Indriya Sense organ ¯ Irya Care in walking ¯ Irya-Samiti Care in walking ¯ Iryapatha-kriy¯ a walking carefully, i.e., looking on the ground to protect living beings that may be trodden upon and thus injured The slightly bent region, the name of the final abode of the Isat-pragbhara-bhumi ¯ liberated souls [the siddhas] Is.t.a-devat¯a Chosen deity ¯svara God I´

J Jain Follower of Jina ´ asana The teaching by the Jains Jain-S¯ Jala Water Janma Birth Janma-kaly¯an.a Birth, one of the five auspicious events in the career of a Tirthankara Jar¯a Old age Jari´sabda Root word J¯ati Birth, caste, species within a gati J¯ati-karma The variety of n¯ama-karma that determines one’s specific destiny J¯ati-mantra The mantra used in celebrating the birth of a child Jayam¯al¯a Garland of victory, a hymn in praise of the Jinas Jigis.u Kath¯a A debate that is held for victory Jijñ¯as¯a Curiosity Jina Spiritual victor Jina-¯agama Jain scripture Jina-bimba Image of Jina Jina-n¯ama Name of Jina Jinakalpin A monk whose conduct is modeled upon that of Mah¯avira

166

Glossary

Jinasth¯apana Image of Jina J¯ıva Living, soul, sentient being J¯ıva K¯anda One of the Jain scriptures Jñ¯ana Knowledge Jñ¯ana-chetan¯a Consciousness characterized as knowing itself Jñ¯an¯anaya Point of view of knowledge Jñ¯an¯anayabh¯asa False point of view of knowledge Jñ¯anavaran.a Knowledge-obscuring Jñ¯anavaran.iya Knowledge-obscuring Jugups¯a Disgust, aversion Jyotiska The steller gods

K Kaivalya Pure knowledge K¯ala Time; periods within the progressive and regressive half-cycles; time as a dravya K¯al¯an.u Time-points K¯al¯atyayapadista Mistimed (contradicted) Kalp¯atita Born in the highest heavenly abodes Kalpopapanna Born in the kalpa heavens Kaly¯an.aka Auspicious moments Kapota-Le´sya Gray karmic strain K¯araka Case K¯aran.a (Hetu) Cause K¯aran.antarasakalya The cooperation of all other causes K¯aran.anupalabdhi Non-availability of the cause K¯aran.atva Causality K¯aran.ollekha Mention of instrument Karma Action Realm of action Karma-Bhumi ¯ Karma-Chetan¯a Consciousness of oneself as the doer of actions Karma-Phala-Chetan¯a Consciousness of oneself as the enjoyer of the karmic fruits Karma-Prakr.ti The form into which karmic matter is differentiated Karman (Karma) Action ´ Karman.a-Sarira The transmigrating body of karmic matter Karman.a-Vargan.a Karmic molecule K¯ars.a¯ pan.a Coin Kart¯a Agent, doer K¯arun.ya Pity, Compassion for the afflicted K¯arya Effect K¯aryanupalabdhi Non-availability of the effect Kas.a¯ ya Passions

Glossary

167

Kath¯a Narrative literature, talk, story Ka¸thora Hard Ka¸tuka Bitter ¯ ara Food in morsels; ordinary human food Kaval¯a-Ah¯ K¯ay¯a Body K¯ay¯a Kle´sa Mortification of the body, so long as the mind is not disturbed–external austerity K¯ayiki-kriy¯a a wicked man’s readiness to hurt others K¯ayotsarga Abandonment of the body, a standing or sitting posture of meditation Ke´sa-loca The practice of pulling out one’s hair in five handfuls Kevala (Jñ¯ana) Perfect knowledge Kevala-Dar´san¯avaran.a Perfect-conation-obscuring Kevala-jñ¯anavaran.a Perfect-knowledge-obscuring Kevaladar´sana Perception associated with kevalajñ¯ana Kevalajñ¯ana Knowledge isolated from karmic obstruction; infinite knowledge; omniscience; knowledge involving awareness of every existent in all its qualities and modes Kevalin One who has attained kevalajñ¯ana, a synonym for arhat Klis.yamaneshu The afflicted Komala Soft Krama Sequential Order Kramabh¯av¯ı Occurring successively Kramayaugapadya Simultaneity or order Kr.s.n.a Black Kriy¯a (Kalpan¯a) Activity Kriy¯a Naya Point of view of action Kriy¯anay¯abh¯asa False point of view of the action Kriy¯as Actions; sacred rites Kriy¯as´abda Root word Kriy¯av¯ad¯ı belief in time and soul, causing everything in the world All the substances perform their functions and become causes of different effects Krodha Anger Krodha-Praty¯akhy¯ana Giving up anger Kr.s.i Farming Kr.s.n.a-Le´sy¯a Black karmic stain Ks.am¯a Forgiveness ´ Ks.am¯a Sraman . a An ascetic who suffers with equanimity; title used in addressing a monk during the ritual of confession Ks.an.ika Momentary Ks¯anti Forbearance, forgiveness Ks.apan.a Destruction Ks.atriya Member of a warrior caste Ks.aya Destruction

168

Glossary

Ks¯ayika-samyak-dar´sana True insight achieved by the destruction of darsanamohaniya karmas Ks.ayopa´sama Cessation and subsidence of the karmic veil Ks.ayopa´sama-Labdhi Attainment of purity by the destruction and suppression of certain karmas Ks.ayopa´samika-samyaktva True insight achieved by the destruction and suppression of dar´sana-mohaniya karmas, identical to vedakasamyaktva Ks.etra Territory Ks.¯ın.a-moha Permanent dissociation from all charitra-mohaniya karmas and from the passions which they produce the twelfth gun.asth¯ana Ks.ipr¯a (Matijñ¯ana) Quick Ks.ullak Minor; junior monk; a Jain layman on the eleventh pratima; one who wears two pieces of clothing Kubjak Hunchback Kula Family ´ Kum¯ara-Sraman . a A life-long celibate Kun.d.alin¯ı-chakra Mystical centers of psychic energy Kut ¯ . astha-Nitya Eternal and unchangeable

L Labdhi Attainment Labdhi (Aks.ara-sruta) Potential auditory attainment Labdhi (Indriya) Sense qua attainment Labdhy¯aks.ara Potential auditory attainment Labha Attainment Labha-Antar¯aya Hindrance to the attainment of something Laghu Light Laukika Mundane Le´sy¯a Karmic stain indicating the soul’s digress from purity Linga Gender Lobha Greed Lobha-Praty¯akhy¯ana Giving up greed Loka Universe Loka Anupreks.a¯ Universe The nature of the Universe and its constituent elements in all their wide variety proving the insignificance and miserable nothingness of man in time and space ¯ as´a The inhabited universe Loka-Ak¯ Loka-mudhat¯a False beliefs about everyday religious practices

Glossary

169

M Madhu Honey Madhura Sweet Madhya-loka Middle of the terrestrial world Madhyasthya Tolerance or indifference to those who are uncivil or ill-behaved Madya Alcohol Mah¯a-Skandha-Vargan.a¯ Great-molecule–molecule Mah¯avira-Jayanti Birth anniversary of Mah¯avira Mah¯avrata The five great vows of a mendicant Maitr¯ı Benevolence for all living beings Mansa Flesh; meat M¯ana Movement by the mind, pride Manah-pary¯aya Psychic mode Manah-pary¯aya (Jñ¯ana) Telepathic intuition of the modes of other minds Manah-pary¯aya-dar´sana The intuition of the psychic mode Manahpary¯aya-Jn¯an¯avaran.a Mental-knowledge-obscuring Manahpary¯ayajñ¯ana Direct awareness of thought forms of others without the aid of mind or senses Manas Mind Manasatva Mental cognition M¯anastambha A characteristic Jain pillar Mano Agrahya-Vargan.a Mind-unreceivable-molecule Mano-Vargan.a Mind-molecule Manodravya Mind substance Manogupti Preservation of the mind Manojanya Born of mind Mantra Holy litany Manus.ya Human Manus.ya Anupurvi Human–Migratory form ¯ Manus.ya-Ayu Human-age-karma Manus.ya Human being Manus.ya-gati Human destiny M¯arga prabh¯avan¯a Propagation of the path of liberation Masi Ink; writing Mastak¯abhis.eka Head-anointing ceremony Mati (Jñ¯ana) Perceptual Mati-Jñ¯anavaran.a Sensitive-knowledge-obscuring Mati Jñ¯ana Mind-based knowledge Mulahetu ¯ Original cause M¯ay¯a Causes inflow of sub-human age karma, cheating others, preaching false doctrines, deceit M¯ay¯a-shalya The thorn of deceit M¯ay¯akriy¯a Deceitful disturbance of someone’s right knowledge and faith

170

Glossary

M¯ay¯av¯ada Illusionism Mithy¯a (Sruta) False Mithy¯adr.s.t.i Perverted vision Mithy¯a-´salya The thorn of the erroneous belief Mithy¯adar´sana Synonymous with mithy¯adr.s.t.i and mithy¯atva, erroneous belief Mithy¯atva Lack of insight, erroneous belief, mithy¯adar´sana Mithy¯atva-kriy¯a Action which strengthens the erroneous belief Mohan¯ıya Deluding Mohaniya-karma Karma prevents the true perception of reality and the purity of the soul; karma defiles the bliss-quality of the soul Moks.a Liberation, emancipation from the cycle of birth and death Moks.a-M¯arga The path of liberation Muh-Pa¸t¸ti A small piece of cloth worn over the mouth by Sth¯anakav¯as¯ı mendicants to protect air bodies from harm Mukta The Liberated Soul Mula ¯ Guna a kind of production of the dependence relating to the non-soul, i.e., of the body, speech, mind, and respiration Mulagun ¯ . as The eight basics restraints of a Jain layperson A group of texts belonging to the subsidiary canon Mula ¯ Sutra ¯ Muni Mendicant; sage Delusion Murccha ¯ Murtatva ¯ Along with Achetanatva, materiality

N Nabho-Vargan.a Sphere-molecule Naicayika Transcendental Naigama (Naya) Non-distinguished Naigam¯abh¯asa False point of view of the non-distinguished N¯ama (Niks.epa) Symbol of name N¯ama-karma Karma determining destinies and body types N¯amadinayasamud¯ayav¯ada Combination of the points of view of names N¯amadiniks.epa Symbols of names N¯amaj¯ıva Name symbol of the soul Namask¯ara-mantra Reverent salutation to the five categories of holy beings Namask¯ara Niks.epa Symbol of salutation N¯am¯atmaka Form of the name Napum . sakaveda Sexual cravings for a hermaphrodite Naracha-Samhanana Unbreakable joints and bones Naraka Hell; the world of infernal beings Hellish Naraka Anupurv¯ı Hellish–migratory form Narak¯ayu karma Hellish age karma N¯arak¯ı Hell beings

Glossary

171

N¯ar¯ayan.a A Jain literary type, the hero’s companion and slayer of the villain N¯astitva Non-existence; the second member of the sapta-bhangi-naya Naya Partial truth Nay¯abh¯asa False point of view Nayana Sight Nayav¯ada Doctrine of nayas Nayav¯akya Statement from the point of view Nichaih Vr.itti an attitude of humility toward one’s betters Nid¯ana Seeking worldly gain from the performance of virtuous deeds and austerities Nidhatti The energy that renders karmas incapable of all activity saves changes in fruition time and intensity Nidr¯a Sleep Nidr¯anidr¯a Deep sleep Nigamana Conclusion Nigantha Nirgrantha; Unattached, without possessions; ancient name for the Jain community Nigoda The lowest form of life Nigraha Defeat Proper control over mind, speech, and body Nigrahadhikaran.a Place for defeat Nigr.hita Defeated Nihk¯am . ks.ita Freedom from anticipation Nihks.epa (Niks.epa) The diverse ways of putting a thing Nihnava Falsehood, heresy Nihpratikara Unavoidable Nih´sankita Freedom from doubt Nikacana The energy that renders karmas incapable of all activity N¯ıla Blue Nila-Le´sy¯a Blue karmic stain Nimitta-K¯aran.a External efficient cause Nirvichikitsit¯a Free from repulsion from anything Nirakr.ta Refuted Niranvaya Discrete Nirjar¯a Dissociation of karmas, the gradual shedding of the matter already bound to the soul Nirjar¯a Anupreks.a¯ Shedding of the karmic matter from the soul Nirm¯an.a Formation of limbs and minor limbs concerning their situation and dimensions Nirn.itavipaks.avr.ttik¯a Whose existence in the heterologous is decisive Nirukti Etymology Nirvana Release from bondage; the final death of an enlightened human being (arhat) followed immediately by moks.a The place at which a Tirthankara attained Nirvana Nirv¯ana-Bhumi ¯ Nirvicikits¯a Freedom from disgust Nirvr.tt¯ındriya Physical sense-organ shaped like Kadamba flower Niryukti Prakrit verse commentary

172

Glossary

Nisarga inborn error Nisarga Kriy¯a Admiration of hurtful or unrighteous things Ni´schaya-Naya Non-conventional view Ni´schay¯abh¯asa The false point of view Ni´schita (Matijñ¯ana) Determined Nis.edha Negation Nis.edha Kalpan¯a Negative aspect Nis.edhasakhaka (Hetu) Which proves negation Nis.k¯anks.ita Free from worldly desire Nih´sankita Free from all doubt Nitya Eternal Nityav¯ada Eternalism Niyati Fate Niyativ¯ada Fatalism Nokas.a¯ ya Quasi-passions; slight or minor passions Nyag rodha pariman.d.ala Banyan-like; short in the lower but large in upper extremities like a banyan tree

P Pada Word Pad¯artha-pratibandha Indirectly connected with an object Padastha-dhy¯ana Concentration upon holy chants Padma-Le´sy¯a Lotus-pink karmic stain P¯aduk¯a Footprint Paindastha-dhy¯ana Concentration upon objects made up of the elements of matter Paks.a Thesis Paks.a-sadhya-samsarga Association of the subject with the probandum Paks.a-´suddhi Purification of the thesis Paks.abh¯ana Knowledge of the subject Paks.adharmat¯a (Paks.adharmatva) Subsistence in the subject Paks.ados.a The fallacy in the thesis Paks.avachana Statement of the subject Paks.¯ıya s¯adhya-s¯adhan¯a-sambandha Relationship of the probandum and the probans of the subject Pram¯an.a-Siddha Proved by a definite organ of knowledge Pancha-Kaly¯an.a The five auspicious events in the life of a Tirthankara; Mahotsava (the celebration of these events) Pancha-rupya Five characteristics Panchendriya Five-sensed P¯an.i-Patra Hand-bowl P¯apa Unwholesome karmas P¯apopade´sa Preaching sin to others

Glossary

173

Para (Samgraha Naya) Ultimate Para pra´sans¯a praising others Para-dravya The being, location, time, or state, respectively, of other objects Para-pratipatti Understanding of others Paragh¯ata Destructive; Possess a limb or organ fatal to others, such as a lion’s claws Param¯an.u Atom Param¯atman The liberated soul Parames.thin The supreme divinity Paramita Perfection Paraninda Speaking ill of others Par¯artha For others Par¯arthya Meant for others Para Samaya The tenets of others Paridevan¯a Painful moaning to attract compassion Parigraha Possession, worldly attachment Parigraha-ty¯aga Preparatory to the monk’s life, giving up the world and retiring to a quiet place to be a teacher of the path to liberation Parigrahaty¯aga-pratim¯a The ninth stage in which a layperson abandons the cares of possessions Parih¯ara-vi´suddhi Ideal and passionless conduct Par¯ıks.a¯ Examination Parin.a¯ ma Modification Parin.a¯ m¯ı-Nitya Eternal but constantly changing Parin.a¯ mika Existence of knowledge Parin.a¯ min Changing Paripurn.a (Naigama) Non-distinguished in general Par¯ıs.aha-Jaya Victory over the afflictions Par¯ıs.aha Sufferings Par¯ıs.aha-Jaya Sub-dual of sufferings Paritapiki-kriy¯a Anything causing mental pain Parivr¯ajaka A non-Jain mendicant Parm¯arthika (Pratyaks.a) Transcendental Paroks.a Indirect perception through the senses or inference Paroparodhakaran.a Residence where neither one prohibits others nor others prohibit one Pars¯ad gun.audbh¯avan¯a proclaiming the good qualities of others Pr.thv¯ı-Dh¯aran.a¯ Visualization of specific scenes through the earth element Parvan Jain holy days Pary¯apta Rational five-sensed, fully developable soul Pary¯apti Developable; capable of developing the body Pary¯aya Mode Pary¯ayarthik¯abh¯asa False point of view of a mode Pary¯ayastikanaya Point of view of the mode Paryus.an.a-Parva A seven- or ten-day holy period for fasting during the rainy season

174

Glossary

P¯as´avaccijja Those who follow the discipline of P¯ar´sva, the 23rd fordmaker Patra Bowl Paudgalika Material Phaddaga A group of monks Phala Fruit, result Pinchi A peacock-feather whiskbroom P¯ıta Yellow Pita-Le´sy¯a Yellow karmic stain Pitr.-loka World of the Manes Posadhopav¯asa The third s´iks.a¯ vrata and the fourth pratim¯a; fasting on the eighth and fourteenth days of each lunar fortnight Posaha´sa¯ l¯a Fasting hall Prabh¯avan¯a Illumination, propagation of the path of liberation Prachala Drowsiness Prachala-Prachala Heavy drowsiness Prade´sa Space-point; the amount of karma Prade´sa-bandha The number of molecules absorbed Prade´satva The capacity to have a location in space, spatiality Prados.iki-kriy¯a Tendency to accuse others in anger Prajñ¯a Wisdom Prakaran.asama (Hetv¯abh¯asa) Inconclusive Prak¯ırn.aka Miscellaneous; a group of Jain canonical texts; scattered stars Prakr.ti Original nature of mind and matter in the S¯am . khya doctrine; types of karma Pram¯ada Carelessness, negligence, carelessness, apathy Pram¯ada-Charitra Thoughtless or inconsiderate conduct, such as unnecessarily plucking flowers or breaking branches of trees Pram¯an.a Dimensions, organ of knowledge Pram¯an.a-prasiddhatva Proved Pram¯an.a-vikalpa-prasiddhatva Optionally proved Pram¯an.a-vikalpa-siddha Proved as well as optionally proved Pram¯anaikade´satva Cognizing a part of the organ of knowledge Pram¯an.av¯akya Statement of the organ of knowledge Praman.ya Validity Pram¯atr. The knower Pramatta-Virata Total restraint without overcoming pram¯ada, the sixth gun.asth¯ana Pram¯atva Organ of knowledge Prameya Subject Prameyatva The capacity to be known by someone or be the subject matter of knowledge Pramoda Delight at the sight of beings better qualified or more advanced than ourselves on the path of liberation Pr¯an.atipiki-kriy¯a Depriving another of vitalities of age, sense-organs, power, or respiration Prapyakarita Working in close contact Pr¯apyak¯aritva Contactory nature

Glossary

175

Pr¯arambha-kriy¯a Trying to persevere in one’s attachment to worldly belongings Prasama Ease Prasanga-vipary¯aya Perverted cause Pra´sna Question Pra´snade´sa Astrologer (who answers questions) Pra´snika Who asks question Prati-n¯ar¯ayan.a A Jain literary type, the villain Pratibandha Hindrance Pratih¯arya Miraculous phenomenon Pratikraman.a Ritualized confession Pratim¯as The eleven stages of the householder’s life Pratipatin (Avadhi) Extinguishing Pratis.edha Negation Pratis.edha-s¯adhaka (Hetu) Which proves something negative Pratis.edharupa ¯ (Hetu) Negative Pratisrika Each one of them Pratita Obstructed Prativ¯adin Opponent Pratyabhijñ¯a Recognition Praty¯akhy¯ana Renunciation of certain foods; one of the six a¯ va´sayakas (essentials) Praty¯akhy¯an¯avaran.iya Total-vow-preventing passions, including anger, pride, deceit, and greed Pratyaks.a Direct perceptual cognition Pratyaks.a viruddha Contradicted by perceptual cognition Pratyaks.agamya Perceived directly Pratyayiki-kriy¯a Inventing new sense-enjoyments Pratyeka Individual; solitary Pratyeka Shar¯ıra Individual body; A body enjoyable by one soul only Pratyeka Shar¯ıra-Vargan¯a Individual body-molecule Pravachana-matrka The eight exercises that prepare a monk for advanced meditational states Pravachana-bhakti Devotion to scriptures Pravachanav¯atsalatva Tender affection for one’s brothers on the path of liberation Pravrajya Renunciation Pravrttinimitta Usage Pr¯aya´schitta Expiation–internal austerity, repentance Prayoga-kriy¯a bodily movement Prayogya-labdhi Reduction of karmic matter in soul attainment of purity due to such a reduction Prayojaka-vrddha One who comprehends the word Prayojya-vr.ddha Elder person who is asked to do a thing Proshadhopav¯asa Vow to fast on four days of the month, the two 8th and the 14th days of every lunar fortnight Pr.thvi-k¯ayika Earthbodies Psadha-pratim¯a The fourth s´r¯avaka-pratim¯a

176

Glossary

Pudgala Matter Pudgala Dravya Matter-Substance pudgala-skandha Aggregate of matter Pudgalav¯adin Follower of the Buddhist school, which upholds a theory of soul Puj¯a Worship Pum . veda Sexual cravings for a male Pun.ya-karma Wholesome karma Pun.ya-ks.etra Field of merit Pur¯an.as Name of a class of sacred texts dealing with the lives of Tirthankaras Purus.a Person, soul Purus.a-vi´ses.a Special soul, i.e., the God (¯I´svara) of the Yoga school Purus.aveda Male-sex-consciousness Purva ¯ A group of fourteen extinct Jain canonical texts Purva ¯ ratanu smaran.a-ty¯aga Renouncing of thinking over, remembrance of past enjoyment of sex Purv¯ ¯ ach¯ara (Hetu) Predecessor Purv¯ ¯ ach¯aranupalabdhi Non-availability of the predecessor Pus.pa Flower

R R¯aga Desire; passion; attachment, infatuation Rajas Principle of motion in the S¯am . khya doctrine Rajoharan.a A whiskbroom R¯ajya-Katha Politics Rakta Red Rasa Taste Rasa parity¯aga Daily renunciation of one or more of six delicacies Ghee, milk, curd, sugar, salt, and oil–external austerity Abandonment of stimulating or delicious food Rati Indulgence, pleasure in sense activity Ratnatraya The three jewels - right faith or insight, right knowledge, right conduct Ratre-bhukta-ty¯aga Abstinence from eating at night R¯atri-bhojana Eating at night R¯atribhakta-pratim¯a The sixth stage, in which one limits all sexual activity to nighttime hours Raudradhy¯ana Meditation on the perverse pleasure of causing injury to others R.ju Analytic R.ju-sutr¯abh¯asa False analytical viewpoint R.jumati Straight intelligence R.jusutra (Naya) Analytic stand, point R.jusutra-Naya Straight-thread view R.ta Vedic concept of cosmic law

Glossary

177

Ruja Illness Ruks.a Rough Rupasthadhy¯ ¯ ana Concentration on the form of the Jina Rup¯ ¯ atita-dhy¯ana Concentration on that which transcends the nature of the siddha

S Sabala Disfigured; offense ´ Verbal testimony Sabda ´ Sabda (Kaladigata) Word ´ Sabda (Naya) The verbal ´ Sabdabh¯ asa The false verbal viewpoint ´ Sabdadyullekha Mention of word ´ Sabdallekha Mention of word ´ Sabdanay¯ abh¯asa False point of view of word Sachitta-ty¯aga Abstinence from the flesh of conscious creatures Sacittaty¯aga-pratim¯a The fifth stage, in which a layperson ceases to take specific vegetable life as food Sad gun.ochchhadana Concealing the good qualities of others Sad¯a-Mukta Forever free of bondage Sadharma-vr.ddhi Increase in righteousness S¯adh¯aran.a Common S¯adharan.a-vanaspati Souls exist together with others in a typical plant body Sadharma avis.amv¯ada Not disputing with one’s co-religionists as to “mine” and “thine” S¯adhu Mendicant S¯adhu-Sam¯adhi Protecting and reassuring saints or removing their troubles S¯adhya Probandum S¯adhya-dharma-vi´sis.t.a The object which is qualified by the quality to be proved S¯adhya-dharmadhara The substratum of the quality to be proved S¯adhya-s¯adhan¯a-bh¯ava Probandum and probans relationship S¯adhv¯ı A female ascetic S¯adi Having a beginning Sadr.s´a Similar S¯adr.s´ya Similarity S¯adr.s´ya-Jñ¯ana Knowledge of similarity Sahabh¯avin Simultaneous Sahachara The futile invention, simultaneous Sahachar¯anupalabdhi Non-availability of one which is simultaneous Sahas¯a Putting down a thing hurriedly Sakala-pratyaks.a Perfect perception Sakaladatti Transference of property before renunciation Sakalade´sa Full statement

178

Glossary

S¯ak¯ara Having a form Sallekhan¯a Ritual death by fasting Sallekhan¯avrata The decision to perform Sallekhan¯a Samabhirudha (Naya) Subtle Samabhirudh¯abh¯asa False subtle view Samachaturasra Symmetrical; perfect symmetry all around Samadana-kriy¯a Tendency to neglect vows after having taken them Sam¯adhi-Maran.a Death while in meditation Samanadhikaranya Co-existence Samanaska Endowed with the mental capacity possessed by the mind Samantanupatana-kriy¯a Answering the call of nature in a place frequented by men, women, or animals S¯am¯anya General, common S¯am¯anya-gun.a Common Attributes S¯am¯anyalaks.an.a pratyasatti Relationship of generalization Sam¯arambha Preparation for a thing, i.e., collecting materials for it Samarthana Corroboration Samarthana-Ny¯aya Acceptance of the propriety of the cause Samarthyapratibandha Non-hindrance in capability Samavasaran.a Holy assembly of the Jina Samavayi-dravya-´sabda Word indicating a collection Samaya Moment S¯am¯ayika Attaining equanimity; Making a vow to devote so much time every day, once, twice, or three times, at sunrise, sunset, and noon to contemplate the self for spiritual advancement Worship–self-contemplation and purifying one’s ideas and emotions S¯am¯ayika-charitra Avoiding all evil actions identical to the assumption of the five mah¯avratas S¯am¯ayika-pratim¯a The third stage of practicing s¯am¯ayika S¯am¯ayika-sam . yama A synonym for s¯am¯ayika-charitra S¯am¯ayikavrata Cultivation of equanimity, the second of the s´iks.a¯ vrata Sam . bandha Relationship Sam . bandhin Which are related Sam . gha Order of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen Sam . gha-pati Leader of the lay community Sam . gh¯ata Aggregation Sam . graha (Naya) Generic Sam . grah¯abh¯asa False generic point of view Sam . grahika (Naigama) Generic Sam . hanana Bones, muscle Sam . hit¯a-par¯arthatva Collection meant for others Samiti (Self-) regulation, carefulness Samjni Able to think abstractly about spiritual matters Samjvalana Subtle passions that are removed as one progresses from the sixth to the twelfth gun.asth¯ana

Glossary

179

Sam . kalpaja-him . s¯a Intentional, premeditated violence Sam kraman a The energy that contributes to the differentiation or transformation . . of karmas ¯ arya Sampada Qualifications of an Ach¯ Sam p urn ¯ a-naigama Full non-distinguished . . Sam¯arambha Determination to do a thing Sam . s¯ara The cycle of transmigration, mundane life Sam . s¯ara anupreks.a¯ Mundaneness, the soul, moves in the cycle of existence and cannot attain true happiness till he is out of it Sam . sarga (Kaladigata) Contact Sam . sargin Which comes in contact Sam . s¯ar¯ı-j¯ıva Mundane soul Sam . s´aya Doubt, skepticism, hesitation Sam . sk¯ara Latent mental trace, sacred rites Sam . sk¯ara-prabodha Awakening of the latent impression Sam . sth¯ana Figure; the figure of the body Sam . sth¯anavicaya Contemplation of the structure of the universe Samud¯ayav¯ada Collective Samudgh¯ata Bursting forth; expansion of the soul to the limits of the loka-akasa Samudita Jointly Sam . vara The stoppage of the karmic influx Sam . vatsari The annual ceremony of public confession Sam . vega The apprehension of the miseries of the world Sam . vyavah¯ara Transaction Sam . vy¯avah¯arika Empirical (intuition) Sam . vyavaharika-pratyaks.a Direct perception, in the conventional sense Sam . yag mithy¯atva (Mi´sra) Mixed right-wrong belief Samyag-dar´sana Right faith Samyag-drs.ti Right vision Samyag-jñ¯ana Right cognition Samyak Right Samyak-charitra Right conduct Samyak-dar´sana The correct view of reality, faith in the teachings of the Jina Samyak-drs.ti Right vision Samyak-jñ¯ana Right knowledge Samyak-mithy¯atva A state of transition in which both correct and incorrect views are present Samyak Adana Niks.epa samiti The right care in lifting and laying Samyak Bh¯as¯a Samiti The right care in speaking Samyak Es.an.a¯ Samiti The right care in eating ¯ Samyak Irya Samiti The right care in walking Samyak Utsarga Samiti The right care in excreting Samyaktva Authenticity Right Understanding

180

Glossary

Samyaktva Prakr.ti The primary attribute of the soul manifesting in the subsidence or destruction of this sub-class Samyaktva-kriy¯a Activities that strengthen the right belief Sam . yog¯ı-dravya-´sabda Word indicating a union Sandeha Doubt Sandigdha-vipaks.a-vr.ttika (Hetv¯abh¯asa) Whose existence in the heterologous is doubtful Sam . graha-Naya Synthetic view Sanjna (Aks.arasruta) Script Sanjna-sanjni-sambandha Relationship between a word and its meaning Sanjnin (Srutajñ¯ana) Discursive ´ Sank¯ a-matra-vighataka Being a remover of the doubt in general Sam kalana Synthetic judgment . Sam kalan¯ a tmaka Synthetic . Sam khy¯ a Number . Sam . khy¯atanu-Vargan.a Numerable-atoms-molecule ´ Sankita Doubtful Sannikars.a Approximately Santara-Shunya-Vargan ¯ . a Inter-non-inter-indifferent molecule Santara-Vargan.a Inter-non-inter-molecule Sapaks.a Homologous instance Sapary¯avasita (Srutajñ¯ana) Having end Sapindikaran.a A ritual connected with the offering of food to the Manes Sapta-bhangi-naya The sevenfold predication Saptabhanga Seven aspects Saptapad¯ı That portion of the Hindu wedding ceremony in which the couple takes seven steps around the fire Sarage-sam . yama Self-control with slight attachment found in monks only

T Taijasa Electric body, the body of mundane souls that always accompanies them Taijasa Agrahya-Vargan.a Electric-unreceivable-molecule Taijasa Vargan.a What the electric body is made of Taijasa-´sar¯ıra Heat body Taijasa-Vargan.a Electric Molecule Tamas The principle of inertia in the S¯am . khya doctrine Tan-manohara anga-nir¯ıks.an.a-ty¯aga Renouncing seeing the beautiful bodies Tanu-v¯ata Rarefied air Tapa Austerity T¯aran.apantha A Jain reform movement started by T¯aran.asv¯ami Tattva Reals, fundamentals Tattva-rupavat¯ ¯ ı The meditative practice of envisioning the body as pure

Glossary

181

Tejo-k¯ayika Fire bodies Tendriya Three-sensed Ter¯apantha Path of the thirteen; name of a subsect of the Sth¯anakav¯asi sect T¯ık¯a Commentary T¯ıkta Pungent T¯ırtha Ford; the path of Jain practice; the monastic order T¯ırtha-ks.etra A place where arhats have attained moks.a T¯ırthankara ˙ Builders of the ford, the omniscient spiritual teachers of the Jains, a synonym for Jina T¯ırthankara-prakr ˙ . ti Karmas that determine the body of a Tirthankara Tiryancha Animals and plants Tiryancha Anupurvi Sub-human–migratory form Tiryanch¯ayu Sub-human age Titthiya Pali for Tirthankara Trairupya Triple characteristic Trasa Mobile being, A being having two or more senses Trasa-Nadi Channel of the mobile beings; that portion of the lok¯ak¯as´a in which the trasas abide Trilaks.an.a Three characteristics

U Ubhaya mana Mixed true and false mind Ubhaya-Vachana Both true and false Ubhayasam . bandha (Vyanjana) Relation of the two, i.e., contact awareness and object-awareness Ubhayasiddha Proved both ways Ubhayasiddha (Hetv¯abh¯asa) Unproved for both Ucchedav¯ada The doctrine of annihilation after death Ucchedav¯adin Annihilationist Ucchv¯asa Sigh Uchcha Gotra high family Uchchhv¯asa Respiration Udaya Arising Uddistaty¯aga-pratim¯a In the eleventh stage, a layperson renounces any food or lodging prepared explicitly for him Uddistha-ty¯aga Preparatory to the monk’s life, gradually giving up the world and retiring to a quiet place to be a teacher of the path to Liberation Ud¯ıran.a¯ The energy that makes possible the premature fruition of karmas Ud.umbara Fig Udvartana The energy that delays the time and increases the intensity of karmic fruition Udyota Cold light like moonshine

182

Glossary

Uha (Pram¯an.a) Inductive reasoning Ullekha Mention Upabrimhana Also, Upag¯uhana, advancement in one’s attributes Free from a tendency to proclaim the faults of others Upabhoga Repeated enjoyment Upabhoga-antar¯aya Hindrance to repeated enjoyment Upach¯ara Transference of epithet Up¯ad¯ana-Karana Material cause Upadhyaya Preceptor Upagh¯ata Self-destructive; Having a self-destructive limb or organ Upaguhana Protecting a fellow Jain Upak¯ara Effect Upakaran.a Mixing up things necessary for doing any act Upakaran.endriya Physical sense-organ Upakarin Effect Up¯alambha Observation Upam¯ana (Pram¯an.a) Analogy Upanaya Application Upanayana Ceremony of initiation Minor limb, Subsidiary to the Anga; a group of twelve canonical texts Up¯anga ˙ Upan¯ıti The ceremony of initiation for a layperson Upapata Rebirth in hell or heaven Upapatti Concomitant Up¯asaka A Jain layperson, a synonym for s´r¯avaka Up¯asaka-pratim¯a The eleven stages of laypeople, a synonym for sravaka-pratima Upa´sama Suppression Upa´samana The energy that temporarily prevents karmas from coming to fruition Upasam . h¯aravachana Concluding words Upasarga Calamity, Preposition Upayoga Applied consciousness, Conscious activity Upayogendriya Functioning sense Urdhva-loka The celestial world Us.n.a Hot Utkrama Perverted order Utp¯ada Birth, origination, creation, acquisition Utpala-patra-satavyati-bheda Like the piercing of the hundred petals of a lotus Utsarga-Samiti Care in performing the excretory functions Utsarpin.i Ascending round, Progressive half-cycle Uttama a¯ rjava Supreme Straightforwardness (Honesty) Uttama m¯ardava Supreme humility Uttama sam . yama Supreme Restraint Uttama Satya Supreme truth Uttama-akinchanya Supreme non-attachment, not taking the non-self for one’s self Uttama-brahmacharya Supreme Chastity Uttama-ks.am¯a Supreme Forgiveness

Glossary

183

Uttama-´saucha Supreme contentment Uttama-tapa Supreme Austerities Uttama-ty¯aga Supreme Renunciation Uttarachara Successor Uttaracar¯anupalabdhi (Hetu) Non-availability of the follower Uvajjh¯aya Prakrit for up¯adhy¯aya

V Vachana Statement V¯achya-v¯achaka-bh¯ava Relationship of the word and its meaning V¯ada Legitimate discourse Vadara Nigoda S´ unya ¯ - Vargan.a Gross common-body-indifferent-molecule Vadara Nigoda-Vargan.a Gross common-body-molecule V¯adin Proponent Vaggupti Preservation of speech Vaidriyika fluid Vaik¯alika [Texts studied] beyond the prescribed hours Vaikriyika Fluid, Fluid, the body of hellish and celestial beings, which they can change at will Vaikriyika-Mi´sra Fluid with karmic Vainayika-mithy¯atva Mithy¯atva, due to indiscriminate open-mindedness Vaineyika Religion is identical to the veneration of parents and king Vair¯agya Aversion leading to renunciation, The non-attachment to sense pleasures Vaisya A member of the merchant caste Vaiv¯ahiki-kriy¯a The wedding ceremony Vaiyavr.ittya-Karan.a Serving the meritorious Vaiyavr.itya Service of the saints or worthy people–internal austerity Vaiyavr.ttya Respectful service Vajra Like a diamond, adamantine Vajra-naracha-Sam . hanana Adamantine, joints, and bones Vajra-Ris.abha-aracha-Sam . hanana Adamantine, nerves, joints, and bones V¯akprayoga Statement V¯akya Sentence Valaya A layer of the atmosphere V¯amana Dwarf Vanaspati-k¯aya Plant beings Vanav¯as¯ı Forest dweller Vandana Reverent salutation Vang Movement by speech Vardham¯ana (Avadhi) Augmenting Varna Caste hierarchy/class; color; a quality of matter, color, Letters

184

Glossary

Varn.al¯abha Ritual celebrating the establishment of a new household by a married son Vars.a Continent Varun.i-dharan.a A process of meditational “cleansing,” accompanied by the water element V¯asan¯a Memory impression, Trace Vastu Real Vastutva capacity by which a substance has a function, Functionality V¯atsalya Disinterested affection, Tender affection for one’s brother on the path of Liberation V¯ayu-k¯ayika Air-bodies Veda Sex consciousness, Sexual feelings Vedaka-samyaktva A synonym for Ks.ayopa´samika-samyaktva Vedaniya Feeling Karma Vedaniya-karma Karma responsible for the mundane experience of pain and pleasure Vibhava Defiled; impure Vibhu All-pervasive Vich¯ara Shifting attention from one mode to another Vidarana-kriy¯a Proclaiming other’s sins Vidh¯ana Ritual Vidhi Positively Vidhi-s¯adhaka (Hetu) Positive, which proves something positive Vidhikalpan¯a Positive aspect Vidhirupa (Hetu) Positive Vidy¯a The arts Vigraha-gati Movement of a soul to its new destiny Vihayogati Movement, capacity to move in space Vijig¯ıs.u Desirous of victory Vikala-pratyaks.a Partial perception Vikalade´sa Partial reference Vikalpa Idea Vikalpa-prasiddhatva Optional Vikalpa-Siddha Optionally proved Vikalpagamya Optional knowledge Vikalp¯atmika Optional only Vikr.ti Defiled modification Vimochit¯av¯asa Residence in a deserted place Vinaya Reverence to the elders, internal austerity, Veneration Vinaya-sampannat¯a Reverence for means of Liberation and for those who follow them Vip¯aka Karmic retribution Vip¯akavicaya Meditation on karmic fruition Vipaks.a Heterologous Vipaks.ab¯adhaka-pram¯an.a Proof obstructing the opponent’s view

Glossary

185

Vipaks.asattva Presence in heterologous cases Vipar¯ıta Contradictory, Perverse beliefs, e.g., animal sacrifices lead to heaven Vipar¯ıta-mithy¯atva Perverted or incorrect view Vipar¯ıt¯aropa Contrary imposition Vipary¯aya Error Vipulamati Ample intelligence V¯ıra-Nirvana Beginning of the Jain era, the death [anniversary] of Mah¯av¯ıra Virodha Contradiction Virodhi-him . s¯a Injury generated by standing in Virodhi-´sank¯a Doubt of the opponent Viruddha Contradictory Viruddha sahacar¯anupalambha Non-availability of the concomitant contradictory to the probandum Viruddha-dharmadhyasa Which imposes the opposite quality Viruddha-K¯ary¯anupalabdhi Non-availability of the effect contradictory to the probandum Viruddha-svabh¯av¯anupalambha Non-availability of the nature contradictory to the probandum Viruddha-vyapak¯anupalambha Non-availability of the determinant concomitant contradictory to the probandum Viruddhak¯aran.a¯ nupalambha Non-availability of the cause contradictory to the probandum Viruddh¯anupalabdhi Non-availability of the contradictory Viruddhopalabdhi Availability of the contradictory V¯ırya Energy V¯ırya Antar¯aya Obstructive power of exercise of one’s capacities Vidrs.a Dissimilar Vis.amv¯ada Wrangling, wrong-belief, envy, back-biting, self-praise, censuring others, causing bad-body-making karma Visani An animal with horns Vi´ses.a-dar´sana Observation Vi´ses.avamar´sa Inference of the particular Vi´ses.a-guna Special Attributes Vi´sis.t.apratyaks.a Qualified direct perception Vi´suddhi Purity V¯ıtar¯aga Free from passion; an epithet for an arhat Vivaksa Aspect emphasized by a speaker Vivarta Mode Vivikta-´sayyasana Sitting and sleeping in a lonely place devoid of animate beings– external austerity Vrata Restraint, vow Vrata-pratim¯a In the second stage, where a layperson assumes the an.uvratas Vraty¯anukamp¯a Compassion for the vowers Vrishyeshta rasa-ty¯aga Renouncing exciting and aphrodisiac food or drinks

186

Glossary

Vr.tti-parisankhyana Taking a mental vow to accept food from a householder only if a specific condition is fulfilled, without letting anyone know about the vow– external austerity Vr.tti Subcommentary Vrtti-paris¯am . khyana Limiting the extent of one’s begging rounds Vyabhich¯ara Contradiction Vyabhich¯arin One who contradicts Vyanjana That which manifest Vyanjana (Aks.arasruta) Consonant Vyanjan¯aks.ara (Sruta) Alphabet Vyanjanapary¯aya Manifest modes Vyanjan¯avagraha (Mati) Contact-awareness Vyantar¯av¯as¯ı The peripatetic gods Vy¯apaka Determinant concomitant Vyapti Necessary concomitance Vyaptigraha Cognition of the concomitance Vyaptigrahan.a Cognition of the concomitance Vyaptijñ¯ana Knowledge of necessary concomitance Vyapya Determinate concomitant Vyapya (Hetu) Determinate concomitant Vyapyopalabdhi Availability of concomitant Vyatikrama Disturbed order Vyatireka Disagreement Vyatireka-dharma Disagreement Vyavah¯ara Convention; appropriate proceedings, practical Vyavah¯ara (Naya) Empirical Vy¯avah¯arabh¯asa False empirical point of view Vy¯avah¯arika Empirical Vyavasayin Definitive Vyaya Decay, going out of existence, loss, cessation Vyuparatakriy¯a-anivartin Absolute non-motion Vyutpattinimitta Etymological Vyutsarga Giving up attachment to the body, internal austerity, renunciation of egoistic thoughts

Y Yadrccha-´sabda Words, which are proper names Yaks.a Demigod Yantra Mystical diagram Ya´sah K¯ırti Bringing good fame even if one does not do good actions Yathakhy¯ata-charitra Conduct conforming to perfect purity Yathapravr.tta-Karan.a The soul’s ineradicable tendency toward spiritual growth

Glossary

187

´ ambara sect, a “non-initiated Yati A spiritually advanced layperson of the Svet¯ ´ ambara cleric, often associated with ritual and worldly knowledge,” according Svet¯ to Paul Dundas (2002) Y¯atr¯a Pilgrimage Yaugap¯adya Simultaneity Yoga Contemplation, Vibration, Activities Yojana A measure for a distance equal to about, eight or nine miles Yugapat Simultaneous

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