Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Before the Era of Art 0226042154, 9780226042152

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LIKENESS

••• PRESENCE A History

of the Image before the Era of Art

HANS BELTING Translated by Edmund Jephcott

•••

HANS BELTING

LIKENESS AND PRESENCE A History of the Image before the Era of Art Translated by Edmund ]ephcott

The University of Chicago Press

Chicago and London

Frontispiece: Rome, Pantheon; icon of the Madonna and Child, A.O. 609. Repeated in color at front of color gallery, following page 264 (see also fig. 8).

Hans Belting is professor of art history and media theory at the School for New Media at Karlsruhe. He is the author of several books, including The End of the History of Art? also published by the University of Chicago Press.

Contents

List of Illustrations 1x Foreword xx1 1. Introduction 1

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1994 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 1994 Printed in the United States of America

a. The Power of Images and the Limitations of Theologians 1 b. Portrait and Memory 9 c. The Images' Loss of Power and Their New Role as Art 14 2. The Icon from a Modern Perspective and in Light of Its History 17

01 00 99 98 97 96 95 94

5432 1

ISBN (cloth): 0-226-04214-6

Originally published as Bild imd Kult-Eine Geschichte des Bi/des vor dem Zeitalter der Kunst,© C.H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Oscar Beck), Munich 1990.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Belting, H ans. [Bild und Kult. English] Likeness and presence : a history of the image before the era of arc I Hans Belting ; translated by Edmund Jephcott. p. cm. Translation of: Bild und Kult. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Christian art and symbolism-Medieval, 500-1500. 2. Icons. 3. Saints-Cult. I. Title. N7850.B4513 1994 93-3389 704 .9' 482 '0940902-dc20 CIP

N

7[5:> · 24-773 7_n,7-!;

a. b. c. d. e.

The "Painter's Manual of Mount Athas" and Romanticism 17 The Rediscovery of the Icon in Russia 19 Italian Panel Painting as the Heir to the Icon 21 The Discoveries in Rome and at Mount Sinai 25 Problems with a History of the Icon: The Deficiency of a History of Styles 26

3. Why Images? Imagery and Religion in Late Antiquity 30

a. The Virgin's Icon; Icon Types and Their Meaning 30 b. The Virgin's Personality in the Making: The Mother of God and the Mother of the Gods 32 c. Pagan Images and Christian Icons 36 d. Why Images? 41 4. Heavenly Images and Earthly Portraits: St. Luke's Picture and "Unpainted" Originals in Rome and the Eastern Empire 4 7

a. Unpainted Images of Christ and Relics of Touch 49 b. St. Luke's Images of the Virgin and the Concept of the Portrait 57 c. Relic and Image in Private and Public Life 59 d. Early Icons in Papal Rome 63 e. The Image of the "Hodegetria" in Constantinople 73 5. Roman Funerary Portraits and Portraits of the Saints

a. Pagan and Christian Cults of Images 78 b. The Origin of Saints' Images 80 c. Cult Image and Votive Image 82 y

215013

! .,

!'

1:

78

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

b. The Abgar Image at Constantinople and a New Aesthetics of the Ideal Portrait 213 c. The Veronica in Rome 215 ..

d. Funerary Portraits and Icons 88 e. Idealism and Realism in the ,4,ncient Portrait 98 6. The Imperial Image in Antiquity and the Problem of the Christian Cult of Images 102 a. b. c. d.

12. The lconostasis and the Role of the Icon in the Liturgy and in Private Devotion 225

The Worship of the Imperial Image 102 The Emperor's Person and the Legal Status of His Image 103 The Military Standard and the Cross as Bearers of Images 107 Images of Christ in State Iconography 109

a. The Church Interior and the Site of the Images 226

b. Cross, Gospel Book, and Icon in Church Ritual 228

7. Image Devotion, Public Relations, and Theology at the End of Antiquity a. b. c. d. e. f.

Wall Icons in a Roman Church 115 Early Panels in Rome and the Problem of an Iconic Style 121 Image and Politics at the Papal Curia 126 Styles and Conventions of the Early Icon 129 Icons and Politics at the Imperial Court: The Christ Coin 134 Icons and Theological Argument 139

8. Church and Image: The Doctrine of the Church and Iconoclasm a. b. c. d.

13. "Living Painting": Poetry and Rhetoric in a New Style of Icons in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries 261

144

The Image in Christendom 144 Byzantine 1-conoclasm 146 The Theory of Images and Its Traditions 149 Image and Sign, Jeon and Cross 155 164

The Role of the Imperial Court in the Reintroduction of Images 164 P~triarch Photius in Hagia Sophia 167 New Pictorial Programs in Churches of the Court 170 Church Decoration: An Applied Theory of Images 172 Liturgy and Images in Church Interiors 173

10. Pilgrims, Emperors, and Confraternities·: Veneration of Icons in Byzantium and Venice 184 a. b. c. d.

a. b. c. d. e.

"Icons in the New Style" 261 Aesthetics, Ethics, and Theology 262 Poetic Continuity in a Changing Society 265 The Paradox of the Crucifixion and the Reality of the Image 269 Painted Poetry and Treatises: The Narrative Structures of Four Feast-Day Icons 272 f. New Images of the Virgin 281

14 . Statues, Vessels, and Signs: Medieval Images and Relics in the West

9. The Holy Image in Church Decoration and a New Policy of Images a. b. c. d. e.

115

c. Votive Images as Instruments of Salvation and as Commemorations of the Donor 230 The Chancel Screen as lconostasis 233 d. e. Calendar Icons and Biographical Icons 249

The Emperors 185 Confraternities and Processions 18 8 Pilgrimages and the Program for Visitors to Hagia Sophia 192 San Marco in Venice and I ts I cons 195

a. The Different Premises of Image Worship in the West 297 b. The Crucified and the Enthroned Statue as Examples of the Bodily Image 299 c. The Relation of Relic and Image 301 d. A Theological Aesthetic? 303 e. Legends about "Originals" and the Distinction between Image and Person 304 15. The Icon in the Civic Life of Rome )U.. a. Images and Institutions in the High Middle Ages 311 b. An Old Icon in a New Role: The Madonna as Advocate of the Roman People 314 c. The Competition of the Madonnas 320 d. The Multiplication of an "Original" and the August Procession 323 16. "In the Greek Manner": Imported Icons in the West

11. T he "Holy Face": Legends and Images in Competition

208

a. The "Original" of the Abgar Image and Its Legend 209 VI

297

a. The Eastern Origin: Idea and Reality 330 b. The Imperial Court in Prague and Its Icons 333 VII

330

Illustrations

CONTENTS

c. The Migration of Images to Italy 337 d. Icons by St. Luke in the Hist,orical Legends of the Renaissance 342

17. Norm and Freedom: Italian Icons in the Age of the Tuscan Cities a. b. c. d.

East and West in Comparison: What Is an Image? 349 The Introduction of New Types of Images 354 Icon and Devotional Image: The Language of Gestures 362 "Maniera greca" and "Dolce stil nuovo": Duccio and the Icon 370

18. The Madonnas of Siena: The Image in Urban Life a. b. c. d.

349

3 77

Feast Images of the Mendicant Orders in Pisa 377 The Panels of the Confraternities in Siena and Florence 384 The Altarpiece 398 Duccio's Synthesis in the Altarpiece for Siena Cathedral 404

19. The Dialogue with the Image: The Era of the Private Image at the End of the Middle Ages 409 a. b. c. d. e. f.

Mysticism and the Image in the Practice of Devotion 410 Devotional Images and Jewelry at the Courts 419 Visual Media in Competition: Panel Paintings and Prints 425 Archaism and Quotation in the Aesthetics of the Holy Image 432 The Winged Altarpiece as the Stage of the Public Image 443 The Pilgrimaf!,f to the Fair Virgin of Regensburg 45 3

20. Religion and Art: The Crisis of the Image at the Beginning of the Modern Age 458 a. b. c. d. e.

Criticism and Destruction of Images during the Reformation 459 Image and Word in the New Doctrine 465 Image and Art in Renaissance Painting 470 The Controversy over Raphael's Sistine Madonna 4 78 Art as the Mise-en-scene of the Image at the Time of the Counter-Reformation 484

Appendix. Texts on the History and Use of Images and Relics 491 Notes 557 Bibliography 605 Index of Persons and Places 61 7 Index of Subjects 633 Photo Credits

651 Vlll

Color Figures

following page 264

Icon of the Madonna and Child, A.D. 609. Rome, Pantheon I. Icon of the Madonna and Child from S. Maria Antiqua, 7th century. Rome, S. Francesca Romana IL Madonna della Clemenza, 705 - 7. Rome, S. Maria in Trastevere III. Mandy/ion from Constantinople. Genoa, S. Bartolomeo degli Armeni IV. Statue of St. Fides, 9th century and later. Conques, Ste. Foy V. Madonna of S. Sisto. Rome, S. Maria de! Rosario VI. Byzantine image of the Madonna and Child, 13th century. Siena, Chiesa del Carmine VII. St. Luke icon, 13th century. Fermo, cathedral VIII. National Gallery of Art; Kahn Madonna, 13th century. Washington, D.C. IX. Madonna of S. Bernardino, ca. 1280. Siena, Pinacoteca Nazionale X. Notre Dame de Grace, Sienese, ca. 1340. Cambrai, cathedral XI. Madonna of Mercy, 1608. Rome, Chiesa Nuova

Black and White Figures

Icon of the Madonna and Child, A.D. 609. Rome, Pantheon frontispiece 1. Icon of the Nicopeia, 11th century. Venice, S. Marco 5 2. Photograph-altarpiece of St. Giuseppe Moscati, 1987. Naples, II Gesu Nuovo 12 3. Altarpiece from S. Silvestro, 13th century. Pisa, Pinacoteca 22 4. Icon beam with deesis, 13th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 22 5. Icon of a saint, Umbrian, 13th century. Nocera Umbra, museum 24 6. Vita icon of St. Nicolas, 13th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 24 7. Isis as house patron. Karanis, Egypt 39 8. Icon of the Madonna and Child, 609. Rome, Pantheon 39 9. Two rabbis with Torah rolls. Jerusalem 43 10. Virgin of Amparo, Peronist election campaign demonstration in 1972. Buenos Aires 43 11. Icon procession, around 1900. Mount Athos 50 12. Icon procession (Akathistos) as depicted on a Serbian fresco, 14th century. Markov monastery 51 13. Multi winged icon with Madonna types, 11th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 52 IX

ILLUSTRATIONS

ILLUSTRATIONS

14. Miniature of the icon-painter Luke, 13th century. Sinai 52 15. Mandy/ion from S. Silvestro in ,Capite, 6th century. Rome, Vatican, Capella S. Matilda 54 16. Sancta Sanctorum icon, the Veronica. Rome, Lateran 54 17. Villa of Tiberius, recovery of the palladium, 1st century A.D. Sperlonga 54 18. Sancta Sanctorum icon, ca. 600; silver chasing, ca. 1200. Rome, Lateran 66 19. Sancta Sanctorum icon, ca. 900. Rome, Lateran 67 20. Salus Populi Romani icon (detail of fig. 21). Rome, S. Ma~a Maggiore 67 21. Salus Populi Romani icon, 6th century(?). Rome, S. Maria Maggiore 70 22. Marian icon from Mount Sinai, 6th century. Kiev, Museum of Occidental anq Oriental Art 71 23. Icon exhibition, 1988. Rome, S. Maria Maggiore 74 24. Hodegetria icon in Constantinople, 13th century. Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Kupferstichkabinett 76 25. Mummy portrait from Fayum (Egypt), 4th century A.D. Paris, Musee National du Louvre 79 26. Icon of the apostle Philip, 11th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 79 27. Icon of St. Irene, 7th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 81 28. Donor portrait in the Theodotus chapel, 8th century. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 81 29. Saint's Image before the Confessio, ca. 400. Rome, SS. Giovanni e Paolo 83 30. Cell wall, 7th century. Saqqara (Egypt), monastery of Jeremias 84 31. Portrait of the deceased, near her grave, 4th century. Rome, Thrasone catacomb 84 32. Portrait of the deceased Proculus, 5th century. Naples, catacomb of S. Gennaro 86 33. Mosaic on entry wall, 6th century. Thessaloniki, church of St. Demetrius 86 34. Pillar mosaic, 6th century. Thessaloniki, church of St. Demetrius 87 35. Pillar images. Thessaloniki, church of St. Demetrius 87 36. Side-aisle mosaic as depicted in a watercolor by W. S. George, 6th century. Thessaloniki, church of St. Demetrius 89 37. Image cyborium. Old Cairo, church of St. George 89 38. Fresco of St.Menas, 7th century. Karm al-Ahbariya (Egypt) 89 39. Grave painting, 6th century. Antinoe (Egypt) 89 40. Icon of Sergius and Bacchus from Mount Sinai, 6th century. Kiev, Museum of Occidental and Oriental Art 91 41. Brothers' Tondo from Antinoopolis, 3d century. Cairo, Egyptian Museum 91 42. Mummy portrait of Eutyches. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 92 43. Bust portrait of St. Peter, 5th century. Naples, catacomb of S. Gennaro 92 44. Gold-glass portrait, 4th century. Rome, Vatican Museum 92 45. Portrait of Bishop Abraham of Bawit (Egypt), 6th century. Berlin, Staatliche Museen 94 46. Egyptian panel of St. Mark, 6th century. Paris, Cabinet des Medailles 95

47. Egyptian panel of the archangel Michael, 6th century. Paris, Cabinet des Medailles 95 48. St. Apa Menas from Bawit (Egypt), 6th century. Paris, Musee National du Louvre 97 49. Cell wall in the St. Apollo monastery, ca. 600. Bawit (Egypt) 97 50. Mummy portrait, 4th century. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 100 51. The three youths before Nebuchadnezzar, Byzantine miniature, 11th century. London 104 52. Relief depicting a Byzantine emperor, 11th century. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 104 53. Late antique official's calendar of the Notitia Dignitatum. Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek 105 54. Family portrait with Emperor Septimus Severus, ca. A. D . 200. Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz 105 55. Door covering in a silver chasing depicting homage paid to an icon, ca. 1200. Rome, Lateran 105 56. Mosaic with Golgotha cross, 7th century. Rome, S. Stefano Rotondo 108 57. Lead ampoule with Golgotha cross, ca. 600. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 108 58. Image superstructure of a cross from Egypt, 7th century (?). Mainz, Kunsthistorisches Institut 108 59. Small commemorative arch of Galerius, 305-11. Thessaloniki, Archeological Museum 110 60. Ivory of the consul Anastasius, 517. Paris, Cabinet des Medailles 110 61. Ivory of Consul Justinus, 540. Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz 110 62. Icon of St. Peter, 6th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 111 63. Fresco in Chapel 28 of the St. Apollo monastery, 7th century. Formerly Bawit (Egypt) 112 64. Madonna icon with Clipeus Christi, 7th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 112 65. Plan with chapels and individual images. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 117 66. Votive image of St. Barbara, 7th century. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 118 67. Votive image of the seven Maccabees, 7th century. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 118 68. Madonna icon in a wall niche, 705 - 7. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 118 69. Private chapel with icon, 705- 7. Rome, S. M aria Antiqua 119 70. Crucifixion, Theodotus chapel, ca. 750. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 122 71. Crucifixion icon, 8th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 123 72. Reliquary shrine from Sancta Sanctorum, ca. 600. Rome, Vatican Museum 125 73a, b. Portraits of the apostles Peter and Paul, 8th century. Rome, Vatican Museum 125 74. The Child, in the Madonna and Child icon, 609. Rome, Pantheon 128 75. Choir wall, "Beautiful Angel," 7th century. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 128 76. Mosaic from Old St. Peter's, Rome, 705-7. Florence, S. Marco 128

x

XI

ILLUSTRATIONS

77. Madonna icon with angels and saints, 7th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 130 ,. 78. Icon of Christ Pantocrator, 6th/7th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 136 79. Votive image of Gaudiosus: Pantocrator, 6th century. Rome, Pontian catacomb 13 7 80. Icon of "Semitic-type" Christ, 6th century. Mount Sinai, monaftery of St. Catherine 13 7 81. Coin (obverse) from the reign of Justinian II, 685-95. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 13 7 82. Second coin from the reign of Justinian II, 705. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 137 83. Crucifix from the choir screen, 705-7. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 140 84. St. Peter, 8th century. Trevi near Spoleto, Temple of Clitumnus 140 85. Icon of St. John the Baptist from Mount Sinai, 6th century. Kiev, Museum of Occidental and Oriental Art 141 86. Defamatory images of iconoclasts in a Greek Psalter, after 843. Moscow, Historical Museum 151 87. Choir wall, 705- 7. Rome, S. Maria Antiqua 156 88. Enemies of Christ and the iconoclasts, after 843. Moscow, Historical Museum 157 89. Apse mosaic from the destroyed church of the Koimesis, 8th and 9th centuries. lznik (Nicaea) 160 90. Apse mosaic, 8th century. Istanbul, church of St. Irene 161 91. Side room with crosses substituted for figures. Istanbul, Hagia Sophia 161 92. Cross of Emperor Justinus II, 6th century. Rome, St. Peter's 161 93. Textile fragment with representation of the Birth of Christ, 8th century. Rome, Vatican Museum 161 94. Mosaic with Leo VI, 10th century. Istanbul, Hagia Sophia, atrium 166 95. Coin from the reign of Theodora and Michael III, after 843. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 166 96. Coin from the reign of Basil I, 867-86. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 166 97. Interior facing east. Istanbul, Hagia Sophia 168 98. Apse mosaic, 867. Istanbul, Hagia Sophia 169 99. Apse, ca. 1050. Ohrid (Macedonia), St. Sophia 175 100. View into dome, ca. 1100. Daphne (near Athens), monastery church 176 101. View at squinches supporting the dome, ca. 1100. Daphne (near Athens), monastery church 177 102. Atrium mosaic, 11th century. Hosios Lukas, monastery church 180 103. Wall icon, ca. 1050. Ohrid (Macedonia), St. Sophia 180 104. Atrium, vault mosaics, 11th century. Hosios Lukas, monastery church 181 105. Church interior depicted in a miniature, 12th century. Rome, Vatican Library 182 XII

ILLUSTRATIONS

106. Apse mosaic, Madonna arid Child. Ohrid (Maced?nia), St. S?phia 18~ . 107. Triumphal procession with a Marian icon, Chromcle of Scyhtzes. Madnd, B1blioteca Nacional 187 108. Marble icon of the Mother of God, 11th century. Istanbul, Archeological Museum 187 109. Fragment of Marian icon in Marble, 11th century. Istanbul, Archeological Museum 187 110. Metal and enamel icon of the archangel Michael, 11th century. Venice, S. Marco 189 111. Fresco depicting a procession of the Hodegetria, 13th century. Arta (Greece), church of the Blachernae 191 112. Fresco depicting the funerary procession of King Nemanja, 13th century. Studenica (Serbia), main church 193 113. Title page of the Statutes of the Confraternity of Naupaktos, 1054. Palermo, Capella Palatina 193 114. Mosaic icon on the south facade, 13th century. Venice, S. Marco 198 115. Demetrius icon on the main facade, 11th century. Venice, S. Marco 198 . 116. Demetrius icon from Vladimir, 12th century. Moscow, State Treqakov Gallery 198 117. Wounded miracle crucifix in capitello, 13th century. Venice, S. Marco 199 118. Marian icon of Aniketos, 13th century. Venice, S. Marco 201 119. Madonna del Baccio, 12th century. Venice,,S. Marco 202 120. Madonna delle Grazie, 11th century. Venice, S. Marco 202 121. Marian icon, 13th century. Venice, S. Marco 205 122. Altar of St. Peter, after 1300. Venice, S. Marco 205 123. Icon cult on the Piazza S. Marco, after a print by Clonza. Chania (Crete) 206 124. Andata of the Nicopeia icon, after a print by Marco Boschini, 1644. Venice 206 125. 10th-century Mandy/ion from Constantinople. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 212 126, 127. Abgar legend on silver chasing, 14th century. Genoa, S. Bartolomeo degli Armeni 212 128. Mandy/ion of Christ from Novgorod, 12th century. Moscow, State Tretjakov Gallery 216 . 129. Pantocrator icon, 12th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Cathenne 217 130. Mosaic of Empress Irene, 12th century. Istanbul, Hagia Sophia 217 131. La Sainte Face, 13th century. Laon, cathedral 217 132. Field banner of the Bulgarian army during World War I 219 133. Pilgrimage procession in the Upper Andes 219 134. Pillar with the Veronica, after a print by Pietro Mallio, 1646. Rome, St. Peter's 223 135. Ugo da Carpi's altarpiece for the Veronica chapel, ca. 1525. Rome, St. Peter's 223 136. Veronica, engraving by Albrecht Diirer, 1513 223 XIII

ILLUSTRATIONS

137. Iconostasis before the a ltar, 14th century. Staro NagoriCino (Macedonia ), monastery church 234 " 138. Temp/on with the epistyle icons of the feasts of Our Lord, ca. 1100. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 235 139. Standing icon of Maria Eleousa, 1192. Arakas monastery (Cyprus) 235 140. Standing icon of C hrist Antiphonites, 1192. Arakas monastery (Cyprus) 235 141. Diastyle icon of the Mother of God at Arakas, 1192. Arakas monastery (Cyprus) 236 142. Diastyle Pantokrator icon, 1192. Arakas monastery (Cyprus) 237 143. Title page of lectionary, 12th century. Rome, Vatican Museum 239 144. Choir barriers, 11th and 12th centuries. Torcello, cathedral 239 145 . Icon frieze above the east portal, ca. 1200. Pisa, baptistery 239 146. Iconostasis of the St. Panteleimon church, 1164. Nerezi (Macedonia) 242 / 147. St. Panteleimon church. Nerezi (Macedonia) 242 148. Titular icon of St. Panteleimon, 11 64. Nerezi (Macedonia) 243 149. Icon of the Madonna with Petitionary Letter, ca. 1100. Spoleto, cathedral 244 150. Marian diastyle icon, 12th century. Paphos (Cyprus), Neophytos monastery 246 151. Fragment of an icon frieze, 13th century. Palermo, Museo Nazionale 246 152. Private icon with an abbreviated fo rm of the iconostasis, 11th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 246 153. Iconostasis, 14th century. Staro Nagoricino (Macedonia), monastery chu.rch 247 154. Temp/on with the epistyle icon of the feasts of Our Lord, ca. 1200. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 24 7 155. Lectionary, 12th century. Rome, Vatican Museum 250 156. Title page of the November menologion, 11th century. Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale 250 157. Diptych of a calendar icon, 12th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 251 158. February panel from a quadripartite calendar icon, 12th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 251 159. February panel from a cycle of calendar icons, 12th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 254 160. Biography icon of John the Baptist, 13th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 255 161. Moses icon, ca. 1200. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 259 162. Private icon with Moses, 13th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 259 163. Double-sided icon of the Passion, 12th century. Kastoria (Greece), Archeological Museum 266 164. Crucifixion icon, 12th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 274 165. Icon of the Ladder of Virtue of John Climacus, 12th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 275 XIV

ILLUSTRATIONS

166. Icon with the miracle of St. M ichael at Chonae, 12th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 276 167. Icon of the Annunciation to Mary, ca. 1200. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 277 168. Icon with the Christmas cycle, ca. 1100. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 280 169, 170. Double-sided icon of the An nunciation, ca. 1100. Ohrid (Macedonia ), museum 283 171. St. Stephen the Younger, 12th century. Paphos (Cyprus), Neophytos monastery 283 172. T he Lamentation (Threnos), 1164. Nerezi (Macedonia) 286 173. Fresco in the chancel, 10th century. Goreme (Cappadocia ), Tokale Kilise 286 174. Madonna of Kykkos, central portion, 11th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 288 175. Madon na of Vladimir, Byzantine, ca. 1100. Moscow, State Tretjakov Gallery 289 176. Titular icon, 1192. Arakas monastery (Cyprus) 292 177. Icon of the Hodegetria, 12th century. Athens, Byzantine Museum 292 178. Madonna of Kykkos, with prophets, 1 lth century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 293 179. Illustration of a Marian sermon, 12th century. Rome, Vatican Library 295 180. Volto Santo crucifix, 11th century. Lucca, cathedral 306 181. Seated statue of the Madonna, 12th century. Tournus, St. Philibert 306 182. Vo/to Santo crucifix. Lucca, Biblioteca Communale 306 183. Head reliquary of St. Alexander, 1145. Brussels, M usees Royaux d' Art et d'Histoire 306 184. Buddhist figure with relics, 13th century. Cologne, Museum of East Asian Art 307 185. Illumination from Cantigas of Alfonso I, 13th century. Escorial 309 186. Illumination from Cantigas of Alfonso I, 13th century. Escorial 309 187. Frescoes dep icting an icon legend, ca . 1100. Rome, S. Gregorio Nazianzeno 318 188. Icon from S. Gregorio Nazianzeno, Rome, 12th century. Venice, Cini Collection 319 189. Replica of the Madonna of S. Sisto, 12th century. Rome, S. Maria in Via Lara 319 190. Madonna of S. Sisto. Rome, S. Maria del Rosario 321 191. Replica of the Madonna of S. Sisto, 16th century. Vatican, Capella Paolina 321 192. Central panel of a tri ptych, 12th century. T ivoli, cathedral 324 193. Triptych, ca. 1200. Trevignano (Latium), cathedral 324 194. Marian panel, ea rly 12th century. Viterbo, S. Maria Nuova 326 195. Marian panel, early 12th century. Vetralla (Latium), cathedral 326 196. Apse mosaic, 12th century. Rome, S. Ma ria in Trastevere 328 xv

ILLUSTRATIONS

197. Icon of St. Nicholas, 12th and 13th centuries. Aachen-Burtscheid 331 198. Enamel icon from Constantinople, 12th century. Rome, S. Prassede 331 199. Madonna della Pace, 14th century. Venice, SS. Giovanni e Paolo 331 200. Seal from Schwarzrheindorf for the year 1172. Di.isseldorf, Central State Archives 331 201. X-ray photograph of a Marian icon in its original state, ca. 1100. Freising, Cathedral Museum 334 202. Votive icon of Louis d'Anjou, king of Hungary, 14th and 19th centuries. Aachen, cathedral treasury 334 203. St. Luke icon from Aachen, Byzantine, 12th and 14th centuries. Cleveland, Mu" seum of Art 334 204. Icon from Breznice, 1396. Prague, National Gallery 338 205. Crusader icon from Cyprus, 13th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 339 206. Votive icon of the Serbian Queen Mother Helen, 13th century. Rome, St. Peter's 340 207. Mosaic icon from Mount Sinai, ca. 1300. Rome, S. Croce 340 208. Madonna and Child, 13th century. Rome, S. Maria del Popolo 344 209. Madonna di Costantinopoli, Venetian, 13th century. Padua, S. Giustina 344 210. St. Luke icon, 13th century. Bologna, Monte della Guardi 344 211. Antonello da Messina, Maria Annunziata, ca. 1475. Munich, Alte Pinakothek 34 7 212. Domestic altar from Lucca, 13th century. Cleveland, Museum of Art 350 213. Diptych from Lucca, 13th century. Florence, Uffizi 355 214. Madonna of Mercy, 14th century. Venice, private collection 359 215. Stone icon, ca. 1200. Venice, S. Maria Mater Domini 359 216. Giunta Pisano, painted crucifix, ca. 1250. Pisa, Museo Nazionale 360 21 7. Painted crucifix from S. Raniero, ca. 1250. Pisa, Museo Nazionale 361 218. Miraculous crucifix from S. Damiano, ca. 1200. Assisi, S. Chiara 363 219. Painted crucifix from S. Raniero. Pisa, Museo Nazionale 363 220. Pillar icon of the Madonna and Child at the chancel entrance, 13th century. Pistoia, cathedral 366 221. Straus Madonna, Lucca, 13th century. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 366 222. Domestic altar from Pisa, 13th century. Princeton, University Art Museum 368 223. Domestic altar from Bologna, 14th century. Florence, Casa Horne 369 224. Madonna di Crevole, ca. 1280. Siena, Opera del Duomo 372 225. Kahn Madonna, 13th century. Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art 373 226. Feast-day image of St . Catherine from the Dominican church, 13th century. Pisa, Museo Nazionale 378 227. Icon of St. Catherine, 13th century. Mount Sinai, monastery of St. Catherine 379 228. Feast-day image of St. Francis, 13th century. Pisa, S. Francesco 383 XVI

ILLUSTRATIONS

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229. Triptych of the Franciscans, 13th century. Perugia, Musco Nazionale 385 230. Feast-day image of St. Francis, detail of fig. 228. Pisa, S. Francesco 386 231. Feast-day image of St. Francis, 13th century. Florence, S. Croce 386 232. Feast-day image of St. Francis, detail of fig. 231. Florence, S. Croce 386 233. Madonna and Child from Borgo S. Sepolcro, 1199. Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz 388 234. Coppo di Marcovaldo, Madonna panel, 13th century. Florence, S. Maria Maggiore 388 235. Coppo di Marcovaldo, Madonna panel, 1231. Siena, S. Maria dei Servi 391 236. Madonna panel from Siena, 13th century. Chigi-Saracini Collection 391 237. Madonna del Voto, 1261. Siena, cathedral 392 238. Madonna from S. Bernardino, ca . 1280. Siena, Pinacoteca Nazionale 392 239. Madonna from S. Domenico, ca. 1280. Siena, Palazzo Pubblico 394 240. Duccio, Madonna Rucellai, 1285. Florence, Uffizi 395 241. Fresco depicting the obsequies of St. Francis. Assisi, S. Francesco 402 242. Guido da Siena, altarpiece, 1270s. Siena, Pinacoteca Nazionale 402 243. Duccio, altarpiece, soon after 1300. Siena, Pinacoteca Nazionale 403 244. Simone Martini, altarpiece, 1319. Pisa, Pinacoteca Nazionale 403 245. Duccio, altarpiece for the high altar, 1311. Siena, Opera del duomo 406 246. Duccio, altarpiece (detail of fig. 245). Siena, Opera de! duomo 406 247. French tract for nuns Tres etaz de bones ames, ca. 1300. London, British Library 413 248. Sculpture group of Christ and the apostle John from the Katharinental monastery in the Thurgau, ca. 1305. Antwerp, Museum Meyer van den Berg 415 249. Visitation group from Katharinental, ca. 1305. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 415 250. Pietro Lorenzetti, Madonna and Child with saints and patrons, ca. 1320. Assisi, S. Francesco, lower church 420 251. Fresco with King John the Good (d. 1364), after the watercolor copy in the Gaigniere Collection. Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale 420 252. Altar painting depicting Pope Urban V, 1374. Bologna, Pinacoteca Nazionale 421 253. Botticelli, portrait of Giovanni de' Medici. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 421 254. Jean Malouel, Pitie de Jesus-Christ, ca. 1400. Paris, Musee National du Louvre 423 255 . Amulet, Parisian gold-enamel work, ca. 1400. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 423 256. Tonda of the Madonna and Child, ca. 1400. Baltimore, Walters Gallery 423 257. Woodcut of the Madonna del Fuoco, ca . 1450. Forli, cathedral 427 258. Master E.S., Madonna and Child, engraving. Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Kupferstichkabinett 42 7 259. Master E.S., St. Veronica, engraving. Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Kupferstichkabinett 427 XVII

ILLU STRAT I ONS

ILLUSTRATIONS

260. Hans Memling, St. Veronica. Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art 429 261. Jan van Eyck, Vera icon,, 1438. Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz 431 262a, b. Hans Memling, Nieuwenhove diptych, 1487. Bruges, Museum van het Sint Janshospitaal 433 263. Schone Madonna (formerly Thorn), ca. 1390. 435 264. Madonna and Child from Raudnitz (Roudnice), ca. 1390. Prague, National Gallery 435 265. Madonna and Child from Frondenberg, ca. 1400. Dortmund, Museum fiir Kunst und Kulturgeschichte 43 7 266. St. Luke Madonna, 1200 and ca. 1400. Liege, cathedral 437 267. Hayne de Bruxelles, Madonna and Child. Kansas City, William Rockhill Ne_lson Gallery of Art and Mary Atkins Museum of Fine Arts 439 268. Antoniazzo Romano, triptych with Vera icon and saints. Madrid, Museo