Making Movies into Art: Picture Craft from the Magic Lantern to Early Hollywood 9781844576968, 9781844576951, 9781838711436, 9781844576975

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CUL TURALH I STOR IESOFC INEMA Th i sn ewb o o ks e r i e se x am in e st h er e l a t i on s h i pb e tw e enc in em aan dc u l t u r e .I tw i l l f e a t u r e in t e r d i s c i p l in a r ys c h o l a r s h i pt h a tf o c u s e sont h en a t i on a lan dt r an sn a t i on a l t r a j e c t o r i e so fc in em aa san e tw o r ko f in s t i t u t i on s ,r e p r e s en t a t i on s ,p r a c t i c e san d t e c hn o l o g i e s .O fp r im a r yc on c e rn i san a l y s in gc in em a ’ se x p an s i v er o l e int h ec om p l e x s o c i a l ,e c on om i can dp o l i t i c a ld yn am i c so ft h etw en t i e t han dtw en t y f i r s tc en t u r i e s . SER IESED ITORS L e eG r i e v e s onan dH a i d e eW a s s on

ALSOPUBL I SHED C in em aB e y ondT e r r i t o r y :In f l i gh tEn t e r t a inm en tand A tmo sph e r e so fG lob a l i s a t ion ,S t e p h enG r o en in g Emp i r eandF i lm ,e d i t e db yL e eG r i e v e s onan dC o l in M a cC a b e F i lmandth eEndo fEmp i r e ,e d i t e db yL e eG r i e v e s onan dC o l in M a cC a b e G lob a lM e x i c anC in em a :I t sGo ld enA g e ,e d i t e db yR o b e r tM cK e eI rw inan d M a r i c r u zC a s t r oR i c a l d e Th eG r i e r sonE f f e c t :T r a c in gD o cum en t a r y ’ sIn t e rn a t ion a l Mo v em en t , e d i t e db yZ o ëD r u i c kan dD e an eW i l l i am s Sh adowE c onom i e so fC in em a :M app in gIn f o rm a lF i lmD i s t r ibu t ion ,R am onL o b a t o

Th i sp ag ein t en t ion a l lyl e f tb l ank

Mak ing Mov ie sin to A r t P ic tu re C ra f tf romthe Mag icLan te rntoEar ly Ho l lywood

K a v ehA s k a r i

For Kristin

THE BRITISH FILM INSTITUTE Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA BLOOMSBURY is a trademark of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain by Palgrave in 2014 Reprinted by Bloomsbury in 2018 on behalf of the British Film Institute 21 Stephen Street, London W1T 1LN www.bfi.org.uk

The BFI is the lead organisation for film in the UK and the distributor of Lottery funds for film. Our mission is to ensure that film is central to our cultural life, in particular by supporting and nurturing the next generation of filmmakers and audiences. We serve a public role which covers the cultural, creative and economic aspects of film in the UK. Copyright © Kaveh Askari, 2014 Kaveh Askari has asserted his/her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as author of this work. For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on pp. vii-ix constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover image: The Blue Bird (Maurice Tourneur, 1918), Famous Players-Lasky Corporation/Artcraft Pictures Corporation, courtesy of George Eastman House. Designed by couch

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Con t e n t s

A c know l ed gm en t s . . .v i i In t r odu c t ion . . .1

R ew in d in ga r tc in em a. . .2 S i t u a t in gc in em aam on gt h eo t h e ra r t s. . .5 C r a f t ,p i c t u r e ,m o v em en t. . .7 A e s t h e t i ca p p r e c i a t i onan dt h em o d e rn i t yo fp i c t u r ec r a f t. . .11 Ch a p t e ro r g an i s a t i on. . .15

1M o v in g -p i c tu r eA r tb e f o r eC in em a :A l e x and e rB l a c kandth eL y c eum . . .19 Th eam a t e u ran dt h e in s t i t u t e. . .21 Th ed e t e c t i v e l e c t u r e san dt h e in s t an t an e o u st a b l e a u. . .24 F r om ‘ t h eh o r s e inm o t i on ’t o ‘m an inm o t i on ’. . .27 P i c t u r ep l a ya e s t h e t i c s :s t i l lp i c t u r e sa sm o v in gp i c t u r e s. . .34 P i c t u r ep l a yr e c e p t i on :a r tc in em aw i t h o u tt h ec in em a t o g r a p h. . .38 C on c l u s i on :ah i s t o r yw i t h o u tan in v en t i on. . .40

2M o v in gP i c tu r e sIm a g in eth eA r t i s t ’ sS tud io . . .44

Th em i s eens c èn eo ft h es t u d i o. . .45 Th em o v in g im a g e j um p st h ef r am e. . .49 T r i l b y an a :T r an s f o rm a t i onan da b s o r p t i on. . .52 L e j a r enàH i l l e r ’ sN e v e r t o ldT a l e so faS tud io . . .55 T r i a r tP i c t u r eC om p an y :f r omT r i l b y an at oa r th i s t o r y. . .60 C on c l u s i on :p a t c hw o r km e t h o d s ,c omm ong o a l. . .68

3C in em aCompo s i t ion :Th eUn i v e r s i t yandth eIndu s t r y . . .71 P i c t u r es t u d y :f r omt h ea r t l e c t u r et ot h ef i lm l e c t u r e. . .73 M o v em en t ,c on t em p l a t i onan dt h e ‘ t a b l e a u ’. . .79 M an a g in gt a b l e a u x :t h ee c on om i c so ff i lms p e c t a t o r s h i p. . .86 B e y on dt h et a b l e a u : in s c r i b in gm o v em en t. . .87 C on c l u s i on :m o v in gp i c t u r e san dn ewt en d en c i e s. . .90

4P a in t in gw i thHum anB e in g s :M au r i c eT ou rn eu ra sA r t f i lmD i r e c t o r . . .93 Int h ea t e l i e ro fP u v i s. . .95 Qu a l i t yf i lm s , im p o r t e df i lm -m a k e r s. . .97 Th eB lu eB i rd:f r om Th eY e l lowBoo kt ot h ey e l l owp r e s s. . .99 C on c l u s i on :T o u rn e u ra f t e r1920. . .108

5R e xIn g r am ’ sA r tS choo lC in em a . . .111

Th eo l d e s ta r ts c h o o lan dt h en ew e s ta r t. . .112 F r ome x c e p t i on a ls t y l et oc r o s s -m e d i aa p p r e c i a t i on. . .117 S c a r amou ch e ,o rc on v e r g en c e . . .120 C on c l u s i on :t h e l im i t so fe x c e p t i on a lf i lm s. . .127

Con c lu s ion : Mo v in gF o rw a rdf r omth eS low M o v i e . . .129 N o t e s . . .137 Ind e x . . .161

A c k now l ed gm e n t s

Th i sp r o j e c tb e g ana tth eUn i v e r s i t yo fCh i c a g o ,wh e r eIw a s lu c k yt o l and inanen g a g ed andc o l l e g i a lc oh o r tdu r in gth ee a r l yy e a r so fth eC omm i t t e eonC in em aand M ed i a S tud i e s .K enE i s en s t e in ,D o r onG a l i l i ,S a r ahK e l l e r ,Ch i k aK in o sh i t a ,D an M o r g an , J enn i f e rP e t e r s on ,R o bSp ad on i ,Ch a r l e sT epp e rm anandA l l i s on Wh i tn e yd i s cu s s edth i s w o r k in i t se a r l i e s ts t a g e s .Ch i c a g of a cu l t ywh ow o r k sh opp ede a r l yd r a f t s in c lud eJ am e s L a s t r a ,J o e lSn y d e randJ a c qu e l in eS t ew a r t .Y u r iT s i v i ang a v em em yf i r s t l e s s on s in a r ch i v a lr e s e a r chandm yf i r s t in -d ep tht ou r sth r ou ghth e l and s c ap eo f1910 sc in em a . M i r i amH an s enw a sane x c ep t i on a lm en t o rf o rs om an yb e c au s e ,a sp r a c t i c a landsp e c i f i c a sh e rr e c omm end a t i on sw e r e ,on en e v e r l e f th e ro f f i c eun c e r t a ina b ou tth e l a r g e rr e a s on s wh yth i sw o r km a t t e r s .W ea l lr e a l l ym i s sh e r .T omGunn in g ’ sp r o f oundc omm i tm en tt o th i sp r o j e c th a sc on t inu edth r ou gh i t st r an s f o rm a t i on s inr e c en ty e a r s .Th ep l e a su r eth a t h et a k e s inn ewr e s e a r chh a sm o t i v a t edm et oe x t endm y in v e s t i g a t i on inw a y sIw ou ldn o t o th e rw i s eh a v ed on e .H een c ou r a g edm et opu r su ewh a tapp e a r edt ob eth ep r o j e c t ’ s imp a s s e sandt or e a l i s eth a tth e s ew e r ea c tu a l l y i t sm o s te x c i t in gopp o r tun i t i e s . Mu cho fth er e s e a r chf o rth i sboo kw a sm ad epo s s ib l eb ytwo M e l lonf e l low sh ip s . Th ef i r s tw a saw a rd edb yth eCoun c i lonL ib r a r yandIn f o rm a t ionR e sou r c e s ,andth e s e c ondb yth eUn i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i a ,B e r k e l e y .Du r in gth et r a v e l sa s so c i a t edw i th th e s ef e l low sh ip s ,Ic am et od ep endonth eknow l ed g eanden thu s i a smo fs e v e r a l a r ch i v i s t s inth eU SAandEu r op e .Iw ou ldsp e c i f i c a l l y l i k et oth an kP au l aEn t ina tth e P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yL ib r a r y ,B a rb a r aH a l la tth eM a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y ,J ennL ibb y a tth eV i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,M a r kM cMu r r a ya tS tL aw r en c eUn i v e r s i t ySp e c i a l Co l l e c t ion s ,C l aud yopd enK ampandS imon aM on i z z aa tth eN e th e r l and sF i lm Mu s eum ,Zo r anS inob adand M i k eM a shona tth eL ib r a r yo fCon g r e s s ,C a r o l in eY e a g e r andJ o eS t rub l ea tth eG eo r g eE a s tm anH ou s eandCh a r l e sS i l v e ra tth e Mu s eumo f M od e rnA r t .Ch r i s t oph eG au th i e rh e lp ed m et on a v i g a t eth ec o l l e c t ion sa tth e B ib l io th èqu ed e l ’A r s en a l inP a r i s .A tB er k e l e y ,Ih adth eun iqu eoppo r tun i t yt owo r k w i thth eP a c i f i cF i lmA r ch i v et op r e s e rv eandp r e s en tm a t e r i a lf r omth eB l a c kf am i l y c o l l e c t ion .Th i swou ldno th a v eb e enpo s s ib l ew i thou tth ew o r ko f Mon aN a g a i ,K a th y G e r i t zand ,e sp e c i a l l y ,J onSh ib a t a .Th an k st oth eN a t ion a lF i lmP r e s e rv a t ion F ound a t ionf o rsuppo r t in gth ee f f o r tandt oC a r landAnn e t t aB l a c kf o rth e i r c omm i tm en tt op r e s e rv in gth e i rf am i l ya r ch i v e .W o r k in gth r ou ghth i sm a t e r i a lw i th th emh a sb e enar a r et r e a t . Ih a v eb en e f i t edf r om inpu t ,u su a l l ywh i l ee xp lo r in gd in in gop t ion sa r ound c on f e r en c e sanda r ch i v e s ,f r omR i ch a rdAb e l ,G io r g ioB e r t e l l in i ,V in c en tBoh l in g e r , A c k now l ed gm e n t s

v i i

M a r t aB r aun ,J onBu r r ow s ,I anCh r i s t i e ,M a r kG a r r e t tCoop e r ,Don a ldC r a f t on , P a t r i z i ad iB e l lo ,A l l y sonF i e ld ,J enn i f e rH o rn e ,J an eG a in e s ,Ph i l ipp eG au th i e r , M i r and aH o f e l t ,R i ch a rdKo s z a r s k i , Mu r r a yP om e r an c e ,S imonP opp l e ,L au r en R ab ino v i t z ,M a t th ewSo lomon ,D anS t r e ib l e ,B r i g i t t aW a gn e r ,T am iW i l l i am s ,A r t em i s W i l l i sand M i k eZ r yd .S c o t tCu r t i sr e ad mu l t ip l ed r a f t so fth ef i r s tch ap t e r .Ch a r l i eK e i l ed i t edtwos a t e l l i t ea r t i c l e sth a th e lp edm ew i thth e in t r odu c t ionandc on c lu s ion . L au r aM a r cu sandD an aP o l anr e adth eth i rdch ap t e randh e lp ed m et ound e r s t and F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r son inb r o ad e rc on t e x t s .S imonP opp l e ,V an e s s aT ou lm inandJ ohn P lunk e t ted i t ed m a t e r i a lth a tw a su s ed inth ef i r s tch ap t e r .Th i sm a t e r i a lapp e a r ed p r e v iou s l ya s ‘A l e x and e rB l a c k ’ sD e t e c t i v eL e c tu r e sandth e Mo t ionS tud i e so f E adw e a rd Mu yb r id g eandThom a sE a k in s ’ , inE a r l yP o p u l a rV i s u a lC u l t u r ev o l .3no .1 and ‘Pho t o g r aph edT ab l e au xand M o t ionP i c tu r eA e s th e t i c s :A l e x and e rB l a c k ’ sP i c tu r e P l a y s ’ , inM u l t im e d i aH i s t o r i e s :F r omt h eM a g i cL an t e rnt ot h eIn t e rn e t.RobK in gand G r e go r yW a l l e rp r o v id ed m e t i cu lou sc omm en t a r yonth ea r t i c l ev e r s iono fCh ap t e r5 , wh i chapp e a r ed inF i lmH i s t o r yv o l .26no .2a s ‘A r tS choo lC in em a :R e xIn g r amandth e L e s son so fth eS tud io ’ .Th a tch ap t e ra l sob en e f i t edf r omRu thB a r t on ’ sg en e r o s i t yand know l ed g eo fR e xIn g r am ’ sc a r e e r . Du r in gm ytw oy e a r sa tB e r k e l e yIr e v i s edth em anu s c r ip tw i thad v i c ef r omS c o t t Comb s ,L au r aH o r ak ,J e an M a ,Zh i v k aV a l i a v i ch a r s k a ,K r i s t en Wh i s s e landL ind a W i l l i am s .N ow inth eP a c i f i cN o r thw e s t ,Iamh app yt oh a v eh adth eoppo r tun i t yt o f in i shth i swo r k inc ommun i t yw i th M i ch a e lA l l an ,M i ch a e lF a l t e r ,K a th a r in aLo ew , Ch r i s t oph e rP a v s e kandAnd r ewR i t ch e y .E r i cAm e s ,Sudh i rM ah ad e v an ,L e i gh M e r c e r andJ am e sTw e ed i eh a v eb e enw e l c om in ga tth eM o v in gIm a g eR e s e a r chG r oupa tth e Un i v e r s i t yo fW a sh in g t on .J enn i f e rB e anf oundt im et oc a r e fu l l yr e ad m ywo r kandt o m en t o rm eth r ou ghth ead ju s tm en t st oan ewr e g ion a lf i lmcu l tu r eandan ewa s s i s t an t p r o f e s so r sh ip .A tm yhom e in s t i tu t iong r a t i tud e i sdu et oM a r cG e i s l e r ,W o r ld ’ s G r e a t e s tD ep a r tm en tCh a i r ,andt oP r o v o s tB r en tC a rb a j a lf o rth e i rsuppo r t .Two summ e rr e s e a r chg r an t sandtwog r an t sf r omth eO f f i c eo fR e s e a r chandSpon so r ed P r o g r am sa l low ed m et ow r apupth i sr e s e a r cha ta r ch i v e s inN ewY o r kand W a sh in g t on ,DC .Inth eD ep a r tm en to fEn g l i sh ,D awnD i e t r i ch ,K a th l e enLund e en , B r end aM i l l e r ,Dou g l a sP a r k ,L y s aR i v e r aand ,e sp e c i a l l y ,B i l lSm i thh e lp ed m et oth ink th r ou ghsom eo fth ef in a ld e c i s ion s .S tud en t s in m ys em in a r s , in c lud in gN a tB a r r ,Z a ch Fu r s t e ,M a t tH o l tm e i e r ,M a i aM e l t on ,Amo sS t a i l e y -Y oun gandCh e l s e aW e s s e l s , o f f e r edv a lu ab l ep e r sp e c t i v eonsom eo fth ec en t r a lqu e s t ion so fth eboo k .N a t ’ s cu r io s i t yf o rth em a t e r i a lw a se v id en t inth ee x t r aa t t en t ionh eg a v et oth ep r o j e c ta sa r e s e a r cha s s i s t an t . H a id e eW a s sonandL e eG r i e v e sonh a v eb e eng r e a ts e r i e sed i t o r s ,f o rth e i r e x t en s i v eknow l ed g eo fth et op i ca sw e l la sth e i rp r omp t ,e f f e c t i v eandgood -humou r ed h and l in go fth ep r o j e c t .J enn iBu rn e l l ,Soph i aCon t en t oandJ o yTu c k e rt oo kc a r ew i th m an yd e t a i l so f i t sp r odu c t ion .Th an k st oth etw or e ad e r sf o rth e i rw i s eapp r a i s a l so f th et e x tandth e i rsu g g e s t ion sf o rt i gh t en in g i t sf r am e . G i f t so fho sp i t a l i t yandth ebond so fk in sh ipsu s t a inth ee v e r yd a yw o r ko fan y l en g th yp r o j e c t .Tho s ewhoo f f e r edth i st yp eo fsu s t en an c edu r in gth er e s e a r chand w r i t in go fth i sboo k in c lud eM a r cu sAu r in ,R i chB r own ,C l aud eBu r g e r s ,K end a l lDodd , M on i k aG eh l aw a t ,E l i s eG e l tm an ,M a xH a r l e s s ,N o ë lH e rp e ,M i ch a e lKun i ch i k a , B r e g t j eL am e r i s ,K e l l yN i cho l s ,J e s s i c aSp i v e yanddo z en so fr e l a t i v e s inN o r thAm e r i c a v i i i

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

andI r an .IknowIamno ta lon e inadm i r in gJ o shu aYum ib e ’ s in s i gh tandg en e r o s i t ya s ac lo s ec o l l e a gu e .Iamt ru l y lu c k yt oh a v eh ima son eo fm yc lo s e s tf r i end s .B r i an Wh i t en e rh a sb e enan in sp i r in gt r a v e l l in gc omp an ions in c ew ew e r e ju s tk id s .H eandI h a v ef a l l enn a tu r a l l y in t op r odu c t i v e l i v in gandw r i t in gs i tu a t ion sf o rw e e k s , mon th s andy e a r sa tat im e .F in a l l y ,Ishou ldp r ob ab l yth an kK r i s t in M ahon e yf o rp e r su ad in g m esom e t im edu r in gou rf i r s ty e a ro fc o l l e g e– m a yb e i tw a sd e epAp r i l–t oen r o l lw i th h e r inac ou r s eona e s th e t i c s .Inth etw en t yy e a r sb e tw e enth a tc ou r s eandth i sboo k , K r i s t inh a sb r a v edanden jo y eda l lo fth er i s k sandr ew a rd so fbu i ld in g in t e l l e c tu a l l i v e s inc o l l abo r a t ion .

A c k now l ed gm e n t s

ix

In t rod u c t io n

A st oth er e l a t i ono fth es t a g ep l a y e rt oth eph o t od r am a– M i ch a e lAn g e l op a in t edp i c tu r e s . H ea l s om o ld eds t a tu e s ,e xp r e s s in gh im s e l f inp a in to rpu t t yw i the qu a lz e s t ,ands od id B en v enu t oC e l l in i .Ic on s id e rth ec a s e sp a r a l l e l . H e r b e r tT r e e , ‘Th eW o r th yC in em a ’ ,1916

In1916 ,S i rH e rb e r tB e e rbohmT r e ew a sbo tht ooe a r l yandt oo l a t ef o ra r tc in em a . Th ef ound e ro fth eRo y a lA c ad em yo fD r am a t i cA r tandon eo fth eb e s t known Sh a k e sp e a r e ana c t o r s inth ewo r ldw r o t eana r t i c l ef o rth eN ewY o r kT im e sa f t e rf ind in g h im s e l f lu r edt oH o l l yw oodw i thth ep r om i s eo fc e l lu lo idpo s t e r i t yandas i x f i gu r ep a y ch equ e .Inh i sv i ew ,Am e r i c anc in em a l a g g edb eh indth es t a g e f r i end l yt r ad i t ion so f th ef i lmd ’ a r tinF r an c eandr e l a t ed mo v em en t s inI t a l yandEn g l and ,andh ehop edt o c o r r e c tth i sd e f i c i en c yw i thh i sw o r ka tth en ew l yf o rm edT r i an g l eF i lmCo rpo r a t ion .In h i sm an i f e s t of o r ‘W o r th yC in em a ’h ed e f in edana r tc in em ath a tc omb in ed mo v in g p i c tu r e sw i thedu c a t ion a l imp e r a t i v e sands e r iou sh i s t o r i c a lth e a t r e .A lon g s id eh i s d i s cu s s iono fa e s th e t i c s ,h ew r o t e , ‘ Iamt o ldth a tth e mo t ionp i c tu r e i sa l r e ad yan e s t ab l i sh ed in s t i tu t ion iny ou rw e s t e rns choo l s .Th i s i sasu rp r i s eandag r a t i f i c a t iont o m e ,f o rIh a v e lon gr e a l i z edth ee x t r ao rd in a r yv a lu eo fth ep i c tu r e l e s sonandad v o c a t ed 1 T r e eadd r e s s e ss e v e r a ld i f f e r en tc on s t i tu en c i e s– su chane x t en s iono f i t su s e . ’ p a in t e r l y ,edu c a t ion a l ,c i v i c ,h i s t o r i c a l– inh i sb r i e fpub l i capp e a lt oa mo r ea r t i s t i c a l l y v a lu ab l ec in em a .Th e s es t ow aw a yd i s c ou r s e so fa r t , mo r esoth anT r e e ’ sr a th e r s t r a i gh t f o rw a rdgo a lo fu sh e r in g inan eww a v eo fs t a g e s t a rp e r f o rm an c e s ine a r l y H o l l ywood ,p r o v o k eas e r i e so fqu e s t ion sth a td e s e rv e mo r ea t t en t ion inh i s t o r i c a lf i lm s tud i e s . Wh a tdo e s i tm e ant o ‘ c on s id e rth ec a s e sp a r a l l e l ’ ?H owc anw es i tu a t eh i s a c c omp an y in gd e f in i t iono fa r tc in em aw i th inth ef i lm indu s t r y ’ samb i t ion s ,andhow e x a c t l yh a sh egon eabou ts e e k in gc r o s s -m ed i aa l l i an c e s ?T oth e s eend s ,wh a tc anh i s r e f e r en c et oM i ch e l an g e lo ’ sandC e l l in i ’ se xp r e s s ion s inp a in tandpu t t y ind i c a t eabou t th et r ad i t ion sh eu s e st od e f in ea r tc in em a ?T r e e ’ sm i xo fa r t i s t i candedu c a t ion a l imp e r a t i v e st yp i f i e sap e r iodth a tw a st ooe a r l yf o r in s t i tu t ion a l i s eda r tc in em aandt oo l a t ef o rc in em at ofun c t ion m e r e l ya sat e chn i c a le x t en s ion ,o rpub l i c i t yen g in e ,o f e s t ab l i sh eda r t s .Th i sp e r iodo fun c e r t a ine x ch an g eb e tw e enem e r g en tAm e r i c an c in em aandth eo th e ra r t s ,wh enf i lm -m a k e r sandc r i t i c sd idno tknowwh e th e rt o loo k f o rw a rdo rt o loo kb a c kf o ra r tc in em a ,andwh enth e ytu rn edt od i s c ou r s e so fp a in t in g ands cu lp tu r e ,e v en inc a s e swh enth e a t r e ’ s in f lu en c es e em ed mo s tc on sp i cuou s , i sth e sub j e c to fth i sbook . I n t rod u c t io n

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R EW IND INGARTC IN EMA Ib e g inw i thth et e rm ‘ a r tc in em a ’h e r e in s t e ado fth e mo r eh i s t o r i c a l l ys i tu a t ed ‘b e t t e r f i lm s ’ , ‘ qu a l i t yf i lm s ’ , ‘ e x c ep t ion a lpho t op l a y s ’ , ‘ c in em ac ompo s i t ion s ’ ,o r ‘w o r th y c in em a ’b e c au s eo f i t sv a lu ea sab r o ad e rc a t e go r yth a ts t i l lm e an ssom e th in gt o mo s t f i lmv i ew e r s .I t i sat e rmo fd i s t in c t ion ,o ra m a r k e ro famb i t ion ,th a tc an imm ed i a t e l y g en e r a t ed i s cu s s ionabou tth e l a t e s ta r t -hou s er e l e a s eo rabou tth e lon gh i s t o r yo f 2 c in em a ’ sa r t i s t i camb i t ion s . Ih a v eb e ena s k in gund e r g r adu a t es tud en t st od e f in ea r t c in em as in c eIb e g anw o r k in gonth i sp r o j e c t ,andth e mo s tc ommonc on s en su s i sth a t th et e rmd e s c r ib e sac on t empo r a r yn i ch ef o rf i lm sth a td i v e r g ef r om m a in s t r e am c omm e r c i a lt a s t e s .Th ef i lm sa r eu su a l l yd e s c r ib eda sb e in g ‘ s low e r ’ insom ew a y ,w i th th ee xp e c t a t ionth a tth e yw i l lr ew a rda t t en t ionw i thp r o v o c a t i v e ,h ipande v en b e au t i fu l im a g e r y .M o s te x amp l e sc om ef r ompo s t -1990 sAm e r i c an ind i ef i lm sand c on t empo r a r ywo r ldc in em a .S tud en t s ’f a v ou r i t ed i r e c t o r st yp i c a l l yc om ef r omth i s c a t e go r yandh a v e in c lud edD a v idL yn ch ,Gu sv anS an t ,Ju l i anS chn ab e l ,K e l l y R e i ch a rd t ,P au lThom a sAnd e r son ,T oddH a yn e s ,So f i aCoppo l a ,W on gK a r -W a i ,J e an P i e r r eJ eun e tandN i cho l a sW ind in gR e fn .Th e i r in t e r e s t sa r e mo s t l yc on t empo r a r y , s a v eano c c a s ion a l in t e r j e c t ionf r omaGod a rdo rO zuf anwhoh a sd i s c o v e r edth e C r i t e r ionCo l l e c t ion .Th en i ch em a r k e t in go fc on t empo r a r ya r tc in em a , i t se c onom i c s o fp r e s t i g e ,c om ee a s i l yt og r oup so f l ib e r a l a r t ss tud en t s .Th e ya r ea l r e ad yaw a r eth a t th em a jo r i t yo fth e i re x amp l e sc om ef r omf i lm sp r odu c edo rd i s t r ibu t edb ya r t -hou s e d i v i s ion so fm a jo rs tud io s ,andth e yen c ount e rth e s ef i lm s inana g ewh ene v ensm a l l a r t -hou s ec in em a sa r esh i f t in gt oth e mod e lo f mo r es c r e en s / f ew e rs e a t st ot a r g e t tu su a l l yt a k e sa l i t t l e mo r et im et oc on t e x tu a l i s ea r tc in em ab e y ond n i ch eaud i en c e s .3I th er e c en tp a s t ,t oou t l in eo th e re c onom i e so fp r e s t i g eandt of r am eth ea e s th e t i ca s i t s c on t e s t edt e r r a in . Th ef i r s ts t ep inc on t e x tu a l i s in ga r tc in em a ’ sc on t e s t edh i s t o r i c a lt e r r a in in v o l v e s show in ghowth et e rm mo s tc ommon l yr e f e r st o mo v em en t sa f t e rW o r ld W a rI I .Th e f ound a t ion a lwo r k sonpo s tw a ra r tc in em ah a v ed e f in ed i ta san in s t i tu t ion a land a e s th e t i cr e spon s et oH o l l yw ood ’ sg lob a lub iqu i t y ,andth e yh a v ep r im a r i l y lo c a t edth i s 4 r e spon s e inth en eww a v e so fW e s t e rnEu r op e inth e1960 s . Th e s e in s t i tu t ion a l n e two r k sd i f f e rf r omc on t empo r a r yn i ch em a r k e t in g inth e i rr e l i an c eons t a t esuppo r t (p a r t i cu l a r l y inI t a l yandF r an c e )andad i f f e r en tk indo f in t e rn a t ion a lf e s t i v a l ,wh i ch c r e a t edth esp a c ef o rp r odu c t ionandc i r cu l a t ion inth ef a c eo fH o l l ywood ’ sdom in a t ion o fw o r ld m a rk e t s .A e s th e t i c a l l y ,th e s ef i lm sbu i l tuponp r in c ip l e so fr e f l e c t iononth e m ed ium ,o fau tho r sh ipa sap r im a r ym e an so fund e r s t and in gag r oupo ff i lm sando f c in em a t o g r aph i cr e a l i smo v e rbo thH o l l yw ood s t y l es t o r y t e l l in gandth ed e s i gn ed im a g e sth a tp l e a s eth ee y e .N ew -w a v ea r tc in em a sw e r eg lob a l i s ed ,bu tno t inth es am e w a ya scu r r en tn i ch ep r odu c t ion s .Th e yshow c a s edth e i r l an gu a g e sandn a t ion a l c on t e x t swo r ldw id eth r ou ghf e s t i v a ln e tw o r k sa c c ommod a t in gt oth e i rsub t i t l e sand 5 T ot a l kabou ta r tc in em a inr e f e r en c et oth i s , mo s te s t ab l i sh ed , f am i l i a rs t y l e s . h i s t o r i c a lc on t e x t i st ochoo s eth eapp r o a ch e st oau tho r sh ipandth eun ado rn ed a e s th e t i c so f1960 sn eww a v e sa sapo in to fr e f e r en c ef o rn ewc in em a sth a tc on t inu e th r ou ghth e90 s .I top en supan a l y s i so fab r o adr an g eo fg lob a ln eww a v e s ,f r omSou th Am e r i c at oA s i a ,wh i chemp lo y edsh a r ed mod e so fp r odu c t ion ,n e two r k so fc i r cu l a t ion 6 anda e s th e t i cc on c e rn s . 2

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Bu ta r tc in em a inan ya g e i sfu l lo fc r o s s cu r r en t s ,ou tmod edf o rm sandc r o s s c on t am in a t ion sf r omth eo th e ra r t sth a tc on t r ibu t et o i t st e x tu r e .Ro s a l indG a l tand K a r lS choono v e rd e f in ea r tc in em aa sac a t e go r ych a r a c t e r i s edb yap r odu c t i v e 7 impu r i t y . I t i sn e i th e rm a in s t r e amno ra v an t g a rd e ,and i tc o r rup t sg en e r i cc a t e go r i e s . I tc ou r t sv i ew e r swhoa r eamb i t iou s ,bu twhoa l sos e e kanequ a lm e a su r eo f impu r e a e s th e t i cp l e a su r e inth e i rs e r iou sf i lm s .Th i s i sc l e a r l yth ec a s ew i thth ef i lm sonth e r o s t e ro fc on t empo r a r ya r t -hou s ee xh ib i t ion ,bu t i ta l soapp l i e st osom en eww a v e s . Con s id e r in gth ec a t e go r yo fa r tc in em aa son eo fp r odu c t i v e impu r i t ym e an sr e e v a lu a t in gtho s eamb i t iou sf i lm s ,o ra sp e c t so ff i lm s ,th a tm i gh to th e rw i s es e emou to f p l a c e .Th eI r an i ann eww a v e ,f o re x amp l e ,i so f t enno t edf o r i t sa e s th e t i cm in im a l i sm andau s t e r i t yd e sp i t eh a v in gana e s th e t i cr an g e , in c lud in gs t r on g in t e r e s t s inc o lou r , po e t i ct r ad i t ion sandr i ch l yc ompo s edp i c tu r e s ,th a to f t enrun sc oun t e rt oth e s e a s sump t ion s .Loo k in gb a c ke v enfu r th e r ,th e s equ e s t ion so fwh a t i s in c lud edo r om i t t edb yth ec a t e go r i e sth a th a v ed e f in eda r tc in em ah e lpt of r am eth es t a k e so fa h i s t o r yo fe a r l ya r tc in em a inth eU SA .Th et a s k in lo c a t in ge a r l ya r tc in em a i st o s e a r chf o rd i v e r s en e tw o r k sand in s t i tu t ion so fa r tth a ts t ru c tu r eand l end m e an in gt o ane a r l i e rg r oupo ff i lm s ’amb i t ion s ,bu ta l sot or e c o gn i s eth ep e r s i s t en c eo fqu e s t ion s abou tth epo s i t iono fc in em aa sana r tm ed ium inr e l a t iont oa e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion sth a t h a v e lon gp r e c ed edandc on t inu et od e v e lopa lon g s id e i t . Th ech a l l en g e so fd e f in i t ion in c r e a s ea son e loo k sb a c ka te a r l ya r tc in em ab e c au s e i t s in s t i tu t ion s ,a sw e l la sth e in s t i tu t ion s i toppo s ed ,w e r ef a r l e s se s t ab l i sh ed .I fa s tud en to ff i lmh i s t o r yw e r et oa s kabou tane a r l ya r tc in em a inth eU SAb e f o r eth e n eww a v e s ,b e f o r eth e in t e rn a t ion a lf e s t i v a l sande v enb e f o r eW o r ld W a rI I ,on em i gh t gu id eth a ts tud en tt or e c en ts cho l a r sh iponth e1930 s :t oth e Mu s eumo f Mod e rnA r t f i lm l ib r a r y ,t oth ew o r ko fedu c a t o r s l i k eF r ed e r i c kTh r a sh e r ,t of i lmc r i t i c i sm in in f lu en t i a lp e r iod i c a l sf r omth e N ewY o r kT im e st oC l o s e u pandE x p e r im en t a lC in em a. On em i gh tpo in tb a c ka l i t t l ee a r l i e rt o1920 sc in é c lub so rt of i lm so fth eh i s t o r i c a l a v an t g a rd e inF r an c eo rG e rm an y ,s c a r c ea sth e yw e r ea tf i r s tonth eAm e r i c ans c en e . Th eL i t t l eC in em a mo v em en to fth e l a t e20 s ,o rth e mom en twh enF o xb r ou gh tF .W . Mu rn aut oH o l l ywoodandp a i r edh imw i thp i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph e rK a r lS t ru s s , m i gh tp r o v id e mo r eAm e r i c anc on t e x t .Bu twh e th e ron ed e f in e se a r l yAm e r i c ana r t c in em a int e rm so fem e r g in gd i r e c t o r s ’s t y l e s ,s t r a t e g i e so fe xh ib i t ion ,o rd i s cu s s iono f th et op i c ind ed i c a t edp e r iod i c a l s ,th e s ep r a c t i c e sr e so l v et ow a rd sth eendo fth es i l en t e r a in t oth e30 s .B e f o r eth i sc om in g in t o f o cu sa tth eendo fth es i l en tp e r iod , ‘ a r t c in em a ’c a s t sw id e rc i r c l e so fc on fu s ion ,b lu r r in gbu tno te r a s in g i t samb i t ion s . T o loo kb a c k ,th en ,a tth ee a r l i e s ten c oun t e r sb e tw e en mo v i e sanda r tr equ i r e s an a l y s i sth a tdo e sno tt r a c esu c c e s s e ss t r i c t l y int e rm so fc omm e r c i a ls t ab i l i t y(o fn i ch e in em af r omth e p r odu c t ionande xh ib i t ion )o re v en in f lu en c e inth et yp i c a ls en s e .8C b e g inn in gw a sc on c e i v ed inr e l a t iont oth ea r t so f l i t e r a tu r e ,th e a t r e ,p a in t in gand s cu lp tu r e ,bu tth i sen v i r onm en to fpo s s ib i l i t y i sn e c e s s a r i l ya l sor i f ew i thh yb r idand aw kw a rdwo r k s ,w i thd e adend sandf a l s es t a r t s .Th ef i lmd ’ a r tp r odu c t ion s inF r an c e a r eth eb e s t knowne f f o r t st o l in ks t a g eands c r e en ,bo thf o rth e i ramb i t ion sf o rF r en ch im i l a r n a t ion a lth e a t r eandf o rth e i r in f lu en c ea c r o s sn a t ion a lbo rd e r s .9S app r op r i a t ion so fth e a t r e ’ ss t a tu st oo kp l a c e inth eU SA ,wh e r eAm e r i c anf i lm en t r ep r en eu r s inth e1910 s impo r t edth ef amou sp e r f o rm an c e so fS a r ahB e rnh a rd t andc on t r a c t edc e l eb r i t yp e r f o rm e r s l i k eH e rb e r tB e e rbohmT r e e .A lon g s id eth e s e I n t rod u c t io n

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e f f o r t st op r e s e rv eth ee loqu en tg e s tu r e so fs t a g es t a r s ,s i l en tAm e r i c an mo v in g p i c tu r e sr e gu l a r l ys t a g edf i c t ion sw i th inth ep a in t e r ’ ss tud iowh e r eaud i en c e sc ou ld w a t chc ompo s i t ion sun f o ld .M a g i c l an t e rn i s t sa t t a ch edc in em a t o g r aphd emon s t r a t ion s t oa r t l e c tu r e s ,andf i lm se xp lo r edth ea e s th e t i c so fp e r f o rm e r s ’bod i e s ,f r omf i tn e s s p ion e e r sc r e a t in g l i v in gs cu lp tu r e inth e1890 st op r e s t i g ep r odu c t ion so fe a r l y s eum s ,a t e l i e r sandc ou r s e s ina r tapp r e c i a t iona id ed inth ep r o c e s so f H o l l ywood .10Mu m a k in g mo v i e s in t oana r t .A snum e r ou sa sth e yw e r ee v an e s c en t ,th e s et e s tc a s e so f e a r l ya r tc in em ab e t r a yac on t inu in gs e to famb i t ion s ,e v en i fth e yr a r e l yt oo k l a s t in g r oo tw i th inas in g l e in s t i tu t ion .M an ye a r l y ‘ a r t i s t i c ’f i lm sp a yhom a g et oth e id e ao f th em a s t e rp i e c e inp a in t in gands cu lp tu r e ,bu t mo s to fth ema r et ooe c c en t r i ct of i t w i th inth eg r and ‘wh i t ee l eph an ta r t ’f amou s l yd e c r i edb yM ann yF a rb e ra sg i ld edand bomb a s t i c , in c r e a s in g l you to fp l a c ew i the achsub s equ en td e c ad eo fth etw en t i e th c en tu r y .A mo r eapp r op r i a t e , i f i r r e v e r en t ,an im a lm e t apho rm i gh tb eth e ‘ c am e l ’a s d e s c r ib edb yth ed e s i gn e rA l e cI s s i gon i s , inV o gu e,af ewy e a r sb e f o r eF a rb e r ’ se s s a y : 11 ‘ aho r s eth a tw a sp l ann edb yac omm i t t e e ’ . T oac e r t a inc o lon i a l i s te y e ,ac am e lm i gh t ind e edr e c a l lak indo f mon g r e lho r s e ,c om i c a l l ym i s sh ap enb y i t s impu r ep ed i g r e eand thu sap e r f e c tm e t apho rf o rad e s i gnbo rno fth eawkw a rdc o l l abo r a t iono f mu l t ip l e 12 Edu c a t ion a l ,c i v i canden t r ep r en eu r i a lo r g an i s a t ion so v e r l app ed inth e i r in t e r e s t s . amb i t ion sf o r mo v in g -p i c tu r ea r t ,p r o v id in gc on t inu a loppo r tun i t i e sf o rth e s eo f t en i l l f a t edc o l l abo r a t ion s .Th e indu s t r i a ld e s i gn e randth eH o l l ywoodp r odu c e rm a y l i v e in f e a ro fsu chawkw a rd ‘ c am e l s ’a sT r e e ’ sw o r kw i thT r i an g l e ,bu tth e yp r o v id esom eo f th er i ch e s tm a t e r i a lf o rth em ed i ah i s t o r i an . Wh a tth ea e s th e t i c a l l yamb i t iou s mo v in g p i c tu r e sf r omth i se a r l yp e r iod m a y l a c k inf in an c i a l( andsom e t im e se v enc r i t i c a l ) su c c e s so rs t ab i l i t y ,th e ym a k eupf o r inth e i rp r om i s cuou se xp e r im en t a t ionand k a l e ido s c op i cpo s s ib i l i t y . Th i sboo ks e e k sc on t inu i t i e samon gth e s ee f f o r t s ,andthu saf r am ef o re a r l y Am e r i c ana r tc in em a ,b ya r gu in gth r e eb a s i cpo in t s :th a t i t sp r odu c t sshou ldno tb e t r a c k eda se v en t sw i th ins in g l ec omp an i e so ro r g an i s a t ion s ,bu ta sap a t t e rno f co l l abo r a t ion sb e tw e eno r g an i s a t ion s ;th a tqu e s t ion so fa r t f i lmt e chn iqu e inth i s p e r iodw e r er e a l l ya t t emp t st os e a r chf o rana r t i s t i cm ed ium r e f l e x i v i t yf o rc in em aand thu sshou ldb ef r am edb y in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r y ;and , mo s td i s t in c t l y ,th a tth eo r i e so f p i c tu r ec ompo s i t ionandc r a f tund e rp inn edth i s in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r y .Th ee a r l y mo t ion p i c tu r em ad ec on t a c tw i thth eo th e ra r t s in mom en t so fe xp e r im en t a lc o l l abo r a t ion amon gd i f f e r en tbu s in e s sandcu l tu r a l in t e r e s t s .On ef ind se x amp l e s inanaud i t o r ium wh ena l an t e rn l e c tu r e rp a in s t a k in g l yc o r r e c t edth e j e r k y mo v em en t so fth e c in em a t o g r aph ,wh ena m a s sp r odu c e ro fA r t s and -C r a f t s in sp i r edhom ed é c o r l i k e Lou i sC .T i f f an yr e c omm end edp a in t in g st oac omm e r c i a lpho t o g r aph e rd abb l in g in ad ap t in gp a in t in g sf o rth es c r e en ,andwh enaf i lmd i r e c t o rw r o t eap r e f a c ef o raboo k b yath e a t r ep r o f e s so rd e f in in gf i lma r ta sf i r s tandf o r emo s tana r to fp i c tu r e c ompo s i t ion .Th ep r odu c t so fth e s er em a r k ab l ec o l l abo r a t ion s–A l e x and e rB l a c k ’ sM i s s J e r r y ,L e j a r enàH i l l e r ’ s Th eY o un gP a in t e randR e xIn g r am ’ sp r e f a c et oV i c t o rF r e ebu r g ’ s P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en–qu e s t ion edandth eo r i s ed mo v in g im a g ea r t .Th e s e p r o j e c t sp r o l i f e r a t edonth ep e r iph e r yo fgoodf i lmbu s in e s s , in m ino rc on f i gu r a t ion s andr ep e t i t ion s .Ah i s t o r i c a lapp r o a chth a ts e e k sou tth em y r i adc omm i t t e e sth a t p l ann eda r t / c in em ac o l l abo r a t ion s l i k eth e s ec an lo c a t e , inth e i rc lu t t e r eda r ch i v a l d e t a i l ,th em an ypo in t so fc on t a c tamon gar an g eo famb i t iou sp r o j e c t sth a tm i gh t 4

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

o th e rw i s eapp e a r i so l a t ed .An in t e l l e c tu a l -h i s t o r i c a lapp r o a chc an id en t i f yth e t r ad i t ion sth a t l in kth e s ep r o j e c t sa sth e ys e a r chf o rc ommona e s th e t i ct e rm s . T o g e th e r ,th em a t e r i a land in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo fth e s ep r o j e c t sc anadd r e s sth e i r p e r s i s t en tr e l i an c eonth ev i su a la r t s .P i c t o r i a ld e f in i t ion so f mo v in g im a g ea r tth r i v e f r om1890 sm a g i c l an t e rne xp e r im en t sth r ou ghth ef i r s ta r tf i lm sandf i lmth eo r i e so f th e1910 s .Un c o v e r in gth i sn e g l e c t ede a r l yh i s t o r ym a yo f f e rp e r sp e c t i v eonsom eo f th er o ad sno tt a k en ,th ea e s th e t i ca l t e rn a t i v e sandth ec on t inu in gp l e a su r e sand p r o v o c a t ion so ff i lm sth a th a v ec om et od e f in ea r tc in em a . S ITUAT INGC INEMAAMONGTH E OTH ERART S Th et a c t i co f l in k in gedu c a t o r s ,f i lm -m a k e r s ,c r i t i c sanda r t so r g an i s a t ion s c omp l em en t stwocu r r en t l yv i t a ld e v e lopm en t s inf i lms tud i e s .I tc on t r ibu t e st oan in t e rm ed i a ltu rnw i tn e s s eda c r o s sf i lms tud i e s ,and i tadd st oth eg r ow in gbod yo f h i s t o r i c a ls tud i e so ff i lm in s t i tu t ion s .Th et e rm ‘ in t e rm ed i a l ’h a sem e r g ed inr e c en t s cho l a r sh iponf i lm , l i t e r a tu r e ,th e a t r eandcu l tu r a lh i s t o r yt oo r i en tf i lmh i s t o r y 13 Th eem e r g en c eo fe a r l yc in em as tud i e so v e rth ep a s t t ow a rd s mu l t i -m ed i aqu e s t ion s . d e c ad e s( r ou gh l ys imu l t an eou sw i thth eem e rg en c eo fn ew m ed i a )h a sc e r t a in l yp l a y ed i t sp a r t inc a t a l y s in gth i sb r o ad e rt r an s f o rm a t ion .Insh i f t in gf o cu saw a yf r omno t ion s o fa ‘p r eh i s t o r y ’o fc in em a ,and inno lon g e rs e e in gth em a g i c l an t e rnando th e rd e v i c e s m e r e l ya s in c omp l e t em an i f e s t a t ion so fth e mo v in g im a g e ,cu r r en ts tud i e sh a v e r e v e a l eda m ed i ae c o lo g y inwh i chf lu idc on c ep t ion so f im a g eandadd r e s sp e r s i s to rr e 14 em e r g ea son ee a r l y mo v in g im a g et e chno lo g yr ep l a c e so rr e im a g in e sano th e r . Ind e ed ,on eo fth eb en e f i t so fth i ssh i f t inp e r sp e c t i v e i sth a t i temph a s i s e s c onn e c t ion samon gm ed i at e chno lo g i e s ,no ton l yw i th inag i v enp e r iodbu ta l soa c r o s s i th e rc a s e ,ac r o s s -m ed i aapp r o a cha t t end s ,no ts imp l y p e r iod so fm ed i ah i s t o r y .15Ine t oth ep r o l i f e r a t iono fm ed i af o rm a t s ,bu tsp e c i f i c a l l yt oth epo in t swh e r eon em ed ium r e c y c l e s ,au gm en t s ,o r jump sou to fth ef r am eo fano th e r .Inth es tud yo fa r tc in em a , an in t e rm ed i a lapp r o a che x am in e s mom en t swh enth e mo t ionp i c tu r ebo r r ow sf r om ano th e ra r tm ed iumt oc l a im i t sown l e g i t im a c y ,o r i t sowne x c ep t ion a lqu a l i t i e s . In t e rm ed i a lapp r o a ch e sf o cu sonth ed yn am i c so fen c oun t e ramon gm ed i a ,and a t t endt oth e in s t i tu t ion sth a ts t a g eth e s een c oun t e r s .On epo in tth a tr e c en tf i lm h i s t o r io g r aph yh a sm ad ec l e a r i sth a t in s t i tu t ion sp l a yar o l e ind e f in in gm ed i aa t l e a s t a s mu cha sdotho s em ed i a ’ sm e ch an i sm s ,emu l s ion sandp r odu c t iont e chn iqu e s .E a ch a sp e c to fth em ed iumc anno te x i s tw i thou tth eo th e r .Thu s ,ac r o s s -m ed i aemph a s i s c on t r ibu t e st oar e v i t a l i s ed in s t i tu t ion a lapp r o a chth a th a sp r o v en in f lu en t i a lw i th in f i lms tud i e so f l a t e .Th i sapp r o a ch i sp a r t i cu l a r l y impo r t an tf o ras tud yo fa r tc in em a s in c e i to f t enr e l i e son in s t i tu t ion a lsuppo r tb e y ondth een t e r t a inm en tm a r k e t .M a k in g M o v i e s in t oA r tjo in sr e c en t in s t i tu t ion a lh i s t o r i e ssu cha stho s eb yD an aP o l an(2007 ) onth eh i s t o r yo fun i v e r s i t yf i lms tud y ,P e t e rD e ch e rn e y(2005 )onH o l l yw o o dan dt h e 16 Th ebook C u l t u r eE l i t eandH a id e eW a s son(2005 )onth e Mu s eumo fM od e rnA r t . e x c a v a t e s in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r i e so fcu l tu r a l in s t i tu t ion s ,su cha sth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e o fA r t sandS c i en c e s ,th eSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r sandCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y ,f o cu s in g sp e c i f i c a l l yonhowth e s e in s t i tu t ion sh e lp edg en e r a t ec in em a ’ scu l tu r a lv a lu eb y bo r r ow in gf r omth ev i su a la r t s .R em emb e rth a tc in em aw a sno t ju s tan ewa r tf o rm , I n t rod u c t io n

5

bu ta l soa m e an so fv i su a lpub l i c i t y .C in em afun c t ion eda sm ed iumf o rth en e go t i a t ion o fth epub l i cr e c ep t iono fa r ta tat im ewh enth e r ew a san in c r e a s in gs en s eth a t Am e r i c anc o l l e c t o r sc ou ld l e v e r a g eth en a t ion ’ sp r o sp e r i t yt oc oun t e r a c tap e r c e i v ed e x c lu s ionf r omEu r op e ana e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion s . Wh e th e rth r ou ghth ep r a c t i c eo fbu y in g upo ld m a s t e r s ,o ru s in gth eKod a kc am e r at oe x t endp a in t e r l yt r ad i t ion s ,o r c i r cu l a t in g1890 sEu r op e ant e a ch in gs tud iot r ad i t ion sonana c c e l e r a t eds c a l e in Am e r i c ana r tp ed a go g y ,Am e r i c an s in c r e a s in g l yd e f in edth e i rr e l a t ion sh ipt oa r ta son e o fen t i t l em en t . Mo v in g im a g et e chno lo g yp l a y edak e yr o l e inp r o v id in ga c c e s st oa r t . E a r l ya r tc in em aw a s ju s ta s mu chabou ts e e in g mo v in gp i c tu r e sa sa m ed iumf o r n e go t i a t in gth epub l i cr e l a t iont oa r ta s i tw a sabou td e f in in gth em ed ium i t s e l fa sa r t inr e l a t iont oth en e i ghbou r in ga r t s .E a ch in t e rm ed i a le x ch an g er e l i edonth eo th e r . Th e s ef i lm s , l an t e rnshow s ,t ab l e au xand l e c tu r e -h a l lp e r f o rm an c e s–th e s e en coun t e r so fanun s e enc in em a–e s t ab l i sh edth e in t e l l e c tu a ln e two rk sth a tt e s t ed mo v in g -p i c tu r ea e s th e t i c s .Th ea r ch i v a lr e s e a r chth a tund e r g i rd sth ep r o j e c tm a rk s som eo fth em a t e r i a lcon t ou r so fth ev a r iou s in s t i tu t ion s inqu e s t ion ,andth enf o ld s th em in tod i s cu s s ion sabou ta e s th e t i c s .M a k in gM o v i e s in t oA r tp l a c e sV a ch e lL ind s a y inana r t s choo lc l a s s r oom in1905 l e c tu r in gabou tth e imp r e s s iono f mo v em en t in p a in t in g ; i tp l a c e sth eAm e r i c anImp r e s s ion i s tp a in t e r( andL ind s a y ’ sa r tt e a ch e r ) W i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ,a lon gw i thno v e l i s tW i l l i amD e anH ow e l l sandN ewY o rk in t e l l e c tu a lS e thLowa t1890 sm a g i c l an t e rn l e c tu r e sb yA l e x and e rB l a ck ,th e ‘ in v en to ro fth ep i c tu r ep l a y ’ ; i td e s c r ib e sth ew a ypub l i c i t ys t i l l sf r omP a r amoun t tu rn ed in to l e c tu r es l id e s inaCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yc l a s s r oom .Ine a chc a s e ,th e in s t i tu t ion a lconn e c t ion sandth ea r ch i v a lr e co rd l inkupw i thah i s to ryo f id e a sabou t mo v in gp i c tu r ea e s th e t i c s .Th i sb r o ad e rh i s t o ryo fa r tc in em aen comp a s s e sa e s th e t i c th eo r i s t so fsp e c t a to r sh ipandth ea e s th e t i c so f mo v em en t l ik eP au lSou r i auand V e rnonL e ea sw e l la sth ef i gu r e swhoe xp l i c i t l yth eo r i s edf i lma r t l ik eL ind s a y ,Hu go Mün s t e rb e r g ,V i c to rF r e ebu r gandF r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son .E a cho fth e s ec a s e s un co v e r s in t e l l e c tu a ln e two rk sand in t e r s ec t ion s ,no tp r e v iou s l yknowno rs e en ,wh i ch a l i gn edth e mo v in gp i c tu r ew i thth ev i su a la r t s . Wh a t i sa t i s su eh e r ea r eth e mom en t s o fen coun t e r ,wh enn in e t e en th c en tu rya e s th e t i cedu c a t ionr e a ch edtoa c commod a t e mo v in g im a g e s ,andwh ene a r l yc in em ar e f l e x i v e l yt ookp a r t inth eAm e r i c anpub l i c r e c ep t iono fa r t . Th ep r e s s in g i s su e i sno t inf ind in ge x amp l e so fe a r l ya r tc in em a ,bu t inf r am in g h i s t o r io g r aph i c a lqu e s t ion sad equ a t et oth i sv a r i e g a t edbod yo fwo r k .Th i sboo ko f f e r s on ew a y :b y l in k in g mo v in gp i c tu r e sw i thth eedu c a t ion a lt r ad i t ion so ft e a ch in gth e pub l i chowt oapp r e c i a t ef in ea r ta sp i c t o r i a lw o r km an sh ip .Th ep r e s en c eo fth i s und e r cu r r en t inso m an yo fth ee f f o r t st od e f in e mo v in g -p i c tu r ea e s th e t i c s ,e v entho s e b e t t e r knownp r a c t i c e sth a tsou gh tt oa l i gnth ec in em aw i thth e l e g i t im a t es t a g e , i s wh yIb e g anw i thH e rb e r tT r e e .Inwh a ton ew ou lde xp e c tt ob ear e l a t i v e l y s t r a i gh t f o rw a rdc a s ef o r mo r eh i ghb r owd r am aons c r e enth e r e i s in s t e adac omp l e x rh e t o r i co fth ev i su a la r t sandedu c a t ion .H e l aud sc in em aa sanedu c a t ion a le x t en s ion , no tm e r e l ya sac l a s s r oomv i su a la idbu ta sh a v in ga mo r e l a s t in ga e s th e t i c imp a c t .17 M o s t impo r t an t l yf o rm ya r gum en th e r e ,T r e ea l i gn sth i s mo v ef r omon em ed iumt o ano th e r , inh i sc a s eb e tw e enth e a t r eandc in em aw i th M i ch e l an g e loandB en v enu t o C e l l in i .M i ch e l an g e los i gn a l l edth ee l e v a t iono fpub l i ct a s t e ,bu tad i f f e r en t n in e t e en th c en tu r yd i s c ou r s ef ound in sp i r a t ion inth e in t e rm ed i a ln a tu r eo fh i s 6

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

p r o j e c t s .M i ch e l an g e lo ’ se xp r e s s ion s in m at e r i a l s l i k ep a in to rpu t t ys i gn a l l edth e adm i r a t ionf o rwo r km an sh ipo fth ek indth a tR a lph W a ldoEm e r sonp r a i s ed ,th e a r t i s t ’ s ‘ c a r r y in gs t e ad i l yonw a rd ,w i thth eh e a tandd e t e rm in a t iono fm anhood ,h i s po e t i cc on c ep t ion s in t op r o g r e s s i v ee x e cu t ion ’ .18D i s cu s s edn e x tt oC e l l in i ,th i s l in k w i thc r a f t i se v enc l e a r e r ,a sC e l l in i ’ sm emo i rw a sb yf a rth eb e s t known l i t e r a r y a c c oun to fa r t i s an sh ipf r omth em id -n in e t e en thc en tu r yth r ou ghth ee a r l yd e c ad e so f 19 th etw en t i e th . J ohnAdd in g t onS ymond s ’ in t r odu c t iont oh i sb e s t s e l l in gt r an s l a t ion o fth em emo i rm ad eC e l l in i ’ sn am e ,f o rT r e eandth er e s to fth eEn g l i shandAm e r i c an 20 T r e e ’ st e chn iqu e s ,a sw i th m an y r e ad in gpub l i c ,s ynon ymou sw i tha e s th e t i cc r a f t . qu a l i t yf i lm s ,m a yc om ec l e a r l yf r omth es t a g e ,bu th em a k e sh i sc a s ef o rth e t r an s l a t iono fth e s et e chn iqu e sb yk e y in g in t od i s c ou r s e so fedu c a t ionandc r a f t .Th i s p r omo t ion a lrh e t o r i cb e c om e sar e l e v an tp a r to f in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r ywh en i tr e f l e c t s p e r s i s t en ts t r a t e g i e sth a tw r i t e r su s edt or e l a t ec in em at oth eo th e ra r t s .An in t e l l e c tu a l -h i s t o r yapp r o a cht a k e sth e s ec l a im ss e r iou s l y–c on s id e r in g ,f o re x amp l e , howth epub l i sh in gh i s t o r yo fC e l l in i ’ sau t ob io g r aph yo v e r l app edw i thth ep r o j e c t so f tu rn -o f th e c en tu r yedu c a t o r s .D i s c ou r s e so fth ev i su a la r t sp e rm e a t edth e s ep r o j e c t s , andth i s in f lu en c e i sa l lth e mo r es i gn i f i c an tb e c au s e in m an yc a s e s ,no ton l yT r e e ’ s b r i e fs t in t inH o l l yw ood ,th ep r omo t ion a lrh e t o r i cc i r cu l a t ed mo r ew id e l yth anth e p r odu c t ion sth em s e l v e s . CRA FT ,P ICTURE ,MOV EM ENT Am e r i c anc r a f t st r ad i t ion s , in c lud in gth eA r t sandC r a f t s mo v em en t mo s t p r om in en t l yamon gth em ,a r eno tt yp i c a l l yund e r s toodtoh a v eh ada m a jo r in f lu en c e onc in em a .Ad i r e c t in f lu en c ec anc e r t a in l yb ef oundamon ga r td i r e c to r ssu cha s Hu goB a l l in ,andd e s i gn e r so ft i t l ec a rd sf o rs i l en tf i lm s ,bu te v enth e r e , i fw econ s id e r on l yth ebo r r ow in go fs t y l e s ,A r t sandC r a f t sr em a in ed mo r eo r l e s sa m ino r mod e . Andy e t ,soo f t enth ea e s th e t i cqu e s t ion spo s edb yc r a f tp r a c t i t ion e r sandedu c a to r s r e su r f a c eamon gAm e r i c anf i lm -m ak e r sandf i lmc r i t i c s .L an t e rn i s t sd r ewf r omc r a f t rh e to r i ctos e l lth em a g i c l an t e rna satoo lf o rp r odu c in gcompo s edt r an s i t ion sand eC r a f t sm anm a g a z in e h andm ad e mo v em en to v e rm e ch an i s ed mo t ionp i c tu r e s .21Th r ana r t i c l e sabou tth ec r a f t sm an sh ipo fp i c tu r e sb ypho to g r aph e r / f i lm -m ak e rEdw a rd Cu r t i s .F i lmad v e r t i s e r su s edA r t sandC r a f t sd e s i gnc l i ch é s inth et r ad ep r e s sf o r p r e s t i g ecomp an i e s l ik eUn i v e r s a l ’ sB lu eb i rd l ab e l ,e v enwh enth ef i lm sth em s e l v e s bo r enon eo fth et r a c e so fth i ss t y l e .C r i t i c a lw r i t in gon mo t ionp i c tu r e s mob i l i s ed d i s cou r s eonc r a f t ,b e g inn in gw i the a r l ya r t i c l e s inth eM o v in gP i c t u r eW o r l db yLou i s R e e v e sH a r r i son .Th i st end en c yr e a ch edah i ghpo in t inth e1910 sande a r l y20 sw i th book l en g th m anu a l sw i tht i t l e s l ik eS c r e en c r a f t , Th eT e c hn i q u eo ft h ePh o t o p l a yand C in em aC r a f t sm an sh i pb yH a r r i son ,Ep e sW in th r opS a r g en tandF r an c e sT a y lo r e s e in s t an c e so fd ep lo y in gth e id e ao fc r a f t ,o f t enf o rp r omo t ion a l P a t t e r son .22Th end s ,w a r r an tcon s id e r a t iona sacoh e r en tph enom enon .B ysh i f t in gf o cu sf r omth e bo r r ow in go fs t y l e s ina c tu a lf i lm sto in t e l l e c tu a lh i s to ry ,th e in f lu en c eo fth e mo v em en tb e com e s mu ch mo r es i gn i f i c an t .Th i sapp r o a ch i son l yf a i rwh en con s id e r in g mo v em en t s ,wh i ch , inadd i t iontop r o v id in gab a t t e ryo fr e co gn i s ab l e s t y l e s ,w e r eo f t en mo r eabou tpo s in gph i lo soph i c a lqu e s t ion sabou tth er o l eo f I n t rod u c t io n

7

a e s th e t i c s ind emo c r a c yandth efun c t iono fc r a f t l abou r in mod e rn i t y .Ino th e r wo rd s ,th e in f lu en c eo fc r a f tt r ad i t ion s inf i lmp r omo t ionandedu c a t ionad vo c a t ed l e s sf o ron en a r r ows e to fs t y l i s t i ct r a i t sth ana san in t e l l e c tu a lf r am ef o rm ed i a t in ga r an g eo fs t y l i s edf i lm s . Th e r ew a ssom e th in gp a r t i cu l a r l yu s e fu l inth ec o l loqu i a ls en s eo fth ewo rd ‘ c r a f t ’ f o rth in k in gabou tf i lma sane v e r yd a yv e rn a cu l a rm ed ium .Bu tth i sapp l i c a t ionw a s a l sop r ob l em a t i c .C r a f tr ed e f in ed l abou r inr e spon s et oan indu s t r i a la g eb y emph a s i s in gth eknow l ed g eo fp r o c e s s e sandt e chno lo g i e ssp e c i f i ct oa m ed ium .Su cha mod e lsu i t ed mo v in gp i c tu r e s ’s e a r chf o ra m ed ium id en t i t y ,bu th adt oc on t endw i th th ef a c tth a tf i lmt e chno lo g ye x emp l i f i ed ,t om an yp eop l e ,th ed e s t ru c t iono fth a tv e r y know l ed g e .Th e l abou ro fth e mo v in g im a g e -m a k e r ,a swo r k ,w a sav e x ed i s su e inp a r t b e c au s eo ff i lm ’ sc onn e c t iont oth ev e r ym e ch an i s a t iono fa r tth a tc r a f t mo v em en t s r e j e c t ed .Thu sth ed i s c ou r s eo fc r a f t in mo v in gp i c tu r e sh adth ep a r ado x i c a lt a s ko f d e f in in ga e s th e t i cw o r kw i th ina m ed iumth a tth r e a t en edt ot a k e i taw a y .T odoth i s , i t tu rn ed ,no tonth equ e s t iono fc in em a ’ sr ad i c a ln ewn e s s ,bu t in s t e adonc in em a ’ s in t e rm ed i a lc onn e c t ion st oth ew o r ko fo th e ra r t i s t sanda r t i s an s .Id e a so fc r a f t e s t ab l i sh edon es e to fc oo rd in a t e swh e r eb yc in em a t i ct e chno lo g i e sc ou ldf i t in t o lon g e r h i s t o r i e so fp r in t in gt e chno lo g i e so redu c a t ion ind e s i gn . Mo v in gp i c tu r e sc ou ld m a k e ac l a imf o ra m ed ium id en t i t ye xp r e s s ed l i k eo th e rc r a f tm ed i a : int e rm so fe f f o r t , e x e cu t edth r ou gh m a s t e r edp r o c e s s e s ,o v e rt im e . I t i snoc o in c id en c eth a t mu cho fth ee a r l yc r a f td i s cu s s iono fa r tc in em at oo kp l a c e inhow t o mo v i e l i t e r a tu r e .Th ehow t ot e x t so fe a r l ya r tc in em at a k eth e i rcu ef r oma mom en twh ena r tedu c a t o r sad ap t edc r a f t ’ st e x tu a lt r ad i t ion st oth e i rownp ed a go g i c a l inno v a t ion s .A sc r a f th i s t o r i anG l ennAd am sonh a sno t ed ,th e mod e rnhow t o in s t ru c t ion a lt e x tem e r g ed inth ee i gh t e en thc en tu r ya sth e l i t e r a tu r ep a r t i cu l a rt o c r a f tb e c am eag en r ed e v o t eda s mu cht oph i lo soph i c a lc l a im sabou ta r tandc r a f ta st o yth eendo fth en in e t e en thc en tu r y ,p r o g r e s s i v e d i s s em in a t in gno rm so fp r a c t i c e .23B edu c a t ion inth eU SAadop t edth ehow t ot e x tandp r odu c edas t e ad ys t r e amo fa r t t e x t sand l e c tu r e s inth i s mod e .Bu tth e s em i t i g a t edhow t ot e x t sv e r g edaw a yf r omth e h and s -onsp e c i f i c i t yo fat r ad em anu a l .M a s t e r yo ft r ad et e chn iqu ew a ss t i l lt oo p r a c t i c a lap r in c ip l et oh a v eb r o adp ed a go g i c a lapp e a lw i th inth ea e s th e t i ct r ad i t iono f A r t sandC r a f t s .Tu rn -o f th e c en tu r yedu c a to r sn e ed edab r o ad e rth eo r yo ft e chn iqu e , i t s e l ft r an s l a t ab l ea c r o s sav a r i e t yo fm ed i a .Th e yf oundth i s inth es tud yo fc ompo s ed p i c tu r e s . Th eth em e so f in t e rm ed i a l i t yandc r a f t inc in em ac on v e r g e inth i sboo k inth e in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo fp i c tu r ec ompo s i t ion .Compo s i t ionw a son m an ya r tedu c a t o r s ’ m ind sa tth etu rno fth ec en tu r y ,andh add i s t in c tad v an t a g e sf o rc in em a .F i r s t , an cho r in gedu c a t ion inth efund am en t a l so fp i c t o r i a ld e s i gnf a c i l i t a t ed in t e r ch an g e amon gm ed i a ,andthu sb e tw e enc in em aandth eo th e ra r t s .P i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion s l in k ed o th e rw i s ed i v e r g en ts t y l e so fth e a t r e ,t ab l e aup e r f o rm an c e , i l lu s t r a t ion ,p a in t in g , pho t o g r aph yandth ec in em a inth en in e t e enthande a r l ytw en t i e thc en tu r i e s .P i c tu r e s h adac ommons e to ff o rm a lcu e s ,t empo r a l i t i e sand mod e so fadd r e s sth a tw e r e t r an s l a t ab l ea c r o s sav a r i e t yo fm ed i a .I fs t o r y t e l l in go f f e r edon em e an so fe x ch an g e b e tw e enc in em aandth eo th e ra r t s ,p i c tu r ec ompo s i t iono f f e r edanequ a l l yv i ab l e a l t e rn a t i v e .Th es e c ond ,equ a l l yb en e f i c i a lad v an t a g eo fc ompo s i t ionf o r mo v in g p i c tu r e sw a sth a t i tm a in t a in edas en s eo fa r ta sapp l i eds k i l l .Compo s i t ion ,wh i l e mo r e 8

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

ab s t r a c tth ansp e c i f i ct e chn iqu e s ,s t i l lr e g i s t e r eda sth ee x e cu t iono fs k i l l ed l abou r .Th e l in kb e tw e enp i c tu r ec ompo s i t ionandc r a f t i sp a r t i cu l a r l ys t r on g inth eth eo r i e so f ‘p i c tu r es tud y ’ ,on eo fth em a inp ed a go g i c a lt r ad i t ion sth a ten e r g i s edAm e r i c ana r t edu c a t iona tth etu rno fth ec en tu r y .P i c tu r es tud y in t e g r a t ed id e a so fp i c tu r eandc r a f t a sa m e an st ob r e a kdownsom eo fth ea e s th e t i ch i e r a r ch i e sc a r r i edo v e rf r om n in e t e en th c en tu r ys choo l s .H i s t o r i an so fa r tedu c a t ion l i k eM a r yAnnS t an k i ew i c z h a v ep r o v id edd e t a i l ed m ap so fth ep i c tu r e s tud yt r ad i t ionand i t s in f lu en c e s inN o r th e yh a v eshownhowAm e r i c anp i c tu r e s tud y Am e r i c ab yth etu rno fth ec en tu r y .24Th l e c tu r e sh ad ,s in c eth e1880 s ,app r op r i a t edJ ohnRu s k in ’ sand W i l l i am Mo r r i s ’ s p r in c ip l e so fc r a f t l abou r .25P i c tu r es tud yt oo kan in t e rm ed i a lapp r o a cht oth e l abou r o fa r t .I t show t om e thod s in t e g r a t edth eapp r e c i a t ionandp r odu c t ionc ompon en t so f ana r tedu c a t ionno tc on f in edt oas in g l em ed ium . Th e mo s t in f lu en t i a lo fth e s ep i c tu r e s tud yedu c a t o r s ,A r thu rW e s l e yDow , d e v e lop eda m e thodth a tsh ap ede v enth ef i r s tc ou r s e s in mo t ion -p i c tu r es tud y (Ch ap t e r3 ) inth e1910 s .D ow ’ sc ompo s i t ion -b a s edp ed a go g yr e v amp edth e mo r e c omp a r tm en t a l i s edapp r o a ch e st ot e a ch in ga r tth a tp r edom in a t ed inh i sd a y .D r aw in g f r omh i sc o l l e a gu e s ina r tedu c a t ion ,E rn e s tF eno l lo s aandD enm anRo s s ,Dowd e f in ed c ompo s i t iona sac on t en t f r e eandnon -m ed ium sp e c i f i cp a r ad i gmth a tr e c on c i l ed d i v e r g en c e samon ga r t i s t i cp r a c t i c e s .H et au gh tth a tth es am eb a s i cp r in c ip l e so f l in e , sh ad in gandc o lou rc ou ldapp l yt ow o r kf r oman yn a t ionand inan yp i c t o r i a lm ed ium . D owandh i sc o l l e a gu e sadd r e s s edwh a tth e ys awa st i r edd i v i s ion sand imb a l an c e s b e tw e enth er ep r e s en t a t ion a la r t sandth ed e c o r a t i v ea r t s .In s t e ado f in cu l c a t in gth e v a lu eo fah a l low edw o r k ,p i c tu r es tud ysou gh tou tth eab s t r a c t edp r in c ip l e so f c ompo s i t ion inh e r en t inan y(po s s ib l yquo t id i an )ob j e c to rs c en e .Th ead ap t ab i l i t yo f th i sc ompo s i t ion f o cu s edapp r o a chw a s , ind e ed , i t sg r e a t e s ts t r en g th .Edu c a t o r sand s tud en t sc ou ldnowf r e e l yad ap tth e i rb a s i cm e thod so fan a l y s i st od i s cu s sm ed i aand wo r k sa sf a r r e a ch in ga sP e r s i anru g s ,A r t sandC r a f t sfu rn i tu r eande v en mod e rn i s t p a in t in g s ,so lon ga sth e yt au gh ta e s th e t i c sa sab a s i ca r r an g em en to f l in e ,sh ad in gand c o lou r .Th em e thodg a in ed mom en tumb e tw e enD ow ’ s1899f i r s ted i t iono fh i s 26 In f lu en c e inth eU SAr an g edf r omh i gh e rand C om p o s i t i ont e x tboo kandth e1910 s . s e c ond a r yedu c a t iont r a in in gp r o g r amm e s l i k eCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y ’ sT e a ch e r s Co l l e g e ,t opub l i ce x t en s ion c ou r s e l e c tu r e s .P i c t o r i a lcompo s i t iono f f e r eda mod e lb y wh i chedu c a t ion a l in s t i tu t ion sc ou lde f f e c t i v e l yc oop e r a t e ,b ywh i ch l an t e rns l id e c o l l e c t ion sc ou ldb epu tt ow o r kp r ed i c t ab l yandb ywh i ch( e v en i t s mo r ec on s e rv a t i v e p r opon en t sh adt oadm i t )a r tedu c a t ionr ema in edop ent on ew m ed i at e chno lo g i e s .In o th e rwo rd s ,c ompo s edp i c tu r e sf a c i l i t a t edanabund an tcu l tu r eo fe x ch an g eb e tw e en m ed ium s ,andth eo r i e so fp i c tu r ec ompo s i t iona l low edac ommon l an gu a g ef o r d i s cu s s in g mu l t i -m ed i aa r t . P i c tu r es tud yandth eo r i e so fc ompo s i t ions t r e am l in eda r tedu c a t ion ,bu t ,f o r mo t ionp i c tu r e s ,th ec r o s s -m ed i ar e a cho fth e s eth eo r i e sa l soan cho r edth en ew m ed ium inth ef i e ldo fa r th i s t o r y .M ed i ah i s t o r i an sh a v eo f t end e s c r ib edth ead v en to f mo t ionp i c tu r e sa sa mom en t inwh i cht r ad i t ion so fr ep r e s en t a t ionw e r er ad i c a l l yc a s t a s id e ,bu tuponc lo s e r in sp e c t ion i t i so f t enh a rdt od i s en t an g l ea e s th e t i crup tu r ef r om a e s th e t i cc on t inu i t y .C en tu r i e s lon gp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion sen e r g i s ed mo t ionp i c tu r e s . N in e t e en th c en tu r yno t ion so fc r a f t ,p i c t o r i a lc on t emp l a t ion ,emp a th yandth e p i c tu r e squ e in t e r tw in ed inth ed yn am i cen e r g yo fth em ed ium .27 I n t rod u c t io n

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N owh e r e i sth i s in t e r tw in in g mo r ee v id en tth an inth equ e s t iono fm o v em en tin d i s cu s s ion so fe a r l ya r tc in em a .Th a tth e mo v in g im a g ecou ldb ed i s cu s s ed int e rm so f t r ad i t ionandc r a f ta ta l l i sat e s t am en ttoth ead ap t ab i l i t yo fcon c ep t ion so fp i c tu r e compo s i t ion . Mo v em en t ,b e g inn in ga t l e a s tw i th mod e rn i s tw r i t in gonth ec in em a , o f t en m a rk edth er ad i c a lrup tu r eo ff i lm i cr ep r e s en t a t ion . Mo v em en ta l sow a s p e r c e i v edtob e mo r eau tom a t ed ,thu sfu r th e rou t s id eo fa r t i s t s ’con t r o l ,th ane v en th em e ch an i c a l l yr ep r odu c eds t i l l im a g eo fwh i chso mu chw a sm ad e ind eb a t e sabou t e a r l ypho to g r aph y .Bu t mo v em en t ’ sm e ch an i smandd yn am i smno tw i th s t and in g , c r i t i c sandf i lm -m ak e r sr ep e a t ed l yr e l a t ed i ttocompo s i t ion .I fth ed an c eo fr ed sand g r e en s ine a r l yh and co lou r ed mo v in gp i c tu r e s in sp i r edaw e ,th em a g i co fth en ew m e ch an i c a lm ed iumw a sno tth eon l yr e a son . Th ec a r e fu la t t en t iontoco lou r in gcou ld comp e lv i ew e r s ,no ton l yw i thth eno v e l t yo f mo v in gco lou r ,bu ta l sob e c au s eth e co lou r i s t ’ swo rke vok edth e l abou r so fth em a s t e rp r in t e r ,c a r e fu l l ycon s t ru c t in gan an im a t ed im a g eth r ou ghth eapp l i c a t iono fe x a c t in gsk i l landp a t i en c ew i thth e m ed ium .28Th ef i r s ttw en t y f i v ey e a r so fAm e r i c anc in em ah i s to rya r ef i l l edw i th w r i t in gb yp eop l ewhos aw mo v em en ta ssom e th in gth a tcou ldb ec r a f t edand compo s eda sap i c tu r e ,f r omth eo f t endownp l a y eda e s th e t i c( e v end e co r a t i v e )con t en t o fE adw e a rd Mu yb r id g e ’ s i l lu s t r a t ed mo t ion s tud y l e c tu r e stoth ee a r l y1920 s mu s in g sonth ea e s th e t i c so f mo v em en t in L i f em a g a z in eb yf i lmc r i t i cRob e r t Emm e tSh e rwood .Th er e l a t ion sh ip sb e tw e enth es t i l land mo v in g im a g ep r o v eda p r odu c t i v es i t eo fenqu i ryande xp e r im en t a t ion–on eth a tw e l com edp i c to r i a l t r ad i t ion sandth e i rd e f in i t ion so fb e au t y ,bu twh i cha tth es am et im er em a in edaw a r e o fth ew a y sth a tth e s et r ad i t ion sb e g anto m e ansom e th in gd i f f e r en ton c eth e yw e r e ad ap t edtoa c commod a t ec in em a . W r i t e r sand im a g e -m a k e r sadd r e s s edth equ e s t iono fc ompo s i t ion ,andth er e l a t ion b e tw e ens t i l land mo v in gp i c tu r e s ,w i ths im i l a ran a lo g i e s .B yf a rth e mo s tc ommon amon gth e s ew a sth et e rm ‘ t ab l e au ’ ,wh i chr e app e a r s ine a chch ap t e ro fth i sboo k in d i f f e r en th i s t o r i c a land m e t apho r i c a l i t e r a t ion s .Th et ab l e au ’ s mod e rnd e f in i t iona s ‘ a p i c t o r i a lg r oup in g ’d e v e lop ed ine i gh t e en th c en tu r yF r an c eandEn g l and .B yth eendo f th ee i gh t e en thc en tu r yandth r ou ghou tth en in e t e en th , i tb e c am ea s so c i a t edw i tha f am i l yo fp e r f o rm an c et r ad i t ion sth a temp lo yap i c t o r i a lapp r o a cht os t a g in g .A sI d i s cu s sth ed i s t in c tp e r f o rm an c et r ad i t ion sth a tm a k eu s eo fs t a g edp i c tu r e s th r ou ghou tth i sboo k ,Ir e f e rt oth emb yth e i rd i s t in c tn am e s .H ow e v e r ,Ia l sou s e t e rm s l i k e ‘ t ab l e aucu l tu r e ’t or e in f o r c eth eno t ionth a tth e s ed i v e r g en tp r a c t i c e sh a v e 29 I fc r i t i c s inth e1890 so f t end idno tm a k eth e in t e rm ed i a lc on c e rn s inc ommon . d i s t in c t ionb e tw e enth eend -o f s c en et ab l e auandth et ab l e auv i v an t ,th enw e mu s t e xp lo r eth ec ommona e s th e t i cc on c e rn sth a tc au s edth e s ec r i t i c st oc o l l ap s e d i s t in c t ion sb e tw e enth e s ed i v e r g en tp r a c t ic e s .Th er e l a t ionb e tw e en mo v em en tand th es t a t i cp i c tu r es t and sou tamon gth e s ec ommona e s th e t i cc on c e rn s ,en ab l in ge a r l y am a t eu rth eo r i s t so f mo v in g im a g e st ound e r s t andth ema s in c i t in gc on t emp l a t ion in th em ann e ro fc ompo s edp i c tu r e s .D r aw in gf r omt ab l e aucu l tu r e ’ sp r eo c cup a t ionw i th th ea e s th e t i c so f mo v em en tands t a s i s , mo v in g im a g e -m a k e r sandc r i t i c sf oundr e ad y m ad eso lu t ion st oth en ewa e s th e t i cc onund rum sb r ou gh tabou tb y in s t an t an eou s pho t o g r aph yandth epho t o g r aph yo f mo t ion .Th e l in k edc a s e s ine a chch ap t e ro f f e r g l imp s e s in t oth i sp r o c e s so fapp r op r i a t ion ,o s c i l l a t in gb e tw e enp i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c t r ad i t ion sand mo v in g im a g et e chno lo g y . 10

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Ine a chc a s eth et ab l e au ,c on c e i v ed l e s sa sat e chn iqu eth ana sat r op e in in t e l l e c tu a l h i s t o r y ,d e f in edapo s s ib l ee a r l ya r tc in em ab y l in k in gth e mo v in g im a g ew i thp i c tu r e c r a f t .Th et ab l e auan a lo g y l in k edp e r f o rm an c eandth es tud yo fp i c tu r e s–c ompo s ed p i c tu r e s ,o f f e r edf o rc on t emp l a t ion .I th e lp edc r i t i c s l i k eV i c t o rF r e ebu r g im a g in e c ompo s i t ion in mo v in gf o rm sa sr e l a t edt oc ompo s i t ion ins t a t i cf o rm s .A l e x and e r B l a c kr e f e r en c edth et ab l e auwh enh ed e s c r ib edh i sd e c ad e lon gp r o j e c tt oc r e a t ean a l t e rn a t i v e mo t ionp i c tu r e ,on e inwh i chh ec r a f t edth e ‘mo v em en t ’f r am e -b y f r am e . Th et ab l e au m ad ep a in t in g sc om et o l i f e ine a r l yf i lm sabou tth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io ,andth e t ab l e auan a lo g ym ad ee a r l yf i lmc r i t i c ss e ep a in t in g s inth es c en e so fth e i rf a v ou r i t e d i r e c t o r s .Th et ab l e aut e chn iqu em a yh a v eb e enaho ldo v e rf r omth e a t r i c a l p e r f o rm an c eb e f o r ec in em a ,bu t , in m an yc a s e s ,t ab l e au -h e a v yf i lmp e r f o rm an c e s( l i k e H e rb e r tB e e rbohmT r e e ’ s )d idno ts imp l yr em indc r i t i c so fth e mo r e l e g i t im a t e m ed ium .Th e yf ed in t o mo r ed yn am i chow t od e f in i t ion so f mo v in g -p i c tu r ea r t th r ou ghwh i ch m an yb e g ant ound e r s t and mo v in gp i c tu r e s int e rm so fwo r km an sh ip . A E STHET ICAPPREC IAT IONANDTH E MOD ERN ITY O FP ICTURECRA FT Th e mod e rn i t yo fp i c tu r ec r a f t i sno tr e ad i l yapp a r en tt os a yth e l e a s t ;a tf i r s tg l an c e th e s ea r t s yp r odu c t ion ss e em mo r ea l i gn edw i thth eo ldgu a rdth anth ea v an t g a rd e . Bu tp r e s en t ine a cho fth ech ap t e r so fth i sboo ka r ee x amp l e so fwh y i t i s in app r op r i a t e t och a r a c t e r i s eth e s ep r odu c t ion sa ss imp l yV i c t o r i anno s t a l g i a .I fth ec on f r on t a t ion b e tw e en mo v in g im a g et e chno lo g yandp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion sf o rm son eo fth eb r o ad e s t a r c so fth eboo k ,th ed eb a t e sabou thowt oc ompo s e mo v em en tv i v id l ys t a g eth e p r ob l emo fth e mod e rn i t yo fe a r l ya r tc in em a .Inth ea e s th e t i cp r ob l emo fp i c tu r ed mo v em en t ,t r ad i t ion so fa e s th e t i cthou gh tt r a c e ab l eb a c kt oD id e r o tandL e s s in gc om e in t od i r e c tc on t a c tw i thd i s cu s s ion sabou t in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y ’ sandf i lm ’ s t end en c yt of r a gm en tt im eandr e c o rdeph em e r a l mom en t s .Inth ef i lm s ,m a g i c l an t e rn show sandt ab l e aup e r f o rm an c e s ine a cho fm ych ap t e r s ,th i s in t e r e s t inf r a gm en t a t ion p a r ado x i c a l l ym e r g e sw i tha e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion sth a twou ldapp e a rt ooppo s e i t .Idono t a r gu ea g a in s tth e mod e rn i t yo fth e s ed e v e lopm en t sso mu cha st a k ec au t ionabou t c onn e c t in gth e s et r ad i t ion s inpu r e l yf o rm a l i s tt e rm s . Th es t y l eo fth e s ep r odu c t ion s i son l yc en t r a lt oth i sp r o j e c t in so f a ra s i tpo in t s ou tw a rdt otwos i gn i f i c an tf o r c e so fch an g e inth eAm e r i c anc on sump t iono fa r t im a g e s inth i sp e r iod .Th ef i r s t i sth ep r o f e s s ion a ls t r e am l in in gth a tc o rpo r a t i s ed a r t i s t i cp r odu c t ionand l in k edth eapp l i eda r t sw i thth ef in ea r t s ,andth es e c ond i s mod e rne xp an s iono fa r tedu c a t ion inth ee f f o r tt om a k ea e s th e t i capp r e c i a t ionap i l l a r o fth ef o rm a t iono fth ed emo c r a t i cc i t i z en r y .Th e s et r an s f o rm a t ion s inAm e r i c an a e s th e t i ccu l tu r ew e r eno ts imp l ys imu l t an eou s .Th e yc omp l em en t ede a cho th e r ,e v en a sth e y mo v ed inth es e em in g l yc on t r ad i c t o r yd i r e c t ion so fp r o f e s s ion a lsp e c i a l i s a t ion andg en e r a ledu c a t ion .On eo fth ew a y sw ec ans e ehowth e s etwof o r c e s in t e r r e l a t e i s t ot r a c e inth emth eoddt r a j e c t o r yo fno t ion so fc r a f t l abou r . C r a f t mo v em en t s inth eU SAh adap r e c o c iou sab i l i t yt or e c onn e c tw i thth e c omm e r c i a le f f i c i en c yth e yo r i g in a l l ysou gh tt or e j e c t .N o r thAm e r i c ac e r t a in l yh ad i t s sh a r eo fendu r in gan t i -mod e rnapp l i ed a r t sc ommun i t i e s in f lu en c edb yth eB r i t i sh A r t sandC r a f t s mo v em en t ,no t ab l yonth eW e s tCo a s twh e r ea s so r t edf a c t o r s , I n t rod u c t io n

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in c lud in gp e rh ap s ,g eo g r aph y ,en c ou r a g edth emt opu r su e mo r ee c c en t r i c ,an a r ch i s t , so c i a l i s t ,o ro c cu l t in f l e c t ion so fth e mo v em en t .Bu tth e s eou t l i e r sand fund am en t a l i s t sp r o v edf a r l e s s in f lu en t i a l inad v o c a t in gc r a f tth antho s ewho ab s t r a c t edc r a f trh e t o r i cf o rth em an a g e r i a lc l a s sandf o rg en t e e lpub l i c a t ion s .Th e S t i c k l e yandT i f f an yc omp an i e s ,f o re x amp l e ,b r ou gh td e s i gnw i th inr e a ch , i fa tth ec o s t o fh a r sh l yr e in t e rp r e t in gth e l abou rpo l i t i c sth a to r i g in a l l y in sp i r edth e mo v em en t .30 Th e s ec omp an i e su s edth er ap id l ye xp and in gm a r k e tf o rm a g a z in e st op r omo t eth e i r ab s t r a c t edv e r s iono fc r a f t .F r omg en e r a lm a g a z in e s l i k eC o sm o p o l i t anandL a d i e s ’H om e J o u rn a lt oth e mo r esp e c i a l i s edp a g e so fA p p l i e dA r t sB o o k, A r t san dD e c o r a t i onand S t i c k l e y ’ sTh eC r a f t sm an,th es a l a r i edwo r k e ren g a g edw i thqu e s t ion so fa e s th e t i c sand c r a f tth r ou ghdom e s t i cc on sump t ion .B y lo c a t in ga e s th e t i c s inth ep r i v a t ehom e ,th e s e m a g a z in e s in t e g r a t edf in eandapp l i eda r t s .A r t san dD e c o r a t i on’ sed i t o r i a lcho i c e sa r e p a r t i cu l a r l yr e v e a l in g inth i sr e g a rda sth e ypu tequ a lemph a s i songo s s ipf r omth e s a lon sandth ea r ts choo l s ,andad v i c eon in t e r io rd e c o r a t ion .Th em a g a z in e ’ sp a g e s sw e l l ed inth ef i r s td e c ad eo fth etw en t i e thc en tu r yw i thad v e r t i s em en t sb yc omp an i e s s e l l in gc r a f tfu rn i tu r eo rr ep r odu c t ion so ff amou sa r two r k s ,andb yc omp an i e ss e l l in g (w i thsp l a sh yfu l l -p a g ead s )th e lo c k sandv au l t sn e ed edt os e cu r eth i sn ew l ya cqu i r ed p r i v a t ep r op e r t y . Th em a r k e td em and spu tona r t i s t sb yth e s ech an g e s l edt os i gn i f i c an te f f o r t st o p r o f e s s ion a l i s ew i th ine a ch m ed iumo rg en r eo fw o r k .N ewo r g an i s a t ion sr ap id l y app e a r ed ,f r omth eN a t ion a lS cu lp tu r eSo c i e t y ,b e gun inth e1890 sb yCh a r l e sC . F r en chandRob e r tA i t k en ,t oth eN a t ion a lSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s ,f ound ed in1901b y p r o f e s s ion a l i l lu s t r a t o r s in c lud in gCh a r l e sD an aG ib sonandN .C .W y e th .Th e s et r ad e o r g an i s a t ion s , inadd i t iont oth e i r imm ed i a t e l yp r a c t i c a lfun c t ion so fc r e a t in g n e tw o r k sando r g an i s in ge xh ib i t ion s , in v o l v edth em s e l v e sd e ep l yw i the f f o r t st o p r omo t eth e i rm ed ium s .Inth i sw a yth e ya l i gn edw i thth ea r t sm a g a z in e s ,wh i ch d e v o t eds i gn i f i c an tad v e r t i s in gsp a c et oth ev a r iou sa r ts choo l sandsumm e ra r t p r o g r amm e sa r oundth ec oun t r y .Th eso c i e t i e ssou gh tt o in c r e a s eth e i redu c a t ion a la s w e l la sth e i rc omm e r c i a lp r e s en c e .Edu c a t ionp r o v id edsom eo fth eb e s tpub l i c i t y ,and mo s tm emb e r so fth e s eo r g an i s a t ion st au gh ta ta r ts choo l s l i k eth eN ewY o r kS choo lo f A r tandth eA r tS tud en t ’ sL e a gu e ,e v enwh enth e yd idno tn e edt odosof o rf in an c i a l r e a son s .Th epub l i cr e l a t ion sc amp a i gn sf o rth e i rm ed ium sm ad eth e s eg r ow in ga r t s so c i e t i e sam en ab l et oc o l l abo r a t ion sw i tho th e r in s t i tu t ion s , in c lud in gth ec in em a . Th i s id e ao fa mod e rn i s edapp r o a cht oae s th e t i cw o r kth a tun i f i edth ef in eand app l i eda r t st oo kho ld ju s ta sr ap id l yth r ou ghth en ewapp r o a cht op ed a go g y .P i c tu r e s tud ym a yh a v eemph a s i s edr e s t r a in tandc on t emp l a t ion ,bu t inth es choo l s i tw a sa d e c id ed l y mod e rnph enom enon .I fedu c a t o r s inth i st r ad i t iont au gh to ld m a s t e r sand an c i en ts cu lp tu r e , i tw a sno tt oen c ou r a g er o t e ,r e v e r en t i a lc op y in go rr e a l l ye v ent o in s t i l las en s eo fth e i rh i s t o r i c a lt r ad i t ion s .U s e fu lo rf in e ,an c i en to r mod e rn ,th e c ompo s i t iono fth e s eob j e c t sf oundan ewpu r ch a s e inan in t e g r a t edg en e r a l edu c a t ion th eo r yo fp i c t o r i a ld e s i gn .Th i sp r o c e s so f in t e g r a t ionw e l c om edth en ew l ysp e c i a l i s ed a r t i s t swo r k in g ind i f f e r en tm ed ium s in t oap r o g r e s s i v ecu r r i cu lumo fa r tapp r e c i a t ion . G en e r a ledu c a t ionandp r o f e s s ion a lsp e c i a l i s a t ionc ou ldc omp l em en ton eano th e r . T oenh an c eth ee f f o r t so fs choo l sandr e a chsom eo fth em a g a z in er e ad e r sh ip ano th e rw a y ,edu c a t ion a lpub l i sh in gp r o g r amm e sb yc omp an i e ssu cha sP r an g in Bo s t onpub l i sh edar an g eo ft e x t s–e a cht e a ch in gapp r e c i a t ionf o ras l i gh t l yd i f f e r en t 12

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

31 aud i en c e . Un i v e r s i t yand mu s eum l e c tu r e r s l i k eJ ohnV anD y k eandJ ohnL aF a r g e c omp i l edth e i r l e c tu r e sa st e x tboo k s ,wh i che x t end edth er e a cho fth e s e l e c tu r e s enou ght oe a rnar epu t a t ionf o rV anD y k eandL aF a r g ea stwoo fth ep r im a r yau tho r s 32 o fa r t edu c a t iont e x tboo k so fth ep e r iod . Ath i rdw a sM ab e lEm e r y ,whos aw i ta sh e r m i s s iont ob r in gp i c tu r es tud y in t op r im a r yands e c ond a r yedu c a t ion .Inh e rH owt o En j o yP i c t u r e s,wh i cho r g an i s edp a in t in g sb ysub j e c t ,a sd id m an yedu c a t ion a l l an t e rn s l id ec omp an i e s ,sh esu g g e s t sw a y st o in t e g r a t ep i c tu r es tud yp r in c ip l e s ,no ton l y in t o th ea r tcu r r i cu lum ,bu ta l sow i thth es tud yo fsub j e c t s l i k er e ad in g ,w r i t in gand 33 Em e r y ’ sboo kw i thP r an gm a r k sane a r l ys t a g e inth ea r gum en t sth a tth e g eo g r aph y . v i su a ledu c a t ion mo v em en tw ou ldd e v e lop mo r eth anad e c ad e l a t e r . F o rth e s ea r ted i t o r s ,edu c a t o r sandt e x tboo kau tho r s ,app r e c i a t in gp i c tu r e sw a sa n ewk indo fwo r kt au gh t inth es am ehow t osp i r i to fe a r l i e rc r a f tt e x t s .Bu twh i l ea r t edu c a t o r sd ep end edonc r a f tp r in c ip l e s ,th ew a yth e i r l e c tu r e st r an s f o rm edth e s e t r ad i t ion ssp e a k sd i r e c t l yt o in t e r e s t sc en t r a lt oc in em aand m ed i as tud i e s .P i c tu r e s tud yedu c a t o r sd idno tn e c e s s a r i l yho ldupc r a f ta sa m e an so fr e s i s t an c et oth e ch an g e st a k in gp l a c e inth ew o r ldo fa r tandd e s i gn .Th r ou ghasub t l es l e i gh to fh and , p i c tu r es tud ya c tu a l l yr e v i t a l i s edc r a f t id e a l sb yt r an s f o rm in gth em in t oa mod e rn i s ed p r o g r amm eo fa r tapp r e c i a t ion .I tapp e a r sth a t , insom ec a s e s ,th ed id a c t i c c ompo s i t ionr ed i r e c t edsom eo ftho s ee a r l i e rc r a f t -b a s edno t ion so fw o r ksop r e v a l en t 34 inth ep r e c ed in gd e c ad e s . Wh i l ea r tedu c a t o r s ’c r a f trh e t o r i co f t enr e s emb l edth a to f t r ad i t ion a l i s tr e f o rm e r s ,u l t im a t e l yth e yr e v e r s edth ean t i -mod e rngo a l so fe a r l i e r p r opon en t so fAm e r i c anc r a f tb yr ed e f in in ghowandwh ys tud en t sshou ldc on t emp l a t e th eb a s i cp i c t o r i a lc ompon en t so f l in eandsh ap e .Th e r e i sar e a l i r on yt oth i s mo v e b e c au s eth e y ind i r e c t l yd im in i sh edc r a f t l abou r inth ed e s i gn indu s t r i e sth a tth e i r c ou r s e s in e v i t ab l ysuppo r t ed .Bu tr a th e rth anab andonthou gh t fu l , ind i v idu a lwo r k , th e ym i g r a t edth ec r a f t id e a lt oth edom a ino fc on t emp l a t ion .Ino th e rwo rd s ,a sc r a f t l abou rr e c ed ed ina e s th e t i cp r odu c t ion , i t r e em e r g eda sanab s t r a c t ed id e a l inth e th eo r i e so fc ompo s i t ionandapp r e c i a t ion . Wh enp r opon en t so fe a r l ya r tc in em a app r op r i a t edc r a f tt r ad i t ion s ,th e yp r e f e r r edth em inth i sab s t r a c t edf o rm . Ac on t r ibu t o rt oa1910 i s su eo fth eS c h o o lA r t sbook ,an in f lu en t i a lA r t sandC r a f t s p e r iod i c a lf i r s tpub l i sh ed in1901a sth eA p p l i e dA r t sB o o k, i l lu s t r a t e showth i s mod e rn t r an s f o rm a t iono fc r a f t l abou rc ou ldw o r k inane v e r yd a yc l a s s r oom .

App r e c ia t ion Ad e x t r ou s l in e ,th ew o r k i sd on e . Th a tw o r kam i l l i one y e sh a thw on ! Bu tf ews e eth ew e a r yy e a r s O fs t ru g g l e ’m idam i s to ft e a r s . Th a t l a yen sh r oud ed inth a t l in e . Andf ew e rt r a c e Th r ou ghr e a lm so fsp a c e , Th ey e a rn in go fth esp i r i tf in e Th a tg r a sp edth ep o t en c i e so f l in e .35

Th i sp i e c eo fam a t eu rv e r s er e c y c l e s l an gu a g ef ound inabund an c e ina r t edu c a t ion p e r iod i c a l sandt e x tboo k s .I tw ou ldb ee a s yt o im a g in e i tw r i t t enonac l a s s r oomw a l l . I n t rod u c t io n

13

Th epo emb r e a k sdownana r two r k ,ac ompo s i t ion , in t oon eo f i t sfund am en t a l c ompon en t s .Rom an t i cs en t im en t sno tw i th s t a nd in g ,th epo emd e s c r ib e sa l in ea san e xp r e s s iono fwo r k .Bu tth er e a lw o r k mo v e st oth edom a ino fapp r e c i a t ionandth e cu l t i v a t iono fa e s th e t i cd e s i r eth a tD ow in s t i tu t ion a l i s eda tp l a c e s l i k eP r a t tandth e T e a ch e r sCo l l e g ea tCo lumb i a .Th i ss t an z aand m an yo th e r s l i k e i tfun c t ion eda s mo t i v a t ion a la id e sf o rc l a s s r oome x e r c i s e s .Loo k in ga tth e s ep r o j e c t edp i c tu r e sw a s w o r k ,bu tno tn e c e s s a r i l yw o r ka saf o rmo fs e l f -d en i a lp r omo t edb yth ean t i -mod e rn c r i t i c swhos awth e l y c eum l e c tu r eand mo v in g im a g e sa sano th e rc ompon en to fth e ch r omoc i v i l i s a t ion .I tw a sab s t r a c t edw o r k .P i c tu r es tud y ,f r om i t s in i t i a lth eo r i s a t ion t o i t sb r o adc i r cu l a t ion ins choo l sandedu c a t ion a la r t sm a g a z in e s ,r e t oo l eda r t edu c a t ionb yc a s t in gc ompo s i t ion ,andth e r e f o r e i t sapp r e c i a t ion ,a sak indo f mod e rn i s edc r a f t l abou r .Th eedu c a t ion a l l an t e rnand mo t ionp i c tu r e sc omp l em en t ed th e s ee f f o r t s . Und e r s t and in gth ee f f e c t so fapp r e c i a t ion -b a s ededu c a t ion inth i sw a ye xp l a in sth e w i ld l ye c l e c t i ca s so r tm en to f mo v in g -p i c tu r es t y l e sb r ou gh tund e rth edom a ino f p i c t o r i a lapp r e c i a t ion .E v en inc a s e swh e r eth es t y l i s t i capp e a r an c eo faf i lmo r l an t e rn l e c tu r em i gh ts e emV i c t o r i an ,c l a s s i c i s t ,o ro th e rw i s ean t i -mod e rn , i tc ou lds t i l lb ev e r y d e ep l y imp l i c a t ed in mod e rn i s in g in s t i tu t ion a lsh i f t s .Ab e t t e rund e r s t and in go fth e l in kb e tw e enth i sp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ionand i t s mod e rne f f e c t sw i th in in s t i tu t ion so fa r t edu c a t ionop en sh i s t o r i c a lf i lms tud i e supt or e e x am in eth ef am i l i a rn a r r a t i v e so f g en t e e lcu l tu r eando fcu l tu r a lup l i f t inth es i l en tp e r iod .Th e mo v em en t st op r omo t e th em idd l e c l a s s id e a l so fcu l tu r a lup l i f tw e r eno thomo g en eou s inth ee a r l ytw en t i e th c en tu r y ,andth es cho l a r sh ipon mo r a landso c i a lr e f o rmh a s ,sof a r ,e c l ip s edth e impo r t an c eo fa e s th e t i c sw i th inth e s e mo v em en t s .B y in c r e a s in ga t t en t iont oth e a e s th e t i cd im en s ion ,on go in gf i lms cho l a r sh ipc anc oun t e r a c tth epo t en t i a l l y f l a t t en in gch a r a c t e r i s a t iono f mo r a l i s in gup l i f td i s c ou r s e inAm e r i c ans i l en tf i lm .Id e a s o fp i c t o r i a lf o rmp r o v edad ap t ab l eenou ght oa l lowth ed id a c t i cc ompo s i t ion ,a c ompo s i t ionth a tt e a ch e sb yp l e a s in gth ee y e ,t och ann e lsom eo fth e mo r a l l yd id a c t i c r e f o rm i s ten e r g i e s ino th e rd i r e c t ion s .I fth eA rno ld i ant r ad i t iono fup l i f to f f e r son es e t o fc oo rd in a t e s ,th e mod e rn i t yo fedu c a t in gs tud en t st oapp r e c i a t ea e s th e t i cf o rmo f f e r s ano th e r ,po t en t i a l l yc on t r a s t in g ,s e t .Th ed id a c t i ccompo s i t iono fp i c tu r es tud yo f f e r sa r i ch e rf i e ldo f in v e s t i g a t ionth ansom eo fth e mo r es t r a i gh t f o rw a rd mo r a lr e f o rm e f f o r t sb e c au s eo f i t sa e s th e t i camb i v a l en c e . I tshou ldc om ea snosu rp r i s eth a tt r ad i t ion so fp i c tu r ec r a f th a v eb e en und e r e xp lo r ed ine a r l yc in em aand , ind e ed ,s e emc oun t e r in tu i t i v et os tud i e so fc in em a and mod e rn i t y .P i c t o r i a l i smandc r a f tt yp i c a l l ys t and inp a r ad i gm a t i coppo s i t iont o mo v in gp i c tu r e s inth em a jo rth eo r e t i c a lp a r ad i gm sth a th a v esh ap edou rcu r r en t und e r s t and in go fth i sp e r iod .F o rG i l l e sD e l eu z e ,th e mod e rn i t yo fth e mo v em en t im a g e ,th ef i r s tt ru l yc in em a t i co rd e r in go fth e im a g e ,d ep end sonac a s t in go f fo fth e 36 Wh enth e t ab l e au s t y l ep i c t o r i a lcu l tu r eth a th ec a l l s ‘ th eo rd e ro fth epo s e ’ . F r ank fu r tS choo ld i s cu s s edc in em aandc r a f tt o g e th e r ,c r a f tu su a l l yo c cup i edth e n e g a t i v eoppo s in gpo s i t ion .S i e g f r i edK r a c au e rd i sm i s s edth e ‘ a r t s y c r a f t s y ’(b y f em in i s in g i t ) ,and W a l t e rB en j am inw o r r i edabou t i t sp e r s i s t en c ea sar e fu s a lo fth e n ews en so r ium .37E v enTh eodo rAdo rno ,w i tha l lo fh i ssu sp i c iono fth ecu l tu r e 38 indu s t r y ,s t i l lp l a c edc in em aabo v ec r a f twh enh ew a rn eda g a in s tc r a f t ’ sa e s th e t i c i sm . I fs tud i e so fe a r l yc in em aand mod e rn i t yh a v e( th an k fu l l y ) inh e r i t edth e s ew r i t e r s ’ 14

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

in t e r e s t ina e s th e t i c sa saw a yt oth eo r i s e mod e rne xp e r i en c e ,th e yh a v ea l so in e v i t ab l y inh e r i t edsom eo fth e i rb i a s e s .E a r l y mo v in gp i c tu r e sth a tdono tsh a r ef o rm a lt r a i t s w i th mod e rn i s tw o r k so fa r th a v eno tb en e f i t edf r omth er i cha e s th e t i c th eo r e t i c a l an a l y s e so fth i st r ad i t iona sh a v esu chr ap id l yed i t edf i lm sabou tt e chno lo g ya sT r a f f i c inS o u l s (1913 ) .G a r r e t tS t ew a r t ’ sd i s cu s s iono f ‘mod e rn i sm ’ spho t o s yn th e s i s ’ l e ap s f r omth eLum i è r eb r o th e r s ’1890 sp l a yw i thf r a gm en t eds t i l land mo v in g im a g e st oth e 39 l a t e1920 sf r a gm en t edcu t sands t i l l so fth eh i s t o r i c a la v an t g a rd e . Th i sboo k loo k sa t th em a t e r i a l l e f tou to fth a th i s t o r i c a l jump .I tdo e sno td i spu t eth eth eo r e t i c a l t r ad i t ion sth a th a v e l in k ed mod e rn i t yande a r l yc in em a( i t i s , inf a c t , in f o rm edc lo s e l y b ytho s et r ad i t ion s ) .Is imp l y in t endt oop enup l in e so fenqu i r y in t om a t e r i a lt yp i c a l l y s e ena ss ep a r a t ef r omth e mo v em en t im a g eo rth e mod e rns en so r ium .A tth es am e t im eth a t mo v in gp i c tu r e sandth ew o r ko fth ep r o f e s s ion a lo r g an i s a t ion s l i k eth e So c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s ‘ t o r edownth es t a g eonwh i chc on t emp l a t ion mo v ed ’ ,th e y c o l l abo r a t edw i thth e in s t i tu t ion sth a tr e f o rm eda e s th e t i cedu c a t ionth r ou gha p a r ado x i c a lo v e r l apb e tw e enc on t emp l a t ionand mod e rn i s edp ed a go g y .40T r a c in gth e r ad i c a lr e j e c t iono fo rn am en t edn in e t e en th c en tu r yv i su a lcu l tu r e– inn ewwo r k s lo ad edw i thf r a gm en t a r y ,g r o t e squ e ,o rr ap ids e r i a l im a g e s–f o rm son ee s t ab l i sh ed h i s t o r i c a lt r a j e c t o r y .Ano th e r ,e xp lo r ed inth i sboo k , i sth eodd mod e rn i t yo fp i c tu r e c r a f t :no tth ec e l eb r a t iono fm e ch an i s a t ion ,p e rh ap sa c c omp an i edb ya m an i f e s t o d r i v enr e j e c t iono fn in e t e en th c en tu r ya e s th e t i c s ,bu tsom e th in g mo r e l i k ea mod e rn m an a g em en to fth ep i c t o r i a l . CHAPTER ORGAN I SAT ION Th ech ap t e rs t ru c tu r eo fM a k in gM o v i e s in t oA r tr e f l e c t sth et empo r a ld i sp l a c em en t th a tch a r a c t e r i s e sso mu cho fth i sm a t e r i a l .Th eboo kb e g in sw i th1890 s l an t e rnshow s andend sw i the a r l y1920 sf e a tu r ef i lm s ,a v o id in gas t r i c tch r ono lo g i c a lsu c c e s s ion . E a chch ap t e rd r aw sa t l e a s tsom eo f i t se x amp l e sf r omr ou gh l yth een t i r ep e r iodo fth e boo k ,e v ena sth ee a r l i e rch ap t e r sph a s e mo r et ow a rd sth e1890 sandth e l a t t e r ch ap t e r sph a s et ow a rd sth ee a r l y1920 s .Th i s mob i l i t y ine a chch ap t e ra c r o s sp e r iod bound a r i e s–adm i t t ed l ya c r o s sth es e ach an g e sth a to c cu r r edb e tw e ene a r l yc in em a andth es i l en tf e a tu r ef i lm– m a ys e emunu su a l ,bu tth e mo v em en ta c r o s sth e s ev e r y bound a r i e sc ap t i v a t ede a cho fth ef i gu r e sd i s cu s s ed inth i sboo k .An in t e rm ed i a lv i s ion o fe a r l ya r tc in em ado e sno t ju s top enups yn ch r onou sc onn e c t ion sf r omc in em at o o th e rm ed i a .I ta l soop en st im ef r am e s ,a lw a y s loo k in gf o rw a rdandb a c kw a rd .Loo k in g a to th e rm ed i am e an sc on s t ru c t in gfu tu r epo s s ib i l i t i e sandr e v i s i t in gt r ad i t ion s o v e r sh adow edb yr e c en td e v e lopm en t s .A l e x and e rB l a c k loo k sf o rw a rd ,c r e a t in gan im a g in a r yfu tu r ef o rth eK in e t o s c op e in1894 ,andAdo lphZu ko r loo k sb a c kt oB l a c k ’ s p i c tu r ep l a ya sar ed i s c o v e r edp a s tf o rh i s1919p r odu c t ion s .Edu c a t o r s loo kf o rw a rdt o th eu s eo ff i lm s ina r tedu c a t ionandp r odu c e r s loo kb a c kt oth en in e t e en th c en tu r y r ed i s c o v e r yo fR emb r and t inth e l i gh to fn ewp r in tm ed i a .L e j a r enàH i l l e r ’ se a r l y 1920 sf i lm sabou tth ep a in t e r ’ ss tud ior e c y c l e1890 sboh em i ans tud en t l i f e ,and1910 s f i lmp r o f e s so rV i c t o rF r e ebu r gr e t oo l sn in e t e en th c en tu r yemp a th ya e s th e t i c sw i than e y et ow a rd sth efu tu r eo f mo t ionp i c tu r e s .F in a l l y , inth ec a s eo fd i r e c t o r s l i k eR e x In g r amand M au r i c eT ou rn eu r ,th e id e ao fth ed i r e c t o ro fan ewk indo fa r tf i lm inth e I n t rod u c t io n

15

1910 s loo k edb a c kt oth ed i s c ou r s eabou tth ea r t i s t s in1890 st r ad i t ion s l i k eF r en ch S ymbo l i smo rB r i t i shA r t sandC r a f t s . M a k in gM o v i e s in t oA r tb e g in sw i ththo s ewhof i r s tedu c a t edth epub l i cabou tana r t o f mo v in gp i c tu r e sa tth eendo fth en in e t e en thc en tu r y .If o cu sonA l e x and e rB l a c k in th ef i r s tch ap t e rb e c au s eh i sp r o j e c t sa sa l e c tu r e r ,f i lm -m a k e r , jou rn a l i s t , l an t e rn i s t andh e ado fpho t o g r aph ya tth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t eo fA r t sandS c i en c e sc on v e r g eon th ep r ob l em so fp i c t o r i a lb e au t yanda e s th e t i c mo v em en t inf i lm .Iu s eth e pho t o g r aph so fB l a c k ’ snon f i c t iona r t l e c tu re sand ‘ d e t e c t i v e l e c tu r e s ’ ,f r omwh i chh i s l a t e rf i c t ion so r i g in a t ed ,t oshowhowB l a c kan sw e r edana e s th e t i cn e edandb r ou gh t in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y in t oc o l l abo r a t ionw i thth ec on t emp l a t i v e ,po s edp i c tu r e . F r omth e s e l e c tu r e sB l a c kd e s i gn edas y s t emf o rr ep r e s en t in g mo v em en tw i thth e m a g i c l an t e rn ,wh i chh eb i l l eda sana e s th e t i c a l l ysup e r io rc l a s so f mo v in gp i c tu r e .H e sho ts t i l l so fh i sa c t o r s mo v in gth r ou gham i s eens c èn eth a tr em a in edc omp l e t e l yf i x ed inr e l a t iont oth ec am e r a .Du r in gth eshow sh ep e r f o rm ed l i v en a r r a t ionwh i l eth e im a g e sun f o ld edth r ou ghas e r i e so fd i s so l v e s ,c r e a t in gas en s eo fth ea c t o r s mo v in g th r ou ghsp a c e .H ec a l l edth i ss y s t emth e ‘p i c tu r ep l a y ’ag en e r a t ionb e f o r eth a tt e rm wou ldb e c om es ynon ymou sw i thth ef e a tu r ef i lm .Th r ou gha r ch i v a lr e c on s t ru c t iono f p e r f o rm an c e sb e l i e v edt ob e lo s t ,Ishowhowanedu c a t ion a lc r a f t impu l s eund e r l i e s B l a c k ’ sa t t emp tt oc r e a t eana r t i s t i c a l l yd i s t in c tan sw e rt oth ec in em a t o g r aph .H i se a r l y mo v in g -p i c tu r et e chn iqu e sd e r i v edno tf r omth ef a i r g r ound ,bu tf r omth ea r t l e c tu r e andth ea e s th e t i cd eb a t e sa r ound Mu yb r id g e ’ s mo t ions tud i e s .Id emon s t r a t eth i s in h i ss y s t em a t i cc on t r o lo fc ompo s i t ion ,d é c o r ,th es t a g in go fa c t o r s ,th et im in go f d i s so l v e sandth ep l ann in go fs equ en c e sf r am e -b y f r am e .Th e s et e chn iqu e se r a s edth e j e r k ym e ch an i c a l mo t iono fth ec in em a t o g r aphandf a sh ion edaun iqu ea e s th e t i co f mo v em en tf r omv a r i edc o l l abo r a t in gm ed i aandp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion s .Th r ou ghth e s e p e r f o rm an c e s ,andh i sa r t i c l e sonhowt oc r a f th andm ad e mo v in gp i c tu r e sa thom e , B l a c kp r e s en t edapo s s ib l efu tu r ef o rc in em aa tat im ewh enp eop l en e ed edt om a k e s en s eou to fth er ap idt r an s f o rm a t iono fp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion sb yn ewt e chno lo g i e s . B l a c k ’ sdo i t y ou r s e l fc in em ab r ou gh t mo v in g im a g e sp r om in en t l y in t oth eedu c a t ion a l sp a c eo fth e l y c eum ,and l a t e r in sp i r edth eam a t eu rf i lm mo v em en t .A r oundth es am e t im eh ew a sr ed i s c o v e r eda saf ound in gf i gu r ef o rg r oup s l i k eth eAm a t eu rC in em a L e a gu e .P r odu c e r s l i k eAdo lphZu ko rande a r l yf i lmh i s t o r i an s l i k eT e r r yR am s a y eu s ed B l a c k ’ s ‘ a r to fth et ab l e auv i v an tp lu sth es c i en c eo fpho t o g r aph y ’t or e t r o a c t i v e l y im a g in eth eo r i g in so fana r t i s t i c a l l yd i s t in c tf i lma sas t ab l ef o rm . B l a c k ’ swo r kand i t sr e c ep t ion m a r kon ew a y inwh i che a r l yc in em aen t e r edth e sp a c eo fa r tedu c a t ion .Ano th e rw a yt ov i ewth e s ea r t / c in em a in t e r s e c t ion s i st ot r a c e howth esp a c eo fa r t i s t i cp r odu c t ionen t e r se a r l yf i lm s .Ch ap t e r2 i so l a t e son et r ad i t ion b ywh i cha r ts tud en t sandth er e ad in gpub l i c l e a rn edt oapp r e c i a t ea r tandf o l low s i t s in t e r s e c t ion sw i thth ee a r l y mo t ionp i c tu r e .I ta r gu e sth a t , inth esph e r eo fa r t edu c a t ionand inth es c en e spopu l a r i s ed inth e i l lu s t r a t edp r e s sb yG eo r g e sDuM au r i e r andCh a r l e sD an aG ib son ,th ew o r k s p a c eo fth ea r t i s th e lp edth epub l i capp r e c i a t ehow a r t ,a swo r k ,t a k e sp l a c e .Th i so c cu r r ed ,f i r s t ,th r ou gha m a t e r i a l in t e r e s t inth es tud io ’ s t oo l sandp r o c e s s e sand ,s e c ond ,th r ou ghaf a s c in a t ionw i thth equ a s i -m a g i c a l t r an s f o rm a t ion s inth es tud iob e tw e en l i v in gf o rmandp i c tu r e .C in em as a t i s f i edbo th o fth e s e in t e r e s t sb yr e c y c l in gs tud ios c en e sandch a r a c t e rt yp e spopu l a r i s ed inth e i l lu s t r a t edp r e s sandb yc r e a t in gar an g eo ft e chn iqu e s inwh i chth e mo v in g im a g e 16

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

jump sou to fth ef r am eo fth ec ompo s edp i c tu r e .Th e s et ab l e au -b a s edt r i c k sm a yh a v e c on t r ibu t edt oac in em ao fd i s t r a c t ionandsho c k ,bu tIa r gu eth a tth e ya l sor e f l e c t ed onth ep r o c e s so fab so rp t ion inp i c tu r e s .F i lm sabou tp a in t in g sc om e t o l i f eand m e sm e r i s ta r t i s t s i l lu s t r a t edp r e c i s e l ytho s equ a s i -m a g i c a lt r an s f o rm a t ion sb e tw e en s t a t i cp i c tu r e s mo v em en tth a ts tud en t s ,e a g e rt ob e c om eab so rb ed inwo r k so fa r t , w e r ea s k edb yth e i rt e a ch e r st o im a g in e .Th i sc o in c id en c ew a sno t lo s ton m an y mo v in g im a g eedu c a t o r s . Th e s eth em e sc on v e r g e inth ech ap t e r ’ sd i s cu s s iono fL e j a r enàH i l l e ra sana r tf i lm m a k e rwo r k in gonth ep e r iph e r yo fth ef i lm indu s t r y .Ac omm e r c i a lpho t o g r aph e rf o r i l lu s t r a t ed m a g a z in e sb yt r ad e ,H i l l e rc am et of i lm sa sav i su a la r t i s twhod e s i r edt o edu c a t eth epub l i cabou tth es tud iosp a c e .Inh i ss e r i e so fedu c a t ion a lf i lm s(1919–23 ) , suppo r t ed inp a r tb yLou i sC .T i f f an yandth ep r e s id en to fth eM e t r opo l i t an Mu s eum o fA r t ,H i l l e rr e c y c l eda r t i s t -m e sm e r i s tt yp e sandr e c on s t ru c t edth eh i s t o r i c a l l yf amou s s tud io so fR emb r and tandBu rn e -J on e st ot e l las e r i e so fs t o r i e sth a t in t e r l a c edth e wo r k inth e s es tud io sw i thth ewo r kb e in gdon e inc on t empo r a r yc omm e r c i a ls tud io s o fN ewY o r k .H i l l e rb r ou gh ta r tt oth em a s s e sb yb r in g in gth em a s s e s in t oa r t i s t s ’ wo r k sp a c e so fth ep a s t ,andb y loo k in gb a c kt os t y l e so fth ep a s t .H eado rn edth e s e sp a c e s inapo l i sh edp i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph e r s ’s t y l e ,andh ed r am a t i s edth emb y r e c y c l in gth ef r am e jump in gt ab l e au xv i v an t so fe a r l yf i lm ss e t inth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io . Ch ap t e r3f o l low sth em i g r a t iono fp i c tu r es tud yf r oma r ts choo l sand l e c tu r eh a l l s t oth e ‘Pho t op l a yCompo s i t ion ’c ou r s e s in i t i a t eda tCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yb yV i c t o r F r e ebu r g ,th ef i r s tf i lmc ou r s e so f f e r edb yaun i v e r s i t y inth eU SA .P i c tu r es tud ys e e s i t s mo s td i r e c t in t e l l e c tu a l in f lu en c eonf i lmedu c a t ion inth e s ec ou r s e s ;f i lmedu c a t o r s andc r i t i c su s edth i st r ad i t iona sat emp l a t et os tud yt e chn iqu e s l i k e l i gh t in g ,s e t d e s i gnands t a g in g .D r aw in g in sp i r a t ionf r omth ea e s th e t i cph i lo soph yo fJ ohnD ew e y , m ed i aedu c a t o r sad v o c a t edp i c tu r es tud y ’ sc on t en t f r e eandnon -m ed ium sp e c i f i c p a r ad i gmf o rd i s t in gu i sh in gc e r t a inf i lm sf r omth em a jo r i t yo fp r odu c t ion sandf o r d i s cu s s in gth e s ef i lm s ’r o l e inAm e r i c and emo c r a c y .Th i sc ompo s i t ion a lapp r o a cht o f i lmedu c a t ionu s e sA r thu rD ow ’ sad ap t a t iono fD ew e y ’ sc l a imth a tth ee xp e r i en c eo f c ompo s ed ,b e au t i fu lf o rmb e g e t sad e s i r ef o r mo r e ,andth i sd e s i r ec anp r odu c ep r op e r d emo c r a t i csub j e c t s mo r ep r odu c t i v e l yth an mo r ed i r e c tf o rm so f mo r a lup l i f t .Th e id e ao fc ompo s i t ionp r o v edad ap t ab l e , inF r e ebu r g ’ swo r k ,t o mo v in gp i c tu r e sandth e i r sp e c t a t o r s .H eu s edth e s eedu c a t o r s ’f o rm a lapp r o a ch ,th e i rd emo c r a t i camb i t ion sand m an yo fth e i rf in e a r t se x amp l e st oth eo r i s ef i lma r t .Inadd i t iont op r e s en t in gth e in t e l l e c tu a lo r i g in so fF r e ebu r g ’ sw r i t in g son mo t ion -p i c tu r ec ompo s i t ionandh i s r e su l t an tth eo r yo f mod e rna r t c in em asp e c t a t o r sh ip ,th i sch ap t e rt r a c e sth em a t e r i a l o r i g in so fth ep r in t sandpub l i c i t ys t i l l sh eu s edt om a k eh i sa e s th e t i cpo in t s .Th ef i lm s t i l l sr ep r odu c ed inh i sboo kr an g ef r omF amou sP l a y e r s -L a s k yp r odu c t ion s l i k e C a rm enandTh eC o v e r e dW a g ont o impo r t sf r omEu r op e .Th e i rc i r cu l a t ion inF r e ebu r g ’ s w o r ko f f e r sag l imp s e in t ohowanem e r g en tt r ad i t ion ina r tp ed a go g yc ou ldh e lpt o s t e e rth ea f t e r l i f eo fs tud iop r odu c t ion st ow a rd sendu r in ga e s th e t i cd i s t in c t ion . C r i t i c sandedu c a t o r ssou gh taw id er an g eo fe x amp l e st od i s cu s sf i lma r ta sak ind o fp i c tu r ec r a f tan a lo gou st oth ew o r kc ondu c t ed inth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io ,andtwo d i r e c t o r so fth e1910 sande a r l y20 sp r o v edp e r f e c t l ysu i t edt oth ep r o j e c t .M au r i c e T ou rn eu randR e xIn g r amw e r eno tth eon l yd i r e c t o r swhoc ompo s edb e au t i fu lp i c tu r e s ons c r e en ,bu tth e ys t oodou t inc r i t i c a landc omm e r c i a lpub l i c i t ya sv i su a la r t i s t s I n t rod u c t io n

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w o r k in g inth em ed iumo ff i lm .Ch ap t e r s4and5showhowth e ybo thsh ap edan im a g e o fth ed i r e c t o ra r oundth e im a g eo fth ef in ea r t i s t inth es tud io .E a chb e g anh i sc a r e e r du r in gth i st im ea sanapp r en t i c et oaw e l l knowna r t i s tanden t e r edth ef i lm indu s t r y th r ou ghaf in e a r t sd i v i s iono fa m a jo rp r odu c t ionc omp an y .T ou rn eu rwo r k ed inP a r i s w i thAu gu s tRod inandP i e r r ePu v i sd eCh a v ann e s ,andIn g r ams tud i edw i thA r tD e c o s cu lp t o rL e eL aw r i ea tY a l eUn i v e r s i t y .S in c ee a chd i r e c t o rf i r s ta ch i e v edf am ea sa d i r e c t o rf o ra ‘ qu a l i t yf i lm ’d i v i s iono fa m a jo rs tud io ,th ea r t i s tr epu t a t ions tu c k .N o in t e rv i eww i thT ou rn eu rw a sc omp l e t ew i thou td i s cu s s in gh i sw o r kw i thPu v i sonth e mu r a l sf o rth eBo s t onPub l i cL ib r a r y .In g r amw r o t eabou tL aw r i e ’ swo r ka san in sp i r a t ionf o rf i lma r t ,andh ecomm i s s ion edL aw r i et oc r e a t easp e c i a lp r omo t ion a l s cu lp tu r ef o rth ep r em i e r eo fTh eF o u rH o r s em eno ft h eA p o c a l y p s e(1921 ) .Th e s e ch ap t e r sr e adT ou rn eu r ’ sandIn g r am ’ sf i lm s inc on jun c t ionw i thth ea r ch i v a lr e c o rd so f th e i rm en t o r sh ipw i thv i su a la r t i s t s .Bu t in s t e ado fa r gu in gth a tT ou rn eu r ’ sand In g r am ’ sf i lm sbo r r owt e chn iqu e sf r omth e i rf in e a r t sm en t o r s ,Ishowhowth e s e pub l i cr e l a t ion sh ip sc r e a t edac r i t i c a ln i ch ef o rth e i rf i lm s ’e xp e r im en t a t ion .Th e i r pub l i cp e r son a ea l low edf o rav a r i e t yo fp i c t o r i a l l ys t y l i s edm i s eens c èn et e chn iqu e st o b eg r oup edt o g e th e ra san in s t an c eo fp i c tu r ec r a f t inf i lmd i r e c t in g .N o ton l yw e r e th e s et e chn iqu e sd e r i v edf r omv a r i edsou r c e s ,a l soth e yw e r eo f t enth ewo r ko fth e d i r e c t o r s ’c o -wo r k e r s .Id i s cu s showB enC a r r é ’ sf an t a s t i cs e td e s i gn sf o rT ou rn eu rand J ohnF .S e i t z ’ sc in em a t o g r aph yf o rIn g r amc on t r ibu t edg r e a t l yt oth ed i r e c t o r s ’pub l i c r epu t a t ion sa sv i su a la r t i s t so fth es c r e en . Th ec r o s s -m ed i ac on c ep t iono ff e a tu r ef i lma r th adb e gunb yth e1920 st oc onn e c t v e r yd i f f e r en tk ind so f in s t i tu t ion s .O r g an i s a t ion s l i k eth eN a t ion a lBo a rdo fR e v i ew l aun ch edc amp a i gn st oc omb a ts t r a i gh tc en so r sh ip inf a v ou ro fad emo c r a c y -bu i ld in g b a s edona e s th e t i cedu c a t ion .A tth es am et im e ,f i lmc omp an i e s mo v edf r om lo c a l ‘ s tun t ’p r omo t iont o mo r e in t e g r a t edn e tw o r k so fpub l i c i t y ,andboo kpub l i sh e r s l i k e G r o s s e t tandDun l app r omo t edpho t o i l lu s t r a t edno v e lt i e in s .Th e l a s tch ap t e r sshow how ,wh enth e s ed i v e r s ec r o s s -m ed i a in t e r e s t sc am et o g e th e r ,th e yo f t end idsoa r ound ano t iono fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionth a te xp l i c i t l y mob i l i s edd i s c ou r s e so ftu rn -o f th e c en tu r ya e s th e t i candc r a f tt r ad i t ion s .Th ep e r f o rm an c eo fth e1890 ss tud iod i s cu s s ed inCh ap t e r2andth ep i c t o r i a l i s trh e t o r i cd i s cu s s ed inCh ap t e r3c om et o g e th e r inth e c a r e e r so fth e s etwod i r e c t o r s ,whosou gh tt om a k eamb i t iou sf i lm s ine a r l yH o l l yw ood .

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M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

1

Mo v i n g p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a : A l ex a nd e rB l a c ka ndt h eL y c e um

On9O c t ob e r1894 ,a tth eC a rbonS tud ioon16 thS t r e e t in M anh a t t an ,th ew r i t e r , pho t o g r aph e rand l an t e rn i s tA l e x and e rB l a c kp r em i e r edM i s sJ e r r y,h i sf i r s t ‘p i c tu r e p l a y ’ .Th e mu chan t i c ip a t ede v en ta t t r a c t edac r owdo fno t ed in t e l l e c tu a l sanda r t i s t s , in c lud in gno v e l i s tW i l l i amD e anH ow e l l s ,a r tedu c a t o rW i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ,th e a t r e c r i t i cB r and e rM a t th ew sandB r oo k l yn m a y o rS e thLow .Th e yg a th e r edt od i s cu s swh a t w a se s s en t i a l l yaf e a tu r e l en g th mo v in gs l id eshowth a tw a l k ed inc lo s es t epw i thth e em e r g in gc in em a .Th i sn ewp i c tu r ep l a yc on s i s t edo fas e r i e so fs t i l l im a g e so fa c t o r s po s ed ,pho t o g r aph edandp r o j e c t edonas c r e en .B l a c kr e adana c c omp an y in gn a r r a t i v e andd i s so l v edf r omon es l id et oth en e x ta tr e gu l a r in t e rv a l s ino rd e rt osu g g e s t mo v em en t .Th ee v en tw a sm e an tt op r o v o k ea s mu cha sen t e r t a in .Loo k in gf o rw a rd , i t r a i s edqu e s t ion sabou tapo s s ib l ea r t i s t i cfu tu r ef o r mo t ionp i c tu r e sa tat im ewh enth e Am e r i c anpub l i cw a sw i tn e s s in gon l yth ef i r s tg l imp s e so fpho t o g r aph ed mo v em en ton r o t a t in gd i s k sand inp e epho l ed e v i c e s .B l a c ksou gh t inpu tf r omh i sc i r c l eo fw r i t e r s andv i su a la r t i s t sonhowb e s tt op r e s en tth i sp r o v o c a t iononth epub l i c l e c tu r ec i r cu i t . Onth e i rad v i c e ,h ef in e tun edth ep i c tu r ep l a yf o rm a tt oap r o g r amm eo fa r ound250 s l id e s , l a s t in gabou tanhou randah a l f .H ew ou ldsp endth en e x td e c ad ep e r f o rm in g h i sp i c tu r ep l a y sa tc ommun i t yc en t r e s ,s choo l sand mu s eum sa c r o s sth ee a s t e rnU SA . A l thou gh l a r g e l yo v e r loo k edt od a y ,th e s ep e r f o rm an c e sw e r ec on t inu a l l ym en t ion ed th r ou ghou tth es i l en te r awh enw r i t e r spo s edth equ e s t ion , ‘Who in v en t edth e c in em a ? ’ .F o rsom ec r i t i c s ,whoh adc in em ao fac e r t a ina r t i s t i camb i t ion in m ind ,th e an sw e rw a sA l e x and e rB l a c k . B l a c kt ou r edw i thth ep i c tu r ep l a y se x t en s i v e l yun t i l1904 .D e sp i t eh i s l a r g e aud i en c ea tth et im e ,how e v e r ,h i sp i c tu r ep l a y sd idno td e v e lop in t om a in s t r e am tw a sno tun t i lth ea g eo fth es i l en tf e a tu r ef i lm inth e mo t ionp i c tu r ep r a c t i c e .1I f o l low in gg en e r a t ionth a th ew a se v enr e c o gn i s eda sak indo f in v en t o ro fc in em a ,bu t no ton eth a tf i t t edn e a t l y in t oan yn a r r a t i v eo ff i lm ’ sp r o g r e s s .T e r r yR am s a y e ’ s ch ap t e ronB l a c k inA M i l l i onan dOn eN i gh t si l lu s t r a t e sth i s .R am s a y e ’ sp ion e e r in g 1926 mo t ion -p i c tu r eh i s t o r yc on t r ibu t edt oB l a c k ’ sr ed i s c o v e r yand i ss t i l lon eo fth e mo s tendu r in ga c c oun t so fB l a c k ’ sw o r k .Th ep i c tu r ep l a ypu z z l edR am s a y e ju s ta s i t h adpu z z l edB l a c k ’ so r i g in a laud i en c e s inth e1890 s .Loo k in gb a c k ,h ew a ss t ru c kb yth e odd l i k en e s sb e tw e enth er e sp e c t edf e a tu r ef i lm so fh i sd a yandB l a c k ’ sp i c tu r ep l a y s . A l r e ad y , inth ee a r l yy e a r so fth ec in em ao fa t t r a c t ion s ,B l a c k ’ sp i c tu r ep l a y st o ld mu l t i a c ts t o r i e s ,andth e y l a s t edabou ta s lon ga saf e a tu r ef i lm . Mo r e impo r t an t l y ,th e i r unu su a lsu g g e s t iono f mo v em en th in t ed ,f orR am s a y e ,a tth esu g g e s t i v esub t l e t yh e Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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b e l i e v edt ound e rp ina l la r t .Th ep r ob l emw a sth a tB l a c kh ads t opp edt ou r in gs e v e r a l y e a r sb e f o r eth ep r odu c t iono fth es i l en tf e a tu r ef i lm sw i thwh i chR am s a y ea l l i edh i s w o r k .I tt r oub l edR am s a y eth a tth ep i c tu r ep l a yf o rm a td idno tf i tn e a t l y in t oa n a r r a t i v eo fth ep r o g r e s so fc in em a .T oh im ,th ed i s c o v e r yo fth ep i c tu r ep l a yw a s l i k ea p a l eon t o lo g i c a lbo t an i s td i s c o v e r in gaf o s s i lapp l e inas t r a tumwh e r eth e r ew e r e l a c k ’ swo r k ,ane v o lu t ion a r yanom a l y ,c on f ound ed b e l i e v edt ob enoapp l et r e e s .2B R am s a y e ’ se v o lu t ion a r y mod e lo ff i lm ’ sp r o g r e s s . Wh i l eR am s a y e ’ se v o lu t ion a r y mod e lm a yh a v e lon gb e enr ep l a c edb y mo r e nu an c edp e r iod i s a t ion s ,wh a tt r oub l edR am s a y e ,B l a c k ’ sp r e c o c iou sc r o s s -m ed i a mo v in g im a g e s ,a r enow mo r er e l e v an tth ane v e r .In s t e ado fs t ru g g l in gt of inda d e f in i t i v e in v en t ion inB l a c k ’ sw o r k ,Ie x am in e i ta sav an t a g epo in tf r omwh i cht o b e g inah i s t o r yo fa r t i s t i c a l l yamb i t iou s mo t ionp i c tu r e sp a r a l l e lw i thth ead v en to f c in em a i t s e l f .B l a c k ’ sw o r kf i t sp e r f e c t l yw i thth eon go in g mo v e st oop enc in em a h i s t o r yt oo th e rm ed i a .I tr e v e a l show m ed i ap r a c t i c e sc on v e r g ed inth i sp e r iodand howth e s e mom en t so fc on v e r g en c ew e r esh ap edb yd i s cu r s i v ef a c t o r sa s mu cha sb y t e chn i c a l inno v a t ion s .Fu r th e rmo r e ,f o rcu r r en tc in em ah i s t o r i an sc on c e rn edw i thth e in t e l l e c tu a landso c i a lh i s t o r yo ftho s ewhop r oph e s i eda r tc in em ab yf o r g in ge a r l y a e s th e t i cth eo r i e so ff i lm ,th ec onn e c t ion sb e tw e enc r i t i c s l i k eR am s a y eande a r l y e xp e r im en t e r s l i k eB l a c kr e v e a lund e r e x am in ed in t e l l e c tu a ln e two r k s .R am s a y e ’ sboo k i sah i s t o r i c a la r t e f a c t in i t sownr i gh t .H ec on so l id a t edah i s t o r yo fth ea r to fth es i l en t f e a tu r ef i lma tth eh e i gh to f i t sp r om in en c e ,b r in g in gt o g e th e rt e chn i c a landa e s th e t i c d e v e lopm en t sund e rab r o ada r c .B l a c kc on t r ibu t edt oth i s l a r g e r in t e l l e c tu a lt r ad i t ion th r ou ghou th i sc a r e e r .H i sw o r kf o rm edp a r to fanen t i r esp e c t rumo f mu l t i -m ed i a ep i c tu r e p e r f o rm an c e st owh i chR am s a y eandnum e r ou so th e rc r i t i c sc omp a r ed i t .3Th p l a y sw e r eun iqu e l yr e l e v an tf o rth e s ec r i t i c sb e c au s eth e yr e so l v edsom eo fth e i r r e cu r r in ga e s th e t i cqu e s t ion sabou tth er e c o rd ed mo v in g im a g e .E v enthou gha c tu a l mo t ionp i c tu r e sw e r ear a r ep a r to fh i sr ep e r t o i r e ,andh er e t i r ed lon gb e f o r ean y on e in th ef i lm indu s t r yw a s in t e r e s t ed ins e l l in gak indo fa r tc in em a ,B l a c knon e th e l e s s b r ou gh tt o g e th e rar e c ip eo fa e s th e t i cth eo r i e so f mo v em en t ,p i c t o r i a lapp r op r i a t ion anda r t s in s t i tu t ion a lsuppo r tth a tv e r y mu chapp e a l edt o1920 sf i lm indu s t r yc r i t i c s l i k eR am s a y eandp r odu c e r s l i k eAdo lphZu ko rs e a r ch in gb a c kf o rane a r l yt emp l a t ef o r ac in em ao fd i s t in c t ion .Th i sr e c ip ew i l lb e c om ef am i l i a r ine a cho fth ech ap t e r so fth i s boo k . M o r eth anan y th in ge l s e ,th ep i c tu r ep l a y s ’su g g e s t iono fm o v em en tund e rw r o t e th e i rno t o r i e t y ,f o rc r i t i c s inth e1890 sandf o rtho s eag en e r a t ion l a t e r . Wh y mo v em en t ?S t i l lpho t o g r aph yh adf amou s l ysp a r k edan x i e t y inth ea r t lo v in gpub l i cb y r emo v in gth ea r t i s t ’ sp en c i lf r omth ep i c tu r e .M o t ionpho t o g r aph y ,ano th e ro rd e ro f c omp l e x i t y ,f ann edth e s ef l am e s .Ic on t en dth r ou ghou tth i sch ap t e rth a tth ec ompo s ed mo v em en to fth ep i c tu r ep l a y sadd r e s s ed i s su e sa tth eh e a r to fth eem e r g in gd eb a t e s abou tth epo s s ib i l i t yo f mo t ion -p i c tu r ea r t .B yc r a f t in gap a r t i cu l a rt yp eo f mo v em en t inh i sp e r f o rm an c e s ,B l a c ks t a g edak indo fc r o s s -m ed i ac on f r on t a t ionb e tw e entwo oppo s in gt r ad i t ion s .H i sw o r kn a v i g a t e sb e tw e enn in e t e en th c en tu r yp i c t o r i a l i s t t r ad i t ion ssu cha sth et ab l e auv i v an t ,p i c t o r i a ls t a g in g inth e a t r eand i l lu s t r a t ion ,on th eon eh and ,andth en ew m ed i ao f in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph yandc in em a ,onth e o th e r .P i c t o r i a l i s tt r ad i t ion sg en e r a l l yemph a s i s ep r i v i l e g ed mom en t s ,r epo s e , r e s t r a in t ,pu rpo s i v en e s s ,wh e r e a sc in em aand in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph ya r e 20

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

f r equ en t l ys a idt oh a v e in t r odu c edth ec on t in g en c yo ff r a gm en t edo rd i s c on t inuou s in s t an t s in t oth ev i su a lcu l tu r e .Con c e i v in go fth e s etwoan a l y t i cc a t e go r i e sa s a e s th e t i c a l l yd i s t in c th a sp r o v ent ob ef ound a t ion a lf o rr e c en tm ed i ath eo r i s t s ,f r om F r i ed r i chK i t t l e rt oG i l l e sD e l eu z e ,whoh a v er e v i s i t edth e s eendu r in gqu e s t ion s .4Th i s do e sno tm e an ,how e v e r ,th a t mu l t i -m ed i ah i s t o r io g r aph yc anno ten r i chth e s e c a t e go r i e sb yshow in ghowth e yo f t enp r odu c t i v e l yo v e r l app ed .Uponc lo s e e x am in a t ion , i tb e c om e sh a rdt od en yth ew a y sth a tm ed i ap r odu c e r se xp lo i t edn ew c r e a t i v epo s s ib i l i t i e s inth ep e r iodb ys e l e c t i v e l ym e r g in gt r ad i t ion sa s so c i a t edw i th bo tho fth e s ea e s th e t i cc a t e go r i e s inth e i rp r odu c t ion s .Inwh a tf o l low sIe x am in e B l a c k ’ s in s t i tu t ion a la f f i l i a t ion sandh i sw r i t in g s int and emw i thh i s mo v in g im a g e t e chn iqu e s ino rd e rt oshowth eo v e r l apo fth ec ompo s edt ab l e auandth ef r a gm en to f th ef i lmf r am e .H i s l an t e rn l e c tu r e sandh i sp i c tu r ep l a y sm a k e id e a ls tud i e sb e c au s e th e yb r in gt o g e th e r in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y ,p i c t o r i a lcu l tu r eandc in em a in th em a t i ca sw e l la sp r a c t i c a lw a y s .Ino th e rw o rd s ,B l a c ken g a g edth ew id e sp r e ad ph i lo soph i c a ld eb a t e samon gAm e r i c anedu c a t o r sabou t mo v in g im a g ea r t ,anda tth e s am et im eh ec r a f t edh i sownt yp eo f mo v in g -p i c tu r eshowth a t i l lu s t r a t edand r e so l v edth e s ev e r yd eb a t e s . TH EAMATEURANDTH EIN ST ITUT E Th epho t o g r aph i ctu rn inB l a c k ’ sw r i t in g sandp e r f o rm an c e sb e g an in1889wh enh e w a se l e c t edp r e s id en to fth en ewd ep a r tm en to fpho t o g r aph ya tth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e eo fth e mo s tp r om in en tAm e r i c an l y c eumv enu e s ,th e o fA r t sandS c i en c e s .5On B r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t ep r o v id edan in s t i tu t ion a lg r ound in gf o rth e in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r y abou t mo v in gp i c tu r e s ’r e l a t ion sh ipt oa r t .Th e l y c eumh ads e rv ed mu l t ip l e c on s t i tu en c i e sth r ou ghou t i t s lon gh i s t o r y .I tw a s in i t i a l l yf ound eda sav enu ef o rth e edu c a t iono fth ewo rk in gc l a s s , mo v in gth r ou ghs e v e r a lp e rmu t a t ion sun t i l i t s en e r g i e sf i l t e r ed in t oth eCh au t auqu a mo v em en tando th e ru rb anedu c a t ion a l 6 in s t i tu t ion s . B yth e1880 s ,v enu e s l i k eth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t eh adb e c om em a jo r c en t r e swh e r ea e s th e t i cqu e s t ion sw e r eadd r e s s eda sp a r to fab r o ad e rcu l tu r eo f edu c a t iona sp a r t i c ip a t o r yd emo c r a c y .M an y l y c eum m emb e r sh adv e r yp r a c t i c a l mo t i v a t ion sf o ra t t end in gth e l e c tu r e s .M emb e r sh ipdo cum en t sf r omth eB r oo k l yn In s t i tu t e inth e1890 sr e v e a lafu l lth i rdo fth e i rm emb e r sh ipt oc on s i s to fp r i v a t eand eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t ea l sohou s edth em e e t in g so fo th e r pub l i cs choo lt e a ch e r s .7Th edu c a t ion a lo r g an i s a t ion ssu cha sth eA s so c i a t iono fA r tT e a ch e r s .Th i sp r o f e s s ion a l p a r t i c ip a t ion inth e in s t i tu t esu g g e s t sth a tth e s e l e c tu r e ss a t i s f i edap r a c t i c a ld em and f o rt e a ch e rt r a in in g inn ewd e v e lopm en t s ina r tp ed a go g y(b e y ondth e i ro f t en d i s cu s s edv a lu ea s mo r a l l ysu i t ab l een t e r t a inm en t ) .A sth et e a ch e r sd i s s em in a t ed id e a s d i s cu s s ed inth ev enu e ,sod idedu c a t ion a lou t r e a chp r o g r amm e s l i k ec o r r e spond en c e 8 c ou r s e s ,wh i chr e a ch ed180 ,000sub s c r ib e r sb y1891 . Th e l y c eumh a sr e c e i v ed l e s sa t t en t ionth an i td e s e rv e sg i v en i t sc en t r a lr o l ea sa v enu ef o ren c oun t e r in g mo v in g im a g et e chno lo g i e s .D i s cu s s ion so fth i sp e r iodo f t en b r a c k e tth es i gn i f i c an c eo fth e l y c eumw i thth eep i th e t ‘ g en t e e l ’ .T ou s eth et e rm ina v a lu e -n eu t r a lw a y ,a sIdoh e r e , i sno tn e c e s s a r i l yt od i s a g r e ew i thth ecu r r en tc r i t iqu e s tt ou s eth et e rm o fa r t s in s t i tu t ion sa se f f e c t i v e in s t rum en t so fso c i a lh i e r a r ch y .9Bu Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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p e jo r a t i v e l y ,a sa m a t t e ro fh ab i t ,c anon l y l im i tth eh i s to r i c a l in v e s t i g a t iono f in s t i tu t ion s l ik eth eB r ook l ynIn s t i tu t e .I trun sth er i sko fob s cu r in gth ef l e x ib l eand v a r i ed m emb e rp a r t i c ip a t iononwh i chth e s e in s t i tu t e sd ep end ed .Th e r ew a sh a rd l yan Am e r i c an in t e l l e c tu a l(o raEu r op e an in t e l l e ctu a lknown inth eU SA )whod idn ’ tsp end som et im e l e c tu r in gonth e l y c eumc i r cu i t . Wh i l eag r e a td e a lo fg en t e e lrh e to r i cd id th r i v e inth e l y c eum , i t i s impo r t an ttound e r s t andth i sh i s to r i c a l l ya sapo in to f d eb a t ew i th in l y c eumcu l tu r er a th e rth ana sab l ank e td e s c r ip to ro fth ek ind so f d i s cu s s iontob ef ound in s id e .E v enG eo r g eS an t a y an a ,whoco in edth ep e jo r a t i v e ph r a s e ‘ g en t e e lt r ad i t ion ’ ,f oundar e c ep t i v eaud i en c ef o rth e s e id e a s inth es am e l y c eumth a ta l sow e l com ed m emb e r so fth eo ld e r l i t e r a ryg en e r a t ionh eh e ld in 10 I twou ldb ed i f f i cu l ttof indsom es i gn i f i c an ta sp e c to fAm e r i c anpub l i c con t emp t . cu l tu r eth a tw a sno td eb a t ed ,d emon s t r a t ed ,o rcon t emp l a t ed insom ew a yb y l y c eum p a r t i c ip an t s . A s in s t i tu t ion so fup l i f tgo ,th e l y c eumw a sr em a r k ab l yop ent of i lmand in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y . Wh enh ef ound edth ed ep a r tm en to fpho t o g r aph ya tth e B r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e in1889 ,B l a c kop en ed i tupe v en mo r et op r a c t i c a ld emon s t r a t ion s andt o l e c tu r e sb yp eop l esu cha sE adw e a rd Mu yb r id g eonan im a l lo c omo t ion ,J a c ob R i i sonth eu rb anpoo randBu r t onH o lm e sone x o t i ct r a v e l .Thom a sEd i song a v eh i s f i r s tpub l i cd emon s t r a t iono fth eK in e t o s c op ea tth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e ,andem i s s a r i e s o fth eLum i è r ec omp an yg a v et e chn i c a ld emon s t r a t ion sth e r eb e g inn in gaf ewy e a r s 11 Th e s ed emon s t r a t ion su s in gn ew m ed i at e chno lo g i e sw e r ep r e s en t eds id eb y l a t e r . s id ew i th l e c tu r e sona e s th e t i c s .On ee v en in gth em emb e r sc ou lds e eJu l e sB ru l a t ou r d emon s t r a t in gth en ewLum i è r eau t o ch r om ep r o c e s sandth en e x te v en in gth e yc ou ld h e a rth ea v id l e c tu r e ronp i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c s ,H en r yR an k inP oo r e ,g i v eat a l kon 12 ‘ a r t i s t i c[P i c t o r i a l i s t ]pho t o g r aph y ’ . Inth e l e c tu r eh a l l sa tth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e am a t eu rpho t o g r aph e r s , mo t ionp i c tu r e l e c tu r e r sanda r tedu c a t o r sen g a g ed in f r equ en tc on v e r s a t ion s ,m an yo fwh i chg r ew in t opub l i c a t ion sb y in s t i tu t em emb e r s 13 Th r ou ghh i sw o r ka tth e in s t i tu t e ,B l a c kb e c am ea ando r g an i s e r s l i k eB l a c k . r e sp e c t edw r i t e ronam a t eu rpho t o g r aph ya sw e l la sat e chn i c i anw i thane x a c t in g know l ed g eo fop t i c a landpho t o ch em i c a ld e t a i l s .H ew a samon gth eedu c a t o r swho ad v o c a t edth e id e ath a tt e a ch in gp i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c sfu r th e r edth e l y c eum ’ sgo a l so f c r e a t in gap a r t i c ip a t o r yd emo c r a t i ccu l tu r e ,andh ewo r k edt ob r in gn ew im a g in g 14 t e chno lo g i e s in t oth e s epub l i cd eb a t e sabou ta r tandedu c a t ion . Inth e1890 sB l a ckw r o t eand l e c tu r edona r tandp r e s en t ed mu cho fh i se a r l y pho to g r aph ywo rk inth ecomp an yo fp a in t e r s l ik eW i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ,bu th i s app r o a chtopho to g r aph yd idno tcomp l e t e l yf o l lowth ef in e a r t su s e so fth em ed ium 15 th a tw e r eem e r g in g inEu r op e . H ek ep ta tad i s t an c ef r omth eP i c to r i a l i s t pho to g r aph yp r omo t edb yB r i t i sha s so c i at ion s l ik eth eB r o th e rhoodo fth eL ink ed R in ge v ena sh ec l a im ed , l ik em an ye a r l yam a t eu rpho to g r aph e r s ,th a tth ea e s th e t i c ad v an c em en to fpho to g r aph yd ep end edonth eam a t eu r .H ew a son l yt an g en t i a l l y a s so c i a t edw i th m emb e r so fth eP i c to r i a l i s t mo v em en t inth eU SAth r ou ghh i s o r g an i s a t ion a lwo rka tth eB r ook l ynIn s t i tu t eandh i sa r t i c l e s .P i c to r i a l i s t sf oundth e sh a rp l in e sand m a ch in e -m ad equ a l i t yo fs t r a i gh tpho to g r aph sm ad e inp r o f e s s ion a l s tud io sto l a cka r t i s t ry .Th e ycoun t e r edth eh a r shob j e c t i v i t yo fth e s epho to g r aph s w i thab a t t e ryo fso f t en edshoo t in gandp r in t in gt e chn iqu e s inana t t emp tto m ak e pho to g r aph y mo r e l ik ep a in t in g .B l a ckw a sc l e a r l y in t e r e s t ed inP i c to r i a l i s ta r t 22

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

pho to g r aph y ,bu t inap r a gm a t i cw a y–a son ea e s th e t i cpo s s ib i l i t yamon gm an y .16 H eadm i r edth a tP i c to r i a l i s tpho to g r aph e r sr e ad i l ye xp e r im en t edw i thav a r i e t yo f p r in t in gp r o c e s s e s ,y i e ld in gar an g eo ft e x tu r e sandco lou r s ,bu th en e v e rcomp l e t e l y emb r a c edth eso f t ,p a in t e r l yapp r o a chtocompo s i t iona sagu id in gp r in c ip l e . In s t e ad , h e lo c a t edh i sp r im a ry in t e r e s t inth er an g eandv a r i e t yo ft e chn iqu e sf o rc r e a t in g 17 H i s l e c tu r e s l in e ,sh ad in gandco lou ra v a i l ab l ef o ram a t eu re xp e r im en t a t ion . s id e s t epp edan ys in g l ea e s th e t i cv i s ion inf a vou ro fm a x imumt e chn i c a lv a r i e t y , in c lud in g l and s c ap epho to g r aph y , in s t an t an eou sa c t ionpho to g r aph y , mo t ionp i c tu r e s 18 andth r e e co lou rp r o j e c t ion . B l a cks awa e s th e t i c sa sh i sm i s s ion ,bu tr a th e rth an p r omo t eas in g l ea e s th e t i c mo v em en t ,h ee xp lo r edth ev a r i e t yo fa e s th e t i c po s s ib i l i t i e sf o rpho to g r aph y . Wh i l eapp e a l in gtot r ad i t ion so fn in e t e en th c en tu ryp a in t in g ,B l a cke vok ed mo r e fund am en t a l l yth ef a s c in a t ionw i thop t i c a landch em i c a lt ink e r in gth a tw a saun iqu e p a r to fam a t eu rpho to g r aph i ca e s th e t i c s .H i se s s a y sc e l eb r a t in gam a t eu rpho to g r aph y in c lud edd e t a i l edt e chn i c a l in s t ru c t ion sf o rop t i c a landch em i c a lp r o c e s s e sa sw e l la s ph i lo soph i c a landa e s th e t i cd i s cu s s ion so fpho to g r aph y ’ ss i gn i f i c an c e in mod e rn cu l tu r e .In1894 ,h ed e v e lop edth e s esho r t e ra r t i c l e s in toP h o t o g r a p h yIn d o o r san dOu t, abook l en g th m anu a l . Mo r eth anpu r e l y in s t rum en t a lknow l ed g e ,op t i c a land pho to ch em i c a lknow -howa r ef r am ed inth i sbooka s ind i sp en s ab l ecompon en t so fa b r o ad e ra e s th e t i cedu c a t ion .B l a ck ’ spho to i l lu s t r a t edno v e l ,C a p t a inK o d a k,abou ttwo bo y swhof o rmanam a t eu rc am e r ac lub ,c l e a r l ycon v e y sth ev a lu eo ft e chn i c a l f a s c in a t ion .E a chep i sod e inth eno v e lf o cu s e sonapo s s ib l eu s ef o rth ec am e r a .Th e ep i sod e sa r eo f t ens e t inth ed a rk r oomam idth i ckt e chn i c a ld e s c r ip t ion .Ch a r a c t e r s (B l a ck ’ sch i ld r enpo s eda sth em a inch a r a c t e r sf o rth epho to i l lu s t r a t ion s ) l e a rnf r om 19 Th e y t e chn i c a lm i s t ak e sande xp e r i en c e ‘po s i t i v ea c c id en t s ’ inth e i rpho to g r aph y . in t r odu c eano v e lth a tp r omo t e sc am e r a c lubcu l tu r eb yd e s c r ib in gth ep l e a su r e so f m an ipu l a t in gc am e r a sandch em i c a l s .Am a t eu r i sm m a yb e ,f o rsom eo fB l a ck ’ s r e ad e r s ,ag en t e e lr e a c t iontocomm e r c i a lpho to g r aph y ,bu t i t i s impo r t an ttono t e howh i sf o cu son( amo r ou s )t e chn i c a le xp e r im en t a t ioncomp l i c a t e sg en t e e lcu l tu r e ’ s p r omo t iono fth eam a t eu ra s lo v e r / a r t i s t .Th e lo v eo ft ry in gou tn ewt e chn i c a l p r o c e s s e sandth e lo v eo fak indo fr om an t i ca r t i s t i ce xp r e s s iondono tcomp l e t e l y o v e r l ap .20 B l a cksp en tth eb e t t e rp a r to fh i s l i f ep r omo t in gth epo s s ib i l i t i e so fpho to g r aph y , f i lm ,th em a g i c l an t e rnandpopu l a r i l lu s t r a t iontoapub l i c in t e r e s t ed inth eb r o ad cu r io s i t yg en e r a t edb yth e s em ed i a .Th eo r g an i s a t ion stowh i chB l a ckp r e s en t edh i s i l lu s t r a t ed l e c tu r e s ,con c e rn edabou tn ewm ed i a ’ spo t en t i a lco r r o s i v ee f f e c t son t r ad i t ion a lcu l tu r e ,sou gh ttou s eth ecu r io s i t yw i thth e s em ed i ato mo t i v a t e l e a rn in g andup l i f tt a s t e ina r tandcu l tu r e .H ew a s mo r eth anana v idp r odu c e ro f im a g e s .H e h e lp edtoe s t ab l i shth ecu l tu r a lt r ad i t ion sth a tp r omo t edt e chn i c a lc r a f tanda e s th e t i c thou gh t in im a g e -m ak in g .F r omth e l a t e1880 sandth r ou ghou tth es i l en te r a ,h e pub l i sh ede x t en s i v e l yonpho to g r aph y ,f i lmandth ea r t s ,f ound edo r g an i s a t ion s d ed i c a t edtoth e i rp r omo t ionanded i t edon eo fth e l a r g e s t i l lu s t r a t edn ew sp ap e r s in th ecoun t ry .T ot r a c eB l a ck ’ sc a r e e ra sa l e c tu r e rand jou rn a l i s tw i th inth e s e in s t i tu t ion s i stoen coun t e rth ee a r l y in t e l l e c tu a lh i s to ryo f mo v in g im a g ea e s th e t i c s andth er o l eo fam a t eu rc r a f t sm an sh ip inth eedu c a t ion a lu s e so fth e s e 21 t e chno lo g i e s . Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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TH EDETECT IVELECTUR E SANDTH EIN STANTANEOU STAB LEAU B l a c k ’ sc on t inu a l l yr e v i s edc o l l e c t i ono fo v e r100p r o j e c t edpho t o g r aph sa c c omp an i edb y a l e c tu r em ad e i t sf i r s tr ound sw i thth et i t l e ‘L i f eTh r ou ghaD e t e c t i v eC am e r a ’ in1889 . Th i s l e c tu r es e r i e sand i t sa e s th e t i cqu e s t i on sf o rmth ef ound a t ionf o rB l a c k ’ sp i c tu r e p l a y s ,soth e yd e s e rv et ob ean a l y s ed ins om ed ep th .B yc omb in in gth eg l a s ss l id e sth a t h a v esu rv i v ed inh i sf am i l y ’ sc o l l e c t i onw i thn ew sp ap e ra r t i c l e s ,pub l i c i t ym a t e r i a land i l lu s t r a t i on s inB l a c k ’ sn o v e l C a p t a inK o d a k, i t i sp o s s ib l et oc on s t ru c tana c cu r a t e 22 Th esub j e c tandf o rm a t a c c oun to fth eb a s i cs t ru c tu r eandth em e so fB l a c k ’ s l e c tu r e s . o fth e l e c tu r e sw e r ed e v e l op eda sB l a c kc on t inu a l l y in t e g r a t edn ews l id e s .Th es l id e s w e r et a k enb yB l a c kand , inth ee a r l yy e a r s ,o th e rph o t o g r aph e r so fv a r y in gf am e .Th e p r o g r amm e sd i v id edth ec on t r ibu t o r s in t otw oc a t e go r i e s :a r t i s t sandam a t eu r s .B l a c k p l a c edh im s e l f inth e l a t t e rc a t e g o r y .Th ed i f f e r en tt yp e so fp i c tu r e sw e r eo r g an i s ed in t o s e c t ion s .P i c tu r e so fth es t r e e t l i f eo fB r oo k l ynand M anh a t t an ,b a th e r sa tCon e yI s l and , pub l i cf i gu r e s ,b l i z z a rd s ,c oun t r y l i f eandn au t i c a ls c en e sw e r eamon gth ec ommon th em e sr e c y c l edandr e v i s edth r ou gh ou tth et en y e a rp e r i oddu r in gwh i chth e s eshow s w e r er e gu l a r l yp e r f o rm ed .Th esp o k ena c c omp an im en tc ou ld in c lud eb i t so fn a r r a t i v e ,a d i s cu s s iono fpho t o g r aph ya sana r tandas c i en c e ,andcu r r en te v en t s .B l a c kt a i lo r edth e l e c tu r et oth ee xp e c t a t i on sand in t e r e s t so fh i saud i en c e s . A sth em a int i t l eo fth e l e c tu r e ssu g g e s t s ,th e yemph a s i s edth epo s s ib i l i t i e so fth e n ew ‘ d e t e c t i v e ’c am e r a .Th i sw a sth epopu l a rn am eg i v en ,no tt oth eh idd enc am e r a , bu tt oth eo rd in a r yh andc am e r af r e edf r omth et r ipodandbu l k ypho t o ch em i c a l a c c e s so r i e so fe a r l i e rc am e r aou t f i t s .Th ef add i shpopu l a r i t yo fth eh andc am e r a inth e 1880 s in c r e a s ede xpon en t i a l l yw i thth e in t r odu c t iono fth eKod akandt ap e r edo f fb y 23 th eendo fth en e x td e c ad e . Th ead v an t a g e sw e r ee a s eo fop e r a t ion ,po r t ab i l i t yand in s t an t an e i t y .B l a c kh adb e enanad v o c a t eo fth i sd e v e lopm en t inpho t o g r aph ys in c e th ee a r l y1880 s . In s t an t an e i t yw a san impo r t an tt op i c inB l a c k ’ se a r l yd e t e c t i v e l e c tu r e sand ,a sth e boo k in g s in c r e a s ed , i tb e c am ea m a ina t t r a c t ion .B l a c ku s edan in s t an t an eou se xpo su r e a saw a yt ov i su a l l yr e e x am in er e c o gn i s ab l es c en e s .H i s l e c tu r e sd r ewa t t en t iont oth e pho t o g r aph i cm ed ium inaw a yth a ttho s ewhot r a in edth e i rc am e r a sone x o t i co rpoo r o th e r sd idno t .O th e rf amou s l e c tu r e r s l i k eBu r t onH o lm e sandJ ohnL .S t odd a rdw e r e d e v e lop in gth edom in an tg en r eo fth et r a v e l l e c tu r e .Th e i r l e c tu r e sw e r eo f t en l im i t ed 24 B l a c k ,b yc on t r a s t ,show edp i c tu r e so fw id e l yv a r i ed t oav i s i tt oon ee x o t i c lo c a t ion . g en r e sandf o cu s edonth eab i l i t yo fth e in s t an t an eou spho t o g r apht or e v e a lth e lo c a l andth ef am i l i a r .Th eshoww a sa l t e rn a t i v e l yc a l l ed ‘Ou r s e l v e sa sO th e r sS e eU s ’ .Th i s r e f e r en c et oRob e r tBu rn s ’ s l in ef r om ‘T oaLou s e ’w a sanodt oB l a c k ’ sS c o t t i shcu l tu r a l h e r i t a g e .App l i edt oth ea e s th e t i c so fpho t o g r aph y , i tsu g g e s t s id en t i f i c a t ionb e tw e en th esub j e c t sandth ev i ew e r s .I ta l soemph a s i s e sth a tth esub j e c t sa r es e ena sth e y wou ldb es e en ine v e r yd a y l i f e ,e i th e run aw a r eo fo run c on c e rn edw i thth ep r e s en c eo f th ec am e r a .Ane a r l yr e v i ew e rr em a r k edth a tth e l e c tu r ew a s ‘ c op iou s l y i l lu s t r a t edb y pho t o g r aph so fp eop l eth a tM rB l a c kando th e r sh a v et a k enunb e known s tw i tha 25 “ sn ap sho t ” ’ . Wh i l eB l a c kd ido c c a s ion a l l yshowsom epho t o g r aph so fEu r op e ,th e l e c tu r ed e emph a s i s edth ed r awo fd i s t an t lo c a t ion sandth ec onn e c t iont o mod e rn 26 Th eemph a s i s l a y in s t e adons c en e sth a th a v eb e en ‘ c ap tu r ed inth e i r t r a v e l . e f f e rv e s c en c e ’ , inwh i ch in s t an t an e i t ys t ru c tu r e saw a yo fv i ew in gag r oupo fp i c tu r e s . 24

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

P o s t e rfo r ‘O u r s e l v e sa s O t h e r sS e eU s ’ ,a na l t e rn a t e t i t l efo rA l e x a nd e rB l a c k ’ s no n f i c t io n l e c t u r e s(1896 ) (Co u r t e s yo fN ewY o r k P ub l i cL ib r a r y )

In s t an t an e i t yc r e a t edcoh e r en c eamon gth ep i c tu r e s . Wh i l eun iqu eonth e l e c tu r e c i r cu i t ,B l a ckw a sno ta lon einth i su s eo fth ed e t e c t i v ec am e r a .H i sinno v a t ion l a yin th ea e s th e t i capp l i c a t iono fpopu l a rt r op e so fin s t an t an eou spho to g r aph ytoth e l e c tu r ef o rm a t .Su chpopu l a rin s t an t an eou ssub j e c t sa ss t r e e ts c en e s ,m a r in ev i ew s andth epho to g r aph yo fbod i e sin mo t ionw e r eth em a incompon en t so fB l a ck ’ s l e c tu r e s ,andi ti s l ik e l yth a th i saud i en c e sc am etoth e s eim a g e sw i thr e c e i v edid e a s 27 abou tin s t an t an eou spho to g r aph y . Th ed i f f e r en c eh e r ei sth a tth e yw e r epu tinth e s e rv i c eo fa lon g f o rm a tp r e s en t a t ion .Th i sp r o v id edaf ound a t ionf o raf i c t ion a l wo r lde v eni fB l a ckd idno two rkpho to g r aph sin to lon gn a r r a t i v e sun t i lh em ad eM i s s J e r r yin1894 .Th ec and idqu a l i t yo fth epho to g r aph sth a tB l a ckr e in f o r c edinh i s l e c tu r e sg a v ev i ew e r saw a ytos e eth ema s p a r to faun i f i edr e a l i t y .W es e eth i sa l soin C a p t a inK o d a k,wh e r eth ei l lu s t r a t ion sf r omth enon f i c t ion l e c tu r e sh e lptoc r e a t eth e v i su a lsp a c eo fth ech a r a c t e r s ’a c t i v i t i e sr i gh ta lon g s id eth en a r r a t i v ep i c tu r e so f po s eda c to r s .Ine a chc a s eth er e co gn i s ab l esn ap sho ta e s th e t i cth a tth e s ep i c tu r e s sh a r eg i v e sth e s ef r a gm en t a ryim a g e so ff am i l i a rs c en e sacoh e r en ts en s eo fsp a c e 28 andt im e . B l a c kp r omo t edth ec oh e r en tw o r ldc r e a t edb yth ep i c tu r e sw i th l i t e r a r y in t e r t e x t s . Th et a g l in eu s ed inpub l i c i t ym a t e r i a lf o rth ee a r l y l e c tu r e sw a s ‘P i c tu r e st oD e l i gh ta D i c k en s ’ ,andth e r ew a sc l e a r l yaD i c k en s i ana i rt oth epo r t r a y a lo f in t e r c onn e c t ed 29 f r a gm en t so fu rb an l i f e . B l a c kw a sno tp a r t i cu l a r l yc on c e rn edw i thp r e s en t in g so c i a l l yc r i t i c a ls c en e so fN ewY o r k ’ spoo r l i k etho s es e en inJ a c obR i i s ’ s ‘Th eO th e r H a l f :H owI tL i v e sandD i e s inN ewY o r k ’(1888 ) .N o rd idh eg en e r a l l yt a k eth es am e app r o a chth a tM a r enS t an g e id en t i f i e s inR i i s ’ s l e c tu r ea s ‘ th et ou r i s t i cpo in to fv i ew ’ , in t end edt oc l e a r l yd em a r kth em idd l e c l a s ssp e c t a t o r sf r omth esub j e c t so fh i su rb an do cum en t a r ypho t o g r aph s .30Inf a c t ,m an yo fB l a c k ’ sdo cum en t a r ypho t o g r aph sw e r e Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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o fh i sownf am i l y .H i sc and idpho t o g r aph so fs t r e e t l i f et end edt ow a rd sop t im i s t i cand humo r ou s im a g e so fwo r kandp l a y .H i s l e s sop t im i s t i cs l id e sw e r ea l soc lo s e rt o D i c k en sth ant oR i i sa sth e yw e r e in f l e c t edw i thp a tho sr a th e rth anp a t e rn a l i s t i c do cum en t a r yd i s t an c e .31Th e r ea r em an ye x amp l e so fth e s e i l lu s t r a t ion so fwo r kand p l a yamon gth esu rv i v in gs l id e sandth e i l lu s t r a t ion s inC a p t a inK o d a k.A two r konth e s t r e e t ,w es e ey oun gboo tb l a c k s ,o r g ang r ind e r s ,p r e t z e lv endo r sand m enho ld in g s i gn s .Th eCon e yI s l andpho t o g r aph sp r o v id edac oun t e rpo in tt oth es t r e e ts c en e sw i th th e i rd ep i c t iono fr e c r e a t ion a la c t i v i t i e sl i k ew ad in g inth esu r fandr id in gth ef e r r i s wh e e l .Ine a chc a s eth equ a l i t yo fth ec and idv i ewho ld sth e s ep i c tu r e st o g e th e ra sa p a r to fth es am eu rb ansp a c e . Th ec on t e x tp r o v id edb yth e s ec and idv i ew sa l low edB l a c kt oqu i c k l ya s s e s sth e po s s ib i l i t i e so fn ew im a g in gt e chno lo g i e sa sth e yb e c am ea v a i l ab l e .H i ss l id e sw e r e o f t enh andc o lou r ed ,andh ee xp e r im en t edw i thn a tu r a lc o lou rp r o c e s s e sa sth e y b e c am ea v a i l ab l e .Inau tumno f1896h eadd ed mo t ionp i c tu r e st oth e l e c tu r e .Th e Lum i è r ec in em a t o g r aph ,w i th i t sd e s i gnad v an t a g eo fc omb in in gw i thane x i s t in g m a g i c l an t e rnf o rp r o j e c t ion ,w a se a s i l yf i t t edt oB l a c k ’ se x i s t in g l an t e rn l e c tu r e .Th e c in em a t o g r aphs e rv eda sat e chn i c a ladd i t iont oane x i s t in gp r a c t i c e ,e v ena s i tr e c e i v ed 32 Th ew a yth a tth eLum i è r eb r o th e r su s ed mo t ionp i c tu r e sa s t opb i l l in g inth epo s t e r s . ane x t en s iono fth e i re xp e r im en t sw i th in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph yandc ap tu r in g 33 s c en e so fe v e r yd a y l i f ef i t t edB l a c k ’ spu rpo s e sp r e c i s e l y . A loo ka tth er e c ep t iono fth e c omb in edf i lmands l id e l e c tu r e sc on f i rm sth a tth i sw a san impo r t an tp a r to fth e i r su c c e s sw i thaud i en c e s . C in em a t o g r aph e[s i c ]p i c tu r e sn e edaf o i l .H i th e r t oth e yh a v eb e enc ommon l yshownamon g a lo to fv aud e v i l l esp e c i a l t i e sb e a r in gnoso r to fr e l a t iont oth esub j e c to f l i f e i l lu s t r a t ion . M rB l a c k ,w i thab e t t e ra r t ,h a s in t e rw o v enth em ina l e c tu r ed e a l in gw i thth ep i c tu r e squ e f e a tu r e so fe v e r yd a y l i f eands e to f fw i thv i ew so fh i sown m a k in g .I t i sth eb e s tt r ibu t et o M rB l a c k ’ sc l e v e rn e s st os a yth a tth e s e l a t t e rd idno tsu f f e rb yc omp a r i sonw i th M .Lum i è r e ’ s .34

Th ep a s s a g e ind i c a t e showad ap t ab l eth ec in em a t o g r aphc ou ldb eb e f o r eth ec in em a h adr e a l l yd e f in ed i t s e l fa sa m ed ium .35Th econ t e x tp r o v id edb yB l a c k ’ s l e c tu r e r em ed i edth ew e a kn e s sf oundb yg en t e e laud i en c e s inv a r i e t y f o rm a tf i lmp r o j e c t ion s . In c lud edamon gth ef i lm sshownw e r e :th ec o r on a t iono fth eC z a r ,Eu r op e an m i l i t a r y p a r ad e s ,N i a g r aF a l l sandth eB r oo k l ynv i s i to fth eCh in e s eamb a s s ado rt oth eU SA .36 A sp a r to fav aud e v i l l ep r o g r amm e ,th e s es am ef i lm swou ldb ep r e s en t eda s in t e r ch an g e ab l ea c t s .A sp a r to fB l a c k ’ s l e c tu r eth e yb e c am eanou t g r ow tho f in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y ’ sab i l i t yt oc and id l yr e c o rde v e r yd a y l i f e . A sm ym a in in t e r e s th e r e i sth ew a y inwh i chth i sc on c ep t iono fth ec ap tu r ed mom en tf i t sw i th inan in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo f mo v in g im a g ec ompo s i t ion ,Iw an tt o emph a s i s ehowr e v i ew e r ss i tu a t edB l a c k ’ spho t o g r aph sandf i lm sa sp a r to fa l a r g e r p i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion .Th e ya r e ‘p i c tu r e squ e l i f e i l lu s t r a t ion s ’d ep end en tonac on c ep t ion o fth e in s t an t an eou sv i ew .B l a c k ’ sp i c t o r i a l i smdo e sno tc oun t e rh i s lo v eo fth e sn ap sho t .Onth ec on t r a r y ,h i sr e f e r en c e st ot r ad i t ion so f i l lu s t r a t ion ,p a in t in gand d r am a t i cp i c tu r in gd ep enduponana e s th e t i co f in s t an t an e i t y .37Th i sw a sah a l lm a r ko f B l a c k ’ swo r kf r omth e1880 s . 26

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Inth eop ena i r ,n o th in g i sc l o s eda g a in s tth e ‘ d e t e c t i v e . ’…F r a gm en t so fs t r e e ts c en e r y , l i t t l e g e n r eb i t s inou t o f th e -w a yc o rn e r s ,t a b l e au x inru s t i co rt own l i f e ,r e qu i r in g in s t an tc ap tu r e , 38 a l l imp o s s i b l et oth eo r d in a r yc am e r a ,a r ec au gh tb yth e ‘ d e t e c t i v e ’ inth e i rv e r ye f f e r v e s c en c e .

H e r eB l a c kapp e a r st ob e mo v in g intw od i r e c t ion sa ton c e .H ead v o c a t e s in s t an t an eou s c ap tu r eo f im a g e s ,bu th i sr e su l t i sf a rf r omth ev i ew so fn a tu r e ’ sc on t in g en c yth a t 39 In s t e ad , c e r t a inpho t o g r aph yh i s t o r i an sa s so c i a t ew i tha mod e rnsn ap sho ta e s th e t i c . h ee v o k e st r ad i t ion so fg en r ep a in t in gandth et ab l e au .Th e s et yp e so fp i c tu r e s imp l y c ompo s i t ion ,du r a t ionand , mo s t impo r t an t l y ,aun i t yo fd r am a t i co rn a r r a t i v ee v en t th a twou lds e emc oun t e r in tu i t i v et o l in kw i thth ef r a gm en t a r ysn ap sho t .B l a c kw a s c omm i t t edt om a k in gp i c tu r e sth a temph a s i s edth ee v an e s c en tf r a gm en t so fe v e r yd a y l i f e ,tho s e l e s sa c c e s s ib l et oo th e rm ed i a ,wh i l es t i l lb e in gr e c o gn i s ab l ea st ab l e au x .I t i s f i t t in gth a tm an yo fth ep a in t e r samon gtho s e inB l a c k ’ sf i r s taud i en c e sa tW i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ’ ss tud ioh adc on t r ibu t edt oth et r ad i t iono fg en r ep a in t in gth a tB l a c k 40 Th i sp a in t e r l yo rth e a t r i c a lqu a l i t ydo e sno tm e an ,how e v e r ,th a tB l a c k ’ s e v o k e s . t ab l e au xf o r e goo re r a s eth ec on t in g en c yo fth e i ro r i g in s .Inh i s l e c tu r e sonth er e l a t ion e o fpho t o g r aph yt oa r t ,B l a c kc r i t i c i s e st ab l e au xth a ta r ea r r an g edf o rth ec am e r a .41Th t ab l e au xo fth ed e t e c t i v e l e c tu r e sa r ethu sd e p end en tonth et ab l e au xo fth ec an v a sand th es t a g e ,bu tth e yb e a rad i s t in c t ion inth e i ru s eo fth erh e t o r i canda e s th e t i c so fth e in s t an t an eou sv i ew . Th ec on t in g en tp i c tu r ed in s t an th a sb e entho r ou gh l y in v e s t i g a t ed ins tud i e so f c r im in a lpho t o g r aph s ,ch r onopho t o g r aph yande a r l y l and s c ap ec in em a t o g r aph ye i th e r a sc omp l e t e l ys ep a r a t ef r omas en s eo fp i c t o r i a ld r am a tu r g yo ra sak indo fop a c i t yth a t enon e ’ senqu i r ysh i f t sf r om l and s c ap eé t u d e st o mu s tb ec l a r i f i edb yn a r r a t ion .42Wh B l a c k ’ ss c en e so fu rb an l i f e ,ana c c oun to fth ec o l l abo r a t ionb e tw e ent ab l e aua e s th e t i c s and in s t an t an eou sa e s th e t i c sb e c om e s mu ch mo r e impo r t an t . Wh i l e i t i s ind i spu t ab l e th a tB l a c k ’ sspo k enn a r r a t ionw a sak e yf a c t o r in m a k in gh i sp i c tu r e s l e g ib l ea ss t o r y s c en e s ,th er e f e r en c e st og en r ep a in t in gandt ab l e au xe s t ab l i shap a r a l l e lt r a j e c t o r y in h i sr e l a t iont oc in em a . FROM ‘THEHOR SEIN MOT ION ’TO ‘MANIN MOT ION ’ A sB l a c kd e v e lop edh i s l e c tu r e s ,h i s in t e r e s tg r adu a l l y mo v edf r omth ed ep i c t iono f in s t an t st oth ed ep i c t iono fa c t ion ,andf r omth e ind i v idu a lc ompo s i t iont oth e c ompo s i t iono fth es equ en c e .F o rac on c ep tu a l mod e lonwh i cht ob a s eth i ss equ en t i a l d ep i c t iono fa c t ion ,B l a c ktu rn edt oth ee xp e r im en t sw i th mo t ionpho t o g r aph y und e r t a k enb yE adw e a rd Mu yb r id g eandthep a in t e rThom a sE ak in s .B l a c kp r omo t ed h i spho t o g r aph so fa c t iona sane x t en s iono f Mu yb r id g e ’ ss tud i e so fan im a l lo c omo t ion inth eb r o chu r e sf o rh i st r a v e l l in g l e c tu r e s . Th e ‘D e t e c t i v e ’C am e r ah a sc r e a t edag r e a t e rs en s a t i onth ana lm o s tan yo th e rm e ch an i c a l p r odu c to fth i s in v en t i v ee r a .I fth ead v an c eo fqu i c kph o t o g r aph ym ad e i tp o s s i b l et op i c tu r e th eh o r s e inm o t i on ,th es en s i t i v e -p l a t e inth ed i s gu i s edh and c am e r am ad e i te a s yt osh ow m aninm o t i on…Th ef i r s tp i c tu r e so fth eh o r s e inm o t i ona s t on i sh edth ea r t i s t s .Th e 43 ‘D e t e c t i v e ’ s ’r e v e l a t i on so fhum an l i f ea r ea l s ofu l lo fsu rp r i s e s . Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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Wh enh ew r o t eth i sB l a c kw a sw e l law a r eth a t Mu yb r id g eh adc omp l e t edh i ss tud i e so f hum an lo c omo t ion inPh i l ad e lph i a ,so inth ean a lo g yb e tw e enth eho r s eand m anh e i s no tr e f e r r in gt oth es imp l eg r aph i cd i s s e c t iono fhum an mo v em en t .Th ean a lo g yd r aw s a t t en t ionr a th e rt oth es im i l a rab i l i t yt or e v e a le l em en t so fp a s s in gt im e inth e s ev e r y d i f f e r en tt yp e so fs e r i a lpho t o g r aph y .B l a c ku s e sth ec omp a r i sonw i th Mu yb r id g e ’ s mo t ions tud i e st od i s t in gu i shh i s l e c tu r e sf r omtho s eo fh i sc on t empo r a r i e s .H i s im a g in a t i v eu s e so f mo t ions tud i e st oc on t e x tu a l i s ebo thh i snon f i c t ions equ en c e sand h i sp i c tu r ep l a ys equ en c e sr e v e a lh im ,a sw e l la s Mu yb r id g eandE ak in s ,t ob ee xp lo r in g in t e rm ed i a r ysp a c e sb e tw e enth ep r a c t i c eo fp i c tu r in gd r am a t i cs i tu a t ion sandth e n ew e rf i lm i cp r a c t i c eo fs t opp in gt im eandr e c r e a t in gan i l lu s iono f mo v em en t .Th e i r e f f e c t i v en e s sa s l e c tu r e r sona r tapp e a r st oh a v ed ep end edonth e i raud i en c e s ’ab i l i t yt o no t i c eth i samb i v a l en tt r a i t inth e i rc ompo s edp i c tu r e s . B l a ckr e f e r en c edth epho to g r aph i cs tud yo f mo t ionth r ou ghou th i sedu c a t ion a l wo rk in mo t ionp i c tu r e s ,f r omh i se a r l y l e c tu r e stoh i s l a t e rp i c tu r ep l a y s .H ee v en f o l low edacou r s eonan a tom yb yThom a sE ak in s ,whow a sknownf o ru s in g pho to g r aph sa stoo l stot e a chan a tom yandtocompo s em an yo fh i s mo s tf amou s wo rk s .44B l a cks tud i edund e rE ak in saf ewy e a r sa f t e rh ep a in t edth e Mu yb r id g e in sp i r edA M a yM o rn in g int h eP a r k(1879 ) ,wh i chd ep i c t edaho r s e -d r awnc a r r i a g e in a s c in a t edb y Mu yb r id g e ’ se xp e r im en t spho to g r aph in gho r s e s inP a loA l to mo t ion .45F w i thL e l andS t an f o rd ,E ak in s mod e l l edth eho r s e s ’ l e g s inh i sp a in t in gon Mu yb r id g e ’ s r e su l t s .InB l a ck ’ ssub s equ en tw r i t in gonam a t eu rpho to g r aph y ,h ee xp l a in show Mu yb r id g e ’ swo rkw i thS t an f o rdc au s eda ‘bu r s to fm e r r im en tandwond e r ’amon g 46 E ak in s ’ scou r s eonan a tom y mu s th a v econ v e y edsom eo fth i swond e rtoth e a r t i s t s . youn gpho to g r aph e r .Af ewy e a r s l a t e r Mu yb r id g e ’ sen c y c lop ed i cs tud yo fhum anand an im a l lo como t ion ,comp l e t eda tth eUn i v e r s i t yo fP enn s y l v an i aandp a r t l y sup e rv i s edb yE ak in s ,b e c am eknown inB r oo k l ynpho to g r aph i cc i r c l e s .Th eB r ook l yn L ib r a ryw a sp e r su ad edtosub s c r ib etoth ecomp l e t eAn im a lL o c om o t i onin1888 ,and in 1889B l a ckandh i sco l l e a gu e sw e l com ed Mu yb r id g ef o rad emon s t r a t iono fh i s 47 zoop r a x i s cop ea tth eO x f o rdC lubo fB r ook l yn . Mu yb r id g e ’ spho to g r aph s ,h i s su c c e s sa ten t e r t a in in gaud i en c e s inth eU SAandEu r op ew i thv i su a ld emon s t r a t ion s andh i scon c e rn( a lon gw i thp a in t e r s l ik eE ak in s )w i thth er ep r e s en t a t iono f mo v em en t ina r tgu id edB l a ck ’ sowne xp e r im en t sw i thp i c to r i a ls equ en c in gandth e i l lu s iono f mo t ion . B l a c kf o l low ed Mu yb r id g e ’ sw o r kc lo s e l yando f t enr e f e r en c edth eho r s e in mo t ion a san in t e r t e x t .Inh i se a r l yw r i t in g sonpho t o g r aph y ,h ed i s cu s s ed Mu yb r id g e int e rm s o fth epopu l a rd eb a t eabou tth ea e s th e t i c so f mo t ionands c i en t i f i cpho t o g r aph y ,th e m ed iumth r ou ghwh i ch ‘bo thth en a tu r a l i s tandth esu r g eonh a v eg a in edab e t t e r 48 H ed e v o t edach ap t e ro fh i sm anu a lP h o t o g r a p h y know l ed g eo f mu s cu l a ra c t ion ’ . In d o o r san dOu tt oth i squ e s t ion . B e f o r eth ec om in go f in s t an t an e ou sph o t o g r aph y ,p e op l eh adcu r i ou s l yc a r e l e s sm e th od so f r ep r e s en t in gth em o v em en t so fah o r s e…[W ]h enth ec am e r ag a v e i t sr ep o r t ,w eb e g ant o l o o ka tm o t i onm o r ec a r e fu l l y ,t os e em o r eand b e t t e r :andt od a y ,a l th ou gha r t i s t sd on o ty e t a g r e et or ep r e s en t l o c om o t i ona s i tapp e a r sa tan yon em o v em en t ,–h o ld in gth a tap i c tu r e sh ou ldc om b in eth e imp r e s s i ono fm o r eth anon em o v em en t ,–th e r ec anb en o l on g e rth eo ld f a sh i on ede r r o r s inth ea l t e rn a t i ono fth ef e e to r inth eg en e r a lp o s i t i ono fth e l e g so fth e 28

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h o r s e .Ap i c tu r eo fah o r s ew i tha l lf ou r l e g se x t end edw id e l ys e em s l i k eac a r d b o a r dch a r g e r , 49 andw ef e e l l i k e l o o k in gf o rth es t r in gth a th o ld sh imup .

B l a c ke xp l a in st oh i sr e ad e r sth a tth e ‘b e t t e rknow l ed g e ’o f mo v em en ta f f o rd edb yth e s c i en t i f i cad v an c em en t so fpho t o g r aph yh a sr end e r edc e r t a int r ad i t ion so f r ep r e s en t a t ionou tmod ed .E a k in sth en a tu r a l i s td e v e lop sth i s id e a inA M a yM o rn in g in t h eP a r k . Wh i l eth ec a rdbo a rdch a r g e r mod e lo fth eho r s e in mo t ion m a yb eou tmod ed , B l a c km a in t a in sth a tth i s i sno tth ec a s ef o rth e in f o rm eds e l e c t ionandb l end in go f mu l t ip l e in s t an t s(o r ‘mo v em en t s ’ ,a sh e in t e r e s t in g l ya t t r ibu t e sav e c t o rt oth e p i c tu r ed in s t an t ) .H ec on c ed e sth a t i t i ss t i l la e s th e t i c a l l yapp r op r i a t e ,d e sp i t eth en ew know l ed g eg a in edb y in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y ,f o rap a in t e rt op i c tu r e mo t ion ina w a yth a tapp r o x im a t e sav i ew e r ’ sa c tu a le xp e r i en c eo f i t .Su chs en t im en t sr e su r f a c ed in ar an g eo fw r i t in g sona r t ,f r omc omp l e xd i a g r am s inTh eC en t u r yju s t i f y in gth e b l end in go f in s t an t s inap i c tu r et oRod in ’ sf amou sc r i t i c i smth a tth epho t o g r aph l i e s in 50 i t sr ep r e s en t a t iono fr e a l i t y , ‘ f o r inr e a l i t yt im edo e sno ts t op ’ . Inth er e a l i t yo fth e l y c eumc i r cu i tandth ev i su a len t e r t a inm en t so fth etu rno fth e c en tu r y ,t im ed ids t op–o f t ent ob es t a r t eda g a inb e f o r eane xp e c t an taud i en c ea sw i th Mu yb r id g e ’ szoop r a x i s c op ed emon s t r a t ion s .InB l a c k ’ s l e c tu r e sa sw e l l ,aud i en c e s w i tn e s s ed ‘ d i v e r sp lun g in g in t oth es e a ,c au gh tb yth epho t o g r aph in m ida i r , 51 sw imm e r s ,runn e r s ,and jump e r s ina c t ion ’ . B l a c ke x t end edth e id e ao fp eop l ec au gh t un aw a r et op eop l ec au gh t inth em idd l eo fa mo v em en t .Th i sa c t ionpho t o g r aphe f f e c t i sd i s t in c tf r omth espon t an eou sp i c tu r eo f ‘ e f f e rv e s c en t mom en t s ’d i s cu s s edabo v e . S t i l l eda c t ion ,p a r t i cu l a r l ywh enp eop l ea r e inth ep i c tu r e ,po s e sad i f f e r en ts e to f a e s th e t i cp r ob l em sandpo s s ib i l i t i e s .Th i sw a sth esou r c eo fc on c e rnf o rpho t o g r aph e r s l i k eB l a c kwhoh ad in v e s t ed ina e s th e t i c id e a sd e r i v edf r omp i c t o r i a landp e r f o rm an c e t r ad i t ion se s t ab l i sh ede a r l i e r inth ec en tu r y . B l a c k ’ squ a l i f i eden thu s i a smf o r Mu yb r id g e ’ s mo t ions tud i e s i sb e s te xp r e s s edb ya s i tu a t ion inC a p t a inK o d a k. Th ed e t e c t i v eandA l l anc am et oth esh o o t in g g a l l e r i e swh e r ew o od end e e randg r e en l i on s w e r ec e a s e l e s s l y jump in g… ‘H e r e i sach an c e , ’s a idD o b b s , ‘ t og e ts om eo fth o s equ e e rth in g s inan im a l l o c om o t i on .Th eg r e a tad v an t a g eh e r e ,th ou gh ,w ou ldb eth a tn om a t t e rwh eny ou c au gh tth ed e e rand l i on s ,th e i r l e g sw ou lda lw a y s l o o kp e r f e c t l yn a tu r a l .Th a tw ou ldb eab i g ad v an t a g e .Id on ’ t l i k eth e s esn app i c tu r e sth a tsh owth eh o r s e ss t and in gonon ef o o tw i th 52 th e i rh ind l e g stw i s t ed . ’

Th es c en eo fth ec e a s e l e s s l y jump in gan im a l s ,s e t in mo t ionb yar o t a t in gd i s k ,b e a r sa r e s emb l an c et o Mu yb r id g e ’ szoop r a x i s c op ed emon s t r a t ion s .T oth epho t o g r aph e re a g e r t os t i l ls c en e so f mo v em en t ,th ev i su a ls im i l a r i t i e sb e tw e enth i so ld e rf o rmo f an im a t ionandth ezoop r a x i s c op ep r omp t sak indo fw i sh fu lth in k in g .Th ed e t e c t i v e ch a r a c t e rw an t st oh a v eh i sp r i v i l e g ed mom en tandh i ssn ap sho tt oo . Wh i l eno tm e an t t ob et a k en l i t e r a l l yh e r e ,th i sw i sh i l lu s t r a t e sana e s th e t i cp r ob l ema r oundwh i chB l a c k sh ap edh i sd emon s t r a t ion s . Th ec o v e ro fth ed e t e c t i v e l e c tu r eb r o chu r e sh i gh l i gh t edth i sa e s th e t i cp r ob l em wh en i td ep i c t edaw om and i v in g in t oth es e a .Th ed i v e rw a sapopu l a randad ap t ab l e sub j e c tf o r in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph e r s .I tapp e a l edt opho t o g r aph e r sf o rwhomth e Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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Co v e ro fab ro c h u r efo r ‘ L i f eT h ro u g haD e t e c t i v e C am e r a ’ .T h ep ho to g r ap ho f t h ed i v e rw a su s ed t h ro u g ho u tt h ep ub l i c i t y m a t e r i a lfo rt h e l e c t u r eto s how c a s e i n s t a n t a n e i t y (1890 )(Co u r t e s yo fN ew Y o r kP ub l i cL ib r a r y )

du a l in t e r e s t s inth ef r o z en mom en tandg r a c e fu l mo v em en tw e r eno t mu tu a l l y e x c lu s i v e .Onon eh and ,th e i r r e v e r s ib i l i t yo fth ea c t ionh e i gh t en edth e in s t an t an eou s e f f e c t .B l a c k ’ sd i v e r i sf r o z ena tth e mom en tr i gh tb e f o r ean in e v i t ab l ed r en ch in gth a t eo th e rh and ,f o ra l lo f i t spo t en t i a l l yc om i cc on t in g en c y ,th ed i v e w en e v e rs e e .53Onth i sad i sp l a yo f(mo r eo r l e s s )ph y s i c a ls k i l lth a tc anb ep e r f o rm edf o rth ec am e r a .F o r pho t o g r aph e r sen g a g edw i thth ea e s th e t i c so f mo t ionands t i l ln e s sth ed i v e ’ sc omp l e t e a r co f mo t ion ,o f t enpun c tu a t edb yon eo r mo r ech an g in gpo s e s ,m ad e i tan id e a l sub j e c t .InB l a c k ’ sp i c tu r eth ed i v e rho v e r sa tth et opo fth ea r co f mo t ionand i ss e t 54 Ap i c tu r eo fth ed i v e r inth ea i rs t and s ing r a c e fu l a g a in s tth ef l a tho r i zon l in e . c on t r a s tt oon eth a tc ou ldh a v eb e ent a k ena f t e rc on t a c tw i thth ew a t e r ,a f t e rh e rd r e s s b e c am ed i sh e v e l l edandh e rpo s tu r eande xp r e s s ionr e a c t edt oth esudd ent emp e r a tu r e 55 ch an g e . Inth i sp i c tu r eh e rpo s tu r e i ss ymm e t r i c a la s i sh e rp l a c em en tw i th inth e f r am e .Th i s i sno ta ta l lth eaw kw a rdpo s tu r eo fana th l e t ec au gh t , l imb sandf a c e tw i s t ed , ina l e s sp i c tu r e squ e in s t an to fano th e rw i s eg r a c e fu ld i sp l a yo fa th l e t i c i sm . On ec ou ld im a g in eth es am epo s tu r epho t o g r aph edb yth ed e t e c t i v e inC a p t a inK o d a k f r omar o t a t in gd i s k ,thou ghp r ob ab l yno t inashoo t in gg a l l e r y .Th epo s tu r e i sf r o z en f r omar ap id mo v em en t ,bu t i ss t i l lp l au s ib l ea spo s e–a sa mom en to fr e s t–how e v e r b r i e f . Wh i l e i t i sth et a s ko f l a t e rch ap t e r st od i s cu s sth ed e v e lopm en to fth ep i c t o r i a l a e s th e t i c so f mo t ionands t i l ln e s s inth ef i lmcu l tu r eth a tf o l low edth e1890 s ,on e e x amp l ef r omth i s l a t e rp e r iod i sp a r t i cu l a r l yr e l e v an th e r e .Th ee a r l yf i lmth eo r yo f V i c t o rF r e ebu r g ,whot au gh twh a tm a yh a v eb e enth ef i r s tf i lms tud i e sc l a s s e s inth e 1910 sa tCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y , i sat e s t am en tt oth ef a c tth a tth e s equ e s t ion so fth e a e s th e t i c so f mo t ion inpho t o g r aph yandc in em aw e r ef ound a t ion a lf o rth i s l a t e r g en e r a t ion . Mo r eth anh i sc on t empo r a r yHu go Mün s t e rb e r g ,who s eboo k sh et au gh t inh i sc l a s s e s ,F r e ebu r gc r e a t edap i c t o r i a l l yb a s edth eo r yo f mo t ionands t i l ln e s s in c in em a t i cc ompo s i t ion s .F o rF r e ebu r g inth e1920 s ,a sf o rB l a c k inth e1890 s , 30

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

c in em a t i ca r th in g e sonth ec r i s e s ,andth epo s s ib i l i t i e s ,th a tth e mo v in g im a g e b r ou gh tt oth ea r t so fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion . F r e qu en t l ywh i l ead i r e c t o r i sr eh e a r s in gaph o t op l a ys c en eh ew i l ls in gou tth ec omm and , ‘H o ld i t ! ’ ind i c a t in gth e r e b yth a tth ep l a y e rh a ss t ru c kana t t i tud e ,o rth ep l a y e r sh a v ew o v en th em s e l v e s in t oap a t t e rn ,wh i ch i ss oe xp r e s s i v eandb e au t i fu lth a t i td e s e rv e st ob eh e ldf o r s e v e r a ls e c ond s…Bu t i t i sap e cu l i a rp s y ch o l o g i c a lf a c tth a tsu chp i c t o r i a lm om en t ss e emt o o c cu r ine v e r ym o v em en t…Supp o s ew ew a t chad i v e rs t epp in gou tup onah i ghsp r in gb o a r d andd i v in g in t oap o o l .Th ewh o l ef e a t i s ,o fc ou r s e ,am o v em en tw i th ou tp au s ef r om b e g inn in gt oend ;y e tou re y e sw i l la r r e s ton em om en ta sth em o s t in t e r e s t in g ,th em o s t p i c t o r i a l .I tm a yb eth em om en twh enth ed i v e ri sa b ou tm idw a yb e tw e enth esp r in gb o a r dand th ew a t e r ,am om en twh enth eb od ys e em st of l o a ts t r an g e l yup onth ea i r .W ea r en o tun aw a r e o fth eo th e rph a s e so fth ed i v e ,y e tth i sp a r t i cu l a rm om en t imp r e s s e su s ;t o i tw eapp l you r 56 f in eapp r a i s a lo ff o rm .

B e y ondth es im i l a r i t y inpo s tu r eb e tw e enF r e ebu r g ’ sd i v e randB l a c k ’ s ,Iw an tt o emph a s i s ehowF r e ebu r g mod i f i e sth es c i en c eo fp e r c e i v ed mo t ionb yc on f l a t in g i tw i th ath e a t r i c a lt r ad i t ion .Inr e a l i t y ,a c c o rd in gt oF r e ebu r g ’ sund e r s t and in g ,t im es e em st o s t op .I tf r e e z e swh enou rp e r c ep t ion ,gu id edb ya e s th e t i cp r in c ip l e s ,e x t r a c t sp l e a s in g s t a t i cf o rm sf r om mo v in gs c en e s .Inth i sf o rmu l a t ionF r e ebu r ge xp r e s s e sana f f in i t y b e tw e enth ea r r e s t ed mo v em en to faf i lm(o rs t a g e )a c t o rc ompo s ed inat ab l e auand a r r e s t ed mo v em en to fth ef r e e f a l l in gd i v e r . Ag en e r a lf am i l i a r i t yw i thth epo s ef r omp e r f o rm an c et r ad i t ion sw a son ew a yth a t p eop l ec ou ld m a k es en s eou to f in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph so f mo t ion .Th i sc on t e x t h e lp st oe xp l a inwh yf a s t e rshu t t e rsp e ed sp r odu c edsu rp r i s in g im a g e so fbod i e s in mo t ione v enwh enth e yd idno tr e c o rdth esp r in t e r sandg a l lop in gho r s e swho s e mo v em en t sw e r esof a s ta st ob e imp e r c ep t ib l e .N o t edc r i t i cW i l l i amAbn e ycomm en t s onth i se f f e c t in ‘ th ea t t i tud eo fa m anc au gh twh i l s tw a l k in g , ju s tt ou ch in gth eg r ound w i thth eh e e lo fth ep r e c ed in g l e g ’ .H ec l a im sap i c tu r e l i k eth i s i s ‘ o f t eng r o t e squ e ,and c on v e y sth e id e ath a tf i gu r e sa r ec ompo s ed ina t t i tud e s inwh i chth e ya r en e v e rs e en , 57 Th e and i t i sth e i rv e r yg r o t e squ en e s sth a to f t en m a k e sth emth e mo s t in t e r e s t in g ’ . mo v em en t so fa m anw a l k in go rad i v e r jump in ga r ebo ths lowenou ght op r e s en ta c omp l e t ec y c l eo f mo t iont oana t t en t i v eob s e rv e r .F r e ebu r gadm i t sth i swh i l eh e m a in t a in sth a tw ea e s th e t i c a l l yapp r eh endon es t i l l mom en tf r omth ed i v ea sap i c tu r e . Th eb e s tc ompo s i t ion sa f f e c tth ev i ew e rd i f f e r en t l y .F o rAbn e yt oo ,th eg r o t e squ en e s s o fs t i l l ed mo t ionth a th ef ind sso in t e r e s t in g i sno td ep end en tonwh e th e ron eh a s c lo s e l yob s e rv eda m anw a l k in gb e f o r e .Th i ss c en e i sac ommons i gh t ,bu tth e in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aphp r e s en t s i t inad i f f e r en tc on t e x t .Th ea t t i tud e i se x t r a c t ed f r om i t s mo v em en tandp r e s en t edt oav i ew e ro ranaud i en c ef o r mo r eth anab r i e f mom en t .I t i sth eo f f -b a l an c e ,t r an s i t ion a lbod ypo s i t ion a sap o s eth a tw a sso un f am i l i a r . T od e v e lopav o c abu l a r yth a tadd r e s s edth e s en ew im a g e so fph y s i c a la c t i v i t i e s w r i t e r so f t entu rn edt oth ef am i l yo fp e r f o rm an c ep r a c t i c e semp lo y in gs t opp ed mo t ion andp r e s en t in gbod i l ypo s tu r e sa sas e r i e so fp i c tu r e s .Th eth e a t r i c a lt ab l e au ,th e t ab l e auv i v an tandth ep e r f o rm an c eo fa t t i tud e s ins e r i e sw e r edom in an t mod e so f eph y s i c a l p e r f o rm an c eonth es t a g eanda sp a r lou ren t e r t a inm en t s inth i sp e r iod .58Th Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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f ound a t ion so fth e s ep e r f o rm an c e sr em a in ed inc lo s es t epw i tha th l e t i cd e v e lopm en t s th r ou ghou tth en in e t e en thc en tu r y .A c r ob a t i cd i v in g i sr e l a t edt oth e s es t a g e en t e r t a inm en t s in m an yw a y sa sp a r to fth e l a r g e rph y s i c a lcu l tu r e .Ad i sp l a yo f ph y s i c a lv i r tuo s i t yonth er om an t i co rm e lod r am a t i cs t a g e inth en in e t e en thc en tu r y sh a r e ssom e th in gw i tha ‘ f an c yd i v e ’th a t i tdo e sno tsh a r ew i thatw en t i e th c en tu r y a c t o rp r ob in gth ed ep th so fch a r a c t e rp s y cho lo g y .Th em a r ko faw e l l e x e cu t edd i v e i s th a t i tph y s i c a l l ya r t i cu l a t e sas e tp a t t e rno f mo v em en t sandpo s tu r e sdu r in gf r e e f a l l . Th er e su l t an tsp e c t a c l eem e r g e sf r omap a t t e rno f mo t ionandpo s in g ju s ta s i tdo e s in 59 th e s eo th e ren t e r t a inm en t s . Th e i rh i s t o r i e sc o in c id ea sw e l l .F r omth es t a r to fth e spo r t ,d i v in g jud g e sw e r een c ou r a g edt ound e r s t andac on t inuou sd i v ea sas equ en c eo f i l eIamno tt r y in gt oc l a imad i r e c t l in eo f in f lu en c eb e tw e ena th l e t i c po s e s .60Wh po s in gandp i c t o r i a la c t in gs t y l e so rf i lm -m a k in gt r ad i t ion s ,th e i rc on c om i t an t a e s th e t i c so f mo t ionands t i l ln e s sh e lp su st ound e r s t andwh yw ef indad e s c r ip t iono f ad i v e r ’ sbod y inane a r l yf i lmth eo r i s t ’ sch ap t e ronth ec in em a t i ct ab l e au . I t i sf i t t in gth a tThom a sE a k in scho s ed i v in gf o rth esub j e c to fap a in t in gth a t po in t ed l yr e f e r en c e s in s t an t an eou ss e r i a lpho t o g r aph y .Ih a v ea r gu edth a tB l a c k , Mu yb r id g eandE ak in sshou ldb ec on s id e r edt o g e th e ra sf i gu r e swho s ewo r k in t e g r a t ed , ind i f f e r en tw a y s ,th ep e r f o rm an c eo fa t t i tud e sandap i c t o r i a l l yb a s ed a e s th e t i cw i thth e in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph yo f mo t ion .E ak in s ’ s1885p a in t in g Sw imm in gi sav i v idv i su a le x amp l e .G i v enB l a c k ’ sadm i r a t ionf o rE ak in s ,h ec e r t a in l y w ou ldh a v eknownth i sp a in t in g .Th ep a in t in g ,wh i chd ep i c t sag r oupo fnud ey oun g m ena tasumm e rsw imm in gho l e , i so f t ena s so c i a t edw i thE ak in s ’ sA r c ad i anwo rk s . Th e s ewo r k s , inwh i chh ep a in t edc l a s s i c a l l yth em edp i c tu r e so fnud ef i gu r e s inbu c o l i c s e t t in g s ,d r ewf r omth et ab l e aucu l tu r eo fth et im e mo r ee xp l i c i t l yth ano th e rs e r i e so f p a in t in g s inh i so eu v r e .61Th e yc r e a t edat en s ionb e tw e enpho t o g r aph i cv i su a l know l ed g eo fth ebod yandth ev i su a la r ch i veo fc l a s s i c a lpo s e s ina r t .E ak in su s ed pho t o g r aph i cs tud i e st og i v eth ef i gu r e s ’app e a r an c e sandth e i rpo s tu r e sad e g r e eo f ak in se x t end sth i sth em et oth e d e t a i la todd sw i thth ec l a s s i c i smo fth ep a in t in g s .62E s equ en t i a la r r an g em en to fbod i e s inth e mo r ee xp l i c i t l y mod e rnSw imm in g .Th e p a in t in gb e a r sanunm i s t a k ab l er e s emb l an c et oth es tud i e s inhum an lo c omo t ion E a k in sm ad ew i thac am e r ab a s edonÉ t i enn e -Ju l e sM a r e y ’ sd e s i gn .H ew a sa c t i v e l y m a k in gth e s e mo t ions tud i e swh i l eh ew a sw o r k in gonSw imm in g .A l thou ghe a chf i gu r e inth ep a in t in g i sad i f f e r en tp e r son( r e c o gn i s ab l ea sh i ss tud en t s ) ,th e i rc omb in ed po s e sm a r kph a s e so fac on t inuou s mo v em en tf r omr e c l in in gt os t and in gt od i v in g in t o th ew a t e r .Th e l a s tf i gu r e inth ep r o g r e s s ion i ssu sp end ed inth ea i rw i thh i sa rm s in th ew a t e r l i k ean in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph .Th epho t o g r aph i c mod e rn i t yo fth i s A r c ad i ang r oup in gc om e sa s mu chf r omth ea e s th e t i c so f mo t ionandpo s in ga sf r om 63 O fth ef ou rf i gu r e sth a tm a k eupth i sa r co f mo t ion ,th ef i r s tand th ee x c e s so fd e t a i l . th i rda r eb a l an c ed inr e c l in in gandc on t r appo s t opo s tu r e s .Th es e c ondandf ou r tha r e t r an s f i x ed inunb a l an c edt r an s i t ion a lpo s tu r e s .E a k in ss t a g e s ,w i th inac on t inuou sa r c o f mo t ion ,ano s c i l l a t ionb e tw e enth epo s e sf am i l i a rf r omt ab l e au xandtho s er e v e a l ed b y in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph s . I fE ak in s in t e g r a t edpho t o g r aph i c mo t ions tud y in t oh i sp a in t in g s , Mu yb r id g e ’ s s c i en t i f i c mo t ions tud i e sh adno l a c ko fpo s tu r e st a k enf r omt r ad i t ion a lm ed i a .Un l i k e M a r e y ,whoc a r r i edou th i sch r onopho t o g r aph yw i thb e t t e rs c i en t i f i cd i s c ip l in e , Mu yb r id g ew a sun c on c e rn edw i thpu r g in gth ep i c t o r i a l i smo rth ed r am a tu r g yo fth e 32

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r ep r e s en t ed mom en tf r omth es y s t em a t i cu s eo fpho t o g r aph yt oan a l y s e mo v em en t .In h e rwo r kon ‘Mu yb r id g e ’ sf i c t ion s ’ ,M a r t aB r aunp r o v id e sth e mo s tr i go r ou sr e ad in go f 64 th i sa sp e c to fh i swo r k . Sh eshow show Mu yb r id g ef r equ en t l yr e a r r an g ed ,a l t e r edand c omb in ed im a g e s inh i sp l a t e sf o ra e s th e t i ce f f e c t s .Jud g in gb yB l a c k ’ sw r i t in gon Mu yb r id g e ,th e r eapp e a r st oh a v eb e en l i t t l ec on fu s iona tth etu rno fth ec en tu r yth a t Mu yb r id g e ’ sc l a s s i c a lpo s tu r e sandV i c t o r i ans c en e sw e r e in t end edt ob eu s edb yth e p a in t e r sand i l lu s t r a t o r swhosub s c r ib edt oAn im a lL o c om o t i on.Th i sf a c t ,wh i chr end e r s th es c i en t i f i cv a l id i t yo fh i se xp e r im en t sdub iou s ,m a k e sth e s ee xp e r im en t sa l lth e mo r er e l e v an tf o rap i c t o r i a lh i s t o r yo fe a r l yc in em a . M an yo f Mu yb r id g e ’ sp l a t e sd ep i c tat r an s i t ionf r omon es t a t ion a r ypo s i t iont o ano th e r .Th i sv a r i e sf r oms imp l ea c t ion s l i k esw in g in gab a to rp l a c in ga ju gonth e f loo rt ot r an s i t ion sbo r r ow ed mo r eob v iou s l yf r omp a in t e r l y i c ono g r aph y , l i k eh i s s equ en c eo fon ewom ankn e e l in gt od r in kf r oma j a ronano th e r ’ sshou ld e r .Ine a ch c a s e ,w ea r eno tp r e s en t edw i thana rb i t r a r ys e c t iono f mo v em en t inwh i che a chf r am e m a r k sanequ a l l ya rb i t r a r y in s t an t . Mu yb r id g em an ipu l a t edth e s e mo v em en t st ot r a c e c oh e r en tsh ap e sanda c c en tp r i v i l e g ed mom en t s .Th i sund e rm in in go fc on t in g en c y i s wh yth eo r i s t s l i k eM a r yAnnD o an es id e s t ep Mu yb r id g e inf a v ou ro fM a r e y inth e i r c i en t i f i ca c cu r a c ye lud ed d i s cu s s ion so fc on t in g en c yand mo t ions tud i e s .65S Mu yb r id g e ’ se xp e r im en t s ,bu te v enh adh ea t t a in ed i t ,h i sd e l ib e r a t es t a g in go f t r an s i t ion sb e tw e end i s t in c tpo s tu r e sw ou lds t i l lg i v eth e im a g e s inth ep l a t e sun e v en t empo r a lw e i gh t .I t i sa s i fth et ab l e aua e s th e t i candth es equ en t i a l ,m e ch an i c a l an a l y s i so f mo t ionw e r ep l a c edo v e re a cho th e r l i k etwot r an sp a r en c i e sc omb in edt o f o rmas in g l e im a g e .V i ew e r sa r e in v i t edt or e ad ind i v idu a l im a g e s inth es e r i e sa spo s e s e i th e rb a l an c edo run g a in l y .Th e ya r ea l t e rn a t e l y in v i t edt or e adth ema s mom en t so f t r an s i t ion inas e r i e s ,bu te v enth es e r i e sh a s i t sownf o rmo fb a l an c edc lo su r e in i t s a r t i cu l a t iono fawho l eandd i s t in c t mo v em en t . Mu yb r id g e , l i k eth ed e t e c t i v e in C a p t a inK o d a k,w an t edh i sp r i v i l e g ed mom en tandh i ssn ap sho tt oo .Th i samb i v a l en c e c on t r ibu t edt oth esu c c e s so fth e s et yp e so f im a g e sa sedu c a t ion a lt oo l sonth epub l i c l e c tu r ec i r cu i t . Ip r e s en tth i sno t iono fth eo v e r l a yb e tw e ent ab l e au lo g i candth em e ch an i c a l an a l y s i so f mo t iona sane l abo r a t iononwh a tB r aunr e f e r st oa sth ep i c t o r i a l i smo f Mu yb r id g e ’ ss equ en c e s .Inh e re f f o r tt od i s t in gu i sh Mu yb r id g e ’ sp i c t o r i a l i smf r om M a r e y ’ ss c i en t i f i cr i gou r ,B r aunh ypo th e s i s e sana l t e rn a t i v eo r i g ino f Mu yb r id g e ’ s p l a t e s . ‘ Ind e ed , inth e s ep i c tu r e sw ec anno t ,b yv i su a lp e r c ep t iona lon eandw i thou t add i t ion a lc on t e x tu a l in f o rm a t ion ,b esu r eth a twh a tw es e e i sno tan a r r a t i v et ab l e au– p r e c on c e i v edandcho r eo g r aph edg e s tu r e so fwh a tc on t inu a l mo v em en twou ld loo k l i k e 66 inf r a gm en t a r ys t a g e spo r t r a y edb ya c t o r sanda c t r e s s e s . ’ Th ec on t e x tu a l in f o rm a t ion do e s inf a c tp r o v eth a tth i sw a sno tc a s e .B r aun ’ sh yp e rbo l i cs c en a r io i sm e an tt od r aw a t t en t iont oth ea e s th e t i ccho i c e se v id en t in Mu yb r id g e ’ sc ompo s i t ion s ,bu t i ta l so w o r k sa sana c cu r a t ed e s c r ip t iono fth ed i r e c t ion inwh i chB l a c kt oo kh i ss t e r eop t i c on show s .Th epho t o g r aph yo fa c t o r s inn a r r a t i v et ab l e au xw a sc ommonp r a c t i c e ,and pho t o g r aph e r s l i k eO s c a rR e i j l and e r inJ u g g l e r( c .1860 )o f t enf a k ed in s t an t an eou s e f f e c t sb ypo s in ga c t o r s ina c t iont ab l e au xandc omb in a t ionp r in t in gob j e c t st om a k e th em loo k l i k eth e yw e r ec ap tu r ed m id a i r .D r awn i l lu s ion so f mo v em en tw e r em ad e popu l a rb yth eph en a k i s t a s c op e ,asp inn in g -wh e e ld e v i c eonwh i ch Mu yb r id g eb a s ed h i sownapp a r a tu sf o ran im a t in gh i ss equ en t i a lpho t o g r aph s ,th ezoop r a x i s c op e . 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As c e n ef romM i s s J e r r y r ep r i n t ed i n ‘M a k i n gt h eF i r s t P i c t u r eP l a y , ’H a r p e r ’ sW e e k l y 3 8( 2 0O c tob e r1 8 9 4 ) , pp .9 8 8 – 9 0

Comb in in gth e s ep r a c t i c e sw ou lda l lowa m ed i aedu c a t o r l i k eB l a c kt oe xp lo r eaw id e r r an g eo fedu c a t ion a lpo s s ib i l i t i e s inth i so v e r l apb e tw e enth et ab l e auandth esn ap sho t . Th ep i c tu r ep l a y sm ad es en s ea sth en e x ts t ep . A sB l a c kd e v e lop edh i s l e c tu r e s ,h eb e g ant oc omb in es l id e st oc r e a t easu g g e s t ion o f mo v em en to rah in to fac on t inu in gs i tu a t ion ,o f t enw i thp i c tu r e so fc omp l e t e l y d i f f e r en to r i g in .Ab r o chu r eg i v e san in t im a t iono fth i st e chn iqu ep r om i s in g ‘ g l imp s e s l a c kr ep e a t ed l yc l a im edth a t o fch a r a c t e randa c t ion ’ inth e ju x t apo s i t iono fs l id e s .67B th e id e af o rM i s sJ e r r yem e r g edf r omth e s ee xp e r im en t s inc ompo s in gnon f i c t ions l id e 68 s equ en c e s . L i k eB r aun ’ sd e s c r ip t ion ,th es c en e sw e r ec r e a t edb ypho t o g r aph in gas e t o fpo s e scho r eo g r aph edt osu g g e s t mo t iona son es l id ed i s so l v ed in t oth en e x te v e r y f i f t e ens e c ond s .Th ean a lo g y i sno tm yown ,bu ton eth a tB l a c kh im s e l fm ad e .H es a y s , sp e a k in go fh i sp i c tu r ep l a ys equ en c e s , ‘ th es e r i e so fp i c tu r e ssu f f e ra lmo s ta s mu ch in s ep a r a t iona sdotho s ed i s t r e s s in gg l imp s e so fth eho r s e in mo t ion ,wh i cha r et ru et o 69 B l a c k ’ sen g a g em en tw i thpho t o g r aph i c th e in s t an t ,bu tf a l s et oth e l a r g e rf a c t ’ . mo t ions tud yg r ew inc omp l e x i t ya sh e mo v edf r omh i sd e t e c t i v e l e c tu r e st oh i sp i c tu r e p l a y s .H ebu i l tuponth e id e a sd e v e lop ed inh i snon f i c t ionw o r kt oc r e a t ep r o j e c t ed n a r r a t i v e sth a tm a yh a v eb e enf a l s et oth e in s t an t ,bu tw e r et ru et oth e l a r g e rf a c t . P ICTUREP LA YAE STH ET IC S :ST I L LP ICTUR E SA S MOV INGP ICTURE S B l a c kd e f in edh i sp i c tu r ep l a y sa s ‘ s imp l yth ea r to fth et ab l e auv i v an tp lu sth es c i en c e 70 On l yas k i l l ed l e c tu r e rc ou ld m a k eth i sf o rmu l as e emsos imp l eand o fpho t o g r aph y ’ . s t r a i gh t f o rw a rd .I tw ou ldb e in a c cu r a t e ,f o re x amp l e ,t ot a k eh i sd e s c r ip t iont om e an th a tpho t o g r aph y i san in s i gn i f i c an tt e chn i c a lsupp l em en t ,on l yanapp l i eds c i en c e 34

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

As c e n ef romAC ap i t a l C o u r t s h ip(1896 )(Co u r t e s y o fP r i n c e to nU n i v e r s i t y L ib r a r y ,D ep a r tm e n to fR a r e Boo k sa ndSp e c i a l Co l l e c t io n s )

u s edt or e c o rdth et ab l e au x .Th i sn a r r ows en s eo fB l a c k ’ sf o rmu l a t ionwou lde x c lud e th ek ind so fa e s th e t i ct r an s f o rm a t ion sh eh ad m ad eas t ap l eo fh i swo r kf r omth e b e g inn in g .C l e a r l y , inh i sd e t e c t i v e l e c tu r e sB l a c ka l r e ad y inno v a t edw a y st oc omb in e th et ab l e auandth epho t o g r aph ,ana e s th e t i cc o l l abo r a t ionth a tou t s t r ipp eds imp l e t e chn i c a la s s i s t an c e .Th e s e inno v a t ion son l yb e c am e mo r ee l abo r a t ewh enB l a c kb e g an s t a g in gp e r f o rm e r sf o rs e r i a lpho t o g r aph s . B l a c k ’ ssp e c i a lt ab l e au xd ep a r tfund am en t a l l yf r omth et ab l e aut r ad i t ion sonwh i ch th e yf e ed .On ec ommon a l i t yamon gth ed i v e r s et r ad i t ion so fth e a t r i c a lt ab l e au x , w a xwo r ks e r i e s ,t ab l e au xv i v an t sandsho r t e rs e r i e so f l i f e -mod e l l an t e rns l id e s i sth a t th e ysh a r eat end en c yt op i c tu r e mom en t sth a tpopou tf r omth ef lowo fth es t o r y . Th e yp i c tu r ede v en t sth a tw e r ee i th e rc l im a c t i candsp e c t a cu l a ro rw e r es t a g edf o rth e c l e a r e s tp i c t o r i a lc ommun i c a t iono fn a r r a t i v eandch a r a c t e r in f o rm a t ion .Ina l an t e rn s e r i e sf o rACh r i s tm a sC a r o l,f o re x amp l e ,aud i en c e scou lde xp e c t i con i cs t o r ys c en e s l i k eC r a t ch i ta th i sd e s ka sw e l la sth esp e c t a cu l a rapp e a r an c e s ,p e rh ap su s in ga d i s so l v ee f f e c t ,o fth esup e rn a tu r a lch a r a c t e r s .Ar e l a t i v e l ysm a l lnumb e ro fs t a g ed p i c tu r e s ,b e tw e enf i v eandtw en t y inthe s et r ad i t ion s ,c a l l sf o rth ee c onom yo f n a r r a t ionandd r am a t i ce f f e c to fth ep r i v i l e g ed mom en t .E a chs l id e mu s tb e a rth e w e i gh to fm e an in go rp r odu c ean in t en s i t yo fe f f e c t .W i thB l a c k ’ sp l a y so f250p i c tu r e s , th et a s ksh i f t sf r omc r e a t in ge f f e c t i v ep r i v i l e g ed mom en t st oc r e a t in gc on t inu i t y th r ou ghth e lon gs equ en c e s .R e v i ew e r sr em a r k edonth i ssub t l ebu ts a l i en td i s t in c t ion b e tw e enB l a c k ’ sw o r kando th e r l an t e rnn a r r a t i v e sth a tu s ed l i v e mod e l s .AB o s t on H e r a l dc r i t i cno t edth a t ‘E v enwh enth e r e i sac on v e r s a t ionwh i chr equ i r e sth es am e s c en ef o rs e v e r a lm inu t e sth ev i ew sa r ec on s t an t l ych an g in gt oshowd i f f e r en t 71 As c en ef r omAC a p i t a lC o u r t s h i p(1896 )d emon s t r a t e sth e e xp r e s s ion sandpo s tu r e s . ’ w r i t e r ’ spo in t .N o th in gh app en s inth es c en ea s id ef r omac on v e r s a t ion .72Th e r e i s d i s cu s s ionabou tab r o k enc lo c konth em an t l et ow a rd swh i chth ech a r a c t e r sg e s tu r e , bu tth eon l yv i su a lp r o g r e s s ion inth es c en e i s ins e t t in gth et ab l e .Th i sp i c tu r ed a c t i v i t ydo e sno t mo v eth ee v en t so fth en a r r a t i v ef o rw a rd ,no rdo e s i tt yp i f yk e y ch a r a c t e rr e l a t ion so rs i tu a t ion s .I tm i gh tb ec a l l edd r am a t i cb yp l a yw e r e i ta c tu a l l y Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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p e r f o rm edb yth ea c t o r sandno td e l ib e r a t el yc ompo s eda sas e to fp i c tu r e s .R a th e r th anemph a s i s in g mom en t so f in t en s i f i edd r am a t i cs i tu a t ion s ,th ep i c tu r e sf o rma r e gu l a r l yp a c eds equ en c e ,wh i ch in t e g r a t e sd r am a t i cs i tu a t ion sw i th inac on t inuou s f lowo fe v enando rd in a r yg e s tu r e s .Th e ya r et ab l e au x ,bu tth e ya r ed yn am i ct ab l e au x th a tg i v eequ a lw e i gh tt oth e mom en t sdu r in gwh i chno th in gp a r t i cu l a rh app en s . Ins equ en c e sth a tdor equ i r et ab l e au xo f in t en s ea c t ion , l i k eth eon l ys c en eo f v io l en tc on f r on t a t ion inB l a c k ’ so th e rw i s em i ld -m ann e r eds t o r yo fay oun gf em a l e r epo r t e r ,M i s sJ e r r y ,th es t e ad i l yp a c edp i c tu r e ss t i l ldono ty i e ldt oth ec l im a c t i c mom en t .Th ec l im a xo fth i sp a r t i cu l a rs i tu a t ion i sp i c tu r eda sth eb r and i sh in go fagun . Th ea c t o r s ’po s tu r e sa r et en s eda sth e ys t ru g g l e ,andach a i rh a sb e enth r ownt oth e f loo r .Ina l i v ep e r f o rm an c eth i ss t a g edp i c tu r em i gh th a v eb e enh e lds t a t i cf o ra mom en t .Inth i ss c en e ,th e mom en to f in t en s i t ydo e sno td i s rup tth es t e ad yun f o ld in g o fsu c c e s s i v et ab l e au x .Th es l id e i sshownf o rth es am eamoun to ft im ea sth eo th e r s in th es equ en c e ,so i tc ou ldb er e ada sat r an s i t ion a l mom en t l i k eth eo th e r s .Th ed i s so l v e t oth ef o l low in gs l id efu r th e rsu g g e s t sac on t inuou s mo v em en tr a th e rth anan in t e r rup t eds e r i e s .Th ech an g eh app en sa sth en a r r a t o rr e ad sth ew o rd s ‘Th eRo s eo f 73 th eRo c k i e s low e r eda m e lod r am a t i c a l l yhu g er e v o l v e r . ’ Th es c r ip td i r e c t sa t t en t iont o th ec on t inuou s mo v em en tr ep r e s en t edb yth ed i s so l v e ,c onn e c t in g i tt oth er em a ind e r o fth es equ en c e inwh i chth er e tu rnt oo rd in a r yc on v e r s a t ion i sm a r k edb yth ech a i r ’ s r e tu rnt o i t sup r i gh tp l a c e inth er oom .E v en inth i sc l im a c t i c mom en t ,th er e v o l v e r mo v e st o i t spo s i t iono fr e s tw i thad e l ib e r a t e l yc ompo s edf lu id i t y . Th es c r ip tc e r t a in l yh e lp edt ocu ea t t en t iont oth ea c t o r s ’ mo v em en tdu r in gth e s l id ech an g e s ,bu tth i son l ysupp l em en t edaqu a l i t y inh e r en t inth e im a g e sth em s e l v e s . T os a yth a tth es l id e sf o l low ede a cho th e r‘w i thou tf r i c t ion ’ ,a son er e v i ew e rpu t i t , imp l i e ssom e th in g mo r eth ane v en l yp a c eds equ en c e so fp i c tu r e s .B l a c kp a in s t a k in g l y c on s t ru c t edth es l id e sf o rth i sf r i c t ion l e s se f f e c t .H ec a r e fu l l yr e g i s t e r ede a chs l id eand f i x edth ec am e r apo s i t ionsoth a tth eb a c k g r oundandth ee l em en t so fth ed é c o r r em a in ed inth es am epo s i t ionth r ou ghou tth es c en e .Du r in gth ed i s so l v e s ,th ef i gu r e s app e a r edt o mo v eth r ou ghas e r i e so fpo s e sw i th inth i ss t a t ion a r ym i s eens c èn e.A tth e p r em i e r e ,S e thLowa c tu a l l yb e l i e v edth a tB l a c ku s edsom eso r to f l a y e r edan im a t ion e d e v i c et om a k eth ef i gu r e s mo v eb ys l id in go v e rs t a t ion a r yb a c k g r ound im a g e s .74Th p i c tu r ep l a yd idno to f f e rac omp l e t e i l lu s iono fn a tu r a l mo v em en t( i fsu chath in ge v en e x i s t s ) .I tp r e s en t edana l t e rn a t i v e ,ap l au s ib l er ep r e s en t a t iono f mo v em en tc r e a t ed w i thth ed i s so l v in gv i ew . Th ed i s so l v in gm a g i c l an t e rnv i ewh adb e enu s edt oc r e a t ee f f e c t so f t r an s f o rm a t ionf o rm an yy e a r s .L an t e rn m anu a l sf r omth etu rno fth ec en tu r y c ommon l yf e a tu r edan e cdo t e so fc om i candp i c tu r e squ ec omb in a t ion so fs l id e s .Th e y w a rn edth a tth er e g i s t r a t iono fs l id e sc ou ldb ea c c id en t a la sw e l la s in t end ed : ‘F i r s to f a l lth e r ec am eawom an inp e a s an t ’ sd r e s s .Th i sw a sf o l low edb ya m anwho s e low e r e x t r em i t i e sw e r ec lo th ed int i gh t f i t t in gwh i t eunm en t ion ab l e s .I tsoh app en edth a t on ef i gu r eo c cup i edonth es c r e ene x a c t l yth es am ep l a c ea sth eo th e r ,soth a twh enth e l ad yw a ss low l yd i s so l v ed in t oth eg en t l em an ,th ea s t ound in ge f f e c tw a sp r odu c edo f l a c kc l a im edth a tth e id e af o rth e h e rc lo th e sg r adu a l l ym e l t in gf r omh e rf o rm . ’75B p i c tu r ep l a y sc am ef r oms im i l a ra c c id en t a lc omb in a t ion so fd i s so l v in g im a g e s inh i s non f i c t ion l e c tu r e s .76Wh i l eh en e v e ru s edth ed i s so l v et ound r e s san y on e ,h ed idu s e i t t op l a c eh a t sonwom en ’ sh e ad sandt om a k ef i gu r e sapp e a randd i s app e a rf r om 36

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77 s c en e s . H eu s edd i s so l v e st om a k ey oun gp eop l et r an s f o rm in t oo ldp eop l eandt o m a k eV i c t o r i anv i su a ls t e r eo t yp e st r an s f o rm in t owh a th ec l a im edw e r e mo r ea c cu r a t e mod e rnt yp e s .H ed e v e lop edana cu t es en s eo fth ed i s so l v ea sanad ap t ab l e in s t rum en t o ft r an s f o rm a t ion . F an t a s t i c a lapp e a r an c e sandd i s app e a r an c e sa s id e ,som e th in gabou tth esmoo th p a s s in gt im eo fth ed i s so l v e in i t s e l fapp e a l edt oaud i en c e s .P r e f i gu r in gc in em a t i cu s e s o fth ed i s so l v e , l an t e rn i s t sc ommon l yu s edth ed i s so l v in gv i ewt od ep i c te l ap s edt im e r a th e rth ant r an s f o rm a t ion s inp eop l e ’ sd r e s s .T r an s f o rm a t ion s in l and s c ap e s ,ch an g e s b e tw e end a yandn i gh to rb e tw e ens e a son su t i l i s edt og r e a tad v an t a g eth ed i s so l v e e f f e c tandth es a tu r a t edh andc o lou r in ga v a i l ab l ew i th l a r g eg l a s ss l id e s .W i thth e add i t iono fsmo k e ,snow ,o rr a ine f f e c t s ,th e l an t e rnc ou ldr i v a lth ed io r am a in i t s 78 ab i l i t yt od ep i c tach an g in g l and s c ap e . B l a c ku s ede a cho fth e s ee f f e c t st oc r e a t e a tmo sph e r e ,bu th eu s edth ed i s so l v in gv i ew m a in l yf o r i t sab i l i t yt od ep i c tp a s s in g t im e .Aud i en c e sr e c o gn i s edth i sw e l l knowne f f e c to fsu g g e s t in gt im ee x t end in gf r om on ep i c tu r e in t oano th e r . Th ed i s so l v in gv i ewt e chn iqu ep r e s en t edth eoppo r tun i t yf o raud i en c e st or e e x am in ec in em a t i c mo v em en t inana e s th e t i c a l l yd e l ib e r a t ew a y .Un l i k ef i lm ’ s m e ch an i s ed mo v em en t ,wh e r eon e in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aphf o l low sano th e r in m e ch an i c a lsu c c e s s ion ,th ed i s so l v in gv i ew r ep r e s en t sch an g eo v e rane l ap s ed , ind e f in i t et im e ,wh i ch i sund e rth ec omp l e t e c on t r o lo fth eop e r a t o r .B l a c k ’ sd i s so l v e s e v o k edt r an s i t ion sb e tw e enth ef r am e so faf i lm s t r ip ,bu th i sf r am e sc o v e r edsp an so f t im e in su rmoun t ab l eb yan yph y s i c a lp e r c ep t iono fan im a t ion .H i sr ep r e s en t a t iono f mo v em en tw a sno i l lu s ion .I t l a idb a r e mo t ionp i c tu r e sandth ena e s th e t i c a l l y c o r r e c t edth em ,b e f o r eh i sv i ew e r s ’e y e s ,a c c o rd in gt oth eam e l io r a t i v e ,so f t en in g fun c t iono fth ed i s so l v e .H i sd i s so l v e sc r o s sth eg ap sb e tw e enth ef r am e s , l i k etho s e l and s c ap es l id es e r i e s ,w i thon l yasu g g e s t iono fp a s s in gt im e . Th ep i c tu r ep l a y ’ sg en t l et r an s f o rm a t ion sw ou lds t i l lh a v eb e en in e f f e c t i v e , how e v e r , i fth e yh adno tb e enp a r tn e r edw i than inno v a t i v eapp r o a cht os t a g in g .E a ch s l id eh adt ob es t a g edt od ep i c tan ind e f in i t edu r a t ion .W i th l and s c ap e sa sw i th d r am a t i cs c en e s ,th ed i s so l v ec anno tg i v eth ee f f e c to fg r adu a lt r an s i t ion i f i ts imp l y jo in son e in s t an tt oano th e r .Inat r an s i t ionf r omad a y t im e l and s c ap et oan i gh t t im e l and s c ap ee a chs l id e i sm e an tt osu g g e s tno tan in s t an to fd a yandan in s t an to fn i gh t , bu tr a th e rt im ep a s s in g ind a yand inn i gh t .Th ep i c tu r ep l a y st r an s l a t edth i st yp eo f t empo r a l i t yf r omp a in t ed l and s c ap e st oph o t o g r aph edbod i e s ,en c ou r a g in gsp e c t a t o r s t osu sp endth e i rd i sb e l i e fandr e ade a chs t i l l im a g ea saso r to f l i v in ga t t i tud e . Inh i sp i c tu r ep l a ypo s e sB l a c ka c t i v e l ye r a s edan ysu g g e s t iono f in s t an t an eou s mom en t s .Inahow t oa r t i c l e inL a d i e s ’H om eJ o u rn a l,h ead v i s e stho s ewhowou ld p r odu c eam a t eu rp i c tu r ep l a y st o ‘A v o ide f f e c t so fa c t ionth a tw i l lno tb e a rth edu r a t ion es c en eo fa o ftw en t ys e c ond s…P r e f e r mom en t s ju s tb e f o r eo r ju s ta f t e ra c t ion . ’79Th w om ans l app in gawou ld -b es edu c e r ,f o re xamp l e , i sshown inanapp r o a ch in gsho tand 80 Th ee f f e c to f th enasho c k edr e a c t ionsho t ,bu tth es l ap i sno tf r o z en m id c on t a c t . th i s i sas e r i e so fpho t o g r aph sw i thas t r an g et empo r a l i t y .N e i th e rap r i v i l e g ed mom en t no ran in s t an to fa c t ion ,e a chs l id e i sd e s i gn edt od ep i c tt h ee l a p s e dt im eb e tw e ent h e tw oa d j a c en ts l i d e s int h es e r i e s .W i thth ec ompo s i t iono fth e s es l id e s ,B l a c kr e v i s i t ed ande l abo r a t edth ea e s th e t i cp r ob l em sh et a c k l ed inh i snon f i c t ion l e c tu r e s . In s t an t an eou s mo t ionpho t o g r aph yshow edbod i e s inpo s tu r e sc ap tu r edb yaf a s t

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shu t t e rth a tc ou ldno tb es e enb yth en a k ede y e .Th ep i c tu r ep l a y s in v e r t edth i se f f e c t . Th e ysu g g e s t ed mo v em en tth en a k ede y ec anr e ad i l ys e ebu twh i chc anno ta c tu a l l yb e shown inas in g l e in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph .Th e yshow edr e a lp eop l e inf ak edt im e . Wh a tth ec in em a t o g r aphd idr e l a t i v e l yau t om a t i c a l l y ,B l a c kd idb yh and .H ec r a f t ed mo v em en t ,andd idsow i thap a r t i cu l a ra e s th e t i cpu rpo s e .Th es en s eo fp a s s in gt im e o fth ep i c tu r ep l a y s ,wh i l ef lu idandno ta l t e r edb yth em a gn i f i c a t ion so fp lo tc l im a x e s , i sc ompo s edt oapp e a rn a tu r a l .In s t e ado fr e c o rd in gn a tu r a l mo v em en t ,th e y r ep r e s en t ed mo v em en tw i thac on t r o l l eds e to fm anu a lt e chn iqu e s .B l a c kr e v i s ed t e chn iqu e so f i l lu s t r a t ion ,c am e r apo s i t ion in g ,d i s so l v in gv i ew sands t a g in g ,and in do in gsoh ec r e a t edasu g g e s t iono fr a th e ro rd in a r y mo v em en tw i thac omp l i c a t ed a e s th e t i cp ed i g r e e .En g a g ed inth ea e s th e t i cd eb a t e ssu r r ound in g Mu yb r id g eand E a k in s ,andapopu l a r i s e ro fth ea r t -h i s t o r i c a lt r ad i t ion so fp i c tu r in g mo t ion ,B l a c k ’ s wo r kc r e a t edth ep i c tu r ep l a yp e r f o rm an c ea sasp a c ef o raud i en c e st or e f l e c tupon mo v in g im a g em ed i a .H eu s edth eedu c a t ion a lf o rumo fth epub l i c l e c tu r ec i r cu i tt o b r in gth et r ad i t ion so fr ep r e s en t in g mo v em en t inth ev i su a la r t s in t oc on v e r s a t ion w i thth ec in em a . P ICTUREP LA YREC EPT ION :ARTC IN EMA W ITHOUTTHEC INEMATOGRAPH Th ef a c tth a tth ep i c tu r ep l a y sd idno tm a k eu s eo fth e mo t ion -p i c tu r ed e v i c e s d e v e lop edb yEd i sono rLum i è r em a ye x c lud eth emf r oma l in e a rt e chno lo g i c a lh i s t o r y o fc in em a .Bu t i tm a k e sth ema l lth e mo r ee f f e c t i v ef o rac in em ah i s t o r yth a t emph a s i s e show in s t i tu t ion a landd i s cu r s i v ef a c t o r sd e l im i tth em ed iumo v e rt im e . And r éG aud r e au l t ,f o re x amp l e ,suppo r t sth ed e f in i t iono fem e r g en tc in em aa s ‘ a so c i a l ,cu l tu r a l ,anda r t i s t i capp a r a tu s ’ ,a soppo s edc in em a t o g r aph y :th et e chno lo g i c a l p r e c ond i t ionf o rth e l a t e rd e v e lopm en to fth em ed ium .InG aud r e au l t ’ sf o rmu l a t ion i t i s imp r e c i s et ound e r s t ande a r l yc in em aa sad i s t in c tm ed ium inth ey e a r swh en i tw a s ch i e f l yund e r s t ooda sat e chn i c a la idt oo th e rp r a c t i c e ssu cha s l an t e rnshow s ,m a g i c 81 show sand in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y . B l a c k ’ sp r odu c t ion ss e a r chf o ran in s t i tu t ion a lf r am ew o r k ,a ‘ so c i a l ,cu l tu r a l ,anda r t i s t i capp a r a tu s ’ ,b a s edonan im a g in edpo s s ib i l i t yf o rth ec in em a t o g r aphw i thou ta c tu a l l yu s in gac in em a t o g r aph .In o th e rwo rd s ,B l a c ke xp e r im en t edw i thth ec r e a t iono fc in em ab yo th e rm e an s ino rd e r t o im a g in eac in em ao famb i t ion . R e v i ew e r s in v o k edc in em aw i thn e a r l ye v e r ya t t emp tt od e f in eth ep i c tu r ep l a y s .I t w a safun c t ion a lan a lo g y . M rB l a c k ’ sp i c tu r ep l a ym a r k sad i s t in c tep o ch inth ed e v e l opm en tandu s eo fth es t e r e op t i c on . I tr e t a in saf a v o r i t em e an so fen t e r t a inm en t ,bu t i tapp l i e s i t inat o t a l l yn ewf i e ld…H e r e i s ana b s o lu t en o v e l t y inaf a v o r i t eamu s em en t–ag o ods t o r y ,w i thc on t inu ou s i l lu s t r a t i on s ; d r am a t i cs i tu a t i on s i l lu s t r a t edf r omr e a l l i f e ;as o r to f in t e r rup t edk in e t o s c op e ;ad r am ab e f o r e 82 anop enc am e r a .

An1895r e v i ew inth eB o s t onH e r a l dw a s l i k ew i s een t i t l ed ‘ So r to fB i gK in e t o s c op e ’ .83 S in c eEd i son ’ sk in e t o s c op ed idno tp r o j e c t im a g e s ,th i sr e v i ew e r mu s th a v eb e en r e f e r r in gt o i t s i l lu s iono f mo t ion .Innum e r ou s in s t an c e s inh i sownw r i t in g ,B l a c k 38

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

d emon s t r a t e scu r r en tknow l ed g eo fth ed e v e lopm en t s inEd i son ’ s l abo r a t o r y .H ew a s p r e sum ab l y ina t t end an c ewh enEd i sons t a g edh i sf i r s tpub l i cd emon s t r a t iono fth e 84 k in e t o s c op ea tth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e . In1896 ,B l a c kw r o t e , ‘P end in gth ep e r f e c t ion o fth eV i t a s c op e ,th ec in em a t o g r aph ,andk ind r edd e v i c e s ,th eo rd in a r yc am e r a , in p a r tn e r sh ipw i thth er ap id l yd i s so l v in gs t e r eop t i c on ,g i v e sf r e e s te xp r e s s iont oth e p r o c e s s e so fth ep i c tu r ep l a y…f o rag r e a t e rc l e a rn e s sands t e ad in e s s inp i c t o r i a l 85 r e su l t . ’ Th ec on c ep tu a l l in k a g ew i thth ec in em ac on t inu edt og r oww i thf i lm ’ s in c r e a s in gpopu l a r i t y . Bu tth epo in to fth er e v i ew e r s ’c omp a r i son sw a s ju s ta s mu chth a tth ep i c tu r ep l a y s w e r eno tqu i t ec in em a .Th e i re f f e c t i v en e s s int e s t in gth ebound a r i e so fc in em a ,and h en c eth e i ra t t r a c t ion , l a y inth a tm a r g ino fd i f f e r en c e .B l a c kh ad l i t t l e in t e r e s t in im i t a t in gc in em aw i thh i sp i c tu r ep l a y s .H ew an t edt odob e t t e rth anc in em a .Inan in t e rv i ewh eadm i t s , ‘ Ih a v et r i ed mo v in gp i c tu r e s ,bu tth e ya r et oot r y in gf o rth ee y e s , 86 H ec r i t iqu e sc in em a ’ st e chno lo g i c a l andIf indd i s so l v in gv i ew sth eb e s t . ’ imp e r f e c t ion sb e c au s eo fap r e f e r en c ef o rad i f f e r en tk indo fa e s th e t i co f mo t ion .An 1894a r t i c l e inH a r p e r ’ sW e e k l yc on t a in sth e mo s tp i th yf o rmu l a t iono fB l a c k ’ sm e thod o fr ep r e s en t in g mo v em en t : ‘ I tw a sno tw i sh edt op r odu c eth e i l lu s iono fa c tu a la c t ion , a sth eK in e t o s c op eo fM rEd i sonh a ss in c ep r e s en t ed i t ,bu to fa c tu a lg l imp s e so f 87 Th ep i c tu r ep l a y se r a s edth e ‘ d i s t r e s s in gg l imp s e s ’o fsu sp end eda c t ionand a c t ion . ’ 88 th e mo v in gp i c tu r e sth a t ‘ t r yth ee y e s ’ . B l a c k ’ sr e v i s edc in em a in v i t edh i saud i en c e st oc on s id e rth epo s s ib i l i t yo fana r to f mo v in gp i c tu r e s .L i k ea l lo fth ee xp e r im en t sw i the a r l ya r tc in em ad i s cu s s ed inth i s boo k ,th ep i c tu r ep l a y s loo kb a c kt on in et e en th c en tu r ya r tf o r mod e l so fp i c t o r i a l c ompo s i t ion ,bu tth e ya l sow e l c om eth e mo d e rn i t yo fth e mo t ionp i c tu r eand loo k ah e adt o i t sa r t i s t i cfu tu r e .T oen a c tc in em a ’ sp i c t o r i a lr e t r o f i t ,B l a c kc a r e fu l l ya v o id s th ev i su a ld i s c on t inu i t yo f in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph yand m e ch an i c a l l yr ep r odu c ed mo t ionth a tw a se s s en t i a lt oe a r l yc in em a ’ spopu l a r i t yandw ou ld l a t e rb e c om e e s s en t i a lt o mod e rn i s tf i lm -m a k e r s .E xh ib i t ed inap e r iodsp ann in gf r omth e in v en t ion o f mo t ionp i c tu r et e chno lo g yt oth eb e g inn in go fth en i c k e lod eone r a ,th ep i c tu r ep l a y s ch a l l en g eth er awc on t in g en c yo fc in em aw i than ewk indo f mo v em en ta s s emb l ed f r omt r ad i t ion so fn in e t e en th c en tu r yt ab l e aucu l tu r e ,p a in t in gandr e l a t edp i c t o r i a l a r t s .Th ep i c tu r ep l a y sso f t enth ed i s t r e s s in gg l imp s e so fth eho r s e in mo t ionandth e k ind so fm i s ch i e v ou sg r im a c e sno t i c ed inth eLum i è r eb r o th e r s ’s t i l lpho t o g r aph sw i th ah andm ad e ,d e l ib e r a t ea e s th e t i co f mo t ionth a tb e a r sa m a r ko fp r op r i e t yf r ome a r l i e r 89 inth en in e t e en thc en tu r y . Th i s mo v em a k e ss en s e int e rm so fB l a c k ’ saud i en c e s .H i s f i r s taud i en c e s inN ewY o r kw e r e1890 sp a in t e r ssu sp i c iou so fpho t o g r aph yand i t s imp l i c a t ion sf o rth ea r t s .H i saud i en c e sdu r in gh i sn a t ion a lt ou r sw e r e l y c eump a t r on s su sp i c iou s inth e i rownw a yo fth e s en ewv i su a len t e r t a inm en t sf r omth ef a i r g r ound s andv aud e v i l l ehou s e s . Bu tth i se xp l an a t ionb y i t s e l fw ou ldb e in c omp l e t e .E v en i fth ep i c tu r ep l a yw a sa f o rmw i thou tafu tu r e , i td idno ts imp l yr e an im a t ea r t e f a c t so fth ep a s t .B l a c kw a s h a rd l yat r ad i t ion a l i s tr e fu s in gt oa c know l ed g eth epo s s ib i l i t i e so fth ech an g e s h app en in g inh i sm ed i aen v i r onm en t .H ew a sap i c t o r i a l inno v a t o r in jou rn a l i sm ,a popu l a r i s e ro f in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph yanda mod e rnshowm an .Th esu c c e s s( a lb e i t w i thr ap idtu rno v e r )o fh yb r idf o rm s l i k eth ep i c tu r ep l a y sr a i s e sth equ e s t ion ,a s Ch r i s t in eG l edh i l lpu t s i t inr e l a t iont oc in em a ’ sadop t iono ff r a gm en t sf r omth e Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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V i c t o r i ans t a g e , ‘wh end idth en in e t e en thc en tu r yend ?…H owf a r in t oth efu tu r ea r e 90 Th e th e s ef r a gm en t sc a r r i edandhow lon gdo e sth e i rs i gn i f i c an c er em a inth es am e ? ’ p i c tu r ep l a y sc a r r i edonf r a gm en t sf r omp i c t o r i a l i s tt r ad i t ion swh i l ech a l l en g in gth e l im i t so fwh a tc in em aw a sandwh a t i tc ou ldb e c om e .Th ee r a su r eo f j e r k y mo v em en t s andd i s jo in t ed in s t an t an eou spo s e sm a yh a v eapp e a l edt oth ea e s th e t i c a l l y c on s e rv a t i v et a s t e so f l y c eumaud i en c e s ,bu tth ev e r ye xp e r im en t inc r e a t in gas e r i e so f f r i c t ion l e s st ab l e au xa sanan sw e rt oc in em a t o g r aph y ’ sf r i c t ion s ju s ta s impo r t an t l y p r omp t edth e s eaud i en c e st oc on f r on t mod e rn id e a sabou tth er ep r e s en t a t iono f mo v em en t inp a in t in g ,s cu lp tu r eandc in em a . Th ea e s th e t i co fso f t en ed mo t ion m ad eth ep i c tu r ep l a y sc on t empo r a r y .I t p r e s en t edav i ab l ec o l l abo r a t ionamon gv a r i ed m ed i aandp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion sa tat im e wh enp eop l en e ed edt om a k es en s eou to fth ewho l e s a l eapp r op r i a t iono fth e s e t r ad i t ion sb yn ewt e chno lo g i e s .Th ef lu id i t yo f mo v em en t ,th ec on s t ru c t eddu r a t iono f th epo s tu r e sandth ep e r s i s t en tc omp a r i sonw i thc in em a t o g r aph yr ana g a in s tr e c e i v ed no t ion sabou tth e i l lu s t r a t in gandemph a t i cfun c t ion so fth et ab l e au .Th i sp r omp t ed r e v i ew e r st om a k ew r i t t enandg r aph i cc omp a r i son st oth ee v en l yp a c edpho t o g r am so f 91 af i lm s t r ip . Bu tth i sw a saf i lm s t r ipth a tc ou ldn e v e rb er e so l v ed in t oth eun g a in l y t r an s i t ion a lpo s tu r e sf oundonan ind i v idu a lf i lmf r am e .I tbo r enot r a c e so fth e nond e l ib e r a t e mo v em en t sth a tth ec in em a t o g r aphc ou ldno th e lpbu tr e c o rd .I tw a san a e s th e t i ca l t e rn a t i v e .F a rf r omb e in gs imp l yno s t a l g i c ins t y l e ,th ep i c tu r ep l a y ss t a g ed p r e c i s e l yth ek indo fn e go t i a t iono fm ed i at r ad i t ion sth a th e lp edaud i en c e sc on s id e r th efu tu r eo fth e i rm ed i aen v i r onm en t . Th ep i c tu r ep l a yf o rm a tw a sno tc r e a t edt oso l id i f y in t oan yk indo fs e l f c on t a in ed m ed ium .I tw a sno tanund e rd e v e lop edf o rmw a i t in gf o rano th e rt e chno lo g yo r m ed iumt oc omp l e t e i t .I t sd r awf o raud i en c e sd ep end edno tonno v e l t yo f i t ss t o r i e s , bu tonth eno v e l t yo f i t sf o rm .I tw a s mo s t impo r t an t l yf o r i t saud i en c e s ,a m ed i a e xp e r im en t ,no tqu i t eon eknown m ed iumandy e tno tqu i t eano th e r .P a r t l yf o rth i s r e a son ,M i s sJ e r r yr em a in edb yf a rth e mo s tpopu l a ro fth ef ou rp i c tu r ep l a y sB l a c k 92 H ec on t inu edt os e tupp e r f o rm an c e so fM i s sJ e r r ylon ga f t e rh e l i s t ed inh i s l ed g e r . h add e v e lop edth e in c r e a s in g l yc omp l e xAC a p i t a lC o u r t s h i pandTh eG i r lan dTh e G u a r d sm an.N e i th e rd idh es e e kt oe xp andth ep i c tu r ep l a yf o rm a tou t s id eo fth e l y c eumc i r cu i t .B l a c kc ou ldc on c e i v ab l yh a v ead ap t edth ep l a y st o mo r ec omm e r c i a l th e a t r i c a lv enu e s ,bu th e ,andth eaud i en c e sa tth et im e ,und e r s t oodth ep i c tu r ep l a y s ’ c lo s e s tr e l a t i v e st ob eedu c a t ion a l l e c tu r e sandno td r am a t i cen t e r t a inm en t .Th e p i c tu r ep l a y sw e r et oo l sf o ra e s th e t i cedu c a t ion .Th e l y c eumaud i en c ep r i z edth e d id a c t i cv a lu eo fth ep i c tu r ec r a f tan im a t in gM i s sJ e r r y . CONC LU S ION :AH I STORY W ITHOUTANINV ENT ION B l a ckw r o t e inth e1890 sabou tth ep i c tu r ep l a ya sak indo f im a g in edfu tu r ef o r mo t ionp i c tu r e s ,bu ta f t e rh i stou r in gshow st ap e r edo f fandth ecom in go fth e n i ck e lod eonth i s im a g in edfu tu r ew a s l a r g e lyf o r go t t en .On l ywh enth et e rm s ‘p i c tu r e p l a y ’and ‘pho top l a y ’h adb e com en am e sf o rth ef e a tu r ef i lmd idB l a ck ’ swo rkem e r g e a s impo r t an ttoc in em ah i s to ry .Th ep i c tu r ep l a y sw e r eon c ea g a inr e l e v an t ,th i st im e f o r im a g in in gth e mu l t i -m ed i ar oo t so fac e r t a ink indo fc in em a .B e g inn in g inth e 40

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A l e x a nd e rB l a c kg r e e t s B a rb a r aL aM a r ra ndG eo r g e F i t zm a u r i c eo nt h es e to f T h eE t e r n a lC i t y(1923 ) (Co u r t e s yo fN ewY o r k P ub l i cL ib r a r y )

m id -1910 s ,w r i t e r sund e r s t oodB l a c k ’ sf i r s ts c r e en in go fM i s sJ e r r yw i th inth es am e a r t i s t i cho r i zona sth ef i lm sm ad eag en e r a t ion l a t e r .Inan sw e rt oth equ e s t ion ‘Who in v en t edc in em a ? ’m an y1910 sw r i t e r snom in a t edB l a c k ,su g g e s t in gth a t M i s sJ e r r y 93 ‘w a sth ev e r yf i r s tp i c tu r ee v e rshown ! ’ I fB l a c k ’ sno v e ls yn th e s i so fp i c t o r i a la r t s a l low edsp e c t a t o r s in1896t o im a g in epo s s ib l efu tu r e sf o rth ek in e t o s c op eandth e c in em a t o g r aph , i ta l soa l low edf i lm go e r stw en t yy e a r s l a t e rt o im a g in eane a r l y in c a rn a t iono fth er e c en tf i lm so fa r t i s t i cd i s t in c t ion .C r i t i c sr e v i v edh i swo r k ,and l e ad e r so fth ef i lm indu s t r y in v i t edh imt oH o l l yw oodt om e e tcu r r en ts t a r sand d i r e c t o r s . A1915a r t i c l e inth eP i c t u r eP l a yW e e k l yu s e s ,f o rth ef i r s tt im ea c c o rd in gt om y r e s e a r ch ,an i c kn am eth a tw ou lds t i c kw i thB l a c k ’ sp i c tu r ep l a y sth r ou ghou tth ey e a r s o fr en ew ed in t e r e s t inth em .Th ew r i t e rc l a im sth a t , ‘Th epho t o -p l a ye r ab e g anw i th A l e x and e rB l a c k…bu t i tw a sas l owm o v i e…Th er e a l imp e tu st opho t o -p l a yp r odu c t ion lphZu ko rw a samon gtho s ewhos e i z edonth i st e rm d idno tc om eun t i l1910 . ’94Ado ‘ s low mo v i e ’ .Zu ko ru s e sth et e rm inaP a r amoun tf i lma c know l ed g in gB l a c k ’ s a ch i e v em en t sand inh i sp e r son a l l e t t e rt oB l a c k ,wh i chw a sp a r t l yr ep r in t ed inM o v in g P i c t u r eW o r l d: B e f o r ey oup r e s en t ed ‘M i s sJ e r r y ’th es c r e enh adon l ys t i l lp i c tu r e s .Th enc am ey ou r ‘ s l ow m o v i e ’ , inwh i chy oug a v eth ee f f e c to fm o v em en t– l on gb e f o r eth em o t i onp i c tu r e m e ch an i smw a sp e r f e c t ed–m a k in gy ou raud i en c e sth in kth ech a r a c t e r s iny ou rd r am a 95 a c tu a l l ym o v ed .

Th et e rm ‘ s low mo v i e ’g e t sa tth eh e a r to fth es i gn i f i c an c eo fth ep i c tu r ep l a y s in th e i ra f t e r l i f e .W i thac e r t a inc a su a lp r e c i s ion , i t id en t i f i e sth eamb i v a l en tr e l a t iont o c in em a inth ep i c tu r ep l a y ’ sa e s th e t i co f mo t ion .Th ep i c tu r ep l a yr ep r e s en t s mo t ion , l i k ea mo v i e ,bu tw i thas lowp r o g r e s s iono ff r am e s .I t i sno ts low mo t ion ,aw e l l known e f f e c t ,b e c au s e i tsu g g e s t sak indo fn a tu r a lp a c e .Th e r e i ss t i l la mo t ion ‘ e f f e c t ’ , Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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how e v e r ,b e c au s e i t i sm a r k ed l yd i s t in c tf r oma t t emp t st or e c o rdn a tu r a l mo v em en t . Wh i l eth ep i c tu r ep l a yr ep r e s en t sth eo rd in a r yp a s s in go ft im e , i tpo s s e s s e san e lon g a t eds en s eo ft r an s f o rm a t ionb e tw e ens c en e sth a t i sr em in i s c en to fs low mo t ion . Th i se f f e c to f mo t ion ,th ep i c tu r ep l a y ’ s mo s tc on sp i cuou sch a r a c t e r i s t i c inth e1890 s , d r ew mo r e in t e r e s t inth e1910 sth anth e mo r eob v iou sc onn e c t ion st oth ef e a tu r ef i lm su cha ss c en ec on s t ru c t ion ,f e a tu r e l en g thandn a r r a t ion . E v en inth ea g eo fth ef e a tu r ef i lm ,th e ‘ s low mo v i e ’s t i l lh adsom e th in gt ot e a ch mo t ionp i c tu r e sabou ta r t .Amon gth ec r i t i cswhono t edth ep i c tu r ep l a y ’ sc on t inu ed r e l e v an c e ,T e r r yR am s a y e ind i c a t e s mo s tc l e a r l ywh a tw a sa ts t a k e inth i sa s s e s sm en t . Th eB l a c kp i c tu r ep l a ym ad eth eaud i en c ew o r k ,e v en i fun c on s c i ou s l y ,t of i l lth eg ap s inth e m o t i onr e c o r d .Th ed i s t in c t i on i sa ssh a rpa sb e tw e enw i tands l ap s t i c k…Th es l owm o v i e… w a s inf a c tam o t i onp i c tu r e inwh i chth ee y er e c e i v edam in imumo fcu e st ok e epth em indon th ed e s i r edem o t i onp a th .Im a g in a t i onh adt of i l lth e l on gg ap s inth ev i su a lr e c o r d .Th ef i lm d r am ao ft o -d a yp r e s en t sf ou rt im e sa sm an y im a g e sas e c onda sB l a c kg a v e inam inu t e…Th e m od e rns c r e enth e r e b ysupp l i e sr e ad y -m ad e im a g in a t i on ,andr equ i r e sr e l a t i v e l ya lm o s tn o 96 im a g in a t i v eo r in t e l l e c tu a la b i l i t i e sf o r i t so b s e rv a t i on .

Int r y in gh e r et oe xp l a inwh yth ep i c tu r ep l a y sc ou ldn e v e rh a v esu c c e ed edw i th ‘ th e lowb r owaud i en c e so fth ev a r i e t yhou s e s ’ ,R am s a y ep r omo t e sat ru i smo fa e s th e t i c ph i lo soph ypopu l a r i s edonth e l e c tu r ec i r cu i t .B e au t i fu lc ompo s i t ion sshou ldu s ef o rm t ot r i g g e ra e s th e t i cs a t i s f a c t ionr a th e rth ans imp l y i l lu s t r a t e .H i sh yp e rbo l e no tw i th s t and in g ,R am s a y e l am en t sth a t i fon l ypho t o g r aph i c mo v em en tc ou ldb e c ompo s ed l i k esu g g e s t i v ep i c tu r e s ,th enth e inh e r en tc on t r ad i c t ion s inth eph r a s e ‘mo t ion -p i c tu r ea r t ’c ou ldb er e so l v ed .F o rh im ,th e ‘ s low mo v i e ’e xp lo r edth i s po s s ib i l i t y . Th ep i c tu r ep l a y s ’d i s t in c tf o rmg r an t edth emanamb i v a l en tch a r a c t e r ,no t ju s ta h yb r idch a r a c t e r .G i v enth i sr e cu r r in gt end en c yt os e eth ep i c tu r ep l a y sa sak indo f c in em abu ta l soa ssom e th in ge l s e ,acu r r en th i s t o r i an m i gh tr ep l a c eR am s a y e ’ s m e t apho ro fe v o lu t ion a r yanom a l yw i thanon l in e a rm e t apho r .Th ep i c tu r ep l a y s , mo r e th ans imp l yc on g lom e r a t e so fp r a c t i c e s ,s t a g edak indo ff r am e jump in ge f f e c twh e r e th ep r op e r t i e so fon em ed iums t epp edou to fano th e r ino rd e rt op r o v o k ec r i t i c a l r e f l e c t ion .Th ep i c tu r ep l a y sg en e r a t edc on t inu in gcu r io s i t yb e c au s eth e yo s c i l l a t ed b e tw e enth et ab l e auandth ef i lmf r am e ,b etw e en l i v in gp i c tu r e sand mo t ionp i c tu r e s , o rb e tw e enana l l e g i an c et op i c t o r i a lcu l tu r eandanad v o c a c yo fth e ‘n ew ’rh e t o r i co f m e ch an i c a l l yr e c o rd edbod i e s in mo t ion .Th i samb i v a l en c e ,fund am en t a lt ov i su a l cu l tu r eo fth ep e r iod ,un f o ld sf r omB l a c k ’ ss e em in g l ys imp l ec l a imth a th ew an t edt o c omb in eth ea r to fth et ab l e auv i v an tw i thth es c i en c eo fpho t o g r aph y . Th i ss t a g edo s c i l l a t ionb e tw e en m ed i a ,o rb e tw e ena s sump t ion sabou twh a t d i f f e r en tm ed i ado ,sp a r k edar e c ep t iono fp i c tu r ep l a y sth a tc ou ldno tb es ep a r a t ed f r omav i su a lan a l y s i so fth ep e r f o rm an c e s ,e sp e c i a l l yc on s id e r in ghowth i scu l tu r a l r e c ep t ion , inth ef o rmo fn ew sp ap e rr epo r t a g eandv a r iou sr ed i s c o v e r i e s ,o f t enr e a ch ed aw id e raud i en c eth anth eshow sth em s e l v e s .Th ep i c tu r ep l a y sw e r esom e th in gt ob e c on s id e r eda s mu cha ss e en ,andth i sc on s id e r a t ionen g a g edb r o ad e ra e s th e t i ct op i c s abou t mo t ion ,s t a s i sandp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionw i thasu rp r i s in gsoph i s t i c a t ion .B l a c k h im s e l fw a sv e r yen g a g ed inth e s ed i s cu s s ion s ,bo th inh i sw r i t in g sanddu r in gh i s 42

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

l e c tu r e s .Th ef a c tth a tB l a c kp e r f o rm edth ep i c tu r ep l a y sonth e l y c eumc i r cu i t ,wh i ch a c c ommod a t edpub l i c l e c tu r e s mo r ef r equ en t l yth anaud io v i su a lf i c t ion s , ind i c a t e sth a t th e in t e r e s t inh i sshow sw a sno ten t i r e l yd i f f e r en tf r omth e in t e r e s t inpub l i c l e c tu r e s o ra r t i c l e sabou tB l a c k inH a r p e r ’ s .B l a c k ’ saud i en c e sapp r o a ch edn ew m ed i a t e chno lo g i e sa sedu c a t ion a l ,no tf a i r g r oundo rv aud e v i l l e ,wond e r s . B l a c k ’ swo r km a r k sag ap inth eknow l ed g eo fAm e r i c an m ed i ah i s t o r y ,bu tth e r e a son sf o rh i sm i s f i t inth i sh i s t o r ym a k e sane x c a v a t iono fh i swo r k mo r eth anana c t o ff i l l in g inag ap .Th ep a r a l l e l sb e tw e enh isp r e s c i en t ‘ f a l s es t a r t ’andth ew e l l known d e v e lopm en t s in in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y , mo t ions tud y ,e a r l yc in em aandth e f e a tu r ef i lm l end sc r i t i c a lp e r sp e c t i v et oth i sn e xu so fm ed i ap r a c t i c e s .B l a c k ’ sw o r k i s no t ju s ta m i s s in gp i e c e inc in em ah i s t o r y ; i th e lp st od e f in eav an t a g epo in tf r om wh i cht ov i ewe a r l yc in em ah i s t o r y . E xp e r im en t a lf o rm s l i k eth e s es t a g edc in em a ’ sen c oun t e rw i thth ep i c t o r i a la r t s . Th ed i s cu s s ionsu r r ound in gth i sen c oun t e ramoun t edt oas c a t t e r ed ,bu tfun c t ion in g , f o rmo fm ed i ac r i t i c i sm .Inth e1910 sand20 sth e yw e r e jo in edb yth ef i r s tAm e r i c an a e s th e t i cf i lmth eo r i e sb yf i gu r e s l i k eV a ch e lL ind s a yandV i c t o rF r e ebu r g ,wh i chr e l i ed h e a v i l yonno t ion so fp i c t o r i a lb e au t yandc r o s s -m ed i ac onn e c t ion st oe s t ab l i shas e to f c r i t e r i ab ywh i chf i lm sc ou ldd i s t in gu i shth em s e l v e s .Th ep i c tu r ep l a ym a yn e v e rh a v e b e c om ea m a in s t r e amp r a c t i c e ,bu tth equ e s t ion spo s edb yth i se xp e r im en t a lf o rm w e r eno tsh e l v eda lon g s id eth es l id e sf o rM i s sJ e r r y.In s t e ado f loo k in gf o rth e o f f sp r in go fth ep i c tu r ep l a y s ,on em i gh tdob e t t e rt oa s khowandwh yth e s equ e s t ion s r e su r f a c e ino th e re xp e r im en t s ina r t edu c a t ion a lc in em aand mo v in g im a g ea e s th e t i c thou gh to v e rth en e x ttw od e c ad e s .

Mo v i n g -p i c t u r eA r tb e fo r eC i n em a

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2

Mo v i n gP i c t u r e sIm a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

I ts e em sn a tu r a lt o loo kt oth e l y c eumc i r cu i tf o re a r l y mo v in gp i c tu r e sth a tw e r e a e s th e t i c a l l yd e l ib e r a t e ,th a tsou gh tt o l in kc in em aw i thth eo th e ra r t sandth a tt au gh t aud i en c e st odoth es am e .Bu twh a tabou ttho s e l in k sth a t l i eb e y ondth i s mo r ed i r e c t l y edu c a t ion a lsph e r e ?Ou t s id eth e l e c tu r eh a l l ,e a r l y mo t ionp i c tu r e sd idno th a v eth e mo s td i r e c tr e l a t ion sh ipw i tha e s th e t i cedu c a t ion .Y e t i snos e c r e tth a te a r l yf i lm sa r e f i l l edw i tha r t .A r t i s t ’ s mod e l spo s edf o rth ec am e r a ina l l e go r i c a lt ab l e au x .V i su a l a r t i s t sm ad eth e i r l i v in g sb yd emon s t r a t in gth e i ra r t i s t i c l abou r ina c t ion .On s c r e en p a in t e r sands cu lp t o r sd r e am ed ,h adfunanden c oun t e r edd i l emm a s inth e i rs tud io s . Th equ e s t ionh e r e i sno twh e th e rth e s et yp e so ff i lm sw e r ep r e v a l en t ,bu tr a th e rhow t oc on t e x tu a l i s eth emt od e t e rm in e i fandhowth e ym a yh a v eh e lp edt om a k e mo v i e s in t oa r t .Th eb en e f i tt o loo k in ga te a r l ya r tc in em ano ta sa mo v em en t ,bu ta sa c on v e r g en c eo fa r t in s t i tu t ion s , in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yandth e mo v in g im a g e i sth a tth e s e in t e r s e c t ion sh app en ede v enb e f o r ep eop l es t a r t edp r op e r l yt a lk in gabou tsp e c i f i cf i lm s a swo r k so fa r tandsp e c i f i cd i r e c t o r sa sp a in t e r sands cu lp t o r so fth es c r e en .I fw e b e g inou re a r l yh i s t o r i e so fc on t emp l a t i v ec in em aon l yon c ec r i t i c sb e g ans e r iou s l yt o r e f l e c tonth e s e i s su e s inth e l a t e rs i l en tp e r iod ,th enw em i s sth ew a y s inwh i ch m an y f i lm s ,m ad e lon gb e f o r ec r i t i c ss t a r t edt a l k in gabou tth epo s s ib i l i t yo fana r tc in em a , a l r e ad yr e f l e c t edonth e mo t ionp i c tu r ea sana r to fab so rp t ion .B e c au s eth e yr e l i edso h e a v i l yono th e ra r t i s t i candp e r f o rm an c et r ad i t ion sf o rm a t e r i a l ,e a r l ya r t i s t ’ ss tud io f i lm sen g a g ed m an yo fth e s e jud gm en t sandc on c e rn s .Th e yt r ad ed inno t ion so f c on t emp l a t ionandp i c tu r ec r a f tanda c c ommod a t edanedu c a t ion a l impu l s eth a t c on t inu ed in t oth ea r tf i lm sth a tw ou ldf o l low . A s ine a chs e c t iono fth i sbook ,th i sch ap t e r i sabou t look in gf o rw a rdand look in g b a ck .I ts e ek sou tth econ t emp l a t i v e ine a r l yc in em a ,ande a r l yc in em a ’ sa f t e r l i f e ina g r oupo f l a t e rcon t emp l a t i v ef i lm sb yth ead v e r t i s in gpho to g r aph e randp a r t t im e f i lm -m ak e rL e j a r enàH i l l e r .Und e re x am in a t ionh e r ea r eth ef an t a s i e so fa r t i s t ’ s wo rk sp a c e ,p a r t i cu l a r l yth e mom en t swh enth ed e s i r etoknowabou tth ewo rko f a r t i s t s in t e r s e c t sw i thth ed r e am so fa r tcom e to l i f e . Mo s to fth ee x amp l e scom e f r om m a t e r i a lsu r r ound in gth epub l i c a t iono fT r i l b y(1894 ) ,th ef amou s i l lu s t r a t ed no v e l inwh i chth em e sm e r i s tS v en g a l ik idn ap saL a t inQu a r t e ra r t i s t ’ s mod e lwho , und e rh i st r an c e ,b e com e saf amou ss in g e r .F o ry e a r sa f t e rth epub l i c a t iono fth i s mod e rnb e s t s e l l e rb yG eo r g e sDuM au r i e r ,on eo fth ef i r s to f i t sk ind ,th eAm e r i c an pub l i ce xh ib i t eda m an i af o rr e l a t ed m a t e r i a lr e f e r en c in gth eno v e land i t s i l lu s t r a t ion s .I tm ak e ss en s eth a t inth epub l i c l yc i r cu l a t ed mo v in g im a g e so fwh a tw a s 44

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

qu i ck l yt e rm ed ‘T r i lb ym an i a ’ ,e a r l yc in em af ound id e a ls i tu a t ion sf o rs t a g in gf an t a s i e s abou tth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io .Th econ t emp l a t i v eo rr e f l e c t i v ea sp e c t so fsu chs en s a t ion a l m a t e r i a lm i gh tb e l e s s imm ed i a t e l yapp a r en t ,bu tth e s ef an t a s i e so fth es tud iosp a c e doo v e r l apw i ths imu l t an eou se f f o r t stocon s id e randapp r e c i a t eth ewo rko fv i su a l a r t i s t s .Andth e yp e r s i s tf o r mu ch lon g e r inth ef o rmo fad ap t a t ion s , in c lud in gH i l l e r ’ s edu c a t ion a lf i lm s . Con s id e ron eb r i e fe xh ib i t ions c en e ,o faH i l l e rf i lmd i s cu s s eda t l en g th l a t e r ,a san e x amp l eth a tr a i s e sth ek ind so fqu e s t ion sb e s tadd r e s s edw i thacu l tu r a lh i s t o r yth a t mo v e sb a c kandf o r tha c r o s sp e r iod s .Anaud i en c e inup s t a t eN ewY o r k i sw a t ch in gTh e S l e e po fC ym aR o g e t(1920 ) ,ad ebu tf i lmb yacu r iou sm a g a z in epho t o g r aph e rf r om M anh a t t an .Th ef i lm i se s s en t i a l l yaT r i lb ys t o r yabou ta m e sm e r i s te x e r t in g in f lu en c e o v e rana r t i s t ’ s mod e l .A sth ep r o j e c t ion i s tch an g e sr e e l s ,ag r oupo fp e r f o rm e r sc om e ons t a g eandp e r f o rmas e r i e so fpo s e ss e t inana r t i s t ’ ss tud io .S e v e r a lo fth epo s e s r e c a l lf amou sp a in t in g sond i sp l a y inAm e r i c an mu s eum s ,andth e mod e l s inth i s en t r ’ a c t et r an s f o rms t i l lp a in t in g s in t o l i v ep e r f o rm an c e .Th i ss c en ew a sf am i l i a r enou gha r oundth etu rno fth ec en tu r y .I tw ou ldh a v er e c a l l eds e v e r a le x amp l e sf r om v a r i e t yshow s ,po s s ib l yf a i r g r ounden t e r t a inm en t s ,o r , ina mo r eup s c a l ev enu e ,a so c i e t yt ab l e auv i v an tp e r f o rm an c e .Bu tH i l l e r ’ sf i lmw a snosho r tabou tana r t i s t ’ s mod e ld e s i gn edf o rat yp i c a lv a r i e t y showaud i en c e inth e1890 s .I tw a sas e v en r e e l f e a tu r e ,c on c e i v eda saqu a s i edu c a t ion a lf i lm in1919ande xp lo i t edc omm e r c i a l l ya s h i gh c l a s sen t e r t a inm en t .Th ef i lmno ton l yr e c y c l e se a r l yc in em at r op e s in t oaf e a tu r e l en g tha r tf i lm , i ta l sofu s e sv a r i e t yen t e r t a inm en t sanda r tedu c a t ion .T o inno v a t e in th ef i e ldo fa e s th e t i cedu c a t ion , i ttu r n sb a c kt o1890 sp e r f o rm an c ep r a c t i c e sandt o th er ep r e s en t a t iono fan1890 ss tud io .Th eth em e sandt r i c k so fth ee a r l i e s tf i lm s abou ta r tanda r t i s t sp r o v ed i f f i cu l tt o l e a v eb eh ind .T r a c in gane a r l i e rcu l tu r a lh i s t o r y o fth e s eth em e s ,b e f o r ed i s cu s s in gth ewo r ko fH i l l e r ,w i l lp r o v id eab e t t e rs en s eo f th e i ra f f in i t i e s .Th e mo v em en ta c r o s sp e r iod sh e r edo e sno tsp ane a r l yc in em aandth e f i lm indu s t r y .I t mo v e sf r omth eab so rb in ga r t s tud ios c en e so fe a r l yc in em a in t oth e p e r iph e r a lp r odu c t ion sth a t inh ab i tth ee c l e c t i cs c en eo fe a r l yAm e r i c ana r tc in em a . TH EM I SEENSCÈNEO FTH ESTUD IO L e a rn in gt oc on t emp l a t eap a in t in go ras cu lp tu r e in l a t en in e t e en th c en tu r yAm e r i c a c e r t a in l y in v o l v edund e r s t and in gf o rm a lp r in c ip l e sandth e i rp s y cho lo g i c a le f f e c t s .Th e em e r g in gp i c tu r es tud yt r ad i t ion m ad esu r eo fth i s .Bu ttho s ea sp i r in gt oknow l ed g eo f th ea r t sa l sob en e f i t edf r om im a g in in ghowa r t ,a swo r k ,t a k e sp l a c e .I l lu s t r a t ed m a g a z in e s , l an t e rn l e c tu r e r sandf i lm -m a k e r se a chd ep lo y edth em i s eens c èn eo fth ea r t 1 Th e s es c en e sp r o v id ed s tud io ,w i th i t st oo l sand i t sw o r k e r s ,a saned i f y in gsp a c e . som e th in g inadd i t iont o in t e r ch an g e ab l ec on t en tf o rs en s a t ion a lth e a t r i c s .Th e y b r ou gh tt oth ed i sp l a yo fa r tane l em en to fth ehow t oth a tm an ys cho l a r sh a v e lo c a t ed 2 inth eb r o ad e rv i su a lcu l tu r eo fth ee r a . S c en e so fth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud ioc ou ldr e v e a l , w i th inth ec omp e l l in gr om an t i cs e t t in g ,th ea c to fc r e a t in ga e s th e t i cf o rm .Ino th e r w o rd s ,on ee f f e c t i v ew a yt ot e a chth epub l i ct ot ru l ys e ep i c tu r e sw a st oshowp i c tu r e s inp r o c e s s .U s in gw e l l known im a g e so fth es tud io ,som e t im e s mod i f i edt o in c r e a s e th i se f f e c t ,edu c a t o r sc ou lda v o idr e c y c l in gt r ad i t ion a lh i e r a r ch i e so fa r t i s t i cg en iu sand Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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f o cu s , in s t e ad ,onth ea r t i s t ’ st oo l sandth esuppo r to f mod e l s ,s tud en t sando th e r 3 c r a f t sp eop l e inth ew o r k shop . Th es tud iosp a c eh adap a r t i cu l a rr e l e v an c e inth er ap id l yp r o f e s s ion a l i s in g Am e r i c ancu l tu r eo fd e s i gnand i l lu s t r a t iona r ound1900 .E v e r ya sp e c to fth e mod e rn a r t i s t ’ st e a ch in gs tud iow a sp r o f e s s ion a l i s in g .M od e l se a rn eds t and a rd i s edw a g e s po s in gnowf o r i l lu s t r a t o r s ,f o rpho t o g r aph e r sandf o r l i f e mod e lc l a s s e sw i than 4 e xp and in gs tud en tb a s e . Edu c a t o r ssuppo r t edt oo l sf o ran ewk indo f l i f ec l a s s inth e i r c amp a i gnf o ran im a g eo fa r t i s tand mod e lth a tw ou ldf i tanen v i r onm en to fem e r g in g p r o f e s s ion a lso c i e t i e s ,c e l eb r i t ya r t i s t edu c a t o r sandboom in gbu s in e s s inth ef i e ld so f i l lu s t r a t ionandd e s i gn .Inth ec on t empo r a r yAm e r i c ans tud io ,th e ya l l e g ed , indu s t r y andt r an sp a r en c yw e r eonth er i s e .M od e l spo s ed ,a r t i s t sc r e a t edf o rmf r om l i f eand s tud en t s l e a rn edt odoth es am e .Bu y e r sandc r i t i c s ,t oo ,c ondu c t ed mu cho fth e i rwo r k inth es tud ioa tth i st im e .A ssu chahubo fa c t i v i t yth es tud iosp a c ep r o v id edaf e r t i l e s e t t in gf o rc r e a t in gth em y tho lo g yo fth eG i ld edA g ea r two r lda t l a r g ea sw e l la sth e m y tho lo g yo fp a r t i cu l a rs choo l sanda r t i s t so fth e mo r ed i s t an tp a s t .Th epub l i cd e s i r e f o r im a g e so fth e inn e rw o r k in g so fth es tud io ,p a r t i cu l a r l yf o r im a g e sth a tfu s ed h i s t o r i c a lf a c tandf an t a s t i cm y tho lo g y ,s e em ed in s a t i ab l ea r oundth etu rno fth e c en tu r y .A sth epub l i c in t e r e s t ins e e in ga r t i s t s , mod e l sands tud en t sa two r k in c r e a s ed ,sod idth ep r o f e s s ion a lm an a g em en to f im a g e .B yth e1890 s inN ewY o r k , th i sm an a g em en th adb e c om ec ommonp l a c e .I tc on t inu a l l yapp e a l edt oa m a t e r i a l cu r io s i t yabou tth em i s eens c èn eo fth es tud iosp a c e i t s e l f ,abou t i t sequ ipm en t , i t s p r op s , i t se c c en t r i cd é c o r . Th e i l lu s t r a t edp r e s s inth e1890 sp l a y edas i gn i f i c an tr o l e insh ap in gpub l i c p e r c ep t ion so fs tud io l i f e .M an yo fth ea r t i s tt yp e sc anb et r a c edt oah and fu lo f i l lu s t r a t o r s .F r omth eU SA ,Ch a r l e sD an aG ib son ’ s i l lu s t r a t ion sf o r L i f em a g a z in e r ep e a t ed l ye xp lo r edands a t i r i s edN ewY o r ka r t i s t s ,c r i t i c sandc o l l e c t o r s .F r om En g l and ,th e mo s t in f lu en t i a lo fa r ts a t i r i s e r s ,G eo r g eDuM au r i e r ,b e c am eahou s eho ld n am e .N oh i s t o r yo fth epub l i cp e r c ep t iono fth ea r t i s t inth e1890 s ,e v en inth e edu c a t ion a lr e a lm , i sc omp l e t ew i thou tc on s id e r in gDuM au r i e r ’ sT r i l b y.DuM au r i e r i l lu s t r a t edf o r P un c hinLondon ,bu tth esu c c e s so f T r i l b y,wh i che s s en t i a l l ycomp i l ed andn a r r a t i v i s edth ea r t i s ts t e r eo t yp e sh eh adb e end e v e lop in gf o ry e a r s ,w a s un s t opp ab l e .I tcu r cu l a t eda r oundth ewo r ld ,bu t i ta ch i e v edth e l a r g e s tsh a r eo f i t s su c c e s s inth eU SA .F o rtho s eamon gth em a g a z in e r e ad in gpub l i cwhoc l a im edas en s e o fth em i s eens c èn eo fth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io ,th i ss en s ew a s insom ew a yt r a c e ab l eb a c kt o G ib sono rt oDuM au r i e r ’ sT r i l b yt yp e s . Wh en i l lu s t r a t o r sd ep i c t edth ea r t i s t ’ sw o r k sp a c e ,th e ya im edt od i s t in gu i shr e a l w o r kf r omm e r efun inth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud i o .Inth er ep r e s en t a t i ono fth em od e rns tud i o , c omm e r c e s a v v ya r t i s t sanda r tedu c a t o r sh adt on a v i g a t ea r oundas e r i e so ft yp e sth a t 5 Th ec lowna r t i s t s in c lud edth eab s in th e a r th i s t o r i anS a r ahBu rn sh a st e rm ed ‘ c l own s ’ . d r in k in gm e s s l i k eM a r i eC o r e l l i ’ sG a s t onB e au v a i s ,th ec o a r s eunw a sh edf o r e i gn e r l i k e DuM au r i e r ’ sS v en g a l iandth eW i ld e and and y .A r t i s t ’ smod e l s ,t oo ,w e r esub j e c tt oa s im i l a rs e to fd i s t in c t i on s .C a r i c a tu r e so fth el o r e t t e andth ed i l l e t an t eso c i e t ywom an em e r g ed inc om ed i cc on t r a s tw i thth em o d è l ep r o f e s s i onn e l l ea ss a t i r i c a l i l lu s t r a t o r sand v aud e v i l l ec om ed i an sr anth e s et yp e sth r ou g he v e r ym ann e ro fph y s i c a lhum i l i a t ion .6 Em e r g in gm ed i aandg r ow in g in s t i tu t i on so fd e s i gn , i l lu s t r a t ionandp r o f e s s ion a l m od e l l in ga c t i v e l yp a r t i c ip a t ed inth ed e f in in gandc od in go fth e s et yp e s . 46

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Th et a c t i c so fc omp a r i sona r ee s s en t i a lh e r e .Ab su rdc a r i c a tu r e so fa r t i s t sand mod e l s , inth em s e l v e s ,dono tn e c e s s a r i l yr e v e a l mu chabou tch an g in g in s t i tu t ion so f a r tun t i lth e yfun c t iona lon g s id eth e in f o rm a t i v ea sp e c t so fs tud iosp a c e s .Th i s i s wh e r eDuM au r i e randG ib sona r e mo s t i l lu s t r a t i v e .Th e yp a id ju s ta s mu cha t t en t iont o th e i rd ep i c t ion so fth ea t e l i e r s ,t oth epo s i t ion in go fth ee a s e l s ,th ewo r k in go fa l i f e mod e lc l a s s ,th e imp r omp tuf en c in gm a t ch e sandth ed a i l yt r ip st oth eLou v r ea sth e y p a idt oth e i rc lown s .DuM au r i e randG ib sonkn ewth em i s eens c èn eo fth eP a r i ss tud io qu i t ew e l l ,h a v in gbo th m ad ep i l g r im a g e sth e r ea sy oun ga r ts tud en t s .Th e ye xp lo i t ed th es tud io ’ s im a g in a r ya sp e c t swh i l ea l so m a k in gth e i rc on c r e t eknow l ed g eo fth e s tud ioanob j e c to f in t en s ef o cu s inth e i rw o r k .Th e i rr e ad e r sw an t edt os e e in s id eth e s tud io ,andth e yv i ew edth e s ed ep i c t ion sa sr e a l .E v en ins cho l a r l yh i s t o r i e so f n in e t e en th c en tu r ya r t in s t i tu t ion s ,w r i t t end e c ad e s l a t e r ,th e s e i l lu s t r a t edd ep i c t ion s a r eo f t enu s eda sh i s t o r i c a le v id en c e .T r i l b yi st r e a t ed mo r ea sa m emo i rth ana s a tDuM au r i e randG ib sonbo thb e c am ec omm e r c i a l i l lu s t r a t o r s popu l a rf an t a s y .7Th whoch r on i c l edands a t i r i s edana r tw o r ldv e r yd i f f e r en tf r omth e i rp r o f e s s ion i s inf a c t l e s sa rb i t r a r yth an i tm a y in i t i a l l ys e em .Th e yh e lp edt ou sh e r inwh a t i sc ommon l y r e f e r r edt oa sago ld ena g eo f i l lu s t r a t ion ,andth eg r ow in gm a r k e tf o rc omm e r c i a lwo r k l i k eth e i r sw a sa m a jo rf a c t o r inth ep r o f e s s ion a l i s a t iono fa r ts choo l s .A tth es am e t im e ,th e yfun c t ion eda sch r on i c l e r sand m y tho lo g i s e r so fa g in gs a lone xh ib i t ion s ,o f th eF r en cha t e l i e randth e l i f e s t y l e so fboh em i an sanda e s th e t e s .Pu ts imp l y ,th e y show c a s edana g in gs tud io mod e inth ev e r ym ed ium( i l lu s t r a t ion )th a th e lp edt ob r in g abou tth i s mod e ’ sob so l e s c en c e . Th e s et a c t i c so fc omp a r i sonw o r k ed in s id ec on t empo r a r yt e a ch in gs tud io st oo ,a s edu c a t o r sc r a f t edth e i rowns tud io sa sp l a c e so fp e r f o rm an c et oth epub l i c .Som e , l i k e W i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ,c on f r on t edth ech a l l en g e so fpub l i cs c ru t in yb yp r e s en t in g h im s e l f inh i ss tud iow i thsu chp r e c i s ionth a to th e ra r tedu c a t o r ssom e t im e s l e f ta s id e th esub j e c to fCh a s e ’ sp a in t in gand l e c tu r edin s t e adonth es t y l eo fh i ss tud ioandh i s d r e s s .Amon gh i sno t ab l es tud en t sw a sth ey oun gpo e t ,a sp i r in gp a in t e randno t y e t f i lmth eo r i s tV a ch e lL ind s a y .Inwh a tw e r e l i k e l yL ind s a y ’ sf i r s t l e c tu r e sonth ev i su a l a r t s ,wh i cha r ep r e s e rv ed inas tud en tno t eboo kf r om1905(w i tho r i g in a lund e r l in in g ) , L ind s a yd e s c r ib e sCh a s ea s ‘Ag r e a ta r t i s t,ag r e a tt e a ch e r ,andag r e a ts t y l i s t (p e r son a l l y ) . ’L ind s a yp l a c edCh a s e insh a r pc on t r a s tw i thth ev e l v e t j a c k e td e c ad en t s andr e l a t eda e s th e t i cc lown s .H e in s t ru c t eds tud en t st os tud yCh a s e ’ sm ann e r i sm s in J ohnS in g e rS a r g en t ’ s1902po r t r a i to fh imho ld in gh i sp a l e t t eandb ru sh e s ,d r e s s ed imp e c c ab l y inath r e e -p i e c esu i t ,o rn am en t edw i thsp e c t a c l e sandat i ec l ip .S a r g en t ’ s po r t r a i ts t a g e sCh a s ef r on t a l l yw i thh i sa rm sop en ,d ep i c t in gh im ,L ind s a yno t e s ,a s 8 Ch a s es t r on g l yb e l i e v ed ,and som eon ewhoh a ssp en t ‘m an yy e a r sb e f o r eth epub l i c ’ . L ind s a ya f f i rm ed ,th a tth i sp r e s en t ab i l i t yo fth es tud iosp a c ew a se s s en t i a lt oth e d e v e lopm en to fAm e r i c ana r tedu c a t ion .H ep a in t edas e r i e so fp i c tu r e so fh i ss tud io , s t a g edc l a s spho t o g r aph s inth esp a c eandu s edth i spub l i c i s edv enu et oho s tcu l tu r a l e v en t s l i k eA l e x and e rB l a c k ’ sp r em i e r eo fM i s sJ e r r y.Th i sn ew im a g eo fth es tud io , wh i cha c c omp an i edatu rn in gaw a yf r om lon gapp r en t i c e sh ip sandah i e r a r ch yo fg en r e , f ound edendu r in g in s t i tu t ion s inth i sp e r iod .A l thou ghCh a s e ’ st enu r ea tth eCh a s e S choo lw a sb r i e fdu et op e r son a ld i f f e r en c e s ,th es choo lh ef ound ed ,a twh i chV a ch e l L ind s a yd e l i v e r edh i sf i r s t l e c tu r e s ,r en am edP a r son s ,r em a in son eo fth ec oun t r y ’ s mo s tr e sp e c t eds choo l so fd e s i gn . Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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Jo h nS i n g e rS a r g e n t , W i l l i am M e r r i t tC h a s e,1 9 0 2 .O i lo n c a n v a s ,158 . 8x1 0 5 . 1 cm (©T h eM e t ropo l i t a n M u s e umo fA r t ,co u r t e s y o fA r tR e so u r c e ,NY )

Iw i l lr e tu rnt oL ind s a y inth en e x ts e c t ionando f f e r in s t e adtwop r e l im in a r y c onn e c t ion sb e tw e enth i ss tud iosp a c ea sw o r k sp a c eandedu c a t ion a lsp a c eande a r l y c in em a .Th ef i r s tth in gth a tBu rn s ’ sd i s cu s s iono fa e s th e t i cc lown s i s l i k e l yt ob r in gt o m ind ,f o ras cho l a ro fe a r l yc in em a , i sth eabund an tc lown in g inf i lm ss e t ina r t i s t s ’ s tud io s .Insom ee a r l yf i lm ss e t ins tud io s ,su cha sTh eA r t i s t ’ sD i l emm a(1901 ) ,th e c lown in g i s l i t e r a l ;ana c tu a lc o s tum edc lowndo e sth ep a in t in g . Mo r eo f t en ,th ef i lm s mob i l i s eth ec a r i c a tu r e sBu rn sd i s cu s s e s inh e rw o r k .A r t i s t c lown sd r e am ine a r l y c in em a mu ch inth es am ew a yth a ttho s ewhof i endf o rop ium ,hop s ,o rr a r eb i td r e am . Th e i rf an t a s ys tud iosp a c e ss e rv ea sp r e t e x t sf o rth et r i c k s ,app a r i t ion sandph y s i c a l hum i l i a t ion sth a taud i en c e sw an t edt os e eth em ed iumd e a lou tt o i t sc lown in g p e r f o rm e r s .Inth e s ef i lm s ,a r t i s t so f t enf a l la s l e epandd r e amo fth e i rwo r ka s mo r e e r o t i c a l l ya v a i l ab l e ,andth ef i lm sa r equ i c kt op a r od yth e s ef an t a s i e s .InTh eA r t i s tan d t h eM ann e q u in(1900 ) ,f o re x amp l e ,a mod e l imp e r son a t e sa m ann equ inon l yt og e t c lo s eenou ght okno c kdown ,w i thab r oo m ,th eS v en g a l i loo k a l i k ea e s th e t i cc lown . Th e s ea r t i s t ’ ss tud iof i lm sd emon s t r a t ec in em a ’ s in t e r c onn e c t edn e s sw i thth e c omm e r c i a landg r aph i ca r t s inth epub l i cr e c ep t iono fth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io . Th epopu l a rp e r f o rm an c e so fth e l i gh tn in gs k e t chandth ee xp r e s ss cu lp tu r eo f f e ra p r om i s in gs e c ondt r ad i t iont oe x am in ef o rth e s ec onn e c t ion s .B r a c k e t in gf o ra mom en t th esp e c i a le f f e c to fs e e in gad r aw in gc r e a t edb e f o r eou re y e s ,th e s ep e r f o rm an c e s d emon s t r a t edth eund en i ab l ys k i l fu lp r odu c t iono f l i k en e s s e s inch a l k ,p enandc l a y . Th e mo t ionp i c tu r ea id edth i sd emon s t r a t ionw i th i t sab i l i t yt of i xpo in t -o f v i ewand do cum en t mo v in gp r o c e s s .I fth eedu c a t ion a lm e r i to f l i gh tn in gs k e t ch e sm a yno t 48

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

sp r in g imm ed i a t e l yt om indwh enc on s id e r in gth e i rpopu l a r i t yonv aud e v i l l es t a g e s , i t i s impo r t an tt ono t eth a tth e yw e r ec e l eb r a t ed inth e l y c eumanda tth eCh au t auqu aa s w e l l .9Inth e s esph e r e s ,a r t i s t ssu cha sJ am e sS t ew a r tB l a c k t on ,c in em a ’ s mo s t su c c e s s fu l l i gh tn in gs k e t ch e r ,wo r k eda c r o s sg en r e s .D i sp l a y in gs e a s c ap e sa lon gw i th f a c i a lc a r i c a tu r e s ,wo r k in g l i v e inch a l kwh i l ea l sod r aw in gf o rth eN ewY o r kW o r l d, B l a c k t ono c cup i edas im i l a rpo s i t iona sG ib sonandDuM au r i e rr e l a t i v et och an g in g h i e r a r ch i e so fp i c t o r i a lg en r e sand m ed ium s .Ch a l kd r aw in gw a sak ind r ed m ed iumt o popu l a r i l lu s t r a t ion ,h a v in gs t r on gt i e st oc a r i c a tu r eandh a v in gem e r g edr ou gh l y a r oundth es am et im ea sth een g r a v in gp r o c e s s e sf a v ou r eddu r in gth ego ld ena g eo f i l lu s t r a t ion .Inth i ss en s e ,th e in s t i tu t ion s s e ton id en t i f y in ga e s th e t i cc lown sand s t a g in ga r t i s t i cwo r k in i l lu s t r a t ionc ou ldfun c t iona sar e v e a l in gc on t e x tf o rth e l i gh tn in gs k e t ch ,c a s t in gB l a c k t on ’ ss k e t ch e sa sad emon s t r a t iono fs k i l l inan ew ,an t i h i e r a r ch i c a l ,c omm e r c i a lm ed ium .Th i sw a sno tth e i ron l ye f f e c tt ob esu r e ,bu t i t i son e th a tm a k e ss en s ep a r t i cu l a r l ywh enc on s id e r in gth ef a c tth a tth ec l e an cu tG ib son ’ s c r i t i c i smo fth ed e c ad en c eo fp a in t e r sgo e sh and inh andw i thh i sp r o f e s s ion a lwo r ka s f ound in gp r e s id en to fth eSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s .B l a c k t onandG ib sonw e r ebo th p r o f e s s ion a l i l lu s t r a t o r swhoe xp e r im en t edw i thn ew m ed i aandf o rm so fd i s t r ibu t ion . Wh i l eth e ywo r k ed ind i f f e r en tsph e r e s ,th e ye a chsou gh tt ob r e a kdownh i e r a r ch i e so f f in ea r t sth r ou ghac omb in a t iono fs a t i r eandp r o f e s s ion a l i s a t ion .Th e yen g a g ed , p a r od i edandthu sc om i c a l l yd em y s t i f i edth ep r o c e s so fc ompo s i t ionu s in ga m ed ium th a t , l i k e i l lu s t r a t ion ,s t oodt ob en e f i tf r omth ed i sm an t l in go fth eh i e r a r ch i e so ft yp e s o fs tud iowo r k . TH E MOV INGIMAG EJUMP STH EFRAM E Th e im a g eo fth ea r t i s t ’ swo r k sp a c e ,fun c t ion in ga san in s t ru c t i v esp a c e inth ea g eo f p i c tu r eapp r e c i a t ion ,run s in t od i s t in c tch a l l en g e swh en i t i sadop t edb yc in em a . Wh i l e s e a r ch in gf o r l in k st oa e s th e t i cedu c a t ion ,howdo e son ea c c oun tf o rth esho c k s , su rp r i s e sandsudd ent r an s f o rm a t ion sth a tch a r a c t e r i s eno ton l yth eb r o ad e r l and s c ap eo fe a r l yc in em a ,bu tsp e c i f i c a l l y e a r l yf i lm s inwh i chth eo th e ra r t sm a k ean app e a r an c e ?Th eno t iono fac in em ao fa t t r a c t ion s ,no tn e c e s s a r i l y inth ew a y sth a t T omGunn in g ’ sf i e ld -d e f in in ge s s a y sth eo r i s ed i tbu t inth ew a yth eph r a s eo f t ens e rv e s a sasho r th andt od e s c r ib e mo s t mo v in gp i c tu r e sb e f o r e1907 ,h a sd e emph a s i s ed tho s ee l em en t so fe a r l yf i lm sth a tm i gh th i gh l i gh tr e s t r a in tanden c ou r a g eth ev i ew e r t oc on t emp l a t eandr e f l e c tonth e im a g e .L e s tth e s esho r th andapp r op r i a t ion so fth e c on c ep to fa t t r a c t ion sr e l e g a t ed e c o r ou sc ompo s i t ion sandthou gh t fu lv i ew in gt o i r r e l e v an ts t a tu s ,apo l i t eand in s i gn i f i c an tc r o s s cu r r en to fan impo l i t ef a i r g r ound m ed ium ,ane a r l yh i s t o r yo fa r tc in em a mu s tpo in tou ta tth a tf i lm sp r odu c ed inth e f i r s td e c ad eo f mo v in gp i c tu r e sc ou lda l soe x t end ,no te xp lod e ,a e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion s r oo t ed inth eo th e ra r t sandthu sc ou ld , insom ec a s e s ,e v enc oop e r a t ew i thth e in t e r e s t so fp r o f e s s ion a la r t sso c i e t i e sandr e f o rm e r s ina r t sedu c a t ion . E a r l y mo t ionp i c tu r e sth a tbo r r owf r omth eo th e rv i su a la r t sc e r t a in l yc ou ldwo r k inac on t emp l a t i v e mod e ,e v enou t s id eo fth e l y c eum .Ch a r l e s Mu s s e r ,f o re x amp l e ,h a s id en t i f i eda ‘ c in em ao fc on t emp l a t ion ’ inoppo s i t iont oth e ‘ v i su a le rup t ion s ’o fth e c in em ao fa t t r a c t ion s .H ea r gu e sth a tf i lm sop e r a t in g inth i s mod e ‘ en c ou r a g ed Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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sp e c t a t o r st oe xp e r i en c ea m e sm e r i z in gab so rp t ion ’ .L and s c ap ef i lm s l i k eN i a g r aF a l l s (Lum i è r e ,1897 )e v o k edth et r ad i t iono fCo l eandChu r ch ,andt ab l e auv i v an tf i lm s in v i t edc on t emp l a t i v ec omp a r i son st oo r i g in a la r two r k s .Th i s mod ed ep end son e xh ib i t ionf o rm a t( i . e . , loop edf i lm sa l low in gsu s t a in edv i ew in g )a s mu cha sa p a r t i cu l a rf i lm ’ s mod eo fadd r e s s ,bu twhenth e s ec ond i t ion sa r em e tth e yen c ou r a g e th es am ek indo fg a z eth a ta r t app r e c i a t iong r oup ssou gh tt ocu l t i v a t ea tth etu rno f th ec en tu r y . Mu s s e rno t e showo f t enth eg i l tf r am esu r r ound s mo v in gp i c tu r e s in ad v e r t i s em en t s ino rd e rt oen c ou r a g ec on t emp l a t i v e mod e so fv i ew in gbo r r ow edf r om p a in t in g .B ypu t t in gth e im a g e inaf r am eth e yw o r kt o ‘m e sm e r i s e ’ ,no tsho c k ,th e 10 v i ew e r . T oth ee x t en tth a t mo v in gp i c tu r e ss e t ina r t i s t s ’s tud io sh e lpt of r am e p i c tu r e sandr e v e a lth e l abou ro fa r t i s t sth e y ,t oo ,b e lon g inth ec a t e go r yo fane a r l y c in em ao fc on t emp l a t ion . Andy e ta r t s tud iof i lm sn e v e rs e emt ob eh a v e .Th ef r am in g s ins tud iof i lm swou ld s e ldomb ea s in t e r e s t in gw e r eth e yno ta l soamb i v a l en tabou tth efun c t iono fth e f r am e .Th e yc ommon l yen c ou r a g eac on t emp l a t i v e mod e ,bu tth e ydosowh i l e p r e s en t in gak indo fbound a r yth a ta s k st ob ec r o s s ed .Th e yd a r eth e mo v in g im a g et o jumpou to fth ef r am e ,u su a l l yth r ou ghap r o c e s so fm a g i c a lt r an s f o rm a t ion .E a r l y f i lm sth a tr e c a l lp a in t in gands cu lp tu r e ,p a r t i cu l a r l yth eon e sth a tp l a c eth ev i ew e r in th es tud io so fth e s eo th e ra r t s ,w e r e mo r eo f t enth anno tf r am e jump in gf i lm s .Th e y d r am a t i s edth e mom en to ft r an s f o rm a t ionf r oms t i l lt o mo v in g im a g e ,f r omp a in t in g t o l i f eandf r om l i f et os cu lp tu r a lf o rm . Wh a th app en edsoo f t en in s id eo fs tud io s c en e s , in c r e a s in g l ywh enth e s es c en e sw e r ep r e s en t ed in mo v in gp i c tu r e s ,w a s p r e c i s e l yno ta m e thod i c a l i l lu s t r a t iono fth ea r t i s t ’ sp r o c e s s .M o r eo f t enth anno t in th e s es c en e so fc r e a t ion inana r t i s t ’ swo r k sp a c ebod i e s ,ob j e c t sandapp a r i t ion s jump edf r omon em ed iumt oano th e r ,f r omp i c t o r i a lsp a c et od i e g e t i csp a c e ,o rf r om s t i l lt o mo v in g im a g e s .A r t i s t ’ s -d r e amf i lm sr e ad i l ys t a g edt r i c k sandsup e r impo s i t ion s who s em a g i c a lt r an s f o rm a t ion sd ep end edonth ec r e a t iono fap i c tu r e .L i gh tn in g s k e t cha r t i s t semp lo y edth emt oo .Th e ycho r eo g r aph edth e i rp e r f o rm an c e sno ta sa s t ep -b y s t epp r o g r e s s ion ,bu ta sak indo fsudd ent r an s f o rm a t ion .B yw a i t in gun t i lth e l a s t mom en tt od r awth ec ru c i a lp a r tth a tm a k e sth e im a g er e c o gn i s ab l e–th ee y e so fa f a c e ,f o re x amp l e–th e l i gh tn in gs k e t chp e r f o rm an c ec ou ldf o l lowth ed yn am i co fth e c c oun t in gf o rf i lm sabou tth e m a g i cshow mo r ec lo s e l yth anth ehow t om anu a l .11A a r t i s t ’ ss tud ioa ss c en e so fr e f l e c t ionona r tm e an sa l soc on s id e r in gth e s es c en i c m e t a l ep s e s ,th e s em a g i c a le f f e c t sa r oundth ea c to fc ompo s i t ion .12 I t i sno tac o in c id en c eth a tth e s ef r am e jump in ge f f e c t sa r eomn ip r e s en t ine a r l y f i lm sth a tr e f l e c tonth ep i c t o r i a la r t s .D i s so l v in gm a g i c l an t e rnv i ew s ,t ab l e au xv i v an t s andc om ed i cs k e t ch e sh ada l lp l a y edw i thth eb ound a r i e sb e tw e ens t a t i cc ompo s i t ion s andmo v in gs c en e s ,bu te a r l ym o t i onp i c tu r et e chn o lo g yp r o v id edn ewpo s s ib i l i t i e sf o r au gm en t in gth e s ef r am e jump in ge f f e c t so fo th e rp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion s .Th ef i r s tLum i è r e e xh ib i t o r ss t a g edth et r an s i t i onf r oms t i l lt om o v in gp i c tu r e ,wh i cho f f e r edasp e c t a c l e o fmo v in gf r omon em ed ium( th em a g i c l an t e rn )t oano th e r(mo t ionp i c tu r e s ) ju s ta s mu cha s i tp r e s en t edm o v em en ta sasp e c t a c l e in i t s e l f .Th emo t ionp i c tu r ec ou ld au gm en tth et ab l e auv i v an t ,t oo ,w i th i t sr e l a t i v e l a c ko fd ep thp e r c ep t ion . Wh ena b od y ,f i lm ed inaf r am e , i sp o s in gc omp l e t e l ys t i l l , i t i smu che a s i e rt or e ada satwo d im en s ion a lf i gu r e inap a in t in go ronap o s t e r .Th ef r am e jump in ge f f e c tamp l i f i e s wh enth i sbod ysudd en l y j o in sth ea r t i s to rth ep o s t e radm i r e r inmo t ion . 50

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Ino rd e rtoadd r e s sth equ e s t iono fhowth e s es t a r t l in gc r o s s -m ed i ae f f e c t sr e l a t e toth econ t emp l a t i v e mod eo fa r tapp r e c i a t ion ,It ak ead i f f e r en tt a ckth ano th e r s tud i e so fth ep i c tu r ecom e to l i f e .L ynd aN e ad ’ se xp an s i v es tud yo f mo v in gp i c tu r e s inn in e t e en th c en tu ryv i su a lcu l tu r ef o cu s e sonth eun c ann yd im en s iono fth i s ee xp lo r e sth erup tu r in go fth ef r am eo fth es t a t i ccompo s i t ion P y gm a l ione f f e c t .13Sh a sak indo fh aun t in g , in t e rp r e t in gth em e so fsudd enan im a t ion int e rm so fcu l tu r a l an x i e t i e sabou tth ebound a r i e sb e tw e en l i v in gr e a l i t yandd e ad im a g e s . Wh a tr em a in tob ee xp lo r ed ing r e a t e rd e t a i la r eth e in t e rm ed i a lr e f l e c t ion sth a tth e s eh aun t in g an im a t ion sh a v e incommonw i thth ecom ed i candth e in s t ru c t ion a lt r an s f o rm a t ion s p e r f o rm ed in s id eth es tud io .M e t apho r so fd e a th ,rup tu r eandh aun t in ga l l imp l y i r r e v e r s ib i l i t y ,and inc a s e swh enth e s een t e r t a inm en t sr e f l e c tonth e i rm ed ium s , r e v e r s ib i l i t y i sp r e c i s e l yth ea t t r a c t ion .Th ef o rm in go fap i c tu r ecomm and sa s mu ch a t t en t iona sth ebu r s t in go fap i c tu r e ’ sf r am e ,ando f t enbo thh app en ed inth es am e p e r f o rm an c e .Th i s i swh y ,d e sp i t e i t s l e s sc a t ch yr e son an c e ,Ip r e f e rth et e rm ‘ f r am e 14 jump in g ’to ‘ f r am e -bu r s t in g ’ . Th em e t apho ro fbu r s t in gth ep i c to r i a lf r am e ,wh e th e r b ysu rp r i s in g mo v em en to r in t e g r a t ed l i v ep e r f o rm an c e s ,cou ldpo t en t i a l l ym i s l e ad i f i ton l y imp l i edaon e -w a yd e s t ru c t iono fth es t a t i ccompo s i t ion .F r am e jump in g e f f e c t sdono td r am a t i s eaf in a lc a s t in go f fo fth econ f in in gf r am ew i th mo v em en t . Th ee f f e c t so fm e ch an i c a l mo v em en to r mo v in g mod e l ssh i f tb a ckandf o r tha c r o s s th i sbound a ry ,h i gh l i gh t in gach an g e inp e r c ep t ione s s en t i a ltoth eapp r e c i a t iono f p i c tu r e s . On er e a sonf r am e jump in ga t t r a c t ion sm i ghtapp e a ran t i th e t i c a lt oab so rb edf i lm v i ew in g i sb e c au s eab so rp t ionh a st yp i c a l l yb e enc a s t ined i t in g -b a s edt e rm s .O th e r a e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion spo in tt oa l t e rn a t i v e mod e l so fc in em a t i cab so rp t ion .Th es t ap l e t e x t su s edb yAm e r i c ana r tedu c a t o r sa tth etu rno fth ec en tu r yr ep e a t ed l ya s kth e i r aud i en c et o im a g in eth e s ef r am e jump in ge f f e c t sa sth e y l e a rnt oapp r e c i a t eawo r k . V a s a r i ’ se v e r r ep r in t edv o lum e sen c ou r a g er e ad e r st os e eth e ‘ l i v in g ’f l e sh inR aph a e l ’ s p a in t in g sandt o loo kc lo s e l ya tth eM on aL i s a ’ sn e c kt o ‘b eho ldth ev e r yb e a t in go fh e r v e r s e l y ,th ec r e a t iono fs t a t i cf o rmf r om l i f ew a sanequ a l l yc omp e l l in g pu l s e s ’ .15Con t r an s f o rm a t ion .A r tedu c a t o r s in v i t eds tud en t st o im a g in eth et r an s f o rm a t iono fa l and s c ap eo raf a c e in t oap i c tu r e .U s in gt e x t sf r omap a t chwo r ko fc anon i c a lau tho r s in c lud in gV a s a r i ,L e s s in gandRu s k in ,Am e r i c ana r tedu c a t o r s mob i l i s edth ef an t a s yo f sudd enan im a t ionandth ef an t a s yo fasudd enf i x in go far e c o gn i s ab l ec ompo s i t ion in o rd e rt ot e a chab r o ad e rpub l i chowt ob een g a g edw i th ,andthu st oapp r e c i a t e , p i c tu r e s .Th e s es am ef an t a s i e sf lou r i sh ed ine a r l yf i lm sabou ta r t . F r am e jump in g i sa ton c eana s t on i sh in ge f f e c tandane f f e c t i v et oo l . Wh a tc ou ld ju s t i f i ab l yb es e ena sth ean t i th e s i so fab so rp t iono rc on t emp l a t ionc anb e c om e i t s in s t rum en t .F r am e jump in gc anf o s t e rapp r e c i a t iono fa e s th e t i c sb yp r omo t in g ab so rp t ionandc on t emp l a t ion .Th ef i lm so fth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud iof e edonth epopu l a r in t e r e s t inth es tud iosp a c eandr e f l e c tona e s th e t i cab so rp t ion inaw a yth a tbo rd e r s , a tt im e s ,onth ed id a c t i c .Inth e s es e t t in g sf o rt r an s f o rm in g l i f e in t oc ompo s i t ion( and o f t en ,m a g i c a l l y ,c ompo s i t ion sb a c k in t o l i f e ) ,th ea r t ine a r l yc in em ao v e r l app edw i th e a r l ya r tc in em a .Th e s es c en e sh e lp edadd r e s squ e s t ion sfund am en t a lt oth in k in g abou tc in em a ina e s th e t i ct e rm s ,t oc on c e i v in go fth eh andm ad e ina m e ch an i c a l m ed ium ,andt oc on s id e r in ga e s th e t i cc on t emp l a t iona tat im ewh ensh i f t s inth e m ed i a l and s c ap es e em edt os i gn a l i t sr ap idd e c l in e . 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TR I LBYANA :TRAN S FORMAT IONANDAB SORPT ION S in c eDuM au r i e r ’ s i l lu s t r a t ion so fs tud io l i f ew e r esom eo fth eb e s tknown , i tshou ld no tc om ea sasu rp r i s eth a tth eph enom enono f ‘T r i lb y an a ’ ,a san1890 spub l i c a t ion dubb edth ef r equ en t l yr e c y c l eds i tu a t ion sandch a r a c t e r sf r omT r i l b y,p r o v id e saw e a l th o fe x amp l e so fth ef i lm sandp e r f o rm an c e sth a temp lo y edf r am e jump in ge f f e c t s .16 On ec ou lds a yth a tth er e c ep t iono fT r i l b y,e sp e c i a l l y inN o r thAm e r i c a ,w a sap i c t o r i a l r e c ep t iona s mu cha sad i s cu r s i v eon e .F i r s t ,DuM au r i e r ’ se xp e r i en c ea san i l lu s t r a t o r f o rP un c hf a rou t s t r ipp edh i sab i l i t i e sa sano v e l i s t .Th e s e i l lu s t r a t ion st oo kp r e c ed en c e abo v eth et e x ta sth es t o r yg a in edpopu l a r i t y .T r i l b y’ spub l i cp r e s en c et oo kth ef o rmo f an e two r ko f in t e r r e l a t edp i c tu r e s .Th e i l lu s t r a t ed jou rn a l sp r in t eds t i l l sf r omth ep l a y s a sw e l la sc a r t oon sspoo f in gth em .W i th inaf ewy e a r so fth e in i t i a lpub l i c a t ion ,s e v e r a l 17 f i lm sw e r em ad ef r omth es t o r y . A s i t s im a g e sandp lo ts i tu a t ion sb e c am ep a r to fth e v e rn a cu l a r ,th enumb e ro fam a t eu randp r o f e s s ion a lbu r l e squ e sandad ap t a t ion s in c r e a s ede xpon en t i a l l y .G e s tu r e s ,po s e sands t y l e so fd r e s sb e c am ef amou sth r ou gh c on t inu a lt r an s l a t iona c r o s sv i su a lm ed i a .Num e r ou sc op y r i gh tb a t t l e sw e r ef ou gh t o v e rc a r t oon s ,pho t o g r aph sanduno f f i c i a lad ap t a t ion s .L e g a lr i gh t sb e c am e in c r e a s in g l yd i f f i cu l tt od e f end inp r opo r t iont oth eunp r e c ed en t edv o lum eandv a r i e t y es t y l e so f mo v em en tandd r e s so fT r i lb ym an i asp ann ed o fp i c t o r i a lr e f e r en c e s .18Th f r ombu r l e squ ehou s e st oh i ghb r owp a r lou r s ,a se v id en c edb yth en ew sp ap e ra c c oun t s 19 Andth e s e o fd r aw in gr oomt ab l e auv i v an tp e r f o rm an c e sb a s edonth e i l lu s t r a t ion s . p e r f o rm an c e so c c a s ion a l l ym ad e i tou to fth ed r aw in gr oom s ,a sw a sth ec a s ew i tha r t edu c a t o rE r i cP ap e ’ sp r odu c t iono fS c en e san dS on g sf r om ‘T r i l b y ’ ,on9F eb ru a r y1895 . Th es am et r an s l a t ab i l i t yth a t l en t i t s e l fsow e l lt om a s sd i s t r ibu t iono fth eno v e l r end e r edth e s eub iqu i t ou s im a g e sd i f f i cu l tt oc on t r o l .A sth e s erun aw a yad ap t a t ion s t oo ko f f ,th e yb e g ant oen c i r c l es im i l a rth em e s . Th e mo s ts t r i k in gc on s i s t en c yamon gth ebu r l e squ e s ,b r i e fc i t a t ion sandfu l l ad ap t a t ion s i sth ew a yth a tth e yc omb in em e sm e r i cab so rp t ionand in f lu en c ew i thth e p r odu c t iono fap i c tu r eo rth et r an s l a t ionf r omon em ed iumt oano th e r .Th e s e en t e r t a inm en t sund en i ab l yp r e f i gu r eth ee f f e c t ss e en inf i lm s l i k eTh eA r t i s t ’ sD i l emm a. In m an yo fth e s ebu r l e squ e sT r i lb yando th e rch a r a c t e r sf r e e z e in t op i c tu r e sund e r m e sm e r i c in f lu en c e ,andp i c tu r e sc om et o l i f eund e rth i s in f lu en c e .Inabu r l e squ eo f th es t o r yc a l l edTh r i l b y,p e r f o rm eda tth eG a r r i c kTh e a t r e inN ewY o r k in1895 ,th e m e sm e r i s t ‘Sp a gh e t t i ’u s e sh i s in f lu en c et of r e e z eth ech a r a c t e r s in t oas e r i e so f 20 t ab l e au x . Inth e1897v aud e v i l l es k e t ch ‘Fun inanA r t i s t ’ sS tud io ’ ,ad i s gu i s ed S v en g a l iu s e sh i spow e rt ot r an s f o rmth ea r tw o r k s inth es tud io .H epo in t sa tac an v a s t om a k e i tch an g e in t od i f f e r en tp a in t in g sandth en m e sm e r i s e sas t a tu eo fT r i lb y .Th e s t a tu eth enem e r g e sf r omth epo s eanddo e sth eT r i lb yd an c epopu l a r i s edb yA M o d e l 21 Av i su a lr e c o rdo fth i sb a r e f oo td an c ec ans t i l lb es e en inth ef i lm ,E l l aL o l aa T r i l b y. l aT r i l b y (Ed i son ,1898 ) .Th e mo s tv i su a l l yc on c i s ee x amp l ef r omth ep e r iodo f T r i lb ym an i a i sTh eP o s t e rG i r l san dt h eH y pn o t i s t(B io g r aph ,1899 ) .A m e sm e r i s tm a k e s p a s s e so v e rac oup l eo fpo s t e r s ,c au s in gth ew om enpo s in ga sb i l lbo a rd im a g e st os t ep o f fo fth ew a l landw a l kaw a yw i thh im .22M e sm e r i s t ss in c eth e1850 sh ad eT r i l b y d emon s t r a t edth e i rc r a f tb yf r e e z in gsub j e c t sb e f o r eanaud i en c e .23Th ph enom enone xp lo i t edth i scu l tu r a lt r op eo fth ef r o z en m e sm e r i csub j e c tt op r e s en t t r an s f o rm a t ion in t oandou to fp i c t o r i a lf o rm . 52

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Th i sf an t a s yo fm ed i a t ed m e sm e r i smsp ann ed lowb r owandh i ghb r ow en t e r t a inm en t sandv en tu r ed in t oth et e r r i t o r yo fa e s th e t i cedu c a t ion .Th ebu r l e squ e s andad ap t a t ion sr epu rpo s edDuM au r i e r ’ spond e r ou sc om ed yo fm ann e r sa sav eh i c l e t or e f l e c tonth er e l a t ion sh ipb e tw e enth e mo v in g im a g eandp i c t o r i a lm ed i a .Th e s e v e r s ion sr ep e a t ed l yu s eth et ab l e auv i v an tandt r i c kc in em a t o g r aph y l i k eth a ts e en in Th eA r t i s t ’ sD i l emm ab e c au s eth e l im in a lch a r a c t e ro fth e s et e chn iqu e sm a k e sth em e sp e c i a l l ysu i t edt os t a g in gth e jumpf r omon em ed iumt oano th e r .I fth ead ap t a t ion s a r er e f l e x i v e ,th enth eth em eo fm e sm e r i smb e c om e sr e f l e x i v ea sw e l l .M e sm e r i c ab so rp t ionb e c om e sau s e fu lf an t a s yf o rth in k in gth r ou ghth equ e s t ion so fa t t r a c t ion andab so rp t ion inp i c tu r e s–th ev e r ys am equ e s t ion sth a ta r tedu c a t o r sso r t edou tf o r th e i rs tud en t so fc ompo s i t ion .Con s id e r in gth eT r i l b yad ap t a t ion st o g e th e rg i v e sa b e t t e rs en s eo fhowf r am e jump in gandth er ap tab so rp t iono fth em e sm e r i s ed in fu s e tu rn -o f th e c en tu r ym ed i acu l tu r eth a tsp ann edth ev aud e v i l l ehou s e ,th es choo l ,th e l y c eumandth es a lon . T r i lb y an a ’ sf r am e -bu r s t in ge f f e c t s– inwh i ch m e sm e r i smc a t a l y s e st r an s i t ion s b e tw e ena c t ionands t a t i cp i c tu r e s–e xp lo r e , inth edom a ino fv e rn a cu l a rp e r f o rm an c e , th es am et yp e so fm ed i am e t apho r se xp lo r edb ya e s th e t i cedu c a t o r sande a r l yf i lm th eo r i s t s .Th e y i l lu s t r a t eth en e edt oa c c oun tf o ra l t e rn a t i v e mod e l sf o rc on c e i v in go f ab so rp t ion ine a r l yc in em a .Th ec l a s s i c a la c c oun to fab so rp t ionh a sa s i t sf ound a t ion ed i t in gandth eun f o ld in go fth en a r r a t i v e ,bu tth ef o cu sonth i st r ad i t ion inf i lm s tud i e sh a so v e r sh adow edth ep i c t o r i a lth eo r i e so fab so rp t ionth a tbo r e mo r ed i r e c t r e l e v an c et oe a r l ya r tc in em a .Th e in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo fa r tedu c a t ionc annu an c ea s t a r koppo s i t ionb e tw e enf r am e jump in gandab so rp t ionw i thou td en y in gth es t a r t l in g d i s c on t inu i t i e so ff r am e jump in ge f f e c t s .Th i so th e rt r ad i t iono fab so rp t ion ,p i c t o r i a l 24 c on t emp l a t ion ,c om e st oc in em af r omth ev i su a la r t s . I ta c c omp an i e se a r l yc in em a in t oth ef e a tu r ef i lm ,andr em a in sac en t r a lp r eo c cup a t iono fa r tedu c a t o r swho v en tu r ed in t od i s cu s s iono f mo v in gp i c tu r e s .P i c t o r i a lc on t emp l a t ion inf i lm ,e v en du r in g i t sm ed i a r e f l e x i v e in t e r rup t ion so fth es t o r y ’ sa c t ion ,do e sno tn e c e s s a r i l y d i s t an c eth esp e c t a t o rf r omth ef i lm .I te x i s t sa sac oun t e r cu r r en tt on a r r a t i v e ab so rp t ion ,o f f e r in g i t sownt yp eo fab so rp t ion . Idono tw an tt oc l a imth a ton ew ou ldb em i s t a k en inpo in t in gou tth eabund an c e o fed i t in g -ands t o r y -b a s edapp r o a ch e st oc in em a t i cab so rp t ion inth i sp e r iod .Hu go Mün s t e rb e r g ’ sf i lmth eo r y( a l thou ghe v en Mün s t e rb e r g ’ sboo kc on t a in se l em en t so fa th eo r yo fp i c t o r i a lb e au t y–ab yp r odu c to fh i sc l a s s i c i sm ) i san i l lu s t r a t i v ec on t r a s tt o th et r ad i t ionIame xp lo r in g ,e sp e c i a l l yb e c au s e i t l in k saned i t in g -b a s edapp r o a cht o s t e rb e r g in v o k e sh ypno t i smr ep e a t ed l yth r ou ghou t Th eP h o t o p l a y, h ypno t i sm .25Mün u su a l l y ino rd e rt oa r gu eth a tf i lm ’ sf r e edomf r omth e l im i t a t ion so fsp a c e ,t im eand c au s a l i t y( inc on t r a s tt oth e a t r e )a r eth eb a s i sf o r i t spow e ro fsu g g e s t ionandh en c e i t s 26 a e s th e t i cf o r c e . ‘Th ewho l et e chn iqu eo fth er ap idch an g e so fs c en e s ,wh i chw eh a v e r e c o gn i z eda ssoch a r a c t e r i s t i co fth epho t op l a y , in v o l v e sa te v e r yendpo in te l em en t s o fsu g g e s t ionwh i ch ,t oac e r t a ind e g r e e , l in kth es ep a r a t es c en e sa sth ea f t e r im a g e s 27 l in kth es ep a r a t ep i c tu r e s . ’ Mün s t e rb e r ge s t ab l i sh e sh e r eandth r ou ghou th i sboo ka d i r e c tch a inf r omth e mo v em en tb e tw e enf r am e st oth e mo v em en tb e tw e ensho t sand s c en e s .H em a in t a in sth a t l in k in gf r am e s in t o mo t ionand l in k in gsho t s in t os c en e s 28 r equ i r e sana c t i v i t yo fth em ind . F r omth ef i r s t mo v em en t so fth eshu t t e ron ,th e f i lmd ep a r t sf r omth er equ i r em en t so fth eph y s i c a lwo r ldandd i r e c t l yen g a g e sth e Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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sp e c t a t o r .Th i sen g a g em en th e i gh t en sf i lm ’ spow e ro fsu g g e s t iono v e rth e a t r e ,o f wh i chth e ‘ e x t r em ec a s e i s ,o fc ou r s e ,th a to fth eh ypno t i z e rwho s ewo rdaw a k en s in 29 th em indo fth eh ypno t i z edp e r son id e a swh i chh ec anno tr e s i s t ’ . P i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c sandth ef i lm indu s t r ya r eth esub j e c to fth en e x tch ap t e r s ,bu tI w an tt or e tu rnt oV a ch e lL ind s a yt oc on c lud eth i ss e c t ionb e c au s eh i sw r i t in g sonf i lm a r t ,w r i t t ena r oundth es am et im eand inep i s t o l a r yc o r r e spond en c ew i th Mün s t e rb e r g ,sp e a kd i r e c t l yt oth epo s s ib i l i t yo fab so rb in gf r am e jump in ge f f e c t s . Wh enL ind s a y ,a s mu chashowm ana sapo e t ,s e e k st od e f in e mo v in g im a g ea r t ,h e u s e saf r am e jump in g im a g in a r yt odoso .InTh eA r to ft h eM o v in gP i c t u r eh es e t s p a in t in g ,s cu lp tu r eanda r ch i t e c tu r e in t o mo t ion ,s t ru c tu r in gth eboo ka r ounda m e t apho ro fa r two r k san im a t ed .Bu t , l i k eth et r ad i t ion so fu s in gan im a t iont ot e a ch a r t ,th e s ef an t a s i e so fa r tc om e t o l i f edono tp r o v o k ean x i e t y .Th e y i l lu s t r a t ewh a tth e a t t en t i v ee y ea l r e ad ys aw ing r e a tw o r k so fp a in t in gands cu lp tu r e ,andth e yr e v e a lth e s cu lp tu r a lf o rmth a tth ea t t en t i v ee y ew i l le v en tu a l l y l e a rnt os e e inc in em a .H e im a g in e sth ebod yo faKw a kw a k a ’w a kwa c t o rf r om Int h eL an do ft h eH e a dH un t e r s (1914 )a sa mo v in gb r on z es cu lp tu r e l i k eTh eS unV ow(1899 ) ,andh es e e sth es t i l l s 30 Amon gh i sf a v ou r i t ea c t o r s , f r oma mo v in gp i c tu r ea sp i c tu r e s inag a l l e r yc o l l e c t ion . h ef r equ en t l ym en t ion sth es cu lp tu r a lqu a l i t yo fDou g l a sF a i rb an k s ’ sbod y .InTh e P r o g r e s san dP o e t r yo ft h eM o v i e sh ec omp a r e sF a i rb an k s ’ s mod e rna th l e t i c i smt oth e t r ad i t iono fth eD i a gh i l e vb a l l e t ,a s mo v em en tth a tf o r c e son et o im a g in eas t a t i c 31 ‘M i ch a e lM o rd k in , l e ap in gf r omon eendo fth es t a g et oth eo th e r , compo s i t ion . s e em edt op au s e in m id a i r ,s e em edf o racu r iou s in s t an tt ob eh a l f su sp end edth e r e .… I tw a s ind e edacu r iou s i l lu s ion ,ac onqu e s to fth ee y e .Th i ss am es low mo t ion l e ap , wh i chw a s l a t e rd e v e lop edb yth es low mo t ionc am e r a , i sc a r r i edonnowb yDou g l a s F a i rb ank s . ’32L ind s a y ’ s mo v ef r omth ep e r c e i v edsu sp en s iono faB a l l e t sr u s s e sd an c e r th r ou ghs low - mo t ionc in em a t o g r aph yt oth eb r awn yb a l l e t i c l e ap so fF a i rb an k s in v i t e s c omp a r i sont oA l e x and e rB l a c k ’ s mo v ef r omth ep a in t e r l yc ompo s ed in s t an to fh i s d i v e rt oth es cu lp t ed mo t iono fh i s ‘ s low mo v i e s ’ . Th e in t e r e s t inL ind s a y ’ sth eo r i e so fauni v e r s a l l an gu a g eh a v em ad e i te a s yf o rf i lm h i s t o r i an st of o r g e tth a tf o rL ind s a y ,a sf o rh i sa r t edu c a t ion m en t o r sf r om1905 , ab so rp t ion i sap i c t o r i a la f f a i r .M o r eo v e r ,f o l low in gt r ad i t ion so fedu c a t ion inth e v i su a la r t s ,no t ins yn t a xo rn a r r a t ion ,h e mob i l i s e sth ef an t a s yo fan im a t ion–o fa sudd en l yo rsub t l y l i v in gp i c tu r e–t ot e a chh i saud i en c ehowt ob eab so rb ed ina c ompo s i t ion .M o v in g im a g e sr e a l i s edth i sf an t a s y .InTh eA r to ft h eM o v in gP i c t u r e, L ind s a yno t e showh ew an t st of i lmth ef amou s mu r a l sa tth eBo s t onPub l i cL ib r a r y . H e im a g in ed mo t iont osp r in gf r oms t a t i cw o r k s ,anda l sot ob e in s c r ib ed inth em .W e m i s sas a l i en ta sp e c to fe a r l yf i lmth eo r y i fw edono tund e r s t and id e a s l i k eth e s et ob e l in k edt oh i se a r l ya r tedu c a t ion .B e f o r eh eb e g ant ow r i t eabou tc in em a ,L ind s a yt r i ed h i sh anda tth ea r t l e c tu r e .Th e s e l e c tu r e st oo kp l a c e in1905 ,no tf a rf r omth e p e r f o rm an c e so ff r am e jump in gT r i lb y an a ,wh enh ew a ss t i l las tud en ta tth eN ewY o r k S choo lo fA r tf ound edb yW i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ,Rob e r tH en r iandF r an kA l v ah P a r son s .Th es tud en tno t eboo ka tth eP a r sonsa r ch i v er e v e a l sth a tL ind s a y l e c tu r edon anumb e ro ft op i c s(b e s id e sCh a s e ’ ss a r t o r i a lcunn in g ) .Tho s ef am i l i a rw i thL ind s a y ’ s f e rv en t ,m y s t i c a lAm e r i c an i smw i l lno tb esu rp r i s edt o l e a rnth a th i sf a v ou r i t esub j e c t w a sAm e r i c ana r t .E v enwh enh e l e c tu r edonBuddh i s ta r t( ano th e ro fh i se c l e c t i c 33 H i s l e c tu r eon in t e r e s t s ) ,h em an a g edt o in t e rp r e tBuddh i s tw o r ka sRoo s e v e l t i an . 54

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

th ep a in t e r , l e c tu r e randau tho ro fa r t edu c a t iont e x tboo k sJ ohnL aF a r g eb e t r a y sa y oun gL ind s a y in t e r e s t ed in im a g in in gf lu id i t yb e tw e ens t i l lp i c tu r e sand mo v in g sh adow s .H e in s t ru c t sth es tud en t st oe x am in eL aF a r g e ’ sTh eA s c en s i ono fOu rL o r da t th eChu r cho fth eA s c en s iononT en thS t r e e tno tf a rf r omCh a s e ’ ss tud io .L ik eagood mu s eumc op y i s t ,th es tud en ts k e t ch edL aF a r g e ’ sp a in t in g inh i sno t eboo kand anno t a t ed i tw i thL ind s a y ’ s in s t ru c t ion st ono t i c ehow ,wh i l eL aF a r g e ‘ c r ibb edf r omth e o ld m a s t e r s ’ , inh i sp a in t in g ‘ th esh adow sw e r eno tsod e ad ’ .Th e yg a v e ‘ r a th e rth e 34 F r omth es en s a t iono f mo t ion s en s a t iono fap a s s in gsh adowt ou ch in gth esu r f a c e ’ . inp a in t in gt oath eo r yo fp a in t in g in mo t ion ,L ind s a yr e v e l l ed inth e s e in t e rm ed i a l m e t apho r s .Th e s eb r i e fp a s s a g e sp l a c eL ind s a y inth e l e c tu r eh a l l ,su r r ound edb yth e s tud en t so fH en r iandP a r son s .Th i ss c en e ,t a k in gp l a c e inon eo fth e mo s t in f lu en t i a l andendu r in gsp a c e so fa r tedu c a t ion inth ec oun t r y ,o f f e r sac omp e l l in g l in kb e tw e en th ef an t a s i e so f l i v in gw o r k ina r t edu c a t iond i s c ou r s eandon eo fth ef i r s tboo k sth a t a t t emp t edt oth eo r i s eth e mo v in gp i c tu r ea s jump in gf r om ,and in t o ,th ef r am eo fa r t . L E JARENÀH I L LER ’ SNEVER -TO LDT A LE SO FASTUD IO T r i lb y an ap e r s i s t ed ,a f t e rDuM au r i e r ’ sd e a th , inf i lm sandp e r f o rm an c e so fth e1910 s . M an yo fth e s ead ap t a t ion s ,no tth e l e a s to fwh i chw a sM au r i c eT ou rn eu r ’ sp r odu c t ion f o rEqu i t ab l e /W o r ld in1915 ,c on t inu edt oc omb in eh aun t in gt ab l e au xandas t y l i s ed s e t t in gw i thsudd ensh i f t s inadd r e s s .Bu t i fth ea imh e r e(T ou rn eu rr e tu rn s ina l a t e r ch ap t e r ) i st oe s t ab l i shT r i lb y an a ’ sc onn e c t iont oth en e two r k so f i l lu s t r a t o r sand in s t i tu t ion so fa r tedu c a t ion ,th enth ec r e a t ionanda f t e r e f f e c t so fano th e r T r i l b ys t o r y d e s e rv ea t t en t ion .Th e l a r g e l yf o r go t t enf i lms e r i e sc r e a t edb yL e j a r enàH i l l e r , b e g inn in gw i thTh eS l e e po fC ym aR o g e tin1919 –20andc on t inu in gth r ou ghth eT r i a r t f i lm so fth ee a r l y20 sth a tb r ou gh tf amou sp a in t in g st o l i f e ,d emon s t r a t e sth ek ind so f e l abo r a t e( i fb r i e f )a l l i an c e sth a tc ou ldf o rmdu r in ga t t emp t st om a k e mo v i e s in t oa r t . Ino rd e rt om a k es en s eo fH i l l e r ’ sr i chande so t e r i cf i lm s i t i s imp e r a t i v et of i r s t und e r s t andth ec on t e x to fh i ss tud iopo r t r a i t sandh i ss t a g in go fth epo r t r a i ts tud io . H i l l e rw a sno taf i lm -m a k e rb yp r o f e s s ion .H ew a sac omm e r c i a lpho t o g r aph e r ,w i than a r t i s t i cr epu t a t ion ,who m ad eh i s l i v in gs t a g in gt ab l e au xf o r i l lu s t r a t ed m a g a z in e s .A m emb e ro fth eSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s ,h e i sb e s tknowna sap ion e e r inth esh i f tt o pho t o g r aph i c i l lu s t r a t ion .H ew a s ind eb t edG ib sonandDuM au r i e r ,and l i k eth emh e w a sob s e s s edw i thth es tud iosp a c ea saf an ta s t i ch i s t o r i c a ls e t t in gf i l l edw i thth et yp e s anda c t i v i t i e so fth etu rn -o f th e c en tu r ya r t i s t .H eon l yemb a r k edonh i sf i r s tf i lm p r o j e c ta f t e rh eh ade s t ab l i sh edh im s e l f , l i k eW i l l i am M e r r i tCh a s eb e f o r eh im ,b y m a r k e t in gth et r app in g sandw o r k in g so fh i ss tud iosp a c e .Bu twh e r e a sCh a s e c a t e go r i c a l l yr e j e c t eda e s th e t ec lown in g ,H i l l e rs t a g edh i ss tud iop r a c t i c e inp l a y fu l quo t a t iono fs tud iot yp e s .H i l l e ramp l i f i edth eboh em i an l i f e s t y l e mo c k edb y DuM au r i e randG ib son ,bu th ea l sot emp e r ed th e s ev i s ion sb yc on t inu a l l yshow c a s in g h i sc r a f ta sapho t o g r aph e randh i sab i l i t yt om an a g eap r odu c t i v ec omm e r c i a ls tud io .A c r i t i cf o rth eN ewY o r kT r i b un esumm edupth es en t im en tabou tH i l l e r ’ ss tud ioa r ound th et im eh eb e g an m a k in gf i lm swh enh ed e s c r ib edth epho t o g r aph e r ’ s ‘m y s t e r iou s ,y e t m e ch an i c a l l yp e r f e c td a r k r oom ’ ,a sap l a c eth a tc omb in ed ‘bu s in e s s ,c r a f t sm an sh ip , hum an in t e r e s t ,anda r t–at ru l yen t e r t a in in gspo t ’ .35 Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

55

H i l l e rpo s i n ga sap a i n t e rw i t h mod e l s i nh i sp ho to g r ap h ys t ud io(Co u r t e s yo fV i s u a lS t ud i e sW o r k s hop )

H i l l e rt r i edt o l i v eT r i l b yf r omh i ss tud en ty e a r sw e l l in t oth e1920 s .H i s s k e t chboo k sandd i a r i e sa say oun ga r ts tud en t inP a r i sr e ad l i k eanun c en so r edv e r s ion o fDuM au r i e r ’ sno v e l ,w i thd r aw in g so fc an c and an c e r s ,c a t s ing a r r e tap a r tm en t sand h i sa r t i s t ’ s -mod e lc omp an ionsmo k in g inb edo re x i t in gth eap a r tm en t inan i l l f i t t in g T r i lb y l i k et op c o a tona m i s s ion ,th ec ap t ionno t e s ,t of indc o c a in e .36H i sp e r f o rm an c e o fth i s l i f e s t y l e in1910 sG r e enw i chV i l l a g eg a in eda t t en t ionf o rh imandh i ss tud io , andon eo fh i sr e a ls k i l l sw a sh i sab i l i t yt or e c a s th i s1890 sL a t inQu a r t e r s t y l ee x c e s s e s a sf a sh ion ab l ee c c en t r i c i t i e so fth eem e r g in gwh i t e c o l l a rc r e a t i v ec l a s s . Wh enH i l l e r w a sno tm a k in gt ab l e au xf o rm a g a z in e s ,h epho t o g r aph edhund r ed so f mod e l sand show c a s edh i ss tud iof o ran in t e r e s t edpub l i c .M od e l sd eb r i e f edth ep r e s sw i th ‘ t ru e 37 W e a l th ywom enpo s edf o rh ims e ek in g s t o r i e s ’o fth ep r o f e s s ion a l i smo fh i ss tud io . bo thso c i a lno t o r i e t yandpo s s ib l ec omm e r c i a lsu c c e s s inad v e r t i s in go rth ec in em a .38 H i l l e ra c t i v e l yp a r t i c ip a t ed inth e s ea c t i v i t i e s .H ew a sknownt odonc o s tum e sand jump in t oth ef r am ew i thh i s mod e l s . Wh enan i l lu s t r a t o r ’ st r ad e jou rn a lo rn ew sp ap e r d e c id edt oruna r t i c l e sabou th i ss tud iosp a c e ,h eo f t ens t a g edh i sowns e l f -po r t r a i t .H e sho th im s e l fw i thfu l ls tud io l i gh t in gandsom e t im e sw i thp r op s .I fa lon e ,h ewou ld s t and ina j aun t ypo s tu r ew i thasm i r k ,w i thh i sg a z et oth es id eands l e e v e sr o l l edup , r e ad yf o rwo r k .I f in lon gsho t ,h ewou lds t a g eh im s e l f inat ab l e auo fth ea r t i s ta two r k 56

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w i thth e mod e l inth es tud io .A f t e rsp end in gs e v e r a ld a y sb r ow s in gth epho t o g r aph s andn ew sp ap e r i l lu s t r a t ion s inH i l l e r ’ sa r ch i v e ,on er e a l i s e sth ed i f f i cu l t y ind r aw in ga c l e a r l in eb e tw e enth et yp e so fs e l f -p r e s en t a t ion inth en ew sp ap e ra r t i c l e sabou tH i l l e r andth epho t o g r aph s inwh i chh epo s edw i thh i s mod e l s . W i thh i sf i r s tf i lm ,wh i chh ep r odu c ed l a r g e l yw i thh i sown mon e yandth eh e lpo fa bo r r ow edg r oupo fV i t a g r apha c t o r s ,H i l l e re xp and edth epub l i cr epu t a t iono fh i s s tud iosp a c e in t oth eedu c a t ion a lsph e r e .H es a y s inh i sp r opo s a lf o rth ef i lm s ‘ th e who l ep lo t i s l a ida r oundana r t i s t ’ s l i f eandth em a jo r i t yo fth es c en e sa r et ob e l a id in th es tud ioth a tI l i v ed ina t151w23 rdS tf o re i gh ty e a r s .T o in c o rpo r a t e in t oth i s s ch em ewh a t e v e re xp e r i en c e so r in c id en t so fan y in t e r e s tth a tm i gh ts e emf i tth a t o c cu r r edt om ed i r e c t l yo r ind i r e c t l ya sana r ts tud en tf o rth e l a s t25y e a r s . ’H e l i s t sh i s owne xp e r i en c e s inth e23 rdS t r e e ts tud ioa sr aw m a t e r i a lf o rth ef i lm s : ‘Th eH indu s l i gh to fh andp e r f o rm e rwhou s edt oc om ea r ound .Comm i t t e em e e t in g so fth e So c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s .F en c in g ,andar e a ldu e l .A sm an yw e l l knowna r t i s t sa spo s s ib l e 39 shou ldb e in t r odu c ed . ’ Th es c en e sh ed e s c r ib e sa l t e rn a t eb e tw e enth es en s a t ion a land th ep r a c t i c a l ,b e tw e enboh em i an m e lod r am aand m e e t in g so fw e l l knowna r t i s t sand p r o f e s s ion a la r t sc omm i t t e em emb e r s .Som e t im e s i t i sd i f f i cu l tt od i s t in gu i shwh i ch c am ef i r s t .F en c in gm a t ch e s ,du e l sand m a g i c i an sc ou ldb ef ound ju s ta se a s i l y inth e f i c t ion so fth es tud ioa s inH i l l e r ’ sm emo i r s . Th er e su l to fth i se xp e r im en t ,wh i chsu rv i v e son l y inf r a gm en t s ,w a sr e l e a s ed und e raf ewd i f f e r en tn am e sth a tr e f l e c tth i sc omb in a t iono fm e sm e r i s tf an t a s yand s tud iodo cum en t .I tw a sf i r s tc a l l edTh eS l e e po fC ym aR o g e t,th en Th eD e v i l ’ sAn g e l. C r i t i c sf o rth eN ewY o r kT im e s, M o v in gP i c t u r eW o r l dandW i d ’ sD a i l yp r e f e r r edth e 40 F a rf r omb e in gan e v e r t o ldt a l e ,th ef i lm mu s t s e r i e st i t l e :N e v e r t o l dT a l e so faS t u d i o. h a v es e em edqu i t ef am i l i a rt om an yv i ew e r s .I tc l e a r l yr e c y c l edT r i l b y,r e tu rn in gt oth e s t e r eo t yp e sandp lo t l in e sg en e r a t edb yDuM au r i e randG ib son .Ay oun ga r t i s t ’ s mod e l , C ym a , mo v e s in t oas tud iosp a c eo c cup i edb yth r e ea r ts tud en t s .A s inT r i l b y,th e s e y oun gm ent r yt oh e lph e re s c ap eth e in f lu en c eo faS v en g a l i l i k e ‘H indoos c i en t i s t ’ ,a m e sm e r i s twhoc om e sou to fth em y s t e r iou sE a s t ,who s e in f lu en c ep l a gu e sh e re v en a f t e rh i sd e a th .M an yo fth et ab l e au x , inth i sf i lms t ru c tu r eda sas e r i e so ft ab l e au x ,so r e s emb l edT r i l b yth a tth e yc ou ldh a v eb e enu s eda s i l lu s t r a t ion sf o rDuM au r i e r ’ sboo k . Th ep l a y fu lhomo so c i a ls c en e s inwh i chth ea r t i s t ’ s mod e lpo s e sf o rth eth r e ey oun g a r t i s t s(on eo fwhomw a sp l a y edb yH i l l e rh im s e l f ) ,and inwh i chth e ym a k eh e rab ed onth ef loo rn e x tt oth e i rt r ip l e -d e c k e rbun kb eds t r on g l ye v o k eth ep l a y fu ls c en e s b e tw e enT r i lb yandth et r ioo fy oun ga r ts tud en t s i l lu s t r a t edt o g e th e r inth eno v e la s ‘ th eth r e e mu s k e t e e r so fth eb ru sh ’ .Th ec l im a c t i ct ab l e au xm i r r o r sT r i lb y ’ sd e a th s c en e .W i th in f lu en c eth a tc on t inu e sb e y ondth eg r a v e ,th eo r i en t a l i s ed m e sm e r i s t , l i k eS v en g a l i ,r end e r sC ym aun c on s c iou s .On l yH i l l e rr e v e r s edT r i l b y ’st r a g i cend in g , h a v in gth ea r t i s t se f f e c t i v e l yr e su r r e c tth e mod e lands a v eh e rf r omap r em a tu r eg r a v e . I ft i t l in gth ef i lmTh eS l e e po fC ym aR o g e temph a s i s e sth eh aun t in g in f lu en c eo fth e m e sm e r i s t ,r e f e r r in gt o i ta sth ef i r s t inas e r i e so fN e v e r t o l dT a l e so faS t u d i oind i c a t e s wh a tH i l l e rund e r s t ood ,a sw i thT r i l b y,t ob e i t s mo r eun iqu ev a lu e .H ed i s t in gu i sh ed h im s e l fa sanou t s id e rt oc in em a ,c l a im in g inan in t e rv i ewth a th a v in gsp en t mo r et im e inp a in t e r ’ ss tud io sth an inf i lms tud io sm ad eh imp a r t i cu l a r l ysu i t edt ob r in gth i s w o r ld in t o mo t ionp i c tu r e s . ‘N e v e rb e f o r eh a sth er e a l“ a tmo sph e r e ”o fth ep a in t e r ’ s s tud iob e enr e v e a l ed inth ep i c tu r ep l a y .Th eab s en c eo fe xp e r i en c eandf i r s t -h and Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

57

T h eS l e epo fC ym aR o g e t(1920 )(Co u r t e s yo fV i s u a lS t ud i e sW o r k s hop )

in f o rm a t iononth ep a r to fd i r e c t o r swh oh a v eh e r e t o f o r ee s s a y edt od ep i c ts tud io l i f e h a sm ad e i t impo s s ib l ef o rth emt oa c c omp l i shth i sob j e c tw i tht ru thands in c e r i t y . ’41I t i sn oe x a g g e r a t iont os a yth a th e in t end edth ef i lma sak indo fd io r am ao fas tud io .N o t on l yd idh e in t e g r a t eth es am ep r op su s ed inh i so ldwo r k in gs tud io ,h ea l so in t e g r a t ed th esp a c e i t s e l f .H eh adr e c en t l ym o v edup t own ,t oamu ch l a r g e rs tud io ,a f t e rf in a l l y e c l a r in gh i sn ew d e c id in gt ot a k eapo s i t i onw i thUnd e rw o odandUnd e rw ood .42D c o rpo r a t esp a c et oh a v eanun su i t ab l em i s eens c èn ef o rth ep r o j e c t ,H i l l e rbu i l t in s id e i ta d e t a i l edr ep l i c ao fh i sf o rm e rs tud i ot ob eu s eda sth em a ins e t t in gf o rh i ss e r i e s . A sm e t i cu lou sa sH i l l e rw a s inh i spu r su ito fa c cu r a t ed e t a i l ,th ef in a lf i lm loo k ed un l i k ean ypu r e l y in f o rm a t ion a ld i a g r am .L i k eo th e rT r i l b yad ap t a t ion s , in c lud in g T ou rn eu r ’ sw e l l r e c e i v edp r odu c t ion ,H i l l e r ’ sf i lmb e t r a y san in t e r e s t ind é c o rwo r th y o fas e td e s i gn e rf o rS ymbo l i s tth e a t r eanda m a s t e r yo f l i gh t in gande xpo su r e in l e a gu ew i thP i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph e r s .A san i l lu s t r a t o r ,h ew a sknownf o rb r in g in ga r t pho t o g r aph y ,w i th i t sp i c t o r i a lm i s eens c èn eand ‘R emb r and t l i gh t in g ’ ,t o 43 Inh i sf i lm ,o v e r e xpo s ed ad v e r t i s em en t s inC o sm o p o l i t anandL a d i e s ’H om eJ o u rn a l. w indow s ,ch i a r o s cu r oandh e a v ya s ymm e t r i c a lb l ind sc r e a t eam i s eens c èn eth a ta v id l y d i sp l a y s i t sp l a s t i c i t y ,andthu s i t sc onn e c tiont oth eo th e ra r t s .I t i sp r e c i s e l yth e s e qu a l i t i e sth a tm a k eH i l l e rsu char e v e a l in gs yn th e s i s e ro fth et r ad i t ion sandcu l tu r a l 58

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

t r op e sou t l in edabo v e .InH i l l e r ’ sf i lm ,a s inh i s l i f e ,th ech r on i c l e so fth ea r ts tud ioand p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionw o r kt o g e th e r .Th es et t in gandth em e so fth es t o r ys e em edt o au tho r i s eano rn am en t a lp i c t o r i a ls t y l eth a td r aw sa t t en t iont o i t s e l fa sac ompo s i t ion . C r i t i c ss awth i sc ompo s i t iona sano th e rgu a r an t o ro fs k i l l .44I tcomp l em en t edh i s c l a im s ,no tun l i k eG ib son ’ sandDuM au r i e r ’ s ,t oh a v eknow l ed g eo fth e inn e rwo r k in g s o fth esp a c e swh e r ea r t i s t s l e a rnandp r a c t i s eth e i rc r a f t . I fC ym aR o g e t ’ sp i c t o r i a ls t y l eandc onn e c t iont oth em e sm e r i s in gp i c tu r e so f T r i lb y an a i sno tenou ght oc on f i rmhow mu chH i l l e rf l aun t ed i t sc r e a t i v e an a ch r on i sm s , i t se xh ib i t ionh i s t o r ysu r e l y i s .H i l l e rc on t r a c t edth er o ad show d i s t r ibu t o rC l a r k -Co rn e l iu st or e l e a s eth ef i lm ,ands e v e r a l l i v ep e r f o rm e r st r a v e l l ed w i th i t .H e l enG a rdn e r ,who s er o l ea sC ym ac am ea tth eendo fas t r on gc a r e e rw i thth e V i t a g r aphComp an y ,app e a r edons t a g et o in t r odu c eth ef i lm inP o t t s v i l l e ,PA .Sh ew a s in t r odu c edb yap r om in en t lo c a lpub l i sh e r ,whoa l soa r r an g edaso c i e t ye v en tt o c omp l em en tth es c r e en in g ,a twh i chon eo fh e rgown sf r omth ef i lmw a sond i sp l a y .I t w a sp e rh ap sh e r in v o l v em en t inth er o adshowth a tp r omp t edE x h i b i t o r ’ sT r a d eR e v i ew 45 Th eo th e rm a ina c t o r t od e emth ee xh ib i t iono fth ef i lmt ob e ‘ a lon gh i ghc l a s s l in e s ’ . inth ef i lm ,P e g g yO ’N e i l ,w en tas t epfu r th e rth anG a rdn e randp e r f o rm edanen t r ’ a c t e inwh i chsh ed ep i c t ed ‘ anumb e ro ff amou sa r tw o r k s ’a st ab l e au xv i v an t s .Th er o ad showa l sof e a tu r edas ep a r a t eg r oupo fa r t i s t ’ s mod e l swhop e r f o rm ed ‘popu l a rpo s e s ’ ina ‘ s tud ios c en e ’ .I fan y on e inth eaud i en c ed idno tg e tth a tth ef i lm in t end edt o r e v i t a l i s e in t e rm ed i a lp e r f o rm an c et r ad i t ion sf r omth ed a y so fe a r l yc in em a ino rd e r h e lpth emapp r e c i a t esom e th in gabou tth eo th e ra r t s ,th e l i v ep r o lo gu e sanden t r ’ a c t e s w ou ldh a v ec o r r e c t edth i sc on fu s ion .A sh ed i v e r t edh i sa t t en t ionf r ompho t o g r aph yt o f i lm ,th et r op e so fth em y tho lo g i s eds tud io ,th et ab l e auv i v an t ,th ea t t r a c t iono fth e a r two r kc om et o l i f e ,a l ls e emt oa cqu i r ean ewv i t a l i t y inH i l l e r ’ swo r k .Comp a r edw i th t yp i c a lf e a tu r ef i lme xh ib i t ion ,e v enw i thth e mo r ee l abo r a t er o adshow s ,th e e xh ib i t ions t r a t e g yf o rth i sf i lmf r am ed i ta sak indo fr e tu rnt oth etho s ep e r f o rm e r s o fa r t i s t ’ s s tud ios c en e swhos imu l t an eou s l ypopu l a t edth ev a r i e t ys t a g eandth epub l i c l e c tu r ec i r cu i t inth ee a r l yy e a r so f mo v in gp i c tu r e s . I fsu chth em a t i cob s e s s ion sande xh ib i t ions t r a t e g i e ss e emou to fp l a c e ins i l en t f i lmh i s t o r y , i t i sth i sm i s f i tth a to f f e r sar a r ep e r sp e c t i v eonth ecu l tu r a lt e r r a ino fa r t c in em aa tth et im e .H i l l e r ’ sf o r a y in t oa r tf i lm -m a k in gd idno tc on s t i tu t eac a r e e rsh i f t , bu tac on s c iou se f f o r to fsom eon ewhof r am edh im s e l f ,p r odu c t i v e l y ,a sanou t s id e rt o th ef i lm indu s t r y .H eemp lo y edas im i l a rb a t t e r yo fp i c t o r i a lt e chn iqu e sa sp r e s t i g e f i lm -m a k e r s ,bu th i sp r o f e s s ion a la f f i l i a t io n so v e r l app ed l i t t l ew i thc a r e e rf i lm -m a k e r s o fth et im e .Ande a cho fth e s ea f f i l i a t ion sw e r en e c e s s a r yt opu l lo f fth esp e c i f i ck indo f amb i t iou sc r o s s -m ed i ac on v e r g en c eh eh ad in m indf o rth es e r i e s .H i l l e rth e pho t o g r aph e rc r e a t edc omm e r c i a lpho t o g r aph su s in gR emb r and t l i gh t in ganda e s th e t i c c o s tum e sandp r op s .H i l l e rth ec r e a t i v e c l a s sspo k e sm ane f f e c t i v e l yc r a f t edap e r son a th a tm e r g edboh em i ant ypo lo g yw i thth et r app in g so fth ep r o f e s s ion a l .H i l l e rth ef i lm m a k e rc omb in edf a sh ion ab l ep i c t o r i a ls t yl i s a t ionw i thado cum en to fth ewo r k sp a c e . H i ss t i l lpo r t r a i t sw e r ef in i sh edc ompo s i t ion s inwh i chth es tud iosp a c ew a s t r an s f o rm edb ych i a r o s cu r o in t oac omm e r c i a l l ypo l i sh edp i c t o r i a l i sm .H i sf i lmr e v e l l ed ins t y l i s ed im a g e swh i l ea tth es am et im er e v e a l in gth ec r a f tb eh indth epo l i sh .I t i l lum in a t edth eb a c k s t a g eo fth es tud ioa sap i c t o r i a l i s tsp a c eo ff an t a s y ,bu ta l soa s w o r k sp a c eandedu c a t ion a lsp a c e ,p l a c in gh i ss tud io in t oc on t a c tw i ths tud io so f Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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d i f f e r en tt im e sandt r ad i t ion s .Th i ss t r a t e g ys e rv eda sat emp l a t ef o rh i ss e r i e so f edu c a t ion a lf i lm s . TR IARTP ICTURECOMPANY :FROMTR I LBYANATOARTH I STORY Th eS l e e po fC ym aR o g e tw a sm ad eund e rth eau sp i c e so fo r g an i s a t ion son l yob l iqu e l y c onn e c t edt oth ef i lm indu s t r y ,andso i tshou ldno th a v esu rp r i s ede v e r y on e in v o l v ed th a t i tc r e a t ed i t ss t i rp r im a r i l yamon gtho s eo r g an i s a t ion s .DuM au r i e rd idno t l i v e lon genou ght os e eH i l l e r ’ st a k eonh i ss t o r y ,bu tG ib sond idandw a sth r i l l edw i thth e r e su l t .Ina l e t t e rt oH i l l e ra f t e rth ep r em i e r eo fth ef i lm ,G ib sonc omm end sH i l l e r ’ s ‘know l ed g eo fc ompo s i t ion , l i gh tandsh adow ’andh i s ‘ a t t en t iont oa c c e s so r i e sand ib son ’ s l e t t e r , l a t e r d e t a i l s ’ ,th ank in gh imonb eh a l fo fth eSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s .46InG m en t ion eda son eo fth ef i lm ’ s l au r e l s inth eN ewY o r kT im e sr e v i ew ,h e ind i c a t e sth a t p i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c s ,c omb in edw i thad e t a i l edm i s eens c èn eo fth ea r t i s t ’ swo r k sp a c e , c anfu r th e rth e in t e r e s t so fth ep r o f e s s ion a lo r g an i s a t iono fwh i chbo thh eandH i l l e r w e r em emb e r s .A sp r e s id en to fth eSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s ,G ib sonv o lun t e e r edt os e rv e onac omm i t t e eth a tw ou ldo f f e rth e in s t i tu t ion a lsuppo r tandgu id an c en e ed edt o r e a l i s eH i l l e r ’ sf i lms e r i e s .Th eSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r sw a sno tth eon l yo r g an i s a t ion th a t loo k edf a v ou r ab l yonth epo s s ib i l i t yo fana r t f i lms e r i e sb yH i l l e r .G ib sonw a s jo in edb yth ep r e s id en t so fth eN a t ion a lS cu lp tu r eSo c i e t y ,th eN a t ion a lA c ad em yo f D e s i gnandth eM e t r opo l i t an Mu s eumo fA r t .R ep r e s en t in gth ebu s in e s so fth eapp l i ed a r t s ,Lou i sC .T i f f an ya g r e edt or oundou tth ec omm i t t e e .Th ec ompo s i t iono fth e c omm i t t e ep e r f e c t l ych a r a c t e r i s e sth ep r o f e s s ion a ls t r e am l in in go fa r td i s cu s s ed inth e in t r odu c t iont oth i sboo kand ine a r l ys e c t ion so fth i sch ap t e r .Th i scu l tu r a lau tho r i t y w ou ldv o t eonas e r i e so fp a in t in g s ,andH i l l e rw ou ldd e s i gnt ab l e au xth a twou ld 47 c ap tu r eth esp i r i tandsom eo fth eh i s t o r yo fth eo r i g in a lwo r k s . W i thth esuppo r to fth e s e in s t i tu t ion a l l e ad e r s ,H i l l e rb r o k e r edad e a lw i th p r odu c e rI s s a cW o lp e rt of indth eb e s taud i en c ef o rth es e r i e s .Th ef in an c i a lb a c k in g w ou ldc om e l a r g e l yf r omLon gI s l anda r tp a t r on ,V e r aRo y e r .Th eon l yr e a l mod i f i c a t iont oH i l l e r ’ s in i t i a lv i s ionw a sth a tth es e r i e swou ldb e mo r ed i r e c t l y edu c a t ion a landh i s t o r i c a lth anN e v e r t o l dT a l e s. W o lp e rkn ewth a tth e s ef i lm swou ld dob e s tt o inh ab i tp e r iph e r a lm a r k e t s .H ef ound edT r i a r tP i c tu r eComp an yt oc a t e rt o tho s esp e c i f i cp r odu c t ionand m a r k e t in gn e ed s .A sedu c a t ion a lsho r t s ,th e yc ou ld supp l em en tap r o g r amm ew i thaf e a tu r eth a th ada r t i s t i camb i t ion s ,o rth e yc ou ldp l a y onth e i rown ina l t e rn a t i v ev enu e s .W o lp e rs awth epo s s ib i l i t yo fa lon ga f t e r l i f ef o rth e f i lm s inth e s esp a c e s . ‘ I t i saf a c tth a tth e r ea r etw i c eth enumb e ro fp r o j e c t in g m a ch in e s inth enon th e a t r i c a lf i e ld s( s choo l s ,chu r ch e s ,c lub s )th anth eth e a t e r .W e a r ec on f id en tth a tth e r e i sad em andf o rsu chp i c tu r e swh e r e v e rth e r e i sap r o j e c t in g o t in t end edt or e a cha m a s saud i en c ea ton c e ,th ef i lm sc ou ldc i r cu l a t e m a ch in e . ’48N w id e l yo v e rt im eandc ou ldp r o v id eo c c a s ion sf o rp r o f e s s ion a lso c i e t i e st oop en 49 ch ann e l so fen g a g em en tw i thaw id e rpub l i c . Th ep r odu c t ionande xh ib i t iono fth e s e f i lm sc ou ldb ea l sopub l i c i s eda sso c i e t yin t e l l e c tu a le v en t s .H i l l e rh im s e l fsuppo r t ed th i s mo v e inth ed i r e c t iono fedu c a t ion a lup l i f t . ‘ Ishou ldh e lpf am i l i a r i z ep eop l ew i th f amou sp a in t in g s ;c r e a t eat a s t ef o rb e t t e rth in g s ; insho r t ,b r in gA r tw i thac ap i t a lAt o 50 th em a s s e s . ’ 60

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

T oen su r eth a tth ef o rm a to fth es e r i e sw a sno tpu l l ed int oo m an yd i r e c t ion sb y th ev a r iou s in t e r e s t s in v o l v ed ,e a chp r o j e c tw ou ldn e edt ob ec on s i s t en tw i thth e o th e r s ins t y l eand l en g thandw ou ldt r ywh e r epo s s ib l et oemp lo yac ommonc r e a t i v e t e am( amon gth emH e rb e r tB l a ch éand M a r yA s t o r ) .E a chwou ldb etwor e e l s lon gand w ou ldf o l lowth es am ef o rm a t ;th em i s eens c èn eo fth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud iosp a c ewou ld f r am eand /o rf o rmth ec en t r ef o re a chf i lm .Th eT r i a r tf i lm swou ldb r in gm a s t e rp i e c e s t oth em a s s e sb yb r in g in gth em a s s e s in t oth ew o r k sp a c e .Th ef i lm swou ldr e ad ,th an k s t oH i l l e r ’ sp i c t o r i a l l ys t y l i s eds t a g in gand l i gh t in g ,a sequ a lp a r t sa r t l e c tu r eanda r t f i lm .A sRo y e re xp l a in edt oh e rhom e t ownp ap e r , ‘Wh yno tu s eth ewond e r fu l l i gh t in g e f f e c t sth a th a v eb e end e v e lop ed in mo v i e st og e tp eop l et oapp r e c i a t eth e l i gh t in gand 51 E a chf i lm inth eT r i a r ts e r i e sen a c t edth i sc omb in a t ion th ec o lo r in gth a ta r t i s t su s e ’ ? o fa r t -h i s t o r i c a lc on t en tandp ed a go g i c a ls t y l i s a t ion .Th e ye a chb e g anw i thasho to f th ep a in t in gande xp l an a t o r y in t e r t i t l eth a tfun c t ion ed l i k ea mu s eumc ap t ion l ab e l andth ene xp lo r edap i c t o r i a l i s tf an t a s ysp a c ea sth e l i v in gs t o r yem e r g edf r omth e p a in t in g .A sth ep a in t in g in sp i r eds t o r yc am et oac lo s e ,e a chf i lmend ed inaf in a l t ab l e auth a ttu rn eda t t en t ionb a c kt oth eo r i g in a lp a in t in g .Th e yp r o v id edf r am e jump in ga r t i s t ’ ss tud iof i lm sf o rano th e rg en e r a t iono fv i ew e r s .Th ef i lm s loo k edb a c k t oth eab so rb in gf an t a s i e so f l i f eem e r g in gf r omap i c tu r ea sw e l la st oth eedu c a t ion a l d im en s iono fth e s ef an t a s i e s .Th ef i r s tand l a s tf i lm s inth es e r i e sa r eth e mo s t r em a r k ab l e inth i sr e g a rd . Th eT r i a r tad v i so r yc omm i t t e ew ou ld l i k e l yno th a v es e l e c t edEdw a rdBu rn e J on e s ’ sK in gC o p h e t u aan dt h eB e g g a rM a i df o rH i l l e r ’ sf i r s tf i lm i fth ego a lw e r et ob r in g f i v eo fth e mo s t impo r t an tp a in t in g s ,f r omth een t i r eh i s t o r yo fa r t ,b e f o r ef i lm v i ew e r s .Th echo i c er e f l e c t sa mo r ec omp l e xn e go t i a t ionamon gsuppo r t e r sanda c a r e fu la t t en t iont oth ek ind so fp a in t in g sb e s tsu i t edt oana r tf i lmd e s i gn edt ob r in g th emt o l i f e .Th ec omm i t t e echo s ew o r k sth e yb e l i e v edwou ld l endth em s e l v e st oth e m i s s iono fa e s th e t i cedu c a t ionth r ou gh mo v in gp i c tu r e s ,andt ow a rd sth i sgo a l i ts e em s th a tawo r k ’ sc anon i c a ls t a tu sw a s l e s s impo r t an tth an i t st e a ch ab i l i t y . Wh a tK in g C o p h e t u aan dt h eB e g g a rM a i dm a yh a v e l a c k ed incu l tu r a lc ap i t a l inane r aad ju s t in gt o mod e rna r t , i tm ad eupf o r in i t ssu i t ab i l i t yf o ra r t edu c a t ion a lc in em a .Bu rn e -J on e s andh i sc i r c l efu s eda r tand l i f e inac omp e l l in gw a y .Th er i chb io g r aph i c a ld e t a i l so fth i s c i r c l e ,th eP r e -R aph a e l i t eB r o th e rhood ,m ad ef o rane x c ep t ion a l in t e rm ed i a ls t o r y ,a s d idth ef a c tth a tT enn y sonandSh a k e sp e a r eh ade a chw r i t t env e r s ion so fth es t o r y .Th e p i c t o r i a l i smo fth eP r e -R aph a e l i t e sh adpo s s ib l yf a l l enf r omf a sh ion inth ea r two r ld , bu tf i lm sth a ta sp i r edt oa r ta tth i st im ew e r es t i l l l a r g e l yp i c t o r i a l i s t .And i fsom eP r e R aph a e l i t e sw e r ep a r t l yun f a sh ion ab l eb e c au s eo fth es lopp in e s so fth e i rc r a f t ,Bu rn e J on e sw a san impo r t an te x c ep t ion .Comp a r edw i thD an t eG ab r i e lRo s e t t i ,Bu rn e -J on e s c ou lda t l e a s tbo a s tana t t en t iont ot e chn iqu eandas tud iod i s c ip l in ep e r f e c tf o raf i lm d e s i gn edt ot e a cha e s th e t i c sb yshow in gth e in s id eo fth es tud iosp a c e .Un l i k eo th e r s in h i sc i r c l eh e in c o rpo r a t edc r a f tt e chn iqu e sf r omth ed e c o r a t i v ea r t s ,su cha sth er a i s ed s cu lp tu r a lbod i e sandgo ldg e s so inC u p i d ’ sH un t in gF i e l d s(1882 ) .H ew a sth e mo s ta r t h i s t o r i c a l l ym ind edo fth eP r e -R aph a e l i t e s ,w i thana t t en t iont oth et e chn iqu e so fe a r l y R en a i s s an c ea r tth a ta r t l e c tu r e r semph a s i s ed .Th es e l e c t iono fP r e -R aph a e l i t ea r tf o r i t sa c c e s s ib i l i t yand i t ss t o r i e sandBu rn e -J on e sf o rh i ss tud ioc r a f tm ad es en s ef o rth e in au gu r a lf i lmo fth es e r i e s .I tc ou ldw o r ka sana r tf i lmf o rc r i t i c a lv i ew e r s ,a san edu c a t ion a lf i lmf o raw id e rpub l i canda saw o r ksu i t ab l ew i th inth eso c i a lw o r ldo f Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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b a c k e r so fth es e r i e s .I t i st e l l in gth a ta l lo fth e s ef a c t o r sc am et o g e th e r inth ef i lm ’ s p r em i e r e .Ro y e r ,a lon gw i thf e l lowa r tp a t r on W i l l i amB r oo k s ,ho s t edth ef i lm ’ s p r em i e r ea sa m e e t in go fp r om in en ta r t i s t sandedu c a t o r s .52 Th ef i lmth a tp r em i e r eda tth i sso c i e t ye v en te s t ab l i sh edth es t ru c tu r eo fth ef i lm s inth es e r i e s– inwh i ch l i v in gch a r a c t e r sem e r g ef r omandr e tu rntoaf amou sp a in t in g , a sat ab l e auv i v an ts e t in mo t ion .Th ee f f e c t so fe a r l yc in em am e r g ew i thab so rb in g p i c t o r i a ls t y l eandth ed i sp l a yo faf amou ss tud iosp a c ef r omth ef i r s ts c en e .F o l low in g an im a g eo fth ep a in t in gande xp l an a to ryt i t l e ,th es c en eop en s inBu rn e -J on e s ’ so f t en 53 A l a r g ec a rv edo akt ab l eo c cup i e sth e sk e t ch ed ,p a in t edandpho to g r aph edp a r lou r . c en t r eo fth er oomandanou t s id e l i gh tc a s t ssh adow so fb r an ch e sandth e l e ad edg l a s s onth er e a rw a l l .H e r eBu rn e -J on e sr e ad sT enn y son ’ s ‘Th eB e g g a rM a id ’anden v i s ion s h i sp a in t in g inth em ann e ro fso m an yp r o j e c t ed ,s t e r eo s cop i c ,o rs t a g eda r t i s t s ’ d r e am s .Ano v e r l apd i s so l v et r an s i t ion sf r omacon t emp l a t i v eBu rn e -J on e stoa l i v in g p i c tu r eo fth ep a in t in g .Bu rn e -J on e sw a sknownf o rf i gu r in ga e s th e t i cab so rp t iona s t r an c eo ra ss l e ep ,an in t e r e s tth a tf i t t edw e l lw i thH i l l e r ’ s in t e r e s t inT r i lb y an a .H i l l e r b e g in sh i ss e r i e sw i that ab l e auo fBu rn e -J on e sh im s e l f inas t a t eo ft r an c e l ik e ab so rp t ionth a te v en tu a l l yp r odu c e sap i c tu r e .A l lo fth i sp r e c ed e sth e in t r odu c t iono f th ech a r a c t e r s .B e f o r eth es to ryb e g in s ,th ef i lmp r e s en t sth ep a in t in g i t s e l f ,th enan im a g eo fth ea r t i s tab so rb ed inh i swo rk ,th enth ep a in t in gcom eto l i f e .I tr e tu rn sto th ef r am e jump in gt r i ck so fe a r l yc in em aa saw a ytot e a chth epub l i chowto app r e c i a t ea r t . Th ef i lm ’ sn a r r a t i v ef o l low sac r o s s c l a s sr om an c eb e tw e enth etw o mod e l swhos i t f o rth eb e g g a rm a idp a in t in g .Bu rn e -J on e s ’ ss tud iothu ss e rv e sa sth ep r im a r ys e t t in g f o rth es t o r y ,wh i l eh i sw o r ks e rv e sa sth em a inp lo tc a t a l y s t .H i l l e rs t a g edth ec l im a c t i c s c en e inth es tud iowh e r eth etwoy oun g lo v e r sf r omd i f f e r en tso c i a lwo r ld sa r e b r ou gh tt o g e th e rt opo s e .Th ef in a lt ab l e au ,announ c edb yth e in t e r t i t l e ‘ th ewo r ko f th em a s t e r ’ ,a r r an g e sa r t i s t , mod e l s ,p a in t in gandb eho ld e r inad yn am i cc ompo s i t ion . Th epoo r mod e l ’ sgu a rd i an l a y sh i sw o r r i e sabou th e rr e l a t ion sh ipt or e s twh enh es e e s th ec oup l e ,po s eda sK in gCoph e tu aandth eb e g g a rm a id ,b e in gp a in t edb yBu rn e J on e s .Th i s i sth ef i r s tt im eth egu a rd i an ,andth ev i ew e r ,s e eth ep a in t in g .Th es t a g in g m a k e s i tun c e r t a inwh e th e rh e i s loo k in ga tth e mod e lo ra tth ep a in t in go fh e r .H i l l e r s t a g e sth et ab l e aup r e c i s e l yt om a k e i tapp e a rth a th es e e sh e rth r ou ghth ew o r ko fth e p a in t e r .Inth i sc l im a c t i cs c en e ,th eedu c a t ion a landd r am a t i cc ompon en t so fth ef i lm c on v e r g eonth ep r odu c t iono fth ew o r k .Th es am eb ru shs t r o k e sth a tc omp l e t eth e h i s t o r i c a lwo r ka l soc omp l e t eth ef o rm a t iono fth er om an t i cc oup l e . Th eT r i a r ts e r i e ss e em edt og r ow inamb i t ionands c op ew i the a chn ewf i lm .Th e y b e g ant o mo v eb a c kandf o r thf r omth ep a s tt oth ep r e s en t ,andf r omth eo ldwo r ldt o th en ew .Th e l a s ts e l e c t ionw a sb yf a rth er i ch e s t inth i sr e g a rd .W i th i t sown s i gn i f i c an th i s t o r y inth eU SA ,and i t sr e f l e x i v eth em e so fa r t i s tandsub j e c t ,P o r t r a i to f aY o un gA r t i s t ,thou gh ta tth et im et ob ep a in t edb yR emb r and tv anR i jn ,p l a y ed d i r e c t l yt oth eT r i a r tc omm i t t e e ’ s in t e r e s t sandt oH i l l e r ’ ss t r en g th s .L i k em an y p a in t in g sso lda sR emb r and t s inth en in e t e en thc en tu r y ,P o r t r a i to faY o un gA r t i s th a s s in c eb e ena t t r ibu t edt oaf o l low e ro fR emb r and t .Inth ee a r l ytw en t i e thc en tu r y , how e v e r ,th i sp a in t in gw a ss t i l laR emb r and t ,andon eo fc on s id e r ab l er epu t a t ion . O th e rR emb r and tp a in t in g sr e c e i v ed mo r ec r i t i c a lp r a i s e ,bu tth i swo r kh ad i t sown c l a imt oc e l eb r i t yb e c au s eo fth ec i r cum s t an c e so f i t sa cqu i s i t ion .H en r yC l a yF r i c kh ad 62

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F i n a lt ab l e a uf romT h eB e g g a rM a i d(1921 )(Co u r t e s yo fG eo r g eE a s tm a nHo u s e , I n t e rn a t io n a lM u s e umo fP ho to g r ap h y a ndF i lm )

pu r ch a s edth ep a in t in gf o r$38 ,000 ,m o v in g i tf r om i t sp r e v iou shom e inth ec a s t l eo fa Y o r k sh i r ee a r lt oh i sh om e inP i t t sbu r g .F r i c kw a se a g e rt ot r an s l a t eh i sv a s tw e a l th , g a in edf r omh i sd ep l o ym en to fv i o l en tun i on -bu s t in gmu s c l e inh i ss t e e lm i l l s , in t oan amb i t iou sa r tc o l l e c t i on ,andR emb r and t ’ sn am er e c o gn i t ionandcu l tu r a lc ap i t a lf o r c o l l e c t o r sw a sunp a r a l l e l l ed inth e l a t en in e t e en thc en tu r y .Th eh i gh -p r o f i l ea c qu i s i t ion m a r k edth eb e g inn in go fon eo fth em o s tp r om in en tp r i v a t ec o l l e c t ion so fo ldm a s t e r s , p a r t i cu l a r l yo fs e v en t e en th c en tu r yDu t cha r t , inth ec oun t r y .Du r in gh i s l i f e t im e ,F r i c k w a sno t o r i ou s l yp r o t e c t i v eo fth i sc o l l e c t i onandth ep r i v a t esp a c e inwh i chh ehou s ed i t . H etu rn eddownr ep e a t edo f f e r sf r omm a g a z in e s l i k eA r t san dD e c o r a t i ont oruns t o r i e s onh i sc o l l e c t iono rt oph o t o g r aphob j e c t s in i t .54H em ad eon l yaf ewe x c ep t i on sf o r in s t i tu t ion s l i k eth en e i ghb ou r in gM e t r op o l i t an Mu s eum ,wh e r eh ew a sabo a rd i sd e a th m emb e randwh e r ep r e s id en tR ob e r tD eF o r e s tw a sat ru s t edf r i end .55Uponh in1919 ,sho r t l yb e f o r eth eT r i a r tc omm i t t e es e l e c t edth ew o r kt ob ef i lm ed ,F r i c k l e f t h i sc o l l e c t iont oth epub l i c .Th ew o r k sw e r en o tt o l e a v eh i shou s e ,bu ta f t e rth ed e a tho f h i sw idow( in1935 )th epub l i cw ou ldb eg r an t eda c c e s st oth ec o l l e c t ion .S e l e c t in g P o r t r a i to faY o un gA r t i s tf o rH i l l e r ’ sm o s tamb i t i ou sf i lmm a k e ss en s e inth ec on t e x to f th ep a in t in g ’ sAm e r i c ana f t e r l i f e ; i tw a sam a j o rpu r ch a s ew i thb r o adapp e a l , i tw a s h ou s edn e a rb yand i temb od i edth en e g o t i a t i on sa r oundth epub l i ca c c e s s ib i l i t yo fa r t . Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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Th eT r i a r tcomm i t t e e(p rob ab l yh e ad edb yD eF o r e s tonth i sd e c i s ion )c l e a r l y und e r s toodth a tth i sp r i v a t e l yh e ldwo rkh ads t ron gpo t en t i a lfo rpub l i c mo t ion p i c tu r ea r tedu c a t ion .I tw a sap a in t in g ,b yano ld m a s t e r ,o fas tud en to fp a in t in g , s e tinawo rk shop .S cho l a r sh ips in c eT r i a r t ’ st im eh a sg r e a t l ye xp and edth e know l ed g eo fR emb r and t ’ swo rk shop ,r epo s i t ion in gh ima sapo in tinav a s tn e two rk o fs tud en t s ,a s s i s t an t sandim i t a to r s ,in c lud in gth eunknowna r t i s twhoa c tu a l l y 56 p a in t edP o r t r a i to faY o un gA r t i s t. Bu th i sr epu t a t iona sanedu c a to randa wo rk shop m an a g e rw a se s t ab l i sh ede v eninth ee a r l ytw en t i e thc en tu ry . R emb r and t ’ ss tud iow a sth e mo s tp i c tu r edinEu rop ea tth et im e ,andh i s to r i an so f h i swo rktookno t eo fth ed e t a i l sabou tth i ssp a c e .A sapo r t r a i t ,th ep a in t in gdo e s no tin c lud eav a s ta r r a yo ftoo l s ,p rop sandp i gm en t s ,bu ti tn e v e r th e l e s sshow s som e th in go fth ea r ts tud en t ’ sp ro c e s s .H eho ld sas t a cko fd r aw in g so re t ch in g so f c l a s s i c a lpo s e sinon eh and .Th eb ru shinh i sr i gh th andandth ep i l eo fb ru sh e son th et ab l eind i c a t eth a th ei su s in gth esk e t ch e sa sar e f e r en c e ,fo rap a in t in gth a t 57 e x i s t sou t s id eth ef r am e . Th etoo l s ,c an v a s e sandl i f e mod e l sou t s id eth ef r am ea r e su gg e s t ede v ena sth efo rm a ld r e s s ,l i gh t in gandf ron t a lg a z eadh e r etoth e con v en t ion so fth epo r t r a i t . H i l l e randB l a ch és e tou tto m ak eaf i lmth a tpu tth e s er e f l e x i v ea sp e c t so fth e p a in t in ga tth efo r e f ron t ,andtodosoth e ycon s t ru c t edwh a th a stob eamon gth e mo s te l abo r a t econ f i gu r a t ion so fa r t i s t s ’wo rk sp a c e sinth eh i s to ryo fc in em a .Th e f i lmf r am e sa mod e rns to ryw i thas c en eo fs e v en t e en th c en tu ryAm s t e rd amin o rd e rtog en e r a t ee xp l i c i td i s cu s s iono fth ea e s th e t i candso c i a lr e l e v an c eo f R emb r and tinN ewY o rkinth ee a r l ytw en t i e thc en tu ry .Th i si sacommonenou gh p ed a go g i c a ls t r a t e gy ,bu tth ec en t r a lt ab l e au xo fth ef i lm m ak ec l e a rth a tH i l l e rw a s in t e r e s t edno ts imp l yinR emb r and tth em an( andh i swo rk s ) ,bu tinR emb r and tth e wo rk shopl e ad e r .H i l l e r ’ sTh eY o un gP a in t e r(1922 )c anb er e ada ssp e c i f i c a l l y con c e rn edw i thth ew a yano ld m a s t e r ’ swo rk sp a c ecou ldin fo rm mod e rnd ep i c t ion s o fth es tud iowo rk sp a c e . Wh i l ea l lo fth esu rv i v in gm a t e r i a lf r omH i l l e r ’ sf i lm s ind i c a t e sh i sf a s c in a t ionw i th th ea r t i s t ’ sw o r k sp a c e ,H i l l e re xp l o i t edth i sch o i c eo fo r i g in a lw o r kw i tham i s eena b ym e o fr e f l e c t ion sonth es tud i o .Th eY o un gP a in t e rr e s t sonana rm a tu r eo fth r e e , l in k ed s tud iosp a c e s ,e a cho fwh i chb e a r sar e l a t i ont os tud iot yp e sth a tw e r es i gn i f i c an t inth e w o r ldo fa r tedu c a t ion .Th ef i lmb e g in s inR emb r and t ’ sw o r k shop ,andth ef i r s tm a jo r t ab l e auo fth ef i lmv i su a l l yd i a g r am sak indo fc i r cu l a rr e f l e c t iononth ew o r ko fth e a r t i s t .Th et ab l e auf o rm sa r oundas c en eo f in s t ru c t ion ,a f t e ra l i f emod e ls e s s ion , du r in gwh i chth ev i ew e rw i tn e s s e sth ec r e a t i ono fth eP o r t r a i to faY o un gA r t i s t. R emb r and tb e c om e sab s o rb edb yth ee x e r c i s e so fay oun ga r ts tud en t inh i swo r k shop , wh or e fu s e st oendh i sw o r kd a yanddu t i fu l l yc op i e sap i e c eo fedu c a t ion a ls cu lp tu r e .T o sh owR emb r and tc omp o s in gh i sp i c tu r eo fth ey oun ga r t i s t ,c ompo s in gh i sp i c tu r eo f th es cu lp tu r e ,H i l l e rp o s i t i on sR emb r and t ’ sc an v a sd i r e c t l yb eh indth es cu lp tu r e .H e c r e a t e sac lo s edt r i an g l eo rc i r c l e inwh i chth es cu lp tu r ea sp ed a go g i c a lt oo l l in e supw i th th em a s t e rp a in t in gth es tud en t ,wh oc op i e s i t sf o rm .H i l l e rc on t inu e sth i sr e l a ya c r o s s th r e ec en tu r i e sw i thh i sn e x tcu t .R o l and ,ay oun ga r t i s tand W o r ld W a rv e t e r an c on t emp l a t e sR emb r and t ’ sp o r t r a i t inh i sru r a lLon gI s l ands tud io .W e l e a rnth i s i sno t th eo r i g in a lp a in t in gbu ty e tan o th e redu c a t i on a lc op yth ep a in t e rm ad ea sana r t s tud en twh i l eth ep a in t in gw a sh an g in ga tanunn am edg a l l e r y .Fu s in gf i c t ionand 64

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

R emb r a nd ta nds t ud e n t i nh i ss t ud io .T h eY o u n gP a i n t e r(1922 )(Co u r t e s yo fG eo r g eE a s tm a nHo u s e , I n t e rn a t io n a l M u s e umo fP ho to g r ap h ya ndF i lm )

h i s t o r i c a lf a c ta sth e s ef i lm sd o ,p e rh ap sD eF o r e s t ,B l a ch éandH i l l e r im a g in ed i tt ob e th eM e t r opo l i t an Mu s eum ’ se xh ib i t i ono fth ep a in t in g in1909 .Inan yc a s e ,th emod e rn y oun gp a in t e rh a sano ldm a s t e r .F i r s tc r e a t ed inth es e v en t e en thc en tu r y ,th ef i lm ’ s P o r t r a i to faY o un gA r t i s tm o v edf r omanEn g l i shc a s t l et oanAm e r i c anmu s eume xh ib i t , wh e r e i tw a sc op i edb yth ey oun ga r ts tud en t .58H i sc op yh an g s inth ec en t r eo fh i sru r a l s tud io ,wh e r e i t in sp i r e sh i sownm a s t e rp i e c e :an o th e rpo r t r a i to fay oun ga r t i s tn am ed H e l en(M a r yA s t o r ) ,wh omh et e a ch e sh owt op a in t .Th ew o r kth a tf o rm sth e c en t r ep i e c eo fth i sf i lm i sac op yo fap a in t in gab ou tas tud en t l e a rn in gt op a in t ,and i t s e rv e sa s in sp i r a t ionf o rap o r t r a i to fam od e l , l o v e in t e r e s tands tud en t . I fR emb r and t ’ ss tud iof r am e sth ef i lm ,th ech a r a c t e r sa r e in t r odu c ed inth es e c ond s tud ioonLon gI s l andandc on c lud eth e i rs t o r i e s inth eth i rd in M anh a t t an .Th e lo c a l r e f e r en t sf o re a cho fth e s e mod e rns tud iot yp e s , in c lud in gtho s er e f e r r in gt of amou s a r tt e a ch e r s ,abound ed inth e i l lu s t r a t edp r e s s .A tth eb e g inn in go fh i sc a r e e r ,a f t e rh i s r e tu rnf r omh i ss tud i e s inF r an c e ,A r thu rW e s l e yD owc on v e r t edano lds t o r e in t oh i s f amou sa t e l i e r inIp sw i ch , MA .H ec on t inu edt osumm e rw i ths tud en t sth e r ewh en e v e r s choo lw a sno t ins e s s iona tP r a t to rCo lumb i a .Ana r t i s t , l i k eDow ,w i tht i e st oth e A r t sandC r a f t s mo v em en tw a s l i k e l yt ob ef ound insp a c e s l i k eH i l l e r ’ sf an t a s yLon g I s l ands tud io .H i l l e rr e in f o r c edth i sc onn e c t ionb yshow in gh i sy oun gp a in t e rh ew in g h i sownf i r ewood ,s i t t in gonh andm ad efu rn i tu r eandc a r e fu l l ya t t end in gt oh i s Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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b ru sh e sando th e rt oo l s .W i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ,t oo ,h adac oun t r ys tud ioandsumm e r s choo lonLon gI s l andno tf a rf r omwh e r eH i l l e rsho tth ee x t e r io r sf o rTh eY o un g P a in t e r,a twh i chh es t a g edh i spopu l a rt ab l e au xv i v an tp e r f o rm an c e s inth ee a r l y 1910 s .Bu tCh a s ew a s ,o fc ou r s e ,b e s tknownf o rh i sG r e enw i chV i l l a g es tud io ,wh i ch c ou ldh a v eb e enon eo fth epo in t so fr e f e r en c ef o rth eH i l l e r ’ ss e tf o rs tud ionumb e r th r e e ,wh e r eth es t o r yend s .B e c au s eh eb e l i e v e sso c i a lb a r r i e r st oh a v em ad eh i s lo v e impo s s ib l e ,Ro l and mo v e st oanu rb ans tud io inG r e enw i chV i l l a g ewh e r eh ef in i sh e s H e l en ’ spo r t r a i t–h i shom a g et oR emb r and t ’ spo r t r a i t–f r om id e a l i s ed m emo r ywh i l e s low l yd y in go fc on sump t ion .Th ey oun ga r t i s to fH i l l e r ’ sf i lm mo v e sw i ld l ya c r o s sa r an g eo fwo r k sp a c e s .In sp i r edb yano ld m a s t e r ’ ss tud io ,h ee s t ab l i sh e sh im s e l f ina ru s t i cc o t t a g es tud ioandend sh i sd a y s ina l a r g e randw e l l appo in t ed( af a c t c on t inu a l l yno t edb yth ehom e l e s sbo yh et a k e s in )u rb anwo r k sp a c e . Wh i l eH i l l e r ’ s f i lmdo e sno td i r e c t l yr e f e r en c eD owandCh a s e , i ta c c e s s e sth ef am i l i a r l e x i c ono f s tud iot yp e sth a tDowandCh a s eu s ed inh a l f t on e sf o rth e i rc ou r s ead v e r t i s em en t s in i l lu s t r a t ed m a g a z in e s . A s inth eB e g g a rM a i df i lm ,th ea r tw o r kandth es tud iosp a c edono ts e rv ea sm e r e b a c k g r oundt oth ef i c t ion ,th e yd r i v eth ec l im a c t i cs i tu a t ion s .Th e yo v e r l apab so rp t ion inth es t o r yandc on t emp l a t iono fth ep a in t in g .Th ef in a lt ab l e au inth eG r e enw i ch V i l l a g es tud ioo f f e r s ju s tsu chs imu l t an eou sc lo su r et oth e lo v es t o r yandt oth e p ed a go g i c a lth em e so fa r tapp r e c i a t ion .S in c eH i l l e rth ec omm e r c i a lpho t o g r aph e r lo v edc a r e fu lc ompo s i t iona s mu cha sh eh a t edsub t l e t y ,th i sw ebo fr e f l e x i v e a s so c i a t ion samon ga r t i s t s ,th e i rp r op s ,p a in t in g sands tud en t s i s in s t an t l y l e g ib l e . V i ew e r so fh i sf i lm sn e ed edno tw a i tf o r in t e r t i t l e so rch a r a c t e ra c t ion st op r o v id e c l a r i t yandc lo su r e .H i l l e rd e l i v e r sth eapp r op r i a t e ‘ t oo l a t e ’b ed s id et ab l e auc a l l edf o r b yth i sm e lod r am a ,bu th ea l sos t a g e sth ep a in t e r ’ sd e a thb ed inth eop ens tud iosp a c e . Th epo r t r a i to fH e l eno c cup i e sth ec en t r eo fth ef r am ea sar e c o rdo fh i sf in a l l i v in g e f f o r t s ,andth eR emb r and tc op yh aun t sth ef r am e inth eb a c k g r ound .H i l l e rm a in t a in s th e l in kb e tw e enth i ssp a c e ,th e mod e rnn a r r a t i v eandth eo ld m a s t e r ,b yend in gth e f i lm inawo r k sp a c ef i l l ed ,no ton l yw i thch a r a c t e r s ,bu ta l sow i thth e i rwo r k s .Th e sp i r i to fR emb r and tth a tH i l l e randB l a ch ésup e r impo s eonth e im a g et ogu id eth e p a in t e r ’ ssp i r i ts e em sr edund an t ,bu twh a t i t l a c k s insub t l e t y i tg a in s inr i chn e s so f a s so c i a t ionw i thth ec ommonu s e so fth e s esup e r impo s edsp i r i t s inn in e t e en th c en tu r yv i su a lcu l tu r ef r omth eP epp e r ’ sGho s t i l lu s ionons t a g e ,t oth esup e r impo s ed im a g edo fgho s t s in m a g i c l an t e rnshow s ,p r in tpho t o g r aph sande a r l yc in em a p r o j e c t ion s .H i l l e randB l a ch éu s eat e chn iqu e mo r ea thom e ine a r l yc in em at om a k e R emb r and t ’ ssp i r i t jumpth ef r am e in t oth ec on t empo r a r yM anh a t t ans tud io .Inth i s c l im a c t i c mom en tc lu t t e r edw i thr e f l e x i v er e f e r en c e st oth eo th e ra r t sando th e rt im e s , th et r i c kc in em a t o g r aph yfun c t ion sa sp a r th aun t in g ,p a r ta r t i s t ’ sf e v e rd r e amandp a r t a l l e go r yo fth ea r t i s t i cs a t i s f a c t iono fh a v in gc omp l e t edan ew m a s t e rwo r k . Th eY o un gP a in t e rw a sT r i a r t ’ s mo s tr e f l e x i v ef i lm .Andg i v enth a tH i l l e r ’ sf l a i rf o r p r e s en t in gh i sowns tud iosp a c e in sp i r edh i sv en tu r e in t o mo t ionp i c tu r e s , i twou ld s e em in c omp l e t et oc on c lud eth i ss e c t ionw i thou tr e tu rn in gt oth i so r i g in a ls tud io sp a c e ,th eon eno td ep i c t ed inan yo fth eT r i a r tf i lm s ,bu ts t i l lp r e s en t inth e i r l a r g e r m i s s ion .Th eY o un gP a in t e rinp a r t i cu l a rp r o v id edan impo r t an t in t e rm ed i a l l in k b e tw e enh i s t o r i c a ls tud io sw i the a s e l sand mod e rns tud io sw i thc am e r a s .Th ebu s in e s s o fth ec omm e r c i a la r t i s tandth en am eo fR emb r and tw e r ed e ep l y in t e r tw in edb yth e 66

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F i n a lt ab l e a uf romT h eY o u n gP a i n t e r(1922 )(Co u r t e s yo fG eo r g eE a s tm a nHo u s e , I n t e rn a t io n a lM u s e umo fP ho to g r ap h y a ndF i lm )

l a t en in e t e en thc en tu r y .N in e t e en th c en tu r yR emb r and tpo r t r a i t s ,th eR emb r and t p r o c e s s ine t ch in g ,R emb r and tc o lou rp a in t s ‘m ad e inH o l l and ’andR emb r and t l i gh t in g in1880 spho t o g r aph ya r e ju s taf ewo fth ee x amp l e showth ep r o f e s s ion so f c omm e r c i a l i l lu s t r a t ion ,d e s i gn ,a r tsupp l y ,pho t o g r aph yand( soona f t e r )f i lma v id l y t r ad ed inth ecu l tu r a lcu r r en c yo fR emb r and t ’ sn am e .H i l l e r ,ac omm e r c i a l pho t o g r aph e rknownf o rh i sp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion s ,kn ewth a tth esub j e c tm a t t e ro f Th eY o un gP a in t e ra lon ewou ldr em indv i ew e r so fch i a r o s cu r o ,r i chc o lou r sandv i r tuo so tH i l l e r ’ sp a r t i cu l a r in t e r e s t in d ep i c t ion so fth ehum anf a c eandh and s .59Bu R emb r and t ’ ss tud ios e rv e sa sar em ind e rth a tc omm e r c i a lpho t o g r aph yandc in em a r e l i edonR emb r and tf o rsom e th in g mo r e .S v e t l an aA lp e r sh a sshownhowR emb r and t ’ s sh adow y l a t e -p e r iodpo r t r a i t sm a r kar e f l e x i v e mom en twh en ‘ th er e l a t ionb e tw e enth e p a in t e randh i s mod e l ( s ) inan in t e r io rsp a c ew a sm ad easub j e c to fa r t ’ .Sh ec l a im sth a t r e f l e c t iononth es tud iosp a c ea sp e r f o rm a t i v esp a c ew a sm im i c k ed inn in e t e en th c en tu r ys tud io swh e r epho t o g r aph e r s , mo r eth ans imp l yd r opp in gR emb r and t ’ sn am e t od eno t eana r t fu lpo r t r a i t , ‘ o r ch e s t r a t edth es t a g in go f l i f e[ inth e i rs tud io s ]th a tw a s 60 imp l i c i t inth eR emb r and ts tud io s ’ . H i l l e r ’ sw o r kc on t inu edp r e c i s e l yth i st r ad i t ion in wh i chp r o f e s s ion a lpho t o g r aph ysou gh tt o mod e l i t sowns tud iop r a c t i c eont r ad i t ion s inp a in t in gth a tm y tho lo g i s eth er e l a t ion sh ipb e tw e enth ea r t i s tands i t t e r ,andth a t r e f l e c tonth es tud iosp a c ea sasp a c eo fp e r f o rm an c e . Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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CONC LU S ION :PATCHWORK M ETHOD S ,COMMONGOA L T r i a r tm a yno th a v eb e enth e mo s tt yp i c a l ,endu r in g ,o rp r o f i t ab l ef i lmen t e rp r i s e ,bu t i t sb r i e fs e r i e sv i v id l yc ap tu r e sap a r t i cu l a rc on s t e l l a t iono fa r t ,edu c a t ionande a r l y c in em a . Wh e r eab r o adcu l tu r a lh i s t o r yo fth ea r ts tud ioand mo v in gp i c tu r e sc anpo in t ou tth em a t i ccu r r en t sth a trunb e tw e enth e i l lu s t r a t ion so fCh a r l e sD an aG ib sonand e a r l yf i lm ss e t inth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io ,b e tw e enf r am e jump in gt ab l e au xv i v an t sanda r t edu c a t ion ,o rb e tw e ene a r l yc in em a ’ s mu l t i -m ed i ah i s t o r yandth e id e ao fa r tc in em a in th e l a t e1910 s ,th eT r i a r ta r ch i v ed emon s t r a t e showa l lo fth e s ec onn e c t ion sc ou ld w o r kt o g e th e r inas in g l ep r o j e c t .I t i son eth in gt oa r gu e–a s inth ef i r s tp a r to fth i s ch ap t e r–th a tth e in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo fa e s th e t i cedu c a t ionandth er i s eo fc omm e r c i a l i l lu s t r a t iono v e r l ap inth ev e rn a cu l a ra f t e r l i f eo f T r i l b y; i t i sano th e rth in gen t i r e l yt o h a v ear e c o rdo fG ib sonh im s e l f ,sop l e a s edb yaT r i l b yf i lmc r e a t edb yon eo fh i s c o l l e a gu e s inth eSo c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s ,th a th ea g r e e st oc o spon so r ,w i thth e M e t r opo l i t anp r e s id en t ,as e r i e so fe l abo ra t et ab l e au xv i v an t sd e s i gn edt ot e a chp eop l e howt oapp r e c i a t ep i c tu r e s .Th ek ind so fa s so c i a t ion samon gp r o f e s s ion a la r t s so c i e t i e s ,a e s th e t ea t e l i e r s ,a r tc o l l e c t o r sand mo t ionp i c tu r e sth a th a v et ob ep a in t ed w i thb r o adcu l tu r a l -h i s t o r i c a ls t r o k e s inthef i r s ts e c t iono fth ech ap t e r ,c ou r s e e xp l i c i t l yth r ou ghth ea r ch i v edd e t a i l so fT r i a r t ’ sn e v e r t o ldt a l e s .T r i a r tw a sno t i t s e l f anendu r in g in s t i tu t ion .I tw a sat a c t i c a la l i gnm en to fendu r in g in s t i tu t ion s .Th es e r i e s b r ou gh tc in em a in t od i r e c tc on t a c tw i thad i v e r s eg r oupo fa r t sp r o f e s s ion a l s ,e a cho f whomh adh i so rh e rowns t a k e inr ed e f in in ga r tedu c a t ion . Mod e rna r tedu c a t o r so fm an ys t r ip e sh adt or e c konw i tht r ad i t ion ino rd e rt o p r omo t eav i s iono fa r tp ed a go g yth a tsu i t edbo thp r o f e s s ion a l i s in gc omm e r c i a la r t i s t s andane xp and in gpub l i c in t e r e s t ina r tapp r e c i a t ion .Inbo thsph e r e s i tb e c am eu s e fu l t ot e a chp i c tu r es tud y ,o rc ompo s i t ion , mo r ea sap r o c e s s inawo r k sp a c eth ana sak ind o f in sp i r a t ionp a s s eddowna lon gar i g idh i e r a r ch yo fg r e a two r k s .Th i sg r ow in g mo v em en tw a sc omp a t ib l ew i ththo s es e e k in gt oapp r e c i a t ea r t ,w i thp eop l ewho w an t edt ot e a chp i c tu r es tud y inh i ghs choo l sandw i tha sp i r in gd e s i gnp r o f e s s ion a l s . Th eT r i a r ts e r i e spo in t sou ton ew a yth i s in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yc ou ld m e r g ew i th id e a so f mo t ion -p i c tu r ea e s th e t i c s .E v e r y on e in v o l v ed inth eT r i a r ts e r i e ssou gh tt or e f l e c ton th epo s s ib i l i t i e so fc in em aandt os t r en g th enth ec onn e c t ion sb e tw e enf i lma r tand p a in t in g .Th e i re f f o r t sadd r e s s edas e to fqu e s t ion sno tf a rf r omem e r g en tth eo r i e so f mo v in g im a g ea e s th e t i c s .Th e yb r in gt oth esu r f a c ea m ino rcu r r en t inth e in t e rm ed i a l f i lm so fe a r l yc in em aanda m a jo r ,bu tund e r e xp lo r ed ,cu r r en t inth ef i r s tth eo r i e sf i lm a r t :th a tsp e c t a t o r sc anb eab so rb ed ,no ton l y inth e mo v in gp i c tu r e ’ s l i t e r a r yqu a l i t i e s , bu ta l so in i t sp i c tu r e s . Bu tth i sapp r o a ch i sno tw i thou t i t sc on t r ad i c t ion s ,wh i chIshou ldadd r e s s ina f in a lpo in tb e f o r eth en e x tch ap t e r ’ sd e t a i l edd i s cu s s iono fe a r l yc in em a t i cth eo r i e so f p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionandab so rp t ion .Th ech a l l en g eo f l in k in gc in em a ,pho t o g r aph y andpopu l a r i l lu s t r a t iont oth i s mo v em en t ina r tapp r e c i a t ion ,on eth a trun sth r ou gh m an yo fth ee x amp l e s inth i sboo k , i sth a twh en e v e rtho s ewo r k in g inc omm e r c i a l m ed i ae xp r e s sp i c t o r i a lamb i t ion s ,th e yd r awf r omth eo th e ra r t ssow i ld l y .Th ef i lm m a k e r s ,pho t o g r aph e r sandc r i t i c sd i s cu s s ed ine a cho fth e s ech ap t e r sa r eno th in g i f no td i f f i cu l tt op indownw i th inas in g l ep i c t o r i a lt r ad i t iono ra r t mo v em en t .H i l l e r ’ s app r op r i a t ion sf r omth r e ec en tu r i e so fa r th i s t o r yo f f e rac a s e inpo in t .Inr e tu rn in g 68

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on c e mo r et oth ea r tedu c a t o r sw i thwhomIb e g anth ech ap t e rIw an tt osu g g e s tth a t th eabund an c eo fc i t a t ion so fth eo th e ra r t s ,e v enth ec i t a t iono fs t y l e sth a t fund am en t a l l yc on t r ad i c ton eano th e r ,dono tn e c e s s a r i l yc on t r ad i c ta mo r es t ab l e no t iono fp i c t o r i a lcompo s i t ion . Am e r i c ana r tedu c a t ionf a c edth i sp a r t i cu l a ra r t i s t ’ sd i l emm a lon gb e f o r e i t s e x ch an g e sw i thc in em a .Th ef a c tth a tedu c a t o r s l i k eDowandCh a s ewo r k edt obu i ld e f f i c i en t ,c ompo s i t ion f o cu s edc ou r s e sands tud io sn e v e rr equ i r edo fth emar i g ido r homo g en eou scu r r i cu lum .Onth ec on t r a r y ,on eo fth ed i s t in gu i sh in gch a r a c t e r i s t i c so f Am e r i c ans choo l s i showth e yf e l ten t i t l edt oapp r op r i a t eandc omb in eedu c a t ion a l p r a c t i c e sf r omd i f f e r en tt im e sandd i f f e r en tc oun t r i e s . Mo r eth anas in g l et r ad i t ion , th eAm e r i c ana r ta c ad em i e sf o rm edp i e c em e a l ,a sap a t chwo r ka s s emb l a g eo f edu c a t ion a lp r a c t i c e s :f r omth eK en s in g t ons choo l ,f r omth eP a r i s i ana t e l i e rs y s t em (b e f o r eImp r e s s ion i sm ) ,f r omth eA r t sandC r a f t s mo v em en t ,o rf r omJ ap an e s e w a t e r c o lou rt r a in in g .E v ena sth em an a g em en to fth ewo r k in gandt e a ch in gs tud io s p r o f e s s ion a l i s edandf edth eg r ow in gd e s i gn indu s t r i e s ,th em e thod sa c r o s sandw i th in s choo l sw e r ea l low edt ob equ i t ee c l e c t i c .Th ead v e r t i s em en t sf o rth eA r tS tud en t ’ s L e a gu eo fN ewY o r k ,wh e r eCh a s et au gh tp a in t in gf o rm an yy e a r s ,som e t im e ss e em w i l l fu l l you to fp l a c e .Pho t o g r aph su s edinth eL e a gu ead v e r t i s em en t sb e tw e en1900 and1915show c a s edth e l i f ec l a s swh i l eo th e rb r an ch e so fth eapp l i ed -andf in e a r t s cu r r i cu lum ,wh i chbo a s t edf in ec a r e e rp r o sp e c t s ,n e v e rm ad eth ecu ta sp r omo t ion a l im a g e s .Th e l i f ec l a s sw a son eo fth es t r on g e s tg e s tu r e st oth en in e t e en th c en tu r y F r en chandB r i t i shs choo l sth a ts t i l lc ap tu r edth eAm e r i c anpub l i c im a g in a t ionands t i l l 61 M an ys choo l s ,wh i l eth e yt au gh t in sp i r edp i l g r im a g e sb ya sp i r in gAm e r i c ana r t i s t s . c ou r s e s in mod e rnapp l i eda r t s ,sou gh tt os imu l a t eth eno s t a l g i cs y s t em sa l r e ad y ou t s t r ipp edb yth e in f lu en c eo f mod e rn i s tt r ad i t ion sando f mo r ep r a c t i c a lcu r r i cu lum d e v e lopm en t s .F a rf r ome r a s in gth e i ro r i g in sa sou to fd a t e ,th epub l i c i t ym a t e r i a lf o r do z en so fs choo l sa r oundth ec oun t r yt r ad ed ins c en e so fth es tud ioth a tp r oud l y d i sp l a y edth e i rapp r op r i a t ion s .Th ep a t chw o r ko fs tud iop r a c t i c e sc r e a t edsp a c e so f p e r f o rm an c eth a tpo in t edt oth ep l a c e sandt im e sv a lo r i s edb yboo k sand l e c tu r e son th ea r t s inh i s t o r y . Th i sp a t chwo r kn a tu r eo fAm e r i c ana r tedu c a t ion i son eo fth er e a l i t i e sth a tm ad e th eo r i e so fc ompo s i t ionsoe f f e c t i v e .B e c au s ec ompo s i t ion i sanab s t r a c tandnon g en r e sp e c i f i capp r o a cht oa e s th e t i c s ,on eth a tt r i e sno tt od i s t in gu i shb e tw e enth e f in eandd e c o r a t i v ea r t s , i tc ou ldun i t eab r o adr an g eo fa c t i v i t i e s inth et e a ch in g s tud io .Th eo r i s t so fa r tedu c a t iona im edt opu td i v e r s ep r a c t i c e s–su cha sth e l i f ec l a s s , c op y in gf r omc l a s s i c a ls cu lp tu r e ,o rp r in t -m a k in g–on t oth es am ef i e ld ,andthu st o op enupa r tedu c a t ionn o ton l yt oasm a l lg r oupo fapp r en t i c e sbu ta l sot oaw id e rpub l i c f o rapp r e c i a t ion .F o rth ec a su a ls tud en to fa r t ,th e r e i samo v et ow a rd sr e c o gn i s in g a r t i s t i cp r odu c t ion inan ym ed iuma sth ew o r ko fc ompo s i t ion .On ev e r s a t i l ew a yo f p r e s en t in gth a tw o r kt oth epub l i cw a st ob r in gth epub l i c in t oth ew o r k sp a c e s .U s in g e x amp l e sf r omR emb r and t ’ sw o r k sh opt oth eo r i g in a lP a r son sc l a s s e s inCh a s e ’ s10 th S t r e e ts tud io ,a r tedu c a t o r sc ou ldb r e a kd ownou tm od eds t ru c tu r e so fcu l tu r a lau tho r i t y ands t a g ea r ta sc omp o s i t i on ,a samu chm o r ea c c e s s ib l ef o rmo fw o r k .P o s in gf o r p i c tu r e s ,d r e s s edupanden g a g edw i ths tud en t s inth e i rs tud io s ,edu c a t o r s l i k eCh a s e h e lp edt oshowth epub l i cwh e r etw en t i e th c en tu r ya r tedu c a t ionw a sh e ad ed ,e v ena s th e i rcu r r i cu l as e em ed l i k eam o t t l edp a s t i ch eo fth ep a s t .P i c tu r es tud ycou ldb r in g Mo v i n gP i c t u r e s Im a g i n et h eA r t i s t ’ sS t ud io

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e a cho fth e s e in s t an c e so f loo k in gb a c kw a rdon t oth es am ep l an ea s in t e r ch an g e ab l e p e r f o rm an c e s .S tud iosp a c e sandth ew o r kth a tt r an sp i r ed in s id ec ou ldb e l in k ed ,and th e ya r e inH i l l e r ’ sf i lm sa c r o s sc en tu r i e sanda c r o s so c e an s .Inth i ss en s eth e r e i s som e th in go fth eP o r t r a i to faY o un gA r t i s tinS a r g en t ’ s W i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e.E a ch po r t r a i t in c o rpo r a t e sw o r k inp r o c e s s ,bu ta l soa c know l ed g e sth ev i ew e r .Th ea r t i s t m e e t sth ee y ew i thh i sg a z e ,bu ta l sow i thh i ss a r t o r i a lp r e c i s ion .H ec ondu c t sth ewo r k o fth es tud io ,ho ld in gth et oo l so fth et r ad e ,bu th eem e r g e sf r omth eo i l yb a c k g r ound in t oth ew a rmpo r t r a i t l i gh t infu l la c know l ed gm en to fth ef o rm a l i t yo fth i sa c to f p e r f o rm an c e .

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3

C in em aCom po s i t io n :T h eU n i v e r s i t ya ndt h eI nd u s t r y

B yth em id -1910 s ,c e r t a inf i lm s ’s t a tu sa sa r t ,a ssom e th in gwo r th yo fs tud y , r e e xh ib i t ionandp r e s e rv a t ion ,h adem e r g eda sar e gu l a rt op i co fd eb a t eamon gc r i t i c s . Ano ldandp r e s t i g iou sun i v e r s i t ywou ldn a tu r a l l yb e l i e v e i t s e l ft ob e inapo s i t iont o mo v eth e s ed eb a t e sf o rw a rdandf indth ea r tw i th inth en ew m ed ium ,e v en i fa p r a c t i c a lc o l l e g ef i lmcu r r i cu lumw a ss t i l la lon gw a yo f f .Inth eau tumno f1915 , Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yt oo kth i ss t epandadd edth ef i r s t inas e r i e so fc ou r s e son ‘Pho t op l a yCompo s i t ion ’t o i t ssu c c e s s fu lun i v e r s i t ye x t en s ionp r o g r amm e .T au gh tb y r e c en td r am aPhDV i c t o rO .F r e ebu r gandsoona f t e rb yf i lmc r i t i cands c r e enw r i t e r F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son ,th e s ef i lmc ou r s e sw e r e in m an yw a y sth ef i r s to fth e i rk ind . F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sonp r o j e c t edf i lm sands t i l l s inc l a s sf o rc lo s ean a l y s i s ;th e y o r g an i s edd emon s t r a t ion sb yf i lm indu s t r yw ri t e r sandd i r e c t o r st oh e lpt e a chth ec r a f t o fs c r e enw r i t in g ;andth e yt au gh tm an yo fth en eww o r k so ff i lmc r i t i c i sm inane f f o r t t of o s t e rapp r e c i a t iono ff i lma r t .Th ec ou r s e ss yn th e s i s edp r a c t i c a landc r i t i c a l e x e r c i s e s ino rd e rt op r omo t eb e t t e rf i lm -m a k in gth r ou ghag r e a t e rapp r e c i a t iono ff i lm a sana e s th e t i cm ed ium . Th ec ou r s e sw e r eno th in g i fno t inno v a t i v e .N o ton l yd idth e yo f f e rab r o adth eo r y o fth ea e s th e t i c so fc ompo s i t ion in mo t ionp i c tu r e s , in c o rpo r a t in gwo r kb yo th e re a r l y f i lmth eo r i s t s l i k eV a ch e lL ind s a yandHu go Mün s t e rbu r g ,th e ya l soa t t emp t edan ew l e v e lo fan a l y t i c a ld e t a i l inth e i rm e thod so fv i su a l in s t ru c t ion .F r e ebu r g ’ sc ou r s e sw e r e c omp l em en t edb yas tud en tc lubth a ten su r edc a r e fu lv i ew in gandr e v i ew in go ff i lm s , andp r a c t i c a lv i su a le x amp l e sabound ed inh i sc l a s s r oom .N o tc on t en ts imp l yt o d i s cu s sc in em ac ompo s i t ion inth eab s t r a c t ,F r e ebu r gr e gu l a r l yc a l l edonh i sc l a s st o c omp a r eapho t o g r apho faw o r ko fa r t(b yR emb r and t ,M i l l e t ,o rM y r on )w i thas t i l l f r omaf i lm .H eshow edsom ef i lms t i l l sa se x amp l e so fgoodc ompo s i t ionando th e r sa s b ad .H et oo kah and s -onapp r o a cht ot e a ch in gf i lma e s th e t i c s ,o f t ena s k in gh i s s tud en t st om anu a l l yc o v e rp a r to faf i lms t i l lo rt of l ipan im a g eup s id edown ino rd e r t oen v i s ionad i f f e r en t ,b e t t e rc ompo s i t ion .Inanen v i r onm en twh e r ef i lm ’ st end en c y t od i s t r a c tth r e a t en ed i t s l e g i t im a c y ,F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sont oo kg r e a tp a in st o po s i t ionc in em aa sa m ed iumo fc on t emp l a t ion ,no to fd i s t r a c t ion . Co lumb i a ’ se a r l yf i lmc ou r s e sm a yno th av es e tc on t empo r a r ya c ad em i cf i lms tud y in mo t ion ,bu tth e i rr i cha r ch i v er e v e a l sa mom en to ft r a c t ion inth eb r o ad e rh i s t o r yo f a r tc in em a .I tm a r k sth ef i r s t jun c tu r e inwh i chH o l l ywoodf e a tu r ef i lm sm ad ec on t a c t w i thar ap id l y mod e rn i s in gandd i v e r s i f y in gh i gh e redu c a t ions y s t em .Andth i spo in to f c on t a c t ,th i sc on c ep t iono ff i lma r t ,o c cu r sund e rth es i gno fp i c tu r ec r a f t .Ih a v eb e en C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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a r gu in gth r ou ghou tth i sboo kth a td e f in in ge a r l ya r tc in em au su a l l y in v o l v edc r e a t i v e bo r r ow in gf r omo th e rm ed i a ,andth a tth ev i su a la r t sp r o v id edabund an t in t e l l e c tu a l r e sou r c e sf o rth e s eapp r op r i a t ion s .Th en e x tth r e ech ap t e r s loo ka tc r e a t i v ebo r r ow in g s b e tw e enedu c a t ion a lp i c t o r i a lth eo r yande a r l yH o l l ywoodf i lm sw i thh i gh l ypub l i c i s ed p i c t o r i a ls t y l e .Th ec in em ac ompo s i t ionc ou r s e sa tCo lumb i am a k e i tpo s s ib l et ot r a c e th e s ebo r r ow in g sw i thth ep ed a go gu e ’ sp e r sp e c t i v e in m ind . Th eCo lumb i ac ou r s e s ’s t a tu sa san in i t i a l , i fno taf ound a t ion a l , mom en t in Am e r i c anf i lms tud yh a sg a rn e r edo c c a s ion a lr e c o gn i t ion inf i lmh i s t o r y .Inth ep a s t th i r t yy e a r sah and fu lo fs cho l a r sh a v ec i t edth e i rwo r ko rr e c o gn i s edth eanom a l yo f 1 th e i rp r o g r amm e . H ow e v e r ,an in c r e a s ed in t e r e s t inP a t t e r son ’ sandsom eo f F r e ebu r g ’ swo r kh a sem e r g ed inaf ew mo r er e c en tp r o j e c t s .Th e s es tud i e sh a v esh ed l i gh tonth eCo lumb i ap r o g r amm ea sa l a r g e l yf o r go t t enp r o lo gu et o l a t e r in s t i tu t ion a l d e v e lopm en t s .D an aP o l anh a sshownhowth eCo lumb i ac ou r s e sm a r kaf i r s ta t t emp t a tac oh e r en tf i lmp ed a go g y ,wh i chw ou ldf inda l a s t in ghom e inn e i ghbou r in g 2 in s t i tu t ion s l i k eth eN ewS choo landN ewY o r kUn i v e r s i t y . P e t e rD e ch e rn e yh a s f o cu s edonth eCo lumb i ac ou r s e s ’r e l a t iont oth ecu l tu r eo fth ef i lma r ch i v ep r e c ed in g mo r e in f lu en t i a le f f o r t ssu cha sI r i sB a r r y ’ sw o r ka tth e Mu s eumo f Mod e rnA r t .3In d e t a i l in gP a t t e r son ’ sp ed a go g yand in s t i tu t ion a la s so c i a t ion s ,P o l an ’ sandD e ch e rn e y ’ s r e c en td i s c o v e r i e s in f o rm m y in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo fth esp e c i f i ca e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion s 4 th a tb e g ant oc oh e r e inth e s es e t t in g s . M yh i s t o r yo fth eCo lumb i acu r r i cu lums i tu a t e sF r e ebu r g ’ sandP a t t e r son ’ swo r k w i th inth ep i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion .Thu sm yp e r iod i s a t ionf o rm saso r to fp r equ e lt oP o l an ’ s andD e ch e rn e y ’ s .R a th e rth anc on c e i v in go fCo lumb i a ’ sf i lmo f f e r in g sa saf a l s es t a r t in th ed e v e lopm en to f in s t i tu t ion so ff i lmedu c a t ionanda r ch i v in g ,Iam in t e r e s t ed in howa sp e c t so fCo lumb i a ’ sc ou r s e sow edd eb t st oe a r l i e rd e v e lopm en t s ina r tp ed a go g y . Th e yd e r i v ef r om id e a sd e v e lop ed inth eAm e r i c an l y c eumo fth e1890 sandf r om d i s c ou r s e so fp i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph ych amp ion edb y1910 sa r t s l e c tu r e r sandb y c omm e r c i a lpho t o g r aph e r s l i k eH i l l e r .E a r l yf i lmedu c a t o r sm a ys e emanom a lou swh en v i ew edth r ou gh l a t e rd e v e lopm en t s inf i lms tud i e s ,bu tth e i r l e c tu r e sf i tsqu a r e l y w i th inth i sp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion .Th e ybu i l tonth e l y c eumedu c a t o r s ’app r o a ch e st ov i su a l a r t ,and(mo s t impo r t an t l y ,a l thou ghp e rh ap sb yn e c e s s i t y mo r eth anb ye xp l i c i t in t en t )th e y mod e rn i s edth ep i c t o r i a l id e a l i smth a tdom in a t edth e l e c tu r eh a l l s . B yemph a s i s in gc ompo s i t ionF r e ebu r ge f f e c t i v e l yd e emph a s i s edn a r r a t ionandth e l i t e r a r ya sp i r a t ion so ff e a tu r ef i lm so fth et im e .P i c t o r i a lf o rmo v e r sh adow so th e ra r t d i s c ou r s e s . Wh e r e a sf o rf i lmp r odu c e r san yk indo fa r t i s t i c l e g i t im a c yw a sgood pub l i c i t yandan yf o rmo fup l i f taboon ,th ep i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ione x emp l i f i edb yF r e ebu r g andc on t inu edb yP a t t e r sonho ld st oa mo r esp e c i f i ca e s th e t i cp a th .Th ef a c tth a t p i c tu r ec r a f tc ou lds e rv easo c i a la s s im i l a t iono fc in em ado e sno tm e an i tshou ldb e r edu c edt oth e s ee f f e c t sand lump edt o g e th e rw i thth e mo r er obu s ts t r a t e g i e so f l e g i t im a t ionf ound edonh i s t o r i c a lth e a t r e ,B r o adw a yc e l eb r i t yand l i t e r a r ym e r i t . P i c tu r ec r a f th ad i t sown in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o ry .F r e ebu r g ’ sandP a t t e r son ’ sc l a im sh in g ed onth epo s s ib i l i t yo fr e l a t in gc in em at oth ed i s cu s s ion sabou tth ef o rmo fc anon i c a l p a in t in g sands cu lp tu r e s ,wh i chw e r ethou gh tt oedu c a t ev i ew e r s inth efund am en t a l p r in c ip l e so fc ompo s i t ion a lb e au t y .Th et a s kw a sth eo r e t i c a lb e f o r e i tw a sp r a c t i c a l . Th ee f f o r tt ogu id eth e a t r i c a l ,un i v e r s i t yand mu s eumpo l i c yw en th and inh andw i th th ee f f o r tt om apt r ad i t ion so fs tud y in gth ev i su a la r t son t of i lma e s th e t i c s . 72

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

F r e ebu r g ’ sandP a t t e r son ’ sw o r k ,wh i l eno ta sph i lo soph i c a l l ys y s t em a t i ca s Mün s t e rb e r g ’ s Th eP h o t o p l a y,s t i l len g a g e sth eo r e t i c a lqu e s t ion s in mo t ion -p i c tu r e a e s th e t i c s .Th e yc on so l id a t e id e a sf r omth ec r i t i c a ld i s c ou r s e ,andth e yr e son a t ew i th cu r r en tqu e s t ion s inf i lmand m ed i ath eo r y . Wh i l eth e yn e edt ob eund e r s t ooda sp a r t o f l a r g e rso c i a lh i s t o r i e s ,th e ya l sod e s e rv et ob een g a g eda sa e s th e t i cth eo r yw i th d i r e c tapp l i c a t iont of i lman a l y s i s .Th i s i swh yIt a k ec a r e inwh a tf o l low st or e c on s t ru c t th i swo r ka saf i lmth eo r y ind eb t edt os e v e r a lk e yf i gu r e s ine a r l ytw en t i e th c en tu r y a e s th e t i candp ed a go g i c a lthou gh tb e f o r ed i s cu s s in gF r e ebu r g ’ stwo mo s tf r equ en t l y c i t edP a r amoun tf i lm s ,C e c i lB .D eM i l l e ’ sC a rm en(1915 )andJ am e sC ru z e ’ sTh eC o v e r e d W a g on(1923 ) .F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sonth eo r i s eda r tc in em a ,bu tth e ya l so loo k ed c lo s e l ya tf i lm s .Th e i ra e s th e t i cth eo r yo fth ep i c t o r i a l mo v in g im a g een g a g e sendu r in g qu e s t ion so fth er o l eo ff i lmt e chno lo g y inc r e a t in ga r t ,andth e i r lo v eo fe x amp l e s h e lp st opo s i t ionth e s eth eo r i e s inc on t e x tw i thf i lm sp r odu c ed ,ad v e r t i s edand c r i t i c a l l yd i s s e c t eddu r in gth e s ey e a r s . P ICTURESTUDY :FROMTH EARTL ECTUR ETOTHEF I LMLECTURE In s t i tu t ion a l l y ,th eCo lumb i ae x t en s ionp r o g r amm ew a sbu i l tonth e mod e l ,andb y 5 som eo fth es am ep eop l e ,a sth e mo s tp r om in en ta r t edu c a t ionv enu e s inN ewY o r k . In t e l l e c tu a l l y ,F r e ebu r g ’ sandP a t t e r son ’ sno t iono f ‘pho t op l a ycompo s i t ion ’f o l low ed th ep i c tu r es tud yt r ad i t iond e v e lop ed inth e s e in s t i tu t ion s .F r e ebu r gc i t e ss e v e r a la r t edu c a t o r sa se s s en t i a l in f lu en c e sonh i sapp r o a cht of i lm ,p a r t i cu l a r l yA r thu rDowand 6 th epopu l a r l e c tu r e rH en r yR an k inP oo r e( t owhomIw i l lr e tu rn l a t e r ) . Dow ’ s f o rm a t i v e in f lu en c eonp i c tu r es tud yh a sc om eups e v e r a lt im e s inth i sboo k ,and i t i s impo r t an tt ono t eF r e ebu r g ’ sd eb tt oh im .F r e ebu r gv a lu edth ew a yth a tD owoppo s ed th ea c ad em i cm e thodo fa r tedu c a t ionb a s edonr o t ec op y in g ,p r opo s in g in s t e ada s yn th e t i cm e thodwh e r e ina l lm ed i aandg en r e so fsp a t i a la r t s( r ep r e s en t a t ion a lo rno t ) a r esub sum edund e rth ec on c ep to fc ompo s i t ion– i t sth r e em a ine l em en t sb e in g l in e , sh ad eandc o lou r .Und e rth i sr e v i s ed mod e lo fa r tedu c a t ion ,a l lp r a c t i c a ledu c a t ion in p a in t in g ,s cu lp tu r e ,t e x t i l ed e s i gnandpho t o g r aph yshou ldem e r g ef r omab a s i c mod e l o fapp r e c i a t ion .Con f r on t edw i thp i c tu r es tud y ’ sp r om in en c e ,F r e ebu r gf oundw a y st o m a k eu s eo f i t sb r o ad in f lu en c eandad ap t ab i l i t ya sh esou gh t mod e l sf r omwh i cht o bu i ldh i sa e s th e t i c so f mo v in gp i c tu r e s . Dowt au gh ta tth eP r a t tIn s t i tu t e inB r oo k l ynandw a sa c t i v e inth eB r ook l yn In s t i tu t eandth eA s so c i a t iono fA r tT e a ch e r s inth es e c ondh a l fo fth e1890 s .H e c omp i l edh i sm e thodo f in s t ru c t ion inh i s1899boo kC om p o s i t i on,and i tb e c am ea s t and a rdt e x tboo k inth ef i e ld .A f t e rth i st im e i ts e em sth a tf ew l y c eum l e c tu r e s ch edu l e sw e r ec omp l e t ew i thou ta l e c tu r eb yana r tt e a ch e ro r mu s eumcu r a t o rwho bo r eh i s in f lu en c e .Th em e thod so fp i c tu r es tud yf e a tu r edp r om in en t l ya lon g s id eth e v a r iou ss c i en t i f i candh i s t o r i c a l l e c tu r e sth a tt ou r edth e l e c tu r ec i r cu i t .Ine s s en c e ,Dow w an t edp i c tu r es tud yt odoaw a yw i thwh a th ec a l l edth et r ad i t ion a la c ad em i cm e thod o fa r t in s t ru c t ion ,wh i chs ep a r a t e sr ep r e s en t a t ionandd e s i gn .Inth i so ld e rm e thod , d e s i gnandth ed e c o r a t i v ea r t st a k eas e c onda r yp l a c e inr e l a t iont oa c cu r a t ed ep i c t ion . D ows t ru g g l eda g a in s tth ew a yth a t l e a rn in ghowt op a in tandd r awa c c o rd in gt oth i s mod e lpu t su t i l i t a r i ans k i l l inc op y in gn a tu r eo v e rth ed e v e lopm en to fwh a th eand C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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E x amp l e so ft h et h r e eb a s i ce l em e n t so fA r t h u rW e s l e yDow ’ sC omp o s i t i o n( 1 8 9 9 )

o th e rp r o g r e s s i v eedu c a t o r sr e f e r r edt oa s ‘ c r e a t i v epow e r ’ .I tpu t sr o t em e ch an i s t i c 7 l e a rn in gah e ado fth ef o s t e r in go fad e s i r ef o rb e t t e rf o rm . Inoppo s i t iont oth e a c ad em i cm e thod ,D owp r opo s edas yn th e t i cm e thodwh e r e ina l lm ed i aandg en r e so f sp a t i a la r t s( r ep r e s en t a t ion a lo rno t )a r esub sum edund e rth ec on c ep to fc ompo s i t ion– i t sth r e em a ine l em en t sb e in g l in e ,no t an( l i gh tandd a r k )andc o lou r .Th ec ompo s e ro f p i c tu r e sa s s emb l e sth e s ee l em en t st oc r e a t e , l i k eth e mu s i c a lc ompo s e r ,ano v e r a l l s en s eo fh a rmon y .Inth i sb r o ads en s eo fc ompo s i t iond e s i gnsup e r c ed e s r ep r e s en t a t ion .InD ow ’ st e x tboo konC om p o s i t on,wh i chw en tth r ou ghs e v e r a l ed i t ion s ,h em a k e sapo in to f ju x t apo s in gBo t t i c e l l iw i thGo th i ca r ch i t e c tu r eand J ap an e s en a tu r ep r in t sw i thP e r s i anru g st od emon s t r a t eth a tth es am ep r in c ip l e so f d e s i gn ina r tt r an s c endth esp e c i f i c so fg en r e ,t r ad i t ionand m ed ium .8 Dow ’ s( and l a t e rP oo r e ’ s )m e thodf i t t edw e l lw i thth em i s s iono fp r o g r e s s i v e edu c a t ion .I tm a r k edatu rn in gpo in t ina e s th e t i cedu c a t ion in i t semph a s i son c on sump t iono v e rp r odu c t ion ,a l lth ewh i l e l in k in gth ec on sump t iono fa r tw i th inno v a t ion s inedu c a t ion a lph i lo soph y .D owemph a s i s edp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionb e c au s e h eb e l i e v ed i tw en th and inh andw i thth ef o rm a t iono fe f f i c i en td emo c r a t i csub j e c t s . M o r eth ant e chn i c a ls k i l l ,h ew an t edt ot e a chapp r e c i a t iona saf o rmo fc r e a t i v epow e r . InDow ’ swo rd s , ‘ app r e c i a t ion[o fp i c t o r i a lf o rm ] l e ad sac e r t a innumb e ro fp eop l et o p r odu c ea c tu a lwo r k so fa r t…bu t i t l e ad sth em a jo r i t yt od e s i r ef in e rf o rmand mo r e h a rmon yo ft on eandc o lo r insu r r ound in g s ’ .9Th i sd i r e c t edd e s i r e ,o r ‘ in t e r e s t ’t ou s ea t e rmf r omJ ohnD ew e y ’ sw r i t in g sonedu c a t ion ,dom in a t edth ep r o g r e s s i v e edu c a t ion a lph i lo soph yu s edt osh ap e l a t en in e t e en th c en tu r yp r o g r amm e sf r omth e 10 l y c eumt oth eun i v e r s i t y . Th i sp i c t o r i a l l yb a s edth eo r yo fa r tapp r e c i a t ion in f lu en c edaw id er an g eo fa r t i s t s and mo v em en t s .Inth ec om in gy e a r s ,th eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t eb e c am ean in f lu en t i a ls i t e 74

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

f o rd i s cu s s iono fp i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph y ,w i thn e a r l y mon th l y l e c tu r e sonth esub j e c t ta l sos e rv eda san b yp eop l esu cha sS ad a k i ch iH a r tm annandC l a r en c e Wh i t e .11I impo r t an te xh ib i t ionsp a c ef o rP i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph e r s :no t ab l yA r thu rDow ’ s 12 s tud en tG e r t rud eK ä s eb i e randC l a r en c e Wh i t e ’ ss tud en tK a r lS t ru s s . Th eIn s t i tu t e en c ou r a g edpho t o g r aph e r s ,f i lme xh ib i t o r sandc r i t i c st or e f l e x i v e l yr e l a t en ew m ed i a t oqu e s t ion so fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion .I t i sp r e c i s e l yth i sr e f l e x i v i t yth a tm a k e sth e B r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t eand in s t i tu t ion s l i k e i ts i gn i f i c an t inth ef o rm a t iono fc in em a ’ s id en t i t ya sa m ed ium . Wh i l eth ed i s cu s s ion s inth e in s t i tu t en e v e ra ch i e v edth e c oh e r en c eandr i gou ro fth e1910 sand20 sboo k sonf i lma r t ,th e yan t i c ip a t eth e s e l a t e rw r i t in g s mo r ed i r e c t l yth anon em i gh t im a g in e . B yth ee a r l y1900 sth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e ’ s l e c tu r es e r i e sande x t en s ionc ou r s e s s t ooda s mod e l sf o re f f e c t i v epub l i cedu c a t ion .Th eIn s t i tu t ec ou ldh a v et a k enth e oppo r tun i t yt oe xp andth e s eo f f e r in g s ,a sa l t e rn a t i v eedu c a t ion a l in s t i tu t ion sw e r e n e ed edt oa c c ommod a t eth eg r ow in g imm i g r an tc ommun i t i e s inN ewY o r kth a tw e r e 13 l a r g e l ye x c lud edf r omt r ad i t ion a lun i v e r s i t yp r o g r amm e s . Bu tth ef o cu so fth e In s t i tu t e ’ sa t t en t ionw a s mo v in g in c r e a s in g l yt ow a rd se xp and in gth en ewB r oo k l yn Mu s eumand i t sc o l l e c t ion s .P a r to fth er e a sonf o rth i ssh i f t i sth a tun i v e r s i t i e sh adb y th i st im et a k ensom eo fth er e spon s ib i l i t yf o re s t ab l i sh in gadu l tedu c a t ion lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y ’ se x t en s ionp r o g r amm e i sap r im ee x amp l e ,and p r o g r amm e s .14Co du r in g i t sf o rm a t i v ey e a r s i tm a in t a in edan in t im a t er e l a t ion sh ipw i thth eB r ook l yn In s t i tu t e .Co lumb i aadm in i s t r a t o r sc on t inu a l l y loo k eda c r o s sth eE a s tR i v e rf o r p r e c ed en t s ,gu id an c eande v enp e r sonn e l .Co lumb i ap r e s id en tS e thLow ,a lon g t im e f r i endo fA l e x and e rB l a c kandth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t es in c eh i st im ea sm a y o ro f B r ook l yn ,s e tup imm ed i a t ec onn e c t ion sw i thth eIn s t i tu t e inh i se f f o r t st ob e g in d e v e lop in ge x t en s iont e a ch in ga tCo lumb i a .In1903 ,A r thu rW e s l e yDoww a s in v i t ed t o l e a v eh i spo s t inB r oo k l ynt oh e adth ea r td ep a r tm en ta tth eT e a ch e r sCo l l e g eo f Co lumb i a .Co lumb i a ’ sfu l l f l ed g ede x t en s ionp r o g r amm eb e g anth ef o l low in gy e a r ,and 15 In1913 ,Co lumb i afu r th e r i tw a srunb yth eT e a ch e r sCo l l e g ef o rth en e x td e c ad e . e xp and ed i t se x t en s ionp r o g r amm eb yr e c ru i t in gM i l t onD a v i e sf r omB r oo k l yn ,wh e r e h eh ads e rv eda ssup e rv i so ro f l e c tu r e sa tth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e .16D a v i e sb e c am eth e a s s i s t an td i r e c t o ro fth ee x t en s ionedu c a t ionp r o g r amm eands t a r t edth eCo lumb i a In s t i tu t eo fA r t sandS c i en c e sonth eB r oo k l yn mod e l .InD a v i e s ’c o r r e spond en c ew i th Co lumb i aadm in i s t r a t o r s ,h er ep e a t ed l yd e f e r st oth esu c c e s s e so fth eB r oo k l yn In s t i tu t e ,f r omb r o adedu c a t ion a lph i lo soph yt om inu t equ e s t ion sabou tth ed a y t o d a yop e r a t ion so fth eIn s t i tu t e .17 I t i s impo r t an tt os e eth e in t e l l e c tu a len e r g yb eh indCo lumb i a ’ sc in em ac ou r s e s in 1915a sap a r to fth i s in s t i tu t ion a lf r am ew o r k .F r e ebu r gw a sag r adu a t es tud en ta t Co lumb i adu r in gth ee s t ab l i shm en to f i t sadu l tedu c a t ionp r o g r amm e .H ew a sh i r edt o t e a chf i lm inane x t en s iont e a ch in gp r o g r amm e mod e l l ed l a r g e l yonth esu c c e s so fth e B r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e . Wh i l eF r e ebu r gw a st r a in eda sath e a t r eh i s t o r i an ,h ef ound eda ‘C in em aCompo s e r ’ sC lub ’andt au gh t ‘Pho t op l a yCompo s i t ion ’ inane x t en s ion p r o g r amm ewh e r eth ea r tcu r r i cu lumw a ss e tupb yA r thu rDowh im s e l f .I t i sc l e a rth a t F r e ebu r gandth eadm in i s t r a t ions awh i sc ou r s e inPho t op l a yCompo s i t ionandh i s C in em aCompo s e r ’ sC luba se x t en s ion so fD ow ’ sp i c tu r e s tud yapp r o a cht oa r t edu c a t ion .Dow ’ sp ed a go g yw a se s s en t i a l insh ap in gF r e ebu r g ’ sapp r o a cht o ‘ c ompo s i t ion ’ ,ab r o adt e rmno to r i g in a l l yr e s t r i c t edt op i c tu r e s .Th et e rmb e g an , in C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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f a c t ,a sa mu s i c a lan a lo g yad ap t edt op i c tu r e s .In t e r e s t ed inth et e rm ’ s mu l t i -m ed i a r e a ch ,F r e ebu r gbo r r ow ed i tf r omD ow ,wh oe a r l i e rh adbo r r ow ed i tf r oma e s th e t i c ph i lo soph e randA s i ana r tc o l l e c t o rE rn e s tF eno l lo s a( am en t o rh esh a r edw i thE z r a P ound ) .18F r e ebu r gen c ou r a g edh i ss tud en t sandth em emb e r so fth eC in em a Compo s e r ’ sC lubt ound e r s t andf i lma r t ,a sf o rm , inth es am ew a yth i sc i r c l eo fa r t edu c a t o r sen c ou r a g edth e i rs tud en t st ound e r s t andan yo th e rsp a t i a la r t–a san e xp r e s s iono fth eb a s i cp r in c ip l e so fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion . Som eo fth ecu r r en ts cho l a r sh iponF r e ebu r gh a s in t e rp r e t edh ima safun c t ion a r y 19 O fc ou r s e ,nop r a c t i c a lc ou r s eons c r e enw r i t in g o fc l a s s i c a lH o l l ywoodn a r r a t i v e . w ou ldg e tv e r yf a rw i thou tadd r e s s in gth eb a s i cc ompon en t so fs t o r y ,bu t i t i s ju s ta s impo r t an tt ono t ehowth ec ou r s e s ’o s t en s ib l ep r a c t i c a la im s( c r e a t in gs t o r i e sf o rth e s c r e en )n e v e rqu i t ef e l l in t os yn chw i thth e i r in t e l l e c tu a lo r i g in s(d e f in in gp i c t o r i a l b e au t y ) .F r e ebu r gc on s i s t en t l ym a in t a in edth a td r am a tu r g y mu s tb e in t e g r a t edw i th e f f e c t i v ec ompo s i t ion ,soth a tc ompo s i t ion ,a t l e a s t inth eo r y ,c ou ldt a k ep r io r i t y .I t m a ys e emc oun t e r in tu i t i v eth a th et au gh tf e a tu r e l en g thn a r r a t i v es c r e enw r i t in gu s in g am e thodth a tv a lu edp i c t o r i a lf o rmo v e rs t o r y ,bu tth i son l y ind i c a t e sh i s l e v e lo f c omm i tm en tt oD ow ’ sm e thod .A sh ee xp l a in s , ‘Th eapp e a lo fth epho t op l a y i s p i c t o r i a l ,a sw e l la sd r am a t i c .…Bu tth ed r am a t i capp e a lo fth epho t op l a y ,th a t i s ,th e 20 F r e ebu r g ,th es cho l a r app e a lt oth eh e a r tandth eb r a in , i sa l soth r ou ghth ep i c t o r i a l . ’ o fd r am a tu r g yands tud en to ff amou sth e a t r ec r i t i cB r and e rM a t th ew s ,h adtu rn edh i s a t t en t iont op i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t iona sth ep r in c ip l eth a tun i t e sc in em a ’ sm an y app r op r i a t ion sf r omth eo th e ra r t s . F r e ebu r gg i v e sp r io r i t yt oc ompo s i t iono v e rn a r r a t ione v en inh i sapp r o a cht o ed i t in g ,wh i ch i su su a l l ych a r a c t e r i s eda sth e mo s tn a r r a t i v e -bounda sp e c to f m a in s t r e amf i lmf o rm . ‘Onth es c r e enth eed g e so fp i c t o r i a lv a lu e sc anno tw e l lb e s ep a r a t ed ;th e y mu s tt ou cha sc lo s e l ya sth en e g a t i v e s inth ef i lm .Th i sm a k e s i ta l lth e mo r e impo r t an tt ob ec a r e fu lo fth e jo in in g .I fp i c tu r e sa r eno tp r op e r l y jo in edth e yw i l l r e ebu r g b r e a k inth ea e s th e t i ct e s t ju s ta ssu r e l ya s inth ep r o j e c t in gm a ch in e . ’21F equ a t e sth ep r o g r e s s iono ff r am e sandth ecu t .Th i s mo v e i sc omp a r ab l et oo th e r ed i t in g -b a s edf i lmth eo r i e s ,bu th i sv e r s iono fth i san a lo g yr e v e a l sh i sp a r ad i gm a t i c f o cu sonp i c t o r i a lcompo s i t ion .Con t inu i t yo f mo t ion i sno ts imp l ya m e ch an i c a l i l lu s ion .Con t inu i t y ined i t in g i sno ts imp l ya ch i e v edwh enn a r r a t ionr end e r sth ecu t in v i s ib l e .Th e ya r ebo thgo v e rn edb yhowon ecompo s i t ionf low s in t oano th e r p i c t o r i a l l y– th a t i s ,howth e l in e s ,sh ap e sandsh adow so fon es c en er e l a t et otho s eo f th en e x ts c en e .Ed i t in g , l i k eth ep r o g r e s s iono ff r am e s , mu s tf o l lowth eru l e so f p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion .F i lm i cb e au t y ,asp e c i e so fp i c t o r i a lb e au t y ,c ou ldth enb et au gh t th ew a ya r tedu c a t o r st au gh tp i c t o r i a lb e au t y ino th e rm ed i a . Con c e i v in go fc in em aa sana r to fc ompo s edp i c tu r e sw a sno tn e c e s s a r i l yan ew id e a .S e v e r a lf i lmc r i t i c sh ad m ad ec l a im s l i k eth i s ,p a r t i cu l a r l yV a ch e lL ind s a y ,no t ed in th e l a s tch ap t e ra sh a v in gen c ou r a g edh i sr e ad e r st ocu tou tanda r r an g ep i c tu r e sf r om 22 f i lmf an m a g a z in e s ino rd e rt oh i gh l i gh tth em a ins choo l so f mo t ion -p i c tu r ea r t . F r e ebu r gt au gh tL ind s a y ’ sboo k inh i sc l a s s ,andwh enh i sownbookonth esub j e c tw a s pub l i sh ed , i te v en in c lud edanad v e r t i s em en tf o rL ind s a y ’ sboo kth a ts t r on g l y emph a s i s ed( in mo r ee xp l i c i tt e rm sth anL ind s a ye v e rd id ) i t sp i c t o r i a lapp r o a ch . ‘Th e m a inth e s i so f[L ind s a y ’ s ]boo k i sth a tth e mo v in gp i c tu r e i se s s en t i a l l yg r aph i cr a th e r th and r am a t i c ;th et end en c yo fth ea r to fth e mo v in gp i c tu r e i saw a yf r om i t s 76

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23 o s t en s ib l ed r am a t i c in t e r e s t ,t ow a rd sth e moodo fth ea r te xh ib i t ion . ’ F r e ebu r g ’ sTh e A r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in gsuppo r t sth i sg en e r a l id e a ,bu t , inbo r r ow in gf r omDowand o th e redu c a t o r s inth ep i c tu r e s tud yt r ad i t ion , i tt oo kth e s ec l a im sas t epfu r th e r .Th e c ompo s i t iono fth eboo k ,wh i chh ead ap t edf r om l e c tu r eno t e s , l a r g e l yf o l low sa d id a c t i ca r tw o r kboo k mod e lu s edb yD owandh i sc o l l e a gu e s .F r e ebu r gf ound p r e c ed en t s inth i sp r a c t i c e ,ande xp e r im en t edw i the x t end in g i t sm e thod st of i lm .D ow u s edr ep r odu c t ion so fs cu lp tu r e ,p a in t in gandg r aph i cd e s i gnt op r odu c ec omp a r a t i v e a r gum en t sabou tc ompo s i t ion .F r e ebu r gadd edf i lms t i l lr ep r odu c t ion st oth e s e c omp a r i son s inaw a yth a th adno tb e endon es y s t em a t i c a l l yb yL ind s a y , Mün s t e rb e r g , o ran yp r e v iou sw r i t e ronth ec in em a .H ew a se xp e r im en t in gw i tha m e thodth a th a s t od a yb e c om eas t and a rdp r a c t i c e inth es cho l a r l yan a l y s i so ff i lm . Ino rd e rt o i l lu s t r a t eh i s l e c tu r e sandh i sboo k sF r e ebu r gc o l l e c t edav i su a la r ch i v e th a ts e th imap a r tf r omo th e ra r tedu c a t o r s .H eapp r op r i a t edpub l i c i t ys t i l l sf r omth e i r mo r ec omm e r c i a lu s e s .Inh i stwoboo k sonp ic t o r i a lb e au t y inf i lm ,F r e ebu r g i l lu s t r a t e s th et e x tw i the l e v enr ep r odu c t ion so fp a in t in g sands cu lp tu r e ,andtw en t ys t i l l sf r om f i lm s .Ih a v e lo c a t eda r ch i v a lf i l e so fpub l i c i t ys t i l l sf o ro v e rh a l fo fth ef i lm sm en t ion ed b yF r e ebu r g ,and ine a cho fth e s ec a s e sIh a v ef oundh i se x a c t i l lu s t r a t ionamon gth e s t i l l s .Inadd i t iont oth es t i l l su s edf o r i l lu s t r a t ion sh em en t ion sdo z en so fo th e rs c en e s inth et e x to fh i sch ap t e r s . Wh en e v e rth e s enon i l lu s t r a t ede x amp l e s in c lud esom e d e t a i l inth e i rv i su a ld e s c r ip t ion ,th e yu su a l l ym a t ch edapub l i c i t ys t i l lf o rth ef i lm . V i su a lpub l i c i t ym a t e r i a lf r omth ef i lmc omp an i e sc l e a r l yen ab l edas i gn i f i c an tp a r to f h i ss tud y ,p ed a go g yandw r i t in g .Th eu s eo fs t i l l sf o ran a l y s i sh a sb e ent a k enf o r g r an t edf o rso lon g inf i lms tud yth a t i t i s impo r t an tt ono t eF r e ebu r g ’ s inno v a t ion in app r op r i a t in gm a t e r i a lp r odu c edf o rth epu rpo s e so fano th e r in s t i tu t ion .Insom ec a s e s th e s epu rpo s e so v e r l app ed ;a f t e ra l l ,F r e ebu r gd idu s epub l i c i t ys t i l l st opub l i c i s ef i lm s . Bu t , mo r eo f t en ,h i sn e g a t i v ee x amp l e sandh i sd i s cu s s iono ff i lm sno lon g e r c omm e r c i a l l yr e l e v an ts e emob l i v iou so re v enc on t r a r yt oth eo r g an i s a t ion sth a t p r odu c edth e s e im a g e s . Th es t i l l sa l low edh imth e lu xu r yo fr e v i ew in gand m an ipu l a t in gf i lmc ompo s i t ion s ina m ann e ra k int owh a th es aw ina r t edu c a t iont e x tboo k s .H eu s edapho t o g r apho f th eV en u sd eM i l of o rth ef r on t i sp i e c et oh i sf i r s tboo k , in s t ru c t in gh i sr e ad e rt od i s s e c t i t( a sap i c tu r e )w i thth r e e l in e s ino rd e rt od i a g r amou tth ec ompo s i t ion a lb a l an c eand rh y thmo f l in e so fth es cu lp tu r e .H eth ent r an s l a t edth i se x e r c i s e , i l lu s t r a t in gth e e f f e c t i v en e s so f l in eandb a l an c e inf i lms c en e sb y in s t ru c t in gh i sr e ad e r st ov i ewth e c ompo s i t ion sn e x tt oo th e rf amou sw o r k so rf r omd i f f e r en tp e r sp e c t i v e s .W i th P a r amoun t ’ sAu d r e y(1916 ) ,f o re x amp l e ,u s in gane x t e r io rs c en eo fawom anc r o s s in ga r i v e ronaf a l l ent r e e ,F r e ebu r gt e l l sth er e ad e rt o ‘ c r op ’th es c en eb ym anu a l l yc o v e r in g th e l e f tand low e rh a l v e so fth ep i c tu r e ino rd e rt os e ea mo r ed yn am i cc ompo s i t ion .In ano th e rs e c t ionh et e l l sth er e ad e rt otu rnth es am ep i c tu r eup s id edownt oc o r r e c tth e t op -h e a v y imb a l an c e inth ec ompo s i t ion . Wh i l eth i sd id a c t i cu s eo fp i c tu r e sw a s c ommononth ep a g e so fD ow ’ sw o r kboo k s ,u s in gaf i lms t i l lf o rth i spu rpo s ew a sa d i f f e r en tm a t t e r .F r e ebu r gapp r op r i a t edf i lmpub l i c i t y ,r epu rpo s ed i tf o rth ec l a s s r oom s e t t in gandf o rane x t end edr e ad in gpub l i c . In1917F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son jo in edF r e ebu r ga san in s t ru c t o r ,c on t inu in gt o runth esm a l lp r o g r amm ef o rs e v e r a ly e a r sa f t e rh e l e f t .Sh et oo kth ep r a c t i c a lt a s ko f g e t t in gs tud en t st op r odu c es c r ip t s mo r es e r iou s l y ; i twou ldno tb ew r on gt os e t

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Compo s i t io n a le x e r c i s e , u s i n gas t i l lf romA u d r e y (1916 ) , i nV i c to rF r e eb u r g ’ s P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yo nt h eS c r e e n (1923 )

F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sona g a in s te a cho th e r ,w i thF r e ebu r ga sth ea e s th e t ep r opon en to f g r aph i cc ompo s i t ionandP a t t e r sona sth ep r opon en to fc omm e r c i a ln a r r a t i v ec l a r i t y . Bu tth i ss ep a r a t ionb e c om e s mo r ec omp l i c a t edwh enc on s id e r in gP a t t e r son ’ st e a ch in g s andh e rwo r kou t s id eo fth eun i v e r s i t y .S in c eF r e ebu r g l e f tCo lumb i aa f t e ron l yaf ew y e a r s ,h i sboo k sc ou ld l a r g e l y i gno r eth er e a l i t i e so ft e a ch in gf i lmp r odu c t ion . P a t t e r sont au gh tPho t op l a yCompo s i t iona tCo lumb i af o rabou tf i f t e eny e a r s ,andh e r go a lw a st ot e a chp eop l ehowt ow r i t ep r o f e s s ion a l loo k in gs c r e enp l a y s .Sh ew r o t eh e r 24 N a tu r a l l y f i r s tbook ,C in em aC r a f t sm an s h i p,a sat e x tboo kf o rp r e c i s e l yth i spu rpo s e . insu chawo r k ,th em e ch an i c so fp lo tandch a r a c t e rc on s t ru c t ionwou ldt a k ep r io r i t y . Bu td e sp i t eh e r in t e r e s t s ins c r e enw r i t in g in s t ru c t ion ,som eo fth ep r eo c cup a t ion so f th ep i c tu r e s tud yt r ad i t ion in f lu en c edh e ra sw e l l .Sh et au gh tp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion in h e r in t e rm ed i a t ec ou r s e ,u s in gsom eo fF r e ebu r g ’ s mod e l sandV a ch e lL ind s a y ’ s w r i t in g sa st e x t s .25 M o r es i gn i f i c an tth anth e i ra t t emp t st ot r a ins c r e enw r i t e r s ,F r e ebu r gand P a t t e r sonwo r k edth r ou ghou tth e i rc a r e e r st ocu l t i v a t ea m ed ium id en t i t yf o rc in em a th a tw ou lda l i gn i tw i thr e f o rm i s tt r ad i t ion s l i k eD ow ’ ss yn th e t i cm e thodo ff in e a r t s p ed a go g y .Th e yhop edanapp r e c i a t iono fc ompo s i t ion inf i lmwou ldgu id eth et a s t e so f 26 th epub l i c ,wh i chth e yc on t r a s tw i th ‘ th em a s s ’ , ind e s i r in gb e t t e rf i lm s . Th eh and fu l o fs tud en t swhod idsu c c e ed ins e l l in gs c r ip t st of i lmc omp an i e sw e r e l i k eDow ’ s ‘ c e r t a inf ew ’whow en tont oc r e a t ea r tob j e c t s .Th e yw e r ean c i l l a r yt oth ego a lo f t r a in in g ‘ th em a jo r i t y ’ , inD ow ’ sw o rd sa g a in , ‘ t od e s i r ef in e rf o rmand mo r eh a rmon y 27 D e sp i t eth eo s t en s ib l ef o cu so ft e a ch in gn a r r a t i v e o ft on eandc o lo r insu r r ound in g s ’ . s c r e enw r i t in g ,th ec in em ac ompo s i t ionc ou r s e sf oundth em s e l v e sd e ep l y in t e r tw in ed w i thth ee v o l v in gf i e ldo fa r tedu c a t ion . P a t t e r sonf a re x c e ed edF r e ebu r g inh e r in v o l v em en tw i th in s t i tu t ion so ff i lm r e c ep t ionou t s id eo fh e rc ou r s e s ,andsh ec on v e y sasu s t a in ed in t e r e s t inp i c tu r ec r a f t inth e s ee f f o r t s .F r om1920onsh ew o r k edf o rth eN a t ion a lBo a rdo fR e v i ewand c on t r ibu t edr e gu l a r l yt o i t s jou rn a l ,E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y s.F o rth i s jou rn a lsh ew r o t e a r t i c l e sp r a i s in gd i r e c t o r ssu cha sV i c t o rS jö s t r omf o rh i ss low ,c on t emp l a t i v e 28 H e rthou gh t sabou to th e rd i r e c t o r so fp i c t o r i a l l yc ompo s edf i lm s compo s i t ion s . 78

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f o l low edas im i l a rt a c k .Sh ep r omo t ed , ju s ta sa c t i v e l ya sF r e ebu r g ,d i r e c t o r s l i k e S jö s t r om ,R e xIn g r am ,( B r o k enB l o s s om se r a )G r i f f i thand M au r i c eT ou rn eu rsoth a t Am e r i c anf i lms c r e en sc ou ldb e c om ean ‘ In t e rn a t ion a l Mo t ionP i c tu r eG a l l e r y ’ .29 F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sons t a k edth e i rc l a im sabou tc in em a ’ scu l tu r a lv a lu e in l a r g e p a r tonth i s id e ao fth e ‘mo t ionp i c tu r eg a l l e r y ’ ,wh i chh e lp st oe xp l a inwh ysh em ad e so mu cho fIn g r am ’ sb a c k g r ound ins cu lp tu r eandT ou rn eu r ’ s inp a in t in g .I ta l so e xp l a in swh yF r e ebu r g in c lud e s l en g th y i l lu s t r a t edan a l y s e so fth e mo v em en t in p a in t in g sands cu lp tu r e s ,andwh yh eb e g anTh eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in gw i thth eV en u s d eM i l o .Aboo ko fth i st i t l er equ i r edahou s eho ld -n am em a s t e rp i e c ea s i t sf r on t i sp i e c e . P a t t e r sonandF r e ebu r gw e r ec l a im in gap l a c ef o rf i lm ,no t insom en ewand m a r g in a l d ep a r tm en to fth e mu s eum ,bu tr a th e rr i gh tn e x tt oth e mu s eum ’ sc anon i c a la r t e f a c t s f r omth eh i s t o r yo fw e s t e rna r t .A tth i st im eh a l l so fc a s t so fc l a s s i c a ls cu lp tu r ew e r e s e ena s impo r t an tc ompon en t so fth e mu s eum ’ sp ed a go g i c a lm i s s ion .Cu r a t o r s f r equ en t l yg a v ep r io r i t yt oth e s ee xh ib i t sw i thp e r c e i v edp ed a go g i c a lv a lu eo v e rtho s e 30 th a tc on t a in l e s sc anon i c a lon e -o f a k indw o r k s . S cu lp tu r eg a l l e r i e sshow c a s edwo r k s th a tc ou ldt e a ch ,andwh a tth e yt au gh tw a sd e ep l y in t e r r e l a t edw i thF r e ebu r gand P a t t e r son ’ shop e sf o rc in em a ’ sv a lu ea sa r t . MOVEMENT ,CONT EMP LAT IONANDTH E ‘TAB L EAU ’ L i k em an yo fth ee a r l yc r i t i c sand l e c tu r e r swhoa t t emp t edt oc on c ep tu a l i s e mo v in g p i c tu r e s inr e l a t iont oth ef in ea r t s ,F r e ebur gandP a t t e r sonc on t inu a l l yr e tu rn edt oth e i s su eo f mo v em en t .F o rth em , mo v em en tp r e s en t edano v e r a r ch in gth eo r e t i c a l p r ob l emth a th adno ty e tb e enad equ a t e l yandd i r e c t l yadd r e s s ed .B e c au s e i tr a t ch e t s in e x o r ab l yf o rw a rd ,c in em a t i c mo v em en td i s rup t sth equ i e ts e c ondg l an c eo fth e c on t emp l a t i v ev i ew e r .B e c au s eth e mo v em en t i sm e ch an i c a l , i tdo e sno tp r i v i l e g e b e au t i fu l mom en t so v e ru g l yon e s .Ande v en i faf i lm in c lud e sm an yb e au t i fu ls t a t i c p i c tu r e s , i tnon e th e l e s s mo v e s .M o v em en t mu s tb ea c c oun t edf o r .P a t t e r sone xp r e s s e s som eo fth e s ep r ob l em se loqu en t l y inh e rs e c ondboo k ,S c en a r i oan dS c r e en ,wh ensh e r e c oun t sana r gum en tw i tha mu s eumd i r e c t o rwhos tubbo rn l yd en i edf i lmap l a c e in h i s mu s eum .Sh er e spond s : P e rh ap s i t i sth equ a l i t yo fm o t i onwh i chs e em edt oth emu s eumd i r e c t o rt ob ea tv a r i an c e w i thth equ i e tc on t emp l a t i onwh i chp e rv ad e samu s eumo fa r t .Y e t ,a f t e ra l l ,th em o t i on p i c tu r ed o e sn om o r eth ant a k eupth eth r e ado fa c t i onw o v enb yth e im a g in a t i ona r ounda p a in t in go rap i e c eo fs cu lp tu r e .Th e r e i sv i o l en c e inth eL a o c o ö n;th e r e i sa c t i on inth e W in g e d V i c t o r yo fS am o t h r a c e .…Th eph o t op l a yg o e son l yas t epb e y ondth ec ap tu r edm om en to f 31 c an v a sandm a r b l eandb r on z eandg i v e sc on t inu i t yt oth esu g g e s t eda c t i on .

Sh edo e sno tr e f e rt oth ed i r e c t o ro r in s t i tu t ionb yn am e ,bu th e rd i s a g r e em en tw a s d i r e c t eda tp l a c e s l ik eth eB r oo k l yn Mu s eum .W i l l i amH en r yGood y e a r ,t y r eh e i r , s cho l a ro fc l a s s i c a ls cu lp tu r eandf in ea r t scu r a t o ra tth eB r ook l yn Mu s eum ,show c a s ed r ep l i c a so fth eL a o c o önandth eW in g e dV i c t o r yo fS am o t h r a c ea tth eh e ado fth er oom loo k in gou to v e rth er ow so fo th e rf amou sw o r k s inth e mu s eum ’ sh a l lo fc l a s s i c a l 32 G i v enth ec on t inu ed in s t i tu t ion a lc onn e c t ion sb e tw e enth eB r ook l yn s cu lp tu r e . C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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In s t i tu t e( th ep a r en to r g an i s a t ionf o rth eB r oo k l yn Mu s eum )andCo lumb i a ’ s e x t en s ionp r o g r amm e ,P a t t e r son m a yh a v eb e enr e spond in gd i r e c t l yt oGood y e a rand 33 t oth ea r r an g em en to fs cu lp tu r e inth i sr oom . A l thou ghh e lo v edth em a g i c l an t e rn , Good y e a rw a ssu sp i c iou so f mo t ionp i c tu r e s .H eu s edh i s l an t e rns l id e sa lmo s ta s su rv e y in gt oo l s .Y e s ,pho t o g r aph i cs l id e sw e r eth e r et oedu c a t eth epub l i c ,bu t Good y e a ra l sou s edth emt om e a su r ea r ch i t e c tu r e .H er anp lumb l in e sth r ou gh c a th ed r a l sb e f o r epho t o g r aph in gth emandp en l in e sa c r o s sh i spho t o g r aph i cs l id e st o id en t i f yand i l lu s t r a t eth esub t l er e f in em en t sth a th eb e l i e v ed ,f o l low in gJ ohnRu s k in , ch a r a c t e r i s edc r a f t l abou rb e f o r eth eR en a i s s an c e .Good y e a rh adno im a g in a t ionf o r c in em a ’ spo t en t i a la sas im i l a rt yp eo fsu rv e y in gt oo l ,andnop a t i en c ef o r i t s d i s rup t iono fth ec on t emp l a t i v et on ef a v ou r edb yRu s k in i an s l i k eh im s e l f . Bo tho fP a t t e r son ’ s ‘mo v in g ’s cu lp tu r e ss toodou tamon gtho s em en t ion ed in d i s cu s s ion sabou twh e th e randhowa r t i s t sshou ldr ep r e s en t mo v em en t ins t a t i c m ed i a .Th eL a o c o önw a sth eb e t t e rknowno fth etwob e c au s eo fth econ t inu in g in t e r e s t inGo t tho ldEph r a imL e s s in g ’ s1766th e s i sonth e l im i t so fp a in t in gand e s s in g ’ sbook ,as t ap l e in mo s tn in e t e en th c en tu ryd i s cu s s ion so f po e t ry .34L a e s th e t i c s , i sd i r e c t edp r e c i s e l ya g a in s tth i ssu g g e s t iono fa c t ion inp a in t in gand s cu lp tu r e l aud edb yP a t t e r son .Sh es e em stob ep i ck in guponr e v i s ion stoL e s s in g ’ s id e a sabou ta c t ionandr epo s ea r t i cu l a t ed inth en in e t e en thc en tu ryandg a in in g mom en tumamon gAm e r i c ana r tedu c a to r s inth ef i r s tp a r to fth etw en t i e th ,e v enb y Good y e a rh im s e l f .35 Bu te v en i fth e s es cu lp tu r e ssu g g e s t ed mo v em en t ,th e ys t i l le v o k ed ‘ qu i e t c on t emp l a t ion ’ ,aph r a s ew i thasp e c i f i cr e f e r en c e inth eh i s t o r yo fa e s th e t i cedu c a t ion . L e s s in g ’ swo r kb e c am ef amou sf o r i t s imp e r a t i v eo fs t a s i sandr epo s e inp a in t in gand s cu lp tu r e .Th esp a t i a la r t sshou ldno tsu g g e s ta c t ionandth e yshou ldv a lu er epo s eo v e r e c s t a t i cbu r s t s .InL e s s in g ’ s l e g a c y ,o fwh i chGood y e a r ,F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sonf o rma p a r t ,s cho l a r se xp and edth e i r in t e r e s t inth ed yn am i c so fs cu lp tu r eandp a in t in g ,e v en a s mo s to fth ems t i l lhop edt or e t a insom eo fth ea e s th e t i c a l l yc on s e rv a t i v e p r e s c r ip t ion so fL e s s in g ’ sthou gh t .Ane a r l yth eo r i s to fc in em a l i k eF r e ebu r gc ou ld c e r t a in l yc oun tamon gtho s ewhosou gh tt oemb r a c ed yn am i ca r t .Bu th ea l soh e ld on t os t r i c tp r e s c r ip t ion sabou ta v o id in gd i s son an tc ompo s i t ion s ins t a t i cand mo v in g f o rm s .H er e f e r r edt of r en e t i c mo v em en to rsh a rpc on t r a s t s ,wh i chdono ty i e ldsom e l a r g e rc ompo s i t ion a lun i t y ,a s ‘p i c t o r i a lh y s t e r i c s ’ .H eh adnoc on c e rn sabou t d yn am i sm ina r tp e rs e . Wh end yn am i smd e g en e r a t ed in t op i c t o r i a lh y s t e r i c s ,how e v e r , i tb e c am eth een em yo fc on t emp l a t ion . F r e ebu r g l a y sou tth ee x a c tph i lo soph i c a lp ed i g r e eo fth et e rm ‘ c on t emp l a t ion ’ in h i sboo k s ,and i t i sw o r tht a k in gsom esp a c et od i s cu s swh a tth i st e rm m e an st oh im . H ed e r i v e sth et e rmf r oma mod e lo fsp e c t a t o r sh ipr oo t ed inp s y cho lo g i c a la e s th e t i c s andG e rm anth eo r i e so femp a th y .F r e ebu r gh im s e l fd idno ts tud y inG e rm an y ,bu th e w a s in f lu en c edb ym an yo fth eG e rm aném i g r é s ,su cha sHu go Mün s t e rb e r g ,who r e ebu r gkn ew Mün s t e rb e r g ’ sw id e r an g in g b r ou gh tth e s eth eo r i e st oth eU SA .36F w o r k ,bu th i sp r im a r y in t e r e s t inp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion m ad e i t impo s s ib l et of o l low Mün s t e rb e r g ’ sapp r o a cht of i lmf o rmandsp e c t a t o r sh ip .In Th eP h o t o p l a y, Mün s t e rb e r g b a s edh i san a l y s e so ff i lmf o rma lmo s te x c lu s i v e l yoned i t in gandn a r r a t ion .F o rh im , th eb a s i cp r o c e s s e so fhum ana t t en t ionand m emo r ym an i f e s tth em s e l v e s mo s tc l e a r l y inth ep r o g r e s s iono ff r am e sandcu t s .F r e ebu r gw a s in t e r e s t ed l e s s inth efun c t ion so f 80

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s t o r y( gu id in ga t t en t ionand m emo r y )th an inf i lm ’ sp l a s t i cf o rm ,soh i sth eo r yt a k e s th et r ad i t iono fp s y cho lo g i c a la e s th e t i c s inar ad i c a l l yd i f f e r en td i r e c t ion . Th etwoAn g lophon ew r i t e r sonp s y cho lo g i c a la e s th e t i c swhomF r e ebu r g a c know l ed g e s mo s tf r equ en t l ya r eB r i t i sha e s th e t eV e rnonL e e(V io l e tP a g e t )and Mün s t e rb e r g ’ sc o l l e a gu eE th e lPu f f e r .L e ew a sp e rh ap sb e s tknownf o rr e v i s in gth e t r ad i t iono fB r i t i sha e s th e t i c i smr ep r e s en t edb yh e rf r i end W a l t e rP a t e randc on t inu in g i t in t oth e1910and20 s .Sh ec on t r ibu t eds i gn i f i c an t l yt om a k in gG e rm an p s y cho lo g i c a la e s th e t i c sa v a i l ab l eanda c c e s s ib l et oth eEn g l i sh sp e a k in gwo r ld .Sh e e xp lo r edemp a th ya e s th e t i c s inh e rboo k sB e a u t yan dU g l in e s sandTh eB e a u t i f u l, suppo r t in gav i s c e r a lno t iono femp a th y inwh i chsp e c t a t o r sh ip imp l i e sbod i l y 37 Ap i c tu r e ,o rap i c t o r i a la sp e c to fath in g ,a c t i v a t e san eu r omu s cu l a r a c t i v i t y . m im i c k in go ff o rm ,ap r o c e s sth a tPu f f e rr e f e r st oa s inn e rv a t ion .38T oth ee x t en tth a t th e s ebod i l y mo v em en t sa r ec ondu c i v et oth eh e a l th yfun c t ion in go fth eo r g an i sm ,th e f o rmth a ta c t i v a t e sth emc anb ec on s id e r edb e au t i fu l .Sh ed e v e lop sth i sno t ion inTh e B e a u t i f u landa r gu e sth a tbod i l ym im i c r y i sane f f e c to fa mo r ep r im a r yp s y cho lo g i c a l p r o c e s swh e r eb yth em indr e i t e r a t e sf o rm inth ep r o c e s so fp e r c ep t ion .B e au t y p r odu c e sas en s eo fc on t emp l a t i v es a t i s f a c t ionth r ou ghth i sr e i t e r a t edp e r c ep t ion . F r e ebu r gadop t sL e e ’ sd e f in i t ion ,c i t in gTh eB e a u t i f u l,andb a s e sh i san a l y s i so ff i lma r t ‘ onth eund e r s t and in gth a tac in em ap i c tu r e i sb e au t i fu lwh enth esub j e c tand 39 c ompo s i t iont o g e th e rpu tth esp e c t a t o r inas t a t eo fc on t emp l a t i v es a t i s f a c t ion ’ . Bu tc on t emp l a t iont a k e st im e ,p r e c i s e l yth ek indo fd e l ib e r a t ee x t en s iono ft im e e l im in a t edb yth ep r o j e c t o r ’ ssp inn in gshu t t e r .Th i st im ef o rc on t emp l a t ion m a yb e t a k enf o rg r an t edw i thp a in t in gands cu lp tu r e ,bu tc in em ah a sa lw a y s in t rud edonth e sp e c t a t o r ’ st im ew i tha m e ch an i s ed mo v em en tou to fth ev i ew e r ’ sc on t r o l .M a r yAnn D o an ed e s c r ib e sth i s in t ru s iononth et im eo fth esp e c t a t o ra sab a s i cch a r a c t e r i s t i co f f i lma e s th e t i c s : Un l i k ep r e v i ou sf o rm so fv i su a lr ep r e s en t a t i on , inwh i chc omp r eh en s i ont o o kt im e(w r i t in g , s cu lp tu r e ,p a in t in g ) ,th ec in em a ,b e c au s e i tw a sm e ch an i c a l ,su b j e c t ed i t ssp e c t a t o rt oth e t im eo f i t sown in e x o r a b l eandun v a r y in gm o v em en t .P r e v i ou s l y ,th et im eo fv i ew in gh adb e en inth ec on t r o lo fth esu b j e c t ,a l l ow in gf o rc on t emp l a t i ona t l e i su r e .Th et e chn o l o g i c a lb a s i so f 40 th ec in em a in c a rn a t edth er e g im en t a t i ono ft im e inm od e rn i t y , i t s i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y .

D o an e ’ sch a r a c t e r i s a t iono fth e mod e rnsp e c t a t o r ’ st im er e e x am in e sad i s c ou r s ea so ld a sth ef i r s td i s cu s s ion so f mo t ion -p i c tu r ea r t .Inanund e r s t and ab l y l e s sd e v e lop ed f o rm ,th i sb a s i c id e ac i r cu l a t ede v en inth e1910 s .F r e ebu r g ’ sw o r kc on f r on t eda p e r s i s t en tp r ob l emamon gc r i t i c swhoa c know l ed g edth er e g im en t ed mod e rn i t yo f c in em a ’ s mo v em en tandy e tr e fu s edt og i v eupth esp e c t a t o r ’ st im ef o rc on t emp l a t ion . H en e ed edt oa c c oun tf o r mom en t so fc on t emp l a t ion ina m ed iumth a t ,a c c o rd in gt oa c omp e t in gd i s c ou r s eth a te v enh eo c c a s ion a l l yemb r a c e s ,ep i t om i s e sth e s t and a rd i s a t ionand in e v i t ab i l i t yo fm e ch an i s ed mo v em en t .L i k em an yo th e r p r opon en t so fa e s th e t i cc in em a ,h eadd r e s s edth i sp e r s i s t en tp r ob l emb ytu rn in g t ow a rd sth ep e r f o rm an c et r ad i t iono fth et ab l e au . F r e ebu r gapp r op r i a t edth et ab l e aud i f f e r en t l yth anB l a c ko rH i l l e r .H i sa e s th e t i c th eo r ym a r k sapo in twh enf i lmc r i t i c st r an s f o rm edth i st r ad i t iona sth e ybo r r ow ed f r om i t .Onth es t a g e ,p l a yw r i gh t s ,p e r f o rm e r sandd i r e c t o r sw o r k edt o g e th e rt opu t C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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a c tu a lp au s e s ,o rt ab l e au x , in toth ep e r f o rm an c e . Wh yno tr ep l i c a t eth i sd i r e c t l yon f i lm ?Th ef i lmd i r e c to rcou ldc r e a t ef i lms equ en c e sth a tg i v eth ev i ew e rt im ef o r p i c to r i a lcon t emp l a t ionb ybu i ld in gt ab l e au x in toth ef lowo fth ea c t ionb y comm and in gth ea c to r stoho ldth e i rpo s i t iondu r in gs i gn i f i c an t mom en t s .F r e ebu r g c e r t a in l yw e l com e sth et ab l e au inc in em ab e c au s e i t i sp a r to fat r ad i t ionth a tr ou t ed th eno t iono fth ecompo s edp i c tu r eth r ou ghp e r f o rm an c et r ad i t ion sand mod e rn m ed i ap r a c t i c e s .H edo e sno t ,how e v e r ,d ep endonth et ab l e aua sth ep r a c t i c a l s t and a rd inf i lma r t .H e r eh i sf i lmth eo ryd i v e r g e sf r omth ef o rm a lt r ad i t iono f p i c to r i a l i sma se xp lo r ed inV a rd a c ’ sS t a g et oS c r e enandupd a t ed inB r ew s t e rand 41 J a cob s ’ sTh e a t r et oC in em a. Th eu s eo fa c tu a lt ab l e au x i son l yon ep r a c t i c a lso lu t ion andw a sp e r c e i v edb ym an y ,wh enF r e ebu r gw r o t eh i sf i lmbook s in1918and1923 ,a s in c r e a s in g l yo ldf a sh ion ed .T ab l e auv i v an tf i lm s l ik etho s em ad eb yL e j a r enàH i l l e r w e r eane x c ep t iontoth eru l ea tth i st im e .F r e ebu r g ’ scon c ep t iono fp i c to r i a lb e au t y in f i lm in vo l v e s mo r eth an ju s tp r a i s eo ff i lm sth a tu s eth i st e chn iqu ead ap t edf r om l i v e p e r f o rm an c e .T e chn iqu e sth a t in vo l v eshoo t in gr e l a t i v e l ys t a t i cs c en e sandh a v in gth e a c to r spo s eon l yr e in f o r c ewh a th eb e l i e v edtoa l r e ad yb eh app en in g inth em indo f th ef i lmv i ew e r . W i thh i st ab l e au l i k e mod e lo fth ep e r c ep t iono f mo v in gf o rm s ,F r e ebu r g lo c a t e s th esp e c t a t o r ’ st im ef o rc on t emp l a t ionw i th inth ev e r ym ed iumth a ts e em edt oen su r e c on t emp l a t ion ’ sd em i s e .H e i l lu s t r a t e sth i s mo s tc l e a r l ywh enh ea s so c i a t e sth e c in em a t i ct ab l e auw i thth ep e r c ep t iono fth e mo v em en t so fad i v e r .H ec l a im sth a t in v i ew in gaw e l l e x e cu t edd i v ev i ew e r sau t om a t i c a l l yp e r c e i v e i ta sas e r i e so fp i c t o r i a l l y h a rmon iou ss t a t i cpo s i t ion sr a th e rth ana s mo v em en t s inth e i ren t i r e t y .Th ev i ew e r app r a i s e sb e au t ya tth e mom en twh enth ed i v e rapp e a r st oho v e rf o ra mom en t ina b a l an c ed m id a i rpo s tu r e .Th i s mod eo fp e r c ep t iono c cu r s ine v e r y mo v em en t ,wh e th e r th ebod i e s in mo t ionh a v ea c tu a l l yp au s edo rno t .F r e ebu r gbu i ld sh i sp i c t o r i a l t a x onom i e s inbo tho fh i sf i lmboo k sf r omth i sb a s i ca s s e r t ion : Inm an yr e a lo rc in em a t o g r aph eda c t i on s i t i sam om en tr a th e rth anam o v em en t ,wh i ch imp r e s s e sth ee y eandr em a in s inth em em o r y ;th a t i s ,th a t insu cha c t i on sth em inda lw a y s r e t a in sas t a t i c in s t an t ,o rt a b l e au ,r a th e rth anth em o v em en t swh i ch l e adupt o ,o raw a yf r om , 42 th a tt a b l e au .

Th em indandth ee y er e t a ins t a t i c in s t an t s ,bu tno t inth ew a yth a tpho t o g r aph y r e t a in ss t a t i c in s t an t s .H e i su s in gth et ab l e auh e r ea saf i gu r ef o rth ew a yp r i v i l e g ed mom en t s imp r e s sth em ind a s i fth e yw e r eb r i e f l yh e lds t a t i c .H ec omp a r e sth i s ab s t r a c tc on c ep t iono fth et ab l e auw i thth e in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph inth es am e p a s s a g e . T a k eth es imp l ec a s eo fam anrunn in g .Th ep a r to fth es t epwh i chw es e em o s tv i v id l yand r e c a l lm o s te a s i l y i sth em om en twh enh i s l e g sa r ef a r th e s tap a r t .… Wh enan in s t an t an e ou s ph o t o g r aph i sm ad eo fth erunn e r i to f t enh app en sth a tanun f am i l i a rm om en t i sr e c o r d edb y th ec am e r aandw ee xp r e s ssu rp r i s eth a tam anc ou lde v e rg e th i s l e g stw i s t ed insu cha s t r an g ep o s i t i on .Th et e s t im on yo fth eph o t o g r aph i sp r o o fth a t inth ec a s eo fth erunn e rou r e y e sg r a spandou rm ind sr e t a inc e r t a ins e l e c t edm om en t sr a th e rth ant r an s i t i on s ,wh i ch 43 c on s i s to fa l lo fth em om en t s inc on s e cu t i v eo r d e r . 82

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In s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph yr ep r e s en t s ‘ a l lo fth e mom en t s inc on s e cu t i v eo rd e r ’ . F r e ebu r gb e l i e v e sth e s ec on t in g en t in s t an t st ob et ru e ,bu tth e ydono tn e c e s s a r i l y e l i c i tth ee xp e r i en c eo fb e au t y .Th ec on t in g en t in s t an t s ,m ad ev i s ib l e inac on v in c in g w a yb yf i lmandpho t o g r aph y ,no lon g e rs i gn a laon e -w a ysh i f t inth ee xp e r i en c eo f mo v in g im a g e s . Wh i l eth e mod e rnw o r ld m a yb ec ompo s edo fan y in s t an t s -wh a t e v e r inr ap idsu c c e s s ion ,th ea e s th e t i ce xp e r i en c eo fth i swo r lde s c ap e ssu chr i g id r e s t r i c t ion s .I tr e tu rn st ohum ane xp e r i en c ep r e c i s e l ywh a tth eapp a r a tu sth r e a t en st o 44 t a k ef r om i t . F r e ebu r g i sc l e a r l ybu i ld in gonth eo ld e rd i s c ou r s eth a tb e g anw i thth ead v en to f in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y .Bu th i ssu sp i c ion o fth e in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aphb e a r sa s a l i en td i s t in c t ionf r omth ee a r l i e rsu sp i c ion sabou tth ec am e r ab e in gf a s t e rth anth e e y e .H edo e sno ts imp l yr e i t e r a t eth ew e l l -w o rnc l a imth a ta r t i s t sshou ldc r e a t e c ompo s i t ep i c tu r e so fbod i e s in mo t ion ino rd e rt or ep l i c a t eth ehum ane y e ’ s in ab i l i t y t or e g i s t e rr ap id mo v em en t .Th i se a r l i e rno t ionth a tp a in t in gshou ldr ep l i c a t eon l y wh a tth ee y ec ans e ef ind s i t s ju s t i f i c a t ion inabod i l yd e f i c i en c y .I ta s s e r t sth a tth e s lu g g i sh , imp e r f e c td e s i gno fth ehum ane y e ,p l a gu edb yf a t i gu eandc loud edb y a f t e r im a g e s ,c anon l yp a s s i v e l yr e g i s t e r mo v em en t sb e lowac e r t a inth r e sho ld . F r e ebu r g ’ ss t a t i c imp r e s s ion sa r ea c t i v ewh e r eth ea f t e r im a g e mod e l i sp a s s i v e .I t i sno t abod i l yd e f i c i en c yth a t lo s e ssom eo fth e‘ t r an s i t ion a l in s t an t s ’ .In s t e ad ,th ev i ew e r ’ s d e s i r ef o rf o rm a l l yp e r f e c tc ompo s i t ion sa c t i v e l ye x t r a c t sth e s e ‘ t ab l e au x ’f r omth e a rb i t r a r y in s t an t sth a tsu r r oundth em .D ow ’ scu l t i v a t iono fa c t i v ea e s th e t i cd e s i r e op e r a t e sh e r e .Th et a s ko fth ec in em ac ompo s e r i st oo f f e r im a g e sth a ts t o k eth i sd e s i r e f o rs a t i s f y in gc ompo s i t ion s ,andth ec r i t i c mu s tp r omo t eth ek ind so ff i lm sth a t en c ou r a g et ab l e au l i k ec on t emp l a t ion . H e r e i swh e r eth ep r omo t ion a le f f o r t so fth ec omp an i e s l i k eP a r amoun tc on v e r g e eo v e rwh e lm in gm a jo r i t yo fth ef o r t yf i lm s w i thF r e ebu r g ’ sa e s th e t i cth eo r y .45Th F r e ebu r gd i s cu s s e s inh i sboo k sand l e c tu r eno t e sw e r eL a s k y /P a r amoun tf i lm s .Th e c omp an y ’ sp r odu c t ion so fth em id -1910 s ,wh i l eno tth eon l ye x amp l e s ,d idp r omo t e s e v e r a lt e chn iqu e so f l i gh t in g ,s t a g in ganda r td i r e c t ionth a tdo v e t a i l edw i thap i c tu r e s tud yapp r o a cht of i lmedu c a t ion .A lw a y sth ead v o c a t eo fpu rpo s i v ec r a f t ,F r e ebu r g l aud edth ec r a f to fa r t i f i c i a l l i gh t in gandth eg r e a t e rr an g eo fe f f e c t s i tc ou ldp r o v id e o v e rn a tu r a l l i gh t .H edo e sn ’ tm en t ion ‘L a s k y l i gh t in g ’o r ‘R emb r and t l i gh t in g ’b y n am e ,bu th ep r a i s e s low k e ye f f e c t s l i gh t in g ins e v e r a lL a s k yf i lm s , l i k eSw e e tK i t t y B e l l a i r s(1930 ) ,c r e a t edb yth ep eop l ewhoad ap t edth e s e ‘R emb r and t l i gh t in g ’e f f e c t s 46 f r omth e i rd a y sw o r k in gf o rD a v idB e l a s c o ’ sth e a t r ep r odu c t ion s . Inp l a c eo f R emb r and t ,F r e ebu r gu s e sJ e an -F r an ç o i sM i l l e t ,who s eAn g e l u sh ade xp e r i en c eda r obu s ta f t e r l i f e inAm e r i c ana r tc l a s s e s ,th es a l eo f in e xp en s i v e l i tho g r aph sandv i su a l 47 F r e ebu r gr ep r in t sand quo t a t ion s l i k eD .W .G r i f f i th ’ sAC o rn e r in Wh e a t(1909 ) . an a l y s e sAn g e l u sin Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g. M o r eth an i t sh i s t o r i c a l impo r t an c e , h ep r a i s e s i t sc ompo s i t ion a lb a l an c e inth ep l a yo f l i gh tandsh ad eonth en e a r l y s i lhou e t t edf i gu r e s .H ef e l tth a tth e l i gh t inth ep a in t in gsuppo r t edh i sc a l lf o re f f e c t s l i gh t in g inf i lm s .F i lm -m a k e r sw e r ek e en l y , i fa tt im e sc yn i c a l l y ,aw a r eo fth e ad v an t a g e so fth i s l i gh t in gs t y l e ,th e mo s tf amou se x amp l eb e in gth ee x ch an g e b e tw e enC e c i lB .D eM i l l eandS amu e lGo ldw yn : ‘ f o rR emb r and t l i gh t in gth ee xh ib i t o r s w ou ldp a ydoub l e ! ’48F r e ebu r g ’ san a l y s e so f l i gh t in g inp a in t in gandf i lmb a s i c a l l ya l l i ed w i thth e s e mo t i v e s .Th e yc o r r e spond edw i th indu s t r ye f f o r t st o l e g i t im i s eth e i r C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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p r odu c t s ,bu tth e ya l soa t t emp t edt og i v eth e s ec r o s s -m ed i aa s so c i a t ion s mo r e an a l y t i c a lr i gou rth anth e yh ad inth ec omp an ypub l i c i t yk i t sandsho r tr e v i ew s .Th i s pu l l edh i sa e s th e t i cp r e s c r ip t ion saw a yf r omp r odu c e r s ’pub l i c i t y in t e r e s t sa lmo s ta s o f t ena s i tr e in f o r c edth em . F r e ebu r g ’ se x amp l e so fp i c t o r i a lb e au t y inf i lm sa l l i edw i tho th e rf i lm l e g i t im i s e r s o fth et im e ,bu ts e l e c t i v e l yso .H echo s eno tt of o l lowth ep a tho fp r a i s in gaf i lmb a s ed onth e l e g i t im a c yo f i t sp e r f o rm e r s .Th ef amou sp l a y e r so fZu ko r ’ sp r odu c t ion sh e ld l e s s in t e r e s tf o rF r e ebu r gth anth ew o r ko fth ea r td i r e c t o r sandc in em a t o g r aph e r s . Wh e r eV a ch e lL ind s a yf o cu s edona c t o r s ’bod i e s( l i k eM a r yP i c k f o rdandDou g l a s F a i rb an k s )f o rh i sd i s cu s s ion so fp i c t o r i a lb e au t y ,F r e ebu r gp r e f e r r ed lon gsho t s in wh i chth ep e r f o rm e r ’ sbod yf o rm edon esm a l lp a r to fa l a r g e rc ompo s i t ion .H i sf o cu s onc ompo s i t iono c c a s ion a l l yrun sc oun t e rt oth es t r a t e g i e so fp e r f o rm e r f o cu s ed indu s t r yup l i f ts t r a t e g i e s ,a se v id en c ed inh i se x c lu s iono fG e r a ld in eF a r r a rf r omh i s r ep e a t edd i s cu s s ion so fD eM i l l e ’ sC a rm en.S e cu r in gth eop e r as t a rF a r r a rf o rth ep a r to f C a rm enw a sa m a jo rund e r t a k in gf o rL a s k yandD eM i l l e .F a r r a rw a samon gth eb e s t known l e g i t im a t ep e r f o rm e r s inth ec oun t r y .Th e l ion ’ ssh a r eo fpub l i c i t yabou tth e f i lm ’ ss t a tu sa sana r tf i lmsu r r ound edh e rr o l e in i t .M ed iumsho t so fF a r r a r in d r am a t i ct ab l e au xc omp r i s edth em a jo r i t yo fth ef i lm ’ sv i su a lpub l i c i t ym a t e r i a l .Bu t F r e ebu r g l e f tth e s e im a g e sou to fh i s l e c tu r e sand l e f tF a r r a rou to fh i sd i s cu s s iono f th ef i lm .Inf a c t ,h es e em st od i s l i k eth ew a yt i gh t e rf r am in gp r i v i l e g e sh e r p e r f o rm an c e inth ec l im a c t i cs c en e swh enDonJ o s é l e a v e sf o rS e v i l l eandwh enh ek i l l s C a rm enandh im s e l f .H ec on t r a s t sth i ss t a r f o cu s edf r am in gw i th lon g sho t c ompo s i t ion sf r omth ef i lm . ‘P i c t o r i a l l yth e s et ab l e au xa r e l e s s in t e r e s t in gth anth ebu l l 49 f i gh t .…and l e s sb e au t i fu lth anth em a r in ev i ewa tth eop en in go fth ep l a y . ’ F r e ebu r gc on s i s t en t l yp r e f e r r ed lon g sho tc ompo s i t iono v e rc lo s e rf r am in g .Th i s in i t s e l fs e th imap a r tf r omc on t empo r a r i e s l i k e Mün s t e rbu r g ,bu tth esp e c i f i ct yp e so f lon g sho tc ompo s i t ion sh ep r e f e r r edh e lpt od e l im i th i sp i c tu r e c r a f ta e s th e t i c in mo r e c on c r e t et e rm s .So r t in gth r ou ghh i se x emp l a r ys c en e sr e v e a l sap a t t e rnf o rp r e f e r r in g m i s eens c èn eth a t i s l a y e r ed ind ep tho v e ram i s eens c èn einwh i chth ef r am e i sd i v id ed in t os id e -b y s id esp a c e s l i k eg r aph i cp an e l s .H ed i s t in gu i sh e sth e s etwot end en c i e s wh enh ec r i t i c i s e sB enC a r r é ’ sf amou ss e tf o rM au r i c eT ou rn eu r ’ sH an do fP e r i l(1916 ) . F r e ebu r gw a sun imp r e s s edw i thC a r r é ’ s mu l t i s t o r e ybu i ld in g ,bu i l tw i thou taf r on tw a l l t oshowa c t ion in mu l t ip l er oom ss imu l t an eou s l y . ‘Th en in e r oomc r o s ss e c t iond id o no t ,o fc ou r s e , loo k l i k eap i c tu r ea ta l l ,bu tr a th e r l i k eap lumb e r ’ sad v e r t i s em en t . ’50T c on t r a s tth i sm i s gu id edc ompo s i t ion ,h eo f f e r san i l lu s t r a t ionf r omth et a v e rns c en e bu i l tb yW i l f r edBu c k l andf o rD eM i l l e ’ sC a rm en.Th i ss c en e in c lud e san e s t eds equ en c e o ff o r e g r ound ,a r chw a y ,b a c k g r oundande x t e r io r . ‘Th ed i r e c t o rh a sr e c o gn i z edh i s oppo r tun i t yo fc ompo s in g ind ep th ,o rd i s t an c e ,andh i sf ou r lo c a l e sb e in gs ep a r a t edb y no th in gbu ta i r ,f a l lt o g e th e r in t oas in g l ec ompo s i t ion . ’51 Th eH an do fP e r i ls e t i l lu s t r a t e s , inane x t r em ef o rm ,ac ommont e chn iqu eo f d i v id in gth ef i lmf r am et od ep i c ts imu l t an eou sr e l a t eda c t ion s .F r e ebu r ga r gu e sa g a in s t th i st e chn iqu ee v en in i t sm i ld e rv e r s ion s , l i k e inTh eS c a r l e tW om an(1916 )wh enaw a l l 52 s ep a r a t e sap r i v a t ec on v e r s a t ionf r omth ew om ans e c r e t l yo v e rh e a r in g i t . U s in gth e s t i l lf r omL a s k y ’ sAu d r e y, m en t ion ede a r l i e r ,F r e ebu r g in s t ru c t sh i ss tud en t st oc o v e r th e l e f tpo r t iono fth ef r am ef o rb e t t e rc ompo s i t ion a lb a l an c ed e sp i t eth ef a c tth a tth i s w ou ldc r opou tth eo th e r ‘h idd en ’a c t o randr edu c eh i sc l e a rp r e s en c e inth es t o r yt oa 84

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C ro s ss e c t io nf romT h eH a n do fP e r i l(1916 ) ;t a v e rns c e n ef romC a rm e n( 1 9 1 5 )

mu r k ysu g g e s t ion .Inh i sr e j e c t iono fth e s ed i v id edsp a c e s ,F r e ebu r gm a yh a v eb e en a v e r s et ot e chn iqu e sth a ts e em edt ooob v iou s l y inh e r i t edf r omth es t a g e ,bu tth i s i s un l i k e l yg i v enth a th ew a st r a in eda sath e a t r es cho l a randth a th ew e l c om e so th e r th e a t r i c a l inh e r i t an c e s inf i lm .A mo r e l i k e l ye xp l an a t ion m i gh tr e tu rnt oth ep r in c ip l e i v id edsp a c e s , o fsu g g e s t ionth a ta r tedu c a t o r su s edt ot e a chp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion .53D i l lu s t r a t ed ine x t r em ef o rm in Th eH an do fP e r i l,showch a r a c t e rr e l a t ion sth ew a ya m e ch an i c ’ se xp lod edd i a g r am i l lu s t r a t e sth ep a r t so fa m a ch in e .I tr i s k ss a c r i f i c in g a e s th e t i csu g g e s t ionf o r in s t rum en t a lc l a r i t yconn e c t in gth ep i c tu r eandth e n a r r a t i v e .F r e ebu r g i s in t e r e s t ed ine xp and in gth ep i c t o r i a lsu g g e s t ion inawo r k e v en ,o c c a s ion a l l y ,a tth ee xp en s eo fn a r r a t i v ec l a r i t y .H i san a l y s i so fth et a v e rns c en e in C a rm enh i gh l i gh t sth ed i s t in c t ionb e tw e enF r e ebu r g ’ ssu g g e s t i v e ‘ t ab l e au x ’andth e t ab l e au xt e chn iqu e sd ep lo y edons t a g eands c r e en .T oth ee x t en tth a tat ab l e auc ou ld b ethou gh tt od i a g r amth er e l a t ion sb e tw e ench a r a c t e r s inad r am a t i c a l l ys i gn i f i c an t s i tu a t ion , i trun sth er i s ko fund e rm in in ge f f e c t i v e ,su g g e s t i v e ,c in em ac ompo s i t ion . H ef ind s mo s tc omp e l l in gth ew a yC a rm enbu i ld s l in e , l i gh tandsh ad e in t o c ompo s i t ion sth a te xh ib i tun i t y ,rh y thmand /o rr epo s e . Iw an tt om a k ec l e a rh e r eth a ta sId i s cu s showF r e ebu r gp r omo t edth e c ompo s i t ion a lun i t yo fC a rm eno v e r i t sn a r r a t ion ,Idono tm e ant osu g g e s tth a t D eM i l l e ,Bu c k l andand W y c ko f fh adas im i l a rd i s r e g a rdf o rn a r r a t ione v en inth e i r mo s tshow y in t e r io rc ompo s i t ion s .Th et a v e rns c en e , inf a c t ,e x emp l i f i e showth e i r s t a g in gand l i gh t in gc and e f t l ysh i f ta t t en t iont oth es i gn i f i c an tn a r r a t i v e mom en t s in a lon gt a k e .I tb e g in sw i thth er e a rdoo rc lo s ed ,andth e l i gh t in gh i gh l i gh t sth eo f f i c e r inth ef o r e g r ound . Wh enth edoo r sop en ,th e l i gh tf r omou t s id ed r aw sa t t en t iont o C a rm en ’ sen t r an c ea tth er e a ro fth ebu i ld in g .A ssh eapp r o a ch e sth eo f f i c e rth ea c t ion a g a insh i f t st oth ef o r e g r ound ,andth etw oso ld i e r sb lo c kth edoo rw a y inth e b a c k g r oundt on eu t r a l i s e i t sd i s t r a c t in gg low .F r e ebu r g i gno r e sth e s e in s t rum en t a l n a r r a t i v ecu e sands e l e c t sf o rh i s i l lu s t r a t ionth e mom en twh enC a rm enp au s e s inth e doo rw a y ,th epo in to fg r e a t e s tv i su a lv a r i e t yw i th ine a ch l a y e ro fth ed e epsp a c e . D e sp i t e mo t i v a t ion sb eh indth es c en e ’ sc a r e fu ls t a g in g ind ep th ,F r e ebu r gt r e a t sh i s p r odu c t ions t i l l l i k eap a in t in gandv a lu e s i t sun i f i edb a l an c eo f l in e s ,sh ap e sand C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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p l an e s .H e r e ,th et a v e rns c en ee xh ib i t st ab l e au x inth et r ad i t ion a ls en s ea sw e l la s F r e ebu r g ’ s mod i f i eds en s e .F o l low in gB r ew s t e randJ a c ob s ’ sd e f in i t iono fth es t a g e p i c tu r e , i tc on t a in sas e r i e so fm in i -n a r r a t i v es i tu a t ion s ,e a chg i v en i t sownp i c t o r i a l emph a s i s .F o l low in gF r e ebu r g ’ sc ompo s i t ion a ld e f in i t iono f ‘ t ab l e au ’ ,th es c en e in v i t e s a e s th e t i cc on t emp l a t iona sas t a t i cp i c tu r e ,on eno ten t i r e l yd e f in edb ys t o r y t e l l in gand th e r e f o r es ep a r a t ef r omtho s e mom en t sb e f o r eanda f t e r . MANAG INGTAB LEAUX :TH EECONOM IC SO FF I LMSPECTATOR SH IP B ynow i tshou ldb ec l e a rth a tF r e ebu r g ’ ss e a r chf o rc on t inu i t i e sb e tw e enc in em aand th ep i c t o r i a la r t sm e an tr e t oo l in gth eo r i e so fwh a ta r tdo e st o i t sv i ew e r .I t i sth e s e m ed i t a t ion sonf i lmsp e c t a t o r sh ipth a tr e v ea l , inano th e ra sp e c t ,th eodd mod e rn i t yo f a mo t ion -p i c tu r eth eo r yr oo t ed inth ep i c tu r e s tud yt r ad i t ion .B yc r e a t in gh i san a lo g y w i thth ep r o lon g eds t a s i so fth et ab l e au ,F r e ebu r gemph a s i s e showth ef i lmsp e c t a t o r a c t i v e l yt a k e st im ef o rp i c t o r i a lc on t emp l a t ion ,t im euponwh i chf i lm ’ ssu c c e s s iono f in s t an t an eou s im a g e sc on t inu a l l y in t rud e s .Th i st im ef o rc on t emp l a t ionr e j e c t s Mün s t e rb e r g ’ sed i t in g t o -n a r r a t i v e -b a s edapp r o a ch .Th ep i c tu r et a k e sp r io r i t yo v e r n a r r a t ionandr equ i r e sat empo r a l i t yo fth esp e c t a t o rth a t i sn e i th e rfu s edt oth et im e 54 o fth eapp a r a tu sno r i t se x t en s ion inth ef o rw a rd mo v em en to fn a r r a t i v e . Bu t ind e emph a s i s in gth ecu ta sth ef ound a t iono ff i lma e s th e t i c sF r e ebu r gs t i l lh adt oa c c oun t f o r i t sfun c t ion .H en e ed edt od e v e lopa mod e lf o rp e r c e i v in gp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion in mu l t ip l i c i t yand ins equ en c e ,wh i chc ou ldo v e r c om eth ed i s c on t inu i t yo fth ecu t .In o th e rwo rd s , i fF r e ebu r gdownp l a y edth ep r o g r e s s iono ff r am e sandcu t sf o rth ef i lm sp e c t a t o r ,h en e ed edt od e v e lopana l t e rn a t i v es y s t emth a ta c c oun t edf o rth ea g g r e g a t e p i c t o r i a le xp e r i en c eo faf e a tu r ef i lm . H eadd r e s s e sth i sp r ob l em inP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en ,d r aw in gf r omPu f f e r ’ s andL e e ’ sno t ion so fth en eu r omu s cu l a rm im i c r yo ff o rm .B e au t i fu lf o rm ss t imu l a t e h e a l th y inn e rv a t ion s .Th ep r o g r e s s iono ff r am e sandcu t s inat yp i c a lf e a tu r e mu l t ip l i edth i se xp e r i en c ee xpon en t i a l l yandsor equ i r edar a t ion a l i s a t iono fth e p r o c e s so fp e r c e i v in gth es t r e amo fp i c tu r e s .T os a t i s f yth i sr equ i r em en t ,F r e ebu r g d e v e lop saf i lm sp e c i f i ce c onom i c so fa e s th e t i ce xp end i tu r e–a mod e lo fm an a g ed 55 H eb e g in sP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e enb ye xp l i c a t in gth i sh i gh e ro rd e r inn e rv a t ion . o fo r g an i s a t ion .H ed e s c r ib e sp i c t o r i a lb e au t y inf i lma sak indo famp l i f i ed ‘p i c t o r i a l 56 e f f i c i en c y ’ . Inn e rv a t iont a k e sen e r g y ,andp i c t o r i a l mo v em en t sh a v eap r a c t i c a l , po t en t i a l l yc a l cu l ab l e ,e c onom i cv a lu ew i thr e g a rdt oth ee xp end i tu r eo fth i sen e r g y . C e r t a inf o rm ssu cha s j a g g edan g l e s , jumpcu t sandsh a rpc on t r a s t sr equ i r eag r e a t e r p s y cho lo g i c a le xp end i tu r e .I fth e s ef o rm sa r ep l a c eda tth epo in t swh e r eemo t ion a l 57 Th i se f f i c i en c yo rw a s t e i s e xp end i tu r e i sno tn e c e s s a r y ,th enth e ya r ew a s t e fu l . c ompound edb ye v e r ysho t .Th ec in em ac ompo s i t iono fag r e a tf i lm -m a k e r ,b y 58 I ttun e sth esp e c t a t o r ’ s c on t r a s t , ‘ e c onom i z e sth ew o r ko fth ee y eandth eb r a in ’ . ph y s io lo g i c a lr e spon s et oano th e rw i s eo v e rwh e lm in gf loodo f im a g e s .59 Inp r a c t i c e ,th i se c onom yo fa e s th e t i cr e spon s e l edF r e ebu r gt osom ef a s c in a t in g , i f l a r g e l yun r e a l i s ab l e ,p r e s c r ip t ion s .M o s to fh i se x amp l e so fw a y st oe c onom i s ea p r o g r e s s iono f im a g e sa r e l im i t edt os in g l et r an s i t ion s ,bu th edo e sm a k esom e su g g e s t ion sf o rp l an so fc ompo s i t ionth a tf o l lowth ea r co fen t i r ef i lm s .F o rC a rm en, 86

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a f t e rp r a i s in gth ep i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion ins e v e r a lo fth es c en e s ,h ec omp l a in sth a t th e s ec ompo s i t ion sdono tbu i ldt ow a rd sth eendo fth ef i lm .H ed i s l i k e sth ew a yth e m ed ium lon gsho t so fF a r r a r ’ sp e r f o rm an c e s ,p ed e s t r i anf r omth es t andpo in to f p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion , lo s een e r g y .Th e yd i s s ip a t eth ep i c t o r i a lch a r g eo fth ebu l l f i gh t o rth es e a s id esmu g g l in gs c en e . Wh i l eemo t ion a l in v o l v em en tw i thC a rm enandDon J o s é ’ sc l im a c t i cs c en em a yt r i g g e ras en s a t ion a lr e spon s ed r am a t i c a l l y ,F r e ebu r g c oun t e r sth a tth ec ompo s i t ionr equ i r e s l e s sa e s th e t i ce xp end i tu r eb yth ev i ew e rwh en th es c en eshou ldb er equ i r in g mo r e .I t i sacu r iou sp r e s c r ip t ion ,c on s id e r in gth a tt o r e sh ap eth ef i lm inth i sw a yw ou ldr e su l t inanodd l yab s t r a c tf in a lr e e l .Th e m e lod r am awou ldb ek e y edt oane v e r -h e i gh t en in gp r o g r e s s iono fp i c t o r i a l c ompo s i t ion s . ‘ [T ]h ec r i s e so rc l im a xo fth ed r am a[w ]ou ldc o in c id ew i th…th e mo s t a r t i s t i cs t a g ec ompo s i t ion ins t a t i co rf l u en tf o rm s ’ ,no tn e c e s s a r i l ya r oundt ab l e au x 60 F r e ebu r g i sno t c ompo s edf o rth e i rd r am a t i cc l a r i t ya s i sth ec a s ew i thD eM i l l e ’ sf i lm . t a l k in gabou tsp e ed in guped i t in gt oh e i g h t ensu sp en s e ,no rdo e sh esu g g e s ts imp l y end in gf i lm sw i thaf in a lsp e c t a cu l a rs c en e .H i sm e thodo fe c onom i s in ga e s th e t i c e xp end i tu r et oc o in c id ew i thf i lm s ’c l im a c t i c mom en t swou ld l i k e l yy i e ldab s t r a c t ed s t o r yf i lm sr e s emb l in gf o r c ede xp e r im en t s ina e s th e t i cs yn th e s i sr a th e rth anwo r k s th a tbu i ldf r om indu s t r ys t and a rd sandp r a c t i c e s . B EYONDTHETAB L EAU : IN SCR IB ING MOV EM ENT P i c tu r e s tud yedu c a t o r so f t enemb r a c edpho t o g r aph y ,bu tth e y l a r g e l y l e f t mo t ion p i c tu r e sou to fth e i rd i s cu s s iono fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion .61Th e yh adc r e a t eda v o c abu l a r yf l e x ib l eenou ght oapp l yt oP e r s i anru g so rR en a i s s an c em a rb l e ,bu tth e un c e r t a inr e l a t ion sh ipb e tw e enp l a s t i cf o rmandr e c o rd ed mo v em en tr em a in edou t s id e o fth e i rs c op e .F r e ebu r g , inth e mo s to r i g in a land in v en t i v es e c t ion so fh i sw r i t in g s , w o r k edt on e go t i a t eth i sun c e r t a inr e l a t ion sh ip .F a rf r omc o l l ap s in gc in em a t i c mo v em en t in t oanapp r e c i a t ions imp l yo fs t a t i ccompo s i t ion ,F r e ebu r gwo r k edt o d e v e lopav o c abu l a r yth a t in t e r r e l a t edc in em a ’ ss t a t i cc ompo s i t ion sw i th i t s mo v in g c ompo s i t ion s .Ino th e rw o rd s ,h e mo v edb e y ondth et ab l e auandsou gh tt ound e r s t and c in em a t i c mo v em en t i t s e l fa sak indo fg r aph i c in s c r ip t ion . L e tm e i l lu s t r a t eF r e ebu r g ’ sapp l i c a t iono fg r aph i c in s c r ip t iont oc in em a t i c mo v em en tb y ju x t apo s in g i tw i thap a s s a g ef r omP au lSou r i au ’ sA e s t h e t i c so fM o v em en t, f i r s tpub l i sh ed in1889 . W eadm i r ea l in et r a c edonap i e c eo fp ap e rb yth eh ando fth ea r t i s t ,bu tc anth e r eb en o ton l y a smu chg r a c e ,bu ta smu cht ru eb e au t y inth ecu rv ed e s c r i b ed inth es k yb yth ef l y in gb i r d ? Wh yc an ’ tw es a yth a tth i scu rv et o o i saw o r ko fa r tb e c au s e ,b e c au s e i t l e a v e sn oc on c r e t e 62 t r a c e ?Th a t ,a f t e ra l l ,m a yb eth eon l yr e a s on .

C in em at e chno lo g y ,w i th i t so r i g in s inth e mo t ions tud i e so fSou r i au ’ sno t ab l e c on t empo r a r yÉ t i enn e -Ju l e sM a r e y ,o f f e r saso lu t iont oh i s l am en t .I f mo t ionp i c tu r e t e chno lo g ych a l l en g edF r e ebu r g ’ s lo v eo fc a r e fu lp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionw i th i t s m e ch an i s edc on t in g en tr e c o rd in g s , i ta l sop r o v id edanoppo r tun i t y .63I tc on v e r t ed mo v em en t in t ot an g ib l em a r k sonc e l lu lo idandthu sop en edupn eww a y so f C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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c on s id e r in g mo v em en t ’ sa e s th e t i ce f f e c t sonth ev i ew e r ’ sbod y .E v enthou ghf i lm ’ s r e c r e a t iono f mo v em en td idno tp r odu c ef o rv i ew e r sth eM a r e y i s t l in e sth a tSou r i au im a g in ed ,c on s id e r in gth e s em a r k sa sr ep e a t ab l ea e s th e t i cph enom en am ad e i t po s s ib l et od i s cu s sth ea e s th e t i c so f mo v em en t int e rm so fv i ew e r -b a s edth eo r i e so f c ompo s i t ion .F r e ebu r gw a sc l e a r l yw o r k in g inth i sv e inwh en , inP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h e S c r e en ,h eb r o k e ‘p i c t o r i a l mo t ion s ’down in t od i f f e r en tc a t e go r i e so fe xp end i tu r e : w o r k ,p l a yandr e s t .Th i sa e s th e t i ct a x onom yo fp i c t o r i a l mo t ion sp r e sum edth a t c in em a ’ st r a c eo f mo v em en th adc l e a r edth ew a yf o r mo v em en t ’ sd i s cu s s ion ing r aph i c t e rm s . Mo v em en t s , l i k eg r aph i cc ompo s i t ion s ,c ou ldth enb ec a t e go r i s edu s in gth e s am ee conom i c mod e lo fbod i l ye xp end i tu r e inth ep e r c ep t iono fa r t . F r e ebu r gw a sno tth ef i r s tc r i t i ct oa t t endt oth e in s c r ip t ion sonc e l lu lo ida sp a r to f f i lm ’ sun iqu ep r op e r t i e sa sa m ed ium ,bu th ed id mo v eth i sd i s cu s s ion in t oth edom a in o fa r t .O th e ra c c oun t so fth e s e in s c r ip t ion s mu ch mo r ec ommon l yd i s cu s s edth e i r e v id en t i a r yp r op e r t i e s ,no tth e i ra e s th e t i cp a t t e rn s .A sat oo lf o rob s e rv a t ionand s c i en t i f i can a l y s i s ,th e in s c r ip t iono f mo v em en top en edupn ewf i e ld sf o re xp lo r a t ion o fe v en t s .Con t r o l l ede xp e r im en t a le v en t s ,e v e r yd a ye v en t sande v en t swh i che s c ap e o rd in a r yp e r c ep t ionb e c am ea v a i l ab l ef o rar an g eo fan a l y t i cands yn th e t i cop e r a t ion s . F o rF r e ebu r g ,c in em a ’ sab i l i t yt oan a l y s e mo t ion ,s c i en t i f i cu s e sno tw i th s t and in g , enh an c er a th e rth and e t r a c tf r om i t sp i c t o r i a ld im en s ion .B e y ondth epo s s ib i l i t yo f r e c o rd in g mo v em en ta se v en t s ,th eg r aph i ct r a c eonth ec e l lu lo idc onn e c t s id e a sabou t th ef o rmo f mo v em en tandth ef o rmo fs cu lp tu r eandp a in t in g .Und e r s t and in gc in em a a sa mo v in gr e co rd m ad ec e r t a ina e s th e t i c id e a spo s s ib l e .I tr e v e a l edth em ed ium ’ s ab i l i t yt or end e r mo v em en t i t s e l fp l a s t i candt or end e rf i lmag r aph i cm ed ium .E v en Lum i è r e ’ sA r r i v a lo faT r a ina tt h eS t a t i on(1895 )w a sp r im a r i l y ,t oF r e ebu r g ,ad an c eo f l in eandp e r sp e c t i v e . F o rh i se x amp l e s ,F r e ebu r g id en t i f i edfund am en t a lp r in c ip l e so fb e au t y ina r t edu c a t ion ,p a r t i cu l a r l yW i l l i amH o g a r th ’ s l in eo fb e au t y ,and im a g in edhowth e s e sp i c iou so f p r in c ip l e sc ou ldr e l a t et ot r a c e so f mo v em en t l e f tonth ef i lm s t r ip .64Su c am e r a mo v em en t ,F r e ebu r gt end edt of indh i se x amp l e so f in s c r ib ed mo v em en t in e x t e r io rv i s t a s .Inth es e c ondboo kh ec on t r a s t sth eun a e s th e t i cs i gh to fa m anr id in ga ho r s e inas t r a i gh t l in edownah i l l s id ew i thth eb e au t i fu lrh y thmc r e a t edb yth es am e r id e rw ind in gh i sw a yth r ou ghth eb ru sh .Th i sw a ssom e th in go far e f r a in inh i swo r k . H i sp r e f e r en c ef o rw e s t e rn l and s c ap e sandth e i r l in e so fb e au t yw a sa l r e ad ye v id en t in 1918 ,wh enh eu s edth eho r s eb a c ks c en ef r omC a rm en.I l lu s t r a t in gh i st e x tw i than o f t en r ep r odu c eds t i l lf r omth es c en e ,h eadm i r ed i t sb a l an c eandrh y thm .Th er o adon wh i chC a rm en i sr id in gcu t sH o g a r th ’ s l in eo fb e au t y in t oth e l and s c ap e .Th ef i gu r e s in th e l and s c ap e ‘ t a k eupth eth r e ado fa c t ionw o v en ’a r oundth es t a t i cc ompo s i t ion .Th e y en c ou r a g eth ev i ew e rt o im a g in e mo v em en ta sat yp eo fg r aph i c in s c r ip t ion . Bu tnon eo fF r e ebu r g ’ se x amp l e st r a c eda mo v in g l in eo fb e au t yth r ou ghap i c tu r e mo r ee v o c a t i v e l yth anP a r amoun t ’ s1923ad ap t a t iono fTh eC o v e r e dW a g on.I fon eo r tw of i gu r e sr id in gho r s e sth r ou ghas c en ec ou ldsu g g e s tanan sw e rt oSou r i au ’ s p r ob l em , lon g , mo v in gp r o c e s s ion so fc o v e r edw a gon s inth ew e s t e rn l and s c ap e d i r e c t l y in s c r ib eth ev e r yp a t t e rnth a tSou r i auw i sh edth eb i rd ’ sf l i gh tc ou ld in s c r ib e in th es k y .Th ew a gont r a ingo e sas t epfu r th e rth anth e lon er id e randc r e a t e sa m a s s i v e mo v in g l in e .Th e mo v em en td r aw sap a t t e rnonth ef i lmands in g l e f i l er ep e t i t iono f th ew a gon sr end e r sth i s mo v em en tp a lp ab l ea g a in s tth eb a c k g r oundo fth ew e s t e rn 88

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F romT h eC o v e r e dW a g o n(1923 ) .F ro n t i sp i e c efo rP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yo nt h eS c r e e n

l and s c ap e .Inh i sr ep e a t edadu l a t iono f Th eC o v e r e dW a g on,F r e ebu r gw a x e spo e t i c abou tth ef i lm ’ sm a s s i v e ‘wh i t e l in ew ind in g ins lowrh y thm ’ . A g a inanda g a in ,th ew a g ont r a inb e c om e sas t r i k in gp i c t o r i a lm o t i f ,and ,wh e th e r i th a sb e en s e enc r e ep in ga c r o s sth ep r a i r i e ,f o l l ow in gth eb an ko far i v e r ,c l im b in gt ow a r dap a s s inth e m oun t a in s ,s t r e t ch in gou t ,ath inb l a c kch a ino fs i lh ou e t t e sonth eh o r i z on ,cu rv in g i t s e l f a l on gth ep a l i s ad e l i k ew a l l so fana r r o y o ,o rh a l t ed insn owa g a in s tab a c k g r oundo fO r e g on p in e s , i ta lw a y sadd semph a s i st oth e in t en s ed r am ao fth ep i on e e r s .65

H i ss t r e t ch eda t t emp tt oequ a t ec ompo s i t ion a lb e au t yw i thd r am a t i cemph a s i s no tw i th s t and in g ,F r e ebu r gr e ad sth ec ompo s i t ion s inth i sf i lma ssom e th in g app r o a ch in gW a l t e rRu t tm anno rV i k in gE g g e l in g .Th eundu l a t in g mo v em en t so fth e w a gont r a in m ad ed e s i gnf lu id . Th eC o v e r e dW a g ond idno t ju s t i l lu s t r a t ep r in c ip l e so fcompo s i t ion , i ttookon emb l em a t i cs t a tu s inP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en.Andth i ss t a tu sw a sno ten t i r e l y unp l ann edb y i t sp r odu c e r s .Ina l e t t e rtoAdo lphZuko rb e f o r eth ef i lmb e g an p r odu c t ion ,J e s s eL a sk ye xp r e s s e sh i se x c i t em en tf o rth ep i c to r i a lpo s s ib i l i t i e so fth e 66 Ay e a r l a t e r ,a f t e r i t sf i r s tw a v eo fc r i t i c a lsu c c e s s , f i lm i fm ad eona l a r g es c a l e . L a sk ye xp l a in edtoZuko rth e impo r t an c eo fe xp lo i t in gth ef i lm ,no tth r ou ghth e i r o rd in a ryd i s t r ibu t ionch ann e l s ,bu tr a th e ra sar o ad showf e a tu r ecoo rd in a t edb yD . W .G r i f f i th ’ sr o ad show m an a g e rJ .J .M cC a r th y .H eno t e showc r i t i c sh a v e r e comm end edth ef i lmtob et au gh t ins choo l sbu t , ‘ a tth es am et im e ,th ep i c tu r eh a sa 67 t r em endou sapp e a ltoth em a s s e s ’ . L a sk yw an t edth em a s se xh ib i t iono fth ef i lmto g r owou to f i t sp r omo t iona sana r tf i lm ,and i two rk ed .S c r e en in g so fth ef i lmw e r e s e tupa sso c i a le v en t s .P a r amoun ts t a g edth eN ewY o rkp r em i e r ea tth eP l a z aa sa C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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ph i l an th r op i cfund r a i s e ru sh e r edb yG i r lS c ou t sand ‘m emb e r so fth ey oun g e rso c i a l 68 Ane a r l yr e v i ew inTh eM o rn in gT e l e g r a p hquo t edac o l l e g eh i s t o r y s e to fN ewY o rk ’ . p r o f e s so r ,whos awa ‘B r i l l i an tFu tu r ef o rth eEdu c a t ion a lV a lu e so fth e Mo t ion P i c tu r e ’ ,p r omo t in gth ef i lma sv i su a ledu c a t ion .69Th eP a r amoun tpub l i c i t yboo k l e tf o r th ef i lmw a sf i l l edw i th i l lu s t r a t ion sc onn e c t in g i t ss c en e st oe s t e em edp a in t in g so fth e Am e r i c anw e s ta s i tc l a im edth a tth ef i lm m a yb eth eb e s te v e rm ad e .Th ef i lmh ad i t s r o ad showr e l e a s ec omb in edw i then g a g em en t sa tp l a c e s l i k eth eC r i t e r ionth e a t r eon B r o adw a y ,wh e r e i twou ldb r e a kTh eB i r t ho fAN a t i on’ s(1915 )c on t inuou s runr e c o rd b yth eendo f1923 . F r e ebu r g l i k e l ys awTh eC o v e r e dW a g onth a tsumm e ra tth eC r i t e r iona sh ew a s w o r k in gonh i sboo ka tth en e a rb yN a t ion a lA r t sC lub ,andh ew a se v id en t l yp l e a s edb y th ef i lm ’ ssnowb a l l in gr epu t a t ion .L a s k y ’ sf i lm sf r om1915h ads e t in t o mo t iona p r o v i s ion a lp a r tn e r sh ipo fa r tedu c a t ionand indu s t r yp i c tu r ec r a f t .Th epub l i c s en t im en tsu r r ound in gL a s k y ’ s1923p r odu c t iona l i gn ed i te f f o r t l e s s l yw i thth ea im so f p i c t o r i a ledu c a t ion .Anemb l em a t i cs t a tu eo fV enu sw a sno lon g e rn e ed edt ogu a r an t e e P i c t o r i a lB e a u t y’ sa e s th e t i cr i gou r .F o rth e1924f r on t i sp i e c e ,F r e ebu r gs e tan c i en t G r e e ks cu lp tu r ea s id e inf a v ou ro fas t i l lo fL a s k y ’ sw a gont r a in ,and ‘ th es imp l e s t r en g tho f i t s mo v in gp a t t e rn ’ .F r e ebu r ge v end ed i c a t edh i sboo kt oth ef i lm ’ sd i r e c t o r : ‘T oJ am e sC ru z e .B e c au s eth ev a r iou st yp e so fp i c t o r i a lb e au t yd e s c r ib ed inth i sbook m a yb es e enr i ch l yb l end edw i thep i cn a r r a t i v eands t i r r in gd r am a in“Th eCo v e r ed W a gon ”ac in em ac ompo s i t ionTh a tW i l lL i v e . ’Th ed ed i c a t ionb r and sth ef i lma sa fu tu r ec l a s s i canda sanemb l emf o rane a r l yth eo r yo fanAm e r i c ana r tc in em a .I t c on t end sth a tf i lmt e chn iqu e , indu s t r ypub l i c i t yand in t e l l e c tu a lt r ad i t ion s ina r t p ed a go g yc ou ldf o rms t r on ga l l i an c e s ,a sth e yd id inth i sf i lm ,a r oundth eno t iono f p i c tu r ec r a f t . CONC LU S ION :MOV INGP ICTUR E SAND N EWTENDENC IE S Wh e th e rth r ou ghs t a t i cc on t emp l a t iono r mo v in g in s c r ip t ion ,f i lm ’ sr e l a t iont oth e a e s th e t i c so f mo v em en th a sund e rp inn eda t t emp t st od e f in ea r tc in em a inth e c l a s s r oom .F r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sond e s c r ib edc in em a t i c mo v em en ta sane x t en s iono f th ek ind so f mo v em en tsu g g e s t ed inp a in t in gands cu lp tu r e ,and indo in gsoth e yt oo k onth et a s ko fv a l id a t in gc in em aa sa m ed iumc ap ab l eo fp r odu c in gwo r k s l i k eth e s e o th e ra r t s .Bu twh a tm a k e sth i se a r l yedu c a t ion a le xp e r im en tsoc omp e l l in g i sno t s imp l yth a tf i lmc ou ld im i t a t eth ew o r k ss an c t ion edb y mu s eum sandCh au t auqu a s .T o d e s c r ib eth i sp r o j e c ta saon e -w a ys t r a t e g yo f im i t a t ionwou ldc on c e a la mo r e impo r t an tpo in tabou tth e mod e rn i t yo fth e r e l a t ionb e tw e enf i lmandth eo th e ra r t s . B yr e e x am in in gc in em a t i c mo v em en t inr e l a t iont oc anon i c a ls cu lp tu r e sth e yw e r e a l sor e e x am in in gth e s es cu lp tu r e sb yw a yo fc in em a .A c c o rd in g l y ,wh i l ev a l id a t in g c in em a inr e l a t iont oth ep i c t o r i a la r t s ,th e yh e lp edt of o r g eaw ind in gr ou t eb a c kt o tho s es am equ a l i t i e so f mo t ion -p i c tu r et e chno lo g yth a th ad m ad e i tsu chanob j e c to f f a s c in a t ionf o r mod e rna r t i s t sw o r k in g ino th e rm ed i a . O fa l lth ep i c tu r e s tud yedu c a t o r sth a t in f lu en c edth eCo lumb i af i lmc ou r s e s , H en r yP oo r eb e s t i l lu s t r a t e sth i sf in a lpo in t .H i samb i v a l en tf a s c in a t ionw i th mod e rn a r t ,wh i chg r ewa f t e rh i sv i s i tt oth e1913A rmo r yShow ,sh ed s l i gh tonF r e ebu r g ’ s 90

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a s s e s sm en to fp i c t o r i a l mo t ion s inc in em a .A s id e a sabou t mo v em en tandr epo s e in p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionf i l t e r ed in t oAm e r i c an in s t i tu t ion so fa r tedu c a t ion ,th e yh e lp ed t of o s t e rad i s t in c ta e s th e t i c .Th e yen ab l edsom ec r i t i c s ,b y loo k in gb a c ka t mo v em en t ins cu lp tu r e ,t oemb r a c esom eo fth e mo r er ad i c a lg e s tu r e so f mod e rna r twh i l es t i l l ho ld in gon t oak indo fp i c t o r i a l id e a l i sm .Dow ,Good y e a rand ,e sp e c i a l l y ,P oo r e 70 Th e yapp r o a chd e v e lopm en t s in mod e rna r tandn ew m ed i a ep i t om i s eth i sa e s th e t i c . w i thc au t iou sop t im i sma sap r o c e s so fn e go t i a t ion ,wh i chh in g edonth ea e s th e t i c s mo v em en tandcompo s i t ion .In Th eN ewT en d en c y inA r tP oo r eadmon i sh e swh a th e c a l l sth e ‘B e r g son i sm ’o fP o s t Imp r e s s ion i smw i thsom ec on s e rv a t i v epo in t sf r om 71 L e s s in g ’ sL a o c o ön. P o s t Imp r e s s ion i sm ’ sp r im i t i v i sm ,v i t a l i smanda t t emp t st ow a rd s s yn e s th e s i ar em indP oo r eo fL e s s in g ’ sc au t ionth a tp a in t in gshou ldr em a inqu i e t in o rd e rt oo f f e r i t s e l fupt op r op e rc on t emp l a t ion .Bu tth en l a t e r inth eboo k ,wh enh e add r e s s e ssp e c i f i c a l l yth ea e s th e t i c so f mo v em en t ,h i sc on f id en c e inth i sc on s e rv a t i v e po s i t ionf a i l sh im .H eadm i r e sFu tu r i s tp a in t in gf o rup s e t t in gL e s s in g ’ sm and a t eand 72 op en in gp a in t in gt osu c c e s s i v e imp r e s s ion sa sw e l la s ‘ f e r t i l e mom en t s ’ . InTh e C on c e p t i ono fA r t,h ee l abo r a t e sonh i s in t e r e s t inth ee xp r e s s iono f mo v em en t ins t a t i c m ed i ab yr e e v a lu a t in gas e r i e so fs cu lp tu r e s ,f r omc l a s s i c a lw o r k sth r ou ghC a rp e au x andRod int oth ec on t empo r a r yd yn am i cs cu lp tu r e so fLo r edoT a f tandB e l aP r a t t . P oo r e ’ sc ond i t ion a lp r a i s ef o rth e s ew o r k sr e v e a l sth a twh i l ean ewr e l a t ion sh ipw i th mo v em en tund e rp in sh i s id e ao fa r t ’ sfu tu r e mu ch inth es am ew a ya sth e mod e rn i s t s h ep r a i s e s ,h edo e sno tf o l lowth eFu tu r i s t s inwh a th ed e s c r ib e sa sth e i rou t r i gh t 73 P oo r e , l i k eF r e ebu r g ,p r opo s e sa r e j e c t iono fc on t emp l a t i v e ‘p en s i v e immob i l i t y ’ . c omp r om i s e . A tth es am et im eth a tF r e ebu r gandP a t t e r sonw e r es e a r ch in gf o rc on t inu i t i e s b e tw e enc in em a t i c mo t ionandw e l l knownpo s e so fs cu lp tu r eandp a in t in g ,ap a r a l l e l p i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion ina r tedu c a t ionw a sr e e v a lu a t in gth e mo v em en t s inth e s e s cu lp tu r e s ino rd e rt oadd r e s squ e s t ion sp r omp t eda t l e a s t inp a r tb yth ed e v e lopm en t o f mo v in g im a g et e chno lo g y .At au te xp r e s s iono rsom ed i sh e v e l l ed lo c k so fh a i r ina s cu lp tu r eo c cup yth es am e l im in a lsp a c eb e tw e en mo v em en tandr epo s ea sc in em a 74 compo s i t ion s . Th esu g g e s t ed mo v em en t inth eW in g e dV i c t o r yand inC a rp e au x ’ sTh e D an c eshow edaw a y ,f o rsom ea r t l e c tu r e r s ,t ow a rd sana l l i an c eb e tw e enn ew m an i f e s t o e sabou t mo v em en t ina r tandth ep r in c ip l e so fc ompo s i t ionandr epo s eth a t h e lp edt oe s t ab l i shAm e r i c an in s t i tu t ion so fa r tedu c a t ionad e c ad ee a r l i e r .Th e em e r g in gf i e ldo fAm e r i c anf i lmc r i t i c i sm inth e l a t e1910 sande a r l y20 so f f e r edn ew oppo r tun i t i e sf o radd r e s s in gth es am es e to fc on c e rn s . F r e ebu r gande a r l ytw en t i e th c en tu r ya r tedu c a t o r ssh a r ep a r a l l e la e s th e t i c i l eth en ewa r t i snou r i sh edb ya po s i t ion sonn ewd e v e lopm en t s ina r t .75Wh r e th in k in go f mo v em en t , i t sd e t e rm in in gc ond i t ion sshou ldno tc a s to f fth epo s e . R a th e r ,th e s ec r i t i c shop edt of inda sp e c t so fa c c e l e r a t ionandr epo s e inp r odu c t i v e c o l l abo r a t ion .F r e ebu r g ’ sp i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c i so l a t e stwoa sp e c t so ff i lm :m e ch an i c a l mo v em en tandth eph y s i c a lt r a c eo fth i s mo v em en t .R e c o gn i s in gth e s ea t t r ibu t e sa s p a r to fc in em a ’ sm ed ium id en t i t ym a r k sth ef i r s ts t ep inr e c o gn i s in gth ed e t e rm in in g c ond i t ion so fc in em at ob ec on t in g en c y ,v e lo c i t yand m e ch an i s a t ion .Bu tb yc on c e i v in g o fth e in s c r ip t iono f mo v em en t inp l a s t i ct e rm s ,F r e ebu r gm an a g edt oho ldon t o e l em en t so fano t iono fr epo s eso impo r t an tt oc e r t a inp r in c ip l e so fc ompo s i t ion w i thou td i s a v ow in gth es e em in g l yan t i th e t ic a la sp e c t so ff i lm ’ sm ed ium id en t i t y . C i n em aCompo s i t io n

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R epo s eandc on t emp l a t ions t i l lh a v eap l a c e ina m ed iumh eadm i t s i sch a r a c t e r i s edb y c on t in g en c yandd i s t r a c t ion .T os e eth e s e mu l t i -m ed i aa r tedu c a t o r sa sp a r a l l e l th in k e r s inth i sr e sp e c t i st or e v i s eth ec r i t i c a lh i s t o r i e sth a twou ldc a s tth e i rt r ad i t ion a se i th e rar e t r o g r ad ean t i -mod e rn i smo ra sr ep r e s en t in gat r an s i t ionf r omon eo rd e r t oano th e r .P i c tu r ec r a f tw a sa lw a y sah yb r idno t ion .Th ep i c t o r i a lan a l y s i so f m e ch an i c a l l yr e c o rd ed mo v em en tm ad ef i lmt e chno lo g yr e l e v an tt oth a tcomb in a t ion o f mod e rn i smandp i c t o r i a l id e a l i smth a t mo t i v a t edP oo r e ’ sandDow ’ sg en e r a t iono f a r tc r i t i c s . Th i st r ad i t ion m a r k son eo fth ep r im a r ya t t emp t st ob r in g in t of o cu sac oh e r en t th eo r yo ff i lma r t inth ey e a r swh enth ep i c t o r i a ls t i l lh e ldsw a ya saun i f y in ga e s th e t i c p a r ad i gm .I tf o r e sh adow ssom ea sp e c t so fth e imm in en td i s cu s s ion so f mon t a g ef i lm s o rv i su a lc ompo s e r s , l i k eV i k in gE g g e l in go rW a l t e rRu t tm ann ,wh i l er em a in in g d i s t in c t .F o rth e s eedu c a t o r s ,c in em a ’ sm an a g edp r o c e s s iono fs t a t i cc ompo s i t ion sand mo v in g in s c r ip t ion sw e r et ob ef oundno t inab s t r a c tf i lm s ,bu t in m a in s t r e amf e a tu r e s –e v en i fth eo r i s t ssu cha sF r e ebu r gpu sh edf o rg r e a t e rc ompo s i t ion a lab s t r a c t ion in th e s ef i lm s .I tw a sab lo c kbu s t e r l i k eC a rm en,w i th i t ss t a g in gand l i gh t in gd e r i v edf r om l e g i t im a t eth e a t r e ,th a tf o r g edan ewp a th in i t sf lowo fs equ en c edc ompo s i t ion s .I t w a sTh eC o v e r e dW a g on,su c c e s s fu lf o r i t sf am i l i a rn a t ion a l i s tm y th sandd e c o r ou s l and s c ap e ,th a ta l soe xpo s edat an g l eo fundu l a t in g l in e s .Th i sanom a lou sth eo r yo f f i lma r tp r omo t e saf i lm m ed iumth a t ,wh i l epo s s e s s in gac e r t a inr e f l e x i v i t y , i s non e th e l e s sab so rp t i v e .I tw a rn eda g a in s twh a tF r e ebu r gc a l l ed ‘p i c t o r i a lh y s t e r i c s ’ in in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph s ; i td idno tapp r e c i a t eth e i rc on vu l s i v eb e au t y .Inv a lu in g d e c o rum ,p r opo r t ionandf o rm a lh a rmon ywh i l ec on c ep tu a l i s in gf i lmv i ew in ga sa r a t ion a l i s ede c onom yo fth es en s e s , i t sd i s t in c t l y mod e rnsp e c t a t o ren c oun t e r san a e s th e t i cwo r ld inwh i chd i s t r a c t ionandc on t emp l a t ionr e a l i gnbu tdono tn e c e s s a r i l y e x c lud eon eano th e r .Th er e a son swh yth i sw ou lds e emc oun t e r in tu i t i v ea r eth es am e r e a son swh yth ep i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ionth a tF r e ebu r gr ep r e s en t sh a sb e enn e g l e c t ed inf i lm h i s t o r y .T or ed i s c o v e rth i sw o r k i st oo v e r tu rna s sump t ion sth a th a v e l edt oth i s n e g l e c t .

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P a in t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s : M au r i c eT o u r n e u ra sA r t f i lmD i r e c to r

Th ef i lmd i r e c to rh a sm ad ef r equ en t ,bu ta lw a y sob l iqu e ,app e a r an c e sth rou ghou t th i sbook ’ sd i s cu s s iono fin t e l l e c tu a lh i s to ry , l e c tu r eh a l l s , mu s eum s ,a r tp e r iod i c a l s andun i v e r s i t i e s .Th en e x ttwoch ap t e r smo v eth e s eapp e a r an c e stoth ec en t r e . Th e yshowhowth ea e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion sd i s cu s s edinth ep r e v iou sch ap t e r sin t e r s e c t inth ec a r e e r so ftwos tud iod i r e c to r sinth e1910 sande a r l y20 s .M au r i c eT ou rn eu r andR e xIn g r am m ad ech a l l en g in gf i lm s ,bu tth e yd idno tt yp i c a l l yc l a imtob eh e ro i c in v en to r so ff i lmt e chn iqu e s .Th e ym ad ep r e s t i g ef e a tu r e sth a tr a r e l y ,i fe v e r ,v e r g ed in tob lo ckbu s t e rt e r r i to ry .Th e i rwo rkw a scompo s i t ion a land mu s eumf r i end l y . Th e ya ch i e v edno to r i e t yno tb yb l a z in gat r a i lf o rth em ed ium ,bu tb y look in gb a cka t th e i rb a ck g round sinth eo th e ra r t s .A f f in i t i e s l ik eth e i r s ,inwh i chad i r e c to rno t on l ybo r row sf romth eo th e ra r t sbu ta l sot ak e sonapub l i cro l ea sap a in t e ro r s cu lp to ro fth es c r e en ,fo rmav i t a lp a r to fa r tc in em aa sat en t a t i v e mod eo fe a r l y H o l l ywoodf i lm -m ak in g . M au r i c eT ou rn eu rs toodou ta son eo ftheg r e a te a r l ym ed i a to r sb e tw e enth ef in e a r t sands tud iof i lm -m ak in gb e c au s e ,a san yon ewhor e adh i sp r e s skn ew ,h e ‘b e g an l i f e–th eimpo r t an tp a r to f l i f e ,th a ti s–s tud y in gA r tandsp e l l in gi tw i thac ap i t a l ecou ldc l a imy e a r so fe xp e r i en c einth es tud io s “A , ”inth eL a t inQu a r t e ro fP a r i s ’ .1H o ff amou sp a in t e r sands cu lp to r s .H ekn ewth ein s id eo fan1890 sP a r i s i ana t e l i e r b e t t e rth anG eo r g e sDuM au r i e randcou ldr e c r e a t eth es tud ios c en e sinh i s ad ap t a t iono fT r i l b y(1915 )f r om m emo ry .B yr e v i s i t in gh i sowna r t i s t i cp a s tinth e f amou ss tud io so fth e1890 sh ec r e a t edasp a c ef o rh i sf i lm sinth eAm e r i c anf i lm indu s t ry .H ead v e r t i s edc lo s e rt i e stop a in t in gands cu lp tu r eth ano th e rf i lm -m ak e r s , andh ec a r r i edona e s th e t i c i s tanda v an t g a rd et r ad i t ion sth rou ghth e s et i e s .It r a c e th e s er e l a t ion sh ip s ,inth e i ra c tu a l i t yandinth e i rp romo t ion a le x c e s s e s ,ino rd e rto showhowth e yc r e a t edap r odu c t i v esp a c ef o rac e r t a ink indo fwo rk .Th e r ew e r e c e r t a in l yo th e rp i c to r i a ld i r e c to r s .Bu t mo s to fth eme s t ab l i sh edth e i rc a r e e r s l a t e r ,o r w e r em a r g in a ltoth em a jo rp r odu c t ion so fth e i rt im e .T ou rn eu ren t e r edth ee a r l y f i lmindu s t ry m ak in gp r e s t i g ef i lm s ;h ew a sno tm a r g in a linth e1910 s .H i sf i lm s p r o vok edAm e r i c anf i lmc r i t i c sandv i ew e r stocon s id e rad i f f e r en tt yp eo ff i lm ,an un commonf i lmp e rh ap s ,bu tno tat yp eo ff i lmth a tcou ldon l yth r i v eou t s id eo fth e m a in s t r e am .Th e s ew e r eh i gh -p r o f i l eapp r op r i a t ion so fwo rk sp a c e sandt r ad i t ion sin th ev i su a la r t s .Amon gh i scon t empo r a r i e sdu r in gth i sc ru c i a lp e r iodinth eh i s to ryo f Am e r i c ana r tf i lm ,T ou rn eu rw a sp a r t i cu l a r l yad ep ta tin t e g r a t in gth econ c e rn so f p r odu c e r s l ik eN i cho l a sS ch en ckandAdo lph Zuko rw i ththo s eo fc r i t i c s l ik eF r e ebu r g P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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andP a t t e r son .I tw a sap r e c a r iou spo s i t iontoo c cup y ,andi tw a ssu c c e s s fu linth i s w a yon l yf o rat im e . T ou rn eu r ’ spo s i t iona sapub l i cf i gu r ein fo rm sm yan a l y s i so fh i swo rk . Wh i l e con s id e r in gt e chn iqu eandh i sr e co gn i s ab l es t y l e ,Ia l sop a yc lo s ea t t en t iontoth e w a yh i spub l i c i t yh e lp edto m ed i a t eth e s es t y l e sandt e chn iqu e s .Th i sapp ro a chto f i lmau tho r sh ipinth es i l en te r ah a sb e enin v i go r a t edb yr e c en th i s to r io g r aph i c a l wo rkb yp eop l el ik eJ an eG a in e s ,Sh e l l yS t ampand M a rkCoop e r .2Iwou ld emph a s i s eth enu an c edd e f in i t ion so ff i lmau tho r sh ipth a tw e r eb e in gfo rm edb y c r i t i c sa tth et im e .Con s id e r ,fo re x amp l e ,F r an c e sP a t t e r son ’ sd e f in i t ioninS c en a r i o an dS c r e en : [ th ed i r e c t o r ] i sth ep o t en t i a laud i en c e .…[H ] efu rn i sh e sth ec on t a c tb e tw e enth ea c t o r sand th a tv a s tandun kn owng r oupo fp e op l eb e y ondth ec e l lu l o id .Th e i rf i r eanden thu s i a sm sc om e t o o l a t et oen t e r in t oth ep r odu c t i on ;s oth ed i r e c t o ro fth ep i c tu r emu s tn e ed san t i c ip a t e 3 th em .…[H ] en o ton l yd i r e c t sth ea c t i on ,bu tfu rn i sh e sth eaud i en c er e a c t i ont o i t .

Sh ego e son inth i sch ap t e rt od e s c r ib eT ou rn eu randR e xIn g r ama sth ee x emp l a r y v i su a la r t i s t samon gd i r e c t o r s ,bu th e rd e f in i t iono fd i r e c t o rh e r esu g g e s t show c omp l i c a t edth a ta s so c i a t ion i sf o rh e r .S t y l e i son l yon ec ompon en to fth ed i r e c t o r ’ s e xp and edr o l e .W r i t in gandp e r f o rm an c ec on s t i tu t eth ep r odu c t ion ,andsh e im a g in e s th ed i r e c t o rsom ewh e r e inb e tw e enth i sp r od u c t ionandth eaud i en c e .P o s i t ion ed mo r e a sa m ed i a t o rth anac r e a t o r ,th ed i r e c t o rh e lp st ogu id er e c ep t ion .F o l low in g P a t t e r son ’ s l e ad ,Is i tu a t em yv i su a lan a l y s i samon go th e rf a c t o r sth a tc on t r ibu t edt o th i sm ed i a t o rfun c t iono fth ed i r e c t o r .I loo ka ts t y l e ,p r omo t iono fth ed i r e c t o rand r e c ep t iono fth ef i lm sa s in t e r lo c k edc ompon en t so fth e i rr o l e sa sf in e a r t sd i r e c t o r sa t th i st im e . T ou rn eu r ’ sa r tf i lm sshowhowe v e ryt r an s l a t iono fat e chn iqu eo rth em ef r omon e m ed iumtoano th e rc ana l sofun c t iona sacu l tu r a lr e f e r en c e .Th e yr e f e r en c ewo rk s andt r ad i t ion so fp a in t in gands cu lp tu r ew i thah e a l th ye c l e c t i c i sm–a m i c r o co smo f th ee c l e c t i cc i r cu l a t iono fth e s et r ad i t ion s inth eb r o ad e rAm e r i c anpub l i csph e r e .Th e w a y sth a tT ou rn eu randh i sco l l abo r a to r sd e v e lop edth e i rs t y l i s edt e chn iqu e s comp r i s eon l yon ep a r to fth e i rcon t r ibu t ionth eAm e r i c ana r tf i lm inth e l a t e1910 s ande a r l y20 s .Th e ya l soa c t i v e l ysh ap edth e i rf i lm s ’cu l tu r a lr e f e r en c e sth r ou ghth e i r owne f f o r t sandth r ou ghcoop e r a t ionw i thf i lmcomp an i e s ,c r i t i c sandedu c a t ion a l p r o g r amm e s .Th i s i swh e r eT ou rn eu randIn g r am ,th ef o cu so fth ef o l low in gch ap t e r , s t andou t . Wh i l eth e yd idh a v eaf ewp e e r sp r odu c in gno t ab l ep i c to r i a lf i lm s ,no d i r e c to r spo s i t ion edth em s e l v e ssoe f f e c t i v e l ya sp a in t e r so rs cu lp to r so fth es c r e en . Th e i rpo s i t ionw i th inth ef i lm indu s t rya f f e c t edth ew a yth e i rf i lm scou ld look ,th e w a yd i s cu s s ion sabou tth emc i r cu l a t edandth ew a yth e yw e r es e en .Th es e c t ion so f th i sch ap t e rt r a c eT ou rn eu r ’ sp r o vo c a t ion sw i th inth ef i lm indu s t ry ,h i sp r odu c t ion con t e x ta sw e l la sh i spub l i cr epu t a t ion ,ando f f e re x amp l e sshow in ghowT ou rn eu r h e lp edto l inkh i s in t e rm ed i a l ,p i c to r i a lf i lm stoo r g an i s a t ion sw i thv a r i ed mo t i v a t ion s .Th ef o cu sh e r e i sno te x a c t l yonth ed e v e lopm en to fh i sp r a c t i c e ,bu t r a th e ronhowh i sf i lm sp r o v id edapub l i cp l a t f o rmf o ren g a g in gp i c to r i a la r t t r ad i t ion s l ik eS ymbo l i smandd e c ad en c e .

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INTHEATE L IER O FPUV I S T ou rn eu r ’ sr epu t a t iona sad i r e c t o rwho ‘P a in t sw i thHum anB e in g s ’g r ewb e y ond s imp l ean a lo g yth r ou ghou tth em id -t o l a t e1910 sa sth et r ad eandf anp r e s s m y tho lo g i s edh i sm en t o r sh ip sw i thth es cu lp t o rAu gu s tRod inand , mo r ee x t en s i v e l y , 4 N oAm e r i c an in t e rv i eww i thT ou rn eu rw a s th e mu r a l i s tP i e r r ePu v i sd eCh a v ann e s . c omp l e t e , i ts e em s ,w i thou tm en t ion in ge i th e rh i sapp r en t i c e sh ipw i thRod ino rth a t h eh e lp edPu v i ss k e t chth e mu r a l sf o rth eBo s t onPub l i cL ib r a r y .Th e s ea r t i s t s ’sp e c i f i c 5 r epu t a t ion sh e lp edt oc on t e x tu a l i s eT ou rn eu r ’ sw o r kb e y ondc a s t in g i ta s ‘p a in t e r l y ’ . Th eAm e r i c anpub l i ckn ewRod inandPu v i sw e l l ,a stwoo fth e mo s t in t e rn a t ion a l l y in f lu en t i a la r t i s t sa f f i l i a t edw i thF r en chS ymbo l i sm .Du r in gth i st im e ,Am e r i c an mu s eum sr e ad i l ya cqu i r edRod in ’ sc a s t s ,andPu v i s ’ s in s t a l l a t iona tth eBo s t onPub l i c L ib r a r yc au s edas t i r inth ea r tw o r ld .Rod inh im s e l fr an k edPu v i samon gth eg r e a t e s t l i v in ga r t i s t s .H ep r e s id edo v e rb anqu e t s inPu v i s ’ shonou r in1895andb e g ans cu lp t in g a monum en tt oh im in1899 ,wh i ch in c lud edth r e ef i gu r e s–abu s to fth ea r t i s t ,an app l et r e eandaf i gu r eo f ‘ e t e rn a lr epo s e ’– inana r r an g em en tth a te v o k e sth ea l l e go r y ands imp l i c i t yo fPu v i s ’ s mu r a l s .Rod in ’ sc on v e r s a t ion sonh i sd e a thb edd r am a t i c a l l y c on f i rmth i s l in k .R e c o rd so fth e s ec on v e r s a t ion sf r om1917h a v ep r e s e rv edh i sd y in g i s wo rd sonth eg r e a tn e s so fPu v i s ’ swo r kandth ep r i v i l e g eo fh a v in gknownh im .6Th pub l i c i t yc a s tT ou rn eu ra s mo r eth anap i c t o r i a ls t y l i s t .H i ss t y l i s edf i lm sp a r t i c ip a t ed ina l a r g e re x ch an g ew i thth ew o r ko fth e s ef amou sa r t i s t s .A s so c i a t in gh im s e l fw i th th e s ea r t i s t s ,T ou rn eu rt oo konar o l eo fem i s s a r yf r omth e i rs tud io s . I t i sr e v e a l in gth a tth ep r e s sg a v ep r io r i t yt oT ou rn eu r ’ swo r k inPu v i s ’ sa t e l i e r .I t r e f l e c t sap a r t i cu l a r l yAm e r i c ancu l tu r a lapp r op r i a t iono fS ymbo l i s ta e s th e t i c s .Th e s am equ a l i t i e sth a th ad m ad ePu v i sso in f l u en t i a lt oEu r op e anS ymbo l i s ta r t i s t so fth e 1890 sapp e a l edt o mod e rnAm e r i c ana r tedu c a t o r s ,a l thou ghf o rd i f f e r en tr e a son s .7 Th eS ymbo l i s t so fth e1890 sadm i r edh i sf l a tn e s s ,h i sb r e a kf r omr e a l i smand ch i a r o s cu r oa sp a r to fth et r iumpho fth ea e s th e t i co v e rpo s i t i v i sm .Ino th e rwo rd s , th e y l i k edth ew a yh i sc an v a s e sd i v e r g edf r omth eemp i r i c a l l yv i s ib l ewo r ld .Am e r i c an a r tedu c a t o r sandcu r a t o r ss awth e s es am ef l a t , mu t edc an v a s e sa se x amp l e so f e f f i c i en t mod e rnc ompo s i t ion .A r thu rD owd e f end edth em e r i t so fh i sBo s t on mu r a l a g a in s t i t sd e t r a c t o r s ,andr ep r odu c edPu v i s ’ sw o r k inth e mu l t ip l eed i t ion so fh i sa r t 8 edu c a t iont e x tbook s . N o t edc r i t i candpo e tS ad a k i ch iH a r tm ann in f o rm edh i sr e ad e r s 9 Andth ecu r a t o randp a in t e r th a tw i thou tPu v i s ,M on e tand Wh i s t l e rw ou ldno te x i s t . A r thu rD a v i e sc on s id e r edPu v i san ind i sp en s ib l ep a r to fth e1913A rmo r yShow . Pu v i sa l soapp e a l edt o mo r ec on s e rv a t i v e Am e r i c ant a s t e s .Ine a r l ytw en t i e th c en tu r yAm e r i c ana r tc r i t i c i smandpub l i c l e c tu r e s ,th ep r e v iou stwod e c ad e so fF r en ch a r tbo thf a s c in a t edandp r o v o k edsu sp i c io n .Pu v i sa r ou s edth i sf a s c in a t ionwh i l es t i l l a l low in gat r ad i t ion a l i s t l i k e jou rn a l i s tH en r yAd am st oc i t eh i sBo s t on mu r a la sth e 10 ‘ g r e a t e s tp a in t in ge v e rm ad e ’ . Pu v i s ’ ss t y l eandh i sm e thod sp r o v edad ap t ab l e in Am e r i c an mu s eum sando th e redu c a t ion a l in s t i tu t ion s ,wh e r eth e mo r ed e c ad en t S ymbo l i s tt r ad i t ion sw e r e l e s sapp r op r i a t e .H i s in t e r e s t in mu r a lp a in t in g l edh im t ow a rd sa l l e go r i c a lf i gu r e sr end e r ed in mu t edc o lou r sanda t t i tud e so fApo l lon i anc a lm . Th e s equ a l i t i e s inh i sw o r kg e s tu r edt ow a rd sp r e -R en a i s s an c ef r e s c o e sh es tud i ed in I t a l y ,e v enthou ghh ew o r k eda lmo s te x c lu s i v e l y ino i l s .Pu v i semp lo y ednon eo fth e po t en t i a l l yun s e t t l in gd e t a i lo fW i l l i amH o lm anHun to rth e lu r idc o lou r s( andth em e s ) P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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I n s id et h es t ud ioo fP i e r r eP u v i sd eC h a v a n n e sa tN e u i l l y .O nt h ew a l l i sas e c t io no ft h eBo s to nP ub l i cL ib r a r ym u r a l e n t i t l edT h e I n sp i r i n gM u s e sb e fo r e i tw a ss h ipp ed i n1895

o fGu s t a v e Mo r e au ,andth i sm ad eh im mo r esu c c e s s fu lth anth e s ef e l lowe a r l y S ymbo l i s t s ins e rv in gm a in s t r e amAm e r i c ana e s th e t i c in t e r e s t s .Fu r th e rs ep a r a t in g h imf r omo th e rS ymbo l i s tp r e cu r so r s ’m e thod s ,Pu v i semp lo y edac r a f t sm an l i k e 11 A g a in ,un l i k eth eno t o r iou s l yp r i v a t e Mo r e au ,Pu v i sr an app r o a cht oc r e a t in gw o r k . h i sa t e l i e rw i thth ed i s c ip l in eo fagu i ld ,whi chapp e a l edt otho s eA r t sandC r a f t s in f lu en c eda r tedu c a t o r sd i s cu s s eda t l en g th inp r e v iou sch ap t e r s . I t i snoc o in c id en c eth a tT ou rn eu ra s so c i a t edh im s e l fd i r e c t l yw i thPu v i s ’ sBo s t on w o r k .Pu v i s ’ sc ompo s i t ion sw e r eac ommonf i x tu r e inAm e r i c ana r t edu c a t ion t e x tboo k s ,bu th i sno t o r i e t ya lw a y sf a c edach a l l en g eb e c au s eh i s mu r a l sc ou ldno tb e t r an spo r t eda c r o s sth eo c e anf o rr e gu l a re xh ib i t s .Th eBo s t onPub l i cL ib r a r y mu r a l s , sh ipp ed inp i e c e sf r omF r an c eand in s t a l l edons i t e ,o f f e r edAm e r i c anaud i en c e sth e i r on l yoppo r tun i t yt os e eh i sw o r konas c a l eth a tbo r eph y s i c a lw i tn e s st oh i ss tud io p r a c t i c e s inP a r i s .Inth eem e r g in gAm e r i c anf i lm indu s t r yT ou rn eu ro c cup i eda po s i t iona sana e s th e t e :aS ymbo l i s tandac in em ac r a f t sm an .B yp l a c in gh im s e l f inth e a t e l i e ro fP i e r r ePu v i sd eCh a v ann e stw en t yy e a r sp r io r ,wo r k in gonwh a twou ld b e c om ePu v i s ’ son l y in s t a l l edw o r k inN o r thAm e r i c a ,h ec ou ldc on v in c in g l ya s sum e bo tho fth e s er o l e s .H ec ou lda c ta sac ondu i tb e tw e enth ef i lm indu s t r yandth e popu l a rsub j e c to fth e1890 sF r en chs tud io l i f ewh i l em a in t a in in gth e impo r t an c eo f 96

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c r a f t ina r t -m a k in g .Th equ a l i t yo fw o r k inT ou rn eu r ’ ss tud ioc ou ldr e f l e c tth equ a l i t y o fw o r k inPu v i s ’ ss tud io . QUA L ITYF I LM S , IMPORT EDF I LM -MAK ER S T ou rn eu r ’ sa s so c i a t ionw i thqu a l i t yf i lm sb e g an inP a r i s , inc o l l abo r a t ionw i ths e v e r a l in f lu en t i a lf i gu r e s inF r en chth e a t r eandc in em a .In1909 ,th eF r en chÉ c l a i rc omp an y d e c id edt oe xp andb e y ond i t spopu l a rs e r i a lad ap t a t ion sw i th i t sn ewACADsub s id i a r y (A s so c i a t ionc in ém a t o g r aph iqu ed e sau t eu r sd r am a t iqu e s ) .H e ad edb yth er e sp e c t ed s t a g ea c t o rÉm i l eCh au t a rd ,ACADw ou ldf o l lowth e mod e lo fP a th é -d i s t r ibu t edf i lm d ’ a r tandSCAGL( S o c i é t éc in ém a t o g r aph iqu ed e sau t eu r se tg en sd e l e t t r e s )andad ap t d r am a t i cwo r k inav a r i e t yo fg en r e sw i th mo r ed i r e c tc l a im st o l e g i t im a t ecu l tu r e . Ch au t a rdp r o v edane x c ep t ion a lm en t o r( e v enthou ghh em ad eon l ya l im i t ednumb e r o ff i lm sa sad i r e c t o r ) .H et oo kT ou rn eu r ,whoh adbu i l tas t a g ec a r e e rt ou r in gw i th au t a rdb r ou gh tT ou rn eu rt oACAD G ab r i e l l eR é j an e ’ sp r odu c t ion s ,und e rh i sw in g .12Ch andsup e rv i s edh i ss t y l i s edad ap t a t ion so fsu chs t o r i e sa sG yp ’ sL eF r i q u e tandAnd r é d eLo rd e ’ sF i gu r e sd eC i r e. Wh enÉ c l a i rd e c id edt oe xp and i t sp r odu c t ionbu s in e s st oth e U SAw i than ews tud io inF o r tL e e ,N ewJ e r s e y ,Ch au t a rdandT ou rn eu rr an k edamon g th ep r om i s in gt a l en t ss en tf r omF r an c et oth en ew lo c a t ion . Th e i rt im ea tAm e r i c anÉ c l a i rw a ssho r t l i v ed ,how e v e r .A f t e ras e v e r es tud iof i r e in 1914andth ef in an c i a lp r e s su r ef e l tb y mo s tF r en chf i rm sa tth i st im e ,É c l a i r l iqu id a t ed i t sAm e r i c anop e r a t ion , l e a v in g i t semp lo y e e st of indwo r k inn e i ghbou r in gF o r tL e e c omp an i e s l i k eL ew i sS e l zn i c k ’ sW o r ldF i lmCo rpo r a t ion .Ch au t a rdandT ou rn eu re a s i l y m ad eth et r an s i t ion ,a sth e i rACADe xp e r i en c ef i t t edw e l lw i th W o r ld ’ sm i s s iont of i lm f amou sp l a y s .F o rm e rth e a t r ep r odu c e r sW i l l i amB r ad yandL e eShub e r th i r ed T ou rn eu rt od i r e c tas e r i e so fad ap t a t ion sf o rW o r ld in c lud in gT r i l b yandTh eW i s h in g R in g(1914 ) .Th e s ef i lm sd r ewf r omh i sF r en chs t a g ee xp e r i en c e ,ando c c a s ion a l l ye v en quo t edF r en chs t a g ep r odu c t ion s .InT ou rn eu r ’ sf amou sad ap t a t iono fA l i a sJ imm y V a l en t in e(1915 ) ,wh i chonth eF r en chs t a g eh ads t a r r edÉm i l eCh au t a rda sL e M y s t e r i e u xJ imm yno t lon gb e f o r eth e ybo them i g r a t edt oth eU SA ,th ec l im a c t i cf i lm 13 t ab l e aur e c r e a t e sth et ab l e auf r omCh au t a rd ’ sp l a y . A f t e rm ak in g mod i f i edf i lm sd ’ a r t f o rACADand W o r ld ,T ou rn eu r mo v edt oth eup s c a l eA r t c r a f t l ab e lf o rP a r amoun tand th ent oh i sownp r odu c t ionc omp an yb a c k edb yh i sc o l l e a gu eJu l e sB ru l a t ou r . E a cho fh i sF r en chc o l l abo r a t o r sbo l s t e r edT ou rn eu r ’ sr epu t a t iona sane a r l ya r t f i lmd i r e c t o r inth eU SA ,bu tnon ew a sa s impo r t an ta sB enC a r r é .Th ef a c tth a th e w o r k edonth i r t y f ou ro fT ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm sm e an sth a tT ou rn eu r ’ st r ad em a r kp i c t o r i a l s t y l ew a st ru l yac o l l abo r a t i v ec r e a t ionw i thC a r r é .Inth e i rw o r kt o g e th e r ,w ec ans e ea f am i l i a rc on s t e l l a t iono ft e chn iqu e s–o f t enad ap t edf r omth e i rp r e v iou swo r k in th e a t r e–a r oundth e id e ao fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion .L i k eT ou rn eu r ,C a r r éad ap t edh i s f in e a r t st r a in in gf o rw o r k inth eth e a t r e ,d e s i gn in gs e t sf o rP a r i sp r odu c t ion sb e f o r e mo v in gt oG aumon tandth ent oÉ c l a i rs tud io s .H eb r and i sh edh i se a r l yt r a in in g in p a in t in g ,d e s c r ib in gh im s e l fa sap a in t e rf i r s tandana r td i r e c t o rs e c ond ,andh e c on t inu edt oe xh ib i th i sp a in t in g sandd r aw in g sa tg a l l e r i e s inLo sAn g e l e sth r ou ghou t h i s l i f e .14Inth e i rf i lm st o g e th e r ,th ep i c t o r i a lf r am in go fs c en e sw i ths t r on g f o r e g r ound s ,a sw e l la sth eop en -w a l ls e t s ,s c r im sand l a y e r edb a c kd r op sc anb et r a c ed P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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b a c kt oth e i rwo r konth es t a g e .Bu twh i l eth e s et e chn iqu e sm a yh a v eb e enad ap t ed f r omth es t a g e , inT ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm sth e yr e a l i gnth em s e l v e sw i thp i c t o r i a ls c r e ena r t . A f t e ra l l ,th es c r im sand l a y e r edb a c kd r op s,e sp e c i a l l ywh enc omb in edw i thc a r e fu l c am e r ap l a c em en tand l i gh t in g ,c ou ldr e f e r en c ewo r k s inp a in t .Andth ef o r e g r ound f r am ec ou ldg e s tu r et ow a rd sP r e -R aph a e l i t ep a in t in g s ,popu l a rf an t a s y i l lu s t r a t ion s ,o r l an t e rns l id e sa sv i v id l ya sth ep r o s c en iuma r ch . C a r r é in c lud edf o r e g r ound eds i lhou e t t e s in T ou rn eu r ’ s lo c a t ion sho tf i lm sa sw e l l a sth ef i lm sw i thc omp l e t e l ya r t i f i c i a ls e t s .P r un e l l a(1918 ) , m ad eb yT ou rn eu rand C a r r éf o rP a r amoun t ,p r o v id e sth e mo s te l abo r a t ee x amp l eo fth e i ru s eo fa r t i f i c i a l s e t s .Inano r a lh i s t o r yt r an s c r ip ta tth eM a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y ,h er e c a l l sd e s i gn in g ind i v idu a l l a y e r so fth es e t ,o f t en ju s tsu g g e s t ion so fsh ap e s ,andpo s i t ion in gth em in th r e ed im en s ion s : ‘w en e v e ru s ed l i gh t inth ef o r e g r oundand l e f tth ema ss i lhou e t t e s . Th a tpu sh e sth es t a g efu r th e rb a c kandb yth i ss ep a r a t ion m a k e s i t mo r er e a l i s t i c . ’Th e ‘ r e a l i sm ’t owh i chC a r r ér e f e r s i sth es e t ’ s i l lu s iono fd ep th ,a snon eo fth ef i lm i ssho t on lo c a t ion ,andth es e t sa r ec on s t ru c t eda lmo s ten t i r e l you to ff l a t ,p a in t edsu r f a c e s r a th e rth anbu i l ts t ru c tu r e s .Th ep r odu c t ions t i l l sande x t an tf r a gm en t so fth ef i lm su g g e s tas t r on gc onn e c t iont oth ef an t a s yth e a t r e ,andy e tth ef anp r e s s( c r ed i t in g C a r r éa lon g s id eT ou rn eu r )andf i lm m anu a l sd i s cu s s edth ef i lm ’ ss c en e s int e rm so f th e i rp i c t o r i a le f f e c t .F r an c e sP a t t e r son , inon eo fth e mom en t s inwh i chh e rC in em a C r a f t sm an s h i po v e r l ap sw i thV i c t o rF r e ebu r g ’ sth eo r i e so fc in em ac ompo s i t ion , adm i r edth ep a in t e r l yqu a l i t i e so fP r un e l l a’ ss e t sandth ec ompo s i t ion a lemph a s e so f 15 th ec o s tum e s inr e l a t iont oth ef low e r ssown in t oth ec lo th ‘ g r a s s ’ . Th ec ompo s i t ion o fth ef i lme v o k edf o rh e rap a in t e r l ya e s th e t i cf o rwh i chT ou rn eu rw a sb e c om in g known . C a r r é ’ st e chn i c a lb a c k g r oundp r o v edc omp a t ib l ew i thP a t t e r son ’ sa e s th e t i cm i s s ion b e c au s eth e ye a che v o k edp a in t e r l yf o rmandt r ad i t ion .Th r ou ghou th i so r a lh i s t o r i e s andunpub l i sh ed m emo i r s ,C a r r éd e s c r ib e sth ec a r e inc on s t ru c t in g l a y e r eds c en e s ju s t l i k etho s e in P r un e l l a.Th e s es c en e s mo v eb e y ondp r o v id in gas imp l ef r am ef o rth e a c t ion ,th e yr e f e r en c ear e c o gn i s ab l et e chn iqu e inp a in t in g .Inh i sEn g l i sh l an gu a g e m emo i rC a r r éc on s i s t en t l yd e s c r ib e showh ew an t ed ‘ t opu shb a c k ’th es e t .16Inh i s n a t i v eF r en ch , ‘r e p o u s s o i r ’h a sa mu chc l e a r e ra r t -h i s t o r i c a lc onno t a t ion s .N e a r l y an y on et r a in eda sap a in t e r( l i k eC a r r éandT ou rn eu r )wou ldh a v eknownhowt ou s ea r e p o u s s o i rt oenh an c eth e i l lu s iono fd ep thandt od r awth ev i ew e r ’ se y e in t oth e c ompo s i t ion .And m an y mo r ep eop l ewhoa t t end eda r t l e c tu r e s( in c lud in gm an ywho w r o t er e v i ew so ff i lm s )w ou ldh a v eknownth i st e chn iqu ef r om i t s mo r ef amou s sou r c e s l i k eC a r a v a g g ioo rV e rm e e r ,p r e c i s e l yth et yp e so fp a in t in g sw i thwh i ch T ou rn eu r ,C a r r éandp r e s t i g ec r i t i c ssou gh tt oa s so c i a t eth e i rf i lm s . Th e i r l i gh t in gcho i c e sw i th inth e s epu sh ed -b a c kp l an e so fa c t iona r e ju s ta sr i ch w i thr e f e r en c e st oknowna r tw o r k s . Wh enT ou rn eu r ,C a r r éandv and enB r o e ksho t s t a t i cg r oup so fp e r f o rm e r s ,a s inad inn e rs c en eo ra m e e t in g ,th e yf r equ en t l y c on c e a l edas t r on g l i gh t inth ec en t r eo fth eg r oup .O f t enb e lowe y e l e v e l ,th i s dom in an t l i gh tsou r c eb r i gh t l y i l lum in a t edth ef a c e so fth ec en t r a lf i gu r e sand s i lhou e t t edtho s ef i gu r e sw i thth e i rb a c k sc lo s e s tt oth ec am e r a .App a r en t l y in f a tu a t ed w i thth i st e chn iqu e ,T ou rn eu randh i sc o l l abo r a t o r su s ed i t inn e a r l ya l lo fh i s Am e r i c anf i lm s ,f r omth es c en e sa tag yp s yen c ampm en t inTh eW i s h in gR in gt oth e m i l i t a r yp l ann in gs c en e s in Th eL a s to ft h eM o h i c an s(1920 ) .Th e l i gh t in gf i t sw i thth e i r 98

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R ep o u s s o i ri n T h eW i s h i n gR i n g (1914 )

l a r g e rp r o j e c to fp i c t o r i a ls t y l i s a t ion ,bu t i t sr e f e r en c e i s mo r esp e c i f i c , ju s t l i k eth e r e p o u s s o i rt e chn iqu et owh i ch i t i sr e l a t ed .I tr e f e r en c e sat e chn iqu ec ommon inth e F r en chB a r oqu ep a in t in g sth a tm ad eupac en t r a lp a r to fth ecu r r i cu luma tF r en cha r t s choo l s .Th e s es t r on gc on t r a s t sb e tw e en i l lum in a t edc en t r a lf i gu r e sandd a r k p e r iph e r i e s , l i k etho s es e en inth ec and l e l i tp a in t in g so fG eo r g e sd e l aT ou r ,a l so c i r cu l a t ed inth eU SA .InAm e r i c ana r t edu c a t ion l e c tu r e sandt e x tboo k s ,p a in t in g sand d r aw in g sd ep lo y in gth i st e chn iqu ep r o v id ed impo r t an t l e s son s inth ea r r an g em en to f 17 l i gh tandsh ad e . M ya im in i so l a t in gth e s er e c y c l edp a in t e r l yt e chn iqu e s(wh i chC a r r éa l sou s edon th es t a g e ) i s l e s st ot r a c ehowth e yb e c om ee s t ab l i sh edf i lmt e chn iqu e sand mo r et o showhowth e yh e lpt of i gu r eac e r t a inr e l a t ion sh ipb e tw e enc in em aanda r ta tth i s t im e .Con s id e r edt o g e th e r ,th e i rb a t t e r yo ft e chn iqu e ss e ems c a t t e r eda tb e s t .Th e y r e s i s tc oh e r en ta e s th e t i cp ed i g r e e s . Wh a tm ad eth e s et e chn iqu e sno tapp e a r in cho a t e andh aph a z a rd , ind e edwh a tm ad eth emapp e a rt od e f in ec in em a t i ca e s th e t i cm a tu r i t y , w e r eth em a s s i v ep a r a l l e le f f o r t st op r omo t eT ou rn eu ra sas c r e enp a in t e r .H i sp e r son a a f f e c t edth ew a yh i sf i lm sc ou ld loo k ,th ew a yth e yc ou ldb ed i s cu s s edandhowth e y c ou ldb es e en .Th i sf r am ew a s ju s ta s impo r t an t inth ee x ch an g eb e tw e enc in em aand a r ta sth ed e s i gno fT ou rn eu r ’ sandC a r r é ’ sf i lmt e chn iqu e s . THEB LUEB IRD:FROM THEYE L LOWBOOKTOTH EYE L LOWPRE S S T ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm swou ldr em a in inc on v e r s a t ionw i thth eo th e ra r t s mo r eo r l e s s th r ou ghou th i s l i f e ,e v enw i thh i s l a t e r low -bud g e tF r en chg en r ef i lm s l i k eJ u s t ind e M a r s e i l l e(1935 ) .H i sf i lm so fth e l a t e1910 s ,how e v e r ,m a r kth eh i ghpo in to fh i sc r o s s m ed i apo s i t ionw i th inth eAm e r i c anf i lm indu s t r y .M o s to fth ea r t i c l e sabou th ima sa p a in t e ro fth es c r e enw e r ew r i t t endu r in gth i sp e r iod inwh i chP a r amoun ta g r e edt o p r omo t eandd i s t r ibu t eth ef i lm sund e rtheA r t c r a f t l ab e l .Th i sa r r an g em en ta l low ed T ou rn eu randC a r r ét oc on c en t r a t eth e i rp i c t o r i a le xp e r im en t sandt oe xp lo r ef an t a s t i c P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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th em e sonah e a l th ybud g e t .Inth e s ef i lm s ,th ek ind so fp i c t o r i a lt e chn iqu e sd i s cu s s ed abo v er e a ch edan in t en s i t y .L i gh t in gc on t r a s t sg r ew ,s e t sb e c am e mo r ee l abo r a t eand th e y in c r e a s in g l yf l a t t en ed l a y e r so fth e i rc ompo s i t ion st oapo in tth a tr e c a l l edPu v i s . Th e yb e g anb y in s e r t in gsom eo fth e i re a r l yp i c t o r i a le x c e s s e sa tc l im a c t i c mom en t s w i th inf i lm sw i th mo r es t r a i gh t f o rw a rds t o r i e s , l i k eM a r yP i c k f o rd ’ sd ru g indu c ed h a l lu c in a t ions equ en c e inP o o rL i t t l eR i c hG i r l(1917 ) .B y1918th e y mo v ed in t ob r o ad e r a l l e go r yandf an t a s yw i thf i lm s l i k eW om an, P r un e l l aandTh eB l u eB i r d. Th eB l u eB i r do f f e r sar em a r k ab l ec a s eh e r e ,andno ton l yb e c au s e i t i sth e mo s t s t y l i s edo fth i sc y c l eandh a ssu rv i v ed inar e l a t i v e l yc omp l e t ef o rm .I ta l sos t and sou t amon gth e s ef i lm sa sh a v in gap a r t i cu l a r l yr i ch in t e rm ed i a lh i s t o r y ,wh i chf o l low sth e p a tho f1890 sd e c ad en ta e s th e t i c s in t oAm e r i c an m ed i acu l tu r e inth e l a t e1910 s .Th e f i lmw a sanad ap t a t iono fth ef amou sp l a yb yM au r i c eM a e t e r l in c k ,aB e l g i anS ymbo l i s t who s ep l a y se v en tu a l l yf oundno t o r i e t yamon ganAm e r i c anaud i en c eno tt ood i f f e r en t f r omtho s ewhoadm i r edPu v i s .Inth e1890 s ,M a e t e r l in c kf oundh i sm a inAm e r i c an adm i r e r samon gBo s t onandN ewY o r kd e c ad en t s l i k ep i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph e rF . 18 D a yw a s H o l l andD a yandV an c eThomp son ,ed i t o ro fth e in f lu en t i a lM ’ l l eN ewY o r k. r e spon s ib l ef o rpub l i sh in gth ef amou s1890 s jou rn a lTh eY e l l owB o o kinth eU SA .H i s c lo s ec o l l e a gu eandf ano fth ey e l low90 s ,R i ch a rdH o v e y ,b e c am eM a e t e r l in c k ’ sm a in En g l i sht r an s l a t o rs t a r t in gw i thh i s1895ed i t iono fTh eP l a y so fM a u r i c eM a e t e r l in c k.In H o v e y ’ s in t r odu c t iont oth ev o lum e ,h er e ad sM a e t e r l in c ka sanun equ i v o c a ld e c ad en t , s e t t in gh i sS ymbo l i sm ‘ a g a in s tth em a squ e r ad eo f mo r a l i t y ’ .F o rH o v e yandh i sc i r c l e , M a e t e r l in c kr e s t r i c t sh im s e l f , ‘ t oas in g l e mood .H i sm a s t e rt on e i sa lw a y st e r r o r– t e r r o rt ooo fon et yp e–th a to fth echu r ch y a rd .H e i sapo e to fth es epu l ch r e…H i s d e v o t iont oth ewo rm ys id eo fth in g sm a yp r e v en th imf r ome v e rb e c om in gpopu l a r . ’19 H o v e y ’ sp r ed i c t ionabou tM a e t e r l in c k ’ spopu l a r i t yc ou ldno th a v eb e en mo r e w r on g .Asu rv e yo fAm e r i c ann ew sp ap e rd a t ab a s e sr e v e a l sasw e l lo f in t e r e s t in M a e t e r l in c kb e g inn in gw i thH o v e y ’ s1890 spub l i c a t ion sandp e a k in g inth e l a t e1910 s w i ththou s and so fa r t i c l e sonth eau tho ra v a i l ab l ef o re a chy e a r .B yth et im e M a e t e r l in c kv i s i t edth eU SA in1920 ,c i v i cg r oup sw e r eho ld in gp a r ad e s inh i shonou r , N ewY o r kso c i a l i t e sw e r ed r e s s in gupa sp e a c o c k sf o rB l u eB i r db a l l sandS amu e l Go ldw ynw a sho s t in gh im inCu l v e rC i t y inana t t emp tt op e r su ad eh im( e v en tu a l l y i thth i spopu l a r i t y ,how e v e r ,c am ea d e c l in ed )t ow r i t ed i r e c t l yf o rth es c r e en .20W m a jo rt r an s f o rm a t ion inth er e c ep t iono fh i sw o r k .A sd i s cu s s iono fM a e t e r l in c k su r g ed , ‘ th ewo rm ys id eo fth in g s ’d idr e c ed e in t oth eb a c k g r ound .L i k ePu v i s , M a e t e r l in c k ’ swo r kad ap t edt oth eAm e r i c ans c en eb e t t e rth ano th e rS ymbo l i s t s ’ .I t w a s mo r eh i spop m y s t i c i smth anh i samo r a l i t y , mo r eh i sd r e am so fth ea f t e r l i f eth an h i ss epu l ch r a lob s e s s ion s ,th a tm ad eh imah i tw i thth e l y c eumc r owd .A l r e ad yb y1902 ac r i t i cno t edh i spopu l a r i t yw i th ‘ lon gh a i rf em a l e s ’whod i g r e s s ed in l y c eum son ‘ th e 21 c omp r eh en s ib i l i t yo fwh a t i sc ommon l yc a l l edth e in c omp r eh en s ib l e in M a e t e r l in c k ’ . Th ed e s c r ip t iono fth e ‘ lon gh a i r s ’ inth i saud i en c er e c a l l sth ed e c ad en tt r ad i t ionth a t ch a r a c t e r i s edth ewo r ko fH o v e yandD a y ,bu t i ta l soshow show M a e t e r l in c kh a s mo v edf r omD a y ’ ss a lon st oth eedu c a t ion a lsph e r eo fth e l y c eum .I tw a s l y c eum mo gu l J am e sP ond( a l soA l e x and e rB l a c k ’ st ou rm an a g e r )whoe v en tu a l l yspon so r ed M a e t e r l in c k ’ sg r andt ou ro fth eU SA .Th eth e a t r i c a lruno f Th eB l u eB i r dpu t M a e t e r l in c k an a inp a r t i cu l a r l yh i ghd em and ,w i thnum e r ou squ a s i edu c a t ion a l pub l i c a t ion sh e lp in gt oe xp l a inth eph i lo soph i c a lm e an in g in i t sa l l e go r i e s .22W i th Th e 100

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B l u eB i r d, M a e t e r l in c k ’ sr e c ep t ion insm a l l s c a l ea v an t g a rd epub l i c a t ion sc on t inu edt o sp i l lou tw a rd ,f i r s tt oth e l y c eumandth enon t oth eb r o ad e rpub l i c . B yth et im eth eT ou rn eu r /A r t c r a f tad ap t a t ionw en t in t op r odu c t ion ,Am e r i c an th e a t r ec omp an i e s ,a e s th e t epho t o g r aph e r s ,c r i t i c sandpub l i c l e c tu r e r sh ada l r e ad y f o rm edad en s eandh e t e r o g en eou sn e tw o r ko fr e f e r en c e sa r oundth es t o r yand i t s ch a r a c t e r s .P a r amoun t ’ s in t e r e s t in m a r k e t in ga M au r i c eT ou rn eu rad ap t a t iono fTh e B l u eB i r dc am ea tth eh e i gh to fth es t o r y ’ spopu l a r i t y .Th eop en in gc r ed i t sno t ed M a e t e r l in c k ’ s ‘ f amou sm a s t e rp i e c e ’ ,andf i lm c r i t i c sa s sum edth a t ‘ e v e r y on eknow sth e 23 s t o r yo fTh eB l u eB i r d’ . T ou rn eu rc e r t a in l ykn ewth ep l a yb e t t e rth an mo s t .I tw a son e o fth em a jo rp r odu c t ion sa tth eTh é â t r eR é j an e ,wh e r eh ep r odu c edshow s( in c lud in g th ep r odu c t iono fA l i a sJ imm yV a l en t in es t a r r in gÉm i l eCh au t a rd ) .R é j an er e v i v edth e p l a yth r e et im e s inth e1910 s ,ande a chr e v i v a le xh ib i t edaf am i l i a rt a s t ef o rs t y l i s ed s e t s ,c e l eb r i t yandpopph i lo soph y .Th e1911Th é â t r eR é j an ep r o g r amm eb e g anw i than e s s a ye xp l a in in gth ep l a y ’ sph i lo soph i c a la l l e go r y ,e v enb e f o r eshow c a s in gs t a r s l i k e 24 S é v e r in M a r s( l a t e rth ec e l eb r a t ed l e ada c t o rf o rd i r e c t o rAb e lG an c e ) . Zu ko r e s s en t i a l l yc on t r a c t edT ou rn eu rt o impo r tth eR é j an ep r odu c t ionand ,bo x -o f f i c e r e tu rn sa s id e ,th e yr e c e i v edg low in gp r a i s ef o rth ep r o j e c t .Th et r ad ep ap e r s ,ande v en th ef an m a g a z in e s ,p r a i s edth ep r odu c e r sa lon g s id eT ou rn eu randC a r r é . ‘F o rth ev i s ion t os e eth epo s s ib i l i t i e s ,th eA r t c r a f te x e cu t i v e sd e s e rv ep r a i s e ,s c a r c e l ys e c ondt oth a t wh i ch mu s tb ea c c o rd edt oth eg en iu so fth ep l a yh im s e l f–T ou rn eu r . ’25 V i su a lan a l y s i so fth i sf i lmh a sb e ens c a r c e .Th e mo s te x t en s i v ec on s id e r a t ionh a s b e eng i v en i tb yJ an -Ch r i s t oph e rH o r a k ,who , inadd i t iont oh i sp ion e e r in gs cho l a r sh ip one a r l ya r tf i lm -m a k e r s l i k eT ou rn eu r ,h a sa l soh e lp edt op r e s e rv eth e i rf i lm s .H o r ak h a sob s e rv edth ew a yth ef i lmr e v i s i t se a r l yc in em a ’ s ‘ a r ch a i ct e chn iqu e s ,e . g .t ab l e au im a g e s , l i v ea c t ionan im a t ion ,v i su a lm e t apho r s ,…d i r e c tadd r e s s ’andco s tum e s r em in i s c en to fM é l i è s ,wh i ch ‘mu s tb ec on t e x tu a l i z edw i th in[N o e lBu r ch ’ sd i s cu s s ion o f ]th e l a r g e rs t ru g g l ea g a in s tc l a s s i c a ln a r r a t i v e ’ .H o r a k ’ spo in tabou te a r l yc in em a r e app e a r in gc anb es e enth r ou ghou tth ef i lm ,and i tr a i s e sth equ e s t iono fwh y T ou rn eu rwou ldd ep lo yth e s et e chn iqu e sa tth i st im e .Iwou ldc on t endth a twh a t a t t r a c t edT ou rn eu randC a r r éw a sno te a r l yc in em aa sa m a r k e ro fc in em a ’ sf r e e rp a s t , bu tr a th e re a r l yc in em a ’ somn i v o r ou s in c lu s i v i t y , i t sp en ch an tf o rc i t a t ionandf r am e jump in g(d i s cu s s ed inCh ap t e r2 ) .Th etu rnt oan t ed a t edt e chn iqu e sc on t r ibu t edt oa l a r g e re f f o r tt oc r e a t eaf i lmth a tw o r e i t sr i cht e x tu r eo fr e f e r en c e son i t ssu r f a c e .I f th e s er e f e r en c e s in c lud ede a r l yc in em at e chn iqu e s ,th e ypo in t edth r ou ghth emt o p i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion s inp a in t in g ,th e a t r ed e s i gnand i l lu s t r a t ion . I tm a k e ss en s e inaf i lmth a tr e f e r en c e sth eo th e ra r t sth a tth em i s eens c èn ewou ld dom in a t e .E l em en t so fth ed é c o rf r am ee a chsho t mo r ed e c i s i v e l yth anth ec am e r a f r am e .Ed i t in g i sm in im a lth r ou ghou tth ef i lm ,andg en e r a l l y l im i t edt ocu t in sw i th in c ompo s edt ab l e au x .Th ep e r f o rm e r ss e emt ob ec au gh t inanuph i l ls t ru g g l et os a t i s f y th ec ompo s i t ion a ln e ed so fth ee l abo r a t es e t s .Andno ton l y i sth ed e s i gnf o r e g r ound ed o v e ro th e re l em en t s , i ta l soc omm and sth ev e r ys t ru c tu r e so fth ef i lm .Con s id e rth e p i c t o r i a lf r am in gd e v i c e s .I fth ea r ch edf r am in g s inT ou rn eu r ’ sandC a r r é ’ ss e tp i e c e s r e f e r en c e i l lu s t r a t ionandth e l an t e rna s mu cha sth eth e a t r e ,th i sr e f e r en t i a l i t ywo r k s , b e y onds in g l e im a g e s , inth eo v e r a l la r r an g em en to fth es equ en c e s .L i k es equ en t i a l l an t e rnshow so r i l lu s t r a t ion s ,th ef o r e g r ounda r chc ou ldb eu s ed in t e rm i t t en t l y th r ou ghou taf i lm ,h i gh l i gh t in gth ed i s t in c t ion sb e tw e ens c en e sc ompo s edw i th P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

101

E n t r a n c eh a l lo ft h ef a i r y ’ sp a l a c e i nT h eB l u eB i r d(1918 )(Co u r t e s yo fG eo r g eE a s tm a nHo u s e , I n t e rn a t io n a lM u s e umo f P ho to g r ap h ya ndF i lm )

v i gn e t t e sandtho s ew i thou t .InP o o rL i t t l eR i c hG i r l,th ea r ch edf r am in gm a r k sth e t r an s i t iont of an t a s yandh a l lu c in a t ion .InTh eR a i lR i d e r(1916 ) , i tm a rk sd i sp l a y so f w e a l th .InT r i l b y, i ta c c omp an i e sth es c en e so fh ypno t i c in f lu en c e .T ou rn eu ru s edth e s e p i c t o r i a le f f e c t st oo r g an i s eth ef i lm sth em a t i c a l l y ,andd idso in c r e a s in g l y inth e l a t e 1910 s .W i thTh eB l u eB i r d,h eemp lo y edth i sth em a t i co r g an i s a t ionth r ou ghou tth e en t i r ef i lm .A t i t sc o r e ,th ep r odu c t ion i sr e a l l y ju s tac o l l a g eo ff r am edp i c tu r e s . T ou rn eu rc ond en s ed M a e t e r l in c k ’ ssp i r i tu a la l l e go r y in t os equ en c e so fa l l e go r i c a l p i c tu r e s ,e a chon eas e l f c on t a in eds ymbo lo fad i f f e r en tt yp eo f jo y ,o rt e r r o r ,o r p l e a su r e .Th ech a r a c t e r s inth es t o r ys imp l y mo v ef r omon ep i c tu r et oth en e x t .F r om th e mom en tth e yb e g inth e i r jou rn e yb yw a l k in gth r ou ghth eF a i r yB e r y lun e ’ sp a l a c e , T ou rn eu rs i gn a l sth a tp i c t o r i a lf r am in gw i l lb ea m a jo rgu id in ge l em en t .Inth i s t r an s i t ions c en eth e y mo v e in t e rm i t t en t l yt ow a rd sth ec am e r ath r ou gham i s eena b ym e o fa r ch i t e c tu r a lf r am e s ,p au s in g in s id ee a chf r am et om a r k i to f ff r omth er e s to fth e sp a c e .On c eth r ou ghth i sp a l a c eandfu l l y in s id eth ef an t a s ysp a c e ,th e yen c oun t e r s e v e r a ls e r i e so fp i c tu r e s .E a chon e i ss t ru c tu r edb yon eo fth eth r e ep a l a c e sv i s i t edon th e jou rn e y :th eP a l a c eo fN i gh t ,th eP a l a c eo fLu xu r yandth eP a l a c eo fH app in e s s . E a chp a l a c es t amp sad i f f e r en t l yd e s i gn edp i c t o r i a lf r am in gd e v i c eon i t ss e r i e s .In th eP a l a c eo fN i gh t ,t ab l e auv i v an ts t a tu e sm a r ka r ch eddoo rw a y sth a top enon t oth e 102

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sh ad e sandt e r r o r s( s ad l yw e a k en edb yth et r iumpho fth epo s i t i v i s ts c i en c e s ) r ep r e s en t edw i thth e mo s tab s t r a c tc ompo s i t ion s inth ef i lm .T ou rn eu randC a r r é f r am eth eP a l a c eo fLu xu r y mo r ech ao t i c a l l y .Th ech a r a c t e r sr ep r e s en t in gd i f f e r en t bod i l ye x c e s s e sa r epu sh edt o g e th e r inth es am ef r am e ,su r r ound edb ya r ch in gg a r l and s o ff low e r sands e gm en t edb ya ‘w ip e ’e f f e c tc r e a t ed ,no tonanop t i c a lp r in t e r ,bu tw i th acu r t a ino ff low e r sd r awnupf r omth ef loo r .Inth eP a l a c eo fH app in e s s ,v and en B r o e ksho tth et yp e so fh app in e s s–o fa i r ,o f lo v in g ,o fsp r in g t im e ,o fw a t ch in gth e s t a r sr i s e– inanou tdoo rs e t t in g ,bu tw i thana r ch ed , in c am e r av i gn e t t e .Th e yf r am e e a cht yp eo fh app in e s s id en t i c a l l yands t y l eth ems im i l a r l y .Th eth em e i sp a s t o r a l ,w i th th eh app in e s s e sp e r son i f i edb ysh eph e rd sandy oun gwom en inA r c ad i and r e s sd an c in g a lon gh i l l s id e s .T ou rn eu rm a r k sth et r an s i t ion sf r omon es e r i e so ft ab l e au xt oth en e x t w i tht r an s i t ion s inp i c t o r i a ls t y l e ,wh i chh e lpt os t ru c tu r eth e s ef r a gm en t a r ys c en e s l i k ed io r am a s , i l lu s t r a t ion s , l an t e rns l id es equ en c e s ,o rs equ en t i a lp a in t in g s inth e d e c o r a t i v et r ad i t ion . H e r ePu v i sr e en t e r sth ef r am e .Du r in gat im ewh enh ea v id l ypub l i c i s edh i swo r k onPu v i s ’ s mu r a l s innum e r ou s in t e rv i ew s ,T ou rn eu rc r a f t edth ea l l e go r i c a lt ab l e au x in th eTh eB l u eB i r dinane l abo r a t eg e s tu r et ow a rd sth ef in ea r t s .Th ep a l a c es c en e s ’ c onn e c t iont oe a r l yc in em aandF r en chth e a t r ec anno tb ed en i ed ,bu tth e yd idno tn e ed t ob e .P a in t e r l yc ompo s i t ionwo r k edf o rT ou rn eu randf o rC a r r éa sak indo fun i f y in g c on c ep tf o rth e i rm an yp i c t o r i a lr e f e r en c e s .H ew a sa l r e ad yf o rm in gp a t t e rn so f r e f e r en c in ga r th i s t o r y inh i s l i gh t in gandf o r e g r oundob j e c t s .Th eB l u eB i r dt oo kth i s p a in t e r l ypo s eas t epfu r th e randsp en tth eg r e a t e rpo r t iono fth er e sou r c e sf o ra f e a tu r ef i lmonas e r i e so f ind i v idu a l l yt i t l edc ompo s i t ion s .Con s id e r in gth e s e c ompo s i t ion sa sas equ en c eo fp i c tu r e s , i t i sno td i f f i cu l tt ono t i c es t y l i s t i ca f f in i t i e s b e tw e enT ou rn eu r ’ sandPu v i s ’ sp i c tu r e s .Pu v i s ’ sBo s t onPub l i cL ib r a r y mu r a l sf o rma s equ en c eo fth em a t i c a l l y l in k eda l l e go r i c a lp i c tu r e sth a ts ymbo l i s eth ed i v i s ion so f hum anknow l ed g e .I fT ou rn eu rh adadd edaP a l a c eo fKnow l ed g et oM a e t e r l in c k ’ ss t o r y andr equ e s t edth a tC a r r ér e s t a g eth eA r c ad i anf i gu r e sf r omPu v i s ’ sBo s t on mu r a l s ,th e s equ en c ew ou ldh a v ef i t t eds e am l e s s l yw i th inth ef i lm .Th es am ego e sf o rth es t y l eo f th eBo s t on mu r a l s .E a chs c en e i sf r am edb yana r ch i t e c tu r a la r ch ,and i sc ompo s ed in f l a tp l an e sr a th e rth an inn a tu r a l i s t i cd ep th .Th ef i gu r e ss e emt oo c cup y mu l t ip l etw o d im en s ion a lp l an e sw i th inth r e e -d im en s ion a lsp a c e .Pu v i sf amou s l yf l a t t en edh i s f i gu r e s ,so mu chth a tc a r t oon sc ou ldc a r i c a tu r eh im ,show in gh imu s in g l a r g e r th an 26 Th i s mo v et ow a rd sf l a t t en edc ompo s i t ionandaw a y l i f e mod e l sm ad eo fc a rdbo a rd . f r omp i c t o r i a l i l lu s ionc ou lde a s i l yd e s c r ib eT ou rn eu r ’ sandC a r r é ’ sapp r o a cht o l a y e r ed d e epsp a c e .T ob ec l e a r ,Iamno tsu g g e s t in gth a tT ou rn eu r l e a rn edh i ssp e c i f i cf i lm m a k in gt e chn iqu e s inPu v i s ’ sa t e l i e r .I tw ou ldb es a f e rt od e s c r ib eth e i ra e s th e t i c r e l a t ion sh ipa sa f f in i t yr a th e rth anapp r op r i a t ion .Th i sa f f in i t y i s impo r t an tb e c au s eo f how i tw a su s edt op r omo t eT ou rn eu rdu r in gh i sr i s e inth eAm e r i c anf i lm indu s t r y .T o an a l y s eh i ss t y l eb y id en t i f y in gon l yhowh i st e chn iqu e sw e r ebo r r ow edf r ome a r l y f i lm so rf r omtu rn -o f th ec en tu r ys t a g e c r a f tw ou ld m i s sth ew a yth a tT ou rn eu rw a s ab l et os yn th e s i s eth e s ev a r iou s in f lu en c e sa sap a in t e ro fth es c r e en . T ou rn eu r ’ sp a in t e r l yr epu t a t ionsu i t ed M a e t e r l in ck ’ ss t y l e .H i semph a s i sonm i s e ens c èn ef i t t edw i th inat r ad i t iono fS ymbo l i s tp e r f o rm an c eth eo ryb e t t e rth an m an y th e a t r i c a lad ap t a t ion so fS ymbo l i s tp l a y s .M a e t e r l in ckh yp e rbo l i s edn in e t e en th c en tu ryph y s i c a la c t in gth eo r i e sb ysu g g e s t in gth a ta c to r sb et r e a t eda spupp e t sand P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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S top -mo t io nw a s hb a s i na nd f u rn i t u r e i nT h eB l u eB i r d (Co u r t e s yo fG eo r g e E a s tm a nHo u s e , I n t e rn a t io n a l M u s e umo fP ho to g r ap h ya nd F i lm )

d é co rb eg r an t ed i t sd e s e rv edv i t a l i t y . ‘On eshou ldp e rh ap se l im in a t eth e l i v in gb e in g f r omth es t a g e… W i l lth ed a ycom ewh ens cu lp tu r ew i l lb eu s edon s t a g e ?W i l lth e hum anb e in gb er ep l a c edb yash adow ?Ar e f l e c t ion ?Ap r o j e c t iono fs ymbo l i cf o rm s ? twou lda l r e ad yb e O rab e in gwhowou ldapp e a rto l i v ew i thou tb e in ga l i v e ? ’27I t emp t in gtosu g g e s tth em ed iumo fc in em aa son ean sw e rto M a e t e r l in ck ’ sc a l lf o rth e n e x tg en e r a t iono fS ymbo l i s tp e r f o rm an c e ,s imp l yb yv i r tu eo f i t s in co rpo r e a l sh adow sandr e f l e c t ion s ,bu tTh eB l u eB i r df i lmd i r e c t l y in v i t e sth i st emp t a t ion . T ou rn eu r ’ sf i lman sw e r se a chon eo fM a e t e r l in ck ’ ssu g g e s t ion s .F o rs t a r t e r s ,h ed id no tu s es t a r s .T ou rn eu rh ads t r on gwo rk in gr e l a t ion sh ip sw i tha c to r s l ik eM a ry P i ck f o rdandC l a r aK imb a l lY oun g ,e i th e ro fwhomcou ldh a v es e cu r edg r e a t e r f in an c i a lsu c c e s sf o rth ef i lm .Bu tT ou rn eu rs e td i f f e r en tp r io r i t i e sf o rth ef i lm ,so th a th i sB l u eB i r dr em a in s(n e x ttop r odu c t ion ss t a r r in gSh i r l e yT emp l e ,J an eF ond a andE l i z ab e thT a y lo r )th eon l yf e a tu r e l en g thAm e r i c anad ap t a t iono fth es to ryno tto d r awons t a rpow e r .And ju s ta sT ou rn eu ra vo id edr e co gn i s ab l ef a c e s ,h esubm e r g ed 28 a l lo fh i sp e r f o rm an c e s inth eh e a v yp i c to r i a ld e s i gno fe a chs c en e . Th e l i v in g p e r f o rm e r sy i e ldtoe l abo r a t eco s tum e s ,d e s i gn eds e t sandt r i cke f f e c t s .A sr equ e s t ed b yM a e t e r l in ck ,th eR i chCh i ld r ena r es e enon l ya ssh adow s inw indow s .Th eSh ad e s andT e r r o r sa r ed i f fu s eou t l in e so fbod i e sp r o j e c t edonas c r im .S cu lp tu r eand p e r f o rm e rm e r g e inth et ab l e au xv i v an t sth a tgu a rdth een t ryw a y stoth ed i f f e r en t ch amb e r s inth eP a l a c eo fN i gh t .I fS ymbo l i s ta e s th e t i c sr equ i r edd e emph a s i s in gth e l i v in gp e r f o rm e r ,th enT ou rn eu r ’ sp i c to r i a l m i s eens c èn eu s e se v e ryt r i cka v a i l ab l eto en ab l eth i st r an s f o rm a t iono fv a lu e s . Ana l l e go ryo fth es e a r chfo rsp i r i tu a lfu l f i lm en t ,Th eB l u eB i r dd em and sth a ton e l e a rntos e eth ein v i s ib l esou l sinh ab i t in gth in g s .T ou rn eu rtu rn stoth em ed i a en v i ronm en to fe a r l yc in em aa saw a ytoe xp lo r eth i sth em e .Th i sh app en s mo s t c l e a r l yinth es equ en c ewh e r eth em a inch a r a c t e r sinth es to ryem e r g e ,inhum an f o rm ,f romth ee v e ryd a yob j e c t sandp e t sin s id eth ech i ld r en ’ shom e .Th es top mo t ionan im a t ioninth i ss equ en c eimm ed i a t e l ys t and sou t ,a si td idtor e v i ew e r sin 1918 .A sth em a g i cinth es to ryb e g in s ,b e f o r eT ou rn eu rin t rodu c e sth ehum anfo rm s 104

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

o fF i r e ,M i lk ,W a t e r ,Su g a r ,B r e adandth eC a tandDo g ,th ech i ld r ens e eth e i rb ed s r a c ea c ro s sth eroomandth ew a shb a s inp i rou e t t ea roundw a rd rob e .Th eo r i g ino f th i ss top -mo t ions c en eh a sroo t sinth es tud io so fth ef amou san im a to rÉm i l eCoh l . B e f o r ecom in gtowo rkf o rÉ c l a i r ,C a r r éwo rk edw i thCoh landh e lp edh imtoc r e a t e e a r l yan im a t ionf i lm s l ik eTh ePum p k inRa c e(1908 ) .C a r r é ’ san im a t edfu rn i tu r e– mo v in g ,y e s–bu ta l soe xp r e s s in gemo t ion th rou ghth esu gg e s t iono fd an c in g , r e c r e a t e sth ee f f e c tf romCoh l ’ sTh eAu t om a t i cM o v in gC om p an y(1911 ) .M a e t e r l in ck d em and edth a tC a r r éembu eh i sfu rn i tu r ew i th l i v in gsou l s ,bu tCoh lt au gh tC a r r é ’ s l i v in gfu rn i tu r ehowtoa c t . T ou rn eu r ’ sandC a r r é ’ sd an c in gw a shb a s inp r em i e r ed ,how e v e r ,inav e ry d i f f e r en tcon t e x tth anCoh l ’ san im a t ion s .Th i sw a sth es am ey e a rth a tp ro to su r r e a l i s tLou i sA r a gonpub l i sh ed ‘OnD é co r ’ ,r e comm end in gP o e ’ s ‘Ph i lo soph yo f Fu rn i tu r e ’a sm and a to ryr e ad in gf o rth es tud en to fc in em aands in g l in gou tCh ap l in a sap e r fo rm e rw i thasp i r i tu a ls en s eo fd é co r . ‘Th ee l em en t so fd é co rwh i ch su r roundCh a r l i ep a r t i c ip a t ein t im a t e l yinth ea c t ion . …Th ed é co ri sCh a r l i e ’ sv e ry v i s iono fth ewo r ldwh i ch ,to g e th e rw i thth em e ch an i c a landi t s l aw s ,h aun t sth e h e rotosu chane x t en tth a tb yanin v e r s iono fv a lu e se a c h in an im a t eo b j e c tb e c om e sa l i v in gt h in gf o rh im ,e a c hh um anp e r s onad umm y who s es t a r t in gh and l e mu s tb e 29 A r a gonadm i r ed mom en t swh enCh ap l ins e em edtoin v e r tth er e l a t ion sh ip s f ound . ’ b e tw e enp e r fo rm e randob j e c t .T ou rn eu rdw e l l edonth e s es am e mom en t sinth e an im a t eds equ en c e so fTh eB l u eB i r d.T ou rn eu r ’ sf i lmp a r a l l e l sA r a gon ’ sa r t i c l eb y upd a t in gth eS ymbo l i s tf a s c in a t ionw i thth esou l sinth in g s .Th i sp a r a l l e l i smi se v en mo r es i gn i f i c an tb e c au s ei tw a sapopu l a ron e .I fA r a gon ’ sr e ad in go fth esou l sin f i lm edth in g sw a sin t en t ion a l l yar e ad in ga g a in s tth eg r a ino fm a in s t r e amc in em a , T ou rn eu r ’ sf i lmb r in g si tin toth em a in s t r e am .AN ewY o r kT im e sc r i t i c ,d e s c r ib in g th ep r em i e r ea tth eR i vo l iw i tho r ch e s t r a la c comp an im en tb yHu goR e i s en f i e ld , no t edth es top -mo t ion . M au r i c eT ou rn eu r ,wh od i r e c t edth ep r odu c t i ono fth ef i lm ,u s edth ea r to fm a g i ct om a k eth e s ou l sapp e a randa c tth e i rp a r t s ,t osh owth ef l i gh to fp e op l eandF a th e rT im e ’ ssh ipth r ou gh th ea i r ,t om a k ea l ls o r t so fm y s t e r i e st a k ep l a c eb e f o r eon e ’ sv e r ye y e s .Th e r em a yb es om e wh ow i l lt a l ko ff ad e aw a y sandsup e r imp o s in ganda l lo fth et r i c k so fth em o t i on -p i c tu r e 30 t r ad e ,bu tsu cha r eth ek indo fp e op l ewh od on ’ tb e l i e v eth a tTh in g sh a v es ou l s .

Th er e v i ew e rm ak e sac onn e c t ionb e tw e enS ymbo l i s tsp i r i tu a l i t yandas e to ff i lm t e chn iqu e sou td a t edenou ght oapp e a rc on sp i cuou s .N o ton l ydow eh a v er e c y c l ede a r l y c in em a inth es c en e .W ea l soh a v ear e c y c l in go ftho s ech a r g ed id e a sabou tc in em ath a t S ymbo l i s tw r i t e r so fth e1890 s im a g in ed inth ee a r l yd e v i c e so fLum i è r eandEd i son , th i st im e ina m a in s t r e amp r e s sr e v i ewo fas tud iof i lm . S t op -mo t iono f f e r son ep a lp ab l ee x amp l e ,bu tr e f e r en c e st oe a r l yf i lm m a g i c p r o l i f e r a t e inth es c en e ’ ss t y l in go fth epupp e t ch a r a c t e r s .Th ef i lm m a g i co fG eo r g e s M é l i è s inp a r t i cu l a rapp e a r st o in f lu en c e th ef i lm ,wh i chdo e sm a k esom es en s e ina f é e r i e ,e v enon ep r odu c ede v ena s l a t ea s1918 .Th e lo a fo fsu g a rg r ow s in t oac on e h e ad m anw i tha mo v in gc am e r asup e r impo s i t ionth a tm im i c sM é l i è s ’ sTh eM anw i t h t h eRu b b e rH e a d(1902 ) ,andth e lo a fo fb r e adt r an s f o rm s in t oanO r i en t a l i s tsu l t an who ,a sH o r akno t e s ,b r in g sM é l i è s ’ sc on ju r e rch a r a c t e r st om ind .T ou rn eu r ’ sc o s tum e s P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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f o rSu g a randB r e ada l sod i r e c t l yc op ytho s eo fth e1911Th é â t r eR é j an ep r odu c t ion d i r e c t edandd e s i gn edb yM a e t e r l in c k ’ s lov e r ,G eo r g e t t eL eb l an c .M é l i è sandL eb l an c d r ew ,a f t e ra l l ,f r oms im i l a rm a t e r i a l ,andn e i th e ro fth emsh i edaw a yf r omwh a ton e m i gh tc a l lth e ‘wo rm i e rs id e ’o fth e s em a g i c a lt r an s f o rm a t ion s .Inth e1918ad ap t a t ion , Su g a rsn ap so f fh i sownf in g e r sandB r e ads l i c e so fh i sownf l e shw i thas c im i t a rt of e ed th ehun g r y mou th sa r oundth em .I fL eb l an c ’ sp r odu c t iona lmo s tc a l l edou tf o rth e v io l en ta l ch em yo fM é l i è s ’ se a r l i e rc in em a t i ct r i c k s ,T ou rn eu r ’ sad ap t a t ions e em st o r e c o gn i s eth i sandu s e st r i c k sf r ome a r l yc in em am a g i ct oe x t endth ev io l en t , a l ch em i c a lsp i r i to fth es t a g ep r odu c t ion . Ind e ed ,L eb l an c ’ sp r odu c t iond e s i gne xpo s e sth eth r e ad sth a t jo inS ymbo l i s t a e s th e t i c s ,e a r l yc in em aandT ou rn eu r ’ sandC a r r é ’ sp i c tu r ec r a f t .Th ef low in ggown s T ou rn eu randC a r r éu s edf o rth ewom enwhop l a yW a t e r ,M i lkandN i gh tm i gh th a v e mo r ec l e a r l yg e s tu r edtoS ymbo l i s t i conLo ï eFu l l e r ’ ss e rp en t in ed an c e ,h adT ou rn eu r s t a g edh i sf i lmw i th mo r er ap id mo v em en t .N i gh t ’ sgown inth eTh é â t r eR é j an e p r odu c t ioncom e s mu chc lo s e rt oFu l l e r ’ sco s tum e sf o rh e rF o l i e sB e r g è r e p e r f o rm an c e s ,w i thdow e l st oe x t endth er e a cho fh e ra rm sandth esp ano ff ab r i c h an g in gf r omth em .S t i l l sandd e s c r ip t ion sf r omth ep r odu c t ion ind i c a t eth a tN i gh t ’ s gownw a s ind e edw i th inth es am esph e r eo f in f lu en c eth a tp r odu c edEd i son ’ sm an y s e rp en t in ed an c ef i lm sw i thAnn ab e l l e Wh i t f o rdandT ou lou s eL au t r e c ’ sp a in t in g so f Fu l l e r inf r en e t i csp l a sh e so fco lou r .C a r r éandT ou rn eu ro f f e ra mo r ed i r e c tr e f e r en c e t oFu l l e r ’ sF i r eD an c ew i thth et r an s f o rm a t iono fth ech a r a c t e rF i r e ,who s eb i l low ed f ab r i c mo v em en t sr e s emb l eas e rp en t in ed a n c ep r o j e c t ed inr e v e r s e ,o r inr e v e r s e g r a v i t y .Th e yu s eaf ant ob lowth eo r an g e t in t edco s tum eupw a rd l ik ef l am e s .I fon e r e ad sFu l l e r ’ sp e r f o rm an c e s ,a sT omGunn in gdo e s ,a saS ymbo l i s ta r to fan im a t ion th a ts t a g e sth et r an s i t ionb e tw e ennon -hu m anth in g s( l ik ef low e r sandf l am e s )and mo v in gp i c tu r e so fth ehum anbod y ,th enTh eB l u eB i r d’ st r an s f o rm a t ion sf i tsqu a r e l y ou rn eu r ’ st r a c e so fFu l l e r ’ ss e rp en t in ed an c ea lmo s t l i t e r a l i s e w i th inth i st r ad i t ion .31T th econn e c t ionth a tGunn in gm ak e sb e tw e e nFu l l e r ,a saS ymbo l i s t i con ,ande a r l y c in em a .T ou rn eu re x t end sth i sconn e c t ion in to l a t e re xp e r im en t sw i tha r tf i lm m ak in gb yr e con f i gu r in gth e s ee a r l yc in em at r ad i t ion s ina1918f i lm .H ea f f i rm s tho s eco r r e spond en c e sb e tw e en M a e t e r l in ck ’ sph i lo soph yo fa r tandaP a r amoun t f e a tu r ef i lm . Th eB l u eB i r dloo k sb a c kt oS ymbo l i s ta r tandt oe a r l yc in em at o g e th e r .Th e c onn e c t ionw i the a r l yc in em am ed i a t e sth ew a yth ef i lmwo r k sa sana r tf i lm .T ou rn eu r m a yh a v ea s s i s t edRod inandp a in t edw i thPu v i s .H em a yh a v ep r odu c edS ymbo l i s t p l a y sf o rth eTh é â t r eR é j an e .Bu tt oc a l lh i sf i lm sS ymbo l i s t inth en a r r ows en s e ,t os e e th ema ss imp l yat yp eo fa r tf i lm in f lu en c edb yS ymbo l i s ta r t i s t s ,w ou ld m i s swh a t m a k e sT ou rn eu r ’ sr e l a t iont oth e s ea r t i s t i ct r ad i t ion ssoc omp e l l in g .I fon ec on s id e r ed S ymbo l i s tandd e c ad en tt r ad i t ion st ob e in v en t edb y ,s a y ,af ewp a in t e r s ,andth en app r o x im a t ed in mo v in g im a g e s ,th enTh eB l u eB i r d’ ss t y l i s ed m i s eens c èn ecou ldon l y bowd l e r i s eS ymbo l i s ta e s th e t i c s .C l e a r l y ,th ebowd l e r i s a t iona r gum en tshou ldb e a c know l ed g ed ,e sp e c i a l l yg i v enth et r an s f o r m a t ion so fd e c ad en ta e s th e t i c s inth e Am e r i c anc on t e x t .M a e t e r l in c k ’ spopu l a rph i lo soph yd id m i g r a t ef r omth eamo r a l s a lon so fR i ch a rdH o v e yt oth eYMCA l e c tu r e ,wh e r eh ew a sr e c e i v eda sak indo f w a rm ed -o v e rEm e r son .Pu v i s ,t oo ,b e c am ean i c ono fa e s th e t i cr e s t r a in tandan id e a l c r a f t sm an inc on t r a s tt oc o l l e a gu e s l i k eM o r e au .AndT ou rn eu r ,w i thth eh e lpo f 106

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W a t c h i n gF i r esp r i n gf romt h eh e a r t h i nT h eB l u eB i r d(Co u r t e s yo fG eo r g eE a s tm a nHo u s e , I n t e rn a t io n a lM u s e umo f P ho to g r ap h ya ndF i lm )

p r odu c e r s l i k eAdo lphZu ko r ,a c t i v e l yc ou r t edth eAm e r i c ancu l tu r a le l i t e ins e l e c t in g andp r omo t in gh i sf i lm s . Bu tT ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm sdono ts imp l ym im i cth enob l eth em e sandr e s t r a in eds t y l e s o fr e sp e c t eda r t i s t so fth eendo fth en in e t e en thc en tu r y .H i sf i lm sa r ehop e l e s s l y t an g l edc o l l a g e so fr e f e r en c e sandt r ad i t ion s .Th e yr e c y c l ee a r l yc in em a ’ st ab l e au x , an im a t ion s ,d an c e sandc a r i c a tu r e sw i than in c lu s i v i t yth a tch a l l en g e sr e s t r a in t .W i th Th eB l u eB i r d,T ou rn eu ra t t emp t son eo fh i s mo s td i r e c te x am in a t ion so fasp e c i f i c a e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion ,S ymbo l i sm ,andy e tth ef i lm ’ sp a in t e r l yc i t a t ion sbo r r ow l i gh t in g t e chn iqu e sf r ome i gh t e en th c en tu r yo i lp a in t in gandf r am in gf r omV i c t o r i an i l lu s t r a t ion–t e chn iqu e sth a tm an yS ymbo l i s tp a in t e r sr e j e c t ed .Th ef i lma l t e rn a t e s b e tw e end e ep f o cu sr e p o u s s o i rand i t soppo s i t e ,th ec a rdbo a rd cu t -ou ts t a g in gth a t r e s emb l e sh i ss k e t ch e sf o rPu v i s .I t s mod e i s in c lu s i v eand i r r e v e r en t ,e v ena s i t add r e s s e sr e v e r en tcu l tu r a l in s t i tu t ion s .L e c tu r e r sonS ymbo l i s ta r tm a yh a v eso f t en ed th eed g e so fana e s th e t i ct r ad i t ionf o rth e l y c eums e t ,bu tth e ya l sor e v e a lth i s t r ad i t ion ’ sp r om i s cuou s l i f e inAm e r i c and i s cu s s i on sabou ta r t .T ou rn eu r ’ sf i lmapp e a l s t oth e s e l e c tu r e r s ,bu ta l sor e v e l s inth i sp r om i s cu i t yb yb r in g in gLo ï eFu l l e r ,G eo r g e s M é l i è s ,Ém i l eCoh landLou i sA r a gon in t or en ew edc on t a c tw i thS ymbo l i s tt r ad i t ion s . Th e l in ec onn e c t in gT ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm st oe a r l yc in em a i sno tas t r a i gh t l in e .I tdo e sn ’ t P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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g e tt oEd i son ,M é l i è s ,o rLum i è r ew i thou ta l sow ind in gth r ou ghS ymbo l i s tth e a t r eand p a in t in g .T ou rn eu r ’ sa r tc in em asu c c e ed edb ya c t i v e l yf o r g in gth e s ec onn e c t ion s . CONC LU S ION :TOURN EURA FT ER1 9 2 0 T ou rn eu r ’ sAm e r i c anc a r e e r mo v ed in c r e a s in g l yt ow a rd s ind ep end en c ef r omand e v en tu a ld i s i l lu s ionm en tw i thth eAm e r i c anf i lm indu s t r y .H em ad ef i lm s inth eU SA f o raf ew mo r ey e a r sandth en , in1926 ,h er e tu rn edt oP a r i sande f f e c t i v e l ys t a r t ed o v e rm a k in gB mo v i e sf o rP a th é .B yh i s l a s tc oup l eo fy e a r s inH o l l ywoodh ew a s g r a v i t a t in gt ow a rd sad v en tu r eno v e lad ap t a t ion sth a th e ldou ta l i k e l ihoodo f l a r g e r aud i en c e s .Th e s ef i lm s , in c lud in gT r e a s u r eI s l an d(1920 ) ,Th eL a s to ft h eM o h i c an s, L o rn aD o on e(1922 )andTh eI s l eo fL o s tSh i p s(1923 ) ,d idno tr e j e c th i sp i c t o r i a ls t y l e , bu tth e yd ids e e kou tw a y st om e r g ea th l e t i cph y s i c a lp e r f o rm an c ew i thc on sp i cuou s s t y l e , in t oak indo fsw a shbu c k l in gp i c t o r i a l i sm .Th e s ef i lm sa r ef a s c in a t in g inth ew a y th e yh yb r id i s eth ev i gou ro fth ec e l eb r i t yp r opon en t so fth es t r enuou s l i f ew i thth e d e c ad en tt r ad i t ion so fa tmo sph e r i cf an t a s ycompo s i t ion s ,s t r a in so fAm e r i c an a e s th e t i ccu l tu r eth a tm a in s t r e ama r tandf i lmc r i t i c so fth et im ef r equ en t l yp l a c ed in oppo s i t iont oon eano th e ra saw a yt od e l im i tt e a ch ab l ea e s th e t i cp r in c ip l e s .Th en e x t ch ap t e rc on t inu e sth ed i s cu s s iono fsw a shbu c k l in g ,s t r enuou sp i c t o r i a l i sma s i tw a sa p r om in en td e f in in gch a r a c t e r i s t i cf o rR e xIn g r am(h i sf i lm sa sw e l la sh i sad v en tu r in g p e r son a l l i f e ) .In g r am ’ sandT ou rn eu r ’ s mu tu a lt end en c yt oc omb in ea c t ionw i th a t t en t iont oc ompo s edp i c tu r e sw a son eo fth er e a son sth a tf i lmc r i t i c sr e gu l a r l y d i s cu s s edth e s etw od i r e c t o r s ,whoh adnor ea lp r o f e s s ion a lc onn e c t iont oe a cho th e r , a sap a i r .T oh i gh l i gh tth i s l in kb e tw e enth etw od i r e c t o r s , l e tm ec lo s ew i thon eb r i e f e x amp l ef r omon eo fT ou rn eu r ’ s l a t e rAm e r i c anf i lm s . Amon gad v en tu r eno v e l i s t s ,J am e sF en imo r eCoop e rw a sknownf o rh i s in t e r e s t in p i c tu r e squ e l and s c ap e ,wh i chw a son eo fth er e a son sth a tN .C .W y e th ’ s i l lu s t r a t ion s ou rn eu r ’ sad ap t a t iono fth eno v e l f o rTh eL a s to ft h eM o h i c an sw e r esosu c c e s s fu l .32T c l e a r l yb e a r sar i chr e l a t ion sh ipt oW y e th ’ s i l lu s t r a t ion s .F o l low in gW y e thbu ta l so u s in gh i sowns i gn a tu r ec ompo s i t ion s ,T ou rn eu r ’ sL a s to ft h eM o h i c an sa t t r a c t edf an so f ad v en tu r ef i lm sandp i c t o r i a l l ym ind edc r i t i c sa l i k e .Th ef i lms t a g e sb a t t l es c en e s th r ou ghth esh adow y mou th so fc a v e sanda lon g s id ep i c tu r e squ ec l i f f s .T ou rn eu r ’ s h e r o e ss t oods t i l l ,s i lhou e t t edandc on t emp l a t i v e , inth e s e l a y e r edd e epc ompo s i t ion s , bu tno l e s sf r equ en t l yth anth e yw r e s t l ed inth emw i thkn i v e sd r awn .Th i s c omb in a t iono fa c t ionandr e p o u s s o i r ,o fsub t l ec ompo s i t ionandd yn am i c c on f r on t a t ion ,c ou ld ju s ta se a s i l yd e s c r ib eW y e th ’ ss c en e s .Th e r e i sas im i l a rdoub l e mo v em en two r k in g inth e s e i l lu s t r a t ion s , inT ou rn eu r ’ sad ap t a t ionandth r ou ghou t m an yo fth ewo r k so fe a r l ya r tc in em a .Bu tth equ e s t iono fhowt op a r s eth i sp a in t e r l y in f lu en c e i st r i c k i e rth ant r a c in gth e l in e a g eo ft e chn iqu e s . I fW y e th ’ s i l lu s t r a t ion sp r o v id ear e sou r c ef o rund e r s t and in gT ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm , i t i s no t ju s ta sr aw m a t e r i a lf o rc i t a t ion .I t i sb e c au s e , inth e i rr e sp e c t i v ef i e ld s ,th e yw e r e r e spond in gt osom eo fth es am equ e s t ion sabou tth er o l eo fa e s th e t i c s in m a s scu l tu r e . W y e thw a sana v idp r omo t e ro f ‘b e t t e r i l lu s t r a t ion ’ ,andh i sapp r o a cht od e f in in gan 33 a e s th e t i c so fpopu l a r i l lu s t r a t iono f t enp a r a l l e l stho s ep r omo t e r so fb e t t e rf i lm s . H e op en l yc r i t i c i s ed i l lu s t r a t ion ’ s low e rp l a c emen t inth ea r ts choo lh i e r a r ch yr e l a t i v et o 108

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S t r e n uo u sp i c to r i a l i sm i nT h e L a s to ft h eM o h i c a n s(1920 )

p a in t in g .H i sv i ew son i l lu s t r a t ionw e r es imu l t an eou s l yan x iou s , inth e i rr e a c t iont o th ep a in t e r sh eb e l i e v edt o ‘ho ld i l lu s t r a t ion inc on t emp t ’ ,anda sp i r a t ion a l inth e i r 34 Th e s ea sp i r a t ion sand r e c omm end a t ion sf o r ‘ g r ow th in t oth ef i e ldo fp a in t in g ’ . an x i e t i e sh e lpt oe xp l a inwh yh i sb lo c kbu s t e r i l lu s t r a t ion sr e s i s t edb e in g i l lu s t r a t ion s . Th e s ew e r ep i c tu r e sm ad edu r in gth ego ld ena g eo fth e i l lu s t r a t edboo k ,p i c tu r e sth a t p a idf o rh i sP enn s y l v an i ae s t a t e ,wh e r eh een t e r t a in edas t e ad ys t r e amo fgu e s t s in c lud in gF .S c o t tandZ e ld aF i t z g e r a ld .Bu t in s t e ado fwho l eh e a r t ed l yemb r a c in ga f o rm a te f f i c i en t l ysu i t edt om a s sp r odu c t ion ,W y e th in s i s t edonp a in t in gh i ss c en e sa s l a r g e f o rm a to i lp a in t in g s .Th e s e i l lu s t r a t ion sm ad eu s eo fe l em en t so fa c ad em i co i l p a in t in g ,bu tw i th impo r t an tr e v i s ion s . Wh end e f in in gp r op e r t i e so f i l lu s t r a t ionth a t h adanad v an t a g eo v e rth ep a in t in gw i thwh i chh ew a sf am i l i a r ,W y e thc on t inu a l l y r e tu rn edt oth et e rm ‘ v i r i l i t y ’ .Thu s inh i sowns t r enuou sc ompo s i t ion s ,h eb r i gh t en ed th ec o lou rp a l e t t eandenh an c edth eph y s i c a l i t yo fh i sp i c tu r e s ,bu ta tth es am et im eh e c on t inu edt e chn iqu e sth a tw ou ldr em indv i ew e r so ftho s et r ad i t ion so fp a in t in gth e w an in go fwh i chc on s e rv a t i v ea r tc r i t i c s l am en t ed ,p r e c i s e l yb e c au s eo fth e p r o l i f e r a t iono fpopu l a r i l lu s t r a t ion .Inth i sw a yW y e th ’ s i l lu s t r a t ion sa r er e l e v an tf o r s e e in gT ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm l e s s int e rm so fs imp l e in f lu en c eo rad ap t a t ion , l e s sa saon e w a y mo v em en tf r omp a in t in gt oc in em a ,th ana ss im i l a rn e go t i a t ionh app en in g ina n e i ghbou r in gp r o f e s s ion .I t i sth ep r e v a l enc eo fth e s et yp e so fn e go t i a t ion s ,h app en in g s imu l t an eou s l y inc in em aandpopu l a r i l lu s t r a t ion ,th a tp r o v id e sab r o ad e rc on t e x tf o r th et e chn iqu e ssh a r edb e tw e enp a in t e randd i r e c t o r . Th ebod yo fwo r kT ou rn eu rm ad eb e f o r e mo v in gt oEu r op esp an sap e r iodo f po s s ib i l i t y inAm e r i c ana r tc in em a .H i sapp r o a cht of i lm -m a k in gb e c am epo s s ib l e du r in ga mom en twh enth es t y l e sandth em e so fEu r op e ana r th i s t o r y ,r an g in g e c l e c t i c a l l yf r oma c ad em i cc ompo s i t iont oa v an t g a rd et r ad i t ion s l i k eF r en ch S ymbo l i sm ,w e r eth r i v in gth em e sw i th inth eAm e r i c anp r e s s , ine xh ib i t s , l e c tu r e sand a l so inth es tud io -b a c k edf e a tu r ef i lm .C in em ac on t r ibu t ed ,a son l yon em ed iumamon g m an y ,t oth i sb r o ad e rp r a c t i c e .I l lu s t r a t o r s ,ad v e r t i s e r sandth e a t r ep r odu c e r sr e c y c l ed P a i n t i n gw i t hH um a nB e i n g s

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th e s ea e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion sa lon g s id ef i lm -m a k e r s .I t i sc in em a ’ s in t e r a c t ionw i thth i s m i l i eu ,no tn e c e s s a r i l y i t sd i r e c tbo r r ow in gf r omp a in t in g ,th a ts i tu a t e sth ef i lm so f T ou rn eu randh i sc o l l e a gu e s .Th eh i s t o r yo fT ou rn eu r ’ sp i c t o r i a lc i t a t ion s ,c omb in ed w i thth ep r omo t iono fth ep i c t o r i a la sp e c t so fh i sf i lm s inp r in t , i sp a r to fth eh i s t o r y o fth eAm e r i c anpub l i cr e c ep t iono fa r t .Inth i s l a r g e r in t e rm ed i a lc on t e x ta e s th e t i c in f lu en c e sc i r cu l a t ea sd yn am i c a l l ya sLo ï eFu l l e r ’ s F i r eD an c ef r omth eF o l i e sB e r g è r e , t oS ymbo l i s tw a t e r c o lou r ,t oEd i son ’ sB l a c kM a r i as tud io ,t oT ou rn eu r ’ sP a r amoun t f i lm sf r omth e l a t e1910 s .

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R exI n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

Inth ee a r l y1920 s ,th eN a t ion a lBo a rdo fR e v i ewf o rm edth eE x c ep t ion a lPho t op l a y s Comm i t t e et oo v e r s e epub l i c a t iono fa mon th l ybu l l e t inth a twou lds e rv ea sa mou thp i e c ef o rth eo r g an i s a t ion .A sth ebo a rd m emb e r sr e f in edth e i rm i s s iont o r ep l a c eth e mo r a le v a lu a t iono ff i lm sw i tha e s th e t i ce v a lu a t ion ,th e yh e ldupR e x In g r am ’ sS c a r am o u c h e(1923 )f o rsp e c i a lc on s id e r a t ion ,c omp a r in g i tw i th M au r i c e T ou rn eu r ’ sL a s to ft h eM o h i c an s. M o r eth anas imp l ee x amp l eo fane x c ep t ion a lf i lm , S c a r am o u c h e ’ sr e l e a s e inS ep t emb e r1923 in sp i r edad i s cu s s iono fth es t and a rd sand a e s th e t i ct r ad i t ion sonwh i chth ec omm i t t e eb a s edth e i re v a lu a t ion s .Th eau tho ro fth e l e ada r t i c l ef o rth eAu tumn –Summ e r[ s i c ]1923 i s su eo fE x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y st oo kth e o c c a s iono fth ef i lm ’ sr e l e a s et ob r e a kw i thth et r ad i t ion a lr e v i ewf o rm a t ,t or i s kb e in g ‘ d i s t r e s s in gt oth er e ad e rwhow an t st oknowwh a tth es t o r y i sabou tandwhoa r eth e a c t o r s ’ ,andt od i s cu s swh a tm i gh tm a k eaf i lme x c ep t ion a l inth ea e s th e t i cs en s e .Th e a r t i c l eb e g in s , ‘ I fth ea r to fth e mo t ionp i c tu r e i sth ea r to fc ompo s i t ion…th enth e m e ch an i c so fe f f e c t mu s ta lw a y sb ep a r amoun t inth eu s eo fth epho t op l a ym ed ium . ’I t d e c l a r e sIn g r am ’ sf i lm s ,a lon g s id eT ou rn eu r ’ s ,t ob ee s s en t i a lt oac in em ao fv ib r an t , c ompo s edp i c tu r e s , ‘wh i ch i sth ee x a c tr e v e r s eo fwh a t i sc ommon l ythou gh tt ob eth e n a tu r eo fp i c tu r e s in mo t ion ’ . [ S c a r am o u c h e ]b e c om e ss om e th in go th e rth an[ ‘m e r en a r r a t i on ’ , ‘ d r am a ’ ,o r ‘ a c t i on ’ ]th r ou gh th a ta r to fc omp o s i t i onf i r s tm en t i on edwh i ch M rIn g r amr e a l l yund e r s t and s–th r ou gha kn ow l ed g eo ft e chn i qu ewh i ch i sb o rno faf e e l in gf o rb e au t y .S c a r am o u c h ei sn e a r l ya lw a y s b e au t i fu l– i sp r im a r i l ya im eda tb e in gb e au t i fu l–anda ch i e v edb e au t ym o s to f t enb e c au s e i t s un f o ld in gm o t i onc r y s t a l i z e s in t op e r i od so fs i gn i f y in gandr e v e a l in gs t i l ln e s s .1

Fu s edh e r et oth i sp a s s a g e ’ sf low e r yrh e t o r i co fb e au t y–a m a in s t a y inw r i t in gon a r t i s t i cf i lm s– i sano t iono fc ompo s i t ionc a r r i edo v e rf r oma r tedu c a t ion inth e l e c tu r e h a l landth eun i v e r s i t y .Th ea r t i c l es t a r t sb yd e f in in gth ea r to fc in em ag en e r a l l ya s c ompo s i t ion ,and i tr e c a l l sp s y cho lo g i c a l ,p i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c sw i th i t sr e f e r en c et o ‘ e f f e c t ’ .A r t l e c tu r e r so fth et im esou gh tou tth ev i t a le f f e c t so fa e s th e t i cc ompo s i t ion onth ep s y cho lo g yo fth eb eho ld e r .App l i edt oc in em a ,th i s l i v in g ,en g a g in g c ompo s i t ionc omp e t e sw i tho th e rv i t a l i t i e so fth em ed ium ,su cha sc in em a ’ s m e ch an i c a lc ap a c i t yt o mo v eand i t sc ap a c i t yt ot e l ls t o r i e s ins equ en c e .I t i sth i s l e s s e x am in edv i t a l i t yo f mo t ionp i c tu r e s ,th ea r gum en tgo e s ,th a td i s t in gu i sh e sc ommon mo t ionp i c tu r e sf r omak indo fa r tf i lm .D i r e c t o r s l i k eIn g r amandT ou rn eu r c on s t i tu t edap r i v i l e g ed m ino r i t yb e c au s eth e yw e r eab l et odoth ewo r kr equ i r edt o R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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c ompo s es c en e s inth i sw a y . Wh i l et om an yth i sw o r ks e em eda todd sw i th(o re v enth e e x a c tr e v e r s eo f )th en a tu r eo f mo v in gp i c tu r e s ,t oth eE x c ep t ion a lPho t op l a y s Comm i t t e ec ompo s i t iono f f e r edc in em ath ep r om i s eo f mob i l i t y in t oo th e rsph e r e s . L i k eT ou rn eu r ,R e xIn g r ams e em ed m ad ef o rth ep r o j e c to fd e f in in ga e s th e t i c a l l y amb i t iou sc in em a .In g r am ’ sf i lm so f t enp r o v ed mo r em a r k e t ab l eth anT ou rn eu r ’ s ,bu t th e ywo r k ed ins am ev e in .A sso m an yr e v i ew e r so fh i sf i lm sno t ed ,h e ,t oo ,t r a in ed t r a in ins cu lp tu r eandp a in t in g .Th et a s kw i thad i r e c t o r l i k eIn g r am i st of i gu r eou t e x a c t l yhowth i sk in sh ipw i thth eo th e ra r t sfun c t ion eda tv a r iou ss t a g e s inh i sc a r e e r . On ew a yt oadd r e s sth i squ e s t ionwou ldb et of o l lowap r im a r i l yf o rm a l l in eo fenqu i r y andh i gh l i gh tIn g r am ’ sbo r r ow edp a in t e r l yands cu lp tu r a lt e chn iqu e sa s in s t an c e so f 2 A s inth ep r e v iou sch ap t e r ,Iam e a r l yH o l l ywood ’ sab i l i t yt oab so rbv i su a ls t y l e s . p r opo s in gar e l a t edbu tno t id en t i c a lapp r o a chth a tpu t s in t e l l e c tu a ln e two r k sand in s t i tu t ion a lpub l i c i t y inth ef o r e g r ound .I tf o cu s e sonhowc r i t i c sandedu c a t o r s h e lp edt oc r e a t eac r i t i c a ln i ch ef o rh i sf i lm s ’s t y l i s t i ce xp e r im en t a t ion .Th i s ind i r e c t ,o r m ed i a t ed ,app r o a cht oad i r e c t o r ’ ss t y l eapp l i e st oIn g r am ’ sf i lm se v en mo r eth ant o T ou rn eu r ’ s .Th eB l u eB i r di sac o l l a g eo fr e f e r en c e st ob esu r e ,bu t i tr e t a in sas t r on ga r t h i s t o r i c a lth r e ado fS ymbo l i smando th e rF r en chd e c ad en tt r ad i t ion s .In g r am ’ st i e st o th ea r t i s t ’ ss tud iow e r e ju s ta ss t r on g ,th e yw e r ee v en mo r ea v id l ypub l i c i s ed ,bu th i s s ep a r a t ionf r omsp e c i f i c mo v em en t sw a sg r e a t e r .H ef r am edh i s in f lu en c ef r omth e a r t i s t ’ ss tud io inbo ld e rand mo r eab s t r a c tt e rm s . Ino th e rwo rd s ,In g r am ’ spub l i ca f f in i t i e sw i thth eo th e ra r t sa l low edf o rana r r a yo f p i c t o r i a l l ys t y l i s edt e chn iqu e s(m an yd e v i s edb yh i sc in em a t o g r aph e rJ ohnF .S e i t z )t o c l a s s i f yth ed i r e c t o ra se x c ep t ion a l .F r am in gIn g r am ’ sf i lm s inth i sw a yno ton l y c onn e c t sa r tc in em at oedu c a t ion a l in s t i tu t ion sp r e v iou s l yo v e r loo k ed .I ta l so h i gh l i gh t showth ec ompo s i t ion so fd i r e c t o r s l i k eIn g r amd i f f e r edf r ome a r l yLo s An g e l e s -b a s edp e r iph e r a lf i lm -m a k e r s ,su ch a stho s em app edb yD a v idJ am e s inh i s 2005bookTh eM o s tT y p i c a lA v an t -G a r d e.On ec ou ldc e r t a in l yt r a c es i gn i f i c an ts t y l i s t i c s im i l a r i t i e sb e tw e en ,f o re x amp l e ,Dud l e y Mu rph y ’ sS o u lo ft h eC y p r e s s(1921 )and s e v e r a lo fIn g r am ’ sf i lm s . Bu tsh a r ed in f lu en c e sno tw i th s t and in g ,In g r amr e s i s t s c l a s s i f i c a t iona sa ‘m ino r ’f i lm -m a k e r inth ew a yth a tJ am e su s e sth et e rmt od e s c r ib e Mu rph y ’ swo r k inth ee a r l y1920 s .Th et yp eo fa r tc in em ath a tIn g r amr ep r e s en t ed po s i t ion ed i t s e l fa se x c ep t ion a l ,bu tno tm a r g in a lo rp e r iph e r a l .3 In g r am ’ sr e l e a s e sw e r ep e r enn i a lf a v ou r i t e s inpub l i c a t ion sd e v o t edt ob e t t e rf i lm s . Th e s epub l i c a t ion st r ad ed inh i sr epu t a t ion , mu cho fwh i chh ef a sh ion edh im s e l f ,a sa v i su a la r t i s two r k in g inth em ed iumo ff i lm .B ys i tu a t in gth i ss e l f f a sh ion edr epu t a t ion w i th inp a r a l l e l mo v em en t s ina e s th e t i cedu c a t ion i tb e c om e spo s s ib l et ound e r s t and howIn g r amc on t r ibu t edt oad e f in i t iono fa r tc in em a ,no ton l yb yadop t in gt e chn iqu e s o fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion ,bu ta l sob yd r aw in gf r omt r ad i t ion so ft e a ch in gc r a f tand c ompo s i t ionandsh ap in gan im a g eo fth ed i r e c t o ra r oundth e im a g eo fth ep l a s t i c a r t i s t inth es tud io . TH EO LDE STARTSCHOO LANDTH EN EW E START Inno t ewo r th yp a r a l l e lw i thT ou rn eu r ,In g r am ’ spo s i t ionb e tw e enc in em aandth eo th e r a r t sw a sbu i l tone x c ep t ion a lm y th so fo r i g in .Known inth ep r e s sa sa ‘ s cu lp t o ro fth e 112

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s c r e en ’ ,h i swo r k inf i lma lw a y sm an a g edt opo in tb a c kt oth e1912–13a c ad em i cy e a r th a th esp en ts tud y in gs cu lp tu r ea tY a l e .Th i st r a in in gp r o v edv a lu ab l e inanumb e ro f w a y s .Th e r ew e r epo t en t i a lf in an c i a lad v an t a g e st oIn g r am ’ sa s so c i a t ionw i thth ef i r s t un i v e r s i t ya r ts choo l inth en a t ion .4Ac r i t i cc ou ldr e ads t r a t e g y ,f o rbo thY a l eand M e t r o , inIn g r am ’ ss t a t em en tth a t , ‘A st im ew en tonIb e g ant or e a l i z ehowv a lu ab l em y 5 F i lmp r odu c e r sc ou ldb en e f i tf r oma t r a in in g inth ea r ts choo lw a sgo in gt op r o v e . ’ d i r e c t o rw i thanI v yL e a gu ea r tedu c a t ion ,andc o l l e g eadm in i s t r a t o r sc ou ldb en e f i t f r oma lumn i inH o l l yw ood .Som ee v id en c esuppo r t sth i spo s i t ion .Y a l eaw a rd edIn g r am th eBFA in1921 ,w i thon ey e a ro fc omp l e t edc ou r s ewo r k( th r e ey e a r sw a sth e r equ i r em en t ) ,on l ya f t e rh eh adb e c om eaf amou sd i r e c t o r .In g r am ,a lon gw i ths e v e r a l o fh i sc e l eb r a t o r st ob ed i s cu s s ed inth es e c t iononS c a r am o u c h e ,m a in t a in edo fc ou r s e th a tth ev a lu eo fh i sa s so c i a t ionw i thY a l ew a s inh i sf o rm a lt r a in in g . ‘ Ih adg a in edan und e r s t and in go fth e l aw sth a tgo v ernp e r sp e c t i v e ,c ompo s i t ion ,b a l an c e , c on s t ru c t ion ,f o rmandth ed i s t r ibu t iono f l i gh tandsh ad e ,th an k st or ep e a t ed l e c tu r e s onth e s esub j e c t s . ’6R a th e rth ans e e in gth e s etw o in t e rp r e t a t ion sa sb e in ga todd sw i th on eano th e r , i t i s impo r t an tt os e ehowbo tha sp e c t so fIn g r am ’ sa s so c i a t ionw i thY a l e ’ s a r ts choo lw e r e in t e r tw in ed .Know l ed g eo fl i gh tandsh ad em a yb eu s e fu l ,bu tno t in i t s e l f .P r odu c e r sandc r i t i c sh adt of indw a y st of r am ef i lmt e chn iqu e ssoth a tth e y r e g i s t e r edf o raud i en c e sa sp a r to ff i lm ’ sk in sh ipw i thth eo th e ra r t s .Ande v enan in t e rp r e t a t iono fh i sa r t st r a in in ga sac yn i c a lm a r k e t in gs t r a t e g ywou ldb e l a c k in g i f i t d idno ta c c oun tf o rhowh i spub l i c i t ya c c e s s edat r ad i t iono fr ep r e s en t in gth ea r t i s t ’ s w o r ksp a c eandasp e c i f i c l an gu a g eo fc ompo s i t ion .Ine i th e rc a s e ,In g r am ’ sm y th so f o r i g inh e lp edf r am eth e l abou ro fa r tsoth a t i tw ou ld in c lud ec in em a . Wh i l eth e s ee f f o r t sr e a ch edah i ghpo in t inth ee a r l y1920 s ,th e yw e r ep r e s en ta t e v e r ys t a g eo fh i sc a r e e r .In g r amo f t enc i t edaN ewH a v ens c r e en in go fth eV i t a g r aph Comp an y ’ squ a l i t yad ap t a t iono fAT a l eo fTw oC i t i e s(1911 )a sh i s in sp i r a t iont oen t e r mo t ionp i c tu r e s . ‘ Ib r ou gh ts e v e r a lf r i end so fm in e , mo s to fth eme i th e rs tud en t so f th ea r ts choo l ,o rm emb e r so fth eY a l eD r am a t i cA s so c i a t ion ,th ef o l low in gd a yt os e e 7 Th i s th ep i c tu r e .…A l lo fu sd e c id edth e r eupont oen t e rth e mo t ionp i c tu r ef i e ld . ’ an e cdo t es e rv edh imw e l l ,a sV i t a g r aphw a sh i sf i r s ts t e ad yemp lo y e r ,andh i s in t e r e s t inp r omo t in gh im s e l fa sas cu lp t o ro fth es c r e enb e g anth e r e ,y e a r sb e f o r eh eh adth e oppo r tun i t yt od i r e c th i sa r tf i lm sf o rUn i v e r s a l ’ sB lu eb i rdb r andandth enf o rM e t r o . Th i se a r l y id en t i t ya sana r t i s to fth es c r e enw a sc on v e y edons c r e enr a th e rth an b eh indth ec am e r a .H es e em edt oh a v eb e ens e e k in gou toppo r tun i t i e st oshowh i s know l ed g eo fana r t i s t ’ ss tud io .H eg r a v i t a t edt ow a rd sa r t i s tr o l e s(u su a l l ys cu lp t o r s ) in V i t a g r aphf i lm s , in c lud in gTh eA r t i s t ’ sG r e a tM a d onn a(1913 ) ,Th eS p i r i tan dt h eC l a y (1914 )andE v e ’ sD a u gh t e r(1914 ) . Wh e th e rh echo s eth e s er o l e s ,o rth e yw e r echo s en f o rh imb e c au s eo fh i se xp e r i en c e ,In g r am ’ ss tud yo ff in ea r t sp r o v id edanun c ommon i se a r l yw o r k inf r on to fth ec am e r ashow sth e l in k po in to fen t r y in t oc in em a .8H b e tw e enth ea r t i s ts t e r eo t yp e s inf i c t ion a l i l lu s t r a t ionanda mo r em a t e r i a lf a s c in a t ion w i thth et r app in g sandp r o c e s s e so fth es tud io inedu c a t ion a lm a t e r i a l .F i lm sw i th a e s th e t i camb i t ion sm ad eu s eo fbo tho fth e s epopu l a rt yp e so fs tud io im a g e r y .In g r am w a sno ts in gu l a ramon gd i r e c t o r s inth i sr e g a rd ,bu th ew a se x c ep t ion a l inth ee x t en to f h i sf am i l i a r i t yw i thth ea r t i s t ’ ss tud io . Ju s ta se x c ep t ion a lw a sIn g r am ’ sc onn e c t iont oth ec r a f tt r ad i t ion st owh i chs e v e r a l c r i t i c sande a r l ya r t f i lmd i r e c t o r sp a idsom ed e g r e eo fd e f e r en c e .F r e shou to fa r t R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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R e x I n g r amp l a y sas c u lp to r i nT h eSp i r i ta n dt h eC l a y(1914 )

s choo l ,ande a g e rt oc omb in ew o r k ind e c o r a t i v eandf in ea r t s ,h ef o l low edth e t e a ch in g so fA r t sandC r a f t sedu c a t o r s inane x emp l a r yf a sh ion .Inadd i t iont od r aw in g ands cu lp t in g ,h es tud i edth ed e c o r a t i v ea r t sandP e r s i anpo e t r y .A l thou ghn e v e r pub l i sh ed ,h esp en tsom et im e inth em id -1910 st in k e r in gw i thh i sownt r an s l a t iono f Om a rKh a y y am ’ sRu b a i y a t,ana e s th e t es t ap l e .Ina1915 l e t t e rt oh i saun t inI r e l and , a f t e rd e s c r ib in gh i se xp e r i en c e sw o r k in ga tV i t a g r aph ,In g r ame xp r e s s e sh i sg r e a t amb i t ion st of oundh i sownA r t sandC r a f t sc o lon y . ‘ I ’mgo in gt obu yano ldc a s t l eon th eW e s tCo a s t–Ih a v eanumb e ro ft a l en t edf r i end s–andIwou ld l i k et os t a r tap l a c e l i k eW i l l i am Mo r r i swh e r ea r t i s t s ,s cu lp t o r s ,w r i t e r s ,d e s i gn e r s , in t e r io rd e c o r a t o r s c ou ldtu rnou tr e a l l yf in ew o r k sw i thth ec omm e r c i a l in t e r e s t–wh i l e ingoodh and s– 9 H ef r am edth i sa sad e s i r et oh e lpb r in gth eA r t sand b e in go fs e c ond impo r t an c e . ’ C r a f t st r ad i t ion so fM o r r i sandRu s k int oth eU SA ,bu tth e mo v em en tw a sa l r e ad y d e ep l y in f lu en c in gth ea r td ep a r tm en t sa tAme r i c anun i v e r s i t i e s .H ew a s ju s ta s l i k e l y t oh a v een c oun t e r ed W i l l i am M o r r i s ’ sw o r ka tY a l eth anan ywh e r ee l s e .H i sr e a l c on t r ibu t ionw ou ld ,o fc ou r s e ,b et oH o l l yw oodandno tt oth eA r t sandC r a f t s mo v em en t ,bu tth i se a r l yf o rmu l a t iono fwh a tc on s t i tu t e sana r t sc ommun i t ys t i l l b en e f i t edth e indu s t r y . F i lms tud io in t e r e s t inc r a f t mo v em en t sw a sm ino r ,bu tsom es i l en tf i lmc omp an i e s in c o rpo r a t edt r a c e so fr e c o gn i s ab l es t y l e so rp a id l ips e rv i c et oa e s th e t i cwo r km an sh ip a sa m a r k e ro fp r e s t i g e .Th e s et r a c e sa r ee v id en t inth ewo r ko fa r td i r e c t o r s , in 10 su g g e s t i v ec omp an yn am e s l i k eA r t c r a f t ,and inth ed e s i gno fp r omo t ion a lm a t e r i a l . Un i v e r s a lm ad eu s eo fth epo t en t i a lo fA r t sandC r a f t sd e s i gnf o rb r and in gg r oup so f 114

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f i lm s .A sp a r to fh i san a l y s i so fUn i v e r s a l ’ sp r e s t i g e l ab e l s ,M a r kCoop e rno t e sth a t lu eb i rd B lu eb i rd ’ sb r and id en t i t yt oo kp r io r i t yo v e ro th e re l em en t so f i t sf i lm s .11B ad v e r t i s em en t sa v o id edp i c tu r e so fs t a r sandd e s c r ib edth ef i lmp lo t son l y t e l e g r aph i c a l l y .I fth eB lu eb i rd l ab e lsou gh tt od i s t in gu i sh i t s e l fb yd i v e r g in gf r om s t and a rdp i c t o r i a lpub l i c i t y , i t scho i c eo fd e s i gn i sr e v e a l in g .I t ss t y l ec l e a r l yd r aw son Am e r i c anA r t sandC r a f t sg r aph i c sth a tw e r et au gh ta r oundth ec oun t r y .Th eB lu eb i rd lo go i sp r om in en t inth ep r in tad s ,bu tsoa r eth ef l a t , mono ch r om a t i cc loud sand b a c k g r ound ssom e t im e sp r in t ed inth er i chy e l low sandb lu e sc ommonamon gA r t sand C r a f t sg r oup s l i k eth eRo y c r o f t e r s .Th e l a y ou to fth ead so f t ens e em st or ep l i c a t eth e d e c o r a t i v ec o v e rd e s i gn so fth e l i t t l em a g a z in e s ,wh i chw e r e impo r t an tv enu e sf o rth e t r an s a t l an t i cc i r cu l a t iono fth e mo v em en t ’ sd e s i gn s .Th eB lu eb i rdadf o rH o p ,t h eD e v i l ’ s B r ew(1916 ) ,s in g l edou tb yCoop e rf o r i t sd i s t in c t i v e l ab e l l in g , in c lud e sanA r t sand C r a f t st yp e f a c ef l an k edb yo rn am en t a lpopp ys e edpod s ,wh i chw e r ea lmo s tc l i ch é so f A r t sandC r a f t sd e s i gn .Th ed e s i gn e r so fUn i v e r s a l ’ sB lu eb i rdad sd idno ts imp l y d i f f e r en t i a t eth i spub l i c i t yf r omth eu su a lt r ad e -p ap e rc op yw i th mo r ed e c o r a t ion .Th e y app r op r i a t edsom eo fth eA r t sandC r a f t s mo v em en t ’ s mo s tr e co gn i s ab l e i cono g r aph y . A sUn i v e r s a l in c r e a s ed i t s in s t i tu t ion a lr e a chand indu s t r i a lo r g an i s a t ion , i tsou gh tt o b r andsom eo f i t sf i lm sa sc r a f tp r odu c t s .B yp r omo t in gh im s e l fa sas tud en to fth e mo v em en t ,In g r amf i t t edth i sb r andp e r f e c t l yandb e c am eon eo fB lu eb i rd ’ sr e gu l a r d i r e c t o r s .Inth i sw a y ,a lb e i tp e rh ap sno tth ew a yh eh ado r i g in a l l y in t end ed ,In g r am d idh e lpt ob r in gW i l l i am M o r r i s ’ s in f lu en c et oac a s t l eonth eW e s tCo a s t . A sh eg a in edr e c o gn i t iona sad i r e c t o r ,In g r ama c t i v e l yf r am edh i sf i lmwo r k th r ou ghh i sapp r en t i c e sh ip inana r t i s t ’ sw o r k shop .H eh adsp en th i s mo s tv a lu edt im e a tY a l es tud y in gw i thand l a t e ra s s i s t in gL e eL aw r i e ,th eon l yp r o f e s so ro fs cu lp tu r e 12 and mod e l l in g inth ed ep a r tm en t . A sana r ch i t e c tu r a ls cu lp t o rwhow ou ldb e r em emb e r edp r im a r i l yf o rh i sA r tD e c of i gu r eo fA t l a sou t s id eth eRo c k e f e l l e rC en t e r , L aw r i eo f f e r eda mod e lo fa e s th e t i cc r a f t l abou r .In g r am m ad ef r equ en tr e f e r en c et oh i s m en t o r sh ipw i thL aw r i e ,b e g inn in gw i thh i sd i s cu s s ion sw i thp r odu c e r sa tB lu eb i rd and M e t r o .Th ep r e s sr e a l l yb e g ant ot a l kabou tIn g r am ’ sm en t o r sh ipund e rL aw r i e du r in gth ep r odu c t iono fTh eF o u rH o r s em eno ft h eA p o c a l y p s e.B e f o r eth er e l e a s e , jou rn a l sc omm i s s ion eda r t i s t st or e v i ewth ef i lm , l i k eS anF r an c i s c os cu lp t o rEd g a r W a l t e r s ,whod e s c r ib edwh yh ew ou ldh a v eknownth a tF o u rH o r s em enw a sm ad eb ya e v i ew s l i k eth e s e t r a in eds cu lp t o re v en i fh eh adno tknownwhoh ad m ad eth ef i lm .13R s e rv eda sap r e amb l et oane l abo r a t e in t e g r a t iono fa r t i s t ’ ss tud ioands e t . Th ef i lmr ep r e s en t edas i gn i f i c an t in v e s tm en tb yM e t r o ,and i twou ldqu i ck l y b e com eIn g r am ’ s mo s tsu c c e s s fu lf i lm .Add in gtoth ef an f a r eo faL y r i cTh e a t r e p r em i e r e ,M e t r or equ e s t edno ton l yth a tL aw r i ep a r t i c ip a t e ,bu ta l soth a th ec r e a t ea 14 Th e sp e c i a l l ycomm i s s ion eds cu lp tu r eo fth eF o u rH o r s em enf o rth e lobb yd i sp l a y . comp an yp r in t edpho to g r aph so fL aw r i e ’ sF o u rH o r s em enonth e in v i t a t ion sand l a t e r u s ed i t inpub l i c i t ym a t e r i a lf o rth ef i lm .Th epub l i cf an f a r econ t inu edwh enIn g r am p r e s en t edth es cu lp tu r ea sag i f ttoV i c en t eB l a s coIb áñ e z ,whow r o t eth eno v e l 15 ad ap t edb yJun eM a th i sf o rIn g r am( andf o rRudo lphV a l en t ino ) . L aw r i ea l so d e s i gn edcu t -ou t lobb yd i sp l a y sf o rF o u rH o r s em en.Im a g e so fh i ss cu lp tu r ec i r cu l a t ed , a sd idpub l i c i t ys t i l l so fIn g r amshow in gV a l en t inohowto lookn a tu r a l inana r t i s t ’ s s tud io .In g r amw a sas cu lp to rwo rk in g inf i lm ,h ef e a tu r eds cu lp tu r e s inh i sf i lm s ,and h ee xh ib i t eds cu lp tu r ea th i sf i lmp r em i e r e s–a l ltoh e lpcon v in c eh i saud i en c eth a th e R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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I n v i t a t io ntot h eN ewY o r k P r em i e r eo fT h eF o u r H o r s em e no ft h eA p o c a l y p s e ( M e t r o,1 9 2 1 ) .L e eL aw r i e c r e a t edt h es c u lp t u r e f e a t u r edh e r ea nd i nt h e p ub l i c i t ym a t e r i a lfo rt h ef i lm

m ad ef i lm sw i thas cu lp to r ’ ss en s eo ff o rm inasp a c eth a two rk ed l ik eaf in ea r t s s tud io . I fL aw r i e ’ sc a rdbo a rdcu t -ou td i sp l a ysu g g e s t sth ev a lu eo fh i ss cu lp tu r a l l abou r in mo t ion -p i c tu r epub l i c i t ys tun t s , i t i s impo r t an tt or em emb e rth a tth eb en e f i t so fth i s c onn e c t ionw o r k edbo thw a y s .Th epub l i c i t ysu r r ound in gF o u rH o r s em enp r odu c edno t ju s tana i ro fa r t in e s sf o rf i lm so fac e r t a int yp eo famb i t ion .I ta l sop r odu c edana c tu a l d e g r e ef o rIn g r am ,aBFAf r omth eo ld e s tand mo s te s t ab l i sh edun i v e r s i t ya r t s p r o g r amm e inth ec oun t r y .Y a l eadm in i s t r a t o r sm ad ec l e a rth a tth i sw a sno tan hono r a r yd e g r e e .Th e yv o t edt or e c o gn i s eIn g r am ’ sf i lma swo r kapp r op r i a t et ow a rd sa r am in gth ed e g r e e inth i sw a yth eY a l ea r tp r o g r amm ec ou ldgo d e g r e e ina r t .16Inf b e y ondc l a im in gac e l eb r i t ya lumnu s( andth edon a t ion sth a tth e yr i gh t l ya s sum ed w ou ldr e su l tf r omth i sr e c o gn i t ion )andt ow a rd sas y s t em a t i cr e c o gn i t iono fa e s th e t i c c in em a .Th e lo c a lp ap e ra g r e ed : ‘ Inc on f e r r in gth ed e g r e eo fb a ch e lo ro ff in ea r t son M r In g r amY a l ec om e sf o rw a rda sth ef i r s tun i v e r s i t yt oo f f i c i a l l yr e c o gn i z ea r t i s t i c 17 Th er e l e a s eo fF o u rH o r s em ens t a g eda a ch i e v em en t inth ea r to fth es i l en td r am a . ’ mom en to f in s t i tu t ion a lc on t a c t inwh i chaf i lms tud ioandas tud ioa r tp r o g r amm e loo k edt oe a cho th e r ins e a r cho fane xp and eda e s th e t i cr em i t . 116

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A g a in ,th i s i sno tt os a yth a tIn g r am ’ ss choo l in gand m en t o r sh ipd idno th a v eth e e f f e c tonh i sv i su a ls t y l eth a th ec l a im ed .Y a l eh adag r e a ta r ts choo l ,andth eth i r t y y e a rc o r r e spond en c eb e tw e enL aw r i eandIn g r am inL aw r i e ’ sp ap e r sdo e sr e v e a la w e a l tho fd i s cu s s ionabou ta r t .Th ec o r r e spond en c e in c lud e ssu s t a in edd eb a t eabou t th e i ra e s th e t i c in c l in a t ion sando fp a r t i cu l a ra r tw o r k sa sth e ye x ch an g edpho t o g r aph s 18 In g r amd idno tf ab r i c a t eh i sa e s th e t i c o fth e s ewo r k st a k endu r in gth e i rt r a v e l s . t r a in in gand in t e r e s t ina r th i s t o r y .Bu tth i st r a in in gw a sno tt r a in in g inf i lm t e chn iqu e ,ande v enh i s mo s ts t y l i s edc in em ac ompo s i t ion s ,wh i l er e f e r en c in g p a in t in g ,bo r r ow mo r ed i r e c t l yf r om m ed i aw i thac lo s e rm a t e r i a lp r o x im i t y :f r omth e s t a g e ,f r ompho t o g r aph yande v enf r ompopu l a r i l lu s t r a t ion .N om a t t e rhow mu ch In g r ama r gu edt oth ec on t r a r y ,a r ts choo lw a ss t i l lno tap r a c t i c a lf i r s ts t ept ow a rd s l e a rn in gth ec r a f to fad i r e c t o r .I tc e r t a in l yc ou ldb ef o rana r td i r e c t o rwhowo r k ed w i thp a in tons e t .Th ef an t a s t i cs e td e s i gn e rB enC a r r ét r a in eda sap a in t e rb e f o r e t a k in gh i sf i r s tf i lms tud io joba tÉ c l a i r ,a sd idHu goB a l l inandC ed r i cG ibbon s ,who bo tha t t end edth eA r tS tud en t sL e a gu eo fN ewY o r kb e f o r eth e yw en tt owo r kf o r Go ldw yn .Bu tth e r ew a s l i t t l et e chn i c a lad v an t a g ef o rIn g r amt ob e g in m a k in gf i lm s w i thth i ss choo l in g . Wh enc r i t i c s ,f o rm e rm en t o r sandth ed i r e c t o rh im s e l fm y tho lo g i s edIn g r am ’ s f o rm a t i v ew o r ka sav i su a la r t i s tth e yh e lp edt ogu id ep r odu c t so fth ef i lm -m a k in g p r o f e s s iont ow a rd st r ad i t ion so fp i c t o r i a lapp r e c i a t ion inAm e r i c anun i v e r s i t i e s , l y c eum sanda r t in s t i tu t e s .Th e s es t r a t e g i e sb e c am e in c r e a s in g l ytho r ou gha sIn g r am t oo konh i gh e r -p r o f i l epo s i t ion sa tUn i v e r s a land M e t r o .Th eg en e r a l impo r t an c eo fh i s b a c k g r oundem e r g eda lon g s id eth ev i ab i l i t yo f i t se xp lo i t a t ion .Th i spub l i c i t yg en e r a l l y b en e f i t ed mo s to fth ef i lm sh em ad edu r in gth i st im eo fg r ow thf o rh i sc a r e e r .Bu te a ch f i lmh ad i t sown id io s yn c r a s i e s in i t sc r o s s -m ed i ap r omo t ion .Th en e x ttwos e c t ion s o f f e re x amp l e so fIn g r am ’ sf i lm -m a k in gt e chn iqu e sandas tud yo fanun c ommonf i lm p r omo t iont od emon s t r a t e inf in e rd e t a i lth ek ind so fcu l tu r a le x ch an g een ab l edb y som eon epo s i t ion eda sas tud ioa r t i s ta tw o r k ine a r l yH o l l yw ood . FROMEXCEPT IONA LSTY L ETOCRO S S -M ED IAAPPREC IAT ION In g r amd ep end ed ,a sad i r e c to rwo rk in gw i th inaf r am eo fa r tc in em a ,onaco l l e c t ion o ft e chn iqu e sth a ten cou r a g edv i ew e r sandc r i t i c sto m ak ean a lo g i e sw i thp a in t in g ands cu lp tu r e .F r omh i se a r l ywo rk inth e1910 son ,h e in c lud edap a r t i cu l a r l yd en s e con c en t r a t iono fp i c to r i a lt e chn iqu e sth a ts toodou ta scompo s i t ion s .H ep a c edf i lm s s low l yanda r r an g eda c to r sp i c to r i a l l y , int ab l e au x . Wh ena c to r s mo v ed ,h ed i r e c t ed th e i r mo v em en t s l e s sa sa c t ion sth ana scompo s ed , mo v in g l in e s . Wh enh es t a g ed s c en e s ind ep th ,h eu su a l l y l a y e r edth e i rcompo s i t ion stoc r e a t eane f f e c t ,no tso mu ch o fun i f i edd ep th ,bu to fo v e r l app in gp i ctu r ep l an e s .Th e s ecompo s i t ion sy i e ld ed s t r on gf o r e g r ound s ,wh i chs e rv eda sp i c to r i a lf r am in gd e v i c e s ,a r ch in go v e rth e c en t r a l im a g e inth ed i s t an c e .Th e l i gh t in gcho i c e s inIn g r am ’ sf i lm sfu r th e rs ep a r a t ed th e s ep l an e sandth e l a v i shd é co rth a tf i l l edth em .H e l i tf r omth es id e sandf r om b e lowaf i gu r eando f t enu s edb e am so f l i gh tf r om l amp sandw indow stoo f f s e tp a r t s o fth ecompo s i t ion . Wh i l eth e s et e chn iqu e sm a yno th a v ef o rm edaf ound a t ionf o ra s t y l i s eda r t f i lm mo v em en t , inIn g r am ’ sc a s eth e yr e in f o r c edth e l a r g e rm y tho lo gyo f R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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th ea r t i s t tu rn ed -d i r e c t o randa l low edsom ew r i t e r so fth et im et opo s i t ionh i sf i lm s w i th inth ed i s cu r s i v ef i e ldo fa r tapp r e c i a t ion . In g r amc ou ldno tr e a l l yc l a imp r io r i t yo rown e r sh ipf o rth e s et e chn iqu e s ,a sth e y w e r e inc i r cu l a t ionw i th in m an yEu r op e anf i lms tud io s .A l lth eb e t t e rt oc omp a r eh i s w o r kw i thth e impo r t sf r omG e rm an yandS c and in a v i ath a tc omp e t edf o rsp a c e in b e t t e r f i lm spub l i c a t ion s .Th e s et e chn iqu e sa l soc i r cu l a t edw i th inp r e s t i g ed i v i s ion so f f i lmc omp an i e s inth eU SA .Ad e s c r ip t iono fh i sm i s eens c èn et e chn iqu e sf o rB lu eb i rd m i gh t ju s ta se a s i l yd e s c r ib eC e c i lB .D eM i l l e ’ sP a r amoun t -A r t c r a f tf i lm s .In g r am ’ s b a t t e r yo ft e chn iqu e sp a r a l l e l sand mo s tc e r t a in l yr e spond st oth esu c c e s so f p r odu c t ion s l i k eC a rm en,on eo fm an yf i lm sD eM i l l em ad e inc o l l abo r a t ionw i th c in em a t o g r aph e rA l v in W y c ko f fanda r td i r e c t o rW i l f r edBu c k l and .Th es t r on g sh adow sandpo in t ed l i gh t inIn g r am ’ sB lu eb i rd son l yg a ins i gn i f i c an c ea lon g s id e D eM i l l e ’ ss e l f -p r omo t ion s , inwh i chh ec l a im ed( l i k eth e lon g l in eo fa r tpho t o g r aph e r s b e f o r eh im )t oh a v es in g l eh and ed l yb r ou gh ta r t i f i c i a lf i lm l i gh t in gt oth e l e v e lo f R emb r and t .In g r am ’ sr e c en t l yr ed i s c o v e r edB lu eb i rdp r odu c t ionTh eCh a l i c eo fS o r r ow (1916 )b e a r se v id en c eo fth i sc r o s s -po l l in a t iono ft e chn iqu e samon ga r tf i lm -m a k e r s .I t i sp e rh ap sno tso mu ch in f lu en c edb yth et e chn iqu e s impo r t edf r omth es t a g eb y L a s k y -P a r amoun ta s i t i sabo r r ow in go f ide a sabou thowt op a c k a g eth e s et e chn iqu e s . Ch a l i c ew a sr e l e a s eday e a ra f t e rC a rm en,th es am ey e a rth a tCh ap l inp i g g yb a c k edon i t s no t o r i e t yw i thh i sB u r l e s q u eonC a rm en.N o ton l yd idIn g r amad ap tas im i l a rop e r ao fa d i v a ’ st r a g i cd e a th– inth i sc a s e ,T o s c a– in t oas c r e en m e lod r am a ,bu th ea l so t r an spo s edPu c c in i ’ ss t o r yf r omI t a l yt oM e x i c o ,wh i cha l low edh imt oc r e a t es c en e s th a tc am ef a rc lo s e rt oD eM i l l e ’ s in t e rp r e t a t iono fB i z e t ’ ss e t t in g s inC a rm en.In g r am ’ s p en ch an tf o rshoo t in gT o s c af r am ed ina r chw a y sands t a g in gth ep e r f o rm an c e s in d ep thc ou ldb eg en e r a l l ys a idt om i r r o rsom eo fth es t y l i s t i ccho i c e s inC a rm en .Bu t mo r ed i r e c t l y ,c e r t a ins c en e s l i k etho s esho tonas lop ed ,a r idh i l lw i tha lowho r i zon l in eo rtho s e inwh i chth ed i v as t and sw i thso ld i e r s inf r on to fac rumb l in gc o lon i a l w a l l ,v e r g eonob v iou sc i t a t iono fth eL a s k yC a rm en.Th e s ew e r eth es am e i c on i c lo c a t ion sth a tCh ap l inbu r l e squ ed ,e v enpo k in gfuna tth ef i lm ’ sp i c t o r i a ls t y l e inth e p r o c e s s . Wh e th e rf o rs a t i r eo rf o ra r t f i lmr e c o gn i t ion ,e a chf i lmp l a y sw i thth es am e n e two rko fr e f e r en c e s .19 In g r amd e v e lop edc lo s eand lon g l a s t in gw o r k in gr e l a t ion sh ip sw i thf amou sa r t d i r e c t o r sandc in em a t o g r aph e r swhor e in f o r c edth ec on c ep t iono fh ima sana r t i s to f th es c r e enwh i l eth e ysh ap edwh a tw ou ldb e c om eknowna sth ed i r e c t o r ’ se x c ep t ion a l s t y l e .I fD eM i l l eh adBu c k l andand W y c ko f f ,andT ou rn eu rh adC a r r éandv and en B r o e k ,In g r amh adth eed i t o rG r an t Wh y t c o c ka tUn i v e r s a landth ec in em a t o g r aph e r J ohnF .S e i t za tth eb e g inn in go fh i st enu r ea tM e t r o .Th ep r e s t i g ep i c tu r ed ep a r tm en t s inwh i chIn g r amb e g anh i sc a r e e ren c ou r a g edc o l l abo r a t i v et e am s in v o l v in gp eop l e l i k e S e i t z .Andwh i l eth e s ec o l l abo r a t o r s ’pub l i cr epu t a t ion sa ss c r e enp a in t e r sd idno t r e a chth es am e l e v e la sth ed i r e c t o r ’ s–th e i rd i s cu s s ion so fth e id e ao fth ea r tf i lmd id no tc i r cu l a t e mu chb e y ondth et r ad ep r e s s–S e i t zc l e a r l y in f lu en c edth ew a y sth e s e f i lm sadd r e s s edth epub l i ca sf in e a r tf i lm s .Inan in t e rv i ew ,S e i t zd e s c r ib edh i s c omp a t ib i l i t yw i thIn g r ama s in s t an t an eou s :‘H e l i k edth ew a yth a tIwo r k edandth e 20 S e i t zgo e s f o rmand mod e l in gh es aw inth e l i gh t in g–a sy ouknowh ew a sas cu lp t o r . ’ ont od e s c r ib eth e i re a r l ya cqu a in t an c ea sap r o c e s so f loo k in gth r ou ghhund r ed so f s t i l l sf r omth e i rp r e v iou sf i lm sandd i s cu s s in g wh a tm a k e sas t r on gc ompo s i t ion .Inth e 118

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f i lm sth e ym ad et o g e th e rth e yf a v ou r eds t r on gc on t r a s t sands id e l i gh t in gt og i v e d im en s ion a l i t yt os e t sandf a c e s .Th i semph a s i son mod e l l in g ,a l i gh t in gt e chn iqu e n am ed inan a lo g yt os cu lp tu r e ,sup e r s ed ed o th e rp r io r i t i e s , l i k eshow c a s in gth es t a r . O th e rd i r e c t o r sandc in em a t o g r aph e r sw e r e mo r e l i k e l yt ou s esh adow yc lo s e -up sf o r v i l l a in so rth esup e rn a tu r a l .In g r amandS e i t zu s edth emt o l i gh t l e ad in ga c t o r s l i k e R amonN o v a r r oandA l i c eT e r r y .Th e yt r ad ed lu shandf l a t t e r in gs t a r l i gh t in gf o r c ompo s i t ion a l in t e r e s tandr e f e r en c et oth eo th e ra r t s .Th i st r ad eo f fd idno te s c ap eth e no t i c eo fo th e rt e chn i c i an sons e t .Th ec on v en t ion -bounds t i l lpho t o g r aph e r so f t en c o r r e c t edIn g r am ’ sandS e i t z ’ sp i c t o r i a le x c e s s e s .Th e ysho tth ea c t o r s inth et ab l e au x f r omth ef i lm sbu t , mo r eo f t enth anS e i t z ’ ss e tup sf o rth ea c tu a ls c en e s ,th e yb a th ed 21 th es t a r s ’f a c e s ine v en l i gh t . Inh i ss tud yo fth ed e v e lopm en to fH o l l yw ood l i gh t in g ,P a t r i c kK e a t in g id en t i f i e s S e i t z ,p a r t i cu l a r l ydu r in gth et im eh ewo r k edw i thIn g r am ,a sac en t r a lf i gu r e inwh a t h ec a l l sth e ‘m e ch an i c s t o a r t i s t s ’n a r r a t i v eth a tt r an s f o rm edth ec in em a t o g r aph e r ’ s p r o f e s s ion inth e l a t e1910 sande a r l y20 s .22S e i t zh adb e c om eon eo fth e mo s tf amou s c in em a t o g r aph e r s inth ew o r ldb yth ee a r l y20 s ,andth i ssu c c e s sh e lp ed m a r kapo in t o fd i v e r g en c ef r omth eo ld e r ‘ t e chn i c i an s ’t ow a rd sth erh e t o r i co fa r t i s t r y in c in em a t o g r aph y . Mo r eo v e r ,S e i t zs t a k e sth i sd i s t in c t ionb e tw e ena r t i s tandt e chn i c i an onah i e r a r ch yo fg en r e . Th eC in em a t o g r aph e r inth ed r am a t i cf i e ld i sm o r eo faph o t o g r aph e rand l e s so fa c in em a t o g r aph e rth anth ec om ed yc am e r am an ,h i sa c t i onc on t a in s l e s so fth eph y s i c a land m o r eo fth em en t a l ,c on s e qu en t l yh e i sc on c e rn ed l e s sw i thm o t i onandm o r ew i th l i gh t in g andt on e .…[P ] e r f e c t i onc anon l yb ea t t a in edb ym enwh o ,th r ou gh l on g ,p a t i en te xp e r i en c e , h a v eg a in edth a tf in es en s i t i v en e s ss on e c e s s a r yt op r odu c eth ee x a c tt on eandqu a l i t yn e ed ed , 23 andth i s i sth ec in em a t o g r aph i ca r t .

Inth i sadd r e s st oh i sc o l l e a gu e s ,S e i t ze xp l i c i t l yf a v ou r edth ed r am ao v e ro th e rg en r e s l i k ec om ed yo rth ea c tu a l i t y ,andh e imp l i c i t l yf a v ou r edth ep r e s t i g ef e a tu r e sth r ou gh wh i chh eandIn g r amh ade s t ab l i sh edth em s e l v e s inth e indu s t r y .24S e i t z ’ sd i s t in c t ion shou ldb equ a l i f i edh e r es in c e ,a sH i ld eD ’h a e y e r ed emon s t r a t e s ,s e v e r a lc am e r am en b eh ind M a c kS enn e t tc om ed i e sh e lp edt of o rmth eAm e r i c anSo c i e t yo f C in em a t o g r aph e r sandthu sp l a y edane s s en t i a lr o l e inp r o f e s s ion a l i s in gth ec r a f to f 25 Th eg en e r i cd i s t in c t ionb e tw e enc om ed yc in em a t o g r aph e r sand c in em a t o g r aph y . d r am a t i con e sm a yon l yh a v ew o r k edf o rS e i t za saw a yt om a r kh i sp r o f e s s ion a ltu r f . Bu twh e th e ro rno th ew a ssu c c e s s fu l in mo v in gh i sf a v ou r edg en r et oth et opo fth e p r o f e s s ion a lh i e r a r ch y ,h i ss t r a t e g yf o rdo in gsof e l l in l in ew i thth ea r t f i lmc amp a i gn s th a tendo r s eds t y l i s eds c en e sc ompo s ed inr e l a t iont oth eo th e r( s t a t i c )p i c t o r i a la r t s . S e i t z ’ se v o c a t iono ft on eo v e r mo t ionw a sno tsod i f f e r en tf r omth eE x c e p t i on a l P h o t o p l a y sr e v i ewc i t ede a r l i e r .T op r omo t eth en a r r a t i v eo fa r tc in em a t o g r aph yS e i t z r e c a l l ed(p i c t o r i a l )pho t o g r aph y ,wh i chfu r th e rr e c a l l edth et e chn iqu e sandth em e so f th ep a in t in g sc i r cu l a t in g in in s t i tu t ion so fa r tedu c a t ion . Con s id e r edt o g e th e r ,In g r am ’ sandh i sc o l l abo r a t o r s ’b a t t e r yo ft e chn iqu e sr e s i s t c oh e r en ta e s th e t i cp ed i g r e e se v en mo r es tubbo rn l yth anT ou rn eu r ’ sf i lm s .And l i k e T ou rn eu r ,In g r am ’ sm y th so fo r i g inandh i sc on t a c tw i tho th e ra r t s in s t i tu t ion s a f f e c t edth ew a yh i sf i lm sw i thS e i t zc ou ld loo k ,th ew a yth e yc ou ldb ed i s cu s s edand R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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howth e yc ou ldb es e en .H e r e i swh e r eth e in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo fc ompo s i t ion ,a sak ind o fc r a f t ,r e v e a l sth ew o r k i tc ou lddof o rc in em a .A sw i ths e v e r a lo th e rf i gu r e sd i s cu s s ed inth i sboo k ,c ompo s i t iono f f e r edac ommon l an gu a g e ,as e to fp r in c ip l e sth a tw e r e f l e x ib l eenou ght of r am ee c l e c t i ct e chn iqu e sand i r r e gu l a r in s t i tu t ion a lc o l l abo r a t ion s . Th i s l an gu a g e mo v edf r e e l yf r oma r tedu c a t ion ,t of i lmedu c a t ion ,t oIn g r am ’ sown w o rd s .Inh i s1922e s s a yon ‘D i r e c t in gth eP i c tu r e ’ ,In g r amu s e s i l lu s t r a t ion so f L aw r i e ’ ss cu lp tu r e s , in c lud in gh i sp i e c ef o rth eF o u rH o r s em enp r em i e r e ,a se x amp l e so f th ep r op e r t i e so fc ompo s i t ion .A r t i s t s l i k eL aw r i e ,Gu s t a v eDo r éandJ ohnS in g e r S a r g en td emon s t r a t e ,In g r amsu g g e s t s ,tho s ep r in c ip l e so f mod e l l in g , l in e , l i gh tand sh ad eth a th ec l a im edt ot r an s l a t ef r omc l a yandp a in tt of i lm .Th ee s s a y ’ sc on c lu s ion s a r eu s e fu l ,bu tno tn e c e s s a r i l y inad i r e c tw a y .In g r am ’ se s s a yr e c a l l sth ec in em a c ompo s i t ion m anu a l so fedu c a t o r sandc r i t i c s ,and , l i k etho s em anu a l s , i ts e em st o mo v e intwod i r e c t ion sa ton c e .H eo s t en s ibl yad v i s e sp r o sp e c t i v ef i lmw o r k e r sabou t 26 Bu ta tth es am e ‘howt oqu a l i f yf o rpo s i t ion s inth ef i lm indu s t r y ’ sm an yb r an ch e s ’ . t im e ,h eo f f e r san id e a l i s edc r a f t -b a s edno t iono fd e s i gnapp r e c i a t ion , mo r e -o r l e s s u s e l e s sf r omap r a c t i c a lp e r sp e c t i v e .Th ee s s a y ’ spub l i c a t ionh i s t o r ya l sor e f l e c t s i t s c r o s s edpu rpo s e s .In g r ampub l i sh ed i ttw i c e in1922 :on c e ina m a g a z in ef o ra r t 27 Th e app r e c i a t ionanda g a inund e rth eau sp i c e so fth eBu r e auo fV o c a t ion a lGu id an c e . a r tm a g a z in eg a v eth e l i et oth em anu a l .L i k eA r thu rDow ’ sd r aw in gm anu a l sand V i c t o rF r e ebu r g ’ sf i lm ‘m anu a l ’c omp i l edf r omh i sCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y l e c tu r e s , p r a c t i c a lgu id an c efun c t ion edb e t t e ra saru s ef o rcu l t i v a t in ga e s th e t i capp r e c i a t iono f w o r km an sh ipth ana sap r im e rf o ra t t a in in gw o r k inth em ed ium .I fIn g r am ’ se s s a yh ad ap r a c t i c a le f f e c t , i tw a sw i thapp r e c i a t o r so fc in em a .N o ton l yd idIn g r am m a k ean e f f o r tt osp e a kth e l an gu a g eo fth ep i c tu r e s tud yt r ad i t ion ina r tedu c a t ion ,bu th ea l so m ad eane f f o r tt oen t e rth ed eb a t e sth a tsou gh tt o l in kth i st r ad i t iont oc in em a .H i s a r t i c l eond i r e c t in g i sadd r e s s ed mo r et op a r t i c ip an t s inth e s ed eb a t e s( l i k eF r e ebu r g ) th ant oamb i t iou sp r odu c t iona s s i s t an t s .Th ef o l low in gy e a r ,a f t e rth er e l e a s eo f S c a r am o u c h e ,In g r amw r o t eab r i e fp i e c ef o rF r e ebu r gh im s e l f ,t ob eu s eda sap r e f a t o r y 28 n o t et oP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en. Th ea e s th e t i co fc ompo s i t ionc a r r i edr e a l p r om i s ef o rf i lm -m a k e randc r i t i ca l i k e .W i th i t s in t e rm ed i a lr e a ch ,c ompo s i t ionth eo r y a id ede a r l ya r tf i lmd i s c ou r s e mu ch inth es am ew a yth a t i ta id edd e s i gnedu c a t ion .I t su i t edth er epu t a t iono fas cu lp t o ra tw o r k in M e t r o ’ ss tud io s . SCARAMOUCHE ,ORCONV ERG ENC E B yth e1920 s ,th et r a j e c t o r yo fth ea r tf i lmth a th ad l aun ch edIn g r am ’ sc a r e e r inth e 1910 sb e g ant oc onn e c tv e r yd i f f e r en tk ind so f in s t i tu t ion s .F r omth ep e r sp e c t i v eo f th e indu s t r y ,f i lmc omp an i e sw e r e in c r e a s in g l y mo v in gf r om lo c a ls tun tp r omo t iont oa mo r en e two r k edands yn ch r on i s edf o rmo fpub li c i t y .Th e mo v et oth ek indo fpub l i c i t y s e en ,f o re x amp l e , inth et i e ins t o r i e sth a tn ew sp ap e r sr an ins yn ch r on i s a t ionw i th f i lms e r i a l sa f f e c t edp r e s t i g ef i lm sa sw e l l .Su c c e s s fu ln ew sp ap e rt i e in sd idno te s c ap e th eno t i c eo fboo kpub l i sh e r se a g e rt op r omo t eo th e rt i e in s , l i k epho t o i l lu s t r a t ed no v e l s .M a s s -m a r k e t edf i lm sw i tha e s th e t i cc r ed en t i a l sc ou ldr e spondt oth ech a l l en g e s o fsom eo fth ee a r l i e r , mo r er i g ida t t emp t st om a r k e tqu a l i t yf i lm s .Bu tp r e s su r ew a s a l soc om in gf r omano th e rd i r e c t ion .F r omth ep e r sp e c t i v eo fedu c a t ion a land 120

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e v a lu a t i v eo r g an i s a t ion s ,ana e s th e t i capp r o a chw a sg a in in g mom en tum . O r g an i s a t ion s l i k eth eN a t ion a lBo a rdo fR e v i ew(NBR )s aw i ta sth e i rm i s s iont o c omb a tc en so r sh ip inf a v ou ro fa mod e lo fd emo c r a c y -bu i ld in gth r ou gha e s th e t i c edu c a t ion .A g a in ,wh enth e s ed i v e r s ec r o s s -m ed i a in t e r e s t sc am et o g e th e randf o rm ed c omm i t t e e s ,th e yo f t enf oundac ommon l an gu a g e inth ea e s th e t i c so fc ompo s i t ion . A e s th e t i cr e f o rmw a satho rn y i s su ef o ro r g an i s a t ion sth a tsou gh tt osp e a kf o rb i g f i lm sandf o rm a in s t r e amt a s t e s .Th eNBR ’ s mo t t ow a s ‘ a e s th e t i c ,no t mo r a l i s t i c c en so r sh ip ’ . ‘F o rp i c tu r e sh a v eno ts inn ed mo r a l l y ,a sth ep r opon en t so fc en so r sh ip w ou ldh a v eu sth in k .Th e yh a v es inn eda e s th e t i c a l l y . ’29In m a k in gsu chs t a t em en t s ,th e NBRh adt ob ec a r e fu lt od e f in e i t sapp r o a cht oa e s th e t i c sa s ‘h e a l th y ’and ‘ v i go r ou s ’ . A sth i sa r t i c l ef r omth eNBR ’ s1921E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y sn ew s l e t t e rc l a r i f i e s , ‘ th e t r oub l e i sth a twh enth ew o rd“ a e s th e t i c ” i su s ed , i t i spopu l a r l ysuppo s edth a ton e m e an saqu a l i t yo fp a l ep in kunwho l e som en e s s ,o re l s eth a ton e i sp a l e l yp in kand eau tho reuph em i s t i c a l l yr e f e r st om au v e ,th e unwho l e som ef o ru s in gth ewo rd ’ .30Th c o lou r mo s tc l e a r l ya s so c i a t edw i th l a t e -V i c t o r i and e c ad en c e ,as t r a ino fB r i t i sh a e s th e t i c i smth a th adas t r on g in f lu en c eonAm e r i c ana r t i s t s l i k eR i ch a rdH o v e yandF . H o l l andD a y .H e r e ‘m au v e ’ i saphob i ct e rmth a tr e f e r st oac e r t a int yp eo fa r ta sw e l la s t otho s ewhow ou ldapp r e c i a t e i t .Th eNBRandE x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y ssou gh tt ok e ep th e i ra e s th e t i cp r in c ip l e sd i s t in c tf r omd e c ad en c eand i t sp e r c e i v ed l in k sw i th ep i cu r e an i sm ,e x c e s sands am e s e xd e s i r e . Inth i sc on t e x t ,af i lmc ou ldp r o v ev i ab l e i f i tc ou ldapp e a lt oth e s etwof o r c e sth a t h e lp edd e f in eand m a r k e tth e id e ao fth ea r tf i lm inth ee a r l y1920 s :t oc e r t a in o r g an i s a t ion sf o rm edt om a r k e ta r tf i lm sa sw e l la st otho s eo r g an i s a t ion sf o rm edt o e v a lu a t eb e t t e rf i lm s .S c a r am o u c h e , i ttu rn edou t ,s a t i s f i edth e s eo f t en c on f l i c t ed in t e r e s t sb e t t e rth anan yo fIn g r am ’ so th e rf i lm sa tM e t r o .Th ef i lmdo e sno tr e a l l y s t andou ta se i th e rth e mo s tp r o f i t ab l e ,o rth e ‘m au v e s t ’ ,o fh i sM e t r op r odu c t ion s .Th e F o u rH o r s em ens e cu r edb e t t e rr e tu rn sand , inT r i f l in gW om en(1922 ) ,th eN ewY o r k t T im e sob s e rv ed , ‘M rIn g r amh a ssu r e l y l e th i sp i c t o r i a lf an c yrunf r e e . ’31Bu S c a r am o u c h ec r e a t ed i t sownk indo fs en s a t ion .I tb e c am ea l i gh tn in gr odf o rd eb a t e ,a r e su l to fh a v in gb e c om eaf in a l i s tf o ra$10 ,000p r i z e inAdo lphZu ko r ’ sn ew l e g i t im a c y c amp a i gn .Zu ko rh ad in v i t edanumb e ro fw e l l knownw r i t e r sandv i su a la r t i s t sth a t summ e rt op a r t i c ip a t e inth eM o t ionP i c tu r eA r t sCon g r e s s ,as ympo s iumonth e a r t i s t i cd e v e lopm en to fth e mo t ionp i c tu r e .H eh adb e enp r omo t in gth ec on f e r en c ef o r s e v e r a l mon th s inth epopu l a randt r ad ep r e s s ,and inth e s ep r omo t ion sh em ad e g e s tu r e st oth eRo y a lA c ad em yo fA r t s inLondon .Th ec on f e r en c ewou ldr ep r e s en t , in Zu ko r ’ sr e v i s iono fM a t th ewA rno ld ’ sm a x im , ‘ th eb e s t inAm e r i c anthou gh tand Am e r i c ant a s t e ’ .32Th ec on f e r en c ep r ed a t edth ef o rm a t iono fth eA c ad em yo f Mo t ion P i c tu r eA r t sandS c i en c e s(AMPAS )b yaf ewy e a r sand ,a l thou ghth e r ea r e mo r ed i r e c t p r e cu r so r st oAMPAS inth em id -1920 s ,Zu ko r ’ se f f o r t sd idr e spondt oas im i l a r n e ed .33 Th ep r e s sc o v e r edsom eo fth ec on f e r en c ep r o c e ed in g s , in c lud in gaud i en c epo l l sa t P a r amoun tth e a t r e s ,ou t r e a chp r o g r amm e sth a ta c c omp an i edth eo f f i c i a l jud g in gand 34 Bu t jou rn a l i s t s th es e a r chf o rd e l e g a t e sf r omH a rv a rd ,Y a l e ,P r in c e t onandCo lumb i a . f o cu s edth e i ra t t en t iononZu ko r ’ s$10 ,000c a shp r i z ef o rb e s t l i t e r a r yad ap t a t ion . Zu ko rappo in t edac omm i t t e eo f jud g e sou to fs e v e r a lc on f e r en c ep a r t i c ip an t s in c lud in gth e i l lu s t r a t o rCh a r l e sD an aG ib son ,th eno v e l i s tM a r yRob e r t sR e inh a rd t R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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andL i f em a g a z in ef i lmc r i t i cRob e r tEmm e tSh e rw ood .Th e i rt a s kw a st oapp l yth e p r in c ip l e sd i s cu s s eda tth ec on f e r en c et oth ey e a r ’ sr e l e a s e sands e l e c ton ef i lmad ap t ed f r omano v e l .Th eno v e l i s t ,no tth ed i r e c t o r ,w ou ldth enr e c e i v eth e$10 ,000aw a rd . S c a r am o u c h ee v en tu a l l ywon ,andZu ko rh e ldap r i z ec e r emon yf o rth esou r c eno v e l ’ s au tho r ,R aph a e lS ab a t in i .Inth ec omp e t i t ionf o rr e c o gn i t ionth a ten su ed ,N i cho l a s S ch en c k ,p r e s id en to fM e t r o , imm ed i a t e l ydownp l a y edS ab a t in i ’ sr o l eandc l a im ed c r ed i tf o rh i sc omp an y .Uponannoun c em en to fth ep r i z e ,S ch en c kw r o t et oZu ko rt o th an kh imf o rsp e a k in g ‘ soh i gh l yo fM rIn g r am ’ sM e t r o -Go ldw ynp r odu c t iono f “S c a r amou ch e , ”wh i chw onth eaw a rdf o rM rS ab a t in i .W ea r ee x c e ed in g l yp r oudo fth e hono ry oup e r son a l l yandth e jud g e swhoa c t edony ou rb eh a l fc on f e r r edt oM r 35 In g r am ’ sp i c tu r e . ’ Cond i t ion so fth ep r i z es e emodd l yp l ann edf o rac omp an yw i thsu chan e s t ab l i sh edh i s t o r yo fpub l i c i t ys tun t sandapp e a l st oe s t e em edcu l tu r a l in s t i tu t ion s l i k eCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y .Th ep r i z ew a se v id en t l yno tm e an tt oen c ou r a g ed i r e c t o r so r s c en a r iow r i t e r s ,a sth e mon e yw a sg i v ent oS ab a t in i ,bu tn e i th e rd id i ten c ou r a g e no v e l i s t st ow r i t ew i thth es c r e en in m ind .A sf i lmedu c a t o randNBR m emb e rF r an c e s P a t t e r sonc omp l a in ed inth eN ewY o r kT im e s,S ab a t in i ’ s S c a r am o u c h eh adnor e a l c onn e c t iont oth es c r e en ,andth ep r i z ed idno tf o s t e rth e s epo s s ib l ec onn e c t ion sf o r up and c om in gau tho r s . ‘M rZu ko rr e a l i z e sth a tth et ru epho t op l a ym ed ium i sno t w o rd c r a f tbu tp i c tu r e c r a f t .…H e r e ,th enw a sar a r eoppo r tun i t yf o rth e jud g e st oshow th e i rapp r e c i a t iono fa c tu a lc r e a t i v ee f f o r tonth es c r e en .…“bu t , ”s a yth e jud g e s ,“ th e r eo v e r , inS ab a t in i ’ sp e r son a lc o r r e spond en c ew i th p r i z e i st ogot oas t o r y t e l l e r . ” ’36Mo Zu ko r ,h eadm i t t ed( r a th e ra r r o g an t l y )t oc omp l e t e i gno r an c eo fth ef a c tth a th i s S c a r am o u c h ew a saf in a l i s tun t i lh er e adth a th eh adwonth ep r i z e inaP a r i s n ew sp ap e r .37I fth e r ew a ssom esm a l lpo t en t i a lf o rc o a x in gno v e l i s t st ow a rd sth e s c r e en ,Zu ko rd idno te xp lo i t i t .Th e l i t e r a r yc ommun i t ys e em st oh a v eb e en l e f tou to f th e loop .I tw a sanaw a rdf o raf i lmpo s in ga sanaw a rdf o rano v e l .S ab a t in ir e c e i v ed th ep r i z e mon e y ,bu tP a t t e r song a v eIn g r amth ec r ed i t ,a sth ev a lu eo fth ef i lm ,sh e m a in t a in ed , ‘h a sd e r i v edf r omth eb e au t yo fc ompo s i t ionandth eg r a c eo frh y thmth a t m a r k sa l lth ewo r ko fR e xIn g r am ’ .38 Zu ko r ’ s mo t i v a t ionf o rc on f i gu r in gth eaw a rda sh ed idc anb ee xp l a in ed inp a r tb y h i s in c r e a s ed in t e r e s t inboo kpub l i c i t y inth ee a r l y1920 s .Inar e spon s et oan t i t ru s t p r e s su r ef r omth eF ed e r a lT r ad eComm i s s ion ,P a r amoun th ad mo v edf r omd i s t r ibu t ion s t r a t e g i e s l i k e i t s ‘ S t a rS e r i e s ’f o rmo fb lo c kboo k in gt oap r i c in gs y s t emb a s edpu r e l y onth epopu l a r i t yo f ind i v idu a lt i t l e s ,andZu ko randL a s k ypu r su eda v enu e swh e r eb y th i st i t l er e c o gn i t ionc ou ldb ee s t ab l i sh ed inad v an c e .Zu ko rannoun c eds e v e r a lt i e in s t r a t e g i e st of amou sno v e l s int r ad e jou rn a l s .Apub l i c i s edaw a rdt oapopu l a rno v e l i s t c ou ldb es e ena ss imp l yon eo fth e s es t r a t e g i e s .Th i st i e ins t r a t e g ywo r k edf o r e xh ib i t o r sandboo k s e l l e r st oo .B e g inn in g inth e1910 s ,s e v e r a lboo kpub l i sh e r s p a r tn e r edw i thf i lmp r odu c t ionc omp an i e st orunno v e led i t ion s i l lu s t r a t edw i th p r odu c t ions t i l l sf r omth e i rf i lmad ap t a t ion s .A tth eh e i gh to fth i sph enom enon inth e m id -20 s ,n e a r l ye v e r ypo s s ib i l i t yf o rt y in ga m a jo rp r odu c t iont oa ‘pho t op l a yed i t ion ’ r e l e a s ew a se xp lo i t ed .Th epub l i sh in gc omp an yo fG r o s s e t tandDun l ap l edth i se f f o r t b ya l a r g em a r g in . S ab a t in i ’ sno v e l sw e r ee x c ep t ion a l l yw e l lsu i t edt op r omo t ion s l i k eZu ko r ’ s ,wh i ch ‘ c e l eb r a t e ’ ,V a ch e lL ind s a yon l yh a l f c omp l a in ed , ‘ c oop e r a t ionb e tw e env i go r ou sno v e l 122

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T i e i nboo kd i sp l a yfo rS c a r am o u c h e(1923 ) ,a tt h eF r emo n tT h e a t r e i nO h io( M o v i n gP i c t u r eW o r l d,1 5M a r c h1 9 2 4 )

w r i t in g ,goodf i lmp r odu c t i onandh e a r t yb o o k s t o r ec oop e r a t ion ’ .39S ab a t in i ’ sno v e l s w o r k ed inth i sc on t e x tb e c au s eth e yw e r eab l et os e rv ebo thc omm e r c i a landedu c a t ion a l c on s t i tu en c i e s .Th e yw e r es o l idb e s t s e l l e r s ,bu t ju s ta s impo r t an t l yth eno v e l sf ound th e i rw a yon t oth er e ad in g l i s t sf o rh i ghs ch o o lc l a s s e sa c r o s sth eU SA ,d i v e r s i f y in gth e i r 40 r e ad e rd em o g r aph i c s . S c a r am o u c h ec on t r ibu t edt oh i ghs choo landc ommun i t y l e s son s inth eh i s t o r yo fth eF r en chR e v o lu t i on ,wh i chn od oub tpu tt ogoodp ed a g o g i c a lu s eth e n o v e l ’ so f t enpond e r ou sh i s t o r i c a ld e t a i l sandF r en ch id iom a t i ce xp r e s s ion s .A sar e su l t , S c a r am o u c h er an k edam on gth em o s tsu c c e s s fu lo fG r o s s e t tandDun l ap ’ spho t op l a y ed i t ion s .I tw a sth eon l yn o v e l( ou to fth ehund r ed sonth es e r i e s l i s t s )th a tG r o s s e t tand Dun l apr e l e a s ed intw od i f f e r en ted i t i on s ,e a chw i th i t sowns e to f i l lu s t r a t ion st a k en 41 Th ed i sp l a yo fth e s eed i t ion sa c c omp an i edth ee xh ib i t iono f f r omth ef i lmp r odu c t i on . th ef i lm .Boo k s t o r e ss e tupd i sp l a y sw i thp r odu c t i ons t i l l sf r omth ef i lm ,andm an y o f f e r edf r e et i c k e t st os e eth ef i lmw i thapu r ch a s eo fth eno v e l .L i k ew i s e ,th e a t r e lobb i e s ad v e r t i s edth ef i lmw i thg i g an t i cd i sp l a yb o o k s .In1923 –4 ,M o v in gP i c t u r eW o r l d R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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d o cum en t edth e s ebo o k th em ed l obb yd i sp l a y sa tc in em a sf r omV i c t o r i a ,B r i t i sh C o lumb i a ,t oR i od eJ an e i r o . Zu ko r ’ sc on f e r en c eandp r i z ea l sosu s t a in edth ea t t en t iono fth eN a t ion a lBo a rdo f R e v i ew .Aned i t o r i a l inth e1923Au tumn –Summ e r[s i c ] i s su eo fE x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y s en t i t l ed ‘Wh a tW i l lB eth eR e su l t ? ’a l i gn edth ec on f e r en c ew i thth ego a l so fth eNBRt o 42 Th ea r t i c l ee xp r e s s edsom ec yn i c i sm f o s t e r in t e l l e c tu a ld i s cu s s iono fth ec in em a . abou tth ep r i z e ’ sr e l a t iont oc ommonpub l i c i t ys tun t s ,bu t i ta l sor e c o gn i s edhowa p r odu c t i v ed i s cu s s iono ff i lma e s th e t i c sc ou ldh app enb yw a yo fth i sp a r t i cu l a rs tun t . Th eau tho rno t edth a tth e ‘b r i s ke x ch an g eo f id e a so v e r sh adow edth epub l i c i t ya sp e c t s o fth ec on g r e s s ’andc on c lud edth a tZu ko r ’ sp r i z ec ou ldwo r ka sane xp e r im en tt o d e t e rm in eth er e su l to fsom eo fth e s e id e a son in s t i tu t ion so ff i lm -m a k in gandf i lm c r i t i c i sm .Th eed i t o r skn ew ,a f t e ra l l ,th a tth em and a t e so fth e i r jou rn a lando fZu ko r ’ s p r i z er em a in ed inc lo s es t epw i thon eano th e r–soc lo s eth a tth es am e i s su eth a tend ed w i thth eed i t o r i a lonth eZu ko rp r i z eb e g anw i thth ef e a tu r edr e v i ewo fS c a r am o u c h e , no ten t i r e l yc o in c id en t a l l y. Th eS c a r am o u c h er e v i ewno ton l yp r ed i c t edth ew inn e ro f Zu ko r ’ sc omp e t i t ion ; i ta l sop r e f i gu r edth eg en e r a ld i r e c t iono fth ep r i z e ’ sc r i t i c a l r e c ep t ion ,o r ‘ th er e su l t ’ , in i t s in s i s t en c eth a tf i lma r t i s lo c a t ed inth ewo r ko fp i c t o r i a l compo s i t ion . Th em emb e r so fth eNBRw e r ef a rf r oma lon e inth e i ra s s e s sm en to fIn g r am ’ s p i c tu r ec r a f t .F i lmc r i t i c s inN ewY o r kanda c r o s sth ec oun t r yen su r edth a tIn g r am r e c e i v edth ebu l ko fth epub l i c i t ysu r r ound in gth ep r i z e ,andth e yd idsob yc on t inu a l l y r e tu rn in gt oh i sf in e a r t sb a c k g r ound ,andt oh i sp r in c ip l e so fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion . E v enRob e r tEmm e tSh e rw ood ,whoh e ad edth ec omm i t t e eth a ts e l e c t edS c a r am o u c h e f o rZu ko r ’ sp r i z e ,m ad es e v e r a lr e f e r en c e s inh i sr e v i ew st oIn g r am ’ ss k i l la tc r a f t in g p i c tu r e s .H es a idth a tan ys t i l lt a k enf r omh i sf i lm s ‘wou ldb ewo r th yo fp r a i s ef o r i t s e rw ood ’ sboo k ,Th eB e s tM o v in gP i c t u r e so f1922–23, p i c t o r i a lqu a l i t i e sa lon e ’ .43InSh h eo f f e r edas im i l a ra s s e s sm en to fIn g r am ’ sP r i s on e ro fZ en d a(1922 ) ,no t edth e d i r e c t o r ’ sf in e a r t sc r ed en t i a l sand l am en t edth a tS c a r am o u c h ec am eou tt oo l a t ef o r 44 in c lu s ion inth eboo k . Inp r i v i l e g in gth ef i lm ’ sp i c tu r e so v e r i t ss t o r y ,Sh e rwood b e t r a y edth ec omp l i c a t ed mo t i v a t ion s in v o l v ed ino f f e r in gth ep r i z et oS ab a t in i. Th ec r i t i c a lr e c ep t iono fS c a r am o u c h esuppo r t sm y l a r g e rc l a imth a tp i c t o r i a l c ompo s i t ionandr e f e r en c e st oth ew o r k sandw o r ksp a c e so ff in ea r t i s t sw en th and in h and .AL o sAn g e l e sT im e sr e v i ewo fS c a r am o u c h emo v edb e y ondIn g r am ’ sb a c k g r ound andd r ewa s so c i a t ion st oo th e ra r t i s t s ,no t in gth a tth ef i lm ’ s ‘ a t t r a c t ion i sno tth a to f d r am abu to fb e au t i fu landg lo r iou sp i c tu r e s .Ind i v idu a lpho t o g r aph edsho t sr e c a l lth e g r am ’ sf i lm sandw r i t in g sabou tf i lma r t w o r ko fdo z en so fp a in t e r sands cu lp t o r s . ’45In d i r e c t l yr e f e r en c es e v e r a lp a in t e r sands cu lp t o r s in c lud in gJ ohnS in g e rS a r g en t ’ sF r i e z e o ft h eP r o p h e t s(1895 )andEdou a rd M an e t ’ sW om anw i t hP a r r o t (1866 ) .Th ef i lm s ‘ r e c a l l ed ’ ,f o rm an yc r i t i c s ,th ew o r ko fdo z en s mo r e . S c a r am o u c h eb en e f i t ed inth i s r e sp e c tf r omth er i chh i s t o r yo fp a in t in gands cu lp tu r eabou tth eF r en chR e v o lu t ion . Th e s e im a g e sw e r ef am i l i a ramon gtho s ewhom M e t r ow an t edt oc ou r t ,anda twhom Zu ko ra im edh i s Mo t ionP i c tu r eA r t sCon g r e s s .G i v enth i sp i c t o r i a lm i l i eu ,In g r am c ou lde a s i l ys t e e rp i c t o r i a lt e chn iqu e s inc lo s e -up sand lon gsho t st ow a rd st r ad i t ion so f p a in t in gands cu lp tu r e .Th e mod e l l in g inth ef i lm ’ ss t a rc lo s e -up sa l r e ad yg e s tu r ed t ow a rd ss cu lp tu r e ,bu tno ta sd i r e c t l ya sth eb r i e fc am eoc lo s e -up sth a th adnoan cho r ind e v e lop in gch a r a c t e r s .In g r amandS e i t zsho tth ey oun ga v an t g a rd i s t ,S l a v ko 124

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S l a v koV o r k ap i c h ’ ss lowt u rno ft h eh e ada sN apo l eo n i nS c a r am o u c h e . I n g r ama ndS e i t zu s edt h es c u lp t u r a lm e t ap ho ro f ‘mod e l l i n g ’tod e s c r ib et h e i rc lo s e up so ff a c e s ;b a t t l es c e n ef rom S c a r am o u c h e

V o r k ap i ch ,a sN apo l eon inth i sw a y .Th e yd r e s s edandpo s i t ion edh imt or e f e r en c eth e w e l l known i l lu s t r a t ion so fN apo l eona say oun go f f i c e r ,r ep r in t ed inh i sb io g r aph i e s . H es low l ytu rn sh i sh e ad in t oth e l i gh t inag e s tu r eth a tr e s emb l e sac on t emp l a t i v e po s ef r omas c r e ent e s t ,b i z a r r e l yp l a c ed inth em idd l eo fac r owd ed ,v io l en tb a t t l e s equ en c e .Th e ye s s en t i a l l ytu rnV o r k ap i ch in t oa mod e l l edbu s to fah i s t o r i c a lf i gu r e who s e l i k en e s sw a sw e l lknown ,p a r t i cu l a r l y inth ef o rmo fbu s t s .M an yo fth ec r owd s equ en c e s ,t oo ,f e a tu r eIn g r am ’ sf a v ou r edg e s tu r e st oth eo th e ra r t s .F o rr e f e r en c e st o p a in t in g ,th e yu s ed a r kf o r e g r ound s ,c en t r e l i gh t in gandsmo k e inth eb a c k g r ound . R e v i ew e r sm ad ec onn e c t ion sf r omh e r et oth esmo k e , l i gh t in gandf o r e g r ound s in f amou sp a in t in g sb ya r t i s t s l i k eEu g èn eD e l a c r o i xandJ a cqu e s -Lou i sD a v idd ep i c t in g th es t o rm in go fth eB a s t i l l e ,th ee x e cu t ion sandth eN a t ion a lA s s emb l y . Bu tt owo r ka sanad ap t a t iono faS ab a t in ino v e l ,andthu st om a in t a inad i s t an c e f r oma s so c i a t ion sw i thep i cu r e and e c ad en c e ,S c a r am o u c h ea l son e ed edt or e g i s t e ra san ad v en tu r ef i lm .S ab a t in iw r o t ea c t ions t o r i e s ,sub t i t l in gth i son e ‘ ar om an c eo fth e F r en chr e v o lu t ion ’ .S ab a t in i ’ ssou r c em a t e r i a ls e em edt ob eth eon l ym a jo rr i v a lt o Dou g l a sF a i rb an k s ’ sub iqu i t y inth ead v en tu r eg en r e .B e y ondS c a r am o u c h e ,S ab a t in i h ada l sop r o v id edth esou r c eno v e l sf o rTh eS e aH aw k(1924 )andC a p t a inB l o o d(1924 ) , andwh enth et r ad ep ap e r sp r omo t edth e ‘p i c tu r ev a lu e s ’o fS ab a t in i ’ sno v e l s ,th e yw e r e e ya f f i rm edth a tth eau tho r ’ sg en e r i c m a in l yr e f e r r in gt oth e i ra c t ionp lo t s .46Th p r e f e r en c e sh app en edt o l e an ,a sw a st ru eo fH o l l ywooda tth i st im e ,t ow a rd s sw a shbu c k l in gs c en e sth a tw e r ee x c i t in gt ow a t ch .Bu tth esw a shbu c k l e r(on eo fth e l e a s t ‘m au v e ’g en r e s )andp i c t o r i a l i smw e r eno tn e c e s s a r i l yc on s id e r ed mu tu a l l y e x c lu s i v e .F o re a r l yf i lmth eo r i s t sandf i lm -m a k e r sw i thasu s t a in ed in t e r e s t inth e p i c t o r i a la sp e c to fc in em a ,th ec ompo s i t iono fth e mo v in gbod yons c r e enr an k ed amon gth e mo s t impo r t an tc on c e rn s inth e i rw o r k .Th i sw a sc e r t a in l yth ec a s ew i th V a ch e lL ind s a y ,f o rwhomF a i rb an k sr ep r e s en t edat yp eo ff i lm -m a k in gth a tspo k e d i r e c t l yt oth e s ec on c e rn s .F o l low in gth eannoun c em en to fS c a r am o u c h ea sth ew inn e r o fth ep r i z e ,L ind s a yb e g anh i ss e c ondboo ko ff i lmc r i t i c i smf r omaho t e lr oom in Spo k an e ,a sanop en l e t t e rt oZu ko randSh e rw oodanda sason go fp r a i s et oD ou g l a s F a i rb ank s . R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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C l im a c t i cd u e ls t a g edw i t h i n ap i c to r i a lf r am ea nd p ho to g r ap h edf roma d i s t a n c e i nS c a r am o u c h e

In g r amn e v e rm ad eaf i lmw i thF a i rb an k s ,bu t inth i sad ap t a t iono faS ab a t in i s t o r y ,h ec om e sc lo s e rt oL ind s a y ’ sp i c t o r i a lr equ i r em en t sth anth eF a i rb an k s f o cu s ed L ind s a ywou ldadm i t .H ec a r e fu l l yo v e r l a y sp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionw i tha c t i v eph y s i c a l p e r f o rm an c e ,bu th edo e sso inaw a yth a t l i k e l yd i s appo in t edL ind s a y ’ sf e t i shf o rth e 47 ind i v idu a ls t a r ’ sbod y . In g r amandS e i t zsho tth ec l im a c t i cr e v en g eswo rd f i gh t in S c a r am o u c h einaw id esho tth r ou ghtw on e s t eda r chw a y so faGo th i cc a th ed r a l .Th e y p l a c eth ec am e r ae v enfu r th e raw a yth an inth eop en in gf i gh t ,wh i chs e t supth e r e v en g ep lo t .In s t e ado fu s in gf r equ en tcu t in s ,th e yen c lo s eth edu e lw i th ina p r onoun c ed ,s t a t i cf r am e ,h i gh l i gh t in gR amonN o v a r r o ’ sa c t ionb yh a v in gh ims t ep b a c kth r ou ghth ea r chw a y , in t oth ep a tho fth e l i gh t ,a sh edod g e se a ch lun g e .In g r am andS e i t zw ou ldr ep e a tth i sf i gh t s c en es t a g in gand l i gh t in g in l a t e rf i lm s l i k eM a r e N o s t r um(1926 ) .Ine a chc a s e , ju s ta tth ec l im a c t i cc on f r on t a t ion ,th e yp l a c eth ec am e r a fu r th e rb a c kands e tth ea c t ionw i th inas t a t i cf r am e .Ine a chc a s eth ef i lm sa t t emp tt o m e r g ec l im a c t i c ,a th l e t i cp e r f o rm an c ew i thc on sp i cuou ss t y l e in t oak indo fs t r enuou s p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion .I t i sth i sapp r o a cht oc ompo s i t ionth a tm ad eS c a r am o u c h eth e f o cu so fth eE x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y sa r t i c l em en t ion eda tth es t a r to fth i sch ap t e r .Th e r e v i ew e rc l a im edth a te a chf i lm ‘b e c om e ssom e th in gg r ipp in gb e y ond m e r en a r r a t ion , …o th e rth an“ d r am a ”m e l t eddownt og l y c e r in et e a r sand“ a c t ion ”th a tb low sup in 48 f r en z y ’ . N o te x a c t l yL ind s a y ’ sp r e s c r ip t ion .In g r amandS e i t z ’ sapp r o a ch i s mu chc lo s e rt o V i c t o rF r e ebu r g ’ sth eo r yo fc in em ac ompo s i t ion .B ypu t t in gth ea c t ionw i th in ,anda s p a r to f ,th ep i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion ,b yno tr e l e g a t in gc ompo s i t iont oth es t a tu so f o rn am en t , i t i sa s i fth e yw e r ed i r e c t l yr e spond in gt oF r e ebu r g ’ sr a th e r imp r a c t i c a l hop eth a tg r e a ta r tf i lm sw ou lde v en tu a l l ys yn ch r on i s eth e i rc l im a c t i c mom en t sw i th th e i r mo s ta r t fu l l yc ompo s eds c en e s .F r e ebu r gthou gh tth a tD eM i l l e ’ sC a rm enl e f tth i s hop eun fu l f i l l ed .H ew an t edC a rm en’ sd r am a t i cd enou em en tt oh a v eb e ens t a g eda sa lon g sho tc ompo s i t ionr a th e rth ana sas e r i e so fed i t ed m ed iumsho t s .In g r am ’ sf i lm s show edth a tF r e ebu r g ’ sp r e s c r ip t ionw a spo s s ib l e .I tdo e sno ts e emsu rp r i s in g ,th en , th a tF r e ebu r gm en t ion sIn g r am ’ sf i lm s inh i sP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e enmo r e 126

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f r equ en t l yth anan yo th e rd i r e c t o r ’ s .N o rth a tIn g r amw r o t eth ep r e f a t o r yno t ef o r F r e ebu r g ’ sboo k , inwh i chth ed i r e c t o rr em ind sr e ad e r so fth e imp e r a t i v e ‘p i c t o r i a l qu a l i f i c a t ion s ,su cha sf o rm ,c ompo s i t ion ,andap r op e rd i s t r ibu t iono f l i gh tand 49 sh ad e ’ . In g r am ’ sw o r kh ad in f lu en c edF r e ebu r g ’ san a l y s i s ,and i tapp e a r sth a t F r e ebu r gh adsom e in f lu en c eonh im . Wh i l eb r i e f ,th ep r e f a t o r yno t edo e s ind i c a t ea t l e a s tsom ef am i l i a r i t yw i thF r e ebu r g ’ sw o r k .Th et im in g i sr i gh t ,t oo .In g r am c omp l e t edh i s in t r odu c t o r yno t et oP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e enon5Au gu s t1923 . Th i sw a swh i l eh ew a sc omp l e t in gS c a r am o u c h e ,tw o mon th sa f t e rth e Mo t ionP i c tu r e A r t sCon g r e s s , ju s ta sth ec omm i t t e ew a sb e g inn in gt od e l ib e r a t eonwh i chf i lm st o c on s id e rf o rZu ko r ’ sp r i z e . T ak ent o g e th e r ,th e s ed i v e r s eapp r op r i a t ion so fIn g r am ’ sS c a r am o u c h eshowth a t i t i sr em a r k ab l ebo thf o r i t sc on sp i cuou ss t y l e ,andf o rth ew a y i tw a s in t r odu c edt oth e pub l i c .O r , mo r et oth epo in t ,th ef i lm ’ s in c lu s i v ep i c t o r i a ls t y l e in m an yw a y sm ad e i t s e x c ep t ion a lpub l i cd ebu tpo s s ib l e .S c a r am o u c h e ’ ss t y l em a yh a v er e s t r i c t ed i t sm a s s m a r k e t ab i l i t y inon es en s e .I t sr e f e r en c e st oth ep i c t o r i a lh i s t o r yo fth eF r en ch R e v o lu t ion ,f r am edf i gh ts equ en c e sandc r y s t a l l i s ed ‘p e r iod so fs i gn i f y in gand r e v e a l in gs t i l ln e s s ’m a yh a v es t i f l edth ef i lm ’ sb lo c kbu s t e rapp e a l .Bu tth e s ee l em en t s w e r ep r e c i s e l ywh a tm ad eth ef i lmsop r odu c t i v ew i th inth en e two r k so fedu c a t o r s , 50 I tw a sabu l k y c r i t i c s ,p r odu c e r s ,c omm i t t e e sandboo k s t o r e sth a td idc e l eb r a t e i t . sw a shbu c k l e ron l yb e c au s e i tw a ssu char i ch in t e rm ed i a lf i lm .H owe l s ec ou ld i th a v e su c c e ed eda sapo in to fc on v e r g en c ef o rasp e c t rumo f in t e r e s t sb r o adenou ght o in c lud eP a t t e r son ,F r e ebu r g ,G ib son ,Sh e rw ood ,L ind s a y ,Zu ko r ,S ch en c k ,th eNBRand G r o s s e t tandDun l ap ,amon go th e r s ?Th e s er ep r e s en t a t i v e sf r omsu chv a r i edc o rn e r s o fAm e r i c anf i lmn e ed edaf i lmth a tc ou ldad ap tand mo v ef r omon esph e r et oano th e r . S c a r am o u c h e ’ sf r am in ga saR e xIn g r ama r tf i lm m ad e i tad ap t ab l eand mob i l e . CONC LU S ION :THEL IM IT SO FEXC EPT IONA LF I LM S In g r am ’ sf i lm ss t a g edap r odu c t i v ec on v e r s a t ionb e tw e ene a r l yH o l l ywoodanda r t edu c a t ion ,bu tth i sp e r iodo fp r odu c t i v i t yd idno t l a s t .H ef a r edw e l lf o rawh i l e ,bu th i s c a r e e rw a sm a r k edb yg r adu a l l ysou r in gr e l a t ion sh ip sw i thth es tud io s .A f t e r1926 , In g r ams t a r t edh i sowns tud io inN i c e ,b r in g in gs t a r sandc r eww i thh imand c on t inu in gt od i s t r ibu t eh i sf i lm sth r ou gh MGM . Wh i l eh ec l e a r l ym ad ean impo r t an t b r e a kf r omH o l l ywood ,andsoonf r omf i lm -m a k in ga l t o g e th e r , i twou ldb e in a c cu r a t e t och a r a c t e r i s eh i spu l law a yf r om M e t r oa sac l a shb e tw e enana r t i s tandh i s c omp r om i s edemp lo y e r s .H i so f t enc o s t l yf i lm s ,w i thth e i rs tud i edc ompo s i t ion sand d e l ib e r a t ep a c in g ,m a yh a v et e s t ed M e t r o ’ sbo t t om l in e ,bu tt oth ee x t en tth a tth e y w e r ea l sot e s t in gth epo s s ib i l i t i e so fp r e s t i g ef i lm -m a k in gth e yp r o v edqu i t ec omp a t ib l e w i thth ew i sh e so fth e s es tud io s .T o in s i s tonth e i r in c omp a t ib i l i t ywou ldob s cu r ehow h i ss t andou ts t y l e ,c r i t i c a lr epu t a t ionandc omp an ya f f i l i a t ionwo r k edt o g e th e r inth e y e a r sb e f o r em an yo fth e l a s t in g in s t i tu t ion so fp r e s t i g ec in em ah adt a k enr oo t . Wh i l eth ef i lm s ’v i su a le xp e r im en t sande x c e s s e sw e r ee x c ep t ion a l inth es en s eth a t th e yw e r eno tth eno rmf o rth ec omp an i e s inwh i chIn g r amwo r k ed ,th e yw e r ea l so e x c ep t ion a l inth eNBR ’ ss en s eo f ‘ e x c ep t ion a lpho t op l a y s ’ .Th e ys t oodou t ,bu tth e y w e r ea l sosom ehowr ep r e s en t a t i v e .Th ef i lmsho v e r edabo v enon e x c ep t ion a lf i lm sand R e x I n g r am ’ sA r tS c hoo lC i n em a

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thu sa vo id edch a l l en g in gth e i rno rm sf r omth em a r g in s .Th ep r ob l emw a sn e v e rr e a l l y th a tIn g r amw a sm ino ro rp e r iph e r a l ,bu tth a th i se x c ep t ion a ls t a tu sa sa m a s t e ro f p i c tu r ec r a f t ,p a r to fh i sau tho r i a l id en t i t yf r omh i st im em ak in gB lu eb i rd sf o r Un i v e r s a l ,g r adu a l l yb e c am e l e s su s e fu ltoth ech an g in gbu s in e s s mod e l so fth e s tud io sf o rwhomh ewo rk edandwh i chd i s t r ibu t edh i sf i lm s .Du r in gth ep e r iod en comp a s s in ge x c ep t ion a lf i lm s l ik eTh eCh a l i c eo fS o r r owandS c a r am o u c h e ,h i sa r t f i lm -m ak e rs t a tu sw a sp r odu c t i v eandu s e fu l .I tw a sno tr e s i s t edbu tr a th e rcu l t i v a t ed esu c c e ed ed inH o l l ywoodf o ro v e rad e c ad e w i thth eh e lpo fp eop l e l ik eS e i t z .51H no td e s p i t eb e in gas cu lp to ro fth es c r e en .Ju s tth eoppo s i t e ,h er em a in edr e l e v an t in H o l l ywooda sas cu lp to ro fth es c r e en , i fon l yf o rat im e . T oc on s id e rIn g r am ’ sf i lm sa se a r l yH o l l yw ooda r tc in em a i st os e a r chf o racu l tu r a l app a r a tu sth a tr end e r edth e i r impu r i t i e sp r odu c t i v e .In g r ama s s emb l edh i st e chn iqu e s f r omnum e r ou ssou r c e s ,bu th es t a k edh i sf i lm s ’amb i t ion sond i s c ou r s e so fc r a f tand p i c tu r e .T os t andou t ,a sane x c ep t ion a ld i r e c t o ro fe a r l yH o l l ywood ,h ep l a c edth e mo t ionp i c tu r es tud io inc on v e r s a t ionw i th1890 sa r t i s t s .H e l in k edh i sc r a f t ,h i s a s so r tm en to ft e chn iqu e s ,w i tha r ts tud io so fth ep a s t . Mo r e impo r t an tth anan yd i r e c t im i t a t iono fp a in t e r l ys t y l e ,h ef i t t edw i th inana e s th e t i c i s tapp r o a cht of o rm ,wh i ch v a lu edp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionand i t sm e ch an i c so fe f f e c tabo v ea l le l s e ina r t .I tw a sth i s mo v eth a tp r omp t edc r i t i c so fth eN a t ion a lBo a rdo fR e v i ewt ow r i t eabou tth ev i t a l i t y inh i ss t i l lc ompo s i t ion s ,andt ou s eh i sf i lm sa se v id en c eo fanund e r l y in ga e s th e t i c qu a l i t yth a td e f in e sth e ‘ e x c ep t ion a l ’ inE x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y s.

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Con c l u s io n :Mo v i n gFo rw a r df romt h eS low Mo v i e

Wh a th app en edt oth ea r r a yo fc r i t i c a landc r e a t i v ep r a c t i c e sth a tf o rm ede a r l y Am e r i c ana r tc in em a ?I t i sad e l i c a t et a s kt od i s cu s sth ea f t e r l i f eo fana e s th e t i c t r ad i t ionth a tr a r e l ys e em edc on t en t in i t sownt im e .Th ev e r yqu e s t ion so fth ep a s t andfu tu r eo f mo v in g im a g ea r tp r eo c cup i ede a cho fth ef i gu r e s inth i sboo k inw a y s th a t ,e v enth e ykn ew ,d e f i edp r a c t i c a l i t y .Th e yw e r ee v e r loo k in gf o rw a rdb e y ondth e p r a c t i c a lfu tu r eand loo k in gb a c k ,f r omth ee a r l y1920 st o1890 sv i su a lcu l tu r e ,w i tha l in g e r in gg a z e .Th e i r im a g in a t i v ew o r k ss t anda st e s t imon yt o in t r i c a t epo s s ib i l i t i e so f e a r l ya r tc in em awh i l ea tth es am et im e in v i t in ga l am en tth a tm an yo fth e s ep r a c t i c e s w e r e l i v in gonbo r r ow edt im e .B l a c k ’ sp i c tu r ep l a y sr e t i r edf r omth e l e c tu r ec i r cu i t wh enh ed id .T r i a r tp i c tu r e s ,andH i l l e r ’ sf i lm -m a k in gc a r e e r ,end eda f t e rah and fu lo f f i lm s .F r e ebu r g ’ sandP a t t e r son ’ scu r r i cu lumd idno td i r e c t l yg r ow in t oana c ad em i c d i s c ip l in e .T ou rn eu randIn g r ambo th l e f tH o l l yw ood ins e a r cho fo th e rpo s s ib i l i t i e s in F r an c e .Th e s ep r o j e c t s , inth e i runu su a l in s t i tu t ion a la l l i an c e sa s mu cha sth e i rc r e a t i v e ou tpu t ,po s edqu e s t ion s mo r eth anth e ye s t ab l i sh edf ound a t ion s .Th e yw e r e p r o v o c a t i v e , i fno ta lw a y sv i ab l y inno v a t i v e ,du r in gap e r iodo fun c e r t a in t y .Th e d i s c ou r s e so fa r td i s cu s s ed inth i sboo kf indth e i rs t r on g e s tp e r iodo f im a g in a t i v e po s s ib i l i t yb e f o r eth e mo r ev i ab l e in s t i tu t ion so fa r tc in em at oo ksh ap et ow a rd sth e endo fth es i l en te r aand in t oth e1930 s .Th e ym a r kap e r iodo fe xp e r im en t a t ionb e f o r e wh a tS t e v enN e a l e , inh i sf ound a t ion a le s s a yonth e in s t i tu t ion so fa r tc in em a ,h a s d e s c r ib eda sth e mom en twh en ‘ th ec on f i gu r a t iono ff o r c e s in s id eandou t s id eth e c in em a t i c in s t i tu t ionb e g ant of r a c tu r eth a tun i t y[o fen t e r t a inm en t ,e xp e r im en t a t ion 1 anda r t ] in t oas e to fd i s t in c tsph e r e so fp r a c t i c e ,c i r cu l a t ion ,d i s cu s s ionanda c t i v i t y ’ . Af ewy e a r s l a t e r ,th eL i t t l eC in em a mo v em en t imp r o v eda l t e rn a t i v ep r o g r amm in gand th eAm a t eu rC in em aL e a gu ee s t ab l i sh edasp e c i a l i s edc a t e go r yo fa r t i s t i c e xp e r im en t a t ion .Soona f t e rth a t , jou rn a l s l i k eC l o s e u pandE x p e r im en t a lC in em a b e g ant od e f in eth ef i e ld ,andth e Mu s eumo fM od e rnA r top en ed i t sdoo r st o mo v i e s . Th eo r g an i s a t ion sandp r a c t i c e sth a tp r e c ed edth e s es t ab l e in s t i tu t ion sd e a l t in im a g in edpo s s ib i l i t i e sf o r mo v in g -p i c tu r ea r t .Th e y loo k edf o rw a rdt oana r tc in em a no ty e tr e a l i s edandb a c kt oe a r l i e ra es th e t i cthou gh tabou tth ep i c t o r i a la r t s . R e c o gn i s in gth i sun c e r t a in t ya sp a r to fth ea r ch i v eo fe a r l ya r tc in em am a k e s i t po s s ib l et of o cu sont r ad i t ion sth a t ,wh i l e l e s s e rknown inf i lms tud i e s ,a r ep r om in en t w i th inth i sa r r a yo fp r a c t i c e s .Th ef i gu r e sth a tan cho re a chch ap t e ra r eno tp a r to fa s in g l ed e f in ed mo v em en t ,bu tc on s id e r in gth ef r equ en c yw i thwh i chth e yr e app e a r f r omon ech ap t e r ’ sc on t e x tt oth en e x t ,n e i t h e ra r eth e y i so l a t edc a s e s .Th e yd idno ta l l Co n c l u s io n

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p a ydu e st oas in g l e ,d r i v in go r g an i s a t ion ;th ev e r ypo in tw a st ofun c t ion in mu l t ip l e c on t e x t sandcu l t i v a t ec onn e c t ion samon go r g an i s a t ion s .T om a k es en s eo fth e s e p e r s i s t en t l in k a g e sIh a v epu r su edana r ch i v eno tt yp i c a l l yc on su l t ed inh i s t o r i e so f s i l en tc in em a :th a to fAm e r i c ana r tedu c a t ion .A e s th e t i cthou gh tf r omth e l y c eum sand th ea r ts choo l sth r e ad sth r ou ghth i sb r o adr an g eo fwo r k .I tp r o v id e sac on t e x tf o rth e f i lmc r i t i c sand-m a k e r swhoad v o c a t edf o ra e s th e t i c a l l yamb i t iou s mo v in gp i c tu r e s th a ta r ed e l ib e r a t e l yc r a f t ed .Th ep r in c ip l e so fp i c tu r ec ompo s i t ion ,andth eth eo r i e so f i t sp s y cho lo g i c a le f f e c t s ,o f f e r edac r o s s cu r r en tt oth e l i t e r a r yandd r am a t i cd e f in i t ion s o f mo v in g -p i c tu r ea r t .Inth i sf o rmu l a t ion ,p r odu c t iond e s i gn ,d é c o randon s c r e en bod i e sc ou ldshow c a s eth e i r in t e g r a t edp l a st i ca sp e c t s .V e r i s im i l a ra c t in gs t y l e sand r e a l i s t i ce l em en t so fd é c o rw e r eno tth ef o cu so ftho s ewhof e l tth a tth e mo v in g im a g e shou ldt a k ead v an t a g eo f i t soppo r tun i t i e st och a rm ,t om a g i c a l l yt r an s f o rmandt o e xp lo r ea f f in i t i e sw i thth ea r t so fp a in t in gands cu lp tu r e . Th e s ea r eun ab a sh ed l ya e s th e t i cd e f in i t ion so fa r tc in em a ,andth e yh a v er a r e l y m an a g edt og en e r a t eth een e r g yo rcu l tu r a lau tho r i t yth a tth e yd iddu r in gth ef i r s t qu a r t e r c en tu r yo fAm e r i c anc in em ah i s t o r y .Bu tth i sdo e sno tm e anth a tth e s e p r o c e s s e so f im a g in in g ,and m a k in g , mo v i e sa sp i c t o r i a la r tc anno tb epu r su ed in l a t e r in c a rn a t ion s .I fth i sboo kh a sa r gu eda g a in s tat end en c yt oo v e r loo kth ec ompo s ed p i c tu r e so fe a r l ya r tc in em a ,how m i gh tth i sh i s t o r i c a la t t en t iont oa e s th e t i c s in f o rm cu r r en ta s sump t ion sabou t l a t e ra r tc in em a s ?Ro s a l indG a l t ’ se xp an s i v eP r e t t y,wh i ch c am eou ta sth i sboo kw a s in i t sf in a ls t a g e s ,m a k e sas t r on gc a s ef o rr e e v a lu a t in gth e ‘ s t ru c tu r a ld e v a lu a t iono fth ed e c o r a t i v e im a g e inc in em a ’and mod e rna e s th e t i c th eo r y , inwh i chc r a f t i sch a r a c t e r i s eda sm an ipu l a t ionands t y l i s ed im a g e sen c oun t e r 2 W r i t in gana e s th e t i ch i s t o r yo fp i c tu r ec r a f t ins i l en t su sp i c iona s ‘ cunn in gt r i c k s ’ . Am e r i c anc in em am e an sen g a g in gw i thth ee a r l ya e s th e t i cr oo t so fth e s et end en c i e s .In th es tud i e so fs i l en ta r tc in em aandr e c en ta r tc in em aa l i k e ,th ep i c t o r i a lo f t en c on f r on t s ,ab a sh ed l y ,s e r iou sc in em a t i ca r t ’ s i c ono c l a sm .Ind e ed ,th e r e i ss t i l lak indo f aw kw a rdn e s s int e a ch in gp i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c s inr e l a t iont oa r tc in em a . Mu cho fth e s cho l a r sh ipona r tc in em a ,b e c au s eo fth ep r om in en c eo f l a t e rp e r iod s ,f r omn eo r e a l i smth r ou ghth eg lob a ln eww a v e s ,h a ss id e l in edp i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion s .Th epo s t W o r ld W a rI It r a j e c t o r yt end st oemph a s i s ea l t e rn a t i v e st oc au s a ln a r r a t i v e , im a g e s th a tr em a inop eno ramb i v a l en tandan t i -p i c t o r i a lth eo r i e so fm i s eens c èn eth a tv a lu e mom en t s inwh i chth eob j e c tw o r ld ,r e c o rd edb yth ec am e r a ,r e s i s t sth ep r e c on c ep t ion s 3 A se a r l ya sth e1930 s inth eU SA ,th esu sp i c iono fth e o ff i lm -m a k e randv i ew e ra l i k e . p l a s t i c im a g ep e rm e a t e ss cho l a r sh iponth ea r to fc in em a inth e l e f t i s tw r i t in g so f L ew i sJ a c ob sandS e ymou rS t e rn .Th e s ef r am ew o r k so fc in em a t i cd i s t in c t ionh a v ea t l e a s ton eth in g inc ommon :th e yc ou ldno tb efu r th e rf r omt r ad i t ion so fp i c t o r i a l c ompo s i t ionandc r a f tth a tv a lu eth eob j e c tw o r ldp r e c i s e l yf o r i t sab i l i t yt ob ew o r k ed o v e r .F r omth ep e r sp e c t i v eo fth e s e l a t e r in t e l l e c tu a lt r ad i t ion s i tm a k e ss en s et o b r a c k e tth ea l i ene a r l yc on f i gu r a t ion so fa e s th e t i cc in em a .Bu tth i sh i s t o r yc ou ldp r o v e u s e fu l inth ee f f o r tt ound e r s t andth ee xp e r im en t sand m ino rc on f i gu r a t ion s in l a t e r a r tf i lm sth a tth ens e emou to fp l a c e ine s t ab l i sh eda c c oun t so fa r tc in em a .I sp i c t o r i a l c in em aar o adno tt a k en in l a t e ry e a r s ,o rh a sth ec on t inu in gsu sp i c iono fc ompo s ed p i c tu r e sob s cu r edc r o s s cu r r en t s ?I f ‘ s low mo v i e s ’ in f o rm edb ya e s th e t i c so fp i c t o r i a l c ompo s i t ionh a v ep e r s i s t ed insom ef o rm ,th enwh e r em i gh tw eb e g in loo k in gt os e e howh a v eth e yf a r ed in l a t e re conom i e so fp r e s t i g e ? 130

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Som eo fth eun c e r t a in t i e so fth efu tu r eo fp i c t o r i a lc in em ab e g inr i gh twh e r eth e boo k l e a v e so f f ,a tth e mom en twh e r ea r t c in em ad i s c ou r s ec om e s in t of o cu sw i th i t s owne xh ib i t ionv enu e sandpub l i c a t ion s .Inth e l a t e1920 s ,th eIn t e rn a t ion a lF i lmA r t s Gu i ldpu ta r t c in em ae xh ib i t ion in t op r a c t i c e .I t mob i l i s edp r o g r e s s i v eand mod e rn i s t s en t im en t st oc r e a t easp a c ef o rv i ew in ga r tf i lm sonth em a r g in so fm a in s t r e am e xh ib i t ion ,e i th e rdu et oth e i ra g eo rt oth e i r l a c ko fb r o adbo x -o f f i c eapp e a l .Th eGu i ld m an a g edth es t ru g g l e in v o l v ed inf o s t e r in gan ewd i s t r ibu t ionande v a lu a t i v en e two r k , and i t se f f o r t swou lden e r g i s eth eL i t t l eC in em a mo v em en t inth ef o l low in gy e a r s .Th e Gu i ld ’ sp e r su a s i v ed i r e c t o r ,S ymonGou ld , l edth e in i t i a t i v e ,bu th ed ep end edona n e two r ko fa r t c in em aad v o c a t e s in c lud in gp r odu c e r s ,s c r e enw r i t e r s ,e xh ib i t o r sand 4 Th ec r i t i c a ld i s c ou r s e c r i t i c st or e v i s i to ld e rf i lm sw o r th yo fa r t i s t i cc on s id e r a t ion . su r r ound in gth e s ep r o g r amm e s in fu s ed in t e l l e c tu a l l i f e in t oe a r l i e rf e a tu r e s .Th e i rf i r s t d i r e c t o r f o cu s eds e r i e s ,o fD .W .G r i f f i th ’ sw o r k ,p r omp t edc r i t i c st o loo kb a c kf r om 1926t oTh eB i r t ho fAN a t i on, In t o l e r an c e(1916 )andB r o k enB l o s s om s(1919 )a saw a yt o d e f in ea r tc in em a .Onth eo c c a s iono fth er e v i v a l ,J ohnCoh eno fTh eN ewY o r kS un d e c l a r edG r i f f i th ‘b e t t e rc op yth ane v e rb e f o r e ’ ,andanumb e ro fh i gh -p r o f i l ec r i t i c s , in c lud in gC a r lS andb e r gandRob e r tSh e rw ood ,t oo kth eoppo r tun i t yt om a k eo eu v r e l i k ec a r e e ra s s e s sm en t s .P i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c sf a c edn ewch a l l en g e s inth i sc on t e x ta sa r t c in em ab e g ant od e v e lop i t sown id en t i t y ine xh ib i t ionandth er e l a t edc r i t i c a l d i s c ou r s e ,bu t i ta l sop e r s i s t ed inun e xp e c t edp l a c e s . O fa l lth ec r i t i c swhot oo konth et a s ko fa s s e s s in gth ea e s th e t i c so fG r i f f i th ’ s e a r l i e rwo r k inp i c t o r i a lt e rm sdu r in gth er e v i v a l ,S e ymou rS t e rns t and sou ta son eo f th e mo s tp r om in en tbu ta l soon eo fth e mo s tsu rp r i s in g ,g i v enth ec on t e x t inwh i chh i s wo r k i s mo s tc ommon l yr em emb e r ed .Ind e ed ,t oth in ko fS t e rna sap r opon en to f a e s th e t i cc in em a , l e ta lon ep i c t o r i a lc in em a , i sa l r e ad yanun s e t t l in gthou gh t ,a sh e i s b e s tknowna son eo fth e in t e l l e c tu a l swhoe s t ab l i sh edth e l e f t i s t ,a v an t g a rd i s t d e f in i t iono fc in em a t i ca r t inth e1930 sand40 s .Co ed i t in gth e in f lu en t i a l jou rn a l E x p e r im en t a lC in em aw i thL ew i sJ a c ob s ,S t e rnh e lp edt od e l i v e rSo v i e ta e s th e t i c st oth e Am e r i c ans c en e .Thu sh i s in t e r e s t inG r i f f i th m a k e s mo r es en s et of i lmh i s t o r i an s wh en i th i gh l i gh t sth e l in k sb e tw e enCh a r l e sD i c k en sandS e r g e iE i s en s t e in .H e c e r t a in l ym ad eth e s e l in k s l a t e r inh i sp ion e e r in gIn d e xt ot h eC r e a t i v eW o r ko fD .W . G r i f f i t h.H i s ind i c e s ,r e l e a s edo v e raf ewy e a r s inth em id -1940 s ,h a v ec i r cu l a t ed in d i s cu s s ion so fG r i f f i th ’ sw o r ke v e rs in c e .Inth emS t e rn id en t i f i e sG r i f f i tha s ‘ th er e a l b e g inn in go fth eSo v i e tf i lm ’ ,go in gsof a ra st oc l a imth a t ‘G r i f f i th ’ sIn t o l e r an c ew a sto th eSo v i e tc in em awh a tM a r x ’ sC a p i t a lw a st oth eBo l sh e v i kR e v o lu t ion–th ec r e a t i v e 5 T om a k eth i sc l a imh es t r e s s edG r i f f i th ’ s in sp i r a t ionand id e a t ion a lsou r c e . ’ con t r ibu t iont of i lm l an gu a g eand mon t a g e .So i twou lds e emcoun t e r in tu i t i v e ,a tth e v e r y l e a s t ,t o l in kS t e rnw i tho th e ra sp e c t so fa e s th e t i c s ,t oth ep i c t o r i a l ,t oth e in t e rm ed i a l ,t oa e s th e t i cr e s t r a in t .T o l in kS t e rnw i thth ep i c t o r i a l ,u s in gG r i f f i tho fa l l d i r e c t o r sa sane x amp l e ,m a k e se v en l e s s imm ed i a t es en s e . Bu twh enS t e rnt oo kp a r t inth e l e c tu r e sandpub l i c a t ion ssu r r ound in gth eF i lm A r t sGu i ld ’ sG r i f f i thr e v i v a l ,e v enth i sfu tu r eed i t o ro fE x p e r im en t a lC in em ac a l l edf o r p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionanda e s th e t i cr e s t r a in t .A th i s l e c tu r eon ‘ f i lma e s th e t i c s ’ in O c t ob e ro f1926 ,aw e l l -pub l i c i s ede v en ts ch edu l eda r oundth eG r i f f i thr e v i v a landth e n ewr e l e a s eo fG r i f f i th ’ sS o r r ow so fS a t an ,S t e rnr e tu rn edt oth em e sIh a v eb e ent r a c in g amon g in t e l l e c tu a l sandf i lmc r i t i c sth r ou ghou tth i sboo k .S t e rng a v eth et a l ka tth e Co n c l u s io n

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G rubS t r e e tC lub ,a mo r eboh em i anv enu eth anth et yp i c a l l e c tu r eh a l l .6H ef r am edh i s l e c tu r e ,e c c en t r i c a l l y ,a sc omm en t a r yf r omat im e t r a v e l l in gM a r t i an l and in gone a r th in1914t oe xp l a inwh e r ec in em aw a sh e ad ed inth e1920 s .Loo k in gf o rw a rdandb a c k a tth es am et im e ,th i sM a r t i anw ou lde xp l a int op r ew a rf i lmf an s ,S t e rnh ypo th e s i s ed , th a tth ec in em ao fth en e x tg en e r a t ionw i l lh a v em ad es tunn in gad v an c e s ,bu tth e ‘m e ch an i c a ld e v e lopm en t…w ou ldb ea l lou to fp r opo r t ionw i thth ea e s th e t i c d e v e lopm en t ’ .7H ec i t e sth ec r i t i c a landpopu l a rp e r c ep t iono f ‘ th em a s t e r ’a sa ‘ f a i lu r e t ok e epp a c e ’w i th ‘G e rm ant e chn iqu e ’andth e ‘ ad v an c ed ,and mo r ed i s t in c t l y c in em a t i c id e a s ’o fLub i t s ch ,v onS t r oh e im ,S e a s t r om ,Dupon tand Mu rn au .G e rm an t e chn iqu e i sp r op e r l yc in em a t i cb e c au s eo f i t sa e s th e t i cd im en s ion ,andS t e rns e a r ch e s G r i f f i th ’ swo r kf o rth i sd im en s ion .I tw a st ooe a r l yf o rS t e rnt o l e c tu r eabou tth e So v i e t s ,bu tsom eon ef am i l i a rw i thS t e rn ’ s l a t e rw r i t in gm i gh ts t i l la s sum eth a th i s e a r l y l e c tu r ewou ldh a v ed i s cu s s edth ep ion e e r in go ff i lm l an gu a g e .H i s l e c tu r e s r ou gh l yc o in c id edw i thth ef i r s tpub l i c a t iono fth eh i s t o r i c a ls tud y ,A M i l l i onan dOn e N i g h t s, inwh i chT e r r yR am s a y e ’ sp r a i s eo fG r i f f i tha sas c r e en s yn t a xp ion e e rf ed in t o 8 Bu ta t th eendu r in gande v e r t r an s f o rm in gn a r r a t i v eo fG r i f f i th ’ sc in em a t i cp a t e rn i t y . th i spo in tS t e rnh adno ty e ttu rn edh i s in t e r e s taw a yf r omG r i f f i th ’ so th e ra e s th e t i c in t e r e s t s . Wh i l eG r i f f i thf o rm edth ec en t r ep i e c eo fS t e rn ’ s l e c tu r e ,th et op i co f G r i f f i th i an l an gu a g ef oundh im l e s sen thu s i a s t i c .H ed e s c r ib e sth ed i r e c t o r ’ sr a c e t o th e r e s cu et r ad em a r k ‘ th r ou ghth ea l l e y so fP a r i so rth ev a l l e y so fAm e r i c a ’a sp a r to f ‘ [ t ]h et r oub l ew i thG r i f f i th ’ .Th i sad v an c em en to ff i lm l an gu a g e i sf o rS t e rn ‘ af o rmu l a , 9 andt ru ea r t i s t sg en e r a l l ydon ’ tbo th e rw i thf o rmu l a e ’ . S t e rna s k edh i sf e l lowc r i t i c st o c on s id e rTh eB i r t ho fAN a t i on,no tf o r i t sh i e r o g l yph i cc l a r i t y ,bu tr a th e rf o r i t sm ino r mom en t so fr e s t r a in t ,su cha sth esho to fH en r yW a l th a l l inwh i ch ‘no th in ge l s e i s s e en ; ju s th i sb a c k ,s l i gh t l ys t oop ed ,andh i st e r r ib l e ,t r emb l in g ,g r a sp in ga rm .Th e r e 10 S t e rnf a v ou r sth e mom en twh enG r i f f i th ,whomh e id en t i f i e sa s a r enof a c e s . ’ ‘ e s s en t i a l l ya l y r i c i s t ’ ,a v o id sag r ands c r e enu t t e r an c eu s in ged i t in go rc lo s e -up s .H e d r aw sou tth e mom en twh enth e s e in v en t ion sg i v ew a yt oap i c t o r i a lsho t ,r e f e r en c in g h i se a r l i e rd i s cu s s iono ff i lm s l i k eV a r i e t é(1926 ) , inwh i cha c t o r sp e r f o rmw i thth e i r b a c k st oth ec am e r aandw i thou tf a c i a lc lo s e -up s . W i thth e s ec r i t e r i agu id in gh i san a l y s i s ,S t e rn ’ sc r i t i c i sma tth i st im e i sc lo s e rt o E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y sth ant oE x p e r im en t a lC in em a,c lo s e rt oth eb e t t e r f i lm s 11 Ina mo v eth a t mo v em en tth ant oe v enh i sown l a t e rc in em am an i f e s t of o rTh eL e f t. w ou ldrunc on t r a r yt om an yc r i t i c so fth e1930 s ,whof a v ou r edana e s th e t i c l a r g e l y d e f in ed inoppo s i t iont oth ep i c t o r i a l ,h es aw inp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionandr e s t r a in t som e th in gth a tc ou ldc oun t e rc in em a ’ st e chn i c a la c c omp l i shm en t s in v en t ed ,h e b e l i e v ed ,f o rth e i rowns a k e .F o rS t e rn in1926 ,th ed an g e r so fc o lou r ,s t e r eo s c op i c c in em aande v enad v an c e s ined i t in gth r e a t en edt oo v e r sh adowth e i ra e s th e t i c po s s ib i l i t i e s .Andth i spu t sh im in t oc on v e r s a t ionw i tho th e re a r l ya t t emp t st od e l im i t andd e s c r ib ea r tc in em a .H i sapp r o a chr e c a l l sp i c t o r i a l l yo r i en t edc r i t i c ssu cha s L ind s a yandF r e ebu r g in i t sc a l lf o rana e s th e t i cc in em aa lon g s id ef a s t -p a c edr e s cu e s equ en c e s .Th i sa e s th e t i cw ou ldr e s i s tth en a r r a t i v ech a r g eo fac r owds c en eand app r e c i a t e i ta sL ind s a y ’ sf amou sa r ch i t e c tu r e in -mo t ion ,o r inF r e ebu r g ’ st e rm s ,th e ‘mo v in gt e x tu r e ’o f ‘ a mobo fp eop l e ’r e s emb l in g ‘ th es t a t e l yc o i l in go fc loud s ,andth e m a j e s t i cw e a v in go f i c ef lo e s inth er i v e r ’ .12A l thou ghth e y in cub a t edth e i r id e a s in s ep a r a t e in t e l l e c tu a lc i r c l e s–S t e rn inboh em i anG r e enw i chV i l l a g e ,F r e ebu r ga t 132

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Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yandth eup s c a l eN a t ion a lA r t sC lubandL ind s a y inas e r i e so f i t in e r an ten c oun t e r sf r omN ewY o r kt oSpo k an e–th e s ee a r l yw r i t e r sonf i lma e s th e t i c s en c i r c l eds im i l a rc on c lu s ion s .Th a tS t e rn ’ sf i r s tc on t r ibu t ion st oth i sc on v e r s a t ion c o in c id edw i thF r e ebu r g ’ sandL ind s a y ’ s l a s t ,andth a th ew ou ldsoongoont o d enoun c ep i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c sa sm an ipu l a t i v esp e c t a c l e ,su g g e s t sash i f t in gt e r r a ino f a r tc in em awo r thpu r su in g ina l lo f i t sc on t r ad i c t ion s . Th e s en e two r k sc on t inu eon ,andth ed eb a t e s in t en s i f y , inth ef o l low in gd e c ad e s . F r om m a jo rs tud iod i r e c t o r st om ino rf i lm -m a k e r sonth ep e r iph e r yo fH o l l ywood , t r a c in g in f lu en c e sf r omth ef i gu r e sd i s cu s s ed inth i sboo kc anr e v e a lo c cu l t ed t r ad i t ion s .J o s e fv onS t e rnb e r g ,af i lm -m a k e rno ta lw a y se f fu s i v eabou ttho s ewho c am eb e f o r eh im ,h adon l yk indw o rd sabou th i sf i r s tm en t o r ind i r e c t in g : [W o r k in ga sana s s i s t an td i r e c t o r ]p l a c edm e inap o s i t i ont oo b s e rv eh ow l i t t l es om eo fth e d i r e c t o r sIa s s i s t edkn ewa b ou tth ee l em en t so fth e i rc r a f t .An o t a b l ee x c ep t i on ,h ow e v e r ,w a s th ef i r s td i r e c t o rIe v e rs e rv ed .H en o ton l yw a sw e l lqu a l i f i edt od i r e c tbu tw a sag r a c i ou s t e a ch e r ,n e v e rf a i l in gt oe xp l a inp r e c i s e l ywh a th ew a sd o in gandwh y .H i sn am ew a sÉm i l e Ch au t a r d .13

Wh i l eCh au t a rdh im s e l fh adt r oub l ead v an c in gf r omth ep e r iph e r yo fth eAm e r i c an f i lm indu s t r y ,h ew a sas i gn i f i c an tm en t o rand in f lu en c eon M au r i c eT ou rn eu rand S t e rnb e r ga l i k e .InS t e rnb e r g ’ sa c c oun to f l e a rn in gth ed i r e c t o r ’ sc r a f t ,Ch au t a rd ’ s a t t en t iont oth ed e t a i l so fac ompo s i t ion ‘ a l e r t ed m et o in sp e c te v e r y th in gb e f o r eth e c am e r ath r ou ghth e l en sandsoonp a v edth ew a yf o rm et oapp r a i s eth ed im en s ion a l 14 imp a c to fe v e r y th in g inf r on to fth e l en s , in c lud in gth ev a lu eo f l i gh tandsh adow ’ . Th i s i sana c c oun to fanedu c a t ion inc ompo s i t ionf r omon eo fth e mo s t c ompo s i t ion a l l yf o cu s edH o l l yw oodd i r e c t o r s .S t e rnb e r g ’ sf i lm sr e s i s ted i t in g f o cu s ed d e f in i t ion so ff i lma e s th e t i c s .Th e yg i v ep r im a r ya t t en t iont o l i gh t in gandsh ad e ,t oth e p l a s t i c so fth ebod y inth ef r am e ,t oc ompo s edsup e r impo s i t ion sandt oam i s een s c èn e th a ts e em st oo v e r f loww i th l a y e r so ff in eob j e c t s .Th e s ew e r em a jo r ,a e s th e t i c a l l y amb i t iou sH o l l ywoodp r odu c t ion s ,andth e i ra e s th e t i c sp r o v o k eds t r on gr e a c t ion sf r om tho s ewhof a v ou r ed mon t a g eo rr e a l i sm inth e i rd e f in i t ion so fth ea r to fc in em a .Th e p a g e so fS t e rn ’ sandJ a c ob s ’ sE x p e r im en t a lC in em aw e r e l e s sth ank indt oS t e rnb e r g in th e1930 s .Th e ya s s e s s edh i sf i lm sa sp r im a r ye x amp l e so f ‘ th ed e g en e r a t e id eo lo g y 15 S t e rnh im s e l fu s e sa l an gu a g eo fd e c ad en c et o [o f ]p i c t o r i a l i smf o r i t sowns a k e ’ . d e s c r ib ewh yh ef e l tS t e rnb e r gw a s ‘ on eo fth ew o r s tAm e r i c and i r e c t o r s ’ .H ec r i t i c i s e s S t e rnb e r g ’ s ‘ in t e r -m e l t in g ’d i s so l v e sa s ‘ ane x t r em em i su s eo faf a l s em e thod ’th a t b e t r a y sa ‘p e rv e r s e id e ao fth ec in em a ’ .16Su chs t r on gc ond emn a t ion s ,e sp e c i a l l y inth e c on t e x to fS t e rn ’ se a r l i e s tc r i t i c i sm ,showhowd r am a t i c a l l yth es t a k e so fc ompo s ed p i c tu r e sc ou ldsh i f t inasho r tt im e .Con s id e r in gth e s ech an g e sandS t e rnb e r g ’ se a r l y in f lu en c e s , i t i sc l e a rth a th i sf i lm s ’a e s th e t i cado rnm en t sa r eb e t t e rund e r s t ood in c on t e x tw i thth ed i s c ou r s e so fp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ionf r omth ep r e c ed in gp e r iod . Th i sa e s th e t i cc on t e x ta l so l in k sth esounds t a g e so fP a r amoun tw i thth e und e r g r ounda sS t e rnb e r gm en t o r edh i sowna e s th e t e sa lon gH o l l ywood ’ sp e r iph e r y .17 Cu r t i sH a r r in g t on ’ sf i lm sandw r i t in g ss e em m ad et op r o v o k eth ecu r io s i t yo fsom eon e in t e r e s t ed inana r tc in em ath a tn e v e rqu i t ef i t s i t st im e .H a r r in g t onpo s s e s s edad e ep 18 Inh i sa r t i c l e in t e r e s t inf i lmh i s t o r y ,sp e c i f i c a l l y inth ew o r ko fIn g r amandT ou rn eu r . Co n c l u s io n

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‘Ghou l i e sandGho s t i e s ’h ep r a i s e s Th eB l u eB i r d, P r un e l l aandTh eF o u rH o r s em eno ft h e A p o c a l y p s ef o rth e i rp i c t o r i a ls t y l eandf o rth e i rf an t a s t i cqu a l i t i e s .H a r r in g t onc l a im s th a t ‘O th e rAm e r i c and i r e c t o r sdu r in gth e ’ tw en t i e sd e a l tw i thth ef an t a s t i cf r omt im e t ot im ea sth e i rs t o r ym a t e r i a ld em and ed ,bu tT ou rn eu randIn g r amw e r ep e rh ap sth e two mo s tc on s i s t en t l y in t e r e s t ed inu s in gf i lm st op r e s en tf an t a s yr a th e rth an 19 A r oundth i st im e ,wh i l eh ew a sm a k in gh i sownund e r g r oundsho r t s , r e a l i t y . ’ H a r r in g t onw r o t esom eo fth ef i r s ts tud i e so fS t e rnb e r g ’ sf i lm s .H ec a l l edou tc r i t i c s l i k eL ew i sJ a c ob sandP au lRo th a ,p r a i s in gS t e rnb e r g ’ sr oo t s in ‘ th er om an t i cand d e c ad en t mo v em en t so fth e l a t t e rh a l fo fth en in e t e en thc en tu r y ’ .20InH a r r in g t on ’ s v i ewS t e rnb e r g ’ s in s i s t en c eth a t ‘ c in em a i sap l a s t i cm ed ium ’p r e s a g edbo thEu r op e an 21 H a r r in g t on ’ sownf i lmwo r kpu r su ed a r tc in em aandAm e r i c ane xp e r im en t a lc in em a . th e s es am ec onn e c t ion s .I t in t e r s e c t edw i thth ea v an t g a rd ep l a s t i c so fK enn e thAn g e r wh enH a r r in g t onwo r k edonP u c eM om en t(1949 )andp e r f o rm ed ,a sC e s a r eth e somn ambu l i s t , inIn a u gu r a t i ono ft h eP l e a s u r eD om e(1954 ) .H i sa r t f i lmf i r s tf e a tu r e N i g h tT i d e(1961 )d r aw sf r ombo thS t e rnb e r gandAn g e r ,t r i an gu l a t in gth ema r ound a e s th e t i cf an t a s i e so fth e1890 s .I tshow sth e in f lu en c eo fS t e rnb e r g in i t ss low rh y thm s , i t sc ompo s i t iono fbod i e s , i t sd en s em i s eens c èn e, i t sf a t a lwom anand i t s ob s e s s ionw i thth es e aandc a rn i v a l sa ss i t e so fuph e a v a l .Bu tN i g h tT i d ea l sot a k e son th eo c cu l t i smandf e v e r ede r o t i c i smo fAn g e r ’ sf i lm s .Th es e a s id ec a rn i v a ls e t t in g i sa s i t eo fd an g e r ,anday oun gD enn i sH opp e ra sas a i lo ronsho r e l e a v een c oun t e r sth e s e d an g e r sth r ou ghom inou st a r o tr e ad in g sandsw e a t yn i gh tm a r e s .Th em e rm a id p a in t in ga tth een t r an c et oth ec a rn i v a la t t r a c t ion ,c r e a t edb yAn g e rc o l l abo r a t o rP au l M a th i son ,s t and sa sth ep r im a r yp i c t o r i a lom en .Th em e rm a ids t a r e sou tf r omth e p i c tu r eth r ou ghar e f l e c t ion inah and m i r r o r ,andH a r r in g t onr ep e a t sth i s mom en to f c ompo s edd i r e c tadd r e s sa tth eendo fth ef i lm .Inaf e v e rd r e am ,th es a i lo rw a l k s t ow a rd sh i sb e lo v edwho i ss i t t in ga lon gth er o c k sa tth ew a t e r ’ sed g e .H es e e sh e r d i s t r e s s edf a c e mom en t a r i l y inah and m i r r o r .Ar e v e r s esho tth r ou ghth em i r r o r f r am e sth ef a c eo faw a t e rw i t ch ,af l e e t in gg l imp s eo fo c cu l t i s tM a r jo r i eC am e r on , b e f o r eh e i spu l l ed in t oth eo c e an .Th ec omb in a t iono fm i s eens c èn e,and somn ambu l i s t i cp a c in gm a k eN i g h tT i d eanunu su a lk indo fa r tf i lmf o rth e1960 s .I t em e r g e sf r omH a r r in g t on ’ sa v an t g a rd e in t e r e s t son l yt of indth a t i t sf an t a s t i c e l em en t sdono tqu i t ef i tw i th inat r ad i t iono fun ado rn eda r t f i lmf e a tu r e s .I tt a k e san a l t e rn a t i v ep a tha sana r tf i lm ,on enou r i sh edb yth ep i c t o r i a la e s th e t i c so fs i l en t c in em a .I faf i lm l i k eN i g h tT i d ew a sou to fp l a c e inpo s tw a ra r tc in em a , i tm i gh tf ind mo r ep r odu c t i v em e an in g inr e l a t iont oo th e rt r ad i t ion s .T r a c in gana e s th e t i c l in e a g e th r ou ghT ou rn eu randIn g r amk e ep ssom e on e l i k eH a r r in g t on ,who s ea e s th e t i c i sm p l a c edh imb e tw e enth ef i lm indu s t r yandthea v an t g a rd e ,f r oms l ipp in gth r ou ghth e 22 c r a c k so fh i s t o r i e so fa r tc in em a . And ,f in a l l y , l e a v in gth e s en e tw o r k sa s id e ,ar i ch e rund e r s t and in go fe a r l yp i c t o r i a l a r tc in em ac anc on t e x tu a l i s eg lob a lou t l i e r sf r om mo r er e c en ty e a r s .Th e r e i sno sho r t a g eo fa r t f i lmanom a l i e sm ad e inth ep a s tf i f t yy e a r sth a tm a k eu s eo fp a in t e r l y in t e rm ed i a l i t y , inwh i chp a in t in g i sno ton l yr e f e r en c ed ,bu ta l so in t e g r a t ed in t oth e f i lm sa saw a yt oe xp lo r eth ep i c t o r i a lqu a l i t i e so fth e mo v in g im a g e .Th es a tu r a t ed t ab l e au x inS e r g e iP a r a j ano v ’ sTh eC o l o ro fP om e g r an a t e s(1968 ) ,th e l ab y r in tho f l in k ed p i c tu r e s inR aú lRu i z ’ sH y p o t h e s i so ft h eS t o l enP a in t in g(1978 ) ,T e r r en c eM a l i c k ’ s c i t a t ion so fAnd r ew W y e th inD a y so fH e a v en(1978 ) ,E r i cRohm e r ’ sg r e en s c r e en 134

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r e c r e a t ion so fF r en chp a in t in g inTh eL a d yan dt h eD u k e(2001 )andP e t e rG r e en aw a y ’ s s tud yo fR emb r and t inN i gh tw a t c h in g(2007 )op e r a t e ind i f f e r en tn a t ion a l , t e chno lo g i c a landh i s t o r i c a lc on t e x t s ,bu tth e ye a chp r o v o k ecu r io s i t ya sa r tf i lm sdu e inp a r tt oth e i rp i c t o r i a l in t e rm ed i a l i t y .Ind i ed i r e c t o r sth a ts tud en t st yp i c a l l y und e r s t anda sc r e a t o r so fa r tf i lm s , l i k eT oddH a yn e s ,So f i aCoppo l aand W e s And e r son ,r e l yh e a v i l yonth ea e s th e t i ce xp e r i en c eo fm i s eens c èn et oc r e a t eth e i r a l t e rn a t i v ea f f e c t s .Th eg en e r i cr e v i s ion i sm inF a rF r omH e a v en(2002 ) i s c omp r eh en s ib l eon l yth r ou gh i t sc o lou r s a tu r a t ed1950 sd é c o r ,andth ea e s th e t i c d and y i smo fM a r i eAn t o in e t t e(2006 )andTh eG r an dB u d a p e s tH o t e l(2014 )wo r k sb e s t wh enth ech a r a c t e r sm e r g ew i thth e lon gt a k e so fc lu t t e r edsp a c e sandd e s i gn ed su r f a c e s .Th i ssh i f t inp e r sp e c t i v ec ou lda l sob en e f i tth es tud yo fc e r t a innon -w e s t e rn n eww a v e sth a ta r ea r gu ab l yth e mo s tv i t a ls i t e so fp r odu c t ion inc on t empo r a r ya r t c in em a .Abb a sK i a r o s t am ih a sr e c e i v edso mu cha t t en t iong lob a l l yth a th i swo r k som e t im e ss t and sa ssho r th andf o ra l lI r an i anc in em a .H i sf i lm s ,f r omth en eo r e a l i sm o fh i se a r l yf e s t i v a lsu c c e s sWh e r e i st h eF r i en d ’ sH om e ?(1987 )t oth e l a y e r edr e f l e x i v i t y o fC e r t i f i e dC o p y(2010 ) ,c l e a r l yt a k eonr e c o gn i s ab l ef e a tu r e so fo th e rpo s tw a rn ew w a v e s .B yr e c on s id e r in gth eh i s t o r yo fp i c t o r i a la r tc in em aon em i gh ta s kwh a t i s e x c lud edb yth i st end en c yt os e eI r an i ana r tc in em aa sar e a l i s t ,r e f l e x i v en eww a v e i sd i s c ou r s eonI r an i ana r tc in em aou t s id eo f w i thK i a r o s t am ia s i t sspo k e sm an .23Th I r anh a sob s cu r edth es i gn i f i c an c eo ff i lm -m a k e r ssu cha sA l iH a t am i ,who s ec o lou r mu s i c a l san im a t edP e r s i anp a in t in g sw i tht ab l e au xandc o s tum e sh ec r e a t ed ,o r B ah r amB e z a i ,who s ec ompo s ed im a g e sd r awf r omh i ss cho l a r l y in t e r e s t inth eh i s t o r y o fI r an i anv i su a lcu l tu r e .E v enw e l l knownI r an i ana r t f i lm -m a k e r sr e v e a ln ewa sp e c t s w i thash i f t edp e r sp e c t i v e . Wh enth eC ann e sF i lmF e s t i v a law a rd edS am i r a M a khm a lb a f ju r yp r i z e sf o rB l a c k b o a r ds(2000 )andA tF i v e int h eA f t e rn o on(2003 ) , c r i t i c sw e r eno tw r on gt oh i gh l i gh tth epo l i t i c i s edr e a l i smo fth e s ew o r k sabou t p r e c a r iou sKu rd i shandA f gh an i l i v e s .Bu tM a khm a lb a fc on t inu a l l yemph a s i s e sth e p i c t o r i a l mo v em en t so fb l a c kbo a rd sandb lu ep a r a so l sth a ttu rnt o g e th e r ,f r am ef a c e s , d i f fu s e l i gh tandr e c on f i gu r ebod i l y mo v em en t s .On e -d im en s ion a la t t en t iont oth e n eo r e a l i smo fth eN ewI r an i anC in em am i gh tm i s show , inh e rf i lm s ,c ompo s i t ion a l s t y l e i sno tap i c tu r e squ ef r am ef o rr e a l i s ts t o r i e s .I tm an i f e s t sr i gh ta tth epo in twh e r e th em a r g in a l i s edsub j e c t so fth ef i lm s in t e r a c tw i thth eph y s i c a lw o r ld . Wh i l eth e d i s c ou r s eonc on t empo r a r yg lob a la r tc in em ah a se xp r e s s eds i gn i f i c an t in t e r e s t inth e po l i t i c a lm e an in g so fM a khm a lb a f ’ sf i lm s ,th e r e i ss t i l l mo r et ob eg a in edf r oma d i s cu s s iono fh e ra e s th e t i ccho i c e s ind ep ic t in gth e s er e a l i t i e s . Wh i l eth e s ee x amp l e s , f r omP a r a j ano vt oM a khm a lb a f ,d r awf r omr e f e r en c epo in t sa sv a r i eda sP e r s i an m in i a tu r i s t s ,Du t ch m a s t e r sandAm e r i c an l and s c ap ep a in t e r s ,th e ye a chc a l la t t en t ion t oth ep i c tu r e s inth e i ra r tf i lm s .Andth i s id e ao fth ep i c t o r i a la sanendu r in g c ompon en to fth ea e s th e t i ce xp e r i en c eo fc in em ah a sa lon gh i s t o r y . Am e r i c ans i l en tc in em a ’ sp i c t o r i a lsp l endou r ,r oo t ed inth ea e s th e t i cth eo r i e so fth e 1910 sandth ec r a f tt r ad i t ion sth a tc am eb e f o r eth em ,o f f e r sah i s t o r i c a ls t a r t in gpo in t f o rc on s id e r in ghowf i lmh a sb e enc on c e i v ed inr e l a t iont oth eo th e ra r t s .A sa p r odu c t ionh i s t o r y i tm a r k se a r l ya t t emp t st oc o l l abo r a t ew i thcu l tu r a lo r g an i s a t ion s and m a k ep r e s t i g iou s mo v i e s .A san in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r y , i tf o rm sp a r to fa lon g e r t r ad i t iono fd eb a t e sabou tth ev a lu eo fth ea e s th e t i c in mo t ionp i c tu r e s .T oth ee x t en t th a tth i s in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r yo fp i c tu r ec omp o s i t ion in t e rm in g l edw i them e r g en tf i lm Co n c l u s io n

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s cho l a r sh ip ,f r omth ef i r s tf i lmth eo r i e so fth e1910 st oc anon so ff i lma r tf o rm ed in th e30 s , i tc on t r ibu t edt oth ep r o c e s so fr e f l e c t iononth ec r i t i c a lc a t e go r i e sth a t c on t inu et osh ap eth ed i s c ip l in eo ff i lms tud i e s .Inth i sw a y i tc an ,Ihop e ,r a i s e cu r io s i t yabou tth eodd mom en t sp i c t o r i a lsp l endou r ino th e r mom en t s inh i s t o r y : f r oma l a r g e l yf o r go t t en l e c tu r ea s so c i a t edw i thana r t -hou s er e v i v a lo fD .W .G r i f f i th f i lm s in1926 ,t oD enn i sH opp e r ’ sf e v e rd r e am s ina m a c ab r ea v an t g a rd eh yb r id f e a tu r e in1961 ,t oth ean im a t edp a in t in g sandb a c k l i tp a r a so l sob s cu r edb yth e mo r e r e c o gn i s ab l ef e a tu r e so fth eg lob a ln eww a v e s .

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No t e s

INTRODUCT ION 1 .H e rb e r tB e e rbohmT r e e , ‘Th eW o r th yC in em a ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,30J anu a r y1916 . 2 .Inh i se a r l ywo r ka sw e l la s inh i s mo s tr e c en tr e f l e c t ion sona r tc in em a ,Dud l e yAnd r ew d e s c r ib e sth et e rma sa mod eo famb i t ion .I td e f in e sc e r t a inf i lm sth a ta ch i e v ee x c ep t ion a l s t a tu sand ,th r ou ghth i ss t a tu s ,c i r cu l a t e in l e s sp r o s c r ib edw a y sth ans t and a rdf a r e .Su ch f i lm ssp i l lo v e rn a t ion a landcu l tu r a lbo rd e r s mo r ee a s i l y ,u s in gth e i rd i s t in c t iont og a in en t r y in t osph e r e sc lo s edo f ft oth em a jo r i t yo f mo t ionp i c tu r e sp r odu c edw i th inag i v en n a t ion a l indu s t r yo rf o rac e r t a inp r ed i c t ab l eaud i en c e .Dud l e yAnd r ew , ‘F o r ewo rd ’ , inG l o b a l A r tC in em a :N ewTh e o r i e san dH i s t o r i e s,ed .Ro s a l indG a l tandK a r lS choono v e r(O x f o rd : O x f o rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2010 ) .S e ea l soDud l e yAnd r ew ,F i lm int h eAu r ao fA r t(P r in c e t on , N J :P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1984 ) . 3 .Ju l i e tGood f r i end , ‘N a t ion a lA r tH ou s eTh e a t e rOp e r a t ion sSu rv e y ’ ,A r tH ou s eCon v e r g en c e Con f e r en c e ,Sund an c eIn s t i tu t e ,P a r kC i t y ,J anu a r y2014 . 4 . Twoo fth e s ef ound a t ion a lw o r k s ,r ep r e s en t in gth e in s t i tu t ion a landth ea e s th e t i c / f o rm a l app r o a ch e sr e sp e c t i v e l y ,a r eS t e v eN e a l e , ‘A r tC in em aa sIn s t i tu t ion ’ ,S c r e env o l .22no .1 (1981 ) ;D a v idBo rdw e l l , ‘Th eA r tC in em aa sa M od eo fF i lmP r a c t i c e ’ ,F i lmC r i t i c i smv o l .4 no .1(1979 ) . 5 .S e eM a r kB e t z ,B e y on dt h eS u b t i t l e :R em a p p in gE u r o p e anA r tC in em a(M inn e apo l i s :Un i v e r s i t y o fM inn e so t aP r e s s ,2009 ) . 6 .F o ra lu c idandc omp e l l in ga c c oun to fn ew -w a v ea r tc in em a inth ec on t e x to fg lob a l mod e rn i t y ,s e eJ am e sTw e ed i e ,Th eA g eo fN ew W a v e s :A r tC in em aan dt h eS t a g in go f G l o b a l i z a t i on(N ewY o r k :O x f o rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2013 ) . 7 .G a l tandS choono v e rp r im a r i l yr e f e rt opo s t -W o r ld W a rI Ia r tc in em a ,bu t impu r i t ya l so f i gu r e sh i s t o r i c a l l yf o rth em inwh a tth e yd e s c r ib ea s ‘ th e mon g r e ln a tu r eo fa r tc in em a ’ s p r eh i s t o r y ’ .G a l tandS choono v e r ,G l o b a lA r tC in em a,p .6 . 8 . Th i sd i s in t e g r a t edapp r o a cht oe a r l ya r tc in em ah a s insom ew a y sb e c om ead e f a c t o s t and a rd ,wh e th e re xp l i c i t l yad v o c a t edo rno t .J an -Ch r i s t oph e rH o r ak ’ sL o v e r so fC in em a t r a c e ssom ec oh e r en te a r l ya r t f i lm mo v em en t sbu t i t sr i chn e s s l i e s in i t sop enn e s st oth e r an g eo fp r o j e c t se xp lo r edb yth eboo k ’ sc on t r ibu t o r s .D a v idJ am e s ’ se x am in a t iono fm ino r c in em a s inTh eM o s tT y p i c a lA v an tG a r d eh a sas im i l a rs t ru c tu r e .B ru c eP o sn e r ’ sUn s e en C in em av id eos e r i e sandboo kc on s t ru c tap i c tu r eo fth ee a r l ya r tc in em ath a t in c lud e ssho r t s andf e a tu r ef r a gm en t ssp ann in gg en r e sandp e r iod s .J an -Ch r i s t oph e rH o r ak ,L o v e r so f C in em a :Th eF i r s tAm e r i c anF i lmA v an t -G a r d e ,1919–1945, W i s c on s inS tud i e s inF i lm No t e s

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(M ad i son :Un i v e r s i t yo fW i s c on s inP r e s s ,1995 ) ;D a v idE .J am e s ,Th eM o s tT y p i c a lA v an t G a r d e :H i s t o r yan dG e o g r a p h yo fM in o rC in em a s inL o sAn g e l e s(B e r k e l e y :Un i v e r s i t yo f C a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,2005 ) ;B ru c eCh a r l e sP o sn e re ta l . , Un s e enC in em a :E a r l yAm e r i c anA v an t G a r d eF i lm ,1894–1941,B l a c kh aw kF i lm sCo l l e c t ion(N ewY o r k :An tho lo g yF i lmA r ch i v e s , 2005 ) . 9 .S e eA l a inC a r ouandB é a t r i c ed eP a s t r e( ed s ) ,1895 :L eF i lmD ’ a r t&L e sF i lm sD ’ a r tEnE u r o p e (1908–1911 ) ,v o l .56(P a r i s :AFRHC ,2008 ) ;J onBu r r ow s , L e g i t im a t eC in em a :Th e a t r eS t a r s in S i l en tB r i t i s hF i lm s ,1908–1918(E x e t e r :Un i v e r s i t yo fE x e t e rP r e s s ,2003 ) . 10 .F o rth efu s iono fs cu lp tu r a lpo s in gandph y s i c a lcu l tu r e ,s e eEu g enS andow ,S t r en g t han d H owt oO b t a inI t(London :G a l eandP o ld en ,1897 ) .F o ranau tho r i t a t i v ed i s cu s s iono fth e in t e r a c t ionb e tw e ens t a g es t a r sandc in em a inth i sp e r iod ,p a r t i cu l a r l yo fth ewo r ko f B e e rbohmT r e e ,s e eBu r r ow s ,L e g i t im a t eC in em a,e sp e c i a l l ypp .141–79 . 11 .A l e cI s s i gon i s ,B r i t i s hV o gu e,Ju l y1958 . 12 .S e epp .4–9o fG a l tandS choono v e r ,G l o b a lA r tC in em a,anda l sop .6 . 13 .S e eAnd r éG aud r e au l tandPh i l ipp eM a r ion , ‘A M ed iumI sA lw a y sBo rnTw i c e… ’ ,E a r l y P o p u l a rV i s u a lC u l t u r ev o l .3no .1(2005 ) ,pp .3 –15 . 14 . Th i ssh i f t inp e r sp e c t i v eh a sb r ou gh tf i lmh i s t o r i an st o g e th e ra tr e c en tc on f e r en c e s spon so r edb yo r g an i s a t ion s l i k eD om i t o randGRAF IC S .R e c en t l ye s t ab l i sh ed jou rn a l ssu ch a sE a r l yP o p u l a rV i s u a lC u l t u r eandK in t o ph a v es im i l a r l yg i v enc on s id e r ab l ea t t en t iont o e a r l yc in em a ’ sr e l a t iont oo th e rm ed i a . 15 . Th i s i se v id en tf r omf ound a t ion a ln ew m ed i aw o r kb yL e vM ano v i chth r ou gh mo r er e c en t wo r kb ys cho l a r ssu cha sM a r kH an s en .Som eo fth ee x c i t in gp r o j e c t s inth i sv e inh a v eb e en s t ru c tu r eda r oundc on c ep t sth a tp r omo t ec on v e r s a t iona c r o s sh i s t o r i c a lp e r iod s .F o ron e r e c en te x amp l eo fasp e c i a l i s su es t ru c tu r ed inth i sw a y ,a r oundqu e s t ion so fth e3 -D im a g e , s e eF i lmC r i t i c i smv o l .37 /38no .3 /1( Sp r in g /Au tumn2013 ) . 16 .D an aB .P o l an ,S c en e so fIn s t r u c t i on :Th eB e g inn in g so ft h eU S .S t u d yo fF i lm(B e r k e l e y : Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,2007 ) ;P e t e rD e ch e rn e y ,H o l l yw o o dan dt h eC u l t u r eE l i t e :H ow t h eM o v i e sB e c am eAm e r i c an ,ed .J ohnB e l t on ,F i lmandCu l tu r e(N ewY o r k :Co lumb i a Un i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2005 ) ;H a id e eW a s son ,M u s e um M o v i e s :Th eM u s e umo fM o d e rnA r tan dt h e B i r t ho fA r tC in em a(B e r k e l e y :Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,2005 ) . 17 .‘ [T ]h et ru ed r am aw o v enonaso l idf r am ew o r ko fh i s t o r y i s l i k e l yt oh a v eapow e ro f imp r e s s ionf a rd e ep e randth e r e f o r et ob eo f in c a l cu l ab l ev a lu e inedu c a t ion . ’T r e e , ‘Th e W o r th yC in em a ’ . 18 .‘M i ch a e lAn g e lo ’ , inv o lum e12o fR a lph W a ldoEm e r son ,Th eC om p l e t eW o r k so fR a l p hW a l d o Em e r s on,12v o l s(C amb r id g e :R i v e r s id eP r e s s ,1903 ) . 19 .S e eP e t e rB e t j em ann ,T a l k in gSh o p :Th eL an gu a g eo fC r a f t inanA g eo fC on s um p t i on (Ch a r lo t t e s v i l l e :Un i v e r s i t yo fV i r g in i aP r e s s ,2011 ) . 20 .B en v enu t oC e l l in iandJ ohnAdd in g t onS ymond s ,Th eL i f eo fB en v en u t oC e l l in iN ew l y T r an s l a t e d in t oEn g l i s h,2ndedn ,2v o l s(London :J .C .N immo ,1888 ) . 21 F o raf amou show t o l an t e rn m anu a ls e eThom a sC r addo c kH epwo r th ,Th eB o o ko ft h e L an t e rn(London :H a z e l l ,W a t sonandV in e y ,1899 ) . 22 . Lou i sR e e v e sH a r r i son ,S c r e en c r a f t(N ewY o r k :Ch a lm e r s ,1916 ) ;Ep e sW in th r opS a r g en t , Th eT e c hn i q u eo ft h eP h o t o p l a y(N ewY o r k :M o v in gP i c tu r eW o r ld ,1913 ) ;F r an c e sT a y lo r P a t t e r son ,C in em aC r a f t sm an s h i p(N ewY o r k :H a r c ou r t ,B r a c eandCo . ,1920 ) ; . 23 .G l ennAd am son ,Th eC r a f tR e a d e r,En g l i shedn(O x fo rd ;N ewY o rk :B e r g ,2010 ) , pp .9–39 . 138

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24 . M a r yAnnS t an k i ew i c z , ‘AP i c tu r eA g e :R ep r odu c t ion s inP i c tu r eS tud y ’ ,S t u d i e s inA r t E d u c a t i onv o l .26no .2(1985 ) . 25 . M a r yAnnS t an k i ew i c z , ‘F r omth eA e s th e t i cM o v em en tt oth eA r t sandC r a f t s Mo v em en t ’ , S t u d i e s inA r tE d u c a t i onv o l .33no .3(1992 ) . 26 .A r thu rW .Dow ,C om p o s i t i on,3 rdedn(N ewY o r k :B a k e randT a y lo r ,1900 ) ;A r thu rW .Dow , Th e o r yan dP r a c t i c eo fT e a c h in gA r t,2ndedn(N ewY o r k :T e a ch e r sCo l l e g e ,Co lumb i a Un i v e r s i t y ,1912 ) . 27 .F o re x amp l e ,th ep i c tu r e squ e ,a sG io r g ioB e r t e l l in ih a sshown ,h adad i r e c t in f lu en c eon sh ap in g mod e rnr a c i a l i s edd ep i c t ion so fI t a l y inAm e r i c anc in em a .G io r g ioB e r t e l l in i ,I t a l y in E a r l yAm e r i c anC in em a :R a c e ,L an d s c a p e ,an dt h eP i c t u r e s q u e(B loom in g t on :Ind i an a Un i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2010 ) . 28 .C in em aandpho t o g r aph ya r ea s mu che x t en s ion so fp r in t in gt e chno lo g i e sa sth e ya r en ew m ed i a ,andthu sa r ec onn e c t edt oth eh i s t o r yo fd e s i gn . 29 .In m ych a r a c t e r i s a t iono f in t e l l e c tu a lt r ad i t ion sth a tm a k eu s eo fth et ab l e au ,Id r awon wo r k ina r th i s t o r yandth e a t r eh i s t o r y in f lu en c edb yM i ch a e lF r i edand M a r t in M e i s e l .F o r F r i ed ,th eno t iono fth et ab l e auc am et od eno t ean ewab so rp t i v er e l a t ionb e tw e enp i c tu r e andb eho ld e ra sh ed emon s t r a t e s inth ep a in t in g so fG r eu z eandCh a rd in .Ir e tu rnt oa p i c t o r i a lno t iono fab so rp t ion ,d e emph a s i s in gqu e s t ion so ff i lmn a r r a t i v e , in m y d i s cu s s ion so f ‘ in s t an t an eou st ab l e au ’(Ch ap t e r1 ) ,m e sm e r i smandaf i gu r ef o rab so rp t ion (Ch ap t e r2 )andth ep i c t o r i a lab so rp t iono fe a r l yf e a tu r e f i lmth eo r y(Ch ap t e r3 ) .M y s e c ond ch ap t e rd i s cu s s iono f ‘ f r am e jump in g ’ ,wh e r eon em ed iumapp e a r st os t epou to f ano th e r ,r e v i s e sM e i s e l ’ sc on c ep to fr e a l i s a t iont om a k e i t mo r eapp r op r i a t et o mo v in g p i c tu r e s .M i ch a e lF r i ed ,A b s o r p t i onan dTh e a t r i c a l i t y :P a in t in gan dB e h o l d e r int h eA g eo f D i d e r o t(B e r k e l e y :Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,1980 ) ;M a r t in M e i s e l ,R e a l i z a t i on s : N a r r a t i v e ,P i c t o r i a l ,an dTh e a t r i c a lA r t s inN in e t e en t h -C en t u r yEn g l an d(P r in c e t on ,N J : P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1983 ) . 30 . OnS t i c k l e y ’ s l abou rpo l i t i c s ,s e eT .J .J a c k sonL e a r s ,N oP l a c eo fG r a c e :An t im o d e rn i sman dt h e T r an s f o rm a t i ono fAm e r i c anC u l t u r e ,1880–1920(Ch i c a go :Un i v e r s i t yo fCh i c a goP r e s s ,1994 [1981 ] ) ,pp .70–95 . 31 .S e eM ab e lEm e r yandS t e l l aSk inn e r ,H owt oEn j o yP i c t u r e s ,w i t haS p e c i a lCh a p t e ronP i c t u r e s int h eS c h o o l r o om (Bo s t on :P r an gEdu c a t ion a lCo . ,1898 ) . 32 .S e eJ ohnC .V anD y k e ,S t u d i e s inP i c t u r e s(N ewY o r k :S c r ibn e r ’ s ,1907 ) .J ohnL aF a r g e ,G r e a t M a s t e r s(N ewY o r k :M cLu r e ,Ph i l l ip sandCo . ,1903 ) . 33 . Em e r yandSk inn e r ,H owt oEn j o yP i c t u r e s,pp .260 –75 34 . Fo rad i s cu s s iono fth e mod e rn i s a t iono fc r a f tl abou rinth eun i v e r s i t you t s id eth e dom a ino fa r tedu c a t ion ,s e eCh r i s toph e rN ew f i e ld ,I v yan dIn du s t r y :Bu s in e s san dt h e M a k in go ft h eAm e r i c anUn i v e r s i t y ,1880–1980(Du rh am ,NC :Duk eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 2003 ) . 35 . M inn i eH a y s , ‘App r e c i a t ion ’ ,S c h o o lA r t sv o l .9(1910 ) . 36 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fth e mo v em en t im a g e ’ sd i v e r g en c ef r omth e ‘ o rd e ro fth epo s e ’ ,s e eG i l l e s D e l eu z e ,C in em a1 :Th eM o v em en t Im a g e(M inn e apo l i s :Un i v e r s i t yo fM inn e so t aP r e s s , 1986 ) ,pp .4–8 . 37 .S e e ‘G i r l sandC r i s i s ’ , inS i e g f r i edK r a c au e r ,Th eM a s sO rn am en t :W e im a rE s s a y s,t r an s . Thom a sY .L e v in(C amb r id g e , MA :H a rv a rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1995 ) . 38 . Th eodo rW .Ado rno , ‘T r an sp a r en c i e sonF i lm ’ ,N ewG e rm anC r i t i q u ev o l .24 /25(1982 ) .S e e a l soTh eodo rAdo rno , ‘Fun c t ion a l i smT od a y ’ ,O p p o s i t i on sv o l .17(1979 ) . No t e s

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39 .G a r r e t tS t ew a r t ,B e tw e enF i lman dS c r e en :M o d e rn i sm ’ sP h o t oS yn t h e s i s(Ch i c a go :Un i v e r s i t y o fCh i c a goP r e s s ,1999 ) ,e sp e c i a l l ych ap t e r s3and7 . 40 . W a l t e rB en j am in , ‘On e -W a yS t r e e t ’ , inW a l t e rB en j am in :S e l e c t e dW r i t in g sV o l um e1 , 1913–1926,ed .M a r cu sBu l lo c kand M i ch a e lJ enn in g s(Bo s t on :H a rv a rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1996 ) ,p .476 .

1 MOV ING -P ICTUR EARTB E FOR EC IN EMA 1 . Th e l a s ty e a ro ft r a v e l l in ge xh ib i t ion inB l a c k ’ s l ed g e ra tth eN ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y i s 1904 .Th ed e c l in e inth ef r equ en c yo fh i st ou r sw a sg r adu a l .Th e yh adt ap e r edo f fb yth i s po in t . 2 .T e r r yR am s a y e ,A M i l l i onan dOn eN i gh t s :AH i s t o r yo ft h eM o t i onP i c t u r e(N ewY o r k :S imon andS chu s t e r ,1926 ) ,p .91 . 3 .B l a c k ’ swo r kw a so f t enc omp a r edt osu chf amou s i l lu s t r a t edpo em sa s ‘L i t t l eJ im ’ .S e e ‘On B l a c k ’ sP i c tu r eP l a y s ’ ,P h o t o g r amv o l .3no .36(1896 ) ,pp .287–8 .H i saud i en c e swou ldh a v e knownth e l i f e mod e ls e t s , inwh i cha c t o r sw e r epo s edf o rs e r i a lpho t o g r aph sb yc omp an i e s l i k eB am f o r th inth eUKandS c o t tandV anA l t en a inth eU SA .Th e s ep r a c t i c e sb e c am e p a r t i cu l a r l yv i ab l e inth ef o rmo fth e i l lu s t r a t edson g ,wh i chd e v e lop eda lon g s id eth ep i c tu r e p l a y sandb e c am eas t ap l eo fn i c k e lod eonshow s .B l a c kw a so c c a s ion a l l yc omp a r edt o i l lu s t r a t edson gp ion e e rCh a r l e sK .H a r r i s .B l a c ke v enc l a im edc r ed i tf o rth e in v en t iono fth e i l lu s t r a t edson g .S e e ‘AnIn t e rv i eww i thA l e x and e rB l a c k ’ , K a l am a z o oT e l e g r a p h(1901 ) ,N ew Y o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y . Wh i l e in v en t ion i st oos t r on g l ypu t , in f lu en c e i sno t .Edw a rdv anA l t en a s awB l a c k ’ sN ewY o r kshow sb e f o r eh eb e c am eon eo fth e l a r g e s tp r odu c e r so f i l lu s t r a t ed son g s .Inap r i v a t e l e t t e rw r i t t en in1959V anA l t en ac l a im st or em emb e rtw oo fB l a c k ’ s 1890 sp e r f o rm an c e sw e l l ,M a rn anCo l l e c t ion ,M inn e apo l i s .N o ten t i r e l yc om f o r t ab l eb e in g g r oup edw i thth e s epopu l a ramu s em en t s ,B l a c kt r i edt oa l i gnh i sw o r kw i thth ea c t i v i t i e so f a r t i s t i cand l i t e r a r yc i r c l e s .Th e r ew e r eo th e r sa tth i st im ewho , l i k eB l a c k ,h adc a r e e r s in lo f t i e rc i r c l e sandsou gh tth e s ek ind so faud i en c e s .Th e mo s tno t ab l eo fth e s ew a sp r ob ab l y Hub e r tv onH e r kom e r ,who s es t a g edp i c t o r i a l mu s i cshow sou t s id eLondonh e lp edh im t r an s i t ionf r omp a in t in gt om a k in gf i lm s .S e eI anCh r i s t i e , ‘B e f o r eth eA v an tG a rd e s :A r t i s t s andC in em a ,1910 –14 ’ , inL eon a rdoQu a r e s im aandL au r aV i ch i( ed s ) ,Th eT en t hM u s e (Ud in e :F o rum ,2001 ) ,p .374 . 4 .S e eG i l l e sD e l eu z e ,C in em a1 :Th eM o v em en t Im a g e,t r an s .Hu ghT om l in sonandB a rb a r a H abb e r j am(M inn e apo l i s :Un i v e r s i t yo fM inn e so t aP r e s s ,2003 ) ,pp .1–11 ;F r i ed r i chK i t t l e r , G r am o p h on e ,F i lm ,T y p ew r i t e r( S t an f o rd ,CA :S t an f o rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1986 ) ,pp .154–82 . 5 .‘N ewD a r k r oomOp en eda tL a s tN i gh t ’ sM e e t in go fth eD ep a r tm en t ’ ,Th eB r o o k l ynE a g l e, 13N o v emb e r1889 ,p .4 . 6 .S e eP e t e rCh e r ch e s , ‘ S t a rCou r s e :P opu l a rL e c tu r e sandth eM a r k e t in go fC e l eb r i t y in N in e t e en th -C en tu r yAm e r i c a ’ ,PhD ,N ewY o r kUn i v e r s i t y ,1997 .Onth ewo r k in g c l a s s o r i g in so fth e l y c eum ,s e epp .35 –50 . 7 .Y e a r b o o ko ft h eB r o o k l ynIn s t i t u t eo fA r t san dS c i en c e s(B r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e ,1893 ) . 8 .S e eG eo r g eEh r l i ch , ‘Ch au t auqu a1880 –1900 :Edu c a t ion inA r tH i s t o r yandApp r e c i a t ion ’ , Th eA r tB u l l e t inv o l .38no .3(1956 ) .B r oo k l yn Mu s eumd i r e c t o rW i l l i amH en r yGood y e a r w r o t em an yo fth eboo k su s edf o rth ec o r r e spond en c ec ou r s e s .S e eW i l l i amH en r yGood y e a r , Th eD e b to ft h eN in e t e en t hC en t u r yt oR om e :AS y l l a b u so faC o u r s eo fS i xL e c t u r e -S t u d i e s 140

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(Ch i c a go ,1897 ) ;W i l l i amH en r yGood y e a r ,AH i s t o r yo fA r t :F o rC l a s s e s ,A r tS t u d en t s ,an d T o u r i s t s inE u r o p e(N ewY o r k :A .S .B a rn e sCo . ,1896 ) ;W i l l i amH en r yGood y e a r ,R om anan d M e d i e v a lA r t(N ewY o r k :F loodandV in c en t ,1873 ) . 9 .S e eP i e r r eBou rd i eu ,P h o t o g r a p h y ,a M i d d l e -B r owA r t( S t an f o rd ,CA :S t an f o rdUn i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,1990 ) . 10 .S e eG eo r g eS an t a y an a ,Th eG en t e e lT r a d i t i on :N in eE s s a y s,ed .Dou g l a sW i l son(C amb r id g e : H a rv a rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1967 ) .S an t a y an at a r g e t edB r and e rM a t th ew samon go th e r sa s th ew o r s to fth eg en t e e lt r ad i t ion .M a t th ew sw a sA l e x and e rB l a c k ’ s lon g t im ea cqu a in t an c e andV i c t o rF r e ebu r g ’ sd i s s e r t a t ionad v i so r . 11 . Ch a r l e s Mu s s e randC a r o lN e l son ,H i gh -C l a s sM o v in gP i c t u r e s :L ym anH .H ow ean dt h e F o r g o t t enE r ao fT r a v e l in gE x h i b i t i on ,1880 –1920(P r in c e t on ,N J :P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1991 ) ,p .79 .Ih a v ef oundnodo cum en t sth a tspe c i f i c a l l yd e t a i lB l a ck ’ sr e l a t ion sw i thEd i son du r in gth i sd emon s t r a t ion ,bu th i spo s i t iona tth e in s t i tu t em a k e s i tas a f ea s sump t ion . 12 .Y e a r b o o ko ft h eB r o o k l ynIn s t i t u t eo fA r t san dS c i en c e s,v o l .11 ,1898–9 ,pp .177–8 ,260 . 13 .A l e x and e rB l a c k , ‘Th eN ewPho t o g r aph y ’ ,Th eC en t u r yM a g a z in ev o l .64no .6(1902 ) .B l a c k w r o t eth i se s s a y ,a lon g s id eane s s a yb yA l f r edS t i e g l i t z ,a sac on v e r s a t ionamon gap a in t e r ,a pho t o g r aph e randana e s th e t i cph i lo soph e r .Th e i rc on v e r s a t ion i sw r i t t en inth esp i r i to fth e d eb a t e sth a tw en ton inth e l e c tu r eh a l l so fth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e . 14 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fth ed e v e lopm en to fth e l y c eum ,s e eCh e r ch e s , ‘S t a rCou r s e ’ . 15 . Ch a s ew a s in t e r e s t ed in m an yo fth es am e i s su e so fa r tedu c a t ionth a t in t e r e s t edB l a c k .H e w a sa l soknownf o rh i su s eo fc o lou r inh i s l and s c ap ep a in t in g s .F o ratho r ou gha c c oun to f Ch a s e ’ sc a r e e r(un f o r tun a t e l yw i thou tc o lou r i l lu s t r a t ion s ) ,s e eK e i thL .B r y an t ,W i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e ,aG en t e e lB o h em i an(Co lumb i a :Un i v e r s i t yo fM i s sou r iP r e s s ,1991 ) . 16 .B l a c k ’ stwo -p a r ta r t i c l ew i thA l f r edS t i e g l i t ze xp lo r e sth epo s s ib i l i t i e so fp i c t o r i a l i s t pho t o g r aph y . Wh i l eS t i e g l i t z l a idou tth et en e t so fth ePho t o s e c e s s ion ,th ech a r a c t e r s in B l a c k ’ se c l e c t i c l y c eum s t y l ed eb a t een t e r t a in edth epo s i t iono fth ePho t o s e c e s s ionamon g o th e rd e f in i t ion so fpho t o g r aph i ca r t . 17 .P au lSp en c e rS t e rnb e r g e r ,inh i sr e c en ts tud yo fth et r an s i t ionf romam a t eu rpho to g r aph y toin s t i tu t ion a l i s eda r tpho to g r aph yin l a t en in e t e en th c en tu ryAm e r i c a ,id en t i f i e s in t e r r e l a t edcu r r en t sinth i sp e r iodo fp i c to r i a l i s tpho to g r aph yandwh a th ec a l l s ‘ th e pho to g r aph i ca e s th e t i c ’ .Incon t r a s ttop i c to r i a l i s tm an ipu l a t ion so fe xpo su r e ,fo cu sand p r in t in g ,p ropon en t so fth epho to g r aph i ca e s th e t i cb a s edth e i rcon c ep t iono f pho to g r aph i ca r tonth esh a rpr e a l i smo fth epho to g r aphcomb in edw i thaknow l ed g eo f ru l e so fcompo s i t ion .H ea t t r ibu t e sth i scu r r en ttoasu sp i c iono fEu rop e anp i c to r i a l mod e l sandtod i s t in c t l yAm e r i c an ‘po s i t i vi s tt end en c i e sandaw i l l in gn e s stoemb r a c e t e chno lo gy ’ .S t e rnb e r g e r ’ sch a r a c t e r i s a t ionh e lp stoun co v e ra sp e c t so fAm e r i c anam a t eu r pho to g r aph yo f t eno v e r sh adow edb yS t i e g l i t zando th e rp i c to r i a l i s tpho to g r aph e r sdu r in g th i sp e r iod .I th e lp stoind i c a t eimpo r t an ta sp e c t so fB l a ck ’ swo rka sw e l l .Th e r ei sa po s i t i v i s td im en s ion ju s ta s mu cha sap i c to r i a l i s td im en s ioninB l a ck ’ sc e l eb r a t iono fth e am a t eu r .Inth ec a s eo femb r a c in gt e chno lo gy ,th ec a s eshou ldb es t a t ed mo r es t ron g l yfo r B l a ck .P au lSp en c e rS t e rnb e r g e r ,B e tw e enAm a t e u ran dA e s t h e t e :Th eL e g i t im i z a t i ono f Ph o t o g r a ph ya sA r t inAm e r i c a ,1880–1900(A lbuqu e rqu e :Un i v e r s i t yo fN ew M e x i coP r e s s , 2001 ) ,pp .72–8 . 18 .H andb i l lf o r ‘Ou r s e l v e sa sO th e r sS e eU s ’ ,A l e x and e rB l a c kC l ipp in gF i l e ,B i l l yRo s eTh e a t r e Co l l e c t ion ,N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y . 19 .A l e x and e rB l a c k ,C a p t a inK o d a k :AC am e r aS t o r y,3 rdedn(Bo s t on :Lo th r op ,1899 ) ,p .21 . 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20 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fth ep l e a su r e so fm an ipu l a t in gt e chno lo g y mo t i v a t in gf i lma e s th e t i c so f Dou g l a sC r o c kw e l l ,s e eT omGunn in g , ‘M a ch in e sTh a tG i v eB i r tht oIm a g e s ’ , inJ an Ch r i s t oph e rH o r ak( ed . ) ,L o v e r so fC in em a(M ad i son :Un i v e r s i t yo fW i s c on s inP r e s s ,1995 ) . 21 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fB l a ck ’ se xp e r im en t sw i tham a t eu rf i lm -m ak in g l a t e r inh i s l i f e , in c lud in ganadd r e s sa tth e in au gu r a lm e e t in go fth eAm a t eu rC in em aL e a gu e in1926 ,s e e K a v ehA sk a r i , ‘E a r l y16mmCo lo rb yaC a r e e rAm a t eu r ’ ,F i lmH i s t o r yvo l .21no .2(2009 ) . 22 .C a p t a inK o d a kw a spub l i sh edt eny e a r sa f t e rB l a c kb e g ant r a v e l l in gw i thh i sd e t e c t i v e l e c tu r e sandf i c t ion a l i s e sm an yo fth eth em e sandpho t o g r aph sa c cumu l a t eddu r in gh i s y e a r sonth e l e c tu r ec i r cu i t .M o s to fth e100 im a g e su s edt o i l lu s t r a t eth i ss t o r yo fac am e r a c luba r et a k end i r e c t l yf r omB l a c k ’ spho t o g r aph i cc on t r ibu t ion st oh i s l e c tu r e s .F o rth i s r e a son ,Ir e adC a p t a inK o d a kinc on jun c t ionw i thB l a c k ’ sno n f i c t ion l e c tu r e s .Th ebook p r o v id e sa mo r ec omp l e t es e to fpho t o g r aph sf romth e l e c tu r e sth anth esu rv i v in gs l id e s .I t a l sog i v e su s e fu lc omm en t a r yonth e s e im a g e s inth eab s en c eo fasu rv i v in gs c r ip to rou t l in e o fth e l e c tu r e .Iwou ld l i k et oth an kC a r landAnn e t t aB l a c k ,whoh a v ewo r k edd i l i g en t l yt o p r e s e rv eandc a t a lo gu eth e i rf am i l ya r ch i v e .Th e i rg en e r o s i t yandw i l l in gn e s st od i s cu s sth i s m a t e r i a lh a sm ad eth i sp r o j e c tpo s s ib l e . 23 .B y1897A l f r edS t i e g l i t z ,h app yth a tth eh andc am e r af adw a sc om in gt oac lo s e ,w a se a g e rt o p r omo t eth ead v an t a g e so fth eh andc am e r af o rm a k in ga r t .A l f r edS t i e g l i t z , ‘Th eH and C am e r a :I t sP r e s en tImpo r t an c e ’ ,Th eAm e r i c anAnn u a lo fP h o t o g r a p h y(1897 ) . 24 .X .Th eodo r eB a rb e r , ‘Th eRoo t so fT r a v e lC in em a :J ohnL .S t odd a rd ,E .Bu r t onH o lm e sand th eN in e t e en th -C en tu r yI l lu s t r a t edT r a v e lL e c tu r e ’ ,F i lmH i s t o r yv o l .5no .1(1993 ) . 25 .‘L i f eth r ou ghaC am e r a ’ ,Th eB r o o k l ynE a g l e,14F eb ru a r y1889 . 26 .S e eL ynn eK i rb y ,P a r a l l e lT r a c k s :Th eR a i l r o a dan dS i l en tC in em a(Du rh am ,NC :Du k e Un i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1997 ) ;Ch a r l e s Mu s s e r , ‘Th eT r a v e lG en r e in1903–1904 : Mo v in gT ow a rd s F i c t ion a lN a r r a t i v e ’ ,I r i sv o l .1(1984 ) . 27 . Ph i l l ipP r od g e rh a sa r gu edf o rc on s id e r in g in s t an t an e ou sph o t o g r aph ya sac oh e r en t ‘ v e rn a c u l a r m o v em en t–ag r a s s r o o t suph e a v a l ,o r g an i z eda r oundas in gu l a rw i sh :t of r e e z em o t i on int im e ’ . F r omh i sb r o ada r ch i v e ,P r od g e rn o t e sth a ts t r e e ts c en e sandm a r in ev i ew sw e r eth em a in c a t e g o r i e so f in s t an t an e ou sph o t o g r aphun t i lE adw e a r d Mu y b r id g em ad eth eph o t o g r aph yo f b od i e s inm o t i onaf am ou ssu b j e c t .Ph i l l ipP r od g e r ,T im eS t a n d sS t i l l :M u y b r i d g ea n dt h e I n s t a n t a n e o u sP h o t o g r a p h yM o v em e n t (O x f o r d :O x f o r dUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2003 ) . 28 .Iam ind eb t edh e r et oJ am e sL a s t r a ’ sw o r konth em a t e r i a lb a s i so fd i e g e s i s .S e eJ am e s L a s t r a , ‘F r omth eC ap tu r ed M om en tt oth eC in em a t i cIm a g e :AT r an s f o rm a t ion inP i c t o r i a l O rd e r ’ , inDud l e yAnd r ew( ed . ) ,Th eIm a g e inD i s p u t e :A r tan dC in em a int h eA g eo f P h o t o g r a p h y(Au s t in :Un i v e r s i t yo fT e x a sP r e s s ,1997 ) . 29 .F r omah andb i l l inth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ion ,N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y . 30 . M a r enS t an g e ,S ym b o l so fI d e a lL i f e :S o c i a lD o c um en t a r yP h o t o g r a p h y inAm e r i c a ,1890–1950 (N ewY o r k :C amb r id g eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1989 ) ,p .17 . 31 . Ap i c tu r eo fawom ans i t t in ga tth es id eo fth es t r e e tc r y in ga c c omp an i edsom eo fth e pub l i c i t ym a t e r i a l . 32 .F r omapo s t e r inth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ion ,N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y . 33 .S e eT omGunn in g , ‘N ewTh r e sho ld so fV i s ion :In s t an t an eou sPho t o g r aph yandth eE a r l y C in em ao fLum i è r e ’ , inT e r r ySm i th( ed . ) ,Im p o s s i b l eP r e s en c e :S u r f a c ean dS c r e en int h e P h o t o g en i cE r a(Ch i c a go :Un i v e r s i t yo fCh i c a goP r e s s ,2001 ) . 34 .‘AL e c tu r eb yth eP i c tu r eP l a yAu tho rb e f o r eth eIn s t i tu t e ’ ,Th eB r o o k l ynE a g l e,18D e c emb e r 1896 . 142

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35 .S e eAnd r éG aud r e au l t , ‘Th eD i v e r s i t yo fC in em a t o g r aph i cConn e c t ion s inth eIn t e rm ed i a l Con t e x to fth eTu rno fth e20 thC en tu r y ’ , inS imonP opp l eandV an e s s aT ou lm in( ed s ) , V i s u a lD e l i gh t s :E s s a y sont h eP o p u l a ran dP r o j e c t e dIm a g e int h e19 t hC en t u r y(T r owb r id g e : F l i c k sBoo k s ,2000 ) . 36 .‘A sM rB l a c kS e e sU s ’ ,Th eB r o o k l ynE a g l e,28D e c emb e r1896 . 37 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fth er e l a t ionb e tw e en i l lu s t r a t ionandd r am a t i cp i c tu r in g ,s e eM a r t in M e i s e l ,R e a l i z a t i on s :N a r r a t i v e ,P i c t o r i a l ,an dTh e a t r i c a lA r t s inN in e t e en t h -C en t u r yEn g l an d (P r in c e t on ,N J :P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1983 ) . 38 .I t a l i c s ino r i g in a l .A l e x and e rB l a c k , ‘Th eAm a t eu rPho t o g r aph e r ’ ,Th eC en t u r yv o l .34no .5 (1887 ) ,pp .723–4 . 39 .S e eP e t e rG a l a s s i ,B e f o r eP h o t o g r a p h y :P a in t in gan dt h eIn v en t i ono fM o d e rnP h o t o g r a p h y(N ew Y o rk : Mu s eumo fM od e rnA r t ,1981 ) . 40 .‘ I tw a sac ap i t a laud i en c et oshowp i c tu r e st o ,f o rth e yw e r ep r omp tt ono t i c eandc omm end a t t r a c t i v ec ompo s i t ion s ,f e l i c i t ou so rch a r a c t e r i s t i cg r oup in g s ,[ and ]f o r c ib l e l i gh tand sh ad e . ’Th eB r o o k l ynE a g l e,6 M a y1890 . 41 .A l e x and e rB l a c k , ‘A r tandth eC am e r a ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,18D e c emb e r1892 . 42 .F o rane x t en s iono fG a l a s s i ’ sc l a imt of i lmth eo r y ,s e eJ a cqu e sAumon t ,L ’ o e i lIn t e rm in a b l e : C in ém aE tP e in t u r e(P a r i s :L ib r a r i eS é gu i e r ,1989 ) . 43 .H andb i l lf r omth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ion ,N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y .I t a l i c so r i g in a l . 44 .A l e x and e rB l a c k ,T im ean dCh an c e :Ad v en t u r e sw i t hP e o p l ean dP r in t(N ewY o r k :F a r r a r& R in eh a r t ,1937 ) ,p .70 . 45 . Th i sp a in t in ga l soknowna sTh eF a i rm anR o g e r sF o u r in -H an d. 46 .B l a c k , ‘Th eAm a t eu rPho t o g r aph e r ’ ,p .723 . 47 .‘N ewBoo k sA cqu i r ed ’ ,Th eB r o o k l ynE a g l e,16N o v emb e r1888 ;R am s a y e , AM i l l i onan dOn e N i gh t s,p .94 . 48 .B l a c k , ‘Th eAm a t eu rPho t o g r aph e r ’ ,p .723 . 49 .A l e x and e rB l a c k ,P h o t o g r a p h yIn d o o r san dO u t :AB o o kf o rAm a t e u r s,4 thedn(Bo s t on : H ou gh t on M i f f l in ,1894 ) ,p .214 . 50 . Edw a rdG r e go r y , ‘Onth eG a l lop in gH o r s e inA r t ’ ,Th eC en t u r yv o l .26(1883 ) .Rod in ,quo t ed inH o l l i sF r amp t on , C i r c l e so fC on f u s i on :F i lm ,P h o t o g r a p h y ,V i d e oT e x t s1969–1980 (Ro ch e s t e r :V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shopP r e s s ,1983 ) ,p .91 . 51 .‘L i f eth r ou ghaC am e r a ’ . 52 .B l a c k ,C a p t a inK o d a k,p .87 . 53 . Th i s in e v i t ab i l i t yo fc e r t a inp i c tu r ed in s t an t sw a so f t enu s edf o rd r am a t i ce f f e c t .Au gu s tu s E g g , inh i sw e l l knownP a s tan dP r e s en t(1858 ) ,u s e sth e in s t an t an eou se f f e c to faf a l l in g hou s eo fc a rd sf o rh e a v ys ymbo l i sm . 54 .Ir e f e rt o i ta sB l a c k ’ sp i c tu r e inth et r ad i t iono fa t t r ibu t in gau tho r sh ipt oth e l e c tu r e r .Th e a c tu a lpho t o g r aph e ro fth i sp i c tu r e i sJ .S .J ohn s t on .S in c eB l a c ku s ed i tf o rth ec o v e r so f mu l t ip l eh andb i l l s ,h eob v iou s l ys aw i ta sr ep r e s en t a t i v e . 55 .‘ Inth ef i r s tpho t o g r aph ,Iw a sshowna tth ev e r y mom en to fen t e r in gth ew a t e r ,and m yf a c e r e f l e c t eda l lt ooc l e a r l yth es en s a t iono fth ef i r s tc on t a c tw i thth ec o lds e a -w a t e r .R e a l l y ,on e wou ldno tapp r o a cha l ad yw i thsu chg e s tu r e s inth esho r e . ’1886 ,quo t ed inT omGunn in g , ‘Emb a r r a s s in gE v id en c e :Th eD e t e c t i v eC am e r aandth eDo cum en t a r yImpu l s e ’ , inJ an e G a in e sand M i ch a e lR eno v( ed s ) ,C o l l e c t in gV i s i b l eE v i d en c e(M inn e apo l i s :Un i v e r s i t yo f M inn e so t aP r e s s ,1999 ) ,p .57 . 56 .V i c t o rO s c a rF r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en(N ewY o r k :M a cm i l l an ,1923 ) ,pp .50–1 . No t e s

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57 . W i l l i amAbn e y ,In s t an t an e o u sP h o t o g r a p h y(N ewY o r k :S c o v i l landAd am s ,1895 ) ,p .2 . 58 .S e eK i r s t enG r amH o lm s t r öm ,M on o d r am a ,A t t i t u d e s ,T a b l e a u xV i v an t s :S t u d i e sonS om e T r en d s inTh e a t r i c a lF a s h i on1770 –1815(Upp s a l a :A lmq v i s tand W i k s e l l sBo k t r y c k e r i ,1967 ) . 59 .F r an ço i sD e l s a r t e , mo s t l yth r ou ghh i sAn g lophon ed i s c ip l eG en e v i e v eS t ebb in s ,w a sh i gh l y in f lu en t i a l inc onn e c t in ga c t in gs t y l e sandth e a th l e t i cph y s i c a lcu l tu r eo fth en in e t e en th c en tu r y .S e eD e l aumo sn ee ta l . , D e l s a r t eS y s t emo fO r a t o r y,3 rdedn(N ewY o r k :E .S .W e rn e r , 1887 ) ;G en e v i e v eS t ebb in s ,D e l s a r t eS y s t emo fD r am a t i cE x p r e s s i on(N ewY o r k :E .S .W e rn e r , 1886 ) . 60 . Th ee a r l y in s t an c e so fSw ed i shandG e rm ana c r ob a t sen g a g ed in ‘ f an c yd i v in g ’a tth etu rno f th en in e t e en thc en tu r yc o in c id e sw i thth ed e v e lopm en to fa c t o r sp r e s en t in gth e i rbod i e sa s s e t so fpo s edp i c tu r e sf o ranaud i en c e .Th espo r tg a in edan ewpopu l a r i t yr i gh ta tth et im e th a tth ed i v e rb e c am easub j e c to f in s t an t an eou spho t o g r aph y .Th ef i r s t mod e rnd i v in g c omp e t i t ion sw e r eh e ld inEn g l and inth e1880 s ,andth espo r tb e c am eanO l ymp i ce v en t in 1904 .G eo r g eR a c kh am ,D i v in gC om p l e t e(N ewY o r k :F ab e randF ab e r ,1975 ) . 61 .F o rad i s cu s s iono ft ab l e auv i v an tcu l tu r eandE a k in s ’ sA r c ad i anwo r k s ,s e eK a th l e enA . F o s t e rand M a r kBo c k r a th ,Th om a sE a k in sR e d i s c o v e r e d :Ch a r l e sB r e g l e r ’ sTh om a sE a k in s C o l l e c t i ona tt h eP enn s y l v an i aA c a d em yo ft h eF in eA r t s(N ewH a v en :Y a l eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1997 ) . 62 .H i s in t e r e s t inth e ju x t apo s i t iono fr e c o gn i s ab l y mod e rnnud ebod i e sandA r c ad i ans e t t in g s c o s th imh i sc omm i s s ionande v en tu a l l yh i spo s i t iona tth ea c ad em y in1886 ,an un f o r tun a t ee v en tth a tB l a c k l am en t s inh i sau t ob io g r aph y . 63 . Th epho t o g r aph i c mod e rn i t yo fth ep a in t in gw a sno t ed inth ef i r s tr e v i ew so fth ep a in t in g . S e e ‘A tth eP r i v a t eV i ew ,F i r s tImp r e s s iono fth eAu tumnE xh ib i t iona tth eA c ad em yo fF in e A r t s ’ ,P h i l a d e l p h i aT im e s,1885 . 64 . M a r t aB r aun ,P i c t u r in gT im e :Th eW o r ko fÉ t i enn e J u l e sM a r e y(1830–1904 )(Ch i c a go : Un i v e r s i t yo fCh i c a goP r e s s ,1992 ) . 65 . M a r yAnnDo an e ,Th eEm e r g en c eo fC in em a t i cT im e :M o d e rn i t y ,C on t in g en c y ,t h eA r c h i v e (C amb r id g e , MA :H a rv a rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2002 ) . 66 .B r aun ,P i c t u r in gT im e,p .246 . 67 .F r omah andb i l lf r omth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ion ,N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y . 68 .‘Th ewh i sp e rb e g an inth ec lu t t e ro fp i c tu re swh i chIh adb e end i sp l a y in gw i thth es c r e en t a l k s . Wh enIf oundp a r a l l e l sands equ en c e sno ton l y ina c t ion ,bu t in l i k en e s s ,wh enth eb i t o fs t o r y inon esn ap sho tb e g ant o jo inqu i t en a tu r a l l yw i thth eb i to fs t o r y inano th e r sn ap sho to fd i f f e r in go r i g in ,th ewh i sp e rb e c am eashou t . Wh yno tu s eacho s eng r oupo f p eop l e inav a r i e t yo fs i tu a t ion s ? ’B l a c k ,T im ean dCh an c e,p .129 . 69 .A l e x and e rB l a c k , ‘Th eC am e r aandth eCom ed y ’ ,S c r i bn e r ’ sM a g a z in ev o l .20(1896 ) ,p .607 . 70 .A l e x and e rB l a c k , ‘Pho t o g r aph y inF i c t ion :“M i s sJ e r r y , ”th eF i r s tP i c tu r eP l a y ’ ,S c r i bn e r ’ s M a g a z in ev o l .18no .3(1895 ) ,p .348 . 71 .‘So r to fB i gK in e t o s c op e , ’B o s t onH e r a l d .Und a t edc l ipp in g(1896 ? )f r omS tL aw r en c e Un i v e r s i t yL ib r a r ySp e c i a lCo l l e c t ion s . 72 .S l id e sf r omP r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yL ib r a r y ,D ep a r tm en to fR a r eBoo k sandSp e c i a l Co l l e c t ion s .S c r ip tf r omth eN ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r yR a r eBoo k sand M anu s c r ip t s . 73 . Th i s i ss l id ech an g enumb e r102 inth es c r ip ta tS tL aw r en c eUn i v e r s i t ySp e c i a lCo l l e c t ion s . 74 .B l a c k ,T im ean dCh an c e,p .137 . 75 . Thom a sC r addo c kH epw o r th ,Th eB o o ko ft h eL an t e rn(London :H a z e l l ,W a t sonandV in e y , 1899 ) ,p .282 . 144

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76 .B l a c k ,T im ean dCh an c e,p .129 . 77 .S l id e s113–15 inP r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t ySp e c i a lCo l l e c t ion s . 78 .S e e ‘D io r am i cE f f e c t s ’ , inL ew i sW r i gh t ,O p t i c a lP r o j e c t i on(N ewY o r k :Lon gm an s ,G r e enand Co . ,1891 ) . 79 .A l e x and e rB l a c k , ‘H owt oG i v eaP i c tu r eP l a y ’ ,L a d i e s ’H om eJ o u rn a lv o l .15no .11(1898 ) . 80 .A l e x and e rB l a c k ,AC a p i t a lC o u r t s h i p(N ewY o r k :S c r ibn e r ,1897 ) .I l lu s t r a t ionf a c in gp .24 . 81 .G aud r e au l t , ‘Th eD i v e r s i t yo fC in em a t o g r aph i cConn e c t ion s inth eIn t e rm ed i a lCon t e x to f th eTu rno fth e20 thC en tu r y ’ . 82 .P r o g r amm ef r omth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ion ,N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y . 83 .‘So r to fB i gK in e t o s c op e ’ . 84 . Mu s s e randN e l son ,H i gh -C l a s sM o v in gP i c t u r e s,p .166 . 85 .B l a c k , ‘Th eC am e r aandth eCom ed y ’ . 86 .‘AnIn t e rv i eww i thA l e x and e rB l a c k ’ ,K a l am a z o oT e l e g r a p h,1901 . 87 .‘M a k in gth eF i r s tP i c tu r eP l a y ’ ,H a r p e r ’ sW e e k l yv o l .38(1894 ) . 88 .F r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en,p .36 . 89 .S e eGunn in g , ‘N ewTh r e sho ld so fV i s ion ’ . 90 . Ch r i s t in eG l edh i l l , ‘ In t r odu c t ion ’ ,N in e t e en t hC en t u r yTh e a t r ev o l .25no .2(1997 ) . 91 .F o rag r aph i cc omp a r i sont oth ef i lm s t r ip ,s e eB l a c k , ‘Th eC am e r aandth eCom ed y ’ .Th e i l lu s t r a t ion sa r ep r e s en t ed inas in g l ev e r t i c a lr owone a chp a g et o in v i t ec omp a r i sont o c e l lu lo id . 92 .T ou r l ed g e r ,N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r ySp e c i a lCo l l e c t ion s ,A l e x and e rB l a c kCo l l e c t ion . 93 .H a r r i e tUnd e rh i l l , ‘Un r e e l in gth eP a s to fth eM o t ionP i c tu r e ’ ,N ewY o r kT r i b un e,9N o v emb e r 1919 ,p .3 . 94 .N ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r yc l ipp in gf r omP i c t u r eP l a yW e e k l y,2O c t ob e r1915 ,pp .25–8 ; i t a l i c s m in e . 95 .L e t t e rf r omZu ko rt oB l a c k ,d a t ed8O c t ob e r1919 .B l a c kf am i l yc o l l e c t ion . 96 .R am s a y e ,A M i l l i onan dOn eN i gh t s,pp .100 –1 .

2 MOV INGP ICTUR E SIMAG IN ETH EART I ST ’ SSTUD IO 1 .B r ow s in ge x amp l e so fh i s t o r i c a ledu c a t ion a ls l id e sf r omth ec o l l e c t ion so fm a jo rAm e r i c an a r ts choo l s ,th es e t t in go fth ew o r k shop in c r e a s e s inp r om in en c ea sh i s t o r i c a ls c en e sa r e r e c y c l ed ,f r omc ommons t o r i e st r an s l a t edf r omsou r c e s l i k eV a s a r i ’ sL i v e so ft h eA r t i s t s,t o n in e t e en th c en tu r ya c ad em i cp a in t in g s ,t och r omo l i tho g r aph sandth ent o l an t e rns l id e s . Th e s es c en e so fth es tud iow e r es c a t t e r edth r ou ghou ta r t edu c a t ion a ls l id ec o l l e c t ion s ,and o c c a s ion a l l yw e r ep r odu c ed ins l id es e r i e s , l i k eth e ‘A r t s inH i s t o r y ’s e r i e sc r e a t edb y p r om in en tAm e r i c ans l id ep r odu c e rC .W .B r i g g s .Th es l id e sw e r ed e s i gn edt o i l lu s t r a t e l e c tu r e sabou to ld m a s t e r s ,andw e r esou r c edf r om m id c en tu r yF r en cha c ad em i ca r t i s t s w i thwhomsu chsub j e c t sw e r epopu l a r .Th es e l e c t iono f im a g e sf o r e g r ound sth ew o r k sp a c e s f o rB r i g g s ’ sedu c a t ion a lm a r k e t s .Con s id e rth ep i c tu r eo fB en v enu t oC e l l in i .A sR en a i s s an c e a r th i s t o r i anJ an e tCo xh a sshown ,th et yp i c a lm id c en tu r yd ep i c t iono fC e l l in i ’ st im e in F r an c ef o r e g r ound sth ecu l to fF r an c i sIa sth eg r andp a t r ono fR en a i s s an c ea r t ,andd e emph a s i s e sC e l l in i ’ sr o l ea sac r a f t sm an .B yth eendo fth en in e t e en thc en tu r y inth eU SA , C e l l in ih ado fc ou r s eb e c om eak e yf i gu r eo fth eA r t sandC r a f t s mo v em en tth an k st oth e b e s t s e l l in gt r an s l a t ion so fh i ss e l f -p r omo t in gau t ob io g r aph y .Inth eB r i g g ss l id e ,th e No t e s

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p a t r on st a k eas e a t ,C e l l in ihop son t oab en chandr e v e a l sh i ss cu lp tu r eo fJup i t e rw i thap i l e o ft oo l sandp r op ss t i l lc lu t t e r in gth ef o r e g r ound .Th es e r i e sf r am e sR aph a e l inh i ss tud io w i thh i sM a d onn ad e l l aS e d i a,app a r en t l yun f in i sh ed ,a sh eb e g in sw o r kw i tha l i f e mod e lon th eS i s t in eM a d onn a .R aph a e l ’ sf amou s l ye f f i c i en tandp r odu c t i v ewo r k shop i s in mo t ion ,a s h i sp a t r on s(p r ob ab l yP op eJu l iu sI I ) loo kon ,h i sc r a f t sm enc o l l abo r a t eonac a r t oonf o ra f r e s c oandano th e r mod e lw a i t sf o rh e rw o r kt ob e g in .L i k eth eo th e rs l id e s ,th i s i st a k en f r oma l i tho g r apho fa m id c en tu r yF r en cha c ad em i cp a in t in g ,anda g a in i t sth em e scu t a g a in s tth eg r a ino fth e mo r ec ommonp i c tu r e sf o l low in gr om an t i ct r ad i t ion s inwh i ch R aph a e l i su s edt og lo r i f yF r an c i sIo rth e i c on i cp i c tu r e sth a td ep i c t edR aph a e l ’ sr e l a t ion s w i th mod e l sou t s id eo fth ew o r kth e yd idt o g e th e r .Th eg r oup in g s inth eB r i g g ss e r i e swou ld h a v eb e enf a r mo r ee f f e c t i v ea sed i f y in gt ab l e au xabou tth e mu l t ip l es t ep s in v o l v ed in c r e a t in gac ompo s i t ion .B r i g g sCo l l e c t ion ,G eo r g eE a s tm anH ou s e . 2 .N e i lH a r r i s ,H um b u g :Th eA r to fP .T .B a rn um(Ch i c a go :Un i v e r s i t yo fCh i c a goP r e s s ,1981 ) . 3 . A1904s l id ef r omth eS choo lo fth eA r tIn s t i tu t eo fCh i c a goshow c a s e showa r tedu c a t o r s u s eda l t e r ed im a g e so fth es tud iosp a c et ot e a cha r tapp r e c i a t ion .Th i sr end i t iono fth e P a in t e r inh i sW o r k s h o p(1663 ) ,th e i c on i cs e l f -po r t r a i tb yAd r i anv anO s t ad e , mod i f i e sth e wo r ko fana r t i s ta l r e ad yf amou sf o rd ep i c t in gth es tud iosp a c e in i t sc lu t t e r edd e t a i l .Th e l i tho g r aph e rt r an s f o rm sth eo r i g in a lb yb r in g in gth eapp r en t i c ef i gu r e ,g r ind in gp i gm en t s , ou to fth ed a r kb a c k g r oundandadd in gas e c ondw o r k e rb eh indth ef i r s t . Wh i l eth es l id e r e c r e a t e sth ep a in t e r ’ ss t y l e( ind e ed i t i s l ab e l l eda sth ea r t i s t ’ sw o r k ) , i t in v e r t sth eso l i t a r y t on eo fth eo r i g in a lo i lp a in t in g in t oa mo r eso c i a lsp a c eo fwo r k .A r tIn s t i tu t eo fCh i c a go s l id e ,co l l e c t iono fth eau tho r . 4 .E adw e a rd Mu yb r id g eso ldp r in t so fh i ss c i en t i f i c a l l yr i go r ou s mo t ions tud i e st oa r t i s t sa s e x t en s ion so fth e l i f er oom .Comp an i e s l i k eAu r o r aandN o rwoodS tud iosp e c i a l i s ed in pho t o g r aph in gc l a s s i c a l l ypo s ed mod e l sandthu sb r in g in g l i f ec l a s s e st oane v en l a r g e r aud i en c eth r ou ghc o r r e spond en c ec ou r s e s .Th e yad v e r t i s ed inth ea r t edu c a t ion m a g a z in e s w i thpho t o g r aph so f mod e l sandt e s t imon i a l sb yA r t sandC r a f t sc o r r e spond en c eedu c a t ion sp e c i a l i s t s .Th ec omp an yr e gu l a r l ypub l i sh edat e s t imon i a lb yE .L .Ko l l e r ,P r in c ip a lo fth e A r t sandC r a f t sd i v i s iono fth eIn t e rn a t ion a lCo r r e spond en c eS choo l s ,whow r o t e int o p r a i s e ‘ th eg r e a td i v e r s i t yo fpo s e sandpo s tu r e s ’f o ru s eb y ‘ th es tud en to ff i gu r ed r aw in ga s w e l la sth ep r o f e s s ion a lc omm e r c i a la r t i s t ’ .A r t san dD e c o r a t i on,S ep t emb e r1914 ,p .397 .Th e t e s t imon i a lw a su s ed inAu r o r aad v e r t i s em en t sf o ry e a r s . 5 .S e eS a r ahBu rn s ,In v en t in gt h eM o d e rnA r t i s t :A r tan dC u l t u r e inG i l d e dA g eAm e r i c a(N ew H a v en :Y a l eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1996 ) ,pp .277 –99 . 6 .S e eSu s an W a l l e r ,Th eIn v en t i ono ft h eM o d e l :A r t i s t san dM o d e l s inP a r i s ,1830–1870 (Bu r l in g t on :A sh g a t e ,2006 ) . 7 .Inh i ss em in a lin t e l l e c tu a lh i s to ryo fa r tedu c a t ion ,S tu a r tM a cdon a ldt r e a t sT r i l b ya s mo r eo fas tud io m emo i ro fth e1870 sth ana sapopu l a rf an t a s yo fth e1890 s .S tu a r t M a cdon a ld , Th eH i s t o r yan dPh i l o s o ph yo fA r tE d u c a t i on(London :Un i v e r s i t yo fLondon P r e s s ,1970 ) . 8 . Ro yF l em in gN o t eboo k ,K e l l enD e s i gnA r ch i v e s ,P a r son s ,1905 . 9 .F o rana c c oun to fth e l i gh tn in gs k e t cha tCh au t auqu a ,s e eI s ab e l l aP an s y ,F o u rG i r l sa t Ch a u t a u q u a(Bo s t on :D .Lo th r opandCo . ,1876 ) ,pp .361–75 . 10 . Ch a r l e s Mu s s e r , ‘AC in em ao fCon t emp l a t ion ,aC in em ao fD i s c e rnm en t :Sp e c t a t o r sh ip , In t e r t e x tu a l i t yandA t t r a c t ion s inth e1890 s ’ , in W and aS t r au v en( ed . ) ,Th eC in em ao f A t t r a c t i on sR e l o a d e d(Am s t e rd am :Am s t e rd amUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2006 ) . 146

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11 .A sM a l c o lmCoo kh a sno t ed ,o f t enth e s et r an s f o rm a t ion s inch a l kwou ldb ea c c omp an i edb y f i lm i ct r i c kt r an s f o rm a t ion ssu cha sth esudd enan im a t iono fth ed r aw in go ran im a g eo fan a c tu a lo v e r l a y in gth ed r awnon e .M a l c o lmCoo k , ‘P e r f o rm an c eT im e s :Th eL i gh tn in g C a r t oonandth eEm e r g en c eo fAn im a t ion ’ ,D om i t o rCon f e r en c e ,B r i gh t on ,Jun e2012 . 12 . Th et e rm ‘m e t a l ep s i s ’ i s mo r eapp r op r i a t et on a r r a t o lo g y ,bu tth ew a y i s i to f t enu s edt o e xp l a in in t e rm ed i a lt e x t ssu g g e s t sth a t i tc ou ldb eu s e fu l l y impo r t edt od i s cu s sth e jump f r omon em ed iumt oano th e r .F o rar e c en tth eo r i s a t iono fth et e rm inn a r r a t o lo g y ,s e e D eb r aM a l in a ,B r e a k in gt h eF r am e :M e t a l e p s i san dt h eC on s t r u c t i ono ft h eS u b j e c t(Co lumbu s : Oh ioS t a t eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2002 ) . 13 .L ynd aN e ad ,Th eH a un t e dG a l l e r y :P a in t in g ,P h o t o g r a p h y ,an dF i lma r o un d1900(N ewH a v en : Y a l eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2007 ) ,pp .45 –106 . 14 .D a v id M a y e randGw endo l yn W a l t zh a v e mo s tc on s i s t en t l yu s eth et e rm ‘ f r am e -bu r s t in g ’ in th e i rwo r konth e a t r e / f i lmh yb r idp e r f o rm an c e s ,wh i chh a sh e lp edt of o rms t r on g c onn e c t ion sb e tw e enh i s t o r i c a ls tud yo ff i lmando fth e a t r e .S e eGw endo l yn W a l t z , ‘Emb r a c in gT e chno lo g y :AP r im e ro fE a r l y Mu l t i -m ed i aP e r f o rm an c e ’ , inL eon a rdo Qu a r e s im aandL au r aV i ch i( ed s ) ,Th eT en t hM u s e(Ud in e :F o rum ,2001 ) . 15 .G io r g ioV a s a r i ,V a s a r i ’ sTh eL i v e so ft h eA r t i s t s(N ewY o r k :Do v e r ,2005 ) ,pp .61 ,225 . 16 .Som eo fth e i t em s in c lud ed inth em an i af o rT r i lb y an aw e r ep l a y s ,p a in t in g s ,d an c e sand f i lm s ,a sw e l la s i t em sf o r mo r e l i t e r a lc on sump t ionsu cha sT r i lb ys au s a g e sand i c ec r e am in th esh ap eo fth et i t l ech a r a c t e r ’ sf oo t .Th eH a r p e r ’ sM on t h l yed i t iono fth eno v e lapp e a r ed f r omJ anu a r yt oAu gu s t1894 .Th eboo kw a sr e l e a s edb yH a rp e randB r o th e r s inS ep t emb e r o fth a ty e a r ,andar e v i s edv e r s ionapp e a r edth ef o l low in gy e a r .F o rd e t a i l ede v id en c eo f T r i lb ym an i a ,s e eT r i l b y an a :Th eR i s ean dP r o g r e s so faP o p u l a rN o v e l(N ewY o r k :C r i t i cCo . , 1895 ) ,p .26 .Th ef o l low in gd e s c r ip t iono fth e i c ec r e am i sf r omanund a t edc l ipp in g inth e B i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t iono fth eN ewY o r kPub l i cL ib r a r y : ‘Th ec on g e a l edsw e e tn e s s i s p a c k ed in t oth e mo ld s ,wh i cha r esu r r ound edb yb r o k en i c eun t i lth ehou ro fs e rv i c e ,wh ena d a in t yf oo t ,a mod e lo faf oo t ,th ev e r yapo th eo s i so faf oo t i stu rn edon t oth ep l a t e ina l l i t s v i r g in a lwh i t en e s sandp lumps edu c t i v en e s s . ’ 17 . Th r e eEd i sonbu r l e squ e so fth es t o r yw e r em ad e in1895 : ‘T r i lb yH ypno t i cS c en e ’ , ‘T r i lb y D e a thS c en e ’and ‘T r i lb yQu a r t e t t e ’ .Th ed e s c r ip t ionf o r ‘T r i lb yD e a thS c en e ’s t a t e sth a t , ‘Th ed r am a t i sp e r son a eo fth i sa c ta r em ad eup ine x a c t im i t a t iono fth e i l lu s t r a t ion sg i v en inDu M au r i e r ’ sboo k . ’InCh a r l e s Mu s s e r , E d i s on M o t i onP i c t u r e s ,1890–1900 :AnAnn o t a t e d F i lm o g r a p h y(G emon a ,I t a l y :L eG io rn a t ed e lC in em a Mu t o ;Sm i th son i anIn s t i tu t ionP r e s s , 1997 ) .InN o v emb e r1896B io g r aph m ad eak i s sf i lm , ‘T r i lb yandL i t t l eB i l l e e ’ ,f o l low in gth e popu l a r i t yo fth ep l a ya sw e l la sth epopu l a r i t yo f ‘Th eM a yI rw inK i s s ’m ad ee a r l i e rth a t y e a r .S e eK empR .N i v e randB eb eB e r g s t en ,B i o g r a p hB u l l e t in s ,1896–1908(Lo sAn g e l e s : Lo c a r eR e s e a r chG r oup ,1971 ) ,pp .12 –19 . 18 . Ac a r t oonf r omac l ipp in gf i l ea tth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ionshow sA .M .P a lm e r , p r odu c e ro fP o t t e r ’ sT r i l b y,d e f end in gh i sT r i lb yonap l a t f o rma g a in s ta l in eo f im i t a t ion T r i lb y so fe v e r ysh ap eands i z e .Onon eo fth e i rap r on s i sw r i t t en , ‘T r yT r i lb yF lou r ’ .On l e g a l i s su e s ,s e ea l soEm i l yJ en k in s , ‘T r i lb y :F ad s ,Pho t o g r aph e r s ,and“O v e r -p e r f e c tF e e t ” ’ , B o o kH i s t o r yv o l .1no .1(1998 ) ,pp .241 –4 . 19 . Anund a t edc l ipp in gf r omth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ionc on t a in sapho t o g r apho fa wom an inth e ‘W i s t fu landSw e e t ’po s ef r omtheno v e lw i thth ec ap t ion , ‘ So c i e t yg i r lpo s in g a sT r i lb yonap ed e s t a l ’ .S e ea l soT r i l b y an a,p .19 .Th r e e mon th sb e f o r eth ef i r s tN ewY o r k p r odu c t iono fP au lP o t t e r ’ sp l a y ,P ap eth r ewth i sb en e f i tp e r f o rm an c ef o rth eN ewY o r k No t e s

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K ind e r g a r t enA s so c i a t ionc omp r i s edo ftw e l v et ab l e au xa c c omp an i edb ytw e l v eson g s . P r o g r amm ef r omth eB i l l yRo s eTh e a t r eCo l l e c t ion . 20 .J o s eph W .H e rb e r t , ‘Th r i lb y ’(N ewY o r k ,1985 ) . 21 .C a r l e t onS .K in g , ‘Fun inanA r t i s t ’ sS tud io : Mu s i c a lCom ed ySk e t ch ’ , inR a r eBoo k sand Sp e c i a lCo l l e c t ion sD i v i s ion ,L ib r a r yo fCon g r e s s ,W a sh in g t on ,DC ,1897 . 22 .A c c o rd in gt oD an i e lP i c k inS v en g a l i ’ sW e b :Th eA l i enEn c h an t e r in M o d e rnC u l t u r e(N ew H a v en :Y a l eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2000 ) ,th i sf i lmw a sa l soknowna s ‘S v en g a l iandth eP o s t e r s ’ . 23 .S e eA l i son W in t e r ,M e sm e r i z e d :P ow e r so fM in d inV i c t o r i anB r i t a in(Ch i c a go :Un i v e r s i t yo f Ch i c a goP r e s s ,1998 ) . 24 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fth eo r i g in so fac on c ep to fp i c t o r i a lab so rp t ion inth en eo c l a s s i c a l r e j e c t iono fRo c o c o ,s e eM i ch a e lF r i ed ,A b s o r p t i onan dTh e a t r i c a l i t y :P a in t in gan dB e h o l d e r in t h eA g eo fD i d e r o t(B e r k e l e y :Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,1980 ) . 25 . Th ep i c t o r i a ls t r a in in Mün s t e rb e r g ’ sth eo r y i se v id en t ins e c t ion so fTh eP h o t o p l a y: ‘Th e M e an so fth eV a r iou sA r t s ’and ‘Th eM e an so fth ePho t op l a y ’ .H eend sth e l a t t e rs e c t ion w i thth ec l a imth a te v e r yf i lmf r am eshou ldb et r e a t edw i th ‘ th er e sp e c to fth ep i c t o r i a l a r t i s tf o rth eun i t yo ff o rm s ’ .Hu go Mün s t e rb e r g ,Th eP h o t o p l a y :AP s y c h o l o g i c a lS t u d yan d O t h e rW r i t in g s(N ewY o r k :Rou t l ed g e ,2002 ) ,p .138 . 26 .Ib id . ,pp .96–8107 –8 ,134 –8 . 27 .Ib id . ,p .98 . 28 .S e ea l so Mün s t e rb e r g ’ san a lo g yb e tw e enf i lmf r am e sandth ed r op l e t so fw a t e rf r oma f oun t a in .H e mo v e sf r omf r am e st ocu t sh e r ea sw e l l .Ib id . ,p .135 . 29 .Ib id . ,p .97 . 30 .V a ch e lL ind s a y ,Th eA r to ft h eM o v in gP i c t u r e…B e in gt h e1922R e v i s i ono ft h eB o o kF i r s tI s s u e d in1915 (N ewY o r k :M a cm i l l an ,1922 ) ,pp .85 –6 ,100 –1 . 31 .F o rh i sp r a i s eo fF a i rb an k sa sH o l l yw ood ’ sp r opon en to fRoo s e v e l t ’ s ‘ s t r enuou s l i f e ’ ,s e e V a ch e lL ind s a y ,Th eP r o g r e s san dP o e t r yo ft h eM o v i e s,ed .andw i thc omm en t a r yb yM y r on Loun sbu r y(L anh am , MD :S c a r e c r owP r e s s ,1995[ c .1925 ] ) ,p .173 . 32 .Ib id . ,p .224 . 33 . Ro yF l em in gN o t eboo k ,K e l l enD e s i gnA r ch i v e s ,P a r son s ,1905 . 34 .Ib id . 35 .H i l l e rC l ipp in gF i l e ,1920 ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 36 . Ro yF l em in gN o t eboo k ,K e l l enD e s i gnA r ch i v e s ,P a r son s ,1905 . 37 .B i l l i eS c o t t , ‘Th eT ru eS t o r yo fanA r t i s t ’ sM od e l ’ ,S t a r ,London ,H i l l e rC l ipp in gF i l e ,V i su a l S tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 38 .‘Th em e t eo r i cr i s eo f mo r eth anon e l i t t l emod e lo f f e r san in sp i r a t ionth a tth ed eb sf ind d i f f i cu l tt or e s i s t .Th i sc oup l edw i thaf a i ramoun to fp a yandth eg l amou ro fwh a tth e y th in k i sboh em i a ,h a sa t t r a c t ed mu chr e s i s t edam a t eu rc omp e t i t ion . ’ ‘G i r l s inSo c i e t yP o s e f o rA r t i s t sa sP i c tu r eM od e l s ’ ,H i l l e rC l ipp in gF i l e ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 39 .L e j a r enàH i l l e r ,P r opo s a lf o rN e v e r t o ldT a l e sS e r i e s ,1919 ,pp .1–2 .V i su a lS tud i e s W o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 40 . Th ec a s t in c lud edH e l enG a rdn e r ,T emp l e rS e x e ,H i l l e r ,P e g g yO ’N e i land M a r cConn l e y(who a l soh e lp edH i l l e rw i thth es c r ip t ) . 41 .H i l l e rCo l l e c t ion ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 42 . Und e rw oodandUnd e rw oodh ade s t ab l i sh ed i t s el f inth en in e t e en thc en tu r y ,s e l l in g l an t e rn s l id e sands t e r eo c a rd s ,bu tw a snow ,w i thH i l l e r ’ sh e lp ,m a k in gpho t o g r aph i cad v e r t i s in g th e i rm a inbu s in e s s . 148

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43 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fH i l l e r ’ sw o r k inad v e r t i s in g ,s e eE l sp e thH .B r own ,Th eC o r p o r a t eE y e : P h o t o g r a p h yan dt h eR a t i on a l i z a t i ono fAm e r i c anC omm e r c i a lC u l t u r e ,1884–1929,S tud i e s in Indu s t r yandSo c i e t y(B a l t imo r e :J ohn sH op k in sUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2005 ) . 44 .‘ Inth eN ew sN e t ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,13Jun e1920 ,H i l l e rC l ipp in gF i l e ,V i su a lS tud i e s W o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 45 .E x h i b i t o r ’ sT r a d eR e v i ew,H i l l e rC l ipp in gF i l e ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 46 .H i l l e rCo l l e c t ion ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 47 .F o r mo r e in f o rm a t iononth es e r i e s ,andf o rad i s cu s s iono fth ef i lm s inth es e r i e sIdono t add r e s sh e r es e e ,D .J ohnTu rn e r , ‘L e j a r enàH i l l e randth eC in em a ’ ,F i lmH i s t o r yv o l .19 no .3(2007 ) . 48 .H i l l e rCo l l e c t ion ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY .Ind e ed ,th eon l ysu rv i v in gc op i e s o fth e s ef i lm sa r e16mmp r in t ss t ru c ks e v e r a ly e a r sa f t e rth e in i t i a lr e l e a s e ,p r e sum ab l yf o r edu c a t ion a lm a rk e t s . 49 . On e in t e r e s t in ga t t emp tt opub l i c l yf r am eth e s ef i lm sw a sac on t e s tth a tth ebo a rd m emb e r s p l ann edt oannoun c e inL a d i e s ’H om eJ o u rn a lt op i c kth es t a ro fth en e x tf i lm .Th ep l anw a s abo r t ed ,bu t i th adth een thu s i a s t i csuppo r to fe a cho fth ebo a rd m emb e r sandth e i l lu s t r a t o randed i t o ro f L a d i e s ’H om eJ o u rn a l,N .C .W y e th .H i l l e rCo l l e c t ion ,G eo r g e E a s tm anH ou s e . 50 .H i l l e rC l ipp in gF i l e ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 51 .F o s t e rG i l r o y , ‘V e r aRo y e r ,S tP e t e r sbu r gG i r l ,A id sU SF i lmS c r e ent oM a k eA r t i s t i cAn sw e r t oD em andf o rB e t t e rP i c tu r e s ’ ,S tP e t e r s b u r gT im e s ,Sund a y ,5F eb ru a r y1922 . 52 .H i l l e rC l ipp in gF i l e ,V i su a lS tud i e sW o r k shop ,Ro ch e s t e r ,NY . 53 .S e eSu s anL a sdun ,V i c t o r i an sa tH om e( aS t u d i oB o o k )(N ewY o r k :V i k in g ,1981 ) . 54 .H en r yC l a yF r i c kP ap e r s ,F r i c kCo l l e c t ion . 55 .F r i c kCo l l e c t ionr e c o rd s ind i c a t eth a tF r i c k lo an edth ep a in t in gt oth eM e t r opo l i t an Mu s eumf o re xh ib i t iona sP o r t r a i to faY o un gM andu r in gth eFu l t on -Hud sonc e l eb r a t iono f 1909 . 56 .S e eE rn s tGomb r i ch , ‘R emb r and tN ow ’ ,N ewY o r kR e v i ewo fB o o k s,12 M a r ch1970 . 57 . An ewa s s e s sm en tandc l e an in go fth ep a in t in gc on f i rm sth eb ru sh e s inth eb a c k g r ound .S e e J o ann aSh e e r s , ‘P o r t r a i to faY oun gA r t i s t ’ , inR em b r an d tan dH i sS c h o o l :M a s t e rw o r k sf r om t h eF r i c kan dL u g tC o l l e c t i on s ,ed .Co l inB .B a i l e y(N ewY o r k :F r i c kCo l l e c t ion ,2011 ) . 58 .H i l l e rm a yh a v er e adan yo fth e mono g r aph sonR emb r and t ,bu th ed e f in i t e l yr e adon eb y Ed inbu r gha r th i s t o r i anG eo r g eB a ldw inB r own ,wh i chd e v o t e sas e c t iont oth ea r t i s t ’ s s tud io in t e r io randt oh i spup i l s .H i l l e rg a v eB r own ’ sbookac am eoapp e a r an c e inh i sf i lm , andu s edth es am ey oun gs e l f -po r t r a i t inth ef i lm ’ sp r o lo gu eth a tB r ownu s ed inh i s b io g r aph i c a lch ap t e r . 59 .S e eC a r lCh i a r en z a , ‘N o t e sonA e s th e t i cR e l a t ion sh ip sb e tw e enS e v en t e en th c en tu r yDu t ch P a in t in gandN in e t e en th c en tu r yPho t o g r aph y ’ , inV anD e r enCo k e( ed . ) ,On eH un d r e dY e a r s o fP h o t o g r a p h i cH i s t o r y(A lbuqu e r qu e :Un i v e r s i t yo fN ew M e x i c oP r e s s ,1975 ) . 60 .S v e t l an aA lp e r s ,R em b r an d t ’ sEn t e r p r i s e :Th eS t u d i oan dt h eM a r k e t(Ch i c a go :Un i v e r s i t yo f Ch i c a goP r e s s ,1995 ) ,p .83 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fR emb r and t ’ sth em a t i cen g a g em en tw i thth e wo r k sp a c e ,s e ech ap t e r3 ‘A M a s t e r inth eS tud io ’ ,pp .58–87 . 61 .Inas im i l a rm ann e r ,s choo l so f t enno t edth e i rbo r r ow in g sf r omP a r i s .Th eb r o chu r ef o rth e E r i cP ap eS choo lo fA r t ,ano th e rf r equ en tad v e r t i s e r ina r tm a g a z in e s ,m a k e sc l e a rP ap e ’ s in t en t iont o ‘ c a r r you tth eg r e a tbu ts imp l ep r in c ip l e so fth ea r ta c ad em i e so fP a r i s .… S tud en t sb e g ina ton c et od r awf r omth enud e ’anduponen r o l lm en t ‘ ob t a inf r e een t r an c e No t e s

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c a rd st oth e Mu s eumo fF in eA r t sand m a yw o r k inth ea r tr oom so fth eBo s t onPub l i c L ib r a r y ’ ,s tud y in gf r omth e mu r a l so fP i e r r ePu v i sd eCh a v ann e sandJ ohnS in g e rS a r g en t . P ap e ’ ss choo l ,wh i l e i tt au gh tc ou r s e s in mod e rnapp l i eda r t s ,sou gh tt os imu l a t eth e P a r i s i ans y s t ema l r e ad you t s t r ipp edb yth e in f lu en c eo fImp r e s s ion i sm .Th e s ebo r r ow in g s m ad eP ap e ’ ss t a g in go ft ab l e au xf r omT r i lb ys e em l i k e l e s so fac o in c id en c e .P a p eS c h o o l B r o c h u r e,Th eIn t e rn e tA r ch i v e .

3C INEMACOMPO S IT ION 1 .S e eR i ch a rdKo s z a r s k i ,AnE v en in g ’ sEn t e r t a inm en t :Th eA g eo ft h eS i l en tF e a t u r eP i c t u r e , 1915–1928(B e r k e l e y :Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,1994 ) ;M y r onLoun sbu r y ,Th eO r i g in s o fAm e r i c anF i lmC r i t i s i c i sm ,1909–1939(N ewY o r k :A rnoP r e s s ,1973 ) . 2 .D an aB .P o l an ,S c en e so fIn s t r u c t i on :Th eB e g inn in g so ft h eU SS t u d yo fF i lm(B e r k e l e y : Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,2007 ) . 3 .P e t e rD e ch e rn e y ,H o l l yw o o dan dt h eC u l t u r eE l i t e :H owt h eM o v i e sB e c am eAm e r i c an(N ew Y o r k :Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2005 ) . 4 . Th i sf ound a t ion a lw o r k i sp a r t i cu l a r l y impo r t an t inth i sc a s e .Comp a r edw i thane a r l yf i lm th eo r i s t l i k eHu go Mün s t e rb e r g ,who s ew r i t in gonf i lmf o l low sc l e a rands e l f c on t a in ed lo g i c a ls t ep s ,on ef ind s i t mu ch mo r ed i f f i cu l tt od i s en t an g l eF r e ebu r gandP a t t e r son ’ s a e s th e t i c id e a sf r omth e i rp r a c t i c a lo r i g in s inth ec l a s s r oom . 5 .S e eP e t e rSm i th , ‘Th eE c o lo g yo fP i c tu r eS tud y ’ ,A r tE d u c a t i onv o l .39no .5(1986 ) ;M a r y AnnS t an k i ew i c z , ‘AP i c tu r eA g e :R ep r odu c t ion s inP i c tu r eS tud y ’ ,S t u d i e s inA r tE d u c a t i on v o l .26no .2(1985 ) . 6 .H en r yR an k inP oo r e ,P i c t o r i a lC om p o s i t i onan dt h eC r i t i c a lJ u d gm en to fP i c t u r e s :AH an d b o o k f o rS t u d en t san dL o v e r so fA r t(N ewY o r k :B a k e randT a y lo r ,1903 ) .P oo r e ’ s in f lu en c ec om e s l a t e inth i s in t e l l e c tu a lh i s t o r y .P oo r ec on t inu edt od e v e lopas y s t em a t i cp a r ad i gmf o ra r t edu c a t ionth a th ada l r e ad yr eo r g an i s eda r tcu r r i cu l aa c r o s sth ec oun t r y .Iw i l ls a v em y d i s cu s s iono fP oo r e ’ sr e f l e c t ion sonp i c t o r i a l i smand mod e rna r tf o r l a t e r ino rd e rt ob e g in w i thth ee a r l i e rand mo r ef ound a t ion a l in f lu en c eo fA r thu rW e s l e yDow . 7 .S e eA r thu rW .Dow ,Th e o r yan dP r a c t i c eo fT e a c h in gA r t,2ndedn(N ewY o r k :T e a ch e r s Co l l e g e ,Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y ,1912 ) . 8 .S e eA r thu rW .Dow ,C om p o s i t i on,3 rdedn(N ewY o r k :B ak e randT a y lo r ,1900 ) ,pp .7–20 . 9 . Dow ,Th e o r yan dP r a c t i c eo fT e a c h in gA r t,pp .1 –8 .I t a l i c so r i g in a l . 10 .S e eJ ohnD ew e y ,In t e r e s tan dE f f o r t inE d u c a t i on(Bo s t on :H ou gh t on M i f f l inCo . ,1913 ) . 11 .Y e a r b o o ko ft h eB r o o k l ynIn s t i t u t eo fA r t san dS c i en c e s,v o l .18 ,1905–6 ,p .192 . 12 .Y e a r b o o ko ft h eB r o o k l ynIn s t i t u t eo fA r t san dS c i en c e s,v o l .24 ,1911–12 ,pp .229–33 .S e ea l so M a r i ann eFu l t on e ta l . , P i c t o r i a l i sm in t oM o d e rn i sm :Th eC l a r en c eH . Wh i t eS c h o o lo f P h o t o g r a p h y(N ewY o r k :R i z zo l i ,1996 ) . 13 .S e eThom a sB end e r ,N ewY o r kIn t e l l e c t :AH i s t o r yo fIn t e l l e c t u a lL i f e inN ewY o r kC i t y ,f r om 1750t ot h eB e g inn in g so fO u rOwnT im e(N ewY o r k :Knop f ,1987 ) . 14 .S e eD a v idL e v in e ,Th eAm e r i c anC o l l e g ean dt h eC u l t u r eo fA s p i r a t i on ,1915–1940( I th a c a : Co rn e l lUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1986 ) . 15 .S e eJ ohnAn gu sBu r r e l l ,AH i s t o r yo fAd u l tE d u c a t i ona tC o l um b i aUn i v e r s i t y(N ewY o r k : Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1954 ) ;M i l t onJD a v i e s , ‘Un i v e r s i t ySo c i a lS e rv i c e ’ ,Th e Ch a u t a u q u an :A W e e k l yN ew sM a g a z in ev o l .72no .3(1913 ) ; ‘D emo c r a t i z in gEdu c a t ion : 150

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Co lumb i a ,w i thO th e rUn i v e r s i t i e so fth eCoun t r y ,I sR e v o lu t ion i z in gI t sP o l i c i e st oR e a ch th eM a s s e s ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,25Ap r i l1915 . 16 . M inu t e sf r omth eadm in i s t r a t i v em e e t in g sa tth eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t e ind i c a t eth a tD a v i e s wo rk eda ssup e rv i so ro f l e c tu r e sb e tw een1903and1905 .B r ook l yn Mu s eumA r ch i v e s . 17 .Inh i s l e t t e rou t l in in gh i so f f i c i a lp l anf o rth eCo lumb i aIn s t i tu t et oD i r e c t o rJ am e sE gb e r t , D a v i e sno t e sth a tth ep l an i s , ‘N o tanE xp e r im en t :Th eB r oo k l ynIn s t i tu t eo fA r t sand S c i en c e sh a sv e r ysu c c e s s fu l l yapp l i edth es am em e thod sf o ranumb e ro fy e a r sand i t s m emb e r sh ip i snowo v e rs i xthou s and . ’M i l t onD a v i e sf o ld e r ,Co lumb i an aA r ch i v e ,Co lumb i a Un i v e r s i t y . 18 .S e eE rn e s tF r an c i s c oF eno l lo s aand W .H .K e t ch am ,Th eM a s t e r so fU k i o y e :AC om p l e t e H i s t o r i c a lD e s c r i p t i ono fJ a p an e s eP a in t in g san dC o l o rP r in t so ft h eG en r eS c h o o l(N ewY o r k : Kn i c k e rbo c k e rP r e s s ,1896 ) .F eno l lo s a ’ s in f lu en c eonth ep i c t o r i a l i s t s i s l e s sf amou sth anh i s in f lu en c eon mod e rn i s t s l i k eP ound .S e eE z r aP ound , In s t i g a t i on so fE z r aP o un d(N ewY o r k : F r e epo r t ,1967 ) . 19 .F o ranemph a s i sonth en a r r a t i v ed im en s ion so fF r e ebu r g ’ swo r k ,s e eN o e lC a r r o l l , Th e o r i z in gt h eM o v in gIm a g e(C amb r id g e :C amb r id g eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1996 ) ;K r i s t in Thomp son , ‘N a r r a t i v eS t ru c tu r e inE a r l yC l a s s i c a lC in em a ’ , inJ ohnFu l l e r t on( ed . ) , C e l e b r a t in g1895 :Th eC en t en a r yo fC in em a(N ewB a rn e t :J ohnL ibb e y ,1998 ) . 20 .V i c t o rO s c a rF r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g(N ewY o r k :M a cm i l l an ,1918 ) ,p .26 . 21 .Ib id . ,p .70 . 22 .V a ch e lL ind s a y ,Th eA r to ft h eM o v in gP i c t u r e…B e in gt h e1922R e v i s i ono ft h eB o o kF i r s tI s s u e d in1915 (N ewY o r k :M a cm i l l an ,1922 ) . 23 .F r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g,b a c km a t t e r . 24 .F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son ,C in em aC r a f t sm an s h i p(N ewY o r k :H a r c ou r t ,B r a c eandCo . ,1920 ) . 25 .S y l l abu sf o r in t e rm ed i a t ec ou r s e inF r an c e sP a t t e r sonf o ld e ra tth eCo lumb i an aA ch i v e , Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y . 26 .S e eF r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g,pp .7 –25 . 27 . Dow ,Th e o r yan dP r a c t i c eo fT e a c h in gA r t,p .1 . 28 .F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son , ‘Th eSw ed i shPho t op l a y s ’ ,E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y s(1922 ) . 29 .Ib id . 30 . Onth ee xh ib i t iono fc a s t s in mu s eum s ,s e eL aw r en c eL e v in e ,H i gh b r ow /L ow b r ow :Th e Em e r g en c eo fC u l t u r a lH i e r a r c h y inAm e r i c a(C amb r id g e :H a rv a rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1988 ) , pp .146–60 . 31 F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son ,S c en a r i oan dS c r e en(N ewY o r k :H a r c ou r t ,B r a c eandCo . ,1928 ) , p .206 . 32 .S e eth epho t o g r aph so fth eH a l lo fG r e c o -Rom anS cu lp tu r e ,Y e a r b o o ko ft h eB r o o k l ynIn s t i t u t e o fA r t san dS c i en c e s ,v o l .11 ,1898 –9 ,pp .185 –6 . 33 . Good y e a rw r o t ee x t en s i v e l yonr epo s e inc l a s s i c a ls cu lp tu r e .H et oo kap a r t i cu l a r in t e r e s t in th eL a o c o ön .S e eW i l l i amH en r yGood y e a r , ‘ L a o c o ön ’, B r o o k l yn M u s e umQu a r t e r l y,1917 . 34 . Go t tho ldEph r a imL e s s in g ,L a o c o on ,o r ,t h eL im i t so fP o e t r yan dP a in t in g(London :J .R id gw a y &Son s ,1836 ) . 35 .H en r yFu s e l i ,L e c t u r e sonP a in t in g ,D e l i v e r e da tt h eR o y a lA c a d em y(London :Lu k eH an s a rd , 1801 ) .F o rad i s cu s s iono fFu s e l i ’ s l e g a c y inB r i t i sha e s th e t i ch i s t o r y ,s e eM a r t in M e i s e l , R e a l i z a t i on s :N a r r a t i v e ,P i c t o r i a l ,an dTh e a t r i c a lA r t s inN in e t e en t h -C en t u r yEn g l an d (P r in c e t on ,N J :P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1983 ) .F o rad i s cu s s iono fG e rm anc r i t i c a l h i s t o r y , in c lud in gL e s s in g ,W in c k e lm ann ,H e rd e r ,M o r i t zandGo e th e ,s e eS imonR i ch t e r , No t e s

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L a o c o ön ’ sB o d yan dt h eA e s t h e t i c so fP a in :W in c k e lm ann ,L e s s in g ,H e r d e r ,M o r i t z ,G o e t h e (D e t r o i t ,M I :W a yn eS t a t eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1992 ) . 36 .S e ePh y l l i sK e l l e r ,S t a t e so fB e l on g in g :G e rm an -Am e r i c anIn t e l l e c t u a l san dt h eF i r s tW o r l dW a r (C amb r id g e :H a rv a rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1979 ) . 37 .S e eV e rnonL e e ,B e a u t yan dU g l in e s san dO t h e rS t u d i e s inP s y c h o l o g i c a lA e s t h e t i c s(N ewY o r k : J ohnL an e ,1912 ) ;V e rnonL e e ,Th eB e a u t i f u l :AnIn t r o d u c t i ont oP s y c h o l o g i c a lA e s t h e t i c s(N ew Y o r k :Pu tn am ,1913 ) .F o rad i s cu s s iono fth eG e rm ano r i g in so fth e s ea e s th e t i cth eo r i e sand th e i rr e l a t iont oc in em a ,s e eS c o t tCu r t i s ,Th eSh a p eo fS p e c t a t o r s h i p :A r t ,S c i en c e ,an dE a r l y C in em a inG e rm an y(N ewY o r k :Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,f o r th c om in g ) . 38 .E th e lPu f f e r ,Th eP s y c h o l o g yo fB e a u t y(Bo s t on :H ou gh t on M i f f l in ,1905 ) . 39 .F r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g,p .28 . 40 . M a r yAnnDo an e ,Th eEm e r g en c eo fC in em a t i cT im e :M o d e rn i t y ,C on t in g en c y ,t h eA r c h i v e (C amb r id g e , MA :H a rv a rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2002 ) ,p .108 . 41 .N o t eth a tF r e ebu r g ’ sund e r s t and in go fth eth e a t r i c a lt ab l e au i sa l r e ad yon c er emo v edf r om th ec ommonu s a g eo fth et ab l e aua s i t i sou t l in edb yB r ew s t e randJ a c ob s .B r ew s t e rand J a c ob sshowhowth e s es i gn i f i c an t mom en t st r ad i t ion a l l yh app en eda tn a r r a t i v ec l im a x e s ; th e yf r e e z ea c t ionwh i l ec ommun i c a t in gch a r a c t e rr e l a t ion se s s en t i a lt oth ed e v e lopm en to f th ep lo t .F r e ebu r gsu g g e s t sth a tt ab l e au xshou ldf a l la tp i c t o r i a l l ye xp r e s s i v e mom en t s r a th e rth ann a r r a t i v e l ys i gn i f i c an t mom en t s .H eemph a s i s e sc ompo s i t iono v e rd r am a tu r g y . T ab l e au xo fp i c t o r i a lb e au t yh e i gh t enth ea e s th e t i ce f f e c to fc ompo s i t ion sth a twou ld o th e rw i s ep a s st ooqu i c k l y .S e eA .N i cho l a sV a rd a c ,S t a g et oS c r e en :Th e a t r i c a lM e t h o df r om G a r r i c kt oG r i f f i t h(N o r thS t r a t f o rd :A y e rCo . ,1949 )andB .B r ew s t e randL .J a c ob s ,Th e a t r e t oC in em a :S t a g eP i c t o r i a l i sman dt h eE a r l yF e a t u r eF i lm(O x f o rd :O x f o rdUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1998 ) . 42 .F r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g,p .31 . 43 .Ib id . 44 .F r e ebu r g ’ s l an gu a g e ,h e r eande l s ewh e r e ,c om e sc lo s et oB e r g son ’ s inC r e a t i v eE v o l u t i on. H en r iB e r g son ,C r e a t i v eE v o l u t i on,t r an s .A r thu rM i t ch e l l(N ewY o r k :H .H o l tandCo . ,1911 ) . I t i s l i k e l yth a th i sf am i l i a r i t yw i thB e r g sonw en tb e y ondh i sdo cum en t eden c oun t e r th r ou ghH en r yP oo r e ’ sw r i t in g .Ub iqu i t yo fC r e a t i v eE v o l u t i ona s id e ,F r e ebu r gw a sag r adu a t e s tud en ta tCo lumb i adu r in gB e r g son ’ sb lo c kbu s t e r l e c tu r es e r i e sonc ampu s . 45 .F r e ebu r g ’ san a l y s i sd ep end ed in l a r g ep a r tonth eph y s i c a la v a i l ab i l i t yo fth es t i l l sth a t c omp an i e sw e r ew i l l in gt op r o v id e .Ih a v ea l r e ad yno t edP a r amoun t ’ sr e l a t ion sh ipw i th Co lumb i a ,andC e c i lB .D eM i l l eh im s e l fe v ensou gh tt od e v e lopr e l a t ion sw i thh i sf a th e r ’ s a lm am a t e r .Sum i koH i g a sh i ,C e c i lB .D em i l l ean dAm e r i c anC u l t u r et h eS i l en tE r a(B e r k e l e y : Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,1994 ) . 46 .S e eL e aJ a c ob s , ‘B e l a s c o ,D em i l l e ,andth eD e v e lopm en to fL a s k yL i gh t in g ’ ,F i lmH i s t o r y v o l .5no .4(1993 ) . 47 .S e eJ anO l s son , ‘T r ad in gP l a c e s :G r i f f i th ,P a t t en ,andA g r i cu l tu r a l Mod e rn i t y ’ ,F i lmH i s t o r y v o l .17(2005 ) . 48 .C e c i lB .D eM i l l eandD on a ldH a yn e ,Th eAu t o b i o g r a p h yo fC e c i lB .D em i l l e, C in em aC l a s s i c s (N ewY o r k :G a r l and ,1985 ) . 49 .F r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g,p .256 50 .Ib id . ,p .43 . 51 .Ib id . 52 .Ib id . ,p .42 . 152

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53 .Inano th e rp a s s a g eF r e ebu r gc l a im sth a tth ec in em ah a sg r e a t e roppo r tun i t i e sf o r su g g e s t ionb e c au s eo fth eab s t r a c t iono fth ed r am aon t oth ec e l lu lo id m ed ium .F i lm ’ s m ed i a t edn a tu r ee x t end sth e a t r e ’ sc ap a c i t yf o rsu g g e s t ion .Th i s i s in t e r e s t in gb e c au s e i t i s th ee x a c toppo s i t eo fth ea r gum en tA .N i cho l a sV a rd a cwou ld m a k eag en e r a t ion l a t e r ,wh en h ec l a im sth a t i tw a sf i lm ’ sc ap a c i t yt or e c o rdr e a lsp e c t a c l e sth a te x t end edth e a t r e aud i en c e s ’ in c r e a s in gapp e t i t ef o rr e a l i s t i csp e c t a c l eonth es t a g e .V a rd a c ,S t a g et oS c r e en . 54 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fhow m a in s t r e amc in em afu s e sth e mo v em en to fth eapp a r a tu sw i thth e mo v em en to fth en a r r a t i v e ,s e eD o an e , Th eEm e r g en c eo fC in em a t i cT im e,pp .20–33 . 55 .F r e ebu r gdo e sno tu s eth et e rm ‘ inn e rv a t ion ’ ,bu th es t a t e sc l e a r l yth a th i sund e r s t and in go f th ep s y cho lo g yo fp i c t o r i a lp e r c ep t ionc om e sf r omE th e lPu f f e r ,whodo e su s eth et e rm .I r e i t e r a t eth et e rm inth ec on t e x to fF r e ebu r g ’ sw o r kb e c au s eo fth e impo r t an c eth et e rmh a s g a in ed in M i r i amH an s en ’ sr e ad in g so fW a l t e rB en j am in ’ sth eo r i e so fc in em a ,m a s scu l tu r e and mod e rn i t y .S e eM i r i amB r a tuH an s en , ‘B en j am inandC in em a :N o taOn e -w a yS t r e e t ’ , C r i t i c a lIn q u i r yv o l .25no .2(1999 ) . 56 .V i c t o rO s c a rF r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en(N ewY o r k :M a cm i l l an ,1923 ) ,p .10 . 57 . Th i s i sno ttos imp l ys a yth a temph a s i sshou ldgoh and inh andw i thn a r r a t i v e . ‘Gu id in g th ea t t en t iono fth esp e c t a to rp r op e r l yh e lp sh imtound e r s t andwh a th e i s look in ga t ,bu t i t i ss t i l l mo r e impo r t an ttoh e lph imf e e lwh a th e i s look in ga t . ’I t i sc l e a rth a tF r e ebu r g do e sno t i gno r eth ed r am a t i ce f f e c to fth ef i lm ,bu th esub sum e s i tw i th inth econ c ep to f p i c to r i a lf e e l in g .B adp i c to r i a lcompo s i t ionands equ en c in go fp i c tu r e su s e supth e sp e c t a to r ’ s l im i t edemo t ion a len e r gyb e f o r eh eo rsh ec anf e e l in toth esho to rs equ en c e p r op e r l y .Ib id . ,p .12 . 58 .Ib id . ,p .42 . 59 . Th ee conom i co r i en t a t iono fP i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e enc om e sr em a r k ab l yc lo s et oth e mo r er e c en td i s cu s s ion so fn a r r a t i v ee c onom y ,c in em a ’ sm an a g em en to fa t t en t ionand c in em a ’ st r a in in go fpho t o g r aph i cc on t in g en c y–a l lo fwh i chh a v eb e enp r im a r i l yed i t in g b a s ed .Bu tth i se a r l yth eo r yo ff i lmsp e c t a t o r sh ipg i v e sp r io r i t yt op i c t o r i a le c onom y .M o r e impo r t an tth ans t and a rd i s edn a r r a t ion i sth eno t iono ff e e l in g in t oth ef o rm . Mo r ep r im a r y th anth ef l a shb a c k ’ so rth ec lo s e -up ’ spow e ro fn a r r a t i v esu g g e s t ion(Mün s t e rb e r g ) i sth e su g g e s t iono ff o rm intw o -d im en s ion a lsp a c e .Th ec in em ac ompo s e rdo e swo r ka g a in s tth e c on t in g en c i e so fth eapp a r a tu s( ‘ th ec am e r a i spo s i t i v e l ys tup id ,b e c au s e i ta lw a y sshow s mo r eth an i sn e c e s s a r y ’ ) ,bu tth e s ec on t in g en c i e sa r em an a g edth r ou gha t t en t iont o l in eand c ompo s i t ion mo r eth anth ep r o g r e s s iono fn a r r a t i v ecu t s .Th i s i sno tt os a yth a tF r e ebu r g ’ s wo r kshou ldc au s eu st oqu e s t ionr e c en t mod e l so fn a r r a t i v eab so rp t ion .M ypo in t i sr a th e r th a tw ec anandshou ldt r a c ep lu r a l mod e l so fab so rp t iona two r k inth e s ee a r l ym a in s t r e am a r tf i lm s .I ten r i ch e sou rund e r s t and in go fc in em a ’ sm an a g em en to fth esp e c t a t o r ’ s a t t en t iont opu r su e in t e l l e c tu a lt r ad i t ion sth a tp l a c ef i lm ’ s in e x o r ab l ef o rw a rdn a r r a t i v e mo v em en t inp r odu c t i v ec o l l abo r a tionw i ths e em in g l yoppo s in gf o r c e s . 60 .F r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g,p .256 . 61 . Th ef a c tth a tc in em aw a se x c lud edfu r th e rund e r s c o r e sF r e ebu r gandP a t t e r son ’ se f f o r t st o r ed e f in ec in em aa sa m ed ium .M o v em en tp r e s en t edas e to fa e s th e t i c i s su e sth a td idno t n e edt ob eadd r e s s edso lon ga sc in em a ’ sr e l a t iont oth eth e a t r ebu s in e s sou t s t r ipp ed i t s po t en t i a lr e l a t iont o mu s eumcu l tu r eand in s t i tu t ion so fa r tedu c a t ion .S t i l lpho t o g r aph y h adac onn e c t iont oth e mod e lo fg a l l e r ye xh ib i t ion ,bu tc in em ad idno t .F r e ebu r gand P a t t e r sonf o r e g r ound edth e s eo th e rv enu e sf o rth ed i s cu s s iono ff i lmb e c au s eth e i rc ou r s e s po s i t ion edth emb e tw e enf i lm -m a k in gp r a c t i c e sandana r t edu c a t ionp r o g r amm ed e r i v ed No t e s

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f r omDow ’ sm e thod .Inth e i run iqu epo s i t ionth e yc on f r on t edth ea e s th e t i cqu e s t ion s t r ad i t ion a l l ye x c lud edf r omth e in t e l l e c tu a lt r ad i t ion s inwh i chth e yw e r et r a in ed . 62 .P au lSou r i au ,Th eA e s t h e t i c so fM o v em en t,t r an s .M anonSou r i au(Amh e r s t :Un i v e r s i t yo f M a s s a chu s s e t sP r e s s ,1983[1889 ] ) ,p .78 . 63 .Sou r i auno t ab l yu s e sW in g e dV i c t o r yinas im i l a ra r gum en tt oP a t t e r son ’ sabou ta e s th e t i c mo v em en tands cu lp tu r e .Ib id . ,pp .119 –20 . 64 .H esu g g e s t sth a ta sH o g a r tha s c r ib e sb e au t yt oth eb a l an c edo s c i l l a t iono fan ‘ s ’cu rv e ,af i lm shou ld loo kf o rtho s e mom en t sth eo s c i l l a t in gsu r f a c eo fth es e a in s c r ib e sth es am ep a t t e rn in t oaf i lm s t r ip .S e eW i l l i amH o g a r th , Th eAn a l y s i so fB e a u t y(N ewH a v en :Y a l eUn i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,1997[1753 ] ) .F r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en,pp .77–8 . 65 .F r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en,pp .9 –10 . 66 .S e eth eJ e s s eL a s k yp ap e r s ,M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 67 .L e t t e rd a t ed10Ap r i l1923 ,J e s s eL a s k yp ap e r s ,M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 68 .M o t i onP i c t u r eN ew s,10 M a r ch1923 . 69 .M o rn in gT e l e g r a p h,20 M a y1923 . 70 .B e g inn in g in1903 ,a f t e rth epub l i c a t iono fh i sP i c t o r i a lC om p o s i t i on,P oo r e ’ sw r i t in gs t ood amon gth e mo s tw id e l yr e c e i v edw o r konth esub j e c t .P i c t o r i a lC om p o s i t i on( in i t st en th ed i t ionb y1915 )andD ow ’ sC om p o s i t i onc i r cu l a t ed mo r ee x t en s i v e l y inAm e r i c ana r t d ep a r tm en t sth anan yo th e rt e x tboo k s .P oo r e ’ sboo k sw e r eo f t end i s cu s s eda sc oun t e rp a r t t oD ow ’ s .H ep r o v id edph i lo soph i c a le l abo r a t ion son m an yo fDow ’ sp r a c t i c a l l yo r i en t ed c on c ep t s .F o rad i s cu s s iono fD owa saf i gu r ewhoc omb in ed mod e rn i smw i thp i c t o r i a l id e a l i sm ,s e eJ am e sL .En y e a r t , H a rm on yo fR e f l e c t e dL i gh t :Th eP h o t o g r a p h so fA r t h u rW e s l e y D ow( S an t aF e : Mu s eumo fN ew M e x i c oP r e s s ,2001 ) . 71 .H en r yR an k inP oo r e ,Th eN ewT en d en c y inA r t(G a rd enC i t y :Doub l ed a y ,1913 ) ,p .17 . 72 .Ib id . ,pp .51–2 . 73 H en r yR an k inP oo r e ,Th eC on c e p t i ono fA r t(N ewY o r k :Pu tn am ,1914 ) . 74 .F o rad i s cu s s iono fth em o v em en t inth e l o c k so fh a i r inc l a s s i c a ls cu lp tu r e ,s e eC .An s t ru th e r Th om son ,A r tan dM an :E s s a y san dF r a gm en t s(N ewY o r k :E .P .Du t t onandCo . ,1924 ) . 75 .F o rF r e ebu r g ’ sd i s cu s s iono fP oo r e ,s e eF r e ebu r g ,Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g,pp .55–6 . P a t t e r son in c lud e sP oo r e ’ sboo kamoun gh e rc ou r s em a t e r i a l s ,th eb ib l io g r aph yf o rwh i ch i s l i s t ed inth eapp end i xo f C in em aC r a f t sm an s h i p.

4PA INT ING W ITHHUMANB E ING S 1 . Do r o th yNu t t in g , ‘M on s i eu rT ou rn eu r :O th e rw i s eA c cu r a t e l yC a l l ed“ th eP o e to fth e S c r e en ” ’ ,P h o t o p l a y( Ju l y1918 ) ,p .55 .Nu t t in ggo e sont od e s c r ib eh i swo r kw i thf amou s a r t i s t s ,h i st e x t i l ed e s i gn sandh i sboo k i l lu s t r a t ion sa sc on t r ibu t in gt oh i sf i lms t y l e .S e e a l so ‘T ou rn eu ro fP a r i sandF o r tL e e :H i sM e thod sandH i sA r t i s t i cH i s t o r y ’ ,P h o t o p l a yv o l .9 no .2(1916 ) .F r an c e sW ood , ‘T ou rn eu r :A W e a v e ro fD r e am s ’ ,P i c t u r eP l a y,Jun e1918 . 2 .S e eM a rkG a r r e t tCoop e r ,Un i v e r s a lW om en :F i lmm a k in gan dIn s t i t u t i on a lCh an g e inE a r l y H o l l yw o o d(Ch amp a i gn :Un i v e r s i t yo fI l l ino i sP r e s s ,2010 ) ;J an eG a in e s , ‘O fC abb a g e sand Au tho r s ’ , inJ enn i f e rB e anandD i an eN e g r a( ed s ) ,AF em in i s tR e a d e r inE a r l yC in em a (Du rh am ,NC :Du k eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2002 ) ;Sh e l l yS t amp , ‘Lo i sW eb e r ,P r o g r e s s i v eC in em a , andth eF a t eo f“ th eW o r k a -D a yG i r l s ” inSh o e s ’ , C am e r aO b s c u r av o l .19no .2(2004 ) . 3 .F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son ,S c en a r i oan dS c r e en(N ewY o r k :H a r c ou r t ,B r a c eandCo . ,1928 ) . 154

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4 . Ch a r l e sEm e r sonCoo k , ‘M au r i c eT ou rn eu rP a in t sw i thHum anB e in g s ’ ,E x h i b i t o r sH e r a l d, 9Jun e1917 . 5 .I t i swo r thno t in gth a tth ea r ch i v ea tth eMu s é eRod inpo s s e s s e sd e t a i l edr e c o rd so fth e a s s i s t an t swhowo r k ed inth es tud io ,bu tth e r e i snor e c o rdo fth ey oun gT ou rn eu r( th en M au r i c eThom a s ) inth es tud io .L i k ew i s e ,th ea r ch i v a lr e c o rd sa tth eBo s t onPub l i cL ib r a r y andth e Mu s é ed ’O r s a yn e g l e c tt om en t ionT ou rn eu r ’ swo r konth e mu r a l s . Wh enth e s e s t o r i e so fh i sa r t i s t i co r i g inc i r cu l a t ed ,th e yd idsob yT ou rn eu r ’ sowna g en c y ,andh ewou ld c on t inu et ot e l lth e s es t o r i e s in t oth e1940 st og r oup s l i k eG e rm a in eDu l a c ’ sc in em as a lon . M au r i c eT ou rn eu rc l ipp in gf i l e ,B iF i ,P a r i s . 6 .Jud i thC l ad e l ,R o d in ,t r an s .J am e s Wh i t eh a l l(N ewY o r k :H a r c ou r t ,B r a c eandCo . ,1937 ) , p .328 . 7 .S e eA im é eB r ownP r i c e , ‘Pu v i sD eCh a v ann e sandAm e r i c a ’ , inS e r g eL emo in e( ed . ) ,F r om P u v i sD eCh a v ann e st oM a t i s s ean dP i c a s s o :T ow a r dM o d e rnA r t(London :Th am e sand Hud son ,2002 ) . 8 .S e eA r thu rW .Dow ,C om p o s i t i on,3 rdedn(N ewY o r k :B ak e randT a y lo r ,1900 ) . 9 .S ad ak i ch iH a r tm ann , ‘A r tandA r t i s t s :P i e r r ePu v i sD eCh a v ann e s ’ ,M u s i c a lAm e r i c av o l .1 no .6(1898 ) . 10 .H en r yAd am s , ‘L e t t e ro fS ep t emb e r8 ,1896t oM ab e lL aF a r g e ’ , inH en r yAd am san dH i s F r i en d s ,aC o l l e c t i ono fH i sUn p u b l i s h e dL e t t e r s(Bo s t on :H ou gh t on M i f f l in ,1947 ) . 11 . OnPu v i s ’ sa t e l i e r ,s e eA im é eB r ownP r i c eandP i e r r ePu v i sd eCh a v ann e s ,P i e r r eP u v i sD e Ch a v ann e s,2v o l s(N ewH a v en :Y a l eUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2010 ) . 12 .J o s e fv onS t e rnb e r ga l sor em emb e r sob s e rv in gth etwot o g e th e r . ‘ In[Ch au t a rd ’ s ]h e yd a y th e r ew e r em an yp r om in en tF r en chd i r e c t o r sw o r k in g inF o r tL e eonth eHud son ,wh e r eth e f i lms tud io sw e r ec on c en t r a t ed ,andwh en e v e rpo s s ib l eIw a t ch edth ema two r k .Th e r ew e r e M e r c an t on ,B l a ch é ,C ap e l l an i ,andth eb e s tknowno fth ema l l ,M au r i c eT ou rn eu r ,who s e P r un e l l aandTh eB l u eB i r dw e r eno t ab l ee x cu r s ion s in t of an c y ’ .J o s e fv onS t e rnb e r g ,F un ina Ch in e s eL a un d r y(N ewY o r k :M e r cu r yH ou s e ,1988 ) ,p .44 . 13 .N ew sp ap e rpub l i c i t ypho t o g r aph ,c l ipp in gf i l e ,B ib l io th èqu ed e l ’A r s en a l e ,P a r i s . 14 .F r omC a r r é ’ sunpub l i sh ed m emo i r ,Sp e c i a lCo l l e c t ion s ,M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 15 .F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son ,C in em aC r a f t sm an s h i p(N ewY o r k :H a r c ou r t ,B r a c eandCo . ,1920 ) . 16 .B enC a r r é ,unpub l i sh ed m emo i r ,Sp e c i a lCo l l e c t ion s ,M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 17 .F o raBo s t one x amp l e ,s e eBo s t onA r tS tud en t ’ sA s so c i a t ion ,Th eA r tS t u d en t inP a r i s (Bo s t on : Mu s eumo fF in eA r t s ,1887 ) . 18 .H i swo r kw a sa l sopub l i sh ed inth e in f lu en t i a lG r e enT r e eL ib r a r ys e r i e sr ep r e s en t in g ‘ th e n ew mo v em en t in l i t e r a tu r e ’ ,n am e l y ,d e c ad en tw o r k s . 19 . M au r i c eM a e t e r l in c kandR i ch a rdH o v e y ,Th eP l a y so fM a u r i c eM a e t e r l in c k,Th eG r e enT r e e L ib r a r y(Ch i c a go :S t on e&K imb a l l ,1894 ) . 20 .D i s cu s s iono fth eB l u eB i r db a l l sc anb ef ound inth eM a e t e r l in c kf i l e s inth eRond e l c o l l e c t iona tth eB ib l io th èqu ed e l ’A r s en a l e ,P a r i s .F o rGo ldw yn ’ sr e l a t ion sh ipt o M a e t e r l in c k ,s e e ‘P i c tu r eP l a y sandP eop l e ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,8F eb ru a r y1920 . 21 .C i t ed inE l sp e thH .B r own ,Th eC o r p o r a t eE y e :P h o t o g r a p h yan dt h eR a t i on a l i z a t i ono f Am e r i c anC omm e r c i a lC u l t u r e ,1884 –1929,S tud i e s inIndu s t r yandSo c i e t y(B a l t imo r e :J ohn s H op k in sUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2005 ) . 22 .S e eH en r yRo s e ,M a e t e r l in c k ’ sS ym b o l i sm :Th eB l u eB i r dan dO t h e rE s s a y s(N ewY o r k :Dodd M e ad ,1911 ) . 23 .N ewY o r kT im e sr e v i ewo fTh eB l u eB i r d. No t e s

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24 .P r o g r amm eandp r odu c t ionno t e sB ib l io th èqu ed e l ’A r s en a l e ,P a r i s . 25 .InH a r r yW a ldm an ,M a u r i c eT o u rn e u r :Th eL i f ean dF i lm s( J e f f e r son ,NC :M cF a r l and&Co . , 2001 ) ,p .75 . 26 . Und a t edc a r t oon inth ePu v i sd eCh a v ann e sc l ipp in gf i l e , Mu s é ed ’O r s a y . 27 .‘Sm a l lT a l k ,th eTh e a t e r ’ , inH en r iD o r r a ,S ym b o l i s tA r tTh e o r i e s :AC r i t i c a lAn t h o l o g y (B e r k e l e y :Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,1994 ) . 28 . Th i s i s inc on t r a s tt oth ew a yth a tA r t c r a f tt r i edt op r omo t eth ef i lm .Th epo s t e r sshow c a s ed th ech i lda c t o r st og i v eas en s eth a tth i sw ou ldb eak indo fch i ld r en ’ s mo v i e . 29 .I t a l i c sm in e .C i t ed inR i ch a rdAb e l ,F r en c hF i lmTh e o r yan dC r i t i c i sm :AH i s t o r y /An t h o l o g y , 1907–1939(P r in c e t on ,N J :P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1988 ) ,p .167 . 30 .N ewY o r kT im e s,1Ap r i l1918 ,p .9 . 31 .T omGunn in g , ‘Lo i eFu l l e randth eA r to fM o t ion ’ , inR i ch a rdA l l enand M a l c o lmTu rv e y ( ed s ) ,C am e r aO b s c u r a ,C am e r aL u c i d a :E s s a y s inH on o ro fAnn e t t eM i c h e l s on(Am s t e rd am : Am s t e rd amUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2003 ) . 32 .S e eB l ak eN e v iu s ,C o o p e r ’ sL an d s c a p e s :AnE s s a yont h eP i c t u r e s q u eV i s i on(B e r k e l e y : Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,1976 ) . 33 .N .C .W y e th , ‘F o rB e t t e rI l lu s t r a t ion ’ ,S c r i bn e r ’ sM a g a z in e ,N o v emb e r1919 . 34 .Ib id .

5R EXINGRAM ’ SARTSCHOO LC IN EMA 1 .‘ S c a r amou ch e ’ ,E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y sv o l .3no .7and8(1923 ) ,pp .1–2 . 2 . Th i sapp r o a chh a sb e enpu r su edb r i l l i an t l y ,f o re x amp l e ,b yK r i s t inThomp son inr e l a t iont o som eo fIn g r am ’ sc o l l e a gu e s .S e eK r i s t inThomp son , ‘Th eL im i t so fE xp e r im en t a t ion in H o l l yw ood ’ , inJ an -Ch r i s t oph e rH o r a k( ed . ) ,L o v e r so fC in em a :Th eF i r s tAm e r i c anF i lmA v an t G a r d e ,1919–1945(M ad i son :Un i v e r s i t yo fW i s c on s inP r e s s ,1995 ) ,pp .67–93 ;K r i s t in Thomp son , ‘Th eSo r r ow so fS a t an ’ , inP ao loCh e r ch iU s a i( ed . ) ,Th eG r i f f i t hP r o j e c tV o l um e 10 :F i lm sP r o d u c e d in1919 –46(London :BF I ,2006 ) ,pp .193–200 . 3 .F o rJ am e s , ‘m ino r ’ i sno ts imp l yaqu e s t iono ff i lmfund in g .H e in s t e add e f in e sp r odu c t i v e m ino rc in em a sth a tt yp i c a l l yc oun t e rth ef i lm indu s t r ybu tr em a inn e tw o r k edw i thth e indu s t r y ’ sr e sou r c e sand i t sg eo g r aph i e s ing r e a t e rLo sAn g e l e s .D a v idE .J am e s , Th eM o s t T y p i c a lA v an t -G a r d e :H i s t o r yan dG e o g r a p h yo fM in o rC in em a s inL o sAn g e l e s(B e r k e l e y : Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,2005 ) . 4 .In g r am ’ sa s so c i a t ionw i thY a l ew a sas t and a rdb io g r aph i c a lno t e ina r t i c l e sabou th i sf i lm s , e v ena f t e rh e l e f tt om a k ef i lm s inF r an c e .F o r lo c a ld i s cu s s iono fth i sa s so c i a t ion inth eN ew H a v enR e g i s t e randth eN ewH a v enJ o u rn a lC o u r i e r,s e eth ec l ipp in g s inBo x1165 ,A lumn i F i l e s ,Un i v e r s i t yA r ch i v e s ,Y a l eUn i v e r s i t y . 5 .C i t ed inR i ch a rdKo s z a r s k i ,H o l l yw o o dD i r e c t o r s ,1914 –1940(N ewY o r k :O x f o rdUn i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,1976 ) ,p .87 . 6 .Ib id . 7 .Ib id . ,p .86 . 8 .L a t e r ,a sad i r e c t o r ,h er e tu rn edt oth i sth em e ,o f t en in c lud in ga r t i s tch a r a c t e r sands tud io s c en e s inf i lm s l i k eTh eF o u rH o r s em eno ft h eA p o c a l y p s eandTh eM a g i c i an(1926 ) .H i ss c r e en ch a r a c t e r ss e rv eda sano th e rv enu ef o rth ecu l t i v a t iono fac in em ath a tr e f e r en c e sth ep l a s t i c a r t s . 156

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9 .C i t ed inL i amO ’L e a r y ,R e xIn g r am :M a s t e ro ft h eS i l en tC in em a(Dub l in :A c ad em yP r e s s , 1980 ) . 10 . Th e l i s to fsu g g e s t i v ef i lmc omp an yn am e so fth e1910 sand20 sa l so in c lud e sth eF i lmC r a f t Co rpo r a t ionandth eC in em aA r t sandC r a f t sCo rpo r a t iono fS anF r an c i s c o .Amon ga r t d i r e c t o r swho s ew o r kb e a r st r a c e so fA r t sandC r a f t ss t y l e s ,Hu goB a l l ins t and sou t ,bu tth e y c anb ef ounde l s ewh e r e .Lu c yF i s ch e rob s e rv e st r a c e so fth e s ef am i l i a rs t y l e s ,a s l a t ea s 1929 ,a lon g s id eth ep r im a r i l yA r tD e c os t y l eo fC ed r i cG ibbon s ’ ss e t sf o rTh eK i s s(1929 ) . Lu c yF i s ch e r ,D e s i gn in gW om en :C in em a ,A r tD e c o ,an dt h eF em a l eF o rm(N ewY o r k :Co lumb i a Un i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2003 ) ,pp .106 –13 . 11 . M a r kG a r r e t tCoop e r ,Un i v e r s a lW om en :F i lmm a k in gan dIn s t i t u t i on a lCh an g e inE a r l y H o l l yw o o d(Ch amp a i gn :Un i v e r s i t yo fI l l ino i sP r e s s ,2010 ) ,pp .104–6 . 12 . Onth ef o rm a t iono fth ea r ts choo landth eh i r in go fL aw r i e ,s e eTh eodo r eS i z e r( ed . ) ,Th e R e c o l l e c t i on so fJ o hnF e r gu s on W e i r :D i r e c t o ro ft h eY a l eS c h o o lo ft h eF in eA r t s ,1869–1913 (N ewY o r k :N ewY o r kH i s t o r i c a lSo c i e t y ,1957 ) ,pp .67–91 . 13 . W a l t e r sw a s in v i t edt oth eM e t r os tud iot os e eth eru sh e so fth ef i lm .H i sa r t i c l eapp l aud s th ea t t en t iont oc ompo s i t ions a y in gth a tIn g r am ’ sa r tt r a in in gw a sc l e a r inth ef i lm . ‘S cu lp t o rP r a i s e sP r odu c t ion ’ ,26 M a r ch1921 .A l i c eT e r r yS c r apboo k ,M a r g a r e tH e r r i c k L ib r a r y . 14 . Co r r e spond en c eamon gIn g r am ,L aw r i eandIb áñ e zabou tth i ss cu lp tu r ec anb ef ound inth e L e eL aw r i eP ap e r s ,L ib r a r yo fCon g r e s s . 15 . Th es cu lp tu r ea r r i v eda tIb áñ e z ’ shom e inth e l a t esumm e rth ef o l low in gy e a r .H ew r o t et o L aw r i et ot e l lh imth a th eh adp l a c edth eg r oup in gb yh i swo r kd e s k , ‘ soth a twh enIw r i t e , e v e r yt im eI l i f tm ye y e s ,Is e ey ou rwond e r fu lwo r k ,andIth in ko fy ou ,m a rv e lou ss cu lp t o r ando fm yc o -wo r k e rR e xIn g r am ’ .Co r r e spond en c ed a t ed2S ep t emb e r1922 ,L e eL aw r i e P ap e r s ,L ib r a r yo fCon g r e s s . 16 . Th ea lumn ir e g i s t r a ra tY a l ee v ent oo konth et a s ko fc o r r e c t in gtho s ewho m i s t a k en l y r e f e r r edt oh i sd e g r e e . ‘Th es t a t em en th a sb e enf r equ en t l ym ad e inth epub l i cp r e s sth a tth e d e g r e eg r an t edw a sanhono r a r yon ebu tth i s i sno tth ec a s e .M rIn g r amw a sas tud en ta t Y a l edu r in g1912–13 ,bu td idno tc omp l e t eh i sw o r kf o rth ed e g r e eun t i l1921 . ’ Co r r e spond en c ed a t ed14D e c emb e r1923 ,A lumn iF i l e s ,Un i v e r s i t yA r ch i v e s ,Y a l e Un i v e r s i t y . 17 .‘Y a l eF i r s tUn i v e r s i t yt oR e c o gn i z eA r to fP i c tu r eS c r e en ’ ,N ewH a v enR e g i s t e r,19J anu a r y 1922 ,A lumn iF i l e s ,Un i v e r s i t yA r ch i v e s ,Bo x1165 ,Y a l eUn i v e r s i t y . 18 . Th eb i g g e s tt op i c so fd i s cu s s ionw e r ea r tandth eg i f t s(mon e yandag r ow in gc o l l e c t iono f r a r ep ip e s )f r omIn g r amt oL aw r i e .L e eL aw r i eP ap e r s ,L ib r a r yo fCon g r e s s . 19 .D eM i l l ew a sc l e a r l yano th e rd i r e c t o rw i thas t r on g in v e s tm en t inp i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion ,bu t i t i swo r thno t in gh e r eth a th ea l so in t r odu c edsu sp i c ionabou thow mu cha t t en t iona d i r e c t o rshou ldg i v et oth e s et e chn iqu e s .H i sf amou s jo k ew i thS amu e lGo ldw ynabou t e xh ib i t o r sp a y in gdoub l ef o r ‘R emb r and t l i gh t in g ’ ind i c a t e ssom eo fth i ssu sp i c ion .Inan ed i t o r i a l i l lu s t r a t edw i ths t i l l sf r omIn g r am ’ sS c a r am o u c h e ,D eM i l l es in g l e sou tIn g r amw i tha s im i l a rc r i t iqu e . ‘ I t i sap i t yth a tso m an yo fou rp r om i s in gy oun g e rd i r e c t o r sb e c om eso en g r o s s ed inc r e a t in g ind i v idu a lch a rm in gp i c tu r e sonth es c r e enth a tth e yf o r g e tt oc r e a t e th a tc l a sho fch a r a c t e r s ,th a tp r o c e s s iono fs i tu a t ion s ,wh i ch i sth eso l eandon l yth in gth a t c anho ldth ea t t en t iono fanaud i en c eth r ou ghaf e a tu r epho t op l a y . ’C e c i lB .D eM i l l e , ‘P i c tu r e sS e c ond a r y inC in em aSu c c e s s ’ , L o sAn g e l e sT im e s,18Ju l y1923 , WF5 .Th an k st o Ru thB a r t onf o rb r in g in gD eM i l l e ’ sc r i t i c i smo fIn g r amt om ya t t en t ion . No t e s

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20 .InO ’L e a r y ,R e xIn g r am,p .65 . 21 . As e l e c t iono fth e s e im a g e sc anb ef ound inth ec o l l e c t iono f8 x10 inp r odu c t ions t i l l sa tth e M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 22 .P a t r i c kK e a t in g ,H o l l yw o o dL i gh t in gf r omt h eS i l en tE r at oF i lmN o i r,F i lmandCu l tu r e(N ew Y o r k :Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,2010 ) ,pp .15 –29 . 23 .J ohnF .S e i t z , ‘C anaS choo lT e a chC in em a t o g r aph y ? ’ ,Am e r i c anC in em a t o g r a p h e r,5Ju l y 1923 . 24 .O ’L e a r y ,R e xIn g r am,p .66 . 25 .H i ld eD ’h a e y e r e , ‘S t opp in gth eShow :F i lmPho t o g r aph y in M a c kS enn e t tS l ap s t i c k Com ed i e s(1917–1933 ) ’ ,Un i v e r s i t yCo l l e g eGh en t ,2012 . 26 .R e xIn g r am , ‘D i r e c t in gth eP i c tu r e ’ ,O p p o r t un i t i e s int h eM o t i onP i c t u r eIn d u s t r y(Lo sAn g e l e s : Pho t op l a yR e s e a r chSo c i e t y ,1922 ) ,pp .27–33 . 27 .R e xIn g r am , ‘D i r e c t in gth eP i c tu r e ’ ,A r tR e v i ew(F eb ru a r y1922 ) ,pp .12–13 ,27 .C l ipp in g f r omL e eL aw r i eP ap e r s ,L ib r a r yo fCon g r e s s . 28 .R e xIn g r am ,p r e f a t o r yno t et oV i c t o rO s c a rF r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en(N ew Y o r k :M a cm i l l an ,1923 ) ,p .v i i . 29 .‘A e s th e t i cv s Mo r a l i s t i cC en so r sh ip , ’E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y s,Jun e1921 ,p .8 . 30 .Ib id . 31 .‘Th eS c r e en :P i c t o r i a lF an c yRun sF r e e ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,4O c t ob e r1922 . 32 .‘Zu ko rP l an sB i gCon f e r en c et oCon s id e rS c r e en ’ sA r t i s t i cAd v an c e ’ ,M o v in gP i c t u r eW o r l d (1923 ) ,p .761 . 33 .F o rp r e cu r so r st oAMPAS ,s e eP e t e rD e ch e rn e y ,H o l l yw o o dan dt h eC u l t u r eE l i t e :H owt h e M o v i e sB e c am eAm e r i c an,ed .J ohnB e l t on ,F i lmandCu l tu r e(N ewY o r k :Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,2005 ) . 34 .‘Mo t ionP i c tu r eA r t sCon g r e s sC a l l edH e r e :P r i z e sf o rD e v e lopm en tt oB eF e a tu r eo f Con v en t ionund e rAu sp i c e so fAu tho r ’ sL e a gu e ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,26Ap r i l1923 . 35 .N i cho l a sS ch en c kt oAdo lphZu ko r ,13D e c emb e r1924 ,P a r amoun tP i c tu r e sCo l l e c t ion , M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 36 .F r an c e sT a y lo rP a t t e r son , ‘AP r i z eP a r ado x ’ ,N ewY o r kT im e s,25J anu a r y1923 . 37 .R aph a e lS ab a t in it oAdo lphZu ko r ,26F eb ru a r y1925 ,P a r amoun tP i c tu r e sCo l l e c t ion , M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 38 .P a t t e r son , ‘AP r i z eP a r ado x ’ ,X5 .In g r ama g r e edt ob eon eo fth egu e s tsp e a k e r s in P a t t e r son ’ sPho t op l a yCompo s i t ionc ou r s ea tCo lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yth ef o l low in gy e a r . 39 .V a ch e lL ind s a y ,Th eP r o g r e s san dP o e t r yo ft h eM o v i e s,ed .andw i thc omm en t a r yb yM y r on Loun sbu r y(L anh am , MD :S c a r e c r owP r e s s ,1995 ) ,p .158 . 40 . Th eN a t ion a lCoun c i lo fT e a ch e r so fEn g l i shf r equ en t l yr e c omm end edth eno v e lf o rEn g l i sh o rH i s t o r yc l a s s e s .S e e ‘N ew sandN o t e s ’ ,Th eEn g l i s hJ o u rn a lv o l .11no .7(1922 ) . 41 .S e eA rn i eD a v i s ,P h o t o p l a yE d i t i on san dO t h e rM o v i eT i e inB o o k s :Th eG o l d enY e a r s , 1912–1969,1 s tedn(E a s tW a t e rbo r o , ME :M a in e l yBoo k s ,2002 ) . 42 .‘Wh a tW i l lB eth eR e su l t ? ’ ,E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y sv o l .3no .7and8(1923 ) ,p .5 . 43 . Rob e r tEmm e tSh e rw ood , ‘Th eF ou rH o r s em eno fth eApo c a l yp s e ’ ,L i f eM a g a z in e,24 M a r ch 1921 ,p .432 . 44 . Rob e r tEmm e tSh e rw ood ,Th eB e s tM o v in gP i c t u r e so f1922–23(Bo s t on :Sm a l l ,M a yn a rdand Co . ,1923 ) ,pp .x i x ,19 –23 .I t i sa l sow o r thno t in gth a t inth ep r e f a c et oth i sboo k( and th r ou ghou t i t ss e c t ion s )Sh e rw oode cho e sth es en t im en to fth eE x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y s r e v i ewo fS c a r am o u c h e . ‘Th eM o t ionP i c tu r e i s ju s twh a t i t sn am e imp l i e s .I t i sap i c t o r i a l 158

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r a th e rth ana l i t e r a r yf o rmo fe xp r e s s ion .I tm a k e s i t s imp r e s s iononth em indb yw a yo fth e s en s e s ’(p .x i ) . 45 . Und a t edc l ipp in g inA l i c eT e r r yS c r apboo k ,M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 46 .F a i rb an k sandS a b a t in iw e r ea l s os ou gh tou tb yedu c a t i on a lpu b l i c a t i on s .In1925 ,th eW o r l d R e v i ew,aCh i c a g o b a s eds ch o l a s t i cpu b l i c a t i onf o rh i ghs ch o o ls tud en t s ,f e a tu r edanad v en tu r e s t o r yb yS a b a t in i in i t sf i r s t i s su eandana r t i c l eb yF a i r b an k sonph y s i c a lf i tn e s s inth es e c ond . S e e ‘Pu b l i c a t i on sf o rH i ghS ch o o lPup i l s ’ ,Th eS c h o o lR e v i ewv o l .33n o .9(1925 ) ,p .647 . 47 . AndL ind s a y ’ sf e t i sh e sw e r e l e g end a r y . Wh i l eh ew a sw r i t in gth i sboo k inth eD a v enpo r t ho t e l inSpo k an e ,h e in s i s t edonh a v in gtw o l i f e s i z eddo l l sa c c omp an yh imt od inn e r .A f t e r som ea r gum en t ,th eho t e lm an a g e ra g r e edt os i th imw i thh i sdo l l sb eh indas c r e en inth e b a c kc o rn e ro fth eho t e ld in in gr oomt oa v o idd i s tu rb in gth eo th e rgu e s t s .S e eT on y B amon t eandSu z ann eB amon t e ,S p o k an e ’ sL e g en d a r yD a v en p o r tH o t e l( Spok an e , WA : T o rn adoC r e e k ,2001 ) . 48 .‘ S c a r amou ch e ’ ,E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y sv o l .3no .7and8 ,p .1 . 49 .InF r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en. 50 .E v enBu s t e rK e a t onr e f e r en c e sth ef i lm inSh e r l o c kJ r(1924 ) .Sw e ep in gou t s id eth ec in em a t i c k e tboo th ,th es i l en tf i lmc lowng e s tu r e st oana r tf i lmabou tas t a g ec lownf r omth e c omm ed i ad e l l ’ a r t e .I ta l sop r ob ab l yd idno thu r tth a tth a tK e a t onw a swo r k in gf o rM e t r oa t th et im e . 51 .S e i t ze xp e r i en c ednon eo fth ec a r e e rd am a g eth a tb e f e l lIn g r am .H es t a y edp r odu c t i v e in H o l l yw oodf o rd e c ad e sa son eo fth e mo s tr e sp e c t edf i gu r e s inh i sf i e ld .

CONC LU S ION 1 .S t e v eN e a l e , ‘A r tC in em aa sIn s t i tu t ion ’ ,S c r e env o l .22no .1(1981 ) ,p .29 . 2 . Ro s a l indG a l t ,P r e t t y :F i lman dt h eD e c o r a t i v eIm a g e(N ewY o r k :Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 2011 ) ,p .7 . 3 . Onr e a l i s tf i lmp r a c t i c e sa g a in s tc au s a ln a r r a t i v e ,s e eD a v idBo rdw e l l , ‘Th eA r tC in em aa sa Mod eo fF i lmP r a c t i c e ’ ,F i lmC r i t i c i smv o l .4no .1(1979 ) .Onth eop enandamb i v a l en t im a g e s inwo r ldc in em a ,s e eShoh in iCh audhu r iandH ow a rdF inn , ‘Th eOp enIm a g e :P o e t i c R e a l i smandth eN ewI r an i anC in em a ’ ,S c r e env o l .44no .1(2003 ) . 4 . Th e l e t t e rh e ado fth eGu i ld l i s t ede a ch m emb e ro fth ebo a rdw i thh i so rh e r in s t i tu t ion a l a f f i l i a t ion .Th e l i s t i s lon g ,bu t i tm a r k sas e to f in s t i tu t ion a lc onn e c t ion sth a th a sr em a in ed l a r g e l yunm app ed .M a jo rbo a rd m emb e r s ,w i thth e i ra f f i l i a t ion s ,a sp r o v id ed inth e l e t t e rh e ad , in c lud ed :Rob e r tSh e rw oodo f L i f e,Qu inn M a r t ino fth e W o r l d,An i t aLoo s , Rob e r tF l ah e r t y ,R a lphB lo c ko fF amou sP l a y e r s ,J ohnCoh enJ ro fth eN ewY o r kE v en in g S un ,B en j am ind eC a s s e r e s ,J ohnEm e r son ,F ann i eHu r s t ,J a yK au fm ano fth e N ewY o r k E v en in gT e l e g r amandS idn e yO l c o t t ,d i r e c t o r .Th ebo a rdo fd i r e c t o r sw a s lo c a t ed inN ew Y o r k ,andth ead v i so r yc oun c i l in c lud ed m emb e r s inf i f t e enc i t i e sa c r o s sth ec oun t r y . 5 .S e ymou rS t e rn , ‘AnInd e xt oth eC r e a t i v eW o r ko fD a v id W a r kG r i f f i th ’ , inS p e c i a l S u p p l em en tt oS i gh t&S o un d :In d e xS e r i e s ,ed .S i gh t&Sound(London ,1944 ) . 6 .H en r yH a r r i son ,whor anth eG rubS t r e e tC luba sw e l la sth eQu i l l,o r g an i s edth ee v en tt o b r in gt o g e th e rc r i t i c sand m an yo fth er e v i v a lo r g an i s e r sa tth eF i lmA r t sGu i ld .H a r r i son s en tap e r son a l in v i t a t iont oG r i f f i th ,a s su r in gh imth a th i sn am e ‘w i l lb ee l abo r a t edon app r e c i ab l y ’ .L e t t e rf r omH a r r i sont oG r i f f i th ,4O c t ob e r1926 ,D .W .G r i f f i thP ap e r s . No t e s

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7 .S e ymou rS t e rn , ‘K a l e ido s c op i a ’ ,G r e enw i c hV i l l a g eQu i l lv o l .19no .4(O c t ob e r1926 ) ,p .32 . 8 .T e r r yR am s a y e ,A M i l l i onan dOn eN i gh t s :AH i s t o r yo ft h eM o t i onP i c t u r e(N ewY o r k :S imon andS chu s t e r ,1926 ) . 9 .S t e rn , ‘K a l e ido s c op i a ’ ,p .39 . 10 .S e ymou rS t e rn , ‘G r e a tM om en t sF r omC in em a sth a tW i l lL in g e r inth eM emo r i e so f Sp e c t a t o r s ’ ,Th eN ewY o r kS un,14O c t ob e r1926 .D .W .G r i f f i thP ap e r s . 11 .S e ymou rS t e rn , ‘A W o r k in g -C l a s sC in em af o rAm e r i c a ’ ,Th eL e f tv o l .1(1931 ) . 12 .F r e ebu r gu s e sG r i f f i tha sh i sm a ine x amp l eo fad i r e c t o rw i thane y ef o r mo v in gt e x tu r e . V i c t o rO s c a rF r e ebu r g ,P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en(N ewY o r k :M a cm i l l an ,1923 ) ,p .91 . 13 .J o s e fv onS t e rnb e r g ,F un inaCh in e s eL a un d r y(N ewY o r k :M e r cu r yH ou s e ,1988 ) ,p .41 . A f t e rCh au t a rdh adr e t i r eda sad i r e c t o r ,h ec on t inu edt om a k ea l i v in ga sana c t o r in H o l l yw ood .S t e rnb e r gc a s th im insu chf i lm sa sM o r o c c o (1930 )andSh an gh a iE x p r e s s(1932 ) . 14 .S t e rnb e r ga l soc omm en t sonT ou rn eu r ’ sw o r k inth i ss am es e c t ion ,d e s c r ib in gh im– inth e c on t e x to fth eF r en chém i g r é sw o r k in g inF o r tL e e ,N ewJ e r s e y , inth e1910 s–a sth e ‘b e s t knowno fth ema l l ’ .Ib id . ,p .44 . 15 .B .G .B r a v e r -M ann , ‘ J o s e fv onS t e rnb e r g ’ ,E x p e r im en t a lC in em av o l .5(1934 ) ,p .19 .Inth i s a r t i c l e ,B r a v e r -M ann l aun ch e sasu s t a in eda t t a c konS t e rnb e r g ’ ss t y l eb yc omp a r in gh im w i thth eSo v i e t sandb yu s in gth e l an gu a g eo fd e c ad en c e .Th ea r t i c l eb e g in sw i tha d e s c r ip t iono fapho t o g r apho fS t e rnb e r gw e a r in g ‘ ar i ch l yo rn am en t edb l a c kv e l v e tc o a tand h i sa rm sa r eou t s t r e t ch eda s i fo f f e r in gab en ed i c t ion ’ .Ib id . ,p .17 . 16 .S e ymou rS t e rn , ‘H o l l ywoodand Mon t a g e :Th eB a s i cF a l l a c i e so fAm e r i c anF i lmT e chn iqu e ’ , E x p e r im en t a lC in em av o l .4(1932 ) ,pp .46 –52 . 17 .Iamu s in gth et e rm ‘ a e s th e t e ’ inr e f e r en c et oth er e c en t l ypub l i sh edv o lum e ,Cu r t i s H a r r in g t on ,N i c eG u y sD on ’ tW o r k inH o l l yw o o d :Th eAd v en t u r e so fanA e s t h e t e int h eM o v i e B u s in e s s(Ch i c a go :D r a gC i t y ,2013 ) . 18 . Th i s in t e r e s tsp ann edf r omth e1940 st oth e80 s ,wh enh eh adp l an st ow r i t ean ind e xon In g r am ,f o l low edb yon eonT ou rn eu r .Und a t ed l e t t e r ,Cu r t i sH a r r in g t onP ap e r s ,J o s e fv on S t e rnb e r gc o r r e spond en c e :1964 –99 ,M a r g a r e tH e r r i c kL ib r a r y . 19 . Cu r t i sH a r r in g t on , ‘Ghou l i e sandGho s t i e s ’ ,Qu a r t e r l yR e v i ewo fF i lman dT e l e v i s i onv o l .7 no .2 ,W in t e r1952 ,p .193 .An g e r ,t oo ,w a sd e ep l y in t e r e s t ed inth ep i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion so f s i l en tc in em a ,e sp e c i a l l ywh enth e y loo k edb a c kt oth ed e c ad en t1890 so rm ad eu s eo f f an t a s t i cm i s eens c èn e.H ee v ent ou r edw i thR e xIn g r am ’ sf i lm s . 20 .‘Th eD an g e r ou sComp r om i s e ’ ,p r in t ed inth ep r o g r amm eno t e sf o rCu r t i sH a r r in g t on ,Th e F i lm so fJ o s e fv onS t e rn b e r g :AF i lmC y c l eP r e s en t e db yt h eC omm i t t e eonA r t san dL e c t u r e s ( S an t aB a rb a r a :Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i a ,1965 ) ,pp .2–7 . 21 .Ib id . ,p .1 . 22 .H a r r in g t on i st yp i c a l l yon l ym en t ion ed inp a s s in g inh i s t o r i e so fth eAm e r i c ana v an t g a rd e . On ee x c ep t ion i sD a v idE .J am e s ,Th eM o s tT y p i c a lA v an t -G a r d e :H i s t o r yan dG e o g r a p h yo f M in o rC in em a s inL o sAn g e l e s(B e r k e l e y :Un i v e r s i t yo fC a l i f o rn i aP r e s s ,2005 ) ,pp .180–91 . 23 .E v enen c oun t e r in gK i a r o s t am i ’ sf i lm sn a r r ow l y ,a sr e a l i s ta r tf i lm s ,e l id e sh i s( a lmo s t c ompu l s i v e ) in t e r e s t inp i c tu r e squ e l and s c ap e s .Compo s edp i c tu r e so fn a tu r a lb e au t yw i th lon et r e e sandw ind in gr o ad sb r andh i sf i lm sandh i se xh ib i t ion so fs t i l lpho t o g r aph ya t g a l l e r i e sa r oundth ew o r ld .S e ea l soh i sowndo cum en t a r yabou tth e s epho t o g r aph s ,Th e R o a d st oK i a r o s t am i(2005 ) .

160

M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

Ind e x

P a g enum b e r s inbo ldind i c a t ed e t a i l edan a l y s i s ;th o s e in i t a l i c s d en o t e i l lu s t r a t i on s ;n=endn o t e . Abn e y ,W i l l i am31 ,144n57 ACAD(A s so c i a t ion c in ém a t o g r aph iqu ed e s au t eu r sd r am a t iqu e s )97 A c ad em yo f Mo t ionP i c tu r e A r t sandS c i en c e s (AMPAS )121 ,166 n33 a c t in gth eo r y32 ,103 –4 , 130 ,144n59 Ad am s ,H en r y95 ,155n10 Ad am son ,G l enn8 ,138n23 Ado rno ,Th eodo r14–15 , 139n38 a e s th e t i c s ,andab so rp t ion 49–55,62 ,68 , 139n29, 148n24 ,153n59 a e s th e t i c s ,andd emo c r a c y8 , 17–18 ,21 ,121 a e s th e t i c s ,andth ep r i v a t e hom e12 ,63 a e s th e t i c s ,andedu c a t ions e e p e d a g o g y ,a r t a e s th e t i c s ,impu r i t y3 –4 a e s th e t i c s ,o f mo v em en tand s t a s i s4 ,6–7 ,10–11, 40–2 ,54 ,79–92 A e s t h e t i c so fM o v em en t87 –8 , 154nn62–3 a e s th e t i c s ,p s y cho lo g i c a ls e e p s y c h o l o g i c a la e s t h e t i c s a e s th e t i c s ,o fso f t en ed mo t ion38–40 I nd e x

a e s th e t i c s ,p i c t o r i a l t r ad i t ion ss e ep i c t o r i a l t r a d i t i on s a e s th e t i c s ,andr e f o rm 13 –15,49 ,78 ,121 –2 a e s th e t i c s ,o fsp e c t a t o r sh ip s e es p e c t a t o r s h i p A i t k en ,Rob e r t12 A l i a sJ imm yV a l en t in e97, 101 A lp e r s ,S v e t l an a 67,149 n60 Am a t eu rC in em aL e a gu e16 , 129 ,142n21 ,143n38 , n46 am a t eu r i sm10 ,16 ,21 –4, 28 ,37 ,141n17 ,142n21 Am e r i c anind ep end en t c in em a2 ,135 Am e r i c anSo c i e t yo f C in em a t o g r aph e r s119 And e r son ,P au lThom a s2 And e r son ,W e s135 , And r ew ,Dud l e y137n2 142n28 An g e l u s83 An g e r ,K enn e th 134, 160n19 an im a l lo c omo t ion22 , 27 –33 An im a lL o c om o t i on28 ,33 A p p l i e dA r t sB o o k 12 –13 A r a gon ,Lou i s105 ,107

A r c ad i anwo r k ss e eE a k in s , Th om a s A rmo r yShow ,191390 ,95 A rno ld ,M a th ew121 Th eA r r i v a lo ft h eT r a ina tt h e S t a t i on88 a r tapp r e c i a t ion4 ,9 ,11–14, 49–51, 66–9, 73–4,78 , 87 ,117–18 ,120 ,139n35 , 140n8 ,146n3 a r tedu c a t ions e ee d u c a t i on Th eA r to fP h o t o p l a yM a k in g 77–85,151 n20 ,n23 ,n26 152n39 ,nn42–3 , nn49–53 ,153n60 , 154n75 Th eA r to ft h eM o v in gP i c t u r e 54 ,76–7, 148n30, 151n22 A r tS tud en t ’ sL e a gu eo fN ew Y o r k69 ,117 A r t c r a f t 97–101,114 ,118 , 156n28 a r t i s t c lown s46–9,55 Th eA r t i s tan dt h eM ann e q u in 48 Th eA r t i s t ’ sD i l emm a48 , 52–3 Th eA r t i s t ’ sG r e a tM a d onn a 113 a r t i s t ’ s -d r e amfi lm s44 ,48 , 50 ,62 ,66 161

Th eB i r t ho fAN a t i on90 , 131 –2 B i z e t ,G eo r g e s118 B l a ch é ,H e rb e r t 61, 64 –6, 155n12 B l a c kM a r i a110 B l a c k ,A l e x and e r4 ,6 ,11 , 15 –16 ,19 –43,47 ,54 ,75 , 81 ,100 ,129 ,140n1 ,n3 , 141nn10 –13 ,nn15 –19 , 142nn21 –2 ,143n36 ,n38 , n41 ,n44 ,n46 ,nn48–9 , nn51 –5 ,144n62 , nn68 –74 ,145nn76 –7 , nn79 –80 ,n83 ,nn85–7 , n92 ,n95 B l a c k ,A l e x and e r ,and am a t eu rpho t o g r aph y 21 –3 B l a c k ,A l e x and e r ,and in s t an t an eou s pho t o g r aph y27 –34 B l a c k ,A l e x and e r ,nonfi c t ion l e c tu r e s24 –34 B l a c k ,A l e x and e r ,p i c tu r e -p l a y compo s i t ion34 –8 B a l l e t sr u s s e s54 l a c k ,A l e x and e r ,r e c ep t ion B a l l in ,Hu go7 ,117 ,157n10 B 38 –43, 41 B am f o r th&Co .140n3 B l a c k ,A l e x and e r ,w o r k ss e eA B a r oqu e99 C a p i t a lC o u r t s h i p ,C a p t a in B a r r y ,I r i s72 K o d a k ,Th eG i r lan dt h e Th eB e a u t i f u l81 ,152n37 G u a r d sm an ,M i s sAm e r i c a , B e a u t yan dU g l in e s s81 , M i s sJ e r r y ,P h o t o g r a p h y 152n37 In d o o r san dO u t ,T im ean d Th eB e g g a rM a i d61–2 ,63 Ch an c e B e l a s c o ,D a v id83 ,152n46 B l a c k b o a r d s135 B end e r ,Thom a s150n13 B l a c k t on ,J am e sS t ew a r t49 B en j am in ,W a l t e r14 , Th eB l u eB i r d99 –108, 102, 140n40 ,153n55 ,134 104, 107,112 B e rnh a rd t ,S a r ah3 Th eB lu eB i r d(M a e t e r l in ck ) Th eB e s tM o v in gP i c t u r e so f 100–1 ,104 ,155n20 , 1922–23124 ,158n44 n22 B e r t e l l in i ,G io r g io139n27 B lu eb i rd7 ,113 ,115 ,118 , B e t j em ann ,P e t e r138n19 128 b e t t e rfi lm s2 ,108 ,112 ,118 , Bo rd i eu ,P i e r r e141n9 121 ,132 ,149n51 Bo rdw e l l ,D a v id137n4 B e z a i ,B ah r am135 a r t i s t s ’ mod e l s44–6, 57 –9 a r t i s t s ’s tud io s ,im a g e so f 11 ,17 ,44–8, 50–2,59 , s e eL e j a r enàH i l l e r a r t i s t i c l abou r8–14, 44,80 , 113, 115–16 A r t sandC r a f t s4 ,7–9 ,11 , 13 ,16 ,65 ,69 ,96 , 114–15 ,139n25 ,145n1 , 146n4 ,157n10 A r t san dD e c o r a t i on12 ,63 , 146n4 A r t s inH i s t o r ys e r i e s145 n1 Th eA s c en s i ono fOu rL o r d55 A s so c i a t iono fA r tT e a ch e r s 21 ,73 A s t o r ,M a r y61 ,65 A tF i v e int h eA f t e rn o on135 Au d r e y77 ,78,84 au t o ch r om ep r o c e s s22 Th eAu t om a t i cM o v in g C om p an y105 a v an t g a rd e93 ,101 ,109 , 112 ,131 ,134 ,136

162

Bo s t onPub l i cL ib r a r y18 ,54 , 95, 96,103 ,149–50 n61 , 155n5 Bo t t i c e l l i ,S and r o74 B r ad y ,W i l l i am97 B r aun ,M a r t a33–4 ,144n64 , n66 B r a v e r -M ann ,B .G .160n15 B r ew s t e r ,B en82 ,86 , 152n41 B r i g g sComp an y145–6n1 B r o k enB l o s s om s79 ,131 B r ook l ynIn s t i tu t eo fA r t s andS c i en c e s5 ,16 ,21–3, 39 ,73–5,140 n7 , 141nn12–13 , 150nn11–12 , 151nn16–17 ,151n32 B r ook l ynL ib r a r y28 B r o o k l yn Mu s eum75 ,79 –80 , 140n8 ,151n 16 ,n33 B r ook s ,W i l l i am62 B r o th e rhoodo fth eL ink ed R in g22 B r own ,E l sp e th149n43 , 155n21 B ru l a t ou r ,Ju l e s22 ,97 Bu c k l and ,W i l f r ed84–5 ,118 Bu r ch ,N o e l101 Bu r e auo fV o c a t ion a l Gu id an c e120 B u r l e s q u eonC a rm en118 Bu rn e -J on e s ,Edw a rd17 , 61–2 Bu rn s ,Rob e r t24 Bu rn s ,S a r ah46 ,48 ,146n5 Bu r r ow s ,J on138nn9–10 C am e r on ,M a r jo r i e134 C ann e sF i lmF e s t i v a l135 AC a p i t a lC o u r t s h i p35,40 , 145n80 C a p t a inB l o o d125 C a p t a inK o d a k23–6 ,29–30 , 33 ,141n19 ,142n22 , 143n52 M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

C a r a v a g g io ,M i ch e l an g e lo M e r i s id a98 C a rbonS tud io19 C a rm en73 ,84–8 ,85,92 , 118 ,126 C a rp e au x ,J e an -B ap t i s t e91 C a r r é ,B en18 ,84 ,97–106 117–18 ,155n14 ,n16 C e l l in i ,B en v enu t o1 ,6 –7 , 138n20 ,145–6n1 Th eC en t u r y29 C e r t ifi e dC o p y135 Ch a l i c eo fS o r r ow118 ,128 ch a l kd r aw in g48–9 Ch ap l in ,Ch a r l i e105 ,118 Ch a s eS choo l47 ,66 Ch a s e ,W i l l i am M e r r i t t6 ,19 , 22 ,27 ,47–8,54–5 ,66 , 69 ,141n15 Ch audhu r i ,Shoh in i159n3 Ch au t a rd ,Ém i l e 97,101 , 133,155 n12 ,160n13 Ch au t auqu a mo v em en t21 , 49 ,140n8 ,146n9 ch i a r o s cu r o58–9 ,67 ,95 ACh r i s tm a sC a r o l 35 ch r onopho t o g r aph y27 ,32 Chu r ch ,F r ed e r i cEdw in50 c in é c lub s3 C in em aCompo s e r ’ sC lub 76 C in em aC r a f t sm an s h i p77 –8 , 98 ,138n22 ,151n24 , 154n75 ,155n15 c in em ao fa t t r a c t ion s19 , 49–50 c i t a t ion20 ,52–3 ,69 ,103 , 107 ,110 ,118–19 ,134 C l ad e l ,Jud i th155n6 C l a r k -Co rn e l iu s59 C l o s e -U p3 ,129 Coh en ,J ohn131 ,159n4 Coh l ,Em i l105–7 Co l e ,Thom a s50 Co lumb i aIn s t i tu t eo fA r t s andS c i en c e s75 I nd e x

Co lumb i aUn i v e r s i t y5 –6 ,9 , 14 ,17 ,30 ,65 ,71 –5 , 78 –80 ,90 ,120 –2 ,133 C om p o s i t i on9 ,74,139 n26 , ,155n8 150n8 ,154n70 c ompo s i t ionth eo r ys e e p i c t u r es t u d y Th eC on c e p t i ono fA r t91 , 154n73 con t emp l a t ion9 –15,78 , 79 –86,90 –2 ,146 n10 c on t in g en c y21 ,27 ,30 ,33 , 39 ,91 –2 ,153n59 c on t inu i t yined i t in g35 ,76 , 86 c on t inu i t yo f mo t ion35 ,76 , 79 Coo k ,M a l co lm147n11 Coop e r ,J am e sF en imo r e 108 ,156n32 Coop e r ,M a r k94 ,115 , 154n2 ,157n11 Coppo l a ,Sofi a2 ,135 Co r e l l i ,M a r i e46 AC o rn e r in Wh e a t83 C o sm o p o l i t an12 ,58 Th eC o v e r e dW a g on17 ,73 , 88 –92 ,89 c r a f t ,anda r tedu c a t ion 8 –10, 16,112 ,115 ,120 c r a f t ,andth ea r t i s t ’ s w o r k shop 46 –7,59 , 96 –7 ,106 ,113 –14 ,115 c r a f t ,andb r and in g97 ,99 , 118 ,128 ,157n10 c r a f t ,inc omm e r c i a l pho t o g r aph y55 –6 c r a f t ,andfi lm m anu a l s7–8 , 78 –84 c r a f t ,andh andm ad e mo v in g im a g e s20 –1 ,34 –8 c r a f t , l abou r8–9 ,11 –15,17 , 115 c r a f t ,and mod e rn i t y 11–15,138n19 ,n23 , 139n34

c r a f t , mo v em en t s ,s e eA r t s an dC r a f t s c r a f t ,andn in e t e en th c en tu r y a r th i s t o r i an s7 ,145 n1 c r a f t ,su sp i c iono f130 Th eC r a f t sm an7 ,12 C r i t e r ionth e a t r e90 C r i t e r ionCo l l e c t ion2 C ru z e ,J am e s73 ,90 C u p i d ’ sH un t in gF i e l d s61 Cu r t i s ,Edw a rd7 Cu r t i s ,S c o t t152n37 Th eD an c e91 d and y i sm46 ,135 D a v i e s ,A r thu r95 D a v i e s ,M i l t on75 ,150n15 , 151nn16–17 D a y ,F .H o l l and100 ,121 D a y so fH e a v en 134 d e c ad en c e47 ,49 ,94–5 ,100 , 106 ,108 ,112 ,121 ,125 , 133–4 ,155n18 ,160n15 , n19 D e ch e rn e y ,P e t e r5 ,72 , 138n16 ,150n3 ,158n33 d e c o r a t i v ea r t s9–10 ,61 ,69 , 73 ,114 ,130 D eF o r e s t ,Rob e r t63–5 d e l aT ou r ,G eo r g e s99 D e l eu z e ,G i l l e s14–15 ,21 , 139n36 ,140n4 D eM i l l e ,C e c i lB .73 ,83, 84–7,118 ,126 , 152nn45–8 ,157n19 d e s i gn8 ,12–13 ,46–7 ,69 , 73–4 ,120 ,139n28 , 157n10 d e t e c t i v ec am e r a24–5 ,30 d e t e c t i v e l e c tu r e s16 ,24–7, 34–5 ,142n22 Th eD e v i l ’ sAn g e l57 D ew e y ,J ohn17 ,74 ,150n10 D ’h a e y e r e ,H i ld e119 , 158n25 D i a gh i l e v ,S e r g e i54 163

D i c k en s ,Ch a r l e s33–4 ,131 D id e r o t ,D en i s11 d i s so l v in gv i ew s36–9,50 d i s t r a c t ion17 ,71 ,92 d i v in g29–32,54 Do an e ,M a ryAnn 33 , 81 ,144n65 ,152n40 , 153n54 D ow ,A r thu rW e s l e y9 ,14 , 17 ,65–6 ,69 ,73–8 ,83 , 91–2 ,95 ,120 ,150nn7 –9 , 151n27 ,153n61 ,154n70 , 155n8 Du l a c ,G e rm a in e155n5 DuM au r i e r ,G eo r g e s16 ,44 , 46–7 ,49 ,52 ,53 ,55 –7 , 59–60 ,93 Dupon t ,Ew a ldAnd r é132 E a k in s ,Thom a s27–9 ,32 –3 , 38 ,144n61 E a k in s ,Thom a s ,A r c ad i an wo r k s32 ,144nn61 –2 É c l a i r97 ,105 ,117 Ed i son ,Thom a s22 ,38 –9 , 52 ,105–7 ,110 ,141n11 , 147n17 E g g e l in g ,V i k in g89 ,92 E l l aL o l aa l aT r i l b y52 Em e r son ,R a lph W a ldo7 , 106 ,138n18 Em e r y ,M ab e l13 ,139n31 , n33 ep i cu r e an i sm121 ,125 Equ i t ab l e /W o r ld55 Th eE t e rn a lC i t y41 E v e ’ sD a u gh t e r113 E x c e p t i on a lP h o t o p l a y s78 , 111–13 ,119 ,121 ,124 , 126 ,128 ,132 E x c ep t ion a lPho t op l a y s Comm i t t e e111–12 ,121 , 127 E x p e r im en t a lC in em a3 ,129 , 131–3 e xp r e s ss cu lp tu r e48 164

F a i rb an k s ,D ou g l a s54 ,84 , 125 –6 ,148n31 ,159n46 f a i r g r ounden t e r t a inm en t 16 ,39 ,43 ,45 ,49 F amou sP l a y e r s -L a s k y17 , 83 ,84 ,90 ,118 F a rF r omH e a v en135 F a rb e r ,M ann y4 F a r r a r ,G e r a ld in e84 ,87 F ed e r a lT r ad eComm i s s ion 122 F eno l lo s a ,E rn e s t9 ,76 , 151n18 fi lmau tho r sh ip2 ,94 fi lmd ’ a r t1 ,3 F i r eD an c e106 ,110 F i t z g e r a ld ,F .S c o t t109 F i t z g e r a ld ,Z e ld a109 F i t zm au r i c e ,G eo r g e41 F o l i e sB e r g è r e106 ,110 F ond a ,J an e104 Th eF o u rH o r s em eno ft h e A p o c a l y p s e( s cu lp tu r e ) 115 ,116 Th eF o u rH o r s em eno ft h e A p o c a l y p s e(fi lm )18 , 115 –16 ,120 –1 ,134 , 156n8 f r am e jump in g17 ,42 ,50–5, 61 –2 ,68 ,101 F r an k fu r tS choo l14 F r e ebu r g ,V i c t o r6 ,11 ,15 , 17 ,43 ,71 –93,98 ,129 , 132 ,133 ,141n10 , 143n56 ,145n88 ,150n4 , 151nn19 –21 ,n23 , 152n39 ,nn41 –5 , nn49 –53 ,153nn55 –61 , 154nn64 –5 ,n75 ,158n28 , 159n49 ,160n12 F r e ebu r g ,V i c t o r ,and c omp o s i t i on73 –8,126 –7 F r e ebu r g ,V i c t o r ,and con t emp l a t ion80 –6 F r e ebu r g ,V i c t o r ,andR e x In g r am4 ,120 ,127

F r e ebu r g ,V i c t o r ,p e r c ep t ion o fp i c tu r e s30–1, 86–7 F r e ebu r g ,V i c t o r ,p i c t o r i a l compo s i t ionin mo t ion 87–90 F r emon tTh e a t r e123 F r en ch ,Ch a r l e sC .12 F r i c k ,H en r yC l a y62–3 , 149nn54–5 ,n7 F r i e z eo ft h eP r o p h e t s124 Fu l l e r ,Lo ï e106–7 ,110 , 156n31 ‘FuninanA r t i s t ’ sS tud io ’52 Fu tu r i s tp a in t in g91 , G a in e s ,J an e94 ,143n55 154n2 G a l a s s i ,P e t e r143n39 G a l t ,Ro s a l ind3 ,130 ,137n7 , 138n12 ,159n2 G an c e ,Ab e l101 G a rdn e r ,H e l en59 ,148n40 G a r r i c kTh e a t r e52 G aud r e au l t ,And r é38 , 138n13 ,143n35 ,145n81 G aumon t97 g en t e e lt r ad i t ion12 ,14 , 21–3,141 n10 G ibbon s ,C ed r i c117 ,157n10 G i b s on ,Ch a r l e sD an a12 ,16 , 46 –9,55 –60 ,68 ,121 ,127 Th eG i r lan dTh eG u a r d sm an 40 G l edh i l l ,Ch r i s t in e39 , 145n90 g lob a ln eww a v e s2 –3 ,130 –6 God a rd ,J e an -Lu c2 go ld ena g eo fi l lu s t r a t ion 47–9 Go ldw yn ,S amu e l83 ,100 , 117 ,155n20 ,157n19 Gomb r i ch ,E rn s t149n56 Good y e a r ,W i l l i amH en r y 79–80 ,91 ,140n8 , 151n33 Go th i ca r ch i t e c tu r e74 M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

In g r am ,R e x ,fin ea r td e g r e e 116–18 In g r am ,R e x ,inH a r r in g t on 133–4 In g r am ,R e x ,andL e eL aw r i e 115–16 In g r am ,R e x ,andth e Ib áñ e z ,V i c en t eB l a s co115 N a t ion a lBo a rdo fR e v i ew i l lu s t r a t ion5 ,8 ,12 ,15–18 , 111 ,121 20 ,23–6,38 , 44–9, In g r am ,R e x ,inP a t t e r son 52–8,60 , 65–8,77 , 79 ,94 84–5 ,88 ,90 ,101 ,103 , g r am ,R e x ,inP i c t o r i a l 107–9 ,113 ,117 ,120–5, In B e a u t yont h eS c r e en4 , 140n3,142 n22 ,143n37 , H an do fP e r i l 84 ,85 120 147n17 ,149n49 ,154n1 , H an s en ,M a r k138n15 In g r am ,R e x ,andqu a l i t y 156n33 H an s en ,M i r i am153n55 fi lm s 117–20 Th eI s l eo fL o s tSh i p s108 H a r p e r ’ sW e e k l y34,39 In g r am ,R e x ,a ss cu lp t o r Int h eL an do ft h eH e a d H a r r in g t on ,Cu r t i s133 , 112–16, 118, 120,125 H un t e r s 54 160nn17–20 In g r am ,R e x ,andth eZu ko r In a u gu r a t i ono ft h eP l e a s u r e H a r r i s ,Ch a r l e sK .140n3 P r i z e 121–7 D om e 134 H a r r i s ,N e i l146n2 Th eIn s p i r in gM u s e s96 In g r am ,R e x15 ,17 –18 , H a r r i son ,H en r y159n6 in s t an t an e i t y16 ,20–33 , 111 –28,156 n2 ,n4 , H a r tm ann ,S ad ak i ch i75 ,95 , 37–40,43 , 82–3,86 ,92 , 157n9 ,nn13 –20 ,158n24 , 155n9 139n29 ,142n27 ,n33 , nn26 –8 ,n38 ,159n51 , H a t am i ,A l i135 143n53 ,144n57 160nn18 –19 H a yn e s ,T odd2 ,135 t e rm ed i a l i t y5–10,131–4 , In g r am ,R e x ,anda c t ion108 , in H en r i ,Rob e r t54–5 147n12 125 –6 H i l l e r ,L e j a r enà4 ,15 ,17 , in t e rm ed i a l i t y ,and In g r am ,R e x ,andA r t sand 44–5 ,55 ,56,57–70 p e r f o rm an c et r ad i t ion s C r a f t s114–15 H o g a r th ,W i l l i am88 ,154n64 51–5 ,59 In g r am ,R e x ,andau tho r sh ip H o l l yw ood41 ,71–2 ,76 ,93 , in t e rm ed i a l i t y ,and 93 112–14 ,117 ,119 ,125 , ab so rp t ion68 g r am ,R e x ,c o l l abo r a t o r s 127–8 ,129 ,133 ,148n31 , In in t e rm ed i a l i t y ,inad ap t a t ion s e eJ o hnF .S e i t z 159n51 ,160n13 99–102 ,120–7 In g r am ,R e x ,and H o lm e s ,Bu r t on22 ,24 , in t e rm ed i a l i t y ,inr e c en ta r t compo s i t ion111 142n24 c in em a134–6 In g r am ,R e x ,d ep a r tu r ef r om H o lm s t r öm ,K i r s t enG r am In t e rn a t ion a lF i lmA r t sGu i ld H o l l yw ood127–8 144n58 131 ,159n4 In g r am ,R e x , ‘D i r e c t in gth e H o p ,t h eD e v i l ’ sB r ew 115 In t o l e r an c e131 P i c tu r e ’120 H opp e r ,D enn i s134 ,136 I s s i gon i s ,A l e c4 ,138 n11 g r am ,R e x ,fi lm ss e eTh e H o r a k ,J an -Ch r i s t oph e r101 , In F o u rH o r s em eno ft h e 105 ,137n8 ,142n20 , a c ob s ,L e a82 ,86 ,152 n41 , A p o c a l y p s e ,Th eM a g i c i an , J 156n2 n46 M a r eN o s t r um ,P r i s on e ro f H o v e y ,R i ch a rd100 ,106 , J a c ob s ,L ew i s130–4 Z en d a ,S c a r am o u c h e ,Th e 121 ,155n19 am e s ,D a v id112 ,137 n8 , S p i r i tan dt h eC l a y ,T r ifl in g J H owt oEn j o yP i c t u r e s 13 , 156n3 ,160n22 W om en 139n31 ,n33 Gou ld ,S ymon131 G r e enw a y ,P e t e r135 G r i ffi th ,D .W .79 ,83 ,89 , 131–2,152 n47 , 159nn5–6 ,160n12 G r o s s e t tandDun l ap18 , 122–3 ,127 G rubS t r e e tC lub132 ,159n6 Gunn in g ,T om49 ,106 , 142n20 ,n33 ,143n55 , 145n89 ,156n31

I nd e x

how t ot e x t s8 H ow e l l s ,W i l l i amD e an6 ,19 Hun t ,W i l l i amH o lm an95 H y p o t h e s i so ft h eS t o l en P a in t in g134

165

l i f e -mod e lc l a s s e s46 –7 ,64 , 69 ,145 –6n1 ‘L i f eTh r ou ghaD e t e c t i v e C am e r a ’24 ,30 l i gh tn in gs k e t ch48 –50 , K a r -W a i ,W on g2 147n11 K ä s eb i e r ,G e r t rud e75 ind s a y ,V a ch e l6 ,43 ,47–8 , K e a t in g ,P a t r i c k119 ,158n22 L 54 –5 ,71 ,76 –8 ,84 ,122 , K en s in g t ons choo l69 125 –7 ,132 –3 , Kh a y y am ,Om a r114 148nn30 –1 ,151n22 , k in e t o s c op e15 ,22 ,38–9 , 158n39 ,159n47 41 ,144n71 ,145n83 in eo fb e au t y88 K in gC o p h e t u aan dt h eB e g g a r l L i t t l eC in em a mo v em en t3 , M a i d 61–2 129 ,131 Kod akc am e r a6 ,24 L o rn aD o on e108 Ko s z a r s k i ,R i ch a rd150n1 , Low ,S e th6 ,19 ,36 ,75 156n5 Lub i t s ch ,E rn s t132 K r a c au e r ,S i e g f r i ed14 , Lum i è r eb r o th e r s15 ,22 ,26 , 139n37 38 –9 ,50 ,88 ,105 ,107 , 142n33 L a d i e s ’H om eJ o u rn a l12 ,58 l y c eum14 ,16 ,19 , 21 –2,29 , Th eL a d yan dt h eD u k e135 39 –40 ,43 ,44 ,49 ,72–4, L aF a r g e ,J ohn13 ,55 , 100 –1 ,117 ,130 ,140n6 , 139n32 ,155n10 141n14 ,n16 L aM a r r ,B a rb a r a41 L yn ch ,D a v id2 L a o c o ön79–80 ,91 ,151n33 , L y r i cTh e a t r e115 152n35 L a s k y l i gh t in g83 ,118 , M a e t e r l in c k ,M au r i c e100–6 , 152n46 155nn19 –22 L a s k y ,J e s s e84 ,89–90 ,122 Th eM a g i c i an156n8 Th eL a s to ft h eM o h i c an s98 , m a g i c l an t e rn ,a sa r t i s t i ct oo l 108 ,109,111 7 ,16 ,26 L a s t r a ,J am e s142n28 m a g i c l an t e rn ,a sedu c a t ion a l L au t r e c ,T ou lou s e106 t oo l14 ,45 ,80 L aw r i e ,L e e18 ,115–17 ,120 , m a g i c l an t e rn ,fi c t ion5 ,11 , 157n12 ,nn14–15 ,n18 , 38s e ep i c t u r ep l a y s 158n27 m a g i c l an t e rn ,e f f e c t s50 ,66 L eM y s t e r i e u xJ imm y97 s e ed i s s o l v in gv i ew s L e a r s ,T .J .J a c k son139n30 m a g i c l an t e rn , l e c tu r e s4 ,6 , L eb l an c ,G eo r g e t t e106 14 –16 ,21 ,23 l e c tu r eh a l l s6 ,17 ,22 –3 ,55 , m a g i c l an t e rn , l i f e -mod e l 72 ,132 ,141n13 s e r i e s35 L e e ,V e rnon6 ,81 ,152n37 m a g i c l an t e rn ,m anu a l s36 Th eL e f t132 m a g i cshow s38 L e s s in g ,Go t tho ldEph r a im a g i c a lt r an s f o rm a t ion s 11 ,51 ,80 ,91 ,151nn34 –5 m 16 –17 ,50 ,106 L i f e10 ,46 ,122 J eun e t ,J e an -P i e r r e2 J u g g l e r33 J u s t ind eM a r s e i l l e99

166

M a khm a lb a f ,S am i r a135 M a l i c k ,T e r r en c e134 Th eM anw i t ht h eRu b b e rH e a d 105 M an e t ,Edou a rd124 M ano v i ch ,L e v138n15 M a r eN o s t r um 126 M a r e y ,É t i enn e -Ju l e s32–3 , 87–8 M a r i eAn t o in e t t e 135 M a r s ,S é v e r in101 M a r x ,K a r l131 M a th i s ,Jun e115 M a th i son ,P au l134 M a t th ew s ,B r and e r19 ,76 , 141n10 AM a yM o rn in g int h eP a r k 28–9 M a y e r ,D a v id147n14 M cC a r th y ,J .J .89 M e i s e l ,M a r t in139n29 , 143n37 ,151n35 M é l i è s ,G eo r g e s101 ,105–7 M e sm e r i sm 17 ,44–5 , 50–3 ,57–9 ,139n29 , 148n23 M e t r os e eM e t r o -G o l dw yn M a y e r M e t r o -Go ldw yn -M a y e r (MGM )113–24 ,127 , 157n13 ,159n50 M e t r opo l i t an Mu s eumo fA r t 17 ,60–8 ,149n55 M i ch e l an g e lo 1 ,6–7 , 138n18 M i l l e t ,J e an -F r an co i s 71 , 83 AM i l l i onan dOn eN i gh t s 19 , 132 ,140n2 ,143n47 , 145n96 ,160n8 m i s eens c èn e 84 ,101–6 ,118 , 130 ,133–5 M i s sJ e r r y 19 ,25 ,34,40–1 , 43 M ’ l l eN ewY o r k 100 AM o d e lT r i l b y52 M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

mod e rn i s tp a in t in g9 ,15 ,69 , 91–2 mod e rn i t y8 , 11–15,32 ,39 , 81 ,86 ,90 ,137n6 , 144n63 ,153n55 M on aL i s a 51 Mon e t ,C l aud e95 mon t a g e92 ,131 ,133 , 160n16 M o rd k in ,M i kh a i l54 M o r e au ,Gu s t a v e96 ,106 M o r r i s ,W i l l i am9 ,114 –15 mo t ion ,an a l y s i so f33 Mo t ionP i c tu r eA r t sCon g r e s s 124–7 ,158n34 mo v em en t im a g e14 –15 Mün s t e rb e r g ,Hu go71 ,84 Mu rn au ,F r i ed r i ch W i lh e lm 3 ,132 Mu rph y ,Dud l e y112 Mu s eumo f Mod e rnA r tfi lm l ib r a r y3 ,5 ,72 ,129 Mu s s e r ,Ch a r l e s 49–50 , 141n11 ,142n26 , 145n84 Mu yb r id g e ,E adw e a rd10 ,16 , 22 ,27–33,38 ,142 n27 , 146n4 N apo l eon125 N a t ion a lA c ad em yo fD e s i gn 60 N a t ion a lA r t sC lub90 ,133 N a t ion a lBo a rdo fR e v i ew (NBR )18 ,78 ,111 , 121–4 ,127–8 N a t ion a lS cu lp tu r eSo c i e t y 12 ,60 N a t ion a lSo c i e t yo f I l lu s t r a t o r s12 N e ad ,L ynd a51 ,147n13 N e a l e ,S t e v en129 ,137n4 , 159n1 n eo r e a l i sm135 N e v e r t o l dT a l e so faS t u d i o 55–7 I nd e x

N ewI r an i anC in em a135 , 159n3 n ew m ed i a5 ,9 ,20 n ew m ed i a ,c o r r o s i v ee f f e c t s 23 n ew m ed i a ,e xp e r im en t s49 n ew m ed i a , l e c tu r e s22 ,43 Th eN ewS choo l72 Th eN ewT en d en c y inA r t91 , 154n71 N ewY o r kS choo lo fA r t12 , 54 N ewY o r kUn i v e r s i t y72 N ewY o r kW o r l d 49 N i a g r aF a l l s 26 ,50 n i c k e lod eon39 –40 ,140n3 N i g h tT i d e 134 N i gh tw a t c h in g 135 N o v a r r o ,Rom an119 ,126 Nu t t in g ,D o r o th y154n1 O ’L e a r y ,L i am157n9 , 158n20 ,n24 O l s son ,J an152n47 O ’N e i l ,P e g g y59 ,148n40 ‘OnD é c o r ’105 –7 ‘Th eO th e rH a l f :H owi t L i v e sandD i e sinN ew Y o rk ’25 ‘Ou r s e l v e sa sO th e r sS e eU s ’ 24, 25,141 n18 O x f o rdC lubo fB r oo k l yn28 O zu ,Y a su j i r o2 P a g e t ,V io l e ts e eV e rn onL e e P ap e ,E r i c52 ,147n19 , 149 –50n61 P a r amoun t6 ,41 ,73 ,77 ,83 , 89 –90 ,97 –101 ,106 , 110 –11 ,118 ,121 –2 ,133 , 152n45 P a r i s i ana t e l i e rs y s t em69 p a r lou ren t e r t a inm en t s31 , 52 P a r son s( s choo l )47 ,54 ,69 P a r son s ,F r an kA l v ah54–5

P a t e r ,W a l t e r81 P a th é97 ,108 P a t t e r son ,F r an c e sT a y lo r 6–7 ,71–80,90–4 ,98 , 122 ,127 ,129 ,138n22 , 150n4 ,151nn24–5 , nn28–9 ,n31 ,153n61 , 154n63 ,n75 ,n3 ,155n15 , 158n36 ,n38 p ed a go g y ,adu l t150n15 p ed a go g y ,a r t6 ,9 ,12 , 15–17,21 , 46–9, 53–5, 68–70,72 ,90 ,95–6 ,99 , 111–12 ,130–3 ,139n24 , ,141n15 , n31 ,140n8 145n1 ,146n4 ,n7 , 150nn5–6 ,153n61 p ed a go g y ,o ffi lm71–85, 91–2 ,119–21,149 n48 p ed a go g y ,w i thfi lm17–18 , 55–68, 122,159 n46 p ed a go g y ,inth e l y c eum16 , 21–3 ,28 ,33 ,38 ,40 p ed a go g y ,p r o g r e s s i v e74–5 , 150n10 P epp e r ’ sGho s t66 p e r f o rm an c e ,ina r ts tud io s 47 ,69–70 ,56–7 p e r f o rm an c e ,a th l e t i c108 , 126 p e r f o rm an c e ,o fa t t i tud e s 31–2 ,144n58 p e r f o rm an c e ,ind ep ths e e s t a g in g p e r f o rm an c e , l i gh tn in g sk e t chs e e l i gh tn in gs k e t c h p e r f o rm an c e ,m a g i c l an t e rn 19–21 ,29 ,38 ,42 p e r f o rm an c e , mu l t i -m ed i a 147n14 p e r f o rm an c e ,s e c ond a r yt o c ompo s i t ion84 ,87 p e r f o rm an c e ,o fs t a g es t a r sin fi lm s1–3 ,84 p e r f o rm an c e ,S ymbo l i s t 103–7 167

p e r f o rm an c e ,o ft ab l e au x 6–8 ,11 ,31–2 ,45 ,52 , 64–6 ,81–2 ,147n19 P e r s i anp a in t in g135 P e r s i anpo e t r y114 P e r s i anru g s9 ,74 ph en ak i s t a s c op e33 ‘Ph i lo soph yo fFu rn i tu r e ’ 105 P h o t o g r a p h yIn d o o r san dO u t 23 ,28 ,143n49 pho t o g r aph y ,a c t ion23 pho t o g r aph y ,c r im e27 pho t o g r aph y ,in s t an t an eou s s e e in s t an t an e i t y pho t o g r aph y , l and s c ap e23 Th eP h o t o p l a y :AP s y c h o l o g i c a l S t u d y7 ,53 ,73 ,148n25 P i c k f o rd ,M a r y84 ,100 ,104 p i c t o r i a la r ch101–3 , 117–18 ,126,128 p i c t o r i a lb e au t y16 ,22 ,43 , 53–4 ,68–73, 76–8,82 , 84 ,117 ,139n29 , 148nn24–5 ,152n41 P i c t o r i a lB e a u t yont h eS c r e en 4 ,77 ,78, 86–92,89, 120, 126–7,143 n56 , 145n88 ,153nn56–9 , 154nn64–5 ,158n28 , 159n49 ,160n12 p i c t o r i a lc i t a t ions e ec i t a t i on p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion ,in mo t ion30–3 , 86–92 p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion ,s t a t i c 74–8,80 ,124 p i c t o r i a lc ompo s i t ion , su g g e s t ion85 p i c t o r i a ld r am a tu r g y27 ,32 , 35 p i c t o r i a lemp a th ys e e p s y c h o l o g i c a la e s t h e t i c s p i c t o r i a ls t y l i s a t ioninfi lm 18 ,59–62, 93–5, 97 –9, 108 ,112 ,118–19 ,121 , 125–7, 134–6,157 n19 168

p i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion s , n in e t e en th c en tu r y 9 –11 ,14 –16 ,20 –2 ,26 , 39 –40 ,50 ,101 p i c t o r i a lt r ad i t ion s , c oun t e r cu r r en t s130–3 , 151n18 p i c t o r i a l i sm ,s t a g e82 p i c t o r i a l i s tpho t o g r aph y3 , 17 ,22 –3 ,58 ,75 ,100 , 119 ,141n17 p i c tu r ep l a y s19 –21,24 ,28 , 34 –43,129 ,140 n3 , 144n69 ,145n79 ,n87 p i c tu r es tud y9 ,12 –14,17 , 45 ,68 –9 ,73 –9,86 –7 ,90 , 120 ,139n24 ,150n5 Th eP l a y so fM a u r i c e M a e t e r l in c k 100 P o e ,Ed g a rA l l an105 P o l an ,D an a5 ,72 ,138n16 , 150n2 P ond ,J am e s100 P o o rL i t t l eR i c hG i r l100 ,102 P oo r e ,H en ryR ank in 22 , 73–4 ,90–2 ,150n6 , 152n44 ,154nn70–3 , n75 P o r t r a i to faY o un gA r t i s t 62 –5 ,70 ,149n57 P o s i t i v i sm95 P o sn e r ,B ru c e137 –8n8 P o s t Imp r e s s ion i sm91 Th eP o s t e rG i r l san dt h e H y pn o t i s t 52 po s tw a ra r tc in em a2 ,134–5 P ound ,E z r a76 ,151n18 P r an g12 –13 ,139n31 P r a t t ,B e l a91 P r a t tIn s t i tu t e14 ,65 ,73 P r e -R aph a e l i t eB r o th e rhood 61 ,98 P r i c e ,A im e eB r own155n7 , n11 P r in c e t onUn i v e r s i t y121 P r i s on e ro fZ en d a124

p r i v i l e g ed mom en t20 ,29 , 33 ,35 ,37 ,82 p r o f e s s ion a l i s in g ,o fa r t s choo l s11 ,21 p r o f e s s ion a l i s in g ,o f c in em a t o g r aph y119 p r o f e s s ion a l i s in g ,o ffin ea r t s , d e s i gnandi l lu s t r a t ion 11–12 ,15 ,46–9 ,56–7 , 60 ,68–9 Th eP r o g r e s san dP o e t r yo ft h e , M o v i e s 54 ,148n31 158n39 p r o g r e s s i v eedu c a t ion8 ,12 , 74,131 P r un e l l a98 ,100 ,134 , 155n12 p s y cho lo g i c a la e s th e t i c s 80–1 ,152n37 Pu c c in i ,G i a c omo118 P u c eM om en t134 Pu f f e r ,E th e l81 ,86 ,152n38 , 153n55 Th eP um p k inR a c e105 P un c h46 ,52 Pu v i sd eCh a v ann e s ,P i e r r e 18 ,95–7, 96,100 , 103–7, 150n61 ,155n7 ,n9 ,n11 , 156n26 Th eR a i lR i d e r102 R am s a y e ,T e r r y16 , 19–20, 42,132 ,140 n2 ,143n47 , 145n96 ,160n8 R aph a e l51 ,145–6n1 R e e v e sH a r r i son ,Lou i s7 R e fn ,N i cho l a sW ind in g2 R e i ch a rd t ,K e l l y2 R e i j l and e r ,O s c a r33 R e inh a rd t ,M a r yRob e r t s 121 R e i s enfi e ld ,Hu go105 R é j an e ,G ab r i e l l e97 ,101 , 106 R emb r and t15 ,17 ,62–9,71 , 135 ,149nn56–8 ,n60 M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

s c en i cm e t a l ep s e s50 S ch en c k ,N i cho l a s93 ,122 , 158n35 S chn ab e l ,Ju l i an2 S choono v e r ,K a r l3 ,137 n2 , n7 ,138n12 S c o t tandV anA l t en a140 n3 S c r e en c r a f t7 Th eS e aH aw k125 S e a s t r om ,V i c to rs e e S j ö s t r om S e i t z ,J ohnF .18 ,112 , 118 –19, 124 –6,128 , 158n23 ,159n51 S e l zn i c k ,L ew i s97 S enn e t t ,M a c k119 ,158 n25 s e rp en t in ed an c efi lm s106 Sh a k e sp e a r e ,W i l l i am1 ,61 Sh e rwood ,Rob e r tEmm e t 10 ,122 –7 ,131 , 158nn43 –4 ,159n4 Shub e r t ,L e e97 S jö s t r om ,V i c t o r78 –9 ,132 Th eS l e e po fC ym aR o g e t45 , 55 –60 ,58 S ab a t in i ,R aph a e l122 , s low -mo t ionc in em a t o g r aph y 158n37 41 –2 ,54 S andb e r g ,C a r l131 s low mo v i e41 –2,54 , S an t a y an a ,G eo r g e22 , 129 –30 141n10 sn ap sho t s24 –34,144 n68 S a r g en t ,Ep e sW in th r op7 c i e t yo fI l lu s t r a t o r s5 ,12 , S a r g en t ,J ohnS in g e r47 ,48, So 15 ,49 ,55 ,57 ,60 ,68 70 ,120 ,124 ,149–50n61 Th eS o r r ow so fS a t an131 , s a t i r e ,ini l lu s t r a t ion46 –9 156n2 SCAGL( So c i é t é S o u lo ft h eC y p r e s s112 c in ém a t o g r aph iqu ed e s r i au ,P au l6 ,87 –8, au t eu r se tg en sd e l e t t r e s ) Sou 154n62 97 v i e tc in em a131–2 , S c a r am o u c h e111–13 ,120 –2, So 160n15 123, 124, 125–6, 127 –8, eS p i r i tan dt h eC l a y113 , 156n1 ,157n19 ,158n44 , Th 114 159n48 S t a g et oS c r e en82 ,153n53 Th eS c a r l e tW om an84 s t a g in g ,ind ep th62 ,85 ,92 , S c en a r i oan dS c r e en94 , 107 ,118 ,126 151n31 t amp ,Sh e l l e y94 ,154 n2 S c en e san dS on g sf r om ‘T r i l b y ’ S S t an f o rd ,L e l and28 52 R emb r and t l i gh t in g58 –9 , 83,118 ,157 n19 R eno v ,M i ch a e l143n55 r epo s e20 ,80 ,85 ,91–2 ,95 , 151n33 r e p o u s s o i r98–9 ,107–8 R i i s ,J a c ob22 ,25–6 R od in ,Au gu s t e18 ,29 ,91 ,95 , 106 ,143n 50 ,155n n 5 –6 Rohm e r ,E r i ch134 Ro s e t t i ,D an t eG ab r i e l61 Ro s s ,D enm an9 Ro th a ,P au l134 Ro y a lA c ad em yo fD r am a t i c A r t1 Ro y a lA c ad em yo fA r t s121 , 151n35 Ro y c r o f t e r s115 Ro y e r ,V e r a60–2 ,149n51 Ru b a i y a t114 Ru i z ,R aú l134 Ru s k in ,J ohn9 ,51 ,80 ,114 Ru t tm ann ,W a l t e r89 ,92

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S t an g e ,M a r en25 ,142 n30 S t an k i ew i c z ,M a r yAnn9 , 139nn24–5 ,150n5 s t e r eop t i c on33 ,38–9 S t e rn ,S e ymou r130–4 , 159n5 ,160n7 ,nn9–11 , n16 S t e rnb e r g ,J o s e fv on133–4 , 155n12 ,160nn13–15 , n18 S t ew a r t ,G a r r e t15 ,140 n39 S t i c k l e y ,Gu s t a v12 ,139 n30 S t i e g l i t z ,A l f r ed142 n23 S t odd a r d ,J ohnL .24 ,142 n 24 s t op -mo t ionan im a t ion 104–5 S t ru s s ,K a r l3 ,75 Th eS unV ow54 S v en g a l i44 ,46 ,48 ,52 ,57 , 148n22 Sw e e tK i t t yB e l l a i r s83 Sw imm in g32 S ymbo l i sm16 ,94–6, 100–12,155 n22 S ymbo l i s tp a in t in g94–6 S ymbo l i s tth e a t r e58 ,100–5 S ymond s ,J ohnAdd in g t on7 , 138n20 t ab l e au ,anda e s th e t i c c on t emp l a t ion11 ,14 , 32–3 ,79–87,139 n29 , 152n41 t ab l e au ,a l l e go r i c a l44 ,56 , 103 t ab l e au ,inc omm e r c i a l pho t o g r aph y55–6 t ab l e au ,andth ec ompo s ed p i c tu r e8 ,21 ,32 ,134 t ab l e au ,inedu c a t ion a l l an t e rns e r i e s145–6 n1 t ab l e au ,t e chn iqu e11 ,17 , 27 ,34–7,55 ,57 ,101–3 , 107 ,117 ,119 ,135 t ab l e au ,th e a t r i c a l6 ,10 ,27 , 31 ,52 ,97 169

t ab l e au ,inT r i a r tfi lm ss e e L e j a r enàH i l l e r t ab l e auv i v an t8 ,10 ,16 ,17 , 20 ,31 ,34 ,42 ,45 ,50 , 52–3 ,59 ,62 ,82 ,102 , 144n58 ,n61 ,147–8n19 , 149–50n61 T a f t ,Lo r edo91 AT a l eo fTw oC i t i e s(1911 ) 113 T a y lo r ,E l i z ab e th104 T e a ch e r sCo l l e g e ,Co lumb i a Un i v e r s i t y9 ,14 ,75 Th eT e c hn i q u eo ft h eP h o t o p l a y 7 T emp l e ,Sh i r l e y104 T enn y son ,A l f r ed61–2 T e r r y ,A l i c e119 ,157n13 , 159n45 th e a t r e1 ,3–5 ,6 ,8 ,20 ,31 , 35 ,52–3 ,58 ,72 ,75 –6 , 82–3 ,85 ,92 ,97–101 , 103 ,108 Th é â t r eR é j an e101 ,106 Thomp son ,K r i s t in151n19 , 156n2 Thomp son ,V an c e100 Th r a sh e r ,F r ed e r i c k3 th r e e c o lou rp r o j e c t ion23 T i f f an y ,Lou i sC .4 ,12 ,17 , 60 T im ean dCh an c e143n44 , n68 ,144n74 ,145n76 ‘T oaLou s e ’24 T o s c a118 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e15 , 17–18 ,93–110 ,119 , 154n1 ,155nn4–5 ,n11 , 156n25 ,160n14 ,n18 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,and a c t ion108–9 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e , app r en t i c e sh ip s95 –7 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,and au tho r sh ip93–4 170

T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e , co l l abo r a t o r ss e eB en C a r r é ,Ém i l eCh a u t a r dan d J o hnv and enB r o e k T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,and compo s i t ion111 –12 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,d ep a r tu r e f r omH o l l yw ood129 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,ande a r l y c in em a101 –7 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,f i lm s s e eA l i a sJ imm yV a l en t in e , Th eB l u eB i r d ,Th eH an d o fP e r i l ,J u s t ind e M a r s e i l l e ,Th eL a s to ft h e M oh i c an s ,T r i l b y ,Th e W i sh in gR in g T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,in H a r r in g t on133 –4 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,and i l lu s t r a t ion108 –9 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,a sp a in t e r 97 –9 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,in P a t t e r son78 –9 ,94 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,and qu a l i t yfi lm s97 –8 T ou rn eu r ,M au r i c e ,and S ymbo l i s ta r t95–6 , 99 –107 ,109 –10 T r a ffi c inS o u l s15 t r a v e l l e c tu r e s22 –4 ,142 n24 , n26 T r e a s u r eI s l an d(1920 )108 T r e e ,H e rb e r tB e e rbohm1 , 3 –4 ,6 –7 ,11 ,137n1 , 138n10 ,n17 T r i an g l eF i lmCo rpo r a t ion1 , 4 T r i a r tP i c tu r eComp an y55 , 60 –8,129 T r ifl in gW om en121 T r i l b y(no v e l )44 ,46 –7, 52 –60 ,68 ,146n7 T r i l b y(T ou rn eu r ,1915 )55 , 58 ,93 ,97 ,102

T r i lb ym an i a45 ,52–5, 147nn16–19 ,150n61 th eun c ann y51 Und e rwoodandUnd e rwood 58 ,148n42 Un i v e r s a lP i c tu r e s113 , 114–18 ,128 up l i f t14 ,17 ,23 ,30 ,60 ,72 , 84 V a l en t ino ,Rudo lph115 v and enB r o ek ,J ohn98 , 103 ,118 V anD y k e ,J ohn13 ,139n32 V anS an t ,Gu s2 V a rd a c ,A .N i cho l a s82 , 153n53 V a r i e t é 132 V a s a r i ,G io r g io51 ,145n1 , 147n15 v aud e v i l l e26 ,39 ,43 ,46 ,49 , 52–3 V en u sd eM i l o 77 ,79 V e rm e e r ,J oh ann e s98 V i t a g r aphComp an yo f Am e r i c a57 ,59 ,113–14 v onS t r oh e im ,E r i ch132 V o r k ap i ch ,S l a v ko 125 W a ldm an ,H a r r y156n25 W a l t e r s ,Ed g a r115 ,157n13 W a l th a l l ,H en r y132 W a l t z ,Gw endo l yn147n14 W a s son ,H a id e e5 ,138n16 Wh e r e i st h eF r i en d ’ sH om e ? 135 Wh i s t l e r ,J am e sM cN e i l l95 Wh i t e ,C l a r en c e75 Wh i t f o rd ,Ann ab e l l e106 Wh y t c o c k ,G r an t118 W in g e dV i c t o r yo fS am o t h r a c e 79 ,91 ,154n63 W i l l i am M e r r i t tCh a s e48, 69–70 M a k i n gM o v i e s i n t oA r t

W in t e r ,A l i son148n23 Th eW i s h in gR in g97–8 ,99 W o lp e r ,I s a a c60 W om an 100 W om anw i t hP a r r o t 124 W o r ldF i lmCo rpo r a t ion97 w o r th yc in em a1–2 W y c ko f f ,A l v in85 ,118 W y e th ,And r ew134

W y e th ,N .C .12 , 108 –9, 149n49 ,156n33 Y a l eD r am a t i cA s so c i a t ion 113 Y a l eUn i v e r s i t y18 ,113–17 , 121 ,156n4 ,157n12 , nn16 –18 Th eY e l l owB o o k99 –100

Y oun g ,C l a r aK imb a l l104 Th eY o un gP a in t e r4 ,64, 65, 66, 67 zoop r a x i s c op e28–9,33 Zu k o r ,Ad o lph15 –16 ,20 ,41 , 84 ,89 ,93 ,101 ,107 , 121 –2, 124 –5, 127, 145n95 ,158n32 ,n35 ,n37

L I ST O FI L LU STRAT ION S Wh i l ec on s id e r ab l ee f f o r th a sb e en m ad et oc o r r e c t l y id en t i f yth ec op y r i gh tho ld e r s , th i sh a sno tb e enpo s s ib l e ina l lc a s e s .W eapo l o g i s ef o ran yapp a r en tn e g l i g en c eand an yom i s s ion so rc o r r e c t ion sb r ou gh tt oou ra t t en t ionw i l lb er em ed i ed inan yfu tu r e ed i t ion s . M i s sJ e r r y,A l e x and e rB l a c k ; Th eE t e rn a lC i t y, M ad i sonP r odu c t ion s ; Th eS l e e po fC ym a R o g e t,L e j a r enàH i l l i e rP r odu c t ion s ; Th eB e g g a rM a i d,T r i a r tP i c tu r eComp an y ; Th e Y o un gP a in t e r,T r i a r tP r odu c t ion sIn c . ; A u d r e y,F amou sP l a y e r s -L a s k yCo rpo r a t ion ; Th eH an do fP e r i l,P a r a gonB io s c op eComp an y ; C a rm en, W i l l i amF o x ; Th eC o v e r e d W a g on,F amou sP l a y e r s -L a s k yCo rpo r a t ion ; Th eW i s h in gR in g, W o r ldF i lmCo rpo r a t ion / Shu b e r t ;Th eB l u eB i r d,F am ou sP l a y e r s -L a s k yC o rp o r a t i on /A r t c r a f tP i c tu r e sC o rp o r a t i on ; Th eL a s to ft h eM o h i c an s,A s so c i a t edP r odu c e r sIn c . /M au r i c eT ou rn eu rP r odu c t ion s ; Th eS p i r i tan dt h eC l a y,V i t a g r aphP r odu c t ion ; Th eF o u rH o r s em eno ft h eA p o c a l y p s e, M e t r oP i c tu r e sCo rpo r a t ion ;S c a r am o u c h e ,M e t r oP i c tu r e sCo rpo r a t ion . I nd e x

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